Class 
 
 
 Book_i 
 
 Copyright N° 
 
 COPYKIGHT DEPOSIT 
 

COMMODORE PERRY AT THE BATTLE ON LAKE ERIE. 
 
TWENTIETH CENTURY 
 
 HISTORY of AMERICA 
 
 AND 
 
 Our Island Possessions 
 
 FROM THE 
 
 Discovery (WtlT^ American Continent 
 to tfie Present Time 
 
 CONTAINING 
 
 ACCOUNTS OF THE DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS OF THE NORSEMEN, SPANIARDS, 
 
 ENGLISH AND FRENCH; THE MOUND BUILDERS; THE AMERICAN INDIANS: 
 
 THE SETTLEMENT OF THE NEW WORLD; THE FRENCH AND 
 
 INDIAN WARS; THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR 
 
 fhe (Establishment of the American Republic; 
 
 THE SECOND WAR WITH ENGLAND ; THE MEXICAN WAR ; LONG PERIOD OF PEACE 
 
 THE HISTORY OF THE GREAT CIVIL WAR ; THE CENTENNIAL OF AMERICAN 
 
 INDEPENDENCE; WAR WITH SPAIN AND WITH THE FILIPINO 
 
 INSURGENTS; AND ALL EVENTS TO THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 Including a Full Description of our New Possessions 
 
 By HENRY DAVENPORT NORTHROP 
 
 THE WELL-KNOWN HISTCiMAN 
 
 EMBELLISHED WITH OVER 500 SUPERB ENGRAVINGS 
 NATIONAL PUBLISHING CO. 
 
 239, 241 AND 243 AMERICAN STREET 
 PHILADELPHIA, PA. 
 
12386 
 
 Library of Congress 
 
 Two Copies Received 
 JUN 29 19C0 
 
 Copyright entry 
 
 N0.4/AZ2 3 
 
 SECOND COPY. 
 
 Delivered to 
 
 ORDER DIVISION, 
 
 JUL 2 1900 
 
 64451 
 
 ENTERED ACCORDING TO ACT OF CONGRESS, IN THE YEAR 1900, BY 
 
 GEORGE W. BERTRON 
 
 IN THE OFFICE OF THE LIBRARIAN OF CONGRESS, AT WASHINGTON, D. C- 
 
 
DEDICATION 
 
 TO the memory of that bold mariner, who, four hundred years ago, 
 discovered the Western Continent; and the brave colonists who 
 sacrificed the pleasures and comforts of the old world to undergo 
 the privations, and face the dangers of an unknown wilderness; 
 
 To the memory of the Pilgrim Fathers who planted the seeds of 
 freedom on American Soil; and the Revolutionary heroes who secured 
 liberty for the most patriotic people, and laid the foundations of the 
 greatest nation in all the annals of time; 
 
 To those brave defenders and noble citizens who have preserved 
 and fostered the growth of our model institution, made possible our 
 wonderful progress and fortified the bulwarks of our strength in this 
 
 "Land of the Free and Home of the Brave, "' 
 
 entitling our Great Country to sit upon the Throne among Nations as 
 the Queen of Republics, 
 
 This Volume is Patriotically 
 
 DEDICATED 
 
 BY THE AUTHOR 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 THERE is nothing more worthy of a 
 man's study than the history of his 
 country. In our own land, how- 
 ever, the means of pursuing such a 
 study are limited. Our great cities contain 
 large and valuable public libraries, and the 
 collections of our historical societies are rich 
 and very complete ; but these are accessible 
 only to the communities in which they are 
 located, and are practically useless to the 
 majority of the American people. The great 
 works of Bancroft and Hildreth cover but a 
 portion of our history, and are removed from 
 the reach of the masses by reason of their 
 costliness. Besides these, the larger number 
 of the works treating of American history are 
 compendiums, or outlines intended for the 
 use of schools, and are therefore unsatisfac- 
 tory to the adult reader. 
 
 The demand for a popular History of the 
 United States which shall fill a place between 
 these greater and smaller works has led the 
 author to the preparation of this volume. He 
 has endeavored to popularize the story of the 
 nation, and at the same time to neglect noth- 
 ing that could in the least contribute to a 
 clear and comprehensive understanding of 
 the subject. He has sought to trace the his- 
 tory of the Republic from the discovery of 
 the American continent to the present day, 
 and has endeavored especially to fix the 
 attention of the reader upon the various influ- 
 ences which have aided in moulding our 
 national character, and have produced our 
 distinctive political and moral national traits. 
 
 He has endeavored to write from ^ broad 
 national standpoint, and to cultivate in the 
 minds of his readers that feeling of national 
 patriotism which must ever be the safeguard 
 of our country. 
 
 It is a fitting time to consider the story of 
 the past, to learn the lessons which it teaches, 
 and to ponder the warnings which it conveys 
 for the future. Four hundred years ago 
 America was an unknown wilderness. Less 
 than three centuries ago it passed into the 
 hands of England, and was thus secured for 
 the language and the free influences of the 
 all-conquering Anglo-Saxon race. It was a 
 precious heritage which was thus secured for 
 liberty ; a land stretching from the frozen 
 regions of the north to the sunny skies of the 
 tropics, from the stormy Atlantic to the calm 
 Pacific; a land embracing every variety of 
 climate, and a soil capable of producing 
 almost every product of the earth, from 
 the stunted herbage of the frozen regions 
 to the luxuriant fruits of the tropics. The 
 earth is rich in mineral deposits, from the 
 homely, but invaluable, veins of coal, to beds 
 of the most brilliant and precious minerals. 
 It pours out in streams, oil for burning, gas 
 that may be used fresh from the natural 
 springs, salt that requires but the heat of the 
 sun for its perfection, and beds of pure soda 
 that cover the earth like the dust in the high- 
 ways. In short, all that is needed for the pres- 
 ervation and comfort of animal and human 
 life exists in this favored land in the greatest 
 profusion. 
 
VI 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 Such is the land designed by God for the 
 home of liberty. The people to whom He 
 has intrusted it have not abused His good- 
 ness. In the short space of two centuries, 
 the American people have grown from a 
 small handful of hardy adventurers to a 
 "mighty continental nation," increasing with 
 a rapidity that is almost marvellous. They 
 have built up their country on a scale of 
 magnificence of which they are justly proud. 
 They have covered it with powerful and free 
 States, and splendid cities, connected by a 
 network of railways, telegraphs, navigable 
 rivers, and canals, which bind all the scat- 
 tered parts into one solid whole. They have 
 made a commerce and a system of manufac- 
 tures before which the fabled wealth of Tyre 
 sinks into insignificance. They have created 
 a literature which commands the respect of 
 the world; they have illustrated their history 
 with deeds of arms not less splendid than 
 their more peaceful achievements, and have 
 given to the world names in every walk of 
 life that will never die. They have shown 
 that liberty and power can go hand in hand; 
 they have made themselves a nation in which 
 God is feared, and of which Christianity is the 
 basis, in which ignorance and vice are des- 
 pised, and in which the great lesson that lib- 
 erty is possible only to an educated and 
 virtuous people is being practically demon- 
 strated. 
 
 This is a grand history — a record of 
 the highest achievement of humanity — the 
 
 noblest, most thrilling, and glorious story 
 ever penned on earth. Yet the fact remains 
 that the great mass of the American people 
 are but imperfectly acquainted with it. There 
 is a real need that we should know better 
 than we do what we have done. It is only 
 by a thoughtful study of our past that we can 
 safely provide for the perils of the future. 
 We have triumphed over adversity, and we 
 are now called upon to bear the test of suc- 
 cess. He can be no good citizen who is 
 ignorant of his country's history. 
 
 In the preparation of this volume, no 
 authority of importance has been overlooked; 
 the author has carefully searched every 
 source of information open to him ; and has 
 availed himself of every fact that coul J throw 
 new light upon, or impart additional interest 
 to, the subject under consideration. 
 
 In the narration of military events, he has 
 preferred to give each campaign as a whole 
 rather than to mingle several by presenting 
 the events in chronological order. At the 
 same time he has sought to preserve the 
 inter-relation of events in one field of opera- 
 tions to those in the others. 
 
 The book is offered to the public in the 
 sincere hope that it may induce its readers to 
 take to heart the lessons which our history 
 teaches, and to set a higher value upon the 
 precious heritage of constitutional liberty 
 which our fathers won for us with their blood, 
 and handed down to us in trust for our chil- 
 dren's children. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 BOOK I. 
 
 Discovery of the Western Continent. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Strange People in a Strange Land. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Eailiest Inhabitants of the United States — The 
 Mound Builders — Remarkable Works Constructed 
 by Them — Evidences of a Primitive Civilization — 
 Indications of the Antiquity of this Period — A Re- 
 markable Cherokee — Who Were the Mound Build- 
 ers — Ancient Phoenicians — False Assumption — The 
 American Indians — Divisions of the Country Among 
 the Tribes — Names and Location of the Various 
 Tribes — Organization and Government of the In- 
 dians — Their Dress, Manners and Customs — Vil- 
 lages — Indian Inventions — The War Dance — Le- 
 gends of the Norsemen Respecting the Discovery of 
 America 17 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 The Voyages of Columbus. 
 Maritime Enterprise in the Fifteenth Century — The- 
 ories Respecting the Earth's Surface — Christopher 
 Columbus — His Early Life — His Theory of a West- 
 ern Tassage to India — His Struggles to Obtain the 
 Means of Making a Voyage — Is Aided by Ferdi- 
 nand and Isabella of Spain — His First Voyage — 
 Discovery of America — Reception in Spain — His 
 Second Voyage — Settlement of Hayti — Third Voy- 
 age of Columbus — He Reaches the Mainland — Dis- 
 covery of Gold in Hayti — Troubles in the Colony 
 — Columbus Sent to Spain in Irons — Indignation of 
 the Queen — Last Voyage of Columbus — His Ship- 
 wreck — Returns to Spain — Refusal of Ferdinand to 
 Comply with His Promises — Death of Columbus — 
 Amerigo Vespucci — Origin of the Name America 32 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 English and French Discoveries. 
 Discovery of the North American Continent by John 
 Cabot — Voyages of Sebastian Cabot — The English 
 Fail to Follow Up these Discoveries —Efforts of the 
 
 French to Explore America — Voyage and Discov- 
 eries of Verrazzani — Cartier Explores the St. Law- 
 rence — Reaches Montreal — Efforts to Found a Col- 
 ony on the St. Lawrence — Failure — Roberval's 
 Colony — Trading Voyages — Explorations of Cham- 
 plain — Colonization of Nova Scotia — Founding of 
 Quebec — Discovery of Lake Champlain — Arrival of 
 the Jesuits in Canada — Death of Champlain ... 43 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 The Spaniards in America. 
 Settlement of the West Indies — Discovery of the Pa- 
 cific Ocean — Voyage of Magellan — Discovery of 
 Florida — Ponce de Leon's Search for the Fountain 
 of Youth — Vasquez de Ayllon Kidnaps a Cargo of 
 Indians — Effort of Pamphilo de Narvaez to Con- 
 quer Florida — A Terrible March — The Voyage on 
 the Gulf of Mexico — P'ate of the Fleet — Escape of 
 Cabeza de Vaca and His Comrades — Discovery of 
 New Mexico — Ferdinand de Soto — Obtains Leave 
 to Conquer Florida — Sails from Spain — Arrival in 
 Cuba — Departure for Florida — Landing at Tampa 
 Bay — Events of the First Year — De Soto Enters 
 Georgia — Descends the Alabama — Battle of Ma- 
 villa — Destruction of Chickasaw — Sufferings of the 
 Spaniards — Discovery of the Mississippi — The 
 Spaniards Cross the Great River — De Soto in Ar- 
 kansas — Reaches the Mississippi Again — Sickness 
 and Death of De Soto — His Burial — Escape of His 
 Followers to Mexico — The Huguenot Colony in 
 Carolina — Its Failure — The French Settle in 
 Florida — Wrath of Philip II. — Melendez Ordered 
 to Exterminate the Huguenots — Foundation of St. 
 Augustine — Massacre of the French at Fort Caro- 
 lina — The Vengeance of De Gourges 5c 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 The First English Colony. 
 The English Claim to America — Voyages of Fro- 
 bisher — Exploits of Sir Francis Drake — Sir Humph- 
 rey Gilbert — Intends to found a Colony in America 
 — Is lost at Sea — Sir Walter Raleigh obtains a Pat- 
 ent of Colonization — Discoveries of Amidas and 
 
 VII 
 
vm 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Barlow — Raleigh sends out a Colony to Virginia — 
 Settlement on Roanoke Island — Its Failure — Arri- 
 val of Grenville — Second Effort of Raleigh to Colo- 
 nize Virginia — Roanoke Island again Settled — The 
 " City of Raleigh " — Virginia Dare — Fate of the 
 Colony — Death of Raleigh — Other Voyages of the 
 English 63 
 
 BOOK II. 
 
 Settlement of America. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Captain John Smith and Pocahontas. 
 Formation of the London Company — Conditions of its 
 Charter — Departure of the first Colony — Quarrels 
 during the Voyage — Arrival in the Chesapeake — 
 Settlement of Jamestown — Formation of the Gov- 
 ernment — Character of Captain John Smith — Ex- 
 ploration of the James River — Newport and Smith 
 visit Powhatan — Smith Admitted to the Govern- 
 ment — Explores the Chickahominy — Is Captured 
 and Sentenced to Death — Is Saved by Pocahontas — 
 Gains the Friendship of Powhatan for the Colony 
 ■ — Returns to Jamestown — His Decisive Measures — 
 Return of Newport — Smith Explores the Chesa- 
 peake Bay — The new Emigrants — Smith compels 
 them to Labor — Smith is Wounded and compelled 
 to return to England — Disasters to the Colony — Ar- 
 rival of Sir Thomas Gates — Jamestown Abandoned 
 — Arrival of Lord Delaware — The Return to James- 
 town — A Change f<_r the Better — New Settlements 
 - — Sir Thomas Gates arrives with Reinforcements — 
 Capture of Pocahontas by Captain Argall — She is 
 Baptized — Marries John Rolfe — Sir Thomas Dale's 
 Administration— Yeardley Governor — The first Leg- 
 islative Assembly — Representative Government es- 
 tablished in America — The Colonists obtain Wives 
 — Changes in the Government 73 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 Progress of the Virginia Colony. 
 Introduction of Negro Slavery into Virginia — Efforts of 
 the Assembly to Restrict Slavery — The Indians At- 
 tempt the Destruction of the Colony — Terrible Suf- 
 ferings of the Whites— Aid from England — The 
 Indian War Begun — King James Revokes the Char- 
 ter of the London Company — Charles I. Desires a 
 Monopoly of the Tobacco Trade — Action of the 
 Assembly — Sir William Berkeley's First Adminis- 
 tration — Severe Measures against Dissenters — Close 
 of the Indian War — Death of Opechancanough — 
 
 Emigration of Royalists to Virginia — Virginia aiii 
 and the Commonwealth — Treaty with England — 
 The Assembly Asserts its Independence of the Gov- 
 ernor — The Restoration — Berkeley Chosen Gover- 
 nor by the Assembly — His Hypocrisy 1 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 Virginia After the Restoration. 
 
 Characteristics of the Virginians — Causes cf the Suc- 
 cess of the Royalists — Growth of the Aristocratic 
 Class — Berkeley decides against the People — The 
 Aristocratic Assembly Claims the Right to sit Per- 
 petually — Deprives the Common People of their 
 Liberties — Revival of the Navigation Act by Charles 
 II. — The King bestows Virginia as a Gift upon his 
 Favorites — Protests of the Asseml ly — Growing 1 Ios- 
 tility of the Virginians to the Colonial Government - 
 The Indian War — The Governor Refuses to allow 
 the Colonists to Defend themselves — Nathaniel Ba- 
 con — He Marches against the Indians — Rebellion 
 of the Feople against Berkeley and the Assembly — 
 The Convention — Repeal of the Obnoxious Law<= — 
 Berkeley's Duplicity — The People take up Arms 
 — Flight of Berkeley — Destruction of Jamestown — 
 Death of Bacon — Causes of the Failure of the Rebel- 
 lion — Berkeley's Triumph — Execution of the Patriot 
 Leaders — Berkeley's Course Condemned by the 
 King- — Death of Berkeley — The Unjust Laws Re- 
 enacted—Lord Culpepper Governor — His Extor- 
 tions — James II. and Virginia — Effects upon Vir- 
 ginia of the Revolution of 1688 — William and Mary 
 College Founded 95 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 The Colonization of Maryland. 
 
 Extent of the Territory of Virginia — Clayborn's Trad- 
 ing-Posts established — Sir George Calvert, Lord 
 Baltimore — Becomes interested in American coloni- 
 zation — Obtains a Grant of Maryland — Terms of 
 th# Charter — A Colony sent out — Arrival in the 
 Chesapeake — St. Mary's Founded — Charter of the 
 Colony — Friendly Relations established with the 
 Indians — First Legislature of Maryland — Trouble 
 with Clayborne — Rapid Growth of the Colony — 
 Progress of Popular Liberty — Policy respecting the 
 Treatment of the Indians — Clayborne's Rebellion — 
 Law granting Religious toleration enacted — Condi- 
 tion of Maryland under the Commonwealth — The 
 People declared Supreme — Lord Baltimore re- 
 covers his Proprietary Rights — Characteristics of 
 the Colony — Rapid Increase in Population — Charles 
 Calvert, Governor — Death of the second Lord 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 IX 
 
 Baltimore — Roman Catholics disfranchised — Mary- 
 land becomes a Royal Province — Triumph of the 
 Protestants — Annapolis made the Seat of Govern- 
 ment — Restoration of the Proprietary Government — 
 Continued Prosperity of Maryland Ill 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 The Pilgrim Fathers. 
 Rise of the Puritans — Their Increase in England — 
 They are Persecuted by the English Church and 
 Government — Conduct of James I. — His Hatred of 
 Puritanism — Puritans take Refuge in Holland — The 
 Congregation of John Robinson — They Escape to 
 Holland — The Pilgrims — their Sojourn at Leyden — 
 They wi.-h to Emigrate to Virginia — Failure of their 
 Negotiations with the London Company — They 
 form a Partnership in England — A Hard Bargain — 
 Departure of the Pilgrims from Holland — Voyage 
 of the "Mayflower" — Arrival in New England — 
 The Agreement on board the " Mayflower" — Car- 
 ver chosen Governor — Settlement of Plymouth — 
 The first Winter in New England — Sufferings of 
 the Pilgrims — Arrival of new Emigrants — Continued 
 Suffering — Assignment of Lands — Friendly In- 
 tercourse with Indians — Samoset and Squanto — 
 Visit of Massasoit — A Threat of War — Bradford's 
 Defiance — Weston"s Men — A Narrow Escape — The 
 Colonists Purchase the Interests of their English 
 Partners — Lands Assigned in Fee Simple — The 
 Colony Benefited by the Change — Government of 
 P'vmouth — Steady Growth of the Colony .... 121 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF MASSACHUSETTS AND RHuDE ISLAND. 
 
 Settlement of New Hampshire — The English Purrans 
 determine to form a new Colony in America — The 
 Plymouth Council — A Colony sent out to Salem 
 under Endicctt — Colonization of Massachusetts 
 Bay begun — A Charter obtained — Concessions of 
 the King — Progress of the Salem Colony — The 
 Charter and Government of the Col ny removed to 
 New England — Arrival of Governor Wiiuhrop — 
 Settlement of Boston — Sufferings of the 1 Colonists — 
 Roger Williams — His Opinions give offence to the 
 Authorities — The Success of the Bay Colony Estab- 
 lished — Growth of Popular Liberty — The Ballot 
 Box — Banishment of Roger Williams — He goes 
 into the Wilderness — Founds Providence — Growth 
 of Williams's Colony — C nued Growth of Massa- 
 chusetts — Arrival of Sir Henry Vane — Is elected 
 Governor — Mrs. Anne Hutchinson — The Antino- 
 mian Controversy — Mrs. Hutchinson banished — 
 Sett'ement of Rhode Island — Murder of Mrs. 
 I'utchinson I :S 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 Colonization of Connecticut. 
 
 PAGH 
 
 The Dutch claim the Connecticut Valley — They build 
 a Fort at Hartford — Governor Winslow makes a 
 Lodgment in Connecticut for the English — With- 
 drawal of the Dutch — The First Efforts of the Eng- 
 lish to Settle Connecticut — Emigration of Hooker 
 and his Congregation — They Settle at Hartford — 
 Winthrop builds a Fort at Saybrook — Hostility of 
 the Indians — Visit of Roger Williams to Miantono- 
 moh — A Brave Deed — The Pequod War — Capture 
 of the Indian Fort — Destruction of the Pequod 
 Tribe — Effect of this War upon the other Tribes — 
 Connecticut Adopts a Constitution — Its Peculiar 
 Features — Settlement of New Haven »5o 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 The Union of the New England Colonies. 
 
 Feeling of the Colonies towards England — Hostility of 
 the English Government to New England — Efforts 
 to Introduce Episcopacy — Massachusetts Threatens 
 Resistance — The Revolution in England — Estab- 
 lishment of Free Schools in New England — Har- 
 vard College — The Printing Press — The Long Par- 
 liament Friendly to New England — The United 
 Colonies of New England — Rhode Island obtains a 
 Charter — Maine Annexed to Massachusetts — The 
 Quakers are Persecuted — Efforts to Christianize the 
 Indians — John Eliot, the Apostle to the Indians . . 1 57 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 New England After the Restoration. 
 Arrival of the News of the Restoration of Charles II. 
 — The Regicides in New England — They are Pro- 
 tected — Revival of the Navigation Acts — Effect of 
 this Measure upon the New England Colonies — 
 Massachusetts delays the Proclamation of the King 
 — Connecticut obtains a Charter — Union of New 
 Haven with the Connecticut Colony — Rhode Island 
 given a new Charter — Massachusetts set les her diffi- 
 culties with the Crown — Changes in the Govern- 
 ment — High-handed acts of the Royal Commission- 
 ers — Troubles with the Indians — Injustice of the 
 Whites — King Philip's War — A Forest Hero — An 
 Incident in the Attack upon Hadley — Sufferirjs of 
 the Colonies — Destruction of tl.e Na-ragansetts — 
 Death of Philip — Close of the War — England asseru 
 her right to Tax the Colonies — Massachusetts buys 
 Gorges' claims to Maine — New Hampshire made a 
 separate Province — James II. Revokes the Charter 
 of Massachusetts — Dudley and Randolph in New 
 England — Andros appointed Governor-General — 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 His Tyranny — He demands the Charter of Connect- 
 icut — It is carried away and Hidden — The Charter 
 Oak — Fall of James II. — The people of Massachu- 
 setts take up Arms — Andros arrested — Effects of 
 the Revolution upon New England 166 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 Witchcraft in Massachusetts. 
 Results of the Failure of Massachusetts to Resume her 
 Charter — The New Charter — Loss of the Liberties 
 of the Colony — Union of Plymouth with Massachu- 
 setts Bay — Belief in Witchcraft — The History of 
 Witchcraft in Massachusetts — The Case of the Good- 
 win Children — Cotton Mather espouses the Can e of 
 the Witches — Samuel Parris — He Originates the Sa- 
 lem Delusion — A Strange History — A Special Court 
 Appointed for the Trial of the Witches — The Vic- 
 tims — Execution of the Rev. George Burroughs — 
 Cotton Mather's Part in the Tragedies — The Gen- 
 eral Court takes Action in behalf of the People — 
 End of the Persecution — Failure of Cotton Mather's 
 Attempt to Save his Credit 182 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 The Settlement of New York. 
 Voyages of Henry Hudson — He is Employed by the 
 Dutch — Discovery of the Hudson River — Early 
 Dutch Voyages — Adrian Block — Fate of Hudson — 
 The Dutch build a Fort on Manhattan Island — Set- 
 tlement of New Amsterdam — The Province named 
 New Netherlands — Fort Nassau — Peter Minuits 
 Governor — The Dutch Settlement of Delaware — 
 Wouter Van Twiller — Kieft Governor — His Unjust 
 Treatment of the Indians — Massacre of the Indians 
 at Hoboken — The Indian War — Stuyvesant Ap- 
 pointed Governor — Disputes with the English in 
 Connecticut — The Swedes Settle Delaware — Stuy- 
 vesant Captures the Swedish Forts — Growth of New 
 Amsterdam — Disputes between the People and Gov- 
 ernor — Growing Spirit of Popular Liberty — The 
 People Appeal to the States General — Capture of 
 New Netherlands by the English — The Name of the 
 Province changed to New York — Results of the 
 English Conquest — Progress of New Jersey — An- 
 dros Governor of New York — He Fails to Establish 
 his Authority over Connecticut — New York allowed 
 an Assembly — Discontents of the People — Leisler's 
 Rebellion — Execution of Leisler and Milbourne — 
 Fletcher Governor — His Attempt to obtain Com- 
 mand of the Connecticut Militia — Episcopacy Es- 
 tablished in New York — The Freedom of the Press 
 Sustained — New Jersey a Royal Province .... 193 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 Colonization of Pennsylvania. 
 
 PAGB 
 
 The Quakers — Their Origin and Doctrines — William 
 Penn — Becomes a Quaker — Is Persecuted for his 
 Religious Opinions — Becomes interested in Ameri- 
 can Colonization — Purchases West Jersey from the 
 Proprietor — Conceives the Idea of Founding a Free 
 State in America — Purchases Pennsylvania from 
 Charles II. — Conditions of his Charter — Sends out 
 a Colony — Arrival of Penn in America — Philadel- 
 phia Founded — Penn's Treaty with the Indians — 
 Religious Toleration Guaranteed — Penn's Relations 
 with his Colonists — Rapid Growth of Pennsylvania 
 in Population and Prosperity — William Penn and 
 James II. — Renewal of Penn's Troubles — William 
 III. Declares Pennsylvania a Royal Province — Penn 
 is Vindicated and Restored to his Proprietary Rights 
 — His Return to Pennsylvania — Character of the 
 Settlers of the Province — Penn Goes Back to 
 England — Efforts to deprive him of his Possessions 
 — His Death 21; 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 Settlement of the Carolinas. 
 
 Gradual Settlement of North Carolina from Virginia — 
 Charles II. grants Carolina to Clarendon and others 
 — The " Grand Model " — An Ideal Aristocracy 
 Proposed for Carolina — The Authority cf the Pro- 
 prietaries Established in North Carolina — Con- 
 tinued Settlement of that Region — Characteristics 
 of the Early Settlers of North Carolina — The People 
 Reject the Grand Model — Hostility of England to 
 the Colonial Commerce — Insurrection in North 
 Carolina — Slothel Governor — Settlement of South 
 Carolina — Charleston Founded — The Proprietary- 
 Constitutions Rejected by South Carolina — Rapid 
 Growth of the Colony — Introduction of Slavery — 
 Chracteristicsof the Early Settlers of South Carolina 
 — Efforts to Enforce the Navigation Acts — Resis- 
 tance of the People — The Proprietaries Abandon 
 their Constitutions — Archdale's Reforms — Religious 
 Intolerance — Eatablishment of the Church of Eng- 
 land in South Carolina — Action of the Crown — 
 Continued Prosperity of South Carolina — Governor 
 Moore Attacks St. Augustine — Failure of the 
 Effort — The Spaniards are Repulsed in an Attempt 
 to Capture Charleston — Indian War in North Caro- 
 lina — The Tuscaroras Driven Northward — War 
 with the Yemmassees — Destruction of their Power 
 — Separation of the Carolinas 227 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 XI 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 Settlement of Georgia. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 ucneral James Edward Oglethorpe — His Efforts to 
 Reform Prison Discipline of England — Proposes to 
 Found a Co ony in America for the P< or and for 
 Prisoners for Debt — A Charter Obtained from the 
 King — Colonization of Georgia — Savannah Settled 
 —First Years of the Colony — Labors of Oglethorpe 
 —Arrival of New Emigrants — Augusta Founded — 
 fhe Moravian Settlements — The Wesleys in Amer- 
 ica — George Whitefield— War between England 
 and Spain — Oglethorpe Invades Florida — Failure of 
 the Attack upon St. Augustine — The Spaniards In- 
 vade Georgia — Oglethorpe's Stratagem — Its Success 
 —Battle of" Bloody Marsh " — Close of the War — 
 Charges against Oglethorpe — His Vindication — 
 His Return to Europe — Changes in the Colonial 
 Government — Introduction of Slavery into Georgia 
 ■ — Prosperity of the Colony 241 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 The French in the Valley of the Mississippi. 
 
 Origin of the Hostility of the Iriquois to the French 
 — Settlement of Canada — Plans of the French res- 
 pecting the Indians — The Jesuits — Their Work in 
 America — Success of their Missions — The Early 
 Missionaries — Foundation of a College at Quebec — 
 Efforts of the Jesuits to Convert the Iroquois— 
 Father Jogues — Death of Ahasistari — Father 
 Allouez — The Missions on the Upper Lakes — 
 Father Marquette — His Exploration of the Upper 
 Mississippi — Death of Marquette — La Salle — 
 Efforts of France to Secure the Valley of the Missis- 
 sippi — La Salle Descends the Mississippi to its 
 Mouth — His Effort to Colonize the Lower Missis- 
 sippi — The First Colony in Texas — Its Failure 
 Death of La Salle — Lemoine d'lbberville — Settle- 
 ment of Louisiana — Colony of Biloxi — Settlement 
 Mobile — Crozat's Monopoly — Founding of New- 
 Orleans — Detroit Founded — Slow Growth of the 
 French Colonies — Occupation of the Ohio Valley 
 by the French — Wars with the Indians — Exter- 
 mination of the Natchez Tribe — War with the 
 Chickasaws 251 
 
 CHAPTER XXI. 
 
 Conflicts Between the English and French. 
 Relations Between the English and the Five Nations 
 — The Hostility of the Latter to the French — King 
 William's War — Destruction of Dover — The Jesuit 
 Missionaries Incite the Indians to Attack the Eng- 
 lish — Expedition against Quebec — Attack on Dus- 
 
 tin's Farm — Peace of Ryswick — Hostility of the 
 English to Roman Catholics— Queen Anne's War 
 — Burning of Deerfield — Eunice Williams — Cruel- 
 ties of the French — Effort of New England to Con- 
 quer Acadia — Capture of Port Royal — -Failure of 
 the Expedition against Quebec — King George's 
 War — Expedition against Louisburg — Its Composi- 
 tion — Arrival of the Fleet at Cape Breton — Good 
 Conduct of the Provincials — Capture of Louisburg 
 — Treaty of Aix-la Chapelle — Unjust Treatment of 
 the Colonies by England — Sentiment of the Ameri- 
 cans towards England 265 
 
 BOOK III. 
 
 The French and Indian War. 
 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 Outbreak of Hostilities. 
 
 England Claims the Valley of the Ohio — Organiza- 
 tion of the Ohio Company — The French Extend 
 their Posts into the Ohio Country — Washington's 
 Mission to the French at Fort Duquesne — His Jour- 
 ney — Reception by the French — His Journey Home 
 — A Perilous Undertaking — Organization of the 
 Virginia Forces — Washington Made Second in 
 Command — The French Drive the English from the 
 Head of the Ohio — Fort Duquesne Built by Them 
 — Washington Crosses the Mountains — The Fight at 
 Great Meadows-— Beginning of the French and In- 
 dian War — Surrender of Fort Necessity to the 
 French — Unjust Treatment of the Colonial Officers 
 --Congress of the Colonies at New York — Frank- 
 lin's Plan of a Union of the Colonies — Its Failure — 
 Reasons of the British Government for Rejecting It 
 — England Assumes the Direction of the War — Ar- 
 rival of General Braddock — Plan of Campaign — ■ 
 Obstinacy of Braddock — He Passes the Mountains 
 — Defeat of Braddock — Heroism of Washington — 
 Retreat of Dunbar beyond the Mountains — Vigor- 
 ous Action of Pennsylvania — Armstrong Defeats the 
 Indians and Burns the Town of Kittanning . . . 2"/t 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 Sanguniary Struggles on the Frontier. 
 
 Expedition against Acadia — Brutal Treatment of the 
 Acadians — They Are Expelled from their Country 
 — A Sad Story — Fate of the Acadians — Johnson at 
 Lake George — March of Dieskau — Battle of Lake 
 George — Failure of Shirley's Expedition — Arrival 
 of the Earl of Loudon — Montcalm in Canada — 
 
Xll 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Capture of Oswego by the French— Outrages of the 
 Earl of Loudon upon New York and Philadelphia 
 — Expedition against Louisburg — How the Earl of 
 Loudon Beat the French — Capture of Fort William 
 Henry by Montcalm — Massacre of the Prisoners by 
 the Indians — Efforts of Montcalm to Save Them — 
 The Royal Officers Attempt to Cover Their Failures 
 by Outraging the Colonies 298 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 End of the French and Indian War. 
 
 A Change for the Better — William Pitt Prime Minister 
 — Vigorous Measures Adopted — R.ecall of the Earl 
 of Loudon — Capture of Louisburg — Abercrombie on 
 Lake George — Advances against Ticonderoga — 
 Death of Lord Howe — Failure of the English At- 
 tack upon Ticonderoga — Disgraceful Conduct of 
 Abercrombie — His Retreat — Capture of Fort Fron- 
 tenac — Advance of General Forbes — Grant's Defeat 
 — TheVirginians A£ain Save the Regulars— Capture 
 of Fort Duquesne— Washington Retires from the 
 Army — Ticonderoga ar.d Crown Point Occupied by 
 the English — Cap'ure of Fort Niagara — The Expe- 
 dition against Quebec — Failure of the First Opera- 
 tions — Despondency of Wolfe — He Discovers a 
 Landing-place — The Army Scales the Heights of 
 Abraham— Montcalm's Surprise— Battle of the Plains 
 of Abraham — Death of Wolfe — Defeat of the 
 French — Death of Montcalm — Surrender of Quebec 
 — Capture of Montreal — Treaty of Paris — Canada 
 Ceded to England — France Loses all Her American 
 Possessions — The Cherokee War — Hostility of the 
 Indians to the English — Pontiac's War — Death of 
 Pontiac — Bouquet Relieves Fort Duquesne — Results 
 of the War 309 
 
 BOOK IV. 
 
 The American Revolution. 
 
 CHAPTER XXV. 
 
 Causes of the Struggle for Independence. 
 
 injustice of Great Britain towards Her Colonies — The 
 Na\igation Acts — Effects of these Laws upon the 
 Colonies — Great Britain Seeks to Destroy the Man- 
 ufactures of America — Writs of Assistance — They 
 Are Opposed — Home Manufactures Encouraged by 
 the Americans — Ignorance of Englishmen Concern- 
 ing America — Great Britain Claims the Right to 
 Tax Anieiica — Resistance of the Colonists — Samuel 
 Adams — The Parsons' Cause — Patrick Henry- 
 
 England Persists in Her Determination to Tax Amer- 
 ica — Passage of the Stamp Act — Resistance of the 
 Colonists — Meeting of the First Colonial Congress 
 — Its Action — William Pitt — Repeal of the Stamp 
 Act — Franklin before the House of Commons- 
 New Taxes Imposed upon America — Increased Re- 
 sistance of the Colonies — Troops Quartered in Bos- 
 ton — The " Massacre " — The Non-Importation As- 
 sociation — Growth of Hostility to England — Burn- 
 ing of the " Gaspe" — The Tax on Tea Retained by 
 the King — Destruction of Tea at Boston — Wrath 
 of the British Government — Boston Harbor Closed 
 -Troops Quartered in Boston— The Colonists Come 
 to the Assistance of Boston — Action of the Virginia 
 Assembly — General Gage in Boston — The Regulat- 
 ing Act — Its Failure — Gage Seizes the Massachu- 
 setts Powder — Uprising of the Colony — Meeting of 
 the Continental Congress — Its Action — Addresses to 
 the King and People of England — The Earl of 
 Chatham'slndorsement of Congress — The King Re- 
 mains Stubborn 327 
 
 CHAPTER XXVI. 
 
 Progress of the War. 
 
 Gage fortifies Boston Neck — He Summons the Gen- 
 eral Court — Recalls his Proclamation — The Provin- 
 cial Congress of Massachusetts — It takes Measures 
 for Defence — The Militia Organized — The Minute 
 Men — Friends of America in England — Gage re- 
 solves to seize the Stores at Concord — Midnight 
 March of the British Troops — The Alarm given — 
 Skirmishes at Lexington and Concord — Retreat of 
 the British — A Terrible March — Uprising of New 
 England — Boston Invested — Dunmore seizes the 
 Virginia Powder — Is made to pay for it — Uprising 
 of the Middle and Southern Colonies — The Meck- 
 lenburg Declaration of Independence — Capture of 
 Ticonderoga and Crown Point — Meeting of the Sec- 
 ond Cantinental Congress — Congress resolves to sus- 
 tain Massachusetts — Renewed Efforts for Peace- 
 Congress Assumes the General Government of the 
 Colonies — A Federal Union Organized — Its Charac- 
 ter — A Continental Army formed — George Wash- 
 ington Appointed Commander-in-chief — General 
 Officers Appointed — Condition of the Army before 
 Boston — Inaction of Gage — Battle of Breed's Hill 
 — A Glorious Defence — The Battle Equivalent to a 
 Victory in its Effects upon the Country — Arrival of 
 Washington at Cambridge — He takes Command of 
 the Army — He Reorganizes the Army — Difficulties 
 of the Undertaking — The Invasion of Canada Re- 
 solved upon — March of Montgomery and Arnold — 
 Rapid Successes of Montgomery — He Captures 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 xni 
 
 Montreal — March of Arnold through the Wilder- 
 ness — Arrival before Quebec- -Forms a Junction 
 with Montgomery — The Siege of Quebec — The Ice 
 Forts — Failure of the Attack — Death of Montgom- 
 ery — Retreat of the Americans from Canada — Lord 
 Dunmore's War in Virginia — Destruction of Nor- 
 folk — The Thirteen United Colonies — Burning of 
 Falmouth — Naval Matters — Action of Great Britain 
 —The War to be carried on — The Hessians . . . 354 
 
 CHAPTER XXYII. 
 
 The Declaration of Independence. 
 The Siege of Boston — Difficulties of the American 
 Army — Activity of the Privateers — Clinton's Expe- 
 tion — Colonel Knox arrives from Ticonderoga with 
 Cannon — Seizure of Dorchester Heights by Wash- 
 ington — The British Evacuate Boston — Royalist 
 Plots in New York — Paper Money Issued by Con- 
 gress — Gates sent to the North — The British Attack 
 Charleston — Battle of Fort Moultrie — The Howes in 
 New York Bay — Change in the Character of the War 
 — Growing Sentiment in Favor of Independence — 
 — Virginia Proposes the Colonies Assert their Inde- 
 pendence — Action of Congress — The Declaration of 
 Independence — Articles of Confederation Adopted 
 by Congress — Lord Howe's Efforts at Conciliation — 
 Addresses a Letter to Washington — Battle of Long 
 island — Defeat of the Americans—Retreat from 
 Long Island — Evacuation of New York by the 
 Americans — Loss of Fort Washington — Washington 
 Retreats through New Jersey — He Crosses the Del- 
 aware — Darkest Period of the War — Washington's 
 Determination to Continue the War — Lord Howe's 
 Proclamation — Its Effect — Congress at Baltimore — 
 Carleton invades New York — Defeats Arnold on 
 Lake Champlain — Carleton Retires into Canada — 
 Battle of Trenton — Happy Effects of the Victory 
 —Congress confers Dictatiorial Powers upon Wash 
 aigton — Commissioners sent to France ..... 377 
 
 CHAPTER XXVIII. 
 The Year 1777. 
 fowe Attempts to Crush Washington — Battle 01 
 Princeton — The British Confined to the Seaboard — 
 Recovery of New Jersey — The American Army in 
 Winter Quarters at Morristown — Effects of the 
 American Successes — Difficulty of Procuring Troops 
 —Washington P efuses to Exchange Prisoners — His 
 Course Approved by Congress — Measures of Con- 
 gress — Naval Affairs — Tryon Burns Danbury — Gal- 
 lantry of Arnold — Troubles in the Northern Depart- 
 ment — Congress Adopts a National Flag — "The 
 Stars and Stripes" — Course of France towards the 
 United States — France Decides to Assist the Amer 
 
 icans — Lafayette — His Arrival in America — Capture 
 of the British General Prescott — Howe Threatens 
 Philadelphia — Washington Moves Southward — 
 Battle of the Brandy wine — Washington Retreats to 
 the Schuylkill— Wayne's Defeat at Paoli — Philadel- 
 phia Exacuated by the Americans — It Is Occupied 
 by the British — Battle of Germantown — The British 
 Attack the Forts on the Delaware — They Are Aban- 
 doned by the Americans — Burgoyne's Army in 
 Canada — Advance of Burgoyne into New York — 
 Investment of Ticonderoga — It Is Abandoned by 
 the Americans — The Retreat to Fort Edward — 
 Burgoyne Reaches the Hudson — Murder of Miss 
 McCrea — Siege of Fort Schuyler — Battle of Ben- 
 nington — Critical Situation of Burgoyne — Gates in 
 Command of the American Army — Battles of Beh- 
 mus' Heights and Stillwater — Surrender ot Bur- 
 goyne's Army — Clinton in the Highlands .... 405 
 
 CHAPTER XXIX. 
 
 Aid From Abroad. 
 Sufferings of the Army at Valley Forge — Appeals of 
 Washington to Congress — The British in Philadel- 
 phia — The Conway Cabal — Its Disgraceful Failure 
 — Efforts to Improve the Army — Worthlessness of 
 Continental Bills — General Lee Exchanged — Effect 
 of Burgoyne's Surrender upon England — The King 
 Is Forced to Agree to Measures of Conciliation — 
 Action of France — Louis XVI. Recognizes the In- 
 dependence of the United States — Alliance Between 
 the United States and France — Failure of the Brit- 
 ish Measures of Conciliation — Clinton Evacuates 
 Philadelphia — Battle of Monmouth — General Lee 
 Dismissed from the Army — Attack upon Newport 
 - — Its Failure — Withdrawal of the French Fleet to 
 the West Indies — Outrages of the British on Long 
 Island Sound — Massacre of Wyoming — the Winter 
 of 1779-80 — The Army in Winter Quarters — 
 Robert Morris — Condition of Congress — Georgia 
 Subdued by the British — Prevost Attempts to Take 
 Charleston — Siege of Savannah — Its Failure — Cap- 
 ture of Stony Point — Capture of Paulus Hook — 
 The Indians Punished — Naval Affairs — Exploits of 
 John Paul Jones — Evacuation of Newport — Settle- 
 ment of Kentucky — Conquest of the Illinois Country 
 by George Rogers Clarke — Settlement of Tennessee. 4>H 
 
 CHAPTER XXX. 
 
 The Close of the War. 
 Severity of the Winter of 1779-S0 — Sufferings of the 
 American Army — Clinton Sails for the Caroli- 
 nas — Colonel Tarleton — Capture of Charleston- 
 Conquest of South Carolina — Gates in Command of 
 the Southern Army — Battle of Camden — Exploits 
 
XIV 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 of Marion and Sumter — Advance of Cornwallis — 
 Battle of King's Mountain — Gates Succeeded by 
 General Greene — Knyphausen's Expeditions into 
 New Jersey — Arrival of the French Fleet and 
 Army — Arnold's Treason — The Plot for the Be- 
 trayal of West Point — Arrest of Major Andre — 
 Flight of Arnold — Execution of Andre — Mutiny of 
 the Pennsylvania and New Jersey Troops — Meas- 
 ures of Congress — Arnold Captures Richmond, Vir- 
 ginia — Battle of the Cowpens — Masterly Retreat of 
 General Greene — Cornwallis Baffled,— Battle of 
 Guilford Court House — Cornwallis at Wilmington 
 — Battle of Ilobkirk's Hill — Siege of Ninety-Six — 
 Execution of Colonel Hayne — Battle of Eutaw 
 Springs — Washington Decides to Attack New York 
 • — The French Army on the Hudson — Financial 
 Affairs — Resumption of Specie Payments — Message 
 from the Count De Grasse — Cornwallis at York- 
 town — The American Army Moves Southward — 
 Siege of Yorktown — Surrender of Cornwallis-— Ef- 
 fect of the News in England — Indian Troubles- 
 Efforts in England for Peace — Negotiations Opened 
 . — Treaty of Paris — -End of the War-^.The Army 
 Disbanded — Washington Resigns His Commission 450 
 
 BOOK V. 
 
 From the Close of the Revolution to the 
 
 Civil War. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXI. 
 
 The Adoption of the Constitution — Washington's 
 Administration. 
 
 'Unsettled Condition of the Country — Failure of the 
 Articles of Confederation — Desire for Reform — 
 Meeting of the Federal Convention at Philadelphia 
 — The Constitution of the United States — Adoption 
 of a Decimal Currency — The Northwest Territory 
 — Washington Elected President — His Journey to 
 New York — Establishment of the New Government 
 — The Fit st Cabinet — Financial Measures — Re- 
 moval of the Capital Agreed Upon — The Govern- 
 ment at Philadelphia — The First Census — The In- 
 dians of the Northwest Conquered — Re-election 
 of Washington — Division of Parties — The French 
 Revolution — The United States Neutral — Citizen 
 Genet — Efforts to Commit the United States to the 
 French Alliance — Genet's Recall Demanded — The 
 •' Whiskey Insurrection" — Jay's Treaty with Eng- 
 land — Opposition to It — Negotiations with Algiers 
 — Political Disputes — Hostility to Washington — His 
 Farewell Address — Its Effect upon the Country — 
 Election of John Adams to the Presidency — Admis- 
 sion ci Vermont, Kentucky and Tennessee — Retire- 
 ment of Washington — His Administration . . . 481 
 
 CHAPTER XXXII. 
 
 The Administrations of John Adams and Thomas 
 
 Jefferson. 
 
 pAor 
 Inauguration of John Adams — Aggressions of France 
 
 upon the United States — The American Commis- 
 sioners Insulted by the French Government — The 
 Alien and Sedition Laws — The United States Pre- 
 pare for War with France — France Signifies her 
 Willingness to Treat — New Commissioners Ap- 
 pointed — Settlement of the Dispute — Hostilities at 
 Sea — Capture of the " Insurgente " and " Ven- 
 geance" — Death of Washington — Removal of the 
 Capital to Washington City — The Second Census — 
 Inauguration of Thomas Jefferson — The President's 
 Message — His First Measures — Admission of Ohio 
 ■ — Louisiana Purchased by the United States — War 
 with the Barbary Powers — Burning of the " Phila- 
 delphia " — Re-election of Mr. Jefferson — Aaron Burr 
 Kills Alexander Hamilton in a Duel — Burr's Subse- 
 quent Career — Fulton's Steamboat — Outrages of 
 England and France upon American Commerce — 
 American Vessels Searched and American Seamen 
 Impressed by England — Efforts to Settle these 
 Questions — Affair of the " Chesapeake " and " Leop- 
 ard" — The Embargo — Results of this Measure- 
 Losses of the Eastern States — Election of James 
 Madison to the Presidency — Repeal of the Embargo. 496 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIII. 
 
 The Administration of James Madison — The SEcoNr 
 War with England. 
 
 Inauguration of Mr. Madison — Negotiations with Mr. 
 Erskine — Their Failure — Seizure of American Ves- 
 sels in France — Sufferings of American Ship-owners 
 — Great Britain Stations her Ships of War off Amer- 
 can Ports — Affair of the " President " and " Little 
 Belt" — Trouble with the Northwestern Indians — 
 Tecumseh — Battle of Tippecanoe — Meeting of the 
 Twelfth Congress — Measures for Defence — Admis- 
 sion of Louisiana into the Union — Death of George 
 Clinton — The British Ultimatum — War Declared 
 Against Great Britain — Opposition to the War — The 
 British Offer of Settlement Rejected — The War for 
 "Free Trade and the Sailors' Rights"— Mr. Madi- 
 son Re-elected — Campaign of 1 81 2 — Preparations 
 
 for the Invasion of Canada General Hull Sut* 
 
 renders Detroit to the British — Loss of the North- 
 western Frontier — Failure of the Attack on Queens- 
 town — Exploits of the Navy — Capture of the " Guer 
 riere" by the "Constitution" — The Privateers — 
 Russia Offers to Mediate between the United States 
 and England — Financial Affairs— Harrison's Cam- 
 paign — Massacre at the River Basin — Defence of 
 Forts Meigs and Stephenson- Perry's Victory on Lak« 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 xv 
 
 Erie — Battle of the Thames — Death of Tecumseh — 
 Recovery of the Northwest — Capture of York — 
 British Attack on Sackett's Harbor Repulsed — 
 Removal of General Dearborn — Failure of the Cam- 
 paign on the Lower Lakes — The Creek War — 
 Jackson's Victories — Naval Affairs — The British 
 Outrages in Chesapeake Bay — Negotiations for Peace 
 — Capture of Fort Erie — Battles of Chippewa and 
 Lundy's Lane — Siege of Fort Erie — Successes of 
 the Americans — Advance of Prevost — Battle of 
 Plattsburgh — Macdonough's Victory on Lake Cham- 
 plain — Battle of Bladensburg — Capture of Wash- 
 ington — Destruction of the Public Buildings by the 
 Bri.ish — Attack on Baltimore — Death of General 
 Ross — " The Star-Spangled Bunner " — The British 
 Attack on the New England Coast — Opposition of 
 New England to the War — The Hartford Conven- 
 tion — The British in Florida — General Jackson 
 Expels Them — Jackson at New Orleans — Arrival of 
 the British Expedition off. the Coast — Vigorous 
 Measures of Jackson — Battle of New Orleans—- 
 Defeat of the British — Naval Affairs — The Treaty 
 of Peace — The Barbary Powers Humbled — The 
 Tariff — The Bank of the United States — Admis- 
 sion of Indiana — James Monroe Elected President . 512 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIV. 
 
 Administrations of James Monroe and John Quincy 
 Adams. 
 
 Inauguration of Mr. Monroe — His Tour through the 
 Eastern States — Admission of Mississippi into the 
 Union — Troubles with the Indians — General Jack- 
 son's Vigorous Measures against the Spaniards in 
 Florida — Purchase of Florida by the United States 
 ■ — Illinois Becomes a State — The First Steamship 
 — Maine Admitted into the Union — The Slavery 
 Question — The Missouri Compromise — Admission 
 of Missouri as a State — The Fourth Census — Re- 
 election of Mr. Monroe — The Tariff — Protective 
 Policy of the Government — Recognition of the 
 Spanish Republics — The Monroe Doctrine — Visit of 
 Lafayette to the United States — Retirement of Mr 
 Monroe — John Quincy Adams Elected President- - 
 His Inauguration — Rapid Improvement of the Coun- 
 try — Increase of Wealth and Prosperity — Internal 
 Improvements — The Creek Lands in Georgia Ceded 
 to the United States — Death of Thomas Jeffeison 
 and John Adams — The Anti-Masons — The Tariff of 
 1828 — Andrew Jackson Elected President . . . 548 
 
 CHAPTER XXXV. 
 
 Administrations of Andrew Jackson and Martin 
 
 Van Buren. 
 Character of Andrew Jackson — Indian Policy of this 
 Administration — The President Vetoes the Bill to 
 
 Renew the Charter of the United States Bank — De- 
 bate Between Hayne and Webster — Jackson's Quar- 
 rel with Calhourn — Death of ex- President Monroe 
 — The Cholera — Black Hawk's War — Re-election 
 of President Jackson — The Tariff— Action of South 
 Carolina — The Nullification Ordinance — Firmness 
 of the President — The Matter Settled by Compro- 
 mise — Patriotism of Henry Clay — The Removal of 
 the Deposits — The Seminole War Begun — Great 
 Fire in New York — Settlement of the French 
 Claims — Arkansas Admitted into the Union — The 
 National Debt Paid — Death of ex- President Madi- 
 son — Martin Van Buren Elected President — Michi- 
 gan Admitted into the Union — The Panic of 1837 — 
 Causes of It — Suspension of Specie Payments — 
 Great Distress throughout the Union — The Sub- 
 Treasury — Repudiation of State Debts — The Can- 
 adian Rebellion — The President's Course — The 
 Semimle War Ended — The Anti-Slavery Party — 
 Resolutions of Congress Respecting Slavery- 
 William Henry Harrison Fleeted President — The 
 Sixth Census 56* 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVI. 
 
 Administrations of William Henry Harrison anh 
 John Tyj.er. 
 
 An Extra Session of Congress Summoned — Death of 
 President Harrison — John Tyl<er Becomes President 
 of the United States — Meeting of Congress — The 
 Bankrupt Law — President TyW Vetoes the Bills to 
 Revive the United States Bank — His Quarrel with 
 his Party— The " Tyler Whigs "—The Tariff of 
 1842 — The Treaty of Washington — The United 
 States Will Not Tolerate the Exercise of the Right 
 of Search — Dorr's Rebellion — The Mormons — In- 
 vention of the Electric Telegraph — Explosion on 
 the " Princeton " — Efforts to Seore the Annexation 
 of Texas — Early History of Texas — The Texan 
 War of Independence —Battle <of San Jacinto — - 
 Texan Independence Established — Texas Applies 
 for Admission into the Union — Opposition to th» 
 Measure — Significance of the Vote at the Presiden- 
 tial Election — James K. Polk Elected President — 
 Texas Admitted into the Union — Ic wa and Florid* 
 Become States . . £jg 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVII. 
 
 Administration of James K. Polk — The Wa* 
 with Mexico. 
 The Oregon Question — Position of President Polk 
 Respecting It — The Question Settled — Treaty for 
 Settlement of Claims against Mexico — Mexico Re- 
 sents the Annexation of Texas — General Taylor 
 Ordered to Texas — He Advances to the Rio Grande 
 
XVI 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 ■ — Battles of Palo Alto and Resaca de la Pal ma — 
 The War with Mexico Begun — Invasion of Mexico 
 — Occupation of Matamoras — Action of the United 
 States Government — Taylor Advances into the 
 Interior — The Storming and Capture of Monterey 
 —The Armistice — Return of Santa Anna to Mexico 
 — President Polk Duped — Santa Anna Seizes the 
 Mexican Government — General Wool Joins General 
 Taylor — Troops Taken from Taylor's Army — Ad- 
 — vance of the Mexicans — Battle of Buena Vista — 
 Conquest of California by Fremont and Stockton — 
 Occupation of Santa Fe — New Mexico Conquered 
 — Doniphan's March — Occupation of Chihuahua — 
 Sailing of Scott's Expedition — Reduction of Vera 
 Cruz — Santa Anna Collects a New Army — Battle of 
 of Cerro Gordo — Occupation of Puebla by Scott — 
 Trouble with Mr. Trist — Vigorous Measures of 
 Santa Anna — Scott Advances upon the City of 
 Mexico — El Pefion Turned — Battles of Contreras 
 and Churubusco — Capture of Molino del Rey — 
 Storming of Chapultepec — Capture of the City of 
 Mexico — Siege of Puebla Raised — Flight of Santa 
 Anna — Treaty of Peace Negotiated — Close of the 
 War — Acquisition of California and New Mexico — 
 Discovery of Gold in California — Rapid Emigration 
 to the Pacific — Death of John Quincy Adams — The 
 Wilmot Proviso — Revival of the Slavery Question 
 "—General Taylor Elected President 593 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVIII. 
 
 Administrations of Zachary Taylor and Millard 
 Fillmore. 
 
 Character of General Taylor — Department of the Inte- 
 rior — Death of ex-President Polk — The Slavery 
 igitation — Views of Clay and Webster — California 
 asks admission into the Union — Message of President 
 Taylor— The Omnibus Bill — Efforts of Henry Clay 
 — A Memorable Debate — Webster's " Great Union 
 Speech " — Death of John C. Calhoun — Death of 
 President Taylor — Millard Fillmore becomes Pres- 
 ident — Passage of the Compromise Measures of 
 1850 — Death of Henry Clay — Dissatisfaction with 
 the Compromise — The Fugitive Slave Law Nul- 
 lified, by the Northern States — The Nashville Con- 
 vention — Organization of Utah Territory — The 
 Seventh Census — The Expedition of Lopez against 
 Cuba — The Search for Sir John Franklin — The 
 Grinnell Expedition — Dr. Kane's Voyages — Inaug- 
 uration of Cheap Postage — Laying the Corner- 
 stone of the new Capitol — Death of Daniel Webster 
 — Arrival of Kossuth — The President Rejects the 
 Tripartite Treaty — Franklin Pierce elected Pres- 
 ident — Death of William R. King 626 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIX. 
 
 The Administration of Franklin Pierce. 
 
 PACK 
 
 Dispute with Mexico — The Gadsden Purchase — Sur- 
 veys for a Pacific Railway — The Japan Expedition 
 —Treaty with Japan — The Koszta Affair — The 
 " Black Warrior " seized by the Cuban Officials — 
 The "Ostend Conference" — Dismissal of the British 
 Minister — The Kansas-Nebraska Bill — History of 
 the Bill — Its Passage by Congress — History of the 
 Struggle in Kansas — Conflict between the Pro- 
 Slavery and Free Soil Settlers — Lawrence Sacked — 
 Civil War — The Presidential Campaign of 1856— 
 James Buchanan elected President of the United 
 States — Rapid Increase of the Republican Party . 631 
 
 CHAPTER XL. 
 
 The Administration of James Buchanan. 
 Inauguration of Mr. Buchanan — The Mormon Re- 
 bellion — The Financial Crisis of 1857 — Laying of 
 the Atlantic Telegraphic" Cable — Minnesota admit- 
 ted into the Union — The San Juan Affair — Admis- 
 sion of Oregon into the Union — The Kansas Ques- 
 tion — The Lecompton Constitution — Its Defeat — 
 The Wyandotte Constitution — Admission of Kansas 
 into the Union — The John Brown Raid — Prompt 
 Action of the Government — Brown and his Com- 
 panions Surrendered to the State of Virginia — ■ 
 Their Trial and Execution — Presidential Campaign 
 of i860 — Rupture of the Democratic Party — Abra- ■ 
 ham Lincoln elected President of the United States 
 — Secession of South Carolina — Reasons for this Act 
 —Secession of the other Cotton States — Major An- 
 derson Occupies Fort Sumter — Trying Position of 
 the General Government — Course of Mr. Buchanan 
 — The " Star of the West " fired upon by the South 
 Carolina Batteries — Organization of the Confeder- 
 ate States of America — Jefferson Davis elected 
 President of the Southern Republic — The Peace 
 Congress — Its Failure , . 644 
 
 BOOK VI. 
 
 The Civil War. 
 
 CHAPTER XLI. 
 
 The Administration of Abraham Lincoln 
 Inauguration of President Lincoln — His History — The 
 Confederate Commissioners at Washington — Attack 
 upon Fort Sumter by the Confederates — The Pres- 
 ident calls for Troops — Response of the North and 
 West — Secession of the Border States — Opening 
 Events of the War in Virginia — Withdrawal of West 
 Virginia — Admitted into the Union as a Separate 
 Atate — Meeting of Congress — The West Virginia 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 XVII 
 
 Campaign- -Battle of Bull Run—The War in Mis- 
 souri — Kentucky Occupied — The Blockade — Cap- 
 ture of Port Royal— The " Trent " Affair— Insur- 
 rection in East Tennessee — State of Affairs at the 
 Opening of the Year 1862 — Edwin M. Stanton made 
 Secretaiy of War — Capture of Forts Henry and Don- 
 dson — The Confederates fall back from Kentucky — 
 Battle of Shiloh— Capture of Island No. 10— Evac- 
 uation of Corinth— Capture of Memphis — Bragg's 
 Kentucky Campaign — His Retreat into Tennessee 
 —Battles of Iuka and Corinth — Battle of Murfrees- 
 boro', or Stone River — Grant's Campaign against 
 Vicksburg — Its Failure — The War beyond the Mis- 
 sissippi — Battle of Pea Ridge — Capture of Roanoke- 
 Island — Capture of New Orleans— Surrender of Fort 
 Pulaski — The War in Virginia — Johnston's Retreat 
 from Centreville — Battle between the " Monitor " 
 and " Virginia " — The Move to the Peninsula — 
 lohnston Retreats to the Chickahominy — Battle of 
 Seven Pines — Jackson's Successes in the Valley of 
 Virginia — The Seven Days' Battles before Richmond 
 — Battle of Cedar Mountain — Defeat of General 
 Pope's Army — Lee Invades Maryland — Capture of 
 Harper's Ferry — Battles of South Mountain anil 
 Antietam — Retreat of Lee into Virginia — McClellan 
 Removed — Battle of Fredericksburg 666 
 
 CHAPTER XLII. 
 
 The Administration of Abraham Lincoln — the 
 Civil War — Concluded. 
 fhe Emancipation Proclamation — Battle of Chancel- 
 lorsville — Death of Stonewall Jackson — Invasion of 
 the North by Lee's Army — Battle of Gettysburg- 
 Retreat of Lee into Virginia — Grant's Army crosses 
 the Mississippi — Battle of Champion Hills — Invest 
 ntent of Vicksburg — Surrender of Vicksburg and 
 Port Hudson — Battle of Chickamauga — Rosecrans 
 ehut up in Chattanooga — Grant in command of the 
 Western Armies — Battles of Lookout Mountain and 
 Mission Ridge — Defeat of Bragg's Army — Tb. Cam- 
 paign in East Tennessee — Retreat of Longstreet — 
 Capture of Galveston — Attack on Charleston — Cap- 
 ture of Fort Wagner — Charleston Bombarded — State 
 of Affairs in the Spring of 1864 — The Red River 
 Expedition — Grant made Lieutenant-General — 
 Advance of the Army of the Potomac — Battles of the 
 Wilderness, Spottsylvania and Cold Harbor — Sheri- 
 dan's Raid — Death of General J. E. B. Stuart — Bat- 
 tle of New Market — Early sent into the Valley of 
 Virginia — Butler's Army at Bermuda Hundreds — 
 Grant crosses the James River — The Siege of Peters- 
 burg begun — Early's Raid upon Washington — Sheri 
 dan defeats Eaily at Winchester and Fisher's Hill — ■ 
 Sattle of Cedar Creek — The final Defeat of Early's 
 
 Army — Sherman's Advance to Atlanta — Johnston 
 Removed — Defeat of Hood before Atlanta — Evacu- 
 ation of Atlanta — Hod's Invasion of Tennessee 
 — Battle of Franklin — Siege of Nashville — Hood 
 Defeated at Nashville — His Retreat — Sherman's 
 "March to the Sea" — Capture of Savannah — 
 Battle of Mobile Bay — Attack on Fort Fisher— 
 The Confederate Cruisers — Sinking of the "Ala 
 bama" by the " Kearsarge" — Re-election of Pies 
 ident Lincoln — Admission of Nevada into the Union 
 — The Hampton Roads Peace Conference — Capture, 
 of Fort Fisher — Occupa'ion of Wilmington — Sher- 
 man advances through South Carolina — Evacuation 
 of Charleston — Battles of Averasboro' and Benton- 
 ville — Sherman at Goldsboro' — Critical Situation of 
 Lee's Army — Attack on Port Stead man — Sheridan 
 joins Grant — Advance of Grant's Army — Battle of 
 Five Forks — Attack on Petersburg — Evacuation of 
 Richmond and Petersburg — Retreat of Lee's Army 
 — Richmond Occupied — Surrender of General 
 Lee's Army — Rejoicings in the North — Assas- 
 sination of President Lincoln — Death of Booth — 
 Execution of the Conspirators — Johnston Sur- 
 renders — Surrender of the other Confederal ^ 
 Forces — Capture of Jefferson Davis — Close of th ■-. 
 War 71 
 
 CHAPTER XLIII. 
 
 The Administration of Andrew Johnson. 
 TL.C New President — Return of the Army to Civil 
 Life — The Public Debt — The Reconstruction Ques- 
 tion — Action of the President — He declares the 
 Southern States Readmitted into the Union — The 
 Fifteenth Amendment — Meeting of Congress — The 
 President's Acts Annulled — Reconstruction Policy 
 of Congress — The Fourteenth Amendment — The 
 Freedman's Bureau and Civil Rights Bill — The 
 Tenure of Office Act — Admission of Nebraska into 
 the Union — The Southern States Organized as Mil 
 itary Districts — Admission of Southern States into 
 the Union — The Fourteenth Amendment Ratified--- 
 President Johnson's Quarrel with Secretaiy Stanto.1 
 — Impeachment of the President — His Acquittal — 
 Release of Jefferson Davis — Indian War — The 
 French in Mexico — Fall of the Mexican Empire — - 
 Laving of the Atlantic Telegraph — Purchase of 
 Alaska — Naturlization Treaty with Germany- 
 Treaty with China — Death of General Scott — Death 
 of ex- President Buchanan — General Grant Elected 
 President — The Fifteenth Amendment 79 
 
 CHAPTER XLIV. 
 
 The Administration of Ulysses S. Grant. 
 
 Early I ife of President Grant — Completion of the 
 
 Pacific Railway — Death of ex-President Pierce— 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 The Fifteenth Amendment Ratified— The En- 
 forcement Act— The Test Oath Abolished— 
 The Constitutionality of the Legal-Tender 
 Act Affirmed— The Income Tax Repealed — 
 The Alabama Claims— Treaty of Washington 
 —The Geneva Conference — Award in Favor of 
 the United States — Burning of Chicago — The 
 Civil Disabilities Removed from the South- 
 ern People — Re-election of General Grant — ■ 
 Great Fire at Boston— The Modoc War- 
 Murder of General Canby and the Peace 
 Commissioners — Execution of the Modoc 
 Chiefs— The Panic of 1873— Bill for tie Re- 
 sumption of Specie Payments — The Centen- 
 nial Exhibition — The Sioux War — Death of 
 General Custer — Presidential Election — The 
 Electoral Commission — Count of the Vote- 
 Hayes Declared Elected 801 
 
 CHAPTER XLV. 
 
 Thk Administration of Rutherford B. Hayes. 
 
 Inauguration of President Hayes — Sketch of the 
 New President — Civil Service Reform — Troops 
 in South Carolina — Two Legislatures in Ses- 
 sion — Investigation by President Hayes — 
 Prompt Action — Settlement of the Troubles 
 in vSouth Carolina and Louisiana — -General 
 Grant's Tour Around the World — Enthusiastic 
 Reception by the Crowned Heads of Other 
 Nations — Election of General Garfield as Presi- 
 dent S41 
 
 CHAPTER XLVI. 
 Thk Administration of James A. Garfield. 
 General Garfield Declared President — Inaugural 
 Ceremonies — Sketch of the New President — 
 The Star Route Cases — Assassination of Presi- 
 dent Garfield — His Illness— Removal to Long 
 Branch — Death of President Garfield — Inaugu- 
 ration of President Arthur — Indictment of 
 Guiteau for Murder — Trial and Execution of 
 Garfield's Assassin — The Greely Arctic Ex- 
 pedition — Reaching a Point Beyond the 
 Eighty-first Parallel — Lieutenant Lockwood's 
 Heroic Exploit — Celebration of the Landing 
 of William Penn — Great Suspension Bridge 
 between New York and Brooklyn S49 
 
 CHAPTER XLVII. 
 The Administration of Grover Cleveland. 
 Mr. Cleveland's Early Life — Governor of New 
 York — Elected President — Inauguration Cere- 
 monies — The New Cabinet — Death of General 
 Grant — Honors to the Illustrious Dead — 
 
 Death of General George B. McClellan — Pen- 
 sion Granted to the Widow of President 
 Grant — President Cleveland's Message — Bill 
 Regulating the Presidential Succession — Labor 
 Agitations — Riot at Chicago Instigated by 
 "Anarchists" — Statue of Liberty Enlighten- 
 ing the World — President Cleveland's Mar- 
 riage — Nomination of President Cleveland — 
 Nomination of Benjamin Harrison — Harri- 
 son's Election 864 
 
 CHAPTER XLVIII. 
 
 The Administration of Benjamin Harrison. 
 Inauguration of President Harrison —President 
 Harrision's Inaugural Address— Celebration of 
 the Centennial Anniversary of Washington's 
 Inauguration — The New Cabinet — Terrible 
 Calamity at Johnstown — Admission of New 
 States — President's Message to the Fifty-first 
 Congress — Legislation of the First Session of 
 the Fifty-first Congress — The New Tariff Law 
 — Indian War in the Northwest — Death of 
 Sitting Bull — Restriction of Imigration — Mob 
 Law in New Orleans — Trouble in Chile — 
 Political Conventions of 1892 — Labor Contest 
 at Homestead — Defeat of the Silver Bill . . 878 
 
 CHAPTER XLIX. 
 Second Administration of Grover Cleveland 
 Second Inauguration of Presdent Cleveland — 
 The New Cabinet — Extraordinary Session of 
 Congress — Repeal of the Sherman Silver Law 
 —New Tariff Bill— The Bill Passes the House 
 of Representatives— Discussion in the Senate 
 — Over Six Hundred Amendments — Senate 
 Rill Rejected by the House — Afterwards 
 Passed — The President Refuses to Sign the 
 Bill — Bland Seigniorage Bill — Utah Admitted 
 as a State — Congress Investigates the Relations 
 of the United States to Hawaii — Subsequent 
 Events — Bond Issue of 1S96 898 
 
 CHAPTER L. 
 Cuba and Venezuela. 
 vStory of Cuban Insurrections — Great Revolution 
 of 1848 — Gallant Uprising of the People for 
 Life and Liberty — Long and Bitter Struggle — 
 Political Situation in Cuba — Insurrection of 
 1895-96 — Boundary Line Dispute between 
 Venezuela and Great Britain — The Monroe 
 Doctrine Asserted 901 
 
 LATEST EVENTS 949 
 
 OUR NEW POSSESSIONS 
 
 999 
 
LIST OK ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 Frontispikce. 
 
 Mounds at Marrietta, Ohio ig 
 
 A Dead Town of the Moquis Indians 21 
 
 Indian Village in Winter 24 
 
 Navajo Boy . . 25 
 
 Pueblo Indian at Prayer . . 26 
 
 Civilized Indian Woman . . 27 
 
 Thorvald Wounded by the Red Men 30 
 
 Christopher Columbus 33 
 
 Columbus Watching for Land 37 
 
 Landing of Columbus 38 
 
 Reception of Columbus by Ferdinand and Isabella . 39 
 
 Norse Sea king 41 
 
 Sebastian Cabot 44 
 
 Samuel Champlain 47 
 
 Cabot on the Shores of Labrador 48 
 
 The Coast of Florida 51 
 
 Hernando Cortez 52 
 
 Fernando De Soto 55 
 
 The Spaniards Descending the Mississippi after the 
 
 Death of De Soto 59 
 
 The Renowned Explorer, Sir Martin Frobisher . . 64 
 
 Sir Walter Raleigh 65 
 
 Frobisher and His Ships Passing Greenwich .... 66 
 
 Queen Elizabeth 67 
 
 Murder of White's Assistant 70 
 
 Captain John Smith 76 
 
 Pocahontas Interceding for the Life of Captain John 
 
 Smith 78 
 
 Pocahontas 80 
 
 Building the First House in Jamestown 82 
 
 Types of North American Indians ....?... 85 
 
 Massacre of Settlers by Indians 90 
 
 Flight of the Indians after the Massacre 92 
 
 Indian Weapons 94 
 
 King Charles II 99 
 
 Indians Making a Midnight Attack upon Settlers . . ioj 
 
 Bacon Demands the Commission of Berkley .... 105 
 
 Cecil, Second Lord Baltimore 1 13 
 
 A Civilized Indian 115 
 
 Oliver Cromwell 116 
 
 William III 118 
 
 Chained Bible, Time of James I , . . 122 
 
 PAGE 
 
 The Puritans in Conference with James 1 124 
 
 The Pilgrims at Plymouth 126 
 
 The " Mayflower " at Plymouth Harbor 128 
 
 Governor Brewster's Chair 129 
 
 Landing of the Pilgrims 131 
 
 The First Church in New England 133 
 
 The Treaty between Plymouth Colony and Massasoit 135 
 
 John Endicott 1 }q 
 
 John Winthrop 141 
 
 Roger Williams Seeking Refuge Among the Indians . 145 
 
 Landing of Roger Williams at Providence 147 
 
 John Hampden 151 
 
 A Croup of Indians 155 
 
 Yale College 155 
 
 An American Free School 159 
 
 John Eliot Preaching to the Indians 162 
 
 Indian Medicine Man 164 
 
 Indian Life in Their Native Forests 170 
 
 King Philip 172 
 
 The Burning of Brookfield by the Indians 173 
 
 Mrs. Rowlandson Captured by the Indians 175 
 
 Sir Edmund Andros 178 
 
 The Charter Oak 1 80 
 
 The Rev. Cotton Mather • • . . 183 
 
 Execution of the Rev. George Burroughs .... 1S9 
 
 Nova Zembla — From an Old Print 194 
 
 Mock Suns Seen by Early Explorers 195 
 
 Henry Hudson 196 
 
 Hudson Strait • . . 197 
 
 Mutiny on Hudson's Ship 19S 
 
 First Settlement of New York 199 
 
 Peter Stuyvesant 203 
 
 Gustavus Adolphus 205 
 
 Queen Anne 212 
 
 William Penn 217 
 
 William Penn's Treaty with the Indians 220 
 
 Penn Treaty Monument 221 
 
 The Old Swedes' Church, Built in 1641 22? 
 
 Indian Amusements — Canoe Race between Squaws . 223 
 
 The Coast of North Carolina 229 
 
 A Settler's Cabin 231 
 
 Birds'-Eye View of Charleston, South Carolina . . . 233 
 
 Scene on a Tributary of the St. John's River .... 235 
 
 xix 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 PAG) 
 
 King George 1 239 
 
 General Oglethorpe ... 243 
 
 A Southern Plantation 244 
 
 I oli 1 1 Wesley 245 
 
 George Whitefield 246 
 
 University and Normal School Buildings at Toronto in 
 
 1892 254 
 
 Falls of St. Anthony 261 
 
 Murder of La Salle 263 
 
 View of Montreal from Mount Royal 268 
 
 Return of the Daughter of Eunice Williams . . . . 272 
 
 Cruel Murder of Rasle 274 
 
 French Explorers Buying Leaden Plates 279 
 
 Scenes in the Allegheny Mountains 281 
 
 The Half King 2S5 
 
 Benjamin Franklin 2S9 
 
 Wills' Creek Meadows 291 
 
 Disastrous'Deftat of General Braddock 294 
 
 Burning of Kittaning by General Armstrong .... 296 
 
 TI12 Palisades of the Hudson 302 
 
 Site of Fort William Henry on Lake George .... 305 
 
 Montcalm 306 
 
 Arrival of Iudian Allies at the French Camp .... 307 
 
 William Titt 310 
 
 Washington Planting the Flag on Fort Duquesne . . 315 
 
 Niagara Falls 317 
 
 General James Wolfe 318 
 
 Death of General Wolfe before Quebec 320 
 
 King George III 321 
 
 Visit of Pontiac and the Indians to Major Gladwin . . 324 
 
 Scene near the Source of the Raritan River 329 
 
 Samuel Adams 332 
 
 Patrick Henry ^^^ 
 
 Colonel Barre . . . • ^^ 
 
 Hanging a Stamp Act Official in Effigy 337 
 
 Stamp Act Official Beaten by the People 339 
 
 British Troops in Boston 342 
 
 Throwing the Tea Overboard in Boston Harbor . . 347 
 
 John Hancock 349 
 
 Carpenter's Hall, Philadelphia • .... 351 
 
 The Minute Man . 355 
 
 The Battle of Lexington, April 19, 1775 356 
 
 Death of Isaac Davis 358 
 
 Capture of Ticonderoga by Ethan Allen 360 
 
 Signers of the Mecklenburg Declaration 361 
 
 General Israel Putnam 364 
 
 General Burgoyne 365 
 
 Battle of Bunker Hill 368 
 
 Death of Major Pitcairn 370 
 
 Bunker Hill Monument 372 
 
 General Richard Montgomery 374 
 
 General Henry Knox 378 
 
 Medal Struck by Congress in Honor of the Recapture 
 
 of Boston 380 
 
 PAGh 
 
 Continental Bills 381 
 
 Sergeant Jasper at Fort Moultrie 383 
 
 Independence Hall, Philadelphia 385 
 
 House in which the Declaration of Independence was 
 
 Written, Philadelphia 386 
 
 Signing the Declaration of Independence 387 
 
 Old Bell of Independence Hall 388 
 
 Signatures of the Signers of the Declaration of Inde- 
 pendence 390 
 
 General John Sullivan 39} 
 
 The Declaration of Independence Read to the Army 396 
 
 General Charles Lee 398 
 
 Washington Crossing the Delaware 401 
 
 Washington Calls on Colonel Rahl 403 
 
 American Marksman in a Tree 406 
 
 Washington's Quarters at Morristown 408 
 
 General Philip Schuyler 411 
 
 Flag and Shield 412 
 
 Seal of the United States — Obverse 412 
 
 Seal of thf United States — Reverse 412 
 
 The Marqui„ le Lafayette 413 
 
 Arrest of General Prescott 415 
 
 Lafayette and Washington 417 
 
 General Burgoyne Addressing the Indians 420 
 
 Ruins of Fort Ticonderoga 421 
 
 Herkimer Mortally Wounded • .... 423 
 
 General John Stark . . 424 
 
 General Horatio Gates 426 
 
 An American Rifleman 431 
 
 Louis XVI 434 
 
 Sir Henry Clinton 435 
 
 Indian Scalp Dance 439 
 
 General Benjamin Lincoln 441 
 
 Gallant Charge of Count Pulaski • • • . 442 
 
 General Anthony Wayne 44 ^ 
 
 Lieutenant-Colonel Henry Lee 444 
 
 Paul Jones Seizing the Silver Plate of Lady Selkirk . 445 
 
 John Paul Jones 446 
 
 Medal Struck in Honor of Paul Jones — Obverse . . 447 
 
 Medal Struck in Honor of Paul Jones — Reverse . . 447 
 
 Daniel Boone 448 
 
 Lord Cornwallis 453 
 
 Total Rout of the Loyal Recruits 454 
 
 General Francis Marion 455 
 
 General Nathaniel Greene . . • 457 
 
 " Now Put Watts into them, Boys," 458 
 
 Benedict Arnold 46c 
 
 Major Andre : 461 
 
 Escape of Benedict Arnold 463 
 
 General Daniel Morgan 466 
 
 Lord Rawden, afterwards Marquis of Hastings . . 468 
 
 Scene in the Highlands of the Hudson 471 
 
 View of Yorktown 473 
 
 Surrender of Lord Cornwallis 474 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 xxi 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Captain Huddy led from Prison to be Hanged ... 477 
 
 Washington's Headquarters at Newburg, New York . 479 
 
 The Room with Seven Doors and One Window . . +79 
 
 Oliver Ellsworth 482 
 
 Washington's Reception at Trenton 4$3 
 
 Rufus King 4S4 
 
 C. C. Pinckney 485 
 
 The Inauguration of Washington 486 
 
 George Washington 4S7 
 
 Indian Child in Cradle 488 
 
 Alexander Hamilton 4S9 
 
 Rufus Putman 490 
 
 John Jay 491 
 
 Fisher Ames 492 
 
 Scene in the Mammoth Cave, Kentucky 493 
 
 Washington's Home at Mount Vernon 494 
 
 John Adams 497 
 
 John Marshall 498 
 
 Washington's Grave, Mount Vernon 5°° 
 
 Thomas Jefferson 501 
 
 Aaron Burr 502 
 
 Robert R. Livingston 503 
 
 Napoleon 1 504 
 
 Captain (afterward Commodore) Bainbridge and the 
 
 Dey of Algiers 505 
 
 Duel between Burr and Hamilton 506 
 
 Fulton's First Steamboat 507 
 
 William Pinkney 509 
 
 Officers of the " Chesapeake " Surrendering their 
 
 Swords 510 
 
 James Madison 513 
 
 A Pioneer Hero's Fight with the Savages .... 516 
 
 John Randolph 517 
 
 Stephen Van Rensselaer 519 
 
 Massacre by Indians at Fort Dearborn 520 
 
 Capture of the " Guerriere" by the " Constitution " . 522 
 
 Commodore Hull 523 
 
 The " Wasp" Boarding the " Frolic" 524 
 
 Indians Torturing Prisoners 526 
 
 Commodore Perry 527 
 
 Perry's Victory on Lake Erie 528 
 
 Battle of the Thames — Death of Tecumsch .... 529 
 
 Captain (afterward Sir Philip) Broke 531 
 
 Fight between the " Chesapeake" and the 'Shannon" 533 
 
 Scene of the Battle of Lake Champlain 536 
 
 Commodore MacDonough 537 
 
 A New England Farm house 539 
 
 Joseph Story 540 
 
 The Plain of Chalmette — Scene of the Battle of New 
 
 Orleans 541 
 
 Pakenham Leading the Attack on New Orleans . . . 543 
 
 Commodore Decatur 544 
 
 Decatur and the Dey of Algiers . 545 
 
 William C. C. Claiborne 546 
 
 PAGE 
 
 James Monroe 549 
 
 Old Way of Picking Cotton 551 
 
 Henry Clay • . . . 553 
 
 Unique Cotton Harvester 555 
 
 John Quincy Adams 557 
 
 Steamboat Loading with Cotton 558 
 
 Statue of Jefferson at Washington 559 
 
 Daniel Webster 560 
 
 Andrew Jackson 562 
 
 Robert Y. Hayne 563 
 
 A Lumberman's Camp in the Woods of Maine . . . 564 
 
 John C. Calhourn 565 
 
 Edward Livingston 566 
 
 The United States Treasury at Washington, D. C. . • 567 
 
 Osceola, Chief of the Seminoles 566 
 
 Martin Van Buren 571 
 
 Canadian Trappers 574 
 
 The Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. . . 575 
 
 View of the National Capitol at Washington .... 577 
 
 William Henry Harrison 580 
 
 John Tyler 581 
 
 Fac-Simile, According to Joe Smith, of the Writing on 
 
 the Original Plates of the " Book Mormon " . . 583 
 
 Murder of the Smiths 584 
 
 The Mormon Hand-cart Company Crossing the 
 
 Plains 5S5 
 
 Mormon Tabernacle at Salt Lake, Utah 586 
 
 Professor Morse 587 
 
 A Village in Texas 588 
 
 Santa Anna 589 
 
 General Houston 590 
 
 General Post Office, Washington 591 
 
 James K. Polk 594 
 
 Columbia River, Oregon 595 
 
 Battle of Palo Alto 598 
 
 Major Ringgold Mortally Wounded 599 
 
 Charge of the Dragoons 600 
 
 General Winfield Scort 601 
 
 Capture of a Battery at Monterey 603 
 
 Lieutenant Grant Going for Ammunition at Mon- 
 terey 604 
 
 Mexican Cart and Oxen 607 
 
 Battle of Buena Vista 609 
 
 General View of the Yosemite Valley 61 1 
 
 The Great Canon and Lower Falls, Yellowstone . . 613 
 
 East Side of Plaza — Sante Fe 614 
 
 Bombardment of Vera Cruz 616 
 
 Battle of Cerro Gordo 617 
 
 Storming of Chapultepec 621 
 
 General Scott Entering the City of Mexico ..... 622 
 
 A Mexican Cathedral 623 
 
 Hydraulic Mining 624 
 
 Zachary Tayloi 627 
 
 The White House, Washington, D. C 628 
 
XXII 
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATION^. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Robert Toombs 629 
 
 Millard Fillmore 631 
 
 Portraits of Leading Mormons 632 
 
 Cuban Filibusters on the Match 633 
 
 Sir John F Lin 635 
 
 Relics of Franklin's Polar Voyage 636 
 
 Dr. E. K. Kane and his Companions 637 
 
 Franklin Pierce 640 
 
 Stephen A Douglas 642 
 
 Salmon P. Chase 644 
 
 Scene on the Allegheny River 645 
 
 Charles Sumner 647 
 
 James Buchanan 650 
 
 The Mormon Temple, Salt Lake City, Utah .... 051 
 
 Mountain Meadow Massacre 652 
 
 Washington Irving 655 
 
 Edward Everett 658 
 
 Bridge Crossing the Susquehanna River at Harris- 
 burg 660 
 
 Jefferson Davis 663 
 
 Inauguration of Jefferson Davis 664 
 
 Abraham Lincoln 666 
 
 William H. Seward 667 
 
 Arrival of President Lincoln at the Capitol ..... 668 
 
 Fort Prickens 669 
 
 Major Anderson . 670 
 
 Fort Sumter in 1S61 671 
 
 Forts Sumter and Moultrie 672 
 
 Fort Moultrie, Charleston Harbor ........ 673 
 
 The Confederate Flag 674 
 
 The Sixth Massachusetts Regiment Passing through 
 
 Baltimore 675 
 
 Fortifications in and around Washington 676 
 
 Portraits of Prominent Federal Generals 677 
 
 Map Showing the Shenandoah V T alley 678 
 
 The Battle of Manassas, or Bull Run 680 
 
 Capitol at Richmond Virginia 681 
 
 Portraits of Prominent Federal Generals 682 
 
 The " Nashville" Destroying a Federal " Merchant- 
 man " 684 
 
 Lieutenant-General Polk 685 
 
 John M. Mason 686 
 
 John Slidell 686 
 
 The Arrest of Mason and Slidell on the British Steamer 
 
 "Trent " 687 
 
 Grant's Headquarters near Fort Donelson 688 
 
 A View of the Country, Showing Fort Donelson in 
 
 the Distance 689 
 
 Map Showing Pittsburg Landing and Corinth .... 690 
 
 Charge of the Federals at Corinth 691 
 
 Iron-clad Gunboat 692 
 
 Island No. 10 694 
 
 Burning Horses at Shiloh 695 
 
 Massacre of the Morrisites ... 696 
 
 PAGB 
 
 Portraits of Prominent Confederate Generals . . . . 697 
 
 General Sherman at the < lutbreak of the War .... 699 
 
 Burnside's Expedition Crushing Ilatteras Bar .... 700 
 Portraits of the Principal Naval Commanders during 
 
 the War 702 
 
 The "Merrimac " Sinking the "Cumberland" .... 704 
 
 General George B. McClellan 706 
 
 View of the Chickahominy near Mechanicsville . . . 7°7 
 
 Map of Northern Virginia 708 
 
 T.ieutenant-General T. J. Jackson 709 
 
 Portraits of Prominent Confederate Generals . . . . 71 1 
 
 Portraits of Prominent Federal Generals 714 
 
 Major-General Philip Kearney 715 
 
 McClellan at the Battle of Antietam 717 
 
 View of Antietam Battle Ground 718 
 
 Portraits of Some of the Generals of the Army of the 
 
 Potomac 72a 
 
 General John Sedgwick 72/ 
 
 General George G. Meade 7-2 
 
 Battle of Gettysburg 724 
 
 Positions during the First Day's Fight at Gettys- 
 burg 7^7 
 
 Positions during the Second and Third Days' Fight at 
 
 Gettysburg 727 
 
 Map Showing Vicksburg and Its Approaches .... 73c 
 
 Vicksburg, Mississippi 73* 
 
 Gunboats Running Past Vicksburg at Night .... 732 
 
 General John C. Pemberton 733 
 
 Grant's Headquarters near Vicksburg 7.54 
 
 Map of the Chickamauga and Chattanooga Cam- 
 paigns ■ 735 
 
 Positions of the Armies at the Battle of Missionary 
 
 Ridge 736 
 
 Grant's Headquarters at Chattanooga 737 
 
 Capture of Lookout Mountain 738 
 
 Missionary Ridge from the Cemetery at Chattanooga 739 
 
 The Attack on Fort Sumter by the Monitor Fleet . . 740 
 
 Portraits of Prominent Federal Generals 721 
 
 Fort De Russy 742 
 
 Bailey's Red River Dam 743 
 
 Grant Writing Dispatches before Crossing the 
 
 Ripadan 74-) 
 
 General James Longstreet 745 
 
 The Place where Sedgwick was Killed 740 
 
 General Fitzhugh Lee 747 
 
 Battle of Cold Harbor 74S 
 
 Battle of Spottsylvania Court-house 74c 
 
 General J. E. B. Stuart 750 
 
 General Winlield S.Hancock 751 
 
 Stuart's Cavalry Cutting Telegraph Wires ..... 752 
 
 Pontoon Bridge at Deep Bottom • . . 753 
 
 General Thilip H. Sheridan 754 
 
 Portraits of Federal Cavalry Commanders 755 
 
 Sheridan's Cavalry Charge at Cedar Creek .... 756 
 
LIST Op ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 XX111 
 
 PACE 
 
 Country between Chattanooga and Atlanta . . . 757 
 
 General Juseph E. Johnston 75° 
 
 General James B. McPherson 761 
 
 General George II. Thomas 762 
 
 Portraits of Sherman and some of his Commanders . 763 
 The Country Traversed by Sherman in His March 
 
 through Georgia 7^4 
 
 Map Snowing the City of Mobile and Its Defences . . 765 
 
 Commodore David G. Farragut 7^6 
 
 Cape Fear River and Approaches to Wilmington, 
 
 N. C • 767 
 
 Boat 01 the "Deerhound " Rescuing Captain Semmes 768 
 Sinking of the " Alabama" by the "Kearsarge ' . . 769 
 
 Raphael Semmes 770 
 
 Portraits of Prominent Federal Generals 771 
 
 Major-General J. M. Schofield 772 
 
 Portraits of Federal Cavalry Commanders 773 
 
 Inteuor of Port Steadman 774 
 
 Positions of the Armies near Petersburg, Va 775 
 
 General Robert E. Lee 776 
 
 The Last Cavalry Charge of the War 777 
 
 General John B. Gordon 7$° 
 
 The McLean House 7§l 
 
 Surrender of General Lee 782 
 
 General Lee's Farewell to His Soldiers 783 
 
 Assassination of President Lincoln 785 
 
 The Grave of President Lincoln 786 
 
 Interview between Generals Sherman and Johns- 
 ton 788 
 
 Andrew Johnson 79 1 
 
 Kuins of Richmond after the War 79 2 
 
 Fort Warren, Boston Harbor 793 
 
 Lincoln Monument in Fairmount Park, Philadel- 
 phia 795 
 
 Emperor Maximilian 79'^ 
 
 Natives of Alaska Building Houses 799 
 
 Ulysses S. Grant 802 
 
 View on the Greene River at the Crossing of the Union 
 
 Pacific Railroad, Wyoming 803 
 
 President Grant on his way to the Inauguration. . . 804 
 
 Humboldt Palisades, Pacific Railway 805 
 
 Cbeyenne Indians Reconnoitering the First Train on 
 
 the Pacific Railroad 806 
 
 The Geneva Board of Arbitration Settling the Ala- 
 bama Claims 807 
 
 The Burning of Chicago , 808 
 
 Horace Greeley 809 
 
 President Grant Passing Through the Rotunda to 
 
 take the Oath of Office 810 
 
 Mrs. U.S. Grant . . 811 
 
 ! he Lava Beds — Scene of the Modoc War .... Si 2 
 Scene in the New York Stock Exchange During the 
 
 Panic of 1873 814 
 
 :Oene on the Colorado River .... 815 
 
 TM'.t 
 
 View in the Grand Canyon of the Colorado River 818 
 Memorial Hall, Fairmount Park, Philadelphia . . . 820 
 View of Hie Main Building of the International Cen- 
 tennial Exhibition 822 
 
 General J. R. Hawley 824 
 
 Intersection of Ninth and Chestnut Streets, Philadel- 
 phia 826 
 
 Obverse of Centennial Medal • • • . . 827 
 
 Reverse cf Centennial Medal 827 
 
 Shoshone Falls, Idaho 828 
 
 General George Crook 829 
 
 Indians Surprised and Defeated S30 
 
 Horseshoe Bend on the Pennsylvania Railroad near 
 
 Altoona 831 
 
 Canyon of the Lodore and Greene Rivers, Wyoming. 832 
 
 Samuel J. Tilden 833 
 
 Thomas A. Hendricks 834 
 
 Point P'easant, Ohio, the Birthplace of General 
 
 Grant 835 
 
 Samuel J. Randall 836 
 
 The New Department of State, Washington, D. C . . 837 
 
 George F. Edmunds 838 
 
 Thomas F. Bayard 839 
 
 Rutherford B. Playes 842 
 
 William A. Wheeler 843 
 
 Arrival of General Grant at San Francisco in the 
 
 Steamer " City of Tokio" 844 
 
 William H. English 845 
 
 The " Jeannette " Crushed by the Ice 84.6 
 
 The Mirage — A Scene in the Arctic Regions .... 847 
 
 James A. Garfield 85c 
 
 Mrs. Lucretia R. Garfield 851 
 
 James G. Blaine 852 
 
 The Assassination of James A. Garfield 853 
 
 Death-bed of James A. Garfield 854 
 
 The Catafalque at Cleveland, Ohio . 855 
 
 James A. Garfield Lying in State in the Rotunda of 
 
 the Capitol at Washington 85' 
 
 Chester A. Arthur * . X57 
 
 John A. Logan 858 
 
 John G. Carlisle 859 
 
 Sanderson's Hope, Upernavik, Baffin Bay 860 
 
 Arctic Region — Beechey Plead 861 
 
 Scene in the Arctic Region — Among the Icebergs . . 862 
 
 The Brooklyn Suspension Bridge .863 
 
 Grover Cleveland 865 
 
 Chief Justice Waite Administering the Oath of Office 
 
 to President Cleveland 866 
 
 Death of General Grant 867 
 
 Cottage in which Grant Died at Mount McGregor . . 86S 
 General Grant's Temporary Tomb, Riverside Part;, 
 
 New York 869 
 
 Mrs. Frances Folsom Cleveland 872 
 
 The New Post Office Bunding, Philadelphia .... 873 
 
XXIV 
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 The New City Hall, Philadelphia 874 
 
 Steamship Docks on the Delaware River, Phila- 
 delphia **75 
 
 Allen G. Thurman 876 
 
 Levi P, Morton 877 
 
 Benjamin Harrison 879 
 
 Bird's eye View of New York City 880 
 
 The Tost Office, New York 881 
 
 The Battery and Castle Garden, New York . . . 8S2 
 
 The Harbor of New York 883 
 
 The Break in South Forks Dam, Johnstown, Pa. 888 
 
 William McKinley 885 
 
 Charles R Crisp - s6 
 
 PAGK 
 
 Sitting Bull in his War Dress 887 
 
 Chief American Horse 888 
 
 General Nelson A. Miles 8S9 
 
 Captain Wallace Found After the Wounded Knee 
 
 Fight 890 
 
 Scene on the Yellowstone River 892 
 
 Manila Harbor- Scene of the Great Battle . . .961 
 Uniforms of U. S. Marines apd Naval Officers . 963 
 Street Scene in Manila — Philippine Islands . . 964 
 
 Bombardment of San Juan, Porto Rico 965 
 
 Lieut. R. P. Hobson 966 
 
 Harbor and Fortifications of Santiago 968 
 
 Superb Phototype (Full-page) Engravings Illustrating the Story of the 
 
 New World. 
 
 Christopher Columbus 
 
 Landing of Columbus. 
 
 Columbus before Ferdinand and Isabella. 
 
 De Soto Discovering the Mississippi. 
 
 General Pepperell at the Siege of Louisburg. 
 
 George Washington. 
 
 Putnam's Escape at Horseneck. 
 
 Rattle of Bennington. 
 
 General Harrison and Tecumseh. 
 
 Commodore Perry at the Battle of Lake Krie. 
 
 General Scott at the Battle of Cerro Gordo. 
 
 Bombardment of Island No. 10. 
 
 Capture of New Orleans. 
 
 Battle of Gettysburg. 
 
 Columbus Sighting Land. 
 
 The Landing of Roger W T illiams. 
 
 Boston Massacre, 1770. 
 
 Patrick Henry. 
 
 Washington Reviewing the Army. 
 
 Massacre at Fort Minims. 
 
 Decatur's Conflict with the " Algerine " at Tripoli. 
 
 Capture of Roanoke Island. 
 
 General William T. Sherrnan. 
 
 Battle of Antietam. 
 
 Battle of Chickamauga. 
 
 General P. H. Sheridan. 
 
 Battle of Lookout Mountain. 
 
 General George G. Meade. 
 
 Capture of Fort Donaldson, Teuu. 
 
 Battle of Balls Bluff, Va. 
 
 General Grant. 
 
 U. S. Cruiser " Baltimore." 
 
 U. S. Cruiser " Petrel." 
 
 U. S. Cruiser "Philadelphia." 
 
 U. S. Cruiser " Newark." 
 
 T T . vS. Cruiser '* Yorktown." 
 
 U. S. Cruiser " San Francisco." 
 
 U. S. Cruiser '-Columbia." 
 
 U. S. Cruiser " Chicago." 
 
 U. S. Battleship "Texas." 
 
 U. S. Battleship "Oregon." 
 
 U. S. Battleship "Maine." 
 
 U. S. Battleship " Indiana." 
 
 U.S. Battleship " Iowa." 
 
 U. S. Monitor " Miantonomoh." 
 
 U. S. Ram "Katahdin." 
 
 U. S. Dynamite Cruiser " Vesuvius." 
 
 U. S. Cruiser " Olympia." 
 
 William McKinley. 
 
 Captain Chas. D. Sigsbee. 
 
 Destruction of the Battleship " Maine." 
 
 Admiral George Dewey. 
 
 Great American Victory at Manila. 
 
 Admiral \V. T. Sampson. 
 
 Bombardment of San Juan, Porto Rico. 
 
 General Nelson A. Miles. 
 
 Lieut. R. P. Hobson. 
 
 Landing of General Shafter in Cuba. 
 
 Gallant Charge of General Wheeler's Cavalry. 
 
 United States Forces Capturing the Intrenchments at 
 
 Santiago. 
 Commodore W. S. Schley. 
 Captain Robley D. Evans. 
 Working Rapid-fire Guns. 
 
BATTLE OF SANTIAGO-FURIOUS 
 
SHIPS OF THE AMERICAN NAVY 
 
 1. NASHVILLE 2. DETROIT 3. HELENA 4. NEWARK 5. BENNINGTON 6. BROOKLYN 7. OLYMPIA 8. CASTINE 9. CHARLESTON 10. Ml N N EAPOLIS 
 
 11. COLUMBIA 12. MONTEREY 13. IOWA 14. WYANDOTTE 15. BALTIMORE 16. CI NCI N N ATI 17. TEXAS 18. ERICSSON 19. OREGON 20. KATAHDIN 
 
A 
 
 ^L. 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 *'1 
 
 ii 
 
 ASSAULT OF THE AMERICANS 
 
Standard History of the United States 
 
 BOOK I 
 
 Discovery of tr>e Wesberr) Co^birjerjt 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 Strange People in a Strange Land 
 
 Earliest Inhabitants of the United States — The Mound Builders — Remarkable Works Constructed by Them — 
 Evidences of a Primitive Civilization — Indications of the Antiquity of this Period — The American 
 Indians — Division of the Country Among the Trf ;s — Names and Location of the Various Tribes — 
 Organization and Government of the Indians — Their Dress, Manners and Customs — Villages — Indian 
 Inventions — The War Dance — Legends of the Norsemen Respecting the Discovery of America. 
 
 E do not know who were 
 the inhabitants, or what 
 was the history of North 
 America previous to its 
 discovery and settlement 
 by the Europeans. That 
 it was at some remote 
 period occupied by a more civilized and 
 powerful race than the Indians, found by 
 the first explorers, is very certain ; but who 
 they were, what was their history, or what 
 the cause of their extinction, are among the 
 profoundest mysteries of the past. Traces 
 as distinct as those which mark the various 
 physical changes which the continent has 
 undergone, exist to show that these primi- 
 tive inhabitants were both numerous and far 
 advanced in civilization ; but this is all that 
 we know concerning them. 
 
 In various parts of the country, and espe- 
 cially in the valley of the Mississippi, large 
 mounds and other structures of earth and 
 stone, but chiefly of earth, remain to show 
 2 
 
 the magnitude of the works constructed by 
 these people, to whom the name " Mound 
 Builders" is generally applied. Some of 
 these earthworks embrace as much as fifteen 
 or sixteen miles of embankment. 
 
 As no domestic animals existed in this 
 country at that period, these works must 
 have been constructed by bringing the earth 
 used in them by hand ; a fact which shows 
 that the primitive population was a large 
 one. The construction of the works proves 
 that they had considerable engineering skill. 
 The square, the circle, the ellipse, and the 
 octagon are all used in these structures, 
 being all combined in a single system of 
 works in some places. The proportions are 
 always perfect. The square is always a true 
 square, and the circle a true circle. Many 
 implements and ornaments of copper, silver, 
 and precious stones — such as axes, chisels, 
 knives, bracelets, beads, and pieces of thread 
 and cloth, and well-shaped vases of pottery 
 have been found in these mounds, and show 
 
 17 
 
BATTLE OF SANTIAGO-FURIOUS ASSAULT OF THE AMERICANS 
 
18 
 
 DISCOVERY OF THE WESTERN CONTINENT. 
 
 the extent of the civilization of the " Mound 
 Builders" and their knowledge of the arts. 
 
 In the region of Lake Superior are found 
 old copper mines worked by these ancient 
 people. In one of these mines there was 
 discovered an immense block of copper 
 weighing nearly six tons. It had been left 
 in the process of removal to the top of the 
 mine, nearly thirty feet above, and was sup- 
 ported on logs of wood which were partly 
 petrified. The stone and copper tools used 
 by the miners were discovered lying about 
 as they had been left by their owners ages 
 before. At the mouth of this mine are piles 
 of earth thrown out in digging it, and out of 
 these embankments trees are growing which 
 are nearly four hundred years old. 
 
 Who Were the "Mound Builders?" 
 
 The following interesting account of the 
 mounds and their builders is from the pen 
 of Mr. J. H. Beadle, who has kindly given 
 us permission to quote from his valuable 
 work, entitled The Undeveloped West ; 
 In h'is description, Mr. Beadle says : 
 A people for whom we have no name, 
 vaguely included under the general term of 
 Mound Builders, have left evidences of exten- 
 sive works in the vicinity of the Mississippi 
 and Ohio Rivers and their tributaries. These 
 are of three kinds : mounds, square and 
 circular inclosures, and raised embank- 
 ments of various forms. Of mounds, the 
 following are most important and best 
 known : One at Grave Creek, West Virginia, 
 70 feet high and 1,000 feet in circumference 
 at the base; one near Miamisburg, Ohio, 68 
 feet high and 852 feet in circumference; the 
 great truncated pyramid at Cahokia, Illinois, 
 700 feet long, 500 wide, and 90 in height ; 
 the immense square mound, with face of 188 
 feet, near Marietta, Ohio ; and some hun- 
 dreds of inferior mounds from 60 to 30 feet 
 in height, in different States, from Wisconsin 
 
 to the mouth of the Mississippi. Unlike 
 all the mounds in Mexico and Central and 
 South America, those in our country have 
 no trace of buildings on them. Why? 
 Until I visited Arizona I had no answer. 
 There the solution was easy. In those 
 regions stone was abundant and timber was 
 scarce; here the reverse was the case. Our 
 predecessors built of wood, the others of 
 stone ; the works of the latter remain to 
 this day, while wooden buildings would 
 leave no trace after one or two centuries, 
 if indeed they were not burnt by the savages 
 as soon as abandoned. 
 
 Immense Structures. 
 
 Of the second class the best known are : 
 the square fortification at Cedar Bank, 
 Scioto River, Ohio, with face of 800 feet, 
 inclosing a mound 245 feet long by 150 
 broad ; the works four miles north of Chilli- 
 cothe, Ohio, a square and a circular fortifica- 
 tion inclosing twenty acres each ; the graded 
 way near Piketon, Ohio ; about a hundred 
 mounds and inclosures in Ross County, 
 Ohio ; the pyramid at Seltzertown, Missis- 
 sippi, 600 feet long and 40 feet high, and a 
 vast number of mounds, inclosures, squares 
 and pyramids on the upper lakes, and scat- 
 tered through the Southern and Western 
 States. Every State in this great region 
 contains these ancient structures. 
 
 By far the greatest division is in Central 
 and South America ; and here we find our- 
 selves at the point where our ancient civiliza- 
 tion reached its height, among works which 
 are the astonishment of explorers and per- 
 plexity of scholars. Yucatan is a vast field 
 for antiquarian research, dotted from one end 
 to the other with the ruins of cities, temples 
 and palaces. But in the great forest which 
 covers the northern half of Guatemala, the 
 southern half of Yucatan, and parts of other 
 States, covering an area larger than Ohio, is 
 
STRANGE PEOPLE IN A STRANGE LAND. 
 
 to be found the key to our ancient history. 
 Within a few years past cities have been dis- 
 covered which must have contained a popu- 
 lation of a quarter of a million, in an advanced 
 condition of civilization ; and yet, owing to 
 the jealousy of the natives and the indiffer- 
 ence of modern scholars, next to nothing is 
 known, and few scientific researches have 
 been made upon this intensely interesting 
 subject. 
 
 In my limited space I confine this inquiry 
 mostly to the remains in our own country. 
 
 19 
 
 2. They were an agricultural people. The 
 barbarous state requires many times as 
 large an area for the same number of people 
 as the civilized state; ?nd the savage condi- 
 tion a much larger. The State of Ohio will 
 support an agricultural population of many 
 millions ; yet it never contained fifty thousand 
 savages. It is easily proven that that 
 portion of the United States east of the 
 Mississippi never contained half a million 
 Indians. It follows, also, that a very large 
 portion of the country around their works 
 
 MOUNDS AT MARIETTA, OHIO. 
 
 From what we see in the Western and 
 Southern States, the following conclusions 
 are evident : 
 
 1. The Mound Builders constituted a 
 considerable population, under one govern- 
 ment. No wandering and feeble tribes could 
 have erected such works ; and the extent of 
 the works, evidently many years in erection, 
 as well as their completeness and scientific 
 exactness, show the controlling energy of one 
 directing central power, which alone can 
 account for their uniform character. 
 
 must have been cleared of timber and in 
 cultivated fields. 
 
 3. They left our country a long time 
 ago. Nature does not give a forest growth 
 at once to abandoned fields ; a preparatory, 
 growth of shrubs and softer timber conu 
 first. But forest trees have been found upon 
 the summit of their mounds, which show, by 
 annual rings and other signs, at least six 
 hundred years of growth. There could be 
 no better proof of their great antiquity. 
 
 Their works are never found upon the 
 
20 
 
 DISCOVERY OF THE WESTERN CONTINENT. 
 
 lowest terrace of the formation on the rivers ; 
 though many signs indicate that they built 
 some as nearly on a level with the streams as 
 possible. Their " covered ways," leading 
 down to water, now terminate on the second 
 terrace above. It is demonstrable that of the 
 various terraces — " second bottoms " — on 
 our streams, the lowest was longest in form- 
 ing. From these and many other signs, it is 
 proved that the last of the Mound Builders 
 left the Ohio valley at least a thousand years 
 
 ago. 
 
 How Long were They Here? 
 
 4. They occupied the country, at least 
 the southern part of it, where their popula- 
 tion was densest a very long time. This is 
 shown by the extent of their works, the 
 evidences of their working the copper-mines 
 of the Superior region, and many other 
 proofs. The best judges estimate that nearly 
 a thousand years elapsed from the time of 
 their entrance till their departure from the 
 Mississippi valley. 
 
 5. At the south they were at peace; but 
 as they advanced northward, they came 
 more and more into contact with the wild 
 tribes, before whom they finally retired — 
 again towards the south. These facts are 
 clearly proved by the increase of fortifica- 
 tions northward, and broad fiat mounds, 
 suitable only for buildings, southward. 
 
 So much for pro®f ; and, connecting these 
 with other proofs, the latest antiquarians are 
 of the opinion that the Toltecs — the civilized 
 race preceding the Aztecs — were our Mound 
 Builders. This opinion is the only reason- 
 able one that can be formed under all the 
 circumstances. 
 
 When we pass to the more southern 
 ruins the proofs of great antiquity, large 
 population and long occupation are vastly 
 increased. Some of them have been alluded 
 to. The great forest of Guatemala and 
 Yucatan is nearly as large as Ohio and 
 
 Indiana combined, and could easily have 
 sustained a civilized population of ten mil- 
 lions. The Aztecs, whom the Spaniards 
 found, were the last of at least three civilized 
 races, and much inferior to the Toltecs 
 immediately preceding them. Their history 
 indicates that they were merely one of the 
 original races, who overthrew and mingled 
 with the Toltecs, adopting part of their re- 
 ligion and civilization. The Peruvian Incas, 
 found by Pizarro, seemed to have been the 
 second in the series of races. But civiliza- 
 tion is not spontaneous ; it must have re- 
 quired nearly a thousand years for the first 
 of the three dynasties to have developed art 
 and learning far enough to erect the build- 
 ings we find. To that race before the Incas, 
 the authors of the original civilization, De 
 Bourbourg and others have given the name 
 of Colhuas. 
 
 What may Reasonably be Conjectured. 
 
 Thus we have the series: a thousand 
 years since the Mound Builders left our 
 country ; a previous thousand years of set- 
 tlement and occupation, and a thousand 
 years for the precedent civilization to develop. 
 Or, beginning in Mexico, etc.: a thousand 
 years of Spaniard and Aztec ; a previous 
 thousand years for Toltec migration and 
 settlement, and a thousand years before that 
 for the Colhuas to develop, flourish and 
 decline. This carries us back to the time 
 when the same course of events was inaugu- 
 rated on the Eastern Continent. We know 
 that it has required so long to produce all 
 we see in Europe and Asia ; all reasoning, 
 by analogy, goes to show that at least as 
 long a time has been required to produce 
 equally great evidences in America. 
 
 Besides a host of surmises there have 
 been at least nine theories promulgated, and 
 strenulously defended, in regard to the origin 
 of this civilization. 
 
UNITED STATES BATTLESHIP TEXAS 
 
 UNITED STATES TORPEDO BOAT CUSHING 
 
UNITED STATES MONITOR MIANTONOMOH 
 
 UNITED STATES BATTLESHIP INDIANA 
 
STRANGE PEOPLE IN A STRANGE LAND. 
 
 21 
 
 i. The Jewish theory. Some sixty years 
 since Major Noah maintained that the " Lost 
 Tribes " were the ancestors of the American 
 Indians and the builders of the ruins de- 
 
 such a people as the Jews could, in a few 
 centuries, lose all trace of their language, 
 religion, laws, form of government, art, 
 science and general knowledge, and sink into 
 
 A DEAD TOWN OF THE MOQUIS INDIANS. 
 
 Scribed ; and a few others held that, if not 
 the Ten Tribes, there was a Jewish Colony. 
 it would certainly be an amazing thing if 
 
 a tribe of barbarians. But when we add 
 that their bodily shape must have completely 
 changed, their skulls lengthened, the beard 
 
22 
 
 DISCOVERY OF THE WESTERN CONTINENT. 
 
 dropped from their faces, and their lan- 
 guage undergone a reversion from a deriv- 
 ative to a primitive type — a thing unknown 
 in any human tongue — the supposition be- 
 comes too monstrous even to be discussed 
 
 2. The Malay theory is that a gteat 
 Malay Empire, once existing in the island of 
 Malaysia, planted colonies here; but this is 
 easily disproved. 
 
 Works of the Phoenicians. 
 
 3. The Phoenician theory: that those 
 ancient navigators planted colonies in Amer- 
 ica. If correct, this would be certain of 
 demonstration ; for they were pre-eminently 
 a people of letters and monuments. The 
 Phoenician alphabet is the parent of all the 
 alphabets of Europe except the Turkish. 
 They must have left some trace ot their lan- 
 guage But none has been found. Nor can 
 any similarity be traced in the ruins with the 
 works of the Phoenicians. 
 
 4. 5,6. The Assyrian, Egyptian and Roman 
 theories fell for the same reasons as the 
 Phoenician. The works of none of these 
 people have any marked resemblance to 
 those found in America. A pyramid or 
 temple here is no more like an Egyptian or 
 Assyrian one than a Chinese pagoda is like 
 an American church. 
 
 7. The Northmen in America have been 
 credited with these works. It is barely 
 possible the remains in the United States 
 might be thus accounted for; but how about 
 the far more extensive and elaborate works 
 in Mexico, Central and South America ? 
 The cause ascribed is utterly inadequate for 
 the effect. 
 
 8. The Chinese or Tartary theory is, 
 that about the year 1250 Kublai Khan sent 
 Tartar colonies to America; that among 
 them were some Nestorian Christians, which 
 accounts for the crosses found. The time is 
 utterly inadequate. Palenque and Copan 
 
 were built and abandoned before the yea/ 
 1250. 
 
 9. The Atiantean theory is, by far, the 
 most brilliant and fascinating of all proposed, 
 and appeals with subtle power to the imagi- 
 nation. It is propounded by Brasseur de 
 Bourbourg, who maintains that the Island of 
 Atlantis, often mentioned by ancient poets, 
 had a real existence ; that it extended nearly 
 across the Atlantic, and was the cradle of 
 civilization; that it actually sank in the sea 
 as the Greek poets tell us, and that the West 
 India Islands are the only portions that 
 remain above water. He conjectures that 
 from this common centre civilization spread 
 east and west, and supports this view by 
 numerous traditions from both sides of the 
 Atlantic. Of this theory we must regretfully 
 say, " Not proven." 
 
 A False Assumption. 
 
 To dispose of so many theories to make 
 way for my own opinion, is scarcely in 
 keeping with the modesty I had proposed to 
 myself; but, in my humble judgment, these 
 theorists all start from one fatal assumption : 
 that this civilization was necessarily an exotic. 
 Why not a civilization native to America as 
 well as to any other country ? I would sug- 
 gest that a good basis might be laid by 
 analogy with the course of civilization in 
 Europe. There it began in the South, spread 
 slowly by successive developments towards 
 the North, where it was overwhelmed and 
 driven back, as it were, by an irruption of 
 barbarians ; it again revived in the South, 
 and slowly extended to the North, where it 
 is now advanced beyond the original. 
 
 Similarly here the Colhuas originated 
 civilization in the South ; their successors 
 the Toltecs, carried it towards the North, 
 about the line of Ohio, they encountered the 
 irruption of northern barbarians, and slowly 
 retired towards the South; there civilization 
 
ISTRANGE PEOPLE IN A STRANGE LAND. 
 
 23 
 
 again revived, and was steadily advancing 
 towards the North when the Spaniards came 
 and destroyed it. On each continent the 
 full cycle required a period of about three 
 thousand years. 
 
 On this basis I should place the Moquis 
 and other Pueblo races the last in a series of 
 four, the second the greatest, and a decline 
 thence to the last : Colhaus, Toltecs, Aztecs, 
 Pueblos. In summing up, why are we 
 reduced to the necessity of adopting any 
 hypothesis of an Eastern origin ? Is it 
 unreasonable to believe that self-improve- 
 ment began among savages in America, as it 
 did three thousand years ago among savages 
 in Egypt and Greece ? Does sound philos- 
 ophy forbid the theory of a spontaneous 
 civilization in America ? We are, perhaps, 
 too much in the habit of thinking that 
 everything really good originated with our 
 branch of the human race. To my mind, 
 the evidences are many — though a profound 
 American archaeologist might smile at the 
 supposition — that this civilization was sui 
 generis, native and not derived. 
 
 A Remarkable Indian. 
 
 We now know that in China a civiliza- 
 tion developed spontaneously, totally unlike 
 and receiving no aid from that of Europe. 
 Two starting points proved, what is there to 
 forbid the idea of a third ? This is as dis- 
 tinct from the European as is the Chinese ; 
 it shows no signs of derivation, and facts 
 indicate clearly that the native mind of Amer- 
 ica is naturally equal to either of the others. 
 Within the memory of man a Cherokee has 
 invented a complete alphabet, one serving 
 the purpose in his language better than ours 
 does in the English. (Better because each 
 letter represents invariably one and the same 
 sound). This fact is worth a volume of con- 
 jecture. It shows that the human mind was 
 slowly working toward something better in 
 
 America, the same as in Europe, the only 
 difference being that, from reasons of race or 
 climate, it there got an earlier start. 
 
 Outgrowing Barbarism. 
 
 And as to the northern barbarians who 
 destroyed this civilization, why are we driven 
 to inventing a plausible theory as to how 
 they crossed from Asia ? On the whole, I 
 incline to flank all the difficulties of the main 
 question thus : America, as shown by geo- 
 logy, is the oldest of the continents, and it 
 is quite reasonable, therefore, to suppose was 
 early inhabited. This race had a native 
 genius peculiarly its own, totally unlike that 
 which developed in Asia the Chinese civili- 
 zation, or that in Europe which created that 
 of the Greek and Roman and the later 
 nations. Like them, many hundreds of years 
 passed in barbarism before even a start was 
 apparent. But civilization did begin in Amer- 
 ica, and was reviving from its first overthrow 
 when the whites came. 
 
 Mexico had advanced through the savage 
 and barbarous to the half-civilized state ; the 
 New England tribes had taken the first steps 
 toward improvement, and the New York 
 Indians had already a political organization, 
 code of laws, national confederacy and sys- 
 tem of representative council and govern- 
 ment. Had the whites discovered America 
 a thousand years later, they might have 
 found on the Atlantic coast a completed 
 native civilization as perfect as that of China 
 to-day. The innate power of the Indian 
 mind among the superior tribes is evident. 
 The inferior ones would have perished as did 
 inferior aboriginal races before Asiatic and 
 European civilization. 
 
 The foregoing theories, by Mr. Beadle, are 
 doubtless the best solution to this problem. 
 At the time of its discovery by the whites 
 the Indians were the sole human occupants 
 of the continent, which was covered with vast 
 
24 
 
 DISCOVERY OF THE WESTERN CONTINENT. 
 
 woods and plains abounding with game of 
 every description. 
 
 Though nominally divided into trih-.'s and 
 " nations," the Indians were really one great 
 family in physical appearance, manners, cus- 
 toms, religion, and in the observance of their 
 social and political systems. The division 
 
 and Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Delaware, 
 Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina as far 
 south as Cape Fear, a large part of Kentucky 
 and Tennessee, and nearly all of Ohio, Indi- 
 ana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin and Min- 
 nesota. This nation was subdivided into the 
 following tribes: the Ottawas, Chippewas, 
 
 INDIAN VILLAGE IN WINTER. 
 
 into tribes was the result of their difference 
 in language. Each tribe had a dialect pecu- 
 liar to itself and distinct from those of the 
 others. The tribes were for the most part 
 hostile to and were constantly engaged in 
 war with each other. They were generally 
 divided into eight nations, speaking eight 
 radically distinct languages. These were: 
 
 I. The Algonqnins, who inhabited the ter- 
 ritory now comprised in the six New Eng- 
 land States, the eastern part of New York 
 
 Sacs and Foxes, Miamis, Potawatomies, 
 Shawnecs, Powhatans, Delawares, Mohegans, 
 Narragansetts and Pequods. 
 
 The Famous "Five Nations." 
 II. Iroquois, who occupied almost all of 
 that part of Canada south of the Ottawa, and 
 between lakes Ontario, Erie and Huron, the 
 greater part of New York, and the country 
 lying along the south shore of Lake Erie, 
 now included in the States of Ohio and Penn- 
 sylvania, This territory, it will be seen, 
 
■*•■ 
 
 - Q ► *&- — ■^-»- 
 
 -•► 
 
 UNITED STATES. 
 
 UNION JACK. 
 
 U. S. REVENUE. 
 
 & i5r ft 4^ 
 
 U. S. COMMODORE PENNANT. 
 
 U. S. YACHT. 
 
 IRELAND. 
 
 U.S. ADMIRAL. 
 
 GERMANY. 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA STATE. 
 
 GERMAN MERCHANT. 
 
 FLAGS OF ALL NATIONS. 
 
 • ► • «« 
 
m +• 
 
 ♦ -<• 
 
 -**—m 
 
 VENEZUELA. 
 
 INDIA 
 
 DENMARK. 
 
 PARAGUAY. 
 
 HANOVER. 
 
 4^ 
 
 FLAGS OF ALL NATIONS. 
 
 ■•►-■ 
 
II ^^ 
 
STRANGE PEOPLE IN A STRANGE LAND. 
 
 25 
 
 bordered on the domains of their powerful 
 and bitter enemies, the Algonquins. The 
 nation was subdivided into the following 
 tribes : the Senecas, Cayugas, Onondagas, 
 Oneidas and Mohawks. These five were 
 afterwards called by the English the " Five 
 Nations." In 1722 they admitted the Tus- 
 caroras into their confederation, and were 
 afterwards called the " Six Nations." 
 
 Tribes of the South. 
 
 III. The Catawbas, who dwelt among the 
 banks of the Yadkin and Catawba rivers, 
 near the line which at present separates 
 the States of North and South Carolina. 
 
 IV. The Cherokees, whose lands were 
 bounded on the east by the Broad river 
 of the Carolinas, including all of north- 
 ern Georgia. 
 
 V. The Uchees, who dwelt south of 
 the Cherokees, along the Savannah, the 
 Oconee, and the head-waters of the Chat- 
 tahoochee. They spoke a harsh and 
 singular language, and are believed to 
 have been the remnant of a once power- 
 ful nation. 
 
 VI. The Mobilian Nation, who inhabi- 
 ted all of Georgia and South Carolina 
 not mentioned in the above statements, 
 a part of Kentucky, Tennessee and Mis- 
 sissippi and all of Florida and Alabama. 
 Their territory was next in extent to that 
 
 of the Algonquins, and extended along the 
 Gulf of Mexico from the Atlantic Ocean to 
 the Mississippi River. The nation was 
 divided into three great confederations — the 
 Creeks or Muscogees, the Choctaws and the 
 Chickasaws — and was subdivided into a 
 number of smaller tribes, the principal of 
 which were the Seminoles and Yemassees, 
 who were members of the Creek Confed- 
 eration. 
 
 VII. The Natchez, who dwelt in a small 
 territory east of the Mississippi, and along the 
 
 banks of the Pearl River. They were almost 
 surrounded by the tribes of the Mobilian 
 language, yet remained until their extinction 
 a separate nation, speaking a distinct lan- 
 guage peculiar to themselves, and worship- 
 ping the sun as their God. They are believed 
 to have been the most civilized of all the 
 savage tribes of North America. 
 
 VIII. The Dacotahs or Sioux, whose terri- 
 tory was bounded on the north by Lake 
 Winnipeg, on the south by the Arkansas 
 River, on the east by the Mississippi, and on 
 
 &*itm- 
 
 NAVAJO BOY. 
 
 the west by the Rocky Mountains. The 
 nation was divided into the following 
 branches : the Winnebagoes, living between 
 Lake Michigan and the Mississippi ; the 
 Southern Sioux, living between the Arkan- 
 sas and the Platte ; and the Mandans and 
 Crows, who lived north of them. 
 
 The great plains, the Rocky Mountains 
 and Pacific coast were held by the powerful 
 tribes of the Pawnees, Comanches, Apaches, 
 Utahs, Black Feet, Snakes, Nezperces, Flat- 
 heads, Navajos and California Indians. 
 
26 
 
 DISCOVERY OF THE WESTERN CONTINENT. 
 
 Each tribe was divided into classes or 
 dans, which were distinguished by a mark 
 tattooed on the breast. This mark was 
 called the totem, and was generally the 
 representation of an animal or bird. The 
 Indians believed that all animals had protect- 
 ing spirits, and each class was supposed to 
 Se protected by the spirit of the animal it 
 .;hose for its totem. Over each class was a 
 chief, and the head of the tribe was a chief 
 or sachem, who was usually a man, but some- 
 
 PUEBLO INDIAN AT PRAYER. 
 
 times a woman. The Indians had no writ- 
 ten laws, but the customs and traditions of 
 the tribe took the place of these. The reli- 
 gious belief of the Indians was simple. 
 They adored a Great Spirit— some tribes had 
 many gods — and believed in a future state. 
 The brave were admitted to the happy hunt- 
 ing-grounds of the spirit-world, but cowards 
 were excluded from them. The weapons of 
 a warrior were buried with him that he might 
 use them in his spirit home, and pursue the 
 occupations of his earthly life. 
 
 Their heaven lay far beyond the mountains 
 of the setting sun. It was a land rich in 
 game, and abounding in fertile meadows and 
 sparkling streams. There the warrior, re- 
 leased from the cares and hardships of life, 
 passed the ages of eternity in the chase ; and 
 there parting from friends^ suffering, fatigue, 
 hunger and thirst were unknown. The 
 Indian heard voices o" spirits in the wind, 
 and saw them in the stars. The shades of 
 his ancestors were constantly hovering over 
 him, stimulating him to brave deeds, keep 
 ing fresh in his mind the duty of avenging 
 them upon the enemies they had left behind, 
 and of proving himself a true warrior. 
 
 Grotesque Dress of the Savages. 
 
 The dress of the savages consisted of the 
 skins of animals, which were prepared by 
 smoking them. After the settlement of the 
 colonies they added a blanket to this dress. 
 Their garments were decorated with skins 
 and feathers, and on special occasions they 
 painted their faces with various bright colors. 
 In the warm weather they wore scarcely any 
 clothing. Their houses or wigwams were 
 formed of poles set firmly in the ground and 
 bent toward each other at the top. These 
 were covered with chestnut or birch bark. 
 Some of the tribes had large houses, often 
 thirty feet high and over two hundred feet 
 long, which accommodated a number of 
 families. Some of the Indian villages were 
 laid off regularly and were permanent ; others 
 were broken up with each migration of the 
 tribe. All the Indians, however, pursued a 
 roving life, passing from point to point in 
 search of game and the means of subsist- 
 ence. Some of the tribes lived by hunting 
 only ; others added to this pursuit the culti- 
 vation of maize or Indian corn, beans, hemp, 
 tobacco and pumpkins. The food of the 
 Indians was coarser and less nourishing than 
 that of the Europeans, and they were conse- 
 
STRANGE PEOPLE IN A STRANGE LAND. 
 
 2? 
 
 quently inferior to the latter in "bodily 
 strength. They surpassed them in endur- 
 ance, however, and could bear tests which 
 the whites could not. They were swift run- 
 ners, and could accomplish long distances in 
 this way. It was a common thing for a good 
 runner to run seventy or eighty miles in a 
 single day. They were thoroughly proficient 
 in the craft of the woodsman. Sounds and 
 sights which had no» meaning to the white 
 man were eloquent to them ; and they sur- 
 passed the latter in keenness of hearing and 
 of vision. They communicated with each 
 other by signs or marks on rocks and trees. 
 For money they used wampum beads ; and 
 belts made of this wampum were used to 
 record treaties and other important events. 
 They had no intoxicating drinks before the 
 arrival of the whites ; but used tobacco, 
 which they smoked in pipes made of clay. 
 They were expert marksmen with the bow 
 until they learned the use of firearms from 
 the whites, when they lost much of their 
 ancient skill with this weapon. 
 
 Canoes and Snow-shoes. 
 
 "The most ingenious inventions of the In- 
 dians," says Colonel Higginson, " were the 
 snow-shoe and the birch canoe. The snow- 
 shoe was made of a maple-wood frame three 
 or four feet long, curved and tapering, and 
 filled in with a network of deer's hide. This 
 network was fastened to the foot by thongs, 
 only a light, elastic moccasin being worn. 
 Thus the foot was supported on the surface 
 of the snow ; and an Indian could travel 
 forty miles a day upon snow-shoes, and could 
 easily overtake the deer and moose whose 
 pointed hoofs cut through the crust. The 
 peculiar pattern varied with almost every 
 tribe, as did also that of the birch canoe. 
 This was made of the bark of the white 
 birch, stretched over a very light frame of 
 white cedar. The whole bark of a birch 
 
 tree was stripped off and put around the 
 frame without being torn. The edges were 
 sewed w r ith thongs cut from the roots of tb 
 ced&r, arid were then covered with pitck 
 made irom the gum of trees. If torn, the 
 canoe could be mended with pieces of bark, 
 fastened in the same way. The largest of 
 these canoes was thirty feet long, and would 
 carry ten or twelve Indians. They were 
 very light and could be paddled with ease. 
 They were often very gracefully shaped, and 
 drew very little water. 
 
 " The Indians had great courage, self-con- 
 trol, and patience. They were grave and 
 
 CIVILIZED INDIAN WOMAN. 
 
 dignified in their manners on important occa- 
 sions ; in their councils they were courteous 
 to one another, and discussed all important 
 questions at great length. They were often 
 kind and generous, and sometimes even for- 
 giving ; but they generally held sternness to 
 be a virtue, and forgiveness a weakness. They 
 were especially cruel to captives, putting 
 them to death with all manner of tortures, 
 in which women took an active part. It was 
 the custom among them for women to do 
 most of the hard work, in order that the 
 
28 
 
 DISCOVERY OF THE WESTERN CONTINENT. 
 
 bodies of the men might be kept supple and 
 active for the pursuits of the chase and war. 
 
 Great Power of Endurance. 
 
 " When employed on these pursuits, the 
 Indian men seemed incapable of fatigue ; 
 but in the camp or in travelling the women 
 carried the burdens ; and when a hunter had 
 carried a slain deer on his shoulders for a 
 long distance, he would throw it down within 
 sight of the village, that his squaw might go 
 and bring it in. 
 
 " Most of the Indian tribes lired in a state 
 of constant warfare with one another. When 
 there was a quarrel between tribes, and war 
 seemed ready to break out, strange cere- 
 monies were used. Some leading chief 
 would paint his body black from head to 
 foot, and would hide himself in the woods or 
 in a cavern. There he would fast and pray, 
 and call upon the Great Spirit ; and would 
 observe his dreams to see if they promised 
 good or evil. If he could dream of a great 
 war-eagle hovering before him it would be a 
 sign of triumph. After a time he would 
 come forth from the woods and return among 
 his people. Then he would address them, 
 summon them to war, and assure them that 
 the Great Spirit was on their side. Then he 
 would bid the warriors to a feast at his wig- 
 wam. There they would find him no longer 
 painted in black, but in bright and gaudy 
 colors, called ' war paint.' The guests would 
 also be dressed in paint and feathers, and 
 would seat themselves in a circle around the 
 wigwam. Then wooden trenchers, contain- 
 ing the flesh of dogs, would be placed before 
 them, while the chief would sit quietly smok- 
 ing his pipe, and would not yet break his 
 long and wearisome fast. 
 
 "After tht feast, the war-dance would fol- 
 low, perhaps at night, amid the blaze of fires 
 and lighted pine knots. A painted post 
 would be driven into the ground, and the 
 
 crowd would form a wide circle round it 
 The war chief would leap into the open 
 space, brandishing his hatchet, and would 
 chant his own deeds and those of his fathers, 
 acting out all that he described and striking 
 at the post as if it were an enemy. Warrior 
 after warrior would follow, till at last the 
 whole band would be dancing, shouting, and 
 brandishing their weapons, striking and stab- 
 bing at the air, making hideous grimaces 
 and filling the forest with their yells. 
 
 Making the Attack. 
 
 "Much of the night would pass in this 
 way. In the morning the warriors would 
 leave the camp in single file, still decorated 
 with paint and feathers and ornaments; and, 
 as they entered the woods, the chief would 
 fire his gun, and each in turn would do the 
 same. Then they would halt near the vil- 
 lage, would take off their ornaments and 
 their finery, and would give all these to the 
 women, who had followed them for this pur- 
 pose Then the warriors would go silently 
 and stealthily through the forest to the 
 appointed place of attack. Much of their 
 skill consisted in these silent approaches, and 
 in surprises and stratagems, and long and 
 patient watchings. They attached no shame 
 to killing an unarmed enemy, or to private 
 deceit and treachery, though to their public 
 treaties they were always faithful. They were 
 desperately brave, and yet they saw no dis- 
 grace in running away when there was no 
 chance of success." 
 
 At the time of the discovery of America 
 the Indians were rapidly disappearing. Their 
 relentless wars and frequent pestilences were 
 sweeping them away. Contact with the 
 white race has hastened the work of destruc- 
 tion. Many of the tribes exist now but in 
 name, and those which remain are growing 
 smaller in numbers with each generation ; 
 and it would seem that the time is not far 
 
UNITED STATES BATTLESHIP IOWA 
 
 UNITED STATES PROTECTED CRUISER COLUMBIA 
 
UNITED STATES ARMORED CRUISER BROOKLYN 
 
 UNITED STATES ARMORED CRUISER NEW YORK 
 
STRANGE PEOPLE IN A STRANGE LAND. 
 
 29 
 
 distant when the last trace left of the red man 
 in America will be his memory. 
 
 Old Traditions. 
 
 Whether any white men ever trod the 
 shores of America previous to the coming of 
 Columbus is a disputed question. It would 
 seem, however, that, several centuries previ- 
 ous to his discovery, a Norwegian vessel from 
 Iceland to Greenland was driven out of her 
 course by storms to the coast of Labrador 
 or Newfoundland. The national pride of the 
 Icelanders and the Danes has led them to 
 accept as literal history the traditions of their 
 race concerning this voyage, and they have 
 given it a definite date. According to them 
 this voyage took place in A. D. 986, and was 
 followed in 1001 by a voyage of Lief Erick- 
 son, an Icelandic navigator, who is said to 
 have discovered America, reaching Labrador 
 first, and then sailing southward to Newport 
 and New York harbors. This voyage is 
 said to have led the way to the further 
 exploration of the coast as far south as the 
 capes of Virginia, and to the planting of 
 colonies, which soon perished, in Newfound- 
 land and Nova Scotia. That some Icelandic 
 voyagers visited the American continent pre- 
 vious to the expedition of Columbus is most 
 likely ; but we cannot accept the definite and 
 explicit statements of the writers in ques- 
 tion; at least in the present state of our 
 knowledge upon this subject. We must con- 
 tent ourselves with the bare fact, without 
 admitting all the details narrated. 
 
 Among the strange, stirring and wonder- 
 ful stories of early voyages there was none 
 which excited such interest as that of Bjarni, 
 a native of Iceland, who had cruised along 
 the coast of an unknown world, and looked 
 upon hills, woods and mountains, of whose 
 existence no one had ever dreamed. It 
 naturally occurred to the hardy sailors who 
 discussed the question, that they could do 
 
 what Bjarni had done, and indeed far more, 
 for he had not set foot on the shores he had 
 seen at the west. 
 
 The oldest son of Eric the Red was Lief — 
 Lief the Lucky, he was afterward called. 
 In the year 1000 he set sail from Herjulfness 
 with a crew of thirty-five men, Bjarni being 
 among them. Heading boldly out to sea, the 
 sailors ploughed through the icy waters until 
 land, supposed to be Newfoundland, was 
 reached. They went ashore and examined 
 it, but there was little to please the eye and 
 they soon left. The next place visited was 
 probably Nova Scotia, as it is now called. 
 It was found to correspond with the account 
 given by Bjarni. Two days further sail, 
 before a favoring wind, carried the explorers 
 so far south that when land was once more 
 descried, it must have been New England. 
 The main facts of the remarkable voyage of 
 Lief the Northman have been proven beyond 
 all dispute, but the accounts themselves are 
 so confused in minor details that it can 
 never be positively known where it was these 
 navigators first landed. There is good rea- 
 son, however, to believe it was on the coast 
 of Rhode Island, and probably at some point 
 on the Narragansett Bay. 
 
 A Bold Navigator. 
 
 The Northmen were astonished and de- 
 lighted when they came to explore the woods 
 to find luscious grapes in abundance. To 
 the Northmen, the climate seemed wonder- 
 fully mild. Lief gave the country the name 
 of Vinland, and when he sailed northward, 
 his vessel was loaded with grapes and valu- 
 able timber, as proof of the fertility of the 
 region he had visited. 
 
 The Northmen were not men to rest con- 
 tent with the voyage and discoveries made 
 by Lief. Eric the Red had another son, a 
 brave and skillful navigator named Thorvald, 
 who was eager to visit the new country. 
 

 
 m 
 
 -X 
 
 w 
 
 H 
 
 pq 
 
 P 
 H 
 Q 
 Z 
 
 P 
 
 o 
 
STRANGE PEOPLE IN A STRANGE LAND. 
 
 3i 
 
 Lief gave him much help and in 1003 he set 
 sail with a crew of thirty men. Good fortune 
 attended them, and they found the rough 
 houses left by Lief still strong and secure. 
 The men spent the winter in hunting and 
 fishing, but, so far as is known, never saw the 
 face of any native of the New World. When 
 spring came, part of the company went on 
 an exploring tour along the coast of Rhode 
 Island, Connecticut and Long Island. There 
 is good reason to believe they entered the 
 harbor of New York, but not a living person 
 beside themselves was to be seen, and where 
 stands to-day the most populous city in the 
 New World, there was not so much as an 
 Indian wigwam. 
 
 The records show that in the spring of 
 1004, Thorvald entered on a more extended 
 voyage of exploration. He sailed slowly 
 northward along the coast of Cape Cod, and 
 was driven ashore by a tempest. It took the 
 crew a long time to repair damages, but 
 when everything |was ready, they resumed 
 their voyage, keeping close, no doubt, along 
 the south shore of the Massachusetts Bay. 
 Being favorably impressed with the appear- 
 ance of a certain spot, they dropped anchor 
 and went ashore. When they had done so, 
 they saw for the first time some of the 
 natives of the new country. 
 
 Under a couple of rude tents they dis- 
 coved nine quietly lolling on the ground 
 with no suspicion of the presence of the 
 strangers who had landed near them. Who 
 would think that the Northmen could offer 
 
 harm to the poor savages ? There was not 
 the slightest excuse for the dreadful cruelty 
 of the white men, and yet, no sooner did 
 they see the natives, than they resolved to kill 
 them all Creeping silently forward, they 
 made a sudden rush, and with their heavy 
 swords killed all but one. 
 
 Having completed the massacre, the 
 triumphant Northmen lay down under the 
 trees to sleep ; but they had hardly closed 
 their eyes when the woods resounded with 
 shouts and yells, and the natives rushed upon 
 them from every side. The single survivor 
 of the slaughter had made haste to tell what 
 had been done by the visitors, who were now 
 compelled to flee to their ship, fighting as 
 they went. Under the shelter of the vessel, 
 however, they were able to beat back the 
 natives, only one of the Northmen receiving 
 a wound : he was Thorvald, who had been 
 pierced so deeply by an arrow that he was 
 past help. He died and was buried near the 
 shore, the grave covered with stones and a 
 cross placed both at the head and foot. Then 
 the survivors sailed back to Vinland and told 
 their countrymen the sad tidings. The next 
 spring the whole colony returned to Green- 
 land. 
 
 Thus ends all authentic history of the dis- 
 covery and settlement of America by the 
 Northmen. Having found one of the great 
 continents of the world, it may be said they 
 lost it, and, during nearly five centuries 
 afterward there is no positive proof that it 
 was known to Europeans. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 The Voyages of Columbus 
 
 Maritime Enterprise in the Fifteenth Century— Theories Respecting the Earth's Surface— Christopher 
 Columbus— His Early Life— His Theory of a Western Passage to India— His Struggles to Obtain the 
 Means of Making a Voyage— Is Aided by Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain— His First Voyage— Dis- 
 covery of America— Reception in Spain— His Second Voyage— Settlement of Hayti— Third Voyage of 
 Columbus— He Reaches the Mainland— Discovery of Gold in Hayti— Troubles in the Colony— Columbus 
 Sent to Spain in Irons— Indignation of the Queen— Last Voyage of Columbus— His Shipwreck— Returns 
 to Spain— Refusal of Ferdinand to Comply with his Promises— Death of Columbus— Amerigo Vespucci- 
 Origin of the Name America. 
 
 HE fifteenth century witnessed 
 a remarkable awakening of 
 human thought and enter- 
 prise, one of the most im- 
 portant features of which was 
 the activity in maritime under- 
 takings which led to the 
 discovery of lands until then unknown to 
 the civilized world. The invention, and the 
 application to navigation, of the mariner's 
 compass, had enabled the seamen of Europe 
 to undertake long and distant voyages. The 
 Portuguese took the lead in the maritime 
 enterprises of this period, the chief object of 
 which was to find a route by water from 
 Europe to the Indies. The equator had 
 been passed; Bartholomew Diaz had even 
 doubled the Cape of Storms, and had 
 established the course of the eastern coast 
 of Africa; and it was hoped by some of 
 the most daring thinkers that the ports of 
 India could be reached by sailing around 
 this cape. 
 
 Others, still bolder, believed that although 
 the earth was a sphere, it was much smaller 
 than it is, and that the central portion of 
 its surface was occupied by a vast ocean 
 which washed the shores of what they 
 regarded as its solitary continent, on either 
 side, and that by sailing due west from Eu- 
 32 
 
 rope, the shores of India, China or Japan 
 could be be reached. Among those who held 
 this opinion was Christopher Columbus. He 
 was a native of Genoa, in Italy, was born 
 about the year 1435, and was the son of a 
 weaver of cloth. His ancestors had been 
 sailors, for which calling he, at an early age, 
 evinced a preference. He received a com- 
 mon school education, and afterwards went 
 to the University of Pavia, where he studied 
 geometry, astronomy, geography and navi- 
 gation. He stayed at Pavia but a short time, 
 only long enough to gain a decided relish for 
 mathematical studies. 
 
 At the early age of fourteen he went on 
 a voyage with a relative, and followed the 
 calling of a sailor until he had completed his 
 thirtieth year. During this period he had 
 married, and by this marriage he had become 
 possessed of the papers of the former hus- 
 band of his wife, who had been a distinguished 
 Portuguese navigator. He had learned but 
 little at school, but he had been a close stu- 
 dent all his life, and had stored his mind 
 with a valuable fund of information. This 
 habit of study he never abandoned, and his 
 extensive knowledge, added to his years of 
 practical experience, made him one of the 
 most learned navigators of his day. In 1470, 
 being then about thirty years old, Columbus 
 
\'^ 
 
 ifl? 
 
 CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS 
 
THE VOYAGES OF COLUMBUS. 
 
 33 
 
 took up his residence in Portugal, which was 
 then the centre of maritime enterprise in 
 Europe. Here his spirit of discovery was 
 quickened, and he became convinced that 
 there were continents still unknown. 
 
 He continued to make voyages to the 
 then known parts of the world, and while on 
 
 fortified by his experience, induced him to 
 believe that there was land beyond the 
 western seas, which could be reached by 
 sailing in that direction. This land he 
 believed to be the eastern shores of Asia. 
 He was confirmed in his belief by his corres- 
 pondence with the learned Italian Toscanell^ 
 
 CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS. 
 
 shore engaged in the work of making and 
 selling maps and charts. The papers given 
 him by his wife were now of the greatest 
 service to him. He entered eagerly into the 
 speculations of the day concerning the short- 
 est passage to the Indies, and his studies, 
 3 
 
 who sent him a map of his own projection 
 in which the eastern coast of Asia was laid 
 down opposite the western coast of Europe, 
 with only the broad Atlantic between them. 
 Other things also confirmed him in what had 
 now become the profoundest conviction of 
 
34 
 
 DISCOVERY OF THE WESTERN CONTINENT. 
 
 his life. Sailors who had been to the Canary 
 Islands told him they had seen land far to the 
 westward of those islands. A piece of wood 
 strangely carved had been thrown by the 
 waves upon the Portuguese coast after a long 
 westerly gale, and had been seen by the 
 brother-in-law of Columbus. 
 
 Seven Years of Disappointment. 
 
 An old pilot related to him the finding 
 3f a carved paddle at sea, a thousand miles 
 to the westward of Europe. Pine trees had 
 been cast ashore at Madeira, and at the Azores 
 he learned that the bodies of two men, whose 
 features and dress showed that they belonged 
 to no nation of Europe, had been thrown on 
 the land by the waves. Having settled it 
 in his own mind that there was land to the 
 westward, Columbus was eager to go in 
 search of it. He was not possessed of suffi- 
 cient means to accomplish this at his own 
 expense, and began his efforts to interest 
 some European state in the enterprise. His 
 first application was addressed to his native 
 country, the Republic of Genoa. He met 
 with a refusal, and then turned to Venice, 
 with a like result. His next effort was to 
 enlist the Portuguese king, John II., in his 
 scheme. Here he was subjected to delays 
 and vexations innumerable, and once the 
 Portuguese sovereign attempted to make a 
 dishonorable use of the information given by 
 Columbus in support of his theory. 
 
 Disgusted with the conduct of this sover- 
 eign, Columbus, after years of waiting, aban- 
 doned the hope of obtaining his assistance, 
 and applied to Henry VII. of England, 
 from whom he received a decided refusal. 
 Quitting Lisbon in 1484, Columbus went to 
 Spain, intending to lay his plans before Fer- 
 dinand and Isabella, the sovereigns of that 
 country. He could scarcely have chosen a 
 more unpropitious time. The Spanish nation 
 was engaged in the Moorish war, which had 
 
 exhausted the treasury, and which absorbed 
 the attention of the sovereigns to the exclu 
 sion of every other matter. He spent seven 
 years in endeavoring to interest the govern- 
 ment in his plans. " During this time 
 Columbus appears to have remained in attend- 
 ance on the court, bearing arms occasionally 
 in the campaigns, and experiencing from the 
 sovereigns an unusual degree of deference 
 and personal attention." At last, wearied 
 with the long delay to which he had been 
 subjected, he pressed the court for an 
 answer, and was told by the sovereigns that, 
 " although they were too much occupied at 
 present to embark in his undertaking, yet, at 
 the conclusion of the war, they should find 
 time to treat with him." 
 
 He accepted this answer as a refusal, 
 and prepared to go to France to ask the 
 assistance of the king of that country, from 
 whom he had received a friendly letter. 
 Travelling on foot, he stopped at the monas- 
 tery of Santa Maria de Rabida, near Palos f 
 to visit the Prior Juan Perez de Marchena, 
 who had befriended him when he first came 
 to Spain. The prior, learning his intention 
 to quit Spain, persuaded him to remain until 
 one more effort could be made to enlist the 
 government in his plans. Leaving Columbus 
 at the convent, Juan Perez, who had formerly 
 been the queen's confessor, mounted his 
 mule and set off for the Spanish camp before 
 Granada. He was readily granted an inter- 
 view by Queen Isabella, and he urged the 
 suit of Columbus with all the force of elo- 
 quence and reasoning of which he was master. 
 
 Columbus at the Royal Court. 
 
 His appeal was supported by several 
 eminent persons whom Columbus, during 
 his residence at the court, had interested in 
 his project, and these represented to the 
 queen the impolicy of allowing Columbus to 
 secure the aid of a foreign power which 
 
THE VOYAGES OF COLUMBUS. 
 
 35 
 
 would reap the benefits of his discoveries, if 
 he were successful. The result was that the 
 sovereigns consented to reopen the negotia- 
 tion, and Columbus was invited to return to 
 the court, and was furnished with a sum of 
 money to enable him to do so. Columbus 
 promptly complied with the royal mandate, 
 and reached the camp in time to witness the 
 surrender of Granada. Amidst the rejoic- 
 ings which attended this event he was admit- 
 ted to an audience with the king and queen, 
 and submitted to them the arguments upon 
 which he based his theory. Isabella was 
 favorably disposed toward the undertaking, 
 but Ferdinand looked coldly upon it. Co- 
 lumbus demanded, as the reward of his suc- 
 cess, the title and authority of admiral and 
 viceroy over all lands discovered by him, 
 with one-tenth of the profits, and that this 
 dignity should be hereditary in his family. 
 The archbishop of Granada advised the king 
 to reject the demands of Columbus, which, 
 he said, " savored of the highest degree of 
 arrogance, and would be unbecoming in their 
 highnesses to grant to a needy foreign 
 adventurer." 
 
 Columbus firmly refused to a! ate his 
 pretensions, and abruptly left the court, 
 " resolved rather to forego his splendid anti- 
 cipations of discovery, at the very moment 
 when the career so long sought was thrown 
 open to him, than surrender one of the hon- 
 orable distinctions due to his services." His 
 friends, however, remonstrated with the 
 queen, and reminded her that if his claims 
 were high, they were at least contingent on 
 success. By representing to her the certainty 
 of his being employed by some other poten- 
 tate, and his peculiar qualifications for success, 
 and by reminding her of her past generous 
 support of great and daring enterprises, they 
 roused her to listen to the impulses of her 
 own noble heart. " I will assume the under- 
 
 taking," she exclaimed, " for my own crown 
 of Castile, and am ready to pawn my jewels 
 to defray the expenses of it, if the funds of 
 the treasury shall be found inadequate." 
 Louis de St. Angel, the receiver who had 
 been chiefly instrumental in bringing about 
 this decision of the queen, offered to ad- 
 vance the necessary funds from the reve- 
 nues of Aragon. That kingdom, however, 
 was indemnified against loss, and all the 
 charges and profits of the expedition were 
 reserved exclusively for Castile. A messen- 
 ger was despatched in haste after Columbus. 
 He overtook him a few leagues from Granada, 
 and delivered the royal order to return. 
 
 Three Ships of Renown. 
 
 On the seventeenth of April, 1492, a 
 formal agreement was signed between 
 Columbus and the Spanish sovereigns. Fer- 
 dinand and Isabella, " as lords of the ocean- 
 seas, constituted Christopher Columbus their 
 admiral, viceroy and governor-general of 
 all such islands and continents as he should 
 discover in the Western Ocean, with the 
 privilege of nominating three candidates, for 
 the selection of one by the crown, for the 
 government of each of these territories. 
 He was to be vested with the exclusive 
 right of jurisdiction over all commercial trans- 
 actions within his admiralty. He was to be 
 entitled to one-tenth of all the products and 
 profits within the limits of his discoveries, 
 and an additional eighth, provided he should 
 contribute one-eighth part of the expense. 
 By a subsequent ordinance, the official digni- 
 ties above enumerated were settled on him 
 and his heirs forever, with the privilege of 
 prefixing the title of Don to their names, 
 which had not then degenerated into an 
 appellation of mere courtesy." 
 
 A fleet of three vessels was assembled 
 in the little harbor of Palos in Andalusia. 
 
36 
 
 DISCOVERY OF THE WESTERN CONTINENT. 
 
 Two of these were furnished by the govern- 
 ment, and one by Columbus, aided by his 
 friend, the Prior of La Rabida, and the Pin- 
 zons, " a family in Palos, long distinguished 
 for its enterprise among the mariners of that 
 active community." The admiral had some 
 difficulty in equipping his vessels, for his 
 voyage was regarded by the sailors of the 
 country as rash and perilous in the extreme. 
 At length, however, a sufficient crew was 
 obtained. One hundred and twenty per- 
 sons were enlisted in the expedition. The 
 three vessels were all small. The Santa 
 Maria, the largest, was ninety feet long, was 
 decked all over, had four masts, and carried 
 a crew of sixty-six seamen. The Pinta and 
 Nina were smaller, and were without decks. 
 All the vessels were provisioned for a year. 
 The admiral was instructed to keep clear of 
 the African coast, and other maritime posses- 
 sions of Portugal. 
 
 The Fleet Sails. 
 
 At length all things were in readiness, 
 and, Columbus and his whole crew having 
 confessed themselves and received the sacra- 
 ment, the fleet sailed from Palos on the 
 morning of Friday, the third of August, 
 1492. A month later the Canary Islands 
 were reached. A brief delay was made there 
 to refit, and then the vessels turned their 
 prows to the westward, and sailed out into 
 the unknown seas. As the night came on 
 the sailors, imagining they had seen the 
 land for the last time, gave way to tears. 
 Columbus soothed their fears, and held his 
 course. At length he fell in with the trade- 
 winds, which wafted him steadily towards 
 die west. The sailors were greatly alarmed 
 at this, and declared, that if the wind did not 
 change it would be impossible for them to 
 reach home again. The variation of the 
 compass also alarmed them, and their mur- 
 murs increased to almost open mutiny. It 
 
 required all the firmness of the admiral to 
 restrain them, and to keep them from aban- 
 doning the enterprise and returning to 
 Europe. 
 
 Ten weeks of anxiety and disappoint 
 ment had passed since the departure of th< 
 fleet from Palos ; but still no land was seen 
 There were unmistakable signs that land 
 was near, such as the flight of land birds 
 around the ship, the finding of a bush floating 
 on the waters with fresh berries upon it, and 
 the frequent discovery of land weeds upon the 
 waves. Often the lookout would startle the 
 fleet by the cry of land, but as often the sup- 
 posed shore would prove to be only a bank 
 of clouds low down upon the western horizon. 
 Still the ships held their westward course, 
 and at length the sailors broke into open 
 mutiny, and demanded that the fleet should 
 return home. They were even ready to 
 throw the admiral overboard if he refused to 
 grant their demands. 
 
 The Torch that Lighted up a New 
 Continent. 
 
 Columbus alone had been calm and hope 
 ful throughout the voyage. He was resolved 
 to succeed or perish in the attempt to find 
 the land. The success of the mutiny would 
 have destroyed all his hopes, and as the 
 events of each succeeding day strength- 
 ened him in his conviction that they were 
 rapidly approaching land, he condescended tc 
 plead with his men, and obtained from them 
 a promise to obey him for a few days longer. 
 The next night the land breeze, laden with 
 the rich perfumes of tropical flowers, con- 
 vinced the weary crews that the admiral was 
 right, and that the long wished-for shore 
 was indeed near. The ships were ordered tc 
 lie to for the night lest they should go ashore 
 in the darkness. No one slept on board that 
 night. About ten o'clock, Columbus saw a 
 light moving along the shore, as if it were a 
 
THE VOYAGES OF COLUMBUS. 
 
 37 
 
 torch carried in a man's hand. He called 
 Martin Alonzo Pinzon, one of his captains, 
 and pointed it out to him. Pinzon confirmed 
 the admiral's 
 opinion, and 
 all waited in 
 the most in- 
 tense eager- 
 ness for the 
 approach of 
 the morning. 
 With the 
 first light, on 
 the morning 
 of Friday, the 
 twelfth of Oc- 
 tober, 1492, a 
 gun from one 
 of the vessels 
 announced 
 that land was 
 indeed in 
 sight, and the 
 rising sun re- 
 vealed to the 
 delighted sea- 
 men a large 
 island, luxu- 
 riant in foliage 
 and of very 
 beautiful ap- 
 pearance, ly- 
 ing about six 
 miles away, 
 with crowds 
 of natives run- 
 ning along the 
 beach. As the 
 great admiral 
 stood with folded arms, and heaving breast, 
 gazing upon the world which his genius 
 had discovered, the penitent sailors crowded 
 about him, and, kissing his garments, im- 
 plored his pardon for their rebellious conduct. 
 
 COLUMBUS DISCOVERING LAND. 
 
 Orders to land were promptly issued, and 
 the fleet stood in and anchored near the 
 shore. The boats were manned, and the 
 
 admiral, clad 
 in rich scarlet, 
 and bearing 
 the royal ban- 
 ner of Spain 
 and accom- 
 panied by his 
 captains, each 
 of whom bore 
 a green ban- 
 ner inscribed 
 with a cross, 
 went ashore. 
 As he set foot 
 on the land, 
 Columbus 
 knelt rever- 
 ently, and 
 kissed the 
 ground, and 
 then rising 
 and drawing 
 his sword, 
 took posses- 
 sion of the 
 island in the 
 name < f Fer- 
 dinand and 
 Isabella, king 
 and queen of 
 Spain. The 
 island was one 
 oftheBahama 
 group, and 
 was called by 
 the natives 
 Guanahani. Columbus named it San Sal- 
 vador. He explored the island, and then 
 sailing on discovered Cuba, Hayti, and other 
 West India islands. He believed these 
 islands to lie off the coast of Asia and to 
 
38 
 
 DISCOVERY OF THE WESTERN CONTINENT. 
 
 form a part of the Indies. For this reason 
 he called the natives Indians, a name which 
 they have since borne. Having built a gar- 
 rison, a small fort in Hayti, Columbus took 
 on board seven of the natives, and laid in a 
 stock of fruits, plants and a number of ani- 
 mals as specimens of the products of the 
 country, and set sail on his return to Spain. 
 The voyage was a very tempestuous one. 
 He arrived at Palos on the fifteenth of March, 
 ' "^'\ His arrival was greeted with enthusi- 
 From Palos he set out for the court 
 
 covered Jamaica, and many of thv Caribbee 
 Islands. 
 
 In 1498 Columbus made a third voyage, 
 and in this expedition he discovered the 
 mainland of the American Continent near 
 the mouth of the Orinoco, and explored the 
 coast of the provinces, since called Para and 
 Cumana. He was not aware of the true nat'ire 
 of his discovery, but supposed that the South 
 American coast was a part of a large island 
 belonging to Cathay or Farther India. 
 
 In the meantime, gold had been discov- 
 
 LANDING OF 
 
 of Barcelona. Every step of the journey 
 was a triumphal progress. He was received 
 with the most distinguished honors by the 
 sovereigns, and the whole court joined in a 
 Te Deum of thankfulness for the success of 
 his voyage. 
 
 A second expedition, consisting of seven- 
 teen ships and fifteen hundred men, was now 
 fitted out, and sailed from Cadiz under the 
 command of Columbus on the twenty-fifth of 
 September, 1493. O n tms voyage he dis- 
 
 COLUMBUS. 
 
 ered in Hayti, and crowds of adventurers 
 were drawn hither from Spain. They in- 
 flicted great hardships upon the nacives, 
 and when Columbus arrived he found the 
 affairs of the colony in a most deplor- 
 able state. The sovereigns at length 
 sent over a commissioner named Boba- 
 dilla to investigate the affairs of the co- 
 lony. He was a narrow-minded, incom- 
 petent man, and instead of investigating the 
 charges against the admiral, arretted him, 
 
RECEPTION OF COLUMBUS BY FERDINAND AND ISABELLA. 
 
 39 
 
40 
 
 DISCOVERY OF THE WESTERN CONTINENT. 
 
 and sent hiin back to Spain in irons. When 
 the officers of the ship which bore him back 
 home wished to remove his fetters, he refused 
 to allow them to do so, saying, " I will wear 
 them as a memento of the gratitude of 
 princes." The news of this outrage filled 
 the people of Spain with honest indignation. 
 " All seemed to feel it as a national dis- 
 honor," says Prescott, " that such indignities 
 should be heaped upon the man, who, what- 
 ever might be his indiscretions, had done so 
 much tor Spain, and for the civilized world."' 
 
 The Fetters Stricken Off. 
 
 Queen Isabella at once ordered his fetters 
 to be struck off, and he was summoned to 
 court reinstated in all his honors, and treated 
 with die highest consideration. Isabella 
 gained from the king a promise to aid her in 
 doing justice to the admiral, and in punish- 
 ing his enemies ; but Ferdinand, who could 
 never bear to do a generous or noble act, 
 evaded his promise, and the admiral failed 
 to receive his just recompense. 
 
 Id. 1504 Columbus sailed on his fourth 
 voyage ; his object this time being to find a 
 passage from the Atlantic co the Pacific 
 Ocean, by which he might reach India. He 
 explored the Gulf of Honduras, and saw the 
 continent of North America, but was com- 
 pelled by the mutiny of his crew and by 
 severe storms to abandon his attempt and 
 return to the northward. He was ship- 
 wrecked on the coast of Jamaica, where he 
 remained more than a year. Returning to 
 Spain in November, 1505, he found his best 
 friend, Queen Isabella, on her death-bed. 
 The enemies whom his great success had 
 raised up for him were numerous and power- 
 ful, while he was now old and broken in 
 health. He vainly sought from Ferdinand 
 a faithful execution of the original compact 
 between them ; but though he received fair 
 Words and promises in abundance from the 
 
 king, Ferdinand steadny retused to compH 
 with the just demands of the admiral. 
 
 The Great Navigator's Death, 
 At last, worn out with care and disap 
 pointments, Columbus died at Valladolid, on 
 the twentieth of May, 1506, being abou: 
 seventy years old. He was buried with great 
 pomp in the Convent of St. Francis, at Valla 
 dolid. In 15 13 his remains were removed to 
 the monastery of Las Cuevas, at Seville, and 
 Ferdinand caused this inscription, which cost 
 him nothing and expressed his excuse ior his 
 conduct towards the deal man, to be placed 
 upon his tomb : " To Castile and Leor 
 Columbus gave a New World ! " In 1536 
 the body of the great admiral was conveyed 
 with appropriate honors to St. Domingo 
 Upon the cession of that island to France ir 
 1795, the body was removed to Cuba, and 
 buried in the Cathedral of Havana. Not yet 
 have the ashes of the Discoverer of America 
 found their true resting place. That place 
 is under the great dome of the Capitol of the 
 Republic, for whose existence he prepared 
 the way. 
 
 Though Columbus reached the continent 
 of South America on his third voyage, he 
 was not the first European who beheld the 
 mainland of the western world. In the 
 winter of 1497-98, Amerigo Vespucci, or 
 Aroericus Vespucius, a Florentine navigator, 
 made a voyage to the West Indies and the 
 South American coast, thus reaching the 
 mainland of the continent nearly a yea» 
 before Columbus. Returning to Europe he 
 published an account of his discoveries. 
 This was the first account of the new world 
 published in Europe, and some years later a 
 German geographer gave to the continent 
 the name of " Americi Terra" or the land 
 discovered by Americus. From this time 
 the name America was applied to the west- 
 ern continent. 
 
a 
 
 Eh 
 W 
 
 C5 
 
 »— i 
 
 CO 
 
 co 
 
 !=> 
 PQ 
 
 .-3 
 O 
 
 o 
 
42 
 
 DISCOVERY OF THE WESTERN CONTINENT. 
 
 and cavillings of men of cooler and safer, but 
 more groveiiing minds. 
 
 Such were the conjectures formed on the 
 coast of Paria about the form of the earth 
 and the situation of the terrestrial paradise ; 
 about the mines of Ophir in Hispaniola, and 
 f the Aurea Chersonesus in Veragua ; and 
 .-uch was the heroic scheme of a crusade for 
 the recovery of the holy sepulchre. It min- 
 gled with his religion, and filled his mind 
 with solemn and visionary meditations on 
 mystic passages of the scriptures, and the 
 shadowy portents of the prophecies. It ex- 
 alted his office in his eyes, and made him 
 conceive himself an agent sent forth upon a 
 sublime and awful mission, subject to im- 
 pulses and supernatural intimations from the 
 deity ; such as the voice which he imagined 
 spoke to him in comfort, amidst the troubles 
 of Hispaniola, and in the silence of the night 
 on the disastrous coast of Veragua. 
 
 A Man in Advance of His Time. 
 
 He was decidedly a visionary, but a vision- 
 ary of an uncommon and successful kind. 
 The manner in which his ardent, imaginative 
 and mercurial nature were controlled by a 
 powerful judgment, and directed by an acute 
 sagacity, is the most extraordinary feature in 
 his character. Thus governed, his imagina- 
 tion, instead of exhausting itself in idle flights, 
 lent aid to his judgment, and enabled him to 
 form conclusions, at which common minds 
 could never have arrived, nay, which they 
 could not perceive when pointed out. 
 
 To his intellectual vision it was given to 
 read in the signs of the times, and to trace in 
 the conjectures and reveries of past ages, the 
 indications of an unknown world ; as sooth- 
 sayers were said to read predictions in the 
 stars, and to foretell events from the visions 
 
 ):the night. " His soul," observes a Spanish 
 
 writer, " was superior to the age in which he 
 lived. For him was reserved the great en- 
 terprise of traversing a sea which had given 
 rise to so many fables, and of deciphering the 
 mystery of his time." 
 
 With all the visionary fervor of his imagi« 
 nation, its fondest dreams fell short of the 
 reality. He died in ignorance of the real 
 grandeur of his discovery. Until his last 
 breath, he entertained the idea that he had 
 merely opened a new way to the old resorts 
 of opulent commerce, and had discovered 
 some of the wild regions of the east. He 
 supposed Hispaniola to be the ancient Ophir, 
 which had been visited by the ships of Solo- 
 mon, and that Cuba and Terra Firma were 
 but remote parts of Asia. What visions of 
 glory would have broken upon his mind, 
 could he have known that he had indeed dis- 
 covered a new continent, equal to the whole 
 of the old world in magnitude, and separated 
 by two vast oceans from all the earth hither- 
 to known by civilized man ! And how would 
 his magnanimous spirit have been consoled 
 amidst the afflictions of age and the cares of 
 penury, the neglect of a fickle public, and the 
 injustice of an ungrateful king, could he have 
 anticipated the splendid empires which were 
 to spread over the beautiful world he had 
 discovered, and the nations, and tongues, and 
 languages which were to fill its lands with 
 his renown, and to revere and bless his name 
 to the latest posterity ! 
 
 It may be questioned whether any ol<S 
 Norse Sea-King, who braved the storms and 
 billows of the North Atlantic, ever exhibited 
 a purpose more resolute, a courage more 
 daring, or a self-sacrifice more complete than 
 characterized Columbus. Our illustration of 
 the royal Norseman shows him to have been 
 a man born to command and achieve ; the 
 hero of 1492 was no less illustrious. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 
 English and French Discoveries 
 
 .Mscoveiy of the Nnr'h American Continent by John Cabot — Voyages of Sebastian Cabot — The English fail to follow 
 up these Discoveries — Efforts of the French to Explore America — Voyage and Discoveries of Verrazzani — Cartier 
 Explores the St. Lawrence — Reaches Montreal — Efforts to Found a Colony on the St. Lawrence — Failure — Roberval's 
 Colony — Trading Voyages — Explorations of Champlain — Colonization of Nova Scotia — Founding of Quebec — Dis- 
 covery of Fake Champlain — Arrival of the Jesuits in Canada — Death of Champlain. 
 
 N the meantime the success of 
 the first voyage of Columbus 
 had stimulated other nationr to 
 similar exertions. The Eng- 
 lish court had experienced a 
 feeling of keen regret that the petition of 
 Columbus had been refused, and when John 
 Cabot, a native of Venice, then residing at 
 dristol, applied for leave to undertake a voy- 
 age of exploration his request was readily 
 granted. 
 
 On the fifth of March, 1496, a patent or 
 commission was granted to him and his three 
 sons by Henry VII., authorizing either of 
 them, their heirs or their agents, to under- 
 take with a fleet of five ships, at their own 
 expense, a voyage of discovery in the east- 
 ern, western or northern seas. Though they 
 were to make the attempt at their own cost, 
 they were to take possession of the countries 
 they should discover for the king of Eng- 
 land. They were to have the exclusive pri- 
 vilege of trading to these countries, but were 
 bound to return to the port of Bristol, and 
 to pay to the king one-fifth of the profits of 
 their trade. 
 
 Early in 1497 Cabot sailed from Bristol, 
 accompanied by his son, Sebastian. The 
 object of his voyage was not only the dis 
 covery of new lands, but the finding of a 
 
 northwest passage to Asia. He sailed due 
 west, and on the twenty -fourth of June, 1497, 
 reached the coast of Labrador. He thus 
 discovered the mainland of the North Amer- 
 ican continent, fully fourteen months before 
 Columbus reached the coast of South 
 America, and nearly a year before Amerigo 
 Vespucci made his discovery. He explored 
 the coast to the southward for over a thou- 
 sand miles, made frequent landings, and took 
 possession of the country in the name of the 
 English king. Returning home, he was 
 received with many marks of honor by 
 Henry VII., and was called the " Great 
 Admiral " by the people. 
 
 Towards the close of the year 1497, the 
 Cabots undertook a new voyage, and the 
 king, pleased with the success of the first 
 venture, became a partner in the enterprise, 
 and assumed a portion of the expense. The 
 object of this voyage was to trade with the 
 natives, and to ascerta'n if the country was 
 suited to colonization. The expedition sailed 
 from Bristol in May, 1498, and was com- 
 manded by Sebastian Cabot, who reached the 
 Labrador coast about four hundred miles 
 north of the point discovered by his father. 
 
 He found the country cold and barren, 
 though it was but the beginning of the sum- 
 mer, and sailed southward. " The coast to 
 
 43 
 
44 
 
 DISCOVERY OF THE WESTERN CONTINENT 
 
 which he was now borne was unobstructed 
 by frost. He saw there stags larger than 
 those of England, and bears that plunged 
 into the water to take fish with their claws. 
 The fish swarmed innumerably in such shoals 
 hey seemed to affect even the speed of his 
 
 " Continuing his voyage, according to the 
 line of the shore, he found the natives of 
 those regions clad in skins of beasts, but 
 they were not without the faculty of reason, 
 and in many places were acquainted with the 
 use of copper. In the early part of his 
 
 SEBASTIAN CABOT. 
 
 vessels, so that he gave to the country the 
 name of Bacallaos, which still linger, on the 
 east side of Newfoundland, and has passed 
 into the language of the Germans and the 
 Italians, as well as the Portuguese and 
 Spanish, to designate the cod. 
 
 voyage he had been so far to the north that 
 in the month of July the light of day was 
 almost continuous ; before he turned home- 
 wards, in the late autumn, he believed he 
 ! had attained the latitude of the Straits oft 
 i Gibraltar and the longitude of Cuba."* Ot> 
 
 * Bancroft. 
 
ENGLISH AND FRENCH DISCOVERIES. 
 
 45 
 
 his homeward voyage he noticed the Gulf 
 Stream. 
 
 This was the last voyage from England 
 made by Sebastian Cabot. On the death of 
 Henry VII., he took service with Ferdinand 
 of Spain, and under him and his grandson, 
 Charles V., he made many voyages, and was 
 for nearly sixty years the foremost man in 
 Europe in maritime enterprises. 
 
 A Renowned Explorer. 
 
 He explored the eastern coast of South 
 America, and in his efforts to find the north- 
 west passage sailed within twenty degrees of 
 the North Pole, and explored the eastern 
 coast of North America from Hudson's 
 Straits to Albemarle Sound. He was in 
 many things one of the most remarkable men 
 of his day, and besides his own discoveries 
 contributed generously by his advice and 
 encouragement to those of others. " He 
 gave England a continent, and no one knows 
 his burial place." 
 
 The English made no effort to take advan- 
 tage of the discoveries of the Cabots. They 
 sent a few vessels every year to fish on the 
 banks of Newfoundland, but pursued even 
 this industry without vigor. The other 
 nations were more energetic, and showed a 
 keener appreciation of the value of the new 
 lands. The French were especially active in 
 this respect. Their vessels engaged in the 
 fisheries far outnumbered those of the Eng- 
 lish, and many plans were proposed in France 
 for the colonization of those regions. In 
 1523 Francis I. employed a Florentine named 
 John Verrazzani, an experienced navigator, 
 to undertake the discovery of a northwest 
 passage to India. Verrazzani sailed on the 
 seventeenth of January, 1524, and, after a 
 stormy voyage of fifty days, reached the 
 American coast in the latitude of Wilming- 
 ton, North Carolina. Failing to find a good 
 harbor, he sailed southward for 150 miles, 
 
 and then turned northward, examining the 
 coast as he proceeded on his journey. 
 
 An Earthly Paradise. 
 
 Verrazzani was surprised and delighted by 
 the appearance of the new country and its 
 inhabitants. The latter welcomed with hos 
 pitality the strangers whom they had not yet 
 learned to fear, and the Europeans, on their 
 part, regarded with wonder the " russet"- 
 colored natives in their dress of skins orna- 
 mented with feathers. Judging from the 
 accounts which they carried to Europe, the 
 voyagers regarded the country as a sort of 
 terrestrial paradise. " Their imagination 
 could not conceive of more delightful fields 
 and forests ; the groves spreading perfumes 
 far from the shore, gave promise of the spices 
 of the East ; and the color of the earth 
 argued an abundance of gold." The harbors 
 of New York and Newport were carefully 
 explored, and in the latter the voyagers 
 remained fifteen days. 
 
 They then proceeded along the New 
 England coast to Nova Scotia, and still farther 
 to the north. They found the natives here less 
 friendly than those farther south. A Portu- 
 guese commander, Gaspar Cortereal, had 
 visited their coast a few years before, and 
 had carried away some of their number and 
 sold them into slavery. 
 
 Returning to France, Verrazzani published 
 an account of his voyage. This narrative 
 forms the earliest original description now in 
 existence of the American coast, and added 
 very much to the knowledge of the Euro- 
 peans concerning this country. France at 
 a subsequentperiod based, upon Verrazzani's 
 discoveries, her claim to the whole coast ol 
 America from Newfoundland to South Car- 
 olina. The French, however, were not des- 
 tined to obtain a foothold in the new world. 
 
 The struggle in which Francis I. was 
 engaged with the Emperor Charles V. pre- 
 
4 6 
 
 DISCOVERY OF THE WESTERN CONTINENT. 
 
 vented him from taking advantage of these 
 discoveries, and nothing was done with regard 
 to them by the French until ten years later, 
 when Chabot, Admiral of France, induced 
 King Francis to make another effort to 
 explore and colonize America. An expedi- 
 tion was fitted out, placed under the com- 
 mand of James Cartier, a mariner of St. Malo, 
 and despatched in April, 1534, for the pur- 
 pose of exploring the American coast with 
 a view to colonizing it. A quick voyage of 
 twenty days carried Cartier to Newfound- 
 land. Having passed through the straits of 
 Belleisle, he crossed the gulf and entered a 
 bay which lie named Des Chaleurs, from the 
 extreme heats he experienced there. 
 
 France Sends Out a Colony. 
 
 He proceeded along the coast as far as the 
 small inlet called Gaspe, where he landed 
 and took formal possession of the country in 
 the name of the king of France. Leaving 
 Gaspe Bay, Cartier discovered the great river 
 of Canada, and sailed up the stream until he 
 could see the land on either side. His 
 explorations consumed the months of May, 
 June and July. Being unprepared to pass the 
 winter in America, the fleet sailed for Europe. 
 
 The reports of Cartier concerning America 
 aroused the deepest interest in France, and 
 it was determined by the government to pro- 
 ceed at once to the founding of a colony in 
 the new world. A fleet of three well-equipped 
 ships was fitted out, and volunteers from 
 some of the noblest families in France were 
 not lacking. The whole company repaired 
 to the cathedral, where they received the 
 bishop's blessing, and on the nineteenth of 
 May, 1535, the expedition sailed from St. 
 Malo. The voyage was long and stormy, 
 but Newfoundland was reached at length. 
 Passing through the straits of Belleisle, they 
 entered the gulf lying west of Newfoundland 
 on the tenth of August, the festival of St. 
 
 Lawrence the Martyr, and gave to the gulf the 
 name of that saint, which was subsequently 
 applied to the great river emptying into it 
 
 A Beautiful Country. 
 
 The voyagers ascended the stream to the 
 island since called Orleans. There the fleet 
 anchored, while Cartier proceeded farther up 
 the river to the chief Indian settlement on the 
 island of Hochelega. It was the delightful 
 season of September, and the country was 
 beautiful and inviting. Cartier ascended a 
 hill at the foot of which the Indian settle- 
 ment lay, and gazed with admiration at the 
 magnificent region which spread out before 
 him. He named the hill Mont Real, or 
 Royal Mount, a name which is now borne by 
 the island and by the great city which marks 
 the site of Indian village. 
 
 The balminess of the autumn induced 
 Cartier to hope that the climate would prove 
 as mild as that of France ; but a rigorous 
 winter, which was rendered horrible by the 
 prevalence of scurvy among the ships' crews, 
 disheartened the whole expedition. The 
 winter was spent at the Isle of Orleans, and 
 in the early spring Cartier erected a cross on 
 the shore, to which was affixed a shield 
 inscribed with the arms of France and a 
 legend declaring Francis I. the true and 
 rightful king of the country. The fleet then 
 sailed for France, and arrived at St. Malo on 
 the sixth of July, 1536. Cartier published 
 a truthful account of his voyage, setting 
 forth the severity of the Canadian climate 
 and the absence of mines of precious metals. 
 His report checked for the time the enthu- 
 siasm with which the French had regarded 
 America, and for four years the plan of col- 
 onizing the new country was laid aside, and 
 all attempts were abandoned until a more 
 favorable opportunity should present itself. 
 
 Some ardent spirits, however, still believed 
 in the possibility of planting successful col- 
 onies in the new world and bringing that 
 
ENGLISH AND FRENCH DISCOVERIES. 
 
 47 
 
 vast region under the dominion of France. 
 Among these was Francis de la Roque, lord 
 of Roberval, a nobleman of Picardy. He 
 was appointed, by King Francis, Viceroy of 
 the territories on or near the gulf and river 
 of St. Lawrence, to which the high-sounding 
 name of Norimbega was given, and was 
 empowered to colonize it. The assistance of 
 Cartier was necessary to such an undertak- 
 ing, and he had the additional advantage of 
 possessing the entire confidence of 
 his royal master the king. 
 
 Roberval was forced to employ 
 him, and Cartier was given author- 
 ity by the king to search the prisons 
 and take from them such persons 
 as he needed for the expedition. 
 Roberval and Cartier, however, ... f * 
 
 failed to agree, and their dissensions J&M 
 defeated the object of the under- 
 taking. Cartier sailed from St. Malo 
 in May, 1541, and ascended the St. 
 Lawrence to a point near the pres- 
 ent city of Quebec, where he built 
 a fort. The winter was passed in 
 idleness and discord, and in the 
 spring of 1542 Cartier abandoned 
 the attempt, and sailed away for 
 France with his ships just as Rob- 
 erval arrived with a large reinforce- 
 ment, prepared to render aid. 
 
 Roberval was unable to accom- 
 plish more than Cartier. His new 
 subjects had been largely drawn 
 from the prisons, and they gave him con- 
 siderable trouble, if we may judge from the 
 efforts resorted to to keep them quiet. One 
 of them was hanged for theft during the 
 winter, several were put in irons, and a num- 
 ber of men and women were whipped. After 
 remaining in Canada for a year, Roberval 
 became disheartened, and re-embarked his 
 subjects and returned to France Thus 
 ended the attempt to colonize Canada. 
 
 Nearly thirty years passed away, during 
 which the French made no effort to secure 
 to themselves the region of the St. Law- 
 rence. Their fishermen, however, continued 
 to frequent the American waters. By the 
 close of the sixteenth century one hundred 
 and fifty vessels were engaged in the fisheries 
 of Newfoundland, and voyages for the pur- 
 pose of trading with the Indians had become 
 common. In 1598 the Marquis de la Roche, 
 
 £^{ONjhT 
 
 SAMUEL CHAMPLAIN. 
 
 a nobleman of Brittany, attempted to plant 
 a colony on the Isle of Sable. The colonists 
 consisted of criminals from the prisons of 
 France, and the effort proved a failure, as 
 might have been expected from the outset. 
 In 1600, Chauvin obtained a patent from 
 the crown, conferring upon him a monopoly 
 of the fur trade, and Pontgrave, a merchant 
 of St. Malo, became his partner in the enter- 
 prise. Two successful voyages were made 
 
48 
 
 DISCOVERY OF THE WESTERN CONTINENT. 
 
 to Canada, and Chauvin intended founding a 
 colony there. His death, in 1602, prevented 
 the execution of this plan. 
 
 In 1603, a company of merchants of Rouen 
 was organized, and Samuel Champlain, an 
 able and experienced officer of the French 
 lavy, was placed in charge of an expedition, 
 
 CABOT ON THE SHORES OF LABRADOR 
 
 and sent to Canada to explore the country. 
 He was in every way qualified for the task 
 committed to him, and after making a thor- 
 ough and systematic examination of the 
 region of the St. Lawrence, and fixing upon 
 Quebec as the proper site for a fort, returned 
 
 to France, and laid before his employers his 
 report, which is still valuable for its accurate 
 description of the country and the manners 
 of the natives. 
 
 Soon after Champlain's return to France, 
 a patent was issued to Des Monts, conferring! 
 upon him the sole right to colonize the vast 
 region lying between the fortieth 
 and forty-sixth parallels of latitude. 
 As this territory embraced the St. 
 Lawrence region, the Rouen com- 
 pany were unable for the present to 
 accomplish anything. Des Monts 
 proceeded with his preparations, 
 and in March, 1604, an expedition, 
 consisting of two ships, was sent 
 out to Acadie or Nova Scotia. 
 The summer was passed in trading 
 wilh the Indians and exploring the 
 coast, and in the autumn the col- 
 onists made a settlement on the 
 island of St. Croix, at the mouth of 
 the river of the same name. 
 
 In the spring of 1605, they aban- 
 doned this settlement and removed 
 to Port Royal, now known as An- 
 napolis. Efforts were made to find a 
 more southern location in the latter 
 part of 1605 and 1606, but the ex- 
 peditions sent out for this purpose 
 were driven back by storms or 
 wrecked among the shoals of Cape 
 Cod, and the colonists decided to 
 remain at Port Royal. Thus the 
 permanency of the colony was estab- 
 lished. Some years later a number 
 of Jesuit missionaries were sent out 
 to Port Royal. These labored dili- 
 gently among the tribes between the Penob- 
 scot and the Kennebec, and not only spread 
 the Christian faith among them, but won for 
 the French the constant affection of the, 
 savages. During all her contests with the 
 English in America, these tribes remained 
 
THE VOYAGES OF COLUMBUS 
 
 49 
 
 the faithful ana unwavering allies of France. 
 In 1613 a French colony was planted on the 
 eastern shore of Mount Desert. The settle- 
 ment was named St. Sauveur, and became 
 another centre of missionary enterprise 
 among the savages of Maine. 
 
 In the meantime the French merchants 
 had succeeded in obtaining a revocation of 
 the impolitic monopoly of Des Monts. A 
 company of merchants of St. Malo and 
 Dieppe was formed, and an expedition was 
 sent out to Canada under Champlain, who 
 " aimed not at the profits of trade, but 
 at the glory of founding a state." On the 
 third of July, 1608, the city of Quebec 
 was begun by the erection of one or two 
 "ottages. 
 
 In 1609, Champlain, with but two Euro- 
 peans, joined a party of Hurons from Mon- 
 treal, and Algonquins from Quebec, in an 
 expedition against the Five Nations. He 
 ascended the Sorel, explored the lake 
 which is now called by his name, and exam- 
 ; ned a considerable part of northern New 
 York. The religious disputes of France 
 spread to the colony, and Champlain was 
 obliged to use all his energy and authority 
 to overcome the evils which these inflicted 
 upon the infant settlement. He succeeded 
 in overcoming them, and by his energy and 
 perseverance the fortunes of Quebec were 
 placed beyond the reach of failure. Cham- 
 plain died in 1635, and was buried in " New 
 France," of which he is called " the father.'' 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 
 The Spaniards in America 
 
 >ettlement of the West Indies — Discovery of the Pacific Ocean — Voyage of Magellan — Discovery or Florida— Ponce d« 
 Leon's Search for the Fountain of Youth — Vasquez de Ayllon Kidnaps a Cargo of Indians- — tiitort of Pamphilc de 
 Narvaez to Conquer Florida — A Terrible March — The Voyage on the Gulf of Mexico — Fate ot tne Fleet — Escape of 
 Cabeza de Vaca and his Comrades — Discovery of New Mexico — Fernando de Soto — Obtains leave to Conquer Florida 
 — Sails from Spain — Arrival in Cuba — Departure for Florida — Landing at Tampa Bay — Events of the First Year — De 
 Soto enters Georgia — Decends the Alabama — Battle of Mavilla — Destruction of Chickasaw — Sufferings of the Spaniards 
 — Discovery of the Mississippi — The Spaniards Cross the Great River — De Soto in Arkansas — Reaches the Mississippi 
 again — Sickness and Death of De Soto — His Burial — Escape of his Followers to Mexico — The Huguenot Colony in 
 Carolina — Its Failure — The French Settle in Florida — Wrath of Philip II. — Melendez ordered to Exterminate the 
 Huguenots — Foundation of St Augustine — Massacre of the French at Fort Carolina — The Vengeance of De Gourges. 
 
 WHILE the French were seek- 
 ing to obtain a footing in the 
 north, the Spaniards were 
 busy in the south. In the 
 first years of the sixteenth century the 
 more important of the West India Islands 
 were subdued and colonized, and from 
 these, expeditions were from time to time 
 sent out to explore the shores of the 
 Gulf of Mexico. The southern part of the 
 peninsula of Yucatan was explored, and a 
 colony was established on the Isthmus of 
 Darien. One of the governors of this colony 
 was Vasco Nunez de Balboa. In 1 5 1 3, while 
 searching the Isthmus for gold, he discovered 
 the Pacific Ocean, and took possession of it 
 in the name of the king of Spain. 
 
 In 1520, a Portuguese navigator named 
 Magellan, employed by the king of Spain, 
 passed through the straits north of Cape 
 Horn, which bear his name, and entered the 
 Western ocean, which he named the Pacific, 
 because it was so calm and free from storms. 
 He died on the voyage, but his ship reached 
 the coast of Asia, and returned thence to 
 
 Spain by the Cape of Good Hope, thus 
 So 
 
 making the first voyage around the world, 
 and establishing its spherical form beyond 
 dispute. 
 
 In 15 13, Juan Ponce de Leon, who had 
 oeen a companion of Columbus on his sec- 
 ond voyage, and had been governor of Porto 
 Rico, fitted out three ships at his own 
 expense to make a voyage of discovery. He 
 had heard the reports which were then com 
 monly believed by his countrymen, tha' 
 somewhere in the new world was a fountain 
 flowing in the midst of a country sparkling 
 with gold and gems, whose waters would 
 give perpetual youth to the man who should 
 drink of and bathe in them. 
 
 Ponce de Leon was an old man, and he 
 longed to taste again the pleasures and the 
 dreams of youth. He gave a willing ear to 
 the stories of this wonderful fountain, and in 
 March, 15 13, set sail from Porto Rico in 
 search of it. He sailed among the Bahamas, 
 but failed to find it, and on Easter Sunday, 
 which the Spaniards call Pascua Florida, 
 land was discovered. It was supposed to be 
 an island, but was in reality the long south- 
 ern peninsula of the United States. Ponce 
 
THE SPANIARDS IN AMERICA. 
 
 51 
 
 de Leon gave it the name of Florida — which 
 it has since borne — partly in honor of the 
 day, and partly because of the beauty of its 
 flowers and foliage. The weather was very 
 bad, and it was some days before he could 
 go ashore. He landed near the site of St. 
 Augustine, and took possession of the coun- 
 try for Spain on the eighth of April, 15 13. 
 He remained many weeks on the coast, 
 exploring it, and sailing southward, doubled 
 Cape Florida, and cruised among the Tor- 
 tugas. He failed to 
 find the fountain of 
 youth and returned in 
 despair to Porto Rico. 
 The king of Spain 
 rewarded his discov- 
 ery by appointing him 
 governor of Florida, 
 on condition that he 
 should colonize the 
 country. 
 
 A few years later he 
 attempted to plant a 
 colony in Florida, but 
 was attacked by the 
 Indians, who were 
 very hostile, and driv- 
 en to his ships with 
 the loss of a number 
 of his men. Ponce de 
 Leon himself received 
 a painful wound, and 
 
 returned to Cuba to die. He had staked his 
 life upon the search for perpetual youth ; 
 he found only a grave. 
 
 Between the years 15 18 and 1521, the 
 expeditions of Hernando Cortez against 
 Mexico, and of Francesco Pizarro against 
 Peru, were despatched from Cuba. They 
 resulted in the conquest of those countries 
 and their colonization by Spain. These expe- 
 ditions, however, form no part of this narra- 
 tive, and we cannot dwell upon them. 
 
 The native population of the West Indies 
 died out rapidly under the cruel rule of the 
 Spaniards, and it soon became necessary to 
 look elsewhere for a supply of laborers for 
 the plantations and the mines. In 1520, 
 Lucas Vasquez de Ayllon, at the head of a 
 company of seven Spaniards, fitted out a fleet 
 of two slave-ships from St. Domingo or His- 
 paniola, for the deliberate purpose of seizing 
 the natives of the mainland and selling them 
 as slaves. The vessels went first to the 
 
 THE COAST OF FLORIDA. 
 
 Bahamas, from which they sailed to the North 
 American coast, reaching it at or near St. 
 Helena sound, in the present State of South 
 Carolina. The Indians had not yet learned 
 to fear the whites, and were utterly unsus- 
 picious of the fate which awaited them. They 
 were timid at first, but this feeling was soon 
 overcome by the distribution of presents 
 among them. Their confidence being won, 
 they received the Spaniards with kindness, 
 and at their request visited the ships. 
 
DISCOVERY OF THE WESTERN CONTINENT. 
 
 When the decks of the vessels were cov- 
 ered with the unsuspecting natives Vasquez 
 made sail, and standing out to sea steered for 
 the West Indies, regardless of the entreaties 
 of the natives who were thus torn from their 
 friends and relatives on the shore. A retrib- 
 itive justice speedily avenged this crime. 
 A violent storm arose and one of the ships 
 foundered with all on board. A pestilence 
 broke out in the remaining vessel, and swept 
 "way many of the captives. Returning to 
 
 HERNANDO CORTEZ. 
 
 Spain, Vasquez boasted of his infamous deed, 
 and even claimed a reward for it at the hands 
 of the Emperor Charles V., who acknow- 
 ledged his claim, and appointed him governor 
 of Chicora, as South Carolina was called, with 
 vuthority to conquer that country. Vasquez 
 spent his entire fortune in fitting out an expe- 
 dition, and reached the coast of Chicora in 
 
 1525. 
 
 There he met with nothing but misfortune. 
 His largest ship was stranded in the Com- 
 
 bahee River, then called by the whites the 
 River Jordan, and so many of his men were 
 killed by the Indians that he was obliged to 
 abandon the undertaking. He returned to 
 Europe to die of grief and mortification for 
 his failure. " It may be," says Bancroft., 
 " that ships sailing under his authority made 
 the discovery of the Chesapeake and named 
 it the Bay of St. Mary ; and perhaps even en- 
 tered the Bay of Delaware, which in Spanish 
 geography was called Saint Christopher's." 
 
 Adventurers Seeking Fortune. 
 
 In 1526, Pamphilo de Narvaez obtained 
 from the Emperor Charles V. authority to 
 explore and conquer all the country be- 
 tween the Atlantic and the River of Palms. 
 He was very wealthy, and spent his entire 
 estate in preparation for the expedition. 
 There was no lack of volunteers, and many 
 younger sons of nobles joined him, hoping 
 to find lame and fortune in the new world. 
 Among the adventurers was Cabeza de Vaca 
 the historian of the expedition, who held 
 the second place in it as treasurer. Narvaez 
 sailed from the Guadalquivir in June, 1527, 
 touched at St. Domingo, and passed the 
 winter in Cuba. In the spring of 1528, he 
 was driven by a strong south wind to the 
 American coast, and on the fourteenth of 
 April his fleet cast anchor in Tampa Bay. 
 A week later he landed and took possession 
 of the peninsula of Florida in the name of 
 Spain. 
 The natives showed unmistakable signs of 
 hostility, but they exhibited to the governor 
 samples of gold, which he believed, from 
 their signs, came from the north. In spite 
 of the earnest advice of Cabeza de Vaca, he 
 determined to go in search of the precious 
 metal. He directed his ships to meet him at 
 a harbor with which his pilot pretended to be 
 acquainted, and then, at the head of three 
 hundred men, forty of whom were mounted, 
 
THE SPANIARDS IN AMERICA. 
 
 53 
 
 set off into the interior of the country, fto 
 one knew whither he was going, but all be- 
 lieved that each step led them nearer to the 
 land ot gold. 
 
 The beauty of the forest, the richness of its 
 vegetation, and the size of its gigantic live- 
 oaks, filled them with wonder and admira- 
 tion, and the variety and abundance of the 
 birds and wild beasts of the country excited 
 their surprise ; but they found neither the 
 gold nor the splendid cities they had fondly 
 believed they were about to discover. The 
 forest grew denser and more intricate at every 
 step, and the rivers were broad and deep, 
 with swift currents, and could be crossed 
 only by means of rafts, which were con- 
 structed with great difficulty. The march 
 lay through swamps, in which the Indian 
 warriors harassed the strangers painfully, 
 and, their provisions becoming exhausted, 
 they began to suffer with hunger. Late in 
 June they reached Appalachee, which they 
 had supposed was a large and wealthy city. 
 They found it only a hamlet of some forty 
 poor wigwams; but remained there twenty- 
 live days, searching the neighboring country 
 for gold and silver, and finding none. 
 
 A Perilous Voyage. 
 
 It was plain now even to the governor that 
 there was no gold to be found in this region, 
 ind every nerve was strained to hasten the 
 march to the harbor where they had ap- 
 pointed to meet the ships. There was but 
 one impulse now in the whole expedition — 
 to escape from the terrible country which was 
 proving so fatal to them. After a painful 
 march they reached a bay which they called 
 the Raia de Caballos, now the harbor of St. 
 Marks. The ships could not be seen, and it 
 was resolved at once to build boats and 
 attempt to reach some of the Spanish pos- 
 sessions by sea= The horses were slain to 
 furnish food, and several hundred bushels of 
 
 corn were seized trom the Indians. Subsist- 
 ing upon these supplies, the Spaniards beat 
 their spurs, stirrups, cross-bows, and othet 
 implements into saws and axes and nails, and 
 in sixteen days built five boats, each more 
 than thirty feet long. Pitch for the calking 
 of the boats was made from the pine trees, 
 and the fibre of the palmetto served as 
 oakum. Ropes were made of twisted horse- 
 hair and palmetto fibres, and the shirts of the 
 men were pieced together for sails. Fifty 
 men had been lost on the march, and on the 
 twenty-second of September the survivors, 
 two hundred and fifty in number, began their 
 perilous voyage. 
 
 The Fleet Scattered by a Storm. 
 
 They followed the shore, encountering 
 many dangers, and suffering greatly .from 
 hunger and thirst. On the thirtieth o / 
 October they discovered one of the mouthf 
 of Jthe Mississippi, and on the fifth of Novem 
 ber a storm scattered the little fleet. Cabez; 
 de Vaca's boat was wrecked upon an island 
 which is believed to be that of Galveston. 
 Castillo's boat was driven ashore farther to 
 the east, but he and his crew were saved 
 alive. Of the fate of the other boats noth- 
 ing is known with certainty. Of those who 
 were cast ashore, all but Cabeza de Vaca. 
 Dorantes, Castillo, and Estevanico, a negro, 
 died of exposure and hardship. These four 
 were detained captives among the Indians 
 for nearly six years. 
 
 At the end of this period, Cabeza induced 
 his companions to join him in an attempt to 
 escape. In September, 1534, they set out, 
 naked, ignorant of the way, and without any 
 means of sustaining life. In this condition 
 these men accomplished the wonderful feat 
 of traversing the continent. The journey 
 occupied upwards of twenty months, and 
 extended from the coast of Texas to the 
 Canadian River, and thence into New 
 
54 
 
 DISCOVERY OF THE WESTERN CONTINENT. 
 
 Mexico, from which they continued their 
 way to the village of San Miguel, in Sonora, 
 near the Pacific Ocean. They reached this 
 village in May, 1536, and found themselves 
 again among their countrymen. They were 
 escorted to Compostella by Spanish soldiers, 
 and from that place were forwarded to the 
 City of Mexico by the authorities. 
 
 Fabulous Tales of Gold. 
 
 The reports of Cabeza and his compan- 
 ions made the Viceroy Mendoza anxious to 
 send out an expedition to explore New 
 Mexico, which was believed to be richer in 
 wealth and splendid cities than Mexico itself. 
 A Franciscan friar boasted that he had vis- 
 ited a region in the interior named Cibola, 
 the Land of Buffaloes, in which were seven 
 splendid cities. He declared that the land 
 A r as rich in silver and gold, and that his In- 
 dian guides had described to him a region 
 still wealthier. The friar's story was religi- 
 ously believed, and an expedition set out in 
 1539, under command of Francisco Vasquez 
 Coronado, the governor of New Galicia. 
 
 The expedition explored the region of the 
 Colorado, examined the country now known 
 as New Mexico, and penetrated as far east as 
 the present Sate of Kansas. Coronado 
 found neither gold nor precious stones, and 
 the only cities he discovered were the towns 
 of the Zuni Indians of New Mexico. He 
 reported to the viceroy on his return to 
 Mexico that the region was not fit to be col- 
 onized, and his description of the country 
 through which he marched is so accurate as 
 to challenge the admiration of every suc- 
 ceeding traveler. 
 
 Still the Spaniards refused to abandon the 
 belief that fabulous wealth was to be found 
 in the interior of the continent ; and even 
 those who had borne a part in the conquest of 
 Mexico and Peru gave credit to the wild 
 stories that were told concerning the undis- 
 
 covered regions. Among those who gave 
 such implicit faith to' these stories was Fer- 
 nando de Soto, of Xeres, a veteran soldier, 
 who had served with distinction with Pizarro 
 in the conquest of Peru, and had amassed a 
 considerable fortune from the spoils of that 
 province. The fame and wealth acquired by 
 him in this expedition opened the way to 
 other successes in Europe. He was honored 
 with the favor of the Emperor Charles V. r 
 and received the hand of a noble lady in 
 marriage. Eager to distinguish himself still 
 further, he determined to attempt the con- 
 quest of Florida. He demanded and re- 
 ceived from the emperor permission to 
 undertake this at his own cost, and was also 
 made governor of Cuba and all the terri- 
 tories he should conquer. As soon as he 
 made known his intentions applications for 
 leave to serve in the expedition poured in 
 upon him. Many of the volunteers were of 
 noble birth, and sold their lands and 
 other property to equip themselves for the 
 undertaking. 
 
 Adventures of De Soto. 
 
 De Soto selected six hundred well 
 equipped men from the number who had 
 volunteered, and in 1538 sailed from Spain to 
 Cuba, where he was welcomed with great 
 rejoicings. A vessel was despatched from 
 Cuba to find a harbor in Florida suitable for 
 the landing of the expedition. On its return 
 it brought two Indian captives, who per- 
 ceiving what was wanted of them, told by 
 signs such stories of the wealth of the country 
 as greatly delighted the governor and his 
 companions. Volunteers in Cuba swelled 
 the ranks of the expedition to nearly one 
 thousand men, of whom three hundred were 
 horsemen. 
 
 In May, 1539, leaving his wife to govern 
 the island, De Soto sailed with his fleet for 
 Florida, and a fortnight later landed at Espi- 
 
THE SPANIARDS IN AMERICA. 
 
 55 
 
 ritu Santo, now Tampa Bay. Everything 
 had been pi ovided which the foresight of an 
 experienced commander deemed necessary, 
 and De Soto, in order to remove any tempta- 
 tion to retreat, sent his ships back to Cuba. 
 He iiever dreamed of failure, for he believed 
 that at the most the task before him would 
 not be more difficult than those which had 
 been accomplished by Cortez and Pizarro. 
 After a brief halt at Tampa Bay the march 
 into the interior was begun. It was long 
 and tedious, and was full of danger. The 
 Indians were hostile, and the guides con- 
 stantly led the Spaniards astray, and plunged 
 them into difficult swamps. The guides were 
 instantly given to the bloodhounds, and torn 
 in pieces by the ferocious animals ; but not 
 even this dreadful punishment was sufficient 
 to prevent a renewal of such acts. Before 
 the close of the first season the whole com- 
 pany, save the governor, had become con- 
 vinced that their hope of finding gold was 
 vain, and they besought De Soto to return 
 to Cuba. He sternly refused to abandon the 
 effort, and pushed on to the country of the 
 Appalachians, east of the Flint River, and not 
 far from the Bay of Appalachee. The winter 
 was passed in this region, and a scouting 
 party during this season discovered Pensacola. 
 In the spring of 1540 the march was 
 resumed. An Indian guide promised to con- 
 duct the Spaniards to a country abounding 
 in gold and governed by a woman, and he 
 described the process of refining gold so ac- 
 curately that De Soto believed his story. It 
 is possible that the Indian may have referred 
 to the gold region of North Carolina. One 
 of the guides told the governor plainly that 
 he knew of no such country as his companion 
 had described, and De Soto had him burned 
 for what he supposed was his falsehood. 
 The Indians, terrified by his fate, from this 
 time invented all manner of fabulous stories 
 to excite the cupidity of the Spaniards. De 
 
 Soto, with a singular perversity, field to his 
 belief that he would yet realize his hopes, 
 and continued to push on long after his men 
 had become disheartened ; and so great was 
 his influence over them that in their deepest 
 despondency he managed to inspire them 
 with something of his own courage and 
 hopefulness. 
 
 FERNANDO DE SOTO. 
 
 Instead of conciliating the Indians, the 
 Spaniards seized their provisions, and pro- 
 voked their hostility in numberless ways 
 They treated their captives with the greatest 
 cruelty. They cut off the hands of the poor 
 Indians, burned them at the stake, or turned 
 them over to the bloodhounds, who tore 
 them in pieces. They were chained together 
 by the neck, and forced to carry the baggage 
 and provisions of the troops. The march 
 was now into the interior of Georgia, as far as 
 the headwaters of the Chattahoochee, from 
 which the Spaniards passed to the head- 
 waters of the Coosa. Here they turned to 
 
56 
 
 discovery of the western continent. 
 
 the southwest, and marched through Ala- 
 bama to the junction of the Alabama and 
 Tombigbee Rivers. 
 
 At this, point there was a lar^s and 
 strongly fortified town called Mavilla, or 
 Mobile, a name which has since be n given 
 to the river and bay. The town consisted 
 of" eighty handsome houses, each sufficiently 
 capacious to contain a thousand men. They 
 were encompassed by a high wall, made of 
 immense trunks of trees, set deep in the 
 ground and close together, strengthened 
 with cross-timbers and interwoven with large 
 vines." It was the middle of October when 
 Mavilla was reached, and the Spaniards tf red 
 of living in the open country so long, wished 
 to occupy the town. The Indians resisted 
 them, and a desperate battle ensued, which 
 was won by the Spanish cavalry. The vic- 
 tory cost the whites dear, however, for the 
 town was burned J, mng the battle, and with 
 it all the baggage of the Spaniards was con- 
 sumed. The Indians fought with a desperate 
 bravery, and numbers of them were slain and 
 burned to death in the town, The Spaniards 
 had eighteen killed and one hundred and 
 fifty wounded ,• twelve horses were killed and 
 seventy-two wounded. 
 
 De Soto Presses On. 
 
 Ships had arrived in the meantime, a zo\, ■ 
 ingto appointment, at Pensacola, and by them 
 De Soto received letters from his wife. He 
 would send no news home, however. He 
 had not yet realized the objects of the expe- 
 dition, and he determined to send no news of 
 himself to his countrymen until he had found 
 or conquered some rich country. Turning 
 his back resolutely upon the ships, the gov- 
 ernor resumed his march to the northwest. 
 
 By the middle of December he reached the 
 northwestern part of the State of Mississippi, 
 and finding a deserted village in the country 
 of the Chickasaws, occupied it as the winter 
 
 quarters of the expedition. December, 1540 
 the winter was severe, and the ground was 
 covered with snow, but the corn was still 
 standing in the fields, and this furnished the 
 Spaniards with food. Their force was now 
 reduced to five hundred men, and it was evi 
 dent to all, except the governor, that they 
 would never find the cities or the wealth they 
 had set out to seek. 
 
 Discovery of the Mississippi. 
 
 With the opening of the spring of 1541 3 
 new disaster befell the Spaniards. De Soto, 
 as had been his custom with the other tribes, 
 demanded of the Chickasaw chief two hun- 
 dred men to carry the baggage of the troops. 
 The demand was refused, and that night the 
 Indians, deceiving the sentinels, set fire to the 
 village. The bewildered Spaniards were 
 aroused from their slumbers to meet a fierce 
 attack of the savages. The latter were re- 
 pulsed after a hard fight, but the whites were 
 left in an almost helpless condition. The 
 little they had saved from the flames at 
 Mavilla was destroyed in the burning village 
 Armor and weapons were rendered worth • 
 less, and scarcely any clothing was saved. 
 The troops were forced to resort to dresses 
 of skins and the long moss of the country 
 woven into mats. In this condition, they 
 suffered greatly from the cold. To supply 
 the weapons destroyed forges were erected, 
 and the swords were retempered and new 
 lances made. 
 
 Renewing their march the Spaniards 
 pushed on still farther west, and about the 
 second of May reached the banks of the 
 Mississippi, at a point a short distance below 
 the present city of Memphis. They were the 
 first white men to gaze upon the mighty 
 flood of this noble river, but De Soto had nc 
 admiration to express for it. It was only an 
 obstacle in his westward march, and would 
 require greater efforts for its passage than 
 
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 H 
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THE SPANIARDS IN AMERICA. 
 
 57 
 
 any stream he had yet encountered. A 
 month was passed on the banks of the river 
 in constructing barges large enough to hold 
 three horsemen each. At length they were 
 completed, and the Spaniards were trans- 
 ported in safety to the opposite shore. The 
 natives received them kindly, and presented 
 them with food, and regarding them as the 
 children of their god, the sun, brought to 
 them their sick to be healed, and their blind 
 to be restored to sight. The blunt soldier, 
 cruel as he had been to the savages, shrank 
 from claiming the power of heaven. ' ' Pray 
 only to God, who is in heaven, for whatso- 
 ever ye need," he answered. 
 
 Exploring the Country. 
 
 De Soto remained forty days on the west- 
 ern bank of the Mississippi, and during this 
 time an exploring party was sent to examine 
 the country to the north. They reported 
 that this region was thinly inhabited by 
 hunters, who lived by chnsing the bison, 
 which abounded in this region. The gover- 
 nor then turned to the west and northwest, 
 and advanced two hundred miles farther 
 into the interior of the continent, probably 
 to the highlands of the White River. 
 
 Then turning southward, he passed 
 through a succession of Indian tribes who 
 lived by cultivating the soil, and who enjoy- 
 ed a civilization superior to that of their 
 nomadic brethren. The winter was passed 
 near the Hot Springs of Arkansas. The 
 Indians west of the Mississippi were treated 
 with the same cruelties that had marked the 
 conduct of the Spaniards towards the sav- 
 ages east of that stream. "Any trifling 
 consideration of safety would induce the 
 governor to set fire to a hamlet. He did 
 not delight in cruelty, but the happiness, 
 the life and the rights of the Indians were 
 held of no account." 
 
 In the spring of 1542, De Soto determined 
 
 to descend the Washita to its mouth, and 
 endeavor to reach the sea. At last, after a 
 most arduous march, in which he frequently 
 lost his way amid the swamps and bayous of 
 the region, he reached the Mississippi. The 
 chieftain of this region could not tell him the 
 distance to the sea, but informed him that 
 the country along the lower river was a vast 
 and uninhabited swamp. An exploring 
 party was sent to descend the banks of the 
 river, and returned, after penetrating about 
 thirty miles in eight days, to confirm the 
 Indian's report. 
 
 Reaching the vicinity of Natchez, the 
 governor found the Indians prepared to con- 
 test his occupation of the town. He at- 
 tempted to overawe them by claiming to be 
 the child of the sun, their chief deity. The 
 chieftain answered him scornfully : "You 
 say you are the child of the sun Dry up 
 the river and I will believe you. Do you 
 desire to see me ? Visit the town where I 
 dwell. If you come in peace, I will receive 
 you with special good will ; if in war, I will 
 not shrink one foot back." The savages 
 were becoming more dangerous every day, 
 and the Spaniards less able to resist their 
 assaults. 
 
 Burial of De Soto. 
 
 De Soto was nowconquered. Itwasatlast 
 as plain to him as it had been all along to 
 his followers that the expedition was a failure. 
 He had spent three years in roaming over 
 the continent, and he had found neither the 
 cities nor the wealth he had hoped for. His 
 magnificent anticipations had disappeared; 
 his little army was reduced to a mere hand- 
 ful of the splendid force that had left Cuba; 
 and he was in the midst of a region from 
 which he could see no escape. A deep mel- 
 ancholy took the place of the stern pride 
 that had hitherto marked his demeanor, 
 and his heart was torn by a conflict of 
 
c8 
 
 DISCOVERY OF THE WESTERN CONTINENT. 
 
 ?motions. His nealth gave way rapidly, and 
 ne was seized with a violent fever. 
 
 When informed by his medical attendant 
 chat his end was at hand, he expressed his 
 resignation to the will of God, and at the 
 request of his men appointed Louis de 
 Mocoso his successor, and advised him to 
 continue the expedition. He died on the 
 fifth of June, 1542. In order to conceal his 
 death from the savages, who had come to 
 regard him as immortal, his body was 
 trapped in a mantle, and in the silence of 
 midnight was rowed out into the middle of 
 the Mississippi. There, amid the darkness 
 and the wailing requiems of the priests, the 
 mortal remains of Fernando de Soto were 
 committed to the great river h~ had dis- 
 covered. 
 
 Harrassed by the Indian.. 
 
 The Spaniards at once prepared to disre- 
 gard the advice of their dead leader, and 
 resolved to set out across the country for 
 Mexico, believing it less dangerous to go by 
 land than by sea. They roused the whole 
 country against them by their barbarous 
 treatment of the people, and, having pro- 
 ceeded upwards of three hundred miles west 
 of the Mississippi, were driven back to that 
 stream by the savages. It now became 
 necessary to build vessels and descend the 
 river. Seven of these were constructed with 
 great difficulty, and amidst the constant 
 hostility of the Indians. They were frail 
 barks, without decks, and in order to con- 
 struct them the Spaniards were obliged to 
 beat their weapons, and even their stirrups, 
 spurs and bridles into saws, axes and nails. 
 
 During this period they suffered greatly 
 from the lack of clothing, for it was the 
 winter season. They obtained provisions by 
 plundering the granaries of the neighboring 
 tribes, and thus dooming many of the sav- 
 ages to death by starvation. On the first of 
 
 July, 1543, they embarked in their vessels, 
 their number being now reduced to about 
 two hundred and fifty, and began the descent 
 of the river. Their progress was harassed 
 at every mile by the Indians, who covered 
 the stream with their canoes and kept up an 
 almost constant assault upon the fleet. On 
 the eighteenth of July, the vessels entered the 
 Gulf of Mexico, and by the tenth of Septem- 
 ber the Mexican coast was reached. The 
 vessels succeeded in gaining the Spanish set- 
 tlement of Panuco, where the survivors were 
 hospitably received by their countrymen. 
 
 Ribault's Expedition. 
 
 The failure of Narvaez and De Soto pre- 
 vented the Spaniards from making any 
 further attempt for many years to colonize 
 the Florida coast. The next effort to found 
 a settlement in that region was by the French. 
 The religious wars which had distracted 
 France for so many years made the great 
 Huguenot leader, Coligny, Admiral of France, 
 anxious to provide in the new world a refuge 
 to which his persecuted brethren of the faith 
 might fly in times of danger, and be free to 
 worship God after the dictates of their own 
 conscience. He succeeded in obtaining 
 authority for this undertaking from Charles 
 IX., and in 1 562 an expedition was despatched 
 to America under the command of Jean 
 Ribault, a Protestant. Ribault was instructed 
 to avoid the more rigorous climate of Cana- 
 da, and to select a southern location for the 
 colony. Land was made in May, 1562, in 
 the vicinity of St. Augustine, Florida, and 
 the fleet anchored in Port Royal Harbor, 
 
 Ribault was delighted with the noble har- 
 bor, which he believed to be the outlet of a 
 large river, and with the beauty and richness 
 of the country. A fort was built on an 
 island in the harbor, and called Carolina, 
 which name was also applied to the country 
 in honor of Charles IX. of France. A force 
 
THE SPANIARDS IN AMERICA. 
 
 59 
 
 O*" twenty-five men was left to garrison the 
 fort, and Ribault returned to France to report 
 his success and bring 1 out reinforcements for 
 the colony. He reached France in the 
 midst of the civil war, which prevented any 
 attention being paid to the colony. The 
 garrison of Fort Carolina waited in vain for 
 the promised reinforcements and supplies, 
 and at last, becoming disheartened, built a 
 
 In 1564 there was a lull in the struggle 
 between the contending parties in France, 
 and Coligny took advantage of it to renew 
 his efforts to colonize America. Three ships 
 were furnished by the king, and were placed 
 in command of Laudonniere,who had accom- 
 panied Ribault in the first expedition. Emi- 
 grants volunteered readily, and the required 
 number was soon completed. In order to 
 
 THE SPANIARDS DESCENDING THE MISSISSIPPI AFTER THE DEATH OF DE SOTO. 
 
 brigantine and set sail for their own country. 
 Their provisions soon gave out, and they 
 began to suffer the horrors of famine. When 
 they were nearly exhausted, they were res- 
 cued by an English vessel, which set the 
 most feeble upon the coast of France, but 
 carried the remainder to England. In 
 both countries the colonists spread their 
 accounts of the beauty and fertility of 
 Carolina. 
 
 obtain reliable information concerning the 
 country, Coligny sent out with the expedi- 
 tion a skillful painter, James le Moyne, called 
 Des Morgues, with orders to make accurate 
 colored sketches of the region. The fleet 
 sailed on the twenty-second of April, 1564, 
 and on the twenty-second of June reached 
 the coast of Florida. Avoiding Port Royal, 
 the site of the first colony, the colonists chose 
 a location in Florida, on the banks of the 
 
fio 
 
 DISCOVERY OF Tri^ WESTERN CONTINENT. 
 
 St. John's then" called the River May. A 
 fort was built, and called, like the first, Caro- 
 lina. 
 
 The colony was begun with prayers aid 
 songs of thanksgiving, but the bulk of the 
 colonists were by no means religious men. 
 Their true character soon began to appear. 
 They wasted the supplies they had brought 
 with them, as well as those they succeeded 
 m extorting from the Indians, whom they 
 alienated by their cruelties. Mutinies were 
 frequent. The majority of the men had 
 joined the enterprise in the hope of acquiring 
 sudden wealth, and, finding their hopes vain, 
 resolved to abandon the colony. They com- 
 pelled Laudonniere to sign an order allowing 
 them to embark for New Spain, vender the 
 pretext of wishing to avoid a famine, and at 
 once equipped two vessels and began a career 
 of piracy against the Spaniards. Their ves- 
 sels were soon captured, and the pirates were 
 sold as slaves. A few escaped in a boat and 
 took refuge at Fort Carolina. Laudonniere 
 caused them to be hanged ; but their out- 
 rages had already drawn upon the colony the 
 bitter hostility of the Spaniards. 
 
 Beginning of the Slave-Traffic. 
 
 Famine now began to be felt by the lit- 
 tle settlement, and as month after month 
 passed by the sufferings of the colonists in 
 creased. The natives, who were at first 
 friendly, had been rendered hostile by the 
 cruel treatment they had received from the 
 French, and no provisions could be obtained 
 from them. On the third of August, 1565, 
 Sir John Hawkins, an English commander, 
 arrived with several ships from the West 
 Indies, where he had just sold a cargo cf 
 negro slaves whom he had kidnapped in their 
 native Africa. He is said to have been 
 the first Englishman who engaged in this 
 infamous traffic. He proved himself a 
 generous friend to the suffering colonists.. 
 
 however, and supplied them with provisions 
 and gave them one of his own ships. They 
 had suffered too much to be content with 
 this, and were resolved to adandon the settle- 
 ment. They were on the point of embark- 
 ing in the ship furnished them by Sir John, 
 when 3 fleet of several vessels was discovered 
 standing into the river. It was the squadron 
 of Ribault, with reinforcements and all the 
 supplies necessary for founding a permanent 
 settlement. The despair of the colonists was 
 changed to rejoicing, and all were now will- 
 ing to remain in the colony. 
 
 Thrilling Events in Florida. 
 
 When the news of the planting of the 
 "French colony in Florida reached Philip II. 
 of Spain, he was greatly incensed. Florida 
 was a part of his dominions, and he not only 
 resented the intrusion of the French, but 
 could not tolerate the idea of allowing a 
 Protestant colony to enjoy its settlement in 
 peace. He determined at once to exterminate 
 the heretics, and for this purpose employed 
 Pedro Melendez de Aviles, an officer who 
 had rendered himselfnotoriousforhis cruelty 
 when engaged against the pirates and in the 
 wars of Spanish America. His son and heir 
 having been shipwrecked among the Ber- 
 mudas, Melendez desired to return to 
 America to search for him. 
 
 Philip, who knew his desperate character, 
 suggested to him the conquest of Florida, and 
 an agreement was entered into between the 
 king and Melendez, by which the latter was 
 to invade and conquer Florida within three 
 years, and establish in that region a colony 
 of not Jess than five hundred persons, of 
 whom one hundred should be married men, 
 twelve priests of the Catholic Church and 
 four members of the order of the Jesuits. 
 Melendez also agreed to transport to Flonda 
 all kinds of domestic animals, and five Kin- 
 dred negro slaves. All this was to be done 
 
THE SPANIARDS IN AMERICA. 
 
 61 
 
 by Melendez at his own cost, and he was 
 secured by the king in the government of the 
 province for life with the privilege of naming 
 his successor, and was granted large estates 
 in the province and a comfortable salary. 
 
 Though the destruction of the French 
 colony was not named in the agreement, 
 Philip and Melendez understood each other 
 3n that point. The cry was at once raised 
 in Spain that the heretics must be extermin- 
 ated, and Melandez had no trouble in obtain- 
 ing recruits. Twenty-five hundred persons 
 gathered under his orders, " soldiers, sailors, 
 priests, Jesuits, married men with their fami- 
 lies, laborers and mechanics, and, with the 
 exception of three hundred soldiers, all at the 
 cost of Melendez." 
 
 Escape of the French Fleet. 
 
 The expedition sailed in June, 1565, but 
 the vessels were parted by a storm, and Mel- 
 endez reached Porto Rico in August with 
 but a third of his force. Unwilling to lose 
 time, however, he sailed at once to the main- 
 land, and arrived off the coast of Florida on 
 the twenty-eighth of August. On the second 
 of September, he discovered a fine harbor and 
 river, and selected this place as the site of 
 his colony. He named the river and bay in 
 honor of St. Augustine, on whose festival he 
 had arrived off the Florida coast. Ascer- 
 taining from the Indians the position of the 
 French, he sailed to the northward, and on 
 the fourth of September arrived off Fort 
 Carolina, where a portion of Ribault's fleet 
 lay anchored in the roadstead. 
 
 The French commander demanded his name 
 and the object of his visit. He was answered : 
 " I am Melendez of Spain, sent with strict 
 orders from my king to gibbet and behead all 
 the Protestants in these regions. The French- 
 man who is a Catholic I will spare ; every 
 heretic shall die." The French fleet being 
 unprepared for battle, cut its cables and 
 
 stood out to sea. Melendez gave chase, but 
 failed to overtake it. Returning to the har- 
 bor of St. Augustine, he went on shore on 
 the eighth of September, and took possession 
 of the country in the name of Phillip II. of 
 Spain, who was proclaimed monarch of all 
 North America. A solemn mass was said 
 and the foundations of the town of St. Augus 
 tine were laid. Thus was established the 
 first permanent town within the limits of the 
 United States. This task accomplished, 
 Melendez prepared to attack Fort Carolina 
 by land. 
 
 Ribault had returned with his ships to 
 Fort Carolina after escaping from the Span 
 iards. A council of war was held, and it was 
 debated among the French whether they 
 should strengthen their works and await the 
 approach of the enemy, or proceed to St. 
 Augustine and attack them with the fleet. 
 Ribault supposed that Melendez would attack 
 the fort by sea, and favored the latter plan, 
 but his officers opposed his design. Disre- 
 garding their advice, Ribault put to sea, but 
 had scarcely cleared the harbor when a 
 violent storm wrecked his entire fleet on the 
 Florida coast. Nearly all the men reached 
 the shore unharmed, about one hundred and 
 fifty miles south of Fort Carolina. 
 
 Terrible Massacre. 
 
 The wreck of the French fleet was known 
 to Melendez, and he resolved to strike a 
 blow a once at the fort, which he knew to be 
 in a defenceless state. Leading his men 
 through the forests and swamps, which lay 
 between the two settlements, he surprised 
 and captured the fort on the twenty-first of 
 September. Ever/ soul within the walls 
 including the aged, the women and children, 
 was put to death. A few escaped to the 
 woods before the capture of the fort, among 
 whom were Laudonniere, Challus and Le 
 Moyne. Their condition was pitiable. They 
 
62 
 
 DISCOVERY OF THE WESTERN CONTINENT. 
 
 could expect no mercy from the Spaniards, 
 and death awaited them in the forest. A 
 few gave themselves up to the S" aniards, and 
 were at once murdered ; the remainder suc- 
 ceeded in gaining the sea-shore, where they 
 were rescued by two French vessels which 
 had remained in the harbor and escaped the 
 storm. These immediately sailed for France. 
 The number of persons massacred by the 
 Spaniards at Fort Carolina amounted to 
 nearly two hundred. When the victims 
 were all dead, mass was said, a cross 
 raised, and a site selected for a church. Then 
 Melendez set out to find the survivors of 
 the shipwrecked fleet. They were discovered 
 in a helpless condition, worn out with fatigue, 
 hunger and thirst. Melendez promised to 
 treat them with kindness if they would sur- 
 render to him, and trusting to his plighted 
 word, they placed themselves in his hands. 
 They were at once seized and bound, and 
 marched towards St. Augustine. As they 
 approached the settlement a signal was given, 
 and the Spaniards fell upon them and mas- 
 sacred all but a few Catholics and some 
 mechanics, who were reserved as slaves. 
 French writers place the number of those 
 who perished in the two massacres at nine 
 hundred. The Spaniards gave a smaller 
 nurnbe/. On the scene of his barbarity, 
 Melendez set up this inscription : "I do not 
 this as unto Frenchmen, but as unto Lu- 
 therans." 
 
 In 1 566 Melendez attempted to plant a col- 
 ©ny on the shores of the Chesapeake Bay, but 
 the vessel despatched for this purpose met 
 such contrary winds that the crew abandoned 
 the effort to reach the bay, and sailed for 
 Spain. Melendez, the next year, returned to 
 
 Spain, having spent his fortune in establish* 
 ing the colony of St. Augustine, from which 
 he had derived no benefit. 
 
 The massacre of the French and the 
 destruction of the colony at Fort Carolina 
 excited not even a remonstrance from the 
 French court, which was blinded to its true 
 interests by its religious bigotry. The Hu- 
 guenots and the better part of the nation felt 
 keenly the wrong the country had suffered, 
 and Dominic de Gourges, a gallant gentle- 
 man of Gascony, determined to avenge it 
 Selling his ancestral estate, he equipped three 
 vessels, and with one hundred and fifty men 
 sailed for Florida, in August, 1567. He 
 surprised and captured a Spanish fort near 
 the site of Fort Carolina, and took the garri- 
 son prisoners. 
 
 He spent the winter here, and finding 
 himself too weak to maintain his position, 
 sailed for France in May, 1 568. Before doing 
 so, however, he hanged his prisoners, and 
 set up over them the inscription : " I do not 
 this as unto Spaniards or mariners, but as 
 unto traitors, robbers and murderers." His 
 expedition was disavowed by the French 
 government, and he was obliged to conceal 
 himself to escape arrest after his return to 
 France. 
 
 France now abandoned her efforts to col- 
 onize the southern part of North America, 
 and relinquished her pretensions to Florida. 
 Spain, on the other hand, gave more attention 
 to this region, and emigrants from her domin- 
 ions were encouraged to settle, and new 
 colonies were formed within its limits. In 
 the West Indies, and in Mexico, Central and 
 South America, Spain, during the sixteenth 
 and seventeenth centuries, was supreme. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 
 The First English Colony 
 
 lie English Claim to America — Voyages of Frobisher— Exploits of Sir Francis Drake — Sir Humphrey Gilbert— In 
 tends to Found a Colony in America — Is Lost at Sea — Sir Walter Raleigh Obtains a Patent of Colonization- -I hs 
 coveries of Amidas and Barlow — Raleigh Sends Out a Colony to Virginia — Settlement on Roanoke Island — Its P ailure 
 — Arrival of Grenville — Second Effort of Raleigh to Colonize Virginia — Roanoke Island Again Settled — The "Cit< 
 of Raleigh"— Virginia Dare — Fate of the Colony — Death of Raleigh — Other Voyages of the English. 
 
 THOUGH England had made no 
 effort to colonize America during 
 the long period we have been con- 
 sidering, she never abandoned her 
 claims to that region, claims which were 
 based upon the discoveries and explorations 
 of John and Sebastian Cabot. The voy- 
 ages of her fishermen to Newfoundland kept 
 the country fresh in the minds of the sea- 
 faring Englishmen, and from time to time 
 voyages were made to the American coast 
 for the purpose of trading with the savages. 
 Under Elizabeth, who pursued the wise pol- 
 icy of fostering her navy, a race of hardy and 
 daring sailors grew up in England, and car- 
 ried the flag of their country into every sea. 
 In this reign Martin Frobisher with two 
 small ships made a voyage to the frozen 
 regions of Labrador in search of the north- 
 west passage. He failed to find it, but pene- 
 trated farther north than any European had 
 yetgone,A. D. 1576. His second voyage was 
 made the next year, and was undertaken in 
 the hope of finding gold, as one of the stones 
 he had brought home on his first cruise had 
 been pronounced by the refiners of London to 
 contain the precious metal. 
 
 The fleet did not advance as far north as 
 Frobisher had done on his first attempt, as a 
 
 large mass of yellow earth was found whicl 
 was believed to contain gold. The ship 
 were loaded with this, and all sail was mad 
 for home, only to find on reaching England 
 that their cargo was but a heap of worthless 
 dirt. A third voyage with fifteen ships wa<- 
 attempted in 1578, but no gold was found 
 and the extreme northern latitudes were 
 ascertained to be too bleak for colonization. 
 Between the years 1577 and 1580 Sii 
 Francis Drake sailed to the Pacific, and by 
 levying exactions upon the Spanish settle- 
 ments on the western coast of America 
 acquired an immense treasure. As Bancroft 
 well observes, this part of Drake's career 
 "was but a splendid piracy against a nation 
 with which his sovereign and his country 
 professed to be at peace." Having acquired 
 this enormous wealth Drake applied himself 
 to the more useful task of discovery. Cross- 
 ing the equator he sailed northward, as far 
 as the southern part of Oregon, in the hope 
 of finding a northern passage between the 
 oceans. The cold seemed very great to voy- 
 agers just from the tropics, and he abandoned 
 his attempt and returned southward to a 
 harbor on the coast of Mexico. Here he 
 refitted his ship, and then returned to Eng- 
 land through the seas of Asia, having 
 
V 
 
 DISCOVERY OF THE WESTERN CONTINENT. 
 
 circumnavigated the globe, a feat which had 
 been accomplished only by the ship of 
 Magellan. 
 
 It was not the splendid but demoralizing 
 ^•enlevements of Drake which led the way to 
 
 lieved that a lucrative trade might be opened 
 with the new world by the planting of a col- 
 ony within its limits. He obtained authority 
 from Queen Elizabeth to establish such a 
 colony in the vicinity of the fisheries. 
 
 THE RENOWNED EXPLORER, SIR MARTIN FROBISHER. 
 
 the establishment of the English power in 
 America. That was the work of the hum- 
 ble fishermen who sailed on their yearly 
 voyages to the banks of Newfoundland. The 
 progress of this valuable industry was closely 
 watched by Sir Humphrey Gilbert, who be- 
 
 In 1578 he sailed to America on a vo\ 
 age of discovery, and in August of that yeai 
 landed at St. Johns, Newfoundland and took 
 formal possession of the country for England. 
 He then sailed to the southward, exploring 
 the coast, but lost his largest ship with all 
 
THE FIRST ENGLISH COLONY. 
 
 65 
 
 an board. This made it necessary for him 
 to return home, as the two vessels which re- 
 mained to him were too small to attempt a 
 protracted voyage. One of them, called the 
 " Squirrel," was a mere boat of ten tons. 
 Unwilling to expose his men to a danger 
 which he would not face, Sir Humphrey took 
 passage in the " Squirrel " instead of in the 
 larger and safer vessel. 
 
 Terrific Storm. 
 
 On the homeward voyage the ships en- 
 countered a terrific storm. In the midst of 
 the gale the people on the " Hind," the larger 
 ship, saw Sir Humphrey sitting at the stern 
 of his little vessel, which was laboring pain- 
 fully in the heavy seas. He was calmly 
 reading a book, perhaps that sublimes t of 
 books, from which he had drawn the Lure 
 principles that guided his whole life. As 
 the " Hind " passed him he called out to 
 those on board of her, " We are as near to 
 heaven by sea as by land." That night the 
 lights of tLe " Squirrel " suddenly disap- 
 peared, and the good Sir Humphrey was 
 seen no more. The " Hind " continued her 
 voyage, and reached Falmouth in safety. 
 
 Sir Walter Raleigh, Gilbert's half brother, 
 had been interested in this expedition, but 
 its ill success did not dishearten him. He 
 was one of the noblest spirits of his age, and 
 has laid the world under heavy obligations 
 to him by his many noble services in the 
 cause of humanity. He had served in the 
 army of the Huguenots of France under 
 Coligni, and had heard from the voyagers 
 sent out by that leader of the richness and 
 beauty of Carolina. 
 
 Undaunted by the sad fate of Sir Hum- 
 phrey Gilbert, Raleigh determined to plant 
 a colony in the region from which the 
 Huguenots had been driven. He had no 
 difficulty in obtaining from the queen a pat- 
 ent as liberal as that which had been granted 
 5 
 
 Sir Humphrey Gilbert. He was given ample 
 powers over the region he proposed to col- 
 onize, as its feudal lord, and was bound to 
 maintain the authority of the queen and 
 church of England in his possessions. 
 
 An Inviting Country. 
 He fitted out two vessels, commanded re< 
 spectivelyby Philip Amidas and Arthur Bar- 
 low, and sent them to explore the region 
 granted to him, and to obtain accurate infor- 
 mation concerning it. They reached the 
 coast of North Carolina at Ocracock Inlet, 
 and took formal possession of the country. 
 They partially explored Albemarle and Pam« 
 lico Sounds, together with the neighboring 
 
 SIR WALTER RALEIGH. 
 
 coast and islands. It was the month of July 9 f 
 and the climate was delightful, the sea was 
 calm, the atmosphere clear, and the heat was 
 tempered by the delicious sea-breeze. The 
 woods abounded with birds and echoed with 
 their carols, and wild grapes were found i» 
 the greatest profusion. 
 
66 
 
 DISCOVERY OF THE WESTERN CONTINENT. 
 
 The explorers were enchanted with this 
 delightful region, and returning to England 
 published glowing accounts of it. They 
 took with them two Indians, named Wan- 
 chese and Manteo, the latter of whom after- 
 wards did good service to the ccl ^nists as an 
 interpreter. Queen Elizabeth deemed her 
 reign honored by the discoveries of Amidas 
 
 mand of the fleet, and Ralph Lane, who was 
 also a man of considerable distinction, was 
 made governor of the colony. 
 
 The fleet sailed from Plymouth on the 
 ninth of April, 1585, and after a long and 
 trying voyage reached Ocracock Inlet in 
 June. Passing through the inlet, a settle- 
 ment was established on Roanoke Island, 
 
 
 FROBISHER AND HIS SHIPS PASSING GREENWICH. 
 
 and Barlow, and gave to the new region the 
 name of Virginia in honor of England's vir- 
 gin queen. 
 
 Raleigh at once set to work to organize a 
 colony. Emigrants volunteered readily, and 
 in a short time a fleet of seven vessels, con- 
 taining one hundred and eight persons, apart 
 from the crews, was in readiness. Sir Rich- 
 ard Grenville, a friend of Raleigh, and a man 
 of tried skill and bravery, was given the corn- 
 
 lying between Albemarle and Pamlico Sounds . 
 Expeditions were sent out to explore the 
 surrounding country, and in one of these a 
 silver cup was stolen by an Indian, and its 
 restoration was delayed. With thoughtless 
 cruelty Grenville punished this fau? by the 
 destruction of the village to which the culprit 
 belonged, and also of all the standing corn. 
 This inconsiderate revenge made the Indians 
 the enemies of the whites, and brought great 
 
THE FIRST ENGLISH COLONY. 
 
 6/ 
 
 future suffering upon the colony. A linle 
 later, having seen the colonists successful v 
 established on Roanoke Island, Grenville 
 returned to England with the fleet, captur- 
 
 the inhabitants. Many of the plants were 
 strange to them. Among these were the 
 Indian corn, tobacco and the sweet potato. 
 Hariot, "the inventor of the system of nor? 
 
 QUEEN ELIZABETH. 
 
 ing a rich Spanish prize on the voyage 
 home. 
 
 Left to themselves the colonists began to 
 explore the country, and to observe the 
 productions of the soil, and the character of 
 
 tion in modern algebra, the historian oi the 
 expedition," observed these plants and their 
 culture with great minuteness, andbecamea 
 firm believer in the healing virtues oi 
 tobacco. He has left an interesting account 
 
68 
 
 DISCOVERY OF THE WESTERN CONTINENT. 
 
 of the natives of the country and their man- 
 ners and customs. 
 
 The Indians, alarmed by the superiority of 
 the whites, began to plot their destruction, 
 as they believed their entire country would 
 be overrun by the new comers. Lane on 
 his part became suspicious of the savages, 
 and this feeling of mutual distrust had the 
 most unhappy consequences. Being informed 
 by the savages that there was a splendid city, 
 whose walls glittered with gold and pearls, 
 on the upper waters of the Roanoke, Gov- 
 ernor Lane made a boat voyage up that 
 stream, but failed to find anything. He 
 returned to the colony just in time to discon- 
 cert the plan of the savages for attacking the 
 whites during the absence of the exploring 
 
 party. 
 
 Inhuman Butchery. 
 
 Lane now determined to outrival the 
 savages in perfidy. He visited Wingina, one 
 of the most active of the neighboring chiefs, 
 and professing to come as a friend, was 
 received with confidence by the Indians. At 
 a given signal from the governor the whites 
 fell upon the chief and his warriors, and put 
 them to death. Lane proved himself utterly 
 unfit to govern such a colony, and his people 
 soon lost confidence in him. Their discon- 
 tent was increased by the failure of their 
 provisions, and they began to entertain the 
 idea of abandoning the colony and returning 
 home. 
 
 On the eighth of June, 1586, Sir Francis 
 Drake, with a fleet of twenty-three ships, 
 anchored in the roadstead off Roanoke 
 Island. He had been cruising in the West 
 Indies, and had called on his homeward 
 voyage to visit the plantation of his friend 
 Raleigh. He at once set to work to remedy 
 the wants of the colony, and supplied the 
 settlers with such things as they needed. 
 They were thoroughly disheartened, how- 
 ever, with their year's experience, and 
 
 begged Drake so earnestly to take them 
 back to England that he received them on 
 board his ships and put to sea. 
 
 Thus the first effort of the English to 
 settle America resulted in failure. Drake's 
 fleet had scarcely disappeared when a ship 
 loaded with supplies, which had been des 
 patched by Raleigh, reached the island. 
 Finding the place deserted, the commander 
 returned to England. A fortnight later, 
 Grenville arrived with three ships. Finding 
 the colonists had gone, he too returned to 
 England, leaving fifteen men to hold the 
 island. 
 
 Another Colony and Its Fate. 
 
 Raleigh was greatly disappointed by the 
 failure of his colony, but he did not despair 
 of success; for notwithstanding the gloomy 
 stories of Lane and his followers, the con- 
 clusive testimony of Hariot convinced him 
 that the country could be made to yield a 
 rich return for the trouble and expense of 
 its settlement ; and he set to work to form 
 another colony. With the hope of giving 
 the settlers a permanent interest in the plan- 
 tation, he selected emigrants with wives and 
 families, who should regard the new worlJ 
 as their future home, and endeavor to found 
 a permanent State in that region. Lveiy- 
 thing was provided which could contribute 
 to the success of the colony, and agricult- 
 ural implements were furnished for the 
 proper cultivation of the soil. All the 
 expense of the undertaking was borne by 
 Raleigh, for though Queen Elizabeth greatly 
 favored the venture, she declined to con- 
 tribute anything toward it. John White 
 was appointed governor of the colony. A 
 fleet of transport vessels was equipped, also 
 at Raleigh's expense, and on the twenty- 
 sixth of April, 1587, the expedition sailed 
 from England. The coast of North Caro- 
 lina was reached in July. 
 
THE FTKST ENGLISH COLONY. 
 
 69 
 
 The approach to Roanoke Island was both 
 difficult and dangerous, and Raleigh ordered 
 the new settlers to select a site for their col- 
 ony on the shores of the Chesapeake Bay. 
 The expedition proceeded first, however, to 
 Roanoke Island to search for the men left 
 there by Grenville. They could not be 
 found. The island was deserted, the fort 
 was in ruins, and the human bones which lay 
 scattered over the field told plainly that the 
 unfortunate garrison left by Grenville had 
 been murdered by the Indians. Governor 
 White was now anxious to sail to the Chesa- 
 peake, but Fernando, the commander of the 
 fleet, refused to proceed any farther, as he 
 wished to go to the West Indies for purposes 
 of trade. The instructions of Raleigh were 
 thus disregarded, and the colonists were com- 
 pelled to go ashore on Roanoke Island. 
 
 Dangers of the First Settlers. 
 
 The old settlement of Governor Lane was 
 rebuilt, and another effort was made to estab- 
 lish the *' City of Raleigh." The Indians 
 were bitterly hostile to the settlers, and a 
 friendly tribe was offended by an unfortunate 
 attack upon them, made upon the supposi- 
 tion that they were hostile Indians. The 
 settlers becoming alarmed, implored the gov- 
 ernor to return to England and exert him- 
 self to hasten the sending out of reinforce- 
 ments and supplies to them. He was un- 
 willing to do this, as he deemed it his duty 
 to remain among them, but at length yielded 
 to their unanimous appeal. Just before his 
 departure his daughter, Mrs. Dare, the wife 
 of one of his lieutenants, gave birth to a 
 daughter, the first child born of English 
 parents within the limits of the United States, 
 and the little one was named Virginia from 
 the place of its birth. 
 
 White sailed for England in August, 1 5 87. 
 He found the mother country greatly excited 
 over the threatened invasion of the Spaniards. 
 
 Raleigh, who was energetically engaged in 
 the efforts for the defence of the country, did 
 not neglect his colony. He fitted out two 
 ships with the needed supplies, and dis- 
 patched them under White's orders in April, 
 1 588. The commanders, instead of proceed- 
 ing direct to the colony, undertook to make 
 prizes. 
 
 No Traces 0? the Colony. 
 
 At last one of them fell in with a man-of- 
 war from Rochelle, and after a sharp fight 
 was plundered of her stores. Both ships 
 were obliged to return to England, to the 
 anger and disgust of Raleigh. The approach 
 of the Invincible Armada and the exertions 
 demanded of the nation for 'ts defeat, made 
 it impossible for anything more to be done 
 for the colonists at Roanoke until after the 
 Spanish fleet had been destroyed. Even 
 then Raleigh, who had spent over forty thou- 
 sand pounds without return, was unable to 
 send aid at once to the colony, and a year 
 elapsed before a vessel could be sent out un- 
 der. White. In 1590, the governor reached 
 Roanoke, but no trace of the colony could 
 be found. The settlers had either died, been 
 massacred, or taken prisoners. 
 
 " The conjecture has been hazarded," savs 
 Bancroft, " that the deserted colony, neglected 
 by their own countrymen, were hospitably 
 adopted into the tribe of Hatteras Indians, 
 and became amalgamated with the sons of 
 the forest. This was the tradition of the 
 natives at a later day, and was thought to be 
 confirmed by the physical character of the 
 tribe, in which the English and the Indiar 
 race seemed to have been blended." The 
 generous heart of Raleigh could not bear to 
 leave his countrymen unaided while a single 
 hope of finding them remained, and he is 
 said to have sent to America as many as five 
 expeditions at his own cost to search fbl 
 them. 
 
7o 
 
 MURDER OF WHITE'S ASSISTANT 
 
THE FIRST ENGLISH COLONY. 
 
 7> 
 
 With the failure of the settlement at 
 Roanoke Raleigh relinquished his hope of 
 colonizing Virginia. He had expended 
 nearly his entire fortune in the undertaking, 
 and the remainder of his life was passed un- 
 der the cloud of undeserved misfortune. His 
 career as a statesman was honorable to him- 
 self and to his country, and he proved him- 
 self in all his acts a loyal subject and a de- 
 voted patriot. His zeal in behalf of knowl- 
 edge made him a generous friend of the 
 learned, and he merits the gratitude of the 
 American people, not only for his efforts to 
 colonize our shores with his countrymen, 
 but for the liberality with which he spread 
 a knowledge of America throughout Eng- 
 land by his publication of the reports of 
 Hariot and Hakluyt. He opened the way 
 for the dominion of the English in the new 
 world, and his memory is preserved in the 
 name of the capital city of the great State 
 which he sought to make the seat of an Eng- 
 lish empire. 
 
 Accused of High Treason. 
 
 Upon the accession of James I., Raleigh, 
 broken in health and fortune, but still the 
 most illustrious Englishman of his day, was 
 arraigned on a charge of high treason, of 
 which not even his enemies believed him 
 guilty, and was sentenced to the Tower, as 
 the king did not yet dare to order his execu- 
 tion. During this period Sir Walter beguiled 
 the weariness of his imprisonment by com- 
 posing his " History of the World." He re- 
 mained a prisoner for thirteen years, and was 
 then released on condition of making a voy- 
 age to Guiana in search of gold. His failure 
 to accomplish the object of the voyage sealed 
 his doom, and on his return to England he 
 was beheaded, not upon any fresh charge, 
 but on his old sentence. His real fault was 
 that he was too true an Englishman to sus- 
 tain the sacrifice of the national honor by 
 
 King James to the demands of Spain, and he 
 was generally regarded by the nation as the 
 victim of the king's cowardice. He met his 
 fate with the calm bravery which had marked 
 his whole life. 
 
 Kidnapping Indians. 
 
 Until now the voyage from England to 
 America had been made by way of the 
 Canary Islands and the West Indies. In 
 1602, Bartholomew Gosnold conceived the 
 idea of proceeding direct from England to 
 Virginia, as the whole region north of Flor- 
 ida was called by the English. Sailing 
 directly across the Atlantic he reached Cape 
 Elizabeth, on the coast of Maine, after a voy- 
 age of seven weeks. Proceeding southward 
 along the coast he reached Cape Cod, to 
 which he gave the name on the fifteenth of 
 May, and went ashore there. He was thus 
 the first Englishman to set foot in New Eng- 
 land. He continued his voyage along the 
 coast and entered Buzzard's Bay. 
 
 To the westernmost of the islands of this 
 stately sound he gave the name of Eliza- 
 beth — a name which has since been applied 
 to the entire group. Loading his ship with 
 sassafras root, which was then highly 
 esteemed for its medicinal virtues, Gosnold 
 sailed for England, and arrived home safely 
 after a voyage of less than four weeks. He 
 gave the most favorable accounts of the 
 region he had visited, and other adventurers 
 were induced by his reports to undertake 
 voyages for the purpose of trading with the 
 natives. Among these was George Way- 
 mouth, who reached and explored the coast 
 of Maine in 1605. On his return voyage 
 Waymouth kidnapped five Indians and car- 
 ried them to England, "to be instructed in 
 English, and to serve as guides in some 
 future expedition." 
 
 The voyages of Gosnold and Waymouth 
 to the coast of New England were followed 
 
72 
 
 DISCOVERY OF THE WESTERN CONTINENT. 
 
 by those of numerous other English adven- 
 turers. In 1614, Captain John Smith, who 
 had already distinguished himself by his 
 services in Virginia, made a voyage to Amer- 
 ica with two ships, furnished at the expense 
 of himself and four merchants of London. 
 The voyage was for the purpose of trading 
 with the natives, and was very successful. 
 Smith took advantage of the opportunity to 
 explore the coast from Penobscot to Cape 
 Cod. He prepared a map of the coast, and 
 named the country New England — a title 
 which was confirmed by the Prince of Wales, 
 afterwards Charles I. 
 
 After Smith's return to England, Hunt 
 the commander of the other vessel, sue 
 ceeded in inducing twenty of the natives, 
 with their chief, Squanto, to visit his ship, 
 and as soon as they were on board put to 
 sea. He sold the savages as slaves in Spain. 
 A few of them, Squanto among the number, 
 were purchased by some kind-hearted monks, 
 who instructed them in the Christian faith in 
 order to send them back to their own people 
 as missionaries of the cross. Squanto escaped 
 to England in 161 9, and there learned the 
 language, and was afterward an interpreter 
 between the English settlers and his oeoplr 
 
 JAMF. 
 
BOOK II 
 
 Settlement of America 
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 
 Captain John Smith and Pocahontas 
 
 Formation of the London Company — Conditions of its Charter — Departure of the First Colony — Quarrels During tfav 
 Voyage — Arrival in the Chesapeake — Settlement of Jamestown — Formation of the Government — Character of Cap- 
 tain John Smith — Exploration of the James River — Newport and Smith Visit Powhatan — Smith Admitted to thfe 
 Government — Explores the Chickahominy — Is Cap f uredand Sentenced to Death — Is Saved by Pocahontas — Gains the 
 Friendship of Powhatan for the Colony— Returns to Jamestown — His Decisive Measures — Return of Newport — Smith 
 Explores the Chesapeake Bay — The New Emigrants — Smi f h Compels Them to Labor — Smith is Wounded and Com- 
 pelled to Return to England — Disasters to the Colony — Arrival of Sir Thomas Gates — Jamestown Abandoned — Ar< 
 rival of Lord Delaware — The Return to Jamestown — A Change for the Better — New Settlements — Sir Thomas Gates 
 Arrives With Reinforcements — Capture of Pocahontas by Captain Argall — She is Baptized — Marries John Rolfe- -Sii 
 Thomas Dale's Administration — Yeardley Governor — The First Legislative Assembly — Representative Government 
 Established in America — The Colonists Obtain Wives — Changes in the Government. 
 
 THE favorable reports which had been 
 brought back to England by the 
 voyagers to the new world had pre- 
 vented the interest of Englishmen 
 in America from entirely dying out, and 
 some ardent spirits still believed it possible 
 to make that continent the seat of a pros- 
 perous dominion dependent upon England. 
 The former assistants of Raleigh, in particu- 
 lar, held to the convictions which their chief 
 had entertained to the day of his death. The 
 selfish and timid policy of King James hav- 
 ing made it impossible for men to acquire 
 distinction by naval exploits, as in the days 
 of Elizabeth, the more adventurous classes 
 lent a willing ear to the plans for colonizing 
 America, which were discussed in various 
 parts of the kingdom. Bartholomew Gos- 
 nold, who had explored the New England 
 coast, was especially active in seeking to 
 induce capitalists to send out a colony 
 to it. His glowing accounts of the New 
 World awakened a good deal of enthu- 
 
 siasm, and men who had money to invest 
 and were somewhat inclined to indulge in 
 speculation, were ready to aid any scheme 
 that promised to be lucrative and advan- 
 tageous to themselves. 
 
 Sir Ferdinand Gorges, a wealthy gentle- 
 man and Governor of Plymouth, had been 
 greatly interested in America by the accounts 
 of Waymouth, who had given him two ol 
 the Indians he had brought to England. 
 These succeeded in interesting others in their 
 plans, and the result was that early in the 
 reign of King James two companies were 
 formed in England for the colonization oi 
 America. One of these was the " London 
 Company," composed chiefly of noblemen 
 and merchants residing in London. The 
 other was the " Plymouth Company," com- 
 posed of " knights, gentlemen and mer- 
 chants," residing in the west of England. 
 King James divided Virginia into two parts. 
 To the London Company he granted " South 
 Virginia," extending from Cape Fear, m 
 
 73 
 
74 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 North Carolina, to the Potomac. To the 
 Plymouth Company he gave " North Vir- 
 ginia," stretching from the Hudson to New- 
 foundland. The region between the Potomac 
 and the Hudson he left as a broad belt of 
 neutral land to keep the companies from en- 
 croaching upon each other's domains. Either 
 was at liberty to form settlements in this 
 region within fifty miles of its own border. 
 
 The London Company was the first to 
 settle the country assigned it. A liberal 
 charter was granted the company : the lands 
 ir the new world were to be held by it on the 
 simple conditions of homage and the pay- 
 ment to the crown of one-fifth of the gold 
 and silver and one-fifteenth of the copper 
 that should be discovered. A general coun- 
 cil, residing in England, was to have author- 
 ity over the whole province, and the mem- 
 bers of this council were to be appointed and 
 removed by the king at his good pleasure. 
 Each separate colony was to be under the 
 control of a colonial council residing within 
 its own limits, and the king retained the right 
 to direct the appointment or removal of the 
 members of these councils at his pleasure 
 
 Laws of the London Company. 
 
 The king also reserved the supreme legis- 
 lative authority over the colonies, and framed 
 for their government a code of laws — " an 
 exercise of royal legislation which has been 
 pronounced in itself illegal." The colonists 
 were placed by this code under the rule of 
 the superior and local councils we have 
 named, in the choice of which they had no 
 voice. The religion of the Church of Eng- 
 land was established as that of the colony, 
 and conformity to it was secured by severe 
 penalties. Death was the punishment for 
 murder, manslaughter, adultery, dangerous 
 seditions and tumults. In all cases not 
 affecting life and limb offenders might be 
 tried by a magistrate, but for capital offences 
 
 trial by jury was secured. In the former 
 cases the punishment of the offender was at 
 the discretion of the president and council. 
 The Indians were to be treated with kind- 
 ness, and efforts were to be made for their 
 conversion to Christianity. For five years 
 at least the affairs of the colonists were to be 
 conducted in a joint stock. The right to 
 impose future legislation upon the province 
 was reserved by the king. 
 
 The Settlers Oppressed. 
 
 Such was the form of government first pre- 
 scribed for Virginia by England, in which, as 
 Bancroft truly says, there was " not an ele- 
 ment of popular liberty." " To the emi- 
 grants themselves it conceded not one elect- 
 ive franchise, not one of the rights of self- 
 government. They were to be subjected to 
 the ordinances of a commercial corporation, 
 of which they could not be members ; to 
 the dominion of a domestic council, in ap- 
 pointing which they had no voice; to the 
 control of a superior council in England, 
 which had no sympathy with their rights; 
 and finally, to the arbitrary legislation of 
 the sovereign." 
 
 Under this charter the London Company 
 prepared to send out a colony to Virginia. 
 It was to be a commercial settlement, and 
 the emigrants were composed altogether of 
 men. One hundred and five persons, exclu- 
 sive of the crews of the vessels, joined the 
 expedition. Of these not twenty were farm- 
 ers or mechanics. The remainder were 
 " gentlemen," or men who had ruined them- 
 selves at home by idleness and dissipation. 
 A fleet of three small ships, under command 
 of Captain Newport, was assembled, and on 
 the nineteenth of December, 1606, sailed for 
 America. 
 
 The emigrants sailed without having per- 
 fected any organization. The king had fool- 
 ishly placed the names of those who were to 
 
CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH AND POCAHONTAS. 
 
 75 
 
 constitute the government in a sealed box, 
 which the adventurers were ordered not to 
 open until they had selected a site for their 
 settlement and were ready to form a govern- 
 ment. This was most unfortunate, for during 
 the long voyage dissensions arose, and there 
 was no one in the expedition who could 
 control the unruly spirits. 
 
 These quarrels grew more intense with 
 the lapse of time, and when the shores of 
 Virginia were reached the seeds of many of 
 the evils from which the colony afterwards 
 suffered severely had been thoroughly sown. 
 There were among the number several who 
 were well qualified to direct the affairs of the 
 expedition, but they were without the proper 
 authority to do so, and there was no such 
 thing as voluntary submission to be seen 
 among the adventurers. The merits of the 
 deserving merely excited the jealousy of 
 their companions, and the great master 
 spirit of the enterprise found from the first 
 his disinterested efforts for the good of the 
 expedition met by a jealous opposition. 
 
 Point Comfort Named. 
 
 Newport was not acquainted with the 
 direct route, and made the old passage by 
 way of the Canaries and the West Indies. 
 He thus consumed the whole of the winter, 
 and while searching for the island of 
 Roanoke, the scene of Raleigh's colony, his 
 fleet was driven northward by a severe storm, 
 and forced to take refuge in the Chesapeake 
 Bay on the twenty-sixth of April, 1607. He 
 named the headlands of this bay Cape Henry 
 and Cape Charles, in honor of the two sons 
 of James I., and because of the comfortable 
 anchorage which he obtained in the splendid 
 roadstead which enters the bay opposite its 
 mouth, he gave to the northern point the 
 name of Point Comfort, which it has since 
 borne. Passing this, a noble river was dis- 
 covered coming from the westward, and was 
 
 named the James, in honor of the English 
 king. The country was explored with energy, 
 and though one small tribe of Indians was 
 found to be hostile, a treaty of peace and 
 friendship was made with another at Hamp- 
 ton. The fleet ascended the river and ex« 
 plored it for fifty miles. A pleasant penin« 
 sula, on the left bank of the stream was 
 selected as the site of the colony, and on the 
 thirteenth of May, 1607, the settlement was 
 definitely begun, and was named Jamestown, 
 in honor of the king. 
 
 Smith's Daring Deeds. 
 
 The leading spirit of the enterprise was 
 John Smith, one of the truest heroes of his- 
 tory, who has been deservedly called " the 
 father of Virginia." He was still a young 
 man, being but thirty years of age, but he 
 was old in experience and knightly deeds. 
 While yet a youth he had served in Holland 
 in the ranks of the army of freedom, and had 
 travelled through France, Egypt and Italy. 
 Burning to distinguish himself, he had re- 
 paired to Hungary, and had won a brilliant 
 reputation by his exploits in the ranks of the 
 Christian army engaged in the defence of 
 that country against the Mohammedans. 
 He repeatedly defeated the chosen champions 
 of the Turks in single combat, but being at 
 length captured was sent to Constantinople 
 and sold as a slave. The wife of his master, 
 pitying his misfortunes, sent him to a rela- 
 tive in the Crimea, with a request to treat 
 him with kindness, but contrary to her 
 wishes he was subjected to the greatest 
 harshness. 
 
 Rendered desperate by this experience, he 
 rose against his task-master, slew him, 
 and seizing his horse escaped to the border 
 of the Russian territory, where he was kindly 
 received. He wandered across the country 
 to Transylvania, and rejoined his old com- 
 panions in arms. Then, filled with a longing 
 
7 6 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 to see his "own sweet country" once 
 more, he returned to England. He arrived 
 just as the plans for the colonization of 
 Virginia were being matured. He readily 
 engaged in the expedition organized by the 
 London Company, and exerted himself in a 
 marked degree to make it a success. He 
 was in all respects the most capable man in 
 the whole colony, for. his natural abilities 
 were fully equal to his experience. He had 
 studied human nature under many forms in 
 
 CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH. 
 
 many lands, and in adversity and danger had 
 learned patience and fortitude. His calm, cool 
 tourage, his resolute will, and his intuitive per- 
 ception of the necessities of a new settlement, 
 were destined to make him the main stay of the 
 colony of Virginia, but as yet these high quali- 
 ties had only excited the malicious envy of his 
 associates, and the efforts he had made to heal 
 the dissensions which had broken out during 
 the voyage had made him many enemies. 
 
 When ihe box containing the. names of 
 those who were to constitute the colonial 
 government was opened, it was found that 
 the king had appointed John Smith one of 
 the council. Smith was at this time in con- 
 finement, having been arrested on the voy- 
 age upon the frivolous charges of sedition and 
 treason against the crown, and his enemies, 
 notwithstanding the royal appointment, ex- 
 cluded him from the council. Edward 
 Wingfield, " a grovelling merchant of the 
 west of England," was chosen president 
 of the council and governor of the 
 colony. The services of Smith could not 
 be dispensed with, however, and he was 
 released from his confinement, and sent 
 with Newport and twenty others to 
 explore the river. They ascended the 
 James to the falls, where the city of 
 Richmond now stands, and visited 
 fe| Powhatan, the principal chief of the 
 ! Indian nation holding the country into 
 which they had come. He was then 
 dwelling at his favorite seat on the left 
 bank of the river, a few miles below 
 the falls. Powhatan received them 
 kindly, and silenced the remonstrances 
 of his people by saying : " They hurt 
 you not; they only want a little land." 
 The chief was a man of powerful sta- 
 ture, " tall, sour and athletic." He 
 was sixty years of age, and had under 
 him a population of six or eight 
 thousand souls, two thousand being 
 warriors. Having carefully observed the 
 river, Smith and Newport returned to 
 Jamestown. 
 
 Their presence there was needed, for 
 Wingfield had proved himself utterly unfit 
 to govern the colony. He would not allow 
 the colonists to build either houses for them- 
 selves or a fortification for the common de- 
 fence against the savages. While they were 
 in this helpless condition, they were suddenly 
 
CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH AND POCAHONTAS. 
 
 77 
 
 attacked by a force of four hundred Indians, 
 and were saved from destruction only by the 
 fire of the shipping, which filled the savages 
 with terror and put them to flight. It is 
 believed that the cause of Wingfield's 
 singular conduct was his jealousy of Smith 
 whose talents he feared would attract the 
 support of the settlers. 
 
 Tried and Acquitted. 
 
 The fort was now built without delay, 
 cannon were mounted, and the men trained 
 in the exercise of arms. When the ships 
 were in readiness to sail to England, it was 
 intimated to Smith that he would consult his 
 own interests by returning in them, but he 
 refused to do so, and boldly demanded a 
 trial upon the charges which had been pre- 
 ferred against him. The council did not 
 dare to refuse him this trial, and the result 
 was his triumphant acquittal. More than 
 this, he succeeded so well in exposing the 
 malice of his enemies that the president, as 
 the originator of the charges against him, 
 was compelled to pay him two hundred 
 pounds damages, which sum Smith gener- 
 ously applied to the needs of the colony. 
 His seat in the council could no longer be 
 denied him, and he took his place at the 
 board to the great gain of the colony. 
 
 Newport sailed for England about the 
 middle of June, leaving the settlement in a 
 most pitiable condition. The provisions 
 sent out from England had been spoiled on 
 the voyage, and the colonists were too indo- 
 lent to cultivate the land, or to seek to obtain 
 supplies from the Indians. Sickness broke 
 out among them, owing to the malarious 
 character of their location, and by the begin~ 
 nng of the winter more than half their num- 
 ber had died. Among these was Bartholo- 
 mew Gosnold, the originator of the London 
 Company, who had come out to Virginia to 
 risk his life in the effort to settle the country. 
 
 He was a man of rare merits, and, together 
 with Mr. Hunt, " the preacher," who was 
 also one of the projectors of the company, 
 had contributed successfully to the preserva- 
 tion of harmony in the colony. In the 
 midst of these sufferings it was found that 
 Wingfield was preparing to load the pinnae* 
 with the remainder of the stores and escape 
 to the West Indies. He was deposed by the 
 council, who appointed John Ratcliffe in his 
 place. 
 
 The new president was not much better than 
 his predecessor. He was incapable of discharg- 
 ing the duties of his office, and was perfectly 
 satisfied that Smith should direct the affairs 
 of the settlement for him. From this time 
 Smith was the actual head of the govern- 
 ment. Food was the prime necessity of the 
 colony, and as it was now too late to raise it. 
 Smith exerted himself to obtain it from the 
 Indians. He purchased a supply, and towards 
 the close of the autumn the wild fowl which 
 frequent the region furnished an additional 
 means of subsistence. 
 
 Danger of Famine. 
 
 The danger of a famine thus removed, 
 Smith proceeded to explore the country. In 
 one of these expeditions he ascended the 
 rhickahominy as far as he could penetrate 
 in his boat, and then leaving it in charge of 
 two men, struck into the interior with an 
 Indian guide. His men disobeyed his in- 
 structions, and were surprised and put to 
 death by the Indians. Smith himself was 
 taken prisoner, and deeply impressed his 
 captors by his cool courage and self-posses- 
 sion. Instead of begging for his life, he set 
 to work to convince them of his superiority 
 over them, and succeeded so well that they 
 regarded him with a sort of awe. He aston- 
 ished them by showing them his pocket com- 
 pass and explaining to them its uses, and 
 excited their admiration by writing a letter 
 
78 
 
 POCAHONTAS INTERCEDING SO& THE LIFE OF CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH. 
 
CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH AND POCAHONTAS. 
 
 79 
 
 o his friends at Jamestown informing them 
 of his situation, and of the danger to which 
 they were exposed from a contemplated 
 attack of the Indians. One of the savages 
 bore the letter to its destination. 
 
 A Grand Reception. 
 
 Smith had been captured by Opechan- 
 canough,a powerful chieftain of the Pamun- 
 key Indians : but as the curiosity of the 
 neighboring tribes was greatly aroused by 
 his presence, he was led in triumph from the 
 Chickahominy to the villages on the Rappa- 
 hannock and the Potomac, and then taken 
 through other towns to the residence of 
 Opechancanough, on the Pamunkey. Here 
 the medicine men of the tribe held a three 
 days' incantation over him to ascertain his 
 character and design. All this while his de- 
 meanor was calm and fearless, as if he enter- 
 tained no apprehension for his safety. He 
 was regarded by the savages as a superior 
 being, and was treated with kindness, though 
 kept a close prisoner. 
 
 His fate was referred to Powhatan for de- 
 cision, as the other tribes feared to bring the 
 blood of such an extraordinary being upon 
 their heads. Powhatan was then residing at 
 Werowocomoco, which lay on the north 
 side of Fork River, in what is now Gloucester 
 County, Virginia. He received the captive 
 in great state, surrounded by his warriors. 
 " Ht wore," says Smith, " such a grave and 
 majestical countenance as drove me into 
 admiration to see." Brought into the 
 presence of Powhatan, Smith was received 
 with a shout from the assembled warriors. 
 A handsome young squaw brought him 
 water to wash his hands, and another gave 
 him a bunch of feathers to dry them. Food 
 was then set before him, and while he applied 
 himself to the repast a consultation was held 
 by the savages as to his fate. Smith watched 
 the proceedings closely, and was aware from 
 
 the gestures of the council thai his death 
 had been determined upon. Two great 
 stones rtrere then brought into the assembly 
 and laid before the king. 
 
 The captive was seized and dragged to the 
 stones, forced down, and his head laid upon 
 them. Two brawny savages stood by to 
 beat out his brains w ith their clubs. During 
 these proceedings Pocahontas, a child often 
 or twelve years, " dearly loved daughter" o( 
 Powhatan, touched with pity for the unfortu- 
 nate stranger, had been earnestly pleading 
 with her father to spare his life. Failing in 
 this, she sprang forward at the moment the 
 executioners were about to despatch their 
 victim, and throwing herself by his side, 
 clasped her arms about his neck and laid her 
 head upon his to protect him from the im- 
 pending stroke. This remarkable action in 
 a child so young moved the savages with 
 profound astonishment. They regarded it 
 as a manifestation of the will of Heaven in 
 favor of the captive, and it was determined 
 to spare his life and seek his friendship. 
 
 The Captive Released. 
 
 Smith was released from his bonds, and 
 was given to Pocahontas to make beads and 
 bells for her, and to weave for her ornaments 
 of copper. The friendship which the inno- 
 cent child of the forest conceived for him 
 grew stronger every day k and ceased only 
 with her life. Powhatan took him into his 
 favor, and endeavored to induce him to 
 abandon the English and cast his lot with 
 him. He everi sought to obtain his aid in 
 an attack upon the colony. Smith declined 
 these offers, and by his decision of character 
 succeeded in averting the hostility of the 
 savages from his friends at Jamestown, and 
 in winning their good-will for the English. 
 In a short while the Indians allowed him to 
 return to Jamestown, upon his promise to 
 send to King Powhatan two cannon ajad a 
 
So 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 grindstone, Upon arriving at Jamestown he 
 showed the Indians who had accompanied 
 him two of the largest cannon, and asked 
 them to lift them. This was impossible ; 
 nor could they succeed any better with the 
 grindstone. Smith then discharged the 
 cannon in their presence, which so frightened 
 them that they refused to have anything to 
 do with them. Having evaded his promise 
 in this manner, Smith bestowed more suit- 
 ible presents upon his guides, and sent them 
 
 POCAHONTAS. 
 
 home with gifts for Powhatan and Poca- 
 hontas. The savage king was doubtless 
 well satisfied to let the " great guns " alone 
 fifter hearing the report of his messengers 
 concerning them, and was greatly pleased 
 with the gifts sent him. 
 
 Pocahontas Brings Food. 
 
 Smith found the colony at Jamestown re- 
 duced to forty men and affairs in great con- 
 fusion. His companions had believed that 
 he had fallen a victim to the hostility of the 
 Indians, and he was greeted with delight, as 
 
 the need of his firm hand had been sadly 
 felt. He found that a party of malcontents 
 were preparing to run away from the colony 
 with the pinnace, and he at once rallied his 
 supporters and trained the guns of the fort 
 upon the little vessel, and avowed his de- 
 termination to fire upon the mutineers if 
 they sought to depart. 
 
 His firmness put an end to this danger, 
 and the friendly relations which he had 
 managed to establish with the Indians now 
 enabled him to buy from the savages the food 
 necessary to sustain the colonists through 
 the winter. In many ways his captivity 
 proved a great blessing to the settlement. 
 He had not only explored the country 
 between the James and Potomac, and gained 
 considerable knowledge of the language and 
 customs of the natives, but had disposed the 
 Indian tribes subject to Powhatan to regard 
 the colony with friendship at the most criti- 
 cal period of its existence. Had the savages 
 been hostile during this winter the James- 
 town colony must have perished of starva- 
 tion; but now, every few days throughout 
 this season, Pocahontas came to the fort ac- 
 companied by a number of her countrymen 
 bearing baskets of corn for the whites. 
 
 Exploring Chesapeake Bay. 
 
 In the spring of 1608, Newport arrived 
 from England, bringing with him a reinforce- 
 ment of one hundred and twenty emigrants. 
 The newcomers were joyfully welcomed by 
 the colonists but they proved of no real ad- 
 vantage to the settlement. They were either 
 idlers or goldsmiths who had come out to 
 America in the hope of finding gold. The 
 refiners of the party believed they had founa 
 the precious metal in a heap of glittering 
 earth, of which there was an abundance near 
 Jamestown, and in spite of the remonstrances 
 of Smith, would do nothing but dig gold. 
 Newport, who shared the delusion, loaded 
 
CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH AND POCAHONTAS. 
 
 81 
 
 his ships with the worthless earth and sailed 
 for England after a sojourn in the colony of 
 fourteen weeks. 
 
 While these fruitless labors were in pro- 
 gress, Smith, thoroughly disgusted with the 
 folly of the emigrants, undertook the explora- 
 tion of the Chesapeake Bay. He spent the 
 summer of 1608 in visiting the shores of the 
 bay and ascending its tributaries in an open 
 boat, accompanied by a few men. He ex- 
 plored the Chesapeake to the Susquehanna, 
 ascended the Potomac to the falls, and 
 explored the Patapsco. This voyage em- 
 braced a total distance of nearly three thou- 
 sand miles, and resulted not only in the gain- 
 ing of accurate information respecting the 
 country bordering the Chesapeake, but also 
 in establishing friendly relations with the 
 tribes along its shores, and preparing the 
 way for future friendly intercourse with them. 
 The energetic explorer prepared a map of 
 the Chesapeake and its tributaries, and sent 
 it to his employers in England, by whom it 
 was published. It is yet in existence, and 
 its accuracy and minuteness have often elic- 
 ited the praise of subsequent topographers. 
 
 Idlers Must Not Eat. 
 
 Smith returned to Jamestown on the 
 seventh of September, and three days later 
 was made president of the council. The 
 good effects of his administration were soon 
 felt. In the autumn, however, another rein- 
 forcement of idle and useless men arrived. 
 Smith, indignant at the continual arrival of 
 such worthless persons, wrote to the com- 
 pany : " When you send again, I entreat you 
 rather send but thirty carpenters, husband- 
 men, gardeners, fishermen, blacksmiths, ma- 
 sons, and diggers up of trees' roots, well pro- 
 vided, than a thousand of such as we have." 
 
 Upon the return of the fleet to England 
 the governor exerted his authority to compel 
 the idlers *o go to work. It was ordered 
 
 that six hours in each day should be spent 
 in useful labor by each person, and that " he 
 who would not work might not eat." In a 
 short while the settlement began to assume 
 the appearance of a regular habitation ; but 
 still so little land had been cultivated — only 
 about thirty or forty acres in all — that during 
 the winter of 1608-9, the settlers were com* 
 pelled to depend upon the Indians for food. 
 Yet the prudent management of Smith kept 
 the colony in good health. 
 
 Infamous Laws. 
 
 In the spring of 1609, great changes were 
 made in the London Company, and a more 
 earnest interest was manifested in the colony 
 by all classes of the English people. Sub- 
 scriptions were made to the stock of the 
 company by many noblemen as well as mer- 
 chants, and a new charter was obtained. By 
 this charter the stockholders had the power 
 to appoint the supreme council in England, 
 and to this council were confided the powers 
 of legislation and government, which were 
 relinquished by the king. The council ap- 
 pointed the governor of the colony, who 
 was to rule the settlement with absolute au- 
 thority according to the instructions of the 
 council. He was made master of the lives 
 and liberties of the settlers by being author- 
 ized to declare martial law whenever in his 
 judgment the necessity for that measure 
 should arise, and was made the sole execu- 
 tive officer in its administration. 
 
 Thus the emigrants were deprived of 
 every civil right, and were placed at the 
 mercy of a governor appointed by a corpo- 
 ration whose only object was to make 
 money. The company, however, defeated 
 this object by the manner in which it se- 
 lected emigrants. Instead of sending out 
 honest and industrious laborers who were 
 capable of building up a state, they sent 
 only idlers and vagabonds, men who were 
 
82 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 neither willing nor fit to work. The com- 
 mon stock feature was maintained, and thus 
 the greatest obstacle to industry that could 
 be devised was placed in the way of the 
 success of the colony. Still there were 
 many who were willing to seek the new 
 
 BUILDING THE FIRST HOUSE IN JAMESTOWN 
 
 world even under these conditions, and 
 many others whose friends desired to get 
 them out of the country. 
 
 The company was soon able to equip a 
 fleet of nine vessels containing more than 
 five hundred emigrants, and a stock of do- 
 mestic animals and fowls was included in 
 the outfit of the expedition. Lord Delaware, 
 
 a nobleman, whose character commanded 
 the confidence of his countrymen, was made 
 governor of the colony for life. As he was 
 not able to sail with the expedition, he dele- 
 gated his authority during his absence to 
 Newport, who was admiral of the fleet, Sir 
 Thomas Gates, and Sif 
 George Somers, who 
 were to govern the col- 
 ony until his arrival. 
 The fleet sailed in the 
 spring of 1609, but when 
 off the American coast 
 was overtaken by a se- 
 vere storm, and two ves- 
 sels — on one of which 
 the admiral and the 
 commissioners had sailed 
 — were wrecked on one 
 of the Bermuda islands. 
 Seven ships reached 
 Virginia, and brought 
 the worst lot of emi- 
 grants that had yet been 
 sent out to the colony. 
 Smith was still acting 
 president, and as the 
 commissioners had not 
 arrived, was determined 
 to hold his position until 
 relieved by his lawful 
 successors. The new 
 emigrants at first refused 
 to recognize his author- 
 ity, but he compelled 
 them to submit, and in 
 order to lessen the evil of their presence, 
 divided them into bodies sufficiently numer- 
 ous for safety, and sent them to make settle- 
 ments in other parts of Virginia. These 
 settlements proved so many failures, and, 
 unfortunately for the colony, Smith was so 
 severely wounded by an accidental explosion 
 of gunpowder, in the autumn of 1609, that 
 
CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH AND POCAHONTAS. 
 
 83 
 
 he was obliged to relinquish the government 
 and return to England for surgical treatment. 
 He delegated his authority to George Percy, 
 and sailed for England, never to return to 
 Virginia again. It was to him alone that the 
 success of the colony was due, but he 
 received in return nothing but ingratitude. 
 
 Pocahontas Saves the Colony. 
 
 The departure of Smith was followed by 
 the most disastrous consequences. There 
 was no longer an acknowledged government 
 \n Virginia, and the settlers gave themselves 
 up to the most reckless idleness. Their pro- 
 visions were quickly consumed, and the In- 
 dians refused to furnish them with anymore. 
 The friendship of the savages had been due 
 to their personal regard for Smith, who had 
 compelled the colonists to respect their 
 rights and to refrain from maltreating them. 
 Now that Smith was no longer at the head of 
 affairs, the Indians regarded the settlers with 
 the contempt they fully merited, and hostili- 
 ties soon began. Stragglers from the town 
 were cut off, and parties who went out to 
 seek food among the savages were deliber- 
 ately murdered. 
 
 On one occasion a plan was laid to surprise 
 the town and massacre the colonists. The 
 danger was averted by Pocahontas, who stole 
 from her father's camp, through night and 
 storm, to give warning to the settlers. Fail- 
 ing in this effort the Indians resolved to 
 starve the colony, and soon the whites began 
 to experience the sufferings of a famine. 
 Thirty of them seized one of the ships, 
 escaped to sea, and began a course of piracy. 
 In six months the four hundred and ninety 
 persons left by Smith in the colony at his 
 departure had dwindled down to sixty ; and 
 this wretched remnant would have perished 
 speedily had not aid reached them. 
 
 On the twenty-fourth of May, 1610, Sir 
 Thomas Gates and the members of the expe- 
 
 dition who had been wrecked on the Ber- 
 mudas reached Jamestown after a stay of 
 nine months on those islands, during which 
 time they had built two vessels from the 
 wreck of their ship and the wood found on 
 the island. In these they managed to reach 
 Virginia, expecting to find the colony in a 
 prosperous condition. They found instead 
 the sixty men already mentioned, sq feeble 
 and full of despair as to be helpless. In the 
 general despondency it was determined to 
 abandon the colony, sail to Newfoundland, 
 and join the fishing vessels which came an- 
 nually from England to that island. 
 
 A 'Welcome Arrival. 
 
 Some of the emigrants wished to burn the 
 town, but this was prevented by the resolute 
 conduct of Sir Thomas Gates. On the 
 seventh of June the settlers embarked, and 
 that night dropped down the James with the 
 tide. The next morning they were aston- 
 ished to meet a fleet of vessels entering the 
 river. It was Lord Delaware, who had 
 arrived with fresh emigrants and supplies. 
 The fugitives hailed the arrival of the gover- 
 nor with delight, and put about and ascended 
 the stream with him. A fair wind enabled 
 them to reach Jamestown the same night. 
 
 On the tenth of June, 1610, the founda- 
 tions of the colony were solemnly relaid 
 with prayer and supplication to Almighty 
 God for success in the effort to establish a 
 state. The authority of Lord Delaware 
 silenced all dissensions, and his equitable but 
 firm administration soon placed the settle- 
 ment on a more successful basis than it had 
 yet occupied. The labors of each day were 
 opened with prayer in the little church, after 
 which, from six in the morning till ten, and 
 from two in the afternoon until four, all 
 engaged in the tasks demanded of them. 
 The good effects of the new system were soon 
 manifest in the increased comfort and 
 
H 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 prosperity of the colony. In about a year the 
 health of Lord Delaware gave way, and he 
 delegated his authority to George Percy, 
 whom Smith had chosen as his successor, 
 and returned to England. 
 
 Fortunately for the colony, the company, 
 before the arrival of Lord Delaware in Eng- 
 land, had sent out Sir Thomas Dale with 
 supplies. He reached Jamestown in May, 
 l6u, and finding Lord Delaware gone, 
 assumed the government. He brought with 
 him a code of laws, prepared and sent out by 
 Sir Thomas Smith, the treasurer of the com- 
 pany, without the order or sanction of the 
 council, and which established martial law 
 as the rule of the colony. Though he ruled 
 with such a stern hand, Dale rendered good 
 service to Virginia by recommending to the 
 company to maintain the settlement at all 
 hazards as certain of yielding them a rich 
 reward in the end. 
 
 The New Settlers. 
 
 This energetic appeal so greatly encour- 
 aged the council, which had been consider- 
 ably disheartened by Lord Delaware's return, 
 that in the summer of 1611 Sir Thomas 
 Gates was sent out to Virginia with six ships 
 and three hundred emigrants. He carried 
 also a stock of cattle and abundant supplies. 
 The emigrants sent out with him were of a 
 better character and more industrious than 
 any that had yet left England for Virginia. 
 Gates assumed the government, and matters 
 began to prosper again. The colony now 
 numbered seven hundred persons, and was 
 deemed so prosperous that Dale, with the 
 approval of the governor, led a number of 
 the men to the vicinity of the falls of the 
 James, and there established another settle- 
 ment, which was called Henrico, in honor of 
 the Prince of Wales. 
 
 Among the changes for the better was the 
 assignment to each settler of a few acres of 
 
 land for his own cultivation. This " incipient 
 establishment of private property'' produced 
 the happiest results, and from this time there 
 was no scarcity of provisions in the colony, 
 which became so powerful and prosperous 
 as to be no longer exposed to the mercy ol 
 the savages. The Indians themselves were 
 quick to notice this change, and some of the 
 neighboring tribes by formal treaty acknowl- 
 edged themselves subjects of King James. 
 
 The whites, however, did not always 
 respect the rights of the Indians. Late in 
 161 3, Pocahontas was betrayed into the 
 hands of a foraging party under Captain 
 Argall. Argall kept her a prisoner, and 
 demanded of Powhatan a ransom. For 
 three months Powhatan did not deign to re- 
 ply to this demand, but prepared for war. 
 In the meantime Pocahontas was i istructed 
 in the faith of the Christians, and at length 
 openly embraced it, and was baptized. Hei 
 conversion was hastened by a powerful senti- 
 ment, which had taken possession of her 
 heart. She had always regarded the English 
 as superior to her own race, and now her 
 affections were won by a young Englishman 
 of good character, name J John Rolfe. 
 
 Marriage of Pocahontas. 
 
 Rolfe, with the approval of the governor, 
 asked her hand of her father in marriage. 
 Powhatan consented to the union, but re- 
 fused to be present at the marriage, as he 
 was too shrewd to place his person in the 
 hands of the English. He sent his brother 
 Opachisco and two of his sons to witness the 
 marriage, which was solemnized in the little 
 church at Jamestown, in the presence of Sit 
 Thomas Dale, the acting governor. The 
 marriage conciliated Powhatan and his tribe, 
 who continued their peaceful relations with 
 the colony. King James, however, was 
 greatly displeased at what he deemed the 
 presumption of a subject in wedding a 
 
85 TYPES OF NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS. 
 
66 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 princess. Pocahontas was soon after taken 
 to England by her husband, and was re- 
 ceived there with great attention and kind- 
 ness. She remained in England for a little 
 more than a year, and then prepared to re- 
 turn to her own country. As she was about 
 to sail, she died, at the age of twenty-two, 
 A. D. 1616. She left a son, who subse- 
 quently became a man of distinction in 
 Virginia, and the ancestor of some of the 
 proudest families of the Old Dominion. 
 
 Earliest Land Laws of Virginia. 
 
 In the meantime the settlements of the 
 French on the coast of Maine had attracted 
 the attention and excited the jealousy of the 
 English. In 1613, Captain Samuel Argall, 
 who was cruising on the banks of Newfound- 
 land to protect the English fishermen, dis- 
 covered the French settlement of Saint 
 Sauveuron the island of Mount Desert, and 
 captured it. He treated the colonists with 
 inexcusable harshness, and compelled them 
 to leave the country. In the same year he 
 destroyed the fortifications which Des Monts 
 had erected on the isle of St. Croix and 
 burned the deserted settlement of Port 
 Royal. 
 
 At Jamestown and the other settlements 
 that had been formed in Virginia private in-< 
 dustry was fast placing the colony on an 
 assured basis of success. " The condition of 
 private property in lands, among the colon- 
 ists, depended, in some measure, on the cir- 
 cumstances under which they had emigrated. 
 Some had been sent and maintained at the 
 exclusive cost of the company, and were its 
 servants. One month of their time and 
 three acres of land were set apart for them, 
 besides a small allowance of two bushels of 
 corn from the public store ; the rest of their 
 labor belonged to their employers. This 
 number had gradually decreased ; and in 
 1617 there were of them all, men. women 
 
 and children, but fifty-four. Others, especi- 
 ally the favorite settlement near the mouth 
 of the Appomattox, were tenants, paying two 
 and a half bushels of corn as a yearly tribute 
 to the store, and giving to the public service 
 one month's labor, which was to be required 
 neither at seed time nor harvest. 
 
 He who came himself, or had sent others 
 at his own expense, had been entitled to a 
 hundred acres of land lor each person : now 
 that the colony was well established, the 
 bounty on emigration was fixed at fifty acres, 
 of which the actual occupation and culture 
 gave a further right to as many more, to be 
 assigned at leisure. Besides this, lands were 
 granted as rewards of merit ; yet not more 
 than two thousand acres could be so appro- 
 priated to one person. A payment to the 
 company's treasury of twelve pounds and 
 ten shillings likewise obtained a title to any 
 hundred acres of land not yet granted or 
 possessed, with a reserved claim to as much 
 more. Such were the earliest land laws of 
 Virginia : though imperfect and unequal, 
 they gave the cultivator the means of becom- 
 ing a proprietor of the soil. These valuable 
 changes were established by Sir Thomas 
 Dale."* 
 
 Tobacco Becomes the Currency. 
 
 The survivors of Raleigh's colony at 
 Roanoke had introduced into England the 
 use of tobacco which they had 'earned from 
 the Indians, and there was now a steady de- 
 mand for that article from the mother 
 country. Encouraged by this demand, and 
 stimulated by the acquisition of property of 
 their own, the Virginia colonists devoted 
 themselves with ardor to the culture of 
 tobacco, and soon all the available land 
 about the settlements, and even the streets 
 and public squares of Jamestown, were 
 
 * History of the United States. By Geo. Bancroft, vol. i.,p. 
 150. 
 
CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH AND POCAHONTAS. 
 
 87 
 
 planted with it. Tobacco soon became the 
 currency of the colony, and great attention 
 was given to it, even to the exclusion of 
 other agricultural interests. 
 
 A New Governor. 
 
 In 1616, Sir Thomas Dale, who had been 
 governor of the colony for two years, dele- 
 gated his authority to George Yeardley, and 
 sailed for England. Under Yeardley's ad- 
 mirable administration the colony continued 
 to increase in prosperity. A faction of the 
 settlers, however, succeeded in removing 
 him from his position, and replaced him with 
 Argall, who was a selfish and brutal tyrant. 
 He held office for two years, and governed 
 according to the most rigid forms of martial 
 law. He swindled the company, and ex- 
 torted their hard earnings from the settlers, 
 who were driven to desperation by his brutal- 
 ities. In their distress they appealed to the 
 company for redress, and, as Argall had 
 robbed the corporation also, their prayer was 
 heard. Argall was removed from office, 
 and the bloody code of Sir Thomas Smith 
 was abolished. Sir George Yeardley was 
 appointed governor, Lord Delaware having 
 died, and reached Jamestown in April, 16 19. 
 He was greatly beloved by the Virginians, 
 and his arrival was looked upon as the be- 
 ginning of new life for the province, as indeed 
 it was. 
 
 Among the changes which Yeardley was 
 empowered by the company to inaugurate 
 was one which exercised the greatest influ- 
 ence upon the subsequent history of Vir- 
 ginia. After years of blundering and arbi- 
 irary rule, the London Company had become 
 convinced that the best way to promote the 
 welfare of Virginia was to give the settlers a 
 share in the management of their own affairs. 
 *' That the planters might have a hande in 
 the governing of themselves, yt was graunted 
 that a generall assemblie shoulde be helde 
 
 yearly once, whereat were to be present the 
 governor and consell with two burgesses 
 from each plantation, freely to be elected by 
 the inhabitantes thereof, this assemblie to 
 have power to make and ordaine whatsoever 
 lawes and orders shoulde by them be thought 
 good and profitable for their subsistence." 
 
 First Representative Assembly. 
 
 In accordance with this authorization, 
 Governor Yeardley issued his writs for the 
 election of representatives from the various 
 colonies, and on the tenth day of July, 1619, 
 two delegates from each of the eleven settle- 
 ments of the colony met at Jamestown, and 
 organized the House of Burgesses of the 
 Colony of Virginia, the first representative 
 assembly ever convened in America. In 
 this assembly the governor and council sat 
 with the burgesses, and engaged in the de- 
 bates and motions. John Pory, a member 
 of the council and secretary of the colony, 
 was chosen speaker, although he was not a 
 member of the house. Sensible of their de- 
 pendence upon the Supreme Ruler of the 
 world, the burgesses opened their delibera- 
 tions with prayer, and thus established the 
 practice. " The assembly exercised fully 
 the right of judging of the proper election 
 of its members ; and they would not suffer 
 any patent, conceding manorial jurisdiction, 
 to bar the obligation of obedience to their 
 decisions." Laws were enacted against idle- 
 ness and vice, and for the encouragement oi 
 industry and order. He who refused to labor 
 was to be " sold to a master for wages till he 
 shewe apparent signs of amendment." 
 
 The playing of dice and cards, and 
 drunkenness and profane swearing were pro* 
 hibited under severe penalties. Inducements 
 were held out to increase the planting of 
 corn, mulberry trees, hemp and the vine. 
 The price of tobacco was fixed by law at 
 three shillings a pound for the best grade 
 
88 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 and half that price for the inferior grade. 
 Provision was also made for " the erecting of 
 a university and college" for the proper edu- 
 cation of the children who should be born 
 to the planters. It was designed to extend 
 to the Indians the benefit of these institutions, 
 and it was ordered that the " most tovvardly 
 (Indian) boys in wit and graces of nature 
 should be brought up in the first elements 
 of literature, and sent from college to the 
 work of converting the natives to Christian- 
 
 ity." 
 
 The measures of the assembly were put 
 in force without waiting the approval of the 
 London Company, and the good effects of 
 them were quickly visible in the colony. 
 The principles of free government having 
 been planted in the community, the settlers, 
 who had been thereby transformed from the 
 mere creatures of the governor into free- 
 born Englishmen once more, began to regard 
 Virginia as their permanent home, and set to 
 work with a will to build houses and plant 
 fields. One thing only was lacking to give 
 the settlers homes in the truest sense of the 
 word ; and to supply that need Sir Edwin 
 Sandys induced ninety young and vir- 
 tuous women to emigrate to America, that 
 the colonists might be able to marry and 
 form domestic ties which alone could perma- 
 nently attach them to America. 
 
 Wives Imported. 
 
 The young women were sent over to the 
 colony in 1619, at the expense of the com- 
 pany, and were married to the tenants of the 
 corporation or to men who were well enough 
 to do to support them. The next year sixty 
 more were sent over, and quickly found 
 husbands. In all cases the husbands were 
 required to repay to the company the cost of 
 the passage of their wives from England. 
 This was paid in tobacco, and was regarded 
 as a debt of honor, to be discharged at any 
 
 sacrifice. In order to aid the husbands in 
 these payments, as well as in their general 
 matters, the company, in employing labor, 
 gave the preference to the married men. 
 The colony now increased in a marked 
 degree, emigrants coming out so rapidly from 
 England that by 1621 there were four thou- 
 sand persons in Virginia. It having become 
 understood that the colony had passed the 
 stage at which failure was possible, and had 
 become a permanent state, the new emigrants 
 were largely men of family, who brought 
 their households with them. 
 
 Virginia's Written Constitution. 
 
 In July, 1 62 1 , the London Company, which 
 was now controlled by the patriot party in 
 England, granted to Virginia a written consti- 
 tution, which gave to the colony a form of 
 government similar to that of England her- 
 self. A governor and permanent council 
 were to be appointed by the company. The 
 house of burgesses was to have the power of 
 enacting such laws as should be needed for 
 the general good, but no law so enacted was 
 to be valid unless approved by the company, 
 On the other hand, no orders of the court in 
 London were to be binding in Virginia unless 
 ratified by the house of burgesses. Courts 
 of justice were established and ordered to be 
 administered according to the law and forms 
 of trial in use in England. Thus the common 
 law of England was firmly established in 
 Virginia, and under its beneficent protection 
 the colony advanced steadily in prosperity. 
 
 The colonists were to be no longer merely 
 the subjects of a commercial corporation, and 
 as such to hold their liberties and property at 
 the pleasure of their masters ; but were 
 definitely accorded the right to govern them- 
 selves, and to take such measures for their 
 safety and prosperity as in their judgment 
 should seem best. Such were the provisions 
 of the constitution. 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 Progress of the Virginia Colony 
 
 iitrodnction of Negro Slavery Into Virginia — Efforts of the Assembly to Restrict Slavery — The Indians Attemp. tin 
 Destruction of the Colony — Terrible Sufferings of the Whites — Aid from England — The Indian War Begun — King 
 James Revokes the Charter of the London Company — Charles I. Desires a Monopoly of the Tobacco Trade — Action oi 
 the Assembly — Sir William Berkeley's First Administration — Severe Measures Against Dissenters — Close of the Indian 
 War — Death of Opechancanough — Emigration of Royalists to Virginia — Virginia and the Commonwealth — Treaty 
 with England — The Assembly Asserts Its Independence of the Governor — The Restoration — Berkeley Chosen Gov- 
 ernor by the Assembly — His Hypocrisy. 
 
 IN August, 1619, a few months after the 
 meeting of the first colonial legislature, 
 there occurred an event which was des- 
 tined to influence the history of Virginia 
 and of America for remote generations, per- 
 haps forever. A Dutch vessel of war entered 
 the James River and offered twenty negroes 
 for sale as slaves. These were purchased by 
 the planters, and negro slavery was thus estab- 
 lished in Virginia. Laborers were in demand, 
 and the necessity for them blinded the planters 
 to the evil they were fastening upon the colony. 
 The first importation was followed by others, 
 the infamous business being principally in 
 the hands of the Dutch at this period. Still 
 the blacks increased very slowly. The legis- 
 lature from the first discouraged the traffic 
 by a heavy tax upon female slaves. 
 
 Sir Francis Wyatt, the first governor ap- 
 pointed under the new constitution, reached 
 Virginia in 1621, and the new laws were soon 
 in successful operation. Soon after his arrival 
 a terrible misfortune befell the colony, and 
 almost caused its destruction. For some 
 time there had been bad blood between the 
 whites and the Indians. Powhatan, the 
 friend of the English, was dead, and Opechan- 
 canough, the veteran chief, who, since the 
 death of Powhatan, had become the leader of 
 the nation, was bittetly hostile to the English, 
 and not without reason. The savages origi- 
 
 nally held the best lands in the colony, but the 
 whites, when these lands were wanted, took 
 possession of them without regard to the 
 rights of their dusky owners. The Indians, 
 unable to contend with the whites in open 
 conflict, saw themselves driven steadily away 
 from their accustomed homes, and menaced 
 with total destruction by the superior race. 
 Opechancanough, though outwardly friendly 
 to the colonists, now secretly resolved upon 
 their destruction, and sought to accomplish 
 this by treachery. 
 
 There were about five thousand Indians, 
 of whom fifteen hundred were warriors, 
 within sixty miles of Jamestown, and the 
 whites in the same region numbered in all 
 about four thousand. These were scattered 
 in fancied safety along both sides of the 
 James and for some distance into the interior. 
 A plot was organized by the Indian leader 
 for the extermination of every settler in 
 the colony. At noon on a designated day 
 every settlement was to be surprised and 
 all the inhabitants murdered. The savages 
 in the meantime kept up their pretence 01 
 friendship. Opechancanough declared with 
 fervor, " Sooner shall the sky fall than my 
 friendship for the English should cease." So 
 unsuspicious were the English that to the 
 very last moment they received the savage9 
 amongst them without fear of harm, and in 
 
9 o 
 
 MASSACRE OF SETTLERS BY INDIANS. 
 
PROGRESS OF THE VIRGINIA COLONY. 
 
 91 
 
 many places the latter were then in the houses 
 of the people they meant to destroy. 
 
 On the twenty-second of March, 1622, a 
 genei al attack was made by the savages upon 
 all the settlements of the colony. On the 
 previous night the plot had been revealed to 
 a converted Indian named Chauco, who at 
 once hastened to Jamestown and gave warn- 
 ing of the danger. The alarm spread rapidly 
 to the nearest settlements, but those at a dis- 
 tance could not be reached in time to avert 
 their fate. Those settlements which had 
 been warned were able to offer a successful 
 resistance to their assailants, and some of 
 those which were surprised beat off the 
 Indians ; but the number of victims, men 
 women and children, who fell this day 
 amounted to three hundred and forty-seven. 
 All these were slain, and their fate would 
 have been shared by the whole colony but 
 for the warning of the friendly Indian. 
 
 Terrible Destruction. 
 
 The effect upon the colony was appalling. 
 The distant plantations had been destroyed 
 by the savages, and out of eighty settlements 
 eight alone survived. These, and especially 
 Jamestown, were crowded beyond their ca- 
 pacity with fugitives who had fled to them 
 for shelter. Sickness soon began to prevail, 
 the public works were discontinued, and pri- 
 vate industry was greatly diminished. A 
 gloom rested over the entire colony, and the 
 population fell off. At the end of two years 
 after the massacre, the number of inhabitants 
 had been reduced to two thousand. Much 
 sympathy was manifested for the suffering 
 colonists by the people of England. The 
 city of London sent them liberal assistance, 
 and private individuals subscribed to their 
 need. King James was aroused into an 
 affectation of generous sympathy, and sent 
 over to the colony a supply of muskets which 
 had been condemned as worthless in England. 
 
 The whites recovered from their gloom, 
 and on their part began to form plans for 
 the extermination of their foes. Diring the 
 next ten years expeditions were sent against 
 the Indians at frequent intervals. The object 
 kept sternly in view was to either destroy 
 the savages altogether, or force them back 
 from the seaboard into the interior. As late 
 as 1630 it was ordered by the general assem- 
 bly that no peace should be made with the 
 Indians. 
 
 Virginia's Charter Revoked. 
 
 An important change now occurred in the 
 fortunes of the colony. The London Com- 
 pany was bankrupt, and its stockholders 
 having abandoned all hope of gain from the 
 colony, held on to their shares merely as a 
 means of exercising political power. The 
 company was divided between two parties. 
 One of these favored the direct rule of the 
 colony by the sovereign, the other maintained 
 the independent government of the province 
 by its own legislature under the constitution 
 granted to it. The debates between these 
 factions greatly annoyed the king, who could 
 never tolerate the expression of an independ- 
 ent opinion by any of his subjects. He 
 endeavored in various ways to silence these 
 disputes, and to regain the powers he had 
 relinquished to the company, but the ' ttter 
 firmly refused to surrender their charter, and 
 the colonists, who feared that the king might 
 seek to impose his own arbitrary will upon 
 them in the place of their constitution and 
 the laws of England, sustained the company 
 in its refusal. 
 
 In spite of this opposition, however, James 
 carried his point. The charter of the com- 
 pany was revoked, and Virginia was made a 
 royal province. The company appealed to 
 the courts, but these being under the influ- 
 ence of the crown sustained the king. Their 
 decision was rendered in June, 1624. James 
 
pa 
 
 did not interfere with any of the liberties or 
 privileges of Virginia, however. Sir Francis 
 Wyatt was retained in his office of governor, 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 prepare a code of laws for the government of 
 Virginia, but fortunately for that province he 
 died before he could execute his design. 
 
 Charles I. succeeded 
 his father on the Eng- 
 lish throne on the 
 twenty-seventh of 
 March, 1625. He was 
 favorably disposed 
 toward the colony, 
 for he did notsuppose 
 the principles of civil 
 liberty had taken so 
 deep a root in it, and, 
 moreover, he wished 
 to secure for the 
 crown the monopoly 
 of the tobacco trade 
 He carried his con- 
 descension to the ex- 
 tent of recognizing 
 the house of burgesses 
 as a legislative body 
 and requesting it tc 
 pass a bill restricting 
 the sales of tobacco to 
 the crown. The house 
 answered him respect- 
 fully, but firmly, that 
 to grant his majesty's 
 request would be to 
 injuie the trade of the 
 colony. Defeated in 
 this effort to secure 
 this monopoly the 
 king continued 
 throughout his reign 
 to seek to get the 
 tobacco trade into his 
 hands. He declared 
 London to be the sole 
 
 FLIGHT OF THE INDIANS AFTER THE MASSACRE. 
 
 and the colony was left under the laws and 
 in possession of the privileges secured to it 
 in 162 1. James announced his intention to 
 
 market for the sale of tobacco, and endeav- 
 ored in many ways, and in vain, to regulate 
 the trade. 
 
PROGRESS OF THE VIRGINIA COLONY. 
 
 93 
 
 In the meantime Sir Francis Wyatt retired 
 from the government of the colony, and Sir 
 George Yeardley was appointed his successor 
 in 1626. The latter died the next year, and 
 Francis West was elected governor by the 
 council until the pleasure of the king should 
 be known. Upon the receipt in England of 
 the news of Yeardley's death, Charles 
 appointed Sir John Harvey governor of 
 Virginia. At the same time he granted to 
 the council in Virginia authority to fill all 
 vacancies occurring in their body. Previous 
 to the arrival of Harvey, West was succeeded 
 by another governor, named Pott, elected by 
 the council. 
 
 An Unpopular Governor. 
 
 Harvey reached Virginia late in the 
 autumn of 1629, and remained in office until 
 1639. He was greatly disliked, and his 
 failure to enforce the claims of Virginia 
 against the colony of Maryland, which was 
 planted in 1634 upon territory embraced 
 within the original grant to Virginia, made 
 him still more unpopular. In 1635 he was 
 removed from office by the council, and an 
 appeal was made to the king by both Harvey 
 and the council. Harvey returned to 
 England to manage his case, and John West 
 was appointed governor until the decision of 
 the case by the king. Harvey succeeded in 
 defeating his opponents, who were not even 
 allowed a hearing in England, and returned 
 to Virginia in January, 1636, and resumed 
 his place as governor. 
 
 The complaints against him were so 
 numerous, that in 1639 he was removed by 
 the king, who appointed Sir Francis Wyatt 
 his successor. In 1641 Wyatt was succeeded 
 by Sir William Berkeley, who reached 
 Jamestown in 1642. In the spring of this 
 year, an effort was made to revive the London 
 Company, but Virginia, which was now a 
 royal province, opposed the measure, and 
 
 urged the king to allow her to remain in the 
 exercise of the self-government which had 
 contributed in so marked a degree to her 
 prosperity. The king, impressed with the 
 force of the arguments by which this appeal 
 was sustained, declared his intention to make 
 no change in the colonial government. 
 
 The Puritans Banished. 
 
 Berkeley, during his first administration, 
 proved in the main a good governor, and 
 the colony continued to improve. The 
 courts of justice were brought as near as 
 possible to the English standard, and the 
 titles to lands were arranged upon a more 
 satisfactory basis than had hitherto been 
 found possible. Taxes were assessed accord- 
 ing to the wealth of the settlers, and a treaty 
 was arranged with Maryland by which the 
 vexed questions between the two colonies 
 were satisfactorily adjusted. The Virginians, 
 accustomed to freedom, were in all things, 
 save their acknowledgment of the king's 
 supremacy, a practically independent nation, 
 so little were they interfered with by the 
 sovereign. The colony was devoted to the 
 established church of England, and even at 
 this early day there were severe laws for the 
 enforcement of conformity to its rules, and 
 for the punishment of dissenters. 
 
 When Puritan ministers came from New 
 England into the colony in 1643, they were 
 banished by the colonial government, not- 
 withstanding they had been invited into 
 Virginia by the Puritan settlements in that 
 province. The majority of the Virginians, 
 with the governor at their head, were royal- 
 ists and staunch friends of the king. 
 
 The Puritans living in the colony were 
 regarded with suspicion, and when they re- 
 fused to conform to the established church, 
 it was ordered that they should be banished. 
 Many of them passed over into Maryland 
 and settled there. With the exception of 
 
94 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 this harmless bigotry, the colony took no 
 share in the great quarrel which was rending 
 the mother country in twain. It was rather 
 a gainer by it, as the troubles which encom- 
 passed Charles I. compelled him to cease his 
 
 INDIAN WEAPONS. 
 
 efforts to interfere with the trade of the 
 olanters. 
 
 The chief trouble of this period was with 
 the Indians. There had been no peace with 
 '■hem since the massacre of 1622, but fre- 
 
 quent expeditions had been sent against 
 them. In 1644, the savages, led by their 
 veteran chieftain Opechancanough, resolved 
 to make one more effort to exterminate the 
 whites, forgetting that in the twenty years 
 that elapsed theii 
 enemies had grown 
 stronger, while they 
 had grown weaker. 
 On the eighteenth of 
 April the frontier set- 
 tlements were at- 
 tacked, and three hun- 
 dred of the settlers 
 were put to death. 
 The whites at once 
 inaugurated vigorous 
 measures for their 
 defence, and a sharp 
 warfare was waged 
 upon the savages until 
 October, 1646. 
 
 It was brought to a 
 close by the capture 
 of Opechancanough, 
 who was so decrepit 
 that he was unable to 
 walk, and was carried 
 aboutin the arms of his 
 people. His flesh was 
 emaciated, the sinews 
 so relaxed, and his 
 eyelids so heavy that 
 whenever he desired 
 to see they were lifted 
 by his attendants. Yet 
 still the vigor of his 
 intellect remained to 
 him, and he was to the 
 last both feared by his enemies and loved by 
 his people. Berkeley, having taken him pris- 
 oner, exposed him to the rude gaze of the 
 colonists, an indignity which stung the proud 
 monarch of the forest to the heart. On on© 
 
PROGRESS OF THE VIRGINIA COLONY. 
 
 9£ 
 
 occasion, hearing that the governor was 
 approaching, he caused his eyelids to be 
 raised, and fixing upon his captor a look of 
 stern rebuke, said to him, " If Sir William 
 Berkeley had become my prisoner, I should 
 not thus meanly have exposed him as a show 
 to my people." 
 
 A Cowardly Assassination. 
 
 A few days later, Opechancanough was 
 basely assassinated by one of the colonists 
 charged with the duty of guarding him. Thus 
 perished one of the greatest of the native 
 chieftains of America. In October, 1646, 
 Necotowance, the successor of Opechancan- 
 ough, entered into a treaty with the colony, 
 by which he and his people relinquished to 
 the English the lands that had been the 
 heritage of their fathers, and withdrew into 
 the interior. Their power was completely 
 broken, and submission was all that was left 
 to them. 
 
 Virginia was now on the high road to 
 prosperity. The population at the close of 
 the year 1648 numbered twenty thousand, 
 and was increasing rapidly. A fair trade had 
 been built up with other countries, and at 
 Christmas of this year " there were trading 
 in Virginia ten ships from London, two from 
 Bristol, twelve Hollanders, and seven from 
 New England." The quarrels of the mother 
 country had not affected the colony, though 
 a thrill of horror and indignation ran through 
 all Virginia when the news was received of 
 the execution of Charles I. 
 
 Upon the fall of that monarch a large 
 number of the royalist party in England, un- 
 willing to submit to or make any compromise 
 with the Parliament, fled to Virginia, and 
 were received therewith sympathizing hospi- 
 tality by the government and people. Many 
 of them made the colony their permanent 
 home, and thus began the pleasant relations 
 between Virginia and England, which have 
 
 in numerous cases remained unbroken. The 
 Virginians regarded Charles II., then an 
 exile at Breda, as their rightful sovereign, and 
 it was seriously proposed to him to come 
 over to America and be king of Virginia. 
 Charles' interests obliged him to remain in 
 Europe, but he continued to regard himself 
 as king of Virginia. From this circum- 
 stance Virginia came to be called " The Old 
 Dominion." 
 
 Arrival of a Fleet. 
 
 The Parliament, however, did not lonp 
 suffer the colony to maintain this attitude 
 Having triumphed over all its enemies in 
 Europe it prepared to enforce its authorit} 
 in America. In 1650 an ordinance wa i 
 passed forbidding all intercourse with th 
 colonies that had adhered to the Stuarts, 
 except by the especial permission of Parlia 
 ment or the Council of State. In the spring 
 of 1652 more energetic measures were put in 
 force, and a fleet was dispatched to America 
 to compel the submission of the colonies. 
 The fleet arrived off Jamestown. No resist- 
 ance was attempted, for the commissioners 
 appointed by the commonwealth were in- 
 structed to grant terms honorable to both 
 parties. The Virginians were prepared to 
 resist any attempt to force them into submis- 
 sion, but they were disarmed by the liberal 
 spirit with which the commonwealth met 
 them, and a treaty was concluded between 
 England and Virginia, as equal treating with 
 equal. It was stipulated : 
 
 " First. — That this should be considered a 
 voluntary act, not forced or constrained by a 
 conquest upon the country ; and that the 
 colony should have and enjoy such freedoms 
 and privileges as belong to the freeborn 
 people of England. 
 
 " Secondly. — That the grand assembly, as 
 formerly, should convene and transact the 
 affairs of Virginia, doing nothing contrary to 
 
9 6 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 the government of the commonwealth or laws 
 of England. 
 
 " Thirdly. — That there should be a full 
 and total remission of all acts, words, or writ- 
 ings against the Parliament. 
 
 Demand for a New Charter. 
 
 " Fourthly. — That Virginia should have 
 her ancient bounds and limits, granted by the 
 charters of the former kings, and that a new 
 charter was to be sought from Parliament to 
 that effect, against such as had trespassed 
 against their ancient rights. 
 
 " Fifthly. — That all patents of land under 
 the seal of the colony, granted by the gover- 
 nor, should remain in full force. 
 
 " Sixthly. — That the privilege of fifty acres 
 of land for every person emigrating to the 
 colony should remain in full force. 
 
 " Seventhly. — That the people of Virginia 
 have free trade, as the people of England 
 enjoy, with all places and nations, according 
 to the laws of the commonwealth ; and that ( 
 Virginia should enjoyequal privileges.in every 
 respect, with any other colony in America. 
 
 " Eighthly. — That Virginia should be free 
 from all taxes, customs, and impositions what- 
 soever ; and that none should be imposed 
 upon them without the consent of their grand 
 assembly ; and no forts or castles be erected, 
 or garrison maintained, without their consent. 
 
 " Ninthly. — That no charge should be re- 
 quired from the country on account of the 
 expense incurred in the present fleet. 
 
 " Tenthly. — That this agreement should 
 be tendered to all persons, and that such as 
 should refuse to subscribe to it should have 
 a year's time to remove themselves and 
 effects from Virginia, and in the meantime 
 enjoy equal justice." 
 
 " These terms," says Bancroft, " so favor- 
 able to liberty, and almost conceding inde- 
 pendence, were faithfully observed until the 
 restoration. Historians have, indeed, drawn 
 
 gloomy pictures of the discontent which per 
 vaded the colony, and have represented the 
 discontent as heightened by commercial op- 
 pression. The statement is a fiction. The 
 colony of Virginia enjoyed liberties as 
 large as the favored New England ; dis- 
 played an equal degree of fondness for pop- 
 ular sovereignty, and fearlessly exercised 
 political independence." 
 
 " Old Ironsides." 
 
 Richard Bennett, one of the commission- 
 ers, wa? chosen governor in the place of 
 Berkeley. Until now it had been customary 
 for the governor and council to sit in the 
 assembly, and take part in the debates. Ob- 
 jection was now made to their presence, and 
 the matter was compromised by obliging 
 them to take, the oath required of the bur- 
 gesses. During the protectorate Cromwell 
 wisely let the colony alone. He appointed 
 none of the governors, and never interfered 
 with the management of its affairs. In 1658, 
 Samuel Mathews being governor, the assem- 
 bly, on the first of April, passed alaw exclud- 
 ing the governor and council from their 
 sessions, and thus secured to themselves a 
 free and uninterrupted discussion of their 
 measures. The governor and council in re- 
 turn declared the assembly dissolved, but 
 that body vindicated its authority and inde- 
 pendence by removing the governor and 
 council and compelled them to submit. 
 They were then re-elected to their respective 
 positions. Thus did the spirit of popular 
 liberty establish all its claims. 
 
 Upon the death of Oliver Cromwell, the 
 burgesses met in secret session and decided 
 to recognize Richard Cromwell as protector. 
 " It was a more interesting question whether 
 the change of protector in England would 
 endanger liberty in Virginia. The letter 
 from the council had left the government to 
 be administered according to former usage 
 
PROGRESS OF THE VIRGINIA COLONY. 
 
 97 
 
 The assembly declared itself satisfied with 
 the language. But that there might be no 
 reason to question the existing usage, the 
 governor was summoned to come to the 
 house, where he appeared in person, deliber- 
 ately acknowledged the supreme power of 
 electing officers to be, by the present laws, 
 resident in the assembly, and pledged himself 
 to join in addressing the new protector for 
 special confirmation of all existing privileges. 
 The reason for this extraordinary proceeding 
 is assigned, ' that what was their privilege 
 now, might be the privilege of their pos- 
 terity.' The frame of the Virginia govern- 
 ment was deemed worthy of being transmit- 
 ted to remote generations." * 
 
 Governor Mathews died in March, 1660, 
 about the time of the resignation of Richard 
 Cromwell in England. Both the mother 
 country and the colony were thus left without 
 a government. In this emergency the gen- 
 eral assembly of Virginia resolved " that the 
 
 7 
 
 supreme government of this country shall 
 be resident in the assembly, and all writs 
 shall issue in its name, until there shall arrive 
 from England a commission, which the assem- 
 bly itself shall adjudge to be lawful." 
 
 The assembly had no thought of asserting 
 its independence of England, but as it cher- 
 ished the earnest hope that the king would 
 be restored to his rights, it proceeded to fill 
 the vacancy occasioned by the death of 
 Governor Mathews by electing Sir William 
 Berkeley, the devoted partisan of theStuarts 5 
 governor of Virginia. Berkeley accepted 
 the office, acknowledged the validity of the 
 acts of the assembly, and expressed his con- 
 viction that he could in no event dissolve 
 that body. " I am," said he, "but the ser- 
 vant of the assembly." We shall see in the 
 course of this narrative how he regarded this 
 promise in the light of subsequent events. 
 
 * History of the United States. By Geo. Bancroft, vc" 
 i., p. 228. 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 Virginia After the Restoration 
 
 •Characteristics of the Virginians — Causes of the Success of the Royalists — Growth of the Aristocratic Class — Berkeley De- 
 •ides Against the People — The Aristocratic Assembly Claims the Right to Sit Perpetually — Deprives the Common People 
 
 I Their Liberties Revival of the Navigation Act by Charles II. — The King Bestows Virginia as a Gift Upon His 
 
 favorites Protests of the Assembly — Growing Hostility of the Virginians to the Colonial Government — The Indian 
 
 War— The Governor Refuses to Allow the Colonists to Defend Themselves — Nathaniel Bacon — He Marches Against 
 
 the Indians Rebellion of the People Against Berkeley and the Assembly — The Convention — Repeal of the Obnoxious 
 
 La WS Berkeley's Duplicity — The People Take Up Arms — Flight of Berkeley — Destruction of Jamestown — Death of 
 
 g acon Causes of the Failure of the Rebellion — Berkeley's Triumph — Execution 01 the Patriot Leaders — Berkeley'* 
 
 Course Condemned by the King — Death of Berkeley — The Unjust Laws Re-enacted — Lord Culpepper Governor — His 
 Extortions— James II. and Virginia— Effects Upon Virginia of the Revolution of 1688— William and Mary College 
 Founded. 
 
 ON the eighth of May, 1660, Charles 
 II. was proclaimed king in Eng- 
 land, and on the twenty-ninth 
 made his entry into London. The 
 rebellion and the commonwealth had pro- 
 duced but little effect upon Virginia. The 
 restoration was productive of the most mo- 
 mentous consequences in the colony. During 
 the long period of the commonwealth Vir- 
 ginia had been practically independent. The 
 people had acquired political rights, and had 
 exercised them with prudence. 
 
 The colony had prospered in a marked 
 degree under the blessings of popular gov- 
 ernment, and the rights of the people were 
 jealously guarded by their legislators. " No 
 trace of established privilege appeared in its 
 code or its government : in its forms and in 
 its legislation Virginia was a representative 
 democracy ; so jealous of a landed aris- 
 tocracy that it insisted on universality of suf- 
 frage ; so hostile to the influence of com- 
 mercial wealth, that it would not tolerate the 
 ' mercenary ' ministers of the law ; so con- 
 siderate for religious freedom, that each 
 parish was left to take care of itself. Every 
 officer was, directly or indirectly, chosen by 
 98 
 
 the people. "* The restoration was to change 
 all this. 
 
 The society of Virginia was peculiar. The 
 colony had been settled by adventurers un- 
 der circumstances which compelled equality 
 among all classes of its people. Thus there 
 had grown up a strong population born to 
 the enjoyment of this equality, and devoted 
 to its maintenance. They constituted the 
 bulk of the inhabitants. By degrees there 
 had sprung up a colonial aristocracy com* 
 posed of the large landholders. These were 
 persons of culture, many of whom had been 
 men of position and education in England. 
 The laws favored the accumulation of large 
 estates, and the possession of them awakened 
 feelings of family pride. 
 
 The large emigration of men of rank and 
 culture at the overthrow of Charles I. greatly 
 increased this class. The existence of an 
 established church gave it another element 
 of strength, since the interests of the state 
 church and the aristocracy are always identi- 
 cal. Education was almost entirely confined 
 to the landholding class, and with this never- 
 
 * Bancroft 's History of the United States, vol. ii., p. »88. 
 
VIRGINIA AFTER THE RESTORATION. 
 
 99 
 
 failing weapon in their grasp they soon ob- 
 tained the direction of the affairs of the 
 colony, and retained it. Unfortunately for 
 Virginia, the mass of the people had no 
 means of acquiring knowledge. There were 
 no common schools in the colony. In 1671, 
 Sir William Berkeley wrote: "Every man 
 instructs his children according to his 
 ability." He added: "I thank God there 
 are no free schools nor printing, and I hope 
 we shall not have these hundred years ; for 
 learning has brought disobedience and heresy 
 and sects into the world, and printing has 
 divulged them and libels against the best 
 government. God keep us from both ! " 
 Thus were the common people doomed to 
 hopeless ignorance, and left helpless and at 
 the mercy of the smaller but educated class. 
 There was no printing press in Virginia, and 
 the colony remained without one until nearly 
 a century after New England had enjoyed 
 its benefits. 
 
 An Element of Weakness. 
 
 Bitterly did the people of Virginia atone 
 for their neglect of their best interests. They 
 had shown at the first the power of creating 
 free institutions ; but these institutions cannot 
 be preserved among an ignorant people. 
 Freedom and intelligence go hand in hand. 
 The institution of negro slavery was another 
 element of weakness and degradation. Labor 
 was debased in the eyes of the whites by 
 being made the task of a slave, when it should 
 have been the glory of a freeman. The in- 
 stitution served to confirm the power of the 
 landed aristocracy, while it sank the common 
 people deeper into ignorance. 
 
 Thus when Sir William Berkeley entered 
 upon his second term of office, at the period 
 of the restoration, there were two elements, 
 by nature hostile to each other, contending 
 for the control of the colony — a people eager 
 for the enjoyment of popular liberty, but 
 
 sinking deeper into ignorance and helpless- 
 ness, and a rising aristocracy, composed of 
 men of wealth and education, and united by 
 a common interest. Unhappily for the 
 people, the governor was a natural aristocrat. 
 In spite of his professions of loyalty to the 
 assembly, he regarded the people with con- 
 tempt, and could never tolerate the exercise 
 of the least of their rights. 
 
 In the midst of the rejoicings in Virginia 
 which hailed the return of Charles II. to the 
 
 KING CHARLES II. 
 
 throne of his fathers, Berkeley took a decisive 
 stand, and boldly declared that he was 
 governor of Virginia, not by the election of 
 the assembly, but by virtue of his commission 
 from the king. At the same time he issued 
 writs for the election of a new assembly in 
 the name of King Charles. Popular sover- 
 eignty was struck dead in Virginia. The 
 new assembly met in March, 1661. It was 
 
 G;c?a 
 
IOO 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 composed exclusively of landholdeis. Until 
 now the assembly had been elected for but a 
 single year, and its members were chosen by 
 the people. This first aristocratic assembly, 
 true to its instincts, at a blow deprived the 
 people of the right of choosing their repre- 
 sentatives, by assuming to itself the power to 
 sit perpetually. 
 
 Sustained by the governor, '» he burgesses 
 were enabled to continue their usurpation 
 for fourteen years, and only yielded to an in- 
 surrection. The salaries of the members 
 were paid by their respective counties, and 
 the house, in i662> passed a law regulating 
 the pay and allowances of its members. The 
 compensation was fixed at two hundred and 
 fifty pounds of tobacco per day, or about 
 nine dollars — a rate deemed enormous in 
 these days of abundant wealth, and utterly 
 unsuited to the period of poverty and struggle 
 we are considering. In order to perpetuate 
 its power, the assembly repealed the laws 
 giving the right of suffrage to every citizen, 
 and confined it to freeholders and house- 
 keepers. 
 
 Laws Against the Quakers. 
 
 Nor did the assembly neglect to provide 
 for the church. Conformity was required 
 by severe laws. Every inhabitant of the 
 colony was compelled to attend its services 
 and to contribute a fixed sum to its support. 
 The assessment of parish taxes was intrusted 
 to twelve vestrymen in each parish, who had 
 power to fill all vacancies in their number. 
 They thus became practically a close corpo- 
 ration, responsible to no one for their acts. 
 Rigorous laws were directed against the 
 Quakers. They were forbidden to hold their 
 own religious assemblies, and their absence 
 from church was punished by a heavy fine. 
 In September, 1663, the house expelled one 
 of its members '* because he was well 
 affected to the Quakers." 
 
 M The organization of the judiciary placed 
 that department of the government almost 
 beyond the control of the people. The gov- 
 ernor and council were the highest ordinary 
 tribunal, and these were all appointed, directly 
 or indirectly, by the crown. Besides this, 
 there were in each county eight unpaid 
 justices of the peace, commissioned by the 
 governor during his pleasure. These justices 
 held monthly courts in their respective coun- 
 ties. Thus the administration of justice in 
 the counties was in the hands of persons 
 holding their offices at the good will of the 
 governor; while the governor himself and 
 his executive council constituted the general 
 court, and had cognizance of all sorts of causes. 
 
 Religious Liberty Destroyed. 
 
 " Was an appeal made to chancery it was 
 but for another hearing before the same men ; 
 and it was only for a few years longer that 
 appeals were permitted from the general 
 court to the assembly. The place of sheriff 
 in each county was conferred on one of the 
 justices for that county, and so devolved to 
 every commissioner in course. * * * But 
 the county courts, thus independent of the 
 people, possessed and exercised the arbitrary 
 power of levying county taxes, which, in 
 their amount, usually exceeded the public 
 levy. This system proceeded so far that the 
 commissioners, of themselves, levied taxes to 
 meet their own expenses. In like manner, 
 the self-perpetuating vestries made out their 
 lists of tithables, and assessed taxes without 
 regard to the consent of the parish. These 
 private levies were unequal and oppressive, 
 were seldom — it is said, never — brought to 
 audit, and were, in some cases, managed by 
 men who combined to defraud the public." * 
 
 These were the effects upon Virginia of 
 the restoration of Charles II. to the throne 
 
 * History the United States. By George Bancroft, 
 vol. ii., pp., 204- 
 
 
VIRGINIA AFTER THE RESTORATION. 
 
 IOI 
 
 of England. The guarantee which a frequent 
 renewal of the assembly secured to the rights 
 oi the people was removed by the perpetu- 
 ation of that body. The right of suffrage — 
 the sole protection of the liberties of a free 
 people — was taken from a majority of the 
 inhabitants of the province. Religious lib- 
 erty, which it was fondly believed had been 
 established, was struck down at a single 
 blow. A system of arbitrary taxation by 
 irresponsible magistrates was set up in the 
 place of the carefully scrutinized levies of 
 the representatives of the people. Education 
 was discouraged and the press regarded with 
 hostility. Ignorance, with all its accompany- 
 ing evils, was fastened upon the colony. Ten 
 years sufficed to accomplish these changes; 
 but it took more than a century for the people 
 of Virginia to recover their lost rights. 
 
 An Infamous Law. 
 
 Charles II. remembered the loyalty of 
 Virginia only in his adversity. One of his 
 first acts was to revive in a more odious form 
 tne navigation act, which had originated in the 
 Long Parliament as a measure for compelling 
 the submission of the colonies to the authority 
 of the commonwealth. In 1660. a new and 
 enlarged navigation act was passed by Parlia- 
 ment. It forbade foreign vessels to trade with 
 the colonies, and required colonists to ship 
 certain ** enumerated articles, such as sugar, 
 tobacco, cotton, wool, ginger or dyewoods " 
 produced in the colony, to England alone. 
 
 This act bore very hard upon Virginia, as 
 it gave to the English merchants the monop- 
 oly of her tobacco trade. The merchants 
 were thus enabled to regulate the price of 
 the commodity, and to supply the wants of 
 the colonists in return upon their own terms. 
 Efforts were made to evade this iniquitous 
 law, but it remained fastened upon the colo- 
 nies, and was the first of a long series of out- 
 rages. 
 
 Charles was not satisfied with crippling 
 the industry of the colony that had remained 
 faithful to him in his adversity. In order 
 to please his worthless favorites at home he 
 consented to plunder the Virginians of their 
 property. In 1649, a patent was granted to a 
 company of cavaliers for the region lying be* 
 tween the Rappahannock and the Potomac, 
 and known in Virginia as the Northern Neck. 
 It was intended to make this region a refuge 
 for their partisans, but the design was nevei 
 carried out. Other settlers located them- 
 selves there, and in 1669 it contained a num- 
 ber of thriving plantations. In the latter yeai 
 Lord Culpepper, one of the most avaricious 
 men in England, obtained from the king a pat- 
 ent for the Northern Neck, having previously 
 acquired all the shares of the company to 
 whom the grant of 1649 had been made. 
 This patent was in direct violation of the 
 rights of the actual settlers, and bore very 
 hard upon them. But it was as nothing com- 
 pared with the next gift of the king. In 
 1673, he bestowed, as a free gift, upon Lord 
 Culpepper and the Earl of Arlington, " all the 
 dominion of land and water called Virginia," 
 for a term of thirty-one years. 
 
 Firm Remonstrance. 
 
 Even the aristocratic assembly was startled 
 by this summary disposal of the colony and 
 commissioners were sent to England to re- 
 monstrate with the king. " We are unwill- 
 ing," the assembly declared, " and conceive 
 that we ought not to submit to those to whom 
 his majesty, upon misinformation, hath 
 granted the dominion over us, who do most 
 contentedly pay to his majesty more than we 
 have ourselves for our labor. Whilst we 
 labor for the advantage of the crown, and do 
 wish we could be more advantageous to the 
 king and nation, we humbly request not to 
 be subjected to our fellow-subjects, but, for 
 the future, to be secured from our fears of 
 
102 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 being enslaved." The commissioners were 
 granted no satisfaction in England, and the 
 efforts of the colony to obtain justice at the 
 hands of the king failed. 
 
 General Discontent. 
 
 Virginia at this time was a sparsely settled 
 province. Jamestown was the only town 
 deserving the name within the limits of the 
 colony. The inhabitants were scattered over 
 the country, separated from each other. 
 They dwelt on their farms and plantations, 
 coming together rarely except on Sundays, 
 on court-days, and at elections. This soli- 
 tary life taught them independence and self- 
 reliance. They were proud of their personal 
 liberty, and so long as this was not taken 
 from them they were willing to submit to 
 almost any form of government that might 
 be imposed upon them. The truth is that 
 until the restoration the Virginians were not 
 accustomed to being governed much. The 
 measures of the royalist governor and assem- 
 bly greatly curtailed the freedom which the 
 people had enjoyed under their former 
 governments, and the imposition of new bur- 
 dens upon them aroused a general discon- 
 tent. 
 
 Men began to come together to discuss 
 their wrongs, and the hostility to the aristo- 
 cratic party and the governor increased 
 rapidly, so rapidly, indeed, that the people 
 were ripe for insurrection in 1674, and would 
 have risen in revolt had not some of the 
 cooler heads induced them to try more 
 peaceful measures of redress. Still the taxes 
 were continued at such a rate that the col- 
 onists were driven to desperation. They 
 complained, with justice, that they were de- 
 prived of all the fruits of their labors by the 
 iniquitous levies made upon them, and their 
 complaints, instead of producing a change 
 for the better, merely brought an increase of 
 their burdens. At length their patience was 
 
 exhausted, and they only lacked an excuse 
 for taking up arms. The opportunity soon 
 came. In the meantime the governor and 
 the assembly, with characteristic contempt 
 for the commons, went on extorting money 
 from the people by unjust taxes principally 
 for their own benefit, and put in successive 
 operation the measures we have already 
 described for strengthening their own power, 
 and reducing the people to subjection to 
 them. 
 
 Six Chiefs Murdered. 
 
 The people of Maryland had become in- 
 volved in a war with the Susquehannah 
 Indians and their confederates, and the 
 struggle was so serious that the savages ex- 
 tended their depredations to the Potomac, 
 and even to the limits of Virginia. To guard 
 against this danger the border militia were 
 set to watch the line of the river, and in 1675 
 a body of them, under Colonel John Wash- 
 ington, crossed over into Maryland to help 
 the people of that colony. This John 
 Washington had emigrated from the north 
 of England about eighteen years before, and 
 had settled in Westmoreland County. He 
 became the great-grandfather of George 
 Washington. The war was conducted with 
 great fury on both sides. Six of the chiefs 
 of the Susquehannah tribe at length came 
 into the camp of the Virginians to treat for 
 peace, and were treacherously murdered. 
 
 This barbarous act aroused the indignation 
 of Governor Berkeley. " If they had killed 
 my father and my mother, and all my 
 friends," said he, " yet if they had come to 
 treat of peace, they ought to have gone in 
 peace." The massacre was bloodily avenged 
 by the Indians. The Susquehannahs im- 
 mediately crossed the Potomac and waged a 
 relentless warfare along the borders of Vir- 
 ginia until they had slain ten whites for each 
 one of their chiefs, a sacrifice required of 
 
I**. 
 
104 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 them by the customs of their tribe, in order 
 that the spirits of their braves might rest in 
 peace. The people appealed to the governor 
 for protection, but Berkeley refused to grant 
 them aid. It is said that he was too deeply 
 interested in the fur trade to be willing to 
 offend the Indians by aiding his people. 
 The colonists then demanded permission to 
 defend themselves, to invade the Indian 
 country, and drive the savages farther into 
 the interior. This was also refused, and 
 during all this time the frontier was suffering 
 fearfully from the outrages of Berkeley's In- 
 dian friends. 
 
 A Patriotic Leader. 
 
 At last the patience of the people was ex- 
 hausted. A leader was at hand in the person 
 of Nathaniel Bacon. He was a young 
 planter of the county of Henrico, a native of 
 England, and a lawyer by profession. He 
 was ardent in temper, eloquent and per- 
 suasive in speech, winning in manner, a true 
 patriot, and possessed of the firmness and 
 decision necessary in a leader of a popular 
 movement. He had been reared in England 
 amid the struggles which ushered in the es- 
 tablishment of the commonwealth, and had 
 learned the lesson of freedom too well to 
 forget it in a home where every incident of 
 his daily life required the exercise of the best 
 qualities of his nature. His love of repub- 
 licanism had gained him the dislike of 
 Governor Berkeley, who hated any man that 
 dared to criticise his tyranny. The same 
 principles which made him obnoxious to the 
 governor won him the affectionate confidence 
 of the people of Virginia, who were quick to 
 recognize their true friend. 
 
 When volunteers began to offer them- 
 selves for the war against the Indians they 
 petitioned the governor to commission Bacon 
 their commander-in-chief. This Berkeley 
 refused, declaring that he would not counte- 
 
 nance such presumption on the part of the 
 " common people." In the meantime the 
 murders continued, and Bacon, who shared 
 the indignation of the people, determined 
 that if another man was slain he would 
 march the militia against the Indians without 
 a commission. Almost immediately several 
 of his own men were murdered on his own 
 plantation near the falls of the James. He 
 at once gave the signal. Five hundred men 
 were soon under arms, and Bacon was made 
 their leader. About the twentieth of April, 
 1676, he set out on his march against the 
 savages, whom he chastised and drove back 
 into the interior. 
 
 The people were in arms, and they were 
 not disposed to lay down their weapons until 
 their grievances were redressed. The quarrel 
 was not with the Indians, but with the 
 government. As soon as Bacon had begun 
 his march into the Indian country, Berkeley 
 denounced him as a traitor, and his followers 
 as rebels, and ordered them to disperse. He 
 was obeyed by some who feared the loss of 
 their property, but the populous counties 
 bordering the bay answered him by joining 
 the insurrection. 
 
 The Assembly Dissolved. 
 
 The people of the colony with one voice 
 demanded the dissolution of the assembly, 
 which had unlawfully maintained its exist- 
 ence for fourteen years. Opposed by the 
 entire people the governor was compelled to 
 yield. The assembly had fairly earned the 
 universal hatred with which it was regarded 
 by its selfishness and its hostility to popular 
 liberty. It was dissolved, and writs were 
 issued for a new election. Among the new 
 members elected was Bacon, who was re- 
 turned from the county of Henrico. 
 
 The new assembly was naturally favorable 
 to the rights of the people, and it at once 
 proceeded to rectify many of the abuses 
 
VIRGINIA AFTER THE RESTORATION. 
 
 105 
 
 which had produced the insurrection. Taxes 
 were adjusted more equitably; the right of 
 suffrage was restored to the people; the 
 monopoly of the Indian trade, in which it 
 
 vestries was broken by limiting their term of 
 office to three years, and giving the election 
 of these officials to the freemen of the parish ; 
 a general amnesty was proclaimed for all past 
 
 BACON DEMANDS THE COMMISSION" OF BERKELEY. 
 
 was believed the governor was deeply inter- 
 ested, was suspended ; many of the evils con- 
 nected with the expenditure of the public 
 funds were corrected ; the power of the parish 
 
 offences ; and Bacon, amid the rejoicings 
 of the people, was elected commander of 
 the army destined to act against the 
 Indians. 
 
io6 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 These measures' were utterly distasteful to 
 the haughty old governor. He refused to 
 give them his sanction, or to sign the com- 
 mission ordered for Bacon by the assembly. 
 Fearful of treachery Bacon withdrew from 
 the capital. The people quickly rallied to 
 his support, and in a few days he entered 
 Jamestown at the head of five hundred men. 
 Berkeley, who was as courageous as he was 
 obstinate, met him, and baring his breast 
 said, haughtily, " A fair mark ; shoot ! " 
 Bacon answered him calmly, '* I will not 
 hurt a hair of your head, or of any man's ; 
 we are come for the commission to save our 
 lives from the Indians." The governor was 
 at length obliged to yield. The commission 
 was issued, the acts of the assembly were 
 ratified, and Berkeley joined the assembly 
 and council in sending to England an in- 
 dorsement of the loyalty, patriotism, and 
 energy of Bacon. This consent was given 
 on the twenty-fourth of June, or, according 
 to the new style of calculation, on the fourth 
 of July, 1676, just one hundred years before 
 the Declaration of Independence. 
 
 Hunted Like a Wolf. 
 
 Bacon at once marched against the In- 
 dians, and in a brilliant and successful cam- 
 paign broke their power, and gave peace and 
 security to the frontier. In the midst of these 
 honorable labors he was again assailed by 
 Berkeley, who had only consented to the 
 reconciliation to gain time. The governor 
 withdrew from Jamestown to Gloucester, 
 which was the most popu' His and the most 
 loyal county of Virginia. He summoned a 
 convention of the inhabitants, and renewed 
 his efforts against Bacon. The people of 
 Gloucester, justly regarding Bacon as the 
 defender of the colony, opposed the gov- 
 ernor's proposals, but he persisted in spite of 
 
 heir advice, and again proclaimed Bacon a 
 
 -*itor 
 
 This inexcusable pursuit of a man who 
 had rendered nothing but good service to 
 the colony aroused the indignation of the 
 troops. " It vexes me tc the heart," said 
 Bacon, " that while I am hunting the wolves 
 and tigers that destroy our lambs I should 
 myself be pursued as a savage. Shall per- 
 sons wholly devoted to their king and 
 country — men hazarding their lives against 
 the public enemy — deserve the appellation 
 of rebels and traitors ? The whole country 
 is witness to our peaceable behavior. But 
 those in authority, how have they obtained 
 their estates ? Have they not devoured the 
 common treasury ? What arts, what sciences, 
 what schools of learning, have they pro- 
 moted ? I appeal to the king and Parlia- 
 ment, where the cause of the people will be 
 heard impartially." 
 
 Bacon appealed to the people of Virginia 
 to unite for the defence of their liberties 
 against th£ tyranny of the governor. They 
 responded to this call with enthusiasm, and 
 a convention of the most eminent men in 
 the colonj assembled at Middle Plantations, 
 now Williamsburg, on the third of August, 
 1676. It was resolved by the convention to 
 sustain Bacon with the whole power of the 
 colony in the campaign against the Indians. If 
 the governor persisted in his attempt to hunt 
 him as a traitor, the members of the convention 
 pledged themselves to defend Bacon with 
 arms, even against the royal troops, until an 
 appeal could be made to the king in person. 
 The people of Virginia were fully resolved 
 to protect themselves against the tyranny of 
 Berkeley, and Bacon, strengthened by their 
 indorsement of his course, finished his cam- 
 paign against the Indians. Governor Berke- 
 ley withdrew across the bay to the eastern , 
 shore, and there collected a force of sailors 
 belonging to some English vessels and a band 
 of worthless Indians. With this force 
 '* men of a base and cowardly disposition 
 
VIRGINIA AFTER THE RESTORATION. 
 
 107 
 
 allured by the passion for plunder," he pre- 
 pared to return to Jamestown. 
 
 The people decided to regard the retreat 
 of the governor as an abdication on his part 
 of his office. The ten years for which he 
 had been appointed had expired, and the 
 colonial records afforded a precedent for his 
 removal. Bacon and four others, who had 
 been members of the council, issued writs 
 for the election of a representative conven- 
 tion to which the management of the 
 affairs of the colony was to be committed. 
 With the exception of a few royalists the 
 whole people of Virginia indorsed the move- 
 ment ; the women were enthusiastic, and 
 urged their husbands to risk everything, even 
 life, in defence of their liberties. 
 
 Early in September Sir William Berkeley 
 reached Jamestown with the rabble which he 
 called his army. He took possession of the 
 town without resistance, and was joined by a 
 number of royalists. He offered freedom to 
 the slaves of the Virginians who were opposed 
 to him on the condition of their joining his 
 ranks. Bacon and his party were again pro- 
 claimed traitors and rebels. 
 
 The People Fly to Arms. 
 
 The people at once flew to arms, and 
 Bacon soon found himself at the head of the 
 little army that had been so successful against 
 the Indians. Without delay they marched 
 to Jamestown. The resistance attempted by 
 Berkeley's cowardly followers was feeble, 
 and the whole force, including their leader, 
 retreated to their ships, and dropped down 
 the river by night. The next morning the 
 army of the people entered Jamestown. It 
 was /umored that a party of royalists was 
 marching from the northern counties to the 
 support of Berkeley, and a council was held 
 to decide upon the fate of the capital. It 
 was agreed that it should be burned to pre- 
 vent it from being used as a stronghold for 
 
 their enemies. The torch was applied; 
 Drummond and Lawrence, leaders of the 
 popular part)'-, set fire to their dwellings with 
 their own hands ; and in a few hours only a 
 heap of smouldering ruins marked the site of 
 the first capital of Virginia. Its destruction 
 left the colony without a single town withir 
 its limits. 
 
 From the ruins of Jamestown Bacon 
 marched promptly to meet the royalist force 
 advancing from the Rappahannock region. 
 The latter in a body joined the army of the 
 people, and even the county of Gloucester, 
 the stronghold of royalty, gave its adhesior 
 to the patriotic movement. With the excep- 
 tion of the eastern shore the entire colon), 
 was united in support o f the cause of popular 
 liberty. 
 
 Untimely Death of Bacon. 
 
 Unhappily, at this critical juncture, Bacon 
 was seized with a fatal fever, of which 
 he died on the first of October, 1676. His 
 followers grieved for him with passionate 
 sorrow, and with good cause. It has been 
 the good fortune of Virginia to give many 
 great names to the cause of liberty, but in 
 all the immortal roll there are none who sur- 
 passed Nathaniel Bacon in pure and disin- 
 terested patriotism. Others were permitted 
 to accomplish more, but none cherished 
 loftier aims or desired more earnestly the 
 good of their fellow-citizens. 
 
 The death of Bacon left the popular party 
 without a head ; and now began to be seen 
 for the first time in Virginia the evils which 
 the neglect of education must produce in a 
 community. The Virginians were not lack- 
 ing in courage, determination, or devotion to 
 their liberties, and their cause was one cal- 
 culated to succeed without leaders. In an 
 educated community there would have been 
 no lack of union or perseverance because of 
 the death of one man, and the people would 
 
lo8 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 have found the means to continue their 
 struggle until successful. In the uneducated 
 Virginian community of 1676 the presence 
 of a bold, capable, and resolute leader was a 
 necessity, and his sudden removal left the 
 popular party helpless. The grand struggle 
 degenerated into a series of petty insurrec- 
 tions ; the royalists took heart, and Robert 
 Beverley, their most competent leader, was 
 able to destroy in detail the resistance of the 
 patriots and to restore the supremacy of 
 Berkeley. 
 
 A "Woman's Self- Sacrifice. 
 
 The governor now proceeded to take a 
 summary vengeance upon the patriots, and 
 more than twenty of the best men of the 
 colony gave their lives on the scaffold for 
 the liberties of their country. The first of 
 these martyrs for freedom — the first Ameri- 
 can to die for the right of the people to govern 
 themselves — was Thomas Hansford, a Vir- 
 ginian born, and a noble specimen of the 
 chivalrous sons of the Old Dominion. 
 
 The wife of Edmund Cheesman, upon the 
 capture of her husband, flung herself at the 
 governor's feet, and declaring that her ex- 
 hortations had induced her husband to join 
 Bacon, begged to be allowed to die in his 
 place. The brutal Berkeley repelled the 
 heroic woman with a gross insult. When 
 Drummond was taken and brought before 
 him the governor received him with mock 
 courtesy. " I am more glad to see you," he 
 said, " than any man in Virginia ; you shall 
 be hanged in half an hour." The royalist 
 assembly, horrified at the cruelty of the gov- 
 ernor, appealed to him to " spill no more 
 blood." The property of the victims was 
 confiscated, and their helpless families were 
 turned out upon the charities of the people 
 for whom the martyrs had died. Not con- 
 tent with these cruelties Berkeley attempted 
 to silence the people, and prevent them from 
 
 either censuring him or vindicating the 
 memory of their dead heroes. Whoever 
 should speak ill of Berkeley or his friends 
 was to be whipped. 
 
 At last the end came, and Berkeley re- 
 turned to England. His departure was 
 celebrated with rejoicings throughout the 
 colony; bells were rung, guns were fired, 
 and bonfires blazed. Berkeley hoped to be 
 able to justify his conduct in England, but 
 upon his arnval in that country he found his 
 course sternly condemned by the voice of 
 public opinion. Even Charles II. censured 
 him with all the energy that soulless monarch 
 was master of. " The old fool," said the 
 king, " has taken away more lives in that 
 naked land than I for the murder of my 
 father." His disappointment and mortifica- 
 tion were too much for the proud man, and 
 he died soon after his arrival in England. 
 
 Revival of Abuses. 
 
 The failure of Bacon's rebellion brought 
 many serious misfortunes to Virginia. The 
 insurrection was made the excuse by the 
 king for refusing a liberal charter, and the 
 colony was made dependent for its rights 
 and privileges entirely upon the royal will. 
 The assembly was composed almost ex- 
 clusively of royalists, and at once proceeded 
 to undo the work of the popular party. All 
 the laws of Bacon's assembly were repealed; 
 the right of suffrage was restricted to free- 
 holders, and the iniquitous taxes were re- 
 imposed. All the abuses that had led to the 
 rebellion were revived. 
 
 In 1677 Lord Culpepper, one ofthe favor- 
 ites to whom Charles II. had granted Vir- 
 ginia, was appointed governor of the colony 
 for life. The new governor regarded his 
 office as a sinecure, and while receiving its 
 emoluments desired to remain in England to 
 enjoy them. In 1680, however, the king 
 compelled him to repair to his government 
 
VIRGINIA AFTER THE RESTORATION. 
 
 109 
 
 1 person. He brought with him authority 
 j-om the sovereign to settle all past griev- 
 ances, but he used this power for his own 
 profit. He extorted money from all parties,, 
 and when he had acquired a considerable 
 sum returned to England, having spent less 
 than a year in Virginia. He left the colony 
 in the greatest distress. The Virginians, 
 "obbed of the profits of their labors for the 
 enrichment of their rulers, were reduced to 
 despair. Riots took place in various places, 
 and the whole colony was on the verge of 
 insurrection. 
 
 A Plunderer. 
 Rumors of these disturbances having 
 reached England the king ordered Culpepper 
 to return and reduce the colony to obedience. 
 He did so, and caused several influential men 
 to be hanged as traitors, and used the power 
 intrusted to him to wrest from the council 
 the last remnant of its authority to control 
 his outrages upon the people. This accom- 
 plished, he proceeded to force the settlers of 
 the Northern Neck to surrender their planta- 
 tions to him, or pay him the sums he de- 
 manded for the privilege of retaining them. 
 
 He found his residence among a people he 
 had come to plunder very disagreeable, and 
 in the course of a few months returned to 
 England amid the bitter curses of the Vir- 
 ginians. The council reported the distress 
 of the province to the king, and appealed to 
 him to recall the grant to Culpepper and 
 Arlington. Arlington surrendered his rights 
 to Culpepper, whose patent was rendered 
 void by a process of law, and in July, 1684, 
 Virginia became once more a royal province. 
 Lord Howard, of Effingham, was appointed 
 to succeed Culpepper, but he was a poorer 
 and more grasping man than his predecessor, 
 and the change afforded no relief to Virginia. 
 In 1685 James II. came to the throne of 
 England, and in the same year occurred the 
 insurrection in England known as Mon- 
 
 mouth's rebellion. A number of prisoners 
 were taken in this struggle by the royal 
 forces, and many of these were sent out to 
 the colonies of Virginia and Maryland to be 
 sold as servants for a term of ten years. 
 Many of them were men of education and 
 family. The general assembly of Virginia 
 refused to sanction this infamous measure, 
 and, in spite of the prohibition of King 
 James, passed a law declaring all such per- 
 sons free. Indeed at this time the practice 
 of selling white servants in America had be- 
 come so profitable that quite a thriving 
 business was carried on between the west of 
 England and Virginia and Maryland. 
 
 Not only persons condemned for crime, 
 but innocent people were kidnapped and 
 sold in the colonies for a term of years for 
 money. " At Bristol," says Bancroft, " the 
 mayor and justices would intimidate small 
 rogues and pilferers, who, under the terroi 
 of being hanged, prayed for transportation 
 as the only avenue to safety, and were then 
 divided among the members of the court. 
 The trade was exceedingly profitable — far 
 more so than the slave trade — and had been 
 conducted for years." 
 
 Uprising for Freedom. 
 
 One of the last acts of Charles II. with 
 reference to Virginia was to forbid the set- 
 ting up of a printing press within the limits 
 of the colony ; James II. continued this pro- 
 hibition. Effingham endeavored to take 
 from the colony the few privileges left to it. 
 The result was that the party of freedom 
 increased rapidly. Many of the aristocratic 
 party seeing that the king and the governor 
 menaced every right and privilege they pos- 
 sessed went over to the popular side. The 
 assembly began to assert the popular demand 
 for self-government, and became so unman- 
 ageable that in November, 1686, it was dis- 
 solved by royal proclamation. 
 
no 
 
 A new assembly was convened, which 
 met in April, 1688, a few months before the 
 British revolution. The governor and coun- 
 cil found this body more indisposed to submit 
 to the aggressions of the crown than its pre- 
 decessor had been. The people sustained 
 their delegates, and a new insurrection was 
 threatened. Effingham was in the midst of 
 a hostile population, without troops to 
 enforce his will, and was obliged to conduct 
 himself with moderation. The royal authority 
 was never stronger in Virginia than during 
 this reign, but it was found impossible to 
 establish it upon the ruins of the liberties of 
 the colony. The result of all the long years 
 of oppression we have been considering was 
 simply to confirm the Virginians in their 
 attachment to their liberties, and in their 
 determination to maintain them at any cost. 
 Virginia remained to the end an aristocratic 
 colony, but it was none the less " a land of 
 liberty." 
 
 Founding a College. 
 
 , The revolution of 1688 in England did 
 not change affairs in Virginia materially as 
 regarded the forms of the colonial govern- 
 ment. The liberties of the colony were 
 established by law too securely to be any 
 longer at the mercy of an individual, but the 
 power of the governor was still very great. 
 Every department of the colonial administra- 
 tion, the finances, and even the management 
 of the church, was made subject to his con- 
 trol. He had the power to dissolve the 
 assembly at pleasure, and was sure to exer- 
 cise it if that body manifested too great a 
 spirit of independence. He also appointed 
 he clerk of the assembly, who was for this 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 reason a check upon its freedom of debate. 
 The only means of resistance to the meas- 
 ures of the government which the assembly 
 retained was to refuse to vote supplies in 
 excess of the permanent revenue. This right 
 was sometimes exercised, and the governor 
 was prevented from carrying out unpopular 
 measures by the lack of the necessary 
 funds. 
 
 Soon after the accession of William and 
 Mary to the throne an effort was made to 
 establish a college in Virginia, although the 
 printing press was still forbidden. Donations 
 were made by a number of persons in 
 England, and the king bestowed several 
 liberal grants upon the proposed institution. 
 The measure was carried through to success 
 by the energy of the Rev. James Blair, who 
 was sent out by the Bishop of London as 
 commissary, " to supply the office and juris- 
 diction of the bishop in the outplaces of the 
 diocese." The college was established in 
 1691, and was named William and Mary, in 
 honor of the king and queen. Mr. Blair 
 was its first president, and held that office for 
 fifty years. 
 
 The ministry did not approve the action 
 of the king in granting even the very moderate 
 endowments which he bestowed upon the 
 college. They regarded Virginia merely as 
 a place in which to raise tobacco for the 
 English market, and cared nothing for the 
 interests of the people. They treated the 
 colony with injustice and neglect in every- 
 thing. The planters could sell their tobacco 
 only to an English purchaser, who regulated 
 the price to suit himself, and supplied the 
 planters in return with the wares they needed 
 at his own prices. 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 
 The Colonisation of Maryland 
 
 Sxtent of the Territory of Virginia — Clayborne's Trading Posts Established — Sir George Calvert, Lord Baltimore— W©- 
 comes Interested in American Colonization— Obtains a Grant of Maryland — Terms of the Charter — A Colony Sent 
 Out — Arrival in the Chesapeake — St. Mary's Founded — Character of the Colony — Friendly Relations Established with 
 the Indians — First Legislature of Maryland — Trouble with Clayborne — Rapid Growth of the Colony — Progress of 
 Popular Liberty — Policy Respecting the Treatment of the Indians — Clayborne's Rebellion — Law Granting Religious 
 Toleration Enacted — Condition of Maryland Under the Commonwealth — The People Declared Supreme— Lord Baltimore 
 Recovers His Proprietary Rights — Characteristics of the Colony — Rapid Increase in Population — Charles Calvert, 
 Governor — Death of the Second Lord Baltimore — Roman Catholics Disfranchised — Maryland Becomes a Royal 
 Province — Triumph of the Protestants — Annapolis Made the Seat of Government — Restoration of the Proprietary 
 Government — Continued Prosperity of Maryland. 
 
 THE second charter of Virginia 
 granted to that province the country 
 north of the Potomac as far as the 
 headwaters of the Chesapeake Bay. 
 This grant included the territory of the 
 present State of Maryland. The discoveries 
 of Captain John Smith had brought the 
 region along the head of the bay into notice, 
 and other explorers had confirmed his state- 
 ments as to its value. 
 
 A very profitable trade was established 
 with the Indians of this section, and, in order 
 to develop its advantages, William Clayborne, 
 a man of great resolution and of no mean 
 abilities, a surveyor by profession, was 
 employed by the Governor of Virginia to 
 explore the region of the upper Chesapeake. 
 His report was so favorable that a company 
 was formed in England for the purpose of 
 trading with the Indians. Under authority 
 from this company, Clayborne obtained a 
 license from the colonial government of 
 Virginia, and established two trading stations 
 on the bay ; one on Kent Island, opposite the 
 present city of Annapolis, and one at the 
 mouth of the Susquehanna. These posts 
 were established in the spring of 163 1. 
 
 In the meantime efforts were being made 
 ia England to secure the settlement of the 
 
 same region. Sir George Calvert, a man ot 
 noble character, liberal education and great 
 political experience, had become at an early 
 day deeply interested in the question oi 
 colonizing America. Having embraced the 
 Roman Catholic faith, he relinquished his 
 office of Secretary of State, and made a pub- 
 lic acknowledgment of his conversion. His 
 noble character commanded the confidence of 
 King James, and he was retained as a mem- 
 ber of the Privy Council, and was made Lord 
 Baltimore in the Irish peerage. He was 
 anxious to found a colony in America, which 
 might serve as a place of refuge for persons 
 of the Catholic faith, and obtained a patent 
 for the southern part of Newfoundland. 
 That region was too bleak and rugged to 
 admit of the success of the enterprise, and 
 the attempt to settle it was soon abandoned. 
 Lord Baltimore next contemplated a set- 
 tlement in some portion of Virginia, and in 
 October, 1629, visited that colony with a 
 view to making arrangements for his planta- 
 tion. The laws of Virginia against Roman 
 Catholics were very severe, and immediately 
 upon the arrival of so distinguished a Cath- 
 olic the assembly ordered the oaths of 
 allegiance and supremacy to be tendered 
 him. Lord Baltimore proposed a form 
 
 III 
 
112 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 which he was willing to subscribe, but the 
 colonial government insisted upon that 
 which had been ordered by the English Par- 
 liament, and which was of such a character 
 that no Catholic could accept it. There 
 was nothing left for Calvert but to withdraw 
 from Virginia, and his reception there con- 
 vinced him that that province was not the 
 place for the plantation he wished to estab- 
 lish. 
 
 Large Grant to Lord Baltimore. 
 
 The region north of the Potomac was still 
 uninhabited, and seemed to promise advan- 
 tages equal to Virginia. Calvert applied to 
 Charles I. for a patent for this region, and 
 was given a territory corresponding very 
 nearly to the present State of Maryland in 
 extent. The king granted him a liberal 
 charter, which, while it provided for his 
 interests as proprietor, secured the liberties 
 of the colonists. In this it was simply the 
 expression of the wishes of Lord Baltimore, 
 who desired to establish a settlement of 
 freemen. The country embraced in the 
 grant was given to Lord Baltimore, his 
 heirs and assigns, in absolute possession. 
 They were required to pay an annual tribute 
 to the crown of two Indian arrows and one- 
 fifth of all the gold and silver which might 
 be found. 
 
 The colonists were to have a voice in 
 making their own laws, and they were to be 
 entitled to all the rights and privileges of 
 Englishmen. No taxes were to be imposed 
 upon them without their consent, nor was 
 the authority of the proprietor to extend to 
 their lives or property. It was enjoined that 
 the exercise of the faith and worship of the 
 established Church of England should be 
 protected in the colony, but no uniform 
 standard of faith or worship was imposed by 
 the charter. The new province was carefully 
 separated from Virginia and made independ- 
 
 ent of it. The colony was left free from the 
 supervision of the crown, and the propri- 
 etor was not obliged to obtain the royal 
 assent to the appointments or legislation of 
 his province. The king also renounced for 
 himself, his heirs and his successors, the 
 right to tax the colony, thus leaving it 
 entirely free from English taxation. 
 
 These were vast powers to intrust to one 
 man ; but they were placed in safe hands. 
 The first Lord Baltimore was a man who 
 hated tyranny of all kinds, and who had 
 carefully observed the effects of intolerance 
 and arbitrary rule upon the efforts that had 
 already been made to establish successful 
 colonies in America. He designed his col- 
 ony as an asylum in which men of all creeds 
 could meet upon a common basis of a faith 
 in Jesus Christ, and his conviction that relig- 
 icus freedom is necessary to the success of a 
 state confirmed in him his attachment to the 
 principles of civil liberty. 
 
 Practical Charity. 
 
 He invited both Protestants and Catholics 
 to join him in his enterprise, and adopted a 
 form of government, based upon popular 
 representation, well calculated to secure them 
 in the possession of all their privileges. In 
 honor of the queen of Charles I., he named 
 the region granted to him Maryland. Before 
 the patent was issued, Lord Baltimore died 
 on the fifteenth of April, 1632, leaving h ; 
 son, Cecil, heir to his designs as well as t 
 his title. The charter granted to his fathe 
 was issued to him, and he proceeded at once 
 to collect a colony for the settlement of 
 Maryland. 
 
 Lord Baltimore delegated the task of con- 
 ducting the emigrants to Maryland to his 
 brother, Leonard Calvert. On Friday, No- 
 vember 22, 1632, a company of two hun- 
 dred, chiefly Roman Catholics of good birth, 
 with their families and servants, sailed from 
 
THE COLONIZATION OF MARYLAND. 
 
 England in the " Ark " and the " Dove," the 
 former a ship of large burthen, the latter a 
 small pinnace. The voyage was made by 
 way of the West Indies, and the Chesapeake 
 was not reached until the twenty-fourth of 
 February, 1634. The ships anchored off 
 Old Point Comfort, and were visited by Sir 
 John Harvey, Governor of Vir- 
 ginia, who had been commanded 
 by the king to welcome the new 
 colony with kindness. 
 
 Resting in Hampton roads 
 for a few days the emigrants 
 ascended the bay and entered 
 the stately Potomac. Deeming 
 it unsafe to plant his first settle- 
 ment high up the river, Calvert 
 chose a site on a small tributary 
 of the Potomac, not far from its 
 mouth. This stream, now known 
 as the St. Mary's, he named the 
 St. George's. An Indian village, 
 called Yoacomoco, was selected 
 as the site of the colony. The 
 place was being deserted by 
 the natives, who had suffered 
 severely from the superior power 
 of the Susequehannahs, and were 
 removing farther into the interior 
 for greater security. They readily 
 sold their town and the surround- 
 ing lands to the English.andmade 
 with them a treaty of peace and 
 friendship ; and on the twenty- 
 seventh of March, 1634, the col- 
 onists landed and laid the founda- 
 tions of the town of St. Mary's. 
 
 A few days later, Sir John Harvey arrived 
 from Virginia on a friendly visit. His orders 
 from the king were to treat the settlers with 
 friendship, and to aid them as far as lay in 
 his power. About the same time the native 
 chiefs came in to visit the colony, and were 
 so well received that they established friendly 
 
 113 
 
 relations with the settlers. The Indian 
 women taught their English sisters how to 
 make bread from the meal of the Indian 
 corn, and the warriors instructed the Eng- 
 lishmen in the simple arts of the chase. The 
 colonists obtained provisions and cattle for a 
 while from Virginia; but, as they went to 
 
 CECIL, SECOND LORD BALTIMORE. 
 
 work at once and with energy to cultivate 
 their land, the first year's harvest gave them 
 an abundance of supplies. 
 
 The proprietor sent out from Englana 
 such things as were necessary to the success 
 and comfort of the colony, treating the new 
 settlement with a wise liberalitv. Thus were 
 
H4 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 the foundations of Maryland laid amid peace 
 and prosperity. The colony was successful 
 from the first. Roman Catholic settlers fol- 
 lowed the first emigrants in considerable 
 numbers, and even Protestants sought the 
 shores of Maryland, which the liberality of 
 Lord Baltimore had made a refuge to them 
 from the persecutions of their own brethren. 
 New settlements were formed, and within six 
 months the colony " had advanced more 
 than Virginia had done in as many years." 
 
 Piracy and Murder. 
 
 In February, 1635, the first legislative 
 assembly of Maryland met. Legislation 
 had become necessary by this time. Clay- 
 borne, who had established trading posts in 
 the upper Chesapeake, had met the first set- 
 tlers under Leonard Calvert at their anchor- 
 age at Old Point Comfort, and had endeav- 
 ored to dissuade them from settling along 
 the bay by exaggerating the dangers to be 
 apprehended from the hostility of the In- 
 dians. Failing in this effort, he became the 
 evil genius of Maryland, as the grant to Lord 
 Baltimore made void his license to trade 
 with the Indians along the bay. He re- 
 fused to acknowledge the authority of 
 the proprietor of Maryland, and attempted 
 to retain his trading post by force of arms. 
 
 Within a year or two after the settlement 
 of the colony, a bloody skirmish occurred 
 in one of the rivers of the eastern shore, in 
 which Clayborne's men were defeated. In 
 1638, Leonard Calvert took forcible posses- 
 sion of Kent Island, and hanged one or two 
 of Clayborne's people on a charge of piracy 
 and murder. Clayborne was in England at 
 the time prosecuting his claims before the 
 king. Governor Harvey of Virginia had 
 given the weight of his influence in this 
 contest to the cause of Lord Baltimore, but 
 the people of Virginia, who resented the 
 grant of Maryland as an invasion of their 
 
 rights, sympathized with Clayborne, and 
 caused Harvey to be impeached and sent to 
 England for trial. The English courts de- 
 cided that Clayborne's license was not valid 
 against the charter granted to Lord Balti 
 more, and Harvey was sent back to Virginia 
 as governor in April, 1639. 
 
 In the meantime the colony continued to 
 grow and prosper. The assembly, while 
 acknowledging the allegiance of the people 
 of Maryland to the king, and making 
 ample provisions for the rights of Lord 
 Baltimore as proprietor, took care to secure 
 the liberties of the people, and claimed for 
 itself the exercise in the province of all the 
 powers belonging to the British House of 
 Commons. Representative government was 
 definitely established, and the colonists were 
 secured in all the liberties granted to the 
 people of England by the common law of 
 that country. Tobacco became, as in Vir- 
 ginia, the staple of the colony. 
 
 Maryland Contented. 
 
 In 1642, in gratitude for the great ex- 
 pense which Lord Baltimore had volun- 
 tarily incurred for them, the people of 
 Maryland granted him " such a subsidy as 
 the young and poor estate of the colony 
 could bear." As far as the people themselves 
 were concerned, the condition of Maryland 
 was one of marked happiness and content- 
 ment. Harmony prevailed between all 
 classes of the people and the government ; 
 the settlers were blessed with complete toler- 
 ation in religion ; emigration was rapidly 
 increasing, and the commerce of the col©ny 
 was growing in extent and value. 
 
 Maryland had its troubles, however. The 
 Indians, alarmed by its rapid growth, began 
 in 1642 a series of aggressions which led to 
 a frontier war. This struggle continued for 
 some time, but was productive of no decisive 
 results, and in 1644 peace was restored. The 
 
THE COLONIZATION OF MARYLAND. 
 
 115 
 
 Indians promised submission, and the whites, 
 on their part, agreed to treat them with 
 friendship and justice. Laws were enacted 
 compelling the settlers to refrain from in- 
 justice toward the savages, and humanity 
 to the red man was made the policy of 
 the colony. 
 
 The kidnapping of an Indian was punish- 
 able with death, and the sale of arms to the 
 savages was constituted a felony. Efforts 
 were also made to convert the natives to 
 Christianity. Four missions were established 
 among them by the priests of the Catholic 
 church, and the effects of their devoted la- 
 bors were soon manifest. A chief, named 
 Tayac, and his wife were baptized, he tak- 
 ing the name of Charles and she that of 
 Mary. About one hundred and thirty other 
 converts were afterwards added to the Chris- 
 tian fold among the Indians, and many of 
 these sent their children to receive instruction 
 at the hands of the priests. Though the ef- 
 fort to Christianize the savages failed, as it 
 has ever done, the good effects of these en- 
 deavors were not lost, as the friendship for 
 the whites aroused by them continued to 
 influence these tribes in their policy toward 
 the colony. 
 
 Clayborne's Rebellion. 
 
 Clayborne, who had certainly cause for 
 thinking himself wronged in being deprived 
 of his property without just compensation, 
 returned to Maryland to revenge himself 
 upon the colonists. The civil war in Eng- 
 land furnished him with an admirable oppor- 
 tunity for his attempt. He was able to se- 
 cure a number of followers in Maryland, and 
 in 1644 began an insurrection. The next 
 year the governor was driven out of the col- 
 ony and obliged to take refuge in Virginia, 
 and Clayborne was triumphant. For more 
 than a year the rebels held possession of the 
 government, and this whole time was a 
 period of disorder and misrule, during which 
 
 the greater part of the colonial records were 
 lost or stolen. At the end of this time, the 
 better classes of the people of Maryland 
 drove out the rebels, and recalled the pro- 
 prietary government. A general amnesty 
 was proclaimed to all offenders, and peace 
 was restored to the colony. 
 
 The year 1649 was marked in England by 
 the execution of Charles I., and the complete 
 
 A CIVILIZED INDIAN. 
 
 establishment of the authority of the Parlia- 
 ment. It seemed to the people of Maryland 
 that this triumph of the popular party was to 
 usher in a new war upon the Roman Catholic 
 faith, which was professed by a large major- 
 ity of the colonists. Dreading a war of 
 religion as the greatest of evils, they deter- 
 mined to secure the colony from it, by pla- 
 cing the freedom of conscience within their 
 limits upon as secure a basis as possible. In 
 doing this they gave expression to the popular 
 will, and aimed to secure their future welfare. 
 On the twenty- first of April, 1649, tne 
 assembly of Maryland adopted the following 
 
<i6 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 act: "And, whereas, the enforcing of con- 
 science in matters of religion hath frequently- 
 fallen out to be of dangerous consequence in 
 those commonwealths where it has been 
 practiced, and for the more quiet and peace- 
 
 Christ, shall be anyways troubled, molested 
 or discountenanced for his or her religion, or 
 in the free exercise thereof, or be compelled 
 to the belief or practice of any other religion 
 against their consent." 
 
 OLIVER CROMWELL. 
 
 able government of this province, and the 
 better to preserve mutual love and amity 
 among the inhabitants, no person within this 
 province, professing to believe in Jesus 
 
 This statute, noble as it was, applied only 
 to Christians. It was provided that " What- 
 soever person shall blaspheme God, or shall 
 deny or reproach the Holy Trinity, or any 
 
THE COLONIZATION OF MARYLAND. 
 
 117 
 
 of the three persons thereof, shall be pun- 
 ished with death." Maryland had taken a 
 great stride in advance in making her soil a 
 sanctuary for Christians of all beliefs, but she 
 had not yet accorded to her people a tolera- 
 tion equal to that of Rhode Island, which 
 colony, in 1647, granted liberty to all 
 opinions, infidel as well as Christian. 
 
 Cromwell's Blunt Order. 
 
 During the existence of the common- 
 wealth, the colony was troubled with an 
 unsettled government. It submitted to the 
 authority of Cromwell, and the Puritans, 
 regardless of the example of their brethren 
 of the Catholic faith, attempted by an act of 
 assembly, in 1654, to disfranchise the whole 
 Roman Catholic population on the ground 
 of their religious belief. Cromwell disap- 
 proved this action, and bluntly ordered his 
 commissioners " not to busy themselves 
 about religion, but to settle the civil govern- 
 ment." In 1660, without waiting to hear 
 the issue of matters in England, the assembly 
 repudiated the authority of both the com- 
 monwealth and the proprietor, and asserted 
 the sovereignty of the people as the supreme 
 authority in Maryland. 
 
 Upon the restoration of Charles II., Lord 
 Baltimore made his peace with the king for 
 having yielded to the power of Cromwell, 
 and received back all the rights he had 
 enjoyed in Maryland. He at once proceeded 
 to re-establish his authority in the provir.e, 
 but being a man of humanity and of liberal 
 views, he made a generous use of his power. 
 A general pardon was granted f o all 
 offenders against him, his rule W-. once 
 more submitted to, and for thirty years the 
 Colony was at peace. 
 
 " Like Virginia, Maryland was a colony 
 of planters ; its staple was tobacco, and its 
 prosperity was equally checked by the 
 pressure of the navigation acts. Like 
 
 Virginia, it possessed no considerable village ; 
 its inhabitants were scattered among the 
 woods and along the rivers ; each plantation 
 was a little world within itself, and legislation 
 vainly attempted the creation of towns by 
 statute. Like Virginia, its laborers were in 
 part indentured servants, whose term of 
 service was limited by persevering legislation; 
 in part negro slaves, who were employed in 
 the colony from an early period, and whose 
 importation was favored both by English 
 cupidity and provincial statutes.'' 
 
 " As in Virginia, the appointing power to 
 nearly every office in the counties as well as 
 in the province was not with the people ; and 
 the judiciary was placed beyond their 
 control A.s in Virginia, the party of the 
 proprietary, which possessed the government, 
 was animated by a jealous regard for preroga- 
 tive, and by the royalist principles, which 
 derive the sanction of authority from the will 
 of Heaven. As in Virginia, the taxes levied 
 by the county officers were not conceded by 
 the dirert vote of the people, and were, 
 therefore, burdensome alike from their 
 excessive amount and the manner of their 
 levy. But though the administration of 
 Maryland did not favor the increasing spirit 
 of popular liberty, it was marked by con- 
 ciliation and humanity. To foster industry, 
 to promote union, to cherish religious peace, 
 ****** these were the honest pur- 
 poses of Lord Baltimore during his long 
 supremacy." * 
 
 Arrival of Immigrants. 
 
 Yet the colony continued to prosper. 
 Emigrants came to it from almost every 
 country of western Europe, and even from 
 Sweden and Finland. The only persons 
 who had cause for complaint in Maryland 
 were the Quakers, who were treated with 
 
 * History of the United States. 
 ii., p. 235. 
 
 By George Bancroft, veL 
 
IiS 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 considerable harshness for their refusal to 
 perform military duty ; but no effort was 
 made to interfere with the exercise of their 
 religion. 
 
 In 1662, Charles Calvert, the son and heir 
 of Lord Baltimore, came to reside in the 
 
 thousand dollars. By numerous acts o* 
 compromise between Lord Baltimore and the 
 assembly the question of taxation was ad 
 justed upon a satisfactory basis. The people 
 assumed the expense of the provincial gov- 
 ernment, and agreed to the imposition of an 
 
 WILLIAM ill. 
 
 colony. Money was coined at a colonial 
 mint, a tonnage duty was imposed upon all 
 vessels trading with the colony, and a state 
 house was built in 1674, at a cost of forty 
 thousand pounds of tobacco, or about five 
 
 export duty of two shillings per hogsheac 
 upon all the tobacco sent out of the colony 
 One-half of this duty was appropriated to 
 the support of the government, and the re- 
 mainder was assigned unconditionally to the 
 
THE COLONIZATION OF MARYLAND. 
 
 119 
 
 uses of Lord Baltimore, as " an act of grati- 
 tude " for his care of the colony. 
 
 On the thirtieth of November, 1675, Cecil 
 Calvert, second Lord Baltimore, died. He 
 had been for fourteen years the earnest and 
 devoted friend, as well as the generous lord 
 of the province, and had lived long enough 
 to enjoy the gratitude with which the colony 
 sought to repay his judicious care. His 
 memory is perpetuated by the chief city of 
 Maryland, which bears his name, and which 
 is already the largest city on the Atlantic 
 oast, south of the Susequehanna, and the 
 seventh in population in the United States. 
 Charles Calvert, who had been for fourteen 
 years governor of Maryland, succeeded to 
 his father's titles and possessions, and in 1676 
 returned to England. Previous to his de- 
 parture from Maryland he gave his sanction 
 to the colonial code of laws, which had been 
 thoroughly revised. One of these laws pro- 
 hibited the " importation of convicted per- 
 sons" into the colony without regard to the 
 will of the king or Parliament of England. 
 
 Roman Catholics Disfranchised. 
 
 Notwithstanding the mild and equitable 
 government of the third Lord Baltimore, 
 the spirit of popular liberty was becoming 
 too strong in the colony for the rule of the 
 proprietor to be cheerfully acquiesced in 
 much longer. The rebellion of Bacon in 
 Virginia affected the Maryland colony pro- 
 foundly, and when Lord Baltimore returned 
 to the province in 168 1, he found a large 
 part of the people hostile to him. An at- 
 tempt at insurrection was suppressed, but 
 the seeds of trouble were too deeply sown 
 {lot to spring up again. 
 
 The increase of the population had left 
 Ihe Roman Catholics in a small minority, so 
 that Maryland was now to all intents and 
 purposes a Protestant colony. During the 
 latter part of the reign of Charles II. the 
 
 Protestants, regardless of the wise policy of 
 toleration which had hitherto marked the 
 history of the province, endeavored to secure 
 the establishment by law of the Church of 
 England in Maryland. Lord Baltimore 
 steadfastly resisted this unwise course, and 
 maintained the freedom of conscience as the 
 right of the people. He thus added to the 
 existing opposition to his proprietary rule 
 the hostility of the Protestant bigots. A 
 little later, the English ministry struck the 
 first blow at his proprietary rights and at the 
 religious freedom of Maryland by ordering 
 that all the offices of the colonial govern- 
 ment should be bestowed upon Protestants 
 alone. " Roman Catholics were disfranchised 
 in the province which they had planted." 
 
 An Insurrection. 
 
 Lord Baltimore hoped that the succession 
 of James II., a Catholic sovereign, would 
 restore him the rights of which he had been 
 deprived in his province ; but he was soon 
 undeceived, for the king, who intended to 
 bring all the American colonies directly 
 under the control of the crown, would make 
 no exception in favor of Maryland, and 
 measures were put in force for the abolition 
 of the proprietary government. The revolu- 
 tion which placed William and Mary on 
 the throne prevented the execution of these 
 plans. 
 
 The troubles of Lord Baltimore were in- 
 creased by the failure of the deputy-governor, 
 whom he had left in Maryland, to acknowl- 
 edge William and Mary promptly. In 
 August, 1689, occurred an insurrection led 
 by " The association in arms for the defence 
 of the Protestant religion." The deputy- 
 governor was driven from office, the pro- 
 prietary government was overturned, and 
 William and Mary were proclaimed sov- 
 ereigns of Maryland. The party in power 
 appealed to the king to annul the proprietary 
 
120 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 charter, and governed the colony by means 
 of a convention until the royal pleasure 
 should be known. Lord Baltimore endeav- 
 ored to defend his rights in spite of his 
 struggles, William III., in June, 1691, 
 annulled the charter of Maryland, and by the 
 exercise of his own power constituted that 
 colony a royal province, 
 i In 1692, the king appointed Sir Lionel 
 Copley Governor of Maryland. Upon his 
 arrival in the colony he dissolved the con- 
 vention and assumed the government. He 
 at once summoned an assembly, which, 
 recognizing William and Mary as the lawful 
 sovereigns of Maryland, established the 
 Church of England as the religion of the 
 colony, and imposed taxes for its support. 
 The capital was removed from St. Mary's to 
 Annapolis, both because the old seat of gov- 
 ernment had become inconvenient and 
 because it was desired to remove the govern- 
 ment to the centre of Protestant influence. 
 The disfranchisement of the Catholics ad- 
 vanced step by step. At first the dissenters 
 from the established church were granted 
 toleration and protection, but in 1704 the 
 triumph of bigotry was complete. All the 
 dissenting bodies were tolerated, but Roman 
 Catholics were forbidden the exercise of their 
 faith. Mass was not allowed to be said in 
 public, nor was any bishop or clergyman of 
 the Roman Catholic church to be permitted 
 to seek to make converts for his faith. 
 Other severe measures were enacted, and in 
 the land which Catholics had settled, the 
 members of that communion alone were de- 
 nied the rights which in the day of their 
 
 power they had offered to others. Nor die 
 the royalist assembly manifest any care foi 
 the true interests of the province. Education 
 was neglected ; the establishment of printing 
 was prohibited : and the domestic manufac- 
 tures which the necessities of the colony had 
 brought into existence were discouraged. 
 In 17 10 the population numbered over 
 30,000, free and slave. 
 
 In 17 1 5 Benedict Charles Calvert, the 
 fourth Lord Baltimore, succeeded in obtain- 
 ing the restoration of his rights in Maryland, 
 and the province passed into his hands. The 
 people had been so disgusted with the rule 
 of the royal governors that no opposition 
 was made to this change. The new Lord 
 Baltimore, unlike the rest of his family, was 
 a Protestant, which was the cause of his 
 restoration to his hereditary rights. After 
 his restoration the colony increased with 
 still greater rapidity. The establishment of 
 a post route in 1695, between the Potomac 
 and Philadelphia, had brought it into com- 
 munication with the Northern colonies. In 
 1729 the town of Baltimore was founded. 
 Frederick City was settled in 1745, and in 
 175 1 was followed by Georgetown, now in 
 the District of Columbia. In 1756 the pop- 
 ulation of the colony had increased to 
 154,188 souls, of whom over 40,000 were 
 negroes. The increase in material prosperity 
 was equally marked. By the last-mentioned 
 year the annual export of tobacco was 
 30,000 hogsheads, and, in spite of the efforts 
 of the home government to prevent it, there 
 were eight furnaces and nine forges for 
 smelting copper in operation in the province 
 
CHAPTER X 
 
 The Pilgrim Fathers 
 
 Rise of the Puritans — Their Increase in England — They Are Persecuted by the English Church and Government-. 
 Conduct of James I. — His Hatred of Puritanism — Puritans Take Refuge in Holland — The Congregation of Joha 
 Robinson— They Escape to Holland— The Pilgrims— Their Sojourn at Leyden— They Wish to Emigrate to Virginia 
 — Failure of Their Negotiations with the London Company— They Form a Partnership in England — A Hard Bargain 
 — Departure of the Pilgrims from Holland — Voyage of the " Mayflower" — Arrival in New England — The Agreement 
 On Board the " Mayflower" — Carver Chosen Governor — Settlement of Plymouth — The First Winter in New England 
 — Sufferings of the Pilgrims — Arrival of New Emigrants — Continued Suffering — Assignment of Lands — Friendly In- 
 tercourse with Indians — Samoset and Squanto — Visit of Massasoit — A Threat of War — Bradford's Defiance — West- 
 on's Men — A Narrow Escape — The Colonists Purchase the Interests of Their English Partners — Lands Assigned in 
 Fee Simple — The Colony Benefited by the Change — Government of Plymouth — Steady Growth of the Colony, 
 
 THE persecutions with which Queen 
 Mary afflicted the reformers of 
 England in her bloody effort to re- 
 store the Roman Catholic faith in 
 that country caused many of the most emi- 
 nent men of the English church to seek 
 safety on the continent of Europe. Upon 
 the accession of Elizabeth the Church of 
 England became once more the religion of 
 the state, and the reformers were free to re- 
 turn to their own country. They came back 
 with broader and more liberal views than 
 they had carried away with them, and there 
 sprang up in the English church a party 
 which demanded a purer and more spiritual 
 form of worship than that of the church. 
 These persons were called in derision Puri- 
 tans. They adopted the name without hesi- 
 tation, and soon made it an honorable dis- 
 tinction. 
 
 The queen, however, was determined to 
 compel her subjects to conform to the estab- 
 lished church, and was especially resolved to 
 make them acknowledge her supremacy over 
 the church. To the Puritan the worship of 
 the Church of England was only less sinful 
 than that of Rome, and to acknowledge the 
 queen as the head of the church was to com- 
 mit blasphemy. He claimed that the queen 
 
 had no control over him in matters of relig- 
 ion, and that it was his right to worship God 
 in his own way, without interference. The 
 Puritans gradually came to embrace in their 
 number some of the best men in the Eng- 
 lish church. These sincerely deprecated a 
 separation from the church, and earnestly 
 desired to carry the reformation to the extent 
 of remedying the abuses of which they 
 complained, and to remain in communioi 
 with the church. One of the reforms which 
 they wished to inaugurate was the abolition 
 of Episcopacy. Failing in their efforts, they 
 desired to be let alone to form their own or- 
 ganizations and to worship God according to 
 their own ideas, without the pale of the 
 Church of England. 
 
 The queen and the bishops were not con- 
 tent to allow them this freedom. England 
 had not yet learned the lesson of toleration, 
 and severe measures were inaugurated to 
 compel the dissenters to conform to the 
 established church. All persons in the 
 kingdom were required to conform to the 
 ceremonies of the church. A refusal to do 
 so was punished with banishment. Should 
 any person so banished return to the king- 
 dom without permission he was to be put to 
 death. Accused persons were obliged to 
 
 121 
 
122 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 inswer upon oath all questions concerning 
 themselves and their acquaintance, respect- 
 ing their attendance upon public worship. 
 
 Ministers refusing to conform to the estab- 
 lished usage were deprived of their parishes; 
 and if they persisted in preaching to their 
 congregations, or if the congregations were 
 detected in listening to their deposed pastors, 
 the offenders were fined or subjected to some 
 severe punishment. Absence from the ser- 
 vices of ihe church for a certain length of 
 time was also punished. The persecution 
 thus inaugurated drove many of the noncon- 
 formists, as they were termed, into exile from 
 EnjlauJu They fled to Holland and Swit- 
 
 CHAINED BIBLE, TIME OF JAMES I. 
 
 zerland, where alone they found " freedom to 
 worship God." In spite of the severe meas- 
 ures and determined efforts of Elizabeth, the 
 Puritans increased steadily in numbers and 
 importance in England. Persecution only 
 served to multiply them. 
 
 They were hopeful that James I. wouta 
 prove a more lenient sovereign to them than 
 Elizabeth had been, and they had good 
 ground for this hope. The real character of 
 James was unknown in England, and while 
 King of Scotland he had shown great favoi 
 to the Presbyterians of that kingdom, whom 
 it was his interest to conciliate. He had 
 once publicly thanked God " that he was 
 king of such a kirk — the purest kirk in all 
 the world. As for the Kirk of England," 
 he added, "its service is an evil-said mass." 
 This most contemptible of monarchs had 
 scarcely become King of England when he 
 uttered the famous maxim, " No bishop, no 
 king ! " Interest had made him the foe of 
 Episcopacy in Scotland ; the same motive 
 made him its champion in England. 
 
 A Royal Demagogue. 
 
 Upon his entrance into his new kingdom, 
 the Puritans met him with an humble peti- 
 tion for a redress of their grievances. James 
 quickly saw that the majority of the English 
 people favored a support of the church as it 
 was, and had no sympathy with the Puri- 
 tans, and he at once constituted himself the 
 enemy of the petitioners. Still, in order to 
 cover his desertion of the party to which he 
 had belonged in Scotland, he appointed a 
 conference at Hampton Court. 
 
 The conference was held in January, 1604, 
 and the king, silencing all real debate, made 
 the meeting merely the occasion of display- 
 ing what he regarded as his talents for theo- 
 logical controversy, and for announcing the 
 decision he had resolved upon from the first, 
 He demanded entire obedience to the church 
 in matters of faith and worship. " I will 
 have none of that liberty as to ceremonies," 
 he declared. " I will have one doctrine, 
 one discipline, one religion in substance 
 and in ceremony. Never speak more as to 
 how far you are bound to obey." 
 
 
THE PILGRIM FATHERS. 
 
 12$ 
 
 The Puritans then demanded permission 
 \) hold occasional ceremonies of their own, 
 with the right of free discussions in them; 
 but James, who could never tolerate the ex- 
 pression of any opinion adverse to his own, 
 replied : " You are aiming at a Scot's presby- 
 tery, which agrees with monarchy as well as 
 God and the devil. Then Jack and Tom 
 9nd Will and Dick shall meet, and at their 
 pleasure censure me and my council and all 
 our proceedings. Then Will shall stand tip 
 and say, It must be thus. Then Dick shall 
 reply and say, Nay, marry, but we will have 
 it thus. And, therefore, here I must once 
 more reiterate my former speech, and say, 
 The king forbids." Then turning to the 
 bishops, he added : " I will make them con- 
 form, or I will harry them out of the land, 
 or else worse ; only hang them ; that's all." 
 
 Champions of Popular Liberty. 
 
 The king kept his word. The severe laws 
 against the nonconformists vvere enforced 
 that year with such energy that three hun- 
 dred Puritan ministers are said to have been 
 silenced, imprisoned or exiled. The church 
 party proceeded in the next few years to still 
 more rigorous measures, and were willing 
 even to place the liberties of the nation at 
 the mercy of the crown in order to compel 
 the submission of the Puritans. The intro- 
 duction of foreign publications into the king- 
 dom was greatly restricted, and the press 
 was placed under a severe censorship. The 
 Puritans were thus forced to become the 
 champions of popular liberty against the 
 tyranny of the crown and the ecclesiastical 
 party. 
 
 There was a congregation of Puritans in 
 the north of England, composed of people 
 of Lincolnshire and Nottinghamshire, with 
 some from Yorkshire. The pastor was John 
 Robinson, " a man not easily to be parallel- 
 ed," who possessed in an unusual degree the 
 
 love and confidence of his people. They 
 were greatly harassed by the agents of the 
 king and the bishops, and were subjected to 
 such serious annoyances that it was with dif 
 ficulty that they could hold their meetings 
 Finding it impossible to live in peace at 
 home without doing violence to their con- 
 sciences, they determined to leave England 
 and seek refuge from persecution in Holland- 
 That country was friendly to the English, 
 and the Dutch had learned from their own 
 sufferings to respect the rights of conscience 
 in others. 
 
 It was not an easy matter to leave Eng- 
 land, however, for it was held by the govern- 
 ment to be almost a crime to attempt to 
 escape from persecution. A vessel was 
 hired to convey the refugees to Holland; 
 but the royal officers were informed of the 
 intended voyage, and seized the whole com 
 pany as they were about to embark. Theix 
 persons were searched, their small posses- 
 sions seized, and the whole church — men, 
 women, and children — thrown into prison. 
 In a short while all but seven were released. 
 These were brought to trial, but it was found 
 impossible to prove any crime against them, 
 and they also were discharged. 
 
 A Boat Stranded. 
 
 This action of the government, so far from 
 intimidating the sufferers, but increased their 
 resolve to leave England, and in the spring 
 of 1608 the effort was renewed. A Dutch 
 captain consented to convey them to Hol- 
 land, and it was agreed that the refugees 
 should assemble upon a lonely heath in" 
 Lincolnshire, near the mouth of the H umber, 
 and be taken on board by the Dutch skipper, 
 The men of the party went to the rendezvous 
 by land, and got safely on board the ship, 
 but the boat conveying the women and 
 children was stranded and captured by * 
 party of horsemen sent in pursuit. 
 
124 
 
 THE PURITANS IN CONFERENCE WITH JAMES I. 
 
THE PILGRIM FATHERS. 
 
 125 
 
 The Dutch skipper, fearful of becoming in- 
 volved in trouble with the English author- 
 ities, at once put to sea, and the exiles were 
 separated from their families, who were left 
 helpless in the hands of their oppressors. 
 The women and children were treated with 
 great harshness by their captors, and were 
 taken before the magistrates, who found it 
 impossible to punish them for an attempt to 
 follow the fortunes of their husbands and 
 fathers. They were at loss to know what to 
 do with the prisoners, who no longer had 
 homes in England, and at last released them 
 unconditionally, and permitted them to rejoin 
 their natural protectors in Holland. 
 
 The Pilgrims Discontented. 
 
 The exiles reached Amsterdam in the 
 spring of 1608. They were well pleased to 
 be safe in this peaceful refuge, but they did 
 not deceive themselves with the hope that it 
 could ever be a home to them. " They 
 knew they were Pilgrims, and looked not 
 much on those things, but lifted up their 
 eyes to Heaven, their dearest country, and 
 quieted their spirits." They found it hard 
 to earn a support in Amsterdam, and in 1609 
 removed to Leyden, where, by their industry 
 and frugality, they managed to live in com- 
 parative comfort. Their piety and exemplary 
 conduct won for them the respect of the 
 Dutch, who would have openly shown them 
 marked favor but for their fear of offending 
 the king of England. The magistrates of 
 Leyden bore ready witness to their purity of 
 life. " Never," said they, " did we have 
 any suit or accusation against any of them.'' 
 
 In the course of time the Pilgrims were 
 joined by a number of their brethren from 
 England They were nearly all accustomed 
 to agricultural pursuits, and in Holland they 
 were obliged to earn their bread by mechan- 
 ical labors. It was with difficulty that they 
 could do this, and they never formed any 
 
 attachment to the place of their exile. They 
 preserved, through all their trials, their affec- 
 tion for their native land, and cherished the 
 hope that they might continue Englishmen 
 to the close of their lives. They viewed with 
 alarm the prospect of raising their children 
 in Holland, where they would necessarily be 
 thrown in constant contact with, and be in- 
 fluenced by, the manners and customs of the 
 country. 
 
 Above all they dreaded the effect upon 
 their children of the dissolute example of the 
 disbanded soldiers and sailors whr. filled the 
 country. These and other th igs made 
 them unwilling to look upon Holland as 
 their permanent home. But whither should 
 they go in case of their departure from Hol- 
 land? Their own country was closed 
 against them, and the nations of continental 
 Europe could offer them no asylum. As 
 their conviction, that it was their duty to 
 seek some other home, deepened, their 
 thoughts became more irresistibly directea 
 towards the new world. In the vast soli- 
 tudes of the American continent, and there 
 alone, they could establish a home in which 
 they could worship God without fear or 
 molestation, and rear their children in the 
 ways that seemed to them good. Thither 
 would they go. 
 
 Seeking a New Home. 
 
 They were anxious to make their venture 
 under the protection of England, and de- 
 clined the offers made them by the Dutch, 
 who wished them to establish their colony 
 as a dependency of Holland. They had 
 heard of the excellent climate and fertile soil 
 of Virginia, and it seemed best to them to 
 choose that promising region as the scene of 
 their experiment. It was necessary to obtain 
 the consent of the London Company to their 
 settlement, as Virginia had been granted to 
 that body by the king of England ; and in 
 
THE PILGRIMS AT PLYMOUTH. 
 
THE PILGRIM FATHERS. 
 
 125 
 
 1617 two of the leading members of the 
 congregation — John Carver and Robert 
 Cushman — went to England to lay their ap- 
 plication before the company. 
 
 They were kindly received by Sir Edwin 
 Sandys, the secretary of the company. They 
 laid before the directors the request for per- 
 mission to form a settlement in Virginia, with 
 which they had been charged by their breth- 
 ren. The application was signed by the 
 greater part of the congregation, and con- 
 tained a statement of their principles, and 
 their reasons for desiring to emigrate to 
 America. "We verily believe that God is 
 with us," said the petitioners, " and will pros- 
 per us in our endeavors ; we are weaned 
 from our mother country, and have learned 
 patience in a hard and strange land. We 
 are industrious and frugal ; we are bound 
 together by a sacred bond of the Lord, 
 whereof we make great conscience, holding 
 ourselves to each other's good. We do not 
 wish ourselves home again ; we have nothing 
 to hope from England or Holland ; we are 
 men who will not be easily discouraged." 
 
 Efforts to Reach America. 
 
 The appeal of the Pilgrims was received 
 with such favor by the London Company 
 that Carver and Cushman ventured to peti- 
 tion the king to grant them liberty to exer- 
 cise their religion unmolested in the wilds of 
 America. The most that James would con- 
 sent to grant them, however, was a half 
 promise to pay no attention to them in their 
 aew home. The London Company agreed 
 to grant them permission to settle in Vir- 
 ginia, but the dissensions of that body pre- 
 vented anything from being done in t*»~ ; - 
 behalf. 
 
 The Pilgrims were too poor to defray the 
 eost of their emigration, and they set to work 
 to find persons of means willing to assist 
 them. At length they were successful, and 
 
 a company was formed consisting of them 
 selves and several merchants of London. 
 The latter were to advance the funds neces* 
 sary for the enterprise, while the former were 
 to contribute their entire services for a period 
 of seven years as their share of the stock of 
 the company. At the end of seven years 
 the profits of the enterprise were to be 
 divided according to the amount of each 
 one's investment ; and it was agreed that 
 a contribution of ten pounds in money 
 by a merchant should be entitled to as great 
 a share of the profits as seven years of laboi 
 on the part of the emigrant. 
 
 Departure for the New World. 
 
 These were hard terms for the Pilgrims, but 
 they were the best they could obtain, and 
 they were accepted, as the exiles were will- 
 ing to suffer any sacrifice in order to be able 
 to found a community of their own in which 
 they could bring up their children in the fear 
 of God. The main thing with them was to 
 reach the shores of America. Once there 
 these men who had learned the lessons ol 
 self-denial and endurance did not doubt thei; 
 ability to succeed even in the face of tht 
 heavy disadvantages they were obliged to 
 assume. 
 
 With the funds thus obtained the Pilgrims 
 began to prepare for their departure. A 
 ship of sixty tons, called the " Speedwell," 
 was purchased, and another, of one hundred 
 and eighty tons, called the " Mayflower," 
 was chartered. These, however, could trans- 
 port but a part of the congregation, and it 
 was resolved to send out at first only " such 
 of the youngest and strongest as freely 
 offered themselves." The pastor, Robinson, 
 and the aged and infirm were to remain at 
 Leyden until their brethren could send for 
 them, and the colony was placed under ttoi 
 guidance of William Brewster, the governing 
 elder, who was an able teacher and muc& 
 
128 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 respected and beloved for his noble char- 
 acter. 
 
 When all was in readiness, a day of fasting 
 and prayer was held, in order that at the 
 very beginning of their enterprise the Pilgrims 
 might invoke the guidance and protection of 
 God. " Let us seek of God," they said, " a 
 r- 
 
 THE MAYFLOWER IN PLYMOUTH HARBOR. 
 
 right way for us, and for our little ones, and 
 for all of our substance." The venerable 
 pastor made this solemn season the occasion 
 of delivering a tender farewell to the mem- 
 bers of his charge who were about to depart, 
 and of appealing to them to be true to the 
 principles of their religion in their new home. 
 
 '* I charge you before God and his blessed 
 angels," he said, in tones of deep emotion, 
 "that you follow me no further than you 
 have seen me follow the Lord Jesus Christ, If 
 God reveal anything to you, be ready to re- 
 ceive it ; for I am verily persuaded that the 
 Lord has more truth yet to break out of his 
 holy word. I beseech 
 you, remember that it 
 is an article of your 
 church covenant, that 
 you be ready to re- 
 ceive whatever truth 
 shall be made known 
 to you from the writ- 
 ten word of God. Take 
 heed what ye receive 
 as truth ; examine it, 
 consider it, and com- 
 pare it with other 
 scriptures of truth be- 
 fore you receive it; 
 the Christian world 
 has not yet come to 
 the perfection of 
 knowledge." 
 
 From Leyden a 
 number of the breth- 
 ren accompanied the 
 emigrants to Delft 
 Haven, from which 
 port they were to sail. 
 The night before their 
 departure, they all as- 
 sembled in prayer and 
 religious exercises s 
 which were continued 
 until the dawn, when they prepared to 
 go on board the ship. Arrived at the 
 shore, they knelt again, and the pastor, 
 Robinson, led them in prayer — the emigrants 
 listening to his voice for the last time on 
 earth. "And so," says Edward Winslow, 
 " lifting up our hands to each other, and 
 
THE PILGRIM FATHERS. 
 
 129 
 
 our hearts to the Lord our God, we de= 
 parted." 
 
 Southampton was soon reached, and the 
 voyagers were transferred to the " May- 
 flower " and the " Speedwell." On the fifth 
 of August, 1620, those vessels sailed from 
 Southampton for America. Soon after get- 
 ting to sea, it was discovered that the 
 " Speedwell " was in need of repairs, and that 
 they must return to England. They put 
 about and reached the port of Dartmouth, 
 where the smaller vessel was repaired. 
 Eight days were consumed in this undertak- 
 ing, and the voyage was resumed. 
 
 One Ship Abandoned. 
 
 They were scarcely out of sight of land 
 when the commander of the " Speedwell/'' 
 alarmed by the dangers cf the voyage, de- 
 clared that his ship was not strong enough 
 to cross the ocean. The vessels at once put 
 back to Plymouth, where the smaller ship 
 was discharged. At the same time those 
 who had grown faint-hearted were permitted 
 to withdraw from the expedition. The re- 
 mainder of the company, to the number of 
 one hundred and one, sailed from Plymouth 
 in the " Mayflower," on the sixth of Septem- 
 ber, 1620. Some of these were women well 
 advanced in pregnancy, and some were 
 children. Their little vessel was but a frail 
 barque compared with the ships that now 
 navigate the sea ; but a band of braver and 
 more resolute souls never trusted themselves 
 to the mercies of the stormy Atlantic. 
 
 The leading man in the little band of 
 Pilgrims was the ruling elder, William Brew- 
 ster, who was to be their preacher until the 
 arrival of a regularly chosen pastor. He 
 was a man of fine education, refined and 
 scholarly tastes, and of pure and lofty Chris- 
 tian character. " He laid his hand," says 
 Elliott, "to the daily tasks of life, as well as 
 spent his soul in trying to benefit his fellows 
 9 
 
 — so bringing himself as near as possible to 
 the early Christian practices ; he was worthy 
 of being the first minister of New England." 
 He was well advanced in life, and was 
 looked up to with affectionate regard by his 
 associates. 
 
 Another was John Carver, also a man of 
 years and ripe experience, who had sacrificed 
 his fortune to the cause, and whose dignified 
 and benevolent character won him the honor 
 of being chosen the first chief magistrate of 
 the colony. 
 
 GOVERNOR BREWSTER S CHAIR. 
 
 Prominent among the leaders was William 
 Bradford. He was only thirty-two, but was 
 a man of earnest and resolute character, firm 
 and true, "a man of nerve and public spirit." 
 He had begun life as a farmer's boy in Eng- 
 land, and in Holland had supported himself 
 by practising the art of dyeing; but, in spite 
 o f his constant labors, he had educated him- 
 self and had managed to accumulate books of 
 his own. He systematically devoted a large 
 
130 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 part of his time to study, and thus carefully- 
 trained his great natural abilities. 
 
 Edward Winslow, a man of sweet and 
 amiable disposition, was twenty-six years old. 
 He was a gentleman by birth, and had been 
 well educated, and had acquired consider- 
 able information and experience by travel. 
 
 Miles Standish had attained the manly 
 age of thirty-six, and was a veteran soldier. 
 He had seen, service in the wars of the con- 
 tinent of Europe, and had gained an honor- 
 able distinction in them. He was not a 
 member of the church, but was strongly at- 
 tached to its institutions. 
 
 •* With the people of God he had chosen to suffer 
 affliction ; 
 
 In return for his zeal, they made him Captain of 
 Plymouth ; 
 
 He was a man of honor, of noble and generous na- 
 ture ; 
 
 Though he was rough, he was kindly .... 
 
 Somewhat hasty and hot .... and headstrong, 
 
 Stern as a soldier might be, but hearty and placable 
 always, 
 
 Not to be laughed at and scorned, because he was 
 Jittle of stature ; 
 
 For he was great of heart, magnanimous, courtly, 
 courageous." 
 
 Tempestuous Voyage. 
 
 The voyage of the " Mayflower " was long 
 and stormy. The Pilgrims had selected the 
 country near the mouth of the Hudson as the 
 best region for their settlement, but a severe 
 storm drove them northward to the coast of 
 New England. Sixty-three days were con- 
 sumed in the passage, during which, one of 
 their number had died, and at length land 
 was made, and two days later, the " May- 
 flower " cast anchor in the harbor of Cape 
 Cod. 
 
 The Pilgrims had come to America at 
 their own risk and without the sanction of, 
 or a charter from, the king or any lawful 
 organization in England. They were thrown 
 UDon their own resources, and could look to 
 
 no quarter for protection or support. Appre- 
 ciating the necessity of an organized govern- 
 ment, their first acts after anchoring in Cape 
 Cod bay were to organize themselves into a 
 body politic and to form a government. 
 
 The First Compact. 
 
 The following compact was drawn up in 
 the cabin of the " Mayflower," and was 
 signed by all the men of the colony, to the 
 number of forty-one : " In the name of God, 
 amen ; we whose names are underwritten, 
 the loyal subjects of our dread sovereign 
 King James, having undertaken, for the glory 
 of God and advancement of the Christian 
 faith, and honor of our king and country, a 
 voyage to plant the first colony in the north- 
 ern parts of Virginia, do, by these presents, 
 solemnly and mutually, in the presence of 
 God and of one another, covenant and com- 
 bine ourselves together, in a civil body 
 politic, for our better ordering and preserva- 
 tion, and furtherance of the ends aforesaid; 
 and by virtue hereof, to enact, constitute and 
 frame such just and equal laws, ordinances, 
 acts, constitutions and offices, from time to 
 time, as shall be thought most convenient 
 for the general gocd oi the colony, unto 
 which we promise all due submission and 
 obedience." 
 
 This was the first constitution of New 
 England, democratic in form, and resting 
 upon the consent of the governed. It at 
 once established the new commonwealth 
 upon the basis of constitutional liberty, and 
 secured to the people "just and equal laws " 
 fo«* the '* general good." In virtue of the 
 compact, John Carver was chosen governor 
 of the colony for the ensuing year. 
 
 The prospect which presented itself to the 
 Pilgrims upon their arrival at Cape Cod 
 might well have daunted even their resolute 
 souls. It was the opening of the winter, and 
 they had come to a barren and rugged coast 
 
THE PILGRIM B/^iHERS. 
 
 I3i 
 
 The climate was severe, and the land was a 
 wilderness. The English colony in Virginia 
 was five hundred miles distant, and to the 
 north of them the nearest white settlement 
 was the French colony at Port Royal. The 
 " Mayflower " was only chartered to convey 
 them to America, and must return to Eng- 
 land as soon as they had chosen a site and 
 established a settlement. Yet no one fal- 
 tered. The new land was reached, the diffi- 
 culties and dangers were such as could be 
 overcome by patience and fortitude, and the 
 Pilgrims without hesitation addressed them- 
 selves to the task before them. 
 
 Planting the Colony. 
 
 The first thing to be done was to explore 
 the coast and choose a site for the colony, 
 for it was important to begin their settlement 
 before the severity of the winter should ren- 
 der such an effort impossible. The shallop 
 was gotten out, but unfortunately it was 
 found to need repairs. The ship's carpenter 
 worked so slowly that nearly three weeks 
 were spent in this task. This delay was ? 
 great misfortune at this advanced season of 
 the year, and, some of the party becoming 
 impatient, it was resolved to go ashore in the 
 ship's boat and explore the country by land. 
 A party of sixteen men was detailed for this 
 purpose, and placed under the command of 
 Captain Miles Standish. William Bradford, 
 Stephen Hopkins and Edward Tilly were 
 included in the party as a council of war. 
 The explorers were given numerous instruc- 
 tions, and were rather permitted than ordered 
 to go upon their journey, which was 
 regarded as perilous, and the time of their 
 absence was limited to two days. 
 
 Upon reaching the shore they followed it 
 for about a mile, when they discovered sev- 
 eral Indians watching them from a distance. 
 The savages fled as soon as they saw they 
 were observed, and the whites followed in 
 
 pursuit. They struck the trail of the retreat- 
 ing Indians, and followed it until nightfall, 
 but being encumbered by the weight of their 
 armor and impeded by the tangled thickets 
 through which they had to pass, they were 
 unable to overtake the Indians. Tho 
 explorers bivouacked that night by a clea> 
 
 LANDING OF THE PIi.iP.IMS. 
 
 spring, whose waters refreshed them afte! 
 their fatiguing march. They made few dis- 
 coveries, but the expedition was not entirely 
 unprofitable. 
 
 An Indian Graveyard. 
 
 In one place they found a deer-trap, made 
 by bending a young tree to the earth, with a 
 noose underground covered with acorns. 
 Mr. Bradford was caught by the foot in this 
 snare, whic*» occasioned m'*~h merriment 
 
SETTI l'Ml'N T OF AMERICA. 
 
 An Indian gn\ ej ard w i >\ ered in 
 
 another place,and in one of the graves there 
 was an earthen pot, .1 mortar, a bow and 
 some arrows, and other rude implements, 
 .- were carefully replaced by the whites, 
 w h>> i ting-place o\ the dead. 
 
 The most impdrtant discovery was the find- 
 ing of a cellar ov pit carefully lined with 
 bai k, and < o\ cred o\ er with a heap of sand, 
 and containing about four bushels oi seed 
 com in ears. As much of this as the nun 
 could carry was secured, and it was deter- 
 mined to paj the owners ol the corn for it as 
 soon as they could be found, 
 
 Searching the Neighborhood. 
 
 The shallop being finished at length, a 
 party, consisting of Carver, Bradford, Wins- 
 low, Standish and others, with eight or ten 
 seamen, was sent out on a second expedition 
 on the sixth of December, The weather 
 was very cold, and their clothing, drenched 
 with spray, fro e .is stifFas iron armor, I'hcv 
 reached the bottom of Cape Cod bay that 
 day, and landed, instructing the people in the 
 shallop to follow them along the shore. Hie 
 next daj they divided, and searched the 
 neighborhood. Hiey found a numbei oi 
 Indian graves, and some deserted wigwams, 
 hut saw no signs of the inhabitants of the 
 country, rh.it night they encamped near 
 Namtasket, or Great Meadow Creek. Onthe 
 morning of the eighth o( December, just as 
 they had finished their prayers, the explorers 
 were startled by a war-whoopand a Bight of 
 mows, fhe Indians, who wore of the tribe 
 ofthe Nausites, were put to flight bythedis- 
 oharge of a few guns. Some of their people 
 had been kidnapped by the English a few 
 years before, and hence they regarded the 
 new comers as bent on the same errand. 
 
 The day was spent in searching for a safe 
 harbor for the ship, and at nightfall a violent 
 storm of tain .uul snow drove them through 
 
 the breakers into a small cove sheltered 
 from the pale by a hill. They were SO wet 
 and chilled that they landed at once, and, 
 regardless of the danger of drawing the sav- 
 ages upon them, built a fire with great diflfi 
 culty, in order to keep from perishing with 
 the cold. When the morning dawned they 
 found that they were on an island at the 
 entrance to a harbor, The day wis spent in 
 ivst and preparations, 
 
 rhe next day, December toth, was the 
 Sabbath, and, notwithstanding the need oi 
 prompt action, they spent it in rest and 
 religious exercises. The next day, Decern* 
 her ii, 1620, old style, or December 22d, 
 according to our present system, the explor- 
 ing party ofthe Pilgrims landed at the head 
 oi the harboi they had discovered. The rock 
 upon which their footsteps were first planted 
 is still preserved by their descendants. The 
 place was explored .\no\ chosen as the site ot 
 the settlement, and was named Plymouth, in 
 memory ofthe last English town from which 
 the Pilgrims had sailed. 
 
 Anchored at Plymouth. 
 The adventurers hastened back to the ship, 
 
 which stood across the bay, and four ilays 
 
 later cast anchor in Plymouth harbor. No 
 time was to be lost ; the " M.o flower " must 
 soon return to England, and the emigrants 
 must have some shelter over their heads be- 
 fore her departure, l'o save time each man 
 was allowed to build his own house. This 
 was a most arduous task. Many of the 
 
 men were almost broken down by their c\ 
 
 pOSUre to the cold, and some had . 
 
 contracted the fatal diseases which were to 
 
 cany them to the grave before the close oi 
 
 the winter. Still they persevered, working 
 
 bravely when the absence o( rain and snow 
 would permit them to do so. 
 
 As the winter deepened, th*- sickness An^\ 
 I mortality o( the colony mum cased. At one 
 
THE PILGRIM FATHERS. 
 
 133 
 
 God from the lips of their pastor, the good 
 Elder Brewster. In the spring the ground 
 was prepared for cultivation, but until the 
 harvest was grown the coloni its Lived by 
 fishing and limiting. 
 
 No Wish to Leave the Wilderness. 
 
 In March, 162 1, the " Mayflower " sailed 
 for England. Not one of the Pilgrims 
 wished to return in her. They had their 
 
 trials, ;uul these Were sore and heavy, but 
 
 time there Wu - c but seven well men in the 
 company. More than forty of the settlers 
 
 died during the winter. John Carver, the 
 good governor of the colony, buried his son, 
 and himself soon succumbed to the hardships 
 from which he had never shrunk, though 
 never able to endure them. I fe was followed 
 by his heart broken widow. The wives of 
 Bradford and Winslow, and Rose Standish, 
 
 the sweet young bride of "the Captain of 
 Plymouth" were also union;.'; the victims. 
 They were all buried on the shore near the ' they had also made a home and a govern 
 rock on which they 
 had landed, and lest 
 their graves should 
 tell tin,- Indians of the 
 sufferings and weak- 
 ness of the settlement, 
 
 their resting placewas 
 levelled and sown with 
 
 grass. William Brad- 
 ford was chosen gov- 
 ernor in the place of 
 Carver, and the work 
 went on with firm- 
 ness and without re- 
 pining. 
 
 At last the long win- 
 ter drew to a close, and 
 the balmy spring came 
 to cheer the settlers 
 with its bright skies 
 and warm breezes. 
 
 The sick began to recover, and the building 
 of the settlement was completed. In course 
 of time a large shed was erected lor the 
 public Stores, and a small hospitrj for the 
 sick. A church was also built. It was 
 made stronger than the other buildings, as it 
 was to serve as a fortress as well as a place 
 of worship, and four cannon were mounted 
 on top of it for defence against the savages. 
 Here they assembled on the Sabbath for 
 religious worship, and to hear the word of 
 
 FIRST CHURCH IN NEW KNdl.ANn. 
 
 mi lit for themselves, where the> could enjoy 
 the benefits and protection of their own laws, 
 and worship God in safety and in peace. 
 They did not doubt that, they would some 
 day triumph over their difficulties, and that 
 Cod would in I lis own good time crown their 
 labors and their patience with success. 
 
 In the autumn of 162 1, a reinforcement of 
 new emigrants arrived. They brought no 
 provisions, and were dependent upon the 
 scanty stock of the colony,and the increased 
 
134 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 demand upon this soon brought the settlers 
 face to face with the danger of famine. For 
 six months no one received more than half 
 allowance, and this was frequently reduced. 
 " I have seen men," says Winslow, " stagger 
 by reason of faintness for want of food." 
 On one occasion the whole company 
 would have perished but for the kindness 
 of some fishermen, who relieved their 
 wants. 
 
 Every Man for Himself. 
 
 This scarcity of provisions continued for 
 several years, and it was not until the end of 
 the fourth year of the settlement that the 
 colonists had anything like a proper supply 
 of food. In that year neat cattle were intro- 
 duced into Plymouth. None of the colonies 
 were called upon to endure such privations 
 as were suffered by the Pilgrims. Yet they 
 bore them with unshaken fortitude, still 
 trusting that God would give them a pleas- 
 anter lot in the end. 
 
 The conditions of the contract with the 
 English merchants had required the labor of 
 the colonists to be thrown into the common 
 stock. This was found to be an unprofitable 
 arrangement, and in 1623 it was agreed that 
 each settler should plant for himself, and each 
 family was assigned a parcel of land in pro- 
 portion to its numbers, to cultivate, but " not 
 for an inheritance." This arrangement gave 
 great satisfaction and the colonists went to 
 work with such a will that after this season 
 there was no scarcity of food. In the spring 
 of 1624 each colonist was given a little land in 
 fee. The very existence of the colony de- 
 manded this departure from the hard bargain 
 with the English merchants, and the result 
 justified the measure. Abundant harvests 
 rewarded the labors of the settlers, and corn 
 soon became so plentiful that the colonists 
 were able to supply the savages with it. 
 These, preferring the chase to the labor of 
 
 the field, brought in game and skins to 
 Plymouth and received corn in return. 
 
 In the meantime a friendly intercourse had 
 sprung up between the settlers and the 
 Indians. In the first year of the settlement 
 the red men were seen holering upon the 
 outskirts of the village, but they fled upon the 
 approach of the whites. Distant columns oi 
 smoke, rising beyond the woods, told that the 
 savages were close at hand, and it was 
 deemed best to organize the settlers into a 
 military company, the command of which 
 was given to Miles Standish. One day, in 
 March, 162 1, the whole village was startled 
 by the appearance of an Indian, who boldly 
 entered the settlement, and greeted the whites 
 with the friendly words, " Welcome, English- 
 men ! Welcome, Englishmen ! " 
 
 A Romantic History. 
 
 He was kindly received, and it was found 
 that he was Samoset, and had learned a 
 little English of the fishermen at Penobscot. 
 He belonged to the Wauipanoags, a tribe oc- 
 cupying the country north of Narragansett 
 Bay and between the rivers of Providence and 
 Taunton. He told them that they might 
 possess the lands they had taken in peace, as 
 the tribe to which they had belonged had 
 been swept away by a pestilence the year be- 
 fore the arrival of the Pilgrims. He re- 
 mained one night with the settlers, who gave 
 him a knife, a ring, and a bracelet, and then 
 went back to his people, promising to return 
 soon and bring other Indians to trade with 
 them. In a few days he came back, bring- 
 ing with him Squanto, the Indian who had 
 been kidnapped by Hunt and sold in Spain. 
 
 From that country Squanto had escaped 
 to England, where he had learned the lan- 
 guage. He had managed to return to his 
 own country, and now appeared to act as 
 interpreter to the English in their inter- 
 course with his people. They announced 
 
 , 
 
THE PILGRIM FATHERS. 
 
 *35 
 
 that Massasoit, the sachem of the Wampa- 
 noags, desired to visit the colony The 
 chieftain was received with all the ceremony 
 the little settlement could afford. Squanto 
 acted as interpreter, and a treaty of friendship 
 was arranged between Massasoit on behalf of 
 his people and the English. 
 
 Friendly Agreement. 
 
 The parties to the agreement promised to 
 treat each other with kindness and justice, to 
 deliver up offenders, and to assist each other 
 when attacked by their enemies. This treaty 
 was faithfully observ- 
 ed by both parties for 
 fifty years. The Pil- 
 grims expressed their 
 willingness to pay for 
 the baskets of corn 
 that had been taken 
 by their first explor- 
 ing party, and this 
 they did six months 
 later, when the right- 
 ful owners presented 
 themselves. A trade 
 with the Indians was 
 established and furs 
 were brought into 
 Plymouth by them 
 and sold for articles 
 of European manu- 
 facture. 
 
 Squanto was the faithful friend of the col- 
 ony to the end of his life, and was regarded 
 by the Pilgrims as " a special instrument sent 
 of God for their good beyond their expecta- 
 tion." He taught them the Indian method of 
 planting corn and putting fish with it to fer- 
 tilize the ground, and where to find and how 
 to catch fish and game. He showed them 
 his friendship in many ways, and was during 
 his lifetime the interpreter of the colony. 
 The Pilgrims on their part were not ungrate- 
 ful to him. 
 
 On one occasion it was rumored in Ply- 
 mouth that Squanto had been seized by the 
 Narragansetts, and had been put to death. 
 A party of ten men at once marched into 
 the forest, and surprised the hut where the 
 chief of the Narragansetts was. Although 
 the tribe could bring five thousand war- 
 riors into the field, the chief was overawed 
 by the determined action of the English, 
 whose firearms gave them a great superi- 
 ority, and Squanto was released unharmed. 
 On his death-bed Squanto, who had been 
 
 THE TREATY BETWEEN PLYMOUTH COLONY AND MASSASOIT. 
 
 carefully nursed by his white friends, asked 
 the governor to pray that he might go to 
 " the Englishman's God in Heaven." His 
 death was regarded as a serious misfortune 
 to the colony. 
 
 The Great Chief Massasoit. 
 
 Massasoit, whose tribe had been greatly 
 reduced by pestilence, desired the alliance of 
 the English as a protection against the Nar- 
 ragansetts, who had escaped the scourge, and 
 whose chief, Canonicus, was hostile to him. 
 
SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 The Narragansetts lived upon the shores of 
 the beautiful bay to which they have given 
 their name, and were a powerful and warlike 
 race. Canonicus regarded the English with 
 hostility, and in 1622 sent them as a defiance 
 a bundle of arrows wrapped in the skin of a 
 rattlesnake. 
 
 Governor Bradford received the challenge 
 from the hands of the chieftain's messenger, 
 and stuffing the skin with powder and ball re- 
 turned it to him, and sternly bade him bear 
 it back to his master. The Indians regarded 
 the mysterious contents of the skin with ter- 
 ror and dread, and passed it from tribe to 
 tribe. None dared either keep or destroy it, 
 as it was regarded as possessed of some mys- 
 terious but powerful influence for harm. It 
 was finally returned to the colony, and in a 
 short while Canonicus, who had been cowed 
 by the spirited answer of Bradford, offered to 
 make a treaty of peace and alliance with the 
 colony. 
 
 The Pilgrims endeavored to treat the 
 Indians with justice. Severe penalties were 
 denounced against those who should deprive 
 the savages of their property without paying 
 for it, or should treat them with violence. 
 Yet the colonists were to have trouble with 
 the red men, and that through no fault of 
 their own. It happened on this wise. 
 
 A Timely Warning. 
 
 Among the merchants of London who had 
 invested money in the planting of the Ply- 
 mouth colony was Thomas Weston. Envi- 
 ous of the advance made by the colony in 
 the fur trade, he desired to secure all the 
 profits of that traffic by establishing a trading- 
 post of his own. He obtained a patent for a 
 small tract on Boston harbor, near Wey- 
 mouth, and settled there a colony of sixty 
 men, the greater number of whom were in- 
 dentured servants. These men, disregarding 
 Jie warnings of the people of Plymouth, gave 
 
 themselves up to a dissolute life, and drew 
 upon themselves the wrath of the Indians by 
 maltreating them, and stealing their corn. 
 The Indians, unable to distinguish between 
 the guilty and the innocent, resolved to 
 avenge the misconduct of Weston's men by 
 a massacre of every white settler in thecoun- 
 try. 
 
 Before the plot could be put in execution 
 Massasoit fell sick. Winslow visited him, 
 and found his lodge full of medicine-men and 
 jugglers, who were killing him with the 
 noise they made to drive away the disease. 
 The kind-hearted Englishman turned the 
 Indian doctors out of the lodge, and by giv- 
 ing Massasoit rest, and administering such 
 remedies as his case required, restored him to 
 health. The grateful chief revealed the plot 
 of his people for the extermination of the 
 English. The Plymouth settlers were greatly 
 alarmed, and measures were promptly taken 
 to avert the danger. 
 
 Nine 'White Braves. 
 
 Standish, with eight armed men, was sent 
 to the assistance of the settlement at Wey- 
 mouth. They arrived in time to prevent the 
 attack. The Indians, who had begun to 
 collect for the massacre, were surprised and 
 defeated in a brief engagement, and the chief 
 who was the leader of the conspiracy, was 
 slain, with a number of his men. This 
 gallant exploit established the supremacy of 
 the English in New England, and many of 
 the native tribes sought their friendship and 
 alliance. The Weymouth men were unwill- 
 ing to continue their colony after their nar- 
 row escape. Some went to Plymouth where 
 they became a source of trouble, and others 
 returned to England. The spring of 1623 
 saw the last of this settlement. 
 
 In the autumn of 1623 the best harvest 
 was gathered in that had yet blessed the 
 labors of the Pilgrims. It was an abundant 
 
THE PILGRIM FATHERS. 
 
 137 
 
 yield, and put an end to all fears of a re- 
 newal of the danger of famine. When the 
 labors of the harvest were over Governor 
 Bradford sent out men to collect game, in 
 order that the people might enjoy a thanks- 
 giving feast. On the appointed day the 
 people " met together and thanked God with 
 all their hearts for the good world and the 
 good things in it." Thus was established 
 the custom of an annual thanksgiving to 
 God for the blessings of the year, which 
 though at first a celebration peculiar to New 
 England has at length become a national 
 festival. 
 
 Each Settler a Land Owner. 
 
 The colonists themselves were satisfied 
 with the progress they had made, but their 
 merchant partners in England were greatly 
 displeased with the smallness of the profits 
 they had received from their investmenrs, 
 and in many ways made the colony feel their 
 dissatisfaction. Robinson and his congrega- 
 tion at Leyden were anxious to join their 
 friends in America, but the merchant partners 
 refused to send them across the Atlantic, and 
 not content with this endeavored to force 
 upon the Plymouth people a pastor friendly 
 to the Church of England. They soon got 
 rid of this individual, however, whose con- 
 duct quickly enabled them to expel him from 
 Plymouth as an evil liver. The merchants 
 also sent a vessel to New England to oppose 
 the colonists in the fur trade ; and demanded 
 exorbitant prices for the goods they sold the 
 settlers, charging them the enormous profit 
 of seventy per cent. 
 
 It was not possible, however, to destroy 
 the results of the industry and self-denial of 
 the Pilgrims. Seeing that their association 
 with their English partners would continue to 
 operate merely as a drag upon the advance | 
 
 of the colony, they managed in 1627, at con- 
 siderable sacrifice, to purchase the entire 
 interest of their partners. The stock and 
 the land of the colony were then divided 
 equitably among the settlers, and the share 
 of each man became his own private prop- 
 erty. Each settler was thus made the owner 
 of a piece of land which it was to his in- 
 terest to improve to the highest degree pos- 
 sible, Freed from the burdens under which 
 it had labored for so long, the colony began 
 to increase in prosperity and in population. 
 
 The government of the Pilgrims was sim- 
 ple, but effective. They had no charter, and 
 were from the first driven upon their own 
 resources. They had a governor who was 
 chosen by the votes of all the settlers. In 
 1624 a council of five was given him, and in 
 1633 this number was increased to seven. 
 The council assisted the governor in the ex- 
 ercise of his duties, and imposed a check 
 upon his authority, as in its meetings he had 
 merely a double vote. The whole number of 
 male settlers for eighteen years constituted 
 the legislative body. They met at stated 
 times, and enacted such laws as were neces- 
 sary for the welfare of the colony. The 
 people were frequently convened by the gov- 
 ernor, in the earlier years of the settlement, 
 to aid him with their advice upon difficult 
 questions brought before them. When the 
 colony increased in population, and a number 
 of towns were included within its limits, each 
 town sent representatives to a general court 
 at Plymouth. 
 
 If the colony grew slowly, it grew steadily, 
 and at length the Pilgrims had their reward 
 in seeing their little settlement expand into a 
 flourishing province, in which the principles 
 of civil freedom were cherished, religion 
 honored, and industry and economy made 
 the basis of the wealth of the little state. 
 
CHAPTER XI 
 Settlement of Massachusetts and Rhode Island 
 
 Settlement of New Hampshire— The English Puritans Determine to Form a New Colony in America — The Plymouth 
 
 Council A Colony Sent Out to Salem under Endicott — Colonization of Massachusetts Bay Begun — A Charter Obtained 
 
 Concessions of the King — Progress of the Salem Colony — The Charter and Government of the Colony Removed to 
 
 New England — Arrival of Governor Winthrop— Settlement of Boston — Sufferings of the Colonists — Roger Williams 
 
 His Opinions Give Offence to the Authorities — The Success of the Bay Colony Established — Growth of Populai 
 
 Liberty — The Ballot Box — Banishment of Roger Williams — He Goes into the Wilderness — Founds Providence — 
 Growth of Williams' Colony — Continued Growth of Massachusetts — Arrival of Sir Henry Vane — Is Elected Governor 
 — Mrs. Aune Hutchinson — The Antinomian Controversy — Mrs. Hutchinson Banished — Settlement of Rhode Island- 
 Murder of Mrs. Hutchinson. 
 
 THE success of the Pilgrims in es- 
 tablishing the Plymouth colony 
 aroused a feeling of deep interest 
 in England, and some of those who 
 had watched the effort were encouraged to 
 attempt ventures of their own. Sir Ferdi- 
 nand Gorges, who had taken a deep interest 
 in the schemes to settle the new world, and 
 John Mason, the secretary of the council of 
 Plymouth, obtained a patent for the region 
 called Laconia, which comprised the whole 
 country between the sea, the St. Lawrence, 
 the Merrimar and the Kennebec, and now 
 embraced partly in Maine and partly in New 
 Hampshire. A company of English mer- 
 chants was formed, and in 1623 permanent 
 colonies were established at Portsmouth, 
 Dover and one or two other placec near the 
 mouth of the Piscataqua. These were small, 
 feeble settlements, and were more trading- 
 posts than towns. 
 
 For many years their growth was slow, 
 and it was not until other parts of New- 
 England were well peopled and advanced 
 far beyond their early trials that they began 
 to show signs of prosperity. In 1653, thirty 
 years after its settlement, Portsmouth con- 
 tained only " between fifty and sixty families." 
 The settlers of these towns were not all 
 138 
 
 Puritans, and their colonies had not the re- 
 ligious character of those of the rest cf New 
 England. In 1 641, they were annexed at 
 their own request to the province of Massa- 
 chusetts, the general court having agreed not 
 to require the freemen and deputies to be 
 church members. 
 
 In the meantime the news of the successful 
 planting of Plymouth was producing other 
 and more important results in England. 
 The persecutions of the Non-conformists, 
 which marked the entire reign of James L, 
 were continued through that of his son and 
 successor, Charles I. The Puritans, sorely 
 distressed by the tyranny to which they were 
 subjected, listened with eagerness to the ac- 
 counts of America which were sent over by 
 the members of the Plymouth colony, and 
 published from time to time in England. 
 The descriptions of the Pilgrims were not 
 exaggerated. They did not promise either 
 fame or sudden wealth to settlers in their 
 province, but clearly set forth the cares and 
 labors which were to be the price of success 
 in America. 
 
 They dwelt with especial emphasis, how* 
 ever, upon that which was in their eyes the 
 chief reward of all their toil and suffering— ■ 
 the ability to exercise their religion without 
 
SETTLEMENT OF MASSACHUSETTS AND RHODE ISLAND. 
 
 !39 
 
 restraint. Their brethren in England heard 
 their accounts with a longing to be with 
 them to enjoy the freedom with which they 
 were blessed, and it was not long before a 
 number of English Non-conformists began 
 
 of that year one hundred persons under 
 John Endicott, as governor, were despatched 
 to New England. Endicott took his family 
 with him, and in September, 1628, reached 
 New England, and established the settlement 
 
 to concert measures for making New Eng- of Salem, the site of which was already occu- 
 
 land a place of refuge for the persecuted 
 members of their faith. The leading spirit 
 in these enterprises was the 
 Rev. Mr. White, a minister 
 of Dorsetshire, a Puritan, 
 but not a Separatist. Re- 
 garding the vicinity of the 
 present town of Salem as 
 the most suitable place for 
 colonization, he exerted 
 himself with energy to se- 
 cure it for his brethren. 
 
 In the meantime the 
 Plymouth Company had 
 ceased to exist, and its 
 place had been taken by 
 the council of Plymouth. 
 That body cared for New 
 England only as a source 
 of profit, and sold the ter- 
 ritory of that region to 
 a number of purchasers, 
 assigning the same district 
 to different people, and thus 
 paving the way for vexa- 
 tious litigation. In 1628, 
 it sold to a company of 
 gentlemen of Dorchester, 
 which White's energy had 
 succeeded in bringing into 
 existence, a district extending from three 
 miles south of Massachusetts Bay to three 
 miles north of the Merrimac River. As 
 was usual in all grants of the day, the 
 Pacific was made the western boundary of 
 this region. 
 
 This company was at once prepared to 
 send out a colony, and in the early summer 
 
 pied by a few men whom White had placed 
 there to hold it. Endicott, w v o was a mar. 
 
 JOHN ENDICOTT. 
 
 of undaunted courage and acknowledged in« 
 tegrity of character, soon established his 
 authority over the few settlements that had 
 sprung up along the shores of the bay. Al 
 this time the site of Charlestown was occupied 
 by an Englishman named Thomas Walford, 
 a blacksmith, who had fortified his cabin 
 with a palisade. The only dweller on the 
 
140 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 tri-mountain peninsula of Shawmut was the 
 Rev. William Blackstone, a clergyman of the 
 Church of England ; the island now known 
 as East Boston was occupied by Samuel 
 Maverick. At Nantasket and a few places 
 farther south some Englishmen had located 
 themselves, and lived by fishing and trading 
 in skins : and on the site of Quincy was the 
 wreck of a colony which had nearly perished 
 in consequence of its evils ways. These, 
 with the settlement at Salem, constituted the 
 colony of Massachusetts Bay. 
 
 Arrivals at Salem. 
 
 Soon after the departure of Endicott's 
 colony from England, the company, acting 
 upon the advice of their counsel, obtained 
 from the king a confimation of their grant. 
 In March, 1629, the king granted to the 
 colony of Massachusetts Bay a charter 
 under which it conducted its affairs for more 
 than fifty years. By the terms of this charter 
 the governor was to be elected by the free- 
 men for the term of one year, provision was 
 made for the assembling at stated times of a 
 general court, which was to have the power 
 to make all the needed laws for the colony, 
 and it was not necessary that these laws should 
 receive the royal signature in order to be 
 valid. This was conceding practical inde- 
 pendence to the colony. 
 
 In the spring of 1629, a second company 
 of emigrants sailed from England for Massa- 
 chusetts. They were, like the first, all Puri- 
 tans, and took with them, as their minister, 
 the Rev. Francis Higginson, formerly of 
 Jesus College, Cambridge, a man of learn- 
 ing and deep piety. The colonists were 
 instructed to do no violence to the Indians. 
 " If any of the salvages," so read the com- 
 pany's orders, " pretend right of inheritance 
 to all or any part of the lands granted in our 
 patent, endeavor to purchase their tytle, that 
 we may avoid the least scruple of intrusion." 
 
 Six shipwrights were sent over for the use 
 of the colony, an experienced engineer to 
 lay out a fortified town, and a master gun- 
 ner, who was to teach the men of the colony 
 the use of arms and military exercises. 
 Cattle and horses and goats were sent out 
 also. 
 
 The voyage was prosperous, and the new 
 settlers reached Salem about the last of June. 
 They found the settlement in a feeble con 
 dition, and greatly in need of their assistance. 
 The old and the new colonists numbered 
 about three hundred. The majority of these 
 remained at Salem, and the rest were sent 
 by Endicott to establish a colony at Charles- 
 towK, in order to secure that place from 
 occupation by the partisans of Sir Ferdi- 
 nand Gorges, who claimed the region. The 
 emigrants were scrupulous to acquire from 
 the Indians the right to the lands they occu- 
 pied. The twelfth of July was observed 
 as a day of fasting and prayer "for the 
 choice of a pastor and teacher at Salem." 
 No one advanced any claim founded on his 
 ordination in England ; personal fitness was 
 the only qualification recognized by the 
 Puritans. Samuel Skelton was chosen pastor, 
 and Francis Higginson teacher. 
 
 The Brownes Cast Out. 
 
 Three or four of the gravest members of 
 the church laid their hands upon the 
 heads of these men, with prayer, and solemn- 
 ly appointed them to their respective offices, 
 "Thus the church, like that of Plymouth, 
 was self-constituted, on the principle of the 
 independence of each religious community. 
 It did not ask the assent of the king, or 
 recognize him as its head; its officers were 
 set apart and ordained among themselves; 
 it used no liturgy; it rejected unnecessary 
 ceremonies, and reduced the simplicity of 
 Calvin to a still plainer standard. The 
 motives which controlled its decisions were 
 
SETTLExMENT OF MASSACHUSETTS AND RHODE ISLAND. 
 
 141 
 
 so deeply seated that its practices were 
 repeated spontaneously by Puritan New 
 England." An opposition to the organiza- 
 tion of the church was attempted by a party 
 led by John and Samuel Browne, men of 
 ability; but this was treated as a mutiny and 
 put down, and the Brownes were sent back 
 to England. 
 
 The charter of Massachusetts, though it 
 made liberal concessions to the colony, 
 contained no provision for the rights of the 
 people, who were left at the mercy of the 
 company. For the proper government 
 of the colony, it was necessary to re- 
 move the charter to Massachusetts, and 
 such a removal was advisable on another 
 ground. The charter contained no guar- 
 antee for the reglious freedom of the co- 
 lony, and the king might at any moment 
 seek to interfere with this, the most pre- 
 cious right of the Puritans. The only 
 way to escape the evils which the com- 
 pany had reason to dread was for the 
 governing council to change its place 
 of meeting from England to Massachu- 
 setts, which the provisions of the charter 
 gave it authority to do. 
 
 An Independent Colony. 
 
 On the twenty-sixth of August, 1629, 
 John Winthrop, Isaac Johnson, Thomas 
 Dudley, Richard Saltonstall and eight 
 others, men of fortune and education, 
 met at Cambridge and bound them- 
 selves by a solemn agreement to settle in 
 New England if the whole government of 
 die colony, together with the patent, should 
 be legally transferred to that region before 
 the end of September. On the twenty- 
 ninth of the month, the court took the de- 
 cisive step and ordered that *' the govern- 
 ment and patent should be settled in New 
 England." This was a bold step, but its 
 legality was not contested by any one, and it 
 
 made the government of the colony independ- 
 ent of control by any power in England. 
 
 The officers of the colony were to be a 
 governor and eighteen assistants. On the 
 twentieth of October, a meeting of the court 
 was held to choose them, and John Winthrop 
 was elected governor for one year. It was a 
 fortunate selection, for Winthrop proved 
 himself for many years the very mainstay of 
 the colony, sustaining his companions by his 
 calm courage, and setting them a noble ex- 
 
 JOHN WINTHROP. 
 
 ample in his patience, his quiet heroism and 
 his devotion to the welfare of others. He 
 seemed to find his greatest pleasure in doing 
 good, and his liberality acted as a check 
 upon the bigotry of his associates and kept 
 them in paths of greater moderation. 
 
 Efforts were made to send over new settlers 
 to Massachusetts, and about a thousand 
 emigrants, with cattle, horses and goats, were 
 transported thither in the season of 1630. 
 
142 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 Early in April, Governor Winthrop and 
 about seven hundred emigrants sailed from 
 England in a fleet of eleven ships. Many of 
 them were " men of high endowments and 
 large fortune; scholars, well versed in the 
 learning of the times ; clergymen who ranked 
 among the best educated and most pious in 
 the realm." 
 
 Death Among the Settlers. 
 
 They reached Salem on the twelfth of 
 June, after a voyage of sixty-one days, and 
 were gladly welcomed by the settlers, whom 
 they found in great distress from sickness 
 and a scarcity of provisions. About eighty 
 had died during the winter, and many were 
 sick. There was scarcely a fortnight's sup- 
 ply of food in the settlement, and it was nec- 
 essary to send one of the ships back to Eng- 
 land at once for a supply of provisions. 
 
 Salem did not please the new-comers, and 
 settlements were made at Lynn, Charles- 
 town, Newtown, Dorchester, Roxbury, Mai- 
 den and Watertown. The governor and a 
 large part of the emigrants settled first at 
 Charlestown,but at length, in order to obtain 
 better water, crossed over and occupied the 
 little tri-mountain peninsula of Shawmut. 
 To this settlement was given the name of 
 Boston, in honor of the town in Lincolnshire 
 in England, which had been the home of the 
 Rev. John Wilson, who became the pastor of 
 the first church of Boston. The location 
 was central to the whole province, and Bos- 
 ton became the seat of government. When 
 the year for which the first colonial officers 
 had been chosen expired a new election was 
 held, and Governor Winthrop and all the old 
 officials were re-elected. 
 
 Terrible Sufferings. 
 The colonists now began to feel the effects 
 of their new life. The change of climate was 
 very trying to them, and many of them fell 
 victims to its rigors, and to the hardships of 
 their position. A large number of them had 
 
 been brought up in ease and refinement, and 
 were unaccustomed to privation or exposure. 
 They sank beneath the severe trials to which 
 they were subjected. By December, 1630, 
 at least two hundred had died. Among 
 these were the Lady Arbella Johnson and 
 her husband, among the most liberal and de- 
 voted supporters of the colony, and a son oi 
 Governor Winthrop, who left a widow and 
 children in England. Others became dis- 
 heartened, and more than a hundred returned 
 to England, where they endeavored to ex- 
 cuse their desertion of their companions by 
 grossly exaggerated accounts of the hard- 
 ships of the colony. 
 
 Patient Endurance. 
 
 Yet among the colonists themselves there 
 was no repining. They exhibited in their 
 deep distress a fortitude and heroism worthy 
 of thefr lofty character. " Honor is due," 
 says Bancroft, " not less to those who per- 
 ished than to those who survived; to the 
 martyrs the hour of death was the hour ot 
 triumph ; such as is never witnessed in more 
 tranquil seasons. ***** Even children 
 caught the spirit of the place ; awaited the 
 impending change in the tranquil confidence 
 of faith, and went to the grave full of immor- 
 tality. The survivors bore all things meekly, 
 ' remembering the end of their corning 
 hither.'" Winthrop wrote to his wife, who 
 had been detained in England by sickness: 
 " We enjoy here God and Jesus Christ, and 
 is not this enough ? I thank God I like so 
 well to be here, as I do not repent my com- 
 ing. I would not have altered my course 
 though I had foreseen all these afflictions. 
 I never had more content of mind." 
 
 Another danger which threatened the 
 colony arose from the scarcity of provisions, 
 but this was removed on the fifth of February, 
 i63i,by the timely arrival of the "Lyon" 
 from England, laden with provisions. This 
 relief was greeted v/ith public thanksgivings 
 
SETTLEMENT OF MASSACHUSETTS AND RHODE ISLAND. 
 
 J 43 
 
 in all the settlements. The " Lyon," how- 
 ever, brought only twenty passengers, and in 
 163 1 only ninety persons came out from 
 England. The number of arrivals in 1632 
 was only two hundred and fifty. Thus the 
 colony grew very slowly. By the close of 
 the latter year the total population of Massa- 
 chusetts was only a little over one thousand 
 souls. 
 
 Sketch of Roger Williams. 
 
 Among the passengers of the " Lyon " 
 was a young minister, described in the old 
 records as " lovely in his carriage, godly and 
 zealous, having precious gifts," Roger 
 Williams by name. He had been a favorite 
 pupil of the great Sir Edward Coke, and had 
 learned from him precious lessons of liberty 
 and toleration. He had been carefully edu- 
 cated at Pembroke College, in the University 
 of Cambridge, and had entered the ministry. 
 His opposition to the laws requiring con- 
 formity to the established church had 
 drawn upon him the wrath of Archbishop 
 Laud, and he had been driven out of 
 England. 
 
 The great doctrine which he had em- 
 braced as the result of his studies and ex- 
 perience was the freedom of conscience from 
 secular control. " The civil magistrate 
 should restrain crime, but never control 
 opinion; should punish guilt, but never violate 
 inward freedom." He would place all forms 
 of religion upon an equality, and would 
 refuse to the government the power to com- 
 pel conformity to, or attendance upon, any 
 of them, leaving such matters to the con- 
 science of the individual. He also favored 
 the abolition of tithes, and the enforced con- 
 tribution to the support of the church. 
 
 Such views were far in advance of the age, 
 and when Williams landed in Boston he 
 found himself unable to join the church in 
 that place, because of its adoption of prin- 
 
 ciples the opposite of his own. Upon his 
 arrival the church had intended engaging 
 him to fill Mr. Wilson's place, while that 
 minister returned to England to bring over 
 his wife, but upon learning his views the 
 idea was abandoned. A little later the 
 church in Salem, which had been deprived 
 of its teacher by the death of the Rev. 
 Francis Higginson, called Williams to be his 
 successor. Williams accepted the call ; but 
 Governor Winthrop and the assistants 
 warned the people of Salem to beware how 
 they placed in so important a position a man 
 already at such variance with the established 
 order of things. The warning had the de- 
 sired effect upon the people of Salem, who 
 withdrew their invitation. Williams then 
 went to Plymouth, where he lived for two 
 years in peace. 
 
 An Oath of Fidelity. 
 
 But though unwilling to accord to Williams 
 the liberty he desired, the colonial govern- 
 ment was careful to take every precaution 
 against the anticipated efforts of the Church 
 of England to extend its authority over 
 Massachusetts. A general court held in 
 May, 1 63 1, ordered an oath of fidelity to be 
 tendered to the freemen of the colony, which 
 bound them " to be obedient and conform- 
 able to the laws and constitutions of this 
 commonwealth, to advance its peace, and 
 not to suffer any attempt at making any 
 change or alteration of the government con- 
 trary to its laws." The same general court 
 took a still more decided stand by the 
 adoption of a law which limited the citizen- 
 ship of the colony to " such as are members 
 of some of the churches within the limits of 
 the same." This was practically making the 
 state a theocracy. 
 
 Yet the people were not prepared to sur- 
 render their political rights, even when 
 alarmed by the danger which seemed to 
 
144 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 threaten their religious establishment. Until 
 now the assistants could hold office for life 
 and they also possessed the power of elect- 
 ing the governor. They were thus inde- 
 pendent of' the people. The right of the 
 freemen to choose their magistrates was now 
 distinctly asserted, and in May, 1632, was 
 conceded. The governor and assistants were 
 to be elected annually, and by the votes of 
 the freemen; none but church members 
 being entitled to the privileges of freemen. 
 Another important change was brought 
 about at the same time by the hostility of 
 the people to levying of taxes by the board 
 of assistants. Each town was ordered to 
 send two of its best men to represent it at a 
 general court " to concert a plan for a public 
 treasury." 
 
 Friendly Mohegan Chief. 
 
 The colonists had faithfully obeyed their 
 instructions to treat the Indians with fair- 
 ness, and to seek to cultivate their friend- 
 ship. Many of the native tribes sought their 
 alliance, and the sachem of the Mohegans 
 came from the banks of the Connecticut to 
 make a treaty with the colony, and to urge 
 the English to settle in his country, which he 
 described as exceedingly fertile and inviting. 
 In the autumn of 1632 a pleasant intercourse 
 was opened with the Plymouth colony ; and in 
 the same year a trade in corn was begun 
 with Virginia, and commercial relations 
 were established with the Dutch, who had 
 settled along the Hudson River. The colony 
 of Massachusetts Bay was slowly entering 
 upon a more prosperous period. 
 
 Emigrants now began to come over in 
 greater numbers, and among them were John 
 Haynes, " the acute and subtile Cotton," and 
 Thomas Hooker, who have been called the 
 "Light of the Western Churches." The 
 freemen by the middle of the year 1634 
 numbered between three and four hundred, 
 
 and these were bent upon establishing then 
 political power in the state. Great advances 
 were made in the direction of representative 
 government, and the ballot-box was intro- 
 duced in elections, which had been formerly 
 conducted by an erection of hands. As 
 a guard against arbitrary taxation by magis- 
 trates it was enacted that none but the 
 properly chosen representatives of the people 
 might dispose of lands, or raise money. 
 
 A Long Controversy. 
 
 In the spring of 1635 the people went a 
 step further, and demanded a written con- 
 stitution for the purpose of still more per- 
 fectly securing their liberties. This demand 
 opened a controversy which continued for 
 ten years. The general court was com- 
 posed of assistants and deputies. The first 
 were elected by the people of the whole 
 colony ; the latter by the towns. The two 
 bodies acted together in meetings of the 
 assembly, but the assistants claimed the 
 exclusive privilege of meeting and exercising 
 a separate negative upon the proceedings ot 
 the court. This claim was energetically 
 denied by the deputies, who were sustained 
 by the body of the people; while the 
 magistrates and the ministers upheld the 
 pretensions of the assistants. 
 
 In 1644 the matter was compromised by 
 the division of the general court into two 
 branches, each of which was given a negative 
 upon the proceedings of the other. All 
 parties were agreed, however, in the work of 
 connecting the religion and the government 
 of the colony so closely that they should 
 mutually sustain each other against the 
 attacks of the Church of England. 
 
 While these measures were in course of 
 adjustment other matters were engaging the 
 attention of the colony. After Roger Will- 
 iams had been a little more than two years 
 in Plymouth, he was called again to Salem, 
 
IO 
 
 ROGER WILLIAMS SEEKING REFUGE AMONG THE INDIANS. 
 
 145 
 
146 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 and accepted the invitation. This gave 
 offence to many persons, and in January, 
 1634, complaints were made against Williams 
 because of a paper he had written while at 
 Plymouth, denying that the king had any 
 power to grant lands in America to his sub- 
 jects, since the lands were the property of 
 the Indians. In this Williams was wrong, as 
 the settlers in New England had been care- 
 ful to obtain the consent of the natives to 
 their occupation of the lands they had pos- 
 sessed. He made a proper explanation of 
 his paper, when he understood the true 
 state of the case, and consented that it 
 should be burned. 
 
 Williams will not Retract. 
 
 Still the jealousy and dislike of the Puri- 
 tans was aroused by the radical opposition 
 of Williams to their system, although he 
 conducted himself with a forbearance and 
 amiableness that should have won him the 
 love of those with whom he was thrown. 
 Williams strongly condemned the law enforc- 
 ing the attendance of the people upon reli- 
 gious services, declaring that a man had a 
 right to stay away if he wished to do so. He 
 also censured the practice of selecting the 
 colonial officials exclusively from the mem- 
 bers of the church, and said that a physician 
 or a pilot might with equal propriety be 
 chosen because of his piety, his skill in 
 theology, or his standing in the church. 
 These and other similar views were drawn 
 from him in a series of controversies, held 
 with him by a committee of ministers, for 
 the purpose of inducing him to retract his 
 radical sentiments. He remained firm in 
 them, however, and his opponents declared 
 that his principles were calculated not only 
 to destroy religion, but also to subvert all 
 forms of civil government. 
 
 It was resolved to banish him from the 
 colony, and as the people of Salem warmly 
 
 supported Williams, they were admonished 
 by the court, and a tract of land, which was 
 rightfully theirs, was withheld from them as 
 a punishment. Williams and the church at 
 Salem appealed to the people against the in- 
 justice of the magistrates, and asked the 
 other churches of the colony to " admonish 
 the magistrates of their injustice." This was 
 regarded as treason by the colonial govern- 
 ment, and at the next general court Salem 
 was disfranchised until the town should 
 make ample apology for its offence. Will- 
 iams was summoned before the general 
 court in October, 1635, and maintained his 
 opinions with firmness, though with mod- 
 eration. He was sentenced to banishment 
 from the colony, not, as it was declared, 
 because of his religious views, but because 
 the magistrates averred his principles, if 
 carried out, would destroy all civil govern- 
 ment. 
 
 A Fugitive in the Wilderness. 
 
 The season was so far advanced that it 
 would have been barbarous to drive any one 
 out of the colony at that time, and Williams 
 obtained leave to remain in the province 
 until the spring, when he intended forming 
 a settlement on Narragansett Bay. The 
 affection of his people at Salem, which had 
 seemed to grow cold when the town began 
 to feel the weight of the punishment inflicted 
 by the general court, now revived, and they 
 thronged to his house in great numbers to 
 hear him, and his opinions spread rapidly. 
 The magistrates were alarmed, and it was 
 resolved to send him at once to England 
 in a ship that was just about to sail from 
 Boston. He was ordered to come to Boston 
 and embark there, but refused to obey the 
 summons. A boat's crew was then sent to 
 arrest him and bring him to Boston by force; 
 but when the officers reached Salem he had 
 disappeared. 
 
SETTLEMENT OF MASSACHUSETTS AND RHODE ISLAND. 147 
 
 Three days before their arrival Roger 
 Williams had left Salem, a wanderer for con- 
 science sake. It was the depth of winter, 
 the snow lay thickly over the country, and 
 the weather was cold and inclement. For 
 fourteen weeks, he says, he " was sorely tost 
 in a bitter season, not knowing what bread 
 or bed did mean." Banished from the set- 
 tlements of his own race the exile went out 
 into the wilderness, and sought the country 
 of the Indians, whose friendship he had won 
 during his stay in the colony. He had ac- 
 quired their language during his residence at 
 Plymouth, and could 
 speak it fluently. 
 
 He went from lodge 
 to lodge, kindly wel- 
 comed by the sav- 
 ages, and lodging 
 sometimes in a hol- 
 low tree, until he 
 reached Mount Hope, 
 the residence of Mas- 
 sasoit, who was his 
 friend. Canonicus.the 
 great chieftain of the 
 Narragansetts, loved 
 him with a strong af- 
 fection, which ceased 
 only with his life; 
 and in the country of 
 these friendly chiefs 
 
 Williams passed the winter in peace and 
 safety. He never ceased to be grateful 
 for their aid in his distress, and during his 
 whole life he was the especial friend and 
 champion of the Indians in New England 
 
 It was the intention of Williams to settle 
 at Seekonk, on the Pawtucket River ; but 
 that place was found to be within the limits 
 of the Plymouth colony. Governor Winslow 
 wrote to Williams advising him to remove 
 to the region of Narragansett Bay, which 
 was beyond the jurisdiction of the English, 
 
 and would render any misunderstanding be- 
 tween the Plymouth and Bay colonies on 
 his account impossible " I took his prudent 
 motion," says Williams, " as a voice from 
 God." 
 
 Providence Founded. 
 
 Being joined by five companions, Williams 
 embarked in a canoe in June, 1635, and pass- 
 ing over to the west' arm of Narragansett 
 Bay, landed at an attractive spot, where he 
 found a spring of pure water. He chose the 
 place as the site of a new settlement, and in 
 gratitude for his deliverance from the many 
 
 LANDING OF ROGER WILLIAMS AT PROVIDENCE. 
 
 dangers through which he had passed, named 
 it Providence. He sought to purchase 
 enough land for a settlement, but Canonicus 
 refused to sell the land, and gave it to his 
 friend " to enjoy forever." This grant was 
 made to Williams alone, and constituted him 
 absolute owner of the lands included in it. 
 He might have sold them to settlers on terms 
 advantageous to himself; but he declined to 
 do so. 
 
 In the next two years he was joined by a 
 number of his old followers from Massachu- 
 
I4& 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 setts, and by others who fled to h<s asylum. 
 He gave a share of land to all who came to 
 settle, and admitted them to an equality with 
 himself in the political administration of the 
 colony. The government was administered 
 by the whole people. The voice of the 
 majority decided all public measures ; but in 
 matters of conscience every man was left an- 
 swerable to God alone. All forms of relig- 
 ious belief were tolerated and protected. 
 Even infidelity was safe here from punish- 
 ment by the civil or ecclesiastical power. 
 
 Praiseworthy Charity. 
 
 Williams was anxious to establish friendly 
 relations with the Massachusetts cole y • for 
 though he felt keenly the injustice of his per- 
 secutors, he cherished no bitterness or resent- 
 ment towards them. He condemned only 
 what he considered the delusions of the 
 magistrates of Massachusetts, but never at- 
 tacked his persecutors. "1 did ever from 
 my soul," he wrote with simple magnanimity, 
 " honor and love them, even when their judg- 
 ment led them to afflict me." Winslow, 
 touched with his true Christian forbearance, 
 came from Plymouth to visit him, and left 
 with his wife some money for their support; 
 and some of the leaders of the Bay colony 
 began to bear tardy witness to his virtues. 
 The settlement at Providence continued to 
 grow slowly, and was blessed with peace and 
 an increasing prosperity. 
 
 Massachusetts in the meantime continued 
 to receive numerous additions to her popula- 
 tion by emigration from England. In the 
 autumn of 1635, twelve families left Boston, 
 and journeying into the interior, founded the 
 town of Concord. They had a hard struggle 
 to establish their little settlement, but per- 
 severed, and at length their labors were 
 crowned with success. Three thousand 
 people came over to Massachusetts this year. 
 Among them were Hugh Peters, a man of 
 
 great eloquence and ability and a devoted 
 republican, who had been pastor to a church 
 of exiles at Rotteidam, and Henry Vane the 
 younger, "a man of the purest mind; a 
 statesman 01 spotless integrity ; whose name 
 the progress of intelligence and liberty will 
 erase from the rubic of fanatics and traitors, 
 and insert high among the aspirants after 
 truth and the martyrs for liberty." * 
 
 In the lollowing spring (1636) Vane was 
 elected governor of the colony. The people 
 were dazzled by his high birth and pleasing 
 qualities, and committed an error in choos- 
 ing him, for neither his age nor his experi- 
 ence fitted him for the distinguished position 
 conferred upon him. The arrival of Vane 
 seemed to promise an emigration of a num- 
 ber of the English nobility, and an effort was 
 made by several of them in England to pro- 
 cure the division of the general court into 
 two branches, and the establishment of an 
 hereditary nobility in the colony which 
 should possess a right to seats in the upper 
 branch of the court. The magistrates of the 
 colony were anxious to conciliate these val- 
 uable friends, but they firmly refused to 
 establish hereditary nobility in their new 
 state. 
 
 Trouble in the Church. 
 
 Religious discussions formed a large part 
 of the life of the colony. Meetings were 
 held by the men, and passages of Scripture 
 were discussed, and the sermons of the min- 
 isters made the subject of searching criticism. 
 The women might attend these meetings, but 
 were not allowed to take part in the discus- 
 sions. Mrs. Anne Hutchinson, a woman oi 
 talent and eloquence, claimed for her sex the 
 right to participate equally with the men in 
 these meetings ; but as this was not possible, 
 she began to hold meetings for the benefit 01 
 the women at her own house. At these, 
 
 * Bancroft, 
 
SETTLEMENT OF MASSACHUSETTS AND RHODE ISLAND. 149 
 
 religious doctrines were discussed and advo- I 
 cated, which were at variance with the prin- 
 ciples of the magistrates. 
 
 Mrs. Hutchinson and her followers held 
 that the authority of private judgment was 
 superior to that of the church, and con- 
 demned the efforts of the colony to enforce 
 conformity to the established system as viola- 
 tive of the inherent rights of Christians. 
 She was encouraged by John Wheelwright, 
 a silenced minister, who had married her 
 sister, and by Governor Vane, and her 
 opinions were adopted by a large numbei of 
 the people, and by members of the general 
 court and some of the magistrates. 
 
 The ministers saw their authority menaced 
 by the new belief, and made common cause 
 against Mrs. Hutchinson and her protector, 
 Governor Vane. The colony was divided 
 into two parties, and the religious question 
 became a matter of great political import- 
 ance. Under the established system the 
 ministers formed almost a distinct estate 
 of the government, and political privileges 
 were entirely dependent upon theolorical 
 conformity. 
 
 Feeling sure that they would not receive 
 justice at the hands of their opponents, the 
 friends of Mrs. Hutchinson declared their 
 intention to appeal to the king. This aroused 
 a storm of indignation in the colony, and 
 " it was accounted perjury and treason to 
 speak of appeals to the king." This threat 
 changed the whole character of the question, 
 and was fatal to the party which made it. 
 The Puritans had come to Massachusetts to 
 escape the interference of the crown with their 
 religious belief, and to appeal to the king in 
 this case would be simply to place the liber- 
 ties of the colony at his mercy. When the 
 elections were held, in the spring of 1637, 
 Governor Winthrop and the old magistrates 
 we;e chosen by a large majority. Vane soon 
 after returned to England. 
 
 The church party being now in power 
 resolved to silence Mrs. Hutchinson. She 
 was admonished to cease her teachings, and 
 upon her refusal to obey this order, she and 
 her followers were exiled from the colony. 
 Wheelwright and a number of his friends 
 went to New Hampshire, and founded the 
 town of Exeter, at the head of tide-water on 
 the Piscataqua. Mrs. Hutchinson and the 
 majority of her followers removed, in the 
 spring of 1638, to the southward, intending 
 to settle on Long Island or on the Delaware. 
 Roger Williams induced them to remain 
 near his plantation, and obtained for them 
 from Miantonomoh, the chief of the Narra- 
 gansett tribe, <he gift of the beautiful island 
 in the lower part of Narragansett Bay, which 
 they called the island of Rhodes, or Rhode 
 Island. 
 
 Sad Fate of Mrs. Hutchinson. 
 
 The number of settlers was scarcely more 
 than twenty, but they proceeded to form a 
 government upon a plan agreeable to the 
 principles they professed. It was a pure 
 democracy, founded upon the universal 
 consent of the people, who signed a social 
 compact pledging themselves to obey the 
 laws made by the majority, and to respect 
 the rights of conscience. William Codding- 
 ton, who had been a magistrate in the Bay 
 colony, was elected judge or ruler, and three 
 elders were chosen as his assistants. The 
 settlement grew rapidly, and by 1641 the 
 population had become so numerous as to 
 require a written constitution. 
 
 Mrs. Hutchinson remained in Rhode 
 Island for several years ; but fearing that 
 the hostility of the magistrates of Massa- 
 chusetts would reach her even there, removed 
 beyond New Haven into the territory of the 
 Dutch, where, in 1643, she and all her family 
 who were with her, except one child, who 
 was taken prisoner, were murdered by the 
 Indians. 
 
CHAPTER Xn 
 Colonization of Connecticut 
 
 Ibe Dutch Claim the Connecticut Valley — They Build a Fort at Hartford — Governor Winslow Makes a Lodgment u 
 Connecticut for the English — Withdrawal of the Dutch — The First Efforts of the English to Settle Connecticut — Emi 
 gration of Hooker and His Congregation — They Settle at Hartford — Winthrop Builds a Fort at Saybrooke — Hostility ol 
 the Indians — Visit ot Roger Williams to Miantonomoh — A Brave Deed — The Pequod War — Capture of the Indian 
 Fort — Destruction of the Pequod Tribe — Effect of This War Upon the Other Tribes — Connecticut Adopts a Constitu 
 tion — Its Peculiar Features — Settlement of New Haven. 
 
 THE fertile region of the Connecticut 
 had attracted the attention of the 
 English at an early day ; but before 
 they could make any effort to 
 occupy it the Dutch sent an exploring party 
 from Manhattan Island, in 1614, and exam- 
 ined the river and the country through 
 which it flowed. They built and fortified a 
 trading-post on the site of the present city of 
 Hartford, but soon excited the ill-will of the 
 Indians by their cruel treatment of them. 
 The Dutch found themselves unable to 
 occupy the country, and, being unwilling to 
 lose it, endeavored, but without success, to 
 induce the Pilgrims to remove from 
 Plymouth to the Connecticut, and "ettle in 
 that region under their protection/ 
 
 In 1630 the council of Plymouth granted 
 the Connecticut region to the Earl of War- 
 wick, who, in 163 1, assigned his claim to 
 Lords Say and Brooke, John Hampden, and 
 others. As soon as this grant was known 
 to the Dutch they sent a party to the site of 
 Hartford and re-established their trading- 
 post, and began a profitable trade with the 
 Indians. They mounted two cannon on 
 their fort for the purpose of preventing the 
 English from ascending the river. Towards 
 the latter part of the year 1 63 3, Governor 
 Winslow, of Plymouth, in order to secure a 
 foothold for the English in this valuable 
 region, sent Captain William Holmes to the 
 150 
 
 Connecticut with a sloop and a number 01 
 men to make a settlement. Upon ascending 
 the river to the site of Hartford, Holmes 
 found his progress barred by the Dutch fort, 
 the commander of which threatened to tire 
 upon him if he attempted to continue his 
 voyage. Undaunted by this threat, Holmes 
 passed by the fort without harm, and 
 ascended the stream to Windsor, where he 
 erected a fortified post. In 1634, the Dutch 
 made an unsuccessful attempt to drive him 
 away. Failing in this, and seeing that it was 
 the deliberate purpose of the English to 
 occupy the Connecticut valley, the Dutch 
 relinquished all claim to that region and s 
 boundary line was arranged between theii 
 possessions and those of the English, cor 
 responding very nearly to that hetween tht 
 states of Connecticut and New \ jrk. 
 
 In 163 j, the Pilgrims determined to make 
 settlements in this inviting region, and late 
 in the fall of that year a company of sixty 
 persons, men, women and children, set out 
 from Plymouth by land, sending a sloop 
 laden with provisions and their household 
 goods around by sea, with orders to joir 
 them upon the Connecticut River. The) 
 began their journey too late in the season 
 and their sufferings were very great in con 
 sequence. Upon reaching the river they 
 found the ground covered with snow, and 
 their sloop was delayed by storms and ice. 
 
COLONIZATION OF CONNECTICUT. 
 
 151 
 
 Their cattle died from cold and exposure, 
 and but for a little corn which they obtained 
 from the Indians, and such acorns as they 
 could gather, the whole company must have 
 starved to death. Many of them abandoned 
 their new home and returned by land to the 
 settlements on the coast. 
 
 The Puritans were resolved to continue 
 the effort to settle Connecticut, and in the 
 spring of 1636 several com 
 panies emigrated to that re- 
 gion. The principal part) 
 set out in June, led by the 
 Rev. Thomas Hooker. It 
 comprised about one hundred 
 persons, and consisted prin 
 cipally of Hooker's congrega- 
 tion, who followed their pastor 
 with enthusiasm. They drove 
 before them a considerable 
 number of cattle, which fur- 
 nished them with milk on the 
 march. 
 
 The emigrants were largely 
 made up of persons of refine- 
 ment and culture, and com- 
 prised many of the oldest and 
 most valued citizens of the 
 Bay colony. They were at- 
 tracted to the valley of the 
 Connecticut by the superior 
 advantages which it offered 
 for the prosecution of the fur 
 trade, and by the great fertil- 
 ity of its soil. They had 
 no guide but a compass, 
 and their route lay through 
 an unbroken wilderness. The journey was 
 long and fatiguing. The emigrants accom- 
 plished scarcely more than ten miles a day, 
 carrying their sick on litters, and making 
 the forests ring with their holy hymns. At 
 length the site of Hartford, where it was pro- 
 posed to establish the settlement, was 
 
 reached by the first of July. The greater 
 number remained there; some went higher 
 up the river and founded Springfield, and 
 the rest went to Wethersfield, where there 
 was already a small settlement. 
 
 In the same year the younger John Win- 
 throp arrived from England, with orders from 
 Lords Say and Brooke to establish a fort at 
 the mouth of the Connecticut River. Thi. f 
 
 JOHN HAMPDEN. 
 
 he accomplished, naming the new settlement 
 Saybrooke, in honor of the proprietors. 
 The settlements in Connecticut grew rapidly, 
 the excellent soil and pleasant climate attract- 
 ing many emigrants to them. 
 
 The existence of these settlements was 
 precarious, however. The region in which 
 
152 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 they had been planted was the country of the 
 Pequocb, who inhabited it in large numbers. 
 They were the most powerful and warlike 
 tribe in New England, and could bring nearly 
 two thousand warriors into the field. They 
 occupied the southwestern part of Connect- 
 icut, and their territory extended almost to 
 the Hudson on the west, where it joined that 
 of the Mohegans. On the east their territory 
 bordered that of the Narragansetts. Both of 
 these tribes were the enemies of the Pequods 
 and the friends of the English. This friend- 
 ship was resented by the Pequods, who were 
 already jealous of the English because of their 
 occupation of the lands along the Connecticut. 
 The tribe bore a bad name, and had already 
 manifested their hostility by murdering, a few 
 years before, a Virginia trader named Stone, 
 together with the crew of his vessel,, who 
 were engaged in a trading expedition on the 
 Connecticut River. 
 
 Blood Shed on Both Sides. 
 
 Somewhat later Captain Oldham and his 
 crew, while exploring the river, were also 
 murdered by Indians living on Block Island. 
 The Pequods justified the murder of Stone 
 by alleging that he had attacked them. 
 Wishing to make a treaty with the English, 
 they sent their chiefs to Boston for that pur- 
 pose, and promised — as the magistrates 
 understood them — to deliver up the two men 
 who had killed Stone. Captain John Endicott 
 was sent with a vessel, in 1636, to punish the 
 ^lock Island Indians for the murder of Old- 
 ham, and was ordered to call on his return at 
 the Pequod town, and demand the surrender 
 of the murderers of Stone. The Pequods 
 declined to surrender these men, but offered 
 to ransom them. This was in accordance 
 with their customs. But Endicott refused to 
 accept any compensation for the crime that 
 had been committed, and to punish the 
 Indians destroyed their corn and burned two 
 
 of their villages. This made open hostilities 
 inevitable. The Pequods began to hang 
 around the Connecticut settlements and cut 
 off stragglers from them. By the close of 
 the winter more than thirty persons had 
 fallen victims to their vengeance. 
 
 A Dangerous Mission. 
 
 The settlements in the Connecticut valley 
 were now greatly alarmed. They could not 
 muster over two hundred fighting men, and 
 the Indians in their immediate vicinity could 
 bring into the field at least seven hundred 
 warriors. War was certain, and it was not 
 known at what moment the savages would 
 attack the settlements in overwhelming 
 force. Connecticut called upon Massachu- 
 setts for aid, but only twenty men under 
 Captain Underhill, were sent to their aid. 
 The energies and attention of the Bay 
 colony were engrossed by the Hutchinson 
 quarrel. 
 
 The Pequods, notwithstanding their im- 
 mense numerical superiority, were unwilling 
 to make war upon the English without the 
 support of another tribe. They accordingly 
 sent envoys to Miantonomoh, the chief of 
 the Narragansetts, to endeavor to engage 
 that tribe in the effort against the whites. 
 Such a union would have menaced all New 
 England, and as soon as the news of the 
 negotiation reached Boston the government 
 of the Bay colony prepared to prevent the 
 alliance. Governor Vane at once wrote to 
 Roger Williams, the friend of Miantonomoh, 
 urging him to seek that chieftain and prevent 
 him from joining the Pequods. 
 
 It was a dangerous mission, and certainly 
 a great service for the magistrates of Massa- 
 chusetts to ask of the man whom they had 
 driven into exile. They did not ask in vain, 
 however. All of Williams' generous nature 
 was aroused by the danger which threatened 
 his brethren, and he embarked in a frail 
 
COLONIZATION OF CONNECTICUT. 
 
 canoe, and braving the danger of a severe 
 
 gale, sought the quarters of Miantonomoh. 
 
 He found the Pequod chiefs already there, 
 
 and the Narragansetts wavering. Knowing 
 
 the errand on which 
 
 he had come, the 
 
 hostile- chieftains 
 
 were ready at any 
 
 moment to des- 
 patch him, and 
 
 had Miantonomoh 
 
 shown the least fa- 
 vor to the project, 
 
 Williams would 
 
 have paid for his 
 
 boldness with his 
 
 life. He spent three 
 
 days and nights in 
 
 the company of the 
 
 savages, and suc- 
 ceeded in inducing 
 
 Miantonomoh not 
 
 only to refuse to 
 
 join the war against 
 
 the English, but to 
 promise the colo- 
 nists his assistance 
 against the Pe- 
 quods. In the 
 meantime he sent a 
 messenger to Bos- 
 ton to inform the 
 governor of the de- 
 signs of the In- 
 dians. 
 
 The Pequods, 
 left to continue the 
 struggle alone, Mat- 
 tered themselves 
 that their superi- 
 ority in numbers would give them the vic- 
 tory, and continued their aggressions upon 
 the Connecticut settlements to such an extent 
 that in May, 1637, the general court of that 
 
 153 
 
 province resolved to begin the war at once. 
 A force of eighty men, including those sent 
 from Massachusetts, was assembled at Hart- 
 ford, and the command was conferred by 
 
 A GROUP OF INDIANS. 
 
 I Hooker upon Captain John Mason. The 
 night previous to their departure was spent 
 in prayer, and on the twentieth of May the 
 little force embarked in boats and descended 
 
154 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 the river to the sound, and passed around to 
 Narragansett Bay, intending to approach the 
 Pequod town from that quarter. As the 
 boats sailed by the mouth of the Thames, 
 the savages supposed the English were 
 abandoning the Connecticut valley. 
 
 The day after the arrival of the English 
 in Narragansett Bay was the Sabbath, 
 and was scrupulously observed. On the 
 following day they repaired to the quarters 
 of Canonicus, the old chief and principal 
 ruler of the Narragansett tribe, and asked 
 his assistance against the Pequods. Mian- 
 tonomoh, the nephew and prospective suc- 
 cessor of Canonicus, hesitated to join in the 
 doubtful enterprise, but two hundred war- 
 riors agreed to accompany the English, who 
 could not, however, count upon the fidelity 
 of these reinforcements. Seventy Mohe- 
 gans, under Uncas, their chief, also joined 
 Mason. With this force the English com- 
 mander marched across the country toward 
 the Pequod towns on the Thames, and halted 
 on the night of the twenty-fifth of May 
 within hearing of them. 
 
 A Sudden Attack. 
 
 In the meantime the Pequods, convinced 
 that the English had fled from the Connecti- 
 cut region, and never dreading an attack in 
 their fort, which they considered impreg- 
 nable, had given themselves up to rejoicing 
 The night, passed by the English in waiting 
 the signal for the attack, was spent by the 
 Pequods in revelry and songs, which could 
 be plainly heard in the English camp. Two 
 hours before dawn, on the morning of the 
 twenty-sixth of May, the order was given to 
 the little band under Mason to advance. 
 They knew they would have to decide the 
 battle by their own efforts, and were by no 
 means certain that their Indian allies would 
 not turn against them. 
 
 The Pequods were posted in two strong 
 forts made of palisades driven into ***f* ground 
 
 and strengthened with rush-work, an excel- 
 lent defence against a foe of their own race, 
 but worthless when assailed by Europeans. 
 The principal fort stood on the summit of a 
 considerable hill, and was regarded by Sassa- 
 cus, the Pequod chief, as impregnable. The 
 tramp of the advancing force aroused a dog, 
 whose fierce bark awoke the Indian sentinel. 
 The keen eye of the savage detected the 
 enemy in the gloom of the morning, and he 
 rushed into the fort, shouting, " The English ! 
 The English ! " 
 
 The next moment the English were 
 through the palisades. On all sides they 
 beheld the Indians pouring out of their 
 lodges to take part in the hand-to-hand fight. 
 The odds were too great. " We must burn 
 them," cried Mason, and, suiting the action 
 to the word, he applied a torch to a wigwam 
 constructed of dry reeds. The flames sprang 
 up instantly, and spread with the rapidity of 
 lightning. The Indians vainly endeavored 
 to extinguish the fire, and the English, with- 
 drawing to a greater distance, began to pick 
 off the savages, who were doubly exposed 
 by the light of the blazing fort. Wherever 
 a Pequod appeared, he was shot down. The 
 Narragansetts and Mohegans now joined in 
 the conflict, and the victory was complete. 
 More than six hundred Pequods, men, 
 women and children, perished, the majority 
 of them in the flames. The English lost 
 only two men ; and the battle was over in 
 an hour. 
 
 Indians in a Rage. 
 
 As the sun rose, a body of three hundred 
 Pequod warriors were seen advancing from 
 their second fort. They came expecting to 
 rejoice with their comrades in the destruc- 
 tion of the English. When they beheld the 
 ruined fort and the remains of its defenders, 
 they screamed, stamped on the ground and 
 tore their hair with rage and despair. Mason 
 held them in check with twenty men, while 
 
COLONIZATION OF CONNECTICUT. 
 
 155 
 
 ihe rest of the English embarked in their 
 boats, which had come round from Narra- 
 gansett Bay, and hastened home to protect 
 the settlements against a sudden attack. 
 Mason, with the party mentioned, marched 
 across the country to the fort at Saybrooke, 
 where he was received with the honors due 
 to his successful exploit. 
 
 In a few days a body of one hundred men 
 arrived from Massachusetts, under Captain 
 Stoughton, and the cam- 
 paign against the Pe- 
 quods was resumed. 
 Their pride was crushed, 
 and they made but a 
 feeble resistance. They 
 fled to the west, closely 
 pursued by the English, 
 who destroyed their 
 cornfields, burned their 
 villages and put their 
 women and children to j 
 death without mercy. 
 They made a last des- 
 perate effort at resist- 
 ance in the fastnesses of 
 a swamp, but were de- 
 feated with great slaugh- 
 ter. Sassacus, their chief, 
 with a few of his men 
 took refuge with the 
 Mohawks, where he was 
 soon after put to death 
 by one of his own people. 
 The remainder of the tribe, about two hundred 
 in number, surrendered to the English, and 
 were reduced to slavery. Some were given 
 to their enemies, the Narragansetts and Mo- 
 hegans ; others were sent to the West Indies 
 and sold as slaves. The Pequod nation was 
 utterly destroyed. 
 
 The thoroughness and remorselessness of 
 the work struck terror to the neigfhborine 
 tribes. If the Pequods, the most powerful 
 
 of all their race, had been exterminated by a 
 mere handful of Englishmen, what could they 
 expect in a contest with them but a similar 
 fate ? For forty years the horror of .this 
 dreadful deed remained fresh in the savage 
 mind, and protected the young settlements 
 more effectually than the most vigilant 
 watchfulness on the part of the whites could 
 have done. 
 
 Relieved from the fear of the Indians, the 
 
 YALE COLLEGE. 
 
 people of Connecticut prepared to establish a 
 civil government for the colony, and in Jan- 
 uary, 1639, a constitution was adopted. It 
 was more liberal, and therefore more lasting, 
 than that framed by any of the other colo- 
 nies. It provided for the government of the 
 colony by a governor, a legislature and the 
 usual magistrates of an English province, 
 who were to be chosen annually by ballot. 
 Every settler who should take the oath of 
 
156 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 allegiance to the commonwealth was to have 
 the right of suffrage. The members of the 
 legislature were apportioned among the 
 towns according to the population. The 
 colony was held to be supreme within its 
 own limits, and no recognition was made of 
 the sovereignty of the king or Parliament. 
 When Connecticut took her place among the 
 states of the American Union, at the opening 
 of the war of the Revolution, her constitution 
 needed no change to adapt her to her new 
 position. It remained in for*"* for one hun- 
 dred and fifty years. 
 
 The Celebrated John Davenport. 
 
 In the year of the Pequod war (1637), 
 John Davenport, a celebrated clergyman of 
 London, and Theophilus Eaton, a merchant 
 of wealth, and a number of their associates, 
 who had been exiled from England for their 
 religious opinions, reached Boston. They 
 were warmly welcomed, and were urged to 
 stay in the Bay colony, but the theological 
 disputes were so high there that they pre- 
 ferred to go into the wilderness and found a 
 settlement where they could be at peace 
 Eaton with a few men was sent to explore 
 
 the region west of the Connecticut, which 
 had been discovered by the pursuers of the 
 Pequods. He examined the coast of Long 
 Island Sound, and spent the winter at a place 
 which he selected as a settlement. In April, 
 1638, Davenport and the rest of the company 
 sailed from Boston and established a settle- 
 ment on the spot chosen by Eaton. The 
 settlers obtained a title to their lands from 
 the natives, and agreed in return to protect 
 them against the Mohawks. 
 
 They named their settlement New Haven. 
 In 1639 a form of government was adopted, 
 and Eaton was elected governor. He was 
 annually chosen to this position until his 
 death, twenty years later. The colonists 
 pledged themselves " to be governed in all 
 things by the rules which the Scriptures held 
 forth to them." The right of suffrage was 
 restricted to church members. " Thus New 
 Haven made the Bible its statute book, and 
 the elect its freemen." In the next ten years 
 settlements spread along the sound and ex- 
 tended to the opposite shores of Long Island. 
 The colony was distinct from and independ- 
 ent of the Connecticut colony, with which 
 friendly relations were soon established. 
 
CHAPTER XIII 
 The Union of the New England Colonies 
 
 feeling of the Colonies Towards England — Hostility of the English Government to New England — Efforts to Intrc 
 duce Episcopacy — Massachusetts Threatens Resistance — The Revolution in England — Establishment of Free Schools 
 in New England — Harvard College — The Printing Press — The Long Parliament Friendly to New England — The 
 United Colonies of New England — Rhode Island Obtains a Charter — Maine Annexed to Massachusetts — The 
 Quakers are Persecuted — Efforts to Christianize the Indians — John Eliot, the Apostle to the Indians. 
 
 THE sentiments with which the people 
 of the New England colonies 
 regarded the mother country may 
 be briefly stated. They were proud 
 of the name of Englishmen, and took a deep 
 interest in the welfare of their old home. 
 They regarded the British constitution as the 
 supreme law of their new states, and claimed 
 to be true and loyal subjects of the King of 
 England. Nevertheless, they looked upon 
 the success of their colonies as their own 
 work, accomplished by their own patience 
 and heroism, and they were fully aware that 
 they owed nothing to the mother country. 
 
 They had been driven forth from her shores 
 by persecution, and left in neglect to struggle 
 up to the successful position they now occu- 
 pied. They owed nothing to England ; in 
 their deepest distress they had never asked 
 aid of her, and they were willing to undergo 
 any hardship rather than do so. They had 
 made laws and established institutions under 
 which they had surmounted their early trials, 
 and they regarded their paramount allegiance 
 as due to their respective provinces. They 
 acknowledged the right of no power beyond 
 the Atlantic to interfere with or change their 
 work. They would acknowledge their alle- 
 giance to the king as long as he respected the 
 system they had built up at such great cost, 
 and without assistance from him, but would 
 resist any effort from him, or any one else, to 
 interfere with it. They had made New Eng- 
 
 land what she was, and they meant to retain 
 the possession and control of their new home 
 at any cost. They had made themselves a 
 free people, and they meant to preserve their 
 liberties as a precious heritage for their 
 children. 
 
 This was the general sentiment of New 
 England. There were some discontented 
 persons, however, in the midst of these deter- 
 mined people. They had found the stern 
 discipline of the Massachusetts colony too 
 oppressive, and some had been severely pun- 
 ished by the fiery Endicotfc. Upon returning 
 to England they endeavored to induce the 
 king to exert his power and remedy what 
 they termed the distraction and disorder of 
 the province of Massachusetts. Their com- 
 plaints were echoed by a strong party in 
 England. Burdett wrote to Archbishop Laud 
 that " The colonists aimed not at a new dis- 
 cipline, but at sovereignty ; that it was 
 accounted treason in their general court to 
 speak of appeals to the king ; " in which 
 assertion he was right. 
 
 The English archbishop began to regard 
 the departure of so many " faithful and free 
 born Englishmen and good Christians " to 
 join a new communion as a serious matter, 
 and impediments were thrown in the way of 
 emigration. In February, 1634, a requisi- 
 tion was addressed to the colony of Massa- 
 chusetts ordering the colonial officials to 
 produce the patent of the company in 
 
 iS7 
 
i 5 8 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 England. The colony took no notice of this 
 demand. A little later the king appointed 
 the Archbishop of Canterbury and some 
 others a special commission, with full power 
 over the American colonies. They were 
 authorized to make such changes in church 
 and state as they deemed necessary; to 
 enforce them with heavy penalties ; and even 
 to revoke all charters that contained privi- 
 leges inconsistent with the royal prerogative. 
 
 Massachusetts Indignant. 
 
 The news of the appointment of this com- 
 mission reached Boston in September, 1634, 
 and it was also rumored that a governor- 
 general for the colonies had been appointed, 
 and had sailed from England. All Massa- 
 chusetts burned with indignation, and the 
 colony resolved t'o resist the attempt upon 
 its liberties. It was very poor, but in a short 
 space of time the large sum of six hundred 
 pounds was raised for the public defence, and 
 fortifications were begun and pushed forward 
 with energy. In January, 1635, the ministers 
 were assembled at Boston and their opinion 
 was asked upon the question whether the 
 colony should receive a governor-general. 
 They answered boldly : " We ought to 
 defend our lawful possessions if we are able ; 
 if not, to avoid and protract." 
 
 In April, 1638, the privy council demanded 
 the surrender of the charter of Massachu- 
 setts, threatening in case of refusal that the 
 king would take the management of the 
 colony into his own hands. The colonial 
 authorities were firmly resolved to give 
 the king no pretext for interference with 
 their affairs, and instead of complying 
 with the order of the privy council, they 
 addressed a remonstrance to that body 
 against the surrender required of them, thus 
 seeking to gain time. They were fully 
 determined not to give up their charter ; but 
 before their remonstrance could reach Eng- 
 
 land the troubles which encompassed Charles 
 at home made it impossible for him to carry 
 out his designs against Massachusetts. 
 
 The breaking out of the civil war in Eng- 
 land put a stop to the emigration to New 
 England. At the opening of the year 1 640 the 
 population of New England numbered twenty 
 thousand. Some fifty towns and between 
 thirty and forty churches had been built, and 
 the most desponding could no longer doubt 
 the ultimate success and prosperity of the 
 country. The wretched cabins of the first 
 settlers were rapidly giving way to fair and 
 comfortable houses, and the colonists were 
 beginning to gather about them many of the 
 comforts and much of the refinement they 
 had been accustomed to in England. 
 The Puritans. 
 
 Nor were the Puritans mindful of material 
 success only. Many of them were persons 
 of education, and they were anxious that 
 their children should have the opportunity 
 of enjoying the blessings of knowledge in 
 their new homes. In 1636 the general court 
 made provision for the establishment at New- 
 town of a high school. The name of the 
 town was changed to Cambridge as a token 
 that the people meant that it should yet be 
 the seat of a university. 
 
 In 1637 the school was formally opened. 
 The next year the Rev. John Harvard, of 
 Charlestown, bequeathed to the infant insti- 
 tution his library and the half of his fortune, 
 and in gratitude for this assistance the school 
 took the name of "Harvard College." In 1647 
 the general court ordered that in every town 
 or district of fifty families there should be a 
 common school ; and that in every town or 
 district of one hundred families there should 
 be a grammar school, conducted by teachers 
 competent to prepare young men for college. 
 This system rapidly found its way into the 
 other New England colonies, with the excep' 
 tion of Rhode Island. 
 
THE UNION OF THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES. 
 
 159 
 
 Thus was founded the American system of 
 common schools. Until now education had 
 been the task of the church, or had been 
 confided to private individuals; but now, for 
 the first time in the history of the world, the 
 state took the task of educating its young 
 citizens into its own hands, and established 
 the schools in which it was to be conducted. 
 Henceforth knowledge was to be restricted 
 to no favored class ; education was made free 
 
 more for posterity than this, they would still 
 deserve to be held in grateful remembrance 
 as the founders of our public schools. Gen- 
 erations yet unborn shall rise up to call them 
 blessed, and to acknowledge the truth o: 
 their conviction that ignorant men cannot 
 make good citizens. 
 
 In 1639 a printing press, presented to the 
 colony by some friends in Holland, was set 
 up in Massachusetts. Stephen Daye was the 
 
 AN AMERICAN FREE SCHOOL. 
 
 to every child, and every parent being taxed 
 for the support of the public schools was 
 made to feel interested in their proper con- 
 duct. 
 
 From the little beginning thus made a vast 
 and noble system has been developed, the 
 beneficial results of which must be felt to the 
 latest period of our national existence. Had 
 the fathers of New England done nothing 
 
 printer, and in that year printed an almanac 
 calculated for New England, and in 1640 a 
 metrical version of the Psalms, made " by 
 Thomas Welde and John Eliot, ministers of 
 Roxbury, assisted by Richard Mather, min- 
 ister of Dorchester." It was the first book 
 printed in the English language in America, 
 and continued to be used for a long time in 
 the worship of the New England churches. 
 
i6o 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 Many of the settlers went back to England 
 at the outset of the civil war to take part in 
 the struggle, among whom were Governor 
 Henry Vane and Hugh Peters, and very few 
 emigrants arrived in New England during 
 the existence of the commonwealth. Yet 
 the colonies continued to prosper. Ship- 
 building, which had been introduced by the 
 first settlers of Salem, was carried on with 
 activity, and vessels of four hundred tons 
 were constructed. A little later the manu- 
 facture of woollen and linen cloth was begun 
 by order of the general court. 
 
 The colonial churches were invited to send 
 their representatives to the assembly of 
 divines at Westminster, but they wisely 
 neglected to do so, judging it better to remain 
 in their obscurity than to give the English 
 people a pretext for future interference by 
 joining in their affairs. 
 
 Religious Liberty. 
 
 The Long Parliament was friendly to New 
 England, and granted to the colonies an 
 exemption from all duties upon their com- 
 merce " until the House of Commons should 
 take order to the contrary." Massachusetts 
 took advantage of the security afforded by 
 the friendship of the Long Parliament to 
 establish a written constitution, or " body of 
 liberties," which placed the rights and privi- 
 leges of her people upon a more stable basis. 
 It contained some of the severest laws of the 
 Mosaic code, such as those against witch- 
 craft, blasphemy, and sins against nature, but 
 secured the freedom of the citizen, the right 
 of representative government, and the indepen- 
 dence of the state and the municipality. The 
 rights ofproperty, the freedom of inheritance, 
 and the independence of each church from 
 control by the others were also placed beyond 
 dispute. " This constitution," says Bancroft, 
 " for its liberality and comprehensiveness, 
 may vie with any similar record from the 
 days of Magna Charta." 
 
 in April, 1642, the towns on the Piscata- 
 qua, now embraced within the limits of the 
 state of New Hampshire, were annexed at 
 their own request to Massachusetts. As the 
 people of this region were not Puritans, and 
 many of them were attached to the forms 
 and faith of the Church of England, the gen- 
 eral court in September adopted a measure 
 providing that neither the freemen nor the 
 deputies of New Hampshire should be 
 required to be church members. This act 
 of justice removed all danger of political dis- 
 cord. In the same year Massachusetts made 
 a less creditable and an unsuccessful effort 
 to annex Rhode Island to her dominions. 
 
 The United Colonies. 
 
 Though relieved of the interference of the 
 mother country, the dangers of New Eng- 
 land were not yet at an end. The Indians 
 were still powerful upon their narrow border, 
 the French were beginning to threaten them 
 from the direction of Canada, and the Dutch 
 from the Hudson. The colonies had so many 
 interests in common that it was of vital im- 
 portance that they should act in concert for 
 their defence. After several ineffectual 
 attempts, a league was formed in 1643 
 between the colonies of Massachusetts, Ply- 
 mouth, Connecticut, and New Haven, under 
 the title of " The United Colonics of New 
 England." Each colony was to retain its 
 freedom in the management of its own affairs ; 
 the authority of the union, which was 
 intrusted to a commission of two members 
 from each province, being limited to objects 
 which concerned the general welfare of the 
 colonies. Provision was made for the pres- 
 ervation of the purity of the gospel, the com- 
 missioners were required to be church mem- 
 bers, and the expenses of the confederacy 
 were to be assessed upon the colonies 
 according to population. This union lasted 
 for forty years. 
 
THE UNION OF THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES. 
 
 161 
 
 fhe colony of Rhode Island desired to be 
 admitted into the union, but its petition was 
 refused, as it would not acknowledge the 
 jurisdiction of Plymouth. The people of the 
 two settlements on Narragansett Bay, dread- 
 ing an attempt to absorb them into some of 
 the other colonies, now determined to apply 
 fc> Parliament for an independent charter. 
 Roger Williams was despatched to England 
 for that purpose in 1643, and reached that 
 country soon after the death of Hampden. 
 The fame of his labors among the Indians 
 secured for him a cordial welcome. 
 
 The Charter Confirrr.ed 
 
 Assisted by Sir Henry Vane, a charter 
 was obtained in March, 1 644, organizing the 
 settlements on Narragansett Bay as an inde- 
 pendent colony under the name of " The 
 Providence Plantations," " with full power 
 and authority to rule themselves." The ex- 
 ecutive council of state in England, in 165 1, 
 made some grants to Coddington which 
 would have dismembered the little state, and 
 Williams was obliged to make a second voy- 
 age to England to have these grants vacated. 
 He succeeded in his efforts, and the charter 
 was confirmed. He received in this, as in 
 his former mission, the cordial co-operation 
 of Sir Henry Vane, whose name should be 
 ever dear to the people of Rhode Island, 
 since but for him her territory would have 
 been divided among the neighboring col- 
 onies. In the interval between his first and 
 second voyages Roger Williams became a 
 Baptist, and founded the first church of that 
 denomination in America. 
 
 The country between the Piscataqua and 
 ihe Kennebec was assigned to Sir Ferdinand 
 Gorges, who, in 1639, was confirmed in his 
 possession by a formal charter from Charles 
 I., who called the territory the Province of 
 Maine. In 1640, Gorges sent his son 
 Thomas to Maine as his representative. 
 II 
 
 Thomas Gorges took up his residence at the 
 settlement of Agamenticus, now the town of 
 York, and in 1642 changed the name of the 
 lace to Gorgeana. 
 
 Maine Comes Into the Union. 
 
 Since the settlement of the colony the 
 French had claimed the region between the 
 St. Croix and the Penobscot, which they had 
 settled under the name of Acadia, as has 
 been stated elsewhere. After the death of 
 Sir Ferdinand Gorges Maine was divided 
 among his heirs. These cut it up into four 
 weak communities, whose helplessness laid 
 them open to the encroachments of the 
 French in Canada. Apprehensive of the 
 results of this, Massachusetts, to whom 
 many of the inhabitants of the province had 
 appealed to take such a course, in 165 1 
 claimed the province of Maine as a part of 
 the territory which had been granted to the 
 colony by the original charter of Massa- 
 chusetts. 
 
 Commissioners were sent to establish the 
 authority of the Bay colony over the prov- 
 ince, but the magistrates of Maine resisted 
 them, and appealed to the English govern- 
 ment for protection. The people of Maine 
 were the adherents of the king and the estab- 
 lished church, and England was now ruled 
 by the Puritans ; consequently Massachusetts 
 won her cause, and Maine was declared a 
 part of that province. Massachusetts made a 
 generous use of her power, and allowed the 
 towns of Maine very much the same govern- 
 ment and privileges they now enjoy, and in 
 religious matters treated them with the same 
 leniency she had shown to New Hampshire. 
 
 In 1646, a dispute in the Bay colony in- 
 duced one of the parties to it to appeal to 
 Parliament to sustain his claims, and an order 
 was sent out to Boston in his behalf" couched 
 in terms which involved the right of Parlia- 
 ment to reverse the decisions and control the 
 
JOHN ELIOT PREACHING TO THE INDIANS 
 
THE UNION OF THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES. 
 
 163 
 
 government of Massachusetts.** In plainer 
 terms. Parliament claimed the right to revoke 
 the charter of the colony, as the king had 
 done at the outset of the civil war. The 
 danger was great, and Massachusetts met it 
 with firmness. The general court met on 
 the fourth of November, and sat with closed 
 doors to discuss the claim of the English 
 government. It was resolved " that Massa- 
 chusetts owed to England the same allegi- 
 ance as the free Hanse towns had rendered 
 to the empire ; as Normandy, when its dukes 
 were kings of England, paid to the monarchs 
 of France." 
 
 Parliament Must Keep Hands Off. 
 
 The court also refused to ?.ccept a new 
 charter from Parliament, as that action might 
 imply a surrender of the original instrument, 
 or to allow Parliament to control in any way 
 the independence of the colony. Great as 
 this claim was, it was admitted by the Eng- 
 lish Parliament, in which the rights of the 
 colony were stoutly maintained by Sir Henry 
 Vane and others ; and in reply to a respectful 
 address of the general court setting forth the 
 views of that body, a committee of Parlia- 
 ment declared : " We encourage no appeals 
 from your justice. We leave you with all 
 the freedom and latitude that may, in any 
 respect, be duly claimed by you." Later on, 
 upon the establishment of the common- 
 wealth, Parliament invited the people of 
 Massachusetts to receive a new patent from 
 that body ; but the colonial authorities wisely 
 declined to do this, or to allow the home 
 government any hold upon the administra- 
 tion of the affairs of the province. 
 
 In 1 65 1, Cromwell, who had subdued 
 Ireland, offered that island to the Puritans of 
 New England as a new home; but they 
 declined to leave America. Cromwell proved 
 himself in many ways a judicious friend of 
 New England,and the people of that country 
 
 treasured his memory with the gratitude and 
 respect it so richly deserved. 
 
 Though sc successful in asserting her own 
 liberties, Massachusetts had not yet learned 
 the lesson of religious tolerance. When 
 the Baptists began to appear in the colony, 
 severe measures were inaugurated to crush 
 them, and one of their number— Holmes — a 
 resident of Lynn, was whipped unmercifully. 
 Still greater were the severities practised 
 towards the Quakers. This sect had grown 
 out of the Protestant Reformation, and con- 
 stituted at this day the most advanced 
 thkikers upon religious matters to be found 
 in England. They claimed a perfect freedom 
 in matters of faith and worship, and regarded 
 all laws for enforcing religious systems as 
 works of the devil. They were persons of 
 pure lives, and even their most inveterate 
 enemies could not charge them with wrong- 
 doing. Previous to their appearance in 
 •Massachusetts exaggerated reports reached 
 the colony concerning them. They were 
 represented as making war upon all forms erf 
 religion and government. 
 
 Intolerance Toward Quakers. 
 
 The first of this creed who came to New 
 England were Mary Fisher and Ann Austin, 
 v;ho reached Boston in July, 1656. In the 
 absence of a special law against Quakers, 
 they were arrested under the provisions ol 
 the general statute against heresy; their 
 trunks were searched and their books burned 
 by the hangman. Their persons were exam- 
 ined for marks of witchcraft, but nothing 
 could be found against them, and after being 
 kept close prisoners for five weeks, they were 
 sent back to England. 
 
 During the year eight others were also sent 
 back to England. Laws which were a dis- 
 grace to an enlightened community were 
 now passed prohibiting the Quakers from 
 entering the colony. Such as came were 
 
164 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 imprisoned, cruelly whipped, and sent away. 
 In 1657 a woman was whipped with twenty 
 stripes for this offence. In 1658 a law was 
 enacted that if any Quaker should return 
 after being banished, his or her offence 
 should be punished with death. It was hoped 
 that this barbarous measure would rid the 
 colony of their presence ; but they came in 
 still greater numbers, to reprove the magis- 
 trates for their persecuting spirit, and to call 
 
 INDIAN MEDICINE-MAN. 
 
 them to repentance. In 1659 Marmaduke 
 Stephenson, William Robinson, Mary Dyar 
 and William Leddro were hanged on Boston 
 Common for returning to the colony after 
 being banished. 
 
 These cruelties were regarded with great 
 discontent by the people of the colony, whose 
 humanity was shocked by the barbarity of 
 the magistrates. Their opposition grew 
 stronger every day, and at last it became evi- 
 dent to the magistrates themselves that their 
 
 severities were of no avail. When William 
 Leddro was being sentenced to death, the 
 magistrates were startled by the entrance into 
 the court-room of Wenlock Christison, a 
 Quaker who had bsen banished and forbid- 
 den to return on pain of death. Christison 
 was arrested, but the complaints of the 
 people became so loud that the magistrates 
 were obliged to pause in their bloody work. 
 Christison and twenty-seven of his com- 
 panions were released from custody, the 
 persecution of the Quakers was discon- 
 tinued, and the general court, in obedi- 
 ence to the will of the people, repealed the 
 barbarous laws against that sect. 
 
 The Apostle to the Indians. 
 
 In pleasing contrast with these sever- 
 ities were the efforts of the Puritans to 
 spread a knowledge of the gospel among 
 the savages. Chief among those engaged 
 in the good work was John Eliot, th.: min- 
 ister of Roxbury, whose labors won him 
 the name of "the apostle Eliot." He went 
 among the red men in the forests, and ac- 
 quired a knowledge of their language that 
 he might preach to them in their own 
 tongue. When he had become suffi 
 ciently proficient in it, he translated the 
 Bible into the Indian language. This 
 translation was printed at Cambridge, and 
 a part of the type was set by an Indian 
 compositor. He spent many years in the 
 preparation of his Bible, and made a good 
 use of it during his life; but it is now valu- 
 able only as a literary curiosity and as the 
 evidence of the devotion of the translator to 
 his noble work. The destruction of the race 
 for which it was intended has made it a 
 sealed book. 
 
 Eliot gathered his savage converts into a 
 settlement at Natick, and taught the men the 
 art of agriculture and the women to spin and 
 to weave cloth. He had to encounter the 
 
THE UNION OF THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES. 
 
 165 
 
 opposition of the chiefs wd medicine men 
 or priests, who resented his efforts to win 
 their people from the worship and habits 
 of their ancestors, bnt he persevered. He 
 was greatly beloved by his disciples, and 
 continued his labors among them far into 
 old age, and to a limited extent Xo 
 the day of 'ais death, which took place 
 when he %ad attained the ripe age of 
 eighty -six years. " My memory, my utter- 
 ance fails me," he said near the close of his 
 life; " but I thank God my charity holds out 
 still." When Walton, a brother minister, 
 visited him on his death-bed, he greeted him 
 
 with the words ; " Brother, you are welcome ; 
 but retire to your study and pray that I may 
 be gone." His last words on earth were 
 the triumphal shout with which he eatered 
 upon his reward : " Welcome joy ! " 
 
 Many of the Quakers, after the persecu- 
 tion against them was over, joined Eliot in 
 his labors. He had other fellow-workers. 
 The two Mayhews, father and son, Cotton, 
 and Brainerd thought it a privilege to labor 
 for the souls of the poor savages. Native 
 preachers were ordained, and at last there 
 were thirty churches of "praying Indi ins" 
 under such preachers. 
 
CHAPTER XIV 
 
 New England after the Restoration 
 
 airiva- a.' the News of the Restoration of Charles II. — The Regicides in New England — They are Protected — ReviTt 
 of the Navigation Acts — Effect of this Measure upon the New England Colonies— Massachusetts Delays the Proclama 
 tion of the King — Connecticut Obtains a Charter — Union ol New Haven with the Connecticut Colony — Rhode Island 
 ^Siven a New Charter— Massachusetts Settles her Difficulties with the Crown — Changes in the Government — High 
 landed Acts ot the Royal Commissioners — Troubles with the Indians — Injustice of the Whites — King Philip's War — A 
 Forest Hero — An Incident in the Attack upon Hadley — Sufferings of the Colonies — Destruction of the Narragansetts — 
 Death of Philip — Close of the War — England Asserts her Right to Tax the Colonies — Massachusetts buys Gorges' claims 
 to Maine — New Hampshire Made a Separate Province — James II. Revokes the Charter of Massachusetts — Dudley and 
 Randolph in New England — Andros Appointed Governor-General — His Tyranny — He Demands the Charter of Con- 
 necticut — It is Carried Away and Hidden-- .The Charter Oak — Fall of James II. — The People of Massachusetts take 
 up Arms — Audros Arrested — Effects of ths Revolution upon New England. 
 
 THE news of the restoration of Charles 
 II. to the English throne was 
 brought to Boston by Edward 
 Whalley and William Goffe, two 
 of the judges of Charles I. They came to 
 seek refuge from the vengeance of the king, 
 having offended him beyond forgiveness by 
 iheir share in the death of his father. They 
 remained about a year in Massachusetts, 
 protected by the people, and preaching to 
 them. A few months after their arrival, 
 warrants for their arrest and transportation 
 to England for trial arrived from the king, 
 and to escape this danger they took refuge in 
 New Haven. 
 
 The royal officers instituted a diligent 
 search for them, and they were obliged to 
 change their place of concealment frequently. 
 Great rewards were offered for their betrayal, 
 and even the Indians were urged to search 
 the woods for their hiding-places. The peo- 
 ple whom they trusted protected them, and 
 aided them to escape the royal officers until 
 the vigor of the search was exhausted. They 
 then conducted them to a secure refuge in 
 the vicinity of Hadley, where they remained 
 in seclusion and peace until the close of their 
 lives. 
 166 
 
 News was constantly arriving in the colo- 
 nies of the execution of the men who had 
 been the friends of America in the Parlia 
 ment, and a general sadness was cast ovei 
 the settlements by the tidings of the death of 
 Hugh Peters and the noble Sir Henry Vane. 
 From the first the people of New England 
 saw plainly that they had Utile reason to 
 expect j'ustice at the hands of the royal gov- 
 ernment, and there was little rej'oicing in that 
 region at the return of the king to " his own 
 again." 
 
 One of Chancs's first acts was to revive in 
 a more odious form the navigation act of the 
 Long Parliament. We have spoken of the 
 effect of this measure upon the colonies of 
 Virginia and Maryland. This act closed the 
 harbors of America against the vessels of 
 every European nation save England, and 
 forbade the exportation of certain American 
 productions to any country but England o> 
 her possessions. This was a very serious 
 blow to New England, and was intended as 
 such. The colonies of that region had 
 already built up a growing commerce, and 
 this, together with their activity in ship- 
 building, excited the envy and the hostility 
 of the British merchants, who hoped, by 
 
NEW ENGLAND AFTER THE RESTORATION. 
 
 167 
 
 inducing the king to place these restrictions 
 upon the colonies, to compel the Americans 
 to depend upon them for trie supply of all 
 their wants. 
 
 Later on, America was forbidden not only 
 to manufacture any articles which might 
 compete with English manufactures in foreign 
 markets, but to supply her own wants with 
 her own manufactures. At the same time 
 Parliament endeavored to destroy the trade 
 that had grown up between New England 
 and the southern colonies by imposing upon 
 the articles exported from one colony to 
 another a duty equal to that imposed upon 
 the consumption of these articles in England. 
 
 Foul Injustice. 
 
 Thus did Great Britain lay the foundation 
 of that system of commercial injustice toward 
 her colonies which eventually deprived her 
 of them, and which her greatest writer on 
 political economy declared to be " a manifest 
 violation of the rights of mankind." The 
 policy thus established in the reign of Charles 
 \I. was never departed from. Each succeed- 
 ing administration remained true to the prin- 
 ciples of the navigation act, and consistently 
 declined to admit the claim of the colonies 
 to just and honorable treatment at the hands 
 of the mother country. 
 
 Charles II. was promptly proclaimed in 
 the colonies of Plymouth, Connecticut, New 
 Haven and Rhode Island, and those provinces 
 were administered in his name. Massachu- 
 setts, distrusting his purposes towards her, 
 held back, and waited until he should show 
 his intentions more plainly, 
 
 Connecticut had purchased the claims of 
 the assigns of the Earl of Warwick to the 
 region occupied by her, and had bought the 
 territory of the Mohegans from Uncas, their 
 sachem. The colony sent the younger Win- 
 throp to England in 166 1 to obtain a charter 
 (torn the king. The noble character of Gov- 
 
 ernor Winthrop was well known in England, 
 and impressed even the profligate Charles. 
 His reception was cordial and his mission 
 entirely f uccessful. In 1662, the king granted 
 to the colony a charter incorporating Hart- 
 ford and New Haven in one province under 
 the name of Connecticut, and extending iti 
 limits from Long Island Sound westward to 
 the Pacific Ocean, thus bestowing upon the 
 colony those rich western lands which were 
 subsequently made the basis of the magnifi- 
 cent school fund of Connecticut. The charter 
 was substantially the same in its provisions 
 as the constitution adopted by the Hartford 
 colony. By it the king conferred upon the 
 colonists the right to elect their own officers 
 and to make and administer their own laws 
 without interference from England in any 
 event whatever. Connecticut was made 
 independent in all but name, and the charter 
 continued in force as the constitution of the 
 state after the period of independence until 
 1818. 
 
 Good Fortune of Connecticut. 
 
 The colony of New Haven was much 
 opposed to the union with Connecticut, and 
 it required all Governor Winthrop's efforts 
 to induce the people of that colony to accept 
 it. The matter was adjusted in 1665, when 
 the union was finally accomplished. The 
 labors of Governor Winthrop were rewarded 
 by his annual election as governor of Con- 
 necticut for fourteen years. Connecticut was 
 a fortunate colony. Its government was ably 
 and honestly administered ; no persecutions 
 marred its peace, and its course was uniformly 
 prosperous and happy. It was always one 
 of the most peaceful and orderly colonies ol 
 New England, and for a century its popula- 
 tion doubled once in twenty years, notwith- 
 standing frequent emigrations of its people 
 to other parts of the country. The colony 
 at an early day made a liberal provision fof 
 
168 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 education, and in 1700 Yale College was 
 founded. It was originally located at Say- 
 brooke, but in 17 18 was removed to New 
 Haven. 
 
 Rhode Island was equally fortunate. 
 Through its resident agent at London, John 
 Clarke, it made application to the king for a 
 new charter, and after some delay, caused by 
 the difficulty of arranging satisfactorily 
 the limits of the province, a charter was 
 granted in 1663, formerly establishing the 
 colony of " Rhode Island and Providence 
 Plantations " This charter continued to be 
 the sole constitution of Rhode Island until 
 the year 1842. By its provisions the govern- 
 ment of the colony was to consist of a gov- 
 ernor, deputy-governor, ten assistants, and 
 representatives from the towns. 
 
 Equal Rights to All. 
 
 The laws were to be agreeable to those of 
 England, but no oath of allegiance was 
 required of the colony, and in matters of 
 religion the charter declared that " no person 
 within the said colony, at any time hereafter, 
 shall be anywise molested, punished, dis- 
 quieted, or called in any question for any 
 difference in opinion in matters of religion ; 
 every person may at all times freely and 
 fully enjoy his own judgment and conscience 
 in matters of religious concernments." Free- 
 dom of conscience was not restricted to 
 Christians ; it was extended by the charter 
 to infidels and pagans as well. This charter 
 made the little colony secure against the 
 attempts of Massachusetts to absorb her, and 
 its reception by the people was joyful and 
 enthusiastic. 
 
 At this period the population of Rhode 
 Island was about twenty-five hundred. It 
 increased rapidly and steadily ; the excellent 
 harbors of the province encouraged com- 
 merce, and the little state soon began to 
 rival her larger associates in prosperity. 
 
 Massachusetts was from the first regarded 
 with disfavor by the royal government. It 
 delayed its acknowledgment of Charles II. 
 for over a year, and the king was not pro- 
 claimed at Boston until the seventh of 
 August, 1661. Even then the general court 
 forbade all manifestations of joy. These 
 signs of the independent spirit of the people 
 had been observed in England, and the col- 
 ony had been watched by the government 
 with anything but favor. The enemies of 
 the young state hurried their complaints be- 
 fore the king, and Massachusets at length 
 found it to her interest to send commission- 
 ers to London, as, indeed, the express orders 
 of the king required her to do. Among the 
 agents sent over were John Norton and 
 Simon Bradstreet, men of ability and mod 
 eration, who commanded the confidence o* 
 all classes of the colonists. Their instruc 
 tions were to assure the king of the loyalty 
 of Massachusetts, to engage his favor foi 
 the colony ; but to agree to " nothing preju 
 dicial to their present standing according to 
 their patent, and to endeavor the establish 
 ment of the rights and privileges then 
 enjoyed." 
 
 Two Pa ies in Massachusetts. 
 
 The commibsioners reached London in 
 January, 1662, and were graciously received 
 oy the king, who confirmed the charter, and 
 granted a complete amnesty for all past 
 offences against his majesty. He required, 
 however, that all laws derogatory to his 
 authority should be repealed ; that the col- 
 onists should take the oath of allegiance to 
 him ; that justice should be administered in 
 his name : that the right of suffrage should 
 be thrown open to all freeholders of com- 
 petent estates ; and that all who wished to do 
 so should be free to use " the book of com- 
 mon prayer, and perform their devotion in 
 the manner established in England." 
 
NEW ENGLAND AFTER THE RESTORATION. 
 
 169 
 
 Tiiese were better terms than the commis- 
 sioners had reason to expect, and were not 
 in themselves objectionable, as Massachu- 
 setts was growing beyond its early preju- 
 dices; but the acceptance of them would 
 have implied an acknowledgment by the 
 Colony of the king's right to change its fun- 
 damental law, and to interfere with its affairs 
 at pleasure. Massachusetts was at once 
 divided into two parties, the larger of which 
 maintained the independence of the colony 
 of royal control ; the smaller party supported 
 the claims of the king. Under other circum- 
 stances no opposition would have been made 
 to the toleration of the practices of the 
 Church of England in the colony; but now 
 that it seemed that episcopacy was to be in- 
 troduced as the ally of the royal power, the 
 people of Massachusetts resolved to prevent 
 it from obtaining a foothold in their midst. 
 The general court resolved to maintain their 
 political independence, and their religious 
 establishment as well. \s a measure of pre- 
 caution, the charter was secretly intrusted 
 for safe-keeping to a committee of four, ap- 
 pointed by the general court; and it was 
 ordered that only small bodies of officers and 
 men should be allowed to land from ships, 
 and should be required to yield a strict 
 obedience to the laws of the province while 
 on shore. 
 
 Contempt for Puritan Custom?. 
 
 These last measures were adopted bee \use 
 of the appointment by the king of commis- 
 sioners to regulate the affairs of New Eng- 
 land. The commissioners reached Boston 
 in July, 1664, escorted by the fleet sent out 
 from England for the reduction of New 
 Amsterdam. They were ordered to investi- 
 gate the manner in which the charters of the 
 New England colonies had been exercised, 
 and had " full authority to provide for the 
 p«ace of the country, according to the royal 
 
 instructions, and their own discretion " — a 
 power which Massachusetts was justified in 
 regarding as dangerous to her liberties. 
 
 The People Redress their Wrongs. 
 
 The commissioners cared very little foi 
 the prejudices of the people of Massachu- 
 setts, and from the first proceeded to outrage 
 their feelings. They introduced the services 
 of the Church of England into Boston to the 
 great disgust of the people. The Puritans 
 had always observed the old Jewish custom 
 of beginning their Sabbath at sunset. The 
 commissioners contemptuously disregarded 
 this custom, and spent Saturday evening in 
 merry-making. They soon gave cause for 
 more serious alarm by exercising the powers 
 with which they had been intrusted, and pro- 
 ceeding to redress the grievances of the 
 people. All persons who hnd complaints 
 against Massachusetts were called upon to 
 lay them before the commissioners, and 
 Rhode Island and the Narragansett chiefs 
 promptly availed themselves of the invita- 
 tion. The general court now cut the matter 
 short by a decisive step, and sternly ordered 
 the commissioners to discontinue their pro- 
 ceedings, as contrary to the charter. The 
 commissioners obeyed the order, and though 
 the firmness of the colony aroused the indig- 
 nation of the king, he was not able to shake 
 the determination of a free people. 
 
 Nor was this the only opposition shown 
 by New England to the injustice of the 
 mother country. The navigation acts were 
 generally disregarded; they could not be 
 enforced; and Boston and the other New 
 England ports continued to enjoy their grow- 
 ing commerce as freely as before the passage 
 of these infamous acts. Vessels from all the 
 other colonies, and from France, Spain, Hol- 
 land and Italy, as well as from England, 
 were to be seen at all seasons in the port of 
 Boston. 
 
170 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 Massachusetts owned the greater number 
 of vessels built and operated in America, 
 and was the principal carrier for the other 
 colonies. Its ships sailed to the most dis- 
 tant lands beyond the sea, and the commerce 
 of the colony was rapidly becoming a source 
 of great wealth. So marked indeed was the 
 prosperity of New England, that upon the 
 receipt of the news of the great fire in Lon- 
 don the colonists were able to send large 
 sums to the assistance of the sufferers. The 
 
 14,000; Massachusetts, about 22,000; Maine, 
 about 4,000; New Hampshire, about 4,000; 
 Rhode Island, about 4,000. The settlements 
 lay principally along the coast, irom New 
 Haven to the northeastern border of Maine. 
 Little progress had been made towards pene 
 trating the interior. Haverhill, Deerfield, 
 Northfield and Westfield were towns on the 
 remote frontier. 
 
 This rapid growth alarmed the Indians, 
 who had already begun to regard the whites 
 
 INDIAN LIFE IN THEIR NATIVE FORESTS. 
 
 people of New England were industrious 
 and frugal. Villages multiplied rapidly, and 
 wherever a village sprang up a common 
 school accompanied it. The villages began 
 to assume a more tasteful and pleasing ap- 
 pearance, and men gave more care to the 
 adornment and beautifying of their homes. 
 
 The population of New England in 1675 
 has been estimated at about 55,000 souls, 
 divided among the colonies as follows : 
 Plymouth, about 7,000 ; Connecticut, about I 
 
 as enemies bent on their destruction. Though 
 there had been peace for forty years in New 
 England, the savages saw that the policy 
 pursued by the settlers was meant to force 
 them back from the lands of their fathers. 
 The whites had gradually absorbed the best 
 lands in New England, and the red men had 
 been as gradually crowded down upon the 
 narrow necks and bays of the southern 
 shores of the Plymouth and Rhode Island 
 colonies. This had been done in pursuance 
 
NEW ENGLAND AFTER THE RESTORATION. 
 
 171 
 
 of a settled policy, as the savages could be 
 more carefully watched, and more easily 
 managed in these localities than if left to 
 roam at will over the country. The Indians 
 on their part sullenly resented the course of 
 the whites, and they had cause for complaint. 
 They were ignorant of the art of cultivating 
 the soil, and unwilling to practice it, and in 
 their restricted limits it was difficult for them 
 to obtain the means of supporting life. The 
 game had been almost entirely driven from 
 the forests, and the savages were forced to 
 depend upon fish for their food ; and these 
 were obtained in scanty and uncertain quan- 
 tities. Thus the very success of New Eng- 
 land was about to bring upon it the met 
 serious misfortunes it had yet sustained - 
 
 The Chief Entrapped. 
 
 Massasoit, who had been the early friend 
 of the English, left two sons at his death, 
 Wamsuttaand Metacom, who had long been 
 reckoned among the friends of the Plymouth 
 colony. They were frequent visitors at 
 Plymouth, and had received from the English 
 the names of Alexander and Philip. At the 
 death of Massasoit, Wamsutta, or Alexander, 
 became chief of the Wampanoags. He and 
 his brother Philip were men of more than 
 ordinary abilities, and felt deeply the wrongs 
 which were beginning to fall thickly upon 
 their race. Uncas, the chief of the Mohe- 
 gans, the determined enemy of Wamsutta, 
 exerted himself, with success, to fill the 
 minds of the English with suspicions of the 
 intentions of the Wampanoag chieftain, and 
 it was resolved to arrest him and bring him 
 to Plymouth. 
 
 Winslow was sent at the head of an armed 
 force, and succeeded in surprising the chief 
 in his hunting-lodge, together with eighty of 
 his followers. The proud spirit of Wamsutta 
 chafed with such fury at the indignity thus 
 ^ut upon him that he was seized with a dan- 
 
 gerous fever, and the English were obliged 
 to permit him to return home. " He died on 
 his way," says Elliott. " He was carried 
 home on the shoulders of men, and borne to 
 his silent grave near Mount Hope, in the 
 evening of the day, and in the prime of his 
 life, between lines of sad, quick-minded 
 Indians, who well believed him the victim oi 
 injustice and ingratitude ; for his father had 
 been the ally, not the subject, of England, 
 and so was he, and the like indignity had not 
 before been put upon any sachem." 
 
 By the death of his brother, Metacom, or 
 Philip, became chief of the Wampanoags. 
 He kept his own council, but the whites soon 
 had cause to believe that he meditated a des- 
 perate vengeance upon them for the death of 
 Wamsutta and the wrongs of his race. To 
 make the sense of injury deeper in his mind, 
 the Plymouth authorities treated him with 
 great harshness and compelled him to give 
 up his arms. A " praying Indian " who 
 lived among his people informed the colonists 
 that the chief meditated harm against them, 
 and his dead body was soon after found. 
 Three of Philip's men were suspected of the 
 murder. They were arrested, tried at Ply- 
 mouth, and found guilty by a jury composed 
 of whites and Indians, and were put to death. 
 This was early in 1675. 
 
 Cry for Revenge. 
 
 The execution of these men awoke a wild 
 thirst for revenge among the tribe to which 
 they belonged, and the young warriors clam- 
 ored loudly for war against the English. 
 Philip, whose vigorous mind enabled him to 
 judge more clearly of the issue of such a 
 struggle, entered into the contest with reluct- 
 ance, for he saw that it must end in the 
 destruction of his race. He was powerless 
 to resist the universal sentiment of his people, 
 and like a true hero resolved to make the 
 best of the situation in which he was placed, 
 
172 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 and to share the fate of his nation. The 
 Indians were tolerably well provided with 
 fire-arms, for, in spite of the severe punish- 
 ments denounced against the sale of weapons 
 to the savages, the colonists had not been 
 proof against the temptations of gain held 
 Out to them by this traffic. 
 
 Their chief dependence, however, was upon 
 their primitive weapons. The English, on 
 the other hand, were well armed, and were 
 provided with forts and towns which fur- 
 nished them with secure places of refuge. 
 
 KING PHILIPc 
 
 They might have averted the war by concil- 
 iating the savages, but they persisted in 
 their unjust treatment of them, regarding 
 them as " bloody heathen," who it was their 
 duty to drive back into the wilderness. 
 
 Philip was able to bring seven hundred 
 desperate warriors into the field. They had 
 no hope of success, and they fought only for 
 vengeance. They knew every nook and 
 hiding-place of the forest, and in these nat- 
 ural defences could hope to continue the 
 
 struggle as long as the leaves remained on 
 the trees to conceal their lurking-places from 
 the white man's search. 
 
 War Breaks Out. 
 
 Immediately after the execution of the 
 three Indians at Plymouth, Philip's men had 
 begun to rob exposed houses and carry off 
 cattle, but the war did not actually begin 
 until the twenty-fourth of June, 1675, the day 
 of fasting and prayer appointed by the gov- 
 ernment as a preparation for the struggle. 
 On that day the people of Swanzey, in Ply- 
 mouth colony, while returning home from 
 church, were attacked by the Wampanoags, 
 and eight or nine were killed. Philip burst 
 into tears when the news of this attack was 
 brought to him, but he threw himself with 
 energy into the hopeless struggle, now that 
 it had come. 
 
 Reinforcements were sent from Massachu- 
 setts to the aid of the Plymouth colony, and 
 on the twenty-ninth of June the united forces 
 made an attack upon the Wampanoags, killed 
 six or seven of their men and drove them to 
 a swamp in which they took refuge. The 
 English surrounded this swamp, determined 
 to starve the Indians into submission, but 
 Philip and his warriors escaped and took 
 refuge among the Nipmucks, a small tribe 
 occupying what is now Worcester county, 
 Massachusetts. The English then marched 
 into the territory of the Narragansetts and 
 compelled them to agree to remain neutral, 
 and to deliver up the fugitive Indians who 
 should take refuge among them. This 
 accomplished, the colonists hoped they had 
 put an end to the war. 
 
 Philip succeeded in inducing the Nipmucks 
 to join him in the struggle, and his warriors 
 began to hang around the English settle- 
 ments. The whites were murdered wherever 
 they ventured to expose themselves, and a 
 feeling of general terror spread through the 
 
NEW ENGLAND AFTER THE RESTORATION. 
 
 '73 
 
 colonies. No one knew the extent of the 
 hostility of the savage tribes, or how many- 
 allies Philip had gained ; nor was it certain 
 when or where the next great blow of the 
 savages would be struck. 
 
 Strange Stories. 
 
 Some of the colonists began to give way 
 to superstitious fears. It wa„ asserted that 
 an Indian bow, a sign of impending evil, had 
 been seen clearly defined _ _ - ^ 
 
 against the heavens, and ^ggigpfigjsM 
 that at the eclipse which 
 occurred at this time the j jjj 
 
 moon bore the figure of = 
 an Indian scalp on its 
 face. The northern heavens 
 glowed with auroral lights 
 of unusual brilliancy; troops 
 of phantom horsemen were 
 heard to dash through the 
 air; the sighing of the night 
 wind was like the sound 
 of whistling bullets ; and 
 the howling of the wolves 
 was fiercer and more con- 
 stant than usual. These 
 things, the superstitious 
 declared, were warnings 
 that the colonies were 
 about to be severely pun- 
 ished for their sins, among 
 tfhich they named profane 
 swearing, the neglect of 
 bringing up their children 
 in more rigid observances, 
 the licensing of ale houses, 
 and the wearing of long 
 hair by the men, and of gay apparel by the 
 vomen. The more extreme even declared 
 that they were about to be "judged " for not 
 exterminating the Quakers. 
 
 In the meantime, Philip, with a party of 
 Nipmucks and his own people, carried the 
 war into the valley of the Connecticut, and 
 
 spread death along the line of settlementa 
 from Springfield to Northfield, then the most 
 remote inland town. With the hope of with- 
 drawing the Nipmucks, who could mustei 
 fifteen hundred warriors, from the confed- 
 eracy, Captain Hutchinson, with twenty men, 
 was sent to treat with them. His party was 
 ambushed and murdered at Brookfield early 
 in August. The Indians then attacked 
 
 
 THE BURNING OF BROOKFIELD BY THE INDIANS, 
 
 Brookfield, and burned the village with the 
 exception of one strong house to which the 
 colonists retreated. 
 
 After a siege of two days, during which 
 they kept up a constant fire upon the build- 
 ing, they attempted to burn the house, but 
 were prevented by a shower of rain which 
 
174 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 extinguished the flames At the same 
 moment a reinforcement of fifty men arrived 
 to the aid of the whites, and the savages 
 were driven off with the loss of several of 
 Iheir number. Philip succeeded in drawing 
 to his support nearly all the tribes of New 
 England, and it was resolved by the savages 
 to make a general effort for the destruction 
 of the whites. A concerted attack was to 
 be made upon a large number of settlements 
 at the same day and hour, and the Sabbath 
 was chosen as the day most favorable for the 
 movement. 
 
 King Philip a Refugee. 
 
 Deerfield in Massachusetts and Hadley in 
 Connecticut were among the places attacked. 
 The former was burned. Hadley was as- 
 sailed while the congregation were worship- 
 ing in the church, and the whites were hard 
 pressed by their antagonists. Suddenly in 
 the midst of the battle there appeared a tall 
 and venerable man with a flowing beard, and 
 clad in a strange dress. With sword in hand 
 he rallied the settlers, and led them to a new 
 effort, in which the savages were beaten back 
 and put to flight. When the battle was over, 
 the stranger could not be found, and the 
 wondering people declared that he was an 
 angel sent by God for their deliverance. It 
 was Goffe, the regicide, who had suddenly 
 lett his place of concealment to aid his coun- 
 trymen in their struggle with the savages. 
 He had been lying in concealment at the 
 house of Russell, the minister of Hadley, and 
 returned to his place of refuge when the 
 danger was over. 
 
 On the whole, the Indians, though they 
 succeeded in causing great suffering to the 
 colonies, were unsuccessful in their efforts 
 during the summer and autumn of 1675. In 
 October, Philip returned to his old home, 
 but. finding Mount Hope in ruins, took shel- 
 ter among the Narragansetts, who protected 
 
 him notwithstanding their promise to deliver 
 up all fugitives to the English. The colonial 
 authorities seeing that the tribe had no inten- 
 tion of fulfilling their promise, and being 
 fearful that Philip would succeed in winning 
 them over to his side, resolved to anticipate 
 the danger and treat them as enemies. 
 
 A force was collected and sent into the 
 Narragansett country in December, 1 675, 
 This tribe, numbering about three thousand 
 souls, had erected a strong fort of palisades, 
 in the midst of a swamp near the present 
 town of Kingston, Rhode Island. It was 
 almost inaccessible, and had but a single 
 entrance, defended by a morass, which could 
 be passed only by means of a fallen tree. 
 The English were led to the fort by an 
 Indian traitor, and attacked it on the nine- 
 teenth of December. After a severe fight of 
 two hours they succeeded in forcing an en- 
 trance into the fort. The wigwams were 
 then fired, and the whole place was soon in 
 flames. The defeat of the savages was 
 complete, but it was purchased by the loss 
 of six captains and two hundred and fifty 
 men, killed and wounded, on the part of the 
 English. 
 
 Fury of the Savages. 
 
 \bout one thousand of the Narragansetts 
 were slain, their provisions were destroyed 
 and numbers were made prisoners. Those 
 who escaped wandered through the frozen 
 woods without shelter, and for food were 
 compelled to dig for nuts and acorns under 
 the snow. Many died during the winter. 
 Canonchet, the Narragansett chief, was 
 among the survivors. " We will fight to the 
 last man rather than become servants to the 
 English," said the undaunted chieftain He 
 was taken prisoner in April, 1.676. near 
 Blackstone, and was offered his life if he 
 would induce the Indians to make peace 
 He refused the offer with scorn, and, when 
 
MRS. ROWLANDSON CAPTURED BY THE INDIANS. 
 
 175 
 
176 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 sentenced to death, answered proudly : " I 
 like it well ; I shall die before I speak any- 
 thing unworthy of myself." 
 
 In the spring of 1676, Philip, who had been 
 to the west to endeavor to induce the 
 Mohawks to join the war against the Eng- 
 lish, returned to place himself at the head of 
 his countrymen in New England. The work 
 of murdering and burning was resumed with 
 renewed fury. The Indians seemed to be 
 everywhere and innumerable, and the whites 
 could find safety only in their forts. The 
 surviving Narragansetts scourged the Rhode 
 Island and Plymouth colonies with fire and 
 axe, and even the aged Roger Williams was 
 obliged to take up arms for the defence of 
 his home. Lancaster, Medford, Weymouth, 
 Groton, Springfield, Sudbury and Marl- 
 borough, in Massachusetts, and Providence 
 and Warwick, in Rhode Island, were de- 
 stroyed either wholly or in part, and numer- 
 ous other settlements were attacked and made 
 to suffer more or less severely. 
 
 Mother and Child Wounded. 
 
 Among the prisoners carried away by the 
 savages was Mrs. Rowlandson, wife of the 
 resident minister, and her little girl six years 
 old. A single bullet fired during the attack 
 wounded both mother and child. With that 
 devotion which is part of the nature of a 
 mother, she carried and nursed the little one 
 for nine days, when it died in her arms. The 
 parent endured many hardships, and was a 
 captive among the Indians for three months, 
 when she was ransomed for twenty pounds. 
 
 As the season advanced the cause of the 
 Indians became more hopeless, and they 
 began to quarrel among themselves. In June 
 the Nipmucks submitted, and the tribes on 
 the Connecticut refused to shelter Philip any 
 longer. He then appealed to the Mohawks 
 to take up the hatchet, but seeing that his 
 cause was hopeless, they refused to join 
 
 him. In proud despair Philip went back to 
 Mount Hope to die. One of his people 
 urged him to make peace with the whites, 
 and was struck dead by the chief for daring 
 to mention such a humiliation. 
 
 '•I Am Ready to Die!" 
 
 It became known that Philip had returned 
 to his old home, and Captain Church 
 marched against him, dispersed his followers, 
 and took the chiefs wife and little son pris- 
 oners. Philip, who had borne the reverses 
 and the reproaches of his nation with the 
 firmness of a hero, was conquered by this 
 misfortune. " My heart breaks," he cried, 
 despairingly, "I am ready to die! " He was 
 soon attacked by Church in his place of 
 concealment, and in attempting to escape 
 was shot by an Indian who was serving in 
 the ranks of his enemies. Philip's little son 
 was sold as a slave in Bermuda, and the 
 grandson of Massasoit, who had welcomed 
 and befriended the English, was condemned 
 to pass his days in bondage in a foreign 
 clime. 
 
 The death of Philip was soon followed by 
 the close of hostilities. The power of the 
 Indians was completely broken. Of the 
 Narragansetts scarcely one hundred men 
 were left alive, and the other tribes had suf- 
 fered severely. The Mohegans had remained 
 faithful to the English, and Connecticut had 
 been happily spared the sufferings experi- 
 enced by the other colonies, which were 
 very severe. Twelve or thirteen towns were 
 destroyed, and many others were seriously 
 crippled. Six hundred houses were burned, 
 and the pecuniary losses amounted to the 
 then enormous sum of half a million of 
 dollars. Over six hundred men, chiefly 
 young men, fell in the war, and there was 
 scarcely a family which did not mourn some 
 loved one who had given his life for the 
 country. 
 
 
NEW ENGLAND AFTER THE RESTORATION. 
 
 177 
 
 In all their distress the colonies received 
 no aid from England. The mother country 
 left them to fight out their struggle of life 
 and death alone. The English people and 
 government were indifferent to their fate. 
 One generous Non-conformist church in 
 Dublin sent a contribution of five hundred 
 pounds to the sufferers. This relief was 
 gratefully acknowledged; but to the credit 
 of New England it should be remembered 
 that her colonies never asked assistance 
 from England. The king was very careful, 
 however, to exact every penny he could 
 wring from the colonies, and towards the 
 close of the Indian war established a royal 
 custom-house at Boston for the collection of 
 duties. Duties were imposed upon the com- 
 merce of the colonies, and the royal govern- 
 ment endeavored to enforce their payment 
 by threatening to refuse the New England 
 ships the protection which enabled them to 
 escape the outrages of the African pirates of 
 the Mediterranean. 
 
 The province of Maine had been restored 
 by Charles II. to the heirs of Sir Ferdinand 
 Gorges, and in 16JJ Massachusetts pur- 
 chased their claims for the sum of twelve 
 hundred and fifty pounds, and thus confirmed 
 her possession of the region between the 
 Piscataqua and the Kennebec. The region 
 between the Kennebec and the Penobscot 
 was held by the Duke of York, and that from 
 the Penobscot to the St. Croix was occupied 
 by the French. 
 
 In July, 1679, King Charles detached New 
 Hampshire from Massachusetts, and organ- 
 ized it as a royal province; the first ever 
 erected in New England. The province at 
 once asserted its rights, and a controversy 
 was begun with the crown, which was con- 
 tinued for several years. The people resisted 
 the effort to force upon them the observances 
 of the English church, and the collection of 
 taxes assessed by the royal officials, and 
 12 
 
 Cranfield, the royal governor, finding it 
 impossible to continue his arbitrary rule, 
 wrote to the British government, " J shall 
 esteem it the greatest happiness in the world 
 to remove from these unreasonable people. 
 They cavil at the royal commission, and not 
 at my person. No one will be accepted by 
 them who puts the king's commands arc 
 execution." 
 
 Conflict With the Kin?. 
 
 In the last years of his reign Charles II. 
 made a determined effort to destroy the 
 charter of Massachusetts. Commissioners 
 were sent by the colony to England to 
 endeavor to defend its rights, but the royal 
 government was resolved upon its course, 
 and the people of Massachusetts were 
 equally determined not to consent to the 
 surrender of their liberties. At length, in 
 
 1684, the general court having in the name 
 of the people distinctly refused to make a 
 surrender of the charter to the king, the 
 English courts declared the charter forfeited. 
 A copy of the judgment was sent to Boston, 
 and was received there on the second of 
 July, 1685. The colony was full of appre- 
 hension. The charter under which it had 
 grown and prospered, and which secured its 
 liberties to it without the interference of the 
 crown, had been stricken down by the sub- 
 servient courts of the mother country, and 
 there was now no defence between the liber- 
 ties of Massachusetts and the arbitrary will 
 of the king, who had given the colony good 
 cause to fear his hostility. 
 
 James II. came to the English throne in 
 
 1685. He was even more hostile to New 
 England than his brother Charles. He was 
 a bigoted Roman Cathoh'c, and was resolved 
 to introduce that faith, not only into Eng- 
 land, but also into the colonies. He attempted 
 to accomplish this by proclaiming an indul- 
 gence or toleration of all creeds. As ho 
 
i 7 8 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 dared not proceed openly to violate his cor- 
 onation oath, he hoped by this underhanded 
 scheme to place his own religion upon such 
 a footing in England that he would soon be 
 in a position to compel its adoption by his 
 subjects. He had greatly mistaken the 
 temper of both England and America. 
 
 Joseph Dudley, who had been sent to 
 England as one of the agents of Massachu- 
 
 SIR EDMUND ANDROS. 
 
 setts in the last controversy between the 
 colony an& King Charles, now found it to 
 his interest to become as ardent a defender 
 as he had formerly been an opponent of the 
 royal prerogative, and James finding him a 
 willing abettor of his designs, appointed him 
 president of Massachusetts until a royal 
 governor should arrive, for the king was 
 
 resolved to take away the charters of all tht 
 colonies and make them royal provinces. 
 At the same time, being determined to curtail 
 the liberty of the press, the king appointed 
 Edward Randolph its censor. Dudley was 
 regarded by the people as the betrayer of 
 the liberties of his country, and both he and 
 Randolph were cordially despised by them. 
 The king in appointing Dudley made no 
 provision for an assembly or 
 general court, as he meant to 
 govern the colonies without 
 reference to the people. He 
 regarded the American pro- 
 vinces as so many possessions 
 of the crown, possessed of no 
 rights, and entitled to no privi- 
 leges save what he chose to 
 allow them. 
 
 In pursuance of this plan, Sir 
 Edmund Andros, whom the king 
 had appointed governor of New 
 York, was made governor-gen- 
 eral of all New England. He 
 reached Boston in December, 
 1686. Dudley was made chief 
 justice, and Randolph colonial 
 secretary. The governor-general 
 was empowered by the king to 
 appoint his own council, impose 
 such taxes as he should think 
 fit, command the militia of the 
 colonies, enforce the naviga- 
 tion acts, prohibit printing, 
 and establish episcopacy in 
 New England ; and in order 
 to enable him to enforce his will, two 
 companies of soldiers were sent over with 
 him and quartered in Boston. Thus were 
 the liberties of New England placed at the 
 mercy of a tyrant, and thus was inaugu- 
 rated a despotism the most galling that 
 was ever imposed upon men of English 
 descent. 
 
NEW ENGLAND AFTER THE RESTORATION. 
 
 179 
 
 Andros promptly put in force a series of 
 the most arbitrary measures. The public 
 schools, which had been fostered with such 
 care by the colonial governments, were 
 allowed to fall into decay. The support 
 which had been granted to the churches was 
 withdrawn. The people were forbidden to 
 assemble for the discussion of any public 
 matter, though they were allowed the poor 
 privilege of electing their town officers. The 
 form of oath in use in New England was an 
 appeal to Heaven with uplifted hand. The 
 governor now ordered the substitution of a 
 form which required the person to place his 
 hand on the Bible. This was particularly 
 repugnant to the Puritans, who regarded it 
 as a " Popish practice." Probate fees were 
 increased twenty-fold. The holders of lands 
 were told that their titles were invalid 
 because obtained under a charter which had 
 been declared forfeited. 
 
 Tyrannical Proceedings. 
 
 No person was allowed to leave the colony 
 without a pass signed by the governor. The 
 Puritan magistrates and ministers were 
 refused authority to unite persons in mar- 
 riage. The clergyman of the Church of 
 England, stationed at Boston, was the only 
 person in New England who could perform 
 a legal marriage. Episcopacy was formally 
 established, and the people were required to 
 build a church for its uses. At the com- 
 mand of the king, a tax of a penny in the 
 pound, and a poll-tax of twenty pence, was 
 imposed upon every person in the colony. 
 
 Some of the towns had the boldness to 
 refuse to pay this tax, and John Wise, the 
 minister of Ipswich, advised his fellow- 
 townsmen to resist it. He and a number of 
 others were arrested and fined. When they 
 pleaded their privileges under the laws of 
 England, they were told by one of the coun- 
 cil: "You have no privilege left you but 
 
 not to be sold as slaves." " Do you think," 
 asked one of the judges, " that the laws of 
 England follow you to the ends of the 
 earth ? " The iniquitous exactions of Andros 
 and his associates threatened the country with 
 ruin. When the magistrates mentioned this k 
 they were told, " It is not for his majesty's 
 interest you should thrive." " The governor 
 invaded liberty and property after such a 
 manner," wrote Increase Mather, " as no man 
 could say anything was his own." 
 
 The Old " Charter Oak." 
 
 The other colonies came in for their share 
 of bad treatment. Soon after he reached 
 Boston, Andros demanded of the authorities 
 of Rhode Island the surrender of their char- 
 ter. Governor Clarke declined to comply with 
 this demand, and Andros went to Providence, 
 broke the seal of the colony, and declared its 
 government dissolved. He appointed a com- 
 mission irresponsible to the people for the 
 government of Rhode Island, and then had 
 the effrontery to declare that the people of 
 that colony were satisfied with what he had 
 done. 
 
 In October, Andros went to Connecticut 
 with an armed guard to take possession of 
 the government of that colony. He reached 
 Hartford on the thirty-first of the month, 
 and found the legislature in session, and de- 
 manded ot that body the surrender of the 
 charter. The discussion was prolonged until 
 evening, and then candles were brought, and 
 the charter was placed on the table. Sud- 
 denly the lights were extinguished, and when 
 they were relighted the charter could not be 
 found. It had been ' secured by Joseph 
 Wadsworth of Hartford, and carried to the 
 southern part of the city, where it was con- 
 cealed in a hollow oak tree, which was after- 
 wards known as the " Charter Oak." 
 
 Andros, furious at the disappearance of the 
 charter, was not to be balked of his purpose 
 
i8o 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 of seizing the colonial government, and 
 taking the record book of the assembly, 
 he wrote the word "Finis" at the end 
 of the last day's proceedings. He then 
 declared the colonial government at an 
 end, and proceeded to administer the affairs 
 of the province in the spirit in which he 
 had governed Massachusetts and Rhode 
 Island. 
 
 The people of New England had borne 
 these outrages with a patience which no one 
 had expected of them. They were a law- 
 abiding people, and wished to exhaust all 
 legal means of redress before proceeding to 
 extreme measures for their protection : but 
 
 -^ THE CHARTER OAK. 
 
 the party in favor of driving Andros and his 
 fellow-plunderers out of the country was 
 rapidly growing stronger, and it was not 
 certain how much longer the policy of for- 
 bearance would be continued. Increase 
 Mather was appointed to go to England 
 and endeavor to procure a redress of the 
 grievances of the colonies. It was a danger- 
 ous mission, for the king was in full sympa- 
 thy with the men whom he had placed over 
 the liberties of New England. It was also 
 difficult to leave America without the knowl- 
 edge of Andros and his colleagues, but 
 Mather succeeded in escaping their vigilance, 
 and was on his way to the old world when 
 
 relief arrived from a most unexpected 
 
 quarter. 
 
 The efforts of James to bring about the 
 re-establishment of the Roman Catholic 
 religion in England roused the whole Eng< 
 lish nation against him. and in 1689 the 
 nation invited William, Prince of Orange 
 the husband of James' eldest daughter. 
 Mary, to come over to England and assume 
 the throne. James, left without any adher- 
 ents, fled to France, and William and Mary 
 were securely seated upon the throne. 
 
 The news of the landing of William in 
 England and the flight of King James 
 reached Boston on the fourth of April, 1689. 
 The messenger was at once imprisoned by 
 Andros, but his tidings soon became known 
 to the citizens. On the morning of the eight- 
 eenth the people of Boston took up arms, and 
 having secured the person of the com- 
 mander of the royal frigate in the harbor, 
 seized the royalist sheriff. 
 
 Sent to England for Trial. 
 
 The militia were assembled, and Andros 
 and his companions were obliged to take 
 refuge in the fort. Simon Bradstreet, the 
 governor who had held office at the time of 
 the abrogation of the charter, was called 
 upon by the people to resume his post, and 
 the old magistrates were reinstated and 
 organized as a council of safety. Andros 
 and his creatures attempted to escape to the 
 frigate, but were prevented and were com~ 
 pelled to surrender. The next day rein- 
 forcements came pouring into Boston from 
 the other settlements, and the fort was taken 
 and the frigate mastered. Town meetings 
 were now held throughout the colony, and it 
 was voted to resume the former charter. 
 The people were almost unanimous in favor 
 of this course, but the counsels of a more 
 timid minority prevailed, and the council, 
 which had appointed itself to the control ot 
 
NEW ENGLAND AFTER THE RESTORATION. 
 
 i8» 
 
 affairs, decided to solicit a new charter from 
 William and Mary. A general court was 
 convened on the twenty-second of May. 
 The people of the colony were anxious that 
 Andros, Dudley and Randolph should receive 
 prompt punishment for their offences, but 
 :he authorities wisely determined to send 
 •hem to England for trial. 
 
 Plymouth, upon receipt of the news from 
 Boston, seized the agent of Andros, impris- 
 oned him, and re-established the government 
 which Andros had overthrown, under the 
 constitution signed on board the " May- 
 flower." There were none of the old Pil- 
 grim fathers living to witness this event, but 
 their children were none the less determined 
 to maintain unimpaired the liberties they 
 had inherited from them. 
 
 The Charter Safe. 
 
 Rhode Island promptly resumed her 
 charter and reinstated the officers whom 
 Andros had displaced. Connecticut, upon 
 hearing of the downfall of the governor- 
 general, brought out her charter from its 
 b'ding place, and restored the old officers to 
 their positions. 
 
 Thus the work of James II. was over- 
 thrown, and the destinies of New England 
 were once more in the hands of her own 
 people. The generation that had settled 
 New England had nearly all been gathered 
 to their rest, and their children were in some 
 respects different from the fathers. They 
 had learned lessons of toleration, and had 
 acquired many of the refining graces that the 
 elder Puritans regarded as mere vanity. 
 They retained, however, the earnest and 
 .'lofty virtues which had made the first gen- 
 eration superior to hardships and trials of all 
 
 kinds, and which had enabled them in the 
 face of every discouragement to lay the 
 foundations of the great commonwealths 
 which to-day cherish their memories as 
 their most precious legacies. The fathers of 
 New England richly merited the honor 
 which succeeding generations have delighted 
 to bestow upon their memories. However 
 they may have erred, they were men who 
 earnestly sought to do right in all things, 
 and who did their duty fearlessly according 
 to the light before them. 
 
 In the first generation we have noticed an 
 extraordinary degree of influence exerted by 
 the ministers. This was due to no desire of 
 the Puritans to connect church and state, 
 but Wdo owing to the fact that the ministers 
 represented the best educated and most in- 
 tellectual class of that day, and the people 
 regarded them as the best qualified guides 
 in the community. As New England ad- 
 vanced in prosperity her schools and col- 
 leges were able to turn out numbers of edu- 
 cated men, who embraced the other learned 
 professions, and divided the influence with 
 the ministers. New England always chose 
 its leaders from among its most intelligent 
 men, and its people always yielded a willing 
 homage to the claims of intellect 
 
 At the downfall of Andros there were 
 about two hundred thousand white inhabi- 
 tants in the English colonies of North 
 America. Of these, Massachusetts, includ- 
 ing Plymouth and Maine, had about forty- 
 four thousand; New Hampshire and Rhode 
 Island about six thousand each ; Connecticut 
 about twenty thousand ; making the total 
 population of New England about seventy- 
 six thousand. 
 
CHAPTEk x\ 
 Witchcraft in Massachusetts 
 
 demits of tite Failure of Massachusetts to Resume her Charter — The New Charter — Loss of the Liberties of the Colon 
 — Union of Plymouth with Massachusetts Bay — Belief in Witchcraft — The History of Witchcraft in Massachusetts 
 The Case of the Goodwin Children — Cotton Mather Espouses the Cause of the Witches — Samuel Parris — lie On: 
 antes the -Salem Delusion — A Strange History — A Special Court Appointed for the Trial of the Witches- The Victim 
 —Execution of the Rev. George Burroughs — Cotton Mather's Part in the Tragedies — The General Court, takes Actior 
 in Behalf of the People — End of the Persecution — Failure of Cotton Mather's Attempt to Save his Credit. 
 
 THE decision of the magistrates of 
 Massachusetts to disregard the 
 wishes of a majority of th^ people of 
 the colony, who desired an imme- 
 diate restoration of the government under 
 the old charter, and to wait for a new charter 
 from William and Mary, gave great offence 
 to the popular party. Had the wish of this 
 party been complied with, Massachusetts 
 might have recovered every liberty and priv- 
 ilege of which she had been deprived by King 
 James. Increase Mather distinctly declares 
 that " had they at that time entered upon the 
 full exercise of their charter government, as 
 their undoubted right, wise men in England 
 were of opinion that they might have gone 
 on without disturbance." The self-constituted 
 government hesitated, however, and t^e op- 
 portunity was lost. 
 
 When the convention of the people l^et, in 
 May, 1689, they refused to acknowledge the 
 council that had taken charge of affairs upon 
 the downfall of Andros, and demanded that 
 the governor, deputy governor and assist- 
 ants elected in 1686 should be restored to 
 office. The council refused to comply with 
 this demand, and the matter was referred to 
 the people, who sustained their representa- 
 tives. A compromise was effected, and the 
 council agreed to permit the officers of 1686 
 to resume their places until instructions could 
 be received from England, agents were 
 T82 
 
 sent to England to solicit a restoration of tht 
 charter, and their appeal was supported by 
 the English Presbyterians with great unani 
 miry. Even the Archbishop of Canttrbury 
 urged the king " not to take away from the 
 people of New England any of the privileges 
 which Charles I. had granted them." 
 
 In spite of the pressure exerted upon him 
 in behalf of the colony, King William 
 granted to Massachusetts a charter which 
 placed the liberties of the province so entirely 
 at the mercy of the crown that the colonial 
 agent refused to accept it. There was no 
 help for it, however, and the charter became 
 the fundamental law of Massachusetts. 
 Under the old charter the governor of Mas 
 sachusetts had been elected annually by the 
 votes of the freemen ; he was now to be 
 appointed by the king and to serve during 
 the royal pleasure. He was given power to 
 summon the general court, and to adjourn 
 or dissolve that body. 
 
 The election of magistrates of all kinds., 
 which had been confided to the people by 
 the old charter, was taken from them, and 
 henceforth these officials were to be appointed 
 by the governor with the consent of tht 
 council. The old charter had made the 
 decision of the colonial courts final : the 
 new permitted appeals from these tribunal* 
 to the privy council in England. The oh; 
 charter had given to the general court fuU 
 
WITCHCRAFT IN MASSACHUSETTS. 
 
 183 
 
 powers of legislation ; the new conferred 
 upon the governor the right to veto any of 
 its measures, and reserved to the crown the 
 power of cancelling any act of colonial 
 legislation within three years after its pass- 
 age. The council was at first appointed 
 oy the king, but was 
 subsequently elected by 
 the joint ballot of the 
 two branches of the gen- 
 eral court. 
 
 To compensate the 
 people for the loss of 
 their political power the 
 king greatly enlarged 
 the limits of the colony. 
 Massachusetts and Ply- 
 mouth were united in 
 one province, the name 
 of the former being given 
 to the whole. The Eli- 
 zabeth Islands were also 
 added to the province, 
 and its northern bound- 
 ary was extended to t^ie 
 St. Lawrence. Toleration 
 was granted to every 
 religious sect except the 
 Roman Catholics. New 
 Hampshire was separ- 
 ated from the jurisdic- 
 tion of Massachusetts 
 and made a separate 
 province ; but Maine 
 and the vast wilderness 
 beyond it were confirmed 
 to the Bay colony. The 
 charter bore the date of 
 October 7, 1691. Upon 
 the nomination of Increase Mather, one of 
 the colonial agents, Sir William Phipps, a 
 native of New England, a well-meaning but 
 incompetent man, who was in religious 
 matters strongly inclined to superstition, was 
 
 appointed governor of Massachusetts, Will- 
 iam Stoughton, " a man of cold affections, 
 proud, self-willed, and covetous of distinction" 
 — a man universally hated by the people- 
 was appointed deputy governor to please 
 Cotton Mather. The members of the council 
 
 THE REV. COTTON MATHER. 
 
 were chosen entirely for their devotion * a. 
 the interests of the churches." 
 
 While these matters were in progress of 
 settlement, there occurred in Massachusetts 
 one of the most singular delusions recorded 
 
184 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 in history, and which was in some respects 
 the last expiring effort of ecclesiastical am- 
 bition to control the political affairs of the 
 colony. The clergy had always sought in 
 New England, as in other lands, to fight 
 their political enemies with spiritual weapons. 
 They now carried this to an extreme which 
 iaught the people of New England a lesson 
 that was not soon forgotten. 
 
 Witches and Witchcraft. # 
 
 The belief in witchcraft has not been con- 
 fined to any single nation, and at this time 
 was common to America and Europe. " The 
 people did not rally to the error ; they 
 accepted the superstition only because it had 
 not yet been disengaged from religion." It 
 was believed that as Christians were united 
 with God by a solemn covenant, so were 
 witches leagued with the devil by a tie which, 
 once formed, they could not dissolve. Those 
 who thus placed themselves in the arch- 
 fiend's power were used by him as instru- 
 ments to torment their fellow-men. They 
 were given power to annoy them by pinch- 
 ing them, thrusting invisible pins into them, 
 pulling their hair, afflicting them with disease, 
 killing their cattle and chickens with myste- 
 rious ailments, upsetting their wagons and 
 carts, ~" A by practising upon them many 
 other puerile and ludicrous tricks. 
 
 The witches generally exerted their arts 
 upon those whom they hated, but it was a 
 matter of doubt how many persons were 
 included in their dislikes. One of the most 
 popular superstitions was that of the 
 *' Witches' sacrament," a gathering at which 
 the devil, in the form of " a'small black man," 
 presided, and required his followers to 
 renounce their Christian baptism and to 
 sign their names in his book. They were 
 then re-baptised by the devil, and the meet- 
 ing was closed with horrid rites which varied 
 in different narratives according to the im- 
 agination of the relators. 
 
 The belief in the existence of witchcraft 
 was held by some of the leading minds oj 
 this period. Sir Matthew Hale, Lord Chief 
 Justice of England, was firmly convinced of 
 the truth of the doctrine, and it was advo- 
 cated by many of the clergy of England. 
 In New England the clergy held it to be 
 heresy to deny the existence of witches, 
 which, they claimed was clearly taught in 
 the Scriptures. It was evidently to their 
 interest c.o maintain this belief, as it made 
 them the chief authorities in such cases, and 
 furnished them with a powerful weapon 
 against their adversaries. 
 
 Devils and Wizards. 
 
 By the early settlers of New England the 
 Indians were supposed to be worshipers of 
 the devil, and their medicine-men to be 
 wizards. Governor Hutchinson, in his 
 " History of Massachusetts," thus sums up 
 the cases of supposed witchcraft that had 
 occurred in the colony previous to the time 
 or which we are now writing : 
 
 " The first suspicion of witchcraft among 
 the English was about the year 1645, at 
 Springfield, upon Connecticut River ; several 
 persons were supposed to be under an evil 
 hand, and among the rest two of the min- 
 ister's children. Great pains were taken to 
 prove the facts upon several of the persons 
 charged with the crime, but either the nature 
 of the evidence was not satisfactory, or the 
 fraud was suspected, and so no person was 
 convicted until the year 1650, when a pooj 
 wretch, Mary Oliver, probably weary of her 
 life from the general reputation of being a 
 witch, after long examination, was brought 
 to confession of her guilt, but I do not find 
 that she was executed. 
 
 " Whilst this inquiry was making, Mar- 
 garet Jones was executed at Charlestown ; 
 and Mr. Hale mentions a woman at Dor- 
 chester, and another at Cambridge about th* 
 
WITCHCRAFT IN MASSACHUSETTS. 
 
 1*5 
 
 same time, who all at their death asserted 
 their innocence. Soon after, Hugh Parsons 
 was tried at Springfield, and escaped death. 
 In 1655 Mrs. Hibbins, the assistant's widow, 
 was hanged at Boston. 
 
 " In 1662, at Hartford, in Connecticut, one 
 Ann Cole, a young woman who lived next 
 door to a Dutch family, and no doubt had 
 learned something of the language, was 
 supposed to be possessed with demons, who 
 sometimes spoke Dutch and sometimes 
 English, and sometimes a language which 
 nobody understood, and who held a con- 
 ference with one another. Several ministers 
 who were present took down the conference 
 in writing and the names of several per- 
 sons, mentioned in the course of the con- 
 ference, as actors or bearing parts in it , par- 
 ticularly a woman, then in prison upon 
 suspicion of witchcraft, one Greensmith, who 
 upon examination, confessed and appeared to 
 be surprised at the discovery. She owned 
 that she and the others named had been 
 familiar with a demon, who had carnal 
 knowledge of her, and although she had not 
 made a formal covenant, yet she had 
 promised to be ready at his call, and was to 
 have had a high frolic at Christmas, when 
 the agreement was to have been signed. 
 Upon this confession she was executed, and 
 two more of the company were condemned. 
 In 1669 Susanna Martin, of Salisbury, was 
 bound over to the court upon suspicion of 
 witchcraft, but escaped at that time. 
 A Fortunate Escape. 
 
 "In 1671 Elizabeth Knap, another ven- 
 triloqua, alarmed the people of Groton in 
 much the same manner as Ann Cole had 
 done those of Hartford ; but her demon was 
 not so cunning, for, instead of confining him- 
 self to old women, he railed at the good 
 minister of the town and other people of 
 good character, and the people could not 
 then be prevailed on to believe him, but 
 
 believed the girl when she confessed that she 
 had been deluded, and that the devil had 
 tormented her in the shape of good persons ; 
 so she escaped the punishment due to her 
 fraud and imposture. 
 
 " In 1673 Eunice Cole, of Hampton, was 
 tried, and the jury found her not legally 
 guilty, but that there were strong grounds 
 to suspect her of familiarity with the devil. 
 
 An Invisible Hand. 
 
 " In 1679 William Morse's house, at New- 
 bury, was troubled with the throwing of 
 bricks, stones, etc., and a boy of the family 
 was supposed to be bewitched, who accused 
 one of the neighbors ; and in 1682 the house 
 of George Walton, a Quaker, at Portsmouth, 
 and anocner at Salmon Falls (in New Hamp- 
 shire), were attacked alter the same manner. 
 
 "In 1683 the demons removed to Con- 
 necticut River again, where one Desborough's 
 house was molested by an invisible hand, and 
 a fire kindled, nobody knew how, which 
 burnt up a great part of his estate; and in 
 1684 Philip Smith, a judge of the court, a 
 military officer and a representative of the 
 town of Hadley, upon the same river (a 
 hypochondriac person), fancied himself under 
 an evil hand, and suspected a woman, one of 
 his neighbors, and languished and pined 
 away, and was generally supposed to be be- 
 witched to death. While he lay ill, a num- 
 ber of brisk lads tried an experiment upon 
 the old woman. Having dragged her out of 
 her house, they hung her up until she was 
 near dead, let her down, rolled her some 
 time in the snow, and at last buried her in it 
 and left her there, but it happened that she 
 survived and the melancholy man died." 
 
 These cases, which were not generally 
 regarded in the enlightened spirit of the 
 writer we have quoted, served to confirm 
 the common belief in witchcraft. Increase 
 Mather published a work in 1684 containing 
 
**6 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 an account of the cases which had already 
 occurred in the colony, and giving detailed 
 descriptions of the manner in which the 
 afflicted persons had exhibited their " devil- 
 try." The publication of this work seemed 
 to revive the trouble, and in a more aggra- 
 vated form, for it is a singular fact that the 
 general discussion of delusions of this khic* 
 rarely fails to produce an increase of the ev»l. 
 A Child Bewitched. 
 In 1688 a case occurred which excited 
 general interest, and was the beginning of one 
 of the saddest periods in the history of New 
 England. The daughter of John Goodwin, 
 a child of thirteen years, accused the 
 daughter of an Irish laundress of stealing 
 some linen. The mother of the laundress, a 
 friendless emigrant, succeeded in disproving 
 the charge, and abused the girl soundly for 
 making a false accusation. Soon after this, 
 the accuser was seized with a fit, and pre- 
 tended to be bewitched in order to be 
 revenged upon the poor Irish woman. Her 
 /ounger sister and two of her brothers fol- 
 lowed her example. They pretended to be 
 dumb, then deaf, then blind, and then all 
 three at once. " They were struck dead at 
 the sight of the ' Assembly's Catechism,' " 
 says Governor Hutchinson, dryly, " ' Cot- 
 ton's Milk for Babes,' and some other good 
 books, but could read in Oxford jests, Popish 
 and Quaker books, and the Common Prayer 
 without any difficulty." Nevertheless their 
 appetite was good, and they slept soundly at 
 night. The youngest of these little im- 
 postors was less than five years old. It was 
 at once given out that the Goodwin children 
 were bewitched, and no one suspected or 
 hinted at the fraud. They would bark like 
 dogs and mew like cats, and a physician who 
 was called in to treat them solemnly declared 
 that they were possessed by devils, as he 
 discovered many of the symptoms laid down 
 in Increase Mather's book. 
 
 A conference of the four ministers of 
 Boston, and one from Charlestown, was held 
 at Goodwin's house, where they observed a 
 day of fasting and prayer. As a result of 
 their efforts, the youngest child, a boy of 
 less than five years, was delivered of his evil 
 spirit. The ministers now had no doubt 
 that the children had been bewitched, and as 
 the little ones accused the Irishwoman ol 
 their misfortune, she was arrested, tried f<v 
 witchcraft, convicted and hanged, notwith- 
 standing that many persons thought the poor 
 creature a lunatic. 
 
 Among the ministers who had investigated 
 this case and had procured the execution oi 
 the woman was Cotton Mather, the son of 
 Increase Mather, then president of Harvard 
 College. He was a young man who had but 
 recently entered the ministry, and was 
 regarded as one of the most learned and 
 gifted preachers in the colony. He was 
 withal a man of overweening vanity and full 
 of ambition. He could not bear contradic- 
 tion, and was devoted to the maintenance oi 
 the political power of the clergy. He was 
 superstitious by nature, and was firmly con- 
 vinced of the reality of witchcraft. He had 
 become deeply interested in the case of the 
 Goodwin children, and in order to study it 
 more deeply took the eldest girl to his 
 house, where he could observe and experi- 
 ment upon her devil at his leisure. She was 
 a cunning creature, and soon found that it 
 was to her interest to humor the young pas- 
 tor in his views, and she played upon his 
 weakness with a shrewdness and skill which 
 were remarkable in one so young, and exhibit 
 the credulity of the investigator in a mos$ 
 pitiable light. 
 
 " All Devils are Not Alike.'* 
 
 Mather carried on his experiments with a 
 diligence which would have seemed ludi- 
 crous had its object been less baneful to the 
 
WITCHCRAFT IN MASSACHUSETTS. 
 
 187 
 
 community. He read the Bible, and prayed 
 aloud in the presence of the girl, who would 
 pretend to be thrown into a fit by the pious 
 exercise. At the same time she read the 
 Book of Common Prayer, or Quaker or 
 Popish treatises, without any interruption 
 from her familiar spirits. The minister then 
 tested the proficiency of the devil in lan- 
 guages, by reading aloud passages of the 
 Bible in Hebrew, Greek and Latin, which the 
 girl professed to understand. When he tried 
 her with an Indian dialect, however, she 
 could not comprehend him. By other exper- 
 iments, designed to ascertain if the spirits 
 could read the thoughts of others, Mather 
 came to the sage conclusion that " ah devils 
 are not alike sagacious." The girl flattered 
 his vanity, and lulled his suspicion, of fraud 
 by telling him that his own person was 
 especially protected against the e A spirits 
 by the power of God, and that the devils did 
 not dare to enter his study. 
 
 Pious Belief in Witchcraft. 
 
 The vanity of Cotton Mather was elated to 
 the highest pitch by what he deemed his 
 successful experiments, and he wrote a book 
 upon witchcraft, in which he endeavored to 
 prove the truth of his theories, and declared 
 that he should esteem it a personal insult if 
 any one should hereafter venture to deny the 
 existence of witchcraft. His book was 
 reprinted in London, with a preface by 
 Richard Baxter, the well-known author of 
 " The Saints' Rest," warmly indorsing it. It 
 was very generally read in New England, 
 and had a most pernicious effect upon the 
 people by inducing them to give credit to 
 the stories of the writer rather than to listen 
 to the promptings of their own good sense. 
 
 Still there were some in Boston who had 
 the boldness to differ with Mather, and these 
 the indignant divine denounced as "sad- 
 ducees." Mather supported his views by his 
 
 sermons. " There are multitudes of sad- 
 ducees in our day," he declared. "A devil 
 in the apprehension of these mighty acute 
 philosophers is no more than a quality or a 
 distemper. Men counted it wisdom to credit 
 nothing but what they say and feel. They 
 never saw any witches ; therefore there are 
 none." The ministers of Boston and 
 Charlestown gave their young colleague their 
 hearty support, and declared that those who 
 doubted the existence of witchcraft were 
 guilty of atheism, and indorsed Mather's 
 book as proving clearly that " there is both a 
 God and a devil, and witchcraft." Thus did 
 the clergy of Massachusetts set themselves 
 to the task of forcing their own narrow views 
 upon the people. It was a needed lesson. 
 New England had passed the time when 
 clerical rule in political affairs could be pro- 
 ductive of good, and was now to be taught 
 the danger of permitting it to extend beyond 
 this period. 
 
 At this juncture Mather's power was 
 gready strengthened by the appointment of 
 his friend and parishioner, Sir William 
 Phipps, as governor of the province, and the 
 nomination of his father-in-law and many of 
 his intimate friends to the council. The 
 ambitious Stoughton, the deputy governor, 
 was also subject to his influence. Here was 
 a fine opportunity to endeavor to establish 
 the power of the clergy upon the old founda- 
 tions, which were being destroyed by the 
 growing intelligence and independence of 
 the people. Many of the ministers, under 
 the lead of Cotton Mather, had committed 
 themselves to the doctrine of witchcraft, and 
 the people must accept it upon their simple 
 assertion. No inquiry must be allowed into 
 the matter, the opinions of the ministers 
 must be adopted by the laity. And so 
 Mather and his followers resorted to the usual 
 weapons of superstition to accomplish the 
 success of their plans. 
 
1 88 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 In 1692, a new case of witchcraft occurred 
 in Salem village, now the town of Danvers. 
 The minister of this place was Samuel Parris, 
 between whom and a number of his people 
 there had for some time existed dissensions 
 of such a bitter nature that the attention of 
 the general court had been directed to them. 
 In February, 1692, the daughter and niece of 
 Parris, the former a child of nine years, and 
 the latter of less than twelve, gave signs of 
 being bewitched. Parris at once recognized 
 the opportunity which was thus offered him 
 for vengeance upon his enemies, and delib- 
 erately availed himself of it. He demanded 
 of the children the names of the persons who 
 had bewitched them, and then proceeded to 
 accuse those whom he succeeded in inducing 
 the girls to denounce. The first victim was 
 Rebecca Nurse. She was known in the 
 community as a woman of exemplary Chris- 
 tian character ; but she was one of the most 
 resolute opponents of Parris. Upon his 
 accusation she was arrested and imprisoned. 
 The next Sunday Parris preached a sermon 
 from the text, " Have I not chosen you twelve, 
 and one of you is a devil." As his remarks 
 were directed against Mistress Nurse, Sarah 
 Cloyce, her sister, at once left the church. 
 
 A Hundred in Prison. 
 
 This in itself was a serious offence in those 
 days, and Parris took advantage of it to 
 accuse the offender of witchcraft, and she was 
 sent to join her sister in prison. Mather, 
 who deemed his credit at stake, lent his active 
 aid to the persecution of these unfortunate 
 people, and had the vanity to declare that he 
 regarded the efforts of" the evil angels upon 
 the country as a particular defiance unto 
 himself." Parris scattered his accusations 
 right and left, becoming both informer and 
 witness against those whom he meant to 
 destroy for their opposition to him. 
 
 In a few weeks nearly one hundred per- 
 
 sons were in prison upon the charge of 
 witchcraft. Abigail Williams, Parris's niece, 
 aided her uncle with her tales, which the 
 least examination would have shown to be 
 absurd. George Burroughs, one of the min- 
 isters of Salem, had long been regarded by 
 Parris as a rival, and he now openly 
 expressed his disbelief in witchcraft, and his 
 disapproval of the measures against those 
 charged with that offence. This boldness 
 sealed his doom. He was accused by 
 Parris and committed to prison " with the 
 rest of the witches." "The gallows was to 
 be set up, not for those who professed them- 
 selves witches, but for those who rebuked 
 the delusion." 
 
 Hanging a Witch. 
 
 Governor Bradstreet, who had been chosen 
 by the people, was unwilling to proceed to 
 extreme measures against the accused, as he 
 had no faith in the evidence against them. 
 The arrival of the royal governor and the 
 new charter in Boston in May, 1692, placed 
 Cotton Mather and his fellow-persecutors in 
 a position to carry out their bloody designs. 
 The general court alone had authority to 
 appoint special courts, but Governor Phipps 
 did not hesitate to appoint one himself for 
 the trial of the accused persons at Salem, 
 and this illegal tribunal, with Stoughton as 
 its chief judge, met at Salem on the second 
 of June. In this court Parris acted as pros- 
 ecutor, keeping back some witnesses, and 
 pushing others forward as suited his plans. 
 
 The first victim of the court was Bridget 
 Bishop, "a poor, friendless old woman." 
 Parris, who had examined her at the 
 time of her commitment, was the principal 
 witness against her. Deliverance Hobbs 
 being also accused, a natural infirmity of her 
 body was taken as a proof of her guilt, and 
 she was hanged, protesting her innocence. 
 Rebecca Nurse was at first acquitted of the 
 
 
WITCHCRAFT IN MASSACHUSETTS. 
 
 charges against her, but the court refused to 
 receive the verdict of the jury, and Parris 
 was determined that the woman against 
 whom he had preached and prayed should 
 not escape him, and the jury were induced 
 to convict her, and she was hanged. John 
 
 189 
 
 tion. He was immediately denounced, tried 
 and hanged. 
 
 When George Burroughs, the minister, 
 was placed on trial, the witnesses produced 
 against him pretended to be dumb. " Who 
 hinders these witnesses from giving their testi- 
 
 EXECUTION OF THE REV. GEORGE BURROUGHS. 
 
 Willard, who had been compelled by his 
 duty as a constable to arrest the accused, 
 now refused to serve in this capacity any 
 longer, as he had become convinced of the 
 hypocrisy of the instigators of the persecu- 
 
 monies?" asked Stoughton, the chief judge. 
 "I suppose the devil," replied Burroughs, con- 
 temptuously. " How comes the devil," cried 
 Stoughton, exultingly, " so loath to have any 
 testimony borne against you ? " The words 
 
190 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 of the prisoner were regarded as a confes- 
 sion, and his remarkable bodily strength was 
 made an evidence of his guilt. He was con- 
 victed and sentenced to be hanged. He was 
 executed on the nineteenth of August with 
 four others. As he ascended the scaffold, 
 Burroughs made an appeal to the people 
 assembled to witness the execution, and 
 effectually vindicated himself from the absurd 
 charges against him, and repeated the Lord's 
 prayer, which was regarded as a test of inno- 
 cence. The spectators seemed about to 
 interfere in favor of the victim. 
 
 An Innocent Man Hanged. 
 
 Cotton Mather, who was present on horse- 
 back, now exerted himself to complete the 
 judicial murder. He harangued the people, 
 insisted on the guilt of Burroughs, remind- 
 ing them that the devil could sometimes 
 assume the form of an angel of light, and 
 even descended to the falsehood of declaring 
 that Burroughs was no true minister, as his 
 ordination was not valid. His appeal was 
 successful and the execution was completed. 
 
 Giles Cory, an old man over eighty years 
 of age, seeing that no denial of guilt availed 
 anything, refused to plead, and was pressed 
 to death, in accordance with an old English 
 law, long obsolete, which was revived to 
 meet his case. Samuel Wardwell confessed 
 his guilt, and escaped the gallows. Over- 
 come with shame for his cowardice, he 
 retracted his confession, and was hanged for 
 denying witchcraft. A reign of terror pre- 
 vailed in Salem ; the prisons were full ; and 
 no one could feel sure how long he would 
 escape accusation and arrest. Many persons 
 confessed their guilt to save their lives. 
 Children accused their parents, parents their 
 children, and husbands and wives each other 
 of the most impossible offences, in the hope 
 of escaping the persecution themselves. 
 Hale, the minister of Beverley, was a zealous 
 
 advocate of the persecution until the bitter 
 cup was presented to his own lips by the 
 accusation of his wife. Many persons were 
 obliged to fly the colony, and the magistrates, 
 conscious that they were exceeding theif 
 powers, did not demand their surrender. 
 
 Crime Added to Crime. 
 
 We have mentioned only some of the 
 principal cases to show the character of the 
 persecution, as our limits forbid the relation 
 of all. The total number hanged was 
 twenty; fifty-five were tortured or terrified 
 into confessions of guilt. The accusations 
 were at first lodged against persons of 
 humble station, but at length reached the 
 higher classes. Governor Phipps' wife and 
 two sons of Governor Bradford are said to 
 have been among the accused. " Insanity," 
 says Judge Story, " could hardly devise 
 more refinements in barbarity, or profligacy 
 execute them with more malignant coolness." 
 Every principle of English justice was vio- 
 lated to secure the condemnation of the 
 accused, and people were encouraged by the 
 magistrates to accuse others as a means of 
 securing the favor of the authorities. 
 
 These terrible deeds were not the work of 
 the people of Massachusetts, and under a 
 popular government would have been im- 
 possible ; for though the belief in witchcraft 
 was general, the sentiment of the people was 
 against the barbarity of the court. The 
 Salem tragedies were the work of a few 
 men, not one of whom was responsible in 
 any way to the people. " Of the magistrates 
 at that time, not one held office by the suf- 
 frage of the people ; the tribunal, essentially 
 despotic in its origin, as in its character, had 
 no sanction but an extraordinary and an 
 illegal commission ; and Stoughton, the chief 
 judge, a partisan of Andros, had been re- 
 jected by the people of Massachusetts. The 
 responsibility of the tragedy, far from attach- 
 
WITCHCRAFT IN MASSACHUSETTS. 
 
 191 
 
 ingto the people of the colony, rests with the 
 very few, hardly five or six, in whose hands 
 the transition state of the government left for 
 a season unlimited influence. Into the in- 
 terior of the colony the delusion did not 
 spread at all." * 
 
 PublU Indignation. 
 
 Stoughton's court, having hanged twenty 
 of its victims, adjourned about the last of 
 September, 1692, until November, and on the 
 eighteenth of October the general court met. 
 The indignation of the people had been 
 gathering force, and men were determined to 
 put a stop to the judicial murders and tor- 
 tures which had disgraced them so long. 
 Remonstrances were at once presented to 
 the assembly against "the doings of the 
 svitch tribunals," the people of Andover 
 leading the way in this effort. The assembly 
 abolished the special court, and established 
 a tribunal by public law. It was ordered 
 that this court should not meet until the fol- 
 lowing January, The governor attempted 
 to undo the work of the assembly by ap- 
 pointing Stoughton chief judge of the new 
 court. 
 
 When that tribunal met at Salem in Jan- 
 uary, 1693, it was evident that the public 
 mind had undergone a marked change. The 
 influence of the leaders of the delusion was 
 at an end. The grand jury rejected the ma- ( 
 jority of the presentments offered to it, and 
 when those who were indicted were put on 
 trial, the jury brought in verdicts of acquittal 
 in all but three cases. The governor, now 
 ilive to the force of public sentiment, re- 
 prieved all who were under sentence to the 
 great disgust of Stoughton, who left the 
 bench in a rage when informed of this 
 action. The persecutors, anxious to cover 
 their defeat by the execution of one more 
 victim, employed all their arts to procure 
 
 * Bancroft's History of the United States, vol. iii., p. 
 
 the conviction of a woman of Charlestown, 
 who was commonly believed to be a witch. 
 They supported their charge by more im- 
 portant evidence than had been presented in 
 any case at Salem, but the jury at once 
 returned a verdict of " not guilty." 
 
 Cotton Mather was intensely mortified by 
 the failure of his efforts to force the people 
 into a general acceptance of his views. He 
 got up a case of witchcraft in Boston, but was 
 careful to caution his possessed people to 
 refrain from accusing any one of bewitching 
 them. Robert Calef, an unlettered man, but 
 one whose common sense could not be led 
 astray by Mather, promptly exposed the im- 
 posture in a pamphlet, which effectually 
 destroyed Mather's influence for harm. 
 Mather, unable to reply to him, denounced 
 him as an enemy of religion, and complained 
 that Calef *s book was " a libel upon the 
 whole government and ministry of the land," 
 forgetting that only seven or eight ministers, 
 and no magistrate commanding the confi- 
 dence of the people, had any share in the 
 tragedies. Calef continued his writings, 
 however, undismayed by the indignation oi 
 his adversary, and his book was finally pub- 
 lished in England, where it attracted con- 
 siderable attention. 
 
 The Danger Past. 
 
 jfhe danger was now over. It was no 
 longer possible to procure a conviction for 
 witchcraft. The indignant people of Salem 
 village at once drove the wretched Parris 
 and his family from the place. Noyes, the 
 minister of Salem, who had been active in 
 the persecutions, was compelled to ask the 
 forgiveness of the people, after a public con- 
 fession of his error. The devotion of the 
 rest of his life to works of charity won him 
 the pardon he sought. Sewall, one of the 
 judges, struck with horror at the part he had 
 played in the persecution, made an open and 
 
192 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 frank confession of his error, and implored 
 the forgiveness of his fellow-citizens. His 
 sincerity was so evident that he soon regained 
 the favor he had lost. Stoughton passed 
 the remainder of his life in proud and haughty 
 disregard of the opinion of his fellow-men, 
 scorning to make any acknowledgment of 
 error, and evincing no remorse for his cruel- 
 ties. 
 
 Cotton Mather Duped. 
 
 As for the prime mover of the delusion, 
 the Rev. Cotton Mather, nothing could induce 
 him to admit that he could by any possibility 
 have been in error ; not even the recollection 
 of the sorrow he had brought upon some of 
 the best people in the colony could shake 
 his impenetrable self-conceit or humble him. 
 When it was plain to him that he was the 
 object of the indignation of all good men in 
 New England, he had the hardihood to 
 endeavor to persuade them that after all he 
 had not been specially active in the sad 
 affair. " Was Cotton Mather honestly credu- 
 lous ? " asks Bancroft. " Ever ready to dupe 
 himself, he limited his credulity only by the 
 probable credulity of others. He changes, 
 
 or omits to repeat, his statements, without 
 acknowledging error, and with a clear inten- 
 tion of conveying false impressions. He is 
 an example how far selfishness, under the 
 form of vanity and ambition, can blind the 
 higher faculties, stupefy the judgment, and 
 dupe consciousness itself. His self-right- 
 eousness was complete till he was resisted." 
 And yet this man was not to die without 
 rendering to the country a genuine service. 
 In 1 72 1, having become satisfied that inocu- 
 lation was a sure preventive of small-pox, he 
 advocated the introduction of it into the 
 colony. He was opposed by the whole body 
 of the clergy, who declared that it was an 
 attempt to defeat the plans of the Almighty, 
 who " sent the small-pox as a punishment 
 tOi* sins, and whose vengeance would thus be 
 onl\/ provoked the more.'* The people of 
 the colony were also bitterly opposed to 
 inoculation, and threatened to hang Mather 
 if he did not cease his advocacy of it. His 
 life was at one time in serious danger, but he 
 persevered, and at length had the satisfaction 
 of seeing the practice of inoculation gener- 
 ally adopted by the people who had so hotly 
 opposed it. 
 
CHAPTER XVI 
 
 The Settlement of New York 
 
 byages of Henry Hudson — He is Employed by the Dutch — Discovery of the Hudson River — Early Dutcb Vbyagt$«* 
 Adrian Block — Fate of Hudson — The Dutch Build a Fort on Manhattan Island — Settlement of New Amsterdam^- 
 The Province Named New Netherlands — -Fort Nassau — Peter Minuits Governor — The Dutch Settlement of Dela 
 ware— Wouter Van Twiller — Kieft Governor — His Unjust Treatment of the Indians — Massacre of the Indians 8£ 
 Hoboken — The Indian War — Stuyvesant Appointed Governor — Disputes with the English in Connecticut — The 
 Swedes Settle Delaware — Stuyvesant Captures the Swedish Forts — Growth of New Amsterdam — Disputes Between 
 the People and Governor — Growing Spirit of Popular Liberty — The People Appeal to the States General — Capture of 
 New Netherlands by the English — The Name of the Province Changed to New York — Results of the EngMsh Con- 
 quest—Progress of New Jersey — Andros Governor of New York — He Fails to Establish His Authority Over 
 Connecticut — New York Allowed an Assembly — Discontents of the People — Leisler's Rebellion — Execution of 
 Leisler and Milbourne — Fletcher Governor — His Attempt to Obtain Command of the Connecticut Militia — Episcopacy 
 Established in New York-— The Freedom of the Press Sustained — New Jersey a Royal Province. 
 
 WHEN the hope of finding a 
 northwest passage to India 
 began to die out, a company 
 of "certain worshipful mer- 
 chants " of London employed Henry Hud- 
 son, an Englishman and an experienced 
 navigator, to go in search of a northeast 
 passage to India, around the Arctic shores 
 of Europe, between Lapland and Nova 
 Zembla and frozen Spitzbergen. These 
 worthy gentlemen were convinced that since 
 the effort to find a northwest passage had 
 failed, nothing remained but to search for a 
 northeast passage, and they were sure that if 
 human skill or energy could find it, Hudson 
 would succeed in his mission. They were 
 not mistaken in their man, for in two suc- 
 cessive voyages he did all that mortal could 
 do to penetrate the ice-fields beyond the 
 North Cape, but without success. 
 
 An impassable barrier of ice held him 
 back, and he was forced to return to London 
 to confess his failure. With unconquerable 
 hope, he suggested new means of overcoming 
 the difficulties ; but while his employers 
 praised his zeal and skill, they declined to go 
 to further expense in an undertaking which 
 
 *3 
 
 promised so little, and the " bold Englishman, 
 the expert pilot and the famous navigator'* 
 found h'mself out of employment. Every 
 effort to secure aid in England failed him, and, 
 thoroughly disheartened, he passed over to 
 Holland, whither his fame had preceded him. 
 The Dutch, who were more enterprising 
 and more hopeful than his own countrymen, 
 lent a ready ear to his statement of his 
 plans, and the Dutch East India Company 
 at once employed him and placed him in 
 command of a yacht of ninety tons, called 
 the " Half Moon," manned by a picked 
 crew. On the twenty- fifth of March, 1609, 
 Hudson set sail in this vessel from Amster- 
 dam and steered directly for the coast of 
 Nova Zembla. He succeeded in reaching 
 the meridian of Spitzbergen, but here the ice, 
 the fogs and the fierce tempests of the north 
 drove him back, and turning to the west« 
 ward, he sailed past the capes of Greenland, 
 and on the second of July was on the banks 
 of Newfoundland. He passed down the 
 coast as far as Charleston Harbor, vainly 
 hoping to find the northwest passage, an** 
 then in despair turned to the northward, dis 
 covering Delaware Bay on his voyage. 
 
 193 
 
194 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 On the third of September he arrived off 
 a large bay to the north of the Delaware, 
 and passing into it, dropped anchor " at two 
 cables' length from the shore," within Sandy 
 Hook. Devoting some days to rest, and to 
 the exploration of the bay, he passed 
 through The Narrows on the eleventh of 
 September, and then the broad and beautiful 
 * inner bay " burst upon him in all its 
 
 the natives who came out to the "Half Moon" 
 in their canoes, that the river came from far 
 beyond the mountains, convinced him that 
 the stream flowed from ocean to ocean, and 
 that by sailing on he would at length reach 
 India — the golden land of his dreams. 
 
 Thus encouraged, he pursued his way up 
 the river, gazing with wondering delight 
 upon its glorious scenery, and listening witlt 
 
 NOVA ZEMBLA FROM AN OLD PRINT. 
 
 splendor, and from the deck of his ship he 
 watched the swift current of the mighty 
 river rolling from the north to the sea. He 
 was full of hope now, and the next day con- 
 tinued his progress up the river, and at 
 nightfall cast anchor at Yonkers. During 
 the night the current of the river turned his 
 ship around, placing hei head down stream ; 
 and this fact, coupled with the assurances of 
 
 gradually fading hope to the stories of the 
 natives who flocked to the water to greet 
 him. The stream narrowed, and the water 
 grew fresh, and long before he anchored 
 below Albany, Hudson had abandoned the 
 belief that he was in the northwest passage. 
 From the anchorage a boat's crew continued 
 the voyage to the mouth of the Mohawk. 
 Hudson was satisfied that he had made a 
 
 
THE SETTLEMENT OF NEW YORK. 
 
 195 
 
 great discovery — one that was worth fully as 
 much as finding the new route to India. He 
 was in a region upon which the white man's 
 eye had never rested before, and which 
 offered the richest returns to the commercial 
 ventures. He hastened back to New York 
 Bay, took possession of the country in the 
 name of Holland, and then set sail for 
 Europe. He put into Dartmouth, in Eng- 
 land, on his way back, where he told the 
 
 The discovery of Hudson was particularly 
 acceptable to the Dutch, for the new country 
 was rich in fur-bearing animals, and Russia 
 offered a ready market for all the furs that 
 could be sent there. The East India Com- 
 pany, therefore, refitted the " Half Moon " 
 after her return to Holland, and despatched 
 her to the region discovered by Hudson on 
 a fur trading expedition, which was highly 
 successful. Private persons also emhai^ed 
 
 MOCK SUNS, SEEN BY EARLY EXPLORERS. 
 
 story of his discovery. King James I. pre- 
 vented his continuing his voyage, hoping to 
 deprive the Dutch of its fruits ; but Hudson 
 took care to send his log-book and all the 
 ship's papers over to Holland, and thus placed 
 his employers in full possession of the know- 
 ledge he had gained. The English at length 
 released the " Half Moon," and she continued 
 her voyage to the Texel, but without her 
 commander. 
 
 in similar enterprises, and within two yenn 
 a prosperous and important fur trade wa(- 
 established between Holland and the country 
 along the Mauritius, as the great river dis- 
 covered by Hudson had been named, in 
 honor of the Stadtholder of Holland. Nc 
 government took any notice of the trade for a 
 while and all persons were free to engage f 'n it 
 Among the adventurers employed in this 
 trade was one Adrian Block, noted as one oi 
 
sg6 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 the boldest navigators of his time. He 
 made a voyage to Manhattan Island in 1614, 
 then the site of a Dutch trading-post, and 
 secured a cargo of skins, with which he was 
 about to return to Holland, when a fire con- 
 sumed both his vessel and her cargo, and 
 obliged him to pass the winter with his crew 
 on the island. They built them log huts on 
 the site of the present Beaver Street — the 
 first houses erected on the island — and dur- 
 ing the winter constructed a yacht of sixteen 
 
 HENRY HUDSON. 
 
 tons, which Block called the " Onrust " — 
 the "Restless." In this yacht Block made 
 several voyages of discovery, and explored 
 the coasts of Long Island Sound, and gave 
 his name to the small island near the eastern 
 end of the sound. He soon after went back 
 to Europe. 
 
 In the meantime Hudson had not been 
 permitted by the English king to take service 
 again with the Dutch, and after apprising his 
 employers in Holland of his discoveries, he 
 
 was engaged by an English company to 
 make further explorations in their behalf 
 He sailed to the north of his former route, 
 reached the coast of Labrador, and passing 
 through the straits, entered the bay which 
 bears his name. He spent the remainder of 
 the season in exploring its coasts, and re- 
 solved to winter there, hoping to push his 
 discoveries still further northward in the 
 spring. In the spring of 161 1 he found it 
 impossible to continue his voyage, as his 
 provisions had begun to run low, and 
 with tears turned his vessel's prow 
 homeward. His men now broke out 
 into mutiny, and seizing Hudson and 
 his son and four others, who were sick, 
 they placed them in the shallop and 
 set them adrift. And so the great navi- 
 gator, whose memory is perpetuated by 
 one of the noblest of the rivers of 
 America, and whose genius gave the 
 region through which it flows to civil i- 
 ^ zation, perished amid the northern seas. 
 " The gloomy waste of waters which 
 bears his name is his tomb and his 
 monument." 
 
 Forts Along the Hudson. 
 In 1614 the Dutch built a fort on 
 the lower end of Manhattan Islanl. 
 and in the next few years established 
 forts or trading houses along the 
 river as far as Fort Orange, on the 
 site of Albany. These were merely 
 trading-posts, no effort being yet made to 
 occupy the country with a permanent col- 
 ony. In 162 1 the Dutch West India Com- 
 pany was organized for the purpose of trad- 
 ing with America, and took possession of the 
 country along the Hudson, intending to hold 
 it merely as temporary occupants. The 
 States General of Holland granted them the 
 monopoly of trade from Cape May to Nova 
 Scotia, and named the whole region New 
 Netherland. The Dutch thus extended their 
 
THE SETTLEMENT OF NEW YORK. 
 
 197 
 
 claims into regions already claimed by 
 the English and French, and prepared 
 the way for future quarrels and complica- 
 tions. 
 
 The English, now awake to the import- 
 ance of Hudson's discoveries, warned the 
 Dutch government to refrain from making 
 further settlements on " Hudson's River," as 
 they called the Mauritius; but the latter, 
 relying upon the justice of their claim, paid 
 no attention to these warnings, and in the 
 spring of 1623 the Dutch West India Com- 
 pany sent over thirty families of Walloons, 
 or one hundred and ten persons in all, to 
 found a permanent colony. 
 
 These Walloons 
 were Protestants 
 from the frontier 
 between France 
 and Flanders, and 
 had fled to Amster- 
 dam to escape re- 
 ligious persecution 
 in their own coun- 
 try. They were 
 sound, healthy, 
 vigorous and pious 
 people, and could 
 be relied upon to 
 make homes in the 
 new world. The 
 
 majority of them settled around the fort on 
 the lower end of Manhattan Island, and the 
 colony was named New Amsterdam. The 
 remainder established themselves on Long 
 Island, about where the Brooklyn navy yard 
 now stands, and there Sarah de Rapelje, the 
 first white child born in the province of New 
 Netherlands, saw the light. Eighteen fami- 
 lies ascended the river and settled around 
 Fort Orange. 
 
 In the same year (1623) a party under 
 command of Cornelis Jacobsen May, who 
 gave his name to the southern cape of New 
 
 Jersey, ascended the Delaware, then called 
 the South River, and built Fort Nas- 
 sau, on the east side of the river, a few 
 miles below the present city of Cam* 
 den. This was done in order to estab- 
 lish the claim of the Dutch to this re- 
 gion. 
 
 In 1626 the West India Company sent out 
 to New Amsterdam the first regular governor 
 of the province, Peter Minuits by name. He 
 brought with him a koopman, or general 
 commissary, who was also the secretary of 
 the province, and a schout, or sheriff, to 
 assist him in his government. The only 
 laws prescribed for the colony were the 
 
 HUDSON STRAIT. 
 
 instructions . of the West India Company. 
 The colonists, on their part, were to regard 
 the orders of the governor as their law. He 
 was authorized to punish minor offences at 
 his discretion, but cases requiring severe or 
 capital punishmem were to be sent to Hol- 
 land for trial. Minuits set to work with 
 great vigor to lay the foundations of the 
 colony. He called a council of the Indian 
 chiefs, and purchased the island of Manhat- 
 tan from them for presents valued at about 
 twenty-four dollars in American money. He 
 thus secured an equitable title to the island 
 
198 
 
 MUTINY ON HUDSON'S SHIP. 
 
THE SETTLEMENT OF NEW YORK. 
 
 rgo 
 
 md won the friendship of the Indians. To 
 encourage emigration, the company granted 
 to each emigrant as much land as he could 
 properly cultivate, and it was ordered that 
 any member of the company who in four years 
 should induce fifty persons to settle anywhere 
 within the limits of New Netherland, the 
 island of Manhattan alone 
 excepted, should be termed 
 "Patroon," or " Lord of the 
 Manor," and should be en- 
 titled to purchase a tract of 
 land sixteen miles in length 
 by eight in width for the 
 support of this dignity. A 
 number of persons availed 
 themselves of this privilege 
 and secured from the In- 
 dians by purchase the best 
 lands and the most valuable 
 trading places in the prov- 
 ince. Those who were in- 
 ferior to them in wealth 
 were of necessity compelled 
 to become the tenants o' 
 the patroons, and thus a. 
 check was placed upon the 
 improvement of the colony. 
 In order to compel the col- 
 onists to purchase their 
 supplies + rom Holland, the 
 company forbade them to 
 manufacture even the sim- 
 plest fabrics for clothing, on 
 pain of banishment. Tie 
 patroons were enjoined to 
 provide a minister and a 
 schoolmaster for their tenants, but no pro- 
 vision was made for them by the company, 
 which was careful, however, to offer to fur- 
 nish the patroons with African slaves if 
 their use should be found desirable. 
 
 In 1629 Samuel Godyp and Samuel Blom- 
 maert ourchased from the Indians the region 
 
 between Cape Henlopen and the mouth of 
 the Delaware River, and in 1631 a col- 
 ony of thirty souls was planted on Lewes 
 Creek, in the present state of Delaware.' 
 " That Delaware exists as a separate com- 
 monwealth is due to this colony. Accord- 
 ing to English rule, occupancy was neces 
 
 FIRST SETTLEMENT OF NEW YORK. 
 
 sary to complete a title to the wilderness, 
 and the Dutch now occupied Delaware,** 
 Less than a year later De Vries came over 
 from Holland with a reinforcement, and 
 found only the ruins of the settlement, the 
 people of which had been massacred by the 
 Indians. 
 
200 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 Under the vigorous administration of 
 Minuits, New Netherland prospered; houses 
 were built, farms laid off; the population was 
 largely increased by new arrivals from 
 Europe. During this period New Amster- 
 dam fairly entered upon its career as one of 
 the most important places in America. It 
 was a happy settlement as well ; the rights 
 of the people were respected, and they were 
 practically as free as they had been in Hol- 
 land. 
 
 Troubles with the Indians marked the 
 close of Minuit's administration. The latter 
 were provoked by the murder of some of 
 their number by the whites, and by the aid 
 rendered by the commander at Fort Orange 
 to the Mohegans in one of their forays upon 
 the Mohawks. Alarmed by the hostility of 
 the savages, many of the families at Fort 
 Orange, and from the region between the 
 Hudson and the Delaware, abandoned their 
 settlements and came to New Amsterdam for 
 safety, thus adding to the population of that 
 town. Minuits was recalled in 1632 and 
 left the province in a prosperous condition. 
 During the last year of his government New 
 Amsterdam sent over $60,000 worth of furs 
 to Holland. 
 
 The Renowned Van Twiller. 
 
 Minuits was succeeded by Wouter Van 
 Twiller, a clerk in the company's warehouse 
 at Amsterdam, who owed his appointment 
 to his being the husband of the niece of 
 Killian Van Rensselaer, the patroon of Alba- 
 ny. Irving has thus sketched this redoubt- 
 able governor : " He was exactly five feet six 
 inches in height, and six feet five inches in 
 circumference. His head was a perfect 
 Sphere, and of such stupendous dimensions 
 that dame Nature, with all her sex's ingenu- 
 ity, would have been puzzled to construct a 
 neck capable of supporting it ; wherefore she 
 wisely declined the attempt, and settled it 
 
 firmly on top of his back-bone just between 
 the shoulders. His body was oblong and 
 particularly capacious at bottom, which was 
 wisely ordered by Providence, seeing that hi 
 was a man of sedentary habits and very 
 averse to the idle labor of walking. 
 
 ••A Beer Barrel on Skids." 
 
 " His legs were very short, but sturdy in 
 proportion to the weight they had to su stain ; 
 so that, when erect, he had not a little the 
 appearance of a beer barrel on skids. His 
 face — that infallible index of the mind — pre- 
 sented a vast expanse, unfurrowed by any of 
 those lines and angles which disfigure the 
 human countenance with what is termed 
 expression. Two small gray eyes twinkled 
 feebly in the midst, like two stars of lessei 
 magnitude in a hazy firmament ; and his full- 
 fed cheeks, which seemed to have taken tol' 
 of everything that went into his mouth, were 
 curiously mottled and streaked with dusky 
 red, like a Spitzenberg apple. His habits 
 were as regular as his person. He daily took 
 his four stated meals, appropriating exactly 
 an hour to each ; he smoked and doubted 
 eight hours, and he slept the remaining 
 twelve of the four-and-twenty." 
 
 Van Twiller ruled the province seven years, 
 and, in spite of his stupidity, it prospered. 
 In 1633, Adam Roelantsen, the first school- 
 master, arrived — for the fruitful Walloons 
 had opened the way by this time for his 
 labors — and in the same year a wooden 
 church was built in the present Bridge Street, 
 and placed in charge of the famous Dominie 
 EverardusBogardus. In 1635, the fort, which 
 marked the site of the present Bowling 
 Green, and which had been begun in 1614, was 
 finished, and in the same year the first English 
 settlers at New Amsterdam came into the 
 town. 
 
 The English in New England also began 
 to give the Dutch trouble during this admin- 
 
THE SETTLEMENT OF NEW YORK. 
 
 201 
 
 istration, and even sent a ship into " Hud- 
 son's River" to trade with the Indians. In- 
 fluenced by De Vries, the commander of the 
 fort, the governor sent an expedition up the 
 river after the audacious English vessel, 
 seized her, brought her back to New York, 
 and sent her to sea with a warning not to 
 repeat her attempt. The disputes between 
 the English and the Dutch about the Con- 
 necticut settlements also began to make 
 trouble for New Amsterdam. Van Twiller 
 possessed no influence in the colony, was 
 laughed at and snubbed on every side, and 
 was at length recalled by the company in 
 1638- The only memorial of Van Twiller 
 left to us is the Isle of Nuts, which lies in the 
 bay between New York and Brooklyn, and 
 which he purchased as his private domain. 
 It is still called the " Governor's Island." 
 
 Van Twiller was succeeded by William 
 Kieft, a man of greater abilities, but unscru- 
 pulous and avaricious. He had become a 
 bankrupt in Holland, and hoped to find in 
 America the means of restoring his fortunes. 
 His administration of the province was full 
 of troubles, the greater part of which were 
 due to his recklessness and rapacity. 
 
 Mohawk Braves. 
 
 The colonists were forbidden to sell fire- 
 arms to the Indians, but some of the traders 
 along the Hudson had violated this order, 
 and it was estimated that the Mohawks had 
 at least four hundred warriors armed with 
 muskets. They were willing to pay large 
 prices for the guns, as these weapons enabled 
 them to meet on equal terms their enemies, 
 the Canada Indians, who had been armed by 
 the French. During Van Twiller's admin- 
 istration the colony had been on good terms 
 with the Mohegans and other tribes of the 
 Algonquin race, who were generally known 
 as the river Indians. Kieft, soon after his 
 arrival, demanded of them the payment of a 
 
 tribute, which he pretended he had been 
 ordered by the company to levy upon them. 
 They refused his demand with contempt, and 
 from this time the friendship which they had 
 entertained for the Dutch began to disappear 
 A year or two later the Raritans, a tribe 
 living on the river of that name, were accused 
 of stealing some hogs from the colony. The 
 animals had been taken by some Dutcb 
 traders ; but Kieft, instead of investigating 
 the matter, sent a party of soldiers amcig 
 the Raritans and destroyed their corn and 
 killed several of their number. The savages 
 determined upon revenge, and with thea 
 usual unreasoning fury attacked the settle 
 ment which De Vries — who was always a 
 friend of the Indians — had founded on Staten 
 Island, and killed four men. The people oi 
 the colony now urged the governor to con- 
 ciliate the savages by kind treatment, but hf 
 refused to do so. 
 
 An Avenger of Blood. 
 
 Another cause of trouble soon arose 
 Twenty years before a Dutch trader had 
 killed an Indian chief in the presence of a 
 little nephew of the warrior. That child, 
 now grown to manhood, came into the colony 
 in 164 1, and avenged his uncle by killing an 
 innocent settler. Kieft ordered the Indians 
 to surrender the young man that he might 
 be punished for his crime ; but the savages 
 refused to give him up, but offered to ransom 
 him. Kieft refused their proposition, and 
 the matter remained an open source oi 
 trouble. 
 
 With the hope of finding a remedy for the 
 Indian difficulty, the people obtained froirt 
 the governor, in 1642, permission to hold a 
 meeting of the heads of families at Ne** 
 Amsterdam. These appointed twelve of theii 
 numberto investigate the affairs of the colony. 
 This was the first representative assembly o' 
 New Netherland, and its career was short 
 
202 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 Venturing to pass beyond the Indian ques- 
 tion, and to criticise the administration of the 
 governor in other matters, it was dissolved. 
 Near the end of the year 1642 the Mohawks 
 sent a band of warriors armed with muskets 
 to demand tribute of the river tribes. These, 
 too weak to contend with their enemies, fled 
 to the Dutch for protection. Kieft was at 
 this time angry with the Indians for refusing 
 to surrender to him one of their number who 
 had killed a Dutchman who had made him 
 drunk and then ill-treated him, and he 
 resolved to take a signal vengeance upon 
 them, and exterminate them. De Vries, to 
 whom he communicated his plan, remon- 
 strated with him in the hope of inducing him 
 to abandon it. "If you murder these poo; 
 creatures who have put themselves und^i- 
 your protection, you will involve the whole 
 colony in ruin, and their blood, and the 
 blood of your own people, will be required 
 at your hands," said De Vries. Nothing, 
 however, could move the governor from his 
 purpose. 
 
 Attack Upon the Savages. 
 
 The Indians who had sought the protec- 
 tion of the Dutch were encamped with the 
 Hackensack tribe just above Hoboken. On 
 the night of the twenty-fifth of February, the 
 garrison ofthe.fort at New Amsterdam, rein- 
 forced by the crews of some Dutch privateers 
 in the river, crossed the Hudson and attacked 
 the unsuspecting savages. Nearly a hundred 
 were killed, and when the morning came 
 many of the poor wretches were seen crowd- 
 ing along the shore of the river in the vain 
 attempt to cross over to their supposed 
 friends at New Amsterdam. They were 
 forced into the stream and drowned. A 
 company of Indians, trusting to the friendship 
 of the Dutch, had encamped on Manhattan 
 Island, near the fort. They were put to death 
 almost to a man. 
 
 The massacre was regarded by the colo- 
 nists with horror and detestation, and they 
 took no part in the joy with which the gov- 
 ernor greeted the troops on their return from 
 their bloody work. He was not allowed to 
 rejoice long, however. When it became 
 known among the Algonquins that their 
 brethren had been murdered, not by the Mo- 
 hawks, but by the Dutch, every tribe took up 
 the hatchet to avenge them, and a general 
 warfare began along the entire line of the 
 Dutch settlements. Several villages were 
 destroyed, and a number of settlers were mur- 
 dered or carried into captivity. The colony 
 was threatened with ruin, and Kieft was 
 obliged to open negotiations Tor peace. It 
 was in this war that Mrs. Anne Hutchinson 
 and her family, who had taken refuge in the 
 territory of the Dutch, were murdered by the 
 savages. 
 
 Treaty of Peace Negotiated. 
 
 On the fifth of March, 1643, a conferenct 
 was held at Rockaway, between sixteen Indian 
 chiefs and De Vries and two other envoys 
 from the colony. One of the principal 
 sachems arose, holding in his hands a bundle 
 of small sticks. "When you first arrived on 
 our shores," said the Indian, addressing the 
 whites, " you were destitute of food. We gave 
 you our beans and our corn , we fed you with 
 oysters and fish ; and now, for our recom- 
 pense, you murder our people." He then 
 laid down one of the little sticks and pro- 
 ceeded : " The traders whom your first ships 
 left on our shores to traffic till their return, 
 were cherished by us as the apple of our eye 
 We gave them our daughters for their wives. 
 Among those whom you have murdered 
 were children of your own blood." 
 
 " I know all," said De Vries, interrupting 
 his recital of wrongs. He then invited the 
 chiefs to go with him to the fort. They 
 accompanied him to New Amsterdam, where 
 
1HE SETTLEMENT OF NEW YORK. 
 
 203 
 
 presents were exchanged and a treaty of peace 
 negotiated. The younger warriors were not 
 satisfied. Kieft's presents were niggardly. 
 They were not regarded by the savages as 
 a sufficient compensation for the wrongs they 
 had suffered, and the war was renewed. 
 
 The leader of the 
 Dutch in this cam- 
 paign was Captain 
 John Underhill, who 
 had served in the 
 Pequod war in New 
 England, and had 
 removed to New 
 Amsterdam in conse- 
 quence of having been 
 made to do penance 
 in public at Boston in 
 1640. The war con- 
 tinued for two years, 
 and though the col- 
 ony suffered severely, 
 the Dutch were able 
 to inflict such heavy 
 losses upon the sav- 
 ages that the latter 
 were at length as 
 anxious for peace as 
 the whites. Sixteen 
 hundred of the In- 
 dians had fallen, but 
 the colony had been 
 brought to the verge 
 of ruin, and the popu- 
 lation of New Ams- 
 terdam was reduced 
 to one hundred souls. 
 
 On the thirtieth of August, 1645, the chiefs 
 of the Algonquins and a deputation from 
 their old enemies, the Mohawks, who came 
 as mediators, met the whites on the spot now 
 known as the Battery, and concluded a peace. 
 
 The close of the war was hailed with re- 
 joici gs throughout the colony. Kieft was 
 
 regarded with universal hatred as the author 
 of the terrible sufferings of the struggle, and 
 his barbarous conduct was censured and 
 disavowed by the company, and he was 
 recalled. Hated throughout the colony, ha 
 at length determined to return to Euroo^ 
 
 PETER STUYVESANT. 
 
 Freighting a vessel with his ill-gotten gains, 
 he sailed from Manhattan in 1647. As he 
 neared the shores of the old world his ship 
 was wrecked on the coast of Wales, and all 
 on board perished. 
 
 Kieft, in the vain hope of conciliating the 
 people, appointed, immediately after the 
 
204 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 close of the war, a new municipal council of 
 eight members. The first act of this council 
 was to demand of the States General of Hol- 
 land the removal of Kicft. Their demand 
 was complied with, as we have seen, and in 
 1647 Peter Stuyvesant was made governor 
 of New Netherlands, and reached New Am- 
 sterdam in the same year. 
 
 " Vain as a Peacock.' 
 
 Stuyvesant was essentially a strong man. 
 A soldier by education and of long experi- 
 ence, he was accustomed to regard rigid 
 discipline as the one thing needful in every 
 relation of life, and he was not slow to intro- 
 duce that system into his government of 
 New Amsterdam. He had served gallantly 
 in the wars against the Portuguese, and had 
 lost a leg in one of his numerous encounters 
 with them. He was as vain as a peacock, as 
 fond of display as a child, and thoroughly 
 imbued with the most aristocratic ideas — 
 qualities not exactly the best for a governor 
 of New Amsterdam. Yet he was, with all 
 his faults, an honest man, he had deeply at 
 heart the interests of the colony, and his ad- 
 ministration was mainly a prosperous one. 
 
 He energetically opposed from the first all 
 manifestations in favor of popular govern- 
 ment. His will was to be the law of the 
 province. " If any one," said he, " during 
 my administration shall appeal, I will make 
 him a foot shorter, and send the pieces to 
 Holland, and let him appeal in that way." 
 He went to work with vigor to reform mat- 
 ters in the colony, extending his efforts to 
 even the morals and domestic affairs of the 
 people. He soon brought about a reign of 
 material prosperity greater than had ever 
 been known before, and exerted himself to 
 check the encroachments of the English on 
 the east, and the Swedes on the south. He 
 inaugurated a policy of kindness and justice 
 toward the Indians, and soon changed their 
 
 enmity to sincere friendship. One thing, 
 however, he dared not do — he could not 
 levy taxes upon the people without their 
 consent, for fear of offending the States Gen- 
 eral of Holland. This forced him to appoint 
 a council of nine prominent citizens, and, 
 although he endeavored to hedge round 
 their powers by numerous conditions, the 
 nine ever afterwards served as a salutary 
 check upon the action of the governor. 
 
 Opposition to Stuyvesant. 
 
 The English in Connecticut made great 
 efforts to extend their territories westward at 
 the expense of New Netherland, and gave 
 Stuyvesant no little annoyance by their 
 aggressions. During his administration the 
 colony received large accessions of English 
 emigrants from New England, who came to 
 New Netherland " to enjoy that liberty de- 
 nied to them by their own countrymen." 
 They settled in New Amsterdam, on Long 
 Island, and in Westchester County. Being 
 admitted to an equality with the Dutch set- 
 tlers, they exercised considerable influence 
 in the affairs of the colony, and towards the 
 close of his administration gave the governor 
 considerable trouble by their opposition to 
 his despotic acts. Stuyvesant entered into 
 an arrangement with Connecticut for the 
 proper adjustment of the boundaries of the 
 two colonies, and left the English in posses- 
 sion of half of Long Island. 
 
 Upon his removal from his place as gover- 
 nor of New Amsterdam Peter Minuits offered 
 his services to Gustavus Adolphus, king of 
 Sweden, who was anxious to found in 
 America a colony which might prove a place 
 of refuge for the persecuted Protestants of 
 Europe. The offer was accepted by the 
 king, and the shores of the Delaware were 
 chosen as the site of the new settlement. 
 Near the close of 1637 a little company of 
 Swedes and Fins embarked in two vessels 
 
THE SETTLEMENT OF NEW YORK. 
 
 205 
 
 under the direction of Minuits, and sailed for 
 America. The Delaware was reached early 
 in 1638, and the new-comers purchased from 
 the natives the country on the west side of 
 the river from Cape Henlopen to Trenton. 
 A fort was built within the limits of the 
 present state of Delaware, on the site of the 
 present city of Wilmington, and named Fort 
 Christiana, in honor of the youthful queen of 
 Sweden, the daughter of Gustavus. 
 
 Swedish Immigrants. 
 
 Kieft, the Dutch governor of New Nether- 
 land, protested against this occupation of the 
 country by the Swedes, as Holland claimed 
 the region along the Delaware. Sweden was 
 too formidable a power for her colony to be 
 attacked, however, and Kieft contented him- 
 self with his protest. Fresh emigrants came 
 out from Scandinavia, and New Sweden grew 
 rapidly. The Dutch Fort Nassau was re- 
 newed, but the Swedes succeeded in main- 
 taining their ascendency along the Delaware 
 in spite of it. Their plantations were 
 extended along the river, and the smallest 
 of the American commonwealths was per- 
 manently settled by Europeans. 
 
 When Stuyvesant was made governor of 
 New Netherland the Dutch West India Com- 
 pany resolved to enforce their claim to 
 Delaware, and in 1651 built Fort Casimir on 
 the site of Newcastle. The Swedes regarded 
 this as an encroachment upon their domain, 
 and in 1654 captured the Fort. Upon the 
 receipt of this news the Dutch Company 
 indignantly ordered Stuyvesant " to drive 
 the Swedes from the river, or compel their 
 submission." In September, 1655, Stuyve- 
 sant, with a force of six hundred men, sailed 
 from Manhattan into the Delaware. The 
 Swedish forts were compelled to surrender 
 one after another, and the colonists were 
 forced to submit to the establishment of the 
 rule of the Dutch. They were allowed to 
 
 retain their possessions, and on the whole 
 were treated well. Many of them, however, 
 were dissatisfied with their new rulers, and 
 in the next few years emigrated to Maryland 
 and Virginia. 
 
 The territory now included in the state of 
 New Jersey was also claimed by the Dutch. 
 They built Fort Nassau on the Delaware to 
 establish this claim, but the Swedes were the 
 first to settle the country. Soon after, estab- 
 lishing themselves in Delaware, they crossed 
 over to the eastern side of the river, and 
 built a line of trading-posts extending from 
 Cape May to Burlington. 
 
 GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS. 
 
 New Amsterdam continued to prospet 
 and was even at this early day rapidly becom- 
 ing an important commercial town. Stuy- 
 vesant's arbitrary temper was held in check 
 to a considerable extent by the more liberal 
 policy of the company, who sincerely desired 
 the prosperity of the colony. " Let every 
 peaceful citizen," wrote the directors, "enjoy 
 freedom of conscience ; this maxim has made 
 our city the asylum for fugitives from every 
 land ; tread in its steps, and you shall be 
 blessed." The infant metropolis from the 
 
206 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 first acquired a cosmopolitan character. It 
 contained settlers from every nation of 
 Europe, and even from Africa ; for the Dutch 
 at an early day introduced negro slavery 
 into the colony. 
 
 The people of New Netherland had no 
 political rights, and the West India Com- 
 pany, with every disposition to treat the 
 colony with fairness, did not mean to allow 
 the settlers to have any voice in govern- 
 ing themselves. Town meetings were posi- 
 tively forbidden, and every care was taken to 
 discourage any manifestation of public spirit. 
 Nevertheless the colonists were beginning to 
 feel the promptings of the spirit of democ- 
 racy, and the English settlers who had 
 come into the province were by no means 
 content to remain without the privileges of 
 freemen. A series of disputes at once arose 
 with the fiery old governor, who entertained 
 the most profound contempt for the people, 
 and laughed in scorn at the assertion of their 
 ability to govern themselves. 
 
 Rights of the People Disregarded. 
 
 The discontents went on increasing, how- 
 ever, and at length the people appointed a 
 convention of two delegates from each settle- 
 ment for the purpose of deliberating on the 
 affairs of the colony. Stuyvesant was bit- 
 terly opposed to this assembly, but deemed 
 it best not to seek to prevent its meeting, as 
 such a step would have brought about a 
 collision with the people. The convention 
 addressed the governor as follows : " The 
 States General of the United Provinces are 
 our liege lords ; we submit to the laws of the 
 United Provinces; and our rights and priv- 
 ileges ought to be in harmony with those of 
 the fatherland, for we are a member of the 
 state, and not a subjugated people. We, who 
 have come together from various parts of 
 the world, and are a blended community of 
 various lineage; we, who have, at our own 
 
 expense, exchanged our native lands for the 
 protection of the United Provinces; we, who 
 have transformed the wilderness into fruitful 
 farms, demand that no new laws shall be 
 enacted but with the consent of the people; 
 that none shall be appointed to office but 
 with the approbation of the people; that 
 obscure and obsolete laws shall never be 
 revived." 
 
 This was too much for the governor. He 
 attempted to reason with the deputies, who 
 had the temerity to demand the right of 
 self-government, and finding them firm, dis- 
 solved the convention with the haughty 
 declaration : " We derive our authority from 
 God and the West India Company, not from 
 the pleasure of a few ignorant subjects." 
 The West India Company entirely approved 
 the course of the governor. " We approve 
 the taxes you propose," they wrote to Stuy- 
 vesant ; " have no regard to the consent of 
 the people. Let them indulge no longer the 
 visionary dream that taxes can be imposed 
 only with their consent." 
 
 Neither the company nor the governor 
 could understand that this persistent disre- 
 gard of the rights of the people was aliena- 
 ting all classes of the colonists and making 
 them long for the conquest of New Nether- 
 land by the English as the only means of 
 obtaining the privileges of the freemen of 
 the English colonies. 
 
 Large Land Grant. 
 
 Nor was this an idle hope. For a long 
 time past the English government had seri 
 ously entertained the idea of driving out the 
 Dutch, and adding New Netherland to its 
 American possessions. The English claim 
 extended to the entire Atlantic coast as far 
 south as Florida, and the Dutch were 
 regarded as intruders. Cromwell and his 
 son had each contemplated making such an 
 effort, and at the return of Charles II. to the 
 
THE SETTLEMENT OF NEW YORK. 
 
 20; 
 
 throne the plan was more seriously discussed, 
 and at length put in operation. Charles, 
 although at peace with Holland, and in spite of 
 the charter which he had granted to Connecti - 
 cut, bestowed upon his brother, the Duke of 
 York, afterwards James II., the entire region 
 between the Connecticut and Delaware 
 rivers. This was in February, 1664. A 
 squadron was at once fitted out for the pur- 
 pose of seizing the Dutch colony, and was 
 placed in command of Richard Nicolls, an 
 officer of the Duke of York's household. 
 The fleet touched at Boston to iand the com- 
 missioners sent out by Charles to the New 
 England colonies and to receive reinforce- 
 ments. Governor Winthrop, of Connecticut 
 also embarked on board of it. 
 
 The first intimation Stuyvesant had of the 
 intended robbery was the appearance of the 
 fleet within the Narrows on the twenty- 
 eighth of August, 1664. The next day 
 Nicolls demanded the surrender of the town 
 and fort of New Amsterdam. Stuyvesant, 
 who had made preparations for defending 
 the place, endeavored to resist the demand, 
 but the citizens refused to sustain him and 
 he was obliged to submit. On the eighth of 
 September he embarked his troops for Hol- 
 land and put to sea. The English at once 
 took possession of the fort and town, and 
 their vessels ascending the Hudson, received 
 the submission of the other Dutch forts and 
 settlements along the river. A few weeks 
 later the Dutch and the Swedes along the 
 Delaware submitted to the English, and the 
 entire province was in their hands. The 
 name of New Amsterdam was changed to 
 New York, which name was also bestowed 
 upon the province, and Fort Orange was 
 called Albany, all in honor of the new pro- 
 prietor, Nicolls was appointed governor. 
 
 The English set themselves to work to 
 conciliate the Dutch residents, a task not 
 very difficult, as the English settlers in the 
 
 province had already prepared the way for 
 the change, and the treatment the colony 
 had received from the West India Company 
 had prevented the formation of any decided 
 attachment to the rule of Holland. The 
 English system of government was intro- 
 duced, the towns were allowed to elect theii 
 own magistrates, and the desires of the people 
 for representative government seemed about 
 to be gratified. 
 
 A Strong Alliance. 
 
 The Mohawks had been the friends of the 
 Dutch, and they now readily entered into an 
 alliance with the English as their successors. 
 This alliance remained unbroken all through 
 the colonial period, and during the war of 
 the Revolution ; and in the first-named period 
 proved of the greatest advantage to the 
 colonies, as the Mohawks, whose hatred of 
 the French was deep and unrelenting, proved 
 a formidable obstacle in the way of invading 
 parties from Canada. 
 
 Immediately upon becoming master of th< 
 province, the Duke of York proceeded tt 
 divide it. He sold to Lord Berkeley and 
 Sir George Cartaret, both of whom were 
 already proprietaries of Carolina, the country 
 between the Hudson and the Delaware. This 
 purchase was named New Jersey, in honor 
 of the island of Jersey, of which Cartaret was 
 governor, and corresponded in size very 
 nearly to the present state of that name. 
 The new proprietors made liberal offers to 
 induce emigrants to settle in their territory, 
 and among other things offered them lands 
 free of rent for five years. They granted to 
 the province a political establishment con- 
 sisting of a governor, a council, and assembly 
 of representatives of the people, who were 
 given the power to make the laws necessary 
 for their government. 
 
 The proprietors reserved the right to 
 appoint the governor and judicial officers, 
 
208 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 and to veto the proceedings of the assembly. 
 Negro slavery was also introduced. These 
 offers drew a large number of settlers to 
 New Jersey, and many families came over 
 from Long Island to the new province. The 
 principal settlement was named Elizabeth- 
 town, in honor of Cartaret's wife. The 
 colony prospered; no trouble was experi- 
 enced from the neighboring Indians, whose 
 power had been thoroughly broken by the 
 Dutch, and everything went on happily 
 until the year 1670, when the proprietaries 
 demanded the rents due for the lands held 
 by the settlers. The demand was refused. 
 Many of the colonists had lived in the 
 province under the rule of the Dutch, and 
 had bought their lands from the Indians, and 
 they claimed that the grant of the province 
 to Cartaret could not invalidate these pur- 
 chases, as the king had no claim to the 
 lands which he so lavishly bestowed upon 
 his favorites. Others refused to pay rent 
 because they had made their plantations 
 without any assistance from the proprietaries 
 and did not acknowledge any debt to them. 
 The representative of the proprietaries was 
 obliged to fly for safety, and went to England 
 for assistance in enforcing his demands. 
 
 Insult Added to Injury. 
 
 The Duke of York heard the complaints 
 of the proprietaries, but the only attention he 
 paid to them was to appoint Sir Edmund 
 Andros,who subsequently became infamous 
 for his tyranny in New England, governor of 
 New Jersey. This was a flagrant violation 
 of the rights of Cartaret and Berkeley, and 
 an act thoroughly characteristic of the last 
 of the Stuarts. Berkeley in disgust sold his 
 half of the province, known as West Jersey, 
 to an English Quaker named Edward 
 Byllinge, who subsequently made over his 
 claim to William Penn, who made an ar- 
 rangement with Cartaret to divide the Jer- 
 
 seys. Cartaret retained East Jersey, and the 
 line of division was drawn from the north- 
 west corner of the province to the sea at 
 Little Egg Harbor. This purchase became 
 the cause of considerable litigation in after 
 years, and West Jersey was claimed by Penn 
 sylvania until the next century, when, as we 
 shall see, the dispute was settled. 
 
 Scotch Covenanters. 
 
 New Jersey received a considerable acces- 
 sion to her population in consequence of the 
 re-establishment of episcopacy in Scotland. 
 The Cameronians or Covenanters refused to 
 submit to the authority of the church, and 
 thus became the objects of a cruel persecu- 
 tion. As so many of their faith had done 
 before them, they sought refuge from their 
 persecutors in America, and in 1683 and the 
 following years large numbers of them came 
 over and settled in East Jersey. This portion 
 of the state was the cradle of Presbyter- 
 ianism in America. 
 
 In the meantime matters in New York 
 had not been conducted to the satisfaction 
 of the people. The promises made to the 
 colonists by the English authorities were 
 not kept. The province was treated as the 
 absolute property of the Duke of York, and 
 the governor and his council were consti- 
 tuted the highest authority for both the 
 making and execution of the laws. Repre- 
 sentative government was denied them, arbi- 
 trary taxes were imposed by Governor 
 Nicolls, and the titles to the lands held by 
 the settlers, not even excepting the Dutch 
 patents, were declared invalid, in order that 
 by issuing new title-deeds Nicolls might gain 
 enormous fees. Lovelace, the successor of 
 Nicolls, carried his tyranny to a still greater 
 extent. His system of government is thus 
 summed up : " The method for keeping the 
 people in order is severity, and laying such 
 taxes as may give them liberty for no 
 
THE SETTLEMENT OF NEW YORK. 
 
 209 
 
 thought but how to discharge them." 
 When the people of a number of the towns 
 ventured to remonstrate with the governor, 
 he ordered their petition for the redress of 
 their grievances to be publicly burned before 
 the town house in New York. The settle- 
 ments in Delaware were treated with equal 
 injustice. 
 
 Peace Between England and Holland. 
 
 In 1673, war having broken out between 
 Holland and England, a Dutch squadron 
 entered the harbor of New York. The peo- 
 ple, thoroughly cured of their partiality for 
 English rule by the injustice they had suf- 
 fered, made no resistance and surrendered 
 the town. Its name was changed to New 
 Orange, and the authority of the Dutch was 
 again extended over the province, and also 
 over Long Island, New Jersey and Delaware. 
 The Mohawks sent a deputation of their 
 chiefs to congratulate the Dutch upon the 
 recovery of their colony. The next year, 
 however, peace was made between England 
 and Holland, and the Dutch surrendered 
 their conquests in America. New York 
 passed once more into the hands of the Duke 
 of York, and East Jersey into those of Car- 
 taret. 
 
 In the same year the Duke of York ap- 
 pointed Sir Edmund Andros governor of 
 New York. The eastern settlements of 
 Long Island were anxious to adhere to Con- 
 necticut, but the governor compelled them 
 on pain of being declared rebels to acknowl- 
 edge themselves a part of New York. The 
 claim of the duke extended within the limits 
 of Connecticut as far as the river of that 
 name, and in the summer of 1675 Andros 
 sailed with several armed sloops for that col- 
 ony to establish his authority as far as the 
 river. The government of Connecticut, 
 warned of his purpose, determined to resist 
 him, and Captain Bull, the commander of the 
 14 
 
 fort at Saybrooke, was ordered to pay no at- 
 tention to his claim. Andros, arriving off 
 Saybrooke, hoisted the royal standard and 
 demanded the surrender of the fort. 
 
 A Connecticut Captain. 
 
 Bull instantly ran up the English colors, 
 and refused to comply with the demand. 
 Andros, who was a coward at heart, quailed 
 before the firmness of the Connecticut cap- 
 tain, and abandoned his undertaking and 
 sailed for Long Island. Thus ended the at- 
 tempt of the Duke of York to dismember 
 Connecticut. Andros returned to New York 
 to disgust the people of that province with 
 his tyranny. 
 
 When James II. became king he com- 
 pelled the proprietaries of New Jersey to 
 surrender their claim to the jurisdiction of 
 that province to him, and annexed it to New 
 York. In 1683 the grievances of the people 
 of New York had become so unendurable 
 that James, then Duke of York, deemed it 
 best to conciliate them, and allowed the free- 
 holders to send representatives to an assem- 
 bly. This assembly met in October, 1683, 
 and its first act was to demand the rights of 
 Englishmen. " Supreme legislative power," 
 they declared, " shall forever be and reside in 
 the governor, council and people, met in gen- 
 eral assembly. Every freeholder and freeman 
 shall vote for representation without restraint 
 No freeman shall suffer but by the judgment 
 of his peers; and all trials shall be by a jury 
 of twelve men. No tax shall be assessed, on 
 any pretence whatever, but by the consent of 
 the assembly. No seaman or soldier shall 
 be quartered on the inhabitants against their 
 will. No martial law shall exist. No person 
 professing faith in God by Jesus Christ shall 
 at any time be any ways disquieted or ques- 
 tioned for any difference of opinion." These 
 privileges were conceded by the Duke of 
 York, who solemnly promised not to change 
 
2IO 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 them except for the dvantage of the colony ; 
 but he had scarcely become king when he 
 overturned the liberties he had conceded and 
 made New York a royal province, dependent 
 entirely upon his unrestrained will for its 
 privileges. 
 
 Leisler Holds the Fort. 
 
 The people of New York were Protestants, 
 many of whom had had cause to dread the 
 restoration of the Roman Catholic religion 
 in England. When James gave evidence of 
 his intention to compel the acceptance of that 
 faith by all his subjects, the colonies included, 
 they were greatly discontented. Their fears 
 were increased by the appointment by the 
 kincrof a Roman Catholic as collector ofcus- 
 toms at New York. Nicholson, the royal 
 governor, was also exceedingly unpopular. 
 
 As soon as the news of the overthrow of 
 James II. in England reached New York, 
 Jacob Leisler, the senior captain of the mili- 
 tary companies, was requested by his men 
 to take possession of the fort and assume the 
 management of affairs until the government 
 should be settled by the orders of King 
 William. Leisler was a prominent merchant 
 and was very popular with the common 
 people, but he was opposed by the great land- 
 holders, who were principally Dutch, and by 
 the party devoted to the Church of England. 
 He found himself at the head of about five 
 hundred armed men, and taking possession 
 of the fort avowed his intention to hold it 
 until the will of King William should be 
 known. He was sustained by a large ma- 
 jority of the people of New York, but the 
 aristocratic party, and the churchmen, who 
 hated him, as he was a Presbyterian, de- 
 nounced him as a rebel, and sustained the 
 Council of Nicholson, the last governor 
 appointed by King James, which withdrew 
 to Albany in August, 1689. 
 
 Leisler appointed his son-in-law, Mil- 
 bourne, his secretary. Later in the year the 
 
 people of Albany, being in danger of an 
 attack from the French from Canada, asked 
 aid from New York. Leisler sent Milbourne 
 with a body of troops to their assistance, but 
 the old council refused to acknowledge his 
 authority, or to allow him to assume the 
 command oi the fort, and he went back with 
 his men to New York, leaving the people ot 
 Albany to depend upon their own exertions 
 for the defeat of the French. In their neces- 
 sity they asked for and received aid from 
 Connecticut. 
 
 Blood Runs High. 
 
 In December letters from the English 
 government were received, addressed to 
 Nicholson, or, in his absence, to u such as, 
 for the time being, take care for preserving 
 the peace and administering the law" in 
 New York. A commission for Nicholson 
 accompanied these documents ; but he was 
 on his way to England, and Leisler, who 
 was temporarily in authority in New York, 
 regarded his position as confirmed by the 
 letters from England, and caused himself to 
 be proclaimed governor. He ordered the 
 members of the old council at Albany to be 
 arrested, and summoned an assembly to pro- 
 vide for the wants of the colony. 
 
 Upon first taking charge of affairs Leisler 
 had addressed a letter to King William set- 
 ting forth his reasons for his action, and ask- 
 ing the king to make known his royal pleasure 
 concerning the colony. No answer was sent 
 by the king to this communication, but on the 
 thirtieth of January, 1691, a ship suddenly 
 arrived in the harbor having on board a com- 
 pany of English soldiers, commanded by a 
 Captain Ingoldsby, who had been sent by 
 Colonel Henry Sloughter, whom King Wil- 
 liam had appointed governor of New York. 
 
 The aristocratic party at once rallied around 
 Ingoldsby as their leader, and that officer 
 demanded of Leisler the surrender of the 
 
THE SETTLEMENT OF NEW YORK. 
 
 211 
 
 fort. Leisler insisted that he should produce 
 his authority for such a demand, and, as 
 none could be shown, refused to give up the 
 fort, but offered Ingoldsby every assistance 
 for himself and his men, and avowed his 
 intention to submit to Sloughter upon his 
 arrival. In the time which elapsed between 
 the arrivals of Ingoldsby and the new gov- 
 ernor party spirit ran so high that a collision 
 occurred between the soldiers and the people, 
 in which one man was wounded. 
 
 Charged with Treason. 
 
 Sloughter reached New York on the nine- 
 teenth of March, 1691. Leisler at once sent 
 messengers to receive his orders, but the mes- 
 sengers were detained. The next morning 
 Leisler addressed a letter to Sloughter, ask- 
 ing to whom he should deliver up the fort. 
 Sloughter returned no answer to this letter, 
 but ordered Ingoldsby to " arrest Leisler 
 and the persons called his council." 
 
 Leisler, Milbourne, and six others were 
 arrested and immediately arraigned before a 
 tribunal composed of their inveterate enemies, 
 on a charge of treason. This was a frivolous 
 pretence, for it was well known that Leisler, 
 who was an enthusiastic admirer of King 
 William, had never dreamed of denying his 
 authority ; but it was as good a charge as 
 any other, as the fate of the prisoners was 
 decided from the first. The prisoners denied 
 the authority of the court, and refusing to 
 plead before it, appealed to the king. The 
 presiding officer of the court was the chief 
 justice of New York, the infamous Joseph 
 Dudley, who had been driven out of New 
 England by the people whose liberties he 
 had outraged. The prisoners, in spite of 
 their appeal, were condemned to death. 
 
 Sloughter was unwilling to disregard their 
 appeal as entirely as the court had done, and 
 wished to leave the matter to the king ; but 
 the enemies of Leisler were resolved upon 
 
 his death. Taking advantage of the known 
 weakness of the governor, they made him 
 drunk at a dinner party, and in this state 
 induced him to sign the death warrant of the 
 prisoners. The next morning at daybreak 
 (May 16th) Leisler and Milbourne were hur- 
 ried from their weeping families to the gal 
 lows, to be executed for treason. 
 
 Judicial Murder. 
 
 In spite of a pouring rain, the people who 
 had gotten news of the tragedy crowded 
 around the place of execution to cheer their 
 martyrs in their last moments. " Weep not 
 for us, who are departing to our God," said 
 Leisler to the multitude. Milbourne saw 
 standing among the crowd one of the met 
 who had been prominent in their con- 
 demnation, and cried out to him : " Robert 
 Livingston, I will implead thee for this at 
 the bar of God." Then turning to the peo- 
 ple, he said : " I die for the king and queen, 
 and for the Protestant religion, in which I 
 was born and bred. Father, into thy hands 
 I commend my spirit." The judicial murder 
 was then completed, and New York's first 
 martyrs laid down their lives in behalf of 
 the rights of the people. 
 
 The popular party was now more than ever 
 embittered against the aristocratic class, and 
 the principles which Leisler and Milbourne 
 upheld were more than ever insisted upon. 
 Their friends, " who were distinguished 
 always by their zeal for popular power, for 
 toleration, for opposition to the doctrine of 
 legitimacy," continued the struggle, and at 
 length succeeded in making their principles 
 the law of the colony. 
 
 The royalist assembly, while denying to 
 the people an equality with themselves in 
 political matters, were yet indisposed to sur- 
 render to the crown the independence of the 
 colony, and, with their successors, insisted 
 upon the right of self-government, and the 
 
212 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 regulation of taxation by the assembly, with 
 such firmness that in 1705 Queen Anne 
 yielded so far as to permit the assembly to 
 appoint " its own treasurer to take charge of 
 extraordinary supplies." 
 
 arts to prevent this act of justice. As for 
 Governor Sloughter, who was at the best but 
 a poor weak adventurer, he died of the effects 
 of his dissipation six months after the execu- 
 tion of his victims. 
 
 QUEEN 
 
 The memory of Leisler and Milbourne 
 was vindicated after their death. The son of 
 the former made the appeal to the king which 
 had been denied his father, and Parliament 
 at length reversed the attainder under the 
 charge of treason, and restored their estates 
 to their families. Dudley exerted all his 
 
 ANNE. 
 
 In 1692 Benjamin Fletcher was appointed 
 to succeed Sloughter He was an officer c f 
 the royal army, and was as passionate and 
 avaricious as he was incompetent in other 
 respects. He was a firm ally of the aristo- 
 cratic party, and a bitter foe to popular lib- 
 erty. In 1693, in order to assist New York 
 
THE SETTLEMENT OF NEW YORK. 
 
 21* 
 
 against the attacks of the French in Canada, 
 all the colonies were required to contribute 
 their quota of troops to her defence. An 
 effort was also made to place the militia of 
 New Jersey and Connecticut under the 
 orders of the governor of New York. The 
 authorities of Connecticut, however, were 
 resolved not to relinquish the control of 
 their militia, which would have been to 
 sacrifice their rights secured by the charter. 
 In order to enforce his authority, Gov- 
 ernor Fletcher repaired to Hartford, where 
 the assembly of Connecticut was in session. 
 At the time of his arrival a company of 
 militia was engaged in training in the town. 
 Governor Fletcher rode up to this force ; but 
 its commander, Captain Wadsworth, paid no 
 attention to him, and did not even acknowl- 
 edge his presence. Fletcher, who had 
 boasted that he would not stir from the 
 colony until he was obeyed, ordered his 
 secretary to read his commission in the 
 hearing of the troops. 
 
 " Silence ! 
 
 Music! Music !" 
 
 As the secretary commenced to read, 
 Wadsworth ordered the drums to be beaten, 
 and the secretary's voice was drowned. 
 *• Silence !" cried Fletcher; "begin again 
 tvith the commission." "Music! music!" 
 ordered Wadsworth, the same man who had 
 hid the charter from Governor Andros. The 
 drummers began again, and the governor, in 
 a rage, ordered them to cease their music. 
 Wadsworth sharply commanded the bewil- 
 dered musicians to go on with their drum- 
 ming, and then turning upon Fletcher, said 
 to him fiercely : " If I am interrupted again, 
 I will make daylight shine through you." 
 The voice and manner of the man con- 
 vinced the governor that he was in earnest, 
 and he went back to New York, satisfied of 
 the impossibility of bringing the Connecticut 
 militia undei his orders. 
 
 New York was the most northern colony 
 in which the authority of the Church of 
 England was established. A number of its 
 people were members of that communion, 
 and in the colonial government the influence 
 of that church was predominant. The vast 
 majority of the people, however, were hostile 
 to it, and it was not until 1695 that Governor 
 Fletcher was able to obtain for it anything 
 like favor from the assembly. The repre- 
 sentatives of the people were fearful that if 
 it obtained a firm footing among them, the 
 British government might bestow upon it a 
 power which would be dangerous to the 
 other denominations. Naturally it enjoyed 
 the favor of the home government, and 
 engrossed all the provision made by England 
 for religious matters in the colony. 
 
 Struggle for Liberty. 
 
 Lord Cornbury, the royal governor, at- 
 tempted in 1705 to silence a Presbyterian 
 minister for preaching without a license from 
 the governor ; but a jury, composed of 
 Episcopalians, acquitted the prisoner. The 
 same governor connived at the seizure by 
 the Episcopalians of a church in Jamaica, 
 which had been built by the whole town ; 
 but the colonial court restored it to its 
 rightful owners. The spirit of popular lib- 
 erty and toleration was growing rapidly in 
 New York, and its colonial history is the 
 story of a constant struggle between the 
 people and the royal governors for the asser- 
 tion and maintenance of their rights. Nearly 
 all the governors regarded their position as 
 but a means of enriching themselves, and 
 systematically defrauded both the king and 
 the colony. 
 
 By 1732 the population of New York City 
 numbered a little less than nine thousand 
 souls. In that year a case of the deepest 
 interest occurred in that city. John Peter 
 Zenger had established a newspaper called 
 
214 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 the Weekly Journal, which ventured to cen- 
 sure the arbitrary action of the governor and 
 assembly in levying illegal taxes upon the 
 colony. This was a bold step, for until now 
 no newspaper had dared to criticise the 
 action of the government. Cosby, the gov- 
 ernor of New York, resolving to make an 
 example of the offender, arrested Zenger on 
 the charge of libel and caused his paper to 
 be publicly burned. Zenger employed two 
 lawyers to defend him, and these increased 
 the anger of the government by denying the 
 competency of the court, inasmuch as the 
 appointment of the chief justice, Delancy, 
 had been made by Cosby without the con- 
 sent of the council, and was therefore illegal. 
 The court at once struck their names from 
 its list of attorneys, and this arbitrary action 
 so intimidated the remaining members of 
 the bar that Zenger found it impossible to 
 procure counsel. 
 
 Famous " Quaker Lawyer. 
 
 In this helpless condition he was put on 
 tr»al, and the court had actually begun its 
 proceedings when a stranger, a venerable 
 and noble-looking man, entered the room 
 >md took his seat at the bar. He announced 
 his name to the court, and stated that he had 
 come to act as counsel for the prisoner. A 
 murmur of admiration greeted the announce- 
 ment of his name. He was Andrew Hamilton, 
 speaker of the assembly of Pennsylvania, the 
 famous "Quaker lawyer" of Philadelphia. 
 In the trial which ensued, Hamilton offered 
 to prove the truth of the alleged libel, but 
 
 was not allowed to do so ; the chief justice 
 quoting English precedents in support of his 
 decision. 
 
 Hamilton then made an eloquent appeal 
 to the jury, declaring that they of their 
 own knowledge knew the statements of 
 Zenger's paper to be true, and urged them 
 to maintain the great principles of the free- 
 dom of the press and liberty of speech 
 throughout the colonies, which principles, 
 and not John Peter Zenger, he solemnly 
 declared were on trial before them. In spite 
 of the unfavorable charge of the judge, the 
 jury brought in a unanimous verdict of ac- 
 quittal, which was announced amid the cheers 
 of the people. Thus while the freedom of 
 the press was still in doubt in England, and 
 thirty-seven years before the famous trial for 
 libel of the publisher of the Letters Junius 
 established it in the mother country, the 
 people of New York declared themselves its 
 guardians, and struck down the effort of the 
 royal power to impose shackles upon their 
 most vigilant defender. 
 
 In 1702 the proprietaries of New Jersey 
 surrendered their rights of jurisdiction to the 
 crown, and Queen Anne united the two Jer- 
 seys in one province, and placed it under the 
 governor of New York. It was given a sep- 
 arate assembly, but this concession of partial 
 independence of its neighbor did not suit the 
 province, and after many protests it was 
 given its own governor in the person of 
 Lewis Morris, in 1708. During the rest oi 
 the colonial period it remained a loyal 
 province. 
 
CHAPTER XVII 
 
 Colonization of Pennsylvania 
 
 The Quakers — Their Origin and Doctrines — William Penn — Becomes a Quaker — Is Persecuted for His Religious 
 Opinions — Becomes Interested in American Colonization — Purchases West Jersey from the Proprietor — Conceives the 
 Idea of Founding a Free State in America — Purchases Pennsylvania from Charles II. — Conditions of His Charter — 
 Sends Out a Colony — Arrival of Penn in America — Philadelphia Founded — Penn's Treaty with the Indians — Religious 
 Toleration Guaranteed — Penn's Relations with His Colonists — Rapid Growth of Pennsylvania in Population and 
 Prosperity — William Penn and James II. — Renewal of Penn's Troubles — William III. Declares Pennsylvania a Royal 
 Province — Penn is Vindicated and Restored to His Proprietary Rights — His Return to Pennsylvania— Character of 
 the Settlers of the Province — Penn Goes Back to England — Efforts to Deprive Him of His Possessions — His Death. 
 
 ONE of the most remarkable results 
 of the English Reformation was 
 the rise and growth of the Society 
 of Friends, or Quakers, as they 
 came to be called. Discarding what seemed 
 to them superfluous and unnecessary forms 
 in religion, they confined themselves to a 
 simpler and more primitive expression of 
 their faith. Believing that the only evil a 
 Christian should resist is the evil of his own 
 heart, they opposed no resistance to perse- 
 cution or to ill-treatment from their fellow- 
 men ; and as servants of the Prince of 
 Peace, were unchangeably opposed to war and 
 bloodshed. They held the doctrine of the 
 Trinity : that we obtain salvation by the 
 atoning blood of Christ ; that man was cre- 
 ated a free and responsible agent ; that he 
 forfeited his right to the blessings of the 
 Creator by his fall, and will owe his restor- 
 ation to his lost estate to the mercy of God 
 and the blood of Christ; that the Holy 
 Scriptures are the work of inspiration, and a 
 good rule of life and faith. 
 
 With them the test of Christianity was not 
 a man's standing in the church, but the 
 answer of a good conscience ; the sense of 
 true inward communion between the soul of 
 the individual and God. They conducted 
 their worship in silence, and regarded all 
 
 their members as sent by God to preach His 
 Gospel ; therefore, any one, even women, was 
 free to speak in their meetings the message 
 which came to him from the Holy Spirit. 
 They denied that the right to preach was 
 restricted to any particular class, and refused 
 to acknowledge the authority of the regular 
 clergy. Oaths were regarded as unlawful 
 for Christian men, and temperance and the 
 utmost simplicity in all things were enjoined 
 upon their people. They refused to recog- 
 nize the social distinctions which prevailed 
 in the world, though they admitted the 
 power of the magistrates to enforce the laws, 
 and regarded all men as equals. Their dress 
 was simple and in proportion to the means 
 of the wearer, and their lives were blame- 
 less. They admitted the right of all men to 
 worship God in their own way, and thus 
 extended to all others the perfect toleration 
 they claimed for themselves. 
 
 The founder of this sect was the good 
 George Fox, the son of a weaver of Leices- 
 tershire, and " by his mother descended 
 from the stock of the martyrs." He began 
 to teach his doctrines about the middle of 
 the seventeenth century, and at first his 
 converts were people of the humbler classes 
 of England. He was met with a determined 
 opposition from both the established church 
 
 215 
 
2l6 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 and the Presbyterians, and was imprisoned, 
 set in the stocks, cruelly beaten and other- 
 wise persecuted, and driven from place to 
 place. Yet he persevered, and his doctrines 
 began to spread. Distressed by the perse- 
 cutions to which his followers were sub- 
 jected, he visited America after the restora- 
 tion of Charles II., in the hope of finding 
 there a place of refuge for his people, but 
 could find none. Puritan New England was 
 hostile to his doctrines, and the power of 
 the Church of England was strong enough 
 in the southern colonies to defeat his object. 
 
 The Founder of Pennsylvania. 
 
 Among Fox's converts were a few from 
 the higher classes of English society. One 
 of these was destined to be, next to its 
 founder, the greatest benefactor of his faith, 
 and one of the choice instruments of the 
 Almighty in the settlement and Christianiza- 
 tion of America. This was William Penn. 
 He was the son and heir of Admiral Sir 
 William Penn, one of the most distinguished 
 naval commanders of England. The admiral 
 desired for his son the advantages which his 
 high position would readily secure to him, but 
 the young man at an early day, happening to 
 converse with a simple-minded Quaker, 
 became so deeply impressed with his prin- 
 ciples that he adopted them as his own. 
 This greatly annoyed the father, but suppos- 
 ing that it was a mere boyish notion which 
 his son would outgrow, William was sent to 
 study at the University of Oxford, and after 
 leaving that institution was made to travel 
 through Europe to improve his mind and to 
 remove his tendency to Quakerism. 
 
 William returned to England, after an 
 absence of two years, greatly improved in 
 /mind, but still true to his religious convic- 
 tions. In 1666, while traveling in Ireland, 
 Penn met his old friend, Thomas Loe, and 
 heard him speak of the glorious triumph of 
 
 the faith of a Christian over the adversities 
 of the world. His enthusiasm was once 
 more awakened to such an extent that he 
 from that moment began to seek to draw 
 others into the communion which had given 
 him so much happiness. His course gave 
 offence to the authorities and he was impris- 
 oned. He addressed a remonstrance to the 
 viceroy of Ireland, in which he declared : 
 " Religion is my crime and my innocence ; 
 it makes me a prisoner to malice, but my 
 own freeman." 
 
 Being liberated, he went back home, but 
 only to meet with mockery and persecution. 
 He was ridiculed by his companions of his 
 own rank in life, and it was a common jest 
 in society, says Pepys, that " William Penn 
 was a Quaker again, or some very melan- 
 choly thing." His father, disappointed and 
 indignant at the failure of his hopes, turned 
 him out of his house without a penny; but 
 his mother, truer to her nature, supplied him 
 with sufficient funds to relieve his most 
 pressing wants. 
 
 Thrust Into Prison. 
 
 Penn now began to defend his doctrines 
 through the press, and thus brought them 
 into greater prominence. This soon made 
 him the victim of the ecclesiastical authori- 
 ties, and the Bishop of London threatened 
 him with imprisonment for life if he did not 
 recant his doctrines. He answered firmly : 
 " Then my prison shall be my grave." He 
 was committed to the Tower on a charge of 
 heresy and kept in close confinement. 
 Charles II., naturally kind-hearted, was 
 touched by his firmness, and sent the learned 
 Stillingfleet, himself a man of humanity, to 
 reason with him. " The Tower," said Penn, 
 "is to me the worst argument in the world." 
 At the end of a year his father's friend, the 
 Duke of York, procured his release, fof the 
 consistency cf the young man had won back 
 
COLONIZATION OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 217 
 
 for him the affection and sympathy of the 
 stern old admiral. 
 
 Every effort was now made to draw 
 William Penn away from his faith. A high 
 rank in the royal navy, the favor of the king, 
 and many other inducements were held out 
 to him, but he refused them all and remained 
 true to his principles. In 
 less than a year after his 
 release from the Tower 
 he was arrested for hav- 
 ing spoken at a Quaker 
 meeting. He protested 
 his right to do this and 
 declared that no power 
 on earth should prevent 
 him from worshiping the 
 God who made him. 
 
 He was placed on trial 
 foi his offence, and bold- 
 ly demanded to know on 
 what law the indictment 
 against him was founded. 
 ' On the common law," 
 replied the. recordei. 
 'Where is that law?" 
 asked Penn. " The law 
 which is not in being, fat 
 from being common, is 
 no law at all." He con- 
 ducted his own defence, 
 and as he was pleading 
 earnestly for his rights 
 as an Englishman, was 
 hurried out of court. He 
 appealed to the jury to 
 remember that they were 
 his judges. The jury, 
 • in spite of an unfavor- 
 able charge from the judge, brought in a 
 verdict of acquittal. The court ordered 
 them back to their room, with the angry 
 declaration : " We will have a verdict, by 
 the help of God, or you shall starve for it." 
 
 " You are Englishmen," cried Penn to the 
 jurors, as they were retiring: "mind your 
 privilege; give not away your right." 
 
 At last, after being kept two days and 
 nights without food, the jury repeated their 
 verdict of " not guilty," and were fined 
 by the court for daring to assert their indc 
 
 WILLIAM PENN. 
 
 pendence. Penn was fined for contempt of 
 court, and sent back to prison. His fine was 
 soon discharged by his father, who died 
 shortly afterwards. " Son William," said 
 the dying admiral, to whom earthly honors 
 
218 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 now appeared in their true light, " if you 
 and your friends keep to your plain way of 
 preaching and living, you will make an end 
 of the priests." 
 
 Penn was now nearly twenty-six years 
 old, and had inherited from his father a 
 handsome estate. He continued to explain 
 find defend his doctrines through the press, 
 and in 1671 was arrested and sentenced to 
 six months' imprisonment in Newgate. 
 From his prison he addressed a noble plea 
 to Parliament and to the nation for tolera- 
 tion in all matters of faith. 
 
 The Wife of Penn. 
 
 Upon his release from prison, Penn trav- 
 elled in Holland and Germany, and upon his 
 return to England, in 1673, married a woman 
 of great beauty, whose noble character ren- 
 dered her a fitting companion to him. He 
 took no part in public affairs until the 
 imprisonment of George Fox, upon his 
 return to England to America, called him 
 once more to the defence of his brethren. 
 Fox being released, he and Penn and several 
 others travelled through Holland and a part 
 of Germany, seeking to make converts to 
 their faith— an effort in which they were 
 very successful among the Dutch and Ger- 
 man peasantry. Returning to England, he 
 once more appealed to Parliament, but with- 
 out success, to do justice to the Quakers, 
 and grant them the toleration to which they 
 were entitled. 
 
 Despairing of success in England, Penn 
 .low directed the whole of his energies to 
 securing a home for his persecuted brethren 
 in the new world. A number of Quakers 
 were already settled along the banks of the 
 Delaware and in New Jersey, an J in 1675 
 the embarrassments of Edward By Hinge, who 
 had purchased Lord Berkeley's interest in 
 New Jersey, obliged him to sell his share of 
 that province. It was purchased by William 
 
 Penn, Gawcn Lourie and Nicholas Lucas, 
 for the benefit of the Quakers This placed 
 the Friends in possession of an asylum, but 
 it left them more at the mercy of the English 
 government and church than they desired to 
 be, and New Jersey was divided into two 
 equal parts ; Cartaret, Berkeley's former 
 partner, retaining East Jersey, and West 
 Jersey becoming the property of the 
 Quakers. 
 
 The People Rule. 
 
 This was accomplished in 1676, and in 
 March of the following year a government 
 resting upon the will of the people, and 
 securing to the inhabitants protection and 
 equality in all their political and religious 
 rights and privileges, was set up in West 
 Jersey. The English Quakers came over to 
 the new province in great numbers, with the 
 good wishes of Charles II., and peaceful 
 relations were established with the Indians. 
 Byllinge, who had retained some interest in 
 the province, now began to be troublesome, 
 and claimed the right to nominate the deputy 
 governor. The people denied his claim, and 
 at the instigation of William Penn, amended 
 their constitution so as to place the choice 
 of all their officers in their own hands, and 
 then elected a governor. 
 
 Penn had now become deeply interested 
 in the colonization of America, and wished 
 to secure for his faith a wider domain than 
 West Jersey. He had inherited from his 
 father a claim against the English govern- 
 ment amounting to sixteen chousand pounds. 
 He now proposed to exchange this claim for 
 a grant of territory in America. Charles II., 
 who was always in want of money, and who 
 never set much value upon the lands of the 
 new world, readily accepted his offer, as it 
 was urged by Lords North, Halifax and 
 Sunderland, and the Duke of York, who 
 were firm friends of William Penn. The 
 
COLONIZATION OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 219 
 
 king, in 1681, granted to Penn a district 
 lying west of the Delaware River, and corre- 
 sponding very nearly to territory embraced 
 in the present state of Pennsylvania, which 
 name the king bestowed upon it in honor of 
 the proprietor. 
 
 The Duke of York claimed Delaware as 
 his own property, and Penn, who wished to 
 have free access to the sea, purchased it of 
 him the next year. The territory was granted 
 to Penn as absolute proprietor; the people 
 were secured in the right of self-government; 
 religious equality was guaranteed to all; the 
 acts of the colonial legislature were to bo 
 submitted to the king and council, who had 
 the power to annul them if contrary to the 
 law of England ; the power of levying 
 customs was reserved to Parliament ; and no 
 taxes were to be imposed upon the people 
 save by the colonial legislature or by Parlia- 
 ment. 
 
 Settlers Throng the Wilderness. 
 
 Penn then invited all persons who desired 
 to do so to settle in Pennsylvania, and in a 
 proclamation declared his intention to leave 
 the settlers free to make their own laws. " I 
 propose," he said, " to leave myself and suc- 
 cessors no power of doing mischief, that the 
 will of no one man may hinder the good of a 
 whole country." "God," he declared, "has 
 furnished me with a better resolution, and has 
 given me His grace to keep it." 
 
 His resolution was soon tested. Soon 
 after he obtained his patent a company of 
 traders offered him six thousand pounds and 
 an annual payment of a stipulated sum for 
 the monopoly of the Indian traffic between 
 the Delaware and the Susquehanna. He 
 had already straitened himself very much by 
 his expenditures for his colony, and his 
 fimily had been obliged to endure some 
 deprivations in consequence. The offer was 
 tempting, but he declined it firmly. What 
 
 was free to him should be free to every 
 inhabitant of Pennsylvania, and he would 
 derive no advantage at the expense of his 
 people. 
 
 Liberal Education. 
 
 A company was collected and sent out to 
 Pennsylvania, under William Markham, 
 Penn's nephew, and the personal character 
 of the proprietor of the colony was deemed 
 by all a sufficient guarantee for the protec- 
 tion of their liberties. Penn intended fol- 
 lowing this company as soon as he could, 
 and in the meantime enjoined Markham to 
 continue the establishment already existing 
 along the Delaware, and to govern in accord- 
 ance with the laws of England. In 1682 he 
 prepared to go out to America to superin- 
 tend the formal establishment of his colony. 
 As he was about to sail, he wrote to his 
 wife, to whom he was devoted with all the 
 ardor of his youth : " Live low and spar- 
 ingly till my debts be paid ; I desire not 
 riches, but to owe nothing; be liberal to the 
 poor and kind to all." With regard to their 
 children, he wrote: " Let their learning be 
 liberal ; spare no cost, for by such parsimony 
 all is lost that is saved." 
 
 Penn took out with him one hundred 
 emigrants, and reached Newcastle on the 
 twenty-seventh of October, 16S2, after a long 
 and trying voyage. In the "presence of the 
 Swedish, Dutch and English settlers, who 
 welcomed him with joy, he took formal pjs- 
 session of the province, which was surren- 
 dered to him by the agents of the Duke of 
 York. He pledged himself to the people to 
 grant them liberty of conscience and all their 
 civil privileges. From Newcastle Penn went 
 up the river to Chester, where a settlement 
 had been formed by emigrants from the 
 north of England, who had preceded him. 
 
 Early in November, accompanied by a few 
 friends, Penn ascended the Delaware in an 
 
220 
 
COLONIZATION OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 221 
 
 open boat to the mouth of the Schuylkill, 
 and passing a little distance beyond this, 
 landed on the beautiful site now occupied by 
 the city of Philadelphia. The place at 
 which he landed was long known as the 
 "Blue Anchor Landing," from a tavern of 
 that name which stood there. A little later, 
 under a spreading elm, Penn met the chiefs 
 of the neighboring Indian tribes and entered 
 into a treaty of peace and friendship with 
 them. This treaty was confirmed by no 
 oath, but it remained unbroken for fifty 
 years, and as neither side sought to evade its 
 obligations, which were simply of peace and 
 good will, the colony of Pennsylvania 
 escaped in its earlier years the horrors of a 
 savage warfare from which the other settlers 
 suffered. " We will live," said the Indian 
 sachems, " in love with William Penn and 
 his children as long as the moon and the 
 sun shall endure." They kept their word. 
 " Penn came without arms ; he declared his 
 purpose to abstain from violence ; he had no 
 message but peace ; and not a drop of 
 Quaker blood was ever shed by an Indian." 
 The scene of the treaty was at Shacka- 
 maxon, now Kensington, in the city of Phil- 
 adelphia. 
 
 Philadelphia Laid Out. 
 
 On the pleasant tract lying between the 
 Delaware and the Schuylkill, which was 
 purchased from the Swedes, who had on 
 their part purchased it from the Indians, 
 Penn in 1683 laid out the capital of his 
 province, which he named Philadelphia, 
 the City of Brotherly Love, in token of the 
 principles which he meant should constitute 
 the common law of his possessions. It was 
 abundantly supplied with streams of pure 
 water and was admirably situated for pur- 
 poses of trade. He did not wish it to be 
 built after the manner of European cities, 
 but designed it to be a " greene country 
 
 town, gardens round each house, that it 
 might never be burned, and always be 
 wholesome." The streets were laid off by 
 marking their course through the primitive 
 forest by blazing the trees, and the building 
 of dwellings was begun. In the first year 
 of Penn's arrival in the colony twenty-three 
 ships with emigrants arrived in Pennsylvania. 
 In three years after its foundation Philadel- 
 phia contained upwards of six hundred 
 houses, and the colony had a population of 
 ten thousand. The Indians proved the firm 
 friends of the colonists and 'supplied them 
 with wild fowl and venison in return for 
 articles of European manufacture. 
 
 
 
 
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 ItMATT 6H0UM) 1 
 
 
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 IuNBM«H FAITH | ^ 
 
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 .--T/^^gf^gf^-JyHsfa" • 
 
 PENN TREATY MONUMENT. 
 
 Penn from the first refused to retain in his 
 hands the exercise of the vast powers with 
 which the charter granted him by the king 
 invested him. As early as December, 1682, 
 he convened a general convention of the 
 people and gave them a charter of liberties 
 which Bancroft thus sums up : " God was 
 declared the only Lord of conscience ; the 
 first day of the week was reserved as a day 
 of leisure, for the ease of the creation. The 
 rule of equality was introduced into families 
 by abrogating the privileges of primogeni- 
 ture. The word of an honest man was 
 
222 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 evidence without an oath. The mad spirit 
 of speculation was checked by a system of 
 strict accountability, applied to factors and 
 agents. 
 
 " Every man liable to civil burdens pos- 
 sessed the right of suffrage; and, without 
 regard to sect, every Christian was eligible to 
 office. No tax or custom could be levied 
 but by law. The Quaker is a spiritualist; 
 the pleasures of the senses, masks, revels and 
 
 THE OLD SWEDES' CHURCH, BUILT IN 164I 
 
 stage plays, not less than bull-baits and 
 cock-fights, were prohibited. Murder was 
 the only crime punishable by death. Mar- 
 riage was esteemed a civil contract ; adultery 
 a felony. The Quakers had suffered wrong 
 from imprisonment; the false accuser was 
 liable to double damages. Every prison for 
 convicts was made a workhouse. There 
 were neither poor-rates nor tithes. The 
 
 Swedes, and Finns, and Dutch were invested 
 with the liberties of Englishmen." * In 
 March, 1683, the first general assembly of 
 Pennsylvania met at Philadelphia. " I am 
 ready," said Penn to this body, " to settle 
 such foundations as may be for your happi- 
 ness." 
 
 Under the guidance of the founder of the 
 colony, the assembly established a constitu- 
 tion which made Pennsylvania emphatically 
 a free state. A government was es- 
 tablished, consisting of a governor, a 
 legislative council and an assembly 
 composed of representatives of the 
 people. As the charter made the pro- 
 prietor responsible to the king for the 
 legislation of the colony, no act of 
 legislation was to be valid until it had 
 passed the great seal of the province. 
 With this exception, the entire 
 power of the province was left in the 
 hands of the people. " But for the 
 hereditary office of proprietary, Penn- 
 sylvania had been a representative 
 democracy. In Maryland the council 
 was named by Lord Baltimore ; in 
 Pennsylvania, by the people. In 
 Maryland, the power of appointing 
 magistrates, and all, even the subor- 
 dinate executive officers, rested solely 
 with the proprietary; in Pennsylvania, 
 William Penn could not appoint a 
 justice or a constable; every executive 
 officer, except the highest, was elected 
 by the people or their representatives ; 
 and the governor could perform no public act 
 but with the consent of the council. Lord 
 Baltimore had a revenue derived from the 
 export of tobacco, the staple of Maryland ; 
 and his colony was burdened with taxes; a 
 similar revenue was offered to William Penn 
 and declined, and tax-gatherers were un- 
 known in his province." 
 
 * Bancroft's History of the United States, vol. ii., p. 385. 
 
COLONIZATION OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 223 
 
 Thus did the "Quaker King" complete 
 one of the sublimest surrenders of political 
 power in all the annals of history. " I de- 
 sired," he said, in his grand simplicicy, " to 
 show men as free and happy as they can be." 
 
 The colony improved rapidly. Men were 
 attracted from all parts of Great Britain, 
 from Ireland, the Low countries, from Ger- 
 many and Sweden, to Pennsylvania. The 
 personal character of William Penn, not less 
 than the advantages afforded them, induced 
 
 Lord Baltimore claimed Delaware as a part 
 of the country granted to him. Penn sus- 
 tained his claim to that region by pleading 
 the actual settlement of the Dutch previous 
 to the grant to Lord Baltimore, and his pur 
 chase of the rights which the Duke of York 
 had derived from the Dutch. The English 
 courts decided, in 1685, that Delaware did 
 not constitute a part of Maryland and sus- 
 tained Penn's claim. The boundaries of the 
 two colonies were settled by a compromise. 
 
 , 
 
 ej^^WJ s>^- 
 
 INDIAN AMUSEMENTS CANOE-RACE BETWEEN SQUAWS. 
 
 them to settle in the happy colony. Phila- 
 delphia especially grew with rapidity, and 
 already gave promise of becoming the prin- 
 cipal city of colonial America. Schools 
 were opened and liberally encouraged, for 
 ignorance had no advocates in this thrifty 
 community. The printing press was also 
 set up and put to work. In August, 1684, 
 Penn, having successfully established his 
 colony, took leave of his people and returned 
 to Ens-land. 
 
 During Penn's absence in England the 
 people of Delaware began to be restless. 
 They presented to the proprietary a list of 
 grievances, and were granted by Penn a sep- 
 arate government. 
 
 The fall of James II., who continued the 
 friend of William Penn, though so widely 
 opposed to him in religion, was the beginning 
 of trouble for vhe proprietor of Pennsylvania. 
 Penn did not relinquish his friendship for the 
 dethroned king, and his enemies made this 
 
224 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 constancy, which in no way interfered with 
 his loyalty to William and Mary, the means 
 of injuring him in the estimation of the new 
 king. William was induced to believe the 
 charges of disloyalty which were brought 
 against Penn, and deprived him of his patent 
 and proprietorship of Pennsylvania. Penn 
 was also imprisoned several times for dis- 
 loyalty. 
 
 Absurd Teachings. 
 
 During this period the colony was much 
 annoyed by a disturbance led by one George 
 Keith, who pushed the Quaker doctrine of 
 non-resistance to the verge of absurdity. He 
 argued that no Quaker could with consist- 
 ency take part in public affairs as a magis- 
 trate or legislator. As the liberties of the 
 colony were the work of Quakers the infer- 
 ence was plain. If Keith was right, then 
 Pennsylvania had no lawful government, and 
 must apply to the king for one. Keith pro- 
 duced such trouble in the colony that 
 even the tolerant Quakers vvere at length 
 obliged to lay hands on him. He was tried 
 and fined for using seditious language ; but 
 lest their action should seem to be a punish- 
 ment of opinion the Quaker magistrates 
 remitted the fine. He subsequently became 
 a clergyman of the English church. 
 
 This disturbance gave the king a pretext 
 for declaring Pennsylvania a royal province, 
 and in April, 1693, Benjamin Fletcher was 
 appointed by William and Mary governor of 
 Pennsylvania, to which province Delaware 
 was reunited. The people, indignant at this 
 invasion of their rights, attempted no resist- 
 ance, but refused to recognize the royalist 
 governor. 
 
 Some of the magistrates resigned their 
 offices upon his arrival. Upon the meeting 
 of the assembly the hostility to Fletcher 
 increased. The members of the assembly 
 declared the laws they had made under the 
 charter granted to Penn to be valid, and 
 
 refused to have new ones, or recognize any 
 other authority. A charter granted by King 
 Charles was, they maintained, as valid as one 
 granted by King William, and they refused to 
 re-enact their old laws, as such a course would 
 be to brand them as illegal. Fletcher de- 
 manded that the assembly should appropriate 
 a sum for the defence of New York against 
 the Indians. His demand was flatly refused. 
 The assembly was willing, however, to make 
 an appropriation for the relief of the people 
 of New York who had suffered by this war, 
 but only upon condition that this sum should 
 be disbursed by officers of its own appoint- 
 ment. Fletcher refused to consent to this 
 condition, as he regarded it as an infringe- 
 ment of the king's prerogative, and the 
 assembly was dissolved, A. D. 1694. 
 
 Perm's Misfortunes. 
 
 In the meantime Penn had been restored 
 to his proprietary rights. The king ex- 
 pressed himself satisfied of his innocence, 
 which was established before the council, 
 and in August, 1694, the patent for his 
 restoration was formally issued. Penn was 
 anxious to return to Pennsylvania, but was 
 detained in England by his inability to raise 
 the funds necessary for the voyage. He had 
 spent a large part of his fortune in planting 
 the colony, and the persecutions and annoy- 
 ances to which he had been subjected in 
 England had caused him great loss. Nor 
 was this his only trouble. His wife and 
 eldest son had died during his trials, and 
 some whom he had imagined his friends in 
 his prosperity had in his adversity shown 
 themselves his enemies. He retained his 
 serenity of mind, however, and persevered in 
 the good work to which he had devoted his 
 life. Being unable to go to Pennsylvania he 
 sent his nephew, Markham, as his deputy. 
 Markham summoned an assembly, and this 
 body, alarmed at the recent changes in 
 
COLONIZATION OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 225 
 
 their charter, which had threatened to 
 deprive them of their political rights, en- 
 deavored to provide against a recurrence of 
 the danger by assuming the power of fram- 
 ing a constitution for themselves. The assem- 
 bly of 1696 made still further changes, and 
 placed the control of the colonial govern- 
 ment entirely in the hands of the people by 
 giving them the election of all the officials 
 of the province. 
 
 Old Charter Discarded. 
 
 Penn returned to Pennsylvania in Novem- 
 ber, 1699, and sanctioned the action of the 
 people. One of the members of the council 
 proposed that they should make a constitu- 
 tion that should be " firm and lasting " to 
 them and to their descendants. " Keep what 
 is good in the charter and frame of govern- 
 ment," said Penn ; " and lay aside what is 
 burdensome, and add what may best suit the 
 common good." It was agreed by all par- 
 ties that it would be best to surrender the 
 old charter and frame a new constitution. 
 This was attended with considerable diffi- 
 culty, as Delaware dreaded the loss of its 
 independence. It was conciliated by being 
 given its own legislature, but was under the 
 administration of the governor of Pennsyl- 
 vania. The two colonies were never again 
 united. The constitution secured to the 
 people all the political privileges they 
 claimed. Penn, whose sole desire was for 
 the welfare of the colony, held back nothing 
 for himself. 
 
 Among the earliest emigrants to Pennsyl- 
 vania were many Germans, who had been 
 converted to the Quaker doctrines by Will- 
 iam Penn during his missionary labors on 
 ihe continent of Europe. They settled at 
 Germantown, to which they gave its name. 
 Towards the close of the seventeenth century 
 the severe wars in Europe drove out large 
 numbers of Germans from the Rhine valley. 
 15 
 
 They sought refuge in England at first, and 
 from that country passed over to Pennsyl- 
 vania. They were chiefly Lutherans, and 
 members of the German Reformed church. 
 They settled chiefly in the southern part 
 of Pennsylvania, and clung together instead 
 of separating, thus giving to this part of the 
 state the peculiar characteristics which dis- 
 tinguish it to the present day. They held 
 aloof from the English, and allowed the 
 German language alone to be taught to their 
 children. They attracted other settlers from 
 their native country, and the region occupied 
 by them was soon thickly settled, and was 
 noted as one of the best cultivated sections 
 of the province. 
 
 Industrious Settlers. 
 
 About the beginning of the eighteenth 
 century a large emigration from the north of 
 Ireland and from Scotland began to set in, 
 and continued for some years. These people 
 were nearly all Presbyterians and located 
 themselves chiefly in the eastern and central 
 sections of the province. They were an 
 energetic, industrious and intelligent com- 
 munity, and set to work with a will to 
 improve their new home. They advanced 
 the frontier of Pennsylvania steadily west' 
 ward by their new plantations, and proved 
 themselves among the most desirable settlers 
 that had yet come into the province. 
 
 William Penn had come to Pennsylvania 
 with the intention of passing the remainder 
 of his life there; but rumors now began to 
 reach the colony that it was the intention of 
 the crown to deprive Pennsylvania of its 
 charter and make it a royal province. These 
 reports made it necessary for Penn to return 
 to England, a step to which nothing but the 
 importance of being near the home govern- 
 ment to defend the liberties of his people 
 could have forced him. He had done his 
 work in America well, and could go back to 
 
226 
 
 SETTLEMENT -OF AMERICA. 
 
 his native land with the satisfaction that he 
 had successfully laid the foundations of a 
 great and rapidly-growing state, and had 
 placed the liberties of its people upon such a 
 secure basis that they would endure for all 
 time. He had founded a democracy, and 
 had proved by the most generous surrender 
 of his truly regal powers that his chief aim 
 in life was the good of his fellow-men. 
 After making such arrangements as he 
 deemed best for the welfare of his " young 
 countrie," he went back to England in 
 1701. 
 
 Penn's Honorable Poverty. 
 
 There were not wanting efforts after his 
 arrival in England to deprive him of his 
 proprietary rights and to convert Pennsyl- 
 vania into a royal province ; but the deep 
 reverence with which the English people 
 had now come to regard the virtues of Will- 
 iam Penn prevented the consummation of 
 these designs, and saved the people of Penn- 
 sylvania from the rule of royal governors, 
 such as plundered the sister province of New 
 York. The crovn could never be persuaded 
 to rob the man whose pure life was an honor 
 to the nation. In his last years Penn was so 
 poor that he was for a while an inmate of a 
 
 debtors' prison. He had bought the prov- 
 ince of Pennsylvania from Charles II., and 
 had confirmed his claim by purchasing the 
 lands from the Indians, so that he was abso- 
 lute owner of the unoccupied lands of the 
 colony. 
 
 He thus had it in his power to relieve his 
 distress by selling his claims, but in his 
 deepest poverty he refused to part with 
 Pennsylvania, except upon terms which 
 would secure to his people the full and per- 
 fect enjoyment of the liberties he had guar- 
 anteed them. He died in 17 18, peacefully 
 and amid the sympathy of his countrymen 
 in England, and the sorrow of those whom 
 he had befriended in his beloved Pennsyl- 
 vania. By his pure life he won for the peo- 
 ple of his faith the respect of all candid men, 
 and by his fidelity to the principles he pro- 
 fessed he became the benefactor of millions 
 who will ever count it a privilege to honor 
 his name. 
 
 Penn left three sons, who were all minors 
 at the time of his death. They succeeded 
 to his rights as proprietary of Pennsylvania, 
 and the government of the colony was ad- 
 ministered for them by deputies until the 
 Revolution, when their claims were pur- 
 chased by the state. 
 
CHAPTER XVIII 
 Settlement of the Carolinas 
 
 a arlual Settlement of North Carolina from Virginia — Charles II. Grants Carolina to Clarendon and Others— The " Gram 
 Model" — An Ideal Aristocracy Proposed for Carolina — The Authority of the Proprietaries Established : .n North Caro 
 ljna — Continued Settlement of that Region — Characteristics of the Early Settlers of North Carolina — The People Rejec! 
 the Grand Model — Hostility of England to the Colonial Commerce — Insurrection in North Carolina — Slothel Governs; 
 — Settlement of South Carolina — Charleston Founded — The Proprietary Constitutions Rejected by South Carolina— 
 Rapid Growth of the Colony — Introduction of Slavery — Characteristics of the Early Settlers of South Carolina — Effort* 
 to Enforce the Navigation Acts — Resistance of the People — The Proprietaries Abandon their Constitutions — Archdale'l 
 Reforms — Religious Intolerance — Establishment of the Church of England in South Carolina — Action of the Crown- - 
 Continued Prosperity of South Carolina— Governor Moore Attacks St. Augustine — Failure of the Etfort — The Spaniards 
 are Repulsed in an Attempt to Capture Charlestor*- Indian War in North Carolina — The Tuscaroras Driven Northward 
 —War with the Yemmassees — Destruction of their Power — Separation of the Carolinas. 
 
 WE have related the efforts of the 
 French to colonize the shores 
 of the beautiful region which 
 they named Carolina, and the 
 failure of Raleigh's attempt to found a city 
 upon Roanoke Island. We have now to 
 consider the successful planting of this same 
 region with English settlements. 
 
 After the settlement of Virginia the atten- 
 tion of the English was frequently drawn to 
 the fertile region south of the James, and as 
 their plantations spread in that direction ad- 
 venturous explorers went into this region, 
 and returned with reports of its great beauty 
 and fertility. When the severe measures of 
 the Virginia colony for enforcing conformity 
 to the established church were put in opera- 
 tion, many dissenters withdrew from the 
 limits of the colony and settled in what are 
 now the northeastern counties of North 
 Carolina. Among these were a company of 
 Presbyterians, who settled upon the Chowan. 
 Others followed them, and by the year 1663 
 these counties contained a prosperous and 
 growing community of English-speaking 
 people. 
 
 In 1663, Charles II., who always displayed 
 the most remarkable liberality in his gifts of ! 
 
 American lands, granted to eight of his 
 favorites the vast region extending from the 
 present southern boundary of Virginia to the 
 St. John's River in Florida, and from the 
 Atlantic to the Pacific. Those upon whom 
 this rich gift was bestowed were the Earl of 
 Clarendon, the prime minister, Lord Ashley 
 Cooper, who was afterwards Earl of Shaftes- 
 bury, the Duke of Albemarle, Lord Craven. 
 Sir John Colleton, Lord John Berkeley, his 
 brother, Sir William Berkeley, the governor 
 of Virginia, and Sir George Cartaret. They 
 were given absolute power over their terri 
 tory, the king reserving only a claim upon 
 their allegiance. The country had been 
 called Carolina by the first French settlers in 
 honor of Charles IX. of France; the old 
 name was retained in honor of Charles II. o\ 
 England. 
 
 The proprietors had but one object in view 
 to enrich themselves ; but they claimed to be 
 influenced by a " pious zeal for the propaga 
 tion of the gospel." They at once set to worl- 
 to prepare a code of laws for the govern 
 ment of their province. This task was com 
 mitted to Ashley Cooper, Earl of Shaftesbury, 
 and the great philosopher, John Locke, then 
 an almost unknown man. These producer 
 
 227 
 
228 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 a code known as "The Grand Model," or 
 "Fundamental Constitutions." This was a 
 system which might have been successful if 
 the people for whom it was intended had 
 been some European community of the 
 Middle Ages, but it was utterly unsuited to 
 a colony in the woods of America, composed 
 of men whose personal independence and 
 sturdy love of freedom were the indispensable 
 conditions of the success of thei v enterprise. 
 By the cerms of the ' Grand Model " an 
 order of nobility was created, into whose 
 hands the sole right to rule was committed. 
 Earls, barons, and squires were made the 
 natural heads of the various classes of society, 
 and the common people were attached to the 
 soil as tenants. 
 
 A Mockery of Freedom. 
 
 A simple tenant could never rise above his 
 humble position, and was denied the right 
 of suffrage ; only those who possessed fifty 
 acres of land were allowed this right, or 
 were entitled to the name of freemen. The 
 freemen were allowed an assembly, but that 
 body was placed entirely under the control 
 of the nobility. Religious freedom was 
 promised to all persons, but the constitution 
 expressly declared that the only orthodox 
 establishment was the Church of England. 
 Trial by jury was guaranteed, but with the 
 destructive provision that a majority should 
 decide the verdict of the jury. 
 
 It was very clear that this magnificent 
 constitution would not suit the settlers i 1 the 
 log cabins of North Carolina, but the proprie- 
 tors, ignorant of the people they had to deal 
 with, proceeded to organize their govern- 
 ment in England by electing the Duke of 
 Albemarle to the rank of Palatine, as the 
 head of their system was termed. Sir Wil- 
 liam Berkeley, then governor of Virginia, was 
 ordered to establish the authority of the pro- 
 prietors over the settlers on Albemarle Sound. 
 
 This he did, and appointed William Drum 
 mond, a Scotchman and one of the settlers, 
 governor. This was the same Drummond 
 who afterwards took part in Bacon's rebellion 
 in Virginia, and was hanged by Berkeley, a> 
 has been related. A simple form of govern 
 ment was established, and the people o$ 
 North Carolina were left in peace until it 
 should be time to collect the quit-rents which 
 the proprietors claimed as due for their occu- 
 pation of their lands. 
 
 In i66i,a few years previous to this action 
 of Berkeley, a company from New England 
 had made a settlement on the Cape Fear 
 River. The colony did not prosper, how- 
 ever, though liberal inducements were held 
 out to it, and many of the emigrants 
 returned home. In 1664 a colony from the 
 Barbadoes joined the settlers on the Cape 
 Fear. The new-comers had been sent ou: 
 by a company at the Barbadoes, who pur- 
 chased from the Indians a tract of land thirty 
 two miles square on the Cape Fear, ano 
 asked of the proprietors of Carolina a confir 
 mation of their purchase and a separate char 
 ter of government. A liberal charter wa> 
 granted them, the country was named Clar- 
 endon, and Sir John Yeamans, a resident oi 
 Barbadoes, was appointed governor. Ht 
 was instructed to " make things easy to the 
 people of New England ; from thence tlK 
 greatest supplies are expected." 
 
 Lumber Trade. 
 
 In 1665 he led a company of emigrant 
 from Barbadoes, and formed a settlement on 
 the Cape Fear. The effort to found a town 
 was unsuccessful, and the emigrants found 
 great difficulty in contending against th/ 
 natural barrenness and poverty of the regioi: 
 in which they had located. They devoted 
 themselves to the cutting and export of lum- 
 ber, and established a trade in boards, stave* 
 and shingles to the West Indies, which is 
 
SETTLEMENT OF THE CAROLINAS. 
 
 229 
 
 still carried on by their descendants. This 
 trade was found to be profitable, and emi- 
 gration increased. In 1666 the colony is 
 said to have had a population of eight 
 hundred souls. 
 
 In the meantime the settlements on Albe- 
 marle Sound and the Chowan had prospered, 
 and had increased steadily in population, 
 under the simple government established 
 over them. This government consisted of a 
 council of six persons named by the proprie- 
 taries and six chosen 
 by the assembly, and 
 an assembly consist- 
 ing of the governor, 
 the council and twelve 
 representatives chos- 
 en by the freeholders 
 of the colony. The 
 proprietaries had con- 
 firmed the colonists 
 in the possession of 
 their lands, and had 
 solemnly promised LT~: 
 them religious tolera- 
 tion and exemption 
 from taxation except 
 by the colonial legis- 
 lature. In 1669 the 
 assembly, feeling se- 
 cure in these guaran- 
 tees, enacted a series 
 of laws for the govern- 
 ment of the colony, 
 
 which remained in force in North Carolina 
 until near the close of the next century. 
 It was enacted that no emigrant should be 
 sued for a debt contracted before his settle- 
 ment in the colony until he had been a 
 resident of the province for five years. 
 
 Marriage was made a civil contract, and 
 for its validity required simply the consent 
 of the contracting parties before a magistrate 
 in the presence of witnesses. No emigrant 
 
 could be taxed during his first year's resi- 
 dence in the colony. New settlers were 
 invited by the offer of large bounties in 
 lands, but no title to these lands could be 
 obtained until after a two years' residence in 
 the colony. The governor's salary and the 
 other expenses of the province were secured 
 by the imposition of a fee of thirty pounds 
 of tobacco in every lawsuit. The members 
 of the assembly served without compensa* 
 tion, seeking no emoluments from office. 
 
 THE COAST OF NORTH CAROLINA. 
 
 In 1670 the constitution of Shaftesbury 
 and Locke was sent over by the proprie- 
 taries, and the governor was ordered to 
 establish it in the colony. It met with a 
 determined resistance from both legislature 
 and people, who could never be induced to 
 submit to it. 
 
 The people upon whom the proprietaries 
 endeavored to enforce their " Grand Model " 
 were in many respects the most singular 
 
230 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 community in America. Many of them had 
 fled from injustice and persecution in other 
 colonies, and in the solitude of the forests of 
 North Carolina had become possessed of an 
 independence which scorned any control but 
 that of the government established by their 
 own consent. The plantations were chiefly 
 along the rivers and the shores of Albe- 
 marle Sound; there were no roads but the 
 paths marked through the forests by the 
 blazing of the trees ; the inhabitants visited 
 each other and travelled through the country 
 in their boats, scarcely any, even among the 
 women and children, being unacquainted 
 with the use of the oar. 
 
 A Happy Community. 
 
 The people were attached to their beauti- 
 ful " summer land," and to the freedom 
 which they enjoyed in it. They had little 
 use for laws, for they were mainly a simple- 
 hearted and virtuous race, who, by pursuing 
 the paths of right, gave no cause for restraint. 
 They had no court-house until 1722. Their 
 first church was not built until 1705, and the 
 freedom of conscience which they enjoyed 
 was perfect. Yet they were a God-fearing 
 people, and George Fox, who visited them 
 in 1672, testifies to their readiness to hear 
 the word of God and to their homely virtues. 
 They were cut off from the world, careless of 
 the struggles which rocked Europe to its 
 foundations, and anxious only to live in the 
 peaceful enjoyment of the good things God 
 had given them, and to rear their children in 
 the ways which they deemed conformable to 
 His will. There were no towns in the colony, 
 and in power and importance North Carolina 
 could not compare with any of her more 
 northern sisters; but there were no com- 
 munities in which the people were happier or 
 more contented than in this one. 
 
 When the cruelties of Berkeley drove 
 many of the Virginians from their province, 
 
 they fled to North Carolina, and were kindly 
 received by the people, who treated Berke- 
 ley's demands to surrender the refugees for 
 punishment with contempt. "Are there any 
 who doubt man's capacity for self-govern- 
 ment, let them study the early history of 
 North Carolina; its inhabitants were restless 
 and turbulent in their imperfect submission 
 to a government imposed on them from 
 abroad; the administration of the colony 
 was firm, humane and tranquil when they 
 were left to take care of themselves. Any 
 government but one of their own institution 
 was oppressive." * 
 
 These were the people for whom the 
 " Grand Model " was designed, and who 
 successfully resisted its imposition. The 
 proprietaries had withdrawn the government 
 they had first established, at the time when 
 the constitutions of Shaftesbury and Locke 
 were offered to the colony, and the refusal of 
 these constitutions by the colonists left 
 North Carolina without any regularly estab- 
 lished system of government. In this state 
 of affairs Stevens, the governor, continued to 
 administer the old system until a settlement 
 of the matter in dispute could be had. He 
 died in 1674, and the assembly elected Cart- 
 wright, their speaker, as his successor, by 
 whom the government was administered for 
 two years. 
 
 Another Appeal to England. 
 
 Eastchurch, the new speaker, was sent to 
 England to explain the grievances of the 
 colony to the proprietaries and to endeavor 
 to secure the withdrawal of the obnoxious 
 constitution. Without withdrawing their 
 favorite system, the proprietaries, who were 
 disposed to conciliate the colony, thought 
 best to leave matters in their present condi- 
 tion and appointed Eastchurch governor 
 
 * Bancroft's History of the United States, vol. ii., p. 158. 
 
SETTLEMENT OF THE CAROLINAS. 
 
 231 
 
 They did away with much of the good effect 
 of this measure by coupling this appointment 
 with that of Miller as collector of customs. 
 He had been driven out of the colony by the 
 people some time before, and he was now 
 sent to compel the payment of the revenues 
 claimed by the proprietaries, and to enforce 
 the navigation acts in North Carolina. 
 
 England's Iniquitous Policy. 
 
 The enforcement of the navigation acts 
 meant simply the certain crippling and the 
 probable ruin of the industry of North Caro- 
 lina. The commerce of the colony was 
 small and was already struggling against 
 natural difficulties. The whole province 
 contained a little less than four thousand 
 inhabitants, and its exports consisted of about 
 eight hundred hogsheads of tobacco, a small 
 quantity of Indian corn and a few cattle. 
 These were shipped in a few small vessels 
 which came for them from New England, and 
 brought in return the few articles of foreign 
 manufacture which the planters could afford 
 to purchase. Yet this humble trade was 
 made the object of the envy of the English 
 merchants, and it was resolved by a vigorous 
 enforcement of the navigation acts to cut the 
 North Carolinians off from the use of the 
 New England markets and to compel them 
 to send their products to England for sale. 
 Never was the iniquitous policy of England 
 toward her colonies more strikingly and per- 
 fectly illustrated than in her treatment of 
 North Carolina at this period. 
 
 The effort to enforce the navigation act 
 was met by a deliberately planned and exe- 
 cuted insurrection of the people, who pub- 
 lished to the world a declaration of the 
 causes which had impelled them to this 
 action, and which were chiefly the loss of 
 their liberties by the changes in the govern- 
 ment, the imposition of excessive taxes, and 
 the interruption of their commerce by the 
 
 burdens laid upon it by the navigation 
 acts. 
 
 The leader of the movement was John 
 Culpepper. One of the members of the 
 council joined the insurrection; but the 
 rest, with Miller, who, in addition to his 
 office of collector, had been acting as gov- 
 ernor in the absence of Eastchurch, were 
 arrested and imprisoned. When Eastchurch 
 arrived the colonists refused either to 
 
 A settler's cabin. 
 
 acknowledge his authority or to allow him 
 to enter the colony. In the meantime they 
 arranged matters upon the old popular sys- 
 tem, and sent Culpepper and another of their 
 number to England to negotiate a settlement 
 with the proprietaries. 
 
 Miller escaped from confinement and re- 
 paired to England to oppose the efforts of 
 Culpepper. By cunningly making himself 
 
232 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 the champion of the navigation acts, Miller 
 succeeded in arousing a strong sentiment 
 against Culpepper, who was arrested on a 
 charge of resisting the collection of the rev- 
 enue and embezzling the public funds. In 
 support of this arbitrary act the government 
 pleaded an old statute of Henry VIII., by 
 which a colonist could be arraigned in Eng- 
 land for an offence committed in a colony. 
 Culpepper demanded to be tried in North Car- 
 olina, upon the scene of his alleged crime ; but 
 this was refused him, and he was put on trial in 
 England. The Earl of Shaftesbury, shrewdly 
 perceiving that such a course was repugnant 
 to the real sentiment of the English people, 
 and that it offered him an opportunity to 
 increase his popularity, undertook the de- 
 fence of Culpepper, and procured his 
 acquittal. 
 
 Captured by Pirates. 
 
 The proprietaries now appointed as gov- 
 ernor one of their number, Seth Slothel, who 
 had purchased the rights of Lord Clarendon. 
 Slothel on his voyage out was captured by the 
 Algerine pirates, and during his absence the 
 government of North Carolina was admin- 
 istered by governors appointed by the in- 
 surgents, who seem to have acted with the 
 consent, or at least without the opposition 
 of the proprietaries, who were much at a loss 
 to know how to enforce their authority in 
 the province. They instructed the colonists 
 to " settle order among themselves," and 
 appear to have left them very much to their 
 own devices. The government was well and 
 fairly administered, and order was main- 
 tained ; an act of amnesty was published ; 
 and when Slothel reached the colony, in 
 1683, after his release from his captivity, he 
 found it peaceful and orderly. 
 
 The administration of Slothel was un- 
 fortunate for the province. He could enforce 
 neither the constitutions of the proprietaries 
 
 nor the navigation acts, as he was expected 
 to do ; so he devoted his energies to the 
 task of enriching himself, which he accomp- 
 lished by robbing the colonists and defraud- 
 ing his proprietary associates in England. 
 In 1688 the colonists, greatly exasperated by 
 his exactions, to which they had submitted for 
 about five years, drove him out of the prov- 
 ince by condemning him to an exile of a 
 year, and forever disqualifying him from 
 holding the office of governor. This was 
 their boldest act yet and was an open defi- 
 ance of the proprietaries. 
 
 Charleston Founded. 
 
 In the meantime the southern portion of 
 Carolina had been brought under English 
 rule. In 1670 a company of emigrants was 
 sent out by the proprietaries, under the 
 direction of William Sayle and Joseph West, 
 the latter of whom was the commercial agent 
 of the proprietaries. They went by way of 
 Barbadoes and landed at Port Royal, where 
 the ruins of Fort Carolina, which had been 
 erected by the French, were still to be seen. 
 After a short delay here, they removed to a 
 more favorable location farther northward, 
 between two rivers, which they named the 
 Ashley and Cooper, in honor of the Earl of 
 Shaftesbury, one of the proprietaries. In 
 1680 this settlement was abandoned for a 
 better situation nearer the harbor. This last 
 settlement was the foundation of the city of 
 Charleston. The first plantation on the 
 Ashley River was afterwards known as Old 
 Charleston. At present not even a log cabin 
 remains to mark the site. 
 
 The emigrants to South Carolina had 
 been furnished with a copy of the constitu- 
 tions of Shaftesbury and Locke, but they 
 were as averse to the acceptance of them as 
 were the people of North Carolina, for they 
 perceived that such a system as that devised 
 by the proprietaries could not be put in 
 
SETTLEMENT OF THE CAROLINAS. 
 
 23; 
 
 operation in America. Immediately upon 
 their arrival they proceeded to establish a 
 form of government suited to their needs. 
 It consisted of a governor, a council com- 
 posed of five members appointed by the 
 proprietaries and five by the assembly, and 
 an assembly of twenty delegates chosen by 
 the people. Thus was representative gov- 
 ernment established as the basis of the 
 political life of the province, and throughout 
 all her subsequent history it was cherished 
 by South Caro- 
 lina as her most 
 precious posses- 
 sion. 
 
 The colony 
 grew rapidly in 
 population ; the 
 delightful cli- 
 mate, the rich 
 soil and the li- 
 beral offers of 
 lands by the 
 proprietaries at- 
 tracting settlers 
 in considerable 
 numbers. In 167 1 S 
 Sir John Yea- 
 mans brought 
 over African 
 slaves from Bar- 
 badoes, thus in- 
 troducing negro slavery into the colony at the 
 very outset of its existence. This species of 
 labor being found well suited to the necessi- 
 ties of the province, was generally adopted 
 in the remaining years of the century, and 
 became the basis of the industry of South 
 Carolina, which was from the first a purely 
 agricultural state. The negroes multiplied 
 rapidly by natural increase and by fresh 
 importations ; " so rapidly," says Bancroft, 
 " that in a few years, we are told, the blacks 
 were to the whites in the proportion of 
 
 twenty-two to twelve, a proportion that had 
 no parallel north of the West Indies." 
 
 The white population also increased rapidly. 
 The dissenters, as all the Protestant sects 
 who differed from the Church of England 
 were called, came over to the colony in large 
 numbers, hoping to find there the toleration 
 they were denied at home. They consisted 
 of Dutch and German Protestants, and 
 Presbyterians from the north of Ireland and 
 from Scotland. The last were generally 
 
 BIRDS-EYE VIEW OF CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA. 
 
 people of culture and gave to the colony 
 many clergymen, physicians, lawyers and 
 schoolmasters. Churchmen from England 
 also emigrated in considerable numbers, as 
 the" Grand Model " established their church 
 as the orthodox faith of the province. Dutch 
 emigrants came also from New York to 
 escape the outrages of the English governors 
 of that province. 
 
 Last of all were the Huguenots, who were 
 induced to settle in South Carolina by Charles 
 II., who was sincerely anxious to give them 
 
234 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 a refuge from their persecutions in Europe, 
 and who wished them to establish in Carolina 
 the culture of the vine, the olive and the 
 silk-worm. The revocation of the Edict of 
 Nantes drove thousands of the Huguenots 
 from France. Large numbers of them joined 
 their brethren in South Carolina. They 
 were almost invariably persons of education 
 and refinement. In France they had consti- 
 tuted the most useful and intelligent part of 
 the population. They had almost monopo- 
 lized the mechanical skill and mercantile 
 enterprise of their native land, and their loss 
 was severely felt by it for many genera- 
 tions. 
 
 In South Carolina they soon became suffi- 
 ciently numerous to constitute an important 
 part of the population, and their influence 
 was felt in a marked degree and for the good 
 of the colony. They brought with them the 
 virtues which had won them the respect and 
 confidence of the people of Europe, and the 
 industry which could not fail to place them 
 among the most prosperous citizens of the 
 new state. They mingled freely and inter- 
 married with the other classes of the people 
 of the province, and thus became the ances- 
 tors of a splendid race who did honor to 
 their country and upheld her cause with 
 their valor in her hour of trial in the next 
 century. 
 
 A Settlement Ruined. 
 
 The early years of South Carolina were 
 marked by a constant struggle between the 
 colonists and the proprietaries. The latter 
 vainly attempted to introduce the " Grand 
 Model " as the law of the province, and the 
 former steadily resisted it. A little later the 
 proprietaries offered to make some modifica- 
 tions in their constitutions, but these conces- 
 sions were rejected also. The governor, Sir 
 John Yeamans, regarded his office solely as 
 a means of repairing his fortunes at the 
 
 expense of both proprietaries and colonists, 
 and was dismissed by his employers. West, 
 who was a man of ability and liberality, was 
 appointed his successor, and under him 
 the colony prospered, but as he was too 
 friendly to the people, he was removed also. 
 In 1684 a small colony under Lord Card- 
 ross, a Presbyterian, settled at Port Royal. 
 These settlers had fled to America to escape 
 persecution in England, but their effort to find 
 an abiding place in the new world was not des- 
 tined to be successful. Lord Cardross return- 
 ed to Europe in a year or two, and in 1686 the 
 Spaniards from St. Augustine, who claimed 
 the region as a dependency of their own, 
 invaded the little settlement and laid it 
 waste. Of the ten families which had con- 
 stituted the colony, some returned to Scot- 
 land, while the remainder disappeared among 
 the colonists in the vicinity of the Cooper 
 and Ashley rivers. 
 
 Stubborn Resistance. 
 
 In 1685, the proprietaries ordered the colo- 
 nial authorities to enforce the navigation acts 
 in the ports of the province. A rigid execu- 
 tion of this order would have been as fatal to 
 the feeble commerce of South Carolina as to 
 that of the settlements in the northern part 
 of the province, and it was resisted by the 
 cclonists as a violation of their natural rights 
 and of the promises made to them at the time 
 of their emigration. In order to establish 
 their authority more firmly the proprietaries 
 appointed James Colleton governor, with the 
 rank of landgrave. 
 
 He was brother of one of the proprietaries, 
 and it was supposed that this fact and his 
 aristocratic rank would give him a moral 
 ppower which his predecessors had not pos- 
 sessed. The new governor attempted to 
 enforce the constitutions, but was met with a 
 determined resistance, and when he under- 
 took to collect the rents claimed by the 
 
235 
 
i$6 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 proprietaries, and the taxes he had been 
 ordered to levy, the assembly seized the 
 records of the province, imprisoned the 
 colonial secretary, and defied the governor 
 to execute his orders. In 1 690, they went 
 still further, and having- proclaimed Wil- 
 Jain and Mary, disfranchised Colleton and 
 Danished him from South Carolina. 
 
 Disputes now ran high in the colony, 
 chiefly in regard to rents and land tenures. 
 The " cavaliers and ill-livers." as the 
 party devoted to the interests of the pro- 
 prietaries was termed, endeavored to 
 compel the remainder of the settlers — the 
 Presbyterians, Quakers and Huguenots, 
 the last of whom had recently been ad- 
 'Tiitted to all the privileges of citizenship — 
 to submit to their high-handed measures. 
 Vhey hoped among other things to secure 
 the supremacy of the Church of England in 
 the colony, notwithstanding the fact that a 
 majority of the people were dissenters. The 
 troubles went on increasing, and at length 
 the proprietors, in the hope- of putting an 
 2nd to them, consented to abandon their 
 effort to force upon the Carolinas the legisla- 
 tion of Shaftesbury and Locke. In April, 
 1693, they abolished the fundamental consti- 
 tutions by a formal vote, and decided to 
 illow the government of the province to be 
 conducted according to the terms of the 
 charter. 
 
 A Wise Governor. 
 
 Thomas Smith was appointed governor. 
 3ut in spite of his many virtues he was unac- 
 ceptable to the people, and the proprietaries 
 determined to send out to Carolina one of 
 their own number with full powers to tnves- 
 'igate and remedy the grievances of the 
 colony. John Archdale, " an honest member 
 of the Society of Friends," was chosen, and 
 *t once repaired to Carolina. He was a man 
 ■3>f great moderation, and was well suited to 
 
 the task before him. He succeeded in har 
 monizing the hostile factions which dividei 1 
 the province, and in the formation of the 
 council selected two men of the moderate 
 party to one high churchman, an arrange 
 ment which fairly represented the actual statt. 
 of parties, and gave satisfaction to the mas 
 of the people. He remitted the quit-rents fot 
 three and four years, and arranged the price 
 of lands and the system of conveyances upon 
 an equitable basis, and gave the colonists th~ 
 privilege of paying their dues to the propri- 
 etaries either in money or in produce. Hr 
 established peaceful relations with th. 
 Indians, and put an end to the infamou.° 
 practice of kidnapping them, which had 
 prevailed since the establishment of thv 
 colony The savages in the Cape Fe? 
 region had suffered especially from this, ana 
 now showed their gratitude by treating with 
 kindness the sailors who were cast away 01 
 their coast. 
 
 Friendly relations were also begun with 
 the Spaniards at St. Augustine. Severat 
 Yemraassfe Indians, who had been con 
 verted by the missionaries, having beei. 
 raptured and exposed for sale in Carolina, 
 / s^ere ransomed by Archdale, who sent them to 
 theg-overnor of St. Augustine. The Spaniards 
 gratefully acknowledged this kindness, and 
 returned it by forwarding to South Carolina 
 the crew of an English vessel which had 
 gone ashore on the coast of Florida. The 
 colonial government was organized by Arch- 
 dale, on a plan similar to that of Maryland. 
 The council was appointed by the proprie 
 taries, and the assembly elected by the peo- 
 ple ; and the militia were charged with the 
 defence of the colony. Archdale's adminis- 
 tration was so satisfactory to all parties that 
 upon his withdrawal from the province the 
 assembly declared that he had, " by his wis- 
 dom, patience and labor, laid a firm founda- 
 tion for a most glorious superstructure." 
 
SETTLEMENT OF THE CAROLINAS. 
 
 237 
 
 Archdale went back to England in 1697, 
 and the proprietaries, failing to profit by the 
 lesson of his success, attempted to introduce 
 a measure which would give the political 
 power of the colony exclusively into the 
 hands of the landowners. This measure was 
 resolutely rejected by the colonial assembly. 
 The majority of the people of the colony 
 were, as has been stated, dissenters, Presby- 
 terians, Quakers and Huguenots. They 
 had consented, in order to pacify the high 
 church party, that one minister of the Church 
 of England should be maintained at the pub- 
 lic expense, but the churchmen were re- 
 solved to force their system upon them. 
 
 The Assembly's Intolerance. 
 
 In 1704 the churchmen had a majority of 
 one in the assembly; the governor was favor- 
 able to them, and the council was no longer 
 arranged upon the just plan of Archdale. 
 The assembly, in violation of the plainest 
 principles of justice, disfranchised the dis- 
 senters, and established the Church of Eng- 
 land as the religion of the colony. This 
 action was approved by the council and gov- 
 ernor, and was sustained by the proprietaries 
 in spite of the earnest opposition of Arch- 
 dale. The disfranchised people appealed for 
 justice to the queen and the House of Lords. 
 The committee of the lords declared that the 
 proprietaries had forfeited their charter, and 
 advised its recall, and the house pronounced 
 the intolerant acts null and void, which de- 
 cision was proclaimed by the queen in June, 
 1706. In November of the same year the 
 colonial legislature repealed its acts, and 
 restored to the dissenters their political 
 rights, but the laws establishing the Church 
 of England as the religion of the province 
 remained unrepealed until the Revolution. 
 
 The disputes in the colony went on, but in 
 spite of them South Carolina continued to 
 prosper, and its population increased rapidly. 
 
 During Archdale's residence in the colony 
 the captain of a ship from Madagascar gave 
 him some rice, which he distributed among 
 the planters for the purpose of ascertaining 
 whether it could be cultivated in the mari- 
 time regions of the province, which were 
 unsuited to the culture of wheat. The experi- 
 ment was entirely successful, and the colony 
 at once embarked in the culture of rice, which 
 has ever since been one of its principal indus- 
 tries. Carolina rice soon took rank as the 
 best grown in any country. The fur trade 
 was also carried on with great activity, and 
 the manufacture of tar and the export of lum- 
 ber also became prominent sources of wealth. 
 It was believed that the colony could suc- 
 cessfully manufacture a large part of the 
 woollen fabrics necessary to the supply of its 
 wants, and the attempt was made. It was 
 struck down by the British government in 
 pursuance of its plan to compel the colonies 
 to depend upon England for all their supplies. 
 Parliament forbade the several colonies to 
 export woollen goods to any other province 
 or to any foreign port. They were to ship 
 their products to England alone, and to 
 receive their supplies from her only. Eng- 
 lish merchants were to be privileged to set 
 a price to suit their own interests upon the 
 products of the colonies and also upon the 
 articles of European manufacture sold them 
 in return. The effect of this iniquitous law 
 upon Carolina was to drive her back into 
 agricultural pursuits, and thus to increase the 
 demand for slaves, which was promptly sup 
 plied by British traders. 
 
 A Reckless Adventurer. 
 
 In 1702, England was at war with France 
 and Spain, and James Moore was governor 
 of Carolina. He was a needy adventurer, 
 who endeavored to fill his purse by kidnap- 
 ping Indians and selling them as slaves. This 
 being too slow a process, he determined to 
 
2 3 8 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 plunder the Spanish settlement of St. Augus- 
 tine. He attacked that place with a force of 
 whites and Indians. The town was readily 
 taken, but he could make no impression 
 upon the citadel, and despatched a vessel to 
 Jamaica for cannon to reduce the fort. The 
 garrison in the meantime sent an Indian 
 runner to Mobile with news of their situa- 
 tion, and word was sent from Mobile to 
 Havana. In a short while two Spanish ships 
 of war arrived at St. Augustine to the relief 
 of the garrison, and Moore was obliged to 
 raise the siege. He abandoned his stores and 
 retreated overland to Charleston. The only 
 result of his expedition was the accumula- 
 tion of a debt which the colony was obliged 
 to carry for many years. 
 
 Brutal Butchery. 
 
 Moore's next effort was directed against 
 the Appalachee Indians of Florida. These 
 had been converted to the Roman Catholic 
 faith by the Spanish missionaries, and had 
 begun to adopt habits of civilization ; they 
 lived in villages, and supported themselves 
 by cultivating the soil. They were also very 
 friendly to the French, who had settled 
 Louisiana. Moore professed to be very ap- 
 prehensive of the effects of the Spanish and 
 French influence upon the Appalachees, and 
 declared his intention to cripple them before 
 they could do any harm to the English set- 
 tlements. His real motive was the hope of 
 plunder. The only crime of the poor sav- 
 ages was their adoption of the Roman faith. 
 
 In 1705, with a force of about fifty white 
 men and one thousand Seminole warriors, 
 Moore invaded the settlements of the Appa- 
 lachees, destroyed them, killed many of the 
 natives, and made prisoners of large num- 
 bers, who were removed to the region of the 
 Altamaha. The churches were plundered 
 and destroyed, and the country of the Appa- 
 lachees was given to the Seminoles as a 
 
 reward for their services. They at once 
 occupied it, and thus became a barrier be- 
 tween their English friends and the Spanish 
 settlements. 
 
 In 1706, the Spaniards and French sent a 
 combined fleet to Charleston to ayenge the 
 attacks upon St. Augustine and the Appa- 
 lachees. The attack of the fleet was repulsed 
 by the people, who were led by William Rhet 
 and Sir Nathaniel Johnson, and the assailants 
 were forced to withdraw with the loss of one 
 ship belonging to the French and upwards 
 of three hundred men. 
 
 North Carolina continued to prosper. Her 
 people were happy and contented under their 
 simple system of government, which was 
 described by Spotswood as "scarce any gov- 
 ernment at all." In 1704, the proprietaries 
 attempted to establish the Church of England 
 in this part of the province, the people of 
 which were nearly all Presbyterians, Quakers 
 and Lutherans. It was ordered that all who 
 refused to submit to the laws for the estab- 
 lishment and support of the English church 
 should be disfranchised. 
 
 Open Rebellion. 
 
 The people opposed a general and deter- 
 mined resistance to this measure, and at the 
 end of a year there was but one clergyman 
 of the English church within the limits of 
 the colony. The resistance finally culmin- 
 ated in open rebellion. The colony was 
 divided into two parties, one of which sus- 
 tained the authority of the proprietors, the 
 other the rights of the people. Each party 
 had its governor and assembly, and for six 
 years the colony remained in a state of 
 anarchy. The Quakers were the leading 
 spirits of the popular party and maintained 
 their rights with a steadfastness characteristic 
 of their race. 
 
 Thus far North Carolina had escaped a 
 war with the Indians. The Tuscaroras, who 
 
SETTLEMENT OF THE CAROLINAS. 
 
 239 
 
 occupied the central and northwestern por- 
 tions of the present state, had emigrated at 
 some remote period from the north, and they 
 now viewed with jealousy and distrust the 
 encroachments of the whites upon their 
 lands. About 171 1 the proprietaries assigned 
 large tracts in the country of this tribe to a 
 company of Germans from the region of the 
 Neckar and the Rhine, who had fled to 
 America to escape religious persecution. A 
 company of these exiles had come out under 
 the direction of De Graffenreid, and in Sep- 
 tember, 1711, De Graffenreid accompanied 
 Lawson, the surveyor-general of the prov- 
 ince, in an expedition up the Neuse for the 
 purpose of locating these lands and of 
 ascertaining how far the river was navigable. || 
 They were captured by a party of sixty \!" 
 Indians and hurried to a distant village of 
 the Tuscaroras. Lawson was regarded with|| 
 bitter hostility by the Indians, who looked|| 
 upon him as responsible above all others for ^ 
 the loss of their lands, as he had been com-'^^i 
 pelled by his duties to locate the grants of <||| 
 the proprietaries, and he was put to death 
 with cruel torments. 
 
 Condemned to Death. 
 De Graffenreid was also condemned to 
 die, but he told the savages that he had 
 been but a short time in the country, and 
 that he was the " chief of a different tribe 
 from the English," and promised that he 
 would take no more of their land. The 
 Indians kept him a prisoner for five weeks, 
 and then permitted him to return to his 
 friends. During this time the Tuscaroras 
 and Corees, whom they had drawn into an 
 alliance with them, attacked the settlements 
 of the whites on the Roanoke and Pamlico 
 Sound, and for three days spread death and 
 devastation all along the frontier of the col- 
 ony. A large number of the unoffending 
 settlers were slain and many homesteads were 
 destroyed. 
 
 The people of North Carolina appealed to 
 Virginia and South Carolina for assistance. 
 South Carolina sent a small body of troops 
 and a force of friendly Indians; and Gov- 
 ernor Spotswood, of Virginia, unable to send 
 assistance, engaged one tribe of the Tusca- 
 roras in a treaty of peace. The people of 
 North Carolina, divided by their internal 
 dissensions, took scarcely any part in the 
 struggle. The South Carolina forces attacked 
 
 KING GEORGE I. 
 
 the Tuscaroras in their fort and compelled 
 them to make peace. The troops, however, 
 on their return home, violated the treaty by 
 seizing some of the Indians for the purpose 
 of selling them as slaves. The war broke 
 out again and was prosecuted with vigor for 
 about a year, and resulted in the expulsion 
 of the Tuscaroras from North Carolina. 
 
 The Yemmassees had for some time been 
 hostile to the Spaniards, as they resented 
 the efforts of the priests to convert them 
 
240 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 to Christianity. They had acted as the 
 allies of the English in the war with the 
 Tuscaroras, but after the close of that 
 struggle the unscrupulous traders, who re- 
 garded them as "a tame and peaceable 
 people," had treated them so badly, and 
 plundered them so systematically, that they 
 were driven into hostility to the English. 
 They thereupon renewed their friendship 
 with the Spaniards, and induced the Cataw- 
 bas, the Creeks and Cherokees, who had also 
 been friendly to the English, to join them 
 against their former allies. 
 
 Indian Depredations. 
 
 In 17 1 5 the savages, suddenly, and with- 
 out warning, attacked the settlements on the 
 frontier. The alarm was sent to Port Royal 
 and Charleston, and the assailed people fled 
 towards the settlements along the coast. 
 The Indians continued their depredations, 
 and the colony prepared as rapidly as pos- 
 sible to resist them. Aid was sent from 
 North Carolina, whose government had now 
 been placed on a more stable footing. Gov- 
 ernor Craven took the field without delay, 
 
 such troops as he could raise, and a 
 long and bloody struggle ensued. The 
 po o: the savages was broken, however. 
 The Yemmassees were compelled to take 
 refuge in Florida, where they were provided 
 for by the Spaniards, and the other tribes 
 were driven farther westward. 
 
 The contests between the proprietaries 
 and the colonists now came to an end. The 
 proprietaries had made no effort to help the 
 colonists during their struggle with the In- 
 dians, and the latter determined to have no 
 more to do with their former lords. The 
 dispute was carried before Parliament, which 
 body declared that the proprietaries had for- 
 feited their charter. In 1720 King George I. 
 appointed Francis Nicholson provisional 
 governor of Carolina. In 1729 the contro- 
 versy was ended by the purchase of the pro- 
 prietaries' interests by the crown for the sum 
 of one hundred and ten thousand dollars. 
 Carolina thus became a royal province, and 
 was divided by the king into two separate 
 states, known respectively as North and 
 South Carolina, to each of which a royal 
 governor was appointed. 
 
CHAPTER XIX 
 
 Settlement of Georgia 
 
 General James Edward Oglethorpe — His Efforts to Reform Prison Discipline of England — Proposes to Found 
 a Colony in America for the Poor and for Prisoners for Debt — A Charter Obtained from the King — Coloniza- 
 tion of Georgia — Savannah Settled — First Years of the Colony — Labors of Oglethorpe — Arrival of New 
 Emigrants — Augusta Founded — The Moravian Settlements — The Wesleys in America — George Whitefield 
 — War Between England and Spain — Oglethorpe Invades Florida — Failure of the Attack upon St. Augus- 
 tine — The Spaniards Invade Georgia — Oglethorpe's Stratagem — Its Success — Battle of " Bloody Marsh " — 
 Close of the War — Charges Against Oglethorpe — His Vindication — His Return to Europe — Changes in 
 the Colonial Government — Introduction of Slavery into Georgia — Prosperity of the Colony. 
 
 THE severe laws in force in England 
 in the last century against debtors 
 aroused the opposition of many 
 philanthropists, who strove to pro- 
 cure their abolition or amelioration. Among 
 these was General James Edward Oglethorpe, 
 an officer of the English army and a member 
 of Parliament. He was a man of fortune, 
 and of generous nature, and devoted himself 
 with energy to reform not only the laws 
 against debtors but the entire prison disci- 
 pline of England. There were at this time 
 upwards of four thousand men in prison for 
 debt. Their condition was most pitiful. 
 They had no hope of relief save through the 
 mercy of the creditors who had consigned 
 them to their prisons, and were treated with 
 a severity due only to criminals. 
 
 It seemed an outrage to the generous 
 Oglethorpe to visit such heavy punishments 
 upon persons whose only crimes were their 
 misfortunes, and he endeavored to have the 
 laws authorizing imprisonment for debt re- 
 pealed, and failing in this conceived the plan 
 of establishing in America a place of refuge 
 to which the poor and unfortunate might 
 resort, and earn a support by their own 
 industry. He succeeded in interesting others 
 in his benevolent scheme, and in 1732 a 
 petition, signed by a number of men of rank 
 16 
 
 and influence, was presented to George II., 
 praying him to grant to the petitioners a 
 tract of unoccupied land in America for the 
 purpose of founding such an asylum as that 
 proposed by Oglethorpe. The king re- 
 sponded favorably to this appearand granted 
 to Oglethorpe and twenty other persons the 
 region between the Savannah and the Alta- 
 maha rivers. 
 
 This region was to be held " in trust for 
 the poor," for a period of twenty-one years, 
 by the trustees named in the charter, and 
 was to constitute a home for unfortunate 
 debtors and Protestants from the continent 
 of Europe, who might wish to seek safety 
 there from persecution. The territory thus 
 assigned formed a part of South Carolina, 
 but was formally separated from it and 
 named Georgia, in honor of the king. The 
 " free exercise of religion " was secured to 
 all sects "except Papists." No grant of land 
 to any single settler was to exceed five hun- 
 dred acres, a condition which it was hoped 
 
 would prevent the rich from securing the 
 
 best lands, and give to the poor an oppor- 
 tunity to become landowners. It was be- 
 lieved that the climate and soil of the new 
 province were specially adapted to the rais- 
 ing of silk- worms and the cultivation of the 
 vine. 
 
 241 
 
242 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 The scheme of Oglethorpe enlisted the 
 sympathies of all classes of the English peo- 
 ple. Liberal donations were made in its be- 
 half, and its benevolent projector exerted 
 himself with energy to secure a colony with 
 which to lay the the foundations of the new 
 state. It was determined to take none but 
 the poorest and most helpless, and Ogle- 
 thorpe himself decided to accompany them 
 and give his personal care to the planting of 
 the colony. 
 
 Settlement of Savannah. 
 
 One hundred and fifty persons, comprising 
 thirty-five families, were embarked, and they 
 sailed from England in November, 1732. 
 They reached Charleston in fifty-seven days, 
 and were formally welcomed by the assembly 
 of South Carolina and presented with a sup- 
 ply of cattle and rice. From Charleston the 
 company sailed to Port Royal, while Ogle- 
 thorpe hastened to explore the Savannah and 
 select a cite for the settlement. He chose a 
 location at Yamacraw Bluff, on the right 
 bank of the river, about twenty miles from 
 its mouth. He purchased the lands from the 
 Yamacraw Indians, and the foundations of a 
 town were laid. 
 
 The place was named Savannah, from the 
 river on which it stood. Oglethorpe has- 
 tened forward the clearing of the land and 
 the building of houses, but for nearly a year 
 contented himself with a tent which was 
 erected under four wide-spreading pines. 
 " The streets were laid out with the greatest 
 regularity ; in each quarter a public square 
 was reserved ; the houses were planned and 
 constructed on one model — each a frame of 
 sawed timber, twenty-four feet by sixteen, 
 floored with rough deals, the sides with 
 feathered-edge boards, unplained, and the roof 
 shingled." A garden was laid off by the 
 river-side, to be the nursery of European 
 fruits and other productions. 
 
 Friendly relations were cultivated with the 
 Indians. The chief of the Yamacraws came 
 in bringing a buffalo skin, on the inner side 
 of which was painted the head and feathers 
 of an eagle. " Here is a little present," said 
 Tomo-chichi, as the chief was named. " The 
 feathers of the eagle are soft and signify 
 love ; the buffalo skin is warm, and is the 
 emblem of protection ; therefore love and 
 protect our little families." The Muscogees, 
 Creeks, Cherokees and Oconees also sent their 
 chiefs to Savannah to make an alliance with 
 the English. The savages were well pleased 
 with the noble and commanding appearance 
 of Oglethorpe and his frank and kind manner 
 of dealing with them, and trusted implicitly 
 in the promises he made them. The distant 
 Choctaws also sent messengers to open 
 friendly relations with the new settlers, and a 
 profitable trade was established with the 
 tribes as far west as the Mississippi. 
 
 Grand Old German Hymns. 
 
 Thus far the colony of Georgia was a 
 success, and the friends of the movement in 
 England were not slow to make public the 
 accounts which came to them of its delightful 
 climate and fertile soil, and all who were 
 oppressed or in need were invited to seek 
 the protection and advantages which the new 
 land offered. The fame of the colony attracted 
 the attention of a number of German Prot- 
 estants in and around Salzburg, who were 
 undergoing a severe persecution for the sake 
 of their religion. 
 
 Their sufferings enlisted the sympathy of 
 the people of England, and the " Society 
 for the Propagation of the Gospel " invited 
 them to emigrate to Georgia and secured for 
 them the means of doing so. The Germans 
 readily accepted the offer, and rejoiced 
 greatly that they were thus afforded an 
 opportunity of spreading the gospel among 
 the Indians. Nearly one hundred persons 
 
SETTLEMENT OF GEORGIA. 
 
 243 
 
 set out from Salzburg, taking with them 
 their wives and little ones in wagons, and 
 journeyes across the county to Frankfort- 
 on-the-Main. 
 
 They carried with them their Bibles and 
 books of devotion, and as they journeyed 
 lightened their fatigues with those grand old 
 German hymns which they were to make as 
 precious in the new world as they were to 
 the people of God in the old. From Frank- 
 fort they proceeded to the Rhine and floated 
 down that stream to Rotterdam, where, 
 being joined by two clergymen — Bolzius 
 and Gronau — they sailed to England. 
 They were warmly received by a com- 
 mittee of the trustees of the colony and 
 forwarded to Georgia. 
 
 A stormy passage of fifty-seven days 
 brought them to Charleston, in March, 
 1734, where they were met by Ogle- 
 thorpe, who led them to their destina- 
 tion. They were assigned a location on 
 the Savannah, a short distance above 
 the town of Savannah, where they began 
 without delay to lay off a town, which 
 they named Ebenezer, in gratitude to 
 God for his guidance of them into a land 
 of plenty and of rest from persecution. 
 Others of their countrymen joined them 
 from time to time, and their settlement 
 grew rapidly and became noted as one 
 of the most orderly, thrifty and moral 
 communities in the new world. 
 
 In 1734 the town of Augusta was laid 
 out at the head of boat navigation on the Sa- 
 vannah, and soon became an important trad- 
 ing-post. Emigrants came over from England 
 in large numbers, and Oglethorpe had the 
 satisfaction of seeing his colony fairly started 
 upon the road to prosperity. He was justly 
 proud of the success of the colony, for it was 
 mainly due to his disinterested efforts. 
 Governor Johnson, of South Carolina, who 
 had watched the labors of Oglethorpe with 
 
 the deepest interest, wrote : " His under- 
 taking will succeed, for he nobly devotes all 
 his powers to serve the poor and rescue 
 them from their wrechedness." The pastor 
 of Ebenezer bore equally emphatic testimony 
 to his devotion. " He has taken care of us 
 to the best of his ability," said the pastor. 
 " God has so blessed his presence and his 
 regulations in the land that others would not 
 in many years have accomplished what he 
 has brought about in one." 
 
 GENERAL OGLETHORPE. 
 
 In April, 1734, Oglethorpe, whose pres- 
 ence was required in Europe, sailed from 
 Savannah, taking with him several Indians, 
 and enough of the raw silk which had been 
 produced in the colony to make a dress for 
 the queen. Georgia was left to manage its 
 own affairs during the absence of its founder. 
 As the colonists regarded the use of ardent 
 spirits as the sure cause of the debt and 
 misery from which they had fled, they 
 
244 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 prohibited their introduction into the colony ; 
 but it was found impossible to enforce this 
 law. The importation of negro slaves was 
 also forbidden. The colony was a refuge for 
 the distressed and oppressed of all nations, 
 and it seemed a violation of the spirit in 
 which it was founded to hold men in bond- 
 age. " Slavery," said Oglethorpe, " is against 
 the gospel as well as the fundamental law of 
 England. We refused, as trustees, to make 
 a law permitting such a horrid crime." 
 
 with the intention of becoming missionaries 
 of the gospel among the savage tribes, and 
 under their leader, Spangenberg, formed a 
 new settlement on the Ogeechee, south of 
 the Savannah. They claimed and received 
 a grant of fifty acres of land for each of 
 their number, in accordance with a lav/ 
 which had been passed for the encourage- 
 ment of emigration. In the same year a 
 company of Scotch Highlanders, under their 
 minister, John McLeod, arrived and founded 
 
 
 A SOUTHERN PLANTATION. 
 
 The visit of Oglethorpe to England was 
 productive of great benefit to Georgia. Par- 
 liament was induced to grant it assistance, 
 and the king became deeply interested in the 
 province which had been called by his name. 
 Emigrants from England continued to seek 
 its hospitable shores, and the trustees induced 
 a band of Moravians, or United Brethren, to 
 emigrate to the colony. They came in 1735, 
 
 the town of Darien, on the Altamaha. In 
 1736 Oglethorpe himself returned, bringing 
 with him three hundred emigrants. 
 
 Among the new-comers were two broth- 
 ers, men of eminent piety, who were destined 
 to exercise a powerful influence upon the 
 world. They were John and Charles Wes- 
 ley, sons of a. clergyman of the Church of 
 England, and themselves ministers of that 
 
SETTLEMENT OF GEORGIA. 
 
 245 
 
 communion. Charles Wesley had been 
 selected by Oglethorpe as his secretary, and 
 John Wesley came with the hope of becom- 
 ing the means of converting the Indians to 
 Christianity. He did not succeed in realiz- 
 ing his noble ambition, but we cannot doubt 
 that his experience in 
 America formed a 
 very important part 
 of the training by 
 which God was pre- 
 paring him for the 
 great work he meant 
 to intrust to him at a 
 later day. 
 
 The preaching of 
 Wesley had a marked 
 effect upon the col- 
 ony. Crowds flocked 
 to hear him, neglect- 
 ing their usual amuse- 
 ments in their eager- 
 ness to listen to him. 
 His austerity of life, 
 however, involved 
 him in troubles with 
 the people, and his 
 popularity at length 
 disappeared. His 
 brother Charles was 
 too tenderly moulded 
 for so rough a life as 
 that of the infant col- 
 ony, and his health 
 sank under it. The 
 brothers remained in 
 Georgia only two 
 years, and then went 
 back to their labors in 
 Europe, never to return to America. 
 
 Soon after the departure of the Wesleys 
 came to the colony George Whitefield, their 
 friend and associate, the " golden-mouthed " 
 preacher of the century. In his own land he 
 
 had begun to preach the message of his Mas- 
 ter when but a mere youth, and had pro- 
 claimed it to the inmates of the prisons and 
 to the poor in the fields, and now he had 
 come to bring the gospel to the people of 
 the new world. He visited the Lutherans at 
 
 JOHN WESLEY. 
 
 Ebenezer, and was deeply impressed with tht 
 care with which they protected the orphan 
 and helpless children of their community.' 
 He determined to establish an institution 
 similar to the orphan house at Halle, in 
 
246 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 Germany, and by his personal exertions suc- 
 ceeded in raising in England and America 
 the funds necessary for the success of his 
 enterprise. 
 
 Ek thereupon established near Savannah 
 the first orphan asylum in America. He 
 
 GEORGE WHITEF1ELD. 
 
 watched it with unceasing care during his 
 life, but after his death it languished and was 
 at length discontinued. Whitefieid did not 
 confine his labors to Georgia. He visited 
 *?very colony in America, and finally died 
 
 and was buried in New England. The 
 memory of his wonderful eloquence is still 
 retained in this country by the children of 
 those who listened to him. 
 
 Immediately upon his return to Georgia, 
 Oglethorpe proceeded to visit the Lutheran 
 settlement at Ebenezer, 
 to encourage the people 
 and lay out their town 
 The Germans repaid nis 
 care by their industry, 
 and in a few years their 
 total annual product o* 
 raw silk amounted to ten 
 thousand pounds. The 
 culture of indigo was 
 also carried on by them 
 with marked success, 
 
 Oglethorpe, having 
 visited the Scotch set- 
 tlement at Dai icn, now 
 resolved to come to a 
 definite understanding 
 with the Spaniards at 
 St. Augustine respect- 
 ing the southern border 
 of G orgia, and to sus- 
 tain the pretensions of 
 Great Britain to the 
 country as far south as 
 the St. John's. Proceed 
 ing with a detachment of 
 Highlanders to Cumber- 
 land Island, he marked 
 out the location for a 
 fort, to be called St. 
 Andrew's, and on the 
 southern end of Amelia 
 Island, at the mouth of 
 the St. John's, built Fort St. George. The 
 Spaniards on their part claimed the whole 
 coast as far north as St. Helena's Sound, and 
 Oglethorpe, a little later, decided to abandon 
 Fort St. George, but strengthened Fort St. 
 
SETTLEMENT OF GEORGIA. 
 
 247 
 
 Andrew, as it defended the entrance to the 
 St. Mary's, which stream was finally settled 
 upon as the boundary between Georgia and 
 Florida. Oglethorpe was commissioned a 
 brigadier-general by the king, and was 
 charged with the defence of Georgia and 
 South Carolina. He repaired to England 
 and raised a regiment of troops, with which 
 he returned to Georgia in 1738. 
 
 Spain and England were rapidly drifting 
 into war. The system of restrictions by 
 which the European governments sought to 
 retain the exclusive possession of the com- 
 merce of their respective colonies was always 
 a fruitful source of trouble. It now operated 
 to bring England and Spain to open hostili- 
 ties. The Spanish colonies were forbidden 
 by law to trade with any port but that of 
 Cadiz. The merchants of this place, being 
 given a monopoly of the colonial commerce, 
 were enabled to fix their prices without fear of 
 competition, and thus earned large fortunes. 
 
 Grasping Smugglers. 
 The trade of the Spanish-American col- 
 onies, however, was too tempting not to pro- 
 duce rivals to the merchants of Cadiz. The 
 English, who had watched its growth with 
 eager eyes, determined to gain a share of it. 
 By the terms of a treaty between the two 
 nations, an Engli-.li vessel was allowed to 
 visit Portobello, in the West Indies, once a 
 year, and dispose of its cargo. This vessel 
 was followed by smaller ones, which in the 
 night replaced with their cargoes the bales of 
 goods that had been discharged during the 
 day. An active smuggling trade sprang up 
 between the English and Spanish-American 
 ports, and English vessels repeatedly sought 
 these ports, under the pretence of distress, 
 and sold their goods. These enterprises 
 were carried to such an extent that the 
 Spanish merchants were unable to compete 
 with the English smugglers in the colonial 
 
 markets, and the tonnage of the port of 
 Cadiz fell from fifteen thousand to two thou- 
 sand tons. 
 
 The Spaniards visited with severe punish- 
 ments all who were detected in engaging in 
 this illicit traffic. Some of the offenders were 
 imprisoned., and others were deprived of their 
 ears. The English people resented the pun- 
 ishment of these traders as an infringement 
 of the freedom of trade, and regarded the 
 smugglers who had suffered at the hands of 
 Spanish justice as martyrs. The popular 
 sentiment was therefore in favor of a war 
 with Spain, and the English government, 
 which had all along connived at this illicit 
 trade, which was rapidly crippling a rival 
 power, shared the national feeling. 
 
 Grievances of the Settlers. 
 
 The English colonists, who had watched 
 the growth of the trouble between the two 
 European countries, had grievances of their 
 own. South Carolina was a sufferer by the 
 loss of numerous runaway negro slaves, who 
 escaped to the Spaniards at St. Augustine. 
 The return of these fugitives was demanded, 
 and was refused, not because the Spaniards 
 were opposed to slavery, but because they 
 were always ready to injure the English col- 
 onies by any means in their power. More- 
 over, the Spanish authorities of Florida 
 had ordered the English to withdraw from 
 Georgia, and it was not certain that they 
 would refrain from seeking to enforce this 
 order. Oglethorpe had become convinced 
 that war was inevitable, and in order to be 
 prepared for it had visited Europe and raised 
 a regiment of six hundred men, as has been 
 related. 
 
 War was declared against Spain by Eng- 
 land in October, 1739. Admiral Vernon was 
 sent against Portobello with his fleet, and 
 captured that town and its fortifications, 
 and gained some other successes over the 
 
248 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 Spaniards in Central America. In 1740, the 
 American colonies were ordered by the 
 British government to contribute each its 
 quota to a grand expedition against the 
 Spanish possessions in the West Indies. 
 Each colony made its contribution promptly, 
 and Pennsylvania, in the place of troops, 
 voted a sum of money. 
 
 Fleet of a Hundred Vessels. 
 
 The expedition reached Jamaica in Janu- 
 ary, 1741, but instead of proceeding at once 
 to attack Havana, which was only three 
 days distant, and the conquest of which 
 would have made England supreme in the 
 West Indies, the fleet was detained for over 
 a month at Jamaica by the dissensions be- 
 tween Wentworth, the incompetent com- 
 mander of the land forces, and Vernon, the 
 admiral of the fleet. The expedition num- 
 bered over one hundred vessels, of which 
 twenty-nine were ships of the line, and was 
 manned with fifteen thousand sailors and 
 twelve thousand troops, and supplied with 
 every requisite for a successful siege. Havana 
 might have been taken, and England have 
 gained a hold upon the southern waters of 
 America which could never have been 
 wrested from her. 
 
 Instead of undertaking this important 
 measure, the expedition attacked Cartha- 
 gena, the strongest fortress in Spanish 
 America. The Spaniards defended it with 
 obstinancy and held the English in check 
 until the besieging force, decimated by the 
 ravages of the climate, was compelled to 
 withdraw. The war continued through the 
 next year, but England gained no advan- 
 tage in the West Indies which could at 
 all compensate her for her losses in the 
 struggle. 
 
 In the autumn of 1739, upon the breaking 
 out of the war, Oglethorpe was ordered to 
 invade Florida, and attack St. Augustine, j 
 
 He hastened to Charleston and urged upon 
 the authorities of South Carolina, which 
 formed a part of his military command, the 
 necessity of acting with promptness and de- 
 cision. He was granted supplies and a force 
 of four hundred men, which, added to his 
 own regiment, gave him a force of one 
 thousand white troops. He was also fur- 
 nished with a body of Indian warriors by the 
 friendly tribes, and with his little army in- 
 vaded Florida in the spring of I74i,and laid 
 siege to St. Augustine. He found the gar- 
 rison more numerous and the fortifications 
 stronger than he had been led to believe. 
 The Indians soon became disheartened and 
 began to desert, and the troops from South 
 Carolina, " enfeebled by the heat, dispirited 
 by sickness and fatigued by fruitless efforts, 
 marched away in large bodies." 
 
 Spanish Settlers Protected. 
 
 The small naval force also became dissat- 
 isfied, and Oglethorpe, left with only his own 
 regiment, was obliged to withdraw into 
 Georgia after a siege of five weeks. During 
 this campaign Oglethorpe made a few pris- 
 oners, whom he treated with kindness. He 
 prevented the Indians from maltreating the 
 Spanish settlers, and, throughout the inva- 
 sion, " endured more fatigues than any of his 
 soldiers; and in spite of ill-health, he was at 
 the head in every important action." 
 
 The invasion of Florida was a misfortune 
 for Georgia in every way. Not only were 
 some of the inhabitants lost to the colony by 
 death, and the industry of the province 
 greatly interfered with by the calling off of 
 the troops from their ordinary avocations, 
 but a serious misfortune was sustained in the 
 withdrawal of the Moravians from the prov- 
 ince. Uncompromisingly opposed to war, 
 they withdrew from Georgia in a body and 
 settled in Pennsylvania, where they founded 
 the towns of Bethlehem and Nazareth. 
 
SETTLEMENT OF GEORGIA. 
 
 249 
 
 In the last year of the war, 1742, the 
 Spaniards resolved to avenge the attack upon 
 Florida by driving the English out of 
 Georgia. A strong fleet with a considerable 
 land force was sent from Cuba to St. Augus- 
 tine, from which it proceeded to the mouth 
 of the St. Mary's. Oglethorpe had con- 
 structed a strong work called Fort William, 
 on the southern end of Cumberland Island, 
 for the defence of this river. With no aid 
 from Carolina, and with less than a thousand 
 men, Oglethorpe was left to defend this 
 position as well as he could. He posted his 
 main force at Frederica, a small village on 
 St. Simon's Island. The Spanish fleet 
 attacked Fort William in June and succeeded 
 in passing it and entering the harbor of St. 
 Simon's. The troops were landed and ar- 
 rangements were made for a combined attack 
 upon Frederica. 
 
 Entrapped and Defeated. 
 
 Oglethorpe now resolved to anticipate the 
 attack of the enemy by a night assault upon 
 '•heir position, but as his forces were approach- 
 ing the Spanish camp, under cover of dark- 
 ness, one of his soldiers, a Frenchman, 
 betrayed the movement by firing his gun, 
 and escaping into the enemy's lines, where 
 he gave the alarm. Oglethorpe, by a happy 
 stratagem, now induced the enemy to with- 
 draw, and drew upon the deserter the pun- 
 ishment he merited. He bribed a Spanish 
 prisoner to carry a letter to the deserter, in 
 which he addressed the Frenchman as a spy 
 of the English, and urged him to use every 
 effort to detain the Spaniards before Fred- 
 erica for several days longer, until a fleet of 
 six English ships of war, which had sailed 
 from Charleston, could reach and destroy 
 St. Augustine. The letter was delivered by 
 the released prisoner to the Spanish com- 
 mander, as Oglethorpe had known would be 
 the case, and the deserter was placed in con- 
 finement- 
 
 Fortunately, at this moment, some vessels 
 from South Carolina, laden with supplies for 
 Oglethorpe, appeared in the offing. These 
 the Spanish commander was confident were 
 the ships on their way to attack St. Augus- 
 tine. He determined to strike a vigorous 
 blow at Frederica before sailing to the relief 
 of his countrymen in Florida. On his march 
 towards the English position he was ambus- 
 caded and defeated, with great loss, at a 
 place since called " Bloody Marsh." The 
 next night he embarked his forces and sailed 
 for St. Augustine to defend it from the attack 
 which had no existence save in the fertile 
 brain of Oglethorpe, whose stratagem was 
 thus entirely successful. On their withdrawal 
 the Spaniards renewed their attempt to cap- 
 ture Fort William, but without success. 
 The firmness and vigor of Oglethorpe had 
 saved Georgia and Carolina from the ruin 
 which the Spaniards, who had no intention 
 of occupying the country, had designed for 
 them. 
 
 Oglethorpe Acquitted. 
 
 Yet the founder and brave defender o\ 
 Georgia was not to escape the experience of 
 those who seek with disinterested zeal to 
 serve their fellow-men. The disaffected 
 settlers sent an agent to England to lodge 
 complaints against him with the government. 
 In July, 1743, having made sure of the tran- 
 quility and safety of the colony, Oglethorpe 
 sailed for England to meet his accuser, and 
 upon arriving in his native country demanded 
 an investigation of his conduct in the land 
 for which he had sacrificed so much. 
 
 The result of the inquiry was the trium- 
 phant acquittal of Oglethorpe and the pun- 
 ishment of his accuser for making false 
 charges. Oglethorpe was promoted to the 
 grade of major-general in the English army. 
 He did not return to Georgia again, but he 
 had the satisfaction of knowing that during 
 
250 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 his ten years of sacrifice and toil in America 
 he had successfully laid the foundations of a 
 vigorous state and had placed it far beyond 
 the possibility of failure, and that his name 
 was honored and loved by the people for 
 whom he had given his best efforts without 
 any personal reward. He died at the age of 
 ninety years. After the departure of Ogle- 
 thorpe many improvements were made in 
 the government of Georgia, which was 
 changed from a military rule to a civil 
 establishment. The forms and customs of 
 the English law were introduced and the 
 usual magistrates appointed. 
 
 Human Cargoes from Africa. 
 
 Slavery had been forbidden by the trus- 
 tees, but the majority of the people were 
 dissatisfied with this prohibition. The Ger- 
 mans and the Scotch were opposed to the 
 introduction of slave labor, but the greater 
 number of the English, many of whom had 
 been reduced to poverty by their idleness 
 and wastefulness, were of the opinion that 
 the agricultural wealth of the colony could 
 not be properly developed by white labor 
 alone. " They were unwilling to labor, but 
 were clamorous for privileges to which they 
 had no right." They declared that the use 
 of strong liquors was rendered absolutely 
 necessary by the climate and demanded the 
 repeal of the laws against their introduction. 
 Negro slaves were hired from the Carolina 
 planters at first for a few years, and finally 
 for a term of one hundred years, which was a 
 practical establishment of slavery in the 
 colony. 
 
 Within seven years after Oglethorpe's 
 departure slave-ships from Africa brought 
 their cargoes direct to Savannah and sold 
 them there. The scruples of the Germans 
 were at length overcome, and they were 
 
 induced to believe that negroes might be led 
 into the Christian fold by their proper treat- 
 ment by Christian masters, and that in this 
 way their change of country might result in 
 benefit to them. " If you take slaves in 
 faith," wrote their friends from Germany, 
 " and with the intent of conducting them to 
 Christ, the action will not be a sin, but may 
 prove a benediction." Even the pious White- 
 field took this view of the subject and urged 
 the trustees to grant permission to the colo- 
 nists to hold slaves, as indispensable to the 
 prosperity of Georgia. 
 
 The trustees were so strongly urged to this 
 step by all classes of the colony, and so 
 overrun with complaints, that the twenty-one 
 years of their guardianship having expired, 
 they were glad to surrender their trust, which 
 they did in 1752, and Georgia became a royal 
 province. Privileges similar to those granted 
 the other colonies were allowed it. The 
 king appointed the governor and some of the 
 other higher officials, and the assembly dis- 
 charged the duties, and enjoyed the rights 
 appertaining to similar bodies in the other 
 provinces. 
 
 Georgia was always a favored colony. 
 Among the most important privileges be- 
 stowed upon it was the right to import and 
 hold negro slaves, which was conferred upon 
 it by Parliament after a careful examination 
 into the matter. After this the colony grew 
 rapidly, and cotton and rice were largely 
 cultivated. In 1752, at the time of the re- 
 linquishment of the colony to the crown, 
 Georgia contained a population less than 
 twenty-five hundred whites and about 
 four hundred negroes. In 1775, at the 
 outbreak of the Revolution, the popu. 
 lation numbered about seventy-five thousand 
 souls, and its exports were valued at over 
 half a million of dollars. 
 
CHAPTER XX 
 The French in the Valley of the Mississippi 
 
 CWgin of the Hostility of the Iroquois to the French — Settlement of Canada — Plans of the French Respecting theindkcL 
 — The Jesuits — Their Work in America — Success of their Missions — The Early Missionaries — Foundation of a Oolkg> 
 at Quebec — Efforts of the Jesuits to Convert the Iroquois — Father Jogues — Death of Ahasistari — Father Allouez — The 
 Missions on the Upper Lakes — Father Marquette — His Exploration of the Upper Mississippi — Death of Marquette — 
 La Salle — Efforts of France to Secure the Valley of the Mississippi — La Salle Descends the Mississippi to it- Mouth 
 —His Effort to Colonize the Lower Mississippi — The First Colony in Texas — lis Failure — Death of La Salle- - 
 Lemoine d'lbberville — Settlement of Louisiana — Colony of Biloxi — Settlement of Mobile — Crozat's Monopo'y— 
 Founding of New Orleans — Detroit Founded — Slow Growth of the French Colonies — Occupation of the Ohio Valley 
 by the French — Wars with the Indians — Extermination of the Natchez Tribe — War with the Chickasaws, 
 
 WE have already spoken of the 
 explorations of Samuel Cham- 
 plain in Canada and in the 
 northern part of New York. 
 It is necessary now, in order to obtain a 
 proper comprehension of the period at which 
 we have arrived, to go back to the time of his 
 discoveries and trace the efforts of France 
 to extend her dominion over the great valley 
 of the Mississippi. We have seen Cham- 
 plain in one of his last' expeditions accom- 
 panying a war party of the Hurons and Al- 
 gonqums against their inveterate enemies, 
 the Iroquois or Five Nations. By his aid 
 the former were enabled to defeat me Iro- 
 quois, and that great confederacy thus De- 
 came the bitter and uncompromising enemies 
 of the French nation. They cherished this 
 hostility to the latest period of the dominion 
 of France in Canada^ and no effort of the 
 French governors was ever able to over- 
 come it. 
 
 The efforts of Champlain established the 
 settlement of Canada upon a sure basis of 
 success, and after his death settlers came 
 over to Canada from France in considerable 
 numbers. Q uebec became an important place, 
 and other settlements were founded. It was 
 apparent from the first that the French colo= 
 nies must occupy a very different footing 
 
 from those of England. The soil and the 
 climate were both unfavorable to agriculture 
 and the French settlements were of necessity 
 organized chiefly as trading-posts. The 
 trade in furs was immensely valuable, anc 1 
 the French sought to secure the exclusive 
 possession of it To this end it was indis 
 pensable to secure the friendship of the In 
 dians, especially of those tribes inhabiting 
 the country to the north and west of the 
 great lakes. 
 
 In 1634, three years before the death c 
 Champlain, Louis XIII. granted a chartei 
 to a company of French nobles and mer 
 chants, bestowing upon them the entire 
 region embraced 3 in the valley of the Si. 
 Lawrence, then known as New France. 
 Richelieu and Champlain, who were mem 
 bers of this company, were wise enough to 
 understand that their countrymen were not 
 suited to the task of colonization, and thai 
 if France was to found an empire in the new 
 world, it must be by civilizing and Chris 
 tianizing the Indians and bringing then? 
 under the rule of her king, and not by seek- 
 ing to people Canada with Frenchmen 
 From this time it became the policy of 
 France to bring the savages under her sway. 
 The efforts of the settlers in Canada wer.* 
 mainly devoted to trading with the Indian-. 
 
 251 
 
252 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 and no attempt was made to found an agri- 
 cultural state. 
 
 Champlain had conceived a sincere desire 
 for the conversion of the savages to Chris- 
 tianity, and had employed several priests of 
 the order of St. Francis as his companions, 
 and these had gained sufficient success among 
 the savages to give ground for the hope that 
 the red men might yet be brought into 'he 
 fold of Christ. Father Le Caron, one of this 
 order, had penetrated far up the St. Law- 
 rence, had explored the southern coast of 
 Lake Ontario, and had even entered Lake 
 Huron. He brought back tidings of thou- 
 sands of the sons of the forest living in 
 darkness and superstition, ''gnorant of the 
 gospel, and dying " in the bondage of their 
 sins." In France a sudden enthusiasm was 
 awakened in behalf of the savages, and at 
 court zeal for the conversion of the Indians 
 became the sure road to distinction. Much 
 of this was the result of genuine disinterested 
 regard for the welfare of the red men, but 
 much also was due to the conviction that by 
 such a course the power of France would be 
 most surely established in Canada. 
 
 Work of the Jesuits. 
 
 The missions were placed entirely in the 
 hands of the Jesuits, an order well suited to 
 the task demanded of it. It had been estab- 
 lished by its founder for the express design 
 of defeating the influences and the work of 
 the Reformation, and its members were 
 chosen with especial regard to their fitness 
 for the duties required of them. They were 
 to meet and refute the arguments by which 
 the Reformers justified their withdrawal from 
 the Roman church, to beat back the advanc- 
 ing wave of Protestantism, and bring all 
 Christendom once more in humble submis- 
 sion to the feet of the Roman pontiff. 
 
 The Reformers had made a most successful 
 use of education in winning men from Rome . 
 
 the Jesuits would take their own weapons 
 against the Protestants. They would no 
 longer command absolute and unquestioning 
 submission to their church; but would edu- 
 cate the people to accept the faith of Rome 
 as the result of study and investigation ; and 
 in order that study and investigation should 1 
 lead to this desired result, the control of 
 these processes should be placed exclusively 
 in the hands of the members of the Jesuit 
 order, who should direct them as they deemed 
 best. Such a task required a band of de- 
 voted men, carefully trained for their special 
 work ; and such an order the Jesuits became. 
 Surrendering his conscience and will to the 
 direction of his superiors, and sinking his 
 personality in that of his order, the Jesuit 
 became a mere intellectual machine in the 
 hands of his superior. 
 
 A Solemn Oath. 
 
 Bound by a most solemn oath to obey 
 without inquiry or hesitation the commands 
 of the Pope, or the superiors of the order, the 
 Jesuit holds himself in readiness to execute 
 instantly, and to the best of his ability, any 
 task imposed upon him. Neither fatigue, 
 danger, hunger nor suffering was to stand in 
 his way of perfect and unhesitating obedi- 
 ence. No distance was to be considered an 
 obstacle, and no lack of ordinary facilities of 
 travel was to prevent him from attempting to 
 reach the fields in which he was ordered to 
 labor. The merit of obedience in his eyes 
 atoned for every other short-coming ; devo- 
 tion to the church, the glory of making 
 proselytes, made even suffering pleasure and 
 death a triumph, if met in the discharge of 
 duty. 
 
 Such an order was in every way qualified 
 for the work of Christianizing the savages, 
 and America offered the noblest field to 
 which its energies had yet been invited. 
 There, cut off from the ambitious schemes 
 
THE FRENCH IN THE VALLEY OF THE MISSISSIPPI. 
 
 253 
 
 and corrupt influences which had enlisted 
 their powers in Europe, the Jesuits could 
 achieve and did achieve their noblest and 
 most useful triumphs. There, their influ- 
 ence was for good alone, and their labors 
 stand in striking contrast with those which 
 won for the order the universal execration of 
 Europe. Not only did they win the honor 
 of gaining many converts to the Christian 
 faith, but they were the means of extending 
 the dominion of their country far beyond the 
 boundaries of Canada, and of bringing the 
 great valley of the Mississippi under the 
 authority of France. 
 
 Marriage of Whites and Indians. 
 
 By the year 1536 there were thirteen 
 Jesuit missionaries in Canada laboring 
 among the Indians. Not content with re- 
 maining around tne posts, they pushed out 
 beyond the frontier settlements into the 
 boundless forest, making new converts and 
 important discoveries. Each convert was 
 regarded as a subject of France, and the 
 equal of the whites, and the kindliest rela- 
 tions were established between the French 
 and the natives. Many of the traders took 
 them Indian wives, and from these marriages 
 sprang the class of half-breeds afterwards so 
 numerous in Qmada. 
 
 The limits of Canada were too narrow for 
 the ambition of the Jesuits ; they burned to 
 carry Christianity to the tribes in the more 
 distant regions beyond the lakes. In the 
 autumn of 1634 Fathers Brabeuf and Daniel 
 accompanied a party of Hurons, who had 
 come to Quebec on a trading expedition, to 
 their home on the shores of the lake which 
 bears their name. It was a long and difficult 
 journey of nine hundred miles, and it taxed 
 the endurance of the missionaries to the ut- 
 most, but they persevered, and finally gained 
 a resting-place at the Huron villages on 
 Georgian Bay and Lake Simcoe There 
 
 they erected a rude chapel in a little grove, 
 and celebrated the mysteries of their religion 
 in the midst of the wondering red men, who 
 looked on with awe and not without interest. 
 
 New Missions. 
 
 Six missions were soon established among 
 the Indian villages in this part of the lake, 
 and converts began to reward the labors of 
 the devoted priests. Father Brabeuf had not 
 an idle moment. The first four hours of the 
 day were passed in prayer and in the flagel- 
 lation of his body ; he wore a shirt of hair, 
 and his fasts were frequent and severe. The 
 remainder of the day was given to catechis- 
 ing and teaching the Indians. As he passed 
 along the streets of the village he would ring 
 his little bell, and in this way summon the 
 warriors to converse with him upon the 
 mysteries of the Christian faith. He spent 
 fifteen years in his labors among the Indians, 
 and hundreds of converts were by means of 
 him gained to Christ among the dusky chil- 
 dren of the forest. 
 
 The great Huron chief, Ahasistari, was 
 among the converts of Father Brabeuf. 
 " Before you came to this country," he said 
 to the missionary, " when I have incurred the 
 greatest perils and have alone escaped, I have 
 said to myself, ' Some powerful Spirit has the 
 guardianship of my days.' " That Spirit he 
 now declared was Jesus Christ, and as he 
 had before adored him in ignorance, he now 
 became his acknowledged servant. Being 
 satisfied of his sincerity, Father Brabeuf 
 baptized him, and the chief, in the enthusi- 
 asm of his new belief, exclaimed, " Let us 
 strive to make the whole world embrace the 
 faith in Jesus." 
 
 The report of the successful efforts of the 
 missionaries gave great satisfaction in France, 
 and the king and queen and the nobles made 
 liberal donations in support of the missions 
 and for the assistance of the converts. A 
 
254 UNIVERSITY AND NORMAL SCHOOL BUILDINGS AT TORONTO, IN 1 892. 
 
THE FRENCH IN THE VALLEY OF THE MISSISSIPPI. 
 
 255 
 
 college for the education of missionaries was 
 founded at Quebec in 1635. This was the 
 first institution of learning established in 
 America, and preceded the founding of Har- 
 vard College by two years. Madame de la 
 Peltrie, a wealthy young widow of Alencon, 
 with the aid of three nuns, established in 1639 
 the Ursuline Convent for the education of 
 Indian girls. The three nuns came out from 
 France to take charge of it, and were received 
 with enthusiasm, especially by the Indians. 
 Montreal being regarded as a more suit- 
 able place, the institution was removed to 
 that island and permanently established 
 there. 
 
 The Powerful Mohawks. 
 
 The labors of the missionaries had thus 
 far been confined to the Huron and Algon- 
 quin tribes, whom they found very willing to 
 listen to them, and among whom they 
 counted their converts by thousands. They 
 had encountered but little hostility from 
 them, and the dangers of the enterprise were 
 merely those inseparable from the unsettled 
 condition of the country. They were 
 anxious to extend their efforts to the fiercer 
 and more powerful Iroquois, as the conver- 
 sion of the tribes of this confederacy would 
 not only swell the number of their converts, 
 but would extend the influence of France to 
 the very borders of the English settlements 
 on the Atlantic coast. 
 
 The Iroquois, or Five Nations, consisted, 
 as has been said, of the Seneca, Cayuga, 
 Onondaga, Oneida and Mohawk tribes. 
 They occupied almost all that part of Canada 
 south of the Ottawa, and between Lakes 
 Ontario, Erie and Huron, the greater part of 
 New York and the country lying along the 
 south shore of Lake Erie, now included in 
 the states of Ohio and Pennsylvania. They 
 were generally called by the English the 
 Mohawks. They w^«*e the most intelligent, 
 
 as well as the most powerful, of the tribes 
 with whom the French missionaries came in 
 contact. 
 
 Their traditions related that their confed- 
 eracy had been formed in accordance with 
 the instructions of Hiawatha, the greatest 
 and wisest of their chiefs, who had been 
 blessed by the Great Spirit with more than 
 human beauty and wisdom and courage. 
 He had made his people great, united and 
 prosperous ; had then taken a solemn leave of 
 them, and had sailed out into the distant 
 sunset in a snow-white canoe, amid the 
 sweetest music from the spirit land. They 
 were regarded with dread by the sui- 
 rounding tribes, many of which were tribu- 
 tary to them. Their influence extended 
 eastward as far as New England, and west- 
 ward as far as the countries of the Illinois and 
 the Miamis. They regarded the Hurons as 
 their hereditary enemies, and the French, as 
 allies of the Hurons, now shared this hos- 
 tility. The savages long remembered, and 
 never forgave, the alliance of Champlain 
 with the Hurons and Algonquins, to which 
 reference has been made. 
 
 Enmity of the Red Men. 
 
 The Jesuit missionaries vainly endeavored 
 to add the tribes of the Five Nations to their 
 converts. The latter, regarding the French 
 as enemies, could never be made to look 
 upon the missionaries of that race as friends, 
 and considered the efforts of the good fathers 
 in their behalf as a species of incantation 
 designed for their destruction. They closed 
 the region south of Lake Ontario to the 
 French traders and priests and kept a vigilant 
 watch over the passes of the St. Lawrence 
 for the purpose of breaking up the trade of 
 the French at Montreal with the tribes on the 
 lakes. 
 
 The only route by which the lakes could 
 be reached in safety was by the Ottawa and 
 
256 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 through the wilderness beyond. Yet occa- 
 sionally a trading party would slip through 
 the blockade established by the Iroquois, 
 and, descending the lakes and the St. Law- 
 rence, reach Montreal and Quebec in safety. 
 These expeditions constituted the only 
 means by which the Jesuit missionaries in 
 'the remote regions could communicate with 
 their principal establishment at Montreal. 
 
 In the summer of 1642, Father Jogues, 
 who had labored with great success in the 
 country now embraced in the state of Michi- 
 gan, left the Sault Sainte Marie under the 
 escort of the great Huron war chief Ahasis- 
 tari and a number of his braves, and, descend- 
 ing the Ottawa and the St. Lawrence, reached 
 Montreal and Quebec in safety. On the 
 first of August he set out on his return, ac- 
 companied by a larger fleet of Huron canoes. 
 Before the mouth of the Ottawa was reached 
 the party was attacked by a band of Mo- 
 hawks, and the canoes were so much dam- 
 aged that the occupants were forced to make 
 for the opposite shore. The greater number 
 escaped, but a few, among whom were Father 
 Jogues and Father Goupil, a fellow-priest, 
 were taken prisoners. 
 
 Died at the Stake. 
 
 Ahasistari had succeeded in reaching a place 
 of safety, and from his concealment saw the 
 missionaries prisoners in the hands of their 
 enemies. He knew the fate that awaited 
 them, and resolved to share it with them. 
 Father Jogues might have escaped, but as 
 there were among the prisoners several con- 
 verts who had not yet received baptism, he 
 decided to remain with them in the hope of 
 being able to administer the sacred rite to 
 them before their execution. Ahasistari 
 strode through the midst of the astonished 
 Mohawks to the side of the priest. " My 
 brother," said the chief, " I made oath to thee 
 that I would share thy fortune, whether 
 
 death or life ; here am I to keep my vow." 
 He received absolution from the hands of his 
 teacher, and died at the stake with the firm- 
 ness of a Christian and a hero. Jogues and 
 Goupil were carried to the Mohawk, and in 
 each village through which they were led 
 were compelled to run the gauntlet. On an, 
 ear of corn which was thrown to them for 
 food a few drops of the dew had remained, 
 and with these Father Jogues baptized two 
 of his converts. 
 
 Peace with the Five Nations. 
 
 Goupil was not so fortunate. He was seen 
 in the act of making the sign of the 
 cross over an Indian child, and was 
 struck dead by a blow from the toma- 
 hawk of the child's father, who sup- 
 posed he was working a spell for the little 
 one's harm. Father Jogues had expected 
 the same fate, but he was spared, and even 
 allowed to erect a large cross near the village 
 at which he was detained, and to worship 
 before it at pleasure. He escaped at length 
 and reached Albany, where he was kindly 
 received by the Dutch, who enabled him to 
 return to France, from which country he 
 sailed again for Canada. He went boldly 
 into the Mohawk country and began again 
 the efforts which he had made during his 
 captivity to convert his enemies to the true 
 faith, but his labors were soon cut short by 
 his murder by a Mohawk warrior. Other 
 missionaries sought the country of these 
 tribes, but only to meet torture and death at 
 their hands. 
 
 In 1645, the French, who desired to secure 
 their possessions, made a treaty of peace 
 with the Five Nations. The latter professed 
 to forget and bury the wrongs of the past, 
 and agreed to be the true friends of the 
 French. The Algonquins joined in the 
 peace, but neither tribe was sincere in its 
 professions of friendship. 
 
THE FRENCH IN THE VALLEY OF THE MISSISSIPPI. 
 
 257 
 
 The Abenakis of Maine, who had heard 
 of the good deeds of the Jesuit fathers, sent 
 messengers to Montreal asking that mission- 
 aries might be sent to dwell among them. 
 Their appeal was favorably considered, and 
 Father Dreuilettes made his way across the 
 wilderness to the head of the Kennebec, and 
 descended that stream to a point within a 
 few miles of its mouth, where he established 
 his mission. Large numbers of the savages 
 came to him for religious instruction, and he 
 found them ready to embrace the truths he 
 taught them. He entered heartily into all 
 the modes of Indian life, hunting and fishing 
 with them, and winning their confidence and 
 affection. After remaining with them about 
 a year he returned to Quebec, escorted by a 
 band of his converts. He gave such favora- 
 ble accounts of the disposition of the Maine 
 Indians that a permanent mission was estab- 
 lished among them. 
 
 Uncivilized Wild Men. 
 
 By the close of the year 1646 the French 
 had established a line of missions extending 
 across the continent from Lake Superior to 
 Nova Scotia, and between sixty and seventy 
 missionaries were actively engaged in in- 
 structing and preaching to the savages. 
 How far the labors of these devoted men 
 were actually successful will never be known, 
 as their work was of a character which can- 
 not be submitted to any human test. They 
 did not succeed, however, in changing either 
 the character or the habits of their converts. 
 1 hey were still wild men, who scorned to 
 engage in the labor of cultivating their lands, 
 and lived by hunting and fishing. They 
 learned to engage in the religious services of 
 the missionaries, to chant matins and ves- 
 pers, but they made no approach to civiliza- 
 tion. When, in after years, the zeal of the 
 whites for their conversion became less act- 
 ive, and the missionaries less numerous, they 
 
 fell back into their old ways. 
 17 
 
 In 1648 the peace between the Mohawks 
 and the Hurons was broken, and the war 
 blazed up again fiercer than ever. Bands of 
 Mohawk warriors invaded the territory of 
 the Hurons, and both the savage and the 
 missionary fell victims to their fury. On 
 the morning of the fourth of July the village 
 of St. Joseph, on Lake Simcoe, was attacked 
 by a war party of the Mohawks. 
 
 Pierced With Arrows. 
 
 The Huron braves were absent on a hunt- 
 ing expedition, and only the old men and 
 the women and children of the tribe were 
 left in the village. This was the village 
 founded by the missionaries Brabeuf and 
 Daniel, the latter of whom, now an old man, 
 was still dwelling with his converts. At the 
 opening of the attack the good priest has- 
 tened to baptize such as he could, and to 
 give absolution to all whom he could reach. 
 Then, as the Mohawks forced the stockade 
 which protected the village and swarmed in 
 among the wigwams, he advanced calmly 
 from the chapel to meet them, and fell 
 pierced with numerous arrows. 
 
 During the next year the Jesuit missions 
 in Upper Canada were broken up. At the 
 capture of the village Father Brabeuf and 
 his companion, Gabriel Lallemand, were 
 made prisoners, and were subsequently put 
 to death with the crudest tortures. They 
 bore their sufferings with a firmness which 
 astonished their persecutors. The Hurons 
 were scattered and their country was added 
 to the dominion of the Five Nations. Many 
 of the captive Hurons were adopted into the 
 conquering tribes. A large number of these 
 had embraced Christianity — so many, indeed, 
 that the Jesuits, who had been in nowise 
 discouraged by the terrible scenes which had 
 marked the war, began to cherish the hope 
 that the presence of these converts would 
 induce the Iroquois to receive a missionary 
 
258 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 among them. It was decided to make the 
 attempt among the Onondagas,and Oswego, 
 which was their principal village, was chosen 
 as the site of the mission. 
 
 Useless Efforts. 
 
 The Iroquois made no effort to disturb the 
 missionaries, and priests were sent among 
 the other tribes of the confederacy. Encour- 
 aged by this reception, the French undertook 
 to secure a firm footing in this inviting 
 region by establishing a colony at the mouth 
 of the Oswego, and fifty persons were des- 
 patched to that point to begin a settlement 
 there. This aroused the alarm of the 
 Indians, who compelled the colonists to 
 withdraw and forced the missionaries to de- 
 part with them. This was the last effort of 
 the French to obtain possession of New 
 York. The Five Nations were not to be 
 reconciled with them on any terms, and their 
 hostility made it useless to attempt the col- 
 onization of that fertile region. 
 
 Defeated in their hope of obtaining a 
 footing in the country of the Five Nations, 
 the Jesuit fathers turned their attention more 
 energetically to the vast region beyond the 
 lakes. In 1654 two young fur-traders had 
 penetrated into the country beyond Lake 
 Superior, and after an absence of two years 
 had returned to Quebec, bringing with them 
 accounts of the powerful and numerous 
 tribes occupying that region. They brought 
 with them a number of Indians, who urged 
 the French to open commercial relations 
 with and send missionaries among these 
 tribes. Their request was promptly granted, 
 and missionaries were soon on the ground. 
 One of these, the aged Father Mesnard, 
 while journeying through the forests, wan- 
 dered off from his attendants and was never 
 seen again. His cassock and breviary were 
 found by the Sioux, and were long retained 
 by them as a protection against evil. 
 
 In 1665 Father Claude Alloiiez ascendeo 
 the Ottawa and crossed the wilderness to the 
 Sault Stc-Marie, on a mission to the tribes of 
 the far west. In October he reached the 
 principal town of the Chippewas at the head 
 of Lake Superior. He found the tribe in 
 great excitement ; the young warriors were 
 eager to engage in a war against the formid- 
 able Sioux, and the old men were seeking to 
 restrain them. A grand council was in 
 progress, which was attended by the chiefs 
 of ten or twelve of the neighboring tribes 
 for the purpose of preserving peace if 
 possible. Father Alloiiez was admitted to 
 this assembly and exhorted the warriors to 
 abandon their hostile intentions, and urged 
 them to join the French in an alliance against 
 the Five Nationc. 
 
 His appeal was successful ; the war against 
 the Sioux was abandoned, and the savages 
 came in from all parts 01 the surrounding 
 country to listen to the words of the mis- 
 sionary. A chapel was built on the shore of 
 the lake and the mission of the Holy Spirit 
 was founded. The fame of the missionary 
 spread far to the west and north, and the 
 tribes dwelling north of Lake Superior, the 
 Pottawatomies from Lake Michigan, who 
 worshiped the sun, and the Sioux and the 
 Illinois from the distant prairies of the west, 
 came to the mission to hear the teachings of 
 the missionary. They told him of their 
 country, an unbroken expanse of level land, 
 without trees, but covered with long rich 
 grass, upon which grazed innumerable herds 
 of buffalo and deer; of the rice which grew 
 wild in their distant homes ; of the rich 
 yield of maize which their fields produced ; 
 of the copper mines of which they but dimly 
 comprehended the value ; and of the great 
 river which flowed through their country 
 from the far north to the unknown regions 
 of the south, and which Alloiiez understood 
 them to call the " Messipi." 
 
THE FRENCH IN THE VALLEY OF THE MISSISSIPPI. 
 
 25? 
 
 After remaining at his mission for two 
 years, Alloiiez returned to Quebec to ask for 
 other laborers in the great field around him, 
 and to urge the French to establish per- 
 manent settlements of emigrants or traders 
 in the Lake Superior country. He remained 
 at Quebec two days, was given an assistant, 
 and at once returned to his post, where he 
 continued his labors for many years. " Dur- 
 ing his long sojourn he lighted the torch of 
 faith for more than twenty different nations." 
 
 In 1668 the French West India Company, 
 under whose auspices the settlement of 
 Canada had been conducted, relinquished 
 their monopoly of the fur trade, and a great 
 improvement in the condition and prospects 
 of Canada ensued. In the same year Fathers 
 Claude Dablon and James Marquette estab- 
 lished the mission of Ste-Marie at the rapids 
 through which the waters of Lake Superior 
 rush into those of Huron. "For the suc- 
 ceeding years," says Bancroft, " the illus- 
 trious triumvirate, Alloiiez, Dablon and 
 Marquette, were employed in confirming the 
 influence of France in the vast regions that 
 extend from Green Bay to the head of Lake 
 Superior, mingling happiness with suffering, 
 and winning enduring glory by their fearless 
 perseverance." 
 
 Wonderful Scene. 
 
 In 1669, Father Alloiiez went to establish 
 ■ mission at Green Bay, and Father Mar- 
 quette took his place at the mission of the 
 Holy Spirit. Marquette had heard so much 
 of the Mississippi that he resolved to under- 
 take the discovery of the upper waters of 
 that stream. He employed a young Illinois 
 warrior as his companion, and from him 
 learned the dialect of that tribe. In 1673, 
 accompanied by a fellow-priest named Joliet, 
 five French boatmen, and some Indian guides 
 and interpreters, bearing their canoes on their 
 backs, Marquette set out from his mission, 
 
 and crossing the narrow portage which 
 divides the Fox River from the Wisconsin, 
 reached the headwaters of the latter stream. 
 There the guides left them, wondering at 
 their rashness in seeking to venture into a 
 region which the simple imagination of the 
 savages filled with vague terrors. The 
 adventurers floated down the Wisconsin, and 
 in seven days entered the Mississippi, " with 
 a joy that could not be expressed." Raising 
 the sails of their canoes they glided down 
 the mighty father of waters, gazing with 
 wonder upon the magnificent forests which 
 lined its shores, and which swarmed with 
 game, and admiring the boundless prairies 
 which stretched away from either bank to th 
 horizon. 
 
 The Pipe of Peace. 
 
 One hundred and eighty miles below th» 
 mouth of the Wisconsin the voyagers for the 
 first time discovered signs of human beings. 
 They landed, and found an Indian village a 
 few miles distant from the river. They were 
 kindly received by the inhabitants, who spoke 
 the language of the Indians who had come 
 with Marquette, and a week was passed at 
 this hospitable village. The villagers told 
 the travellers that the lower river extended 
 far to the south, where the heat was deadly, 
 and that in those latitudes the stream 
 abounded with monsters which destroyed 
 both men and canoes. At the departure of 
 the whites the chief of the tribe hung around 
 Marquette's neck the peace-pipe, and ex- 
 plained to him that it would prove a safe 
 guard to him among the tribes into whose 
 territory his journey would lead him. 
 
 Continuing their voyage the explorer? 
 reached the mouth of the Missouri, and 
 noticed the strong, muddy stream which it 
 poured into the Mississippi. "When I 
 return," said Marquette, " I will ascend that 
 river and p?»ss beyond its headwaters, and 
 
260 
 
 SETTLEMENi OF AMERICA. 
 
 proclaim the gospel." One hundred and 
 twenty miles farther south they passed the 
 mouth of the Ohio, of which river they had 
 heard from the Illinois at the village they 
 had visited. As they proceeded farther south 
 the heat became more intense, for it was the 
 month of July. They met with Indians, 
 whose hostility was disarmed by the peace- 
 pipe which Marquette bore. Some of these 
 Indians were armed with axes of European 
 manufacture, which they had obtained either 
 from the Spaniards in the far south, or from 
 the English in Virginia. The voyage was 
 continued to the mouth of the Arkansas. 
 Marquette was now satisfied that the great 
 river flowed into the Gulf of Mexico, and as 
 he was fearful of falling into the hands of the 
 Spaniards in that region, he decided to bring 
 his voyage to an end, and return to the 
 lakes. 
 
 The Dying Missionary. 
 
 The task of ascending the river was accom- 
 plished with great difficulty, and at length 
 the mouth of the Illinois was reached. As 
 they supposed this stream would lead them 
 to the lakes the voyagers ascended it to its 
 headwaters, and then crossed the country to 
 the site of Chicago, from which they con- 
 tinued the voyage by way of Lake Michigan 
 to Green Bay. 
 
 Marquette despatched Joliet to Quebec to 
 report the results of the voyage, but himself 
 remained at Green Bay. It was his purpose 
 to preach the gospel among the Illinois, who 
 had begged him during his voyage to come 
 back to them. He was detained at Green 
 Bay for some time by feeble health, but in 
 1675 went back to the Illinois, and began his 
 labors among them. Feeling that his end 
 was near he undertook to return to the mis- 
 sion of St. Mary's, but fell ill on the way. 
 He gave absolution to all his companions, 
 and retired to pray. An hour afterwards, 
 
 uneasy at his absence, his people went to 
 seek him, and found him kneeling, but pray- 
 ing no longer, for his spirit had gone to 
 receive its reward. He was buried on the 
 banks of the river that bears his name, and 
 his memory was long cherished with affec- 
 tion by the Indians. 
 
 The work of exploration which Marquette 
 had begun was taken up by a bolder and 
 firmer hand. Robert Cavalier de la Salle, a 
 man of good family, had been educated for 
 the service of the Jesuits, but had abandoned 
 his design of entering that order after com- 
 pleting his education. In 1667 he had emi- 
 grated to Canada to seek his fortune, and 
 had established himself as a fur-trader on 
 Lake Ontario. Encouraged by the governor 
 of Canada he had explored Lake Ontario, 
 and had ascended to Lake Erie. When the 
 French governor a few years later built Fort 
 Frontenac to guard the outlet of Lake 
 Ontario, La Salle was granted an extensive 
 domain, including Fort Frontenac, now the 
 town of Kingston, on condition that he 
 would maintain the fort. He thus obtained 
 the monopoly of the fur-trade with the Five 
 Nations.. Here he was residing at the tinr 
 of the death of Marquette. 
 
 On the Road to Fortune. 
 
 The news of Marquette's discoveries filled 
 him with the deepest interest, and he was 
 eager to continue the exploration of the 
 river at the point at which Marquette had 
 discontinued it, and to trace it to its mouth. 
 He was already on the road to fortune, but 
 the prospect of winning greater fame was too 
 tempting to be resisted, and, leaving his pos- 
 sessions on Lake Ontario, he sailed for 
 France and laid before Colbert, the minister, 
 the schemes he had for the exploration and 
 colonization of the valley of the Mississippi. 
 He obtained a grant of valuable privileges 
 and received permission to attempt the task 
 
THE FRENCH IN THE VALLEY OF THE MISSISSIPPI. 
 
 261 
 
 of adding that vast region to the dominions 
 of France. He returned to Fort Frontenac 
 in the autumn of 1678, bringing with him as 
 his lieutenant an Italian veteran named Tonti 
 and a number of mechanics and seamen, to 
 gether with the materials for rigging a ship. 
 
 Before the winter had set in he ascended 
 Lake Ontario to the Niagara River, where he 
 built a trading-post. Then passing around 
 the falls he constructed a vessel of sixty tons 
 at the foot of Lake Erie. To^ti and Father 
 Hennepin, a Franciscan, 
 went among the Senecas 
 during the construction 
 of the ship and estab- 
 lished friendly relations 
 with them, and La Salle 
 exerted himself to pro- 
 cure furs with which to 
 freight his vessel. The 
 vessel completed, he as- 
 cended Lake Erie, passed 
 through the straits into 
 Lakes Huron and Michi- 
 gan, and entered Green 
 Bay. Then loading his 
 vessel with a cargo of 
 valuable furs, lie sent 
 her to the Niagara, with 
 orders to return with 
 supplies as soon as pos- 
 sible. 
 
 During her absence 
 La Salle and his com- 
 panions ascended Lake Michigan in canoes 
 as far as the mouth of the St. Joseph's, where 
 they built a fort. Then crossing over to the 
 valley of the Illinois, he built a fort on a bluff 
 near the site of Peoria, and awaited the re- 
 turn of the " Griffin." The vessel had been 
 wrecked on the voyage to Niagara, and when 
 it became evident that she would not return, 
 La Salle named his fort Crevecoeur (" Heart- 
 break.") 
 
 Supplies were necessary to the exploration 
 of the Mississippi, and La Salle being deter- 
 mined to obtain them, took with him three 
 companions and crossed the wilderness to 
 Fort Frontenac, which he reached in the 
 spring of 1680. During his absence, Father 
 Hennepin, by his orders, explored the Upper 
 Mississippi as far as the falls, which he named 
 in honor of St. Anthony, the patron saint of 
 the expedition. In the summer of 1680 
 La Salle returned to the Illinois, but various 
 
 FALLS OF ST. ANTHONY. 
 
 causes intervening to delay him, he was not 
 able to undertake his exploration of the 
 Mississippi until 1682. In that year he built 
 a barge on the upper Illinois, and embarking 
 with his companions, floated down that 
 stream to the Mississippi, which he descended 
 to the Gulf of Mexico. He named the 
 country along the banks of the river Louis- 
 iana, in honor of Louis XIV., King of France. 
 Then ascending the Mississippi, he returned 
 
262 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 by the Lakes to Quebec, and in 1683 sailed 
 for France to enlist the government and peo- 
 ple in his project for colonizing the country 
 along the lower Mississippi. 
 
 An Unfortunate Wreck. 
 
 His design was encouraged by the king, 
 and emigrants were readily found. In 
 1 £84, he sailed from France with four 
 ships and two hundred and eighty per- 
 sons to plant a colony at the mouth of 
 the Mississippi. Unhappily the command- 
 er of the fleet was not in sympathy with La 
 Salle, and being jealous of his authority, man- 
 ifested a degree of stubbornness which was 
 fatal to the expedition. One hundred of the 
 colonists were soldiers ; of the rest, some 
 were volunteers, some mechanics, some 
 women, and some priests. After a long voy- 
 age they entered the Gulf of Mexico in Jan- 
 uary, 1685. They sailed past the mouth of 
 the Mississippi, and when La Salle perceived 
 his error, Beaujeu, the commander of the 
 fleet, refused to return, but continued his 
 western course until the bay of Matagorda 
 was reached. There La Salle, weary of his 
 disputes with Beaujeu, resolved to land, 
 hoping that he might yet find the mouth of 
 the Mississippi. A careless pilot, in attempt- 
 ing to get the store-ship into the harbor, 
 wrecked her, and all the supplies which Louis 
 XIV. had provided with a lavish hand were 
 lost. 
 
 The colony, which was named Fort St. 
 Louis, was from the first doomed to misfor- 
 tune, and in a little more than two years was 
 reduced by disease and suffering to thirty- 
 six persons. In January, 1687, La Salle, 
 leaving twenty men at Fort St. Louis, set out 
 with sixteen men to march across the conti- 
 nent to Canada to obtain aid for the settle- 
 ment. His remarkable courage and deter- 
 mination would doubtless have accomplished 
 this feat but on the way he was murdered by 
 
 two of his men, who regarded him as the 
 author of their sufferings. Of the rest of his 
 companions, five who kept together reached 
 a small French post near the mouth of the 
 Arkansas, after a journey of six months. 
 The twenty men left at Fort St. Louis were 
 never heard of again. The effort to colonize 
 Texas completely failed, and all that was 
 accomplished by La Salle's enterprise was 
 the establishment of the claim of France to 
 this region. 
 
 Searching for La Salle. 
 
 To La Salle is due the credit of having 
 been the first to comprehend the importance 
 of securing to France the great region 
 watered by the Mississippi and its tributaries, 
 and it was through his efforts that the atten- 
 tion of France was seriously directed to its 
 colonization. His remarkable qualities must 
 always command the admiration and his sad 
 fate elicit the sympathy of all generous 
 hearts. 
 
 While La Salle was vainly striving to ac- 
 complish some good result with the Texas 
 colony, his friend and lieutenant, Tonti, in 
 obedience to his instructions, started from 
 the Illinois and descended the Mississippi 
 almost to its mouth, hoping to meet him. 
 At length, despairng of seeing him, Tonti 
 engraved a cross and the arms of France 
 upon a tree on the banks of the river, and 
 returned to the Illinois. 
 
 In 1699, twelve years after the death of La 
 Salle, another and this time a successful effort 
 was made to secure Louisiana to France. 
 Lemoine d'lbberville, a native of Canada and 
 a man of ability and courage, resolved to 
 plant a colony near the mouth of the Missis- 
 sippi. With four vessels and two hundred 
 emigrants, some of whom were women and 
 children, he sailed from Canada for the mouth 
 of the Mississippi. He landed at the mouth 
 of the river Pascagoula, and with two barges 
 
MURDER OF LA SALLE. 
 
 263 
 
264 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 manned by forty-eight men searched the 
 coast for the mouth of the Mississippi. He 
 found it and ascended as high as the mouth 
 of the Red River. Here he was met by the 
 Indians, who, to his astonishment, gave him 
 a. letter which had been placed in their charge 
 fourteen years before. It was from Tonti, 
 and was addressed to La Salle. He had 
 given it to the Indians, and had charged 
 them to deliver it to the first Frenchman 
 they met. 
 
 Shiftless Colonists. 
 
 D'Ibberville returned to the gulf by 
 way of Lakes Maurepas and Pontchartrain, 
 which he named after two of the ministers 
 of Louis XIV. Deeming the shores of the 
 Mississippi too marshy for colonization, 
 DTbbevville formed a settlement at Biloxi, at 
 the mouth of the Pascagoula, within the limits 
 of the present state of Mississippi, and soon 
 afterwards sailed for France to obtain rein- 
 forcements and supplies, leaving one of his 
 brothers, Sauville by name, as governor, and 
 he other, Bienville, to explore the Missis- 
 sippi and the country along its banks. 
 
 Early in 1700 D'Ibberville returned from 
 France, and about the same time Tonti, La 
 Salle's former lieutenant, now an aged man, 
 arrived from the country of the Illinois. 
 Acting upon Tonti's advice, D'Ibberville 
 ascended the Mississippi for four hundred 
 miles, and on the site of the present city of 
 Natchez built a fort which he named Rosalie, 
 in honor of the Duchess of Pontchartrain. 
 Neither the settlement at Biloxi nor Rosalie 
 prospered, however. The colonists were a 
 shiftless set, and instead of seeking to culti- 
 vate the soil and establish homes for them- 
 selves, went farther west to seek for gold. 
 In 1702 D'Ibberville removed the colony 
 from Biloxi to Mobile, which was founded in 
 that year, and became the capital of Louis- 
 iana and the centre of the French influence 
 
 in the south. This settlement languished 
 however, and in ten years only two hundred 
 emigrants were added to its population. 
 It was forced to depend upon the French 
 colonies in the West Indies for subsistenct. 
 
 New Orleans Founded. 
 
 In 1 7 14 the French government, becoming 
 convinced that it was necessary to make a 
 more vigorous effort to colonize Louisiana 
 if it meant to hold that country, granted a 
 monopoly of trade to Arthur Crozat, who 
 agreed to send over every year two ships 
 laden with emigrants and supplies, and also 
 a cargo of African slaves. The king, on his 
 part, agreed to furnish the sum of ten thou- 
 sand dollars annually for the protection oi 
 the colony. In the same year a trading- 
 house was established at Natchitoches on the 
 Red River, and another on the Alabama, 
 near the present site of Montgomery. Fort 
 Rosalie was made the centre of an important 
 trade, and matters be^an to wear a new 
 aspect in Louisiana. 
 
 In 17 1 8 Bienville, who had become satis- 
 fied of the propriety of removing the seat of 
 government from Mobile to the more produc- 
 tive region of the lower Mississippi, put the 
 convicts to work to clear up the thicket of 
 cane which covered the site on which he 
 meant to locate his new city, and upon the 
 ground thus prepared erected a few huts, the 
 germ of the great city of New Orleans. It 
 grewmore rapidly than any of the settlements 
 in Louisiana. In 1722 it contained about 
 one hundred log huts, and a population of 
 seven hundred. In 1723 the seat of govern- 
 ment was removed from Mobile to New 
 Orleans; and 1727 the construction of the 
 levee was begun. 
 
 While these efforts were in progress in the 
 lower Mississippi, the French were even 
 more active in the west. Detroit was founded 
 in 1 701, and the villages of Kaskaskin and 
 
THE FRENCH IN THE VALLEY OF THE MISSISSIPPI 
 
 265 
 
 Cabokia were formed around the stations of 
 the missionaries on the east bank of the Mis- 
 sissippi, above the mouth of the Ohio. The 
 French population in America grew very 
 slowly, however. In 1690 the population of 
 Canada was only twelve hundred ; that, of 
 Acadia, or Nova Scotia, less than one thou- 
 sand ; and that of Loui&iana less than five 
 hundred. 
 
 France had formed a deliberate and mag- 
 nificent plan with respect to her American 
 possessions. She meant to build up a mighty 
 empire in the valley of the Mississippi, 
 extending from the great lakes to the Gulf 
 of Mexico, and touching Canada. Her efforts 
 to accomplish this were lavish and persistent, 
 but the unhealthiness of the climate, and the 
 almost constant wars with the Natchez and 
 Chickasaw Indians disheartened the settlers, 
 and the French population grew so slowly 
 that it could not accomplish the destiny 
 demanded of it by the government at home. 
 As late as 1740 Louisiana contained only 
 about five thousand whites and less than two 
 thousand five hundred negroes. The slow 
 increase of the population made it necessary 
 to hold the country by a series of military 
 posts. By the year 1750 more than sixty of 
 these posts had been built between Lake 
 Ontario and the Gulf of Mexico, by way of 
 Green Bay, the Illinois, the Wabash, and the 
 Maumee rivers, and along the Mississippi to 
 New Orleans. 
 
 French Claims in America. 
 
 The most important of these forts were 
 held by garrisons of regular troops, who 
 were relieved once in six years. They 
 accomplished this in the face of the constant 
 hostility of their old enemies, the tribes of 
 the Five Nations, and the Natchez and 
 Chickasaws. In 1748 the French extended 
 their claim to the country south of Lake 
 Erie, as far east as the mountains, which they 
 
 explored, and took formal possession of by 
 burying at the most important points leaden 
 plates engraved with the arms of France. 
 According to the ideas of the times, their 
 claim was a valid one. 
 
 In the meantime the settlements of Louis- 
 iana had been obliged to struggle against the 
 constant hostility of the Natchez Indians, 
 who occupied the country around the present 
 city which bears their name. They were not 
 very numerous, but were more intelligent 
 and civilized than the tribes among whom 
 they dwelt. They worshiped the sun, from 
 which deity their principal chief claimed 
 to be descended. They watched the growing 
 power of the French with alarm, and at 
 length resolved to put a stop to the progress 
 of the whites by a general massacre. 
 
 Seven Hundred Murders. 
 
 On the twenty-eighth of November, 1729 
 they fell upon the settlement at Fort Rosalte 
 and massacred the garrison and settlers s 
 seven hundred in number. They were noi 
 long permitted to exult over their success. 
 When the news of the massacre reached 
 New Orleans, Bienville resolved to retaliate 
 severely upon the aggressors. He applied 
 to the Choctaws, the hereditary enemies of 
 the Natchez, for assistance, and was furnished 
 by them with sixteen hundred warriors. 
 With these and his own troops Bienville 
 besieged the Natchez in their fort ; but they 
 escaped under the cover of the night and fled 
 west of the Mississippi. They were followed 
 by the French and forced to surrender, 
 after which they were taken to New Or- 
 leans and sent to St. Domingo, where they 
 were sold as slaves. The Great Sun was 
 among the cap'tives, and the tribe of the 
 Natchez was completely destroyed. 
 
 It was well known to the French that the 
 Chickasaws,a powerful tribe dwelling between 
 the territory of the Natchez and the Ohio op 
 
266 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 the north, and as far as the country of the 
 Cherokees on the east, had incited the 
 Natchez against them. Bienville therefore 
 resolved to turn his arms against them. 
 They had also given great trouble to the 
 French by attacking and plundering their 
 trading-boats descending the Mississippi 
 from the posts on the Illinois. Bienville con- 
 certed measures for a combined attack upon 
 the Chickasaws wiih D'Artaguette, governor 
 of the Illinois country, and two expeditions 
 were despatched against the Indians. 
 
 Bienville, with a strong force of French 
 troops and twelve hundred Choctaw warriors, 
 sailed in boats from New Orleans to Mobile 
 
 and ascended the Tombigbee five hundred 
 miles, to the place now known as Cotton 
 Gin point. He landed here and marched 
 twenty-five miles overland to the principal 
 fort of the Chickasaws, which he at once 
 attacked. He was repulsed with the loss of 
 one hundred men, and was so discouraged 
 that he returned to New Orleans. D'Arta- 
 guette entered the Chickasaw country with 
 fifty Frenchmen and one thousand Indians. 
 He was defeated and taken prisoner, and was 
 burned at the stake in May, 1735. In 1740 
 another effort was made by the French to 
 crush the Chickasaws, but was equally un- 
 successful. 
 
CHAPTER XXI. 
 Conflicts Between the English and French. 
 
 Relations Between the English and the Five Nations — The Hostility of the Latter to the French— King William's Wa. 
 —Destruction of Dover— The Jesuit Missionaries Incite the Indians to Attack the English — Expedition Against Que 
 bee — Attack on Dustin's Farm — Peace of Ryswick — Hostility of the English to Roman Catholics — Queen Anne's 
 War — Burning of Deerfield — Eunice Williams — Cruelties to the French — Effort of New England to Conquer Acadia — 
 Capture of Port Roval — Failure of the Expedition Against Quebec — King George's War — Expedition Against Louis 
 burg — Its Composition — Arrival of the Fleet at Cape Breton — Good Conduct of the Provincials — Capture of Louis- 
 burg — Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle — Unjust Treatment of the Colonies by England — Sentiment of the Americans 
 Towards England. 
 
 THE territory of the Five Nations lay- 
 between the English and French 
 colonies. The friendship which 
 these tribes had borne to the Dutch 
 was transferred to the English upon the con- 
 quest of New Netherlands by the latter, and 
 they remained the faithful and devoted allies 
 of Great Britain until after the Revolution. 
 Though they remained at peace with the 
 French for some years after the treaty, which 
 has been mentioned in the preceding chan- 
 ter, they regarded a renewal of hostilities 
 with them as certain, and were on the whole 
 anxious to resume the struggle at the earliest 
 moment. 
 
 James II., eager to establish the F.oman 
 Catholic religion in America, instructed the 
 governor of New York to cultivate friendly 
 relations with the French, and to exert all 
 his influence to induce the Five Nations to 
 receive Jesuit missionaries. The governor, 
 however, saw that the French were rapidly 
 monopolizing the fur trade, and he encour- 
 aged the Five Nations to regard them with 
 suspicion and dislike. The French by their 
 own bad treatment of the Mohawks put an 
 end to the hope of a lasting peace with them. 
 Upon the escape of James II. to France, 
 Louis XIV. warmly espoused the cause of 
 the dethroned king, which he declared was 
 
 the cause of legitimate monarchy as opposed 
 to the right of the people to self-government ; 
 and the war which was thus begun in Europe 
 spread to the possessions of the rival powers 
 in America. The objects of the two parties 
 in America were very different. That of the 
 people of New England, who were princi- 
 pally interested in the struggle, was to secure 
 their northern frontier against invasion from 
 Canada, and to get possession of the fisheries. 
 The French, on the other hand, wished to 
 obtain entire control of the valley of the 
 Mississippi, which would make them sole 
 masters of the fur trade, and to extend their 
 power over the valley of the St. Lawrence, 
 and thus obtain control of the fisheries also. 
 To accomplish their first object the friend- 
 ship of the Indian tribes in the valley of the 
 Mississippi was indispensable, and they 
 exerted every means of which they were 
 possessed to gain it. They renewed their 
 efforts to win over the Five Nations, but 
 without success. The war between these 
 tribes and the French was soon renewed, as 
 has been related, and on the twenty-fifth of 
 August, 1689, a band of fifteen hundred Mo 
 hawk warriors surprised and captured Mon- 
 treal, and put two hundred of the inhabitants 
 to death with horrible cruelty. An equal 
 number of whites were made prisoners. 
 
 267 
 
268 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 In the same year Count Frontenac was 
 appointed governor of Canada for the second 
 time. He came resolved to break the power 
 of the English, and reached Canada just in 
 time to hear of the capture of Montreal. He 
 at once set to work to incite the Indians to a 
 series of incursions against the English set- 
 tlements which should thoroughly establish 
 his influence over the savage warriors, who 
 would obey none but a successful chief, and 
 at the same time strike terror to the enemies 
 of France. 
 
 VIEW OF MONTREAL FROM MOUNT ROYAL. 
 
 The first blow was struck at Dover, in 
 New Hampshire. The commander of the 
 garrison at this place was Major Richard 
 Waldron. Thirteen years before, during 
 King Philip's war, two hundred eastern 
 Indians came to Dover to treat of peace. 
 Waldron treacherously seized them and sent 
 them to Boston, where some of them were 
 hanged, and the remainder sold into slavery. 
 The savages had neither forgotten nor for- 
 given the wrongs of their brothers, and now 
 they resolved to meet the whites with their 
 own weapons of deceit and treachery. 
 
 On the evening of the twenty-seventh of 
 June, 1689, two Indian squaws came to Dover 
 and asked for a night's lodging. Waldron, 
 now an old man of eighty, was unsuspicious of 
 harm. Their request was granted and the 
 squaws were lodged in his house. In the dead 
 of the night the women arose, unbarred the 
 gates and admitted the warriors, who had 
 lain in ambush near the town. Waldron's 
 house was first entered, the first duty of the 
 savages being to discharge their debt of 
 vengeance by a cold-blooded murder. 
 
 The brave old man 
 ^ized his sword and 
 defended himself un- 
 til he was felled to the 
 floor by a blow which 
 stunned him. He was 
 then seated in a chair 
 and placed on a table, 
 and the savages sa- 
 luted him with jeers. 
 " Who will judge In- 
 dians now?" they 
 asked. "Who will 
 hang our brothers? 
 Will the pale-face 
 Waldron give us life 
 for life ?" As they 
 spoke they gashed 
 him across the breast 
 with their knives, inflicting wounds equal in 
 number to their friends whom he had be- 
 trayed. The old man bore his tortures 
 firmly until he died ; the Indians then set 
 fire to the house and burned the rest of the 
 settlement. Nearly half the inhabitants were 
 murdered and the remainder were carried 
 into captivity. 
 
 The other frontier towns suffered severely 
 from Maine to New York. A band of 
 French and Indians, in February, 1690, 
 toiled across the wilderness from Montreal 
 to central New York on snow-shoes and 
 
CONFLICTS BETWEEN THE ENGLISH AND FRENCH. 
 
 269 
 
 surprised Schenectady. The place was 
 burned, the majority of the settlers were 
 killed, and many women and children were 
 carried into captivity. A few escaped 
 through the snow to Albany. Deerfield and 
 Haverhill in Massachusetts, Salmon Falls in 
 New Hampshire, and Casco in Maine met a 
 similar fate. The French had resolved to 
 make the war one of extermination, and 
 neither they nor their savage allies showed 
 any mercy to the English in their hour of 
 triumph. 
 
 Failure to Capture Montreal. 
 
 The savage?? were incited to their bloody 
 task by the Jesuit missionaries. The first 
 race of missionaries, whose good deeds we 
 have chronicled in the last chapter, had died 
 out, and their successors could conceive of 
 no higher standard of duty than the exter- 
 mination of the English heretics. They 
 roused the fury of their dusky converts 
 against the English as the enemies of the 
 Roman religion, and then confessing and 
 absolving the savage warriors, sent them forth 
 to murder and destroy, with the solemn 
 assurance that such acts on their part would 
 win them the favor of their Father in 
 Heaven. When peace was made two Jesuit 
 priests, Thury and Bigot, induced the Eastern 
 Indians to break the treaty and renew the 
 war, and even took pride in acknowledging 
 themselves the instigators of the atrocities of 
 the savages. These things were well under- 
 stood among the English, and they came to 
 regard the Jesuit missionaries as the enemies 
 of mankind. 
 
 In May, 1690, a congress of delegates 
 from Massachusetts, Connecticut and New 
 York was held at New York for the purpose 
 of concerting a plan for an invasion of Can- 
 ada. It was resolved to send an army against 
 Montreal by way of Lake Champlain, while 
 Massachusetts should despatch a fleet to 
 
 attack Quebec. The first expedition, com- 
 posed of the troops of New York and Con- 
 necticut, advanced to Lake Champlain, 
 attended by a strong force of Mohawk allies. 
 Frontenac promptly assembled his French 
 and Indians for the defence of Montreal, and 
 succeeded in inflicting a sharp defeat upon 
 the Mohawks, under Colonel Philip Schuyler, 
 who led the advance of the English army. 
 The Mohawks were unable to regain their 
 lost ground and the provincial troops were 
 delayed by the dissensions of their leaders 
 until the provisions ran short and the small- 
 pox broke out among the men. It then 
 became necessary to abandon the attempt. 
 
 Death and Desolation. 
 
 In the meantime Massachusetts equipped 
 a fleet of thirty-two vessels and two thou- 
 sand men and despatched it to the St. Law- 
 rence under the command of the governor, 
 Sir William Phipps, whose incompetency 
 produced the failure of the expedition. 
 Frontenac was promptly informed of the 
 departure of the fleet by an Indian runner 
 from the Piscataqua, who reached Montreal 
 in twelve days. Frontenac at once set out 
 for Quebec and arrived there three days in 
 advance of the English fleet, which was 
 obliged to feel its way cautiously up the St. 
 Lawrence. When the hostile vessels arrived 
 off the city, Quebec was prepared to offer a 
 determined resistance. After a few harmless 
 demonstrations, Sir William Phipps withdrew 
 and returned to Boston, to the great disap- 
 pointment of the colony. A large debt had 
 been incurred in this enterprise and a num- 
 ber of valuable lives had been lost, but noth- 
 ing had been gained. 
 
 The Eastern Indians continued their ag- 
 gressions, but were severely punished bj. 
 Captain Samuel Church, who had served 
 with distinction in King Philip's war. On 
 one occasion he was so exasperated by the 
 
270 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 cruelties of the savages that he put a number 
 of his prisoners, including some women and 
 children, to death. The savages mercilessly 
 avenged the murder of their friends and car- 
 ried death and desolation along the borders 
 of New England. Nearly every settlement 
 in Maine was destroyed by them or aban- 
 doned by the inhabitants, who fled to the 
 other colonies for protection. The Indians 
 prowled around the frontier posts. They 
 had been well armed by the French, and 
 shot down the men without mercy. The 
 women and children were generally spared 
 and carried to Canada, where they were sold 
 to the French as slaves. In 1693 peace was 
 made with the Abenakis, or Eastern Indians, 
 but within a year the Jesuits had succeeded 
 in inducing the savages to resume hostilities. 
 
 A Daring Escape. 
 
 A party of Indians attacked the house of a 
 farmer named Dustin, residing near Haver- 
 hill. He was at work in the field when the 
 shouts of the savages warned him of the 
 danger of his wife and children. Throwing 
 himself on his horse, he hastened to their 
 rescue, and on the way met his children fly- 
 ing for safety pursued by the savages. He 
 threw himself in front of the little ones,, and 
 by a few well-aimed shots kept the pursuers 
 back until the children reached a place of 
 safety. Hannah Dustin, her youngest child 
 — only a few days old — her nurse, and a boy 
 from Worcester, unable to fly, were made 
 prisoners by the Indians. The little one was 
 killed, and the two women and the boy were 
 carried away by the savages to their village, 
 situated on an island in the Merrimac, just 
 above Concord. 
 
 Hannah Dustin resolved to escape, and 
 communicated her plan to her companions. 
 Each secured a tomahawk, and at night be- 
 gan the destruction of their captors, twelve 
 in number. Ten Indians were killed and one 
 
 squaw was wounded. The twelfth, a child, 
 was purposely spared. Then collecting the 
 gun and tomahawk of the murderer of her 
 infant, and a bag full of scalps, the heroic 
 women secured a canoe, and embarking in it 
 with her companions, floated down the Mer- 
 rimac and soon reached Haverhill, whert 
 they were received with astonishment anc* 
 delight by their friends. 
 
 This struggle, which is known in Ameri- 
 can history as "King William's War," was 
 brought to a close in September, 1697, by the 
 Peace of Ryswick. It had lasted seven years, 
 and had caused severe suffering to the 
 northern colonies, without yielding them any 
 compensating advantages. 
 
 The Five Nations were also severe suffer- 
 ers. Failing to win them from their alliance 
 with the English, Frontenac several times 
 invaded their country with an army of French 
 troops and Indians, and ravaged it with great 
 cruelty. Frontenac led these expeditions in 
 person, though he was seventy-four years 
 old. 
 
 The people of New York, regarding the 
 Jesuits as the true authors of the miseries 
 endured by the English and their allies, en- 
 acted a law in 1700, that every Romish priest 
 who voluntarily came into the province 
 should be ^~r*ged. 
 
 Butchery at Deerfield. 
 
 Five years after the Peace of Ryswick, the 
 War e»f the Spanish Succession, or, as it is 
 known in American history, " Queen Anne's 
 War," began in Europe. It soon extended 
 to America, and embroiled the English and 
 French in this country. The English settle- 
 ments on the western frontier of New Eng- 
 land were almost annihilated by the Indians, 
 and the French were unusually active. 
 
 The people of Deerfield were warned by 
 the friendly Mohawks that the French and 
 Indians were meditating an attack upon their 
 
CONFLICTS BETWEEN THE ENGLISH AND FRENCH. 
 
 271 
 
 settlements and through the winter of 1 703-4 
 a vigilant watch was kept by night and day. 
 The winter was very severe ; the snow lay 
 four feet deep, and the clear, cold atmosphere 
 made it almost as hard as ice. Profiting by 
 this, a war party of about two hundred 
 French and one hundred and forty-two In- 
 dians, under the command of Hertel de Rou- 
 ville, set out from Canada, and by the aid of 
 snow-shoes crossed the country on the snow 
 and reached the vicinity of Deerfield on the 
 last night of February, 1704. Towards day- 
 break on the first of March the sentinels, 
 supposing that all was safe, left their posts at 
 Deerfield, and the enemy at once silently 
 mounted on the snow-drifts to the top of the 
 palisades and entered the enclosure, which 
 had an area of twenty acres. A general 
 massacre followed. The town was destroyed, 
 forty persons were killed, and one hundred 
 and twelve were carried away into Canada. 
 
 Fate of Eunice Williams. 
 
 Among the captives were the minister 
 Williams, his wife Eunice, and their five chil- 
 dren. The sufferings of the prisoners on the 
 march to Canada were fearful. Two men 
 starved to death. The infant, whose cries 
 disturbed the captors, was tossed out into the 
 snow to die; and the mother who faltered 
 from fatigue or anguish was despatched by a 
 blow from the tomahawk. Eunice Williams 
 had brought her Bible along with her, and in 
 the brief intervals afforded by the halts of the 
 savages for rest, drew from its sacred pages 
 the consolations she so sorely needed. Her 
 strength soon failed, as she had but recently 
 recovered from her confinement. Her hus- 
 band sought to cheer her by pointing her to 
 " the house not made with hands," and she 
 assured him that she was satisfied to endure 
 any suffering, counting it gain for Christ's 
 sake. Perceiving that her end was near, she 
 commended her children to God and to their 
 
 father's care, and was immediately killed by 
 the savages, as she could go no farther. 
 
 The Williams family were taken to Can- 
 ada, and a few years later were ransomed, 
 with the exception of the youngest daughter, 
 with whom the savages refused to part. She 
 was adopted into a village of Christian In- 
 dians near Montreal, and became a convert 
 to the Roman Catholic faith, and subse- 
 quently married a Mohawk chief. Years 
 afterwards she appeared at Deerfield clad in 
 the dress of her tribe. She had come to 
 visit her relatives ; but no entreaties could 
 induce her to remain with them, and she 
 went back to her adopted people and to her 
 children. 
 
 Slaughter of the Helpless. 
 
 The war was conducted with brutal ferocity 
 by the French. Hertel de Rouville gained 
 eternal infamy by his butcheries of helpless 
 women and children. Vaudreuil, the gov- 
 ernor of Canada, urged on his forces to deeds 
 of fresh atrocity, but at length the savages 
 became disgusted with their bloody work 
 and refused to murder any more English. 
 The French succeeded, however, in inducing 
 some of them to continue their assistance, 
 and in 1708 Haverhill was surprised by the 
 French and Indians under Rouville, and its 
 inhabitants massacred with the most fiendish 
 cruelty. None of them escaped death or 
 captivity. 
 
 Filled with horror and indignation, Colonel 
 Peter Schuyler, of New York, wrote to the 
 Marquis de Vaudreuil : " I hold it my duty 
 towards God and my neighbor, to prevent, if 
 possible, these barbarous and heathen cruel- 
 ties. My heart swells with indignation when 
 I think that a war between Christian princes, 
 bound to the exactest laws of honor and gen- 
 erosity, which their noble ancestors have 
 illustrated by brilliant examples, is degene- 
 rating into a savage and boundless butchery. 
 
272 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 These are not the methods for terminating 
 the war." 
 
 " Such fruitless cruelties," says Bancroft, 
 " inspired our fathers with a deep hatred of 
 the French missionaries ; they compelled the 
 employment of a large part of the inhabitants 
 as soldiers, so that there was one year during 
 this war when even a fifth part of all who 
 were capable of bearing arms were in active 
 service. They gave birth also to a willing- 
 ness to exterminate the natives. The Indians 
 
 RETURN OF THE DAUGHTER OF EUNICE WILLIAMS. 
 
 vanished when their homes were invaded ; 
 they could not be reduced by usual methods 
 of warfare ; hence a bounty was offered for 
 every Indian scalp ; to regular forces under 
 pay the grant was ten pounds — to volunteers 
 in actual service, twice that sum ; but if men 
 would, of themselves, without pay, make up 
 parties and patrol the forests in search of 
 Indians, as of old the woods were scoured 
 for wild beasts, the chase was invigorated by 
 
 the promised ' encourgement of fifty pounds 
 per scalp. ' " 
 
 In 1707 Massachusetts, New Hampshire 
 and Rhode Island made a combined attempt 
 to conquer Acadia. A fleet was despatched 
 against Port Royal, but without success. In 
 17 10 a second expedition was sent from 
 Boston against Port Royal, aided this time 
 by an English fleet. Port Royal was taken, 
 the French were driven out of the greater 
 part of Acadia, and that province was an- 
 nexed to the English do- 
 minions and called Nova 
 Scotia. The name of Port 
 Royal was changed to An- 
 napolis, in honor of the 
 Queen of England. 
 
 Encouraged by this suc- 
 cess, the English Govern- 
 ment the next year at- 
 tempted the conquest of 
 Canada by two expeditions, 
 one by land and the other 
 by sea. A powerful fleet 
 and a strong army was des- 
 patched from England to 
 co-operate with the colo- 
 nists. The effort was un- 
 successful. The fleet, which 
 was badly handled by the 
 admiral in attempting to 
 ascend the St. Lawrence, 
 was wrecked with the loss 
 of eight vessels and eight 
 eighty-four men, and was 
 The failure of 
 
 hundred and 
 
 obliged to return to Boston. 
 
 the fleet to accomplish anything compelled 
 
 the abandonment of the land expedition 
 
 against Montreal. In 171 3 the war was 
 
 brought to an end by the treaty of Utrecht, 
 
 by which Acadia was ceded permanently to 
 
 Great Britain and became a province of the 
 
 English crown. 
 
 The third Indian war broke out in 1722 
 
CONFLICTS BETWEEN THE ENGLISH AND FRENCH. 
 
 273 
 
 in the northern colonies, and spread from 
 the disputed border on the east to Maine 
 and New Hampshire, where the scenes 
 ivhich we have so often described were 
 enacted over again. The crack of the rifle, 
 the war-whoop of the Indian, the crash of 
 the tomahawk, and the smoke of the cabin 
 played their dreadful part, as they had done 
 so many times before, and have done so 
 often since. m 
 
 Father Sebastien Rasle had dwelt among 
 Indians for nearly forty years, living so thor- 
 oughly their life, while he preached and 
 ministered to them, that his influence was un- 
 bounded. He possessed great learning, and, 
 being a French Jesuit, sympathized so strongly 
 with the views of the governor of Canada that 
 he was worth a whole regiment of troops. 
 The Indian settlement at Norridgewock, 
 where it may be said this French chief was 
 sole ruler, was highly prosperous. Two 
 attempts were made to break it by capturing 
 Rasle, but he escaped each time. 
 
 Peace at Last. 
 
 In August, 1724, however, it was attacked 
 by a ibrce of two hundred men, when most 
 of the warriors were gone from home. 
 Those who escaped fled to the woods, and 
 Father Rasle was killed while trying to divert 
 attention from the flying fugitives. When 
 the assailants departed and the Indians re- 
 turned, they found the dead body of Rasle, 
 scalped, hacked and mutilated. They gave 
 it tender burial under the altar of the pil- 
 laged chapel, and uttered many a wild vow 
 of vengeance on those who had robbed them 
 of their beloved leader. 
 
 In the hope of checking the shocking 
 
 brutalities, the provinces sent representatives 
 
 to Governor Vaudreuil at Montreal. He 
 
 treated them with much courtesy, but it took 
 
 a long time to bring him to terms. He 
 
 finally promised to advise the Indians to 
 *8 
 
 stop hostilities. The eastern tribe learned 
 shortly after that preparations were on foot 
 to press them more than ever, and they con 
 sented to make peace, which, with now and 
 then a slight interruption, continued down to 
 the French and Indian war. 
 
 In 1744 the disputes in Europe concerning 
 the succession of the Austrian throne cul- 
 minated in a war, which is known in Euro- 
 pean history as the War of the Austrian 
 Succession, and in America as King George's 
 war. As usual, England and France were 
 arrayed on opposite sides, and their colonies 
 in America soon became involved in hostili- 
 ties. The French were the first to receive 
 information from Europe of the existence of 
 war, and began the struggle by attacking 
 and capturing the English fort at Canso and 
 carrying the garrison prisoners to Louisburg. 
 
 Louisburg, the principal port of the island 
 of Cape Breton, was at this time the strongest 
 fortress in America, and from its secure har- 
 bor the French were constantly despatching 
 privateers agiinst the merchant vessels and 
 fishermen of New England. These depre- 
 dations caused such serious loss to the 
 eastern colonies that at length Governor 
 Shirley proposed to the general court of 
 Massachusetts to undertake the capture of 
 Louisburg as the only means of putting a 
 stop to them, and this measure was laid by 
 the general court before the other colonies. 
 
 Another Appeal to Arms. 
 
 It was understood that no aid was to be 
 expected from the mother country, which 
 was too busily engaged in conducting the 
 war in Europe, and that the colonies would 
 be obliged to depend entirely upon their 
 own resources for their success. Neverthe- 
 less, the measure was popular, and the enthu- 
 siasm of the colonists was aroused to the 
 highest point. Nearly all the northern col- 
 onies had suffered severely at the hands of 
 
274 
 
 CRUEL **IJRDER OF RASLE. 
 
CONFLICTS BETWEEN THE ENGLISH AND FRENCH. 
 
 27: 
 
 the French and Indians, and in every ship- 
 ping port were to be found scores of men 
 who had been robbed and otherwise mal- 
 treated by the French privateers. Pennsyl- 
 vania and New Jersey, under the influence 
 of the Quaker dislike of war, declined to 
 send troops, but furnished a fair supply of 
 money to defray their share of the expenses 
 of the expedition ; New York made a con- 
 tribution of money and of a number of 
 pieces of artillery; Connecticut gave five 
 hundred men, and New Hampshire and 
 Rhode Island each contributed a regiment- 
 Moving Against the Enemy. 
 
 Massachusetts, being the most interested 
 in the success of the expedition by reason of 
 being the largest owner of shipping, under- 
 took the principal part of the expense and 
 agreed to furnish a majority of the troops 
 and the vessels. There was no difficulty in 
 procuring volunteers, but those who offered 
 themselves were civilians, ignorant of military 
 discipline, and utterly unprepared to attempt 
 the reduction of such a fortress as that 
 against which the expedition was directed. 
 These disadvantages, however, were lost sight 
 of in the enthusiasm aroused by the hope of 
 destroying the ability of the French to prey 
 upon the commerce of the colonies. 
 
 Sir William Pepperell,a wealthy merchant 
 of Maine, was elected commander of the ex- 
 pedition, which rendezvoused at Boston in 
 the early spring of 1745. One hundred 
 vessels and a force of over three thousand 
 men were assembled, and about the first of 
 April sailed for Canso, which was reached 
 on the seventh. The ice was drifting in such 
 quantities that the fleet could not enter the 
 harbor of Louisburg, and was obliged to 
 remain at Canso for more than two weeks. 
 Admiral Warren, commanding the West 
 India squadron, had been invited to join the 
 expedition, but in the absence of instructions 
 
 from England had declined to do so. Al- 
 most immediately afterwards he received 
 orders from home to render Massachusetts 
 every aid in his power, and at once joined the 
 New England fleet at Canso with four ships 
 of war and a detachment of regular troops. 
 At length, the ice having moved south- 
 ward, the New England fleet entered the 
 harbor of Louisburg on the thirtieth of April. 
 The fortress was built on a neck of land on 
 the south side of the harbor, and its walls 
 were from twenty to thirty feet high and forty 
 feet thick at the base, and were surrounded 
 with a ditch eighty feet in width. Outlying 
 forts protected the main work, and there was 
 not a foot of the walls that was not swept by 
 the fire of the artillery. Nearly two hundred 
 and fifty cannon of all sizes constituted the 
 armament of the fortress, and the principal 
 outwork, the " royal battery," was deemed 
 capable of withstanding an attack of five 
 thousand men. The garrison numbered six- 
 teen hundred men. To attack this fortress 
 the New England troops brought with them 
 eighteen cannon and three mortars. 
 
 The French Driven to the Woods. 
 
 As the fleet drew near the town the 
 French marched down to the beach to op- 
 pose the landing of the troops. Immediately 
 the whale-boats of the ships were lowered 
 and manned, and at a signal from the flag- 
 ship darted for the shore with a speed which 
 astonished and struck terror to the French, 
 who were quickly driven to the woods. The 
 landing was secured, and the next day a de- 
 tachment of four hundred men marched by 
 the town, giving it three cheers as they 
 passed, and took position near the northeast 
 harbor, completely cutting off the fortress 
 from communication with the country in its 
 rear. This completed the investment, as the 
 fleet closed the harbor, and prevented the 
 approach of relief by sea. 
 
2?6 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. 
 
 That night the troops in the royal battery 
 spiked the guns of that work, abandoned it, 
 and retreated into the town. It was imme- 
 diately occupied by the New Englanders, 
 who drilled the spikes out of the vent-holes 
 of the guns, and turned them against the 
 town. Batteries were erected by the colonial 
 troops, and their fire opened upon Louis- 
 burg. The volunteers proved admirable 
 soldiers, exciting the surprise of the English 
 naval officers by the readiness and facility 
 with which they discharged the various 
 duties required of them. Numbers of them 
 were mechanics by profession, and their skill 
 was of the greatest service in this emergency. 
 
 A New Hampshire colonel, who was a 
 carpenter, constructed sledges with which to 
 drag the artillery across a morass to the 
 positions assigned the batteries. The 
 weather was mild and singularly dry, and 
 the men were healthy. " All day long the 
 men, if not on duty, were busy with amuse- 
 ments — firing at marks, fishing, fowling, 
 wrestling, racing or running after balls shot 
 from the enemy's, guns." 
 
 An Important Capture. 
 
 In the meantime the ships of Admiral 
 Warren blockaded the harbor, and not only 
 prevented French vessels from entering the 
 port, but succeeded in decoying into the 
 midst of the English fleet the French frigate 
 " Vigilante," of sixty guns, which was cap- 
 tured after a sharp engagement of several 
 hours. She was loaded with stores for the 
 fortress, and these fell into the hands of the 
 victors. 
 
 The French commander, who had shown 
 but little energy during the siege, was now 
 so thoroughly disheartened that on the sev- 
 enteenth of June, just seven weeks after the 
 commencement of the investment, he surren- 
 dered the town and fortifications. As the 
 colonial troops entered the place to take pos- 
 
 session of it they were astonished at the 
 strength of the works. " God has gone out 
 of the way of His common providence, in a 
 remarkable and miraculous manner," they 
 said, " to incline the hearts of the French to 
 give up, and deliver this strong city into our 
 hands." The capture of Louisburg by the 
 undisciplined volunteers of America was the 
 greatest success achieved by England during 
 the war. The colonists were justly proud of 
 it. Bells were rung and bonfires lighted in 
 all the colonies, and the people rejoiced 
 greatly at the success of their brethren and 
 friends. England, with characteristic selfish- 
 ness, claimed the glory exclusively for the 
 squadron of Admiral Warren. 
 
 Humiliating Treaty. 
 
 France was greatly alarmed at the capture 
 of Louisburg, which seriously threatened her 
 dominion in America, and measures were at 
 once begun for its recovery, and for the de- 
 struction of the English colonies. In 1746, 
 a large fleet was despatched to America 
 under the Duke d'Anville, but many of the 
 vessels were lost at sea, and the fleet was 
 greatly weakened by pestilence. In the 
 midst of these misfortunes the Duke d'An- 
 ville suddenly died, and his successor lost his 
 mind, and committed suicide. The expedi- 
 tion made no serious demonstration against 
 the English, and resulted in total failure. In 
 1747, another fleet was sent out from France 
 for the same purpose, but was captured after 
 a severe fight by an English fleet under 
 Admirals Anson and Warren. 
 
 In spite of these successes, however, the 
 frontiers of the northern colonies suffered 
 considerably, and the English government 
 resolved to attempt once more the conquest 
 of Canada. All the colonies were required 
 to furnish men or money to this enterprise, 
 and eight thousand men were enlisted. The 
 British government delayed, however, and 
 
CONFLICTS BETWEEN THE ENGLISH AND FRENCH. 
 
 277 
 
 finally abandoned the enterprise. On the 
 eighteenth of October, 1748, the treaty of 
 Aix-la-Chapelle closed the war. 
 
 The treaty required that all places taken 
 by either party during the war should be 
 restored, and Louisburg was delivered up to 
 the French, to the Great disgust of the New 
 England colonies, who saw all the results of 
 their sacrifices thrown away, and their com- 
 merce and fisheries once more placed at the 
 mercy of the French. England had never 
 regarded the interests of her colonies as 
 worth considering, however, and it was not 
 to be expected that she should manifest any 
 concern for them now. 
 
 Dangerous Neighbors,, 
 
 It was commonly believed in Amelia, and 
 with good reason, that the king did not desire 
 that New England should enjoy the security 
 necessary to her prosperity. His majesty 
 was beginning to be jealous of his American 
 subjects, who had, as Admiral Warren ex- 
 pressed it, " the highest notion of the rights 
 and liberties of an Englishman," and he was 
 resolved to keep them so weak that they 
 should not forget their dependence upon 
 him. Peter Kalm, a Swedish traveller, who 
 visited New York in 1748, thus records the 
 prevailing sentiment in America at this 
 period : " The English colonies in this part 
 of the world have increased so much in 
 wealth and population that they will vie 
 with European England. But to maintain 
 the commerce and the power of the metropo- 
 lis they are fjrbid to establish new manufac- 
 tures, which might compete with the English ; 
 they may dig for gold and silver only on con- 
 dition of shipping them immediately to Eng- 
 land ; they have, with the exception of a few 
 fixed places, no liberty to trade to any ports 
 not belonging to the English dominions, and 
 foreigners are not allowed the least com- 
 merce with these American colonies. And 
 there are many similar restrictions. 
 
 " These oppressions have made the inhab- 
 itants of the English colonies less tender to 
 their motherland. This coldness is increased 
 by the many foreigners who are settled among 
 them ; for Dutch, Germans and French are 
 here blended with England, and have no 
 special love for old England. Besides, some 
 people are always discontented and love 
 change ; and exceeding freedom and pros- 
 perity nurse an untamable spirit. I have 
 been told, not only by native Americans, 
 but by English emigrants, publicly, that 
 within thirty or fifty years the English colo- 
 nies in North America may constitute a 
 separate state entirely independent of Eng- 
 land. But as this whole country is towards 
 the sea unguarded, and on the frontier is 
 kept uneasy by the French, these dangerous 
 neighbors are the reason why the love of 
 these colonies for their metropolis does not 
 utterly decline. The English government 
 has, therefore, reason to regard the French 
 in North America as the chief power that 
 urges their colonies to submission." 
 
 During the last year of the war an incident 
 occurred at Boston which might have opened 
 the eyes of the ministry to the growing de- 
 termination of the Americans to resist any 
 interference with their liberties. Desertions 
 from the English ships-of-war in Boston har- 
 bor had become so frequent that Sir Charles 
 Knowles, the commanding officer, sent his 
 boats up to Boston one morning and seized 
 a number of seamen in the vessels at the 
 wharves, and a number of mechanics and 
 laborers engaged in work on shore. The 
 people of Boston indignantly demanded of 
 the governor the release of the impressed 
 men. As his excellency declined to inter- 
 fere in the matter, the people seized the com- 
 manders and officers of the ships who hap- 
 pened to be in the town, and kept them pris- 
 oners until they agreed to release the men 
 they had unlawfully seized. 
 
BOOK III 
 
 The French and Indian War 
 
 CHAPTER XXII 
 Outbreak of Hostilities 
 
 EngU&'d < hums the Valley of the Ohio — Organizat : on of the Ohio Company — The French Extend Their Posts Into the 
 Ohio Country — Washington's Mission to the French at Fort DiKHiesne — His Journey — Reception by the French — His 
 Journev Home — A Perilous Undertaking — Organization of the Virginia Forces — Washington Made Second in Com- 
 mand — The French Drive the English from the Head of the Ohio — Fort Duquesne Built by Them — Washington 
 Cro6sesthe Mountains— The Fight at Great Meadows — Beginning of the French and Indian War — Surrender of Fort 
 Necessity to the French — Unjust Treatment of the Colon'al Officers — Congress of the Colonies at New York — Frank- 
 lin's Plan of a Union of the Colonies — Its Failue — Reasons ot the British Government for Rejecting It —England 
 Assumes the Direction of the War— Arrival of General Braddock — Plan of Campaign — Obstinacy of Braddock — He 
 Passes the Mountains — Defeat of Braddock — Heroism of Washington — Retreat of Dunbar Beyond the Mountains- 
 Vigorous Action of Pennsylvania — Armstrong Defeats the Indians and Burns the Town of Kittanning. 
 
 THE wars between the English and 
 French in America which we have 
 just considered were but a prelude 
 to the great struggle which was to 
 decide which of these powers should con- 
 trol the destinies of the new world. The 
 English, as we have seen, were growing 
 stronger and more numerous along the At- 
 lantic coast, and were directing their new 
 settlements farther into the interior with 
 each succeeding year. The French held 
 Canada and the valley of the Mississippi, 
 but their tenure was that of a military occu- 
 pation rather than a Colonizatic:. 
 
 Between the possessions of these hostile 
 nations lay the valley of the Ohio, a beauti- 
 ful and fertile region, claimed by both, but 
 occupied as yet by neither. The French had 
 explored the country, and had caused leaden 
 plates engraved with the arms of France to 
 be deposited at its principal points to attest 
 their claim ; and had opened friendly rela- 
 tions with the Indians. 
 
 278 
 
 The region had been frequently visited by 
 the traders, who brought back reports of its 
 remarkable beauty and fertility and of its 
 excellent climate. The British government 
 regarded this region as a portion of Virginia, 
 and one of the chief desires of the Earl of 
 Halifax, the prime minister of England, was 
 to secure the Ohio valley by p ] anting an 
 English colony in it. A company was or- 
 ganized in Virginia and Maryland for this 
 purpose and for the purpose of trading with 
 the Indians, and was warmly supported by 
 the Earl of Halifax. It was named the Ohio 
 Company, and at length succeeded in obtain- 
 ing a favorable charter from the king, who, 
 in March, 1749, ordered the governor of 
 Virginia to assign to the Ohio Company five 
 hundred thousand acres of land lying be- 
 tween the Monongahela and Kanawha 
 rivers, and along the Ohio 
 
 The company were required to despatch, 
 within seven years at least, one hundred fam- 
 ilies to the territory granted them, to locate 
 
OUTBREAK OF HOSTILITIES 
 
 without delay at least two fifths of the lands 
 they desired to occupy, and to build and gar- 
 rison a fort at their own cost. They were 
 granted an exemption from quit-rents and 
 other dues for ten years, and this freedom 
 
 279 
 
 needed for their traffic with the Indians, the 
 Ohio Company built a trading-post at Wills' 
 Creek, within the limits of Maryland, on the 
 site of the present city of Cumberland. Here 
 one of the easiest of the passes over the 
 
 FRENCH EXPLORERS BURYING LEADEN PLATES. 
 
 from taxation was extended by the company 
 to all who would settle in their domain. 
 
 A number of Indian traders had located 
 themselves west of the Alleghanies, and in 
 order to supply these with the articles 
 
 Alleghanies began, and by means of it the 
 traders could easily transport their goods to 
 the Indian country west of the mountains and 
 return with the furs their traffic enabled them 
 to collect. 
 
28o 
 
 THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 
 
 Being anxious to explore the country west 
 of the mountains, the company employed 
 Christopher Gist, one of the most experi- 
 enced Indian traders, and instructed him "to 
 examine the western country as far as the 
 falls of the Ohio, to look for a large tract of 
 good level land to mark the passes in the 
 mountains, to trace the courses of the rivers, 
 to count the falls, to observe the strength and 
 numbers of the Indian nations." 
 
 A Land of Beauty. 
 
 Gist set out on his perilous mission on the 
 last day of October, 1750, and crossing the 
 mountains reached the Delaware towns on 
 the Alleghany River, from which he passed 
 down to Logstown, a short distance below 
 the head of the Ohio. " You are come to 
 settle the Indians' lands ; you shall never go 
 home safe," said the jealous people ; but in 
 spite of their threats they suffered him to 
 proceed without molestation. He traversed 
 the country to the Muskingum and the 
 Scioto, and then crossing the Ohio explored 
 the Kentucky to its source, and returned to 
 Wills' Creek in safety. He reported that the 
 region he had traversed merited all the praise 
 that had been bestowed upon it ; that it pos- 
 sessed a pleasant and healthy climate, and 
 was a land of great beauty. The soil was 
 fertile and the streams abundant and excel- 
 lent. The laud was covered with a rich 
 growth of the most valuable and beautiful 
 trees, and abounded in small level districts 
 and meadows covered with long grass and 
 white clover, on which the elk, the deer, and 
 the buffalo grazed in herds. Wild turkeys 
 and other game abounded, and the country 
 offered every attraction to settlers who were 
 willing to improve it. 
 
 Gist also reported that the agents of the 
 French were actively engaged in seeking to 
 induce the western tribes to make war upon 
 the English and prevent them from obtain- 
 
 ing a footing west of the mountains. The 
 purposes of the English were well known to 
 the French, who viewed them with alarm, as 
 the successful occupation of the Ohio valley 
 by the English would cut off the communi- 
 cation established by the French between 
 Canada and the Mississippi. This the French 
 were resolved to prevent at any cost. The 
 Indians regarded both of the white nations 
 as intruders in their country. They were 
 willing to trade with both, but were averse 
 to giving up their lands to either. " If the 
 French," said they, " take possession of the 
 north side of the Ohio, and the English of 
 the south, where is the Indian's land ? " 
 
 A Line of Forts. 
 
 Tnc possession of the Ohio valley was 
 thus of the highest importance to the 
 French. Their fortified post of Fort Front- 
 enac gave them the command of Lake On- 
 tario, which they further secured by con- 
 structing'armed vessels for the navigation of 
 the lake. They retained their hold upon 
 Lake Erie by strengthening Foit Niagara, 
 which La Salle hai buih at the foot of that 
 lake. They entered into treaties with the 
 Shawnees, the Delawares and other powerful 
 tribes between the lake and the Ohio, and 
 steadily pushed their way eastward toward . 
 the mountains. They began their advance 
 into the valley of the Ohio by building a 
 fort at Presque Isle, now the city of Erie, in 
 Pennsylvania, another on French Creek, on 
 the site of the present town of Waterford, 
 and a third on the site of the present town of 
 Franklin, at the confluence of French Creek 
 with the Alleghany. 
 
 These rapid advances eastward alarmed the 
 English government, which instructed the 
 governor of Virginia to address a remon- 
 strance to the French authorities and to 
 warn them of the consequences which must 
 result from their intrusion into the territory 
 
SCENE IN THE ALLEGHENY MOUNTAINS. 
 
 28i 
 
282 
 
 THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 
 
 of the English. To do this it was necessary 
 for the governor to despatch his communica- 
 tion to the nearest French post by the hands 
 of some messenger of sufficient resolution to 
 overcome the natural dangers of such an 
 undertaking, and of sufficient intelligence to 
 gain information respecting the designs and 
 strength of the French ; and Governor Din- 
 widdie was somewhat at loss to find such a 
 person. Fortunately the man needed was at 
 hand, and the attention of the governor 
 being called to him, his excellency decided 
 to intrust him with the delicate and danger- 
 ous mission. 
 
 The Coming Hero* 
 
 The person selected for this task was a 
 young man in the twenty-second year of his 
 age, George Washington 6y name. He was 
 a native of Westmoreland County, Virginia, 
 where he was born on the twenty-second of 
 February, 1732. He was a great-grandson 
 of the Colonel John Washington, whom we 
 have noticed as the leader of an expedition 
 against the Indians in the time of Sir 
 William Berkeley. His father, Augustine 
 Washington, was a wealthy planter, but his 
 death, when George was eleven years old, 
 deprived his son of his care, and also of the 
 means of acquiring an education. He soon 
 acquired all the learning thif it was possible 
 to gain at a country school, from which he 
 passed to an academy of somewhat higher 
 grade, where he devoted himself principally 
 to the study of mathematics. His half- 
 brother, Lawrence, who was fourteen years 
 older than himself, had received a careful 
 education and directed the studies of his 
 younger brother, to whom he was devotedly 
 attached. 
 
 Though deprived of the care of his father 
 at such an early age, it was the good fortune 
 of George Washington to possess in his 
 mother a guide well qualified to fill the 
 
 place of both parents to her fatherless child- 
 ren. She was a woman of rare good sense, 
 of great decision of character, and one whose 
 life was guided by the most earnest Chris- 
 tian principle. Her tenderness and sweet 
 womanly qualities won the devoted love of 
 her children, and her firmness enforced their 
 obedience. From her George inherited a 
 quick and ardent temper, and from her he 
 learned the lesson of self-control which en- 
 abled him to govern it. 
 
 Washington's Bqyhood. 
 
 As a boy, Washington was noted for his 
 truthfulness, his courage and his generosity. 
 He was both liked and respected by his 
 schoolmates, and such was their confidence 
 in his fairness and good judgment that he 
 was usually chosen the arbiter of their boy- 
 ish disputes. He joined heartily in their 
 sports and was noted for his skill in athletic 
 exercises. He was a fearless rider and a 
 ^ood hunter, and by his fondness for manly 
 sports developed his naturally vigorous body 
 to a high degree of strength. He was cheer- 
 ful and genial in temper, though reserved and 
 grave in manner. He early acquired habits 
 of industry and order, and there are still 
 existing many evidences of the careful and 
 systematic manner in which he discharged 
 every duty assigned him at this early age. 
 
 At the age of fourteen it was decided that 
 he should enter the navy, and his brother 
 Lawrence, who had served with credit in that 
 branch of the royal service, had no difficulty 
 in obtaining for him a midshipman's war- 
 rant. The ship he was to join lay in the Po- 
 tomac, and his trunk was sent on board; but 
 at the last moment his mother, dreading the 
 effect of the temptations of a seaman's life 
 upon a boy so young, appealed to him by 
 his affection for her to remain with her 
 Washington was sorely disappointed, but he 
 yielded cheerfully to his mother's wish. 
 
OUTBREAK OF HOSTILITIES. 
 
 283 
 
 The marriage of his brother Lawrence 
 gave to the young man a second home at 
 Mount Vernon, where he passed a large part 
 of his time. Here he was brought into con- 
 stant contact with the most cultivated and 
 refined society of Virginia, an association 
 which had a happy influence upon the forma- 
 tion of his character. There also he formed 
 the acquaintance and won the friendship of 
 Lord Fairfax, the grandson of Lord Culpep- 
 per, and the inheritor of Culpepper's vast 
 estates in Virginia, which comprised about 
 one-seventh of the area of the state of Vir 
 ginia as it existed prior to the separation of 
 West Virginia in 1861. Lord Fairfax con- 
 ceived a great fondness for the young man, 
 and took a deep interest in his future welfare. 
 
 Industry and Diligence 
 
 Washington, upon leaving school, had 
 chosen the profession of a surveyor as his 
 future avocation, and soon after his first 
 meeting with Lord Fairfax was employed by 
 that nobleman to survey the lands belonging 
 to him, many of which had been occupied 
 by settlers without right or title. It was an 
 arduous and responsible task, and Washing- 
 ton, who was just entering his seventeenth 
 year, seemed almost too young for it; but 
 " Lord Thomas " had satisfied himself of his 
 young friend's capability for it, and the result 
 justified the opinion he had formed. His 
 work was done with care and accuracy, and 
 his measurements were so exact that they 
 are still relied upon. 
 
 His life as a surveyor was in many respects 
 a hard one, but he enjoyed it. It gave new 
 vigor to his naturally robust constitution 
 and his splendid figure, and while yet a 
 youth he acquired the appearance and habits 
 of mature manhood. He also learned forest 
 life in all its various phases, and by his 
 constant intercourse with the hunters and 
 Indians, gained a knowledge of the character 
 
 and habits of these wild men which in after 
 years was of infinite value tc him. 
 
 During his surveying expeditions Wash- 
 ington was a frequent visitor at Greenway 
 Court, the seat of Lord Fairfax, where, in 
 addition to the other attractions, there was a 
 well-selected library, of which the young 
 man regularly avai'ed himself. His reading 
 was of a serious and useful nature; " Addi- 
 son's Spectator " and the " History of Eng- 
 land " were among his favorite works. 
 
 Though the heir to a considerable estate. 
 Washington supported himself during this 
 period by his earnings as a surveyor. " His 
 father had bequeathed to the eldest son, 
 Lawrence, the estate afterwards called Mount 
 Vernon. To Augustine, the second son, he 
 had given the old homstead in Westmoreland 
 County. And George, at the age of twenty- 
 one years, was to inherit the house and lands 
 in Suffolk County. As yet, however, he 
 derived no benefit from this landed property. 
 But his industry and diligence in his labor- 
 ious occupation supplied him with abundant 
 pecuniary means. His habits of life were 
 simple and economical; he indulged in no 
 gay and expensive pleasures." 
 
 Military Education. 
 
 In 1 75 1, in order to prepare for any 
 emergency to which the hostility of the 
 French and Indians might give rise, the col- 
 ony of Virginia was divided into military 
 districts, each of which was placed in charge 
 of an adjutant and inspector, with the rank 
 of major, whose duty it was to keep the 
 militia in readiness for instant service. 
 Washington had at an early day evinced a 
 great fondness for military exercises, and as 
 a boy had often drilled his school fellows in 
 the simplest manoeuvres of the troops. 
 
 As he advanced towards manhood, his 
 brother Lawrence, Adjutant Muse, of West- 
 moreland, and Jacob Vanbraam, a fencing- 
 master, and others, had given him numerous 
 
284 
 
 THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 
 
 lessons in the art of war. Though but nine- 
 teen years old, he was regarded by his 
 acquaintance as one of the best informed 
 persons upon military matters in the colony, 
 and at the general desire of those who knew 
 him he was commissioned a major in the 
 colonial forces, and placed in command of 
 one of the military districts. He discharged 
 his duties with ability and zeal, and gave 
 such satisfaction that when Governor Din- 
 widdie, in 1752, divided the province into 
 four military districts, Major Washington 
 was placed in command of the northern dis- 
 trict. " The counties comprehended in this 
 division he promptly and statedly traversed, 
 and he soon effected the thorough discipline 
 of their militia for warlike operations." He 
 was discharging the duties of this position 
 when selected by the governor of Virginia to 
 bear his message to the commander of the 
 French forces on the Ohio. 
 
 Governor Dinwiddle intrusted to his young 
 envoy a letter addressed to the commander 
 of the French forces on the Ohio, in which 
 he demanded of him his reasons for invading 
 the territory of England while Great Britain 
 and France were at peace with each other. 
 Washington was instructed to observe care- 
 fully the numbers and positions of the 
 French, the strength of their forts, the na- 
 ture of their communications with Canada 
 and with their various posts, and to endeavor 
 to ascertain the real designs of the French in 
 occupying the Ohio valley, and the proba- 
 bilities of their being vigorously supported 
 from Canada. 
 
 Perilous Journey. 
 " Ye're a braw lad," said the governor, as 
 he delivered his instructions to the young 
 major, " and gin you play your cards weel, 
 my boy, ye shall hae nae cause to rue your 
 bargain." 
 
 Washington received his instructions on 
 the thirtieth of October, 1753, and on the 
 
 same day set out for Winchester, then r* 
 frontier post, from which he proceeded to 
 Wills' Creek, where he was to cross the 
 mountains. Having secured the services of 
 Christopher Gist as guide, and of two inter- 
 preters and four others, Washington set out 
 on his journey about the middle of Novem- 
 ber. They crossed the mountains and jour- 
 neyed through an unbroken country, with no 
 paths save the Indian trails to serve as 
 guides, across rugged ravines, over steep 
 hills, and across streams swollen with the 
 recent rains, until in nine days they reached 
 the point where the Alleghany and Monon- 
 gahela unite and form the Ohio. Washing- 
 ton carefully examined the place and was 
 greatly impressed with the advantages offered 
 for the location of a fort by the point o( land 
 at the junction of the two rivers. The judg 
 ment expressed by him at the time was sub- 
 sequently confirmed by the choice of this 
 spot by the French for one of their mos£ 
 important posts — Fort Duquesne. 
 
 Interview With " Half-King." 
 
 Washington had been ordered by the gov- 
 ernor to proceed direct to Logstown, where 
 he was to hold an interview with the Dela- 
 ware chief known as the Half King, to 
 acquaint the Indians with the nature of his 
 mission and ascertain their disposition to- 
 wards the English. While he was at this 
 place he met several French deserters from 
 the posts on the lower Ohio, who told him 
 the location, number and strength of the 
 French posts between Quebec and New 
 Orleans by way of the Wabash and the 1 
 Maumee, and informed him of the intention 
 of the French to occupy the Ohio from its 
 head to its mouth with a similar chain of 
 forts. 
 
 The Half King confirmed the story of the 
 deserters. He had heard that the French 
 were coming with a strong force to drive the 
 
OUTBREAK OF HOSTILITIES. 
 
 285 
 
 English out of the land. A " grand talk " 
 was held with the chiefs in council by Wash- 
 ington, and they answered him, by the Half 
 King, that what he had said was true ; they 
 were "brothers, and would guard him on 
 his way to the nearest French post. They 
 wished neither the English nor the French 
 to settle in their country ; but as the French 
 were the first intruders, they were willing to 
 aid the English in their efforts to expel 
 them. They agreed to break off friendly 
 relations with the French ; but Washington, 
 who knew the Indian character well, was not 
 altogether satisfied with their promises. 
 
 On the thirtieth of November he set out 
 from Logstown with his companions, at- 
 tended by the Half King and three other 
 Indians, and on the fourth arrived at the 
 French post at Venango. The officer in 
 command of this fort had no authority to 
 receive his letter and referred him to the 
 Chevalier St. Pierre, the commander of the 
 next post. They treated the English with 
 courtesy and invited Washington to sup 
 with them. When the wine was passed 
 around they drank deeply and soon lost 
 their discretion. 
 
 Loud Boasting. 
 
 The sober and vigilant Washington noted 
 their words with great attention and recorded 
 them in his diary. " They told me," he 
 writes, " that it was their absolute design to 
 take possession of the Ohio, and, by G — d, 
 they would do it ; for, that although they 
 were sensible the English could raise two 
 men for their one, they knew their motions 
 were too slow and dilatory to prevent any 
 undertaking of theirs. They pretend to 
 have an undoubted right to the river, from a 
 discovery made by one La Salle sixty years 
 ago ; and the rise of this expedition is to 
 prevent our settling on the river or waters of 
 it, as they heard of some families moving 
 
 out in order thereto." The French officers 
 then informed Washington of their strength 
 south of the lakes, and of the number and 
 location of their posts between Montreal and 
 Venango. 
 
 The French exerted every stratagem to 
 detach the Indians from Washington's party, 
 and they met with enough success to justify 
 Washington's distrust of them. All had 
 come to deliver up the French speech-belts, 
 or, in other words, to break off friendly rela- 
 tions with the French. The Delaware chiefs 
 wavered and failed to fulfill their promise; 
 
 THE HALF KING. 
 
 " but the Half King clung to Washington 
 like a brother, and delivered up his belt as 
 he had promised." 
 
 The party left Venango on the seventh of 
 December, and reached Fort Le Boeuf, the 
 next post, on the eleventh. It was a strong 
 work, defended by cannon, and near by 
 Washington saw a number of canoes and 
 boats, and the materials for building others, 
 sure indications that an expedition down the 
 river was about to be attempted. He ob- 
 tained an interview with St. Pierre, the com- 
 mander, an officer of experience and integri- 
 ty, greatly beloved as well as feared by the 
 Indians. He received the young envoy with 
 
286 
 
 THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 
 
 courtesy, but refused to discuss questions 
 of right with him. " I am here," he said, 
 " by the orders of my general, to which I 
 shall conform with exactness and resolu- 
 tion." 
 
 On the fourteenth, St. Pierre delivered to 
 Washington his answer to the letter of Gov- 
 ernor Dinwiddie, and next day the party set 
 out on its return. They descended French 
 Creek in canoes, at no little risk, as the 
 stream was full of ice. At Venango, which 
 was reached on the twenty-second, they 
 found their horses, which were so feeble that 
 it was doubtful whether they would be able 
 to make the journey home. 
 
 " I put myself in an Indian walking-dress," 
 says Washington, " and continued with them 
 three days, until I found there was no possi- 
 bility of their getting home in any reason- 
 able time. The horses became less able to 
 travel every day ; the cold increased very 
 fast, and the roads were becoming much 
 worse by a deep snow continually freezing ; 
 therefore, as I was uneasy to get back to 
 make report of my proceedings to his honor 
 the governor, I determined to pro^cute my 
 journey the nearest way through the woods 
 on foot." 
 
 A Shot that Missed. 
 
 Taking Gist as his only companion, and 
 directing their way by the compass Vash- 
 ington set out on the twenty-sixth, oy the 
 nearest way across the country, for the head 
 of the Ohio. The next day an Indian who 
 had lain in wait for them fired at Washington 
 at a distance of only fifteen steps, but missed 
 him, and was made a prisoner by him. Gist 
 was anxious to kill the savage on the spot, 
 but Washington would not allow this, and 
 they kept the fellow until dark, and then 
 released him. They travelled all night and 
 all the next day in order to make sure of 
 escaping from the enemies they felt certain 
 their freed captive would set upon their trail. 
 
 At dark on the twenty-eighth they reached 
 the Alleghany, and spent the night on the 
 banks of that stream. The next morning 
 they set to work with one poor hatchet to 
 construct a raft, on which to pass the river, 
 which was full of floating ice. They com- 
 pleted their raft about sunset and launched it 
 upon the stream. It was caught in the 
 floating ice, and Washington was hurled off 
 into the water and nearly drowned. Unable 
 to reach the opposite shore, they made for 
 an island in mid-stream and passed the night 
 there. The cold was intense, and Gist had 
 all his fingers and several of his toes frozen. 
 The next morning the river was a solid mass 
 of ice, hard enough to bear their weight. 
 They at once crossed to the opposite bank 
 and continued their journey, and on the 
 sixteenth of January, 1754, were at Williams- 
 burg, where Washington delivered to the 
 governor of Virginia the reply of the French 
 commander, and reported the results of his 
 journey. 
 
 Eager for New Territory. 
 
 The French commander returned a cour- 
 teous but evasive answer to Governor Din- 
 widdie's communication, and referred him 
 for a definite settlement of the matter to the 
 Marquis Duquesne, the governor of Canada. 
 It was clear from the tone of his letter that 
 he meant to hold on to the territory he had 
 occupied, and the governor of Virginia was 
 satisfied from Major Washington's report of 
 his observations that St. Pierre was about to 
 extend the line of French posts down the 
 Ohio. The authorities of Virginia resolved 
 to anticipate him, and in the spring of 1754 
 the Ohio Company Lent a force of about 
 forty men to build a fort at the head of the 
 Ohio, on the site to which Washington had 
 called attention. 
 
 In the meantime, measures were set on 
 foot in Virginia for the protection of the 
 
OUTBREAK OF HOSTILITIES. 
 
 287 
 
 frontiers. A regiment of troops was ordered 
 to be raised, and it was the general wish that 
 Major Washington should be appointed to 
 the command. He declined the commission 
 when tendered him, on the ground of his 
 youth and inexperience, and was made lieu- 
 tenant-colonel, the command of the regiment 
 being conferred upon Colonel Joshua Fry. 
 Washington was ordered to repair to the 
 west to take charge of the defence of the 
 frontiers, and in April, 1754, reached Wills' 
 Creek with three companies of his regiment. 
 
 Washington Pushes Forward. 
 
 Just at this moment news arrived that the 
 party sent to build a fort at the head of the 
 Ohio had been driven away by the French. 
 A force of one thousand men, with artillery, 
 under Captain Coutrecoeur, had descended 
 the Alleghany and had surrounded the Eng- 
 lish. One hour was given them to surren- 
 der, and being utterly unable to offer any 
 resistance, they capitulated upon condition of 
 being allowed to retire to Virginia. Imme- 
 diately upon the withdrawal of the English, 
 the French forces occupied the unfinished 
 work, completed it, and named it Fort Du- 
 quesne. This was a more important act 
 than either party believed it at the time. It 
 was the beginning of the final struggle by 
 which the power of France in America was 
 broken. In the history of Europe this 
 struggle is known as the " Seven Years' 
 War;" in our own history as the " French 
 and Indian War." 
 
 Hostilities were now inevitable, and Wash- 
 ington, who was on his march to the Ohio 
 when the news of the aggression of the 
 French was received, resolved to push for- 
 ward without delay. Colonel Fry had fallen 
 sick, and the direction of affairs on the bor- 
 der had passed entirely into the hands of the 
 young lieutenant-colonel. He intended to 
 proceed to the junction of Red Stone Creek 
 
 an ! the Monongahela, the site occupied by 
 the present town of Brownsville, to erect a 
 fort there and hold it until he could be rein- 
 forced. His force was poorly provided with 
 clothing and tents, and was deficient in mili 
 tary supplies of all kinds. The country to 
 be traversed was a wild, unbroken region, 
 without roads or bridges, and through it the 
 artillery and wagons were to be transported. 
 The little force moved slowly and with diffi- 
 culty, and Washington pushed on in ad- 
 vance with a small detachment, intending to 
 secure the position on the Monongahela and 
 await the arrival of the main body, when the 
 whole force could descend the river in flat 
 boats to Fort Duquesne. 
 
 On the twentieth of May he reached the 
 Youghiogheny and there received a message 
 from his ally, the Half King, telling him that 
 the French were in heavy force at Fort 
 Duquesne. This report was confirmed at 
 the Little Meadows by the traders, and by 
 another message from the Half King on the 
 twenty-fifth of May, warning Washington 
 that a force of French and Indians had left 
 Fort Duquesne on a secret expedition. 
 Washington was sure that this expedition 
 was destined to attack him, and advanced to 
 the Great Meadows and took position there. 
 
 The First Blood Shed. 
 
 On the morning of the twenty-seventh 
 Gist arrived and reported that he had seen 
 the trail of the French within five miles of 
 the Great Meadows. In the evening of the 
 same day a runner came in from the Half 
 King, and with a message that the French 
 were close at hand. Taking with him forty 
 men, Washington set off for the Half King's 
 camp, and by a difficult night march through 
 a tangled forest, in the midst of a driving 
 rain, reached it about daylight. The runners 
 of the Half King found the French encamped 
 in a deep glen not far distant, and it was 
 
THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 
 
 decided to attack them at once. The Half 
 King and his warriors placed themselves 
 under Washington's orders, and the march 
 was resumed towards the French camp. The 
 French were surprised, and an action of about 
 a quarter of an hour ensued. The French 
 lost ten men killed, among whom was their 
 commander, Jumonville, and twenty-one 
 prisoners. This was the first blood shed 
 on the American continent in the long 
 struggle which won America for the free 
 institutions of the Anglo-Saxon race. 
 
 Washington was very anxious to follow 
 up the advantage he had gained, and had 
 already appealed to the governors of Mary- 
 land and Pennsylvania for assistance, but no 
 aid reached him. Unable to advance in the 
 face of the rapidly increasing forces of the 
 French, he threw up a stockade fort at Great 
 Meadows, which he named Fort Necessity, 
 from the fact that the provisions of the troops 
 were so nearly exhausted that the danger of 
 & famine was imminent. 
 
 A Dutchman's Blunder. 
 
 On the third of July six hundred French 
 and one hundred Indians suddenly appeared 
 before the fort and occupied the hills sur- 
 rounding it. The attacking party were able 
 to shelter themselves behind trees and could 
 command the fort from their safe position, 
 while the English were greatly exposed, and 
 it was evident to the most inexperienced that 
 the fort was untenable. Nevertheless, the 
 work was held for nine hours under a heavy 
 fire, and amid the discomforts of a severe 
 rain-storm. At length De Villiers, the 
 French commander, fearing that his am- 
 munition would be exhausted, proposed a 
 parley and offered terms to Washington. 
 The English had lost thirty killed, and the 
 French but three. The terms of capitulation 
 proposed by De Villiers were interpreted to 
 Washington, who did not understand French, 
 
 and in consequence of the interpretation, 
 which was made by " a Dutchman little 
 acquainted with the English tongue," Wash- 
 ington and his officers " were betrayed into a 
 pledge which they would never have con- 
 sented to give, and an act of moral suicide 
 which they could never have deliberately 
 committed. 
 
 '• They understood from Vanbraam's inter- 
 pretation, that no fort was to be built beyond 
 the mountains on lands belonging to the 
 King of France ; but the terms of the articles 
 are, ' neither in this place or beyond the 
 mountains.'" The Virginians were allowed 
 to march out of the fort with the honors of 
 war, retaining their arms and all their stores, 
 but leaving their artillery. This they did on 
 the next morning, July fourth, 1754. The 
 march across the mountains was rendered 
 painful by the lack of provisions, and after 
 much suffering the troops arrived at Fort 
 Cumberland in Maryland. Although the 
 expedition had been unsuccessful, the conn 
 duct of Washington had been marked by so 
 much prudence and good judgment that he 
 received the thanks of the general assembly 
 of Virginia. 
 
 Washington's Cutting Reply. 
 
 Governor Dinwiddie had already thrown 
 many obstacles in the way of the defence of 
 the colony, and he now refused to reward the 
 provincial officers with the promotions they 
 had so well earned. In order to avoid this 
 he dissolved the Virginia regiment, and re- 
 organized it into independent companies, no 
 officer of which was to have a higher rank 
 than that of captain. It was also ordered 
 that officers holding commissions from the 
 king should take precedence of those 
 holding commissions from the colonial gov- 
 ernment. 
 
 Washington, feeling that he could no 
 longer remain in the service with self-respect, 
 
OUTBREAK OF HOSTILITIES. 
 
 289 
 
 resigned his commission and withdrew to 
 Mount Vernon. Soon afterwards Governor 
 Sharpe, of Maryland, having been appointed 
 by the king commander in-chief of the forces 
 of the southern colonies, proposed to Wash- 
 ington, through a friend, to return to the 
 army and accept the rank of colonel, but with 
 the actual authority of captain. Washington 
 declined the offer with characteristic dignity. 
 " If you think me," he wrote, " capable of 
 holding a commission that has neither rank 
 nor emolument annexed to it, you must 
 maintain a very contemptible opinion of my 
 weakness, and believe me more empty than 
 the commission itself." 
 
 In the meantime, although peace still 
 remained nominally unbroken between Eng- 
 land and France, each nation was perfectly 
 convinced of the certainty of a conflict in 
 America, and each began to prepare for it. 
 France sent large reinforcements to Canada, 
 and the English went on rapidly with their 
 plans for the conquest of that country. The 
 British government was very anxious that 
 the colonies should bear the brunt of the 
 struggle, though it was fully determined to 
 send a royal army to their assistance, and 
 urged upon them to unite in some plan for 
 iheir common defence. 
 
 Alliance with the Six Nations. 
 
 For the purpose of carrying out the wishes 
 of the home government, a convention of 
 delegates from seven of the colonies assem- 
 bled at Albany, New York, on the nineteenth 
 of June, 1754. " The Virginia government was 
 represented by the presiding officer, Delan- 
 cey, the lieutenant-governor of New York ; " 
 but New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode 
 Island, Connecticut, New York and Mary- 
 land were represented by their own delegates. 
 The first object of this convention was to 
 secure the friendship of the powerful con- 
 federacy of the Six Nations, on the northern 
 19 
 
 border, and this was successfully accom- 
 plished. 
 
 The leading man of this convention was 
 Benjamin Franklin. He was a native of Bos- 
 ton, and the son of a tallow chandler. While 
 still a youth he had removed to Philadelphia, 
 and by the force of his own genius had risen 
 from poverty and obscurity to great prom- 
 inence among the public men of Pennsylva- 
 nia, and the literary and scientific men of his 
 day. 
 
 BENJAMIN FRANKLIN. 
 
 He had chosen the avocation of a printer ; 
 and by his industry, energy and integrity had 
 accumulated property enough to make him 
 independent. He was among the most active 
 men in America in promoting the advance- 
 ment of literary, scientific and benevolent 
 institutions, and had already won a world- 
 wide reputation by his discoveries in science, 
 and especially by his investigations in elec- 
 tricity and lightning. He was not inexperi- 
 enced in public affairs. He had served as 
 
290 
 
 THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 
 
 clerk to the general assembly of Pennsylva- 
 nia, as postmaster of Philadelphia, as a mem- 
 ber of the provincial assembly of Pennsylvania, 
 and in 1753 had been appointed by the king 
 postmaster-general of the American colonies. 
 In each of these positions he had served with 
 distinction, and now, at the ripe age of forty- 
 eight, he had come to take part in the most 
 important convention ever held in America. 
 Franklin had long been of the opinion that 
 the true interests of the colonies required 
 their union in all measures relating to their 
 common welfare. Believing that the force of 
 circumstances would soon drive them into 
 such a union, he sought to accomplish that 
 end through the medium of this convention. 
 Accordingly he presented to the convention 
 a plan for the union of all the American 
 colonies, which union he intended should be 
 
 perpetual. 
 
 Proposed Confederacy. 
 
 He proposed that while each colony should 
 retain the separate and independent control 
 of its own affairs, all should unite in a per- 
 petual union for the management of their 
 general affairs. This confederacy was to 
 be controlled by a general government, to 
 consist of a governor-general an J a council. 
 The seat of the federal government was to be 
 Philadelphia, which city he regarded as central 
 to all the colonies. The governor-general 
 was to be appointed and paid by the king, 
 and was to have the power of vetoing all laws 
 which should seem to him objectionable. 
 The members of the council were to be 
 elected triennially by the colonial legisla- 
 tures, and were to be apportioned among the 
 colonies according to their respective popula- 
 tion. 
 
 " The governor-general was to nominate 
 military officers, subject to the advice of the 
 council, which, in turn, was to nominate all 
 civil officers. No money was to be issued 
 but by their joint order. Each colony was 
 
 to retain its domestic constitution ; the 
 federal government was to regulate all rela- 
 tions of peace or war with the Indians, affairs 
 of trade, and purchases of lands not within 
 the bounds of particular colonies ; to estab- 
 lish, organize and temporarily to govern new 
 settlements; to raise soldiers, and equip ves 
 sels of force on the seas, rivers or lakes; to 
 make laws, and levy just and equal taxes. 
 The grand council were to meet once a year 
 to choose their own speaker, and neither to be 
 dissolved nor prorogued, nor continue sitting 
 longer than six weeks at any one time, but 
 by their own consent." 
 
 The Union Opposed. 
 
 This plan met with considerable opposi- 
 tion, was thoroughly discussed, and was 
 finally adopted by the convention. It was 
 not altogether acceptable to the colonies, 
 each of which dreaded that the establishment 
 of a central government would result in the 
 destruction of the liberties of the individual 
 provinces. Connecticut promptly rejected 
 it, New York received it with coldness, and 
 Massachusetts showed a more active opposi- 
 tion to it. Upon its reception in England it 
 was at once thrown aside by the royal gov- 
 ernment. The Union proposed by the plan 
 was too perfect and would make America 
 practically independent of Great Britain, and 
 so the board of trade did not even bring it 
 before the notice of the king. 
 
 Franklin regarded the failure of his plan 
 of union with great regret. In after years he 
 wrote : " The colonies so united would have 
 been sufficiently strong to defend themselves. 
 There would then have been no need of 
 troops from England ; of course the subse- 
 quent pretext for taxing America, and the 
 bloody contest it occasioned, would have 
 been avoided. But such mistakes are not 
 new ; history is full of the errors of states 
 and princes." 
 
OUTBREAK OF HOSTILITIES. 
 
 291 
 
 The plan for the union of the colonies 
 having failed, the British government re- 
 solved to take into its own hands the task of 
 carrying on the war, with such assistance as 
 the colonies might be willing to afford. A 
 million of pounds was voted for the defence 
 of the British possessions in America, and 
 four strong fleets were sent to sea, together 
 with numerous privateers, which nearly de- 
 stroyed the French West Indian trade. 
 
 In 1755, Major 
 General Edward 
 Braddock was ap- 
 pointed comman- 
 der-in-chief of the 
 English forces in 
 America. He had 
 served under the 
 Duke of Cumber- 
 land, in his expe 
 dition into Scot- 
 land against the 
 Pretender Charles 
 Edward, in 1746, 
 and was regarded 
 as one of the most 
 promising officers 
 in his majesty's 
 service. Braddock 
 sailed from Cork, 
 in Ireland, early in 
 January, 1755, and 
 on the twentieth of 
 
 February arrived at Alexandria, in Virginia. 
 He was soon followed by two regiments of 
 infantry, consisting of five hundred men each, 
 the largest force of regulars Great Britain 
 had ever assembled in America. 
 
 A conference of the colonial governors with 
 the new commander in-chief was held at 
 Alexandria, and a plan of campaign was 
 decided upon. Four expeditions were to be 
 despatched against the French. The first, 
 under Braddock in person, was to advance 
 
 upon Fort Duquesne; the second, under 
 Governor Shirley of Massachusetts, was to 
 attempt the capture of Fort Niagara ; the 
 third, under William John, the Indian agent 
 among the Mohawks, and a man of great 
 influence over them, was to be directed 
 against Crown Point ; and the fourth was to 
 capture the French posts near the head of 
 the Bay of Fundy, and expel the French 
 from Acadia. 
 
 WILLS CREEK NARROWS, MD. 
 
 It was now evident that the war was about 
 to commence in good earnest, and the colo- 
 nies exerted themselves to support the efforts 
 of the mother country to the extent of their 
 ability. 
 
 General Braddock was thoroughly pro- 
 ficient in the theory of his profession, but 
 his experience of actual warfare had been 
 limited to a single campaign, and that a brief 
 one. He possessed the entire confidence of 
 his superiors in England, and his faith in 
 
292 
 
 himself was boundless. He believed that the 
 regulars of the British army were capable of 
 accomplishing any task assigned them, and 
 entertained a thorough contempt for the pro- 
 vincial troops that were to form a part of his 
 command. Soon after his arrival in Virginia 
 he offered Washington a position on his staff 
 as aid-de-camp, with the rank of colonel, 
 which was promptly accepted. 
 
 Had General Braddock been a different 
 man the presence of Washington in his mili 
 tary family might have been of the greatest 
 service to him, for the experience of the 
 young colonel would have made him an in- 
 valuable counselor. Braddock was in a 
 strange country, and was charged with the 
 conduct of a campaign in which the ordinary 
 rules of warfare as practiced in Europe could 
 not be adhered to. He knew nothing of the 
 difficulties of marching his army through a 
 tangled wilderness and over a mountain range 
 of the first magnitude. Unfortunately for 
 him, he was not aware of his ignorance, and 
 would neither ask for nor listen to advice or 
 information upon the subject. 
 
 Franklin's Opinion of Braddock. 
 
 " He was, I think, a brave man," says 
 Franklin, " and might probably have made a 
 figure as a good officer in some European 
 war. But he had too much self-confidence, 
 too high an opinion of the validity of regular 
 troops, and too mean a one of both Ameri- 
 cans and Indians." During one of his inter- 
 views with him Franklin undertook to im- 
 press upon him the necessity of guarding 
 against the danger of Indian ambuscades. 
 " He smiled at my ignorance," says Frank- 
 lin, " and replied : ' These savages may in- 
 deed be a formidable enemy to your raw 
 American militia ; but upon the king's 
 regular and disciplined troops, sir, it is 
 impossible they should make any impres- 
 sion. 
 
 THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 
 
 The army assembled at Wills' Creek, to 
 which place General Braddock repaired in 
 his coach. The bad roads had put him in a 
 passion, and had broken his coach, and he 
 was in no mood upon his arrival to pursue a 
 sensible course. He was advised to employ 
 Indians as scouts on the march, or to use 
 them to protect a force of Pennsylvanians 
 who were making a road over the mountains 
 for the passage of the army, but he refused to 
 do either. Washington urged him to aban- 
 don his wagon-train, to use pack-horses 
 in place of these vehicles, and to move with 
 as little baggage as possible. Braddock 
 ridiculed this suggestion. Neither he nor 
 any of his officers would consent to be 
 separated from their cumbrous baggage, or 
 to dispense with any of the luxuries they had 
 been used to. 
 
 Famous " Captain Jack." 
 
 A month was lost at Wills' Creek, and in 
 June the army began its march. It was 
 greatly impeded by the difficulty of drag- 
 ging the wagons and artillery over roads 
 filled with the stumps of trees and with 
 rocks. Such little progress was made that 
 Braddock, greatly disheartened, privately 
 asked Washington to advise him what to do. 
 As it was known that the garrison at Fort 
 Duquesne was small, Washington advised 
 him to hasten forward with a division ol the 
 army, in light marching order, and seize the 
 fort before reinforcements could arrive from 
 Canada. 
 
 Braddock accordingly detached a division 
 of twelve hundred men and ten pieces of 
 cannon, with a train of pack-horses to carry 
 the baggage, and pushed on in advance with 
 them, leaving Colonel Dunbar to bring up 
 the main division as promptly as possible. 
 A famous hunter and Indian fighter named 
 Captain Jack, who was regarded as the most 
 experienced man in savage warfare in the 
 
OUTBREAK OF HOSTILITIES. 
 
 293 
 
 colonies, now offered his services and those 
 of his men to Braddock to act as scouts. 
 Braddock received him with frigid courtesy, 
 and refused his offer, saying that he " had 
 experienced troops upon whom he could 
 rely for all purposes." 
 
 Braddock's Blunder. 
 
 Instead of pushing on with energy with 
 his advance division, Braddock moved very 
 slowly, gaining but a little more than three 
 miles a day. " They halt," wrote Washing- 
 ton, " to level every mole hill and to erect a 
 bridge over every brook." On the eighth of 
 July the army reached the east bank of the 
 Monongahela, about fifteen miles above Fort 
 Duquesne, having taken about double the 
 necessary time in the march from Wills' 
 Creek. On the same day Washington, who 
 had been ill for some days, and was still un- 
 well, rejoined Braddock. 
 
 Early on the morning of the ninth of July 
 the march was resumed. The Monongahela 
 was forded a short distance below the mouth 
 of the Youghiogheny, and the advance con- 
 tinued along the southern bank of that river. 
 About noon the Monongahela was forded 
 again, and the army was planted upon the 
 strip of land between the rivers which form 
 the Ohio. Washington was well convinced 
 that the French and Indians were informed of 
 the movements of the army and would seek 
 to interfere with it before its arrival before 
 the fort, which was only ten miles distant, 
 and urged Braddock to throw in advance the 
 Virginia Rangers, three hundred strong, as 
 they were experienced Indian fighters. 
 
 Braddock angrily rebuked his aide, and as 
 if to make the rebuke more pointed, ordered 
 the Virginia troops and other provincials to 
 take position in the rear of the regulars. 
 The general was fully convinced of the ability 
 of his trained troops to take care of them- 
 selves. They made a gallant show as they 
 
 marched along with their gay uniforms, 
 their burnished arms and flying colors, and 
 their drums beating a lively march. Wash- 
 ington could not repress his admiration at 
 the brilliant sight, nor his anxiety for the 
 result. 
 
 In the meantime the French at Fort Du- 
 quesne had been informed by their scouts of 
 Braddock's movements, and had resolved to 
 ambuscade him on his march. Early on the 
 morning of the ninth a force of about two 
 hundred and thirty French and Canadians 
 and six hundred and thirty-seven Indians, 
 under De Beaujeu, the commandant at Fort 
 Duquesne, was despatched with ordeis to 
 occupy a designated spot and attack the 
 enemy upon their approach. Before reach- 
 ing it, about two o'clock in the afternoon, 
 they encountered the advanced force of the 
 English army, under Lieutenant-Colonel 
 Thomas Gage, and at once attacked them 
 with spirit. 
 
 Galling Fire. 
 
 The English army at this moment was 
 moving along a narrow road, about twelve 
 feet in width, with scarcely a scout thrown 
 out in advance or upon the flanks. The 
 engineer who was locating the road was the 
 first to discover the enemy, and called out: 
 " French and Indians ! " Instantly a heavy 
 fire was opened upon Gage's force, and his 
 indecision allowed the French and Indians 
 to seize a commanding ridge, from which 
 they maintained their attack with spirit. 
 There, concealed among the trees, they were 
 almost invisible to the English, who were 
 fully exposed to their fire, as they occupied a 
 broad ravine, covered with low shrubs, im- 
 mediately below the eminence held by the 
 French. 
 
 The regulars were quickly thrown into 
 confusion by the heavy fire and the fierce 
 yells of the Indians, who could nowhere b« 
 
294 
 
 THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 
 
 seen, and their losses were so severe and 
 sudden that they became panic-stricken. 
 They were ordered to charge up the hill and 
 drive the French from their cover, but re- 
 fused to move, and in their terror fired at 
 random into the woods. In the meantime 
 the Indians were rapidly spreading along the 
 sides of the ravine and continuing their fire 
 from their cover among the trees with fear- 
 ful accuracy. 
 
 that not one of his commands was obeyed, 
 and his defeat was complete. 
 
 The only semblance of resistance main- 
 tained by the English was bv the Virginia 
 Rangers, whom Braddock had insulted at 
 the beginning of the day's march. Immedi- 
 ately upon the commencement of the battle, 
 they had adopted the tactics of the Indians, 
 and had thrown themselves behind trees, 
 from which shelter they were rapidly picking 
 
 
 DISASTROUS DEFEAT OF GENERAL BRADDOCK. 
 
 The advance of the English was driven 
 back, and it crowded upon the second divi- 
 sion in utter disorder. A reinforcement of 
 eight hundred men, under Colonel Burton, 
 arrived at this moment, but only to add to 
 the confusion. The French pushed their 
 lines forward now and increased the disorder 
 of the English, who had by this time lost 
 nearly all their officers. Braddock now came 
 up and gallantly exerted himself to restore 
 order, but " the king's regulars and discip- 
 lined troops " were so utterly demoralized 
 
 off the Indians. Washington entreated 
 Braddock to allow the regulars to follow the 
 example of the Virginians, but he refused, 
 and stubbornly endeavored to form them in 
 platoons under the fatal fire that was being 
 poured upon them by their hidden assailants. 
 Thus through his obstinacy many useful 
 lives were needlessly thrown away before he 
 would admit his defeat. 
 
 The officers did not share the panic of the 
 men, but behaved with the greatest gallantry. 
 They were the especial marks of the Indian 
 
OUTBREAK OF HOSTILITIES. 
 
 295 
 
 sharpshooters, and many of them were killed 
 or wounded. 'Two of Braddock's aides were 
 seriously wounded, and their duties devolved 
 upon Washington in addition to his own. 
 He passed repeatedly over the field, carrying 
 the orders of the commander and encourag- 
 ing the men. When sent to bring up the 
 artillery, he found it surrounded by Indians, 
 its commander, Sir Peter Halket, killed, and 
 the men standing helpless from fear. Spring- 
 ing from his horse, he appealed to the men 
 to save the guns, pointed a field-piece and 
 discharged it at the savages, and entreated 
 the gunners to rally. He could accomplish 
 nothing by either his words or example. 
 The men deserted the guns and fled. In a 
 letter to his brother, Washington wrote : " I 
 had four bullets through my coat, two horses 
 shot under me, yet escaped unhurt, though 
 death was levelling my companions on every 
 side around me." * 
 
 Braddock had five horses shot under him, 
 and at length himself received a mortal 
 wound. As he fell, Captain Stewart, of the 
 Virginia troops, caught him in his arms. 
 He was borne from the field, though he 
 begged to be left to die on the scene of his 
 defeat. His fall was fortunate for the army, 
 which it saved from destruction. 
 
 A Fatal Rout. 
 
 The order was given to fall back, and the 
 " regulars fled like sheep before the hounds." 
 The French and Indians pressed forward in 
 pursuit, and all would have been lost had 
 not the Virginia Rangers themselves been in 
 the rear, and covered the flight of the regu- 
 lars with a determination which checked the 
 pursuers. The artillery, wagons, and all the 
 camp train was abandoned, and the savages, 
 
 stopping to plunder these, allowed the fugi- 
 tives to recross the river in safety. 
 
 Having seen the general as comfortable as 
 circumstances would permit, Washington 
 rode all that night and the next day to Dun- 
 bar's camp to procure wagons for the 
 wounded and soldiers to guard them. 
 With these he hastened back to the fugi- 
 tives. 
 
 The Engl sh General's Death. 
 
 Braddock, unable to ride or to endure the 
 jolting of a wagon, was carried in a litter as 
 far as the Great Meadows. He seemed to 
 be heart-broken and rarely spoke. Occa- 
 sionally he would say, as if speaking to him- 
 self, with a deep sigh, " Who would have 
 thought it ? " It is said that he warmly 
 thanked Captain Stewart for his care and 
 kindness, and apologized to Washington for 
 the manner in which he had received his 
 advice. He had no wish to live, and he died 
 at Fort Necessity on the night of the thir- 
 teenth of July. He was buried the next 
 morning before daybreak as secretly as pos- 
 sible for fear that the savages might find and 
 violate his grave. Close by the national 
 road, about a mile west of Fort Necessity, 
 a pile of stones still marks his resting- 
 place. 
 
 The losses of the English in the battle 
 were terrible. Out of eighty-six officers, 
 twenty-six were killed and thirty-six 
 wounded. Upward of seven hundred of the 
 regulars were killed and wounded. The 
 Virginia Rangers had suffered terrible losses, 
 for they had not only borne the brunt of the 
 battle, but had lost many of their number by 
 the random fire of the frightened regulars. 
 Dunbar, who succeeded Braddock in the com- 
 mand, still had fifteen hundred effective men 
 
 * Washington attributed his wonderful escape from even a wound to the overruling providence of God. The Indians 
 regarded the matter in the same light. About fifteen years after the battle, while examining some lands near the mouth 
 of the Great Kanawha River, Washington was visited by an old chief. The chief told him " he was present at the 
 
296 
 
 THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR 
 
 left to him ; but he was too badly frightened to 
 attempt to retrieve the disaster, which a com- 
 petent officer might have done with such a 
 force. He broke up his camp, destroyed his 
 stores, and retreated beyond the mountains- 
 Disregarding the entreaties of the colonists 
 not to leave the frontiers exposed to the 
 savages, he continued his retreat to Phila- 
 delphia, and went into winter quarters 
 there, to get ready for future operations. 
 
 BURNING OF KITTANNING BY GENERAL ARMSTRONG 
 
 The effect of these reverses upon the 
 colonists was most marked. When they 
 understood that Braddock's splendid force 
 of disciplined regulars had been routed by a 
 mere handful of French and Indians, their 
 respect for the invincibility of British troops 
 was destroyed ; and their confidence in their 
 own prowess was greatly increased by the 
 
 proud reflection that the only thing that had 
 been done to save the army' of B addock 
 from total destruction had been accomp- 
 lished by the provincials. Washington's 
 conduct was a subject of praise in all the 
 colonies and brought his name conspicuously 
 before the whole people of America. In a 
 sermon preached a few months after Brad- 
 dock's defeat, the Rev. Samuel Davies, a 
 learned clergyman, spoke of him as " that 
 heroic youth, Colonel Wash- 
 ington, whom I cannot but 
 hope Providence has hitherto 
 preserved in so signal a man- 
 ner for some important service 
 to his country." 
 
 The retreat of Dunbar left 
 the frontiers of Virginia and 
 Pennsylvania at the mercy of 
 the savages, who maintained 
 a desultory but destructive 
 warfare along the entire bor- 
 der. The defence of this ex- 
 posed region was intrusted to 
 Colonel Washington ; but he 
 had so few men as to make 
 his undertaking a hopeless 
 one. The frontier settlements 
 of Virginia were destroyed ; 
 the beautiful valley of the 
 Shenandoah was ravaged with 
 merciless fury, and the more 
 protected regions were kept in a state of 
 constant uneasiness and alarm. Governor 
 Dinwiddie was repeatedly appealed to to 
 furnish more men, but refused, and endea- 
 vored to excuse his delinquency by saying : 
 " We dare not part with any of our white 
 men to any distance, as we must have a 
 watchful eye over our negro slaves." 
 
 battle, and among the Indian allies of the French ; that he singled him out and repeatedly fired his rifle at him ; that he 
 also ordered his young warriors to make him their only mark; but that on finding all their bullets turned aside by some 
 invisible and inscrutable interposition, he was convinced that the hero at whom he had so often and so truly aimed miM 
 be, for some wise purpose, specially protected by the Great Spirit. He now came, therefore, to tesUfy his veneration." 
 
OUTBREAK OF HOSTILITIES. 
 
 297 
 
 Pennsylvania met the troubles with greater 
 vigor and resolution. About thirty miles 
 above Fort Duquesne, on the Alleghany 
 River, was the Indian village of Kittanning, 
 the home of a noted chief named Captain 
 Jacobs. Together with the Delaware chief 
 Shingis, he had, at the instigation of the 
 French, kept up a continual warfare upon the 
 frontier settlements. A military force for 
 the defence of the frontier was raised by the 
 colony and placed under the command of 
 Benjamin Franklin as colonel. He soon 
 resigned, and was succeeded by Colonel John 
 Armstrong, a man better suited to the posi- 
 tion, and who subsequently became a major 
 general in the war of the Revolution. 
 
 Armstrong resolved to destroy Kittanning 
 and the tribe inhabiting it as the best means 
 
 of putting a stop to their outrages, and called 
 for volunteers for the enterprise. Three 
 hundred men responded. Toward the last 
 of September, 1756, they crossed the moun- 
 tains on horseback, and in a few days reached 
 the vicinity of Kittanning. Dismounting and 
 leaving their horses in charge of a guard, they 
 silently surrounded the village. The Indians 
 spent the night in carousing within hearing 
 of the whites, and retired to rest at a 
 very late hour. Just before daybreak the 
 whites attacked the village and set it on 
 fire. It was completely destroyed, and 
 Jacobs and all but a handful of his men 
 were slain. The few survivors fled farther 
 west, and the Pennsylvania frontier was re- 
 lieved of the sufferings it had so long 
 endured. 
 
CHAPTER XXIII 
 Sanguinary Struggles on the Frontier 
 
 Expedition Against Acadia — Brutal Treatment of the Acadians — They Are Expelled from Their Country — A Sad Story- 
 Fate of the Acadians — Johnson at Lake George — March of Dieskau — Battle of Lake George — Failure of Shirley's 
 Expedition — Arrival of the Earl of Loudon — Montcalm in Canada — Capture of Oswego by the French — Outrages of 
 the Earl of Loudon Upon New York and Philadelphia — Expedition Against Louisburg — How the Fail of Loudon Beat 
 the French — Capture of Fort William Henry by Montcalm — Massacre of the Prisoners by the Indians — Efforts of 
 Montcalm to Save Them — The Royal Officers Attempt to Cover Their Failures by Outraging the Colonies. 
 
 WHILE the events we have re- 
 lated were transpiring in the 
 Ohio valley other expeditions 
 were despatched against the 
 French. One of these was directed against 
 that part of Acadia, or Nova Scotia, which 
 still remained in the hands of the French. It 
 lay at the head of the Bay of Fundy, and 
 was defended by two French forts. This 
 region was the oldest French colony in North 
 America, having been settled sixteen years 
 before the landing of the Pilgrims, but was 
 regarded by the English as within their 
 jurisdiction. 
 
 In May, 1755, an expedition of three thou- 
 sand New England troops was despatched 
 from Boston, under Colonel John Winslow, 
 to attack these forts and establish the Eng- 
 lish authority over the French settlements. 
 Upon reaching the Bay of Fundy Winslow 
 was joined by three hundred English regulars 
 under Colonel Monckton, who assumed the 
 command. The forts were taken with com 
 paratively little effort, and the authority of 
 England was extended over the whole of 
 Nova Scotia. The Acadians agreed to 
 acknowledge the authority of their new 
 masters, and to observe a strict neutrality 
 between France and England in the war ; 
 and the English on their part promised not 
 to require of them the usual oaths of allegi- 
 ance, to excuse them from bearing arms 
 298 
 
 against France, and to protect them in the 
 exercise of the Catholic religion. 
 
 The Acadians numbered about seventeen 
 thousand souls. They were a simple and 
 harmless people, and were enjoying in a 
 marked degree the blessings of industry and 
 thrift. They had begun their settlements by 
 depending upon the fur trade and the fish- 
 eries for their support, but had abandoned 
 these pursuits for that of agriculture, which 
 was already yielding them rich rewards for 
 their skill and labor. They were proud of 
 their farms, and took but little interest in 
 public affairs, scarcely knowing what was 
 transpiring in the world around them. It is 
 hard to imagine a more peaceful or a happier 
 community than this one at the time they 
 passed under the baleful rule of England. 
 Crime was unknown among them, and they 
 seldom carried their disputes before the Eng- 
 lish magistrates, but settled them by the 
 arbitration of their old men. They en- 
 couraged early marriages as the best means 
 of preserving the morality of their people ; 
 and when a young man married, his neigh- 
 bors turned out in force and built him a 
 house, and for the first year of his marriage 
 aided him to establish himself firmly, while 
 the bride's relatives helped her to furnish the 
 home thus prepared. 
 
 Thus the people were taught to regard and 
 practice neighborly kindness as one of the 
 
SANGUINARY STRUGGLES ON THE FRONTIER. 
 
 299 
 
 cardinal Christian virtues. They were de- 
 voted Catholics, and practiced their religion 
 without bigotry. They were attached to the 
 rule of France by language and religion, and 
 would have been glad to see her authority 
 re-established over them ; but they submitted 
 peacefully to the rule of the English and 
 faithfully observed the terms of their sur- 
 render. 
 
 Unfortunately for the Acadians their pos- 
 sessions soon began to excite the envy of the 
 English. Lawrence, the governor of Nova 
 Scotia, expressed this feeling in his letter to 
 Lord Halifax, the English premier " They 
 possess the best and largest tract of land in 
 this province," he wrote ; " if they refuse the 
 oaths, it would be much better that they 
 were away." The English authorities had 
 prepared a cunningly devised scheme for dis- 
 possessing these simplepeople of their homes, 
 and they now proceeded to put it in execu- 
 tion. The usual oaths of allegiance had not 
 been tendered to the Acadians upon their 
 surrender, as it was known that as French- 
 men and Catholics they could not take them, 
 as they required them to bear arms against 
 their own brethren in Canada, and to make 
 war upon their religion. 
 
 Cruel Treatment. 
 
 It was resolved now to offer the oaths to 
 them, and thus either drive them into rebel- 
 lion or force them to abandon their homes. 
 When this intention was known, the priests 
 urged them to refuse the oaths. " Better 
 surrender your meadows to the sea," they 
 declared, " and your houses to the flames, 
 than, at the peril of your souls, take the oath 
 of allegiance to the British government." As 
 for the Acadians themselves, " they, from 
 their very simplicity and anxious sincerity, 
 were uncertain in their resolves ; now gath- 
 ering courage to flee beyond the isthmus, for 
 ether homes in New France, and now vearn- 
 
 ing for their own houses and fields, their 
 herds and pastures." 
 
 The officers sent by the English authori- 
 ties to enforce their demands conducted 
 themselves with a haughtiness and cruelty 
 which added greatly to the sorrows of the 
 Acadians. Their titles to their lands were 
 declared null and void, and all their papers 
 and title-deeds were taken from them. Their 
 property was taken for the public service 
 without compensation, and if they failed to 
 furnish wood at the times required, the Eng- 
 lish soldiers " might take their houses for 
 fuel." Their guns were seized, and they 
 were deprived of their boats on the pretext 
 that they might be used to communicate 
 with the French in Canada. At last, wearied 
 out with these oppressions, the Acadians 
 offered to swear allegiance to Great Britain. 
 This, however, formed no part of the plan of 
 their persecutors, and they were answered 
 that by a British statute persons who had 
 been once offered the oaths, and who had 
 refused them, could not be permitted to take 
 them, but must be treated as Popish recu- 
 sants. 
 
 This brought matters to a crisis, and the 
 English now resolved to strike the decisive 
 blow. A proclamation was issued, requiring 
 " the old men, and young men, as well as all 
 lads over ten years of age," to assemble on 
 the fifth of September, 1755, at a certain 
 hour, at designated places in their respective 
 districts, to hear the " wishes of the king." 
 In the greater number of places the order 
 was obeyed. What happened at the village 
 of Grand Pre, the principal settlement, will 
 show the course pursued by the English in 
 all the districts. Four hundred and eighteen 
 of the men of the place assembled. They 
 were unarmed, and were marched into the 
 church, which was securely guarded. 
 
 Winslow, the New England commander, 
 then addressed them as follows : " You are 
 
300 
 
 THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 
 
 convened together to manifest to you his 
 majesty's final resolution to the French in- 
 habitants of this his province. Your lands 
 and tenements, cattle of all kinds, and live 
 stock of all sorts, are forfeited to the crown, 
 and you yourselves are to be removed from 
 this his province. I am, through his majes- 
 ty's goodness, directed to allow you liberty 
 to carry off your money and household 
 goods, as many as you can, without discom- 
 moding the vessels you go in." He then 
 declared them, together with their wives and 
 children, a total of nineteen hundred and 
 twenty-three souls, the king's prisoners. 
 
 English Barbarity. 
 
 The announcement took the unfortunate 
 men by surprise, and filled them with the 
 deepest indignation ; but they were unarmed 
 and unable to resist. They were held close 
 prisoners in the church, and their homes, 
 which they had left in the morning full of 
 hope, were to see them no more. They 
 were kept without food for themselves or 
 their children that day, and were poorly fed 
 during the remainder of their captivity. 
 They were held in confinement until the 
 tenth of September, when it was announced 
 that the vessels were in readiness to carry 
 them away. They were not to be allowed 
 to join their brethren in Canada lest they 
 should serve as a reinforcement to the French 
 in that province, but were to be scattered as 
 paupers through the English colonies, among 
 people of another race and a different faith. 
 
 On the morning of the tenth the captives 
 were drawn up six deep. The English, in- 
 tending to make their trial as bitter and as 
 painful as possible, had resolved upon the 
 barbarous measure of separating the families 
 of their victims. The young men and boys 
 were driven at the point of the bayonet from 
 the church to the ship and compelled to 
 embark. They passed amid the rows of 
 
 their mothers and sisters, who, kneeling, 
 prayed Heaven to bless and keep them. Then 
 the fathers and husbands were forced by the 
 bayonet on board of another ship, and as the 
 vessels were now full, the women and child- 
 ren were left behind until more ships could 
 come for them. They were kept for weeks 
 near the sea, suffering greatly from lack of 
 proper shelter and food, and it was December 
 before the last of them were removed. 
 Those who tried to escape were ruthlessly 
 shot down by the sentinels. " Our soldiers 
 hate them," wrote an English officer, " and 
 if they can but find a pretext to kill them, 
 they will." 
 
 In some of the settlements the designs of 
 the English were suspected and the procla- 
 mation was not heeded. Some of the people 
 fled to Canada ; others sought shelter with 
 the Indians, who received them with kind- 
 ness ; others still fled to the woods, hoping 
 to hide there till the storm was over. The 
 English at once proceeded to lay waste their 
 homes ; the country was made desolate in 
 order that the fugitives might be compelled 
 through starvation to surrender themselves. 
 
 Families Scattered. 
 
 Seven thousand Acadians were torn from 
 their homes and scattered among the Eng- 
 lish colonies on the Atlantic coast, from New 
 Hampshire to Georgia. Families were ut- 
 terly broken up, never to be reunited. The 
 colonial newspapers for many years were 
 filled with mournful advertisements, inquir- 
 ing for a lost husband or wife; parents 
 sought their missing children, and children 
 their parents in this way. But of all these 
 inquiries few were answered. The exiles 
 were doomed to a parting worse than death, 
 and their captors had done their work so 
 well that human ingenuity could not undo it. 
 Some of those who had been carried to 
 Georgia attempted to return to their homes. 
 
SANGUINARY STRUGGLES ON THE FRONTIER. 
 
 301 
 
 They escaped to sea in boats, and coasted 
 from point to point northward until they 
 reached New England, when they were 
 sternly ordered back. Their homes were 
 their own no longer. 
 
 More than three thousand Acadians fled 
 to Canada, and of these about fifteen hundred 
 settled south of the Ristigouche. Upon the 
 surrender of Canada they were again sub- 
 jected to the persecutions of the English. 
 " Once those who dwelt in Pennsylvania 
 presented a humble petition to the Earl of 
 Loudon, then the British commander-in- 
 chief in America, and the cold-hearted peer, 
 offended that the prayer was made in French, 
 seized their five principal men, who in their 
 own land had been persons of dignity and 
 substance, and shipped them to England, 
 with the request that they might be kept 
 from ever again becoming troublesome by 
 being consigned to service as common sailors 
 on board ships of war. 
 
 Unparalleled Oppression. 
 
 " No doubt existed of the king's approba- 
 tion. The lords of trade, more merciless 
 than the savages and than the wilderness in 
 winter, wished very much that every one of 
 the Acadians should be driven out; and 
 when it seemed that the work was done, 
 congratulated the king that ' the zealous 
 endeavors of Lawrence had been crowned 
 with an entire success.' I know not if the 
 annals of the human race keep the record of 
 sorrows so wantonly inflicted, so bitter and 
 so perennial, as fell upon the French inhab- 
 itants of Acadia. 'We have been true,' 
 they said of themselves, 'to our religion, and 
 true to ourselves ; yet nature appears to con- 
 sider us only as the objects of public ven- 
 geance.' The hand of the English official 
 seemed under a spell with regard to them ; 
 and was never uplifted but to curse them." * 
 
 * Bancroft's History ef the United States, vol. iv., p. 206. 
 
 While these sorrows were being heaped 
 upon the helpless Acadians by England, the 
 provincial forces were serving the cause else- 
 where with more credit to their manhood. 
 As has been stated, the expedition against 
 the French fort at Crown Point, on Lake 
 Champlain, had been intrusted to General 
 William Johnson. His army consisted prin- 
 cipally of troops from Massachusetts and 
 Connecticut. They were joined at Albany 
 by a regiment from New Hampshire. The 
 troops rendezvoused at the head" of boat 
 navigation, on the Hudson, in July, 1755, 
 under the command of General Lyman. 
 They numbered about six thousand men. A 
 fort was built and named by the troops, in 
 honor of their commander, Fort Lyman. 
 Johnson's Expedition. 
 
 In August Johnson arrived with the stores 
 and artillery, and assumed the command of 
 the expedition. He ungenerously changed 
 the name of the fort to Fort Edward. Leav- 
 ing a strong force to garrison it, he moved 
 with five thousand men to the head of Lake 
 George, from which he intended to descend 
 the lake in boats. 
 
 The French had been informed of John- 
 son's movements by their scouts. Baron 
 Dieskau, the governor of Canada, placed the 
 entire arms-bearing population of the Mon- 
 treal district in the field and resolved to 
 prevent Johnson from reaching Crown Point 
 by attacking him in his own country. With 
 a force of two hundred French regulars and 
 about one thousand two hundred Indians, he 
 set out across the country to attack Fort 
 Edward. Upon arriving in the vicinity of 
 the fort the Indians learned that it was de- 
 fended by artillery, of which they were 
 greatly afraid, and refused to attack it. Dies- 
 kau was, therefore, compelled to change his 
 plan, and resolved to strike a blow at John- 
 son's camp, which he was informed was 
 without cannon. , 
 
302 
 
 THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 
 
 In the meantime the scouts of the English 
 had detected the movement against Fort 
 Edward. Ignorant of the change in Dies- 
 kau's plans Johnson sent a force of one 
 thousand men, under Colonel Ephraim Will- 
 iams of Massachusetts, and two hundred 
 Mohawks, under their famous chief Hen- 
 drick, to the relief of the fort. Their march 
 was reported to the French, who placed 
 
 THE PALISADES OF THE HUDSON. 
 
 themselves in ambush along the road they 
 were pursuing, and attacked them as soon as 
 they had fairly entered the defile. The Eng- 
 lish were at once thrown into confusion. 
 Hendrick was shot down at the first fire, and 
 Williams fell a few moments later. The 
 English and Mohawks then began a rapid 
 retreat to their camp, closely pursued by 
 their assailants. 
 
 The sound of the firing was soon heard in 
 
 Johnson's camp, and as it drew nearer it 
 became apparent that the detachment was 
 retreating. The troops were gotten under 
 arms, and the trees in front of the camp were 
 hurriedly felled to form a rude breastwork. 
 A few cannon had just arrived from the 
 Hudson, and these were placed to command 
 the road by which the French were ap- 
 proaching. These arrangements were just 
 completed when the fugitives of Williams' 
 command appeared in full retreat, with the 
 French and Indians but a few hundred yards 
 behind them. Dieskau urged his men for- 
 ward with the greatest energy, intending to 
 force his way into the English camp along 
 with the fugitives. The artillery was care- 
 fully trained upon the road by which he was 
 advancing, and the moment the fugitives 
 were past the guns they opened with a ter- 
 rific fire of grape, which caused the Canadians 
 and Indians to break in confusion, and take 
 to the woods for shelter. 
 
 Stolen Honors. 
 
 The regulars held their ground, and main- 
 tained a determined contest of five hours, in 
 which they were nearly all slain. The In- 
 dians and Canadians did little execution, as 
 they stood in dread of the artillery. At 
 length Dieskau, seeing that his effort had 
 failed, drew off his men, and retreated. He 
 was pursued for some distance by the Eng- 
 lish. Towards evening he was suddenly at- 
 tacked by the New Hampshire regiment, 
 which was marching from Fort Edward to 
 Johnson's assistance. The French were 
 seized with a panic at this new attack, and 
 abandoning their brave commander fled for 
 their lives. Dieskau, who had been severely 
 wounded several times, was taken prisoner. 
 He was kindly treated, and was subsequently 
 sent to England, where he died. ' 
 
 General Johnson was slightly wounded at 
 the commencement of the battle, and with- 
 
SANGUINARY STRUGGLES ON THE FRONTIER. 
 
 303 
 
 drew from the field, leaving the command to 
 General Lyman, to whom the victory was 
 really due. Notwithstanding this Johnson 
 did not even mention Lyman's name in his 
 report of the battle, but claimed all the honor 
 for himself. He was rewarded by the king 
 with a baronetcy, and the gift of twenty-five 
 thousand dollars. General Lyman was not 
 even thanked for his services. 
 
 Great Military Preparations. 
 
 Johnson made no effort to improve his 
 victory. The expedition against Crown 
 Point, which might now have been under- 
 taken with a better prospect of success, was 
 abandoned, and Johnson contented himself 
 with building a useless log fort at the head 
 of Lake George, which he named Fort Will- 
 iam Henry. Late in the fall he placed a 
 garrison in this fort, and then returned to 
 Albany, where he disbanded his army. 
 
 The expedition under Governor Shirley, 
 against Fort Niagara, was equally unsuccess- 
 ful. By the month of August Shirley had 
 advanced no farther than Oswego. Here he 
 received the news of Braddock's defeat, which 
 so disheartened him that, after building and 
 garrisoning two forts at Oswego, he returned 
 to Albany. By the death of Braddock Shir- 
 ley succeeded to the chief command of all 
 the royal forces in America. 
 
 In December, 1755, Shirley held a con- 
 ference with the colonial governors, at New 
 York, to decide upon the campaign for the 
 next year. It was agreed that three expedi- 
 tions should be undertaken in 1756: one 
 against Niagara ; a second against Fort Du- 
 quesne, and a third against Crown Point. In 
 the meantime Lord Loudon was appointed 
 by the king commander-in-chief of the forces 
 in America. He sent over General Aber- 
 crombie as his lieutenant. Abercrombie ar- 
 rived in June with several regiments of 
 British regulars. He relieved General Shir- 
 
 ley from command, but nothing was to be 
 done until the arrival of the commander-in- 
 chief, who did not reach America until July. 
 
 Lord Loudon was a more pompous and a 
 slower man than Braddock, and more incom- 
 petent. A force of seven thousand men was 
 assembled at Albany for the expedition 
 against Ticonderoga and Crown Point, and 
 Loudon at once repaired thither, and as- 
 sumed the command. The colonists were 
 confident that something of importance 
 would now be accomplished ; but they were 
 destined to disappointment. The com- 
 mander-in-chief and his subordinates spent 
 their time in settling the relative rank of the 
 royal and provincial officers. 
 
 Notwithstanding the fact that all that had 
 been accomplished during the war had been 
 gained by the colonial forces, there was an 
 iniquitous regulation which gave the pre- 
 cedence to the lowest officer holding a royal 
 commission over one holding a higher rank 
 from any of the colonies. This led to many 
 disputes, and the colonists saw themselves 
 robbed of the honors they had so fairly won. 
 This was only one of the many wrongs by 
 which Great Britain succeeded in alienating 
 the people of America from their attachment 
 to her. 
 
 Successes of Montcalm. 
 
 In the meantime Dieskau had been suc- 
 ceeded as governor of Canada by the 
 Marquis de Montcalm, the ablest of the 
 rulers of New France. He was a man of 
 genuine ability and of indomitable energy. 
 He reached Quebec in 1756, and at once set 
 out for Ticonderoga, which he placed in a 
 state of defence. Perceiving the exposed 
 condition of the English forts at Osweeo he 
 resolved to capture them. Collecting a force 
 of five thousand Frenchmen, Canadians and 
 Indians, he crossed the lake from Frontenac, 
 and reached Oswego on the fifth of August 
 
304 
 
 THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 
 
 He soon drove the English out of Fort 
 Oswego ; but Fort Ontario, the second 
 work, opposed a more vigorous resistance 
 to him. 
 
 The garrison held out until their com- 
 mander, Colonel Mercer, was killed, and they 
 had lost all hope of receiving aid from 
 Albany, when they capitulated. An immense 
 amount of military stores, one hundred and 
 thirty-five pieces of cannon, and all the boats 
 and vessels Shirley had prepared for the ex- 
 pedition against Niagara fell into the hands 
 of Montcalm. The Iroquois had viewed the 
 erection of the forts at Oswego by the Eng- 
 lish with great jealousy, and in order to con- 
 ciliate them Montcalm wisely destroyed the 
 works, and withdrew into Canada. 
 
 Master of Twenty Legions. 
 
 Loudon had detached a force under 
 Colonel Webb to the assistance of the 
 Oswego forts, but it was sent so late that it 
 was met on the way by the news of the cap- 
 ture of the forts. Colonel Webb, in dismay, 
 fell back rapidly, and obstructed the road to 
 Albany. 
 
 Having failed to accomplish anything 
 against the enemy Lord Loudon now under- 
 took to subjugate the colonies of New York 
 and Pennsylvania. He was firmly convinced 
 that the colonists needed to be taught sub- 
 mission to the will of the royal commander, 
 and as he had been made a sort of viceroy of 
 all the colonies, he thought the present a 
 fitting occasion to teach them this lesson. 
 He demanded of the cities of Albany, New 
 York and Philadelphia free quarters for his 
 troops during the winter. The mayor of 
 New York refused the demand " as contrary 
 to the laws of England and the liberties of 
 America." " G — d d — n my blood," said the 
 viceroy to the mayor ; " if you do not billet 
 my officers upon free quarters this day, I'll 
 order here all the troops in North America 
 
 under my command, and billet them myself 
 upon the city." 
 
 There was no reasoning with " the master 
 of twenty legions," and the magistrates were 
 obliged to get up a subscription for the free 
 support, during the winter, of an army that 
 had passed a whole campaign without com- 
 ing in sight of the enemy. In Philadelphia 
 the matter was settled very much in the 
 same way. Albany was also obliged to sub- 
 mit, but the magistrates took occasion to 
 tell the royal officers that they did not want 
 their services, as they could defend their 
 frontiers themselves. " The frontier was left 
 open to the French ; this quartering troops 
 in the principal towns, at the expense of the 
 inhabitants, by the illegal authority of a 
 military chief, was the great result of the 
 campaign." It was becoming clear to the 
 colonists that their safety from the depreda- 
 tions of the French and savages was not to 
 be gained by the royal troops, but by their 
 own efforts. 
 
 Mock Battles and Sieges. 
 
 A congress of governors was held at 
 Boston in January, 1757, and it was resolved 
 that there should be but one expedition this 
 year, and that this should be sent under the 
 Earl of Loudon against Louisburg. The 
 frontier posts, especially Forts Edward and 
 William Henry, were to be defended, and 
 Washington, with the Virginia troops, was to 
 guard the border of that colony against the 
 expeditions of the French from Fort Du- 
 quesne. The last was a difficult and almost 
 impossible duty, for the French from Fort 
 Duquesne could choose their point of attack 
 anywhere on the long and exposed frontier, 
 while the force under Washington was utterly 
 inadequate to the task of watching the entire 
 line. 
 
 Leaving Bouquet to guard the frontier of 
 Carolina against the Cherokees, and Webb to 
 
SANGUINARY STRUGGLES ON THE FRONTIER. 
 
 305 
 
 hold the country between Lake George and 
 the Hudson, Lord Loudon, on the twentieth 
 of June, 1757, sailed from New York with 
 six thousand regulars to attack Louisburg. 
 He proceeded to Halifax, where he was 
 joined by a fleet of eleven ships of war and 
 four thousand troops, bringing his whole 
 force to ten thousand regulars and six- 
 teen ships of the line and a number of 
 frigates. 
 
 The campaign of 
 this redoubtable 
 warrior is thus des- 
 cribed by Bancroft 
 " He landed (at Ha- 
 lifax), levelled the 
 uneven ground for 
 a parade, planted 
 a vegetable garden 
 as a precaution 
 against the scurvy, 
 exercised the men 
 in mock battles and 
 sieges and storm- 
 ings of fortresses, 
 and when August 
 came, and the spirit 
 of the army was 
 broken, and Hay, a 
 major-general, ex- 
 pressed contempt 
 so loudly as to be 
 arrested, the troops 
 were embarked, as 
 if for Louisburg. 
 But ere the ships 
 
 sailed, the reconnoitring vessels came with 
 the news that the French at Cape Breton 
 had one more ship than the English, and 
 the plan of campaign was changed. Part of 
 the soldiers landed again at Halifax, and the 
 Earl of Loudon-, leaving his garden to the 
 weeds, and his place of arms to briars, sailed 
 for New York. 
 26 
 
 The ..xarquis of Montcalm was a very 
 different man from the Earl of Loudon. As 
 a .nan he was superior to him in every way; 
 as a commander he was active, quick and 
 resolute ; while Loudon was incompetent, 
 slow and pompous. Montcalm had stationed 
 himself at Ticonderoga, in order to be able to 
 watch the English, and he resolved to take 
 advantage of Lord Loudon's absence to 
 attack Fort William Henry, at the head of 
 
 SITE OF FORT WILLIAM HENRY ON LAKE GEORGL. 
 
 Lake George. In the first place, previous to 
 starting on this enterprise, he made his court 
 to the Oneidas, the Senecas and other sav- 
 age tribes, and gained them over to his 
 interests. These native warriors crossed the 
 waters of Lake Champlain in two hundred 
 canoes with pennons flying, and all the pomp 
 of savage warfare. Assembling beneath the 
 
306 
 
 THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 
 
 battlements of Ticonderoga, in the midst of 
 woods and mountains, they sang the war- 
 song, danced the war dance, and listened to 
 the eloquence of their orators. On the sec- 
 ond of August Montcalm appeared before 
 the fort with a force of about six thousand 
 French and Canadians and seventeen hun- 
 dred Indians, and laid siege to it. The 
 
 MONTCALM. 
 
 garrison consisted of about three thousand 
 men, under Colonel Monroe, a gallant offi- 
 cer. Montcalm summoned him to surrender 
 the fort, but Monroe returned an indignant 
 refusal to this demand, and sent to General 
 Webbe, at Fort Edward, fifteen miles dis- 
 tant, to ask for assistance. Webbe might 
 easily have saved the fort, as he had four 
 
 thousand men under his command, but he 
 made no effort to do so. 
 
 Colonel Putnam, afterwards famous in the 
 Revolution, eagerly sought and at last re- 
 ceived permission to march with his regi- 
 ment to Monroe's assistance, but he had 
 proceeded only a few miles when Webbe 
 commanded him to return to Fort Edward. 
 In the place of assistance, the 
 timid Webbe then sent to Mon- 
 roe a letter greatly exaggerating 
 the force of the French and ad- 
 vising him to surrender. This 
 letter was intercepted by Mont- 
 calm, who was on the point of 
 raising the siege, and he for- 
 warded it to Monroe, with a 
 renewed demand for his sur- 
 render. The brave veteran held 
 out, however, until nearly all his 
 guns were disabled and his am- 
 munition nearly exhausted. He 
 then hung out a flag of truce, 
 and Montcalm, who was too true 
 a hero not to appreciate valor in 
 a foe, granted him liberal terms. 
 The garrison were allowed to 
 march out with the honors of 
 war upon giving their parole not 
 to serve against France for eight- 
 een months. They were to re- 
 tain their private property and 
 were to liberate all their pris- 
 oners. On the ninth of August 
 the fort was surrendered to the 
 French. 
 Montcalm had kept the savages from 
 liquor, in order to be able to restrain them 
 in the hour of victory. They now sought 
 and obtained rum from the English, and 
 spent the night in dancing and singing. The 
 next morning, as the English marched out 
 of their camp, the Indians fell upon them and 
 began to plunder them. From rohbery the 
 
3 o8 
 
 THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 
 
 excited savages soon passed to murder, 
 and many of the English were killed and 
 others made prisoners. The French officers 
 threw themselves into the melee and exerted 
 themselves gallantly to control the Indians. 
 Many of them were wounded in these efforts. 
 Montcalm in an agony implored the Indians 
 to respect the treaty. " Kill me," he cried, 
 as he struggled to restrain the savages,, "but 
 spare the English, who are under my protec- 
 tion." He called to the English soldiers to 
 defend themselves. The retreat to Fort 
 Edward became a disorderly fight. Only 
 about six hundred men reached there in a 
 body. More than four hundred had sought 
 shelter in the French camp, and were sent 
 by Montcalm to their friends under the pro- 
 tection of a strong escort. He also sent one 
 of his officers to ransom those who had been 
 taken prisoners by the Indians. The vast 
 stores accumulated at Fort William Henry 
 were carried away by the French, and the 
 work itself demolished. 
 
 Triumph of the French. 
 
 The loss of Fort William Henry greatly 
 frightened General Webbe at Fort Edward. 
 In spite of his force of six thousand men, and 
 the withdrawal of the French to Lake Cham- 
 plain, he seriously contemplated a retreat to 
 beyond Albany. Lord Loudon, who had 
 arrived at New York, was equally impressed 
 with the danger, and proposed to take posi- 
 tion with his army on Long Island, for the 
 defence of the continent. 
 
 The campaign was over, and the French 
 were everywhere triumphant. With the ex- 
 ception of Acadia, they held all the country 
 they had occupied at the beginning of the 
 war. The English had lost the forts at 
 Oswego and William Henry, and immense 
 quantities of supplies. They had been en- 
 tirely expelled from the valleys of the Ohio 
 and the St. Lawrence, and the hostile parties 
 
 of the Indians were enabled to extend their 
 ravages far into the interior of the colonies. 
 America was thoroughly disgusted with 
 the incompetency and cowardice of the royal 
 commanders. The old spell of British invin- 
 cibility was broken, and the colonists were 
 rapidly losing their respect for the troops 
 sent over from England to protect them. 
 Men were coming to the conclusion that 
 their connection with Great Britain was sim- 
 ply a curse to the colonies. They regarded 
 the conduct of the war thus far by the royal 
 officials as simply " a mixture of ignorance 
 and cowardice," and were satisfied that they 
 were amply able to defend themselves against 
 the French and Indians without any assist- 
 ance whatever from England. 
 
 Attempts to Force Submission. 
 
 The royal officials sought to cover their 
 failures by complaints against the Ameri- 
 cans. The hearty disgust and contempt 
 with which the colonists regarded their 
 pusillanimous conduct was reported by them 
 to the home goverment as evidence of a 
 mutinous spirit on the part of the Americans. 
 Throughout the colonies they pursued one 
 uniform system of seeking to force the prov- 
 inces into submission to their own illegal 
 acts, and to compel them to an acknowledg- 
 ment of the arbitrary power of the crown. 
 " Everywhere," says Bancroft, " the royal 
 officers actively asserted the authority of the 
 king and the British nation over America. 
 Did the increase of population lead the leg- 
 islature to enlarge the representative body? 
 The right to do so was denied, and represen- 
 tation was held to be a privilege conceded by 
 the king as a boon, aid limited by his will. 
 Did the British commander believe that the 
 French colonies through the neutral islands 
 derived provisions from the continent ? By 
 his own authority he proclaimed an embargo 
 in every American port." 
 
CHAPTER XXIV 
 End of the French and Indian War 
 
 S Change for the Better — William Pitt, Prime Minister — Vigorous Measures Adopted — Recall of the Eail of Loudott — 
 Capture of Louisburg — Abercrombie on Lake George — Advances Against Ticonderoga — Death of Lord Howe — 
 Failure of the English Attack Upon Ticonderoga — Disgraceful Conduct of Abercrombie — His Retreat — Capture of 
 Fort Frontenac — Advance of General Forbes — Grant's Defeat — The Virginians Again Save the Regulars — Capture of 
 Fort Duquesne — Washington Retires from the Army — Ticonderoga and Crown Point Occupied by the English- 
 Capture of Fort Niagara — The Expedition Against Quebec — Failure of the First Operations — Despondency of 
 Wolfe — He Discovers a Landing Place — The Army Scales the Heights of Abraham — Montcalm's Surprise — Battle of 
 the Plains of Abraham — Death of Wolfe — Defeat of the French — Death of Montcalm — Surrender of Quebec — 
 Capture of Montreal — Treaty of Paris — Canada Ceded to England — France Loses All Her American Possessions— 
 The Cherokee War — Hostility of the Indians to the English — Pontiac's War — Death of Pontiac — Bouquet Relieves 
 Fort Duquesne — Results of the War. 
 
 THE gross mismanagement of affairs 
 in America aroused a storm of in- 
 dignation in England, and King 
 George was obliged to yield to the 
 popular sentiment and change his ministers. 
 At the head of the new ministry he placed 
 William Pitt, the leader c f the popular party, 
 who was destined to become one of the 
 greatest of English statesmen. His great 
 talents had raised him from the insignificant 
 position of ensign in the guards tc the lead- 
 ership of the government of Great Britain, 
 and were now to be the means of retrieving 
 the disasters of his country and regaining 
 for her her lost power and prestige. 
 
 A truly great man, Pitt knew how to ad- 
 mire and sympathize with merit in others, 
 and was not blinded by the glitter of rank, 
 nor hampered by an aristocratic faith in the 
 divinity of royalty. He appreciated and 
 sympathized with the Americans more per- 
 fectly than any of his predecessors in office, 
 and began his career with the wise determi- 
 nation to encourage and develop their patri- 
 otism by a generous and systematic assist- 
 ance of their efforts. He caused the 
 government of Great Britain to assume the 
 expenses of the war, and announced that the 
 
 sums expended by the colonies for the public 
 defence, since the commencement of hostili- 
 ties, would be refunded, and that henceforth 
 the British government would provide the 
 funds for the prosecution of the war. 
 
 The colonies were each required to furnish 
 troops, but Pitt " stipulated that the colonial 
 troops raised for this purpose should be sup- 
 plied with arms, ammunition, tents and provi- 
 sions in the same manner as the regular troops 
 and at the king's expense ; so that the only 
 charge to the colonies would be that of levy- 
 ing, clothing, and paying the men. The 
 governors were also authorized to issue com- 
 missions to provincial officers, from colonels 
 downwards, and these officers were to hold 
 rank in the united army according to their 
 commissions. Had this liberal and just sys- 
 tem been adopted at the outset, it would have 
 put a very different face upon the affairs of 
 the colonies."* These energetic and just 
 measures were promptly responded to by the 
 colonies, which placed a force of twenty- 
 eight thousand men in the field. To these 
 Pitt added twenty-two thousand British reg- 
 ulars, making a total of fifty thousand men, 
 
 * Sparks' Writings of Washington, vol. ii., p. 289 — Note. 
 
 309 
 
3io 
 
 THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 
 
 the largest army that had ever been assem- 
 bled in America, and exceeding in number 
 the entire male population of Canada. 
 
 The Earl of Loudon was recalled, and in- 
 stead of a single supreme command three 
 separate expeditions were organized under 
 different officers. An expedition against 
 
 WILLIAM PITT. 
 
 Louisburg was placed under the orders of 
 Lord Jeffrey Amherst, an able and upright 
 soldier, assisted by Brigadier General James 
 Wolfe; who, though only thirty-one years 
 old, had spent eighteen years in the army, 
 and had served at Dettingen, Fontenoy and 
 
 Laffeldt. He was considered one of the 
 ablest commanders in the English service, 
 and was universally beloved. To General 
 Forbes the task of conquering the Ohio val- 
 ley was assigned ; and the expedition against 
 Ticonderoga and Crown Point was intrusted 
 to General Abercrombie. Pitt had little faith 
 in Abercrombie, who 
 had been Lord Loudon's 
 most trusted lieutenant; 
 but retained him to 
 please Lord Bute, and 
 associated with him, as 
 his second in command, 
 the young and gifted 
 Lord George Howe, in 
 the hope that Howe's 
 genius would redeem 
 Abercrombie's faults, 
 and lead him to victory. 
 The expedition against 
 Louisburg consisted of 
 a fleet of twenty ships ol 
 the line and eighteen 
 frigates, under Admiral 
 Boscawen, and an army 
 of r ourteen thousand 
 men, under General Am- 
 herst. The fleet leached 
 Cabarus Bay on the se- 
 cond of June, 175S. The 
 fortifications of Louis- 
 burg were somewhat di- 
 lapidated, but were held 
 by a garrison of thirty- 
 two hundred men, com- 
 manded by Chevalier 
 Drucour, an officer of 
 experience and determination. These frigates 
 were sunk across the mouth of the harbor to 
 close it against the English, and within the 
 basin lay five ships of the line, one fif'y-gun 
 ship and two frigates, which took pait in the 
 defence of the place. 
 
END OF THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 
 
 3>< 
 
 The surf was so heavy that Amherst was 
 unable to land his troops until the eighth. 
 The first division was led by Wolfe, under 
 the cover of the fire of the fleet. He forbade 
 a gun to be fired from his command, and, 
 upon nearing the shore, leaped into the 
 water, followed by his men, and in the face 
 of a sharp resistance, drove the French from 
 their outposts into the town. The place was 
 now regularly invested, and, after a bombard- 
 ment of fifty days, during which the shipping 
 in the harbor was destroyed, the town and 
 fortifications were surrendered to the English 
 on the twenty-seventh of July. With Louis- 
 burg the French gave up the islands of Cape 
 Breton and Prince Edward. Five thousand 
 prisoners and an immense quantity of mili- 
 tary supplies were secured by the English. 
 
 Halifax being already the chief naval sta- 
 tion of the English in these waters, Louis- 
 burg was abandoned. Amherst, Wolfe and 
 Boscawen were honored by the English gov- 
 ernment for their victory. The season was 
 too far advanced after the capture of Louis- 
 burg to admit of the commencement of 
 operations against Quebec, and Amherst was 
 suddenly called away from the coast to take 
 charge of the army on Lake George. 
 
 Down Lake George. 
 
 Abercrombie had assembled a force of 
 seven thousand English regulars and nine 
 thousand Americans at the head of Lake 
 George. Among the American troops were 
 Stark and Putnam, afterwards famous in the 
 war for independence, the former serving as 
 a captain in the New Hampshire regiment, 
 the latter as a major of Connecticut troops, 
 Abercrombie was commander-in-chief, but 
 the troops had little confidence in him. They 
 were devoted to Lord Howe, who was the 
 real leader of the expedition. On the fifth 
 of July the army broke up its camp, and 
 embarking in ten hundred and thirty-five 
 
 boats, with the artillery on rafts, descended 
 the lake to its lower end, from which they 
 were to advance overland upon Fort Carillon, 
 which the French had erected on the pro- 
 montory of Ticonderoga. The next morning 
 Lord Howe pushed forward with the ad- 
 vanced guard, and encountered a scouting 
 party of the French. A sharp conflict en- 
 sued. The French were easily driven back, 
 but Lord Howe was killed almost at the first 
 fire. His death cast a gloom over the army, 
 which promised ill for the success of the 
 undertaking. 
 
 Gallant Attack. 
 
 Abercrombie continued to advance, and 
 on the morning of the ninth sent Clerk, his 
 chief engineer, to reconnoitre the French 
 position at Ticonderoga. Clerk reported 
 that the French works were feeble, and im- 
 perfectly armed. Stark, of New Hampshire, 
 and some of the English officers saw that 
 they were both strong and well provided 
 with artillery. They so reported to Aber- 
 crombie, but he accepted the statement of his 
 engineer, and, witho" 1- waiting for his artil- 
 lery, ordered an assault upon the French 
 lines that very day, 
 
 The Marquis oi Montcalm was command- 
 ing in person at Ticonderoga, and had dis- 
 posed his small force of thirty-six hundred 
 and fifty men in a line of breastworks thrown 
 up about half a mile beyond the fort, and 
 extending across the promontory on which 
 that work stood. The death of Lord Howe 
 had deprived the English of their only leader 
 capable of contending against this accom- 
 plished commander, and the incompetency 
 of Abercrombie was to render easy what 
 might have been, under other circumstances, 
 a most difficult undertaking. 
 
 Abercrombie could have brought up his 
 artillery by the next day, but he was un- 
 willing to wait for it, as he anticipated a a 
 
312 
 
 THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 
 
 easy victory. He stationed himself in a place 
 of safety about two miles from the field, and 
 ordered his troops to assail the French in- 
 trenchments with the bayonet. The attack- 
 was made in gallant style, and was continued 
 with energy during the afternoon. The 
 English performed prodigies of valor, but 
 were not able to overcome the strength of 
 the French works, or the activity with which 
 the defenders maintained their position. Un- 
 like the English commander, Montcalm was 
 everywhere along his line, cheering his men 
 with his presence and example, and distribut- 
 ing refreshments to them with his own hands. 
 Without a commander who dared place 
 himself under fire, with no one on the spot 
 to direct their movements, the valor of the 
 English was thrown away. A volley from 
 an advanced party of their own men com- 
 pleted their confusion, and they broke help- 
 lessly and fell back in disorder towards Lake 
 George. Abercrombie made no effort to 
 rally them ; he was too badly frightened for 
 that; and led the army towards the landing- 
 place, on Lake George, with such haste that 
 but for the energetic action of Colonel Brad- 
 street the troops would have rushed pell-mell 
 into the boats, without any semblance of 
 order, and with a still greater loss of life. 
 
 The English Retreat. 
 
 The English lost nearly two thousand men 
 in the attack upon the French works, but 
 they still had left a force of more than four 
 times the strength of the French, and their 
 artillery had not been engaged. With this 
 force they might have taken Ticonderoga, 
 but Abercrombie was too much terrified to 
 attempt anything of the kind. On the morn- 
 ing of the ninth he embarked his troops and 
 hastened to the head of Lake George. 
 Montcalm was astounded at his retreat, but 
 as he had too small a force, and his men 
 were exhausted, he made no effort at pur- 
 
 suit. Arrived at the head of Lake George, 
 the frightened Abercrombie sent the artillery 
 and ammunition back to Albany for safety, 
 and occupied his army with the erection of 
 Fort George, near the ruins of Fort William 
 Henry. The news of this disaster caused 
 General Amherst to hasten with four regi- 
 ments and a battalion from Louisburg to 
 Lake George. He reached the camp of 
 Abercrombie on the fifth of October. In 
 November orders arrived from England ap- 
 pointing Amherst commander-in-chief of the 
 royal forces in America, and recalling Aber- 
 crombie, who returned to England to attempt 
 to excuse his cowardice by villifying Amer 
 ica and the Americans. He could not de 
 ceive Pitt, however, whose indignation at his 
 pusillanimous conduct was only restrained 
 by the influence of Lord Bute in the royal 
 councils. 
 
 Sudden Flight. 
 
 After Abercrombie's retreat, Colonel Brad- 
 street, of New York, at his earnest solicita- 
 tion, obtained leave from the council of war 
 to undertake an expedition against Fort 
 Frontenac, which, being situated at the foot 
 of Lake Ontario, commanded both the lake 
 and the St. Lawrence. Its possession was 
 of the highest importance to the French, as 
 it was their main depot for the supply of the 
 posts on the upper lakes and the Ohio with 
 military stores. Collecting a force of twenty- 
 seven hundred men, all Americans, consist- 
 ing chiefly of troops from New York and 
 Massachusetts, Bradstreet hastened to Os- 
 wego before his movements were known to 
 the enemy. From Oswego he crossed the 
 lake in open boats, and landed on the Can 
 ada side within a mile of Fort Frontenac. 
 
 His sudden arrival struck terror to the 
 garrison, and the greater part secured their 
 safety by an instantaneous flight. The next 
 dav the fort surrendered. The victors cap- 
 
END OF THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR 
 
 tured with it a vast quantity of military 
 stores destined for the forts in the interior, 
 and a fleet of nine armed vessels, with which 
 the French controlled the lake. Two of the 
 vessels were laden with a part of the stores 
 and sent to Oswego, and the remainder of 
 the vessels and stores, together with the 
 fort, were destroyed. The English then re- 
 crossed the lake to Oswego. The capture of 
 Fort Frontenac was an event of great im- 
 portance, as it led, as we shall see further 
 on, to the abandonment by the French of 
 their posts in the valley of the Ohio. 
 
 For the reduction of Fort Duque^iie a 
 force of seven thousand men was assembled 
 under General Forbes. Of these, five thou- 
 sand were from Pennsylvania and Virginia, 
 the troops from the latter colony being under 
 the command of Colonel Washington. The 
 Pennsylvania troops assembled at Raystown, 
 on the Juniata, and the Virginians at Fort 
 Cumberland. Washington urged upon 
 Forbes the advantages of adopting the old 
 road cut by Braddock's army in his advance 
 to the Ohio, but Forbes, at the suggestion of 
 some land-speculators, decided to construct 
 a new and a better road farther to the north. 
 As regarded the future settlement of the 
 west this was an excellent plan, but as far as 
 it concerned the immediate object of the 
 campaign it was a mistake, as it involved a 
 large expenditure of labor and a great waste 
 of time. 
 
 While this road was being constructed 
 General Bouquet, with the advanced guard, 
 crossed Laurel Hill and established a post at 
 Loyal Hanna. The new road progressed 
 very slowly, only forty-five miles being con- 
 structed in six weeks. Bouquet had with 
 him a force of about two thousand men, 
 chiefly Highlanders and Virginians. Learn- 
 ing from his scouts that Fort Duquesne was 
 held by a garrison of only eight hundred 
 men, of whom three hundred were Indians, 
 
 313 
 
 Bouquet, without orders from General 
 Forbes, resolved to attempt the capture of 
 the fort by a sudden blow. 
 
 He detached a force of eight hundred 
 Highlanders and a company of Virginians, 
 under Major Grant, to reconnoitre Fort 
 Duquesne. The French were fully informed 
 of all of Grant's movements, but they allowed 
 him to approach unmolested, intending to 
 disarm his vigilance and then attack him. 
 Grant affected the usual contempt for the 
 provincial troops, and upon arriving before 
 the fort, placed Major Lewis with the Vir- 
 ginians to guard the baggage, and sent his 
 regulars forward to reconnoitre and make a 
 sketch of the work. He was greatly en- 
 couraged by the fact that the French allowed 
 him to approach without firing a gun at him, 
 and in his self-complacency marched right 
 into an ambuscade which the enemy had 
 prepared for him. 
 
 The Regulars' Narrow Escape. 
 
 The French commander had posted thv, 
 Indians along the sides of the defile by which 
 Grant was advancing, and at a given signal 
 the garrison made a sudden sally from the 
 fort against the Highlanders, while the In- 
 dians opened a heavy fire upon them from 
 their place of concealment. The regulars 
 were quickly thrown into confusion, and 
 their officers were found incapable of con 
 ducting such a mode of warfare. Attracted 
 by the firing, Major Lewis, with a company 
 of Virginians, hastened to the scene of the 
 encounter, and by engaging the enemy hand 
 to-hand enabled the regulars to save them- 
 selves from a general massacre. The de- 
 tachment was routed with heavy loss, and 
 both Grant and Lewis were taken prisoners. 
 The fugitives retreated to the point where 
 the baggage had been left. It was guarded 
 by Captain Bullit, whom Lewis had left there 
 with one company of Virginians. 
 
iH 
 
 THK FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 
 
 By the gallant and skillful resistance of 
 this little force the French and Indians were 
 checked, and finally driven back in confusion. 
 The English then continued their retreat 
 with all speed to Loyal Hanna. Again the 
 provincials had saved the regulars from total 
 destruction. General Forbes had the mag- 
 nanimity to acknowledge and compliment 
 the Virginians for their services, and Cap- 
 tain Bullit was promoted to the rank of 
 major. 
 
 General Forbes was greatly disheartened 
 by the news of Grant's disaster. A council 
 of war was called to deliberate upon the 
 future operations of the army, and decided 
 that as it was now November, and they were 
 still fifty miles from Fort Duquesne, with an 
 unbroken forest between them and the fort, 
 nothing more could be accomplished until 
 the spring. The enterprise was on the point 
 of being abandoned when fortunately three 
 prisoners were brought in, from whom Wash- 
 ington drew the information that the garri- 
 son of Fort Duquesne was reduced to a very 
 small force, that the Indians had all deserted 
 the French, and that the expected reinforce- 
 ments and supplies from Canada had not 
 arrived. It was evident that a well-executed 
 effort would result in the ^apture of the 
 fort. 
 
 The Fort Abandoned. 
 
 This information decided General Forbes 
 to continue the expedition. A force of 
 twenty-five hundred picked troops was 
 placed under Washington's command, and 
 he was ordered to push forward as rapidly 
 as possible, and prepare the road for the ad- 
 vance of the main army. Washington was 
 ably seconded in his movements by the en- 
 ergetic Armstrong, and the march was 
 pressed with such vigor that in ten days 
 the army arrived in the vicinity of Fort 
 Duquesne. 
 
 The French now saw that the fall of the 
 fort was inevitable. They had but five hun- 
 dred men, and Bradstreet's capture of Fort 
 Frontenac had cut them off from the rein- 
 forcements and supplies they had expected 
 from Canada. Unwilling to stand a siege, 
 the result of which was certain, they aban- 
 doned the fort on the night of the twenty- 
 fourth of November, and embarking in flat 
 boats, floated down the Ohio to join theii 
 countrymen in the valley of the Mississippi. 
 
 On the morning of the twenty-fifth, Wash- 
 ington, with his gallant band, entered the 
 fort and planted the British flag on the ram- 
 parts just abandoned by the French. 
 
 At the universal desire of the army, Forbes 
 named the place Fort Pitt, which has since 
 been changed to Pittsburgh. The splendid 
 city which occupies the site is the proudest 
 monument that has been built to the memory 
 of the " Great Commoner." 
 
 Two regiments, composed of Pennsyl- 
 vanians, Virginians and Marylanders, under 
 Mercer, were left to garrison Fort Pitt, which 
 was restored to its former strength. General 
 Forbes then returned east of the mountains, 
 and Washington resigned his commission 
 and retired to private life. The object of the 
 campaign was accomplished, and he could 
 now enjoy the rest to which five years of 
 constant service had entitled him. 
 
 The capture of Fort Duquesne was the 
 most important event of the war. It put an 
 end to the French occupation of the valley 
 of the Ohio and settled the claim of Great 
 Britain to that valuable region. The Indians, 
 having no longer the support and encour- 
 agement which they had derived from the 
 French at this post, ceased their hostile 
 efforts, and during the remainder of the war 
 the frontiers of Virginia and Pennsylvania 
 were at peace. The capture of the fort was 
 followed by a large emigration west of the 
 mountains, which, beginning the next spring, 
 
WASHINGTON PLANTING THE FLAG ON FORT DUQUESNE. 
 
 3IS 
 
316 
 
 THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 
 
 soon placed a large and energetic population 
 of Englishmen and their families in the val- 
 ley of the Ohio. The Indians, disheartened 
 by the defeat of the French, began to form 
 treaties of peace or neutrality with the Eng- 
 lish. 
 
 Washington's Valor. 
 
 Washington's services in this campaign 
 were acknowledged with pride throughout 
 the colonies, but the British government 
 took no notice of them. Not even Pitt, 
 with all his appreciation of America, thought 
 it worth while to offer him any promotion or 
 reward, as had been done in the case of 
 other meritorious provincial commanders 
 Soon after his withdrawal from the army he 
 took his seat in the house of burgesses, to 
 which he had been elected. That body 
 ordered its speaker to publicly thank Colonel 
 Washington in the name of the house and of 
 the people of Virginia for his services to his 
 country. The speaker discharged this duty 
 with ease and dignity, but when Washington 
 attempted to reply he blushed and stam- 
 mered and was unable to speak a word. The 
 speaker relieved his confusion by coming to 
 his assistance with the kind remark : " Sit 
 down, Mr. Washington ; your modesty equals 
 your valor, and that surpasses the power of 
 any language I possess." 
 
 The English cause was now more success- 
 ful than it had ever been, and Canada was 
 exhausted by the efforts she had put forth 
 for her defence. This was clear to Mont- 
 calm, who had no hope of holding New 
 France against the attacks of Great Britain, 
 and it was also clear to the far-seeing mind 
 of Pitt. The British minister, therefore, re- 
 solved that the next campaign should be 
 decisive of the war. He promptly reim- 
 bursed the colonies for the expenses incurred 
 by them during the past year, and found no 
 difficulty in enlisting them heartily in his 
 schemes. 
 
 Three expeditions were ordered for the 
 year 1759. Amherst was to advance by 
 way of Lake Champlain, and after capturing 
 Ticonderoga and Crown Point, was to lay 
 siege to Montreal ; Wolfe was to ascend the 
 St. Lawrence and attack Quebec, and was to 
 be joined by Amherst if the latter should be 
 successful in his efforts against Montreal; 
 and General Prideaux was to proceed by 
 way of Oswego to capture Fort Niagara, and 
 then descend Lake Ontario and join Amherst 
 at Montreal. 
 
 Amherst moved promptly against Ticon- 
 deroga, which post was abandoned by the 
 French upon his approach. Crown Point 
 fell into his hands in the same manner, but 
 here the advance of the English was stayed. 
 No boats had be^n provided to transport the 
 army down Lake Champlain, and Amherst 
 was forced to halt until these could be pro- 
 cured. He was thus able to invest Mon 
 treal, or to co-operate with Wolfe in the 
 movement against Quebec. 
 
 The American Gibraltar. 
 
 General Prideaux began his march to Os- 
 wego about the same time, and proceeding 
 from Oswego, laid siege to Fort Niagara. 
 He was killed by tr>e bursting of a gun soon 
 after the commencement of the siege, and 
 the command devolved upon Sir William 
 Johnson, who pressed the attack with vigor. 
 On the twenty-third of July, 1758, the fort 
 capitulated ; but Johnson was obliged to 
 abandon the attempt to descend the St. Law- 
 rence to Wolfe's assistance from a lack of 
 boats and provisions. 
 
 The expedition against Quebec assembled 
 in June, 1758, at Louisburg, under the com- 
 mand of General Wolfe. It consisted of 
 eight thousand troops and a fleet of twenty- 
 two ships of the line, besides frigates and 
 some smaller vessels. On the twenty-sixth of 
 June the Isle of Orleans was reached, and 
 
END OF THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 
 
 3 1 ? 
 
 the troops were imme- 
 diately landed. A short 
 distance up the river 
 Quebec rose defiantly, 
 its seemingly impregna- 
 ble citadel of St. Louis 
 crowning the lofty hills 
 that rose from the river's 
 brink. For the defence of 
 the place Montcalm had 
 six greatly reduced bat- 
 talions of regulars and a 
 force of Canadian militia. 
 A few Indians remained 
 faithful to him ; but the 
 majority of the tribes r 
 doubtful of the issue of 
 the contest, preferred to 
 remain neutral. The 
 French commander, see- 
 ing the inferiority of his 
 force to that of the Eng- 
 lish, put his trust chiefly 
 in the natural strength 
 of his position, which he 
 believed would enable 
 him to hold it even with 
 his small force. 
 
 The situation of Que- 
 bec was peculiar. It lay 
 on a peninsula, between 
 the river St. Charles on 
 the north and the St. 
 Lawrence on the south 
 and east. On these sides 
 it was perfectly protected 
 by the river, leaving the 
 west side alone exposed. 
 The lower town was 
 situated on the beach, while the upper 
 stood on the cliffs two hundred feet above 
 the water, and above this still rose the castle 
 of St. Louis. Above the city the high pro- 
 montory on which the upper town was built 
 
 NIAGARA FALLS. 
 
 stretched away for several miles in an 
 elevated plain, and from the river to this 
 plain the rocks rose almost perpendicularly. 
 Every landing-place was carefully guard- 
 ed, and the whole range of cliffs seemed 
 
Ji8 
 
 THK FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 
 
 bristling with cannon. The French com- 
 mander did not believe it possible for an 
 army to scale these cliffs. Montcalm located 
 his camp below the city, between the St. 
 Charles and the Montmorenci rivers, and 
 covered the river front of his position with 
 many floating batteries and ships of war, 
 which presented a formidable appearance. 
 
 GENERAL JAMES WOLFE. 
 
 The naval superiority of the English at 
 once gave them the command of the river. 
 The French were driven from Point Levi, 
 opposite the city, and upon it Wolfe erected 
 batteries, from which he bombarded the 
 lower town and soon laid it in ashes. The 
 upper town and the citadel were beyond the 
 range of his guns, and could not be injured 
 by this fire. 
 
 Wolfe now decided to storm the French 
 camp on the opposite side of the St. Law- 
 rence, and in the month of July attacked 
 them from the direction of the Montmorenci, 
 but owing to the haste of the first division, 
 which advanced to the assault before it could 
 be properly supported by the second, the 
 attack was repulsed with a loss of five hun 
 dred men. This repulse greatly dis 
 heartened the English commande', 
 whose sensitive spirit suffered keenly 
 under the dread that his enterprise 
 was doomed to failure. He obtained 
 news of the capture of Fort Niagara 
 and the occupation of Ticonder- 
 oga and Crown Point, and eagerly 
 w. tched for the approach of the 
 promised assistance from Amherst, 
 It never came, and Wolfe saw that 
 he must take Quebec by his own 
 efforts or not at all. He attempted 
 several diversions above the city in 
 the hope of drawing Montcalm from 
 his intrenchments into the open 
 field, but the latter merely sent De 
 Bougainville with fifteen hundred 
 men to watch the shore above 
 Quebec and prevent a landing. 
 Wolfe fell into a fever, caused by 
 his anxiety, and his despatches to 
 his government created the gravest 
 uneasiness in England for the suc- 
 cess of his enterprise. 
 
 Though ill, Wolfe examined the. 
 river with eagle eyes to detect some 
 place at which a landing could be attempted. 
 His energy was rewarded by his discovery of 
 the cove which now bears his name. From 
 the shore at the head of this cove a steep and 
 difficult pathway, along which two men could 
 scarcely march abreast, wound up to the 
 summit of the heights and was guarded by a 
 small force of Canadians. Wolfe at once 
 resolved to effect a landing; here and ascend 
 
END OF THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 
 
 319 
 
 the heights by this path. The greatest 
 secrecy was necessary to the success of the 
 undertaking, and in order to deceive the 
 French as to his real design, Captain Cook, 
 afterwards famous as a great navigator, was 
 sent to take soundings and place buoys 
 opposite Montcalm's camp, as if that were 
 to be the real point of attack. The morning 
 of the thirteenth of September was chosen 
 for the movement, and the day and night of 
 the twelfth were spent in preparations for it. 
 
 "To Conquer or Die." 
 
 At one o'clock on the morning of the thir- 
 teenth a force of about five thousand men 
 under Wolfe, with Monckton and Murray, set 
 ofifi n boats from the fleet, which had ascended 
 the river several days before, and dropped 
 down to the point designated for the land- 
 ing. Each officer was thoroughly informed 
 of the duties required of him, and each 
 shared the resolution of the gallant young 
 commander, to conquer or die. As the 
 boats floated down the stream, in the clear, 
 cool starlight, Wolfe spoke to his officers of 
 the poet Gray, and of his " Elegy in a 
 Country Churchyard." " I would prefer," 
 said he, " being the author of that poem to 
 the glory of beating the French to-morrow." 
 Then in a musing voice he repeated the 
 ines : 
 
 " The boast of heraldy, the pomp of power, 
 
 And all that beauty, all that wealth e'er gave, 
 Await alike the inexorable hour ; 
 The paths of glory lead but to the grave." 
 
 In a snort while the landing-place was 
 reached, and the fleet, following silently, 
 took position to cover the landing if neces- 
 sary. Wolfe and his immediate command 
 leaped ashore and secured the pathway. 
 The light infantry, who were carried by the 
 tide a little below the path, clambered up the 
 side of the heights, sustaining themselves by 
 clinging to the roots and shrubs which lined 
 
 the precipitous face of the hill. They 
 reached the summit and drove off the picket- 
 guard after a slight skirmish. The rest of 
 the troops ascended in safety by the path- 
 way, and a battery of two guns was aban- 
 doned on the left to Colonel Howe. Having 
 gained the heights, Wolfe moved forward 
 rapidly to clear the forest, and by daybreak 
 his army was drawn up on the Heights of 
 Abraham, in the rear of the city 
 
 Montcalm was speedily informed of the 
 presence of the English. " It can be but a 
 small party come to burn 3 few houses and 
 retire," he answered incredulously. A brief 
 examination satisfied him of his danger, and 
 he exclaimed in amazement: 'Then they 
 have at last got to the weak side of this 
 miserable garrison. We must give battle 
 and crush them before mid-day." 1 le at 
 once despatched a messenger Lr De Bou- 
 gainville, who was fifteen miles up the river, 
 and marched from his camp opposite the 
 city to the Heights of Abraham to drive the 
 English from them. The opposing forces 
 were about equal in numbers, though the 
 English troops were superior to their adver- 
 saries in steadiness and determination. 
 
 Death of a Hero. 
 
 The battle began about ten o'clock and 
 was stubbornly contested. It was at length 
 decided in favor of the English. Wolfe, 
 though wounded several times, continued to 
 direct his army until, as he was leading 
 them to the final charge, he received a 
 musket ball in the breast. He tottered and 
 called to an officer near him : " Support 
 me ; let not my brave fellows see me drop." 
 He was borne tenderly to the rear, and 
 water was brought him to quench his 
 thirst. At this moment the officer upon 
 whom he was leaning cried out: "They 
 run! they run ! " "Who run?" asked the 
 dying hero, eagerly. " The French," said 
 
320 
 
 THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 
 
 the officer, " give way everywhere." " What ?" 
 said Wolfe, summoning up his remaining 
 strength, " do they run already ? Go, one of 
 you, to Colonel Burton; bid him march 
 Webb's regiment with all speed to Charles 
 River to cut off the fugitives." Then, a 
 smile of contentment overspreading his pale 
 features, he murmured : " Now, God be 
 praised, I die happy,"' and expired. He had 
 
 De Bougainville arrived with his division, 
 but Townshend declined to renew the en- 
 gagement. 
 
 Montcalm had borne himself heroically 
 during the battle, and had done all that a 
 brave and skillful commander could do to 
 win the victory. As he was endeavoring to 
 rally his troops at their final repulse, he was 
 wounded for the second time, and was car- 
 
 DEATH OF GENERAL WOLFE BEFORE QUEBEC. 
 
 done his whole duty, and with his life had 
 purchased an empire for his country. 
 
 Monckton, the second in rank, having 
 been wounded, the command devolved upon 
 General Townshend, a brave officer, but 
 incapable of following up such a success with 
 vigor. He recalled the troops from the 
 pursuit and contented himself with the pos- 
 session of the battle-field. At this moment 
 
 ried into the city. The surgeon informed 
 him that his wound was mortal. " So much 
 the better," he answered cheerfully ; " I shall 
 not live to see the surrender of Quebec " 
 De Ramsay, the commandant of the post 
 asked his advice about the defence of the 
 city. " To your keeping," answered Mont- 
 calm, " I commend the honor of France. I 
 will neither give orders nor interfere any 
 
END OF THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 
 
 321 
 
 further. I have business of greater moment 
 to attend to. My time is short. I shall pass 
 the night with God, and prepare myself for 
 death." 
 
 He then wrote a letter to the English com- 
 mander, commending the French prisoners 
 to his generosity, and at 
 five o'clock on the morn- 
 ing of the fourteenth his 
 spirit passed away. Suc- 
 ceeding generations have 
 paid to his memory the 
 honors it deserves, and 
 on the spot where the 
 fate of Quebec was de- 
 cided the people of Ca- 
 nada have erected, to 
 commemorate the hero- 
 ism of the conqueror and 
 the conquered, a noble 
 monument inscribed with 
 the names of Wolfe and 
 Montcalm. 
 
 The French lost five 
 hundred killed and one 
 thousand prisoners,while 
 the loss of the English 
 was six hundred in killed 
 and wounded. Five days 
 afterward, on the eight- 
 eenth of September, the 
 city and garrison of Que- 
 bec surrendered to Gen- 
 eral Townshend. The 
 capture of this great 
 stronghold was hailed 
 with rejoicings in both 
 America and England. 
 Congratulations were 
 showered upon Pitt, who modestly put them 
 aside with the reverent remark : " I will 
 arm to serve my country ; but the more a 
 man is versed in business, the more he finds 
 the hand of Providence everywhere." 
 21 
 
 In April, 1760, De Levi, the French com- 
 mander at Montreal, attacked Quebec with a 
 force often thousand men, hoping to reduce 
 it before the arrival of reinforcements from 
 England. Murray, the English commander,^ 
 marched out with three thousand men to 
 
 KING GEORGE III. 
 
 attack him, and in a severe battle on the 
 twenty-sixth of April was defeated and 
 driven back to the city with a loss of one 
 thousand men. The French then laid siege 
 to Quebec, but on the ninth of May an 
 
322 
 
 THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 
 
 English fleet arrived to its relief, and De Levi 
 was obliged to withdraw to Montreal. 
 
 In September, Montreal itself was invested 
 by a powerful force under General Amherst. 
 Seeing that there was no hope of resistance, 
 the French commander surrendered the town 
 on the eighth of September, 1760. With 
 this capture Canada passed entirely into the 
 hands of the English. Detroit and the other 
 posts on the lakes were soon given up by the 
 French, and the dominion of France in 
 America was confined to the valley of the 
 Mississippi. There were no further hostili- 
 ties between the English and French. 
 
 Important Treaty. 
 
 The French and Indian war was closed by 
 the treaty of Paris, on the tenth of February, 
 1763. Ey this treaty Great Britain obtained 
 all the French territory east of the Missis- 
 sippi, with the exception of the island of 
 New Orleans, the northern boundary of 
 which was the rivers Iberville and Amite, 
 and Lakes Maurepas and Pontchartrain. 
 Florida was ceded to England by Spain in 
 exchange for Havana. France ceded to 
 Spain the island of New Orleans and all 
 Louisiana west of the Mississippi. Thus 
 Great Britain was mistress of the whole of 
 the vast region east of the Mississippi, with 
 the exception of the island of New Orleans, 
 from the Arctic Ocean to the Gulf of Mexi- 
 co. The region west of the Mississippi was 
 claimed by Spain. In all the vast continent 
 of America France retained not one foot of 
 ground. 
 
 In the meantime the Indians of the south- 
 west had become involved in war with the 
 whites. The Cherokees, who had always 
 been friendly to the English, had done good 
 service during the early part of the war by 
 protecting the frontiers of Virginia, and had 
 served also in Forbes' expedition against 
 Fort Duquesne. They received for their 
 
 services no reward or pay from any source, 
 and as they were setting out for their homes 
 neither General Forbes nor the colonial au- 
 thorities supplied them with either food or 
 money. To avoid starvation on their march 
 they were compelled to plunder the barns of! 
 some of the settlers, and this led to a conflict! 
 which rapidly spread into a border war. 
 
 The Cherokees Driven to Arms. 
 
 Lyttleton, the governor of South Carolina, 
 exerted himself to prevent the restoration of 
 peace, and with success, as he desired the 
 credit of exterminating the Cherokees. He 
 was opposed by the legislature and people of 
 the colony, but in 1759 he sent a force into 
 their country, which committed such ravages 
 that the Cherokees, driven to despair, re- 
 solved upon a war of extermination. They 
 made a league with the Muscogees, and sent 
 to the French in Louisiana for military stores. 
 The Carolinians asked aid of General Am- 
 herst, who sent them a force of twelve hun- 
 dred men, principally highlanders, under 
 General Montgomery. Reinforced by a body 
 of Carolinians, Montgomery invaded the 
 Cherokee country in 1760, and laid it waste. 
 This tribe had made great advances in civil- 
 ization, and had settled in villages, and en- 
 gaged in the cultivation of their lands. Their 
 homes were made desolate, and they were 
 driven to the mountains. Montgomery then 
 rejoined Amherst, in the, north, in obedience 
 to orders ; but the Indians for many years 
 maintained a desultory warfare along the 
 southwestern border. 
 
 The surrender of Canada to the English 
 was viewed with the greatest disfavor by the 
 Indians of the north and west, who were 
 attached to the French, and were unwilling 
 to submit to the rule of the English. Im 
 mediately after the surrender the English 
 occupied all the French posts along the 
 lakes, and in the Ohio valley, with small 
 
END OF THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 
 
 323 
 
 garrisons. The contrast between these and 
 the French, who had formerly held these 
 forts, soon impressed itself forcibly upon the 
 minds of the savages. The French had 
 been friendly and kind to the Indians, and 
 had sought to convert them to Christianity ; 
 the English were haughty and domineering, 
 and insulted their priests, and denounced 
 their religion. 
 
 " King Pontiac." 
 
 The French had prohibited the sale of rum 
 to the Indians ; the English introduced it, 
 and finding it profitable continued it, with a 
 recklessness of consequences which did not 
 escape the keen observation of the savages. 
 The demoralization of the red men was rapid, 
 and drunkenness and its attendant vices 
 wrought sad changes in them. The tribes 
 were bitterly hostile to the men who were 
 ruining their people, and all were alarmed by 
 the rapidity with which emigration had been 
 pouring over the mountains since the capture 
 of Fort Duquesne. They saw that they were 
 about to be driven from their homes, and 
 forced westward, before the advancing tide of 
 the whites. 
 
 The most determined opponent of the 
 English rule was Pontiac, a chief of the 
 Ottaw as. He was a Catawba by birth, had 
 been brought from his native country as a 
 prisoner, and had been adopted into the Ot- 
 tawa tribe, "'hose chief he had become by his 
 bravery and skill. He was the idol of his 
 own people, and his influence over the neigh- 
 boring tribes was boundless. He was styled 
 "the king and lord of all the country of the 
 northwest," and bitterly resented the English 
 occupation of his dominions. The first Eng- 
 lish officer who came to take possession of 
 the French forts was received by him with 
 the stern demand, " How dare you come to 
 visit my country without my leave ?" 
 
 This " forest hero " now resolved to unite 
 all the tribes of the northwest in a last de- 
 
 termined effort to drive out the English^and 
 regain the independence of the red man. 
 The plan of operations which he adopted 
 was most comprehensive, and was the most 
 remarkable exhibition of genuine leadership 
 ever given by an Indian. He began negotia- 
 tions with the neighboring tribes, and in 
 duced the Delawares, Shawnees, the Senecas, 
 Miamis, and many of the smaller tribes, oc- 
 cupying the great region of the upper lakes, 
 the valley of the Ohio, and a portion of the 
 Mississippi valley, to join his people in their 
 effort against the English. He sent a 
 prophet to all the tribes to declare to them 
 that the Great Spirit had revealed to him 
 "that if the English were permitted to dwell 
 in their midst, then the white man's diseases 
 and poisons would utterly destroy them." 
 The conspiracy was pressed forward with 
 energy, and though it was more than a year 
 in forming, it was kept a profound secret. 
 
 The Plot Revealed. 
 
 The principal po. t on the upper lakes was 
 Detroit. It *vas surrounded bv a numerous 
 French population engaged in agriculture 
 and trading. It was the centre of the trade 
 of this region, and its possession was of the 
 highest importance to the English. Pontiac 
 was anxious to obtain possession of this 
 fort and sent word to Major Gladwin, the 
 commandant, that he was coming on a cer- 
 tain day, with his warriors, to have a talk 
 with him. The chief was resolved to make 
 this visit the occasion of seizing the fort and 
 massacring the garrison, and he and his 
 warriors selected for the attempt cut down 
 their rifles to a length which enabled tnem 
 to conceal them under their blankets, in 
 order to enter the fort with their arms. 
 
 The plot was revealed to Gladwin by an 
 Indian girl, whose affections had been won 
 by one of the English officers, and when 
 Pontiac and his warriors repaired to the fort 
 
< 
 
 
 
 as 
 o 
 
 1—1 
 
 < 
 
 o 
 
 H 
 in 
 
 3 
 z 
 
 I— I 
 
 w 
 
 X 
 H 
 
 Q 
 
 H 
 
 O 
 
 O 
 
 H 
 
 i—i 
 en 
 
 i— i 
 
 > 
 
 324 
 
END OF THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 
 
 325 
 
 for their "talk" Gladwin made him aware 
 that his conspiracy was discovered, and very 
 unwisely permitted him to leave the fort in 
 safety. Pontiac now threw off the mask of 
 triendship and boldly attacked Detroit. 
 
 Wholesale Slaughter. 
 
 This was the signal for a general war. In 
 about three weeks' time the savages sur- 
 prised and captured every fort west of Ni- 
 agara, with the exception of Detroit and 
 Pittsburgh. The garrisons were, with a few 
 exceptions, put to death. Over one hundred 
 traders were killed and scalped in the 
 woods, and more than five hundred families 
 were driven, with the loss of many of their 
 numbers, from their settlements on. the fron- 
 tier. Pontiac endeavored, without success, 
 to capture Detroit, and a large force of the 
 warriors of several of the tribes laid siege to 
 Pittsburgh, the most important post in the 
 valley of the Ohio. The ravages of the 
 Indians were extended over the wide terri- 
 tory between the Ohio and the Mississippi, 
 and the settlements in that region were for 
 the time completely broken up. 
 
 General Bouquet, with a force of five 
 hundred men, consisting chiefly of Scotch 
 Highlanders, was sent from eastern Penn- 
 sylvania to the relief of Fort Ligonier, 
 which was located at the western base of the 
 mountains, near Pittsburgh. Their march 
 lay through a region which had b.en deso- 
 lated by the Indians, and they were obliged 
 to depend upon the stores they carried with 
 them. Upon reaching Fort Ligonier, Bou 
 quet found the communication with Pitts- 
 burgh cut off, and could learn nothing of the 
 fate of the fort or garrison. 
 I Leaving his cattle and wagons at Ligo- 
 nier, he pushed forward with his men in 
 light marching order, determined to ascer- 
 tain if Pittsburgh still held out. He had to 
 fight his way through the Indians, who 
 
 turned aside from the siege of the fort and 
 ambushed the Highlanders at nearly every 
 step. They were overwhelmingly defeated 
 by the gallant Highlanders, for Bouquet was 
 now a veteran Indian fighter, and had learned 
 to fight the savages with their own tactics. 
 Their rout was complete, and Bouquet reach- 
 ed Pittsburgh in safety, to the great joy of the 
 garrison. 
 
 Victory Over the Indians. 
 
 Bouquet's victory was decisive. The h» 
 dians were utterly disheartened and fled 
 westward ; and from that day the Ohio val- 
 ley was freed from their violence. The tide 
 of emigration once more began to how over 
 the mountains, and this time it was to know 
 no cessation. The tribes concerned in Pon- 
 tiac's conspiracy lost hope, and were over- 
 awed by the preparations of the English for 
 their destruction, and began to withdiaw 
 from the confederacy and make peace with 
 the whites. Pontiac soon found himself de« 
 serted by all his followers, even by his own 
 people ; but his proud spirit would not brook 
 the thought of submission. He would make 
 no treaty; he was the mortal foe of the 
 English, and would never acknowledge their 
 rule. Leaving his home and his people, he 
 set out for the country of the Illinois, for 
 purpose of stirring up the more distant tribes 
 to war. A proclamation from Lord Amherst 
 offered a reward for his murder, and he soon 
 fell, the victim of the hired assassin. 
 
 The long war was over. It had brought 
 both loss and gain to the colonies. It had 
 involved them in an expenditure of sixteen 
 million dollars, of which sum but five million 
 dollars had been refunded by the English 
 government. Thus the debts of the colonies 
 were greatly increased. Thirty thousand 
 men had been killed, or had died from 
 wounds or disease during the war, and the 
 sufferings of the settlers along the extended 
 
326 
 
 THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 
 
 and exposed frontiers had been almost incal- 
 culable. 
 
 On the other hand, the war had greatly 
 increased the business of the colonies, es- 
 pecially in those of the north. Large sums 
 had been spent in America by Great Britain 
 tor the support of her armies and fleets, and 
 many fortunes were built up by enterprising 
 men during this period. Above all the 
 Americans had been taught their own 
 strength, and the value of united action. 
 They had often proved their superiority to the 
 regular troops of the English army, and had 
 learned valuable lessons in the art of war. 
 tn the long struggle Washington, Gates, 
 Morgan, Montgomery, Stark, Putnam and 
 others were trained for the great work 
 which was to be required of them in future 
 years. 
 
 The colonies were bound together by a 
 common grievance, arising out of the 
 haughty contempt with which the royal 
 commanders treated the provincial troops, 
 and sacrificed their interests to those of the 
 regulars. The lesson that the colonies could 
 
 do without the assistance of England, and 
 that their true interests demanded a separation 
 from her, was deeply implanted in the minds 
 of many of the leading men. 
 
 Another gain for the colonies was a posi- 
 tive increase in their liberties resulting from 
 the war. The necessity of securing the cor 
 dial co-operation of the Americans during 
 the struggle caused the royal governors to 
 cease their efforts to enforce arbitrary laws, 
 during the existence of hostilities, as the en- 
 forcement of such measures would have 
 alienated the colonists, and have prevented 
 them from raising the needed supplies of 
 men and money. The colonial assemblies 
 were careful to take ai/antage of this state 
 of affairs. They made their grants of sup- 
 plies with great caution, and retained in their 
 own hands all the disbursements of the pub- 
 lic funds. They thus accustomed the people 
 to the practices of free government, and 
 taught them their rights in the matter, so 
 that when the war closed the royal governors 
 found that they were no longer able to prac- 
 tice their accustomed tyranny. 
 
BOOK IV 
 
 The American Revolution 
 
 CHAPTER XXV 
 Causes of the Struggle for Independence 
 
 nmstice 01 Great Britain Towards Her Colonies — The Navigation Acts— Effects of These Laws Upon the Colonies ^ 
 \jtreat Brnain Seeks to Destroy the Manufactures of America — Writs of Assistance — They Are Opposed — Home 
 Manufactures Encouraged by the Americans-- Ignorance of Englishmen Concerning America — Great Britain Claims 
 the Right to Tax America — Resistance of ihe Colonists — -Samuel Adams — The Parsons' Cause — Patrick Henry — 
 England Persists in Her Determination to Tax America— Passage of the Stamp Act — Resistance of the Colonies — 
 Meeting of the First Colonial Congress — Its Action — William Pitt — Repeal of the Stamp Act — Franklin Before the 
 House of Commons — New Taxes Imposed Upon America — Increased Resistance of the Colonies — Troops Quartered 
 in Boston — -The " Massacre''— The Non-Importation Associations — Growth of Hostility to England — Burning of ih s 
 "Gaspe" — The Tax on Tea Retained by the King — Destruction of Tea at Boston — Wrath of the British Govern- 
 ment — Boston Harbor Closed — Troops Quartered in Boston — The Colonies Come to the Assistance of Boston- 
 Action of the Virginia Assembly — General Gage in Boston — The Regulating Act — Its Failure — Gage Seizes the 
 Massachusetts Powder — Uprising of the Colony — Meeting of the Continental Congress — Its Action — Addresses to 
 ^he King and People of England — The Earl of Chatham's Indorsement of Congress- — The King Remains Stubborn. 
 
 THE treaty of Pat is placed England in ' 
 control of the North American con- 
 tinent east of the Mississippi, and 
 the English government was of the 
 opinion that this possession brought with it 
 the right to treat America as it pleased, with- 
 out regard to the rights or liberties of her 
 people. We have already considered some 
 of the many acts of injustice by which Great 
 Britain drove the colonies into rebellion 
 against her. We have now to relate those 
 bearing more immediately on the separation. 
 The navigation acts of 1660 and 1663 were 
 passed, as we have seen, for the purpose of 
 crippling the commerce of the colonies, and 
 confirming their dependence upon England. 
 They were severely felt throughout all the col- 
 onies, and especially in New England, which 
 was largely dependent upon its commerce. 
 These acts were the beginning of a policy 
 deliberately adopted by England, and per- 
 sisted in by her for more than a century, for 
 
 the purpose of enriching her mercantile class 
 by depriving the colonists of the Just rewards 
 of their labors. The Americans were re- 
 garded by the mother country as inferiors, 
 and as dependents, who had been planted by 
 her in " settlements established in distant 
 parts of the world for the benefit of trade." 
 The natural right of all men to acquire 
 property and wealth by the exercise of their 
 industry was denied to them ; they were to 
 labor only that the British merchant might 
 grow rich at their expense. Every species 
 of industry in America, save the mere culti- 
 vation of the soil, was to be heavily taxed 
 that it might be crushed out of existence. 
 The Americans were to be obliged to ship 
 their products to England for sale, and to be 
 compelled to purchase in her markets the 
 supplies they needed. No foreign country 
 might trade directly with the colonies. 
 
 Such articles of foreign production as were 
 needed must be shipped to England, and then 
 
 327 
 
328 
 
 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 transferred to British vessels for transporta- 
 tion to the colonies, in order that they might 
 yield a profit to the English ship-owner. The 
 only direct trade which was allowed, and was 
 not taxed, was the infamous traffic in negro 
 slaves, against which every colony protested, 
 and which Great Britain compelled them to 
 accept. Even the trees in the " free woods," 
 suitable for masts, were claimed by the king, 
 and marked by his " surveyor-general of 
 woods." It was a criminal offence to cut 
 one of them after being so marked. 
 
 Restrictions upon Trade. 
 
 In spite of these outrages the colonies 
 persisted in their efforts to establish manu- 
 factures and a commerce of their own. As 
 early as 1643 iron works were established in 
 Massachusetts, and in 1721 the New England 
 colonies contained six furnaces and nineteen 
 forges. Pennsylvania was still more largely 
 engaged in the manufacture of this metal, 
 and exported large quantities of it to other 
 colonies. 
 
 By the year 1756 there were eight furnaces 
 and nine forges, for smelting copper, in oper- 
 ation in Maryland. In 1721 the British iron- 
 masters endeavored to induce Parliament to 
 put a stop to the production of iron in 
 America, but without success. In 1750 they 
 were more successful. In that year an act 
 of Parliament forbade, under heavy penalties, 
 the exportation of pig-iron from America to 
 England, and the manufacture by the Ameri- 
 cans of bar-iron or steel for their own use. 
 All the iron works in the colonies were 
 ordered to be closed, and any that might 
 afterwards be erected were to be destroyed as 
 " nuisances." 
 
 Some of the colonies had engaged in the 
 manufacture of woolen goods, and the mak- 
 ing of hats had become a very large and 
 profitable business. In 1732 Parliament for- 
 bade the transportation of woolen goods of 
 
 American manufacture from one colony to 
 another, and the same restriction was placed 
 upon the trade in hats. As an excuse for 
 this outrage it was argued that as the Ameri- 
 cans had an unlimited supply of beaver and 
 other furs open to them, they would soon be 
 able to supply all Europe, as well as them- 
 selves, with hats. England was unwilling 
 that America should manufacture a single 
 article which she could supply, and in ordei 
 to cripple the industry of the colonies still 
 further it was enacted by Parliament that no 
 manufacturer should employ more than two 
 apprentices. In 1733 the f imous " Molasses 
 Act " was passed, imposing a duty on sugar* 
 molasses, or rum, importcl into any of the 
 British possessions from any foreign colony. 
 The object of this act was to benefit th* 
 British West India possessions by compell- 
 ing the North American colonies to trade 
 with them. 
 
 Thrilling Speech of James Otis. 
 
 In order t enforce the various restrictions 
 upon the trade of the colonies Great Britain 
 established in America a large force of cus- 
 toms officers, who were given unlawful 
 powers for this purpose. Parliament enacted 
 that any sheriff or officer of the customs, who 
 s?ispected that merchandise imported into the 
 colony in which he was stationed had not 
 paid the duty required by law, might apply 
 to the colonial courts for a search warrant, or 
 " writ of assistance," and enter a store or 
 private dwelling and search for the goods he 
 suspected of being unlawfully imported. 
 
 These writs were first used in Massachu- 
 setts in 1 761, and aroused a storm of indig 
 nation from the people, who felt that their 
 most sacred rights were being violated by 
 them. They were resisted, and the case was 
 carried before... the courts in order to test their 
 validity. James Otis, the attorney for the 
 crown, resigned his office rather than argue 
 
SCENE NEAR THE SOURCE OF THE RARITAN RIVER. 
 
 3 2 9 
 
33° 
 
 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 in behalf of them, and with great eloquence 
 pleaded the cause of the people. His speech 
 created a profound impression throughout 
 the colonies, and aroused a determination in 
 the hearts of his fellow-citizens to oppose the 
 other enactments of Parliament which they 
 felt to be unjust. This trial was fatal to the 
 writs, which ' ere scarcely ever used after- 
 wards. " Then and there," says John 
 Adams, " was the first opposition to arbi- 
 trary acts of Great Britain. Then and there 
 American Independence was born" 
 
 Taxing the Colonies. 
 
 The spirit of opposition soon manifested 
 itself in the New England colonies. The 
 manufactures, trade and fisheries of that sec- 
 tion were almost ruined, and the people had 
 no choice but to defend themselves. Asso- 
 ciations were formed in all the colonies 
 pledging themselves not to purchase of Eng- 
 lish manufacturers anything but the absolute 
 necessities of life. Families began to make 
 their own linen and woolen cloths, and to 
 preserve sheep for their wool. Homespun 
 garments became the dress of the patriot 
 party, and foreign cloths were almost driven 
 out of use. It was resolved to encourage 
 home manufactures in every possible way 
 and associations were formed for this pur- 
 pose. These measures became very pop- 
 ular, and were adopted by the other colonies 
 in rapid succession. 
 
 England was blind to these signs of alien- 
 ation and danger, and such of her public 
 men as saw them regarded them as of no 
 importance. It was resolved to go still 
 further, and levy direct taxes upon the col- 
 onies. In 1763 such a proposition was 
 brought forward by the ministers. It was 
 claimed by them that as the debt of England 
 had been largely increased by the French 
 war, which had been fought in their defence, 
 it was but right that they should help to de- 
 
 fray the expense by paying a tax to the 
 English government- 
 
 In the meantime the colonies had warmly 
 discussed the intentions of Great Britain re- 
 specting them, and all strenuously denied 
 the right of the mother country to tax them 
 without granting them some form of repre- 
 sentation in her government. They claimed 
 the right to have a voice in the disposal ot 
 their property, and they regarded the design 
 of Parliament as but a new proof of the indis- 
 position of the mother country to treat them 
 with justice. 
 
 The feeling of the Americans towards 
 England at this period has been aptly de- 
 scribed as " distrust and suspicion, strangely 
 mixed up with filial reverence — an instinctive 
 sense of injury, instantly met by the in- 
 stinctive suggestion that there must be some 
 constitutional reason for doing it, or it would 
 not be done." In spite of the injuries they had 
 received at her hands, the Americans were 
 warmly attached to England. They gloried 
 in her triumphs, were proud to trace their 
 descent from her, and claimed a share in her 
 great history and grand achievements. Had 
 England been wise she might have strength- 
 ened this attachment to such an extent that 
 the ties which bound the two countries could 
 never have been sundered. But England 
 was not only careless of the rights of Amer- 
 icans, she was grossly ignorant of their 
 country and of their character. 
 
 Ignorant Rulers. 
 
 " Few Englishmen had accurate ideas of 
 the nature, the extent, or even the position 
 of the colonies. And when the Duke of 
 Newcastle hurried to the king with the in- 
 formation that Cape Breton was an island, he ; 
 did what perhaps half his colleagues in the , 
 ministry, and more than half his colleagues 
 in Parliament, would have done in his place. 
 They knew that the colonies were of vast 
 
CAUSES OF THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE. 
 
 331 
 
 extent; that they lay far away beyond the 
 sea ; that they produced many things which 
 Englishmen wanted to buy, and consumed 
 many things which Englishmen wanted to 
 sell ; that English soldiers had met Eng- 
 land's hereditary enemies, the French, in 
 their forests ; that English sailors had beaten 
 French sailors on their coasts. But they did 
 not know that the most flourishing of these 
 colonies had been planted by men who, 
 prizing freedom above all other blessings, 
 had planted them in order to secure for 
 themselves and their children a home in 
 which they could worship God according to 
 their own idea of worship, and put forth the 
 strength of their minds and of their bodies, 
 according to their own conception of what 
 was best for them here and hereafter."* 
 
 The few Americans who visited Great 
 Britain found themselves looked upon as 
 aliens and inferiors ; their affection for the 
 land of their fathers was met with contempt, 
 and they were ridiculed as barbarians. The 
 English colonial officials made this feeling 
 apparent to those Americans who remained 
 at home. Everywhere the colonists saw 
 themselves treated with injustice. The hard- 
 earned glories of their troops in the colonial 
 wars were denied them and claimed for the 
 English regulars, and there was scarcely a 
 provincial who had borne arms but had some 
 petty insult or injury, at the hands of the 
 royal authorities, to complain of. 
 
 Looking back over their history, the 
 Americans could not remember a time when 
 they had not been treated with injustice by 
 Great Britain. They owed that country 
 nothing for the planting of the colonies ; that 
 was the work of their ancestors, who had 
 been forced to fly from England to escape 
 wrong and injury. They had been left to 
 
 * Historical View of the American Revolution. By G. 
 W. Greene, p. 15. 
 
 conquer their early difficulties without aid, 
 and with scanty sympathy from England, 
 who had taken no notice of them until they 
 were sufficiently prosperous to be profitablf 
 to her. 
 
 Injustice of the Mother Country. 
 
 Then she had rarely laid her hand upou 
 them but to wrong them. She had pur- 
 sued such a uniformly unjust policy towards 
 them that their affection for her was rapidly 
 giving way to a general desire to separate 
 from her. They owed her nothing ; they 
 were resolved to maintain their liberties 
 against her. Some of the leading men of the 
 colony had already begun to dream of the 
 future greatness of America, and had become 
 convinced that the true interests of their 
 country required a separation from England. 
 
 In spite of this feeling England persisted 
 in her course of folly. In March, 1764, the 
 House of Commons resolved, " that Parlia- 
 ment had a right to tax America." The 
 next month (April) witnessed the enforce- 
 ment of this claim in the passage of an act 
 of Parliament levying duties upon certain 
 articles imported into America. By the same 
 act iron and lumber were added to the 
 " enumerated articles " which could be ex- 
 ported only to England. The preamble to 
 this measure declared that its purpose was to 
 raise " a revenue for the expenses of defend- 
 ing, protecting and securing his majesty's 
 dominions in America." 
 
 The colonists protested against this act as 
 a violation of their liberties, and declared 
 that they had borne their full share of the 
 expense of the wars for their defence, that 
 they were now able to protect themselves 
 without assistance from the king, and added 
 the significant warning that " taxation with- 
 out representation was tyranny." No ons 
 yet thought of armed resistance ; the colo- 
 nists were resolved to exhaust every peaceful 
 
332 
 
 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 means of redress before proceeding to 
 extreme measures. As yet the desire for 
 separation was confined to a few far-seeing 
 men. 
 
 Prominent among these was Samuel 
 Adams, of Boston, a man in whom the 
 loftiest virtues of the old Puritans were min- 
 
 SAMUEL ADAMS. 
 
 gled with the graces of more modern times. 
 Modest and unassuming in manner, a man of 
 incorruptible integrity and sincere piety, he 
 was insensible to fear in the discharge of his 
 duty. He was a deep student of constitu- 
 tional law, and was gifted with an eloquence 
 which could move multitudes. His clear 
 
 vision had already discerned the dangers 
 which threatened his country, and had dis- 
 covered the only path by which she could 
 emerge from them in safety. His plan was 
 simple: resistance, peaceable at first; forci- 
 ble if necessary. Under his guidance the 
 people of Boston met and protested against 
 the new plan of taxation, 
 and instructed their repre- 
 sentatives in the general 
 court to oppose it. 
 
 "We claim British rights, 
 not by charter only," said 
 the Boston resolves ; " we 
 are born to them. If we 
 are taxed without our con- 
 sent, our property is taken 
 without our consent, and 
 then we are no more free- 
 men, but slave s." The gen- 
 eral court of Massachusetts 
 declared " that the imposi- 
 tion of duties and taxes by 
 the Parliament of Great 
 Britain upon a people not 
 repres^n f ed in the House 
 01 commons is absolutely 
 irreconcilable with their 
 rights." A committee was 
 appointed to correspond 
 with the other colonies, 
 with a view to bringing 
 about a concerted action 
 for the redress of griev- 
 ances. In Virginia, New 
 York, Connecticut and the 
 Carolinas equally vigorous 
 measures were taken. 
 
 In Virginia the first indication of the in- 
 tention of the people to resist the arbitrary 
 measures of the crown was given in a matter 
 insignificant in itself, but clearly involving 
 the great principle at issue. In that colony 
 tobacco was the lawful currency, and the 
 
CAUSES OF THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE. 
 
 333 
 
 failure of a crop, or a rise in the price of to- 
 bacco, made such payments often very bur- 
 densome. In the winter of 1763 the legisla- 
 ture passed a law authorizing the people of 
 the colony to pay their taxes and other public 
 dues in money, at the rate of twopence a 
 pound for the tobacco due. The clergymen 
 of the established church had each a salary 
 fixed by law at a certain number of pounds 
 of tobacco, and as this measure involved 
 them in a loss they refused to acquiesce in it 
 and induced Sherlock, the bishop of London, 
 to persuade the king to refuse the law his 
 signature. " The rights of the clergy and 
 the authority of the king must stand or fall 
 together," was the sound argument of the 
 bishop. Failing of the royal signature the 
 law was inoperative. 
 
 The matter was soon brought to an issue 
 in Virginia. The Rev. Mr. Maury, one of 
 the clergymen affected by the law, brought 
 a suit to recover damages, or the difference 
 between twopence per pound and the current 
 market price of tobacco, which was much 
 higher. This was popularly known as the 
 " Parsons' Cause." It was a clearly joined 
 issue between the right of the people to nake 
 their own laws on the one side, and the kirk's 
 prerogative on the other. 
 
 The Man for the Hour. 
 
 The " parsons " secured the best valent in 
 the colony for the prosecution of their claims ; 
 the cause of the " people " was confided to a 
 young man of twenty-seven, whose youth 
 was supplemented by the additional disad- 
 vantages of being poor and unknown. He 
 was Patrick Henry, the son of a plain far- 
 mer, and a native of the county of Hanover. 
 He had received but little education, as his 
 father's straitened circumstances had com 
 pelled him to put his son to the task of 
 earning his bread at the early age of fifteen 
 years. He entered a country store, and the 
 
 next year went into business with his elder 
 brother, William, who, being too indolent to 
 attend to business, left the store to the man- 
 agement or rather the mismanagement of 
 Patrick. 
 
 The young man was brimming over with 
 good nature, and could never find it in his 
 heart to refuse any one credit, and was too 
 kind-hearted to press unwilling debtors to 
 payment. He let the store " manage itself," 
 and amused himself by studying the charac- 
 ter of his customers, and with h.s lute and 
 violin. He was also a great reader, and read 
 
 PATRICK HENRY. 
 
 every work he could buy or borrow. The 
 store survived about a year, and the next 
 two or three years were passed by Patrick in 
 settling its affairs. At the age of eighteen 
 he married, and began life as a farmer. He 
 soon grew tired of this pursuit, anc, selling 
 his farm once more engaged in mercantile 
 life. It was nou suited to him, nor he to it. 
 He passed his days in reading, this time 
 giving his attention to works of history and 
 philosophy. Livy was his favorite, and he 1 ead 
 it through at least once a year for many years. 
 
334 
 
 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 His second mercantile enterprise ended in 
 bankruptcy in a few years, and in extreme 
 want he determined to try the law. He ob- 
 tained a license to practice after a six weeks' 
 course of study, and entered upon his new 
 career utterly ignorant of its duties. It is 
 said that he could not then draw up the 
 simplest legal paper without assistance. He 
 was then twenty-four years old, but it was 
 not until he had reached the age of twenty- 
 seven that he obtained a case worthy of his 
 powers for he had genius, and it only re- 
 quired the proper circumstances to draw it 
 out. He had passed days in communion 
 with nature in his frequent hunting and fish- 
 ing excursions, and had drunk deeply of 
 the wisdom she imparts to her votaries. He 
 had studied men with the eye of a master, 
 and he had at last fallen into the position from 
 which he could rise to his true place among 
 the leading spirits of the age. In the case 
 with which he was now intrusted, a decision 
 of the court on a demurrer, in favor of the 
 claims of the clergy, had left nothing unde- 
 termined but the amount of damages in the 
 cause which was pending. 
 
 Argument for Damages. 
 
 " The array before Mr. Henry's eyes," 
 says his biographer, William Wirt, " was 
 now most fearful. On the bench sat more 
 than twenty clergymen, the most learned 
 men in the colony, and the most capable, as 
 well as the severest critics before whom it 
 was possible for him to nave made his debut. 
 The court house was crowded with an over- 
 whelming multitude, and surrounded with 
 an immense and anxious throng, who, not 
 finding room to enter, were endeavoring to 
 listen without, in the deepest attention. But 
 there was something still more awfully dis- 
 concerting than all this for in the chair of 
 the presiding magistrate sat no other person 
 than his own father. Mr. Lyons opened the 
 
 cause very briefly : in the way of argument 
 he did nothing more than explain to the jury 
 that the decision upon the demurrer had put 
 the act of 1750 entirely out of the way, and 
 left the law of 1748 as the only standard of 
 their damages ; he then concluded with a 
 highly wrought eulogium on the benevo- 
 lence of the clergy." 
 
 When it came Patrick Henry's turn to 
 speak, he rose awkwardly, amid a profound 
 silence. No one had ever heard him speak, 
 and all were anxious to see how he would 
 acquit himself. He clutched nervously at 
 his papers, and faltered out his opening sen- 
 tences with a degree of confusion which 
 threatened every moment to put an end to 
 his effort. The people watched their cham- 
 pion in sorrow and indignation ; the clergy 
 exchanged glances of triumph, and eyed the 
 speaker with contempt; while his father, 
 overcome with shame, seemed ready to drop 
 from his chair. But suddenly there came a 
 change over the young advocate. Warming 
 with his subject, he threw off his embarrass- 
 ment and awkwardness, and stood erect and 
 confident. His look of timidity gave place 
 to one of command; his countenance glowed 
 with the fire of genius, and startled the gazers 
 by the aspect of majesty which it assumed 
 for the first time. 
 
 "He Has Spoken Treason." 
 
 His tones grew clear and bold, his action 
 graceful and commanding, and the astounded 
 jury and audience were given a display of 
 eloquence such as was without a parallel in 
 the history of the colony. Henry knew that 
 the case was against him, but he pleaded the 
 natural right of Virginia to make her own 
 laws independently of the king and Parlia- 
 ment. He proved the justness of the law; 
 he drew a striking picture of the character 
 of a good king, who should be the father of 
 his oeople, but wb^" '^ecomes their tyrant and 
 
CAUSES OF THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE. 
 
 335 
 
 oppressor, and forfeits his claim to obedience 
 when he annuls just and good laws. The 
 opposing counsel cried out at this bold 
 declaration, " He has spoken treason," but 
 was silenced by the excited throng. 
 
 " They say," says Mr. Wirt, " that the 
 people, whose countenances had fallen as he 
 arose, had heard but 
 a very few sentences 
 be 1 ore they began to 
 look up ; then to look 
 at each other in sur- 
 prise, as if doubting 
 the evidence of their 
 own senses ; then, at- 
 tracted by some ges- 
 ture, struck by some 
 majestic attitude, fas- 
 cinated by the spell 
 of his eye, the charm 
 of his emphasis, and 
 the varied and com- 
 manding expression 
 of his countenance, 
 they could look away 
 no more. In less than 
 twenty minutes they 
 might be seen in every 
 part cf the house, on 
 every bench, in every 
 window, stooping for- 
 ward from their 
 stands, in death-like 
 silence; their features 
 fixed in amazement 
 and awe, all their 
 senses listening and 
 riveted upon the 
 
 speaker, as if to catch the last strain of some 
 heavenly visitant. 
 
 " The mockery of the clergy was soon 
 turned into alarm, their triumph into con- 
 fusion and despair, and at one burst of his 
 rapid and overwhelming invective, they fled 
 
 from the bench in precipitation and terror. 
 As for the father, such was his surprise, such 
 his amazement, such his rapture, that, forget- 
 ting where he was, and the character which he 
 was filling, tears of ecstacy streamed down 
 his cheeks without the power or inclination 
 to repress them." 
 
 COLONEL BARRE. 
 
 The jury brought in a verdict oi one 
 penny damages for the " parsons," anr« the 
 court overruled the motion of their counse? 
 for a new trial. Henry from that moment 
 took his place among the leaders of the 
 patriot party in Virginia. He had struck a 
 
\& 
 
 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 chord which responded in every American 
 heart ; he had denied the right of the king 
 to make laws for the colonies. 
 
 The remonstrance of Massachusetts was 
 followed by similar appeals from Connecti- 
 cut, New York, Rhode Island and Virginia. 
 The petition of New York was couched in 
 such strong terms that no member of Par- 
 liament could be found bold enough to pre- 
 sent it. These remonstrances were unheeded 
 by Parliament, which pronounced them "ab- 
 surd" and " insolent." That body persisted 
 in its determination to tax the colonies, and 
 Grenville, the prime minister, warned the 
 Americans that in a contest with Great 
 Britain they could expect nothing but defeat. 
 He announced the intention of the English 
 government to levy the taxes, and graciously 
 added that if the colonies preferred any spe- 
 cial form of taxation, their wishes would be 
 met as far as possible. In March, 1765, the 
 measure known as the " Stamp Act " passed 
 the House of Commons by a vote of five to 
 one, and was adopted almost unanimously 
 by the House of Lords. 
 
 An Insane King. 
 
 It met with a warm opposition i 1 the 
 Commons from the friends of America, pro- 
 minent among whom was Colonel Barre, 
 who had served with Wolfe in America, and 
 had learned to appreciate the American 
 character. The measure received the royal 
 signature at once. The poor king would 
 have signed anything he was bidden — he 
 was insane. The act imposed a duty on all 
 paper, vellum and parchment used in the 
 colonies, and required that all writings of a 
 legal or business nature should be made on 
 " stamped paper ; " otherwise they were de- 
 clared null and void. 
 
 In order to enforce the " Stamp Act," 
 Parliament, two months later, passed " the 
 Quartering Act." It authorized the minis- 
 
 ters to send as many troops as they should 
 see fit to America, to enforce submission to the 
 acts of Parliament. Wherever these troops 
 should be stationed, it should be the duty of 
 the people, at their own expense, to furnish 
 them with quarters, fuel, bedding, cider or 
 rum, candles, soap " and other necessaries.'' 
 
 Exciting Scene. 
 
 The news of the passage of these acts pro 
 duced the most intense excitement in Amer- 
 ica. The general assembly of Virginia wa3 
 in session when the news was received in 
 May. The royalist leaders were amazed at 
 the folly of the ministry, but deemed it best 
 to take no action in the matter. Patrick 
 Henry, now a member of the assembly, rose 
 in his place and offered a series of resolu- 
 tions, declaring that the people of Virginia 
 were bound to pay only such taxes as 
 should be levied by their own assembly, and 
 that all who maintained the contrary should 
 be regarded as enemies of the liberties of the 
 colon} r . 
 
 These resolutions provoked an exciting 
 debate, in which Henry, in a magnificent 
 oration, exposed the tyranny of the British 
 government, and stirred the hearts of the 
 burgesses with a determination to resist. 
 " Caesar had his Brutus," exclaimed the ora- 
 tor in one of his loftiest flights, " Charles 
 the First his Cromwell, and George the 
 Third — ." The assembly was in an uproar. 
 " Treason ! treason ! " shouted the speaker. 
 A few joined in the cry, but the majority 
 waited in breathless suspense the comple- 
 tion of the sentence of Henry, who, fixing 
 his eye upon the speaker, added in a tone 
 which was peculiar to himself, " may profit 
 by their example. If that be treason, make 
 the most of it." The resolutions were 
 adopted by a large majority. 
 
 The next day, during Henry's absence, 
 the timid assembly rescinded some of the 
 
CAUSES OF THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE. 
 
 33,' 
 
 Resolves and modified the others. The 
 assembly, for thus daring to exercise its right 
 of expressing its opinion, was at once dis- 
 solved by the governor, but too late to pre- 
 vent its action from producing its effect. 
 Copies of the resolutions of Henry were 
 forwarded to Philadelphia, where they were 
 printed and circulated through the colonies. 
 
 the colonies to send delegates to a congress 
 to be he'd at New York in October. In the 
 meantime associations were organized in all 
 the colonies as far south as Maryland, 
 called l ' Sons of Liberty," for the purpose of 
 stopping the use of stamps. The people 
 were resolved to take the matter in their 
 own hands. 
 
 HANGING A STAMP ACT OFFICIAL IN EFFIGY. 
 
 They aroused ihe drooping spirits of the 
 people, and it was resolved everywhere that 
 the stamps should not be used in America.. 
 The general court of Massachusetts or- 
 dered that the courts should not require the 
 use of stamps in conducting their business ; 
 and in June, before the Virginia resolutions 
 
 reached Boston, issued a circular inviting all 
 22 
 
 In Boston the mob attacked the house of 
 Oliver, the secretary of the colony, who had 
 been appointed to distribute the stamps, and 
 compelled him to resign. They also attacked 
 the houses of some of the most prominent 
 supporters of the ministry, but the patriots 
 sincerely deplored and condemned these 
 violent proceedings. At Wethersfield, 
 
338 
 
 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 Connecticut, five hundred farmers seized Jared 
 Ingersol, the stamp officer for that colony, 
 compelled him to resign, and then to remove 
 his hat and give " three cheers for liberty, 
 property, and no stamps." Similar scenes 
 jveve enacted in the other colonies. 
 
 Rights and Grievances. 
 
 On the seventh of October, 1765, the 
 First Colonial Congress met at New York. 
 It was composed of delegates from the col- 
 onies of Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Con- 
 necticut, Pennsylvania, Maryland, South 
 Carolina, New York and New Jersey. New 
 Hampshire, though not represented by a 
 delegate, gave her support to its measures, 
 and Georgia formally signified her accept- 
 ance of the work of this body. Timothy 
 Ruggles, of Massachusetts, was chosen 
 president. The session extended over three 
 weeks, and resulted in the adoption of a 
 " Declaration of the Rights and Grievances 
 of the Colonies ; " a petition to the king ; 
 and a memorial to both Houses of Par- 
 liament. 
 
 In the Declaration of Rights the Congress 
 took the ground that it was a violation of 
 their rights to tax them without granting 
 them a representation in the Parliament of 
 Great Britain, and that as such representa- 
 tion was impossible because of the distance 
 between the two countries, no taxes could be 
 legally imposed upon the colonies but by 
 their own assemblies. The measures of the 
 Congress were, as soon as possible, indorsed 
 by all the colonial assemblies, and thus the 
 colonies were drawn into that union which, 
 in their own language, became " a bundle of 
 sticks, which could neither be bent nor 
 broken." 
 
 At length the first of November arrived, 
 the day on which the Stamp Act was to go 
 into operation. Not a man could be found 
 to execute the law, all the stamp officers hav 
 
 ing resigned through fear of popular vio 
 lence. Governor Colden, of New York, de- 
 clared he was resolved to have the stamps 
 distributed, but the people of the city warned 
 him that he would do so at his peril, and 
 burned him in effigy. Colden became 
 alarmed at these demonstrations, and on the 
 fifth of November delivered the stamps to 
 the mayor and council of New York. 
 
 A Day of Mourning. 
 
 In all the colonies the first of November 
 was observed as a day of mourning. Bells 
 were tolled, flags hung at half-mast, and 
 business suspended. The merchants of 
 New York, Boston and Philadelphia united 
 in an agreement to import no more 
 goods from England, to countermand the 
 orders already sent out, and to receive no 
 goods on commission until the Stamp Act 
 should be repealed. Their action was 
 promptly sustained by the people, who 
 pledged themselves to buy no articles of 
 English manufacture, and to encourage 
 home productions. Circulars were sent 
 throughout the colonies urging the people 
 to unite in such action, and were heartily 
 responded to. Business went on without the 
 use of stamps, and the courts ignored them 
 in their proceedings. 
 
 The news of these proceedings should 
 have warned the English ministers of their 
 folly ; it only made them more determined 
 to persist in it. They resolved not to repeal 
 the Stamp Act. To comply with the request 
 of the colonists, now that they had resisted 
 the law, would, they declared, be simply a 
 surrender to rebellion. " Sooner than make 
 our colonies our allies," said one of their 
 number, " I would wish to see them re- 
 turned to their primitive deserts." The 
 friends of America, led by the aged and 
 infirm William Pitt, made a determined ef- 
 fort to procure the repeal of the Stamp Act, 
 
CAUSES OF THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE. 
 
 339 
 
 and they were now supported by all the in- 
 fluence of the English merchants, who found 
 their trade rapidly falling off in consequence 
 of the non- intercourse resolves adopted by 
 the Americans. 
 
 Swathed in flannels, Pitt proceeded to the 
 House of Commons, and in a speech of great 
 vigor urged the House to repeal the obnox- 
 ious and unconstitutional measure. In reply 
 
 House to give the desired information. He 
 appeared, in answer to the summons, on the 
 thirteenth of February, 1766. He was 
 questioned by Lord Grenville and Charles 
 Townshend, and by several friends of the 
 ministry, and delivered his answers with 
 firmness and clearness. He told them that 
 the colonists could not pay for the stamps, 
 as there was not enough gold and silver in 
 
 to Grenville, the prime minister, who accused I the colonies for that purpose; tint they had 
 him of exciting sedition in 
 America, he said, "Sir, I have 
 been charged with giving birth 
 to sedition in America. Sorry 
 I am to have the liberty of 
 speech in this House imputed 
 as a crime. But the imputa- 
 tion will not deter me ; it is 
 a liberty I mean to exercise. 
 The gentleman tells us that 
 America is obstinate ; that 
 America is almost in rebellion. 
 I rejoice that America has 
 resisted." The House started 
 at these words, but Pitt con- 
 tinued firmly, " If they had 
 submitted, they would have 
 voluntarily become slaves. 
 They have been driven to 
 madness by injustice. My 
 opinion is that the Stamp 
 Act should be repealed, abso- 
 lutely, totally, immediately." 
 Edmund Burke, then a rising 
 young man, eloquently sustained the appeal 
 of the great commoner. 
 
 The Commons had already begun to 
 waver, but before yielding entirely they 
 wished to ascertain from competent witnesses 
 the exact temper and disposition of the 
 Americans. For this purpose, Benjamin 
 Franklin, who was residing in London at 
 the time as the agent of several of the colo- 
 nies, was summoned before the bar of the 
 
 STAMP ACT OFFICIAL BEATEN BY THE PEOPLE. 
 
 incurred more 
 pense of the 
 
 than their share of the ex- 
 last war, for which Great 
 Britain had in no way reimbursed them ; 
 that they were still burdened with heavy 
 debts contracted in consequence of this war ; 
 that they were well disposed towards Great 
 Britain before 1763, and considered Parlia- 
 ment as " the great bulwark and security of 
 their liberties and privileges; but that now 
 their temper was much altered, and their 
 
340 
 
 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 respect for it lessened ; and if the act is not 
 repealed, the consequence would be a total 
 loss of the respect and affection they bore to 
 this country, and of all the commerce that 
 depended on that respect and affection." 
 
 Franklin Startles Parliament. 
 
 He startled the House by declaring that 
 in a few years America would be amply able 
 to supply herself with all the necessities of life 
 then furnished her by Great Britain. " I do 
 not know," said he, "a single article im- 
 ported into the northern colonies but what 
 they can either do without or make them- 
 selves. The people will spin and work for 
 themselves, in their own houses. In three 
 years there may be wool and manufactures 
 enough." " If the legislature," he was 
 asked, " should think fit to ascertain its right 
 to lay taxes, by any act laying a small tax, 
 contrary to their opinion, would they sub- 
 mit to pay the tax ? " "An internal tax," he 
 replied, " how small soever, laid by the 
 legislature here, on the people there, will 
 never be submitted to. They will oppose it 
 to the last. The people will pay no internal 
 tax by Parliament." " May they not," 
 asked a friend of Grenville, " by the same 
 interpretation of their common rights, as 
 Englishmen, as declared by Magna Charta 
 and the Petition of Right, object to the Par- 
 liament's right of external taxation?"* 
 "They never have hitherto," answered 
 Franklin, promptly. " Many arguments 
 have been lately used here to show them 
 that there is no difference, and that if you 
 have no right to tax them internally, you 
 have none to tax them externally, or 
 make any other law to bind them. At pres- 
 ent they do not reason so ; but in time they 
 may be convinced by these arguments." 
 
 * The levying <sf duties by Parliament on merchandise 
 imported into the colonies. 
 
 Franklin's testimony was conclusive. The 
 Stamp Act was repealed on the eighteenth 
 of March, 1766, not because it was acknowl- 
 edged by England as a measure of injustice, 
 but because it could not be enforced without 
 a collision with the colonies, which the min 
 istry were not as yet prepared for. The 
 people of London greeted the repeal with 
 great joy. Bonfires were lighted, bells were 
 rung, the city was illuminated, and the ship- 
 ping in the Thames was decorated with 
 flags. The news was sent by special mes- 
 sengers to the nearest ports, in order that it 
 might reach America with as little delay as 
 possible. 
 
 Rejoicings in America. 
 
 In America the news of the repeal of the 
 Stamp Act was received with the greatest 
 joy. The bells were rung in the principal 
 cities, the imprisoned debtors were released 
 from captivity, the associations for non- 
 intercourse with England were dissolved, 
 and everywhere Pitt was hailed as the cham- 
 pion of the liberties of America. New York, 
 Virginia and Maryland each voted a statue 
 to him. 
 
 The rejoicings of the Americans were 
 premature. Parliament i;i repealing the 
 Stamp Act solemnly asserted, by a bill for 
 that purpose, its right and power to " bind 
 the colonies in all cases whatsoever." Eng- 
 land was only baffled for the moment; she 
 had not relinquished her designs upon the 
 liberties of America. 
 
 The repeal of the Stamp Act brought with 
 it the fall of Grenville's ministry. Another 
 was appointed un Jer the leadership of the 
 Marquis of Rockingham ; but it was short- 
 lived and soon gave way. The king then 
 summoned William Pitt, who had in the 
 meantime been created Earl of Chatham, to 
 form an independent ministry, late in 1766. 
 This act was regarded with great hope in 
 
CAUSES OF THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE. 
 
 34T 
 
 America, as Pitt was universally considered 
 the colonists' best friend. These hopes were 
 doomed to disappointment. In January, 
 1767, Charles Townshend, the chancellor of 
 the exchequer in Pitt's cabinet, taking ad- 
 vantage of the absence of the prime minister, 
 declared in the House of Commons that it 
 was his intention, at all risks, to derive a 
 revenue from America by laying taxes upon 
 her, and that he knew how to raise this reve- 
 nue from her. 
 
 Pitt Withdraws trom the Cabinet, 
 
 Having thus thrown down the gauntlet to 
 his official chief, it became evident that 
 either the Earl of Chatham must relinquish 
 the premiership, or Townshend must leave 
 the cabinet. Chatham was anxious to dis- 
 miss him from the chancellorship, but as it 
 was known that Townshend was acting in 
 accordance with the sympathies and wishes 
 of the king, no one was willing to risk his 
 prospects by accepting the chancellorship in 
 Townshend's place; and Chatham, unable to 
 fill his place, was obliged to retain him. In 
 utter disgust Chatham withdrew from active 
 participation in the affairs of the cabinet, and 
 iownshend remained supreme director of 
 the colonial policy of England. In May, 
 Townshend revealed his plan for raising a 
 revenue in America. It was to levy a duty, 
 to be collected in the colonies, on certain 
 articles of commerce, such as wine, oil, 
 paints, glass, paper, and lead colors, and 
 especially upon tea, which last commodity 
 he declared the Americans obtained cheaper 
 from the Dutch smugglers than the English 
 themselves. 
 
 He was told that if he would withdraw the 
 army from America there would be no neces- 
 sity for taxing the colonies. He replied, " I 
 will hear nothing on the subject ;, it is abso- 
 lutely necessary to keep an army there." 
 In June, 1767, an act was passed by Parlia- 
 
 ment levying upon the colonies the duties 
 proposed by Townshend ; and a board of 
 commissioners of the customs for America 
 was established, with its headquarters at 
 Boston. Soon after their appointment the 
 " Romney " frigate entered Boston Harbor, 
 and the new commissioners, confident in her 
 protection, treated the people of Boston with 
 unbearable haughtiness. Her officers fre- 
 quently stopped the New England vessels 
 as they entered the harbor, and impressed 
 seamen from their decks. 
 
 The colonies were moved with the pro- 
 foundest indignation upon the receipt of the 
 news of the imposition of the new taxes. The 
 colonial newspapers, which now numbered 
 twenty-five, were filled with appeals to the 
 people to stand up for their liberties. The 
 old associations for non-importation of Eng- 
 lish goods were revived, and on every hand 
 the declaration was unanimous that the 
 Americans would neither eat, drink, nor wear 
 anything imported from England. The gen- 
 eral court of Massa husetts issued a circular 
 letter to the other colonial assemblies in- 
 viting them to unite with her in measures 
 for obtaining redress. 
 
 The Colonies Strike Back. 
 
 The English ministers were greatly in- 
 censed at the new resistance of the colonists, 
 and in June, 1768, ordered the general court 
 of Massachusetts to rescind its circular let- 
 ter. Their demand was refused, and the 
 general court, led by James Otis and Samuel 
 Adams, expressed its conviction that Parlia- 
 ment would better serve the cause of peace 
 by repealing its obnoxious laws. The circu- 
 lar had been favorably received by the other 
 colonies, and Massachusetts was constantly 
 receiving from them encouragement to persist 
 in her resistance to the tyranny of the minis- 
 try. As a punishment for the refusal of the 
 general court to rescind its circular, that body 
 
342 
 
 BRITISH TROOPS IN BOSTON. 
 
CAUSES OF THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE. 
 
 542, 
 
 was dissolved by the royal governor of Mas- 
 sachusetts. Some of the other colonial as- 
 semblies that had shown sympathy with 
 Massachusetts were also dissolved by their 
 respective governors. 
 
 Opposition in Boston. 
 
 A very bitter feeling existed between the 
 people and the royal officials, and, to make 
 matters worse, at this crisis the revenue offi- 
 cers at Boston seized a schooner belonging 
 to John Hancock, one of the patriot leaders, 
 on the pretext that her owner had made a 
 false entry of her cargo, which consisted of 
 wine. The schooner was towed under the 
 guns of the " Romney " frigate, and a crowd 
 collected in Boston and attacked the houses 
 of the commissioners of customs, who were 
 forced to fly to the fort on Castle Island for 
 safety. 
 
 The report of this outbreak was trans- 
 mitted to England as proof that Massachu- 
 setts was almost in a state of insurrection, 
 and it was resolved by the ministry to send 
 troops to overawe " the insolent town of 
 Boston," and to hold Massachusetts as a 
 conquered country. A regiment of regulars 
 under General Gage reached Boston in Sep- 
 tember, 1768, but the assembly refused to 
 provide quarters or food, or the other neces- 
 saries which were demanded by their com- 
 mander in accordance with the " Quartering 
 Act." General Gage was obliged to encamp 
 a part of his men on Boston Common, while 
 he lodged the rest temporarily in Faneuil 
 Hall. With considerable difficulty he hired 
 several houses in Boston and quartered his 
 troops in them. The assembly of New York 
 also refused to provide food or quarters for 
 the royal troops, and was dissolved by the 
 governor of the province. 
 
 The wrath of the English officials was 
 concentrated upon Boston, which was held 
 as though it were a conquered city. Senti- 
 nels were placed at the street corners, and 
 
 the citizens were challenged by them as they 
 went about their daily duties. The ill-feeling 
 between the citizens and the troops gave rise 
 to several encounters between them. On 
 the evening of the second of March, 1770, a 
 sentinel was attacked by the mob. A de« 
 tachment of troops was sent to his aid, and 
 was stoned by the mob. At length a soldier 
 fired his musket at the crowd and his com- 
 rades poured in a volley, killing three and 
 wounding five citizens. The city was thrown 
 into an uproar, the alarm bells were rung, 
 and crowds poured into the streets. The 
 danger of a general collision was very great, 
 but the people were persuaded to disperse 
 upon the promise of Hutchinson, the gov- 
 ernor, that justice should be done. This 
 outbreak was known at the time as " the 
 Boston Massacre." 
 
 The Soldiers Driven Out. 
 
 The next morning a meeting of the citi- 
 zens was held at Faneuil Hall. Resolutions 
 were passed, demanding the removal of the 
 troops from the city to the fort on Castle 
 Island, and the arraignment before the civil 
 courts of Captain Preston, the officer who 
 ordered the troops to fire. The soldiers were 
 removed from the town as the only means of 
 preserving the peace, and Captain Preston 
 and six of his men were arraigned for mur- 
 der. John Adams and Josiah Quincy, two 
 leaders of the patriot rarty, undertook the 
 defence of the accused officer and his men in 
 order to make sure that they should have a 
 fair trial. They were acquitted of murder 
 but two of the soldiers were convicted of 
 manslaughter. The calmness and delibera- 
 tion with which this trial was conducted had 
 a happy effect in England, and exhibited the 
 fairness and moderation of the colonists in 
 the most favorable light. 
 
 The British merchants now began to feel 
 the effect of the non- importation associations. 
 
344 
 
 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 of the Americans, and their trade suffered 
 even more than it had done in the times of 
 the Stamp Act, in consequence of the cessa- 
 tion of orders for goods from the colonies. 
 They now began to sustain the demand of 
 the colonists for the repeal of the unjust 
 taxes. Lord North, who was now prime 
 minister, was willing to grant their demand, 
 and to remove all the taxes except the duty 
 on tea, which he retained at the express 
 command of the king, who had now recov- 
 ered his reason, and was the real director of 
 the policy of his government. George III 
 held on with the most stubborn tenacity to 
 the assertion of his right to tax the colonies, 
 and insisted " that there should be always 
 one tax, at least, to keep up the right of tax- 
 ing." This concession was made in May, 
 1770, and for nearly a year there was a lull 
 in the excitement. The matter was not 
 settled, however, for the Americans had not 
 resisted the amount of the tax, but the impo- 
 sition of any tax at all. They were contend- 
 ing for a principle, not for the saving of a 
 few dollars. 
 
 Depredations and Quarrels. 
 
 The bad feeling which was rapidly grow 
 ing up between the colonists and the mother 
 country was greatly increased by the injus- 
 tice and annoyance heaped upon the colonists 
 by the royal officials. Almost every colony 
 had to complain of these outrages, and the 
 king's officers seemed to think they could 
 not do their cause better service than by 
 exasperating the Americans. In New York 
 the people had erected a liberty pole in the 
 fields, now the City Hall Park. One night 
 in January, 1 770, a party of soldiers from 
 the fort cut down the pole. This act was 
 bitterly resented by the citizens, and fre- 
 quent quarrels occurred between them and 
 the troops, though there was no actual 
 bloodshed. 
 
 Early in 1772 the armed schoonet 
 " Gaspe " was stationed in Narragansett Bay 
 to enforce the revenue laws. Her com- 
 mander, Lieutenant Dudingston, undertook 
 to execute his orders in the most insulting 
 and arbitrary manner. Market boats and 
 other vessels passing the " Gaspe " were 
 compelled to lower their colors to her, and 
 armed parties from the schooner were sent 
 ashore on the neighboring islands, and car- 
 ried off such provisions as they desired. 
 Complaint was made by the citizens of Provi- 
 dence to the governor of Rhode Island, who 
 referred the matter to the chief justice, Hop- 
 kins, for nis opinion. The chief justice de- 
 clared " that any person who should come 
 into the colony and exercise any authority 
 by force of arms, without showing his com- 
 mission to the governor, and, if a custom- 
 house officer, without being sworn into his 
 office, was guilty of a trespass, if not piracy." 
 It was clear from the opinion of the chief 
 justice that Dudingston was exceeding his 
 authority, and the governor sent a sheriff on 
 board the " Gaspe " to ascertain by what 
 orders the lieutenant acted. Dudingston 
 referred the matter to the admiral at Boston, 
 who replied: "The lieutenant, sir, has done 
 his duty. I shall give the king's officers 
 directions that they send every man taken in 
 molesting them to me. As sure as the peo- 
 ple of Newport attempt to rescue any vessel 
 and any of them are taken, I will hang them 
 as pirates." 
 
 The Schooner Captured. 
 
 The insolence of the admiral caused even 
 more indignation than the outrages of Dud- 
 ingston, and the citizens of Rhode Island 
 resolved to take the matter into their own 
 hands at the earliest opportunity. On the 
 ninth of June, 1772, the Providence packet, 
 a swift sailer, was passing up the bay when 
 she was hailed by the " Ga>pe." She paid 
 
CAUSES OF THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE. 
 
 345 
 
 no attention to the hail, and being' of light 
 draught, stood in near the shore. The 
 " Gaspe " gave chase, and, attempting to 
 follow her, ran aground on Namquit, a short 
 distance below Pautuxet. Th^ tide falling 
 soon, left her fast. The news of her disaster 
 was conveyed to Providence by the packet, 
 and a plan was at once matured for her 
 destruction. 
 
 On the following night a party of men in 
 six or seven boats, led by John Brown, a 
 leading merchant of Providence, Captain 
 Abraham Whipple, of Providence, Simeon 
 Potter, of Bristol, and others, left Providence 
 and dropped down towards the position of 
 the " Gaspe." They were discovered as 
 they approached, and were hailed by Dud- 
 ingston. One of the party in the boats fired 
 and Dudingston fell wounded. The schooner 
 was then boarded without opposition, her 
 crew were set ashore, and the " Gaspe " was 
 set on fire and burned to the water's edge. 
 A large reward was offered for the perpetrat- 
 ors of this bold act. All were known in 
 Providence, but in spite of this, the royal 
 officials were not able to secure the appre- 
 hension of any of them The secret was 
 faithfully kept. 
 
 Objections Are Useless. 
 
 The non-importatiun associations had, 
 upon the lepeal of the duties we have men- 
 tioned, limits their opposition to the use of 
 tea, and the East India Company in England 
 found itself burdened with an enormous 
 stock of tea, which it could not dispose of as 
 usual in consequence of the cessation of 
 sales in America, The company therefore 
 proposed to pay all the duties on the tea in 
 England and ship it to America at its own 
 risk, hoping that the fact of there being no 
 duty 10 pay in America would induce the 
 colonists to purchase it. 
 
 This plan met the determined opposition 
 of the king, wno would not consent to re- 
 
 linquish the assertion of his right to tax the 
 Americans. Lord North could not under- 
 stand that it was not the amount of the tax. 
 but the principle involved in it, that was 
 opposed by the Americans, and he proposed 
 that the East India Company should pay 
 three-fourths of the duty in England, leaving 
 the other fourth — about three pence on a 
 pound — to be collected in America. His 
 lordship was told plainly that the Americans 
 would not purchase the tea on these condi- 
 tions, but he answered : " It is to no pur- 
 pose the making objections, for the king will 
 have it so. The king means to try the 
 question with the Americans." 
 
 Trouble About Tea. 
 
 There vvere men in America who fully 
 understood that the king meant " to try the 
 question with the Americans," and were will 
 ing the trial should come. Samuel Adams 
 was satisfied as to what would be the result, 
 and was diligently working to prepare the 
 people for it. He had the satisfaction of 
 seeing public opinion in America daily 
 assume a more enlightened and determined 
 condition. A convention of all the colonies 
 for taking action for a common resistance 
 seemed to him a necessity, and he sent forth 
 circulars to the various provinces urging 
 them to assert their rights upon every pos- 
 sible occasion, and to combine for mutual 
 support and protection. 
 
 The news of the agreement between the 
 East India Company and the government 
 for the exportation of tea increased the de- 
 termination of the colonists to resist the tax. 
 It was also resolved that the tea should 
 neither be landed nor sold. A meeting was 
 held in Philadelphia and resolutions were 
 passed requesting those to whom the tea 
 was consigned " to resign their appoint- 
 ments." It was also resolved that whosoever 
 should " aid or abet in unloading, receiving, 
 
\\6 
 
 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 y>r vending the tea " should be regarded " as 
 an enemy to his country." Meetings of a 
 similar nature were held in New York and 
 Charleston, and similar resolutions were 
 adopted. 
 
 A fast-sailing vessel reached Boston about 
 the first of November, 1773, with the news 
 that several ships laden with tea had sailed 
 from England to America. On the third of 
 November a meeting was held at Faneuil 
 Hall, and, on motion of Samuel Adams, it 
 was unanimously resolved to send the tea 
 back upon its arrival. A man in the crowd 
 cried out : " The only way to get rid of it is 
 to throw it overboard." The meeting in- 
 vited the consignees of the tea to resign their 
 appointments. Two of these men were sons 
 of Governor Hutchinson, who was intensely 
 hated by the people of Massachusetts be- 
 cause of his double-faced policy, which had 
 been detected and exposed by Dr. Franklin. 
 Until this discovery Hutchinson had induced 
 the people of Massachusetts to believe that 
 he was their best friend, when in reality he 
 had suggested to the British government 
 nearly all the unjust measures thai: had been 
 directed against that colony. 
 
 An Ominous Silence. 
 
 The first of the tea ships reached Boston 
 on the twenty-fifth of November, 1773. A 
 meeting ol the citizens was held at Faneuil 
 Hall, and it was ordered that the vessel 
 should be moored to the wharf, and a guard 
 of twenty-five citizens was placed over her to 
 see that no tea was removed. The owner of 
 the vessel agreed to send the cargo back if 
 the governor would give his permit for the 
 vessel to leave Boston. This the governor 
 withheld, and in the meantime two other 
 ships arrived with cargoes of tea and were 
 ordered to anchor beside the first The com- 
 mittee appointed by the meeting of citizens 
 waited on the consignees, but obtained no 
 satisfaction from them. 
 
 The law required that the tea must be 
 landed within twenty days after its arrival, or 
 be seized for non-payment of duties. The 
 consignees and the governor had determined 
 to wait until the expiration of this time, when 
 the royal authorities would seize the tea and 
 remove it beyond the reach of the citizens 
 The duties could then be paid and the tec 
 landed an . sold. Their intentions were 
 fully understood by the patriots. When 
 the committee made its report to the meet- 
 ing of citizens, it was received in a dead 
 silence, and the meeting adjourned without 
 taking any action upon it. This ominous 
 silence alarmed the consignees. Hutchin- 
 son's two sons fled to the fort and placed 
 themselves under the protection of the 
 troops, while the governor quietly left the 
 city. 
 
 Tea Thrown Overboard. 
 
 On the sixteenth of December another 
 meeting was held. The next day the time 
 allowed by law would expire, and the tea 
 would be placed under the protection of the 
 fort and the armed slips in the harbor. The 
 owner h~d gone to see the governor, at 
 Milton, to obtain a pass for his vessels, with- 
 out which they could not leave the harbor. 
 This the governor refused, on the ground 
 that he had not a proper clearance. He re- 
 turned to Uoston late in the evening and re- 
 ported the result of his mission to the meet- 
 ing. Then Samuel Adams arose and gave 
 the signal for the action that had been de- 
 termined upon by saying : " This meeting 
 can do nothing more to save the country." 
 
 Instantly a shout rang through the room, 
 and a band of forty or fifty men "dressed 
 like Mohawk Indians," with their faces 
 blackened to prevent recognition, hastened 
 from the meeting to the wharf where the 
 ships were moored. A guard was posted to 
 prevent the intrusion of spies, and the ships 
 
CAUSES OF THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE. 
 
 347 
 
 were at once seized. Three hundred and 
 forty-two chests of tea were broken open and 
 their contents poured into the water. The 
 affair was witnessed in silence by a large 
 crowd on the shore. When the destruction 
 of the tea was completed, the " Indians " and 
 trie crowd dispersed to their homes. Paul 
 Kevere was despatched by the patriot lead- 
 ers to carry the news to New York and 
 Philadelphia. 
 
 compel the Americans to submit to the au- 
 thority of Great Britain. Boston, in particu- 
 lar, was to be made a terrible example to the 
 rest of the colonies. A bill was introduced 
 into Parliament, and passed by a majority of 
 four to one, closing the port of Boston to all 
 commerce, and transferring the seat of gov- 
 ernment to Salem. The British ministry 
 boasted that with ten thousand regulars they 
 could " march through the continent" and 
 
 THROWING THE TEA OVERBOARD TN BOSTON HARBOR. 
 
 At New York and Philadelphia the people 
 would not auow the tea to be landed, and at 
 Charleston it was stored in damp cellars, 
 where the whole cargo was soon ruined. At 
 Annapolis a ship and its cargo were burned ; 
 the owner of the vessel himself setting fire to 
 the ship. 
 
 The British government was greatly in- 
 censed at the refusal of the colonists to allow 
 the tea to be landed, and determined to 
 
 they were resolved to bring America to hei 
 knees and make her confess her fault in dust 
 and humiliation. 
 
 In addition to the Boston Port Bill, Parlia- 
 ment passed other measures of equal severity. 
 By one of these the royal officers were ordered 
 to quarter the troops sent out from England 
 on all the colonies at the people's expense ; 
 another provided that if any officer, in the 
 execution of the Quartering Act, should 
 
343 
 
 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 commit an act of violence, he should be sent 
 to England for trial. The deliberate pur- 
 pose of this last act was to en:ourage the 
 military an 1 other officials to acts of violence 
 and oppression by shielding them from pun- 
 ishment in America. The liberties of the 
 American people were thus placed at the 
 mercy of every petty official bearing a royal 
 commission. Another law, known as the 
 " Quebec Act," granted unusual concessions 
 to the Roman Catholics of Canada, in order 
 to attach them to the royal cause in the event 
 of a collision between England and her \o- 
 nies. 
 
 Help for the Patriots. 
 
 Boston was largely dependent upon her 
 commerce, and the closing of her harbor 
 entirely destroyed her trade and brought 
 great loss and suffering to her people. The 
 outrage to which she was thus subjected was 
 resented by the whole country, and evidences 
 of sympathy poured in upon her from ever}' 
 quarter. Salem refused to allow the estab- 
 lishment of the seat of government within 
 her limits, and offered the use of her port to 
 the merchants of Boston free of charge. 
 Marblehead made a similar offer. Large 
 numbers of the people of Boston were 
 thrown out of employment by the closing of 
 Boston harbor, and their families, left help- 
 less, suffered considerably. 
 
 The various colonies came forward 
 promptly to their relief. The neighboring 
 towns sent in provisions and other neces- 
 saries of life, and money was subscribed in 
 other parts of the country. South Carolina 
 sent to Boston two hundred barrels of rice, 
 and promised eight hundred more when they 
 were wanted. North Carolina sent a contri- 
 bution of two thousand pounds in money, 
 and meney and provisions were sent from 
 Virginia and Maryland. In the former colo- 
 ny, the farmers beyond the Blue Ridge raised 
 
 a contribution of one hundred and thiity 
 seven barrels of flour and sent it to Boston. 
 Even the city of London sent one hundred 
 and fifty thorsand dc liars to the relief of 
 Boston. Cheered by these evidences of sym 
 pathy, Boston resolved to hold out to the 
 end. 
 
 One of the first and most determined of the 
 colonies in expressing her sympathy for 
 Massachusetts was Virginia. Upon the re- 
 ceipt of the news of the closing of the port 
 of Boston, the assembly of this colony passed 
 resolutions of sympathy with Massachusetts, 
 and appointed the first of June, the day 
 designated for the enforcement < f the Port 
 Bill, as a day of fasting and prayer. For 
 this bold action the governor dissolved the 
 assembly. 
 
 General Gage Appointed Governor. 
 
 It met the next day — May 25th — in spite 
 of Governor Dunmore's prohibition, in the 
 coffee-room of the Raleigh Tavern, and de- 
 clared that an attack on Massachusetts was 
 an attack on every other colony and ought 
 to be opposed by the united wisdom of all. 
 The assembly urged that a general congress 
 of all the colonies should be he'd to take 
 united action for the redress of grievances, 
 and a committee was appointed to corres- 
 pond with the other colonies for the purpose 
 of bringing about this congress. The first 
 of June was rigidly observed in Virginia as a 
 fast day. George Mason charged his family 
 to be careful to attend church on that day 
 clad in mourning. 
 
 In the meantime Hutchinson had been 
 replaced as governor of Massachusetts by 
 General Gage, the commander-in-chief of 
 the British army in North America. He 
 landed in Boston on the seventeenth of May, 
 1774, and was well received by the people. 
 He was a man of mild character and great 
 good-nature, and utterly unfit for the task o' 
 
CAUSES OF THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE. 
 
 349 
 
 coercing a free people. The determined at- 
 titude of the patriots bewildered him. He 
 brought with him instructions for " the seiz- 
 ure and condign punishment of Samuel 
 Adams, John Hancock, Joseph Warren and 
 other leading patriots, but he stood in such 
 dread of them that he never so much as 
 attempted their arrest." 
 He was greatly per- 
 plexed to know how to 
 manage the people of 
 Boston. It was clear to 
 him that they intended 
 to resist the injustice of 
 the mother country, but 
 they kept so carefully 
 within the law that he 
 could not take hold of 
 their acts. They held 
 meetings and discussed 
 their grievances, but vio- 
 lated no law, and dis- 
 countenanced violence 
 of all kinds. He was 
 authorized by the British 
 government to fire upon 
 the colonists whenever 
 he should see fit ; but 
 their prudent and peace- 
 ful course gave him no 
 opportunity for so doing. 
 The government at 
 length undertook to put 
 a stop to the town meet- 
 ings of the Americans by 
 forbidding them to hold 
 such meetings after a cer- 
 tain day. They evaded 
 this law by convoking the meetings before the 
 designated day, and " keeping them alive" by 
 adjourning them from time to time. Faneuil 
 Hall and the Old South Church were the 
 favorite places of meeting, but many of these 
 assemblies were held under the Liberty Tree. 
 
 In the meantime the recommendation of 
 Virginia for a general congress was accepted 
 by the other colonies, and measures were set 
 on foot to bring it about. The need of such 
 an assembly, which should represent the 
 whole country, was becoming more and 
 more apparent every day. In the various 
 
 JOHN HANCOCK. 
 
 colonies delegates were chosen, and it 
 was agreed, at the instance of the legis- 
 lature of Massachusetts, that the congress 
 should meet in Philadelphia on the fifth 
 of September, 1774. Martin, the royalist 
 governor of Georgia, prevented that colony 
 
35Q 
 
 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 from choosing delegates to the congress, 
 and General Gage attempted a similar inter- 
 ference with the general court of Massachu- 
 setts. Samuel Adams, as usual, had antici- 
 pated him, however. On the seventeenth of 
 June, having privately ascertained the senti- 
 ments of the members, he locked the door 
 of the room in which the meeting of the 
 assembly was held, and so kept out the 
 governor's secretary, who came to dissolve 
 the session, and who knocked in vain for 
 admission. Thus, safe from executive inter- 
 ference, the general court proceeded to ap- 
 point its delegates to the congress and to 
 make provision for their support. This ac- 
 complished, the doors were opened and the 
 members submitted to the dissolution pro- 
 nounced by Governor Gage. 
 
 Organized Opposition. 
 
 The act of Parliament by which the British 
 government undertook to prohibit the town 
 meetings of Massachusetts was known as the 
 " Regulation Act." It was introduced into 
 Parliament by Lord North in April, and re- 
 ceived the royal assent in May, 1754. It 
 was an infamous measure. It annulled the 
 charter of the colony, and " without previous 
 notice to Massachusetts, and without a hear- 
 ing, it arbitrarily took away rights and lib- 
 erties which the people had enjoyed from the 
 foundation of the colony, except in the evil 
 days of James II." All the power of the 
 colony was concentrated in the hands of the 
 royal governor bv conferring upon him the 
 appointment of all the courts of justice and 
 every official connected with them. The 
 courts were all to be remodelled in the in- 
 terest of the king, and Gage at once set to 
 work to appoint the new judges. 
 
 The whole colony united in a determined 
 resistance to them. In many of the towns 
 the citizens would not allow the new courts 
 to be opened, and in Boston no man could be 
 
 found to serve as a juror in the courts ap- 
 pointed for that city. A meeting of the citi- 
 zens of Boston was held at Faneuil Hall on 
 the twenty-sixth of August, 1774, and was 
 attended by delegates from the counties of 
 Worcester, Middlesex and Essex. It adopted 
 a series of resolutions denying the authority 
 of Parliament to change any of the laws of the 
 province, and declared that the new govern- 
 ment set up by Gage under the Regulating 
 Act was unconstitutional, and that the new 
 officers, should they attempt to act, would 
 become the enemies of the province although 
 they bore the commission of the king. 
 
 The People Aroused. 
 
 In order to provide for the safety of the 
 colony a provincial congress with large ex- 
 ecutive powers was advised by the conven- 
 tion. Gage found himself unable to enforce 
 the new laws. "The chief justice and his 
 colleagues, repairing in a body to the gov- 
 ernor, represented the impossibility of exer- 
 cising their office in Boston or in any other 
 part of the province ; the army was too 
 small for their protection ; and besides, none 
 would act as jurors. Thus the authority of 
 the new government, as established by act 
 of Parliament, perished in the presence of 
 the governor, the judges and the army."* 
 Thus defeated, Gage began to increase the 
 number of troops at Boston. 
 
 On the first of September Gage sent a de- 
 tachment to Quarry Hill, near Charlestown, 
 and seized the public magazine in which the 
 province of Massachusetts kept its powder 
 for its militia, and brought it to Boston. The 
 news of this seizure roused the people of the 
 surrounding counties to a high state of in- 
 dignation. A body of several thousand of 
 the best citizens of Middlesex, " leaving their 
 guns in the rear," marched to Cambridge to 
 
 *Bancroft. 
 
CAUSES OF THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE. 
 
 35' 
 
 protest against the outrage. They com- 
 pelled Dan'brth, a county judge and a mem- 
 ber of Gage's council ; Phipps, the high 
 sheriff; and Oliver, the lieutenant-governor, 
 to resign their places. They attempted no 
 violence, and inasmuch as Gage had acted 
 within the letter of the law in removing the 
 powder, dispersed quietly, satisfied for the 
 time with their protest. Their demonstra- 
 tion thoroughly alarmed Gage, who kept the 
 troops in Boston under arms all night, 
 posted cannon to command the approaches 
 to the town, and doubled all the guards. At 
 the same time he wrote 
 to England for reinforce- 
 ments. 
 
 The news of the seiz- 
 ure of the Massachusetts 
 powder spread rapidly 
 through the province and 
 into the adjoining colo- 
 nies. The seizure was 
 made on Thursday morn- 
 ing, and by Saturday 
 morning twenty thou- 
 sand men were under 
 arms and advancing 
 upon Boston. They were 
 stopped by expresses 
 from the patriots at 
 Boston, but their prompt 
 action showed the spirit of the province. 
 When the news reached Israel Putnam, 
 in his home in Connecticut, the old hero 
 at once called on the militia to go with 
 him to the aid of Boston, where the report 
 said the people had been fired on by the 
 royal troops and shipping. His call was 
 answered by thousands, but later advices 
 from Boston put a stop to the march. 
 
 "But for counter intelligence," wrote Put- 
 nam to the patriots at Boston, " we should 
 have had forty thousand men, well equipped 
 and ready to march this morning. Send a 
 
 written express to the foreman of this com- 
 mittee when you have occasion of our 
 martial assistance ; we shall attend your 
 summons, and shall glory in having a share 
 in the honor of ridding our country of the 
 yoke of tyranny which our forefathers have 
 not borne, neither will we. And we much 
 desire you to keep a strict guard over the 
 remainder of your powder, for that must be 
 the great means, under God, of the salvation 
 of our country." 
 
 The excitement was not without its good 
 results, however. It led every man to ex- 
 
 CARPENTERS HALL, PHILADELPHIA. 
 
 amine the condition of his means of resist 
 ance, and to supply his deficiencies in arms 
 and equipments. The royal authority was 
 at an end outside of Boston, and active roy- 
 alists found it best to seek safety within that 
 city. 
 
 The general congress, or, as it is better 
 known, the Old Continental Congress, met 
 in Carpenter's Hall, in Philadelphia, on the 
 fifth of September, 1774. It numbered fifty- 
 five members, consisting of delegates from 
 every colony save Georgia, whose governor 
 had prevented the election of delegates. 
 
352 
 
 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 Among the members were many of the most 
 eminent men in the land. From Virginia 
 came George Washington, Patrick Henry 
 and Richard Henry Lee; from Massachu- 
 setts, Samuel Adams and John Adams ; from 
 New York, Philip Livingston, John Jay and 
 WilLam Livingston; from Rhode Island, 
 the venerable Stephen Hopkins ; from Con- 
 necticut, Roger Sherman ; from South Caro- 
 lina, Edward and John Rutledge and Chris- 
 topher Gadsden ; and from New Jersey, the 
 Rev. John Witherspoon, the president of 
 Princeton College. The members of this 
 illustrious body were not strangers to each 
 other, though the majority of them met now 
 for the first time. They had corresponded 
 with each other and had discussed their 
 wrongs so thoroughly that each was well 
 acquainted with the sentiments of his col- 
 leagues, and all were bound together by a 
 common sympathy. 
 
 Prayer and Patriotism. 
 
 The congress was organized by the elec- 
 tion of Peyton Randolph, of Virginia, as 
 speaker. Charles Thomson, of Pennsylva- 
 nia, an Irishman by birth, and the principal 
 of the Quaker High School in Philadelphia, 
 was then chosen secretary. It was proposed 
 to open the sessions with prayer. Some of 
 the members thought this might be inexpe- 
 dient, as all the delegates might not be able 
 to join in the same form of worship. Up 
 rose Samuel Adams, in whose great soul 
 there was not a grain of sham. He was a 
 strict Congregationalist. " I am no bigot," 
 he said. " I can hear a prayer from a man 
 of piety and virtue, whatever may be his 
 cloth, provided he is at the same time a 
 friend to his country." On his motion, the 
 Rev. Mr. Duche, an Episcopal clergyman of 
 Philadelphia, was invited to act as chaplain. 
 ^Mr. Duche accepted the invitation. 
 
 When the congress assembled the next 
 morning, all was anxiety and apprehension, 
 
 for the rumor of the attack upon Boston, 
 which had reached Putnam and aroused 
 Connecticut, had gotten as far as Philadel- 
 phia. The chaplain opened the session by 
 reading the thirty-fifth Psalm, which seemed, 
 as John Adams said, ordained by Heaven to 
 be read that morning, and then broke forth 
 into an extempore prayer of great fervor and 
 eloquence. 
 
 A Recital of Wrongs. 
 
 At the close of the prayer a deep silence 
 prevailed in the hall. It was broken by 
 Patrick Henry, who rose to open the day's 
 proceedings. He began slowly and hesi- 
 tatingly at first, " as if borne down by the 
 weight of his subject," but as he proceeded 
 he rose grandly to the duty of the occasion, 
 and in a speech of masterly eloquence he re- 
 cited the wrongs of the American colonies at 
 the hands of Great Britain, and declared that 
 all government in America was dissolved, 
 and urged upon the congress the necessity 
 of forming a new government for the colo- 
 nies. Towards the close of his speech he 
 struck a chord which answered in every 
 heart. " British oppression," he exclaimed, 
 " has effaced the boundaries of the several 
 colonies ; the distinctions between Virgin- 
 ians, Pennsylvanians, New Yorkers and New 
 Englanders are no more. I am not a Vir- 
 ginian, but an American." The deputies 
 were astonished at his eloquence, as well as 
 at the magnitude of the interests with which 
 they were intrusted. 
 
 The congress continued its sessions for 
 seven weeks. It had no authority to bind 
 the colonies to any course ; its powers were 
 merely advisory, and it did not transcend its 
 authority. It drew up a Declaration oi 
 Rights, in which it defined the latural rights 
 of man to be the enjoyment of life, liberty 
 and property. It claimed for the Ameri- 
 cans, as British subjects, the right to partici- 
 
CAUSES OF THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE. 
 
 353 
 
 pate in the making of their laws, and the 
 "levying, of taxes upon their own people. 
 The right of trial by jury in the immediate 
 vicinity of the scene of the alleged offence, 
 and the right of holding public meetings 
 and petitioning for the redress of grievances 
 were solemnly asserted. A protest was 
 entered against the maintaining of standing 
 armies in America without the consent of 
 the colonies.,, and against eleven specified 
 acts passed since the opening of the reign of 
 George III., as violative of the rights of the 
 colonies. The declaration concluded with 
 the solemn warning, " To these grievous 
 acts and measures Americans cannot sub- 
 mit." 
 
 Prompt Measures. 
 
 Congress then addressed itself to a plan 
 for obtaining redress. It was agreed to 
 form an "American Association," whose 
 members were to pledge themselves not to 
 trade with Great Britain or the West Indies, 
 or with persons engaged in the slave trade ; 
 not to use tea or any British goods ; and not 
 to trade with any colony which should re- 
 fuse to join the association. For the purpose 
 of enforcing the objects of this association, 
 committees were to be appointed in the vari- 
 ous parts of the country to see that its 
 provisions were carried into effect. 
 
 Other papers were adopted by the con- 
 gress, setting forth its views more clearly. 
 A petition to the king .vas prepared by 
 John Dickinson, of Pennsylvania, who also 
 drafted an address to the people of Canada. 
 A memorial to the people of the colonies 
 was written by Richard Henry Lee, of Vir- 
 ginia, and an address to the people of Great 
 Britain by John Jay, of New York. These 
 papers were forwarded to England to be laid 
 before the British government, and on the 
 twenty-sixth of October the congress ad- 
 journed to meet on the tenth of May, 1775. 
 2 3 
 
 In January, 1775, Lord North presented 
 the papers adopted by congress to the 
 House of Commons, and at the same time 
 they were laid before the House of Lords 
 by Lord Dartmouth. The venerable Earl of 
 Chatham made this the occasion of a power- 
 ful appeal to the majority in Parliament to 
 reverse their arbitrary course towards the 
 Americans before it should be too late. 
 
 Referring to the papers laid before the 
 House, he said : " When your lordships 
 look at the papers transmitted us frorr 
 America, when you consider their decency, 
 firmness and wisdom, you cannot but respec* 
 their cause and wish to make it your own. 
 For myself, I must avow, that in all my 
 reading — and I have read Thucydides, and 
 have studied and admired the master states 
 of the world — for solidity of reason, force of 
 sagacity, and wisdom of conclusion under a 
 complication of difficult circumstances, no 
 nation or body of men can stand in prefer- 
 ence to the general congress at Philadelphia. 
 The histories of Greece and Rome give us 
 nothing equal to it, and all attempts to im- 
 pose servitude upon such a mighty conti- 
 nental nation must be in vain. We shall be 
 forced ultimately to retract ; let us retract 
 while we can, not when we must. These 
 violent acts must be repealed ; you will 
 repeal them ; I pledge myself for it, I stake 
 my reputation on it, that you will in the end 
 repeal them. Avoid, then, this humiliating 
 necessity." 
 
 The king was furious when the words oj 
 the greatest statesman of his kingdom were 
 repeated to him. Neither the wisdom noi 
 the eloquence of Chatham could turn the 
 king or the ministers from their mad 
 course. They had but one plan for Amer- 
 ica now. She must submit humbly to theii 
 will ; if she should resist, she must be 
 crushed into submission. The king mean* 
 to try the question with the Americans. 
 
CHAPTER XXVI 
 Progress of the War 
 
 iage Fortifies Boston Neck — He Summons the General Court — Recalls his Proclamation — The Provincial Congress 
 of Massachusetts — It takes Measures for Defence — The Militia Organized — The Minute Men — Friends of America in 
 England— Gage Resolves to Seize the Stores at Concord — Midnight March of the British Troops — The Alarm Given- 
 Skirmishes at Lexington and Concord — Retreat of the British — A Terrible March — Uprising of New England — Boston 
 Invested — Dun more Seizes the Virginia Powder — Is Made to Pay for It — Uprising of the Middle and Southern 
 Colonies — The Mecklenburg Declaration of Independence — Capture of Ticonderoga and Crown Point — Meeting of 
 the Second Continental Congress — Congress Resolves to Sustain Massachusetts — Renewed Efforts for Peace — Congress 
 Assumes the General Government of the Colonies — A Federal Union Organized — Its Character — A Continental Army 
 Formed — George Washington Appointed Commander-in-Chief — General Officers Appointed — Condition of the Army 
 Before Boston — Inaction of Gage — Battle of Breed's Hill — A Glorious Defence — The Battle Equivalent to a V c tory 
 in its Effects upon the Country— Arrival of Washington at Cambridge — He Takes Command of the Army — He Reor- 
 ganizes the Army — Difficulties of the Undertaking — The Invasion of Canada Resolved Upon — March of Montgomery 
 and Arnold — Rapid Successes of Montgomery — He Captures Montreal — March of Arnold Through the Wilderness- 
 Arrival Before Quebec — Forms a Junction with Montgomery — The Siege of Quebec — The Ice Forts — Failure of the 
 Attack — Death of Montgomery — Retreat of the Americans from Canada — Lord Dunmore's War in Virginia — Destruc- 
 tion of Norfolk — The Thirteen United Colonies — Burning of Falmouth — Naval Matters — Action of Great Britain — 
 The War to be Carried On — The Hessians. 
 
 WHILE the Continental Congress 
 was in session, matters were 
 in a most serious state in 
 Massachusetts. General Gage, 
 alarmed by the threatening aspect of the 
 Americans, began to fortify Bostcn Neck, 
 the narrow peninsula which united the city 
 with the mainland. A regiment was stationed 
 at these works to prevent communication 
 between the citizens and the people in the 
 country. The news of this action spread 
 rapidly. At Portsmouth, New Hampshire, 
 a company of volunteers seized the fort and 
 carried off one hundred and fifty barrels of 
 powder and several cannon. At Newport 
 forty-four cannon were seized by the people 
 and sent to Providence for safe-keeping. 
 
 In the midst of this excitement, Gage, 
 thinking such a step might conciliate the 
 people, summoned the general court to meet 
 at Salem ; but, alarmed at the growing spirit 
 of liberty, countermanded the order. The 
 members of the general court met, however, 
 
 at Salem, on the fifth of October, 1 774, but 
 finding no one to organize them adjourned 
 to Concord, where they resolved themselves 
 into a provincial congress, of which John 
 Hancock was elected president. This con- 
 gress existed as the government of the people, 
 and was independent of the authority of the 
 king. They protested their loyalty to King 
 George and their desire for peace, and endea- 
 vored to induce Gage to desist from fortify- 
 ing Boston Neck. Gage refused to comply 
 with their demand, and warned them to desist 
 from their unlawful course. The provincial 
 congress paid no attention to his warning, 
 but proceeded to call out the militia to the 
 number of twelve thousand. They were 
 allowed to remain at their homes, but were 
 required to be ready for service at a minute's 
 warning. Hence they were known as 
 " Minute Men." 
 
 Two committees of safety were appointed: 
 one to call out the minute men when theit 
 services were needed ; the other to supply 
 
 354 
 
PROGRESS OF THE WAR. 
 
 355 
 
 them with provisions and ammunition. Two 
 general officers, Artemas Ward and Seth 
 Pomeroy, were appointed. The other New 
 England colonies were invited to increase the 
 number of minute men to twenty thousand. 
 The sum of twenty thousand pounds was 
 looted for the military service, and Massa- 
 chusetts prepared for the worst. In every 
 colony military preparations were set on foot, 
 and the whole of America began to prepare 
 for the coming storm which all thinking men 
 now saw was close at hand. 
 
 The papers drawn up by the Continental 
 Congress had been widely circulated in Eng- 
 land, and had aroused a great deal of sym- 
 pathy for America, and it was hoped by many 
 that the new Parliament, which met in Janu- 
 ary, 1775, would see the necessity of doing 
 justice to the colonies. The cause of America 
 was eloquently pleaded by the Earl of Chat- 
 ham and others, but the King and the Minis- 
 ters were resolved to compel the submission 
 of the Americans, and the majority in Parlia- 
 ment sustained them. A measure known as 
 the "New England Restraining Bill" was 
 introduced by Lord North, which deprived 
 the people of New England of the privilege 
 of fishing on the banks ^f Newfoundland. 
 
 The Colonies Act Promptly. 
 
 In March news arrived that all the colonies 
 had endorsed the action of the Continental 
 Congress and had pledged themselves to 
 support it. To punish them the provisions 
 of the Restraining Bill were extended to every 
 colony save New York, Delaware and North 
 Carolina. These colonies were exempted in 
 the hope of inducing them to desert the 
 American cause. The measure failed of its 
 object, and the three favored colonies re- 
 mained firm in the support of the Congress. 
 
 General Gage now resolved to take a 
 decisive step. He learned that the patriots 
 had established a depot of provisions and 
 
 military stores at Concord, eighteen miles from 
 Boston, and resolved to seize these supplies 
 at once. The military force under his com- 
 mand at Boston numbered three thousand 
 men, and he felt himself strong enough not 
 only to seize these stores, but also to arrest 
 John Hancock and Samuel Aclams,who were 
 lodging at Lexington. Accordingly, on the 
 night of the eighteenth of April, 1775, he 
 
 THE MINUTE MAN. 
 
 detached a force of eight hundred men undei 
 Lieutenant-Colonel Smith, and shortly before 
 midnight had them conveyed across Charles 
 River to Cambridge, from which place they 
 began their march to Concord. Gage had 
 conducted the whole movement with the 
 greatest secrecy, but his preparations had 
 been detected by the patriot leaders in Boston, 
 and Hancock and Adam? had been warned 
 
356 
 
 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 of their danger. The British had hardly- 
 embarked in their boats when two lanterns 
 were displayed from the tower of the Old 
 North Church. 
 
 Paul Revere, the chosen messenger, who 
 had been awaiting this signal, at once set off 
 from Charlestown and rode in haste to Lex- 
 ington to warn the patriots of the approach 
 of the British troops. At the same time 
 
 not gone far when they heard in advance of 
 them the firing of alarm guns and the tolling 
 of bells. The British officers were astonished 
 at the rapidity with which their movement 
 had been discovered ; but they could not 
 doubt the meaning of these signals. The 
 country was being aroused, and their situa- 
 tion was becoming serious. Lieutenant- 
 Colonel Smith sent a messenger to General 
 
 THE BATTLE OF LEXINGTON, APRIL 1 9, 1775- 
 
 William Dawes left Boston by the road over 
 the Neck, and rode at full speed towards 
 Lexington, arousing the country as he went 
 along with his stirring tidings. Other mes- 
 sengers were sent forward by these men, and 
 the alarm spread rapidly through the country. 
 From Cambridge the British pushed for- 
 ward rapidly towards Lexington. They had 
 
 Gage for reinforcements, and ordered Major 
 Pitcairn to push forward with a part of the 
 force and seize the two bridges at Concord. 
 Pitcairn obeyed his orders promptly, and 
 arrested every one whom he met or over- 
 took save a countryman, who escaped and 
 reached Lexington in time to give the 
 alarm. 
 
PROGRESS OF THE WAR. 
 
 357 
 
 Pitcairn's division reached Lexington at 
 daybreak on the nineteenth of April. They 
 found seventy or eighty minute men, and 
 several other persons, assembled on the 
 common. They were ignorant of the inten- 
 tions of the British, and supposed they merely 
 wished to arrest Adams and Hancock, who 
 had left the village upon the first alarm. 
 
 " Disperse, ye Rebels !" 
 
 As he saw the group Pitcairn ordered his 
 men to halt and load their muskets, and called 
 out to the Americans : " Disperse, ye villains, 
 ye rebels, disperse ; lay down your arms ; 
 why don't you lay down your arms and dis- 
 perse ?" The Americans stood motionless 
 and silent, " witnesses against agression ; too 
 few to resist ; too brave to fly." Pitcairn, 
 seeing that his order was not obeyed, dis- 
 charged his pistol and ordered his men to 
 fire. A few straggling shots followed this 
 order, and then the regulars poured a close 
 heavy volley into the Americans killing 
 seven and wounding 'nine of them. Parker, 
 the commander of the minute men, seeing 
 that the affair was to be a massacre instead 
 of a battle, ordered his men to disperse. The 
 British then gave three cheers for their vic- 
 tory. In a little while Colonel Smith arrived 
 with the remainder of his command, and the 
 whole party then pushed on towards Con- 
 cord. 
 
 The alarm had already reached Concord, 
 and in a little while news was received of 
 the massacre at Lexington. The minute 
 men promptly assembled on the common, 
 near the church, and awaited the approach 
 of the enemy. The minute men from Lin- 
 coln came in at an early hour, and a few 
 from Acton. About seven o'clock the British 
 were seen advancing in two divisions, and as 
 it was evident that they were about four 
 times as numerous as the Americans, the 
 latter retreated to the summit of a hill on 
 
 the opposite side of the Concord River, and 
 there awaited the arrival of reinforcements, 
 which were coming in from the surrounding 
 country. 
 
 The British occupied the town, and post- 
 ing a force of one hundred men to hold the 
 North Bridge, began their search for arms 
 and stores. The greater part of these had 
 been secreted, but the soldiers found a few 
 that could not be removed, and gave the 
 rest of their time to plundering the houses 
 of the town. " This slight waste of stores," 
 says Bancroft, " was all the advantage for 
 which Gage precipitated a civil war." 
 
 Arrival of the Minute Men. 
 
 Between nine and ten o'clock the Ameri- 
 can force had increased by the arrival of the 
 minute men from Acton, Bedford, Westford, 
 Carlisle, Littleton and Chelmsford, to about 
 four hundred and fifty. Below them, in full 
 view, were the regulars plundering their 
 homes, and from the town rose the smoke of 
 the fires the soldiers had kindled for the 
 destruction of the few stores they had man 
 aged to secure. Not knowing whether they 
 meant to burn the town or not, the officers 
 of the minute men resolved to advance and 
 enter Concord. Barret, the commanding 
 officer, cautioned the meh not to fire unless 
 attacked. As their approach was discovered 
 the British began to take up the planks of 
 the North Bridge, and to prevent this the 
 Americans quickened their pace. The regu- 
 lars then fired a volley, which killed two of 
 the minute men. The fire was returned, and 
 two of the soldiers were killed and several 
 wounded. These volleys were followed by 
 some desultory skirmishing, and about noon 
 Colonel Smith drew off his men and began 
 to retreat by the way he had come. 
 
 One of those killed at the bridge was 
 Isaac Davis, the captain of the minute y,cn 
 of Acton. He had bidden his young w/e a. 
 
358 
 
 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 touching good-bye, as he ran to lead his 
 men to the fight. A little later his dead 
 body was brought to her door. 
 
 With the retreat of the British from Con- 
 cord the real work of the day began. The 
 country was thoroughly aroused, and men 
 came pouring in from every direction, eager 
 to get a shot at the regulars. The road by 
 which the royal forces were retreating was 
 narrow and crooked, and led through forests 
 
 the strife as the regulars entered its limits. 
 Far and wide the alarm was spreading 
 through the country, and the people were 
 getting under arms. By noon a messenger 
 rode furiously into the distant town of VVor 
 cester and shouted the alarm. Instantly the 
 minute men of the town got under arms, and 
 after joining their minister in prayer, on the 
 common, took up the march for Cambridge. 
 The whole province was rising, and the 
 
 DEATH OF ISAAC DAVIS. 
 
 and thickets, and was bordered by the stone 
 walls which enclosed the farms. At every 
 step the militia and minute men hung upon 
 the enemy, and kept up an irregular but 
 fatal fire upon them from behind trees, 
 fences and houses. Flanking parties were 
 thrown out to clear the way, but without 
 success. The number of the Americans 
 increased at every step- Each town took up 
 
 enemies of the fugitive regulars were 
 increasing every moment. 
 
 Smith hurried his command through Lex- 
 ington at a rapid rate, and a short distance 
 beyond the town met Lord Percy advancing 
 to his assistance with twelve hundred 
 infantry and two pieces of artillery. Percy 
 formed his men into a square, enclosing the 
 fugitives, who dropped helplessly on the 
 
PROGRESS OF THE WAR. 
 
 359 
 
 ground, " their tongues hanging out of their 
 mouths like those of dogs after a chase,' 
 and with his cannon kept the Americans at 
 bay. He could not think of holding his 
 position, however, and after a halt of half 
 an hour resumed the retreat, first setting fire 
 to some houses in Lexington. 
 
 The fighting now became more energetic 
 than ever. From either side, from in front and 
 the rear, the Americans kept up a constant 
 fire upon the British, who revenged them- 
 selves by murdering some helpless people 
 along the road and burning houses. Below 
 West Cambridge the British broke into a 
 run, and at length, about sunset, succeeded 
 in escaping across Charlestown Neck, where 
 they were safe under the fire of their ship- 
 ping. Had the militia from Marblehead and 
 Salem, who were on the march, been more 
 alert, the entire British force would have 
 been captured, as they were in no condition 
 to resist a determined attack in front. 
 
 The loss of the Americans during the day 
 was forty-nine killed, thirty-four wounded 
 and five missing. The British lost in killed, 
 wounded and missing two hundred and 
 seventy-three men, or more than fell in 
 Wolfe's army in the battle of the Heights of 
 Abraham. Many of the officers, including 
 Colonel Smith, were wounded. 
 
 The News Spreads Like Wildfire. 
 
 The news of the conflicts at Lexington and 
 Concord spread rapidly through New Eng- 
 land, and was sent by express messengers to 
 New York and the colonies farther south. 
 In New England it produced a general upris- 
 ing of the people, and in ten days Boston 
 was blockaded by an irregular army of twenty 
 thousand provincial troops, whose encamp- 
 ments extended from Roxbury to the Mystic 
 River, above Charlestown, a distance of ten 
 miles. John Stark, who had served with 
 gailantry in the old French war, was on his 
 
 way to Boston in ten minutes after he wa.'. 
 informed of the fighting. 
 
 Israel Putnam, a veteran soldier, and as 
 true a hero as ever lived, was ploughing in 
 his field when the courier rode by with the 
 tidings of the battle. He left his plough, 
 sprang on his horse, and after rousing his 
 neighbors rode from his home, in Connecti- 
 cut, to Cambridge, without even stopping to 
 change his clothes. The Massachusetts Con- 
 gress took energetic measures for the sup- 
 port of the army before Boston, and in a few 
 ^ays this force began to assume a more regu- 
 lar character. 
 
 Arms and Ammunition Seized. 
 
 Matters had also reached a crisis in Vir- 
 ginia. On the night of the twentieth of 
 April Lord Dunmore seized the powder in 
 the magazine at Williamsburg, and sent it, 
 under guard of a party of marines, on board 
 an armed schooner in the James river. The 
 inhabitants, on the morning of the twenty- 
 first, took arms to compel the restoration of 
 the powder, but were persuaded to refrain 
 from violence. In a few days the news from 
 Lexington and Concord was received, and it 
 was the general belief that Dunmore's course 
 was only a part of a general plan to disarm 
 the colonies. 
 
 On the second of May Patrick Henry 
 summoned the independent companies of 
 Hanover to meet him at a certain place, and 
 led them towards Williamsburg, determined 
 to compel the governor to restore the powder 
 or pay its full va! ue in money. On the march 
 they were met by a messenger from Dunmore, 
 who paid them the full value of the powder 
 in money. This money was soon after for- 
 warded to Congress. The companies then 
 disbanded and returned home. Dunmore, 
 thoroughly frightened, fled with his family 
 on board a man of- war, and declared "Pat- 
 rick Henry and his associates to be in rebel- 
 
360 
 
 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 lion." Afraid to meet the Virginians in an 
 open fight, he threatened to arm their slaves 
 against them, and inaugurated a general 
 massacre. 
 
 The middle and southern colonies were 
 iprompt to follow the example of New Eng- 
 land. The people of New York seized the 
 provisions intended for the king's troops at 
 Boston, shut up the custom-house, and for- 
 bade any vessels to leave the harbor for ports 
 or colonies acknowledging the authority of 
 Great Britain. The arms and ammunition 
 belonging to the city were seized by the 
 
 CAPTURE OF TICONDEROGA BY ETHAN ALLEN. 
 
 volunteers, and measures were set on foot for 
 a general resistance to the authority of the 
 king. New Jersey was equally determined, 
 and in Pennsylvania enthusiastic meetings of 
 citizens resolved "to associate for the pur- 
 pose of defending, with arms, their lives, their 
 property, and liberty." 
 
 Military companies were formed and trained 
 in the exercise of arms. The people of Mary- 
 land compelled their royalist governor to 
 surrender to them all the arms and ammuni- 
 tion of the province. The militia officers of 
 South Carolina at once resigned their com- 
 
 missions from the governor, and regiments 
 of militia for the defence of the colony were 
 raised and drilled. At Charleston the royal 
 arsenal was seized, and its contents distributed 
 among the people. Georgia also placed her- 
 self in the ranks of her patriot sisters, and 
 seizing the ammunition and arms within hei 
 limits prepared for resistance. 
 
 North Carolina took a more decisive stand 
 than any of the colonies. The spirit of resist- 
 ance ran high within her borders. A con 
 vention of the people of Mecklenburg county 
 was hjld at Charlotte on the twenty-ninth of 
 
 May, and adopted 
 
 a series of resolu- 
 
 i tions declaring 
 
 themselves i n d e - 
 
 L^^g - jjj pendent of the 
 
 control of Great 
 Britain, and re- 
 nouncing all alle- 
 giance to her. This 
 was the famous 
 "Mecklenburg De- 
 claration ( f Indc 
 pendence." The 
 whole country, 
 from New Hamp- 
 shire to Georgia, 
 was united in its 
 determination to 
 resist the injustice of Great Britain with 
 arms. Massachusetts had struck the first 
 blow, but every colony was now prepared 
 and determined to bear its part in the great 
 struggle for freedom. 
 
 The Massachusetts Committee of Safety 
 were anxious to secure the important posts 
 of Ticonderoga and Crown Point on Lake 
 Champlain. The possession of these posts 
 would not only enable the Americans to 
 command the entrance to Canada, but would 
 give them the large quantities of military 
 supplies stored in these forts. The project 
 
WASHINGTON REVIEWING THE ARMY 
 
PROGRESS OF THE WAR. 
 
 3^ 
 
 was enteied into with gieat energy by Bene- 
 dict Arnold, then commanding a company 
 before Boston, and by Ethan Allen, of Ver- 
 mont. Allen was the leader of the Green 
 Mountain Boys, a military organization in 
 Vermont, which had been formed to resist 
 the authority of New York, which claimed 
 Vermont as a part of its territory. 
 
 The people of Vermont, however, 
 preferred the authority of New 
 Hampshire to that of New York. 
 The dispute had become quite 
 animated when the outbreak of the 
 Revolution drew the attention of 
 *11 parties to more stirring events. 
 Arnold, upon hearing that Allen 
 was preparing to seize the forts, set 
 out at once for Vermont, and over- 
 took the Green Mountain Boys near 
 the head of Lake Champlain. Pro- 
 ducing a colonel's commission he 
 ordered Allen to surrender the com- 
 mand to him, but the latter refused, 
 and was sustained by his men, and 
 Arnold at length agreed to serve as 
 a volunteer. 
 
 Securing a few boats Allen cros- 
 sed the lake with his little force, 
 about two hundred and seventy in 
 number, and at daybreak, on the 
 morning of May io, surprised Fort 
 Ticonderoga, and made prisoners 
 of the garrison before they were 
 fairly awake. Not a blow was 
 struck. The astounded commander 
 of the fort asked Allen by whose authority he 
 acted. " In the name of the Great Jehovah 
 and the Continental Congress," was the 
 instant reply, delivered in stentorian tones. 
 The commandant instantly submitted. On 
 the twelfth of May Seth Warner, Allen's 
 lieutenant, surprised Crown Point, and 
 secured the fort. Arnold secured a number 
 of boats and, descending the lake, captured 
 
 St. John's, in the "Sorel." Sixty prijj'aers 
 were taken in this expedition, and besides 
 two of the most important military posts in 
 America the patriots secured two hundred 
 cannon, and a large supply of ammuni- 
 tion. 
 
 On the tenth of May, the day of the cap- 
 ture of Ticonderoga, the second Continental 
 
 
 
 
 %ar*tZs 
 
 '; C&SIW' 
 
 SIGNERS OF THE MECKLENBURG DECLARATION. 
 
 Congress met at Philadelphia. This time 
 they assembled in the State House, a place 
 more suited to the dignity of such a body, 
 and calculated to give more publicity to theii 
 proceedings. No change was at first made 
 in the officers of the preceding session, but 
 in a few days Peyton Randolph resigned his 
 position to return home to attend the Vir- 
 ginia legislature, which had been summoned 
 
362 
 
 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 by the governor. Thomas Jefferson was 
 appointed to fill his position as a delegate. 
 
 John Hancock of Massachusetts, who had 
 been specially exempted by the king from all 
 offers of amnesty, was chosen president of 
 the Congress. Three new members of note 
 now entered the Congress. They were Ben- 
 jamin Franklin, a delegate from Pennsyl- 
 vania, and George Clinton and Robert R. 
 Livingston, delegates from New York. 
 Franklin had just returned from England, 
 where he had resided for several years as the 
 agent for some of the colonies. He had 
 been in constant official contact with the lead- 
 ing men of Great Britain and was thoroughly 
 informed as to the policy of the British gov- 
 ernment respecting America. He was, there- 
 fore, a most valuable acquisition to the Con- 
 gress. 
 
 Justice Demanded of Great Britain. 
 
 The circumstances under which this Con- 
 gress assembled w T ere very different from 
 those which had attended the meeting of its 
 predecessor. Then there was hope that the 
 remonstrances of the colonies would open 
 the eyes of the British government to the 
 folly of i!s course ; but those remonstances 
 had been received with fresh outrages, their 
 petitions had " been spurned with contempt 
 from the foot of the throne," and the British 
 army had begun the war at Lexington and 
 Concord. Massachusetts, driven beyond the 
 point of forbearance, had taken up arms, and 
 had besieged the royal troops in Boston. A 
 state of war actually existed and Congress 
 must either sustain Massachusetts, and so 
 involve every colony in the struggle, or 
 leave her to meet the power of Great Britain 
 unaided. 
 
 The whole country was in favor of stand- 
 ing by Massachusetts, and the delegates in 
 Congress reflected its feeling. It was, there- 
 fore, resolved by Congress to place all the 
 
 colonies in a state of defence, and to prepare 
 for a vigorous prosecution of the war should 
 it be found impossible to avert it. At the 
 same time, as a last means of preserving 
 peace, a new petition was addressed to the 
 king stating the grievances of the colonies, 
 and asking for justice at his majesty's hands. 
 Addresses were also issued to the people of 
 Great Britain, Ireland and Jamaica. To the 
 people of Great Britain they declared, after 
 relating their wrongs, cJid their failure to 
 obtain redress : " We are reduced to the 
 alternative of choosing an unconditional sub- 
 mission to the tryanny of irritated ministers, 
 or resistance by force. The latter is our 
 choice. We have counted the cost of this 
 contest, and we find nothing so dreadful as 
 voluntary slavery." In the petition to the 
 king Congress denied that it was the inten- 
 tion of the colonies to cast off their allegi- 
 ance ; but asserted their intention to main- 
 tain their rights. When this petition was 
 presented to the king in September, he 
 refused to take any notice of it. 
 
 The Federal Union. 
 
 In view of the altered position of affairs 
 Massachusetts consulted the Congress as to 
 the propriety of establishing a regular sys- 
 tem of government, and was advised to 
 make such regulations for that purpose as 
 were necessary, and to continue them as a 
 temporary expedient until it should be 
 known whether the king would allow the 
 colony to resume the government guaran- 
 teed to it by its charter. In order to avoid 
 the trouble which would ensue from an inter- 
 ruption of the regular postal communication 
 between the colonies, Congress assumed the 
 power of organizing a general system of 
 mails for the whole country, and appointed 
 Dr. Franklin postmaster-general. 
 
 From these acts Congress advanced to 
 others still more important. A " Federal 
 
PROGRESS OF THE WAR. 
 
 3^3 
 
 Union " of the colonies was organized, in 
 which each colony retained the exclusive 
 control of its internal affairs, but delegated 
 to Congress authority to direct all matters 
 pertaining to the general welfare of the col- 
 onies, such as the power to declare war, 
 make peace, and negotiate treaties of alliance 
 and friendship with foreign countries. In the 
 exercise of these powers Congress assumed 
 the general government of America. A day 
 of fasting and prayer to God, for his assist- 
 ance in the struggle for freedom, was enjoined 
 upon all the colonies. All persons were for- 
 bidden to furnish provisions under any cir- 
 cumstances. 
 
 Who shall Command the Army ? 
 
 Measures were adopted for the organiza- 
 tion and enlistment of an army, and for the 
 purpose of erecting fortifications at suitable 
 points, and procuring arms and ammunition. 
 In order to raise the funds needed for carry- 
 ing out these objects " Bills of Credit;' to 
 the amount of two millions of dollars, were 
 issued, and for their redemption Congress 
 pledged the faith of the " United Colonies." 
 The provincial congress of Massachusetts 
 requested the Congress at Philadelphia to 
 adopt the New England forces before Boston 
 as the "Continental Army," and this request 
 was at once complied with. As General Ward, 
 the commander of these troops, held his 
 commission from Massachusetts, it was 
 necessary for Congress to appoint a com- 
 mander-in-chief commissioned by itself. 
 
 With respect to this appointment the mem- 
 bers were divided. Some thought that as 
 the troops were all New England men, the 
 commander should be chosen from the same 
 section. Others favored the appointment of 
 a commander who would inspire the confi- 
 dence of, and be acceptable to, the entire 
 country. The name of General Ward was 
 suggested by the first party; but a majority 
 
 of the delegates favored the appointment of 
 Colonel Washington, who was a member of 
 Congress, and chairman of the committee on 
 military affairs, in which capacity he had 
 proposed the plan for the organization of the 
 army, and had suggested the most important 
 measures for defence. He had profoundly 
 impressed the delegates with his great anc 
 commanding character, his military ability, 
 and his wisdom as a statesman. 
 
 Washington Appointed. 
 
 Patrick Henry, on his return home from 
 the first Congress, had been asked who was 
 the greatest man in that body. His reply 
 expressed the views of his colleagues respect- 
 ing Washington. " If you speak of elo- 
 quence," he said, " Mr. Rutledge, of South 
 Carolina, is, by far, the greatest orator ; but 
 if you speak of solid information and sound 
 judgment Colonel Washington is unques- 
 tionably the greatest man on that floor.' : 
 Dr. Warren wrote from Massachusetts to 
 Samuel Adams, in Congress, about this time, 
 that the appointment of Colonel Washing- 
 ton as commander-in-chief would give great 
 satisfaction to many leading men in Massa- 
 chusetts. John Adams was anxious for the 
 appointment, and having satisfied himself o( 
 the wishes of the greater part of the delegates, 
 ventured openly to allude to Washington as 
 the proper person for the position, and spoke 
 of him as a gentleman whose " skill and 
 experience as an officer, whose independent 
 fortune, great talents, and excellent universal 
 character, would command the approbation 
 of all America, and unite the cordial exer- 
 tions of the colonies better than any othei 
 person in the Union." 
 
 On the 14th of June M. Johnson, o'i 
 Maryland, formally nominated Washington 
 to the office of commander-in-chief, and hf 
 was unanimously chosen by ballot. The 
 next day his election was communicated to 
 
3*>4 
 
 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 him by the President of Congress. Washing- 
 ton rose in his place, thanked the House for 
 the unexpected honor conferred upon him, 
 assured them of his devotion to the cause, 
 and announced his acceptance of the great 
 trust confiied to him. He declared his 
 intention to refuse the pay affixed to the 
 office, which had been placed at five hundred 
 dollars a month, and added : " I will keep an 
 exact account of my expenses. These, I 
 doubt not, they will discharge, and that is all 
 
 GENERAL ISRAEL PUTNAM. 
 
 I desire." Congress, on its part, pledged its 
 hearty support to the new commander, and 
 resolved "to maintain and assist, and adhere 
 to him with their lives and fortunes in the 
 defence of American liberty." 
 
 Washington lost no time in proceeding to 
 assume the command conferred upon him. 
 After a few days spent in preparation in 
 Philadelphia he left that city on the twenty- 
 first of June for the headquarters of the 
 army, accompanied by Generals Lee and 
 Schuyler. 
 
 A few days after the election of the com- 
 mander-in-chief Congress appointed four 
 major-generals, one adjutant-general, with 
 the rank of brigadier, and eight brigadier- 
 generals for the subordinate commands in 
 the American army. 
 
 Major-Generals. 
 The major-generals were Artemas Ward, 
 Charles Lee, Philip Schuyler and Israel Put- 
 nam. The adjutant- general was Horatio 
 Gates. The brigadiers were Seth Pomeroy, 
 Richard Montgomery, David Woos- 
 ter, William Heath, Joseph Spencer, 
 John Thomas, John Sullivan and 
 Nathaniel Greene^ 
 
 In the meantime the blockade of 
 Boston had been continued by the 
 provincial army under General 
 Ward. These forces numbered 
 about 'fifteen thousand men, and 
 had come from their respective 
 towns in independent companies, 
 and were without any regular or- 
 ganization. They had no uniform, 
 but the majority wore their ordinary 
 home-spun working clothes ; they 
 were deficient in arms ; a few had 
 muskets, but the majority had rifles 
 and fowling-pieces. The artillery 
 consisted of nine pieces of cannon, 
 and was commanded by Colonel 
 Gridley, who had directed the artil- 
 lery at the siege of Louisburg. The Massa- 
 chusetts troops were commanded by Gen- 
 eral Ward ; those from New Hampshire by 
 Colonel Stark ; the Connecticut troops by 
 Putnam ; and the regiment from Rhode 
 Island by Nathaniel Greene, a young black- 
 smith. 
 
 Save for the solemnity of the cause, and 
 the earnestness and determination which 
 animated the whole force, there was little to 
 save this quaint assemblage from the ridicule 
 which the royal officers heaped upon it. It 
 
PROGRESS OF THE WAR. 
 
 365 
 
 did to ordinary view seem the height of 
 folly to oppose suc-h an ill-provided and 
 unorganized mass to the splendidly equipped 
 veterans who served King George. 
 
 Yet this force " with calico frocks and 
 fowling-pieces" hemmed in within the nar- 
 row limits of Boston 
 the splendid army of 
 ten thousand men, 
 commanded by such 
 generals as Howe, 
 Burgoyne and Sir 
 Henry Clinton, which 
 Gage had concen- 
 trated in Boston. Bur- 
 goyne could not 
 repress his astonish- 
 ment upon reaching 
 Boston. "What!" he 
 exclaimed, "ten thou- 
 sand peasants keep 
 five thousand king's 
 troops shut up ! Well, 
 let us get in and we'll 
 soon find elbow room." 
 In spite of his immense 
 superiority, however, 
 Gage did not venture 
 to attack the Ameri- 
 can lines. He con- 
 tented himself with 
 issuing a proclama- 
 tion declaring the 
 province under mar- 
 tial law, and offering 
 a free pardon to all 
 rebels who should 
 return to their allegi- 
 ance, with the exception of Samuel Adams 
 and John Hancock. These rebels were 
 cut off from all hope of the king's mercy, 
 and were given to understand that they 
 could expect nothing but the most sum- 
 mary punishment. 
 
 General Gage now determined to extend 
 his lines and to occupy Dorchester Heights, 
 overlooking South Boston, and Bunker Hill, 
 an eminence rising beyond Charlestown, on 
 the north of Boston. The execution of this 
 design was fixed for the eighteenth of June, 
 
 GENERAL BURGOYNE. 
 
 and in the meantime Gage's intention became 
 known in the American camp. To prevent 
 it, it was resolved, at the instance of the 
 Massachusetts Committee of Safety, to seize 
 and fortify these eminences, beginning with 
 Bunker Hill. The more prudent opposed 
 
366 
 
 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 this undertaking as too rash; it was certain 
 to bring on a general engagement of the 
 opposing forces, and the Americans were too 
 poorly provided with arms and ammunition 
 to hope for success. Others insisted that no 
 time should be lost in securing the Heights. 
 
 A Daring Enterprise. 
 
 Putnam was confident they could be held 
 with proper intrenchments, and that thus pro- 
 tected the troops could be relied upon to 
 hold their position. The great scarcity of 
 ammunition rendered the undertaking one 
 of peculiar daring and it was necessary to 
 select for the command an officer whose firm- 
 ness and discretion could be depended upon. 
 The choice fell upon Colonel William Pres- 
 cott, of Massachusetts, and a brigade was 
 placed under his orders. 
 
 Soon after the sunset on the sixteenth of 
 June a force of about eleven hundred men, 
 armed principally with fowling-pieces, and 
 carrying their scanty stock of powder and 
 ball in their old-fashioned powder horns and 
 pouches, assembled on Cambridge Com- 
 mon. Langdon, the President of Harvard 
 College, one of the chaplains of the army, 
 offered up an impressive prayer, and then 
 the order was given to march, and the col- 
 umn moved off in the darkness. No one 
 knew the object of the expedition, but the 
 presence of several wagons loaded with 
 intrenching tools, made it evident that the 
 movement was one of importance. Charles- 
 tnvn Neck was strongly guarded, but the 
 detachment passed it in safety and reached 
 the summit of Bunker Hill without being 
 observed. 
 
 The Committee of Safety had suggested 
 that Bunker Hill should be secured, but 
 Prescott's orders from General Ward were to 
 fortify Breed's Hill, a lower eminence but 
 nearer to Boston, and commanding the har- 
 bor more perfectly. It was a more exposed 
 
 position than the other, but Prescott decided 
 to obey his orders. Colonel Gridley, who 
 was an experienced engineer, marked out a 
 redoubt about eight rods square, and in the 
 clear June starlight the men set to work 
 with a will to construct the fortification 
 before the morning should reveal them to 
 the British. It was midnight when the 
 men began their labors. A strong guard 
 was thrown out along the shore of the 
 harbor to prevent a surprise, and the men 
 could distinctly hear the call of the senti- 
 nels on the men-of-war in the harbor. 
 During the night Putnam came over to the 
 hill to encourage the Connecticut troops. 
 
 Heavy Guns Open Fire. 
 
 The early morning light revealed to the 
 astonished royalists the half-finished redoubt 
 on Breed's Hill and the Americans still bus- 
 ily at work upon it. The sloop-of-war 
 b< Lively," lying off the present navy yard, 
 without waiting for orders, opened a steady 
 fire upon the redoubt, and her example was 
 soon followed by the other war vessels and the 
 floating batteries in the harbor. A battery 
 of heavy guns was posted on Copp's Hill 
 in Boston, and opened on the redoubt. 
 
 This fire was well calculated to demoralize: 
 a raw force such as that within the redoubt, 
 but it produced no effect upon the Ameri- 
 cans, who went on with their task quietly 
 and with energy. Gridley soon withdrew 
 from the hill, and Prescott, thus deserted, 
 and without an engineer, prepared to extend 
 his line to the best of his ability. He pro- 
 longed it from the east side of the redoubt 
 northward for about twenty rods towards the 
 bottom of the hill ; but the men were pre- 
 vented from completing it by the heavy fire 
 of the British artillery. One man ventured 
 beyond the redoubt early in the day, and 
 was killed by a shell Prescott ordered him 
 to be instantly buried, iesf the sight of his 
 
PROGRESS OF THE WAR. 
 
 3^7 
 
 body might dishearten the men. To inspire 
 the troops with confidence, Prescott sprang 
 upon the parapet and walked slowly up and 
 down the work examining it and issuing 
 his orders. 
 
 Boston Aroused by the Cannonading. 
 
 In the meantime the firing had aroused 
 the people of Boston, who crowded the 
 house-tops, and every available point from 
 which a view of the action could be obtained. 
 General Gage reconnoitred the American 
 position from Boston, through his glass, and 
 observed Prescott, who was standing on the 
 redoubt inspecting the work. " Who is that 
 officer in command?" he asked of Councillor 
 Willard,who was by his side. "Will he fight ?" 
 Willard had recognized Prescott, who was his 
 brother-in-law, and replied : " He is an old 
 soldier, and will fight to the last drop of his 
 blood." Gage thereupon determined to dis- 
 lodge the Americans from their position 
 without loss of time, and summoned a coun- 
 cil of his officers at his headquarters, in 
 which it was decided to cross Charles River, 
 effect a landing at Moulton's Point, and 
 attack the works in front. Generals Clinton 
 and Grant advocated an attack from the 
 direction of Charlestown Neck, which would 
 have resulted in the capture of the whole 
 American force ; but Gage refused to place 
 his attacking column between the American 
 army at Cambridge and the detachment on 
 the hill. 
 
 The bustle in Boston as the British pre- 
 pared for the attack could be distinctly seen 
 by the Americans, and urgent messages were 
 sent to General Ward for reinforcements and 
 provisions. Putnam hurried to Ward's head- 
 quarters to urge this demand; but Ward, 
 who was greatly oppressed by the scarcity 
 of powder in the camp, hesitated to weaken 
 uhe main body, and it was not until eleven 
 o'clock on the morning of the seventeenth 
 
 of June that he gave orders for the regi- 
 ments of Stark and Reed to advance to Pre- 
 scott's assistance. The arrival of these 
 troops greatly cheered the little band under 
 Prescott, who had been working all night, 
 and were greatly in need of food. 
 
 In the meantime Prescott had posted the 
 Connecticut troops behind a rustic breast- 
 woik which he had constructed on the 
 north of the redoubt. A stone fence ran 
 down the side of the hill towards a swamp 
 in this direction. Behind this the Ameri- 
 cans placed a post and rail fence which they 
 had torn up, and filled the interval between 
 them with new-mown hay, thus forming a 
 rude shelter. A part of the reinforcements 
 joined Knowlton at this breastwork, and the 
 remainder halted on Bunker Hill to enable 
 Putnam to hold that point, the posses- 
 sion of which he considered essential to the 
 safety of the force on Breed's Hill. About 
 two o'clock General Warren arrived. He 
 held the commission of a major-general, and 
 both Prescott and Putnam offered to relin- 
 quish the command to him, but he refused 
 it, saying he had come to serve as a volun- 
 teer, and took his place in the ranks at the 
 redoubt. 
 
 Reinforcements for the British. 
 
 At noon twenty- eight barges filled with 
 regulars, under the command of Generals 
 Howe and Pigott, left Boston, and crossing 
 the harbor, landed at Moulton's Point, under 
 the cover of a heavy fire from the shipping. 
 General Howe now discovered that the 
 American position was stronger than he had 
 supposed, and sent over to General Gage for 
 reinforcements. While awaiting their arrival 
 he refreshed his men with provisions and 
 grog. His reinforcements having arrived, 
 General Howe found himself at the head of 
 over two thousand veteran troops splendidly 
 equipped in every respect. Opposed to him 
 
3*58 
 
 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 were about fifteen hundred imperfectly armed 
 Americans. Gage had threatened that if 
 Charlestown Heights were occupied by the 
 provincials he would burn the town of 
 Charlestown. He now proceeded to execute 
 his barbarous threat, and fired the town by 
 mear* of shells from the battery on Copp's 
 Hill hoping that the flames and smoke 
 
 to storm the redoubt, while the other was 
 led by General Howe in person against the 
 rail fence, for the purpose of turning the 
 American left flank and cutting off the 
 retreat of the force in the redoubt. Prescott 
 passed along his line as he saw the advance 
 of the enemy, and encouraged his men with 
 his cheering words. " The red coats," he 
 
 BATTLE OF BUNKER HILL. 
 
 would screen the approach of his attacking 
 party under General Howe. A change of 
 wind prevented this, however, and carried 
 the smoke in the opposite direction. 
 
 About half-past two o'clock on the after- 
 noon of the seventeenth of June General 
 Howe gave the order to advance. One 
 division, under General Pigott, was ordered 
 
 said, " will never reach the redoubt if you 
 will but withhold your fire till I give the 
 order, and be careful not to shoot over their 
 heads." Putnam had come down to the 
 rail fence to encourage the men posted 
 there, and as he saw the advance of the 
 enemy, called out to the troops : " Wait 
 till you see the white of their eyes ; aim 
 
PROGRESS OF THE WAR. 
 
 at their waistband ; pick off the handsome 
 coats." 
 
 The British advanced in splendid style up 
 the side of the hill, firing rapidly as they 
 moved on. The Americans awaited their 
 advance in a deep silence. As Pigott's division 
 came within forty yards of the redoubt, the 
 defenders levelled their guns and took a 
 steady aim. A minute or two later Prescott 
 ^ave the command, "Fire!" A sheet of 
 flame broke from the rampart and tore great 
 gaps in the English line, which reeled and 
 staggered back down the hill. The officers 
 exerted themselves gallantly to rally the 
 men, and once more the line advanced. This 
 time the Americans suffered them to come 
 nearer, and again drove them back with a 
 fatal fire before which whole ranks went 
 down. They broke in such confusion that 
 Pigott himself ordered a retreat. The division 
 under General Howe was equally unfortu- 
 nate. It was suffered to advance within 
 thirty yards of the rail fence, and was then 
 driven back by a fire which broke it in con- 
 fusion. The British retired to the shore 
 from which they had started. 
 
 The Whole Line Driven Back. 
 
 Greatly astonished, but not disheartened 
 by his repulse, General Howe reformed his 
 line, and after an interval of fifteen minutes 
 moved off again against the works, his plan 
 being the same as that of the first assault. 
 This time the Americans reserved their fire 
 as before, and once more sent the whole 
 British line reeling and broken down the hill. 
 Officers on the English side who had been in 
 many engagements subsequently declared that 
 they had never seen such firing in any battle 
 in which they had been engaged. A deafen- 
 ing cheer from the patriot line greeted the 
 repulse of the enemy. " If we can drive them 
 back once more," cried Prescott, " they can- 
 not rally again." A shout from the redoubt 
 24 
 
 309 
 " We are ready for the red 
 
 answered him. 
 coats again ! " 
 
 General Clinton had witnessed the repulse 
 of the regulars from his position on Copp's 
 Hill, and was filled with astonishment and 
 indignation at the sight. Without waiting 
 for orders he crossed over to Charlestown 
 with reinforcements, and offered his services 
 to General Howe as a volunteer. Many of 
 the English officers were opposed to another 
 attack ; but as it was learned that the ammu- 
 nition of the Americans was very low, Howe 
 resolved to storm the works with the 
 bayonet, and this time to break through the 
 open space between the redoubt and the rail 
 fence breastwork. His men were ordered to 
 lay aside their knapsacks, and many of them 
 threw off their coats also. A raking fire of 
 artillery drove the Americans from the 
 breastwork extending from the redoubt into 
 that work for shelter, and the order was 
 given to the regulars to advance with fixed 
 bayonets. 
 
 Hand-to-hand Struggle. 
 
 The Americans were nearly out of ammu 
 nition, and in the whole command there were 
 not lfty men with bayonets to their guns. 
 They met the advance of the enemy with a 
 sharp fire, but their powder having given 
 out, were not able to check them. Pressing 
 on the British assailed the redoubt on three 
 sides with the bayonet. A desperate hand- 
 to-hand struggle followed ; the Americans 
 fighting with clubbed guns and with stones. 
 It was impossible to hold the work, how- 
 ever, and Prescott gave the order to retreat 
 The men fell back in good order. The aged 
 General- Pomeroy, who was serving as a 
 volunteer in the ranks, clubbed his gun and 
 retreated with his face to the regulars, keep- 
 ing them at bay by his determined action. 
 
 The detachment at the rail fence, unde* 
 Knowlton, Stark and Reed, held their posi- 
 tion until their comrades had withdrawn 
 
370 
 
 DEATH Of? MAIOR PITCAIRNo 
 
PROGRESS OF THE WAR. 
 
 371 
 
 from the redoubt, and then retreated in good 
 order down the hill, thus preventing the 
 enemy from cutting off the retreat of Pres- 
 cott's party. One of the last to leave the 
 redoubt was General Warren, who had 
 borne himself with great gallantry in the 
 engagement. He had scarcely left the 
 trenches when he fell shot through the 
 head, thus consecrating the spot with his 
 blood, and leaving to his country a noble 
 memory which she has ever held in grateful 
 honor. 
 
 Putman had gone to trie rear before the 
 final attack of the enemy to collect men for 
 a reinforcement. On his return he met the 
 retreating provincials passing over Bunker 
 Hill. Without orders from any one, he 
 rallied such as would obey him, and for the 
 first time during the day assumed the com- 
 mand. With these forces, and a detachment 
 which arrived too late to take part in the 
 battle, he withdrew to Prospect Hill, where 
 he began to fortify his position. The British 
 made no effort to pursue him, but contented 
 themselves with occupying Breed's and Bun- 
 ker Hills. 
 
 Heavy Losses on Both Sides. 
 
 In this battle the Americans lost four 
 hundred and fifty men, killed, wounded and 
 prisoners. The British, out of a force of 
 less than three thousand, lost one thousand 
 and fifty-four, including eighty-three officers, 
 thirteen of whom were killed. Among the 
 killed was Major Pitcairn, who had ordered 
 his men to fire on the patriots at Lexington. 
 The victory was dearly bought by the British. 
 
 In its moral effects the battle was worth as 
 much to the Americans as a success. It 
 taught them that undisciplined provincials 
 could hold their ground against the king's 
 regulars, and inspired them with a confidence 
 in their own ability to maintain the struggle. 
 They had held their ground against twice 
 
 their number, and were driven from it only 
 when their ammunition failed. General Gage 
 was deeply impressed with this lesson, and 
 made no attempt to assume the offensive. 
 When the news of the battle reached Eng- 
 land the ministers were greatly dissatisfied 
 with their victory. Gage was recalled, and 
 General Howe was appointed his successor. 
 
 Preparations for the Conflict. 
 
 Washington, who had started on his jour- 
 ney to New England before the arrival of the 
 news of the battle, was met on the way by 
 the courier who bore the tidings to Congress. 
 He hastened his journey, and reached Cam- 
 bridge on the second of July. The next 
 day he formally assumed the command of 
 the army. He was received with enthusiasm 
 which was most gratifying to' him, and at 
 once set to work to place the army in a 
 proper condition for the service required of 
 it. He was fully aware of the magnitude of 
 the task he had undertaken, and his letters 
 written at the time indicate a deep reliance 
 upon God for assistance in discharging it. 
 
 The army numbered about fourteen thous- 
 and men, and was without organization, with- 
 out uniforms, poorly armed, and imperfectly 
 clothed. It must be disciplined, supplied 
 with arms and clothing, and with ammuni- 
 tion. At the same time the enemy in Bos- 
 ton must be watched and kept in check. 
 To make the army effective its force must be 
 raised to twenty or twenty-five thousand 
 men, and the petty jealousies which divided 
 it must be removed. 
 
 It was resolved to maintain the present 
 position of the army before Boston, and to 
 capture or drive out the British force in 
 that city. Washington established his head- 
 quarters at Cambridge, which was his centre, 
 and was under the immediate command of 
 General Putnam. The right wing, under 
 General Ward held Roxbury, and the left, 
 
37 2 
 
 under General Charles Lee, was at Prospect 
 Hill. About this time the army was joined 
 by a force of riflemen from Virginia, Mary- 
 land, and Pennsylvania, under Daniel Mor- 
 gan/who was destined to achieve distinction 
 during the war. He was rough and unedu- 
 cated, but was one of the truest sons of 
 America. He was never found wanting in 
 any position in which he was placed, and 
 was a man upon whose devotion and integ- 
 
 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 BUNKER HILL MONUMENT. 
 
 rity absolute reliance could be placed by his 
 commanders. 
 
 The winter was passed in the organization 
 of the army. The want of ammunition pre- 
 vented Washington from assuming the offen- 
 sive, though he greatly desired to do so. It 
 was necessary to observe the greatest care 
 to prevent this state of affairs from becoming 
 known to the British, and at the same time 
 every effort was made to supply the defi- 
 ciency. These efforts were partially success- 
 ful. 
 
 It was proposed to attack Canada soon 
 after the capture of the forts at Ticonderoga 
 and Crown Point. This proposal met with 
 little favor in Congress until it was known 
 that the British were assembling a force of 
 regulars and enlisting the Indians in Canada 
 for the invasion of New York. Then, as a 
 measure of self-defence, the proposed invasion 
 cf that country was sanctioned, and prepara- 
 tions for it were actively begun. Two expe- 
 ditions were deter- 
 mined upon ; one 
 by way of Lake 
 Champlain, the 
 other across the 
 wilderness, by way 
 of the Kennebec 
 and Chaudiere Riv- 
 ers. The first was 
 intrusted to Gener- 
 al Philip Schuyler, 
 wlio had been ap- 
 pointed by Wash- 
 ington to the com- 
 mand in New York, 
 and thelatterto Col- 
 onel Arnold, who 
 was in the camp at 
 Cambridge, eager 
 for some opportu- 
 nity to distinguish 
 himself. 
 
 A force of New York and New England 
 troops was assembled on Lake Champlain 
 under Schuyler, who was ably seconded by 
 Brigadier General Richard Montgomery, who 
 hacf served under Wolfe in the old French 
 war. Schuyler moved down the lake to the 
 Isle aux Noix, in the Sorel River, and occu- 
 pied that island. In September he made an 
 attempt to capture St. John's, but finding it 
 much stronger than he had supposed, re- 
 sumed his former position. Falling seriously 
 ill soon after, he was obliged to withdraw to 
 
PROGRESS OF THE WAR. 
 
 m 
 
 Albany, and relinquished the command to 
 Montgomery. Reaching Albany, he suc- 
 ceeded in securing supplies, ammunition and 
 reinforcements, and sent them to Mont- 
 gomery. 
 
 An Important Success. 
 
 That energetic officer at once assumed the 
 offensive, and captured St. John's, on the 
 Sorel River, on the third of November, after 
 a spirited resistance, and in spite of the efforts 
 of Sir Guy Carleton to relieve it. On the 
 thirteenth of November Montgomery arrived 
 before Montreal, which surrendered upon his 
 first summons. This capture enabled the 
 American commander to supply his men 
 with woolen clothes, of which they were very 
 much in need. Although it was the begin- 
 ning of the winter, and his force was reduced 
 to three hundred men, poorly clad and lack- 
 ing almost every kind of supplies, Montgom- 
 ery set out without delay to join Arnold 
 before Quebec. 
 
 Arnold had left the camp at Cambridge in 
 September with a force of eleven hundred men, 
 including three companies of riflemen under 
 Morgan. He was to ascend the Kennebec 
 and march across the wilderness to Quebec, 
 where he was to unite his force with the army 
 from New York. The march across the 
 unbroken wilderness of Maine and Canada is 
 one of the most memorable in history. It 
 consumed two months of time, and was 
 marked by intense suffering and unceasing 
 and severe labor. The troops had to cut 
 their way through an unbroken wilderness 
 ford icy streams, climb mountains and brave 
 the rigors of the Canadian winter. Their 
 provisions gave out, and they were reduced 
 to the necessity of eating their dogs and 
 chewing their moccasins. 
 
 At length, on the ninth of November, 
 Arnold, with about six hundred and fifty 
 effective men, reached the St. Lawrence, at 
 
 Point Levi. Could he have crossed over to 
 Quebec at once, that city must have fallen 
 into his hands; but he was imable to do so, 
 as he had no boats ; and in a few days Sir 
 Guy Carleton arrived from Montreal, which 
 he had abandoned to Montgomery, and put 
 the city in a state of defence. 
 
 Eluding the two armed vessels which held 
 the river, Arnold crossed his command to 
 the opposite side of the St. Lawrence, and 
 climbing the cliffs by the path which Wolfe 
 had ascended, occupied the Heights of Abra- 
 ham, and endeavored to draw the garrison 
 out of their works to meet him. They 
 declined his challenge, and finding it impos- 
 sible to besiege the city without artillery, he 
 moved to a point twenty miles up the river, 
 where he met Montgomery, from whom he 
 obtained clothing for his men, who had lost 
 nearly all their clothes in their march through 
 the wilderness. 
 
 A Difficult March. 
 
 Montgomery now assumed the command 
 of the united forces, which numbered less 
 than a thousand men, and on the fifth of 
 December laid siege to Quebec. Having no 
 materials for the proper construction of a 
 battery, a novel expedient was adopted 
 Gabions were filled with ice and snow, over 
 which water was poured. The cold soon 
 froze this to a solid mass ; but, as the ice was 
 brittle, it afforded no protection against the 
 fire of the enemy's guns. The Americans 
 soon found their artillery too light to make 
 any impression upon the walls of the city, 
 and, as a last resort, it was determined to 
 attempt the capture of the place by an assault, 
 which was ordered for the thirty-first of 
 December. The attack was made with 
 spirit, but was unsuccessful, 
 
 Montgomery was shot down while leading 
 the attack on the lower town, and his column 
 was driven back. Arnold was severely 
 
3/4 
 
 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION, 
 
 wounded in the assault upon the upper town, 
 and the command passed to Morgan, the 
 next in rank. . Morgan succeeded in carry- 
 ing the two batteries which defended the 
 entrance to Quebec, and in forcing his way 
 into the town ; but, being overpowered by 
 numbers, was compelled to surrender. He 
 and his men were treated with especial kind- 
 ness by Sir Guy Carleten in recognition of 
 their bravery. The attack: having proved a 
 faih're, Arnold, whose force had been reduced 
 
 GENERAL RICHARD MONTGOMERY. 
 
 to rive hundred men, fell back to a position 
 about three miles above Quebec, and held it 
 all winter, hoping to receive such reinforce- 
 ments as would enable him to take Quebec. 
 
 In April, 1776, General Wooster joined 
 Arnold with reinforcements, and, assuming 
 the command, made another unsuccessful 
 effort to capture Quebec. Wooster was soon 
 recalled, and was succeeded by General 
 Thomas. Sir Guy Carleton, governor of 
 Canada, was heavily reinforced, and Thomas 
 
 was obliged to abandon the attempt on 
 Quebec and retreat. His movement was so 
 hasty that he left his baggage, artillery and 
 sick in Carleton's hands. The British com- 
 mander, with a humanity rare among his 
 countrymen during this struggle, treated the 
 sick prisoners with great kindness. Thomas 
 fell back as far as the Sorel, where he died 
 of the small-pox, which was making great, 
 ravages among the troops. Sir Guy Carle- 
 ton continued to advance, and defeated a 
 portion of the arrny under General Thomp- 
 son at Three Rivers. Thompson and a 
 number of his officers and men were made 
 prisoners. 
 
 The remainder secured their retreat and 
 joined General Sullivan on the Sorel. The 
 wreck of the army now fell back from Canada 
 to Crown Point in a most miserable and dis- 
 heartened condition. Thus ended the inva- 
 sion of Canada, the most disastrous expedi- 
 tion attempted by the Americans during the 
 war; yet still one the failures of which were 
 greatly offset by the heroic daring of the 
 troops engaged. Carleton was able to occupy 
 the entrances to Canada with a strong force 
 and to make any future attempt at invasion 
 impossible, 
 
 Norfolk Bombarded. 
 
 While these events were transpiring in 
 Canada, Virginia was also the scene of war. 
 Towards the close of the year 1775 Lord 
 Dunmore, the royalist governor of Virginia ; 
 who had taken refuge on board a man-of- 
 war, issued a proclamation offering freedom 
 to the negro slaves and indentured white ser- 
 vants of the patriots who would join him in 
 the servile war he meant to inaugurate. 
 With a force collected in this manner, he 
 landed at Norfolk and took possession of the 
 town. Fugitive slaves joined him in con- 
 siderable numbers, and it seemed likely that 
 he would be able to carry out his threat and 
 
PROGRESS OF THE WAR. 
 
 375 
 
 scourge Virginia and North Carolina with a 
 warfare of massacre and servile violence. 
 
 Several regiments were raised in Virginia 
 to drive him out of the province. The second 
 of these, under Colonel Woodford, seized the 
 narrow peninsula which connects Norfolk 
 with the mainland, and on the ninth of 
 December was attacked by Dunmore's forces, 
 which were summarily defeated. In revenge. 
 Dunmore returned in January, 1776, and 
 bombarded and burned Norfolk, then the 
 largest and richest town and the principal 
 shipping port of Virginia. 
 
 On the fifth of September, 1775, the Con- 
 tinental Congress resumed its sessions. 
 Delegates from Georgia appeared and were 
 admitted to seats in the Congress, and the 
 colonies assumed the style of the Thirteen 
 United Colonies. Matters were not very 
 encouraging when Congress met. The army 
 was in need of everything that could con- 
 tribute to its efficiency, and the New England 
 coast was harassed with the armed vessels of 
 Great Britain, which laid its towns under 
 exaction, or subjected them to bombard- 
 ment, and committed other gross outrages 
 upon the inhabitants. On the eighteenth of 
 October the town of Falmouth, now Port- 
 land, in Maine, was burned by Lieutenant 
 Mo watt of the British navy. The other 
 towns, warned by the fate of Falmouth, pro- 
 ceeded to fortify themselves, and escaped 
 with nothing worse than an occasional 
 engagement with some royal cruiser. 
 
 Naval matters very largely occupied the 
 attention of the whole country at this period. 
 The only way in which the needed supplies 
 could be obtained was by purchase abroad or 
 the capture of the enemy's ships. Maryland, 
 Virginia ard South Carolina promptly estab- 
 lished naval boards for the purpose of fitting 
 out cruisers for this service ; and among the 
 first acts of Washington, after assuming the 
 command of the army, was to send out 
 
 armed vessels to the St. Lawrence and the 
 New England waters to seize the supply 
 ships of the English on their way to Canada 
 and Boston. A number of vessels were 
 captured by these cruisers, and a considera- 
 ble quantity of arms, ammunition and other 
 stores thus accumulated. 
 
 Securing War Supplies. 
 
 Congress appointed a secret committee 
 to import powder from the West Indies, and 
 to erect mills in the interior for its manufac- 
 ture ; and foundries for casting cannon 
 Licenses were issued to privateers, and a 
 naval committee was appointed to superin- 
 tend the formation of a marine force for the 
 defence of the harbors, and was charged with 
 the building of thirteen frigates. In Decem- 
 ber a secret committee was appointed to 
 open and conduct a correspondence with 
 foreign nations, or with friends of the cause 
 in Europe. 
 
 Parliament, in the meantime, had not been 
 idle, but had enacted stringent measures for 
 the prosecution of the war and the punish- 
 ment of the colonists. The measuies adopted 
 by the British government were cruel and 
 barbarous. The Americans were to be 
 treated as criminals and as deserving of 
 death. They were made subject to the pains 
 and penalties of treason if captured, and 
 could in no case expect the treatment of 
 prisoners of war. The crews of all vessels 
 captured in trading to the colonies were con- 
 demned beforehand to serve in the marine 
 corps of the royal navy. It was decided 
 to increase the British army in America to 
 forty thousand men. Twenty-five thousand 
 of these troops were to he raised, and the 
 effort to enlist men was begun in England, 
 but without success. Recruits could not be 
 found in sufficient numbers to repay the 
 effort. The ministry could not hope foi 
 better success in Ireland, as they had been 
 
376 
 
 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 warned by General Howe that the Irish were 
 strong sympathizers with the Americans and 
 could not be relied upon to fight against them. 
 In this emergency the government resolved 
 to employ German troops for the subjuga- 
 tion of America, and negotiations were opened 
 with Brunswick and Hesse Cassel, two petty 
 German States. The result was that Great 
 Britain hired seventeen thousand troops 
 from these states for the conquest of the 
 English-speaking people of America. These 
 mercenaries were generally known as Hes- 
 sians, and became the objects of the bitter 
 hatred of the Americans — a hatred which 
 they fully earned by their subsequent cruel- 
 ties towards the colonists. 
 
 These measures were not adopted by the 
 British government without opposition. 
 There was a determined minority in Eng- 
 land, consisting of such men as Burke, Barre 
 and the Duke of Grafton, who manfully 
 sought to obtain justice for the colonies up 
 to the last moment at which a settlement was 
 possible. The corporation of London and 
 the mercantile interests of the country 
 generally were opposed to the measures 
 of the government, and sought to procure 
 a just and peaceful settlement; but all ef 
 forts were in vain. The king and the 
 ministry were resolved upon the subjuga- 
 tion of America; nothing else would satisfy 
 them. 
 
CHAPTER XXVII. 
 The Declaration of Independence 
 
 the Siege of Boston — Difficulties of the American Army — A tivity of the Privateers — Clinton's Expedition— Colonel 
 Knox Arrives from Ticonderoga with Cannon — Seizure of Dorchester Heights by Washington — The British Evacuate 
 Boston — Royalist Plots in New York — Paper Money Issued by Congress — Gates Sent to the North — The British 
 Attack Charleston — Battle of Fort Moultrie — The Howes in New York Bay — Change in the Character of the War- 
 Growing Sentiment in Favor of Independence — Virginia Proposes that the Colonies Assert their Independence — 
 
 Action of Congress — The Declaration of Independence — Articles of Confederation Adopted by Congress Lord 
 
 Howe's Efforts at Conciliation — Addresses a Letter to Washington — Battle of Long Island — Defeat of the Americans 
 —Retreat from Long Island — Evacuation of New York by the Americans — Loss of Fort Washington — Washington 
 Retreats Through New Jersey — He Crosses the Delaware — Darkest Period of the War— Washington's Determination 
 to Continue the War — Lord Howe's Proclamation — Its Effect — Congress at Baltimore — Carleton Invades New York 
 — Defeats Arnold on Lake Champlain — Carleton Retires into Canada — Battle of Trenton — Happy Effects of the 
 Victory — Congress Confers Dictatorial Powers upon Washington — Commissioners Sent to France. 
 
 THE winter of 1775-76 was passed by 
 the army before Boston in inaction. 
 There was not ammunition enough 
 in the camp to enable Washington 
 to attack Boston, and the British were well 
 content to remain within their lines without 
 seeking to raise the siege. Washington 
 exerted himself to the utmost to obtain artil- 
 lery and powder. Hen ry Knox, a bookseller 
 of Boston, who had entered the military ser- 
 vice of the colonies, had attracted the attention 
 of the commander-in-chief by his skill in the 
 use of artillery and in planning the works 
 erected for the defence of the camp. Knox 
 now proposed to go to Ticcnderoga and bring 
 away from that place and from Crown Point 
 all the artillery and powder that could be 
 spared, and his plan was at once approved 
 by Washington, who urged Congress to com- 
 mission him a colonel of artillery. 
 
 At the same time he wrote to Schuyler, the 
 commander in New York, to give Knox every 
 assistance in his power in his effort to bring 
 the artillery from Lake Champlain to Boston. 
 Great difficulties were experienced during 
 the winter in inducing the troops to renew 
 their enlistments. It required all the ingenu- 
 
 ity and tact of which Washington was masts, 
 to remove the prejudices and jealousies which 
 had grown up in the camp since the com- 
 mencement of the blockade of Boston, and 
 which threatened to disband the army. He 
 succeeded in a greater degree than he had 
 expected. At the opening of the year 1776 
 he had about ten thousand men in camp, 
 many of whom were raw troops newly enlisted 
 and without arms. Still they were a more 
 harmonious and contented force than the first 
 army. Towards the close of 1775 the priva- 
 teers made extensive captures from the 
 British. Captain Manly, of the schooner 
 " Lee," captured a British brig off Cape Ann, 
 laden with arms, artillery and military stores 
 for the British army at Boston. These were 
 sent at once to Washington, and proved of 
 the greatest service. Among the captures 
 was an immense mortar, which Putnam named 
 the " Congress," and placed in position al 
 Lechmere Point, on the north of Boston. 
 
 Matters were gloomy indeed. The people 
 were very anxious that Boston should be 
 attacked, but such a course was impossible. 
 As late as the tenth of February, 1776, 
 Washington wrote : " Without men, without 
 
 377 
 
378 
 
 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 arms, without ammunition, little is to be 
 done." To increase the discouragement of 
 the patriots nous came of the defeat of the 
 attempt to conquer Canada. The British 
 were collecting a fleet for a demonstration 
 against some point on the Atlantic coast, 
 and as it was not certain where the blow 
 would fall, a feeling of general uneasiness 
 prevailed along the entire seaboard. 
 
 This expedition sailed from Boston, under 
 Sir Henry Clinton, about the first of Febru- 
 ary. Washington, who had for some time 
 
 GENERAL HENRY KNOX. 
 
 suspected that it was designed to capture 
 New York, had already sent General Charles 
 Lee to raise troops to occupy that important 
 city and hold it against the British. Lee 
 executed his task with energy, and on the 
 fourth of February entered New York and 
 encamped in the suburbs, in what is now 
 the City Hall Park. Governor Tryon, who 
 had taken refuge on board a man-of-war, 
 threatened to bombard the city if the Ameri- 
 can forces should enter it ; but Lee informed 
 him that the first shot fired at New York 
 
 would be the signal for the execution of the 
 leading friends of the royal cause in that city. 
 This decisive answer induced Tryon to delay 
 his barbarous purpose. That afternoon Sir 
 Henry Clinton, with his fleet, entered the 
 harbor. Finding that he had come too late 
 to secure the city, Clinton declared that he 
 had merely called at the harbor to pay a visit 
 to his friend Tryon, and in a few days he 
 sailed away for North Carolina, where the 
 royalist Governor Martin, who, like Tryon, 
 had taken refuge on board a man-of-war, had 
 been endeavoring to stir up an insurrection 
 of the Tories, as the royaiists were called. 
 The command of this movement was to be 
 assumed by Clinton. Martin also expected 
 a fleet under Sir Peter Parker from Ireland. 
 
 Decisive Defeat of the Tories. 
 
 To gain time, and stir up the Tories to 
 prompt action, he commissioned two retired 
 officers of the British army, Scotchmen, 
 named McDonald and McLeod, who had 
 recently settled in North Carolina, to raise 
 troops among the friends of the king in the 
 interior. They succeeded in raising about 
 fifteen hundred men, and set off for the coast 
 to join Martin. The patriots at once rallied 
 in considerable forr to oppose their march, 
 and intercepted them at Moore's Creek 
 Bridge, near Wilmington. On the twenty- 
 fifth of February a sharp engagement was 
 fought here, which resulted in the defeat of 
 the Tories. McLeod was killed and McDonald 
 was taken prisoner. Eighteen hundred 
 stand of arms, one hundred and fifty swords, 
 two medicine-chests, and the sum of fifteen 
 thousand pounds sterling in gold fell into the 
 hands of the victors, and went far toward 
 supplying their deficiencies. The contem- 
 plated rising of the Tories was put down 
 in the interior counties, and Martin find- 
 ing his hopes of raising troops in North 
 Carolina destroyed, withdrew with Clinton 
 
THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 
 
 379 
 
 o the Cape Fear to await the arrival of the 
 fleet of Sir Peter Parker. 
 
 In the meantime a Union flag had been 
 provided for the army before Boston, and 
 was formally displayed for the first time in 
 the American camp on the first of January, 
 1776. It retained the English cross in the 
 upper left-hand corner, in token of the rela- 
 tions still existing between the colonies and 
 England, and bore on its broad field thirteen 
 stripes of alternate red and white, represent- 
 ing the thirteen colonies united for the defence 
 of their liberties. Towards the close of 
 February the stock of powder was consider- 
 ably increased, and a little later Colonel Knox 
 arrived from Ticonderoga with the cannon 
 and ammunition from that post. 
 
 He had transported them on sledges across 
 the long stretch of country between Lake 
 Champlain and Boston, and had overcome 
 difficulties in the accomplishment of this task 
 which seemed at first insurmountable. The 
 arrival of these guns gave Washington a fair 
 supply of heavy ordnance and put an end to 
 the long delay which had prevailed in the 
 American camp. The regular army had been 
 increased to fourteen thousand men, and had 
 been reinforced by six thousand militia from 
 Massachusetts. 
 
 Ready for Decisive Action. 
 
 All now was bustle and activity. The 
 newly arrived cannon were mouuted to com- 
 mand the city, and Washington was at length 
 able to attempt the long desired demonstra- 
 tion against the enemy in Boston. As early 
 as December, 1775, Congress had urged him 
 to undertake the capture of Boston, and had 
 authorized him to destroy the city if he could 
 expel the British in no other way, and John 
 Hancock, who was a large property-owner, 
 regardless of the fate of his possessions, had 
 written to him : " Do it, and may God crown 
 your attempt with success." All through 
 
 the winter Washington had been held back 
 from such an attempt by the advice of his 
 council of war, which hesitated to assume 
 the offensive with an insufficient supply of 
 ammunition and artillery. Putnam had suc- 
 ceeded in fortifying the neighboring heights 
 on the mainland, but had been obliged to 
 do much of this work at night to avoid the 
 fire of the enemy's shipping. The last 
 obstacle to decisive action was now removed. 
 Washington resolved to seize the eminence 
 on the south of Boston, known as Dorchester 
 Heights. It commanded the town from that 
 quarter and also the shipping in the harbor. 
 Its possession by the Americans would force 
 Sir William Howe either to evacuate the 
 city or risk a general engagement for its 
 recovery. 
 
 Heavy Fire of Shot and Shell. 
 
 On the evening of the second of March a 
 heavy fire was opened upon the British lines 
 by the American batteries and also upon 
 Boston. A number of houses were set on 
 fire, and the attention of the British was fully 
 occupied in extinguishing the flames. The 
 bombardment was renewed the next night. 
 At dark on the evening of the fourth of 
 March the Americans renewed their fire with 
 redoubled vigor, and were replied to with 
 spirit by the British, and during the whole 
 night the roar of cannon went on, covering 
 the movements of the Americans from ob- 
 servation by the enemy. The force assigned 
 for the seizure of Dorchester Heights was 
 placed under the command of General 
 Thomas, and in case the movement should be 
 discovered, and the enemy should seek to dis- 
 lodge this detachment from the Heights, 
 General Putnam was ordered to cross Charles 
 River with a column of four thousand picked 
 troops and attack the city from that quarter. 
 
 Under the cover of the heavy cannonade 
 the column of General Thomas passed the 
 
380 
 
 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 narrow isthmus in safety, and reached the 
 Heights by eight o'clock undiscovered by 
 the enemy. They at once set to work, though 
 the ground was frozen to a depth of more 
 than eighteen inches, and by morning had 
 thrown up a series of earthworks which 
 entirely commanded both the city and the 
 harbor. General Howe was greatly aston- 
 ished as he examined these works through 
 his glass when the mists of the morning 
 cleared away. " The rebels," he said, " have 
 done more work in a night than my whole army 
 would have done in a month." The British 
 
 MEDAL STRUCK BY CONGRESS IN HONOR OF THE RECAPTURE OF BOSTON 
 
 adii„ral declared that his ships could not 
 remain in the harbor, as the possession of the 
 Heights by the Americans placed the fleet 
 entirely at their mercy. It was evident to 
 all tho British commanders that the Heights 
 must be recovered or the city abandoned 
 and General Howe determined to storm the 
 American works that night, and made prep- 
 arations for an attack. This movement was 
 prevented by a severe storm, which put a 
 stop to the cooperation of the fleet, and when 
 the storm had died away the works had been 
 so greatly strengthened as to render an assault 
 hopeless. 
 
 A council of war was held, and it was 
 resolved to abandon the town. As such a 
 step required some time, Howe secured the 
 safety of his army by declaring that he would 
 burn the town if his troops were fired on 
 during their embarkation. A deputation of 
 the citizens proceeded to the American camp 
 and informed General Washington of Howe's 
 determination, and in order to save the city 
 from further suffering the British were allowed 
 t > depart in peace. They consumed eleven 
 days in their embarkation. They embarked 
 about fifteen hundred Tories with them, and 
 after plundering a num- 
 ber of stores and private 
 houses, and robbing the 
 inhabitants of a consid- 
 erable supply of pro- 
 visions, they embarked 
 on the seventeenth of 
 March, and dropping 
 down the bay anchored 
 at Nantasket Roads. 
 They had scarcely left 
 the city when the Ameri- 
 can army, under Wash- 
 ington, marched in and 
 occupied the pface. The 
 long siege often months 
 was at an end, and Bos- 
 ton was again free. The patriot army was 
 received with enthusiasm, and matters soon 
 began to resume their accustomed condition. 
 By the capture of Boston the Americans 
 obtained possession of two hundred and fifty 
 pieces of artillery, four mortars, and a con- 
 siderable quantity of ammunition, provisions 
 and clothing, which the British could not 
 carry away. After the departure of the 
 British fleet from Nantasket Roads several 
 transports with troops, not aware of the 
 evacuation, entered the harbor, and were 
 captured. Several storeships, laden with 
 military supplies of all kinds, also arrived 
 
THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 
 
 38i 
 
 from England, and were captured in the same 
 way. These captures were of the highest 
 importance to the patriots. Their supply of 
 ammunition was in this way increased more 
 than sevenfold. 
 
 The capture of Boston was justly esteemed 
 the most important success of the war. It 
 freed New England from the presence of the 
 English, and enabled her to contribute men 
 and money to the defence of the middle 
 colonies. On motion of John Adams, Con- 
 gress adopted a unanimous vote of thanks to 
 
 defence. He soon discovered that the Tories 
 in the city were in constant communication 
 with Governor Tryon and the British ships 
 in the harbor. Severe measures were at once 
 adopted to stop this intercourse. A con- 
 spiracy for the recovery of the city by Tryon 
 was discovered, and his agents were found 
 tampering with the American soldiers. One 
 Thomas Hickey, a deserter from the British 
 army, was hanged " for mutiny, sedition and 
 treachery," and this vigorous measure at 
 once put a stop to the plots of the Tories. 
 
 CONTINENTAL BILLS. 
 
 Washington and the army, and ordered a 
 gold medal to be struck in commemoration 
 of the deliverance of Boston. 
 
 The British fleet remained in Nantasket 
 roads for several days after the evacuation of 
 Boston, and then bore away for Halifax. 
 Washington was fearful that its destination 
 was New York, and leaving General Ward 
 with five regiments to hold Boston, hastened 
 southward with the main body of the army. 
 He reached New York on the thirteenth 
 of April, and set to work with vigor to put 
 the city and its approaches in a state of 
 
 Congress, in February, 1776, found itself 
 obliged to issue four millions of dollars of 
 additional paper money in order to meet the 
 expenses of the war, which were heavier than 
 had been supposed. For the proper manage- 
 ment of the finances, an auditor-general and 
 assistants were appointed to act under the 
 financial committee of Congress, and it was 
 not long before this branch of the public 
 service assumed the form of a treasury 
 department. In April a war office was 
 established by Congress under the super- 
 vision of a committee of its members. John 
 
382 
 
 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 Adams was made chairman of this committee, 
 and resigned his post of chief-justice of 
 Massachusetts to accept it. 
 
 The retreat of Sullivan from Canada now 
 ♦became known, and the conduct of that 
 officer was approved by Congress, which 
 passed a vote of thanks to him. At the same 
 time it appointed Major-General Horatio 
 Gates to the command of the army in his 
 place. Gates was an Englishman by birth, 
 and had joined the colonial movement in the 
 hope of winning honors and fame by his 
 services. He had served in the British army 
 during the colonial period, but had failed to 
 receive the rewards he deemed himself 
 entitled to, and had resigned his commission 
 in disgust, and had come to America to reside 
 a few years before the rupture with England. 
 His experience and skill made him a valuable 
 acquisition to the American army, but his 
 ambition and jealousy were destined to 
 cause it considerable trouble. Gates at once 
 claimed that his command embraced not only 
 the troops on Lake Champlain, but also the 
 whole northern army under Schuyler. The 
 matter was referred to Congress, and it was 
 decided that Gates was independent of the 
 control of Schuyler only while in Canada. 
 Elsewhere he was subject to Schuyler's com- 
 mand. 
 
 Expedition Against Charleston. 
 
 In the meantime Congress had sent Gen- 
 eral Charles Lee to the south to take com- 
 mand of the troops assembling to oppose Sir 
 Henry Clinton, who was waiting off the 
 mouth of the Cape Fear river for the arrival 
 of the fleet of Sir Peter Parker from Ireland. 
 This fleet joined Clinton in May, and a little 
 later Congress learned by means of inter- 
 cepted letters that Charleston, in South 
 Carolina, was the object of attack. The 
 command of the strong military force which 
 the fleet brought was to be held by Sir Henry 
 
 Clinton, to whom the general direction of 
 the expedition was intrusted. 
 
 Lee hastened at once to Charleston. He 
 found there a force of about six thousand 
 men, from the Carolinas and Virginia ; but 
 the city was not defended by a single fortifi- 
 cation. Had Clinton assailed it at once, it 
 must have fallen into his hands, as he arrived 
 in the harbor on the fourth of June, the very 
 day that Lee reached the city ; but he delayed 
 his attack until he could fortify his own 
 position, and so gave Lee time to erect works 
 for the defence of the city. 
 
 Fort Moultrie Bombarded. 
 
 The key to the American position was 
 Fort Moultrie, a small work built of palmetto 
 logs, and situated on the southwest point of 
 Sullivan's Island. It was commanded by 
 Colonel William Moultrie, whose name it 
 bore. In front of it lay the British fleet under 
 Sir Peter Parker. Sir Henry Clinton had 
 taken position with two thousand men on 
 Long Island, which was separated from Sul- 
 livan's Island by only a narrow creek, and 
 was building batteries to cover his passage 
 of the creek. His plan was to allow the fleet 
 to breach the walls of Fort Moultrie and then 
 to cross his troops to Sullivan's Island under 
 the cover of his batteries, and carry the fort 
 by storm. Lee, who was ignorant of the 
 capacity of the soft, spongy palmetto wood 
 for resisting the force of cannon shot, regarded 
 the effort to hold Fort Moultrie as madness. 
 He stationed a force under Colonel Thomp- 
 son on Sullivan's Island opposite Clinton to 
 dispute his passage of the creek, and took 
 position on the mainland with the rest of his 
 force where he could support either Moultrie 
 or Thompson, as might be necessary. 
 
 On the twenty-eighth of June the enemy's 
 fleet opened fire on Fort Moultrie, which 
 replied with spirit, and for ten hours the can- 
 nonade wa« maintained with great vigor by 
 
THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 
 
 383 
 
 both sides. The enemy's balls buried them- 
 selves in the soft, spongy wood of the pal- 
 metto logs, and thus did little injury to the 
 tort; but the well-directed fire of the Ameri- 
 can guns inflicted great 
 damage upon the fleet. 
 
 The British were finally 
 compelled to withdraw 
 with heavy loss, and 
 abandoned and set fire 
 to one of their ships. 
 During the engagement 
 the flag of the fort was 
 shot away, and fell out- 
 side of the walls. Ser- 
 geant Jasper, of the 
 South Carolina forces, 
 at once sprang over the 
 wall and amidst a heavy 
 fire secured the flag, tied 
 it to a pole, and set it up 
 again on the ramparts. 
 This done, he rejoined 
 his comrades at the guns. 
 A few days later Gov- 
 ernor Rutledge pre- 
 sented Jasper with his 
 own sword and offered 
 him a lieutenant's com- 
 mission. Jasper accepted 
 the sword, but declined 
 the commission on the 
 ground that he could 
 neither read nor write. 
 
 Clinton made repeated 
 efforts to cross the creek 
 and storm the fort during 
 the battle, but was as 
 often driven back by the 
 batteries under Thompson 
 fleet having withdrawn, he embarked his 
 men, and soon after sailed for New York 
 to join the troops assembling near that 
 •city* 
 
 Washington was correct in supposing that 
 New York was the true destination of Sir 
 William Howe after leaving the Nantasket 
 Roads. That commander sailed first to Hali- 
 
 SERGEANT JASPER AT FORT MOULTRIE. 
 
 At length, the fax, where he landed the civilians and other 
 useless incumbrances he had been obliged to 
 carry away from Boston. Then, refitting his 
 command, he awaited the arrival of his 
 brother, Admiral Lord Howe, who was on 
 
3^4 
 
 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 his way from England with reinforcements. 
 In the latter part of June he sailed from 
 Halifax for New York, and arrived within 
 Sandy Hook on the twenty-eighth cf June, 
 the very day of the attack on Fort Moultrie, 
 He landed his forces on Staten Island, where 
 he was received with enthusiasm by the 
 Tories. 
 
 A little later he was joined by Sir Henry 
 Clinton from Charleston, and about the mid- 
 dle of July Lord Howe arrived with rein- 
 forcements, a large part of whom were 
 Hessians, hired, as we have stated, by the 
 King of England from the Duke of Hesse 
 Cassel, in Germany. Their arrival raised the 
 strength of the British army in New York 
 Bay to thirty thousand men. Their attack 
 upon the city was merely a question of time, 
 .nd under the most favorable circumstances 
 it was scarcely to be hoped that Washington 
 would succeed in maintaining his hold upon 
 New York. In the meantime an event of the 
 highest importance had changed the whole 
 character of the war as regarded the Ameri- 
 cans. 
 
 England Will Wot Relent. 
 
 The colonists had taken up arms to resist 
 the aggressions of the King and Government 
 of Great Britain upon their liberties and to 
 compel the mother country to respect the 
 rights guaranteed to them by their charters 
 and by the British Constitution. Thus far 
 the war had been waged for these ends. At 
 the outset of the struggle a few far-seeing 
 persons, such as Samuel Adams and Patrick 
 Henry, had been convinced that an appeal to 
 arms would render the final separation of the 
 colonies from England inevitable, and that 
 such an issue was but the fulfilment of the 
 destiny of their country, and as such to be 
 desired. 
 
 The great majority of the people, however, 
 neither thought of nor wished for independ- 
 
 ence. They would have been satisfied to 
 secure their liberties and privileges as English 
 subjects, and would gladly have continued 
 loyal to the king. The events of the war had 
 made it plain to the most skeptical that England 
 did not intend to do justice to her colonies. 
 Neither the king, the ministry, nor Parliament 
 were disposed to swerve from their purpose 
 of reducing America to absolute submission 
 to their will. They were determined that 
 the colonists should bear every burden of 
 British citizenship, and enjoy none of its 
 privileges save what they should see fit to 
 allow them. Americans were not to enjoy 
 either liberty or property as lawful rights. 
 
 The Feeling Toward Great Britain. 
 
 This determination was so clear that none 
 could mistake it. Since the commencement 
 of the struggle public opinion in America 
 had undergone a great change, and the 
 party in favor of a total and final separation 
 from the mother country had increased so 
 rapidly that it now embraced the great major- 
 ity of the American people. Now that they 
 had become convinced that they could main- 
 tain their liberties only by a total and unqual- 
 ified separation from Great Britain, they did 
 not hesitate to choose that course. Their 
 choice was made without regret. At the 
 commencement of the war a very genuine 
 attachment bound the people of the colonies 
 to England ; but the course of the royal 
 government and the severities of the British 
 commanders in the Northern colonies, and 
 the outrages of the royal governors in the 
 South, had entirely alienated the people from 
 their love for England. 
 
 Still there were many Tories, or friends of 
 the king, in America, and they were active 
 and bitter in their opposition to the patriots. 
 From the first the Americans regarded the 
 Tories with a feeling of hatred which increased 
 as the struggle went on, and this feeling was 
 
THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 
 
 ;85 
 
 soon extended to all who fought under the 
 royal flag or sought to uphold its cause. 
 
 Not only had the people been gradually 
 coming to view independence as desirable 
 and indispensable ; the exercise by Congress 
 of the functions of a 
 supreme government 
 had accustomed them 
 to it, and had shown 
 them their capacity 
 for conducting a gen- 
 eral government for 
 the whole country. 
 Early in March, 1776, 
 Congress granted let- 
 ters of marque and re- 
 prisal against British 
 commerce, and some- 
 what later sent Silas 
 Deane as its commis- 
 sioner to France to 
 seek assistance from 
 that country. In May 
 it had formally recom- 
 mended the colonies 
 to disregard the royal 
 governments and 
 adopt systems suited 
 lo their needs, and in 
 harmony with the 
 changed state of affairs. 
 To all men it was evi- 
 dent that a formal re- 
 nunciation of allegi- 
 ance to Great Britain 
 and the assertion of 
 their independence by 
 the colonies was mere- 
 ly a question of time. 
 
 It was, therefore, a surprise to no one when 
 the first definite action looking towards inde- 
 pendence was taken. On the fifteenth of 
 May, 1776, the general assembly of Virginia 
 
 instructed the delegates of that colony in 
 2 5 
 
 Congress to offer a resolution in favor of the 
 separation of the colonies from England, and 
 the formal declaration of their independence. 
 On the thirtieth of May Massachusetts 
 instructed her delegates to support this reso- 
 
 INDEPENDENCE HALL, PHILADELPHIA. 
 
 lution. On the seventh of June Richard 
 Henry Lee, of Virginia, offered a resolution 
 in Congress, "that the united colonies are, 
 and ought to be, free and independent 
 States, and that their political connection 
 
3 86 
 
 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 with Great Britain is, and ought to be, dis- 
 solved." 
 
 The resolution was seconded by John 
 Adams, of Massachusetts, and was debated 
 with great earnestness. It was adopted by 
 a bare majority of one — seven colonies voting 
 for it, and six against it. In accordance with 
 the resolution, a committee was appointed to 
 draw up a declaration of independence, and, 
 in order that the delegates might have an 
 opportunity to ascertain the wishes of their 
 constituents, the consideration of the subject 
 " is postponed until the first of July. Two 
 
 with a few verbal alterations, was adopted 
 by the committee as it came from his hand. 
 It reviewed in a clear and comprehensive 
 manner the cause which had impelled the 
 colonics to take up arms for the defence of 
 their liberties, and which now induced them 
 to sever the ties that bound them to Great 
 Britain, 
 
 The declaration concluded in these mem- 
 orable words : " We, therefore, the repre- 
 sentatives of the United States of America, 
 in general Congress assembled, appealing to 
 the Supreme Judge of all the world for the 
 rectitude of our inten- 
 tions, do, in the name 
 and by the authority 
 of the good people of 
 these colonies, solemnly 
 publish and declare that 
 these united colonies are, 
 and of right ought to 
 be, free and independent 
 states ; that they are 
 absolved from all alie- 
 t^^^lffl.^' 'WKm 'vIBl^C giance to the British 
 
 crown, and that all poli- 
 tical connection between 
 them and the state of 
 Great Britain is, and 
 ought to be, dissolved; 
 
 HOUSE IN WHICH THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE WAS WRITTEN, PHILADELPHIA. , , r . 
 
 other committees were also appointed. One 
 of these was charged with the preparation of 
 
 a plan for uniting the colonies in a single 
 government ; the other was to report a plan 
 for securing alliances with foreign nations. 
 The committee charged with the preparation 
 of a declaration of independence consisted of 
 Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, Thomas 
 Jefferson, Roger Sherman and Robert R. 
 Livingston. 
 
 On the twenty-eighth of June the com- 
 mittee reported the declaration to Congress. 
 It was written by Thomas Jefferson, and, 
 
 that, as free 
 independent states, they have full power to 
 levy war, conclude peace contract alliances, 
 establish commerce and to do all other acts 
 and things which independent states may of 
 right do. And for the support of this decla- 
 ration, with a firm reliance on the protection 
 of a Divine Providence, we mutually pledge 
 to each other our lives, our fortunes, and 
 our sacred honor." 
 
 The declaration was debated in Congress, 
 and a few passages, which it was feared 
 might offend the friends of the colonies in 
 Great Britain, were stricken out The vote 
 
SIGNING THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 
 
3 88 
 
 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 was then taken by colonies, and though 
 some of the delegates voted against it, the 
 declaration received the votes of all the colo- 
 nies with the exception of New York, which 
 accepted it a few days later. On the fourth 
 day of July, 1776, the Declaration of Inde- 
 pendence was formally adopted by Congress, 
 and was ordered to be published to the 
 world, and to be read at the head of the 
 regiments of the army. 
 
 Congress was in session in the hall of the 
 state house in Philadelphia. In the spire of 
 this venerable building hung a bell, inscribed 
 
 OLD BELL OF INDEPENDENCE HALL. 
 
 with the words of Scripture : " Proclaim 
 liberty throughout all the land unto all the 
 inhabitants thereof." On the morning of the 
 fourth of July vast crowds assembled around 
 the building, as it was known that Congress 
 would on that day take definite action upon 
 the declaration. The bell-ringer stationed 
 himself in the tower, ready to proclaim the 
 good news the moment it should be 
 announced to him, and had posted his little 
 son at the door of the hall to await the signal 
 of the door-keeper. 
 
 When the announcement of the vote was 
 made, the door-keeper gave the signal and 
 the boy ran quickly to the tower. The old 
 man heard him coming, and clutched the 
 bell-rope with a firm grasp. The next instant 
 the glad cry of the boy's voice was heard. 
 " Ring ! ring ! " he cried, and then the deep, 
 sonorous tones of the bell went rolling out of 
 the tower, and were answered with a mighty 
 shout from the assembled throng without. 
 The declaration was received by all the states 
 and by the army with enthusiasm. Thus 
 the thirteen united colonies became the thir- 
 teen United States. It should not be for- 
 gotten that the declaration did not make the 
 colonies independent states, or states in any 
 sense. It was simply their announcement to 
 the world that they had, each for itself, by 
 the exercise of its own sovereign power, 
 assumed the independence which rightfully 
 belonged to it. 
 
 The Declaration of Independence put an 
 end to all the hopes that had been cherished 
 of an accommodation with Great Britain, 
 and caused those who were still wavering to 
 embrace the cause of their country. It 
 relieved Congress of the disadvantage under 
 which it had hitherto acted, and enabled it 
 to pursue a more vigorous and decisive 
 policy in the prosecution of the war. There 
 was no retreat now ; nothing remained but 
 to continue the struggle until Great Bri'ain 
 should be compelled to acknowledge the 
 independence of the states, or they should 
 be reduced to the condition of conquered 
 provinces. 
 
 On the twelfth of July the committee 
 appointed to prepare a plan for the union of 
 the states reported one, which is thus summed 
 up: 
 
 " 1st. The style of the confederacy was to 
 be 'The United States of America.' 
 
 " 2d. Each state retained its sovereignty, 
 freedom and independence and every power 
 
THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 
 
 389 
 
 and right which is not expressly delegated to 
 the United States. 
 
 " 3d. The object ot the confederation was 
 for their mutual defence, the security of 
 their liberties, and their mutual and general 
 welfare, binding themselves to assist each 
 other against all force offered to or attacks 
 made upon them, or any of them, on account 
 of religion, sovereignty, trade, or any other 
 pretence whatever. 
 
 " 4th. In determining all questions in 
 Congress each State was to have one vote. 
 
 " 5th. Each State was to maintain its own 
 delegates. 
 
 " 6th. The free inhabitants of each State, 
 paupers, vagabonds and fugitives from jus- 
 tice excepted, were to be entitled to all 
 privileges and immunities of free citizens in 
 the several States. 
 
 " 7th. All fugitives from justice from one 
 State into another were to be delivered up on 
 demand. 
 
 " 8th. Full faith and credit were to be given 
 to the records of each State in all the others. 
 
 " 9th. Congress was to grant no title of 
 nobility. 
 
 " loth. No person holding any office was 
 to receive a present from a foreign power. 
 
 "nth. No State was to form any agree- 
 ment or alliance with a foreign power with- 
 out the consent of the States in Congress 
 assembled. 
 
 " 1 2th. No two or more States were to 
 form any alliance between themselves with- 
 out the like consent of the States in Congress 
 assembled. 
 
 " 13th. No State, without the like consent 
 of Congress, was to keep war ships or an 
 army in time of peace ; but each was to keep 
 a well-organized and disciplined militia, with 
 munitions of war. 
 
 " 14th. No State was to lay any duty 
 upon foreign imports which would interfere 
 with any treaty made by Congress. 
 
 " 15th. No State was to issue letters of 
 marque, or to engage in war, without the 
 consent of the Congress, unless actually 
 invaded or menaced with invasion. 
 
 " 1 6th. When Federal land forces were 
 raised, each State was to raise the quota 
 required by Congress, arm and equip them 
 at the expense of all the States, and to 
 r pp tint all officers of and under the rank of 
 colonel. 
 
 " 17th. Each State was to levy and raise 
 the quota of tax required by Congress for 
 Federal purposes. 
 
 " 1 8th. The faith of all the States was 
 pledged to pay all the bills of credit emitted, 
 or money borrowed on their joint account, 
 by the Congress. 
 
 " 19th. It was agreed and covenanted that 
 Canada might accede to the union so formed 
 if she chose to do so. 
 
 " 20th (and lastly). Each State was to 
 abide by the determination of all the States in 
 Congress assembled, on all questions which, 
 by the confederation, were submitted to 
 them. The Articles of Confederation were 
 to be inviolably observed by every State, 
 and the Union was to be perpetual. No 
 article of the confederation was to be altered 
 without the consent of every State. 
 
 " The delegations of power by each of the 
 States to all the States, in general Congress 
 assembled, upon a like analysis, may be 
 stated as follows : 
 
 " 1st. The sole and exclusive power to 
 determine on war and peace, except in case 
 a State should be invaded or menaced with 
 invasion. 
 
 " 2d. To send and receive ambassadors. 
 
 " 3d. To make treaties, with a proviso, etc. 
 
 "4th. To establish rules for captures. 
 
 " 5 th. To grant letters of marque and re- 
 prisal. 
 
 " 6th. To appoint courts for trial of piracies 
 and other crimes soeci^ed. 
 
590 
 
 ' ;th. To decide questions of dispute between 
 
 "wo or more States in a prescribed manner. 
 
 " 8th. The sole and exclusive power to 
 
 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 " 10th. To regulate trade with the Indian 
 tribes. 
 
 " I ith. To establish post offices. 
 
 
 
 
 ^TTl^&Zn 
 
 
 >n 
 
 -ytc o 
 
 fht*-~-AsC &- 
 
 ^'j^rffrf'^^&fZ^jf- 
 
 
 
 SIGNATURES OF THE SIGNERS OF THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 
 
 coin money and regulate the value. 
 
 "9th. To fix a standard of weights and 
 measures. 
 
 " 1 2th. To appoint all officers of the militia 
 land forces, when called out by Congress, 
 except regimental. 
 
THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 
 
 39 1 
 
 " 13th. To appoint all officers of the Fede- 
 ral naval forces. 
 
 " 14th. To make rules and regulations for 
 the government of land and naval forces. 
 
 " 15th. To appropriate and apply public 
 money for public expenses, the common 
 defence and general welfare. 
 
 " 1 6th. To borrow money and emit bills of 
 credit. 
 
 " 17th. To build and equip a navy. 
 
 " 18th. To agree upon the number of land 
 forces and make requisitions upon the States 
 for their quotas in proportion to the value of 
 all land wifhin each State. 
 
 " The foregoing powers were delegated 
 with this limitation : The war power, the 
 treaty power, the power to coin money, the 
 power to regulate the value thereof, the power 
 of fixing the quotas of money to be raised by 
 the States, the power to emit bills of credit, 
 the power to borrow money, the power to 
 appropriate money, the power to regulate 
 the number of land and naval forces, and the 
 power to appoint a commander-in-chief of 
 the army as well as the navy, were never to 
 be exercised unless nine of the States were 
 assenting to the same. 
 
 " These articles form the original basis and 
 first Constitution of the existing Federal 
 Union of the United States of America." * 
 
 The States Come Into Line. 
 
 These Articles of Confederation were 
 adopted, after discussion, by Congress, vot- 
 ing by States, and were then submitted to 
 the several States for ratification by them. 
 In the meantime Congress continued to exer- 
 cise the powers conferred by them. By the 
 early part of 1777 all the States save Mary- 
 land had ratified and adopted the articles. 
 That State did not give her full assent to 
 them until 1781. 
 
 *Hon. Alexander H. Stephens. 
 
 Lord Howe arrived in New York Bay 
 about the middle of July, as has been stated. 
 He was vested with full powers by the king 
 to settle the quarrel between America and 
 England if the Americans would agree to 
 submit unconditionally to the king. Failing , 
 to acco nplish a settlement, he and his 
 brother, Sir William Howe, were charged 
 with the supreme conduct of the war. Lord 
 Howe was a man of amiable disposition, and 
 really desired peace ; but as he was fully 
 convinced of the justice of the royal preten- 
 sions, he could not understand or appreciate 
 the claims or grievances of the Americans. 
 Moreover, he had come too late. The Ameri- 
 can people meant that their separation from 
 Great Britain should be final. Lord Howe 
 was greatly deceived upon his arrival as to 
 the actual state of feeling in America. He 
 was received with loyal addresses by the 
 Tories of Long and Staten Islands and the 
 New Jersey shore, and was assured by Gov- 
 ernor Tryon that the country was full of 
 friends of the king who might be induced tc 
 join him if properly supported. 
 
 Washington Insulted. 
 
 Lord Howe, therefore, resolved to attempt 
 a peaceful settlement before proceeding to 
 hostilities, and issued a circular addressed to 
 the people of America, offering them the 
 royal pardon if they would cease their rebel- 
 lion, lay down their arms and trust to the 
 clemency of the king. Congress gave to this 
 circular the widest publicity by causing it to 
 be published in every newspaper in the Union, 
 in order that the people might see that the 
 only settlement that would be accepted by 
 England was their voluntary and absolute 
 submission to her arbitrary will. " They 
 must fight or be slaves." 
 
 About the same time Lord Howe addressed 
 a letter to the American commander-in-chief, 
 styling him George Washington, Esquire. 
 
392 
 
 TIIK AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 No notice of this communication was taken 
 by Washington, and Howe sent him another 
 letter addressed to George Washington, etc., 
 etc. Washington, rightly considering that 
 the omission of his official title was an insult 
 to his country, refused to receive the letter. 
 Adjutant-General Patterson, of Lord Howe's 
 staff, who bore the communication, expressed 
 his regret that the letter could not be opened. 
 Lord Howe, he said, came vested with great 
 power, and was sincerely anxious for peace. 
 Washington, who had received him with 
 kindly courtesy, replied that he was aware 
 that Lord Howe was intrusted with the power 
 to grant pardons, but that as the Americans 
 were engaged in the defence of their rights, 
 and had committed no crime, they had no 
 need of pardon, and his lordship's good inten- 
 tions could not be of service to them. 
 
 It was now plain to Lord Howe that he 
 had been deceived by Tryon and his friends, 
 and that nothing could be accomplished save 
 by force of arms. His circular had produced 
 no effect, and he could detect no sign of 
 wavering on the part of the Americans. 
 
 Measures for Defence. 
 
 It had been evident for some time that the 
 next effort of the British would be to get 
 possession of the city of New York. Their 
 fleet already held the harbor, and should 
 they succeed in securing the Hudson they 
 would be able to establish a direct commu- 
 nication with Canada, and to isolate New 
 England and New York from the Middle 
 States and the South. Reinforcements were 
 sent to Washington from Pennsylvania, 
 Maryland, Virginia and Delaware, These 
 gave the American commander a force of 
 about twenty-five thousand men ; but scarcely 
 seventeen thousand were fit for duty; the 
 remainder being disabled by sickness. 
 
 Washington erected two forts on Man- 
 hattan island, one just above Kingsbridge, 
 
 named Fort Washington, and the other just 
 below it, named Fort Independence. Kings- 
 bridge furnished the only communication 
 between the island of Manhattan and the 
 mainland, and these forts were erected for 
 its defence, as well as to hold the enemy's 
 vessels in check should they attempt to 
 ascend the Hudson. On the New Jerse,- 
 side of the river, opposite Fort Washington, 
 a third work was erected, and named Fort 
 Lee. Other forts were built higher up the 
 Hudson to hold the river against the enemy 
 and maintain the communication between 
 the Northern and Southern States. One of 
 these, called Fort Montgomery, was located 
 at the entrance to the Highlands, opposite 
 the promontory of Anthony's Nose ; another 
 was built six miles higher up the river, and 
 was known as Fort Constitution. 
 
 Battle on Long Island. 
 
 For the defence of the heights of Brooklyn 
 which commanded the city of New York, 
 Washington caused a line of works to be 
 erected on a range of hills a short distance 
 south of Brooklyn, and established there an 
 intrenched camp. General Nathaniel Greene 
 was placed in command of this position, and 
 exerted himself with vigor to strengthen it. 
 When he had matured his plans he was sud- 
 denly taken ill, and was obliged to relinquish 
 the commend to General Sullivan. 
 
 The British fleet lay in Gravesend Bay, 
 just without the Narrows, and Washington 
 was for a while uncertain whether they would 
 make their first attempt against the force on 
 Long Island, or attack the city of New York 
 It soon became evident that the capture of 
 the lines on Long Island would be their first 
 care, and Sullivan was reinforced with six 
 battalions, all that could be spared form New 
 York, and on the twenty-fourth of August 
 General Putnam was placed in command of 
 the forces on Lone Island. 
 
o 
 
 Eh 
 
 s 
 
 H 
 PQ 
 
 fa 
 O 
 
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 PQ 
 
THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 
 
 393 
 
 Oa the night of the twenty-sixth of August 
 the British crossed over from Staten Island 
 to Long Island, and prepared to give battle. 
 Their plan was to engage the attention of 
 the Americans by a direct attack with two 
 divisions, while Sir Henry Clinton, with a 
 third division, was to turn the left flank of 
 the Americans and gain their rear. They 
 hoped, if these movements were successful, 
 to surround and capture the entire force 
 under Putnam. Clinton began his 
 march about nine o'clock on the night 
 of the twenty-sixth, guided by a Long 
 Island Tory. About daylight on the 
 morning of the twenty-seventh of Au- 
 gust, the enemy made their attack 
 upon the front of the American posi- 
 tion, and engaged their attention in 
 this direction, while Clinton, by a 
 rapid march, gained their rear. 
 
 For a while the Americans fought 
 well, but finding themselves almost 
 surrounded, and in danger of being 
 captured, they abandoned the field 
 and retreated within the intrench- 
 ments at Brooklyn. The Hessian 
 troops behaved with great barbarity 
 during the engagement, and a num- 
 ber of the Americans were cruelly 
 and wantonly bayoneted by them. 
 A part of the engagement was fought 
 in the beautiful region now occupied 
 by Greenwood cemetery. 
 
 Washington hastened to Brooklyn as 
 soon as informed of the battle, and arrived 
 just in time to witness the defeat of his 
 troops. He was powerless to repair the 
 disaster, and could only look on in helpless 
 agon}'. " My God ! " he exclaimed, with 
 tears : " What brave fellows I must lose 
 this day ! " 
 
 The American loss was very severe in 
 this battle. Out of a force of five thou- 
 sand men engaged they lost two thousand 
 
 men, a large number of whom were pri- 
 soners. The British had sixteen thousand 
 men engaged, and lost four hundred. Had 
 they followed up their victory by an imme- 
 diate assault upon the American intrench 
 ments they must have carried them; but 
 General Howe believed that Washington 
 had a much stronger force for their defence 
 than was the case, and encamped in front 
 of the intrenchments, intending to begin 
 
 GENERAL JOHN SULLIVAN. 
 
 operations against them the next day. The 
 twenty-eighth, however, was a day of 
 drenching rain, and the enemy were unable 
 to do more than break ground for a 
 battery. On the twenty-ninth a dense fog 
 hung over the island ; but it lifted for a 
 moment, and enabled the Americans tc 
 detect an unusual commotion among the 
 British shipping. 
 
 It seemed plain that the enemy were pre- 
 paring to enter the East River with their 
 
394 
 
 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 fleet, and so separate the force on Long 
 Island from that in New York. Washing- 
 ton at once summoned a council of war, and 
 it was decided to retreat from Long Island 
 without delay. It was a hazardous attempt, 
 for the army under General Howe was so 
 close to the American lines that the conver- 
 sations of the men could be heard, and the 
 British fleet might at any moment seize the 
 East River. To withdraw a force of nine 
 thousand men across a wide, deep river, in 
 the face of such an army and fleet, was a 
 task which required the greatest skill. It 
 was successfully accomplished, however. 
 Every boat in and around New York and 
 Brooklyn was impressed, and though the 
 orders for the retreat were not issued until 
 noon on the twenty-ninth, everything was in 
 readiness for the retreat by eight o'clock 
 that evening. At midnight the troops took 
 up their silent march from the intrenched 
 line to the ferry, where the boats, manned 
 by Glover's regiment, which was composed 
 of fishermen from Marblehead, awaited them. 
 By eight o'clock the next morning the entire 
 army, with all its cattle, horses and wagons, 
 was safe upon the New York side of fli e 
 river, and beyond the reach of the enemy 
 
 Important Conference. 
 
 Howe was greatly mortified at the escape 
 of the American army, for he had regarded 
 it as a sure prize, and prepared, with the aid 
 of his ships, to seize the upper part of Man- 
 hattan Island, and confine the Americans to 
 the city of New York, where their surrender 
 would be inevitable. Before proceeding to the 
 execution of this plan he resolved to make 
 another effort to induce the Americans to aban- 
 don their cause, as he rightly believed their 
 defeat on Long Island would be followed by a 
 season of great depression. A few days after 
 the retreat he released General Sullivan, who 
 had been taken prisoner in the battle, on 
 
 parole, and sent a letter by him to Congress, 
 asking that body to send an informal com- 
 mittee, whom he would receive as private 
 gentlemen, to confer with him on some meas- 
 ure of reconciliation. 
 
 Interview with Lord Howe. 
 
 Congress, willing to hear what he had to 
 propose, sent Dr. Franklin, John Adams 
 and Edward Rutledge to confer with him. 
 They met Lord Howe at a house on Staten 
 Island, opposite Amboy. Tne only terms 
 his lordship had to propose were the uncon- 
 ditional submission of the Americans to the 
 royal mercy. He was informed that the 
 Americans would consent to treat with 
 Great Britain only as " a free and independ- 
 ent nation," and that it was useless to propose 
 any other basis for a settlement. Lord 
 Howe thereupon expressed his regret that 
 he should be obliged to distress the Ameri- 
 cans. Dr. Franklin thanked him for his 
 good feeling, and remarked : " The Ameri- 
 cans will endeavor to lessen the pain you 
 may feel by taking good care of themselves." 
 The report of the interview was made pub- 
 lic by Congress, and had a happy effect. It 
 convinced all classes that England had no 
 terms to offer them but such as embraced a 
 shameful surrender of their liberties. 
 
 Fearful that Howe would seek to shut him 
 up in New York, Washington left a force 
 within the city to hold it, and encamped 
 with the main body of his army on Harlem 
 Heights, at the northern end of the island, 
 from which he could secure his retreat into 
 Westchester County. The army was reduced 
 to less than twenty thousand men, and was 
 disheartened by the defeat on Long Island. 
 It was seriously debated whether New York 
 should be defended or not ; and it was pro- 
 posed to burn the city to the ground, in 
 order to prevent the enemy from securing 
 comfortable winter-quarters in it. Congress 
 
THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 
 
 395 
 
 ordered that the city should not be de- 
 stroyed, but it was evident that it could not 
 be held. 
 
 Washington was anxious to learn the 
 intentions of the enemy, who still remained 
 on Long Island, and Captain Nathan Hale, a 
 talented young officer of the Connecticut 
 line, volunteered to enter their lines and pro- 
 cure the desired information. He proceeded 
 to the British camp, obtained the information 
 wanted, and was returning in safety when he 
 was arrested by a party of the enemy, 
 among whom was a Tory relative, who re- 
 cognised him. He was taken to Howe's 
 headquarters, and the next morning, Sep- 
 tember 22d, without any form of trial, was 
 hanged as a spy. He met his death with 
 firmness, saying : " I only regret that I have 
 but one life to lose for my country." 
 
 "Old Put " Saves His Command. 
 
 in the meantime the British had seized 
 the islands at the mouth of the Harlem 
 River ; and had erected a battery on one of 
 them. On the fifteenth of September they 
 crossed in force to Manhattan Island, at 
 Kipp's Bay, about three miles above the 
 city. They easily drove back the force sta- 
 tioned there to resist their landing, and 
 secured their position. Washington at once 
 sent General Heath to hold the enemy in 
 check, and ordered Putnam to evacuate the 
 city of New York, and retire to Harlem 
 Heights, without the loss of a moment. 
 
 Putnam obeyed his orders promptly, and 
 retreated from the city along the line of the 
 Bloomingdale Road, now the upper part of 
 Broadway. His march was retarded by a 
 crowd of women and children fleeing from 
 the city, and was exposed to the fire of the 
 enemy's ships in the Hudson. By great 
 exertions he managed to save his command, 
 but was obliged to leave his heavy artillery 
 and three hundred men in the hands of the 
 
 enemy. The British at once took posses- 
 sion of New York, and threw up a line of 
 intrenchments above the city, from the Hud- 
 son, at Bloomingdale, to the East River, at 
 Kipp's Bay. The Americans now held the 
 upper part of the island, and erected a 
 double line of earthworks from river tc 
 river, about four miles below Kingsbridge. 
 
 On the sixteenth of September the enemy 
 made an attack upon the American advanced 
 posts, but were handsomely repulsed by the 
 Virginia and Connecticut troops. Major 
 Leitch, the commander of the Virginians, 
 and Colonel Knowlton, the commander of 
 the Connecticut regiment, and one of the 
 captains at Bunker Hill, were killed. In 
 spite of these losses the spirit of the troops, 
 which had been much depressed by the 
 recent disasters, were greatly cheered. 
 
 A lull of several weeks followed, during 
 which the Americans suffered greatly from 
 sickness. They were without proper hospi- 
 tal accommodations, " and they lay about in 
 almost every barn, stable, shed, and even 
 under the fences and bushes." 
 
 Washington's Skillful Tactics. 
 
 Howe now began to move his army to- 
 wards Long Island Sound, for the purpose of 
 marching across the mainland to the Hudson 
 and cutting off the retreat of Washington 
 from Manhattan Island, and at the same time 
 sent his fleet up the Hudson. His intention 
 was understood by Washington, who left three 
 thousand men to defend Fort Washington, 
 and with the main body of his army fell back 
 to the line of the Bronx, near the village of 
 White Plains. Here he was attacked on the 
 twenty-eighth of October by General Howe, 
 who was advancing from the direction of 
 New Rochelle, and who was still hopeful of 
 gaining the American rear. A spirited en- 
 counter ensued, in which each party lost 
 about four hundred men ; and the British 
 
39^ 
 
 THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE READ TO THE ARMY. 
 
THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 
 
 397 
 
 intrenched themselves in front of the Ameri- 
 can position. 
 
 Apprehensive of an effort on the part of the 
 enemy to storm his line, Washington caused 
 the troops to spend the night in strengthen- 
 ing the rude works which covered it. They 
 labored with such diligence that the next 
 morning the British commander decided that 
 the line was too strong to be attacked, 
 and determined to wait for reinforcements. 
 That night Washington silently abandoned 
 his lines at White Plains, and withdrew to 
 the heights of North Castle, five miles dis- 
 tant. Howe, unwilling to follow him further, 
 marched to Dobb's Ferry, on the Hudson, 
 and encamped. 
 
 British Successes. 
 
 This movement of the British commander 
 caused Washington to fear that he meant to 
 cross over into New Jersey. He accordingly 
 made a new disposition of his forces to meet 
 any emergency. General Charles Lee, who 
 had recently returned from the South, was 
 left at North Castle with a portion of the 
 army to watch Howe; Heath, with another 
 portion, was ordered to occupy Peekskill to 
 defend the passes of the Highlands ; and 
 Putnam was stationed, with a third detach- 
 ment, on the west side of the Hudson to hold 
 that region. 
 
 With the remainder of his troops Wash- 
 ington crossed the Hudson and joined Gen- 
 eral Greene at Fort Lee, arriving there on the 
 thirteenth of November. A force of three 
 thousand Pennsylvania troops had been left 
 to hold Fort Washington, on Manhattan 
 Island. Washington was in favor of with- 
 drawing them at once, but left the matter to 
 the decision of General Greene, and Colonel 
 Magaw, the commander of the fort, who 
 determined to hold it. The result proved 
 their error. Fort Washington was attacked 
 on the sixteenth of November by a force of 
 
 five thousand Hessians and some English 
 troops, under General Knyphausen, and was 
 taken by storm. The enemy lost nearly one 
 thousand men and took over two thousand 
 prisoners. Washington witnessed the cap- 
 ture from Fort Lee without the ability to aid 
 the garrison. 
 
 Fort Washington having fallen, Fort Lee 
 was no longer of service, and the commander- 
 in-chief resolved to abandon it before it was 
 too late. The removal of the stores was at 
 once begun, but before it could be completed 
 Lord Cornwallis, with a force of six thousand 
 men, crossed the Hudson below Dobb's 
 Ferry, and by a rapid march across the coun- 
 try endeavored to confine the Americans to 
 the strip of land between the Hudson and 
 the Hackensack. An immediate retreat from 
 Fort Lee became necessary in order to secure 
 the bridge over the Hackensack. All the 
 heavy cannon at Fort Lee, a considerable 
 quantity of provisions and military stores, 
 and three hundred tents were abandoned, and 
 fell into the hands of the British. The pas 
 sage of the Hackensack was secured, and the 
 army began its memorable retreat across New 
 Jersey, closely followed by the enemy under 
 Cornwallis. 
 
 Dark Days for the American Cause. 
 
 From the Hackensack Washington fell 
 back behind the Passaic at Newark. As his 
 rear-guard passed out of the town the 
 advance of Cornwallis entered Newark. The 
 Raritan was crossed at New Brunswick, and 
 Washington left a force of twelve hundred 
 men at Princeton, under Lord Stirling, and 
 pushed on to Trenton to secure the passage 
 of the Delaware. 
 
 The British hung closely upon him during 
 the whole retreat, the opposing forces being 
 often within cannon-shot of each other. On 
 the eighth of December, with scarcely three 
 thousand men, Washington crossed the 
 
39§ 
 
 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 Delaware at Trenton, and went into camp in 
 Pennsylvania. The enemy reached the 
 river soon after, but, as all the boats had been 
 secured by the Americans, were unable to 
 cross over. Lord Cornwallis was very 
 anxious to procure boats, cross the river and 
 push on to Philadelphia, but Howe decided 
 to wait until the river should be frozen, and 
 to pass it on the ice. In the meantime the 
 Hessians were stationed in Trenton, and 
 guarded the river for some distance above 
 and below the town. 
 
 GENERAL CHARLES LEE. 
 
 The American war had now entered its 
 darkest period for the Americans. New 
 York was lost to them, they had been driven 
 from New Jersey, and their army seemed 
 melting away. During the painful retreat 
 across New Jersey, Washington had exerted 
 himself to the utmost to call in the other 
 detachments of his army. General Schuyler 
 was directed to send him the Pennsylvania 
 and New Jersey troops in his command ; but 
 the enlistments of these troops were rapidly 
 
 expiring, and they could not be induced to 
 renew them. General Charles Lee was 
 ordered to cross the Hudson and join the 
 commander-in-chief with all speed, but he 
 moved with a slowness and carelessness that 
 were criminal. He remained about a fort- 
 night on the east side of the Hudson, and 
 then began his march with such slowness 
 that he did not reach Morristown until the 
 eighth of December. 
 
 On the thirteenth, while lying carelessly 
 apart from his troops, at a small inn at Bask- 
 ingridge, he was captured by a 
 troop of British cavalry. The 
 command passed to General Sul- 
 livan, and in a few days he had 
 united his forces with those of 
 the commander-in-chief. General 
 Lee had an abiding confidence in 
 his own ability, and was reluctant 
 to lose his independent command 
 by joining Washington. His 
 natural self-conceit had been 
 greatly increased by his success 
 at the South, and he was firmly 
 convinced that he alone was 
 capable of guiding the American 
 cause through the difficulties 
 which encompassed it. Influ- 
 enced by this feeling, he disre- 
 garded the authority of the com- 
 mander-in-chief, and subjected 
 him to great inconvenience. He 
 was not untrue to the cause he had em- 
 braced, but his patriotism was of a different 
 type from that which animated Washington. 
 The enlistments of a large part of the 
 troops expired on the first of December, and 
 nothing could induce them to remain in the 
 army. Whole regiments abandoned the 
 service, and the handful of reinforcements 
 which was obtained from Philadelphia fell 
 far short of supplying their place. The 
 people were disheartened, and it seemed 
 
THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 
 
 399 
 
 that the cause was hopeless. A force of six 
 militia regiments in Massachusetts and Con- 
 necticut was on the point of marching 
 to Washington's assistance, when the fleet 
 of Sir Peter Parker entered Newport Harbor 
 and landed a force on the island of Rhode 
 Island, which took possession of Newport. 
 In view of this invasion, it was deemed best 
 to retain the New England militia at home. 
 
 Taking the Oath of Allegiance. 
 
 Washington was fully alive to the danger 
 which threatened the cause ; but he was calm 
 and cheerful. During the retreat through 
 New Jersey he said to Colonel Reed : 
 «' Should \vc retreat to the back parts of 
 Pennsylvania, will the Pennsylvanians sup- 
 port us ? " " If the lower counties are sub- 
 dued and give up," said the colonel, " the 
 back counties will do the same." Washing- 
 ton passed his hand over his throat, and 
 said, with a smile : " My neck does not 
 feel as though it was made for a halter. We 
 must retire to Augusta County, in Virginia. 
 Numbers will be obliged to repair to us for 
 safety ; and we must try what we can do in 
 carrying on a predatory war ; and if over- 
 powered, we must cross the Allegheny 
 Mountains." 
 
 At this juncture of affairs Lord and Gen- 
 eral Howe issued a proclamation, by virtue 
 of their authority as commissioners appointed 
 by the crown for the settlement of the war, in 
 which all persons in America in arms against 
 his majesty's government were ordered to 
 disperse and return to their homes, and all 
 civil officers were commanded to discontinue 
 their treasonable practices, and relinquish 
 their usurped authority. A full and free 
 pardon was offered to every one who would, 
 within sixty days, appear before certain 
 designated officials, claim the pardon offered, 
 and take an oath pledging him to obey the 
 laws and submit to the authority of the king. 
 
 Large numbers of persons, most of whom 
 were possessed of property which they 
 desired to save, at once came forward, made 
 their submission and took the required 
 oath. Some of these were men who had 
 borne a prominent part in the patriot move- 
 ment ; among them were two delegates from 
 Pennsylvania to the Continental Congress, 
 and the president of the New Jersey con- 
 vention, which had ratified the Declaration 
 of Independence. Within ten days after the 
 proclamation was issued, between two and 
 three thousand persons submitted and swore 
 allegiance to the king. In Philadelphia great 
 excitement prevailed, and General Putnam, 
 who was in command there, feeling that 
 there was danger that the royalists in the 
 city might succeed in obtaining control of 
 it, advised that, until matters were placed on 
 a more certain footing, Congress should hold 
 its sessions at some safer place. Accord- 
 ingly it adjourned on the twelfth of Decern 
 ber to meet in Baltimore. 
 
 A Gallant Fleet. 
 
 The only quarter in which the Americans 
 had been able to oppose anything of a suc- 
 cessful resistance to the British was the 
 region of Lake Champlain. We have related 
 the retreat of Sullivan and Arnold from 
 Canada, and the appointment of Gates to the 
 command of their forces. The army halted 
 at Forts Ticonderoga and Crown Point* 
 which it strengthened, and awaited the 
 development of the plans of Sir Guy Carle- 
 ton, the British commander in Canada. 
 
 That officer had determined to secure the 
 control of Lakes Champlain and George, 
 and then to push on to the Hudson, open 
 communication Avith the Howes at New 
 York, and spend the winter at Albany. He 
 would thus entirely sever the communica- 
 tion between New England and New York, 
 and the Middle and Southern States. Sullivan 
 
|00 
 
 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 had wisely destroyed all the boats on Lake 
 Champlain which he did not need for 
 his own purposes, and as there was no road 
 along the shore by which he could advance, 
 Carleton was obliged to construct a fleet 
 before he could attempt to ascend the lake. 
 He exerted himself with such energy that in 
 three months he had a fleet of five large and 
 twenty small vessels and a number of armed 
 boats assembled at the foot of the lake. 
 
 Gates was informed of Carleton's design, 
 and ordered Arnold, who was possessed of 
 some nautical knowledge, to construct a 
 flotilla and take command of it for the pur- 
 pose of contesting Carleton's effort to ascend 
 the lake. Arnold set to work with enthu- 
 siasm, and soon had a force of vessels afloat 
 about half as strong as that of the enemy. 
 He chose a favorable position and awaited 
 Carleton's approach. A sharp encounter 
 occurred between the opposing forces early 
 in October near Valcour Island, but was 
 indecisive, and at nightfall Carleton took 
 possession to cut off Arnold's retreat. The 
 night was dark and cloudy, and taking 
 advantage of it, Arnold passed the enemy 
 and sailed for Crown Point. His vessels 
 were in bad condition, however, and two 
 were sunk on the voyage. Only six suc- 
 ceeded in coming within sight of Crown 
 Point, near which they were overtaken by 
 Carleton on the sixth of October. 
 
 The Flag-ship Riddled. 
 
 Arnold made a gallant fight with his 
 remaining vessels. One was taken with her 
 crew, and Arnold's flag-ship, the " Congress," 
 was cut to pieces, and half of her crew were 
 slain. Resolved not to surrender, Arnold 
 ordered the vessels to be run aground, and 
 set them on fire. He and his men then 
 waded ashore, and by a sharp fire from their 
 rifles kept the enemy from the burning gal- 
 leys until they were entirely consumed. The 
 
 Americans then hastened to Crown Point, 
 where they set fire to the fort and the stores, 
 and continued their retreat to Ticonderoga. 
 Gates greatly strengthened the defences of 
 this post, and when Carleton arrived before 
 it, he found it too strong to be attacked. He 
 therefore abandoned his attempt to reach the 
 Hudson, and returned to Canada. 
 
 A few weeks later, feeling that the lake 
 country was safe for the winter, Gates, in 
 obedience to orders from Washington, sent 
 him part of his force, and shortly afterwards 
 marched with the remainder of his troops to 
 the assistance of the commander-in-chief. 
 
 New Military Movements. 
 
 Including these troops, Washington's 
 force now numbered about six thousand 
 men fit for duty. The enlistments of many 
 of them would expire on the last day of 
 December, and it was of the highest import- 
 ance that something should be done to re- 
 vive the confidence of the country before 
 these men should be lost to the army. The 
 circumstances in which Washington was 
 placed required a blow to be struck in some 
 quarter. A victory would be productive of 
 the most important moral results ; a defeat 
 could do no more than ruin the cause, and a 
 policy of inaction was sure to accomplish that. 
 
 An opportunity at once presented itself. 
 The British had ceased their pursuit, and 
 though they held New Jersey in strong 
 force, had scattered their detachments 
 through the state. General Howe was in 
 New York, and Lord Cornwallis was at the 
 same place, and was about to sail for Eng 
 land. Both commanders believed the Ame- 
 rican army to be too seriously crippled to 
 assume the offensive during the winter. The 
 Hessians, who constituted the advance-guard 
 of the royal forces, were stationed along the 
 Delaware. Colonel Donop had his head- 
 quarters at Burlington, and Colonel Rahl 
 
402 
 
 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 was at Trenton with a force of fifteen hun- 
 dred men. Rahl was a brave and competent 
 officer, but he entertained such a thorough 
 contempt for the Americans that he neglected 
 to protect his position by earthworks or 
 other defence's. The Hessians kept the 
 country in terror ; they were inveterate 
 thieves, and plundered both patriot and 
 royalist without mercy. They had earned 
 the deep and abiding hatred of the Ameri- 
 can soldiers by bayoneting the wounded in 
 the battles in which they had been engaged. 
 
 Midnight Marches. 
 
 Washington now determined to re-crois 
 the Delaware and attack the Hessians at 
 different points. A force of twenty-four 
 hundred picked troops under his own com- 
 mand was to cross the river a few miles 
 above Trenton and attack the enemy at that 
 place; and the same time another detach- 
 ment under Reed and Cadwallader were to 
 cross over from Bristol and drive the Hes- 
 sians under Colonel Donop out of Burling- 
 ton. These attacks were to be simultaneous, 
 and were ordered to be made at five o'clock 
 on the morning of the twenty-sixth of De- 
 cember. 
 
 The division of Washington was accom- 
 panied by a train of twenty-four field-pieces 
 under Colonel Knox. The river was high 
 and full of floating ice, and the weather was 
 cold and stormy. A detachment of boats 
 had been collected for the service, and was 
 manned by Colonel Glover's regiment of 
 Marblehead fishermen, who had ferried the 
 army over the East River in the retreat from 
 Long Island. The march was begun just 
 after dark on Christmas night, and Wash- 
 ington hoped to reach the New Jersey shore 
 by midnight; but the passage of the river 
 was difficult and tedious by reason of the 
 floating ice and the high wind which re- 
 peatedly swept the boats out of their course; 
 
 and it was four o'clock before the artillery 
 was landed. The march was at once re- 
 sumed. Washington, with the main body, 
 moved by a wide circuit to gain the north 
 of the town, while a detachment under Sul- 
 livan was ordered to advance by the river 
 road and attack the enemy from the west and 
 south sides. 
 
 A blinding storm of hail and snow delayed 
 the advance of the troops, but also concealed 
 their movements from the enemy ; and it was 
 eight o'clock before Trenton was reached. 
 The attack was at once begun, and was 
 pressed with vigor. The Hessians were 
 completely taken by suprise; they flew to 
 arms promptly, but by this time the Ameri- 
 cans had gained the main street, and were 
 sweeping it with a battery of six pieces. 
 Colonel Rahl was mortally wounded while 
 leading his grenadiers to the charge, and his 
 men, seized with a panic, endeavored to re- 
 treat. Finding that they were surrounded, 
 about one thousand of them threw down 
 their arms and surrendered. The remainder 
 succeeded in escaping and joining Colonel 
 Donop at Burlington. 
 
 The magnanimity of Washington was 
 shown on this occasion by his paying a 
 friendly visit to Colonel Rahl, who was lying 
 at Trenton on his dying bed. Washington 
 expressed his sympathy for the wounded 
 officer, who, upon his death, is believed to 
 have been buried in the graveyard of the 
 First Presbyterian Church, where his sup- 
 posed remains were found ^ifty years later. 
 
 The Victory at Trenton. 
 
 The Americans lost two men killed, and 
 two were frozen to death on the march. 
 Several were wounded. They took one 
 thousand prisoners with their arms. Thirty- 
 two of the captives were officers. 
 
 Washington now learned that the ice was 
 so thick in front of Bristol that Reed and 
 
THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 
 
 403 
 
 Cadwallader had not been able to get their 
 cannon over the river, and had not attacked 
 the enemy at Burlington. He therefore 
 deemed it best to withdraw into Pennsylva- 
 nia, as Donop's force was still intact at Bur- 
 lington, and the enemy had another column 
 
 detachments along the river, and had retreat- 
 ed in haste to New Brunswick and Princeton. 
 The news of the victory at Trenton was 
 received with delight in all parts of the 
 country, and men began to take hope. Sev- 
 eral regiments, whose term& of enlistment 
 
 WASHINGTON CALLS ON COLONEL RAHL. 
 
 at Princeton, a few miles distant. On the 
 evening of the twenty-sixth he returned to 
 his camp beyond the Delaware. The next 
 day he learned from Reed and Cadwallader, 
 who had crossed the Delaware on the twen- 
 ty-seventh, that Donop had called in all his 
 
 expired on the last day of December, were 
 induced to remain six weeks longer. Wash- 
 ington resolved to make an effort to recover 
 New Jersey, and men of influence were sent 
 to rouse the militia of that State to take 
 up arms for the defence of their homes, 
 
404 
 
 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 Altogetner matters assumed a more promis- 
 ing aspect than they had worn at any period 
 of the war. On the thirtieth of December 
 Washington recrossed the Delaware and took 
 position at Trenton. 
 
 Honors Conferred on Washington. 
 
 About the same time Congress bestowed 
 upon Washington the highest proof of their 
 confidence in his wisdom and integrity that a 
 free people can ever confer upon a leader. 
 On the twenty-seventh of December Congress 
 conferred upon General Washington, by a 
 formal resolution, unlimited military power 
 for six months. The committee, in their let- 
 ter informing him of this act, wrote ; " Happy 
 is it for this country that the general of their 
 forces can safely be entrusted with the most 
 unlimited power, and neither personal secu- 
 rity, liberty, nor property be in the least 
 endangered thereby." The confidence of the 
 ( ountry was not misplaced. Never was dic- 
 
 tatorial power used more wisely or unselfish- 
 ly, and never did its exercise produce more 
 beneficial results. 
 
 It was resolved by Congress to secure 
 assistance from abroad, and on the thirtieth 
 of December Benjamin Franklin, Silas Deane 
 and Arthur Lee — the last of whom was 
 appointed in place of Mr. Jefferson who 
 could not go — were sent as commissioners 
 to France to secure the assistance of the 
 government of that country. France was 
 not yet prepared to go to war with England, 
 and the commissioners could do no more 
 than secure aid in money, which was expend 
 ed in the purchase of supplies and military 
 stores, which were shipped to the United 
 States. It was arranged that this money 
 should be repaid by Congress in the product 
 of the country, especially in tobacco, which 
 was to be shipped to France through a mer- 
 cantile house. The assistance thus obtained 
 was of the greatest service to the Americans 
 
CHAPTER XXVIII 
 
 The Year 1777 
 
 Howe Attempts to Crush Washington — Rattle of Princeton — The British Confined to the Seaboard — Recovery of New 
 Jersey — The American Army in Winter Quarters at Morristown — Effects of the American Successes — Difficulty of 
 Procuring Troops — Washington Refuses to Exchange Prisoners — His Course Approved by Congress — Measures of 
 Congress — Naval Affairs — Tryon Burns Danbury — Gallantry of Arnold — Troubles in the Northern Department- 
 Congress Adopts a National Flag — " The Stars and Stripes " — Course of France towards the United States — France 
 Decides to Assi-t the Americans — Lafayette — His Arrival in America — Capture of the British General Prescott — Howe 
 Threatens Philadelphia — Washington moves Southward — Battle of the Brandywine — Washington Retreats to the 
 Schuylkill — Wayne's Defeat at Paoli — Philadelphia Evacuated by the Americans — It is Occupied by the British — 
 Battle of Germantown — The British Attack the Forts on the Delaware — They are Abandoned by the Americans — 
 Burgoyne's Army in Canada — Advance of Burgoyne into New York — Investment of Ticonderoga — It is Abandoned 
 by t'le Americans — The Retreat to Fort Ed.vard — Burgoyne reaches the Hudson — Murder of MissMcCrea — Siege of 
 Furt Schuyler — Battle of Bennington — Critical Sitaution of Burgoyne — Gates in Command of the American Army — - 
 Battle of Behmus' Heights and Stillwater — Surrender of Burgoyne's Army — Clinton in the Highlands. 
 
 GREAT was the atonishment of 
 General Howe when he learned 
 of the battle at Trenton. He 
 could scarcely believe that a hand- 
 ful of militia had captured a strong force of 
 veteran troops led by such a commander as 
 Colonel Rahl. He at once took prompt 
 measures to repair the disaster. Lord Corn- 
 wallis, who was on the eve of sailing to Eng- 
 land, was ordered to resume his command 
 in New Jersey, and a force of seven thousand 
 men was rapidly collected and placed under 
 his orders. These troops rendezvoused at 
 Princeton. 
 
 Washington was informed of these move- 
 ments, and ordered Generals Mifflin and 
 Cadwallader to join him without delay. 
 They reached Trenton the first of January, 
 with thirty-five hundred men. This increased 
 the American force to about five thousand 
 men fit for duty. Upon the approach of 
 Cornwallis' army, Washington took position 
 behind the Assunpink, and prepared to dis- 
 pute the passage of that stream. The fords 
 and bridge over the creek were carefully 
 guarded, and were swept by the fire of the 
 
 artillery placed to command them. A force 
 under Ceneral Greene and Colonel Hand was 
 thrown forward to hold the enemy in check, 
 and so retarded their movements that the 
 British army did not arrive before Trenton 
 until four o'clock in the afternoon of January 
 2, 1777. Cornwallis made several deter- 
 mined efforts to force a passage of the creek, 
 but was each time driven back by the well- 
 directed fire of the provincials. Thinking 
 that he could accomplish more the next day, 
 the British commander drew off his men, 
 resolving to renew the attack in the morning 
 when, he boasted, he would " bag the fox." 
 Both armies encamped for the night in sight 
 of each other, reddening the sky with the 
 glow of their camp-fires. 
 
 The situation of the American army was 
 now critical in the extreme. A retreat into 
 Pennsylvania was impossible, as the Dela- 
 ware was full of floating ice, and could not 
 be passed in the face of such an army as that 
 of Cornwallis. The issue of the next day's 
 conflict was, to say the least, doubtful, for 
 the army of Cornwallis was composed mainly 
 of veteran troops, and he was himself a leader 
 
 405 
 
/jo6 
 
 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 of genuine ability. In this emergency Wash- 
 ington determined upon one of the most 
 brilliant and well-conceived operations of the 
 war. It was known to him that the British 
 
 AMERICAN MARKSMAN IN A TREE. 
 
 had their main depot of supplies at New 
 Brunswick, and he supposed from the pres- 
 ence of so many troops with Cornwallis that 
 this depot had been left unguarded. He 
 therefore resolved to break up his camp, and 
 
 march by an unfrequented road around the 
 left flank of the enemy to Princeton, capture 
 the force stationed there, and then hasten to 
 New Brunswick and secure the stores at that 
 place. Sending his heavy 
 baggage and stores down 
 the river to Burlington. 
 Washington -silently 
 withdrew his army from 
 its position at midnight, 
 leaving the camp-fires 
 burning to deceive the 
 enemy, and a small force 
 to watch the British and 
 destroy the bridges after 
 the army had passed on. 
 A forced march 
 brought the Americans 
 within three miles of 
 Princeton by daybreak, 
 on the morning of the 
 third of January. The 
 army was divided into 
 two divisions, one under 
 Washington and the 
 other under General Mer- 
 cer, which approached 
 the town by different 
 routes. Three British 
 regiments on their way 
 to Trenton had passed 
 the previous night at 
 Princeton, and had re- 
 sumed their march at 
 dawn. The first of these, 
 under Colonel Mawhood, 
 was encountered by the 
 division of General Mer- 
 cer, about two miles 
 As Mawhood supposed 
 Mercer's force to be a party retreating from 
 Trenton, he at once resolved to attack it. 
 His attack was successful. The A.mericans 
 were driven back, and General Mercer was 
 
 from Princeton. 
 
wounded, bayoneted, and left on the field 
 apparently dead. Mercer's troops fell back 
 in confusion, and a body of Pennsylvania 
 militia, which had been sent by Washington 
 to their assistance, was held in check by the 
 fire of the British artillery. 
 
 At this moment, Washington, who had 
 been rendered anxious by the obstinate and 
 continued firing, arrived on the field. A 
 glance showed him the broken and shattered 
 regiments of Mercer falling back in confusion, 
 and the Pennsylvania militia wavering under 
 the heavy cannonade directed against them. 
 Not a moment was to be lost, and putting 
 spurs to his horse, he dashed forward in the 
 face of the fire of Mawhood's artillery, and 
 waving his hat, called upon the troops to 
 rally and follow him. The effect was elec- 
 trical ; the fugitives rallied with a loud cheer 
 and reformed their line, and at the same 
 moment a Virginia regiment, which had just 
 arrived, dashed out of a neighboring wood 
 and opened a heavy fire upon the enemy. A 
 little later the American artillery came up, 
 and opened a shower of grape upon the 
 British. Mawhood was driven back, and 
 with great difficulty succeeded in regaining 
 the main road, along which he retreated with 
 all speed to Trenton. 
 
 General Mercer Mortally Wounded. 
 
 The second British regiment, advancing 
 from Princeton to Mawhood's assistance was 
 attacked by St. Clair's brigade, and was 
 speedily driven across the country towards 
 New Brunswick. The third regiment, seeing 
 the fate of their comrades, became panic- 
 stricken. A portion fled towards New 
 Brunswick, and the remainder took refuge 
 in the college building at Princeton. They 
 surrendered after a few shots from the Ame- 
 rican artillery. 
 
 The Americans lost but a few men in this 
 battle ; but General Mercer, a brave and 
 
 THE YEAR 1777. 407 
 
 efficient commander, was mortally wounded, 
 and died a few days after the engagement. 
 The British lost about one hundred killed 
 and three hundred prisoners. 
 
 Eager to secure the stores at New Bruns- 
 wick, Washington pushed on with speed in 
 that direction, but after passing a few miles 
 beyond Princeton decided to abandon the 
 attempt. He was sure that Cornwallis would 
 pursue him as soon as his retreat from Tren- 
 ton was discovered, and his men were too 
 much exhausted to reach New Brunswick 
 before the arrival of the enemy. They had 
 been without rest for a night and a day, and 
 some of them were barefooted. His gen- 
 erals sustained him in the opinion that it was 
 injudicious to continue the movement 
 against New Brunswick, and he reluctantly 
 abandoned it, and withdrew in the direction 
 of Morristown. 
 
 New Jersey Saved from the Enemy. 
 
 When Cornwallis discovered the with- 
 drawal of the Americans on the morning of 
 the third of January, he was greatly per- 
 plexed to know in what direction they had 
 gone. In a little while the sound of the 
 cannonade at Princeton revealed to him the 
 route taken by them, and he at once under- 
 stood the design of Washington. He must 
 save his stores at any risk, and he broke up 
 his camp and set out for Princeton and New 
 Brunswick. The Americans had obstructed 
 the Princeton road and had broken down the 
 bridge over Stony Creek, a few miles from 
 the town. 
 
 Without waiting to rebuild the bridge, the 
 British commander forced his men through 
 the icy waters, which were breast high, and 
 hastened through Princeton with all speed. 
 Believing that Washington had hurried on 
 to New Brunswick, Cornwallis marched 
 direct to that place, and did not notice the 
 deflection of the American army from the 
 
4o8 
 
 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 main route. Reaching New Brunswick, he 
 made arrangements to defend the town, 
 which he supposed would be attacked. 
 
 In the meantime the American army 
 retreated to a strong position at Morristown, 
 where the troops erected huts in which to 
 pass the winter. Finding that the enemy 
 did not attack him, Washington ventured to 
 extend his line. His right was at Princeton, 
 
 try beyond their lines, and rarely ventured 
 without their camps. 
 
 By the beginning of spring Cornwallis 
 had abandoned every post in New Jersey 
 save New Brunswick and Perth Amboy. 
 From these points he could communicate 
 with and draw his supplies from New York 
 by water. Thus was New Jersey almost 
 entirely redeemed from the enemy. The 
 
 Washington's quarters at morristown. 
 
 under General Putnam, and his left, under 
 General Heath, was in the Highlands. His 
 own headquarters were at Morristown. For 
 six months neither party attempted any 
 movement of importance. Washington was 
 not idle, however. Though he had but the 
 skeleton of an army at Morristown, he dis- 
 played such activity in cutting off the forag- 
 ing parties of the British that they were 
 unable to draw any supplies from the coun- I 
 
 militia of the state recovered from their 
 former despondency and warmly seconded 
 the efforts of Washington against the 
 British. 
 
 Confidence was returning to the country ; 
 and though men felt that the struggle might 
 yet be long and arduous, it was not as hope- 
 less as they had feared. 
 
 Washington passed the winter in endeav- 
 oring to reorganize the army and fit it for 
 
THE YEAR 1777. 
 
 409 
 
 the work required of it in the spring. The 
 policy of short enlistments adopted by Con- 
 gress was the source of very great trouble, 
 and the expiration of the enlistments of a 
 large part of the army during this winter 
 caused the commander-in-chief the greatest 
 anxiety. He repeatedly condemned this 
 policy, and endeavored to procure the sub- 
 stitution of a longer term. Great efforts 
 were made to procure recruits, but they 
 came in very slowly. In order to check the 
 ravages of the small-pox in the camp, the 
 recruits were inoculated immediately upon 
 their arrival. 
 
 Efforts were now made to bring about an 
 exchange of prisoners. The British objected 
 to an exchange of man for man, on the 
 ground that the Americans were rebels, and 
 such an exchange would be an acknowledg- 
 ment of their belligerent rights. Somewhat 
 later General Howe, who had about five 
 thousand prisoners in New York, renewed 
 the negotiation. The British had treated 
 the captured Americans with great severity 
 and had confined them in warehouses in 
 New York, and in foul hulks anchored in 
 the bay. They were improperly fed, and 
 were allowed to remain almost naked. Their 
 sufferings were fearful, and they were 
 reduced and emaciated in strength and body, 
 until they were truly said to resemble " walk- 
 ing corpses." British cruelty never exhibited 
 itself in a more inhuman form than in the 
 treatment of these unfortunate captives by 
 the royal officials. More than ten thousand 
 of them died in New York, during the war, 
 from the effects of this treatment. 
 
 When General Howe's proposal to ex- 
 change these men for the Hessians taken by 
 the Americans was received, it was declined 
 by Washington. The Hessians had been 
 well fed and well treated by the Americans, 
 and were hale and hearty, and Washington 
 was unwilling to liberate them for service in 
 
 the British army, and to receive in exchange 
 for them half-starved men, who were so 
 weak that they could scarcely reach their 
 homes. It was a stern necessity, but it was 
 recognized by Congress, and Washington's 
 view of the matter was sustained. 
 
 The Army Reorganized. 
 
 During the winter five more major-generals 
 were commissioned by Congress. They 
 were Stirling, St. Clair, Mifflin, Stephen and 
 Lincoln. Arnold, who was the senior brig- 
 adier in the service, justly conceived that his 
 rank and services entitled him to promotion, 
 and was indignant at having been passed 
 over in the new appointments, and com- 
 plained bitterly of the injustice done him. 
 Eighteen brigadier-generals were also ap- 
 pointed. Among them were George Clinton, 
 of New York ; Glover, the commander of 
 the Marblehead regiment ; Woodford and 
 Muhlenberg, of Virginia; and HanJ and 
 Anthony Wayne, of Pennsylvania. 
 
 Congress gave great attention to the reor- 
 ganization of the army during this session, 
 A quartermaster's department was organized, 
 with General Mifflin at its head. Four regi- 
 ments of cavalry were ordered to be enlisted. 
 The hospital service was reorganized and 
 placed under the control of Dr. Shippen, of 
 Philadelphia ; and Dr. Rush, of Philadelphia, 
 one of the signers of the Declaration of Inde- 
 pendence, was appointed surgeon-general of 
 the army. 
 
 Efforts were also made to place the navy 
 upon a better footing, Several of the frigates 
 ordered by Congress to be built had been 
 completed and equipped ; but the work on 
 the rest was delayed by the want of funds. 
 Efforts were made to complete them, as they 
 were greatly needed, all the vessels constitut- 
 ing the American fleet being at this time 
 blockaded in the harbor of Providence, Rhode 
 Island, by the enemy. 
 
JIO 
 
 THE AMKRICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 Since the beginning of the struggle a 
 destructive warfare had been carried on by 
 the privateers (if New England against the 
 commerce of Great Britain, especially against 
 the vessels of that country trading to the 
 West Indies. During the first years of the 
 war nearly three hundred of these were cap- 
 tured by the privateers. The cargoes of the 
 captured vessels were valued at the immense 
 sum of fixe millions of dollars. The Ameri- 
 can merchantmen also maintained a regular 
 communication with France, Spain and Hol- 
 land, and a profitable trade was carried on 
 between the United States and those coun- 
 tries. It was attended with great risk, how- 
 ever, and many of the American vessels were 
 captured by the British men-of-war. 
 
 Military Stores Destroyed. 
 
 Washington remained at Morristown some 
 time after the spring opened, and exerted 
 himself to the utmost to take the field as 
 soon as the enemy should develop their plans. 
 The first months of the season were employed 
 by the British commander in a series of plun- 
 dering expeditions. One of these was directed 
 against Peekskill, where the Americans had 
 collected a large quantity of stores. General 
 McDougall, commanding the American force 
 at that point, found it impossible to defend 
 the stores, and set fire to them and retreated 
 to the heights overlooking the town. The 
 enemy made no attempt to follow him, and 
 returned down the river. General Heath, 
 had been transferred to the command of the 
 forces in Massachusetts, and was succeeded 
 in the command of the Highlands by General 
 Putnam. 
 
 In the latter part of April General Tryon, 
 the last royalist governor of New York, was 
 sent by General Howe with a force of two 
 thousand men, to destroy a large quantity of 
 stores collected by the Americans at Dan- 
 bury, in the western part of Connecticut, 
 
 about twenty-three miles from the Sound. 
 On the twenty-sixth of April Tryon landed 
 near Norwalk, and marched to Danbury, 
 where he burned the stores and set fire to 
 the town. Thus far he had met with no 
 opposition ; but the alarm had spread imme- 
 diately after his landing, and the Conneticut 
 militia, to the number of six hundred men, 
 assembled under Generals Silliman and 
 Wooster. Arnold chanced to be at New 
 Haven, and collecting a small force of volun- 
 teers, hurried to join Silliman and Wooster, 
 and the whole command hastened after the 
 marauders. 
 
 Tryon Retreats to New York. 
 
 Tryon began his retreat from Danbury 
 before daylight on the morning of the twenty- 
 seventh, and was soon after attacked by the 
 militia. During the twenty-seventh and 
 twenty-eighth the British were harrassed at 
 every step by the little band of Americans, 
 who, though too weak to defeat them in any 
 single encounter, hung upon their march and 
 inflicted upon them a loss of nearly three 
 hundred men. The enemy at last came 
 under the protection of the guns of their 
 ships and the Americans were forced to 
 withdraw. Tryon then re-embarked his 
 exhausted troops and returned to New 
 York. 
 
 The American loss was slight. The brave 
 old General Wooster, a veteran of sixty- eight 
 years, was mortally wounded at the head of 
 his men and died a few days later. Arnold 
 behaved with such distinguished gallantry in 
 this affair that Congress rewarded him with 
 the rank of major-general and presented him 
 with a horse handsomely equipped. Even 
 this acknowledgment of his merit was min- 
 gled with injustice, for the date of his com- 
 mission still left him below the rank he was 
 entiled to, and he felt the second slight as 
 another undeserved injury. 
 
THE YEAR 1777. 
 
 411 
 
 The Connecticut militia were very indig- 
 nant at the burning o'f Danbury, and resolved 
 to avenge it. In the latter part of May a 
 party of one hundred and seventy men, under 
 Colonel Meigs, crossed the Sound in whale- 
 boats to the east end of Long Island. They 
 carried their boats during the night fifteen 
 miles across the neck, and launching them 
 again, proceeded to Sag Harbor, where they 
 destroyed twelve vessels and a large quan- 
 tity of stores collected there by the British, 
 and made ninety prisoners. They then 
 returned to Connecticut without the loss of 
 a man. 
 
 General Schuyler Vindicated. 
 
 Recruits came into the American camp 
 very slowly, and various expedients were 
 adopted by Washington to hasten the enlist- 
 ments. At his instance Congress declared 
 that all indentured servants who enlisted in 
 the army should receive their freedom at 
 once. Bounties in land were offered to such 
 Hessians as should desert the British service. 
 This last measure did not accomplish much 
 towards crippling the enemy. 
 
 In the northern department, Schuyler was 
 left with a mere skeleton of an army. He 
 had but seven hundred men, at the most, at 
 Ticonderoga, and he was fearful that Carle- 
 ton would learn his weakness, pass Lake 
 Champlain on the ice, capture Ticonderoga, 
 and push on to Albany. He repeatedly 
 urged the commander-in-chief to send him 
 reinforcements and supplies, but his request 
 could not be granted, as there were none to 
 spare from Washington's army. During 
 the winter a persistent effort was made to 
 drive Schuyler from his command, in order 
 that Gates might succeed to it. 
 
 Charges were brought against him with such 
 recklessness that he offered his resignation 
 to Congress. That body refused to accept 
 it ; but as the efforts of his enemies were 
 
 not discontinued, Schuyler went to Phila- 
 delphia, in April, 1777, and demanded an 
 investigation into his conduct. Gates suc- 
 ceeded him in his command. Schuyler was 
 fully vindicated by the report of the investi- 
 gating committee of Congress, and was 
 ordered to resume his command. Gates was 
 greatly surprised by the result, and reluct- 
 antly relinquished the command of the 
 northern department to his rival, and 
 repaired to Philadelphia to seek redress at 
 the hands of Congress for what he termed 
 his wrongs. 
 
 GENERAL PHILIP SCHUYLER. 
 
 Until now the Americans had been with- 
 out a national flag. Congress, in June, 1777, 
 remedied this very serious want by adopting 
 the old " Union Flag," with its thirteen 
 stripes ; but substituted, in place of St. 
 George's Cross, a group of thirteen stars, 
 one for each State. Thus the " Stars and 
 Stripes " became the national ensign of the 
 republic — a star having been added for each 
 additional State that has since joined the 
 original thirteen. 
 
 One of the first things that occupied the 
 attention of Congress after the proclamation 
 of the Declaration of Independence was the 
 
412 
 
 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 preparation of a device for a great seal of the 
 confederation. This was assigned to a com- 
 mittee consisting of Franklin, Jefferson and 
 John Adams. The seal as finally adopted 
 has never been changed. 
 
 FLAG AND SHIELD. 
 
 The war in America had been watched 
 with the deepest interest in Europe, and 
 especially by France. The French Govern- 
 ment had been convinced long before the 
 outbreak of the Revolution that the treat- 
 ment which the colonies were receiving from 
 
 land was alienating the Americans by her 
 treatment of them. Choiseul conceived the 
 hope that, by offering the Americans free 
 trade with France, they would be made to 
 resent the course of England even more 
 decidedly. 
 
 When the Revolution began the French 
 Government was fully prepared for it, and 
 was ready to avenge the loss of Canada by 
 aiding the new republic in its efforts to throw 
 off the authority of Great Britain. It was 
 merely waiting to see whether the Americans 
 were able to maintain the stand they had 
 taken. The news of the defeat on Long 
 Island, the loss of New York, and the retreat 
 through New Jersey, filled the friends of 
 America with serious alarm, and it was gen- 
 erally believed in Europe that the Americans 
 would not be able to withstand the superior 
 force of the mother country. 
 
 In the early spring of 1777 it was known 
 in Europe that the American army, which 
 
 OBVERSE. 
 
 SEAL OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 REVERSE. 
 
 Great Britain would ultimately cause their 
 separation from her ; and ten years before 
 the war began the Duke de Choiseul, the 
 prime minister of Louis XV., had sent Baron 
 De Kalb to examine and report the state of 
 feelings of the colonists towards Great Britain. 
 De Kalb was a shrewd observer, and fu rnished 
 his government with ample proofs that Eng- 
 
 it was supposed had been driven in hopeless 
 disorder over the Delaware without the 
 means of continuing the war, had suddenly 
 rallied and beaten a force of veteran troops 
 at Trenton, and again at Princeton, and had 
 recovered New Jersey from the enemy. This 
 intelligence produced the most profound 
 astonishment in Europe, and was received in 
 
THE YEAR 1777. 
 
 413 
 
 France with genuine satisfaction. The 
 Americans were extolled as a race of heroes, 
 and the prudence and good generalship of 
 Washington were spoken of with the highest 
 praise. 
 
 The French Government now felt justified 
 in aiding the patriots, 
 but it proceeded with 
 caution. American pri- 
 vateers were secretly- 
 fitted out, with the con- 
 nivance of the govern- 
 ment, and were permitted 
 to sell their prizes in 
 French ports, and the 
 protests of the British 
 ambassador against such 
 acts were unheeded. The 
 government made secret 
 grants of arms and mili- 
 tary stores to the Ame- 
 ricans, and three ship- 
 loads were sent out in 
 the spring of 1 yyj. Two 
 of these vessels were 
 captured by the English, 
 but the third reached 
 America in safety, and 
 its cargo went to sup- 
 ply the deficiencies of 
 the army at Morristown. 
 
 In the spring of this 
 year the commissioners 
 sent to France by Con- 
 gress reached that coun- 
 try. They had full pow- 
 ers to enter into an alli- 
 ance with the French 
 King. They were granted several private 
 interviews by the Count de Vergennes, the 
 French Prime Minister, and were secretly 
 encouraged to hope for the success of their 
 mission. As yet, however, France was not 
 prepared to declare war against Great Britain. 
 
 Though the government delayed its 
 action, there were generous hearts in France 
 who were determined to give all the aid and 
 comfort in their power to the struggling 
 patriots. One of these was the youthful 
 Marquis de Lafayette, the heir of a nol ^e 
 
 THE MARQUIS DE LAFAYETTE. 
 
 name, the possessor of wealth and a high 
 social position, and the husband of a beauti- 
 ful and accomplished wife. He had heard 
 at a dinner party given by the French offi- 
 cials at Mayence to the Duke of Gloucester, 
 a brother of the King of England, the story 
 
414 
 
 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 of the war then going on in America, and its 
 causes, related by the lips of the royal 
 guest. 
 
 His generous heart at once went out in 
 sympathy to the patriots, and he resolved to 
 leave his family and all his advantages at 
 home and go to the aid of the Americans. 
 He revealed his intention to the Count de 
 Broglie, a Marshal of France, who regarded 
 his enterprise as Quixotic and refused to 
 aid him. Finding him -determined, the 
 count introduced his young friend to the 
 Baron de Kalb, an officer of experience and 
 merit, who had visited America as Choiseur's 
 agent in the last reign. De Kalb introduced 
 Lafayette to Silas Deane, then the only 
 American Commissioner in France. 
 
 A Young Major-General. 
 
 The news of the loss of New York and of 
 New Jersey arrived about this time, but did 
 not lessen the ardor of Lafayette ; and 
 though the newly-arrived commissioners, 
 Franklin and Lee, candidly told him that 
 they could not encourage him to hope for a 
 successful issue of their cause, he avowed 
 his determination to proceed. He pur- 
 chased a vessel, which was loaded with arms 
 and supplies by the commissioners. The 
 French government attempted to prevent 
 him from sailing, but he succeeded in get- 
 ting off, accompanied by De Kalb and 
 several others. He reached Philadelphia, 
 offered his services to Congress without pay 
 and was commissioned as a major-general in 
 the American army, though not yet twenty 
 years old. 
 
 Lafayette was not the only foreigner whose 
 services were accepted by Congress. De 
 Kalb, Count Pulaski and Thaddeus Kos- 
 ciusko, natives of Poland, and Conway, an 
 Irishman who had seen thirty years' service 
 in the French army, and who, in an evil 
 hour for this country, came to America ; and 
 
 later still Baron Steuben, one of Frederick 
 the Great's veterans, and who did good ser- 
 vice to the cause by introducing into the 
 American ranks the drill and discipline of 
 the Prussian army, were commissioned and 
 assigned to duty by Congress. 
 
 Capture of a British General. 
 
 About the middle of May WashingtoA 
 broke up his camp at Morristown and occu- 
 pied the heights of Middlebrook in order to 
 watch the British to better advantage. Howe 
 made repeated efforts to draw him from this 
 strong position into the open field, where 
 the superior discipline of the royal troops 
 would give him an advantage, but Washing- 
 ton out-generaled him completely, and 
 Howe finding it impossible to bring on an 
 engagement, withdrew his army to Staten 
 Island. 
 
 While these movements were in progress 
 the British sustained a serious loss in the 
 capture of General Prescott, one of their 
 principal officers, who had earned the dislike 
 of the Americans by his arbitrary and con- 
 temptuous treatment of them. He was 
 commanding the British forces at Newport, 
 and had his headquarters on the outskirts of 
 the town. On a dark night in July a com- 
 pany of picked men, under Colonel Barton, 
 crossed Narragansett Bay in whale boats, 
 and passing silently through the British fleet 
 landed near Prescott's quarters. The senti- 
 nel at the door was secured and the as- 
 tounded general was roused from his bed 
 and hurried away without being allowed 
 time to dress. He was conveyed within the 
 American lines, and was afterwards ex- 
 changed for General Charles Lee. 
 
 Washington now learned of the invasion 
 of New York by the army of General Bur- 
 goyne, to which we shall refer further on. 
 It was evident that Burgoyne was trying to 
 reach the Hudson. Washington's spies in 
 
415 
 
416 
 
 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 New York informed him that Howe was 
 preparing to send off the larger part of his 
 force by water, and the commander in-chief 
 was perplexed to know whether Howe 
 intended ascending the Hudson to co-operate 
 with Burgoyne, or to transport his army to 
 Philadelphia by water. Toward the last of 
 July Howe sailed with his fleet from New 
 York and stood out to sea. 
 
 Philadelphia Fortified. 
 
 Ten days later his ships were reported off 
 the mouth of the Delaware. Washington 
 now felt confident that his design was to 
 attack Philadelphia, and crossed the Dela- 
 ware with his army and marched to German- 
 town to await the development of the enemy's 
 plans. About the same time the British fleet 
 stood out to sea again. Its destination was 
 uncertain, and Washington held his army in 
 readiness to march at a minute's notice to 
 the threatened point. 
 
 While awaiting the movements of Sir Wil- 
 liam Howe, Washington visited Philadelphia, 
 where Arnold was in command and was en- 
 gaged in fortifying the city, to consult with 
 Congress and push forward the measures for 
 the defence of the place. While there he 
 met the newly arrived Lafayette. Washing- 
 ton was an acute judge of men, and at his 
 first interview with Lafayette was deeply im- 
 pressed with the noble and earnest character 
 of the young soldier, and conceived for him 
 a warm regard, which ended only with his 
 life. 
 
 In the midst of the uncertainty attending 
 Howe's movements Washington received 
 urgent appeals from Schuyler for assistance. 
 He sent him two brigades from the High- 
 lands, and ordered Colonel Morgan to join 
 him with his riflemen, who were regarded as 
 more than a match for the Indians of Bur- 
 goyne's army. Arnold was also sent to 
 assume command of a division in the north- 
 
 ern army, as he was familiar with the country, 
 Putnam was ordered to prevent Sir Henry 
 Clinton, who had been left at New York, 
 from ascending the Hudson and forming a 
 junction with Burgoyne, and General Lincoln, 
 commanding the militia of Massachusetts, 
 was directed to march with a portion of his 
 force to Schuyler's assistance. 
 
 As nothing had been heard of the British 
 fleet, Washington was about to move fron- 
 Germantown into New Jersey once more, 
 when news was received that the enemy had 
 ascended the Chesapeake to its head, and had 
 landed their forces at Elkton, in Maryland, 
 about sixty miles from Philadelphia. The 
 Delaware had been obstructed and fortified a 
 short distance below Philadelphia, and Howe 
 had ascended the Chesapeake in order to 
 secure an undisputed landing. He intended 
 to march his army across the country towards 
 Philadelphia, while the fleet should return to 
 the Delaware and aid the army in reducing 
 the forts on that river. He had eighteen 
 thousand men with him, and effected his 
 landing in Elkton without opposition on the 
 twenty-fifth of August, and at once began his 
 advance toward Philadelphia. 
 
 Battle of the Brandywine. 
 
 Washington had but eleven thousand effec- 
 tive men with him, and was in no way pre- 
 pared to undertake a campaign in the open 
 country. Nevertheless/he advanced at once 
 to dispute the progress of the enemy, and by 
 forced marches succeeded in reaching the 
 vicinity of Wilmington before the arrival of 
 the British. Upon examining the country he 
 decided to contest the passage of the Brandy- 
 wine Creek, and stationed his army along its 
 left bank. 
 
 The British were advancing by the main 
 road to Philadelphia, which crossed the 
 Brandywine at Chadd's Ford, and as Wash- 
 ington supposed their main effort would be 
 
THE YEAR 1777. 
 
 4i; 
 
 made at this point, he stationed the greater 
 part of his army to cover it. On the eleventh 
 of September the British army reached the 
 creek. Howe ordered General Knyphausen 
 
 Washington was deceived by the officer sent 
 to ascertain if the enemy were threatening his 
 right, and was left in ignorance of Cornwallis' 
 movement until it was too late to prevent it. 
 
 LAFAYETTE AND WASHINGTON. 
 
 to make a feint at Chadd's Ford as if he were 
 about to force a passage, while he sent Corn- 
 wallis with a strong column to pass the creek 
 higher up and turn the American right flank. 
 
 This plan was successfully carried out. 
 27 
 
 Being outflanked,the American army was com- 
 pelled to fall back with a loss of twelve hundred 
 men. The troops did not know they had suf- 
 ered a reverse, but supposing they had merely 
 experienced a check were in high spirits. 
 
4 i8 
 
 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 Lafayette was wounded in this battle, and 
 Pulaski so greatly distinguished himself that 
 he was subsequently rewarded by Congress 
 with the rank of brigadier-general and the 
 command of the cavalry. 
 
 Sir William Howe did not push his advan- 
 tage, but remained for two days near the 
 battle-field. Washington in the meantime 
 retreated to Chester, and then to the Schuyl- 
 kill, which he crossed on the twelfth of Sep- 
 tember, and proceeded to Germantown, where 
 the army went into camp. The men were in 
 excellent spirits, and a day or two later 
 Washington recrossed the river and moved 
 towards the enemy, whom he encountered 
 about twenty-five miles from Philadelphia on 
 the sixteenth. A violent rain storm pre- 
 vented the two armies from engaging, and 
 injured the arms and ammunition of the men 
 so much that Washington deemed it best to 
 withdraw to Pott's Grove, on the Schuylkill, 
 about thirty miles from Philadelphia. Atthe 
 same time he detached General Wayne, with 
 a force of fifteen hundred men, to gain the 
 enemy's rear and cut off their wagon train. 
 A Tory carried information of this movement 
 to the British commander, and Wayne was 
 himself surprised at Paoli tavern, on the 
 twentieth of September, and defeated with a 
 loss of three hundred men. 
 
 Philadelphia and the British. 
 
 It being impossible to save the city of 
 Philadelphia from capture the military stores 
 were removed, and a contribution was levied 
 upon the people to supply the army with 
 clothing, shoes and other necessaries during 
 the winter. Congress, in view of the great 
 danger which threatened the country, con- 
 ferred dictatorial powers upon Washington 
 for sixty days, and then extended this 
 time to a period of four months. Con- 
 gress then adjourned to meet at Lancaster, 
 from which, a few days later, it transferred 
 
 its sessions to York, beyond the Susque- 
 hanna. 
 
 Howe crossed the Schuylkill by a night 
 march, and on the twenty-sixth of Septem- 
 ber entered Philadelphia. The bulk of his 
 army was stationed at Germantown, and a 
 small detachment was left to hold the city. 
 
 The Americans, though they had lost 
 Philadelphia, still held the forts on the Dela- 
 ware, a short distance below the mouth of 
 the Schuylkill. The work on the Pennsyl- 
 vania side was called Fort Mifflin, and was 
 built on a low mud island. Immediately 
 opposite, at Red Bank, on the New Jersey 
 shore, was Fort Mercer. Both works were 
 armed with heavy guns, and commanded the 
 river perfectly. The channel was obstructed 
 with heavy logs fastened together and sunk 
 in the stream so securely as to render their 
 removal difficult. Above these obstructions 
 were several floating batteries. 
 
 A Victory Given Away. 
 
 After landing the British army at Elkton, 
 Lord Howe carried his fleet down the Chesa- 
 peake, and entering the Delaware took posi- 
 tion below the forts to await the co-operation 
 of the army in the attack upon them. 
 
 Washington having learned that Howe 
 had withdrawn a part of his force from Ger- 
 mantown to aid in the operations against the 
 fort, resolved to surprise the remainder. A 
 night march of fourteen miles brought the 
 American army to Germantown at sunrise 
 on the morning of the fourth of October. A 
 heavy fog hung over the country and pre- 
 vented the commander-in-chief from seeing 
 either the position of the enemy or that of 
 his own troops. 
 
 The British were taken by surprise, and 
 were driven in disorder. The victory seemed 
 within the grasp of Washington, when the 
 Americans abandoned the pursuit to attack 
 a stone house in which a few of the enemy 
 
THE YEAR 
 
 1777. 
 
 419 
 
 had taken refuge. While thus engaged they 
 were seized with an unaccountable panic, 
 which threw them into confusion. The 
 British rallied, and, assailing the Americans 
 in their turn, drove them from the field with 
 a loss of one thousand men. Washington 
 was greatly mortified by this failure. He 
 wrote to Congress : " Every account confirms 
 the opinion I at first entertained, that our 
 troops retreated at the instant when victory 
 was declaring herself in our favor." 
 
 Howe now drew in his army nearer to 
 Philadelphia, and prepared for an immediate 
 attack on the forts on the Delaware. These 
 held that river so securely that the British 
 fleet was not able to bring supplies up to the 
 city. The provisions of the army were nearly 
 exhausted, and if the forts could not be 
 reduced it would be necessary to evacuate 
 Philadelphia in order to obtain food. On 
 the twenty-second cf October, Count Donop 
 was sent with a force of twelve hundred 
 picked Hessians to storm Fort Mercer, at 
 Red Bank, while the fleet reduced Fort Mif- 
 flin. Donop's attack was repulsed with a 
 loss of four hundred men, the Hessian com- 
 mander himself being among the slain. In 
 the attack on Fort Mifflin the British lost 
 two ships, and the remainder were more or 
 less injured by the fire of the American 
 guns. 
 
 Washington at Valley F^rge. 
 
 Shortly after this repulse, the British 
 erected batteries on a small island in the 
 Delaware, which commanded Fort Mifflin, 
 and on the tenth of November opened a 
 heavy bombardment of the fort from these 
 works and from their fleet. The bombard- 
 ment was continued until the night of the 
 fifteeenth. The works being nearly des- 
 troyed, Fort Mifflin was abandoned on the 
 night of the sixteenth s and on the eighteenth 
 the garrison was withdrawn from the fort at 
 
 Red Bank. The British now removed the 
 obstructions from the river, and their fleet 
 ascended to Philadelphia. General Howe 
 constructed a strongly fortified line from the 
 Schuylkill to the Delaware, above Philadel- 
 phia, and went into winter quarters with his 
 army behind these defences. 
 
 The season being loo late for active opera- 
 tions, Washington withdrew his army to 
 Valley Forge on the Schuylkill, about twenty 
 miles from Philadelphia, and went into 
 winter quarters. From this position he 
 could protect Congress, sitting at York. 
 
 Burgoyne's Great " War Feast." 
 
 In the northern department the year had 
 been marked by the most important events. 
 Sir Guy Carleton was succeeded in the com- 
 mand of the British forces in Canada by 
 General Burgoyne, an officer of ability and 
 integrity. He was strongly reinforced and 
 soop had under his command a finely 
 equipped army of ten thousand men. Bur- 
 goyne gave a great " war feast " to the In- 
 dians, who, in answer to his appeal on this 
 occasion, promised to aid him, thinking that 
 with his fine large army he would be able to 
 whip the rebels in a short time. 
 
 About eight thousand of Burgoyne's 
 troops were British and Hessian regulars, 
 the remainder Canadians and Indians. The 
 army was plentifully supplied with artillery 
 of the most improved pattern, which was 
 under the immediate command of General 
 Philips, a veteran who had served with great 
 distinction in the seven years' war. The 
 second in command of the army was General 
 Frazer, an officer of acknowledged skill, who 
 was greatly beloved by the troops. Baron 
 Reidesel, the commander of the Hessians, 
 was also an old soldier. Altogether, the force 
 under Burgoyne was the most splendid body 
 of troops Great Britain had yet assembled in 
 America. With this army Burgoyne was to 
 
420 
 
 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 advance by way of Lake Champlain to the 
 Hudson, while a detachment under General 
 St. Leger was to move eastward by way of 
 Oswego and descend the Mohawk to the 
 Hudson. Having secured the Hudson, Bur- 
 goyne was to open communication with Sir 
 Henry Clinton in New York, capture the forts 
 in the Highlands and so cut off New England 
 from the Middle and Southern States. 
 
 To oppose his advance General Schuyler 
 
 that post. Opposite Fort Ticonderoga, on 
 the right-hand side of the outlet of Lake 
 George, is a lofty hill known as Mount 
 Defiance. The Americans had neglected to 
 fortify this hill, thinking it inaccessible to 
 artillery. General Philips was of a different 
 opinion, and in three days of hard labor suc- 
 ceeded in dragging his guns to the summit 
 of Mount Defiance, from which they com- 
 manded the forts on both sides of the lake 
 
 GENERAL BURGOYNE ADDRESSING THE INDIANS. 
 
 had a weak army between Albany and Lake 
 Champlain. General St. Clair, with a detach- 
 ment of three thousand men held Ticonde- 
 roga, and though he seriously feared that 
 his force was too weak to offer much resist- 
 ance, trusted to the natural strength of his 
 position and hoped to be able to hold Ticon- 
 deroga until aid could reach him. 
 
 On the second of July Burgoyne's army 
 appeared before Ticonderoga and invested 
 
 St. Clair now saw that the forts were unten- 
 able and that he must evacuate them at 
 once in order to save his army. Sending 
 his baggage and stores in boats up the lake 
 to Skenesborough, now Whitehall, he 
 evacuated Fort Ticonderoga and crossed 
 over to Fort Independence , on the opposite 
 side of the lake. 
 
 His withdrawal was discovered before it 
 was completed, and the British at once 
 
THE YEAR 1777. 
 
 421 
 
 followed in pursuit. Burgoyne ordered Gen- 
 eral Frazer to follow St. Clair's command, 
 while he himself passed up the lake and des- 
 troyed the stores at Skenesborough. Upon 
 his approach, on the afternoon of the seventh, 
 the American force at Skenesborough set 
 fire to the stores and retreated rapidly to 
 Fort Anne, which was reached the next 
 morning. The British appeared before this 
 fort the same day, but were held in check, 
 and that night the 
 Americans set fire to 
 Fort Anne and re- 
 treated to Fort Ed- 
 ward, sixteen miles 
 further. 
 
 On the afternoon of 
 the seventh General 
 Frazer came up with 
 St. Clair's rear guard 
 at Hubbardton and 
 defeated it with severe 
 loss. St. Clair con- 
 tinued his retreat 
 through the woods, 
 and a week later 
 reached Fort Edward 
 with his exhausted 
 troops. 
 
 General Schuyler 
 had advanced to Fort 
 Edward with a force 
 of five thousand men, 
 nearly all of whom were militia. Many were 
 without arms, and there was a woeful 
 scarcity of ammunition and provisions in his 
 camp. Schuyler was joined here by the rem- 
 nant of Saint Clair's command, and as Bur- 
 goyne had halted for a few days at the head 
 of Lake Champlain, which was twenty-four 
 miles distant from Fort Edward, Schuyler set 
 his men to work to obstruct the road between 
 those two points by felling trees across it and 
 by destroying bridges. So thoroughly was 
 
 this work done that Burgoyne's army con- 
 sumed a fortnight in its advance from Skenes- 
 borough to the H udson. It reached the neigh- 
 borhood of Fort Edward on the twenty-ninth 
 of July. Schuyler at once abandoned the fort, 
 and fell back to Saratoga, from which he 
 moved to Stillwater, near the mouth of the 
 Mohawk. 
 
 The loss of Ticonderoga and the northern 
 forts was regarded by Congress as an evidence 
 
 ■'^'-■ : £ fj %%$m 
 
 RUINS OF FORT TICONDEROGA. 
 
 of the incapacity of Schuyler and his subor- 
 dinates, and so little allowance was made for 
 the serious disadvantages under which those 
 officers labored, that Congress ordered all the 
 northern generals to be recalled and their 
 conduct investigated. It was not until Wash- 
 ington called the attention of Congress to the 
 fact that a compliance with this order would 
 leave the northern army without officers, that 
 that body consented to suspend its unwise 
 decree. 
 
422 
 
 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 The prejudice against Schuyler, though 
 unjust, was deep, and his removal from his 
 command was resolved upon. Washington 
 declined to deprive him of his command, as 
 his confidence in Schuyler was unshaken, and 
 Congress took the matter in its own hands. 
 u The eastern influence prevailed," says Irv- 
 ing, " and Gates received the appointment so 
 long the object of his aspirations, if not in- 
 trigues." 
 
 Upon reaching Fort Edward, Burgoyne, 
 confid.-nt that the game was in his own hands, 
 issued a proclamation calling upon the people 
 to send representatives to a convention to 
 meet at Castleton to provide for the re-estab- 
 lishment of the royal authority. This was 
 met by a proclamation from Schuyler, who 
 declared that he would punish as traitors all 
 who should comply with Burgoyne's call, or 
 in any way give aid and comfort to the enemy. 
 There was not much need for this threat, for 
 the militia of the northern district were 
 rapidly rallying to Schuyler's aid. The 
 people of the whole region were profoundly 
 excited, and they were determined that 
 the British army should never leave their 
 country. 
 
 Story of Jenny McCrea. 
 
 Much of this feeling was caused by the 
 outrages of the Indians in Burgoyne's army, 
 who prowled about the country, murdering 
 and plundering the people who were exposed 
 to their fury. One of their crimes roused 
 the whole northern region to action. A beau- 
 tiful young girl, Jenny McCrea by name, was 
 visiting a friend near Fort Edward. She was 
 betrothed to a young Tory who had fled to 
 Canada some time since, and was now serving 
 as a lieutenant in Burgoyne's army. When 
 her friends removed from Fort Edward to 
 Albany, to avoid the danger which threat- 
 ened them, she lingered behind in spite of 
 their invitation to accompany them, hoping 
 
 to meet her lover upon the advance of Bur- 
 goyne's forces. 
 
 The house in which she was staying was 
 attacked by a party of Indians, and she was 
 taken prisoner. Anxious for her safety she 
 promised her captors a liberal reward if they 
 would conduct her to her lover in the Brit- 
 ish camp. On the way they quarrelled over 
 the promised reward, and in their rage mur- 
 dered the poor girl and carried her scalp into 
 the British camp. Burgoyne was horror- 
 struck at the atrocious deed, and promptly 
 disavowed it; but the news of the murder 
 roused a stern desire for vengeance through- 
 out the northern department. The terrible 
 scenes of the old French war were not for- 
 gotten, and the people were fearful they would 
 now be revived under British influence unless 
 Burgoyne's army were destroyed. Thousands 
 flocked to the American camp, with such 
 arms as they could procure, eager to crush 
 the enemy. 
 
 The Br?ve Herkimer. 
 
 In the meantime St. Leger had moved 
 from Oswego into the valley of the Mohawk, 
 and had laid siege to Fort Schuyler or Stan- 
 wix, on the site of the present city of Rome. 
 The fort was commanded by Colonel Gan- 
 sevoort. The siege was begun on the third 
 of August, and a few days later news was 
 received by the little garrison that General 
 Herkimer, with eight hundred militia, was 
 advancing to their assistance. On the sixth 
 of August Herkimer reached a place called 
 Oriskany, where, owing to the impatience of 
 his men, he fell into an ambush of Tories 
 and Indians. The fight which ensued was 
 one of the most desperate of the war ; quar- 
 ter was neither asked nor given by either 
 party. 
 
 Herkimer was mortally wounded, but con- 
 tinued to cheer on his men, until a successful 
 sally from the fort compelled St. Leger to 
 
THE YEAR 1777. 
 
 423 
 
 recall the force engaged with Herkimer to 
 defend his own camp. The American militia 
 then retreated, carrying with them their 
 commander, who died a few days later. Fort 
 Schuyler was left in a critical condition, and 
 
 hastily abandoned his camp, and retreated 
 into Canada with the remainder of his force. 
 Burgoyne had now reached the Hudson, 
 and had full command of Lakes George and 
 Champlain ; but the people of the country 
 
 HERKIMER MORTALLY WOUNDED. 
 
 Arnold was sent at his own request to its 
 relief. He caused the strength of his force 
 to be greatly exaggerated, and spread a 
 report that Burgoyne had been defeated. 
 The Indians deserted St. Leger rapidly upon 
 hearing these reports, and that commander 
 
 were hostile to him, and he found it hard to 
 procure either cattle or horses. Though his 
 camp on the Hudson was but eighteen miles 
 from Lake George, this lack of animals made 
 it almost impossible to transport his supplies 
 across the intervening country, and his 
 
424 
 
 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 army was beginning to run short of provi- 
 sions. 
 
 To obtain horses and provisions, Bur- 
 goyne, early in August, sent a force of five 
 hundred Germans and a detachment of 
 Indians and Tories, under Lieutenant Colonel 
 Baum, to seize the stores collected by the 
 Americans at Bennington, Vermont, and to 
 collect such horses and cattle as they could 
 ~ the march. He was told that the people 
 
 GENERAL JOHN STARK. 
 
 of the neighborhood were largely devoted 
 to the king, and that the stores were 
 unguarded. 
 
 The news of the approach of this force 
 spread rapidly through the country, and the 
 Green Mountain Boys, as the Vermont militia 
 were termed, flew to arms. Colonel Stark, 
 who had retired from the Continental army on 
 account of having been neglected in the 
 recent promotions, was in the neighborhood, 
 and was offered the command of the gather- 
 
 ing forces. He accepted it promptly, and 
 issued a warning to the people along the 
 route of the British to drive off their horses 
 and cattle, and to conceal their grain and 
 wagons to prevent their capture by th : 
 enemy. A messenger was sent with all speed 
 to Manchester to Colonel Seth Warner, urg- 
 ing him to march at once with his regiment 
 to Bennington, where he was needed. 
 
 Battle of Bennington. 
 
 Baum had advanced to within six miles of 
 Bennington when he heard of the approach 
 of the militia under Stark. He halted, in- 
 trenched his position, and sent to Burgoyne 
 for reinforcements. Colonel Breyman with 
 five hundred Hessians and two pieces of 
 artillery was despatched to his assistance. 
 
 Stark was prevented from making an im- 
 mediate attack upon Baum by a furious 
 rain-storm, which also delayed the march of 
 Breyman and Warner. During the night of 
 the fifteenth of August Stark was joined by 
 the militia from Berkshire, Massachusetts 
 They were anxious to engage the enemy at 
 once, and were impatient at the delay caused 
 by the storm. One of their number, Parson 
 Allen, approached Stark. " General," said 
 he, " the people of Berkshire have often 
 been called out to no purpose ; if you don't 
 give them a chance to fight now they will 
 never turn out again." Stark remarked his 
 earnestness, and said, with a smile, " You 
 would not turn out now, while it is dark 
 and raining, would you ?" " Not just now," 
 answered the parson. " Well," said Stark, 
 " if the Lord should once more give us sun- 
 shine, and I don't give you fighting enough, 
 I'll never ask you to turn out again." 
 
 The morning of the sixteenth came bright 
 and clear, and Stark at once began his 
 advance upon the enemy. Arriving in sight 
 of the British works, he pointed them out to 
 his men. " There are the red coats ! We 
 
PUTNAM'S ESCAPE AT HORSE NECK 
 
THE YEAR 1777. 
 
 425 
 
 must beat them to-day or Molly Stark sleeps 
 a widow to-night." A spirited attack was 
 made upon the British lines, both in front 
 and in the rear, and after two hours' hard 
 fighting they were carried by storm. Baum 
 fell mortally wounded and his men laid 
 down their arms. The Indians and Tories 
 had escaped to the woods at the opening of 
 the battle. 
 
 The fighting had scarcely ended when the 
 force under Colonel Breyman appeared and 
 at once engaged the Americans. At the 
 same moment Warner's regiment, which had 
 pushed forward all night in the rain, reached 
 the field. The battle was continued until 
 nightfall, when Breyman abandoned his 
 artillery and made a hurried retreat to Bur- 
 goyne's camp on the Hudson. The Ameri- 
 cans had fourteen killed and forty wounded. 
 They took six hundred prisoners, one thou- 
 sand stand of arms and four pieces of 
 cannon. 
 
 Burgoyne in Straits. 
 
 Burgoyne now found himself in a most 
 critical condition. He had reached the 
 Hudson, but his troops were short of pro- 
 visions ; his efforts against Fort Schuyler 
 and Bennington had failed, and his force 
 was being reduced by the desertions of the 
 Indians. Burgoyne, who was a man of 
 humanity and true soldierly spirit, had no 
 sympathy with the barbarous policy of his 
 government in employing the savages against 
 the Americans, and had sternly cut short 
 their cruelties. The Indians had taken 
 offence at his course and were leaving his 
 army in great numbers. He made no effort 
 to detain them, preferring to lose their ser- 
 vices rather than allow them to continue their 
 atrocities. On the other hand the American 
 army was daily growing stronger. The 
 militia were flocking to it in great numbers, 
 and reinforcements were received from the 
 
 Highlands. The militia of New Hanpshire 
 and Massachusetts were threatening Ticon- 
 deroga, the capture of which post would cut 
 off his communications with Canada. The 
 contrast between the present condition of 
 the British army and that of a few weeks 
 before was marked indeed. 
 
 A Jealous General. 
 
 Matters were in this state when General 
 Gates arrived, late in August, and assumed 
 the command of the army, which was now 
 six thousand strong, and receiving reinforce- 
 ments every day. Schuyler, superior to all 
 sense of personal wrong, cheerfully rendered 
 him all the assistance in his power in 
 mastering the question before him ; but 
 Gates repaid his generosity with, charac- 
 teristic jealousy. He did not even invite 
 Schuyler to his first council of war held a 
 few days later. He at once left the position 
 at the mouth of the Mohawk, and on the 
 twelfth of September advanced to Behmus' 
 Heights, a spur of hills bordering the Hud- 
 son. The army now numbered nine thou- 
 sand effective men, indifferently armed, but 
 resolved to conquer. "Gates had no fitness 
 for command," says Bancroft, " and wanted 
 personal courage." He intrenched his posi- 
 tion, and for the defence of his right and left 
 flanks erected strong batteries. 
 
 Burgoyne by great exertion succeeded in 
 bringing up a month's provisions from Lake 
 George for his army, which was now reduced 
 to about six thousand men. He resolved to 
 adhere to his original plan, and endeavored 
 to force his way to Albany, and on the thir- 
 teenth of September crossed the Hudson at 
 Schuylerville, and encamped on the plains of 
 Saratoga, intending to decide the campaign 
 by a general engagement. 
 
 On the morning of the nineteenth of Sep- 
 tember he advanced against the American 
 position. Gates wished to await the attack 
 
426 
 
 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 of the enemy in his intrenched position, but 
 Arnold urged him to throw forward a force 
 to hold them in check, and not permit them 
 to turn the American left, as they evidently 
 intended. After considerable solicitation he 
 obtained the desired permission from Gates, 
 
 GENERAL HORATIO GATES. 
 
 and moved forward to check the advance of 
 the British. A determined conflict immedi- 
 ately ensued and continued until nightfall. 
 It was one of the most stubbornly contested 
 engagements of the war, and its result was 
 mainly due to the skill and courage of Ar- 
 
 nold, who held the enemy in check during 
 the day, and prevented the success of their 
 plan for turning Gates' left flank. The Brit- 
 ish remained in possession of the field at 
 night, and the Americans rejoined their main 
 body. The latter regarded the battle as a 
 victory, as they had 
 accomplished all they 
 had expected. 
 
 Burgoyne's diffi- 
 culties thickened rap- 
 idly. On the seven- 
 teenth a detachment of 
 Massachusetts militia 
 seized the posts at the 
 outlet of Lake George 
 and captured a fleet of 
 three hundred boats 
 loaded with supplies 
 for Burgoyne's army, 
 and took three hun- 
 dred prisoners. This 
 force then united with 
 another and laid siege 
 toTiconderoga. These 
 successes completely 
 destroyed Burgoyne's 
 communication with 
 Canada, and with it 
 his means of supply- 
 ing his army. In this 
 emergency he was 
 greatly encouraged 
 by the receipt of a 
 letter from Sir Henry 
 Clinton at New York, 
 informing him that he 
 (Clinton) would in a 
 few days make an effort to ascend the Hud- 
 son and open communication with him. 
 
 Burgoyne thereupon resolved to endeavor 
 to hold his position until the arrival of Clinton. 
 Three weeks passed away in inaction, and 
 though skirmishes between the advanced 
 
THE YEAR 1777. 
 
 427 
 
 parties were frequent, neither commander 
 cared to attack the other; Burgoyne because 
 he was anxious to defer a decisive engage- 
 ment, Gates because he was scantily supplied 
 with ammunition. 
 
 Arnold Again at the Front. 
 
 The success of the battle of Behmus' 
 Heights was generally attributed by the 
 troops to Arnold, who was very popular with 
 them. Gates' jealously was most probably 
 aroused by this belief, and he unceremoni- 
 ously deprived Arnold of his command. 
 During this delay the American army was 
 increased by the arrival of the Massachusetts 
 militia and other reinforcements, to about 
 eleven thousand men. 
 
 Burgoyne's situation was now m®re critical 
 than ever. His best officers favored a retreat 
 to Fort Edward ; but the British commander 
 decided before undertaking that movement 
 to reconnoitre the American position in 
 strong force. If it was found that it could 
 not be attacked, he was willing to retreat to 
 Fort Edward. A force of fifteen hundred 
 picked men and ten pieces of cannon, com- 
 manded by the most experienced officers in 
 the army, was sent on the seventh of October 
 to reconnoitre the American position. Gates, 
 by the advice of Morgan, attacked this force 
 on both flanks, and sent Morgan with his rifle- 
 men to cut the enemy off from their camp. 
 
 The sound of the firing roused Arnold, 
 who was brooding over his wrongs. He 
 mounted his horse and rode at full speed to 
 the battle-field in spite of the efforts of Gates 
 to stop him. He reached the scene of action 
 and was reconized by the troops, who re- 
 ceived him with cheers. Without orders or 
 any definite command, he placed himself at 
 the head of the troops and led them against 
 the enemy. The British, led by General 
 Frazer, held their ground manfully, but at 
 length Frazer was mortally wounded by one 
 
 of Morgan's riflemen, and his line gave way. 
 Burgoyne fearlessly exposed himself in the 
 efforts to rally his men, but was at length 
 obliged to order a retreat to the camp. 
 
 This was accomplished with extreme diffi- 
 culty, and the Americans, following in close 
 pursuit, made a determined attack upon the 
 British intrenchments, which were stubborn- 
 ly defended. In this attack Arnold displayed 
 great heroism, and was wounded within the 
 enemy's works. Though they failed to cap- 
 ture the whole line, the Americans carried 
 the camp of Colonel Breymen's regiment of 
 Hessians, the key to Burgoyne's position, 
 and took a number of prisoners. 
 
 Success of the Federals. 
 
 The Americans bivouaced on the field, in- 
 tending to renew the battle the next day, but 
 during the night Burgoyne abandoned his 
 sick and wounded, and silently withdrew from 
 his intrenchments. The roads being rendered 
 bad by the rains, he halted and took posi- 
 tion about two miles from the town of Sara- 
 toga. On the night of the ninth, finding that 
 the Americans held the Hudson in such 
 heavy force as to render its passage impracti- 
 cable, he retreated to Saratoga- He then 
 sent out a detachment to rebuild the bridges 
 on the road to Fort Edward, but found the 
 road in the possession of the Americans, who 
 also held Fort Edward, and had captured all 
 the boats laden with provisions for his army. 
 He was thus left with but three days rations 
 for his men. On the twelfth the Amer- 
 ican army, which had followed the British 
 closely, invested their position, and opened 
 a heavy fire on their camp. On the thir- 
 teenth Burgoyne called a council of his offi- 
 cers, and it was resolved to open negotiatior 
 with Gates. 
 
 He proposed to Gates to surrender If 
 army on condition that they should he 
 allowed to sail for England from the port of 
 
428 
 
 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 Boston, first pledging themselves not to 
 serve again in North America during the 
 war. Gates had heard of the successes of 
 Clinton on the Hudson, and was fearful that 
 he would reach Albany. He therefore 
 weakly agreed to Burgoyne's proposal, and 
 consented that the British army should 
 march out of camp with the honors of war; 
 that the troops should be taken to Boston 
 and sent to England, and that they should 
 pledge themselves not to serve again in 
 America during the war. These matters 
 being arranged the British army surrendered 
 on the seventeenth of October, and was fed 
 by the Americans, for its provisions were 
 exhausted. About six thousand prisoners 
 were surrendered, together with nearly five 
 thousand muskets, forty-two brass field- 
 pieces and a large quantity of military stores. 
 Upon the surrender of Burgoyne the British 
 garrison at Ticonderoga evacuated that 
 place and retreated into Canada. 
 
 Surrender of Burgoyne. 
 
 Congress refused to ratify the .erms 
 granted to Burgoyne by Gates. It was 
 plain that if they were sent to England they 
 could release an equal number of troops 
 there, who could be sent to the aid of Sir 
 Henry Clinton in New York. This would 
 deprive the United States of one of the 
 most important results of the surrender. 
 Burgoyne and two attendants were permitted 
 to return to England, but the captive troops 
 were held as prisoners of war, and the next 
 year were marched to Charlottesville, Vir- 
 ginia, and quartered in log huts, where the 
 greater part of them remained until near the 
 close of the war. 
 
 Some time before Burgoyne's surrender 
 Sir Henry Clinton, having received rein- 
 
 forcements from England, resolved to under- 
 take the capture of the forts in the High- 
 lands of the Hudson, the garrisons of which 
 had been greatly weakened by the detach- 
 ments sent from them to Washington and 
 Gates. On the sixth of October he attacked 
 and captured Forts Montgomery and Clin- 
 ton. General George Clinton, who com- 
 manded at these forts, finding he could not 
 hold them, sent to General Putnam for 
 assistance, but his messenger deserted to 
 the enemy and the forts were abandoned. 
 General Tryon was sent to occupy Kingston, 
 which he ordered to be burned. When the 
 enemy heard of Burgoyne's surrender they 
 retreated, setting fire to the house of every 
 patriot along the river. Clinton then dis- 
 mantled the captured forts and returned to 
 New York, taking with him all the heavy 
 cannon and stores. 
 
 The capture of Burgoyne's army was 
 hailed with delight throughout the country. 
 It was the most important success of the 
 war, and put an end to the danger of invasion 
 from Canada. Gates was greatly puffed up 
 by his triumph, and imagined himself the 
 hero of the war. He sent his official report 
 of the surrender to Congress direct, and not 
 through the commander-in-chief, as his duty 
 required, thus offering a grave insult to 
 Washington. 
 
 General Schuyler now demanded an inves- 
 tigation of his conduct previons to his 
 relinquishment of his command to Gates. 
 He was thoroughly acquitted of the charges 
 of mismanagement brought against him by 
 his enemies, and was strongly urged by 
 Congress to remain in the army. He 
 declined to do so and resigned his commis- 
 sion ; but was soon afterwards returned to 
 Congress from the State of New York. 
 
CHAPTER XXIX 
 Aid from Abroad 
 
 Sufferings of the Army at Valley Forge — Appeals of Washington to Congress — The British in Philadelphia — The Con 
 way Cabal — Its Disgraceful Failure — Efforts to Improve the Army — Worthlessness of Continental Bills — General Lee 
 Exchanged — Effect of Burgoyne's Surrender Upon England — The King is Forced to Agree to Measures of Concilia- 
 tion — Action of France — Louis XVI. Recognizes the Independence of the United States — Alliance Between the 
 United States and France — Failure of the British Measures of Conciliation — Clinton Evacuates Philadelphia — Uatile 
 of Monmouth — General Lee Dismissed from the Army — Attack Upon Newport — Its Failure — Withdrawal of the 
 French Fleet to the West Indies — Outrages of the British on Long Island Sound — Massacre of Wyoming — The 
 Winter of 1779-S0 — The Army in Winter Quarters — Robert Morris — Condition of Congress — Georgia Subdued by 
 the British — Prevost attempts to Take Charleston — Siege of Savannah — Its Failure — Capture of Stony Point — Capture 
 of Paulus Hook — The Indians Punished — Naval Affairs — Exploits of John Paul Jones — Evacuation of Newport — 
 Settlement of Kentucky — Conquest of the Illinois Country by George Rogers Clarke — Settlement of Tennessee. 
 
 THE sufferings of the American army 
 during the long winter at Valley- 
 Forge were very great. Many 
 were barefooted, and their marches 
 through the frost and snow could be traced 
 by the blood from their feet. They were 
 without clothing, without food and were 
 utterly unable to keep the field. Yet in 
 spite of these sufferings many persons 
 severely censured the commander-in-chief 
 for going into winter quarters without 
 attacking Philadelphia. 
 
 In reply to one of these remonstrances 
 from the Legislature of Pennsylvania, Wash- 
 ington wrote to Congress on the twenty- 
 third of December, 1777 : " Men are confined 
 to hospitals or in farmers' houses for want 
 of shoes. We have this day no less than 
 two thousand eight hundred and ninety- 
 eight men in camp unfit for duty because 
 they are barefoot and otherwise naked. Our 
 whole strength in Continental troops 
 amounts to no more than eight thousand 
 two hundred in camp fit for duty. Since the 
 fourth instant our numbers fit for duty from 
 hardships and exposures have decreased 
 nearly two thousand men. Numbers still 
 are obliged to sit all night by fires. Gen- 
 
 tlemen reprobate the going into winter quar- 
 ters as much as if they thought the soldiers 
 were made of stocks and stones. I can 
 assure those gentlemen that it is a much 
 easier and less distressing thing to draw 
 remonstrances in a comfortable room by a 
 good fireside than to occupy a cold, bleak 
 hill, and sleep under frost and snow without 
 clothes or blankets. However, although 
 they seem to have little feeling for the naked 
 and distressed soldiers, I feel superabund- 
 antly for them, and from my soul I pity 
 those miseries which it is neither in my 
 power to relieve nor prevent." 
 
 Congress did little or nothing to relieve 
 the sufferings of the army. It promised the 
 troops one month's extra pay, but made no 
 effort to provide food or clothing for them, 
 It authorized Washington to impress what- 
 ever articles he needed, but he remonstrated 
 against this arbitrary use of power, as he 
 was convinced that it would not supply 
 the wants of the army, but would certainly 
 anger the people of the country. Congress 
 towards the close of the winter manifested 
 so much hostility to the army because of its 
 appeals for food and clothes, that Washing- 
 ton earnestly remonstrated against this feeling 
 
 429 
 
43° 
 
 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 and reminded that body that the troops were 
 " citizens, having all the ties and interests of 
 citizens." 
 
 It is not too mwch to say that the personal 
 influence of Washington went further than 
 anything else in keeping the army together 
 during this trying winter. Under any other 
 commander the troops would have dispersed. 
 Encouraged by the calm and lofty patience 
 of Washington, the troops remained faithful 
 to their cause and bore their sufferings with 
 a heroic fortitude which their descendants 
 will ever bear in grateful honor. 
 
 All this while the British army was com- 
 fortably quartered in Philadelphia, and the 
 officers were billeted upon the inhabitants. 
 They were amply supplied with every com- 
 fort, and their leisure time was given up to 
 pleasure and dissipation on a scale the 
 Quaker City had never dreamed of. " By a 
 proportionate tax on the pay and allowances 
 of each officer a house was opened for daily 
 resort and for weekly balls, with a gaming 
 table which had assiduous votaries, and a 
 room devoted to the game of chess. Thrice 
 a week plays were enacted by amateur per- 
 formers. . . . The officers, among whom 
 all ranks of the British aristocracy were 
 represented, lived in open licentiousness." 
 The contrast between the pleasures and ease 
 of these well-fed troops and the sufferings 
 and piivations of the ragged patriots at 
 Valley Forge was marked indeed ; and 
 when it is remembered that the comforts of 
 the British could have been purchased by 
 the patriots at the price of desertion their 
 heroic constancy becomes more striking. 
 
 The Conway Plot. 
 
 The patriotism of Washington was not 
 appreciated by all parties. A number of dis- 
 contented members of Congress and officers 
 of the army were anxious that he should be 
 removed or forced to resign in order that 
 
 their favorite General Gates might be pro- 
 moted to the chief command of the army. 
 One of the prime movers of the intrigue was 
 an Irish adventurer named Conway, who had 
 been promoted to the rank of brigader-gen- 
 enal, from which circumstance the plot is 
 known as the " Conway Cabal." The entire 
 truth concerning this plot will never be known 
 for after its failure the actors in it were only 
 too glad to disavow their connection with it. 
 The conspirators did not dare to make an 
 open attack upon the commander-in-chief, 
 but undertook by mean of anonymous letters 
 underhanded appeals to the officers and men 
 of the army, and comparisons between Gates 
 success and what they termed Washington's 
 failure, to destroy the confidence of the troops 
 in their leader, and to disgust him with his 
 command and so drive him to resign it. 
 
 A Conspiracy Thwarted. 
 
 Generals Mifflin and Gates were very ac- 
 tive in this conspiricy, and even Sullivan and 
 Wayne were in favor of making Gates com- 
 mander-in-chief. Dr. Benjamin Rush wrote 
 a letter, to which he did not dare to sign his 
 name, to Patrick Henry, then governor of 
 Virginia, representing the army of Washing- 
 ton as without a head, and disparaging Wash- 
 ington as no general. " A Gates, a Lee or a 
 Conway," he added, " would in a few weeks 
 render them an irresistible body of men. 
 Some of the contents of this letter ought to 
 be made public in order to awaken, enlighten 
 and alarm our country." Patrick Henry 
 took no notice of this paper save to forward it 
 to Washington. A similar anonymous docu- 
 ment was forwarded to Henry Laurens, the 
 president of Congress, who also sent it to 
 Washington. Great efforts were made to win 
 over Lafayette to the plot, but without the 
 least success. 
 
 Washington was to a great extent aware 
 of the plot against him but took no public 
 
AID FROM ABROAD. 
 
 43i 
 
 notice of it. He was deeply pained by the 
 unjust censure to which he was subjected, 
 but he never for a moment harbored the 
 thought of laying down the great work he 
 had assumed. He knew his course would 
 bear the most rigid inspection. He knew 
 that the capture of Burgoyne's army which 
 had made Gates the hero of the hour, was 
 due to no skill on the part of that officer 
 but was the result of the plan of defence 
 Washington had long before arranged with 
 General Schuyler. In his efforts to contend 
 against General Howe he was under many 
 disadvantages, not the least of which was the 
 fact that his army was encamped in a region 
 abounding in Tories who refused him any sup- 
 port and constantly aided the British. His 
 army was imperfectly disciplined ; it was infer- 
 ior in numbers and equipment to the enemy ; 
 and was in no condition to meet Howe in the 
 open field, still less to undertake the difficult 
 task of driving him from his intrenchments 
 at Philadelphia. 
 
 Conway in Disgrace. 
 
 "Had the same spirit pervaded the people of 
 this and the neighboring States, as the States 
 of New York and New England," said Wash- 
 ington, " we might have had General Howe 
 nearly in the same situation as General Bur- 
 goyne." Washington knew that the salva- 
 tion of the country demanded his presence at 
 the head of the army. He trusted to time for 
 his vindication, and was chiefly anxious that 
 the enemy should not learn of the dissensions 
 in the councils and camp of the Americans. 
 He firmly opposed the appointment of Con- 
 way to the post of " inspector of the armies 
 of the United States," but Congress, under 
 the influence of the cabal, appointed Canway 
 to that place with the rank of major-general. 
 
 In a little while the actions of the conspir- 
 itors became known and aroused such a storm 
 of indignation from the officers and men of 
 
 the army, from the legislatures of the States, 
 and from the great mass of the people that 
 Gates and Conway and their associates cow- 
 ered before it, and Congress became heartily 
 
 AN AMERICAN RIFLEMAN. 
 
 ashamed of having given the plot any en- 
 couragement. The only effect of the con- 
 spiricy was to raise Washington higher in the 
 confidence and affection of his countrymen. 
 The members of the conspiricy were ever 
 
432 
 
 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 afterwards anxious to deny their share in it. 
 The punishment of Gates came as soon as 
 he was entrusted with an independent com- 
 mand, as we shall see. As for Conway, he 
 was despised by the better part of the officers 
 of the army, and found his position so unenvia- 
 ble that he addressed a note to Congress 
 complaining that he had been badly treated, 
 and intimated his intention to resign because 
 he was not ordered to the northern depart- 
 ment. Congress was by this time ashamed 
 of having bestowed upon him such unde- 
 served honors, and gladly interpreted his let- 
 ter as an actual resignation of his rank, and 
 at once ended the difficulty by accepting it, 
 
 Challenged to a Duel. 
 
 Conway was profoundly astonished. He 
 was confident that Congress would be terri- 
 fied by his threat to resign, and urge him to 
 remain in the service, and was utterly unpre- 
 pared for the action of that body. He hast- 
 ened to explain his letter but was not listened 
 to. Some time after he ventured to de- 
 nounce the commander-in-chief, and was 
 challenged to a duel by General Cadwallader 
 who had already charged him with cowardice 
 at the battle of Germantown. Conway was 
 wounded ; and beleiving himself near death 
 wrote to Washington, apologizing for his 
 conduct towards him. " You are," he said, 
 " in my eyes the great and good man. May 
 you long enjoy the love, veneration and es- 
 teem of these States whose liberties you have 
 asserted by your virtues." His wound was 
 not mortal as he had supposed, and he recov- 
 ered, and soon left the country. 
 
 The winter was passed by Washington in 
 an effort to increase the army, and render it 
 more efficient. Baron Steuben, a Prussian 
 officer, who had served under Frederick the 
 Great, was appointed inspector, with the rank 
 of major-general. He introduced into the 
 army the drill and discipline of the Prussian 
 
 service, and greatly increased its efficiency. 
 The various States, save Georgia and South 
 Carolina, were called upon by Ccngress to 
 contribute their quota of troops to the army. 
 In consideration of their large slave popula- 
 tion, and the neccessity of retaining their 
 troops for their own defence, those States 
 were excused from compliance with this de- 
 mand. 
 
 Congress and the Army. 
 
 Count Pulaski succeeded in raising an in- 
 dependent body of cavalry, and Major Henry 
 Lee organized a regiment of light horse, 
 which under his command subsequently be- 
 came noted as one of the most efficient corps 
 of the army. Congress proposed to in- 
 crease the force of the army to sixty thous- 
 and men, but was never able to bring it to 
 more than half that number. 
 
 The inability of Congress to pay the troops 
 compelled many of the officers to leave the 
 army, in order to provide for their families, 
 who were suffering. Congress called upon 
 the States to raise the money for the public 
 expenses by taxing their people, but some of 
 them neglected to respond to this appearand 
 the remainder were too poor to render such as- 
 sistance. Congress issued new bills of credit 
 but the value of the " Continental Currency," 
 as this money was called, had depreciated so 
 greatly that a pair of shoes could not be 
 bought for less than from five to six hundred 
 dollars in these bills. The Tories and the 
 British depreciated them still further by flood- 
 ing the country with counterfeits. 
 
 A great improvement was made in the 
 supply of provisions furnished the army by 
 the appointment of General Greene, at the 
 request of Washington, to the post of quarter- 
 master-general, which had been held by Gen- 
 eral Mifflin, who had neglected its duties 
 on all occaisons. At the urgent solicitation 
 of the commander-in-chief, Greene assumed 
 
AID FROM ABROAD. 
 
 433 
 
 the distasteful position for one year, and dis- 
 charged its duties with a skill and precision 
 which kept the army so well supplied with 
 provisions and ammunition that it was never, 
 during his administration, obliggd to aban- 
 don a movement because of a lack of these 
 necessities. 
 
 A Traitor in the Camp. 
 
 In April, 1778, General Prescott was 
 exchanged for General Charles Lee, who at 
 once returned to duty in the army. During 
 his captivity Lee, who was willing to ruin 
 the cause if he could benefit himself, pro- 
 posed a plan to the British ministry by which 
 they could, in his opinion, bring the war to 
 a successful close. The ministers did not 
 see fit to adopt Lee's plan, but filed it away 
 among the British archives, and the traitor 
 was exchanged and permitted to resume his 
 command in the American army, to become 
 again a source of trouble and loss to it. 
 
 In the meantime the American cause had 
 assumed a new phase abroad. The English 
 government had confidently expected that 
 Burgoyne's expedition would be successful, 
 and the result of his operations was watched 
 by France with the deepest anxiety. When 
 news arrived of the defeat of Burgoyne the 
 astonishment of King George and his min- 
 isters was equalled only by their mortifica- 
 tion. It was resolved to wipe out the 
 humiliation by a more vigorous prosecution 
 of the war. It was rumored that France 
 was about to aid tiie Americans, and that 
 Holland was on the point of loaning them 
 money. 
 
 These rumors aroused the English people 
 
 to a heartier support of the government 
 
 than they had yet given it, and many of the 
 
 principal cities offered to raise troops to 
 
 supply the places of those who had been 
 
 surrendered by Burgoyne. At the same 
 
 time the friends of America were greatly 
 28 
 
 encouraged and resolved to make a new 
 effort to put a stop to the war by offering 
 America such terms as would either induce 
 her to renew her former connection with 
 Great Britain or to become the ally and 
 friend of that country. A considerable sun? 
 of money was subscribed by these for thv 
 relief of the American prisoners, who were 
 left by the government without even the 
 necessaries of life. 
 
 Trouble in Parliament. 
 
 When Parliament assembled a strong 
 attack was made upon the policy of the 
 king by the friends of America. The em- 
 ployment of the Hessians, and, above all, of 
 the barbarous Indians ©f North America, 
 whose cruelties shocked the English people, 
 was severely denounced. The mercantile 
 class was seriously discontented. Its trade 
 with America was destroyed, and the activity 
 of the American cruisers was so great that 
 six hundred English vessels had already 
 been captured; and it was necessary to con- 
 voy merchantmen by vessels of war from 
 one port of the kingdom to another. Thus 
 far the war had caused an expenditure of 
 twenty thousand lives and one hundred mil- 
 lions of dollars, and the conquest of America 
 v/as as far off as at the commencement of 
 hostilities. 
 
 Under this pressure the king was con- 
 strained to yield, and, in February, 1778, 
 Lord North presented to Parliment two bills 
 by which his majesty hoped to maintain his 
 authority in America, and conciliate his re- 
 volted subjects. The first of these renounced 
 all intention on the part of Great Britian to 
 levy taxes in America ; the other appointed 
 five commissioners to negotiate with the 
 Americans for the restoration of the authority 
 of England and the close of the war. The 
 consent of the king to these measures was 
 wrung from him by the complaints of a large 
 
434 
 
 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 
 
 part of the English people, and by his fear 
 that France would openly aid the United 
 States. These bills involved a direct sur- 
 render of the whole ground of the war; but 
 indicated no change of opinion on the 
 part of the king. 
 
 This action on the part of Great Britian 
 
 LOUIS XVI. 
 
 aroused the French government to a more 
 energetic course. Louis XVI. was opposed 
 to treating with the United States ; but the 
 French ministers were aware that a prompt 
 recognition on their part of the independence 
 of the republic would effectually neutralize 
 the measures of Great Britain, and prevent a 
 
 reconciliation. France was perfectly willing 
 that America and England should weaken 
 each other by their contest, but she was re- 
 solved that Great Britain should never recover 
 her colonies. The capture of Burgoyne's 
 army had demonstrated the ability of Amer- 
 ica to continue the war, and the French minis- 
 ters resolved to lose no time in 
 concluding an alliance with her. 
 On the seventeenth of Decem- 
 ber, 1777, the Count de Ver- 
 gennes caused Franklin and 
 Deane to be informed of the 
 king's intention not only to 
 acknowledge but to support the 
 independence of America, and 
 on the sixth of February a treaty 
 of friendship and commerce, and 
 a second treaty of defensive alli- 
 ance, were concluded between 
 the United States and France. 
 The latter bound the United 
 States to support France in case 
 Great Britain should declare war 
 against her. The King of France 
 acknowledged the independence 
 of the United States of America, 
 and agreed to assist them with 
 his fleet and army. No peace 
 was to be made without mutual 
 consent, and not until the inde- 
 pendence of the United States 
 should be acknowledged by 
 Great Britain. These treaties 
 were ratified by Congress, and 
 were hailed with joy by the 
 Americans, whose confidence 
 was revived by the assurance of the assist- 
 ance of one of the most powerful states of 
 Europe. 
 
 When the news of the treaties was received 
 in England, the friends of America urged the 
 government t> abandon the war, anc. acknowl- 
 edge the independence of the United States, 
 
AID FROM ABROAD 
 
 as the only way of retaining the good feeling 
 and trade of that country. The government 
 would not even entertain the proprosition. 
 The most it would do was to pass the concil- 
 iatory bills of Lord North. If they failed to 
 accomplish the desired end the war must go 
 on. In March France 
 formally communi- 
 cated to England her 
 treaties with America. 
 This was regarded by 
 England as a declara- 
 tion of war, and the 
 British ambassador 
 was at once recalled 
 from Paris. 
 
 In June the Bri- 
 tish commissioners, 
 appointed to treat 
 under Lord North's 
 conciliatory measures, 
 arrived in America 
 and opened negotia- 
 tions. Congress de- 
 manded as a prelude 
 to any negotiations, 
 that the independence 
 of the United States 
 should be recognized 
 by England, and her 
 fleets and armies with- 
 drawn from America. 
 The commissioners 
 having no authority to 
 treat upon any such 
 basis returned to Eng- 
 land, having first made 
 several ineffectual ef- 
 forts to detach prominent Americans from 
 the cause by bribery. 
 
 The course of Sir William Howe had not 
 pleased the British government, and he was 
 removed from his command on the eleventh 
 of May, 1788, and was replaced by Sir 
 
 435 
 
 Henry Clinton. About the same time Clin- 
 ton was informed by his government that a 
 large French fleet might be expected at any 
 moment on the American coast, and was 
 ordered to evacuate Philadelphia and concen- 
 trate all his forces at New York. 
 
 SIR HENRY CLINTON. 
 
 He accordingly sent his sick and wounded 
 and most of his stores, with his fleet around 
 to New York by sea ; while, with his army, 
 twelve thousand strong, he left Philadelphia 
 on the eighteenth of June, and, crossing the 
 Delaware, began his march through New 
 
43^ 
 
 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 Jersey to New York. As soon as Washing- 
 ton learned of his movement he broke up 
 his camp, on the twenty-fourth of June, and 
 crossed the Delaware in pursuit of the Brit- 
 ish army. The intense heat of the weather, 
 and the heavy train which the British carried 
 with them, caused them to move very slowly, 
 and Washington soon overtook them. A 
 council of war was called, at which General 
 Charles Lee, who held the second rank in 
 the American army, urged that Washington 
 should confine his efforts to harassing the 
 British on the march. It was resolved, how- 
 ever to attack the enemy and force them to 
 a general engagement. Lee at first declined 
 to take any part in the battle, but at the last 
 moment changed his mind, and solicited a 
 command. 
 
 Retreat of Clinton. 
 
 Upon the adjournment of the council of 
 war, on the twenty-seventh of June, Wash- 
 ington sent Lafayette, with two thousand 
 men, to occupy the hills near Monmouth 
 Court-house and confine the enemy to the 
 plains. On the morning of the twenty-eighth 
 of June Lee, who had asked for a command, 
 was sent forward by Washington with two 
 brigades to attack the enemy. Upon coming 
 up with Lafayette, who was his junior, Lee 
 assumed the command of the whole advanced 
 force and marched in the direction of the 
 enemy, who had encamped on the previous 
 night near .Monmouth Court-house, and had 
 resumed their march early on the morn- 
 ing of the twenty-eighth. As soon as Clin- 
 ton heard of Lee's advance he determined 
 to drive him back, and for this purpose 
 wheeled about with his whole rear division, 
 and made a sharp attack upon Lee, who fell 
 back to higher ground. A misunderstand- 
 ing of his order caused one of his subordi- 
 nate officers to abandon his position and Lee's 
 whole force fell back in some confusion. 
 
 In the excitement of the moment Le* 
 forgot to send word to Washington of his 
 movement, and the first the commander-in- 
 chief, who was advancing with the main 
 body, knew of it was the right of Lee's 
 command falling back rapidly and in dis- 
 order. Riding up to the fugitives he asked 
 them why they were retreating, and was 
 answered that they did not know, but had 
 been ordered to do so. Suspecting that 
 the retreat had been ordered for the purpose 
 of ruining the plan of battle, Washington 
 hastened forward until he met General Lee 
 and sternly demanded of him : " What is 
 the meaning of all this, sir? " Lee was dis- 
 concerted for a moment, and then answered 
 that the retreat was contrary to his orders ; 
 and moreover, that he did not wish to en- 
 counter the whole British army. " I am 
 sorry," said Washington, " that you under- 
 took the command unless you meant to fight 
 the enemy." Lee answered that he did not 
 think it prudent to bring on a general 
 engagement. Washington replied, sternly 
 " Whatever your opinion may have been, I 
 expect my orders to be obeyed." 
 
 Fugitives Made to Halt. 
 
 Washington at once .-eformed the men on 
 a commanding eminence, and hurried the 
 main body of the Americans forward to their 
 support. The British soon appeared in 
 force and endeavored to dislodge the Ameri- 
 cans from their position, and failing in this, 
 attempted, but without success, to turn theii 
 left flank. The battle lasted till nightfall 
 and the American army bivouaced on tht 
 field, expecting to renew the engagement 
 the next morning ; but during the night 
 Clinton skilfully withdrew from his lines and 
 continued his retreat. The weather was so 
 warm that Washington did not deem it 
 prudent to continue the pursuit, and Clinton 
 was allowed to regain New York without 
 
AID FROM ABROAD. 
 
 437 
 
 further molestation. The Americans lost 
 about two hundred men in this engagement, 
 a number of whom died from the effects of 
 the extreme heat. The British lost three 
 hundred men. During the retreat two 
 thousand Hessians deserted from the British 
 -anks. 
 
 Lee Dismissed from the Army. 
 
 As General Lee possessed a large share of 
 the confidence of the commander-in-chief, 
 he' might have saved himself from the con- 
 sequences of his fault, had he sought to ex- 
 plain his conduct in a proper manner. On 
 the day after the battle he addressed an 
 insulting letter to Washington, and met the 
 reply of the commander-in-chief with 
 another letter still more disrespectful in tone, 
 demanding a court of inquiry. The court 
 found him guilty of disobedience of orders, 
 ar d of disrespect to the commander-in-chief, 
 and sentenced him to be suspended from his 
 rank for one year. Towards the close of his 
 term of punishment he addressed an insolent 
 letter to Congress, in consequence of some 
 fancied neglect, and was dismissed from the 
 army. A few years later he died in Phila- 
 delphia. 
 
 After the battle of Monmouth Washington 
 halted for a short time to refresh his men, 
 and then marching to the Hudson crossed 
 that stream and took position at White 
 Plains, in New York, to be ready to co- 
 operate with the French fleet, which was 
 daily expected, in an attack upon the city of 
 New York. The French fleet under Count 
 D'Estaing, with four thousand troops on 
 board, had arrived in the Delaware just after 
 Lord Howe had sailed for New York. Fail- 
 ing to find the enemy in the Delaware, 
 D'Estaing sailed for New York, but Lord 
 Howe withdrew his vessels into Raritan 
 Bay, and as the larger French ships could 
 not cross the bar, the contemplated attack 
 
 upon New York was abandoned, to the 
 great regret of Washington. 
 
 The French fleet brought the American 
 commissioners who had negotiated the treaty 
 with France, and also Monsieur Gerard, the 
 first ambassador from the French king to 
 the United States. 
 
 In place of the combined attack upon New 
 York it was resolved by Washington, in con- 
 cert with the French admiral, to attack 
 Newport and drive the British out of Rhode 
 Island. The British had established one of 
 their principal depots of supplies at this 
 point, and had there a force of six thousand 
 men under General Pigot. It was arranged 
 that a force of American troops under 
 General Sullivan should attack the enemy 
 by land, while the French fleet and army 
 should cooperate with Sullivan from the 
 sea. On the twenty-ninth of July D'Estaing 
 reached Narragansett Bay with his fleet, and 
 on the eighth of August entered Newport 
 harbor, in spite of the fire of the British 
 batteries. A who's week had been lost, 
 however, by the failure of the American 
 troops to reach the positions assigned them 
 as promptly as the French fleet. The delay 
 was unavoidable, but it ruined the enterprise. 
 
 The Fleet Scattered. 
 
 Oil the ninth Lord Howe arrived off New- 
 port harbor with his fleet to the assistance of 
 General Pigot. On the tenth D'Estaing 
 sailed out to engage the British fleet, but 
 before this could be effected a sudden and 
 terrible storm scattered both fleets. Howe 
 returned to New York, and D'Estaing made 
 his way back to Narragansett bay in a crippled 
 condition. Instead of landing the four thous- 
 and French troops he had brought with him, 
 the French admiral sailed to Boston with his 
 whole force to refit. 
 
 Sullivan in the meantime had crossed from 
 the mainland t^ *ae island of Rhode Island 
 
438 
 
 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 and had taken position before the British in- 
 trenchments in front of Newport. Here he 
 awaited the return of the French fleet, and 
 in the meanwhile kept up a steady fire upon 
 the British works. Upon D'Estaing's return 
 he informed Sullivan of his intention to sail to 
 Boston to refit his ships. Sullivan earnestly 
 begged him to remain two or three days, as 
 the British must certainly surrender by the 
 end of that time. D'Estaing jefused to do 
 so. Sullivan then asked that the French 
 troops might be left to cooperate with him 
 and this also was refused. Left alone, Sulli- 
 van was obliged to retreat to the mainland, 
 as he learned that aid was on its way from 
 New York to Pigot. He effected this move- 
 ment with skill and success, on the night of 
 the thirtieth of August. The next day Sir 
 Henry Clinton reached Newport with a 
 squadron of several ships and a reinforce- 
 ment of four thousand men. 
 
 Brutal Warfare. 
 
 As he had arrived too late to attack the 
 force under Sullivan, Clinton sent the troops 
 he had brought with him, under Major-Gen- 
 eral Grey.to ravage the coasts to the eastward. 
 Grey destroyed a large number of vessels 
 along the coasts, and stripped Fair Haven, 
 New Bedford, and the island of Martha's 
 Vineyard of everything that could be carried 
 off, and returned to New York laden with 
 plunder. 
 
 Late in October a Britisli fleet which had 
 been dispatched from England under Ad- 
 miral Byron in pursuit of D'Estaing, arrived 
 off Boston harbor. Byron was unwilling to 
 venture within the harbor, and the French 
 would not leave their place of security, and 
 the English remained off Boston until a storm 
 arose and scattered their fleet. On the first of 
 November the French, taking advantage of 
 the enforced withdrawal of their enemy, 
 stood out to sea and sailed for the West 
 
 Indies, and on the same day Clinton des- 
 patched a force of five thousand British 
 troops from New York to the West Indies. 
 
 Brutal as was the conduct of General Grey, 
 it had been already surpassed by the British 
 and their Indian allies in Pennyslvania. The 
 inhabitants of Wyoming valley, a beautifu 
 region on the Susquehanna, had driven awa\ 
 the Tories from that region, and these ha<J 
 resolved upon revenge. Early in July a forct 
 of about eleven hundred Tories and Indians 
 under Colonel John Butler and the Indian 
 chief Brandt, entered the Wyoming valley. 
 Nearly all the able-bodied settlers were ab- 
 sent with the American army, and upon 
 hearing of the approach of the jnemy a 
 small force had been despatched by Wash- 
 ington under Colonel Zebulon Butler, to the 
 assistance of the settlers. 
 
 This force was defeated by the Tories and 
 Indians, who then proceeded to lay waste 
 the valley and murder the inhabitants. They 
 performed their bloody work in the most 
 barbarous manner, and the beautiful valley 
 was made a desolation. In the following 
 month Cherry Valley in New York was rav- 
 aged with equal cruelty by a force of Tories 
 and Indians, and the inhabitants were either 
 murdered or carried into captivity. The 
 entire region of the upper Susquehanna and 
 Delaware and the valley of the Mohawk 
 were at the mercy of the savage allies of 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Battle of Savannah. 
 
 In the latter part of November, Sir Henry 
 Clinton sent a force of two thousand men 
 from New York under Colonel Campbell to 
 attack Savannah, Georgia, which was held 
 by a garrison of one thousand men under 
 General Robert Howe. The British carried 
 the American position after a sharp engage- 
 ment, and on the twenty-ninth of December, 
 Savannah surrendered to them. General 
 
AID FROM ABROAD. 
 
 439 
 
 Prevost, the English commander in Florida, 
 now repaired to Savannah, and assumed the 
 command. On his march across the country 
 he captured Sunbury, a fort of considerable 
 importance. Upon reaching Savannah he 
 sent Colonel Campbell to seize Augusta, 
 which was quickly secured and fortified. 
 
 ton established his headquarters at Middle- 
 brook, New Jersey, near the centre of his 
 line. The winter passed away without any 
 event of importance. The British held New 
 York and Newport with too strong a force 
 to make an attack upon either post success- 
 fully, and the withdrawal of the French fleet 
 
 INDIAN SCALP DANCE. 
 
 Georgia was thus entirely subdued by the 
 British by the middle of January, 1779. 
 
 After the failure of the attack upon New- 
 port the American Army went into winter 
 quarters, occupying a series of cantonments 
 extending from the eastern end of Long 
 Island sound to the Delaware. This dispo- 
 sition enabled them to oppose a force to the 
 British at every important point. Washing- 
 
 to the West Indies left Washington without 
 any means of encountering the naval force 
 of the enemy. 
 
 The season was not without its trials, how- 
 ever. Washington wrote at the beginning 
 of the year 1779, " Our affairs are in a more 
 distressed, ruinous, and deplorable condition 
 than they have been since the commence- 
 ment of the war." The currency of the 
 
440 
 
 Till-; AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 country grew more worthless every day. 
 During the year 1779 the enormous sum of 
 one hundred and thirty-one million of dol- 
 lars was issued in continental bills. The 
 magnitude of the volume of the currency 
 only served to depreciate it more and more, 
 and though supplies and articles of trade 
 were plentiful, their owners refused to accept 
 the depreciated bills of Congress, and would 
 Bell for gold and silver only. " A wagon 
 load of money," Washington wrote to the 
 president of Congress, " will not purchase a 
 wagon-load of provisions." During the year 
 the currency depreciated from eight dollars 
 foi one dollar to forty-one dollars and fifty 
 cents for one dollar. Congress had so little 
 specie that everything must have gone to 
 ruin but for the exertions of Robert Morris, 
 a member of Congress from Pennsylvania, 
 and a leading merchant of Philadelphia, who 
 borrowed large sums of coin on his own 
 credit, and loaned them to the government. 
 This he continued to do throughout the 
 war. 
 
 Congress had long before this been de- 
 prived of many of its ablest members, who 
 had resigned their seats in order to accept 
 appointments in their own Stages, or to enter 
 the army. Their places were filled with 
 weaker men, and many dissensions mark the 
 deliberations of the Congress of this period. 
 Many members of Congress and a large 
 part of the people seemed to regard the alli- 
 ance with France as decisive of the war, and 
 were disposed to relax their efforts. 
 
 France and Canada. 
 
 During the winter it was proposed to join 
 the French in an expedition for the recovery 
 of Canada for France, and the scheme found 
 favor with a majority of the delegates in Con- 
 gress. Washington opposed it with firm- 
 ness. He pointed out to Congress the diffi- 
 culty of the undertaking, and declared his 
 
 conviction that it was not to the interest ol 
 the United States that a power different in 
 race, language and religion from the people 
 of this republic should have a footing upon 
 this continent. In addition to this he did not 
 desire the people of the United States to 
 increase their obligations to a foreign, even 
 though a friendly, power. 
 
 The American forces in the Southern 
 States were commanded by General Benjamin 
 Lincoln, The Tories were very numerous 
 and very active in this region, and the feel- 
 ing between them and the patriots was one 
 of the bitterest hostility, and often manifested 
 itself in bloody and relentless conflicts. 
 Seven hundred Tories under Colonel Boyd 
 set out in February, 1779, to join Colonel 
 Campbell at Augusta. On the fourteenth 
 they were attacked at Kettle Creek by a force 
 of patriots under Colonel Pickens, and were 
 defeated with heavy loss. Pickens hung five 
 of his prisoners as traitors. 
 
 Fighting at Charleston. 
 
 General Lincoln now sent General Ashe 
 
 with two thousand men to drive the British 
 
 out of Augusta. Upon hearing of his approach 
 
 Colonel Campbell evacuated Augusta and 
 
 fell back to Brier Creek, a small stream 
 
 about halfway to Savannah. Ashe followed 
 
 him, but without observing proper caution, 
 
 and on the third of March was surprised and 
 
 routed by Campbell, with the loss of nearly 
 
 his entire force. This defeat encouraged 
 
 General Prevost to attempt the capture o* 
 
 Charleston. 
 
 j 
 
 He marched rapidly across the country 
 to Charleston, and demanded its surrender. 
 Lincoln, who had been reinforced, no sooner 
 heard of this movement than he hastened by 
 forced marches to the relief of Charleston 
 and compelled Prevost to retire to St. John's 
 island, opposite the mainland. The British 
 threw up a redoubt at Stone ferry to protect 
 
AID FROM ABROx^D. 
 
 441 
 
 the crossing to this island. It was attacked 
 on the twentieth of June by the forces of 
 General Lincoln, who were repulsed with 
 heavy loss. A little later Prevost withdrew 
 to Savannah. The intense heat of the wea- 
 ther suspended military operations in the 
 >outh during the remainder of the summer. 
 
 In September, 1779, the French fleet under 
 Count D'Estaing arrived off the coast of 
 Georgia from the West Indies, and the admi- 
 ral agreed to join Lincoln in an effort to 
 recapture Savannah. The American army 
 began its investment of the city on the 
 twenty-third of September, and every- 
 thing promised favorably for success; 
 but D'Estaing became impatient of the 
 delay of a regular siege, and declared 
 that he must return to the West Indies 
 to watch the British fleet in those waters. 
 Savannah must either be taken by assault 
 or he would withdraw from the siege. 
 To please him Lincoln consented to storm 
 the British works, and the assault was 
 made on the ninth of October, but was 
 repulsed with severe loss. D'Estaing 
 himself was wounded, and the chivalrous 
 Count Pulaski was killed. Lincoln now 
 retreated to Charleston, and the French 
 fleet sailed to the West Indies, having a 
 second time failed to render any real 
 assistance to the Americans. This dis- 
 aster closed the campaign for the year 
 in the south. 
 
 In the meantime Sir Henry Clinton had 
 been ordered by his government to harass 
 die American coast, and in accordance with 
 these instructions despatched a number of 
 plundering expeditions from New York 
 against exposed points. One of these was 
 sent in May, under General Mathews, into 
 the Chesapeake. Mathews entered the Eliza- 
 beth river, plundered the towns of Norfolk 
 and Portsmouth, and burned one hundred 
 and thirty merchant vessels and several ships 
 
 of war on the stocks at Gosport, near Ports- 
 mouth. He then ascended the James for 
 some distance and ravaged its shores. He 
 destroyed in this expedition two millions of 
 dollars worth of property, and carried off 
 about three thousand hogsheads of tobacco. 
 Upon the return of this expedition, Clinton 
 ascended the Hudson for the purpose oi 
 destroying two forts which the Americans 
 were constructing a short distance below 
 West Point, for the protection of King's 
 Ferry, an important crossing-place between 
 
 GENERAL BENJAMIN LINCOLN. 
 
 the Eastern and Middle States. One of these, 
 which was being built at Stony Point, was 
 abandoned. The work on Verplanck's Point, 
 on the east side of the Hudson, immediately 
 opposite, was compelled to surrender early 
 in June. 
 
 Returning to New York, Clinton sent 
 General Tryon with twenty-five hundred 
 men to plunder the coast of Long Island 
 Sound. He plundered New Haven, burned 
 Fairfield and Norwalk, and committed other 
 outrages at Sag Harbor, on Long Island. In 
 
44i 
 
 GALLANT CHARGE OF COUNT PULASKT. 
 
AID FROM ABROAD. 
 
 443 
 
 :he jouise of a few days this inhuman wretch 
 burned two hundred and fifty dwelling- 
 houses, five churches, and one hundred and 
 twenty-five barns and stores. Many of the 
 inhabitants were cruelly murdered, and a 
 number of women were outraged by the 
 British troops. Tryon would have carried 
 his outrages further had he not been recalled 
 to New York by Clinton, who feared that 
 Washington was about to attack him. 
 
 The loss of Stony Point was a serious 
 blow to Washington, as it compelled him to 
 establish a new line of communication 
 between the opposite sides of the 
 Hudson by a longer and more tedious 
 route through the Highlands. He 
 resolved, therefore, the recapture of the 
 post from the British at all hazards. 
 The British had greatly strengthened 
 the fort, which the Americans had left 
 unfinished, and the only way in which 
 it could be captured was by a surprise. 
 It was a desperate undertaking, and 
 Washington proposed to General An- 
 thony Wayne to attempt it. 
 
 Wayne readily consented, and the 
 two generals made a careful recon- 
 noissance of the position. It was 
 agreed to make the attempt at mid- 
 night, and in order to guard against 
 a betrayal of the movement every 
 dog in the vicinity was put to death. 
 A negro who visited the fort regularly 
 to sell fruit, and who had been for some time 
 acting as a spy for the Americans, agreed to 
 guide them to the work. 
 
 At midnight on the fifteenth of July the 
 storming party, guided by the negro, ap- 
 proached the fort in two divisions. Not a 
 man was permitted to load his musket, lest 
 the accidental discharge of a gun should ruin 
 the movement. The negro, accompanied 
 by two soldiers who were disguised as 
 farmers, approached the first sentinel and 
 
 gave the countersign. The sentinel was at 
 once seized and gagged, and the same was 
 done with the second sentinel. The third, 
 however, gave the alarm, and the garrison 
 flew to arms and opened a sharp fire upon 
 the Americans. The latter now dashed for- 
 ward at a run, scaled the parapet, and in 
 a few moments the two opposite divisions met 
 in the centre of the fort. 
 
 The Americans took more than five hun- 
 dred prisoners and all the supplies and 
 artillery of the fort fell into their hands. 
 
 GENERAL ANTHONY WAYNE. 
 
 Though they were justly exasperated by the 
 brutal outrages of the British^ which we 
 have related, they conducted themselves 
 towards their prisoners with a noble 
 humanity. The British historian, Stedman, 
 declares, " They (the Americans) would 
 have been fully justified in putting the gar- 
 rison to the sword ; not one, man of which 
 was put to death but in fair combat." It 
 was one of the most brilliant expeditions of 
 the war. Wayne now proceeded to prepare 
 
444 
 
 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 for the reduction of the fort at Verplanck's 
 Point, but while he was thus engaged a 
 heavy British force ascended the river to its 
 relief, and he was obliged to forego his 
 attack and also to abandon Stony Point. 
 
 On the night of the eighteenth of June 
 Major Henry Lee made a bold dash at the 
 British fort at Paulus Hook, now Jersey 
 City, and captured it, taking one hundred 
 and fifty-nine prisoners. The British made 
 great efforts to intercept him, but he effected 
 his retreat in safety, bringing off his 
 prisoners and losing only two men. For 
 
 LIEUTENANT-COLONEL HENRY LEE. 
 
 .'hese gallant exploits both Wayne and Lee 
 were each voted a gold medal by Congress. 
 Towards the close of the summer of 1779 
 Washington resolved to inflict upon the 
 Indians a severe punishment for their out- 
 rages upon the whites, and especially for 
 massacres of Wyoming and Cherry Valley 
 in the previous year. Early in August 
 General Sullivan was sent into Western 
 New York with three thousand men, with 
 orders to ravish the country of the Six 
 Nations. He was joined by General James 
 Clinton with two thousand men, and on the 
 twenty-ninth of August attacked and de- 
 
 feated a force of seventeen hundred Indians 
 and Tories at Newtown, now Elmira. Sulli- 
 van followed up his victory by pushing for- 
 ward into the Indian country and laying it 
 waste with fire and sword. In the course of 
 a few weeks he destroyed more than forty 
 Indian villages and burned all the cornfields 
 and orchards. The beautiful valley of the 
 Genesee was made a desert, and to avoid 
 starvation the Indians and their Tory allies 
 were obliged to emigrate to Canada. They 
 were quieted but for a time by the terrible 
 vengeance of the Americans, and soon re- 
 newed their depredations, and continued 
 them to the end of the war. 
 
 Congress had made great efforts to 
 increase the force of the navy, and the num- 
 ber of American men-of-war had been 
 materially enlarged. Many of them had 
 been captured, however, by the enemy, and 
 the navy was still weak and unable to render 
 much service to the Cause, 
 
 American Cruisers. 
 
 The privateers were unusually active, and 
 were hunted with unremitting vigilance by 
 the English war vessels. They managed to 
 inflict great loss upon the commerce of 
 Great Britain, however. A number of 
 American cruisers were fitted out in France, 
 and kept the English coast in terror. 
 
 John Paul Jones, a native of Scotland, 
 who had been brought to Virginia at an 
 early age, was one of the first naval officers 
 commissioned by Congress. He was given 
 command of the " Ranger," a vessel of 
 eighteen guns, and by his brilliant and daring 
 exploits kept the English coast in a state of 
 terror, and even ventured to attack exposed 
 points on the coast of Scotland. In 1779 
 he was given command of a small squadron 
 of three ships of war fitted out in France, 
 and sailing from L'Orient, proceeded on a 
 cruise alon^- the coast of Great Britain. 
 
PAUL JONES SEIZING THE SILVER PLATE OF LADY SELKIRK 
 
 445 
 
446 
 
 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 On the twenty-third of September he fell 
 in with a fleet of merchantmen convoyed by 
 two English frigates, and at once attacked 
 them. The battle began at seven in the 
 evening and was continned for three hours 
 with great fury. Jones lashed his flagship, 
 the " Bon Homme Richard," to the English 
 
 JOHN PAUL JONES. 
 
 frigate " Serapis," and the two vessels fought 
 muzzle to muzzle until the Serapis sur- 
 rendered. The other English vessel was 
 also captured. The battle was one of the 
 most desperate in the annals of naval war- 
 fare, and Jones' flagship was so badly injured 
 that it sunk in a few hours after the fighting 
 was over. 
 
 Jones was absent from home for ahout 
 three years, during which time his exploits 
 were numerous and of the most astonishing 
 character. He was denounced as a pirate 
 by the English, who became so alarmed by 
 his achievements that many people did not 
 feel safe even in London. Some of the timid 
 ones looked out on the Thames, 
 half-expecting to see the terrible 
 fellow lay their city under tribute. 
 At one time he landed on the coast 
 of Scotland, and, appearing at the 
 residence of the Earl of Selkirk, 
 captured a large amount of silver 
 plate and booty. But he treated 
 the Earl's household with great 
 courtesy, and the plate that was 
 seized at the time is now in the 
 possession of the members of the 
 Selkirk family. 
 
 Paul Jones returned to Phila- 
 delphia February 18, 1781, and 
 received a hearty welcome. Con- 
 gress gave him an appropriate 
 medal and a vote of thanks. 
 
 In October Sir Henry Clinton, 
 in obedience to orders from home, 
 evacuated Newport and concen- 
 trated his forces at New York, 
 which place he believed was in 
 danger of an attack by the Ameri- 
 cans and French. Until the close 
 of the season Washington cher- 
 ished the hope that the French 
 fleet would return and assist him 
 in an effort to regain New York, 
 and had called out militia for this purpose. 
 When he learned that D'Estaing had sailed to 
 the West Indies after the failure of the attack 
 upon Savannah he dismissed the militia to their 
 homes and went into winter quarters in New 
 Jersey, with his headquarters at Morristown. 
 While these events had been transpiring 
 upon the Atlantic seaboard the United States 
 
AID FROM ABROAD. 
 
 447 
 
 had been steadily pushing their way west- 
 ward beyond the mountains. In 1769, 
 before the commencement of the Revolu- 
 tion, the beautiful region now known as 
 Kentucky hnd been visited and explored by 
 Daniel Boone, a famous Indian hunter. He 
 was charmed with the beauty of the country 
 and the excellence of the climate, and re- 
 solved to make it his home. The reports of 
 Boone and his companions aroused a great 
 interest in the new country among the in- 
 habitants of the older settlements in Vir- 
 ginia and North Carolina, more especially as 
 it was in this region that the lands given to 
 the Virginia troops for their services in the 
 French war were located. Surveyors were 
 soon after sent out to lay off these lands, 
 and in 1773 a party under Captain Bullit 
 reached the falls of the Ohio and built a 
 fortified camp there for the purpose of sur- 
 veying the region. 
 
 The Celebrated Daniel Boone. 
 
 This was the commencement of the city 
 j>f Louisville, but the actual settlement of 
 the place was not begun until 1778. In 1774 
 Harrodsburg was founded by James Harrod, 
 one of Boone's companions ; and in 1775 
 Daniel Boone built a fort on the site of the 
 present town of Boonesborough. The sav- 
 ages made repeated attacks upon his party, 
 but failed to drive them away. The fort was 
 finished by the middle of April, and soon 
 after Boone was joined by his wife and 
 daughters, the first white women in Ken- 
 tucky. 
 
 The region of Kentucky was claimed by 
 Virginia, but the settlers submitted to the 
 authority of that province with impatience. 
 They sent a delegate to the Continental 
 Congress in October, 1775, and claimed re- 
 presentation in that body as an independent 
 colony under the name of Transylvania; 
 but the delegate of the fourteenth colony 
 
 was not admitted by Congress, as Virginia 
 claimed the territory as her own. In the 
 spring of 1777 the general assembly of 
 Virginia organized the Kentucky region as 
 a county, and established a court of quarter 
 sessions at Harrodsburg. In this condition 
 Kentucky remained during the Revolution! 
 
 MEDAL STRUCK IN HONOR OF PAUL JONES. 
 
 The population increased rapidly in spite of 
 the war and of the unremitting hostility of 
 the Indians. 
 
 During the revolution the Kentucky set- 
 tlements suffered very much from the hos- 
 tility of the Indians, who were urged on by 
 the emissaries of Great Britain to a war of 
 
448 
 
 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 DANIEL BOONE. 
 
 extermination. The principal agent of the 
 mother country in this barbarous warfare 
 was Hamilton, the British commander at 
 
 Detroit. In order to put 
 a stop to his intrigues 
 and deprive the Indians 
 of his aid, Congress re- 
 solved to despatch a 
 force to attack Detroit. 
 
 While this plan was 
 in contemplation the 
 State of Virginia in 1778, 
 sent Colonel George 
 Rogers Clarke with a 
 force of two hundred 
 men to conquer the ter- 
 ritory northwest of the 
 Ohio, which Virginia 
 claimed as a part of her 
 possessions. Clarke was 
 a backwoodsman, but 
 one of nature's heroes. 
 He assembled his men 
 at Pittsburg, and des- 
 cended the Ohio to the 
 falls in flat-boats. There 
 he established a settle- 
 ment of thirteen families, 
 the germ of the present 
 city of Louisville. Being 
 joined by some Kentuck- 
 ians he continued his 
 descent of the river to a 
 short distance below the 
 mouth of the Tennessee. 
 Landing and conceal- 
 ing Lis boats, he struck 
 across the country and 
 surprised and captured 
 the town of Kaskaskia, 
 within the limits of the 
 present State of Indiana. 
 A detachment was sent 
 to Kahokia, and re- 
 ceived its submission. The people of these 
 towns were of French origin, and were 
 greatly averse to the English rule under 
 
AID FROM ABROAD. 
 
 449 
 
 which they had lived since the conquest of 
 Canada. 
 
 The alliance between the United States 
 and France made them very willing to ac- 
 knowledge the authority of the Union, to 
 which they readily swore allegiance. The 
 fort at Vincennes was in a weak condition 
 and was held by a small garrison, and readily 
 submitted to Clarke. 
 
 Hamilton no sooner heard of the suc- 
 cesses of Clarke than he set out from De- 
 troit on the seventh of October, 1778, with 
 a force of three hundred and fifty warriors, 
 and on the seventeenth of December reoc- 
 cupied Vincennes. He now prepared to 
 drive the Americans out of the Illinois 
 country, and spent the winter in trying to 
 arouse the savages against them. He offered 
 a significant reward for every American 
 scalp brought in to him, but offered nothing 
 for prisoners. At the same time he pro- 
 posed to invade Virginia in the spring with 
 with an overwhelming force of Indians. 
 
 " To Their Armpits in "Water." 
 
 Clarke and his party were in very great 
 danger. They were entirely cut off from 
 Virginia, and without hope of reinforements. 
 In this emergency, Clarke, who had learned 
 that Hamilton had greatly weakened the 
 garrison at Vincennes, resolved to stake the 
 fate of the west on a single issue, and attempt 
 the capture of that post. On the seventh of 
 February, 1779, he left Kaskaskia with one 
 hundred and thirty men, and marched across 
 the country towards Vincennes. On the 
 eighteenth they were within nine miles of 
 Vincennes. 
 
 The Wabash had overflowed the country 
 
 along its banks, and in order to reach the 
 
 object of their march, Clarke and his men 
 
 were obliged to cross the submerged lands, 
 
 up to their armpits in water. They were 
 
 five days in crossing these " drowned lands," 
 29 
 
 and had the weather been less mild, must 
 have perished. On the twenty- third Vin- 
 cennes was reached, and the town was at 
 once carried. Clarke then laid siege to the 
 fort, assisted in this task by the inhabitants 
 of the town, and in twenty-four hours com- 
 pelled Hamilton and his men to surrende, 
 themselves prisoners of war. 
 
 A British Scheme Frustrated. 
 
 Clarke was unable to advance against 
 Detroit because of the insufficiency of his 
 force. His successes, however, were among 
 the most important of the war. They not 
 only put an end to the British scheme of a 
 general Indian war along the western frontier 
 of the United States, but established the 
 authority of the Union over the country east 
 of the Mississippi, and prevented Great Bri- 
 tain from asserting a claim to that region at 
 the conclusion of peace, a few years later. 
 Returning to the Ohio, Clarke built a block- 
 house at the falls. The conquered territory 
 was claimed by Virginia, and was erected by 
 the legislature of that State into the county 
 of Illinois. By order of Governor Jefferson 
 of Virginia, Clarke established a fort on the 
 Mississippi, about five miles below the mouth 
 of the Ohio, which he named Fort Jefferson, 
 and entered into friendly relations with the 
 Spaniards at St. Louis. 
 
 The Tennessee region, which formed a 
 part of the province of North Carolina, had 
 been settled previous to the outbreak of hos- 
 tilities. Fort Loudon, about thirty miles 
 southwest of Knoxville, was built in 1756, 
 and in 1770 the Cumberland Valley was 
 settled, and Nashville was founded. By the 
 commencement of the revolution the Ten- 
 nessee country was quickly settled, and the 
 population was increasing at an encouraging 
 rate. In 1776 the Cherokees, incited by the 
 British, waged a formidable war upon the 
 settlers, but were defeated. 
 
CHAPTER XXX 
 The Close of the War 
 
 Seventy of the Winter of 1779-80 — Sufferings of the American Army — : Clinton Sails for the Carolinas — Colonel Tarle- 
 ton — Capture of Charleston — Conquest of South Carolina — Gates in Command of the Southern Army — Battle of 
 Camden — Exploits of Marion and Sumter — Advance of Cornwallis — Battle of King's Mountain — Gates Succeeded 
 by General Greene — Knyphausen's Expedition into New Jersey — Arrival of the French Fleet and Army — Arnold's 
 Treason — The Plot for the Betrayal of West Point — Arrest of Major Andre — Flight of Arnold — Execution of Andre — 
 Mutiny of the Pennsylvania and New Jersey Troops — Measures of Congress — Arnold Captures Richmond, Virginia — 
 Battle of Cowpens — Masterly Retreat of General Greene — Cornwallis Baffled — Battle of Guilford Court House — Corn- 
 wallis at Wilmington — Battle of Hobkirk's Hill — Siege of Ninety-six — Execution of Colonel Hayne — Battle of Eutaw 
 Springs — Washington Decides to Attack New York — The French Army on the Hudson — Financial Affairs — Re 
 sumption of Specie Payments — Message from the Count De Grasse — Cornwallis at Yorktown — The American Army 
 Moves Southward — Siege of Yorktown — Surrender of Cornwallis — Effect of the News in England — Indian Troubles — 
 Efforts in England for Peace — Negotiations Opened — Treaty of Paris — End of the War — The Army Disbanded — 
 Washington Resigns his Commission. 
 
 THE winter of 1779-80 was passed by 
 the American army in huts near 
 Morristown. It was one of the 
 severest seasons ever experienced 
 in America. The harbor of New York was 
 frozen over as far as the Narrows, and the 
 ice was strong enough to bear the heaviest 
 artillery. Communication between New 
 York and the sea was entirely cut off and 
 the British garrison and the citizens suffered 
 from a scarcity of provisions. Knyphausen 
 was afraid the Americans would seek to pass 
 the Hudson on the ice and attack the city, 
 and landed the crews of the shipping in 
 the harbor and added them to the gar- 
 rison. His precautions were useless, as the 
 American army was too weak and too poorly 
 supplied to undertake the capture of New 
 York. 
 
 The troops at Morristown suffered very 
 greatly during the winter. They had scarcely 
 clothing enough to protect them from the 
 cold ; and provisions were so scarce that in 
 order to keep his men from starvation 
 Washington was compelled to impress sup- 
 plies from the people of the surrounding 
 
 country. The heavy snows made the army 
 entirely dependent upon New Jersey for its 
 subsistence, as transportation from a long 
 distance could not be attempted. The 
 people of New Jersey bore the sacrifices im- 
 posed upon them with a noble cheerfulness, 
 and though their state was drained almost 
 to exhaustion, were untiring in their efforts 
 to provide food and clothing for the troops. 
 The Continental currency had fallen so low 
 that one dollar in silver was worth thirty 
 dollars in paper by the beginning of the year 
 1780; but neither officers nor men could 
 obtain their pay in this depreciated cur- 
 rency. It was almost impossible for the 
 government to purchase anything with its 
 notes. 
 
 About the last of December, 1779, Sii 
 Henry Clinton, leaving a strong garrison 
 under General Knyphausen to hold New 
 York, sailed south, with the greater part of 
 his army, in the fleet of Admiral Arbuthnot 
 He proceeded first to Savannah, and then 
 moved northward for the purpose of besieg- 
 ing Charleston. General Lincoln exerted 
 himself with energy to fortify that city. Four 
 
 450 
 
THE CLOSE OF THE WAR. 
 
 45i 
 
 thousand citizens enrolled themselves to 
 assist the regular garrison in the defence, but 
 only two hundred militia from the interior 
 responded to Lincoln's call for aid. Rein- 
 forcements were received from Virginia and 
 North Carolina, and Lincoln was able to 
 muster seven thousand men, of whom but 
 two thousand were regular troops. 
 
 In February, 1780, the British landed at 
 St. John's island, about thirty miles below 
 Charleston. Clinton advanced towards the 
 city along the banks of the Ashley, while 
 the fleet sailed around to force an entrance 
 into the harbor. The advance of Clinton 
 was very gradual, and Lincoln was enabled 
 to strengthen his works and prepare for a 
 siege. It was not until early in April that 
 Clinton's army appeared before the Amer- 
 ican works and began preparations to reduce 
 them. A day or two later the British fleet 
 passed Fort Moultrie with but little loss and 
 took position off the city. 
 
 British Successes. 
 
 Clinton had lost nearly all his horses on 
 the voyage from New York, and was anxious 
 to replace them from the country north of 
 Charleston. The Americans had stationed 
 bodies of militia at different points north of 
 the city to keep open the communications 
 with Charleston, and to prevent the foraging 
 parties of the British from reaching the inte- 
 rior. Clinton intrusted the task of breaking 
 up these posts and obtaining fresh horses to 
 Lieutenant- Colonel Banastre Tarleton, a 
 young and energetic officer. Tarleton was 
 short of stature, of a dark, swarthy com- 
 plexion, and broad shouldered and muscular 
 He was insensible to fatigue, unscrupulous 
 as to the means by which he accomplished 
 his objects, merciless in battle, and unflag- 
 ging in pursuit. He was one of the most 
 efficient officers in the English army, and 
 one of the most cruel. 
 
 By purchase from friends and seizures from 
 foes, he soon supplied Clinton with all the 
 horses he needed. He then began his at- 
 tempt to break up the American posts north 
 of Charleston. On the night of the 14th of 
 April, he surprised a body of fourteen hun- 
 dred cavalry under General Huger and Col- 
 onel William Washington, at Monk's Corner, 
 about thirty miles north of Charleston. The 
 Americans were defeated with a loss of one 
 hundred prisoners and four hundred wagons 
 laden with stores. A little later Fort Moul- 
 trie surrendered, and soon after Tarleton cut 
 to pieces another detachment of American 
 cavalry. 
 
 Charleston was now completely invested, 
 and the siege was pressed with vigor by Clin- 
 ton. Lincoln's situation became every day 
 more hopeless. The fire of the British artil- 
 lery destroyed his defences and dismounted 
 his cannon, and as he was entirely cut off 
 from the country he had no hope of relief 
 from without. On the ninth of May a terri- 
 ble fire was opened upon the defences and 
 the city of Charleston. The city was set on 
 fire in five places, and the American works 
 were reduced to a mass of ruins. 
 
 Surrender of Charleston. 
 
 On the twelfth Lincoln surrendered the town 
 and his army to Sir Henry Clinton. The pri- 
 soners, including every male adult in the city, 
 numbered about six thousand men. The reg- 
 ulars were held as prisoners of war, but the 
 militia were dismissed to their homes on their 
 promise not to serve again during the war. 
 
 Clinton followed up his capture of the city 
 by a series of vigorous measures. Tarleton 
 was despatched into the interior to attack a 
 Virginia regiment under Beaufort, which 
 was advancing to the relief of Charleston. 
 Beaufort began his retreat as soon as he 
 heard of the surrender of Charleston, but 
 was overtaken and surprised by Tarleton at 
 
452 
 
 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 Waxhaw's, on the boundary of North Carolina. 
 The British had made a forced march of one 
 hundred and five miles in fifty-four hours. 
 They gave no quarters to the Americans, and 
 put to the sword all who were unable to 
 escape. Their barbarous conduct on this 
 occasion was termed by the American's 
 " Tarleton's quarters." A second column was 
 sent by Clinton to Augusta, and a third 
 towards Camden to reduce the country 
 between Charleston and those points. They 
 encountered but little resistance. 
 
 Negroes Desert their Masters. 
 
 Clinton issued a proclamation threatening 
 to visit the severest punishments upon those 
 who refused to submit to the royal authority, 
 and this was followed a little later by another, 
 offering pardon to all who would return to 
 their allegiance and assist in restoring the 
 authority of the king. The measures of the 
 British commander were entirely successful, 
 and South Carolina was so completely sub- 
 jugated that early in June Sir Henry Clinton 
 sailed for New York, leaving Lord Corn- 
 wallis to complete the conquest of the State. 
 The country abounded in Tories, who ex- 
 erted themselves actively to assist the British 
 commander in his efforts to hold the Carolinas 
 in subjection. Large numbers of them joined 
 the British army, and " loyal legions " were 
 formed in various parts of the country. 
 
 The only resistance kept up by the Ameri- 
 cans was maintained by the partisan corps of 
 patriots led by Marion, Sumter, and Pickens. 
 The exploits of these daring bands caused 
 the British commander to feel that he could 
 not hold the Carolinas except by the aid of 
 a strong force, and kept him in a state of con- 
 stant uneasiness. On the sixteenth of August 
 Sumter defeated a large body of British and 
 Tories at Hanging Rock, east of the Wateree 
 river. Large numbers of negroes deserted 
 their masters and fled to the British. 
 
 In order to offer a definite resistance to the 
 British, and to collect a regular army to 
 oppose them, the Baron De Kalb was sent to 
 to take command of the troops in the south, 
 and all the regulars south of Pennsylvania 
 were ordered to join him. De Kalb man- 
 aged to collect about two regiments, and with 
 these moved slowly southward. A lack of 
 provisions forced him to halt three weeks on 
 Deep river, one of the upper tributaries of the 
 Cape Fear. 
 
 Matters were so bad in the south that Con- 
 gress resolved to send General Gates, the 
 conqueror of Burgoyne, to take command of 
 the army in that quarter. General Charles 
 Lee, who knew that Gates was not the man 
 to retrieve such losses, predicted that " his 
 northern laurels would soon be changed into 
 southern willows." Gates hastened south- 
 ward, and overtook De Kalb at Deep river, 
 and assumed the command. De Kalb ad- 
 vised him to move into South Carolina by a 
 circuitous route through the county of Meck- 
 lenburg, which was true to the patriot cause, 
 and where provisions could be easily ob- 
 tained. 
 
 Total Defeat of General Gates. 
 
 Gates declined to take his advice, and 
 marched towards Camden by the direct 
 route, which led through a barren and almost 
 uninhabited region. He was sure that his 
 wagons from the north laden with provisionr 
 would overtake the troops in two days ; but 
 he was mistaken ; the wagons never made 
 their appearance, and the troops suffered 
 greatly from hunger and disease. His army 
 increased every day by reinforcements from 
 Virginia and North Carolina. On the thir- 
 teenth of August, he reached Clermont, 
 about twelve miles from Camden. His force 
 now amounted to nearly four thousand 
 men, nearly two-thirds of whom were Con- 
 tinentals. 
 
THE CLOSE OF THE WAR. 
 
 453 
 
 Upon the approach of Gates, Lord Raw- 
 don, the British commander in this part of 
 the State, fell back to Camden, where he was 
 joined by Cornwallis, who had just arrived 
 from Charleston, and who assumed the com- 
 mand. • On the night of the fifteenth, Gates 
 moved nearer to Cam- 
 den, and at the same time 
 Cornwallis advanced to 
 attack Gates, whom he 
 hoped to surprise. The 
 advanced guards en- 
 countered each other in 
 the woods, and the two 
 armies halted until morn- 
 ing. The battle began 
 with dawn, on the six- 
 teenth of August. The 
 militia fled at the first 
 charge of the British, but 
 the Continentals, under 
 the brave De Kalb, stood 
 firm, though attacked in 
 front and flank. At 
 length De Kalb fell mor- 
 tally wounded, and the 
 Continentals gave way. 
 The American army was 
 completely routed, and 
 was broken up into small 
 parties and scattered 
 through the country. 
 These continued a dis- 
 orderly retreat, closely 
 followed for about thirty 
 miles by Tarleton's cav- 
 alry, who cut them down 
 without mercy. 
 
 The battle of Camden was the most disas- 
 trous defeat incurred by the Americans 
 during the whole war. They lost nearly 
 eighteen hundred men in killed and prison- 
 ers, and all their artillery and stores. A few 
 days after the battle, Gates reached Char- 
 
 lotte, North Carolina, with about two hun- 
 dred men, the remains of the army which his 
 incapacity had ruined. 
 
 A few days previous to the battle, Sumter 
 surprised a detachment convoying stores to 
 the British army at Camden, and took two 
 
 LORD CORNWALLIS. 
 
 hundred prisoners. As soon as Cornwallis 
 heard of this, he sent Tarleton in pursuit of 
 the " Game Cock," as he styled Sumter. 
 Tarleton pushed forward with such vigor 
 that half of his men and horses were broken 
 down. He overtook Sumter at Fishing 
 
454 
 
THE CLOSE OF THE WAR. 
 
 455 
 
 Creek, on the west bank of the Catawba, and 
 routed him with the loss of the greater part of 
 his partisan corps, and rescued the prisoners. 
 
 Early in December afterwards, an engage- 
 ment took place between the Whigs and 
 Tories on Long Cane, near Ninety-Six, 
 which resulted disastrously to the patriot 
 cause, and which was of sufficient importance 
 to be noticed. Colonel Benjamin Few, of 
 Georgia, was the senior officer in com- 
 mand of the Whigs, composed of 
 Georgia and South Carolina militia. 
 Colonel Cruger, the British officer in 
 command at Ninety-Six, with a greatly 
 superior force, determined to attack 
 Few in his camp by surprise. His 
 forces were within three miles of Few's 
 camp before the latter was aware of 
 their approach. Colonel Clarke, Lieu- 
 tenant Colonel McCall,and Major John 
 Lindsay, with one hundred men, were 
 ordered cut to meet and skirmish with 
 the enemy until the main body of 
 Few's forces could be brought to their 
 assistance. In this skirmish, Clarke 
 received a wound in the shoulder 
 which was thought to be mortal, and 
 was carried from the field. McCall 
 was wounded in the arm, and his horse 
 being killed under him, narrowly made 
 his escape. Major Lindsay lost his 
 sword-hand by a sabre cut just at the 
 wrist-joint. The advance or skirmish- 
 ing party were routed, with fourteen killed 
 and seven, chiefly officers, wounded. Colonel 
 Few, then acting as brigadier-general, re- 
 treated with the balance of his forces with- 
 out further loss. 
 
 All united and organized resistance to the 
 British in the Carolinas now ceased for a time. 
 The true policy of Cornwallis was to conciliate 
 the people by acts of clemency, but instead 
 of this he exasperated them by his unneces- 
 sary severity. Among the prisoners taken at 
 
 the defeat of Sumter were a number who had 
 given their parole not to serve during the war. 
 Some of these were hanged on the spot; the 
 remainder were subjected to a severe impri- 
 sonment. These severities aroused a desire 
 for vengeance among the people, and gave 
 many recruits to Marion, who from the 
 swamps of the lower Pedee maintained a 
 constant and severe partisan warfare against 
 the British. 
 
 GENERAL FRANCIS MARION. 
 
 At the same time, Sumter by great exer- 
 tion recruited his command, and resumed 
 his operations in the upper country. These 
 bands were deficient in arms at first, but sup- 
 plied themselves from the enemy. They 
 made their own gunpowder, cast their own 
 bullets, and provided food for themselves 
 and their horses. By their rapid and secret 
 movements they kept the British in a state 
 of constant alarm. They would make a sud- 
 den and unexpected attack upon the enemy 
 
456 
 
 at some exposed point, and before pursuit 
 could be attempted would be miles away, or 
 safe in the labyrinths of the swamps. 
 
 Gates continued to retreat slowly to the 
 northward after his defeat. He had now 
 about a thousand men with him. Virginia 
 and Maryland made great exertions to rein- 
 force him, but without success. 
 
 The Patriots Aroused. 
 
 In September, Cornwallis advanced north- 
 ward with the main body of his army. Upon 
 reaching Charlotte he despatched Colonel 
 Ferguson, one of his most trusted officers, 
 to rally the Tories among the mountains in 
 the interior. Cornwallis intended to advance 
 from Charlotte by way of Salisbury and Hills- 
 borough into Virginia, and form a junction 
 with a force to be sent to the lower Chesa- 
 peake by Sir Henry Clinton. The success of 
 this movement would complete the subjuga 
 tion of the south . The patriots in the country 
 through which his army passed were very 
 active. His expresses were captured or shot, 
 and his plans made known to the Americans. 
 While Ferguson was on the march, Corn- 
 wallis advanced to Salisbury. 
 
 The movement of Ferguson roused the 
 patriots of the interior counties to arms, and 
 they assembled rapidly, with the intention of 
 cutting him off from the army under Corn- 
 wallis. They came from all directions, from 
 as far as Kentucky and Tennessee. Their 
 weapons were their rifles, to the use of which 
 they had been trained from childhood ; they 
 had no baggage ; and they moved forward 
 as rapidly as their horses could carry them. 
 These forces had been gathering for several 
 days before the rumors of their march reached 
 Colonel Ferguson. He regarded the reports 
 with distrust at first, but upon receiving more 
 accurate information began a rapid retreat. 
 About the same time the various parties of 
 the Americans effected a junction. They 
 
 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 numbered three thousand men. A council 
 of war was held, and it was resolved to send 
 forward a detachment to bring Ferguson to 
 a stand, and to follow with the main body as 
 quickly as possible. 
 
 Brilliant Exploits o* Colonel Campbell 
 
 Nine hundred men .nounted on swift 
 horses, were sent forward, under Colonel 
 Campbell. They rode for tnirty-six hours, 
 a large part of the time through a drenching 
 rain, and dismounted but once during this 
 period, Ferguson, alarmed and astounded 
 at this determination to crush him, fell back 
 to a strong position on King's mountain, near 
 the Catawba. He was attacked there on the 
 seventh of October by the Americans, and 
 defeated after a hotly contested fight. Fer- 
 guson and about one hundred and fifty of 
 his men were killed, the remainder were com- 
 pelled to surrender. The prisoners num- 
 bered about nine hundred and fifty, of whom 
 about one hundred and fifty were wounded. 
 The Americans lost twenty killed and a 
 somewhat larger number wounded. The 
 North Carolinians selected ten of the Tories 
 who had earned their fate bv their cruelties 
 to the Americans, and hanged them on the 
 spot. 
 
 The Americans then separated and re- 
 turned home, after seeing their prisoners safe 
 in the hands of the proper authorities. Their 
 victory raised the drooping spirits of their 
 countrymen, and encouraged them to fresh 
 exertions to resist the British. As soon as 
 Cornwallis heard of it, he abandoned his for- 
 ward movement, and, falling back into South 
 Carolina, took position between the Broad 
 and Saluda rivers. He remained there until 
 the close of the year. 
 
 Marion took advantage of the change of 
 feeling caused by the victory of King's moun- 
 tain to renew his operations on the Pedee, but 
 Tarleton compelled him to withdraw to his 
 
THE CLOSE OF THE 
 
 fastness in the swamps. Sumter was more 
 successful in the northern part of the State, 
 and defeated a detchment sent in pursuit of 
 him. 
 
 Tarleton then went after him in person, 
 but was defeated and forced to retreat. Sum- 
 ter was wounded in this engagement, and 
 was compelled to withdraw from the field for 
 several months. During this period his com- 
 mand, deprived of their leader, disbanded. 
 The contest in the Carolinas de- 
 generated into a savage civil war. 
 The patriots and Tories fought 
 each other wherever they met, and 
 destroyed each other's property 
 throughout the State. The country 
 was thus kept in constant terror. 
 
 Upon the retreat of Cornwallis 
 from Salisbury, Gates advanced 
 southward as far as Charlotte. 
 Here he was relieved of his com- 
 mand by General Nathaniel Greene, 
 who had been appointed by Con- 
 gress, at the urgent solicitation of 
 Washington, to take charge of the 
 southern department. Gates had 
 given great disatisfaction by his 
 failure in the south, and Congress 
 ordered a court of inquiry to exa- 
 mine into his conduct. Greene was 
 placed in charge of the entire south 
 from Delaware to Georgia, "subject 
 to the control of the commander-in- 
 chief." Thus Washington was given the 
 supreme direction of the war. Greene pos- 
 sessed his entire confidence, and the most 
 cordial and affectionate relations existed 
 between them. Greene found the rem- 
 nants of Gates' army in a half mutinous 
 condition. The men were without pay, 
 without clothing, and suffering for the 
 necessaries of life. Reinforcements were 
 sent him from the north, among which were 
 Morgan's regiment of riflemen, Lee's legion 
 
 WAR. 457 
 
 and several batteries of artil- 
 
 of lighthorse, 
 lery. 
 
 We must now return to the army under 
 Washington. As the spring opened the 
 sufferings of the troops at Morristown in- 
 creased. Food was so scarce that the troops 
 were driven to desperation. Two regiments 
 of Connecticut troops declared their intention 
 to abandon the army and march home, or 
 wrest provisions Lorn the people of the sur- 
 
 GENERAL NATHANIEL GREENE. 
 
 rounding country by force. Washington was 
 compelled to exert all his influence and 
 authority to restore order. It was with great 
 difficulty that provisions were procured, and 
 the wants of the troops supplied. The danger 
 caused by this state of affairs was so great 
 that Congress authorized Washington to 
 declare martial law. 
 
 The news of these troubles in the American 
 camp induced Knyphausen to undertake an 
 expedition into New Jersey. He landed 9 
 
458 
 
 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 Elizabethtown, with five thousand men, on 
 the sixth of June, and marched towards 
 Springfield. His advance was warmly con- 
 tested by the militia of the region, but he 
 penetrated as far as the village of Connecticut 
 Farms. Being unable to advance farther he 
 caused the village to be sacked and burned ; 
 and Mrs. Caldwell, the wife of the minister 
 
 most infamous deeds of the war, and gave 
 rise to a fierce and general spirit of vengeance. 
 Her bushand, an eloquent and highly es- 
 teemed minister, animated his contrymen by 
 his stirring sermons, and he soon had the 
 satisfaction of seeing that his labors were 
 not in vain. 
 
 After the return of Sir Henry Clinton to 
 
 "now put watts into them, boys. 
 
 of the village, was murdered by some of the 
 British troops. The militia of the region 
 gathered in force, and Knyphausen was 
 obliged to make a hasty retreat to Eliza- 
 bethtown. 
 
 The murder of Mrs. Caldwell aroused the 
 most intense excitement throughout New 
 Jersey. It was denounced as one of the 
 
 New York Washington moved a part of his 
 troops towards the Highlands. Knyphausen 
 again advanced from Elizabethtown towards 
 Springfield, hoping to gain the passes beyond 
 Morristown before his march should be dis- 
 covered. His advance was detected, however, 
 and General Greene, who was in command 
 of the American forces, prepared to resist 
 
THE CLOSE OF THE WAR. 
 
 459 
 
 him. A sharp fight ensued, in which Greene 
 succeeded in checking the British advance. 
 The New Jersey regiment, of which Caldwell 
 was chaplain, was engaged in the battle. 
 
 The wadding of the men gave out, and 
 Caldwell, mounting his horse, galloped to 
 the Presbyterian church, and returned with 
 an armful of Dr. Watts' hymn books, which 
 he distributed among the troops, with the 
 pious injunction, " Now put Watts into them, 
 boys ! " The militia came flocking in to the 
 support of General Greene, and Knyphausen 
 finding it impossible to advance farther, 
 burned Springfield and fell back to Elizabeth- 
 town. 
 
 Return of Lafayette. 
 
 The Americans were greatly encouraged 
 in the spring by the return of Lafayette, who 
 had spent the winter in France. He had 
 been successful in his endeavors to induce 
 the French court to send another fleet and 
 army to the assistance of the patriots ; and 
 he now brought the good news that a new 
 expedition was on its way to America. In 
 July a fleei" under Count de Tiernay, with an 
 army of seven thousand men, under Count 
 de Rochambeau, reached Newport. The 
 Count de Rochambeau was directed by his 
 government to place himself under the 
 orders of General Warhington in order to 
 avoid disputes that might arise from military 
 etiquette. This expedition was the first divi- 
 sion of the army to be sent to America by 
 France. 
 
 The second division was to sail from Brest, 
 but was unable to do so, as it was blockaded 
 in that harbor by a British squadron. Thus 
 the supplies of arms and clothing which 
 were to have been sent to the American 
 army were delayed, and the troops under 
 Washington were unable to cooperate with 
 the French in an attack upon New York. 
 An English fleet had followed the French 
 
 across the Atlantic, and Clinton was anxious 
 to secure its cooperation in an attack upon 
 the French at Newport. He could not agree 
 with Admiral Arbuthnot upon a plan of 
 attack, and the English admiral contented 
 himself with blockading the French in New- 
 port harbor. Washington called out the 
 militia of New England to assist in the de- 
 fence of Newport in case of an attack. The 
 French fleet was shut up in this port, and to 
 the great disappointment of Washington, 
 was unable to take part in any combined 
 operation. 
 
 Some weeks later Washington, anxious 
 to strike a decisive blow at the enemy, 
 invited the French commanders, De Tiernay 
 and Rochambeau, to meet him at Hartford, 
 to arrange a plan for an attack upon New 
 York. The meeting was held, but it was 
 decided to ask the cooperation of the French 
 admiral in the West Indies, as the fleet at 
 Newport was not strong enough to cope 
 with the British fleet at New York. Until 
 the answer of the admiral was received 
 nothing could be done. 
 
 A Treasonable Plot. 
 
 While absent at Hartford a plot was dis- 
 covered which involved the fair fame of one 
 of the most brilliant officers of the American 
 army. General Benedict Arnold had been 
 disabled by the wounds he had received at 
 Quebec and Saratoga from undertaking active 
 service, and through the influence of Wash- 
 ington had been placed in command of Phila- 
 delphia after its evacuation by Clinton in 
 1778. There he lived in a style far beyond 
 his means, and became involved in debts, 
 which he was unable to pay. To raise the 
 funds to discharge them he engaged in pri- 
 vateering and mercantile speculations. These 
 were generally unsuccessful, and merely in- 
 creased his difficulties. His haughty and 
 overbearing manner involved him in a quar- 
 
460 
 
 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 rel with the authorities of Pennsylvania who 
 accused him before Congress of abusing his 
 official position and misusing the public 
 funds. 
 
 He was tried by a court-martial and was 
 sentenced to be reprimanded by the com- 
 mander-in-chief. Washington performed this 
 disagreeable task as delicately as possible, 
 but did not lose his confidence in Arnold. 
 
 BENEDICT ARNOLD. 
 
 He knew him as an able officer, but, as his 
 acquaintance with him was limited, was most 
 likely ignorant of the faults of Arnold's char- 
 acter, which were well known to the mem- 
 bers of Congress from Connecticut, who had 
 no confidence in him. To them he was 
 known to be naturally dishonest, regardless 
 of the rights of others, and cruel and tyran- 
 nical in his dealings with those under his 
 authority. Arnold never forgave the dis- 
 
 grace inflicted upon him by the sentence of 
 the court-martial, and cherished the deter- 
 mination to be revenged upon Washington 
 for the reprimand received from him. 
 
 While in Philadelphia, Arnold had married 
 a member of a Tory family, and was thus 
 enabled to communicate readily with the 
 British officers. He opened a correspond- 
 ence with Sir Henry Clinton, signing himself 
 Gustavus. He kept up this cor- 
 respondence for several months, 
 and then made himself known 
 to the British commander. In 
 the meantime, at his earnest soli- 
 citation, he was appointed by 
 Washington, in August, 1780, 
 to the command of West Point, 
 the strongest and most important 
 fortress in America. He did this 
 with the deliberate intention of 
 betraying the post into the hands 
 of the enemy. 
 
 The correspondence had been 
 conducted on the part of Sir 
 Henry Clinton by Major John 
 Andre of the British army, a 
 young man of amiable character 
 and more than ordinary accom- 
 plishments. He wrote under the 
 assumed name of John Ander- 
 son. He was an especial favorite 
 of Sir Henry Clinton, and was 
 beloved by the whole army in 
 which he served. Soon after the 
 appointment of Arnold to the command of 
 West Point, Andre volunteered to go up the 
 Hudson and have an interview with him for 
 the purpose of completing the arrangements 
 for the betrayal of that fortress. 
 
 His offer was accepted by Clinton, and he 
 ascended the Hudson as far as Haverstraw 
 in the sloop of war " Vulture." He was set 
 ashore and was met near Haverstraw on the 
 west bank of the Hudson by General Arnold, 
 
THE CLOSE OF THE WAR. 
 
 461 
 
 on the twenty-second of September. The 
 meeting took place about dark, and the night 
 had passed before the arrangements were 
 completed. Much against his will, Andre 
 was compelled to pass the next day within 
 the American lines. During the twenty-third 
 the " Vulture," having attracted the attention 
 of the Americans, was fired upon and forced 
 to drop down the river. Andre found the 
 man who had set him ashore 
 unwilling to row him back to 
 the sloop, and he was compelled 
 to return to New York by land. 
 He changed his uniform for a 
 citizen's dress, and, provided 
 with a pass from Arnold, under 
 the name of John Anderson, set 
 out for New York along the east 
 bank of the river, which he 
 deemed safer than the opposite 
 shore. 
 
 All went well until Andre 
 reached the vicinity of Tarry- 
 town. There he was stopped by 
 three young men, John Paulding, 
 David Williams, and Isaac Van 
 Wart. They asked him his name 
 and destination, and he, suppos- 
 ing them to be Tories, did not use 
 the pass given him by Arnold, but 
 frankly avowed himself a British 
 officer travelling on important 
 business. To his dismay he then 
 learned that his captors were of 
 the patriotic party, and he offered 
 them his watch, purse, and any reward they 
 might name if they would suffer him to pro- 
 ceed. They refused to allow him to stir a 
 step, and searched his person. They found 
 concealed in his boots papers giving the plan 
 of West Point, and an account of its garrison. 
 
 Andre was taken by his captors before 
 Colonel Jamison, the commander of the 
 nearest American post. Jamison recognized 
 
 the handwriting as that of Arnold, but, un- 
 willing to believe that his commander could 
 be guilty of treason, he detained the prisoner, 
 and wrote to Arnold informing him of the 
 arrest of Andre and of the papers found upon 
 his person. The papers themselves he for 
 warded by a special messenger to Washing- 
 ton, who was on his return from Hartford. 
 Arnold received Colonel Jamison's letter 
 
 MAJOR ANDRE. 
 
 as he sat at breakfast with some of his offi- 
 cers- He concealed his emotion, and excus- 
 ing himself to his guests, called his wife from 
 the room, told her he must flee for his life, 
 and hastening to his barge, escaped down 
 the river to the " Vulture," and was received 
 on board by the commander of that vessel. 
 From his place of safety he wrote to Wash- 
 ington, asking him to protect his wife, who, 
 
462 
 
 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 he declared, was innocent of any share in his 
 plot 
 
 When he learned that Arnold was safe, 
 Andre wrote to Washington, and confessed 
 the whole plot. He was at once brought to 
 trial upon the charge of being within the 
 American lines as a spy. The court-martial 
 was presided over by General Greene, and 
 Lafayette and Steuben were among its mem- 
 bers. Andre asserted that he had been 
 induced to enter the American lines by the 
 misrepresentations of Arnold. 
 
 The Infamous Plot Confessed. 
 
 He denied that he was a spy, and though 
 cautioned not to say anything that might 
 criminate himself, he frankly confessed the 
 whole plot. He was sentenced, upon his 
 own confession, to be hanged. Clinton made 
 great exertions to save him, and Washing- 
 ton, whose sympathy was won by the amiable 
 character of Andre, was anxious to spare 
 him. The circumstances of the case de- 
 manded that the law should be executed, 
 and Andre was hanged at Tappan, near 
 the Hudson, on the second of October, 1780. 
 Congress voted to each of his three captors 
 a pension of two hundred dollars for life and 
 and a silver medal. 
 
 The plot of Arnold had been discovered 
 by the merest chance, and the American 
 cause had narrowly escaped a crushing dis- 
 aster. The Joss of West Point would have 
 given the British the entire control of the 
 Hudson, and have enabled them to separate 
 New England from the Middle and Southern 
 States. It might have proved fatal to the 
 cause, and certainly would have reduced 
 Washington to great extremities. Arnold 
 received for his treachery the sum of ten 
 thousand pounds sterling and a commission 
 as brigadier-general in the English service. 
 He was regarded with general contempt by 
 the English officers, who refused to associate 
 
 with him, and were greatly averse to serving 
 under him. 
 
 In the summer of 1780 it seemed likely 
 that England would be involved in war with 
 the whole civilized world. The claim of 
 Great Britain to the right to search the ves- 
 sels of neutral nations for articles contraband 
 of war was productive of great annoyance 
 to the northern powers, whose commerce 
 was subjected to serious loss by these arbi- 
 trary measures. Catharine II. of Russia 
 determined to resist it, and organized with 
 Denmark and Sweden a league known as 
 the " Armed Neutrality," for the purpose of 
 enforcing the principle that neutral ships in 
 time of war are entitled to carry merchan- 
 dise without being liable to search or seizure 
 by the belligerent powers. 
 
 ■War in Europe. 
 
 Holland joined this league, and concluded 
 a secret commercial treaty with the United 
 States. This treaty was discovered by Great 
 Britain almost immediately, and in the fol- 
 lowing manner : The American minister to 
 Holland, Henry Laurens, was captured at 
 sea by a British frigate. He threw his papers, 
 the treaty among them, into the sea, but they 
 were recovered by an English sailor, who 
 sprang overboard and secured them. They 
 were laid before the British government, 
 which demanded that Holland should dis- 
 avow the treaty and the correspondence with 
 the United States. The Dutch government 
 returned an evasive answer, and England 
 immediately declared war against Holland. 
 The English fleet at once proceeded to attack 
 the Dutch possessions and commerce in all 
 parts of the "world. Holland declared war 
 against Great Britain, and her fleet was added 
 to that of France against England. 
 
 Spain now made an alliance with France 
 against England, and sent her fleet to co- 
 operate with the French in the West Indies, 
 
ESCAPE OF BENEDICT ARNOLD. 
 
 463 
 
464 
 
 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 and also laid siege to Gibraltar. The Irish 
 about the same time demanded a reform of 
 the many abuses from which that island had 
 been suffering since the battle of the Boyne, 
 and this demand was sustained by a force of 
 eighty thousand armed Protestant volunteers 
 which had been raised for the defence of Ire- 
 land against a threatened attack of the French. 
 They demanded an independent parliament, 
 and even threatened a total separation from 
 Great Britain. In the face of these difficul- 
 ties the spirit of England rose higher than 
 ever, and that country, with a vigor worthy 
 of her ancient renown, put forth all her 
 energies to find a way out of her difficulties. 
 The whole world was arrayed against her, 
 but in the face of it she held her own. The 
 heroism manifested by England at this try- 
 ing period is worthy of the highest admira- 
 tion. 
 
 Sufferings of the Patriots. 
 
 The American army passed the winter of 
 1780-81 in cantonments east and west of the 
 Hudson. The Pennsylvania troops were 
 stationed near Morristown, and the New Jer- 
 Jersey regiments at Pompton. Though the 
 troops were better provided with food than 
 during the previous winter their sufferings 
 were still very severe. They were neglected 
 by Congress, which was too much occupied 
 with its dissensions to make any serious 
 effort to relieve the wants of the soldiers. 
 The Pennsylvania troops had an especial 
 cause of complaint. Their enlistments were 
 for three years or the war. The three years 
 had expired, but the government refused to 
 discharge them on the ground that the enlist- 
 ments were for the period of the war no 
 matter how long it should last. The troops 
 on the other hand contended that the words, 
 "for the war," meant that the enlistments 
 should expire if the war closed in less than 
 three years. 
 
 On the first of January, 1 78 1 , thirteen 
 hundred Pennsylvania troops left the camp 
 at Morristown under arms and set off for 
 Philadelphia to obtain redress from Con- 
 gress. General Wayne, their commander, 
 placed himself in front of them, and, pistol 
 in hand, attempted to stop their march. In 
 an instant their bayonets were at his breast. 
 " We love, we respect you," they ex- 
 claimed, " but you are a dead man if you 
 fire. Do not mistake us ; we are not going 
 to the enemy ; were they now to come out 
 you would see us fight under your orders 
 with as much resolution and alacrity as 
 ever." They halted at Princeton, where 
 they were met by the agents of Sir Henry 
 Clinton, who endeavored to induce them to 
 join the British service. They promptly 
 seized these men and delivered them up to 
 General Wayne as spies. At a later period 
 it was proposed to reward them for this 
 action, but they refused to accept anything, 
 saying : " We ask no reward for doing our 
 duty to our country." 
 
 Mutiny Promptly Quelled. 
 
 Congress was greatly alarmed by the ap- 
 proach of these troops, and a committee, 
 accompanied by Reed, the President of Penn- 
 sylvania, was sent to meet them. The com- 
 mittee met the leaders of the mutineers and 
 agreed to relieve their immediate wants and 
 to secure them their back pay by means of 
 certificates. Permission was given to all who 
 had served three years to withdraw from the 
 army. Upon these conditions the troops 
 returned to duty. The disaffection was 
 increased by the yielding of Congress. On 
 the twentieth of January the New Jersey 
 troops at Pompton mutinied, but this out- 
 break was quelled by a detachment sent from 
 West Point by Washington. 
 
 The mutiny opened the eyes of the coun- 
 try to the sufferings of the army, and aroused 
 
THE CLOSE OF THE WAR. 
 
 465 
 
 all parties to the necessity of providing for 
 the troops. It was clearly understood that 
 a failure to sustain the army would result in 
 the defeat of the cause. Urgent appeals 
 were made by Congress to all the States, 
 especially to those of New England, to sup- 
 ply the wants of the army, and Congress 
 endeavored to negotiate a loan abroad. 
 Direct taxation was resorted to to provide 
 money at once. 
 
 The British in Virginia. 
 
 The year 1781 opened with a military ex- 
 pedition under the command of the traitor 
 Arnold, now a brigadier-general in the 
 British service. Early in January he was 
 sent by Sir Henry Clinton, with sixteen 
 hundred British and Tories, from New York 
 to the Chesapeake to ravage the shores of 
 Virginia, After plundering the plantations 
 along the lower bay and the James, Arnold 
 ascended the river, and landing his troops 
 marched to Richmond. Thomas Jefferson, 
 tnen Governor of Virginia, called out the 
 militia, but only a handful responded. Arnold 
 occupied Richmond, burned the public 
 buildings and some private dwellings, and 
 then re-embarked and dropped down the 
 the river to Portsmouth. Washington was 
 anxious to capture him, and sent Lafayette 
 with a force of twelve hundred men south- 
 ward by land to prevent Arnold from 
 escaping overland to join Cornwallis in the 
 Carolinas, and at the same time the French 
 fleet sailed from Newport for the Chesapeake 
 to prevent the escape of the traitor by water. 
 
 The British Admiral Arbuthnot followed 
 the French fleet and brought it to an en- 
 gagement off the mouth of the Chesapeake. 
 The Fiench were worsted and obliged to 
 return to Newport, and Admiral Arbuthnot 
 entered the bay and reinforced Arnold with 
 two thousand British troops under General 
 
 Philips, who assumed the command at Ports - 
 30 
 
 mouth and fortified his position there. From 
 his camp he sent out detachments to ravage 
 the country in all directions. Lafayette, in 
 the meantime, upon hearing of the failure of 
 the plan, halted at Annapolis, in Maryland. 
 Arnold, upon being superseded by Philips, 
 returned to New York. 
 
 Battle of the " Cowpens." 
 
 Early in January Cornwallis, who was at 
 Winnsborough, South Carolina, sent Colonel 
 Tarleton, with a force of one thousand 
 cavalry and light infantry, to cut off Mor- 
 gan's division from the column under Gen- 
 eral Greene. Morgan was between the Broad 
 and Catawba Rivers at the time, and upon 
 hearing of Tarleton's approach began to 
 retreat towards the Catawba. Tarleton 
 pushed on with such speed that Morgan 
 saw he must be overtaken. He accordingly 
 halted and took position at the " Cowpens," 
 ahout thirty miles west of King's Mountain, 
 and rested his men. Tarleton arrived in 
 front of this position on the seventeenth of 
 January and made an impetuous attack upon 
 the Americans. At first he drove the mili- 
 tia before him, but Morgan keeping his 
 Continentals well in hand, suddenly wheeled 
 upon him and drove him from the field. 
 The two forces were about equal. Morgan 
 lost but eighty men, while the loss of the 
 British was over six hundred. Tarleton 
 escaped from the field with only a few of his 
 cavalry. 
 
 Cornwallis moved forward as soon as he 
 learned of Tarleton's defeat. He supposed 
 that Morgan would be encumbered with his 
 wounded and prisoners, and would be slow 
 in leaving the scene of his victory, and he 
 hoped by a rapid march to come up with 
 him, crush him, and rescue the prisoners 
 before he could join General Greene. Mor- 
 gan was much too wary to be caught in 
 such a trap. He felt sure Cornwallis would 
 
466 
 
 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 seek to avenge Tarleton's defeat, and leaving 
 his wounded under a flag of truce, he re- 
 sumed his retreat with all speed immediately 
 after the battle, and hurrying towards the 
 Catawba, crossed that river. 
 
 Two hours after he had passed it the 
 advance of Cornwallis' army reached the 
 bank o f the river, but owing to a sudden 
 rise in the stream were unable to cross it. 
 The British were detained in this manner for 
 two days, during which Morgan rested his 
 
 GENERAL DANIEL MORGAN. 
 
 men and sent off his prisoners to a place of 
 safety. 
 
 Two days after the passage of the Catawba 
 Morgan was joined by the troops under 
 General Greene, who had heard of the vic- 
 tory of the Cowpens, and was advancing to 
 the assistance of his lieutenant. Greene was 
 not yet strong enough to meet the British, 
 and he continued the retreat toward the 
 Yadkin. He moved slowly, and his rear 
 guard was still engaged in the passage of the 
 Yadkin when the advance guard of Corn- 
 
 wallis reached that stream, on tiie third oi 
 February. Cornwallis had burned all his 
 heavy baggage, and had reduced his army 
 to the strictest light marching order, in the 
 hope of being able to intercept Greene. 
 
 A skirmish ensued on the banks of the 
 Yadkin, and night coming on the British 
 commander deferred the passage of the 
 stream until the next day. During the night 
 a heavy rain swelled the river so high that it 
 cculd net be forded, and the Americans had 
 secured all the boats on the other side. 
 Greene, profiting by this delay, hurried 
 on to cross the Dan into Virginia, where 
 he could receive reinforcements and sup- 
 plies. Morgan was left to cover the retreat 
 of the army, but falling ill was obliged to 
 relinquish the command of the rear guard 
 to Colonel Otho H. Williams. 
 = Cornwallis passed the Yadkin as soon 
 
 as possible and strained every nerve to 
 prevent Greene from crossing the Dan. 
 He supposed the Americans would not 
 be able to cross at the lower ferries, but 
 would be obliged to pass the river higher 
 up, where it could be forded. He there- 
 fore urged his army to its utmost exer- 
 tions to secure these fords before the 
 arrival of the Americans. Perceiving 
 Cornwallis' error, Colonel Williams re- 
 treated towards the upper fords and so 
 confirmed the British commander in his 
 delusion. Having led the British sufficiently 
 out of the way, Williams wheeled about, 
 and by a rapid march of forty miles in 
 twenty-four hours down the river, rejoined 
 Greene, who had moved with all speed to 
 the lower ferries, where, in anticipation of 
 his retreat, he had collected a supply of 
 boats. The Dan was passed on the fifteenth 
 of February, and the American army was 
 safe from its pursuers. 
 
 An hour or two later Cornwallis, who had 
 discovered his mistake and had marched 
 
THE CLOSE OF THE WAR. 
 
 467 
 
 with speed from the upper fords, appeared 
 on the opposite bank of the river, only to see 
 his adversary safely beyond his reach. The 
 river was too deep to be forded, and Greene 
 had all the boats in his possession. Corn- 
 wallis was deeply mortified at his failure to 
 intercept Greene. He had pursued him for 
 over two hundred miles, and had made great 
 sacrifices to come up with him, but the 
 American commander had managed to elude 
 him and had successfully carried out one of 
 the most brilliant retreats in history. The 
 Americans regarded their escape as provi- 
 dential, and not without cause. Their way 
 across the Carolinas might be tracked by 
 the blood from their feet ; and twice, when 
 the enemy had come within gunshot of 
 them, the rising of the waters of the Catawba 
 and the Yadkin, which they had passed in 
 safety, had held back the British and enabled 
 them to escape. After resting his men for 
 a few days on the banks of the Dan, Corn- 
 wallis fell back to Hillsborough. 
 
 Greene Compelled to Retreat. 
 
 Having received reinforcements, General 
 Greene recrossed the Dan, about the last of 
 February, and advanced into the Carolinas 
 to watch Cornwallis and encourage the 
 patriots of that region. Cornwallis, being 
 short of supplies, moved slowly southward. 
 Greene followed him cautiously, too weak to 
 risk a battle, but ready to take advantage of 
 the first error on the part of his adversary. 
 His movements were conducted with the 
 utmost circumspection, and in order to 
 guard against a surprise he never remained 
 in the same place more than one day, and 
 kept secret until the last moment the places 
 he selected for his encampments. In the 
 meantime he was gradually receiving rein- 
 forcements from Virginia and Maryland, 
 until his army numbered four thousand 
 men. 
 
 Feeling himself strong enough to attack 
 the enemy, Greene left his baggage at a 
 point of safety and advanced to Guilford 
 Court-house, seventeen miles distant, with 
 the intention of bringing Cornwallis to a 
 decisive engagement. Here he was attacked 
 by Cornwallis on the fifteenth of March, and 
 after one of the hardest-fought battles of the 
 war was compelled to retreat. Greene with- 
 drew in good order, and Cornwallis, though 
 victorious on the field, was so sorely crippled 
 that he was unable to make any pursuit, and 
 was obliged to fall back to Wilmington, 
 near the mouth of Cape Fear River. By 
 the time he reached that place his army had 
 been so much weakened by desertions and 
 losses in battle that it amounted to but four- 
 teen hundred men. 
 
 Operations in South Carolina. 
 
 Greene had lost a thousand militia by 
 desertion during his retreat, but was soon 
 enabled to supply their places. He then 
 moved into South Carolina for the purpose 
 of attacking the British force under Lord 
 Rawdon, which was posted at Camden. He 
 advanced to Hobkirk's Hill, about two miles 
 from Camden, where he was attacked on 
 the twenty-fifth of April by Lord Rawdon. 
 After a sharp engagement Greene was de- 
 feated and obliged to retreat. He withdrew 
 his army in good order, having inflicted 
 upon his adversary a loss about equal to his 
 own. Rawdon was unable to derive any 
 advantage from his victory, as he could not 
 bring Greene to another general engagement. 
 The activity of the American partisan corps 
 in his rear alarmed him for the safety of his 
 communications with Charleston, and he 
 abandoned Camden and fell back to Monk's 
 Corner. 
 
 In the meantime Lee, Marion, Pickens, 
 and the other partisan leaders had broken 
 up the fortified posts of the British with 
 
468 
 
 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 such success that by the month of June, 
 1 78 1, only three positions of importance 
 remained to the British in So'ith Carolina 
 Charleston, Nelson's Ferry and Fort Ninety- 
 six, near the Saluda. The last-named posi- 
 
 LORD RAWDON, AFTERWARD MARQUIS OF HASTINGS 
 
 tion was of the greatest importance, and 
 was held by a force of Carolina Tories. 
 Lee and Pickens we re sent against Augusta, 
 Georgia, and captured it after a close invest- 
 ment of seven days. General Greene him- 
 self marched against Ninety-six and laid 
 
 siege to it. Being informed that Lord Raw 
 don was marching to relieve it, he deter 
 mined to carry the fort by assault before 
 Rawdon could arrive. The assault was 
 made on the eighteenth of June, but was 
 repulsed with severe 
 loss. Greene then 
 raised the siege and 
 retreated across the 
 Saluda. 
 
 Early in July the 
 excessive heat put an 
 end to active opera- 
 tions on the part of the 
 two armies. Greene 
 withdrew to the high 
 hills of the Santee,and 
 the British went into 
 camp on the Congaree. 
 A bitter partisan war- 
 fare now sprung up 
 between the patriots 
 and the tories, and 
 continued during the 
 summer. Houses were 
 pillaged and burned, 
 farms were laid waste 
 and no quarter was 
 given by either party. 
 Even women and 
 children were included 
 in these dreadful mas- 
 sacres. 
 
 Lord Rawdon now 
 resolved to add to the 
 horrors of this war- 
 fare by executing as 
 traitors those who 
 had given their parole not to engage in 
 the war or had received a protection, if 
 they should be taken in arms. Among the 
 prisoners taken by the British at the capture 
 of Charleston, was Colonel Isaac Hayne, a 
 distinguished citizen of that place. His wife 
 
THE CLOSE OF THE WAR. 
 
 469 
 
 was dying and his children were helpless, 
 and he gave his parole to remain neutral, in 
 order to be able to take care of them, and 
 was promised protection. At a later period, 
 the British commander being in need of rein- 
 forcements, Hayne was ordered to take up 
 arms against his country in behalf of the 
 king. He regarded himself as relieved from 
 ■his parole by this command, and soon after 
 escaped from Charleston and raised a partisan 
 corps, at the head of which he was captured. 
 He was condemned to die as a traitor ; and 
 though the inhabitants of Charleston, both 
 patriot and royalist, petitioned for his pardon, 
 it was refused, and he was hanged, by order 
 of Lord Rawdon, on the 5th of August. 
 
 Life for Life. 
 
 His execution was regarded by the Amer- 
 icans as cruel and unjust, and as contrary to 
 military law. General Greene felt himself 
 obliged to retaliate by executing as deserters 
 all those prisoners who had formerly served 
 in his own army, and so bitter was the feeling 
 of the American troops that they could 
 scarcely be prevented from shooting the 
 British officers who fell into their hands. 
 
 Lord Rawdon now sailed for England, and 
 left the command of his army to Colonel 
 Stewart, an officer of ability and experience. 
 At the close of the summer General Greene, 
 whose army had been increased by the com- 
 mands of Marion and Pickens to twenty-five 
 hundred men, resumed the offensive. He 
 attacked the British at Eutaw Springs on the 
 eighth of September, and after a severely con- 
 tested battle the left wing of the British was 
 routed. In the moment of victory the Amer- 
 ican army stopped to plunder the enemy's 
 camp, and the British, taking advantage of 
 the delay, rallied and made a stand in a large 
 stone house, from which they could not be 
 driven. Greene was forced to draw off his 
 troops and leave the field to the British, who 
 
 lost seven hundred men in the engagement. 
 The American loss was five hundred men. 
 Both sides claimed the victory ; but the ad- 
 vantage certainly was not with the British, 
 who lost more than a third of their men. 
 
 Colonel Stewart, in view of this loss, fell 
 back to the vicinity of Charleston. Greene 
 followed him as far as Monk's Corner, and 
 then returned to the hills of the Santee. The 
 American commander had abundant reason 
 to be satisfied with the result of his opera- 
 tions in South Carolina. He had rescued 
 the greater part of the State from the British, 
 and had confined them to the region between 
 the Santee and the lower Savannah. He had 
 repeatedly engaged the enemy with the most 
 inadequate means and under the most unfa- 
 vorable circumstances, and had never failed, 
 even though defeated, to accomplish the 
 object for which he fought. He had baffled 
 the British commanders over again, and, like 
 William of Orange, had managed to derive 
 greater advantages from his reverses than 
 his adversaries were able to draw from their 
 victories. 
 
 Plan to Recapture New York. 
 
 Washington was well pleased with the 
 achievements, in the South, of his most 
 trusted lieutenant. He was very anxious to 
 attempt something decisive with his own 
 army, if he could secure the aid of a French 
 army and fleet* Two enterprises offered 
 themselves to him — an attack upon New 
 York, which had been greatly weakened by 
 detachments sent from its garrison to the 
 sou h, and an expedition against Cornwallis. 
 That commander had left Wilmington on 
 the twentieth of April, and had advanced, 
 without encountering any serious resistance, 
 to Petersburg, Virginia. He arrived there on 
 the twentieth of May, and was joined by the 
 troops under General Philips, who had been 
 plundering the country along the James river. 
 
47° 
 
 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 While Washington was hesitating which 
 would be the best course to pursue, a French 
 frigate arrived at Newport, with the Count 
 de Barras on board, who had come to take 
 command of the fleet at Newport. He 
 brought the good news that a fleet of twenty 
 ships-of-the-line, under the Count de Grasse, 
 having on board a considerable force of 
 troops, had sailed for America, and might 
 be expected to arrive in the course of a few 
 months. Washington held a conference with 
 the Count de Rochambeau, at Weathersfield, 
 Connecticut, and it was resolved to attack 
 New York. The French army was to march 
 from Newport and form a junction with the 
 Americans on the Hudson. A frigate was 
 ■despatched to the West Indies to inform the 
 Count de Grasse of this arrangement, and 
 to ask his co-operation in the proposed 
 attack. 
 
 Cornwallis Strongly Intrenched. 
 
 Sir Henry Clinton, who suspected the 
 designs of Washington, now ordered Lord 
 Cornwallis, who had crosssed the James 
 river, and was at Williamsburg, to send him 
 a reinforcement of troops. Cornwallis pre- 
 pared to comply with this order, and for 
 that purpose marched towards Portsmouth, 
 followed cautiously by Lafayette and Steu- 
 ben, who hid with them about four thousand 
 American troops. On the march a slight 
 engagement occurred, near Westover, be- 
 tween Lafayette and Cornwallis, in which the 
 Americans narrowly escaped a defeat. 
 
 The British army crossed to the south side 
 of the James, and a detachment was embarked 
 for New York. At this moment a second 
 order was received from Sir Henry Clinton, 
 who had received a reinforcement of Hessians 
 from England, directing Cornwallis to retain 
 all his force, choose some central position in 
 Virginia, fortify himself in it, and await the 
 development of the American plans. Corn- 
 
 wallis should have taken position at Ports- 
 mouth, from which place his line of retreat 
 to the South would have remained intact. 
 In an evil hour for himself he recrossed the 
 James, and crossing the peninsula between 
 that river and the York, took position at 
 the towns of Gloucester and Yorktown, 
 opposite each other, on the York River. 
 He had with him an army of eight thousand 
 effective troops, and proceeded to fortify his 
 position with strong intrenchments. A 
 number of vessels of war were anchored 
 between Yorktown and Gloucester to main- 
 tain the communication between those points 
 and to assist in the defence of the place. 
 
 During all this time the financial affairs 
 of the republic were growing worse and 
 more hopeless. The continental currency 
 had become utterly worthless, one dollar in 
 paper being worth only one cent in coin at 
 the opening of the year 1781. In the spring 
 of that year Congress sought to put an end 
 to its financial troubles by taking the control 
 of the finances from a board which had 
 hitherto managed them, and intrusting them 
 to Robert Morris, whose services in behaK 
 of the cause have been mentioned before. 
 
 Return to Specie Payments. 
 
 Morris was an experienced financier, and 
 had opposed with all his energy the system 
 of making continental money a legal, tender. 
 He now made a return to specie payments 
 the condition of his acceptance of the trust 
 imposed upon him by Congress. On the 
 twenty-second of May, 1781, Congress most 
 unwillingly resolved : " That the whole debts 
 already due by the United States be liqui- 
 dated as soon as may be to their speek 
 value, and funded, if agreeable to the 
 creditors, as a loan upon interest ; that the 
 States be severally informed that the calcu- 
 lations of the present campaign are made in 
 solid coin, and, therefore, that the requisitions 
 
THE CLOSE OF THE WAR. 
 
 471 
 
 from them respectively being grounded on 
 those calculations, must be complied with in 
 such manner as effectually to answer the 
 the purpose designed ; that experience 
 having evinced the inefficacy of all attempts 
 to support the credit of paper money by 
 compulsory acts, it is recommended to such 
 States where laws making paper bills a 
 tender yet exist to repeal the same." 
 
 On the thirty-first of May continental bills, 
 being no longer a legal tender, ceased to cir- 
 culate. Henceforth all 
 transactions were to 
 be in hard money. 
 The result amply vin- 
 dicated Morris' views. 
 He induced Congress 
 to establish the Bank 
 of the United States at 
 Philadelphia, with a 
 capital of two millions 
 of dollars and a char- 
 ter for ten years. This 
 bank was allowed the 
 privilege of issuing its 
 own notes, which it 
 was required to re- 
 deem in specie upon 
 presentation. This re- 
 quirement gained for 
 the bank the confi- 
 dence of the people, 
 and capitalists availed 
 
 themselves of it for the investment of their 
 money. Morris used the bank freely in his 
 public operations, and at the same time used it 
 so wisely that he was able to secure all the aid 
 it was capable of bestowing without subject- 
 ing it to too severe a strain. He raised the 
 credit of the government higher than it had 
 ever stood before, and was able to do much 
 towards paying the soldiers and supplying 
 them with food and clothing. As often as 
 the public funds failed he pledged his own 
 
 credit to supply the deficiency. No man 
 did more to contribute to the success of the 
 cause than Robert Morris ; and no man 
 received more ingratitude from the govern- 
 ment and people of the Union than he. 
 
 In July Washington was joined in the 
 Highlands by the French army under Count 
 de Rochambeau, and preparations were 
 made to attack New York. An intercepted 
 letter informed Sir Henry Clinton of this 
 design, and he exerted himself to put the 
 
 SCENE IN THE HIGHLANDS OF THE HUDSON. 
 
 city in a state of defence. In the midst of 
 his preparations Washington received a letter 
 from the Count de Grasse, stating that he 
 would sail for the Chesapeake instead of 
 Newport. This decision of the French 
 admiral compelled an entire change of plan 
 on the part of the Americans. As De 
 Grasse would not co-operate with them, 
 they must abandon the attack upon New 
 York, and attempt the capture of Cornwallis 
 at Yorktown. No time was to be lost in 
 
472 
 
 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 making the attempt, for it was now the 
 month of August. By a series of skilful 
 movements Sir Henry Clinton was induced 
 to believe that an attack upon New York 
 would soon be made, and at the same time 
 the American army was marched rapidly 
 across New Jersey, followed by the French. 
 Lafayette, who was in Virginia, was ordered 
 to prevent at all hazards a retreat of Corn- 
 wallis' army to North Carolina, and was 
 directed to ask assistance of General Greene 
 if necessary. 
 
 Cornwallis Entrapped. 
 
 The plan of Washington was to blockade 
 Cornwallis in the York river by means of 
 the French fleet, and at the same time to 
 besiege him in Yorktown with the army. 
 The troops were somewhat unwilling to 
 undertake a southern campaign in August. 
 but their good humor was restored at Phila- 
 delphia, where they received a part of their 
 pay in specie, and a supply of clothing, arms 
 and ammunition, which had just arrived from 
 France. From Philadelphia the combined 
 armies proceeded to Elkton, at head of the 
 the Chesapeake, where they found trans- 
 ports, sent by the French admiral and by 
 Lafayette, to convey them to the James 
 river. 
 
 The first intimation Sir Henry Clinton had 
 of a change in the American plans was the 
 sudden sailing of the French fleet from New- 
 port on the twenty-eight of August. Sup- 
 posing that De Barras's object was to unite 
 with another fleet in the Chesapeake, Clinton 
 sent Admiral Graves to prevent the junction. 
 Upon reaching the capes the British admiral 
 was astonished to find the fleet of the Count 
 de Grasse, consisting of twenty ships-of-the 
 'line, anchored within the bay. De Grasse 
 at once put to sea as if to engage the enemy, 
 but in reality to draw them off and allow De 
 Barras to enter the Chesapeake. For five 
 
 days he amused the English b\ constant 
 skirmishing. De Barras at length appeared 
 and passed within the capes, and De Grasse 
 at once followed him. Admiral Graves was 
 unwilling to attack this combined force and 
 returned to New York. 
 
 The movement of the American army to 
 the south was known to Clinton, but he sup- 
 posed it was only a manoeuvre to draw him 
 off of Manhattan Island into the open coun- 
 try. When the Americans were beyond the 
 Delaware and the French fleets had effected 
 their junction in the Chesapeake, he recog- 
 nized his mistake and saw that the object of 
 Washington was the capture of Cornwallis. 
 It was too late to prevent it ; but in the hope 
 of compelling Washington to send back a 
 part of his force to defend New England, 
 Clinton sent the traitor Arnold with a large 
 body of troops to attack New London Vi 
 Connecticut. On the sixth of September 
 Arnold captured that town and burned the 
 shipping and a large part of the town. 
 
 A Horrible Massacre. 
 
 He then took Fort Griswold, on the oppo- 
 site side of the Thames, by storm, and basely 
 massacred Colonel Indyard, the commander, 
 and sixty of the garrison after the surrender 
 of the fort. The militia of the State were 
 summoned to take up arms for its defence, 
 and responded in such numbers that Arnold 
 became alarmed for his safety and returned 
 to New York. The object of his expedition 
 failed most signally. Washington left New 
 England to defend herself, and continued his 
 movement against Cornwallis. 
 
 Cornwallis was very slow to realize his 
 danger. He believed the small force under 
 Lafayette the only command opposed to him, 
 and on the tenth of September wrote to Clinton 
 that he could spare him twelve hundred men 
 for the defence of New York. He did not 
 perceive his error until the French fleet had 
 
THE CLOSE OF THE WAR. 
 
 473 
 
 anchored in the Chesapeake and cut off his 
 escape by water. He then attempted to 
 retreat to North Carolina, as Washington 
 had foreseen, but Lafayette, who had been 
 reinforced by three thousand French troops 
 under the Marquis de St Simon, from the 
 fleet of De Grasse, was too active for him, 
 and finding his retreat impossible, Cornwallis 
 
 the British, and on the ninth of October the 
 cannonade was begun. It was continued for 
 four days, and the British outworks were 
 greatly damaged, and several of their vessels 
 in the river were burned by means of red- 
 hot shot thrown into them by the French 
 vessels. On the fourteenth two of the ad- 
 vanced redoubts of the enemy were stormed 
 
 VIEW OF YORKTOWN. 
 
 sent urgent appeals to Clinton for assistance, 
 and strengthened his fortifications. 
 
 In the meantime the American and French 
 'armies descended the Chesapeake, and took 
 position before Yorktown, while the French 
 fleet closed the mouth of York river. The 
 siege was begun on the twenty-eight of Sep- 
 tember. Sixteen thousand men were pre- 
 sent under Washington's orders. Works 
 were erected completely enclosing those of 
 
 and taken, one by the Americans, the other 
 by the French. From the positions thus 
 gained a very destructive fire was maintained 
 upon the English lines, which were broken 
 in many places, while many of their guns 
 were dismounted and rendered useless. On 
 the fifteenth Cornwallis found himself al- 
 most out of ammunition, and unable to 
 maintain his position but for a few days 
 longer. 
 
474 
 
 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 In this strait the British commander re- 
 solved upon the desperate alternative of cross- 
 ing the York to Gloucester, abandoning his 
 sick and wounded and baggage, and endeavor- 
 ing to force his way northward by extraor- 
 dinary marches to New York. It was a 
 hopeless undertaking, but Cornwall is resolved 
 to make the trial. On the night of the six- 
 teenth of October he crossed a part of his 
 army from Yorktown to Gloucester, but a 
 sudden storm delayed the passage of the 
 
 He sent to Washington an ofFet to surren- 
 der, and the terms were soon arranged. On 
 the nineteenth of October Cornwallis sur 
 rendered his army of seven thousand mei. 
 as prisoners of war to Washington, as com 
 mander of the allied army, and his shipping 
 seamen and naval stores to the Count de 
 Grasse, as the representative of the king oi 
 France. 
 
 Washington despatched one of his aids to 
 Philadelphia to communicate the good news 
 
 SURRENDER OF LORD CORNWALLIS. 
 
 river by the second division until after day- 
 light, when it was useless to make the 
 attempt. 
 
 'The first division was with difficulty 
 brought back to Yorktown, as the boats 
 were exposed to the fire of the American 
 batteries while crossing the river. Nothing 
 was left to Cornwallis now but a capitulation, 
 as his works were in no condition to with- 
 stand an assault, and simple humanity to his 
 mien demanded that the contest should cease. 
 
 to Congress. The officer pushed forward 
 with all speed, and reached Philadelphia at 
 midnight, and delivered his message. Soon 
 the peals of the State-house bell roused the 
 citizens, and the watchmen took up the cry v 
 " Cornwallis is taken ! Cornwallis is taken!" 
 The people poured out into the streets in 
 throngs, and no one slept in Philadelphia 
 that night. The next day Congress proceeded 
 in a body to a church and gave thanks for 
 the great victory. A national thanksgiving 
 
THE CLOSE OF THE WAR. 
 
 475 
 
 was ordered, and throughout the whole land 
 rejoicings went up to God for the success 
 which all men felt was decisive of the war. 
 On the nineteenth of October, the day of 
 the surrender of Cornwallis, Sir Henry Clin- 
 ton sailed from New York to his assistance 
 with a force of seven thousand men. Off the 
 capes he learned of the surrender of the 
 British army at Yorktown, and as his fleet 
 was not strong enough to meet that of the 
 French he returned at once to New York- 
 
 " It is All Over." 
 
 The news of the surrender of Cornwallis 
 was received in England with astonishment 
 and mortification. It was the second time 
 England had lost an entire army by capture, 
 and her efforts to subdue the United States 
 were no nearer success than they had been 
 at the opening of the war. The English 
 people had never regarded the attempt to 
 conquer America with favor, and they now 
 became more open and energetic in their 
 demands for peace. " Lord North, the prime 
 minister," says an English writer, " received 
 the intelligence of the capture of Cornwallis 
 as he would have done a cannon ball in his 
 breast; he paced the room, and throwing his 
 arms wildly about, kept exclaiming, ' O 
 God! it is all over! it is all over!'" The 
 king and the aristocracy, however, had no 
 thought of yielding yet to the popular 
 pressure, and were resolved to carry on the 
 war. 
 
 After the surrender at Yorktown, Wash- 
 ington urged the Count de Grasse to coop- 
 erate with General Greene in an attack upon 
 Charleston. The French admiral declined 
 to comply with his request, alleging the 
 necessity of his immediate return to the 
 West Indies. The French troops were quar- 
 tered for the winter at Williamsburg, Vir- 
 ginia, and the American army returned 
 northward and resumed its old position on 
 
 the Hudson. Washington, though con- 
 vinced that peaee was close at hand, did not 
 relax his vigilance, and urged upon Congress 
 the necessity of preparing for a vigorous 
 campaign the next year; but so thoroughly 
 was Congress carried away by the prospect 
 of peace that his recommendations were 
 unheeded. 
 
 In the south the British and Tories were 
 so disheartened by the surrender of Corn- 
 wallis that they ceased active operations and 
 evacuated all their posts but Savannah and 
 Charleston. General Greene at once dis- 
 posed his army in such a manner as to con- 
 fine them closely to Charleston. In the 
 Northern States the only place held by the' 
 British was New York. 
 
 Indian and Tory Outrages. 
 
 Though active operations had ceased on 
 the part of the two armies, a cruel and 
 destructive warfare was continued by the 
 Indian allies of the British against the border 
 settlements of Pennsylvania and Virginia, 
 and a similar warfare was maintained by the^ 
 Tories and Indians along the frontier of New 
 York. These outrages involved the Christ- 
 ian Delaware Indians in the punishment of 
 the guilty savages. The Delawares had 
 become converted to Christianity under the 
 influence of the Moravian missionaries, and 
 had removed from the Susquehanna to the 
 Muskingum. 
 
 They were suspected by the Americans of 
 the crimes of their heathen brethren, and in 
 the spring and summer of 1782 their towns 
 were destroyed and numbers of them were 
 slain. The war was carried into the country 
 of the Wyandottes by the whites, but with 
 less success. On the sixth of June a force 
 of Pennsylvanians under Colonel Crawford 
 was defeated by the Wyandottes. In the 
 same summer a band of northern Indians 
 led by Simon Girty, a Tory of infamous 
 
476 
 
 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 character, invaded Kentucky. They were 
 met by the Kentuckians under Boone, Todd, 
 and other leaders. A severe battle was 
 fought at the Big Blue Lick, and the Ken- 
 tuckians were defeated with the loss of 
 nearly one-half their force. 
 
 Story of Captain Huddy. 
 
 Some of the staunchest patriots and some 
 of the most ferocious Tories resided in Mon- 
 mouth county, New Jersey. The patriots 
 built a block-house of logs at Dover, which 
 was a strongly fortified building. The only 
 method of ingress or egress was by the use 
 of a scaling ladder. Captain John Huddy 
 was commander of this post, and was one of 
 the bravest men who fought for the Amer- 
 ican cause. His house was once surrounded 
 by his foes, but esccping he jumped into the 
 waters of the bay, and as he swam he 
 shouted, " I am Huddy ! " His escape on 
 this occasion was remarkable. 
 
 On March 20, 1782, a party of forty 
 Tories and eighty seamen, all fully armed, 
 left New York in whaletoats for the pur- 
 pose of capturing Captain John Huddy. 
 Their coming was announced by scouts, and 
 preparations were made to receive them. 
 The battle was one of the fiercest of the 
 war. The powder in the fortress at length 
 gave out, and Huddy, with sixteen men, 
 four of whom were wounded, was taken 
 prisoner. Huddy was a prisoner of war, 
 and was entitled to treatment as such, but 
 his enemies conspired to put him to death. 
 He was executed on the morning of April 
 12, and his last words were, " I shall die 
 Innocent, and in a good cause." 
 ' Captain Lippincott, who ordered Huddy's 
 execution, cursed his men because they were 
 unwilling to take the life of so brave a foe, 
 and with his own hand helped to pull the 
 rope. Returning to New York he reported 
 to the board of loyalists that he had " ex- 
 
 changed " Captain Huddy for Philip White. 
 The pastor of the Presbyterian church at 
 Freehold preached the funeral sermon from 
 the front porch of the old Freehold hotel, 
 and the body was buried with the honors of 
 war. 
 
 The desire of the English people for the 
 close of the war had grown too strong to be 
 resisted, and the king and his ministers were 
 at length forced to yield. The impossi- 
 bility of conquering America had become 
 so apparent to the continental nations that 
 in the spring of 1782 the Dutch republic 
 recognized the independence of the United 
 States, and received John Adams as envoy 
 from that government. The king of Eng- 
 land maintained his obstinate opposition to 
 the wishes of his people to the last moment. 
 On the twenty-second of February, 1782, a 
 resolution was introduced into the House of 
 Commons to put an end to the American war 
 and was supported by the leaders of the Whig 
 party. It was defeated by a majority of one, 
 but on the twenty-seventh of February a 
 similar resolution was introduced and was 
 carried by a majority of nineteen. 
 
 England Gives Up the Struggle. 
 
 On the twentieth of March Lord North 
 and his colleagues were forced to relinquish 
 their offices, and a new ministry was formed 
 under the Marquis of Rockingham. Sir 
 Henry Clinton was removed from his com- 
 mand in America, and was succeeded by Sir 
 Guy Carleton, whose humane conduct of 
 the war while governor of Canada we have 
 related. Carleton arrived in New York in 
 May, 1782, with full powers to open nego- 
 tiations for peace. He at once put a stop to 
 the savage warfare of the Tories and Indians 
 on the borders of western New York, and 
 opened a correspondence with Washington 
 proposing a cessation of hostilities until a 
 definite treaty of peace could be arranged. 
 
CAF1AIN HUDDY LED FROM «*Aaui\ TO BE HANGED. 
 
 477 
 
478 
 
 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 Five commissioners were appointed by 
 Congress to conclude a peace with Great 
 Britain. They were John Adams, Benjamin 
 Franklin, John Jay, Henry Laurens, who 
 had just been released from the tower of 
 London, where he had been kept a prisoner 
 (or about a year, and Thomas Jefferson. Mr. 
 Jefferson was unable to leave America. Five 
 commissioners were appointed by Great 
 Britain to treat with " certain colonies " 
 named in their instructions. 
 
 A Treaty Formed. 
 
 The commissioners from the two countries 
 met at Paris, but the American commis- 
 sioners refused to open negotiations except 
 in the name of the " United States of 
 America." This right was acknowledged 
 by Great Britain, and on the thirtieth of 
 November, 1782, a preliminary treaty was 
 signed, which was ratified by Congress in 
 April, 1783. This treaty could not be final 
 because by the terms of the alliance between 
 the United States and France neither party 
 could make a separate treaty of peace with 
 England. In January, 1783, France and 
 Great Britain agreed upon terms of peace, 
 and on the third of September, 1783, a final 
 treaty of peace was signed by all the nations 
 who had engaged in the war — by the United 
 States, France, Spain and Holland on the 
 one side, and Great Britain on the other. 
 
 Great Britain acknowledged the independ- 
 ence of the States of the Union in the fol- 
 lowing words : " His Britannic Majesty 
 acknowledges the said United States, viz. : 
 New Hampshire, Massachusetts Bay, Rhode 
 Island and Providence Plantations, Connecti- 
 cut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, 
 Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Caro- 
 lina, South Carolina and Georgia, to be free, 
 sovereign and independent States ; that he 
 treats with them as such ; and for himself, 
 his heirs and successors, relinquishes all 
 
 claim to the government, proprietary and ter- 
 ritorial rights of the same, and every part 
 thereof." It should be observed that the 
 treaty acknowledged the independence and 
 sovereignty of each of the thirteen States, 
 and not of the United States as a single 
 nation. The independence of the States had 
 already been recognized by several of the 
 European powers : by Sweden, on the fifth 
 of February, 1783; by Denmark, on the 
 twenty-fifth of February, 1783 ; by Spain, 
 on the twenty-fourth of March ; and by 
 Russia in July, 1783. Treaties of friendship 
 and commerce were entered into betvreen 
 the United States and these powers. 
 
 Washington and His Army. 
 
 During the year 1782 the greater part of 
 the American army was encamped at New- 
 burg, on the Hudson. Washington mad* 
 his headquarters in an old stone house, 
 which was well adapted for defence and con- 
 cealment, one of the rooms having seven 
 doors leading to other parts of the house, 
 and but one window. The troops were 
 unpaid and were neglected by Congress and 
 by the various States. Washington warned the 
 government of the danger of further negleot of 
 the army, but his warning was unheeded, and 
 in March the patience of the army was so far 
 exhausted that it was seriously proposed to 
 march to Philadelphia and compel Congress 
 to do justice to the troops. Washington 
 appealed to the officers to remain patient a 
 little longer, and pledged himself tq use his 
 influence with Congress to fulfill its neglected 
 promises to the army. His appeal quieted 
 the trouble for a time. Congress shortly 
 after agreed to advance full pay to the 
 soldiers for four months, and to pay in one ' 
 gross sum the full pay of the officers for five 
 years. 
 
 The condition of the country was a sub- 
 ject of the gravest apprehension. It was 
 
WASHINGTON S HEAD-QUARTERS AT NEWBURGH, NEW YORK. 
 
 THE ROOM WITH SEVEN DOORS AND ONE Wf' ; DliW. 
 
 479 
 
480 
 
 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 plain that the articles of confederation were 
 not capable of continuing the Union much 
 longer, and many persons believed that the 
 only hope of preserving a regular govern- 
 ment, and a permanent union to the country, 
 lay in the establishment of a monarchy. In 
 May, 1782, Colonel Nicola, of the Pennsyl- 
 vania line, at the instance of a number of 
 officers, wrote a letter to Washington, pro- 
 posing the creation of a monarchy, and offer- 
 ing him the crown. Washington indignantly 
 refused to entertain the proposition, and 
 severely rebuked the writer of the letter. 
 
 Peace at Last. 
 
 In the spring of 1783 the news of the 
 signing of the preliminary treaty of peace 
 was received in America, and was officially 
 communicated to the nation in a proclama- 
 ion by Congress. On the nineteenth of 
 April, 1783, just eight years from the com- 
 mencement of the war at Lexington, the 
 close of hostilities was proclaimed, in general 
 orders, to the army at Newburg. A general 
 exchange of prisoners followed, and large 
 numbers of Tories were obliged to leave the 
 country, as they feared to remain after the 
 protection of the British forces was with- 
 
 drawn. They emigrated chiefly to Canada, 
 Nova Scotia, and the West Indies. The final 
 treaty having been signed, the army was dis- 
 banded on the third of November, and the 
 troops, with the exception of a small force, 
 returned to their homes to enjoy their well- 
 earned honors and the thanks of their grate- 
 ful countrymen. On the twenty-fifth of 
 November the British evacuated New York, 
 which was at once occupied by a small force 
 of Americans, under General Knox. In 
 December Charleston was also evacuated by 
 the British. 
 
 On the second of December Washington 
 issued a farewell address to the army, and 
 on the fourth of that month took leave of the 
 officers at New York. He then proceeded 
 to Annapolis, where Congress was in ses- 
 sion, and on the twenty-third of December, 
 under circumstances of great solemnity, re- 
 signed his commission to that body, and after 
 receiving the thanks of Congress for the able 
 and faithful manner in which he had dis 
 charged the task intrusted to him, retired to 
 his home at Mount Vernon, which he had 
 not visited for eight years, except for a few 
 hours, while on his way to attack Cornwallis 
 at Yorktown. 
 
BOOK V 
 
 From the Close of the Revolution to the 
 
 Civil War 
 
 CHAPTER XXXI 
 
 The Adoption of the Constitution — Washington's 
 
 Administration 
 
 Unsettled Condition of the Country — Failure ci the Articles of Confederation — Desire for Reform — Meeting of the Federal 
 Convention at Philadelphia — The Constitution of the United States — Adoption of a Decimal Currency — The North- 
 jrest Territory — Washington Elected President — His Journey to New York — Establishment of the New Government — 
 The First Cabinet — Financial Measures — Removal of the Capital Agreed Upon — The Government at Philadelphia — 
 The First Census — The Indians of the Northwest Conquered — Re-election of Washington — Division of Parties — The 
 French Revolution — The United States Neutral — Citizen Genet — Efforts to Commit the United States to the French 
 Alliance — Genet's Recall Demanded — The " Whiskey Insurrection " — Jay's Treaty with England — Opposition to It — 
 Negotiations with Algiers — Political Disputes — Hostility to Washington — His Farewell Address — Its Effect Upon the 
 Country — Election of John Adams to the Presidency — Admission of Vermont, Kentucky and Tennessee — Retirement 
 of Washington — Results of His Administration. 
 
 THE long war was over ana inde- 
 pendence had been achieved; but 
 the condition of the country was 
 such as to excite the gravest ap- 
 prehensions. The country was exhausted 
 by the sacrifices and burdens of the war, and 
 its debts amounted to the enormous sum of 
 one hundred and seventy millions of dollars, 
 a sum vastly out of proportion to its 
 resources. Two- thirds of these debts had 
 been contracted by Congress ; the re- 
 mainder by the States. The articles of con- 
 federation were found inadequate to the task 
 of enforcing the authority of the general 
 government, and the States treated the 
 orders of Congress with neglect. Commerce 
 was sadly deranged for the want of a uniform 
 system. 
 
 The States entered into competition with 
 each other for the trade of foreign nations, 
 and articles which were required to pay 
 3 1 
 
 heavy duties in some of the States were 
 admitted free of duty in others. Many of 
 the States were unable to enforce the collec- 
 tion of taxes within their own limits. The 
 British merchants at the close of the war 
 flooded the American markets with their 
 manufactures at reduced prices. The result 
 was that the domestic manufacture'; of the 
 States were ruined; the country wa* drained 
 of its specie, and the merchants and people 
 of the Union were involved in heavy debts. 
 A general poverty ensued in the Eastern 
 States, which gave rise to much discontent. 
 In Massachusetts, in December, 1786, a 
 body of a thousand men, under Daniel 
 Shays, assembled at Wore iter and com 
 pelled the Supreme Court to adjourn in 
 order to prevent it from issu ng writs for the 
 collection of debts. The militia was called 
 out and " Shay's Rebellion " was put down ; 
 but it was evident that the sympathies oi 
 
 481 
 
482 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 the people were largely with the insurgents. 
 These troubles brought home to the whole 
 country the necessity of a more perfect 
 system of government, and measures were 
 begun for bringing about the changes 
 needed. 
 
 In September, 1783, delegates from five of 
 the States met at Annapolis to deliberate 
 upon a plan for the improvement of com- 
 merce and the revenue. They recommended 
 the assembling of a convention to revise the 
 articles of confederation ; and, accordingly, 
 
 delegates from all the States met for this 
 purpose at Philadelphia in May, 1787. 
 
 Among the more prominent of these may 
 be named Samuel Johnson, Roger Sherman 
 and Oliver Ellsworth, of Connecticut ; Dun- 
 ning Bedford and George Read, of Delaware; 
 William Few, George Walton and Abraham 
 Baldwin, of Georgia; Daniel Carroll, James 
 McHenry and Luther Martin, of Maryland; 
 Nathaniel Gorham, Caleb Strong, Elbridge 
 Gerry and Rufus King, of Massachusetts ; 
 John Langdon and Nicholas Gilman, of 
 
 New Hampshire; Jonathan Dayton, William 
 Livingston and William Patterson, of New 
 Jersey ; John Lansing, Robert Yates and 
 Alexander Hamilton, of New York ; Alex- 
 ander Martin, Richard D. Spaight and Wil- 
 liam R. Davie, of North Carolina ; Robert 
 Morris, Gouverneur Morris, James Wilson 
 and Benjamin Franklin, of Pennsylvania; 
 John Rutledge, Pierce Butler, Charles 
 Pinckney and Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, 
 of South Carolina ; Edmund Randolph, 
 George Mason, James Madison and George 
 Washington, of Virginia. Patrick Henry 
 was opposed to the general objects of the 
 convention, and therefore declined any par- 
 ticipation in its action. Mr. Jefferson was 
 Minister to France, and not in the country 
 at the time. 
 
 Birth of the Constitution. 
 
 George Washington, who was one of the 
 delegates from Virginia, was unanimously 
 chosen president of the convention. The 
 sessions of this body lasted four months, and 
 the convention, instead of revising the arti- 
 cles of confederation, adopted an entirely 
 new constitution. Each article of this con- 
 stitution was discussed with care and minute- 
 ness, and with great feeling. The sessions 
 of the convention were held with closed 
 doors ; but its proceedings were so far from 
 harmonious that there were several occa- 
 sions when it seemed likely the convention 
 would break up in confusion, and leave its 
 work unfinished. At length, however, 
 through the patriotism and forbearance of 
 its members, the convention brought its 
 work to a close, and presented the constitu- 
 tion to Congress. It was submitted by that 
 body to the several States for their approval. 
 
 The State governments summoned con- 
 ventions of their respective people, and sub- 
 mitted the constitution to them for their 
 acceptance or rejection. By the end of 1788 
 
483 
 
 WASHINGTON'S RECEPTION AT TRENTON. 
 
484 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 it was ratified by eleven States, North 
 Carolina did not ratify it until November, 
 1789 ; and Rhode Island held aloof from 
 the Union until May, 1790. The right of 
 these States to reject the constitution, and 
 to continue their separate existence as inde- 
 pendent States, was not questioned by any 
 one. 
 
 The new constitution was not entirely 
 satisfactory to any party, and represented 
 the sacrifices made by all to achieve the 
 
 great end of a central government, strong 
 enough to carry out the objects of the 
 Union. It was a document of compromises, 
 three of which were of especial importance. 
 The first was a concession to the smaller 
 States, which had feared the loss of their 
 independence ; they were placed on the 
 same footing as the larger States by being 
 given an equal representation in the Senate. 
 The second was a concession to the slave- 
 holding States of the south, and guaranteed 
 
 that in apportioning their representation in 
 Congress three-fifths of the slaves were to be 
 included with the white population. The 
 third was a concession to Georgia and South 
 Carolina, and granted them permission to 
 continue the African slave-trade until 1808. 
 The delegates from those States refused to 
 sign the constitution except upon this con- 
 dition. 
 
 Decimal Currency. 
 
 In the meantime Congress had taken a 
 step of the highest importance in adopting 
 the plan, presented by Mr. Jefferson, for a 
 decimal currency. Until now the use of the 
 English currency had been general in all the 
 States. In August, 1786, our present sys- 
 tem of dollars and cents was adopted by 
 Congress, and a mint was established some- 
 what later. The government was so poor, 
 however, that it could only coin a small 
 quantity of copper cents. 
 
 The sessions of Congress were held at 
 New York. In the session of 1787 a meas- 
 ure was adopted, which had the most im- 
 portant influence upon the subsequent his- 
 tory of the country. The treaty of Paris 
 fixed the Mississippi river as the western 
 boundary of the United States. This river 
 consequently became the western limit oi 
 Virginia, Connecticut, and Massachusetts. 
 In 1784 Virginia ceded to the general gov- 
 ernment of the United States her claim to 
 the vast region owned by her beyond the 
 Ohio. Massachusetts and Connecticut soon 
 followed her example, and New York also 
 ceded her western territory to the govern- 
 ment. 
 
 In July, 1787, Congress organized this 
 vast region as the territory of the northwest. 
 It was provided that slavery should never 
 be permitted to exist in this territory, or in 
 any of the Stater which might afterwards be 
 formed out of it. This wise provision, which 
 
WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 485 
 
 was the basis of the wonderful prosperity of 
 this great region, was due to the foresight 
 of Thomas Jefferson. The northwest being 
 secured to freedom, emigration soon set in, 
 and it began its great career of prosperity 
 which has since known no slackening. 
 
 Washington Elected President. 
 
 It was provided by the constitution that 
 when it should have been ratified by two- 
 thirds of the States, it should go into opera- 
 tion on the fourth of March, 1789. Eleven 
 of the States having ratified the constitution, 
 elections were held for President and Vice- 
 President of the United States, and for mem- 
 bers of Congress. New York was named 
 as the seat of the new government. The 
 fourth of March, 1789, was ushered in with 
 a public demonstration at New York ; but a 
 sufficient number of members of Congress 
 to form a quorum for the transaction of busi- 
 ness did not arrive until the thirtieth of 
 March. On the sixth of April the electoral 
 votes were counted, and it was found that 
 George Washington had been unanimously 
 chosen first President of the United States, 
 and John Adams Vice-President. 
 
 Charles Thompson, the oldest secretary of 
 Congress, was sent to Mount Vernon to 
 notify Washington of his election, and a mes- 
 senger was despatched to Boston on a similar 
 errand to Mr. Adams. Washington promptly 
 signified his acceptance of the office, and, 
 two days later, started for New York. It 
 was his desire to travel as quietly and unos- 
 tentatiously as possible, but the people of the 
 States through which he passed would not 
 permit him to do so. His journey was a 
 constant ovation. Crowds greeted him at 
 every town with the most enthusiastic demon- 
 strations of affection and confidence ; trium- 
 phal arches were erected ; his way was strewn 
 with flowers by young girls ; and maidens 
 and mothers greeted him with songs com- 
 
 posed in his honor. In consequence of these 
 demonstrations his progress was so much 
 retarded that he did not reach New York 
 until the latter part of April. 
 
 On the thirtieth of April Washington 
 appeared on the balcony of Federal Hall, 
 New York, on the site of which the United 
 States Treasury now stands, and took the 
 oath of office in the presence of the Senate 
 and House of Representatives, and a large 
 crowd of citizens assembled in the streets 
 
 below. He then repaired to the Senate 
 chamber, and there delivered an address to 
 both houses of Congress. The organization 
 of the government being now complete, 
 Congress proceeded to arrange the executive 
 department by the creation of the depart- 
 ments of state, the treasury and war. Presi- 
 dent Washington appointed Thomas Jeffer- 
 son, secretary of state, Alexander Hamilton, 
 secretary of the treasury, and General Henry 
 Knox, secretary of war. John Jay was made 
 
^PIMSW'^^'P^V S^^^SH^ fij SS 
 
 486 
 
 THE INAUGURATION OF WASHINGTON. 
 
chief justice of the United States, 
 Edmond Randolph, attorney-general. 
 
 The new government found itself face to 
 face with many difficulties, the principal of 
 which was the payment of the national debt. 
 This debt was in the form of notes of the 
 government, or promises to pay for value 
 received. These notes had been issued by 
 the States as well as by Congress during the 
 revolution, and had been given in payment 
 for services rendered the general and State 
 governments, and for supplies. In Janu- 
 ary, 1790, Alexander Hamilton proposed 
 to pay all these debts in full, and that the 
 general government should assume the 
 war debts of States. 
 
 This plan met with considerable oppo- 
 sition at first, but was at length adopted. 
 It was also arranged that the revenue of 
 the country should be divided as follows: 
 As the control of commerce had passed 
 into the hands of Congress the revenue =E 
 derived from the duties levied upon im- 
 ported merchandise was to be applied to 
 the uses of the general government. The 
 proceeds of the direct taxes upon real 
 estate and other property, which could 
 be levied only by the respective States, 
 were to be used for the expenses of those 
 States. 
 
 It had been for some time considered 
 desirable to remove the seat of federal 
 government to some point more central 
 than New York, and which could be brought 
 under the supreme control of Congress. In 
 1790 it was resolved that the seat of govern- 
 ment be fixed at Philadelphia for ten years, and 
 at the end of that time be removed to a new 
 city to be built on the banks of the Potomac. 
 A federal district, ten miles square, was ob- 
 tained by cession from Virginia and Mary- 
 land, and was placed under the sole control 
 of the United States. The foundations of a 
 new city, named Washington, in honor of 
 
 WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION, 
 and 
 
 487 
 
 the " Father of his country," were laid on 
 the left bank of the Potomac, a short dis- 
 tance below the falls of that river, and build- 
 ings for the accommodation of the general 
 government were begun and pushed forward 
 as rapidly as possible. 
 
 The general government was removed to 
 Philadelphia in 1 791, and in December of 
 that year the second Congress began its 
 sessions in that city. The principal measure 
 of this session was the establishment of the 
 
 GEORGE WASHINGTON. 
 
 Bank of the United States, in accordance 
 with the recommendations of Alexander 
 Hamilton. The bank was chartered for 
 twenty years, and its capital was ten millions 
 of dollars, of which the government took 
 two millions and private individuals the re- 
 mainder. The measure was carried in the 
 face of considerable opposition in Congress, 
 but was very beneficial to the government, 
 as well as to the general business of the 
 country. The notes of the bank -vere 
 
488 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 payable in gold and silver upon presentation 
 at its counters. 
 
 Commerce now began to show signs of a 
 great revival from the stagnation and loss 
 caused by the war. The duties levied upon 
 foreign goods gave to domestic manufac- 
 turers an opportunity to place themselves 
 upon a firmer foundation. Very great im- 
 provements were made in the character of 
 American manufactures. In New England 
 
 INDIAN CHILD IN CRADLE. 
 
 the weaving of cotton and woolen goods was 
 be^un, in a feeble way it is true, but the 
 foundation was laid of that great industry 
 which has since been a constant and grow- 
 ing source of wealth to that section. 
 
 In 1790 the first census of the United 
 States was taken, and showed the population 
 to be 3,929,827 souls. 
 
 The Indians of the northwest had been 
 very troublesome for some time. The 
 
 British agents in that region incited them to 
 hostility against the United States, and 
 urged them to claim the Ohio as theit 
 southern and eastern boundary. They com- 
 mitted innumerable outrages along this river 
 and almost put a stop to the trade upon its 
 waters by attacking and plundering the flat-, 
 boats of the emigrants and traders which 
 were constantly descending the river. The 
 general government resolved to put a stop 
 to their outrages, and General Harmer was 
 sent against them in 1790, but was defeated 
 with great loss. 
 
 " Little Turtle " Defeats St. Clair. 
 
 In 1 79 1 General St. Clair, the governoi 
 of the northwest territory, was placed in 
 command of an expedition against the 
 savages. He set out from Fort Washing- 
 ton, now Cincinnati, about the middle of 
 September, with a force of two thousand 
 men, but near the headwaters of the Wabash 
 was surprised and defeated by an Indian 
 force under Little Turtle, a famous chief of 
 the Miam's. The wreck of his army fled to 
 For*; Washington, and the frontier was once 
 more defenceless. 
 
 President Washington now placed General 
 Anthony Wayne in command of the forces 
 destined to operate against the Indians. 
 With his usual energy Wayne assembled his 
 army at Fort Washington, and in the sum- 
 mer of 1794 marched into the Indian country, 
 laid it waste and defeated the Indian tribes 
 in the battle of the Maumee on the twentieth 
 of August. In the summer of 1795 the 
 Indians, cowed by their defeat and alarmed 
 by the withdrawal of the British from the 
 frontier posts, met General Wayne at his 
 camp on the Miami and entered into a 
 treaty with the United States by which they 
 ceded all the eastern and southern part of 
 Ohio to the whites and withdrew farther 
 westward. 
 
WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 489 
 
 In the elections of 1792 Washington and 
 Adams were chosen President and Vice- 
 President of the United States for a second 
 term of four years. The disputes which had 
 been begun by the adoption of the constitu- 
 tion had been continued during the first 
 term of Washington's presidency, and had 
 given rise to two political parties — the 
 Federalists, or those who favor a strong 
 national government, and who supported the 
 administration, and the Anti-Federalists, who 
 opposed the policy of the administration. 
 Among the leaders of the Federalist party 
 were Washington, Adams, Hamilton and 
 Jay ; among the Anti-Federalist leaders 
 were Jefferson, Madison and Monroe. 
 
 Reign of Terror in France. 
 
 The differences between Jefferson and 
 Hamilton increased with time, and soon as- 
 sumed the character of a personal hostility, 
 a circumstance which was productive of great 
 trouble to the president, since it prevented 
 his cabinet from acting harmoniously. As 
 the quarrel deepened, the Anti-Federalist 
 party repudiated that title, and took the name 
 of Republican , as it better expressed their 
 principles. The political questions entered 
 largely into the second election, and pre- 
 vented Mt Adams from receiving the unani- 
 mous vote which was given to Washington. 
 
 Shortly after the commencement of Wash- 
 ington's first term of office, the French revo- 
 lution broke out, and drew upon France the 
 attention of the whole world. The events of 
 this great struggle were watched with the 
 deepest interest in America, for the nation 
 cherished the warmest sentiments of grati- 
 tude to France for her aid in the revolution. 
 The Republican party urgently favored an 
 alliance with the French republic, but 
 Washington and the greater part of his 
 cabinet were resolved to maintain a strict 
 neutrality as to all European quarrels. 
 
 The excesses of the revolutionists shocked 
 the public sentiment of America, and the 
 events of the reign of terror cooled the zeal 
 of many of the most ardent friends of the 
 French republic. Still party feeling ran 
 high upon the subject, and the disputes were 
 yet very bitter when Mr. Edmond 'Charles 
 Genet, or " Citizen Genet," as he was gen- 
 erally styled, arrived in the United States, in 
 1793, as minister from the French republic. 
 He brought the news that France had de- 
 clared war with Great Britain. He was well 
 
 ALEXANDER HAMILTON. 
 
 received by the Republicans, who were 
 anxious that the United States should become 
 the ally of France, and thus engage in a new 
 war with Great Britain. 
 
 Washington and his cabinet were unmoved 
 by this clamor, and a proclamation was issued 
 declaring the neutrality of the United States 
 in the war between Great Britain and France, 
 and warning the American people to refrain 
 from the commission of acts inconsistent 
 with this neutrality. The firmness of the 
 President in resisting- the demand for afl 
 
490 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 alliance with France saved the country from 
 innumerable losses, perhaps from the des- 
 truction of the work of the revolution. 
 
 Genet, encouraged by the sympathy of the 
 Republican party, was determined to embroil 
 the United States with Great Britain to such 
 an extent that they would be compelled to 
 make common cause with France. He 
 therefore began to fit out privateers from 
 American ports against the commerce of 
 England. He was warned by the govern- 
 
 ment that he was transcending his privileges 
 as a minister of a friendly power, but paid no 
 attention to this rebuke. The Republican 
 party now took a more active stand in favor 
 of the French alliance, and its more ultra 
 members assumed the name of Democrats, 
 and others styled themselves Democratic 
 Republicans. The determination of Presi- 
 dent Washington not to interfere in the 
 quarrels of Europe was vehemently assailed, 
 and the newspapers of this party went so far 
 
 as to denounce the President and his sup- 
 porters as the ene.nies of France, and the 
 friends and secret supporters of their old op- 
 pressor, the king of England. 
 
 Genet was greatly deceived by these 
 clamors, which he mistook for the sentiment 
 of the American people. He took a step fur- 
 ther, and authorized the French consuls in 
 the American ports to receive and sell ves-, 
 sels captured by French cruisers from the; 
 English, with whom the United States were 
 at peace. He also contemplated raising a 
 force in Georgia and the Carolinas for the 
 purpose of seizing Florida, and another in 
 Kentucky for the conquest of Louisiana, 
 both of which regions were then held by 
 Spain, a power friendly to the United States. 
 The patience of the President having been 
 exhausted by Genet's insolent conduct, 
 Washington requested the French govern- 
 ment to recall him, which it did in 1794, 
 much to the astonishment of citizen Genet. 
 M. Fauchet was appointed in his place. 
 Genet did not return home, but became a 
 citizen of the United States. 
 
 Whiskey Tax Unpopular. 
 
 The impunity with which Genet had braved 
 the federal government gave rise to fears 
 that it was not strong enough to enforce its 
 authority. Advantage was taken of this feel- 
 ing in an unexpected quarter. The fertile 
 region of Western Pennsylvania, watered by 
 by the Monongahela and its tributaries, had 
 been settled by a hardy population, chiefly 
 of Scotch-Irish Presbyterians, who had with 
 great labor and amid constant exposure to 
 the attacks of the Indians, redeemed the 
 land from the wilderness, and covered it 
 with thriving farms and orchards. Grain 
 and apples and peaches were their staple 
 products ; the grain was distilled into 
 whiskey, and the fruits were made into 
 brandies. 
 
WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 491 
 
 One of Hamilton's favorite measures for 
 the raising - of a revenue was the imposition 
 of an excise or duty upon whiskey. This tax 
 was generally unpopular throughout the 
 country, but especially so in the four western 
 counties of Pennsylvania. The settlers of 
 this region organized themselves in secret 
 societies for the purpose of resisting this tax, 
 and at length, in 1792, rose in rebellion 
 against the government, refused to pay the 
 tax, and drove off the excise officers. The 
 best men in this section were engaged in the 
 rebellion, and it was openly proposed to 
 separate from Pennsylvania and form a new 
 State. Nearly seven thousand armed men 
 assembled, and declared their intention to 
 resist the authority of the State and federal 
 governments. 
 
 England imcatens Our Commerce. 
 
 Matters remained in this condition for 
 about two years, and at length Washington, 
 finding it necessary to employ force for the 
 suppression of the revolt, sent a strong body 
 of troops to compel the rebels to submit. 
 Upon the appearance of the troops, the leaders 
 of the movement fled, and the " Whiskey 
 Insurrection " suddenly came to an end. 
 This vigorous action of the federal govern- 
 ment greatly added to its strength. 
 
 The fidelity with which Washington sought 
 to discharge his duty towards England, as a 
 neutral, was but little appreciated by the 
 government of that country, which con- 
 ducted itself towards the United States in a 
 manner that seemed likely to result in an. 
 other war. By the treaty of Paris England 
 had agreed to surrender the frontier posts 
 held by her forces within the limits of the 
 United States. These were still retained, 
 and were made by the British agents so 
 many centres for stirring up the Indians to 
 acts of hostility against the Americans. 
 Orders were issued to the British naval 
 
 officers to seize and detain all vessels laden 
 with French goods, or with provisions for 
 any of the French colonies. As the Ameri- 
 can ships were largely engaged in trade with 
 France and her colonies, this order threat- 
 ened the commerce of the States with ruin. 
 The feeling of indignation against Eng- / 
 land, caused by these outrages, was increasing 
 throughout the Union, and the country was 
 rapidly drifting into a war with that king- 
 dom. The interests of the United States 
 
 *3?mJ&y* 
 
 demanded peace with all the world, as the 
 country was yet too weak and unsettled to 
 endure another war with safety. This neces- 
 sity was recognized by Washington and his 
 advisers, and the constant aim of the Presi- 
 dent was to avoid, as far as possible, all com- 
 plications which might lead to war. The 
 conduct of Great Britain could not be passed 
 by, and if a settlement of the matter, con- 
 sistent with the honor and interests of the 
 republic could not be arranged, war was in- 
 evitable. 
 
492 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 Anxious to exhaust all peaceful means of 
 settlement, President Washington sent John 
 Jay, the chief justice, to England to enter 
 into negotiations with the British govern- 
 ment for the settlement of all matters in dis- 
 pute between the two countries. Mr. Jay 
 was eminently qualified for the task, both by 
 his remarkable abilities and his great and 
 honorable services to the country since the 
 outbreak of the revolution. He was received 
 in England with great respect, and in the 
 
 course of a few months concluded a treaty, 
 which was submitted to the Senate of the 
 United States for ratification. By the terms 
 of this treaty Great Britain agreed to give up 
 the western posts within two years, to grant 
 to American vessels the privilege of trading 
 with the West Indies upon certain condi- 
 tions, and to admit American ships free of 
 restrictions to the ports of Great Britain and 
 the English East Indian possessions. On 
 the other hand provision was made by the 
 
 United States for the collection of debts due 
 British merchants by American citizens. 
 
 This treaty did not please any party 
 entirely, not even Mr. Jay himself; but it 
 was the best that could be obtained from 
 Great Britain at the time, and as such was 
 accepted by the administration, which threw 
 all its influence in favor of its adoption. It 
 met with very great opposition in the Senate 
 and subjected the president to a great deal 
 of adverse criticism throughout the country. 
 One of the powerful advocates of the treaty 
 was Fisher Ames, of Massachusetts, who 
 did much by his resistless eloquence to 
 insure the adoption of the measure After 
 a fortnight's debate in secret session the 
 Senate advised the ratification of the treaty. 
 
 The Treaty Secures Peace 
 
 The acceptance of this treaty, imperfect 
 and unsatisfactory as it was, secured peace 
 to the United States for a number of years 
 at this most critical period of its history. 
 In 1795 treaties were also negotiated with 
 Spain, by which the boundaries between the 
 United States and Louisiana and Florida 
 were definitely settled. The navigation of 
 the Mississippi was made free to both parties, 
 and the Americans were granted the privi- 
 lege of making New Orleans, for three 
 years, the place of deposit for their trade. 
 
 The commerce of the United States, 
 which was increasing rapidly, was confined 
 chiefly to the New England States. A lucra- 
 tive trade with the countries of Europe 
 bordering the Mediterranean had grown up, 
 but was greatly interfered with by the 
 Algerine pirates, who sallied out from their 
 harbors on the African coast and captured 
 many of the vessels engaged in this trade 
 and sold the crews into slavery. The 
 European powers had purchased exemption 
 from these outrages by paying an annual 
 tribute to the Dey of Algiers. The United 
 
WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 4Q3 
 
 States for the present thought it best to 
 follow the universal custom, and ransomed 
 the captive American sailors by the payment 
 of nearly a million of dollars. At the same 
 time the more sensible policy of establishing a 
 navy for the protection of American com- 
 merce was resolved upon, and in 1795 a bill 
 was passed by Congress for the construction 
 of six first-class frigates. This was the be- 
 ginning of the United States navy. 
 
 Mr. Jefferson had retired from the cabinet 
 at the close of 1793, 
 and after his with- 
 drawal party quarrels 
 ran higher than ever. 
 The motives and con- 
 duct of the President 
 were denounced with 
 great bitterness by his 
 opponents, and he was 
 subjected to consider- 
 able annoyance by 
 these attacks. He 
 continued with firm- 
 ness the course h^ 
 had marked out for 
 himseif, trusting to 
 time and the good 
 sense of his country- 
 men for his vindica- 
 tion. In September, 
 1796, he issued a fare- 
 well address to the 
 people of the United States, in which he 
 announced his purpose to retire from public 
 life at the close of his second term, and 
 delivered to his countrymen such counsels 
 and admonitions as he deemed suited to 
 their future guidance. It was the warn- 
 ing of a father to his children engaged 
 in a difficult and all-important undertak- 
 ing. 
 
 1 It had a most happy effect. It brought 
 up the memory of the great and unselfish 
 
 services of Washington, and enabled his 
 countrymen to see him in his true light. 
 The gratitude of the nation, which had been 
 long obscured by party passions, burst forth 
 in a mighty stream, and from every quarter 
 came evidences of the affection and venera- 
 tion of the American people for their great 
 leader. Congress adopted a reply to the 
 farewell address, expressing the highest con- 
 fidence in the wisdom and integrity of 
 Washington, and during the winter of 
 
 SCENE 
 
 MAMMOTH CAVE, KENTUCKY. 
 
 1796-97 nearly all the State legislatures 
 adopted similar resolutions. 
 
 At the elections held in the fall of 1796 
 the Federalists put forward John Adams as 
 their candidate, while the Republicans sup- 
 ported Thomas Jefferson. The contest was 
 very bitter, and resulted in the election of 
 Mr. Adams. Mr. Jefferson, receiving the 
 next highest number of votes, was declared 
 Vice President, in accordance with the law 
 as it then stood. 
 
494 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 During the administration of President 
 Washington three new States were admitted 
 into the Union, making the whole number 
 of States sixteen. They were Vermont, 
 which was admitted on the fourth of March, 
 1791, making the first new State under the 
 constitution ; Kentucky, which was admitted 
 
 of the presidency the government was new 
 and untried, and its best friends doubted its 
 ability to exist long; the finances" were in 
 confusion and the country was burdened 
 with debt; the disputes with Great Britain 
 threatened to involve the country in a new 
 war; and the authority of the general gov- 
 
 WASHINGTON S HOME AT MOUNT VERNON. 
 
 in 1792 ; and Tennessee, admitted on the 
 first of June, 1796. 
 
 At the close of his term of office, Wash- 
 ington withdrew to his home at Mount Ver- 
 non, to enjoy the repose he had so well 
 earned, and which was so grateful t hj m 
 His administration had been eminently suc- 
 cessful. When he entered upon the duties 
 
 ernment was uncertain and scarcely recog- 
 nized. 
 
 When he left office the state of affairs 
 was changed. The government had been 
 severely tested and had been found equal 
 to any demand made upon it ; the finances 
 had been placed upon a safe and healthy 
 footing, and the debt of the country had 
 
WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 been adjusted to the satisfaction of all parties 
 concerned in it. The disputes with England 
 had been arranged, and the country, no 
 longer threatened with war, was free to 
 devote its energies to its improvement. 
 Industry and commerce were growing rap- 
 idly. The exports from the United States 
 had risen from nineteen millions to over fifty- 
 six millions of dollars, and the imports had 
 
 495 
 
 increased in nearly the same proportion. 
 The rule of non-interference in European 
 quarrels, and of cultivating friendly relations 
 with all the world, had become the settled 
 policy of the republic, and its wisdom had 
 been amply vindicated. The progress of 
 the republic during the eight years of Wash- 
 ington's administration was indeed gratify- 
 ing, and gave promise of a brilliant future. 
 
CHAPTER XXXII 
 
 The Administrations of John Adams and 
 Thomas Jefferson 
 
 inauguration of John Adams — Aggressions of France Upon the United States — The American Commissioners Insulted 
 by the French Government — The Alien and Sedition Laws — The United States Prepare for War with France — France 
 Signifies Her Willingness to Treat — New Commissioners Appointed — Settlement of the Dispute — Hostilities at Sea — 
 Capture of the " Insurgente " and "Vengeance" — Death of Washington — Removal of the Capitol to Washington 
 City — The Second Census — Inauguration of Thomas Jefferson — The President's Message — His First Measures — Ad- 
 mission of Ohio — Louisiana Purchased by the United States — War with the Barbary Powers— Burning of the " Phila- 
 delphia" — Re-election of Mr. Jefferson — Aaron Burr Kills Alexander Hamilton in a Duel — Burr's Subsequent 
 Career — Fulton's Steamboat — Outrages of England and France Upon American Commerce — American Vessels 
 Searched and American Seamen Impressed by England — Efforts to Settle These Questions — Affair of the " Chesa- 
 peake" and "Leopard" — The Embargo — Results of This Measure — Lossei of the Eastern States — Election of Jamos 
 Madison to the Presidency — Repeal of the Embargo — Retirement of Mr. Jefferson. 
 
 ON the fourth of March, 1797, John 
 Adams was inaugurated Presi- 
 dent of the United States, and 
 Thomas Jefferson took the oath 
 of office as Vice President. Mr. Adams was 
 in the sixty-second year of his age, and in the 
 full vigor of health and intellect. He made 
 no changes in the cabinet left by President 
 Washington, and the policy of his adminis- 
 tration corresponded throughout with that 
 of his great predecessor. He came into office 
 at a time when this policy was to be subjected 
 to the severest test, and was to be triumph- 
 antly vindicated by the trial. Mr. Adams 
 began his official career with the declaration 
 of his "determination to maintain peace and 
 inviolate faith with all nations, and neutrality 
 and impartiality with the belligerent powers 
 of Europe." 
 
 The relations of the United States with 
 France had been of an unfriendly nature for 
 some time. Jay's treaty had greatly offended 
 the French government, and the insolent 
 conduct of M. Adet, the French minister to 
 the United States, had led to a suspension 
 of diplomatic intercourse between the two 
 
 496 
 
 republics. The French Directory now pro- 
 ceeded to n\.anifest its disregard of the rights 
 of America by ordering the seizure of all 
 American vessels in its ports laden with 
 English manufactured goods. At the same 
 time the American minister to France, 
 Charles C Pinckney, was treated with such 
 studied insult that he demanded his pass- 
 ports and withdrew to Holland. Privateers 
 were sent out from French ports, which cap^ 
 tured American merchantmen and treated 
 their crews as prisoners of war. 
 
 France also exerted her influence with 
 Spain and Holland to induce them to treat 
 the United States with hostility because of 
 the alleged partiality of Jay's treaty with 
 Great Britain. All this while there was a 
 considerable party in the United States 
 which was anxious for the conclusion of an 
 alliance with France, and which either could 
 not, or would not, see the deliberate purpose 
 of that country to treat v. itb ..he American 
 republic only as a dependent. 
 
 In May, 1797, President Adams called 
 a special session of Congress and laid before 
 it a statement of the relations with France. 
 
ADMINISTRATIONS OF ADAMS AND JEFFERSON. 
 
 The announcement of the insults received by 
 the American minister at the hands of the 
 Directory, and the increased aggressions 
 upon American commerce, aroused a feeling 
 of deep indignation throughout the country, 
 and drew upon the partisans of France in 
 America a considerable amount of deserved 
 odium. 
 
 In the hope that a peaceful and honorable 
 settlement might yet be had, John Marshall 
 and Eldridge Gerry, the former a federalist 
 and the latter a republican, were appointed 
 special commissioners, and were ordered to 
 proceed to Paris and unite with Mr. Pinckney 
 in the negotiation of a treaty which should 
 not conflict with those existing with other 
 nations, and which should place beyond 
 question the right of the United States to 
 maintain their neutrality. 
 
 " Not One Cent for Tribute. 
 
 Marshall and Gerry joined Pinckney in 
 Paris in October, 1798, and made their busi- 
 ness known to the French minister offoreign 
 affairs, the famous Talleyrand. He at first 
 refused to receive the American envoys in an 
 official capacity, and afterwards employed 
 unknown agents to communicate with them, 
 in order that he might be free to disavow any 
 engagement entered into with them. It soon 
 transpired that the object of these secret in- 
 terviews was to extort money from the com- 
 missioners. They were given to understand 
 that if they would pay Talleyrand a certain 
 sum of money for the use of himself and his 
 friends, and would pledge the United States 
 to make a loan to France, negotiations would 
 be begun without delay. 
 
 The answer of the American commission- 
 ers was well expressed in the indignant words 
 of Pinckney : " Millions for defence, not one 
 cent for tribute." Marshall and Pinckney 
 were ordered to quit France at once, but Mr. 
 Gerry was invited to remain and negotiate a 
 '3 2 
 
 497 
 
 treaty. He was nevertheless unable to accom- 
 plish anything. The correspondence between 
 the commissioners and Talleyrand's agents 
 was published in thi United States, and 
 aroused such a storm of indignation that the 
 French party disappeared. It never dared tc 
 make its appearance again. 
 
 JOHN ADAMS. 
 
 About thirty thousand French exiles were 
 residing in the United States at this time, 
 and it was believed by the government that 
 some of these had acted as spies for the 
 Directory. It was known that many had 
 abused the hospitality extended to them by 
 seeking to induce the people of the south 
 and west to join them in an effort to wrest 
 Louisiana and Florida from Spain, and by 
 endeavoring to strengthen the opposition to 
 the efforts of the government to discharge its 
 duty of neutrality towards the European 
 powers. 
 
 In the spring of 1798, in order to remedy 
 this trouble, Congress passed the measures 
 
498 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 known as the " alien and sedition acts," by 
 the first of which the President was em- 
 powered to order out of the country u any 
 foreigner whom he might believe to be dan- 
 gerous to the peace and safety of the United 
 States." By the sedition act it was made a 
 crime, with a very heavy penalty, for any one 
 to " to write, utter, or publish " any " false, 
 scandalous, and malicious writing " against 
 "either House of the Congress of the United 
 States or the President of the United States, 
 
 JOHN MARSHALL. 
 
 with intent to defame, or to bring them, or 
 either of them, into contempt and disrepute." 
 These acts met with great opposition through- 
 out the country, and the latter especially was 
 regarded as an effort on the part of the 
 government to destroy the freedom of the 
 press. 
 
 The alien act was not executed, but a large 
 number of foreigners left the country soon 
 after its passage. Several persons were pro- 
 secuted under the sedition act for their severe 
 
 criticisms of the government, and the result 
 was invariably to increase the ranks of the 
 Republican party, which steadfastly opposed 
 the laws as unconstitutional and violative of 
 the freedom of the people of the Union: 
 
 In the summer of 1798 Mr. Marshall 
 returned from France, and his report con- 
 firmed the statements that had been made 
 respecting the hostile intentions of the gov- 
 ernment of that country. The President 
 submitted to Congress a statement of the 
 disputes between the two republics, and 
 Congress, recognizing the danger of war, 
 began to prepare for it. It was resolved to 
 create a navy, and the three frigates just com- 
 pleted were fitted for sea. 
 
 A State of Defence. 
 
 The President was authorized to nave 
 built, or to purchase or hire twelve ships of 
 war of twenty guns each. An army was 
 ordered to be raised, and the prominent 
 points on the coast were to be placed in a 
 state of defence. Washington was made 
 commander-in-chief of the army, with the 
 rank of Lieutenant-General. He accepted 
 the position, and applied himself with energy 
 to the task of preparing the country for 
 defence. He gave a hearty support to the 
 measures of the President, and used his great 
 influence to secure for them a similar approval 
 on the part of the people. In the winter of 
 1798-99 Congress appropriated a million of 
 dollars to defray the expense of the military 
 preparations, and authorized the construc- 
 tion of six ships of war of seventy-four guns 
 each, and six sloops of war of eighteen guns 
 each. 
 
 The energy and enthusiasm with which 
 the Americans prepared for war opened the 
 eyes of Talleyrand. He had not supposed 
 they would fight, and now that he found 
 they would, he was not willing to add to the 
 difficulties of France by engaging in a new 
 
ADMINISTRATIONS OF ADAMS AND JEFFERSON. 
 
 499 
 
 war. He therefore signified in an informal 
 manner to Mr. Van Murray, the United 
 States minister in Holland, that the French 
 government was willing to renew diplomatic 
 intercourse with the United States. Mr. 
 Adams, upon being informed of this, resolved 
 to make one more effort to secure a peaceful 
 settlement of the quarrel. 
 
 A Council of Peace. 
 
 He sent Oliver Ellsworth, Chief Justice of 
 the United States; William R. Davie and 
 William Van Murray, minister to Holland, 
 as commissioners to treat with the French 
 republic for a settlement of all difficulties 
 between the two countries. In taking this 
 step he greatly offiended many of the leaders 
 of his party, who insisted that overtures for 
 peace should come from France. The most 
 rational and probable solution of Mr. Adams' 
 course, in the absence of direct proof, says 
 the Hon. A. H. Stephens, " is that he acted 
 'under the urgent private advice of Washing- 
 ton. Be that as it may, it proved to be one 
 of the wisest and most beneficent deeds of 
 his life." The commissioners were ordered 
 by the president not to enter France unless 
 they were assured they would be received in 
 a " manner befitting the commissioners of 
 an independent nation." 
 
 Upon reaching Paris the commissioners 
 found that a great change had taken place 
 in the affairs of France. A revolution had 
 unseated the Directory, and Napoleon Bona- 
 parte was at the head of the government as 
 first consul. Commissioners were appointed 
 to meet the American envoys, and negotia- 
 tions were begun and carried forward with 
 5uch success that on the thirtieth of Novem- 
 ber, 1800, a treaty of peace was signed 
 between the United States and France. 
 
 In the meantime, though war was not 
 actually declared, hostilities had begun. 
 More than three hundred merchant vessels 
 
 were licensed to carry arms for their defence. 
 On the ninth of February, 1799, the Ameri- 
 can frigate " Constellation " captured the 
 French frigate " LTnsurgente," of about equal 
 force, after a severe engagement of an hour 
 and a quarter, inflicting upon her a severe 
 loss in killed and wounded. Somewhat later 
 the "Constellation " encountered the French 
 frigate "La Vengeance," of superior force, 
 and in an engagement of about five hours' 
 duration silenced her fire and inflicted upon 
 her a loss of one hundred and fifty-six men 
 in killed and wounded. The French vessel 
 succeeded in making her escape. These 
 successes were very gratifying to the Ameri- 
 cans, as they showed what their navy could 
 accomplish if given a fair trial. The news 
 of the conclusion of peaee put a stop to 
 hostilities. The army was disbanded, but 
 the navy was kept afloat and the coast 
 defences were maintained. 
 
 Before the arrival of the new treaty the 
 country was called upon to mourn the loss 
 of its most illustrious citizen, George Wash- 
 ington. He took cold while riding over his 
 estate at Mount Vernon, and was seized 
 with a violent sore throat, from the effects of 
 which he died on the fourteenth of Decern 
 ber, 1799, in the sixty-eighth year of hi,, 
 age. He was buried in his family vault at 
 Mount Vernon, where his ashes still lie. 
 
 Honors to the Dead Patriot. 
 
 The highest honors were paid to his 
 memory by Congress and by the various 
 State governments, and in all parts of the 
 Union a universal mourning was held for 
 . the Father of his Country. Not less sincere 
 were the tributes paid in foreign lands to the 
 memory of the illustrious dead. Upon the 
 receipt of the sad news the flags of the 
 Channel fleet of Great Britain were placed 
 at half-mast by order of the Admiral Lord 
 Bridport. Napoleon, then first consul of 
 
5<x> 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 France, caused the standards of the French 
 army to be draped in mourning for ten days 
 and announced the news to the army in the 
 orders of the day. The proudest tribute of 
 all to the grandeur and purity of the charac- 
 ter of Washington is the unceasing and ever 
 increasing love and veneration with which 
 
 session of Congress was opened in the un- 
 finished capitol of Washington. 
 
 The elections for President and Vice- 
 President were held in the autumn of 1800. 
 Mr. Adams was the Federalist candidate for 
 the Presidency, and Charles Cotesworth 
 Pinckney the candidate of that party fo> 
 
 WASHINGTON S GRAVE, MOUNT VERNON 
 
 his memory is cherished by his country-' 
 men. 
 
 During the summer of the year 1800 the 
 seat of the general government was removed 
 from Philadelphia to the new federal city of 
 Washington, in the District of Columbia. 
 On the twenty-second of November the 
 
 Vice-President. The Republican or Demo- 
 cratic party nominated Thomas Jefferson for 
 the Presidency, and Colonel Aaron Burr, of 
 New York, for the Vice-Presidency. 
 
 The alien and sedition laws had rendered 
 the Federalist party so unpopular that the 
 electors chosen at the polls failed to make a 
 
ADMINISTRATIONS OF ADAMS AND JEFFERSON. 
 
 501 
 
 choice, and the election was thrown upon the 
 House of Representatives, according to the 
 terms of the Constitution. On the seventeenth 
 of February, 1 801, after thirty-six ballots, the 
 House elected Thomas Jefferson President, 
 and Aaron Burr Vice-President, of the 
 
 capitol, in the city of Washington, on the 
 fourth of March, 1801. He was in his fifty- 
 eighth year, and had long been regarded as 
 one of the most illustrious men in America. 
 He was the author of the Declaration of In- 
 dependence, had represented the country as 
 
 THOMAS JEFFERSON. 
 
 United States, for a term of four years, from 
 and after the fourth of March, 1801. 
 
 The second census of the United States, 
 taken in 1800, showed the population of the 
 country to be 5,319,762 souls. 
 
 Thomas Jefferson, the third President of 
 the United States, was inaugurated at the new 
 
 minister to France, had served in the cabinet 
 of General Washington as Secretary of State, 
 and had filled the high office of Vice-Presi- 
 dent during the administration of Mr. Adams. 
 He was the founder of the Democratic party, 
 and was regarded by it with an enthusiastic 
 devotion which could see no flaw in his 
 
FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 502 
 
 character. By the Federalists he was de- 
 nounced with intense bitterness as a Jacobin, 
 and an enemy of organized government. He 
 was unquestionably a believer in the largest 
 freedom possible to man, but he was too 
 deeply versed in the lessons of statesman- 
 ship, and was too pure a patriot to entertain 
 for a moment the levelling principles with 
 which his enemies charged him. Under him 
 the government of the republic suffered no 
 diminution of strength, but his administration 
 was a gain to the country. 
 
 Mr. Jefferson began his administration by 
 • eeking to undo as far as possible the evil 
 
 AARON BURR. 
 
 effects of the sedition act of 1798. A number 
 of persons were in prison in consequence of 
 sentences under this act at the time of his 
 inauguration. These were at once pardoned 
 by the President and released from prison. 
 
 At the meeting of the seventh Congress, in 
 December, 1801, President Jefferson, in pur- 
 suance of an announcement made some time 
 before, inaugurated the custom which has 
 since prevailed of sending a written message 
 to each House of Congress, giving his views 
 on public affairs and the situation of the 
 country. Previous to this the President had 
 always met the two houses upon their assem- 
 
 bling, and had addreseed them in person. A 
 strong Democratic majority controlled this 
 Congress, and gave a hearty support to the 
 President. 
 
 The obnoxious measures of the last admin- 
 tration, such as the internal taxes, the taxes 
 on stills, distilled spirits, refined sugars, car- 
 riages, stamped paper, etc., were repealed. 
 In accordance with a suggestion of the Presi- 
 dent a period of naturalization was reduced 
 from fourteen to five years. Measures were 
 also set on foot for the redemption of the 
 public debt, and it was provided that seven 
 millions three hundred thousand dollars 
 should be annually appropriated as a sinking 
 fund for that purpose. Another act, of which 
 the wisdom was not so apparent, was passed 
 for the reduction of the army. 
 
 Rapid Settlement of Ohio. 
 
 During the interval which had elapsed since 
 the orginzation of the Territory of the North- 
 west, emigrants had bjen pouring ; nto the 
 southern and eastern part of it with great 
 rapidity. In one year twenty thousand new 
 settlers were added to the population of the 
 Territory of Ohio. The population had now 
 become so large that the eastern part of the 
 northwest Territory applied for admission 
 into the Union as a separate State. Its 
 request was granted, and on the nineteenth 
 of February it w.\s admitted into the Union, 
 as the State of Ohio, with a population of 
 seventy thousand. 
 
 In 1 80 1 France by a secret treaty received 
 back from Spain the Territory of Louisiana. 
 The French did not occupy the country, but 
 left it under Spanish rule. In 1803 the 
 Spanish governor of New Orleans, in viola- 
 tion of the treaty of 1795, closed the port of 
 New Orleans to American commerce. This 
 act aroused the most intense indignation 
 among the people along the tributaries of 
 the Mississippi, who were thus cut of from 
 
ADMINISTRATIONS OF ADAMS AND JEFFERSON. 
 
 503 
 
 the sea, and it was with difficulty that they 
 could be restrained from an attempt to take 
 possession of Louisiana. 
 
 Mr. Jefferson had long been anxious to 
 obtain for the United States the country 
 bordering the lower Mississippi, as he was 
 convinced that the power holding the mouth 
 of that river must of necessity control the 
 great valley through which it flows. Accord- 
 ingly, Robert R. Livingston, the American 
 minister at Paris, was ordered to open nego- 
 tiations with the French government for the 
 purchase of Louisiana. 
 
 Purchase of Louisiana. 
 
 He found this an easier task than he had 
 expected, for Napoleon, who was on the eve 
 of a great European war, was much in need 
 of money, and was by no means anxious to 
 add to his troubles by being obliged to 
 defend Louisiana. A bargain was soon con- 
 cluded by which the United States became 
 the possessors of the whole region of 
 Louisiana, from the Mississippi to the 
 Pacific, embracing over a million of square 
 miles. 
 
 The United States paid to France the sum 
 of $15,000,000 for this immense region, and 
 guaranteed to the then inhabitants all the 
 rights of American citizens. " This acces- 
 sion of territory," said Napoleon, upon the 
 completion of the purchase, "strengthens 
 forever the power of the United States, and 
 I have just given to England a maritime rival 
 that will sooner or later humble her pride.'' 
 
 This purchase was of the highest import- 
 ance. It about doubled the area of the 
 United States, and placed the whole valley 
 of the Mississippi within the territory of the 
 republic. It was naturally a most popular 
 act, and was approved by the entire nation, 
 with the exception of a small number of the 
 old Federalist leaders. Congress divided 
 this great region into two territories — the 
 
 Territory of Orleans, corresponding to the 
 present State of Louisiana, and the District 
 of Louisiana, comprising the remainder of 
 the purchase. 
 
 Mention has been made of the payment of 
 tribute to the dey of Algiers by the United 
 States during the administration of Wash- 
 ington. Previous to 1801 the United States 
 expended nearly two million dollars in pur- 
 chasing exemption from capture for its mer- 
 chant vessels in the Mediterranean. These 
 payments were made to all the Barbary 
 
 'WC/A 
 
 
 powers, Tunis, Tripoli, Algiers and MorcecG 
 The tribute for 1800 was taken to Algiers 
 by Captain William Bainbridge, in the fiigate 
 " George Washington." Nothing could be 
 more distasteful to the gallant BainbHdge, 
 but he had to obey orders. While thus 
 engaged, the dey of Algiers told him to take 
 the tribute of the dey to the Sultan ai Con- 
 stantinople, and to haul down his own flag 
 
5°4 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 and run up that of Algiers. This Bainbridge castle guns in the harbor held Bainbridge ai 
 refused, whereupon the dey insolently said, | their mercy, he took the advice of the Araer 
 
 *d 
 
 
 NAPOLEON I. 
 
 " You are my slaves ; for if you are not, 
 why do you pay me tribute ? I have the 
 right to order you as I please." As the 
 
 lean consul and obeyed the orders of his 
 master, the dey, but the captain expressed 
 the hope that he might deliver the next 
 
ADMINISTRATIONS OF ADAMS AND JEFFERSON. 
 
 tribute from the throats of his cannon. As 
 the American republic lay at the other side 
 of the Atlantic, and its ships of war were not 
 often seen in the Mediterranean, the African 
 pirates did not trouble themselves to comply 
 with their agreements, 
 and continued their 
 outrages upon Amer- 
 ican ships in spite of 
 the tribute paid them. 
 In 1 80 1 the bey of 
 Tripoli, dissatisfied 
 with the tribute paid 
 him, declared war 
 against the United 
 States, and a number 
 of American war ves- 
 sels were sent to the 
 Mediterranean to pro- 
 tect the commerce of 
 their country in that 
 sea. In 1803 Com- 
 modore Preble was 
 sent to the Mediter- 
 ranean with a fleet. 
 The frigate "Philadel- 
 phia " was stationed 
 to blockade Tripoli, 
 while Preble, with the 
 remainder of the ves- 
 sels, sought to punish 
 the emperor of Mo- 
 rocco by an attack on 
 Tangiers. While thus 
 engaged the "Phila- 
 delphia " ran ashore 
 in chasing an Algerine 
 cruiser. In this help- 
 less condition she was 
 surrounded by Tripo- 
 
 litan gunboats and captured after a fight 
 which lasted the entire day. Captain Bain- 
 bridge, her commander, and three hundred 
 of her crew were made prisoners. The offi- 
 
 505 
 
 cers were held for ransom, but the seamen 
 were reduced to slavery. 
 
 On the fifth of February, 1804, Lieutenant 
 Stephen Decatur, with a picked crew of 
 seventy-six men, entered the harbor of Tripoli 
 
 CAPTAIN (AFTERWARD COMMODORE; BAINBRIDGE AND THE DEV OF ALGIERS. 
 
 in a small schooner named the " Intrepid."' 
 Placing his vessel alongside of the " Phila- 
 delphia " by night, he boarded the frigate as 
 she lay under the guns of the castle and the 
 
5o6 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 Tripolitan licet, drove the Turkish crew into 
 the sea, set fire to the frigate in every part, 
 and retreated from the harbor without the 
 loss of a man. 
 
 During the year 1804 the American fleet 
 repeatedly bombarded Tripoli, and did con- 
 siderable damage to it. The war went on 
 until the summer of 1805, when the bey of 
 
 In the fall of 1804 Mr. lefferson was 
 elected president for a second term, but this 
 time Colonel Burr was dropped by his party, 
 who nominated and elected George Clinton, 
 of New York, vice-president in his place. 
 Burr had at last experienced the reward of 
 his insincerity : both parties had come to 
 distrust him. After his defeat for the vice • 
 
 duel between burr and Hamilton. 
 
 Tripoli asked for peace, and a treaty was 
 made by which the Tripolitan pirates sur- 
 rendered their captives on payment of a 
 ransom, and agreed to refrain from aggres- 
 sions upon the commerce of the United 
 States in future without payment of further 
 tribute. For some years the American ves- 
 sels were safe from the outrages of the 
 Barbary pirates. 
 
 presidency he had been nominated by his 
 party as their candidate for governor of New 
 York. He was warmly opposed by Alex- 
 ander Hamilton, who was mainly instru- 
 mental in bringing about his defeat. Burr 
 never forgave Hamilton for his course in this 
 election, and took advantage of the first 
 opportunity to challenge him to a duel. 
 They met at Weehawken, on the banks of 
 
ADMINISTRATIONS OF ADAMS AND JEFFERSON. 
 
 507 
 
 the Hudson, opposite New York, on the 
 eleventh of July, 1804. 
 
 Hamilton, who had accepted the challenge 
 in opposition to his better judgment, and 
 who had expressed his intention not to fire 
 at Burr, was mortally wounded, and died 
 within twenty-four hours. In him perished 
 one of the brightest intellects and most ear- 
 nest patriots of the republic. His loss was 
 
 remaining years were passed in restless 
 intrigue. In 1805 he went west, and there 
 undertook the organization of a military 
 movement of some sort, which from the 
 secrecy with which it was conducted, was 
 generally regarded as treasonable and in- 
 tended for his own aggrandizement. In 
 1806 he was arrested by the United States, 
 and after a prolonged trial, during which he 
 
 FULTON S FIRST STEAMBOAT. 
 
 regarded as second only to that of Wash- 
 ington, and the sad news of his death was 
 received in all parts of the country with 
 profound and unaffected sorrow. A feeling 
 of deep and general indignation was aroused 
 against Burr, who found it expedient to 
 withdraw from New York and retire to 
 Georgia until the excitement had subsided. 
 
 The murder of Hamilton, for it was nothing 
 else, closed Burr's political career. His 
 
 defended himself with great ability, he was 
 acquitted of the charge of treason. His sub- 
 sequent career was obscure, and he died in 
 1836, friendless and alone. He was a man 
 of great ability : but he failed to put his 
 great talents to an honest use. 
 
 In the year 1807 a great change was made 
 in the system of navigation by Robert Ful- 
 ton, a native of Pennsylvania, who built and 
 successfully navigated the first steamboat. 
 
*o8 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 He named it the " Clermont," and made the 
 "o\-age from New York to Albany, a dis- 
 tance of about one hundred and fifty miles, 
 in thirty-six hours. From this time steam 
 navigation rapidly superseded the old sys- 
 tem of sailing vessels in the waters of the 
 United states and exercised a powerful in- 
 fluence in the development of the wealth and 
 prosperity of the country. 
 
 Since the beginning of the century France 
 and England had been at war with each 
 other, and their quarrels had drawn the 
 whole European wcrld into the struggle. 
 The administration of Mr. Jefferson had 
 continued the neutrality of its predecessors, 
 I ut in a fit of mistaken economy it exhibited 
 the greatest hostility to the navy, which had 
 been reduced to the most inefficient state 
 possible. The commerce of th^ Union had 
 grown with remarkable rapidity, and the 
 reed of a navy for its protection was now 
 greater than ever. The administration 
 could not be brought to recognize this fact, 
 however, and it regarded the navy as of no 
 other use than to enforce the revenue laws 
 in its home waters. 
 
 Seizure of American Vessels. 
 
 The general character of the European war 
 had thrown the commerce of the old world 
 into the hands of the few nations which were 
 not engaged in the struggle. The United 
 States obtained the largest share of this 
 trade, but were not left long to enjoy it in 
 peace. The efforts of Great Britain and 
 France to injure each other had caused them 
 to extend their attacks to neutral nations. 
 The British government, by its " orders in 
 council," declared all vessels engaged in 
 conveying West India produce from the 
 United States to Europe legal prizes. 
 
 This measure was intended to cripple 
 France, and at the same time to injure the 
 United States, which had become too suc- 
 
 cessful a commercial rival to England. A 
 number of American vessels were seized and 
 condemned upon this pretext. Great indig- 
 nation was expressed throughout the United 
 States, but the government did nothing to 
 remedy the trouble. In May, 1806, Great 
 Britain declared the European coast, from 
 Brest to the mouth of the river Elbe, in a 
 state of blockade, thus forbidding neutral 
 vessels to trade with any port within these 
 prescribed limits on pain of capture and con- 
 fiscation. This high-handed measure was a 
 direct blow to the United States. 
 
 Mutterings of War. 
 
 It was met on the part of France by an 
 act equally unjustifiable. Napoleon issued 
 his famous "Berlin decree," by which he 
 declared the whole coast of Great Britain in 
 a state of blockade, and forbade the intro- 
 duction of English goods into France, and 
 the admission into French ports of any 
 neutral vessel that should first touch at an 
 English port. In answer to this decree 
 Great Britain forbade all trade with France 
 by neutral nations. Napoleon thereupon 
 issued his " Milan decree," confiscating not 
 only the vessels and cargoes that should 
 violate the " Berlin decree," but also such as 
 submit to be searched by the E iglish. Thus 
 the commerce of the world was placed at 
 the mercy of these two nations. The United 
 States were the chief sufferers by these arbi- 
 trary measures. Their ships were captured 
 by both British and French cruisers, and their 
 remonstrances produced no cessation of the 
 outrages. 
 
 It was not possible to do anything for the 
 protection of the commerce of the country, 
 as the mistaken policy of the administration 
 had deprived it of an efficient navy. The 
 whole Atlantic seaboard demanded a change 
 in this respect, and petitions poured in upon 
 Congress asking for the construction of more 
 
ADMINISTRATIONS OF ADAMS AND JEFFERSON. 
 
 509 
 
 vessels of war and for protection from the 
 aggressions of the European powers. The 
 only result of these petitions was a recom- 
 mendation from the president to Congress 
 to build more gunboats. It was not possi- 
 ble to go to war with both England and 
 France, and the American government was 
 left to make a choice as to which power 
 it would undertake to settle the question 
 with. The popular feeling was stronger 
 against England, which, being the most 
 active power at sea, was the principal ag- 
 gressor, and the events to be related finally 
 turned the scale against England. 
 
 Remonstrance Against British Outrages. 
 
 The British government maintained the 
 doctrine that no subject could expatriate 
 himself or become a citizen of another coun- 
 try. This was the opposite of the view held 
 by the United States, which welcomed emi- 
 grants from other countries, bestowed upon 
 them the rights of citizenship, and in their 
 new character of adopted citizens protected 
 them. The commanders of the British men- 
 of-war were accustomed to stop American 
 vessels on the high seas and search them for 
 deserters. 
 
 Under this head they included all persons 
 born within the dominions of Great Britain, 
 whether naturalized American citizens or 
 not. When found on American vessels 
 these persons were removed by force and 
 compelled to serve on board English ships of 
 war. The British officers did not confine 
 these impressments to " deserters," but 
 seized and forced into their service great 
 numbers of native-born Americans, who 
 were thus torn from their homes and con- 
 signed to a slavery which was bitter and 
 cruel to them. 
 
 The government of the United States 
 addressed urgent remonstrances to that of 
 Great Britain against these outrages, and 
 
 finally, in the spring of 1806, sent William 
 Pinckney as joint commissioner with James 
 Monroe, then minister to England, for the 
 purpose of negotiating a treaty which should 
 put a stop to the acts complained of. The 
 commissioners appointed by Great Britain 
 expressed the desire of their country not to 
 impress American seaman, and their willing- 
 ness to redress as promptly as possible any 
 mistake of the kind. They declined to 
 relinquish the right to search for deserters, 
 
 as it would be ruinous to the English navy. 
 The truth is Great Britain treated her sea- 
 men with such cruelty that they would have 
 deserted by the thousand had they been 
 assured of protection from arrest. 
 
 The British commissioners declared that 
 while their country would not relinquish the 
 right of search and impressment, strict orders 
 would be issued to their naval commanders 
 to use the right with caution and moder- 
 ation. The British government itself was 
 sincerely desirous of conciliating the United 
 

 5io 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 States, but its naval commanders, tempted 
 by the weakness of the American navy, paid 
 no attention to its orders and conducted 
 themselves with haughty insolence towards 
 American vessels, seizing and searching 
 them, and forcing men from their decks with 
 the same activity as before, and rarely miss- 
 ing' an occasion to insult the flag of the 
 
 upon an act which threw the relations be- 
 tween the two countries into a more hope- 
 less state than ever. The United States 
 frigate " Chesapeake," 38, under the com- 
 mand of Commodore Barron, was about to 
 sail for a European station. Strict orders 
 were issued to her officers not to enlist any 
 British subject, knowing him to be such ; but 
 
 OFFICERS OF THE CHESAPEAKE SURRENDERING THEIR SWORDS. 
 
 republic. Meanwhile the commissioners 
 concluded a treaty for ten years between the 
 United States and Great Britain. It was on 
 the whole more advantageous than Jay's 
 treaty, but the president was not satisfied 
 with it, and assumed the responsibility of 
 rejecting it, in the spring of 1807, without 
 submitting it to the Senate. 
 
 A British naval commander now ventured 
 
 it was said that four of her crew were desert- 
 ers from the British frigate " Melampus." 
 Several British war vessels were lying in the 
 Chesapeake Bay, and one of these, the 
 " Leopard," a fifty-gun frigate, put to sea a 
 few hours before the " Chesapeake " sailed. 
 The latter vessel sailed before she was fully 
 ready for sea, and the work of getting the 
 ship in order was still in progress, when she 
 
ADMINISTRATIONS OF ADAMS AND JEFFERSON. 
 
 5" 
 
 was hailed off the capes by the " Leopard," 
 under the pretence of sending despatches to 
 Europe. 
 
 A lieutenant of the British frigate came 
 on board and demanded the surrender of the 
 four men we have mentioned. Commodore 
 Barron refused the demand on the ground 
 that there were no such men on board. The 
 lieutenant then returned to his ship, and the 
 " Leopard " opened fire upon the " Chesa- 
 peake," and killed three of her men and 
 wounded eighteen others. The " Chesa- 
 peake" was utterly unprepared for resist- 
 ance, and Barron struck his colors after a 
 single gun had been fired. The four men 
 were taken from the " Chesapeake," the 
 " Leopard " sailed for Halifax, and the Amer- 
 ican frigate returned to Norfolk. 
 
 The Embargo Act. 
 
 The news of this outrage excited the pro- 
 foundest indignation throughout the coun- 
 try. On the second of July, 1807, the presi 
 dent issued a proclamation ordering all 
 British vessels of war to depart from Ameri- 
 can waters, and the people were warned 
 against holding any intercourse with them. 
 A special session of Congress was called, 
 and the American minister at London was 
 ordered to demand satisfaction for the out- 
 rage. 
 
 The British government had received infor- 
 mation of the affair before the arrival of the 
 American demand. The action of the com- 
 mander of the " Leopard" was disavowed, 
 and a special messenger was sent to the 
 United States to arrange the matter. Great 
 Britain disclaimed the right to search vessels 
 of war, and the excitement was quieted for a 
 time. 
 
 In Deceember, 1806, as the outrages upon 
 American commerce were continued, Con- 
 gress, at the recommendation of the presi- 
 dent, passed the " Embargo Act," by which 
 
 all merchant vessels of the United States 
 were prevented from leaving the ports of this 
 country. This measure entirely put an end 
 to the intercourse between the United States 
 and the European nations, 
 
 James Madison Elected President. 
 
 In the election of 1808 Mr Jefferson foU 
 lowing the example of Washington, declined 
 to be a candidate for a third term, and the 
 Democratic or administration party support- 
 ed James Madison for the Presidency, and 
 George Clinton for the Vice-Presidency. 
 They were elected by large majorities ; but 
 the effect of the embargo was seen in the 
 casting of the electoral votes of the five New 
 England States against the administration. 
 
 The disaffection of the New England States 
 induced Mr. Jefferson, just before the expira- 
 tion of his term of office, to recommend to 
 Congress the repeal of the embargo act. His 
 opinion was unchanged as to the propriety 
 of the embargo, but he recommended it? 
 repeal as a measure of peace and concilia 
 tion. The law was repealed on the first o' 
 March, 1809, and in the same month Con- 
 gress passed an act prohibiting trade with 
 France and England. 
 
 At the close of his term of office Mr, 
 Jefferson withdrew from public life, and 
 retired to his home at Montecello, in Virginia. 
 The wisdom and success of the general policy 
 of his administration had far outweighed his 
 mistakes, and he retired from office with 
 undiminished popularity, and with the res- 
 pect and confidence of the nation. Indeed 
 his popularity was greater at the close of his 
 administration than at the beginning — a rare 
 and gratifying reward to a public servant. 
 His great services in the revolution, his draft 
 of the Declaration of Independence, his 
 acquisition of Louisiana, and the purity and 
 grandeur of his character, placed him, in the 
 public estimation, next to Washington. 
 
CHAPTER XXXIII 
 
 The Administration of James Madison — The Second 
 
 War with England 
 
 'toauguration of Mr. Madison — Negotiations with Mr. Erskine — Their Failure — Seizure of American Vessels in France* • 
 Sufferings of American Ship-Owners — Great Britain Stations Her Ships of War Off American Ports — Affair of the 
 " President " and " Little Belt " — Trouble with the Northwestern Indians — Tecumseh — Battle of Tippecanoe — Meet- 
 ing of the Twelfth Congress — Measures for Defence — Admission of Louisiana Into ihe Union — Death of George 
 Clinton — The British Ultimatum — War Declared Against Great Britain — Opposition to the War — The Biitish Offer of 
 Settlement Rejected — The War for " Free Trade and the Sailors' Rights " — Mr. Madison Reelected — Campaign of 
 1812 — Preparations for the Invasion of Canada- -General Hull Surrenders Detroit to the British — Loss or the North- 
 western Frontier — Failure of the Attack on Queenstown — Exploits of the Navy — Capture of the " Guerriere " by the 
 " Constitution "—The Privateers — Russia Offers to Mediate Between the United States and England — Financial 
 Affairs — Harrison's Campaign — Massacre at the River Raisin — Defence of Forts Meigs and Stephenson — Perry's Vic- 
 tory on Lake Erie — Battle of the Thames — Death of Tecumseh — Recovery of the Northwest — Capture A York — 
 British Attack on Sackett's Harbor Repulsed — Removal of General Dearborn — Failure of the Campaign on the Lower 
 Lakes — The Creek War — Jackson's Victories — Naval Affairs — The British Outrages in Chesapeake Bay — Negoti- 
 ations for Peace — Capture of Fort Erie — Battles of Chippewa and Lundy's Lane— Siege of Fort Erie — Successes of 
 the Americans — Advance of Prevost — Battle of Plattsburg — Macdonough's Victory on Lake Champlain — Battle of 
 Bladensburg — Capture of Washington — Destruction of the Public Buildings by the British —Attack on Baltimore — 
 Death of General Ross — "The Star Spangled Banner "—The British Attack on the New England Coast — Oppo- 
 sition of New England to the War — The Hartford Convention — The British in Florida — General Jackson Expels 
 Them — Jackson at New Orleans — Arrival of the British Expedition Oft the Coast — Vigorous Measures of Jackson — 
 Battle of New Orleans — Defeat of the British — Naval Affairs — The Treaty of Peace — The Barbary Powers Humbled— 
 The Tariff — The Bank of the United States — Admission of Indiana — James Monroe Elected President. 
 
 JAMES MADISON, the fourth presi- 
 dent of the United States, was inaug- 
 urated at Washington on the fourth 
 of March, 1809. He was in the fifty- 
 eighth year of his age, and had long been 
 one of the most prominent men in the 
 Union. He had borne a distinguished part 
 in the convention of 1787, and was the 
 author of the Virginia resolutions of 1786, 
 which brought about the assembling of this 
 convention. He had entered the convention 
 as one of the most prominent leaders of the 
 national party, which favored the consolida- 
 tion of the States into one distinct and 
 supreme nation, and had acted with Ran- 
 dolph, Hamilton, Wilson, Morris, and King, 
 in seeking to bring about such a result. 
 When it was found impossible to carry out 
 S12 
 
 this plan Mr. Madison gave his cordial sup- 
 port to the system which was finally adopted 
 by the convention ; and while the constitu- 
 tion was under discussion by the States, he 
 united with Hamilton and Jay in earnestly 
 recommending the adoption of the constitu- 
 tion by the States, in a series of able articles, 
 to which the general title of the " Federalist " 
 was given. 
 
 After the organization of the government 
 Mr. Madison was a member of the House of 
 Representatives, and was regarded as one of 
 the leaders of the Federalist party, and gave 
 to Hamilton his cordial support in the 
 finance measures of that minister. Towards 
 the close of Washington's administration, 
 however, Mr. Madison's political views 
 underwent a great change. He was a near 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES MADISON. 
 
 513 
 
 neighbor and warm friend of Mr. Jefferson, 
 and was greatly influenced by the opinions 
 and the strong personal character of that 
 great statesman. As the political contro- 
 versies of the times deepened he became more 
 and more inclined to- 
 wards the Republican 
 or " Strict Construc- 
 tion " party, and in 
 Mr. Adams' adminis- 
 tration took his posi- 
 tion as one of the 
 leaders of that party. 
 
 At the time of his 
 election to the Presi- 
 dency, Mr. Jefferson 
 having withdrawn 
 from public life, Mr. 
 Madison was the re- 
 cognized leader of the 
 Democratic party, as 
 the Republican party 
 had come to be called. 
 In 1799 his famous 
 report upon the Vir- 
 ginia resolutions cf 
 1798 stamped him as 
 one of the first states- 
 men in America, and 
 this report has always 
 been regarded by suc- 
 ceeding generations 
 as the most masterly 
 exposition of the true 
 principles of tne con- 
 stitution ever penned. 
 During the whole of 
 Mr. Jefferson's admi- 
 nistration Mr, Madison served as secretary 
 of state, and not only added to his great fame 
 by his eminent services in that capacity, but 
 prepared himself for the difficult duties of 
 the presidency. 
 
 Mr. Madison had opposed the embargo, 
 33 
 
 while sustaining the general foreign policy 
 of Mr. Jefferson, but was in favor of the non- 
 intercourse act, which forbade the country 
 to trade with England and France. This 
 act contained a clause which provided that 
 
 JAMES MADISON. 
 
 it should cease to apply to either or both of 
 them as soon as they should repeal their 
 " decrees," or " orders in council," affecting 
 the commerce of the United States. 
 
 Mr. Erskine, the British minister to the 
 United States, a man of noble and generous 
 
5H 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 character, was anxious that the differences 
 between the two countries should be settled 
 amicably, and he entered heartily into nego- 
 tiations with the American government for 
 this purpose. In accordance with the in- 
 structions he had received from England, he 
 believed himself authorized to inform the 
 American government that the " orders in 
 council " of Great Britain would be revoked 
 by that government, as far as they applied 
 to the commerce of the United States, and 
 to offer " a suitable provision for the widows 
 and orphans of those who were killed on 
 board the ' Chesapeake.' " Upon these 
 assurances the President, on the nineteenth 
 of April, 1810, issued a proclamation sus- 
 pending the non-intercourse act, as to Eng- 
 land, after the tenth of June following. 
 
 Seizure of American Ships. 
 
 The news was received with joy all ovt/ 
 the country, and in the course of a few weeks 
 over one thousand vessels sailed from the 
 United States, laden with American pro- 
 ducts, for foreign ports. They had hardly 
 gotten to sea when the President was In- 
 formed by the British government that Mr. 
 Erskine had exceeded his powers in promis- 
 ing the withdrawal of the " orders in coun- 
 cil." The President immediately issued a 
 second proclamation, withdrawing his first, 
 and matters resumed their old footing. Mr. 
 Erskine was recalled, and a Mr. Jackson was 
 appointed in his place. The failure of the 
 negotiations with Erskine had greatly morti- 
 fied not only the President and his cabinet, 
 but the whole nation, and Mr. Jackson was 
 coldly received. That gentleman adopted a 
 tone and style in his correspondence with the 
 secretary of state, which were so offensive 
 that the President refused to hold communi- 
 cation with him, and demanded his recall. 
 All the diplomatic intercourse between the 
 two countries thus came to an end. 
 
 The outrages upon American commerce 
 continued. Danish privateers almost drove 
 the American merchantmen from the Baltic. 
 The American ship-owners asked permission 
 to arm their vessels for their own defence, as 
 the government had not a navy sufficient to 
 protect them ; but their petition was refused 
 by Congress, on the ground that such a state 
 of affairs would be equivalent to war. The 
 sentiment of the people of the country was 
 rapidly settling in favor of war, and they 
 could see little difference between the exist- 
 ing state of affairs and open hostilities. 
 France was equally guilty with Great Britain. 
 In the spring of 18 10 Napoleon issued a 
 decree by which any American vessel enteiv 
 ing any port of France, or of any country 
 under French control, was made liable to 
 seizure and confiscation. The decree was 
 held back for six weeks after its date, with 
 the deliberate design of involving as many 
 American ships as possible in the ruin 
 intended for them. The first intimation given 
 to the United States of its existence was the 
 seizure of one hundred and thirty-two Amer- 
 ican ships in the French ports. They were 
 shortly afterwards sold with their cagoes, 
 and added the sum of eight millions of dol- 
 lars to the French treasury. The government 
 of the United States remonstrated against 
 this high-handed outrage, but to no purpose, 
 until Napoleon's want of money induced him 
 to adopt a more honest course. 
 
 Great Britain's Unlawful Acts. 
 
 About the middle of the year 18 10 the 
 American minister at Paris was informed 
 that the Berlin and Milan decrees were re- 
 voked, and would cease to have effect after 
 the first of November of that year. In accord- 
 ance with this information the President, on 
 the first of November, 1810, issued a procla- 
 mation suspending the non-intercourse act 
 with respect to France, and announcing that 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES MADISON. 
 
 515 
 
 the provisions of the act would be continued 
 with respect to Great Britain unless her 
 "orders in council" should be revoked 
 within three months from that date. 
 
 The President also called the attention of 
 the British government to the repeal of the 
 French decrees, and as the " orders in 
 council " were based upon these decrees, 
 urged their repeal. Great Britain replied that 
 the evidence of the revocation of the Berlin 
 and Milan decrees was insufficient, and that 
 the non-intercourse acts of Congress and the 
 President's proclamation were partial and 
 unjust. This '"answer was regarded in the 
 United States as evidence of Great Britain's 
 deliberate intention to continue her outrages 
 upon this country, and very greatly increased 
 the popular desire for war. England persisted 
 in her determination to enforce her " orders 
 in council," and even went to the inexcusable 
 length of stationing her war vessels off the 
 principal harbors of the United. States for 
 the purpose of intercepting our merchant- 
 men, and injuring our commerce. 
 
 British Sloop Disabled. 
 
 While matters were in this unsettled con- 
 dition, the American frigate " President," on 
 the evening of the sixteenth of May, 181 1, 
 encountered a strange vessel off the mouth 
 of the Delaware. As the dusk of the evening 
 was too deep for Commodore Rodgers to 
 distinguish the stranger's nationality, he 
 hailed her, and was insolently answered by 
 a gun from her. He replied with a broad- 
 side, and after an action of twenty minutes 
 the stranger was disabled. Rodgers then 
 hailed again, and was answered that the dis- 
 abled vessel was the British sloop of war 
 " Little Belt." She was greatly damaged, and 
 had thirty-two of her crew killed and wound- 
 ed. The " President" was scarcely injured, 
 and had but one man slightly wounded. 
 
 A different statement of the affair was ren- 
 
 dered to his government by each of the com- 
 manding officers, and was accepted by each 
 government. In this conflict of testimony, 
 the matter was suffered to pass by. The news 
 of the prompt chastisement of the insolence 
 of the British commander was received with 
 delight in the United States, and the affair 
 was generally regarded as, in some measure, 
 an atonement for the disgrace of the sur- 
 render of the " Chesapeake " to the 
 " Leopard." 
 
 Furious Attack by the Savages. 
 
 The Indians of the northwest were becom- 
 ing very troublesome, and their aggressions 
 were attributed to the instigation of the 
 British in Canada. Tecumseh, a Shawnee 
 chief of unusual abilities, attempted to unite 
 the Indians of the continent in a grand effort 
 against the Americans, and for this purpose 
 passed from tribe to <—'be, from the great 
 lakes to the Gulf of Mexico, and urged them 
 to take up the hatchet. He was assisted by 
 his twin brother, Elskwatawa, generally 
 called " the Prophet," who appealed to the 
 superstitious fears of the savages by his 
 jugglery. 
 
 The federal government determined to 
 strike a blow at the savages before their 
 plans for union could be brought to a suc- 
 cessful issue. In the autumn of i8n,Major- 
 General William Henry Harrison, then gov- 
 ernor of Indiana Territory, was sent to 
 operate against the tribes on the Wabash. 
 He took with him a body of Kentucky and 
 Indiana militia, and one regiment of regular 
 troops. On the sixth of November he 
 arrived at the junction of the Tippecanoe 
 and Wabash rivers near the town of the 
 Prophet, the brother of Tecumseh. 
 
 The Prophet sent several of the principal 
 Indian chiefs to meet Harrison with offers oi 
 submission. They informed him that the 
 Prophet would come into camp the next 
 
5 i6 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 day, and make a treaty with him. Harrison 
 suspected that the purpose of the Indians 
 was simply to gain time, and that they would 
 probably seek to surprise him during the 
 night, and accordingly caused his men to 
 bivouac on their arms that night. His pre- 
 cautions were well taken. About four o'clock 
 on the morning of November seventh the 
 savages made a furious attack on the Ameri- 
 can camp. They were promptly received, 
 
 In view of the threatening condition of 
 affairs the President, by his proclamation, 
 convened the twelfth Congress in session a 
 month earlier than usual, and that body met 
 on the fourth of November, 1811. It was 
 remarkable, as was also its successor, the. 
 thirteenth Congress, for the number of its 
 members who afterwards took their places 
 among the great men of the republic. The 
 public men of the revolutionary period were 
 
 A PIONEER HERO'S FIGHT WITH THE SAVAGES. 
 
 and after a severe conflict of several hours 
 were put to flight. Tecumseh was not pres- 
 ent in this engagement. General Harrison 
 followed up his victory by destroying the 
 Prophet's town, and building some forts for 
 the protection of the country. The battle 
 of Tippecanoe quieted the Indians of the 
 northwest for a while, but greatly increased 
 the desire of the people of that region for 
 war with England. 
 
 dropping out of political life, and new men, 
 with new ideas, were taking their places in 
 the councils of the nation. 
 
 Among the new members of Congress 
 were Henry Clay, a native of Virginia, but a 
 representative from Kentucky ; John C. Cal- 
 houn, of South Carolina ; John Randolph, 
 of Virginia; Felix Grundy, of Tennessee; 
 Josiah Quincy, of Massachusetts, and Lang- 
 don Cheeves and William Lowndes, of South 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES MADISON. 
 
 517 
 
 Carolina. There was a large administration 
 majority in both Houses, and the prevailing 
 sentiment of Congress was in favor of war 
 with England. In this respect Congress 
 fairly reflected the feeling of the country. 
 
 Under the influence of this feeling, Con- 
 gress during this session voted to increase 
 the regular army to thirty-five thousand 
 men, and authorized the President to accept 
 the services of fifty thousand volunteers, and 
 to call out the militia whenever occasion 
 might require. The vessels of the navy 
 were ordered to be fitted for sea, and new 
 ships were to be constructed. There was 
 need for these measures, as the army at the 
 time consisted of but three thousand men, 
 and the navy of less than twenty frigates and 
 sloops of war in commission, and about one 
 hundred and fifty gunboats for harbor defence. 
 The third census, taken in 18 10, showed the 
 population of the country to be 7,239,903. 
 
 War Declared Against Great Britain. 
 
 During this winter the government de- 
 tected and laid before Congress an effort of 
 Great Britain to produce disaffection in the 
 New England States, with a view to secure 
 their withdrawal from the Union. The 
 agent of this plot was one John Henry. 
 The committee appointed by Congress to 
 investigate the matter reported that " the 
 transaction disclosed by the President's mes- 
 sage presents to the mind of the committee 
 conclusive evidence that the British govern- 
 ment, at a period of peace, and during the 
 most friendly professions, have been delib- 
 erately and perfidiously pursuing measures 
 to divide these States and to involve our 
 citizens in all the guilt of treason and the 
 horrors of civil w r ar." 
 
 Amid these troubles the State of Louisiana 
 was admitted into the Union on the eighth 
 of April, 1812. Shortly afterwards the por- 
 tion of the Louisiana purchase lying outside 
 
 of the limits of the State of Louisiana was 
 organized into the Territory of Missouri. 
 
 On the twentieth of April, 1805, George 
 Clinton, the Vice-President of the United 
 States, died at Washington, at the age of 
 seventy-three. His place was filled by 
 William H. Crawford, of Georgia, the presi- 
 dent pro tempore of the Senate. 
 
 On the thirtieth of May, 181 2, the British 
 minister at Washington delivered to the 
 government of the United States the final 
 
 reply of his government to the demands of 
 this country in the questions at issue between 
 them. This ultimatum was submitted to 
 Congress by the President on the first of 
 June, accompanied by a message in which he 
 recapitulated the wrongs inflicted by Great 
 Britain upon this country, her violations of 
 the rights of neutrals, her impressment of 
 American seamen, her seizures of American 
 ships and her refusal to enter into any equit- 
 able arrangement for the settlement of these 
 questions. The determination of Great 
 
518 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 Britain to drive American commerce from 
 the seas was evident, and the question was 
 submitted to Congress whether the United 
 States should continue to submit to these 
 outrages or should resort to war to protect 
 their rights. 
 
 After a debate of several days an act 
 declaring war against Great Britain was 
 passed by Congress and was approved by 
 the President on the eighteenth of June, 
 1812. On the nineteenth the President 
 issued a proclamation declaring that war 
 existed between the United States and Great 
 Britain and her dependencies. Congress 
 authorized the President to enlist twenty-five 
 thousand men for the regular army, to raise 
 a force of fifty thousand volunteers, and to 
 call out one hundred thousand militia for 
 garrison duty. General Henry Dearborn, 
 of Massachusetts, was appointed to the chief 
 command of the army. 
 
 Opposition to the 'War. 
 
 The war measures of Congress were not 
 passed without considerable opposition. A 
 large party, composed of some of the ablest 
 and best men la that party, was opposed to 
 the war, and resented the effort to go to war 
 with England alone. They claimed that 
 France had given as good cause for war, but 
 that nothing was said of punishing her. 
 This was true, but this party lost sight of 
 the fact that the United States could not go 
 to war with both powers, and were compelled 
 to direct their efforts against the principal 
 offender, which was clearly England. 
 
 The war was regarded as an administra- 
 tion measure, and though it was sustained 
 by a large majority of the American people, 
 there was still a strong and respectable party 
 especially in the New England States, which 
 opposed it, and which claimed that all 
 peaceful means of settlement had not yet 
 been exhausted. John Randolph, of Vir- 
 
 ginia, opposed the declaration of war in a 
 speech in the House of Representatives re- 
 markable for its boldness and vigor, and 
 declared that he had no hesitation in saying 
 that he should prefer a contest with France 
 to one with England. 
 
 Soon after the declaration of war England 
 made an effort to settle the controversy with 
 the United States by negotiation. In Sep- 
 tember, 1 81 2, Admiral Warren, command- 
 ing the British fleet at Halifax, addressed a 
 letter to Mr. Monroe, the secretary of state, 
 informing him that he was authorized by his 
 government to enter into negotiations for a 
 cessation of hostilities upon a basis of revo- 
 cation of the "orders in council." 
 
 The Cause of Hostilities. 
 
 Mr. Monroe replied that the President was 
 willing to enter into an armistice provided 
 Admiral Warren had power and was willing 
 to include in the negotiations measures fcr 
 the discontinuance of the practices of seizing 
 and searching American vessels and impress- 
 ing American sailors from their decks, as 
 experience had shown that no peace be- 
 tween the two countries could be lasting 
 which did not include a settlement of these 
 questions. As Admiral Warren had no 
 authority to enter into these questions, the 
 President declined to proceed further, and 
 the effort at negotiations came to an end 
 It has been held by many that the rejection 
 by the President of the British overture was 
 a grave error. 
 
 John Randolph thought that all the ques- 
 tions at issue, save the right of a British sub 
 ject to expatriate himself and receive Amer 
 ican protection, could be settled by negoti 
 ation. That point he did not believe Eng- 
 land would ever concede. His opinion was 
 to some extent vindicated by the uncondi- 
 tional revocation of the French decrees, and 
 the immediate repeal of the British " orders 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES MADISON. 
 
 in council " upon the receipt of the news 
 of this revocation. These measures were 
 repealed within a month after the declaration 
 of war by the United States. The only cause 
 of the war remaining unsettled was the im- 
 pressment question. The war thus became 
 a struggle for the personal freedom of Amer- 
 ican sailors ; and in a better cause no nation 
 ever drew the sword. 
 
 Plan of Carrying On the War. 
 
 The weakness of the American navy made 
 it impossible for this country to attempt any 
 distant enterprise against Great Britain, and 
 it was not believed by even the most enthu- 
 siastic Americans that we could contend 
 with her upon terms of equality at sea. The 
 only means by which she could be crippled 
 by this country was by the invasion and 
 conquest of Canada, and to this end the 
 efforts of the United States were directed 
 during the war. It was also believed that 
 the commerce of England could be seriously 
 injured by the efforts of American privateers, 
 and from the commencement of hostilities 
 great activity was displayed in getting vessels 
 of this class to sea. 
 
 In the autumn of 1812 Mr. Madison was 
 reelected to the presidency by a large ma- 
 jority. Elbridge Gerry, of Connecticut, was 
 chosen Vi:e-President. Mr. Madison entered 
 upon his second term on the fourth of March, 
 18 13, some months after the war had begun. 
 
 At the outset of the war the American 
 forces 'vere stationed along the Canadian 
 frontier as follows : General Dearborn, the 
 commander-in-chief, held the right, or east- 
 ern part of the line ; the centre was com- 
 manded by General Stephen Van Rens- 
 selaer ; and the left was held by General 
 William Hull, then governor of Michigan 
 Territory. The forces under these com- 
 manders were to cooperate with each other 
 in their movements, and were to converge 
 
 519 
 
 upon Montreal as the objective point of the 
 campaign. 
 
 Early in July General Hull, who had seen 
 service in the war of the revolution, col- 
 lected a force of about two thousand men 
 at Detroit. His position was very much 
 exposed, Detroit being at that time sep^ 
 arated from the other settlements by about 
 two hundred miles of unbroken forest. He 
 urged upon the government to increase his 
 force to three thousand men, and to secure 
 the command of Lake Erie before the British 
 
 STEPHEN VAN RENSSELAER. 
 
 should obtain possession of it. His requests 
 could not be complied with, and he was 
 obliged to depend upon the force at Detroit. 
 Immediately upon the declaration of war 
 the British commanders in Canada displayed 
 great activity, seizing the most important 
 points along the frontier. In less than a 
 month Fort Mackinaw and other points were 
 in their possession, and Hull's position at 
 Detroit was surrounded and his communi- 
 cations with the States cut off. Hull there- 
 upon fortified his position, and endeavored, 
 but without success, to open communication 
 
520 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 with the country in his rear. In the mean- 
 time a strong British force assembled at 
 Fort Maiden, in Canada, opposite Detroit, 
 under the command of General Brock, the 
 governor of Upper Canada ; and the British 
 agents set to work to arouse the Indians of 
 the northwest against the Americans. 
 
 In these efforts they were successful. 
 
 lines they were astounded to see a whl\ n^ 
 flying from them. An officer rode up to 
 inquire the cause. The flag was the signal 
 for a parley. Negotiations were begun, and 
 later in the day Detroit, with its garrison 
 and stores, and the whole of Michigan ter- 
 ritory, was surrendered to the British by 
 General Hull. The American troops were 
 
 MASSACRE BY INDIANS AT FORT DEARBORN. 
 
 Brock erected batteries on the Canadian 
 side of the river, in a position to command 
 Detroit, and demanded of Hull the surrender 
 of that place. The demand being refused, 
 Brock crossed his forces to the American 
 shore, about three miles below the josition 
 occupied by General Hull, on the sixteenth 
 of August, and advanced to attack him. As 
 the British army drew near the American 
 
 overcome with astonishment and mortifica- 
 tion at this shameful surrender; for the force 
 of the enemy, to whom they were betrayed 
 by their commander, consisted of but seven 
 hundred British and Canadians, and six 
 hundred Indians. 
 
 By the surrender of Detroit the whole 
 northwestern frontier was exposed to the 
 British and their Indian allies. Great Britain. 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES MADISON. 
 
 521 
 
 unmindful of the shame she had incurred 
 by her employment of the savages during 
 the revolution, did not hesitate once more to 
 devote the American frontier to the horrors 
 of a savage war. The west was greatly 
 alarmed, and ten thousand volunteers offered 
 their services to the government for the 
 defence of the frontier. They were accepted, 
 and were placed under the command of Gen- 
 eral Harrison, who was appointed to succeed 
 Hull. 
 
 General Hull Guilty of Cowardice. 
 
 Two years later, after being exchanged, 
 General Hull was brought to trial by a court- 
 martial for the surrender of Detroit and his 
 army. He was found guilty of cowardice 
 and neglect of duty, and was sentenced to 
 be shot. He was pardoned by the President 
 in consideration of his services during the 
 revolution. 
 
 When Detroit surrendered, Fort Dearborn 
 stood on the site of the city of Chicago, and 
 was occupied by Captain Nathan Heald and 
 fifty regulars. Receiving orders from Ger 
 Hull to evacuate the fort and join him at 
 Detroit, he attempted to obey, though warned 
 by several scouts and friendly Indians that 
 it was certain death to make the attempt. 
 Afraid of treachery on the part of the large 
 number of Indians around the fort, Caprain 
 Heald destroyed during the night the gun- 
 powder, firearms and liquor which he had 
 promised them. The exasperated savages 
 waited till he was well on his way with the 
 fifty soldiers and several families, and then 
 attacked him. The women fought as bravely 
 as the men. Twenty-six of the regular 
 troops, all the militia, and a number of the 
 men and women were killed. One of the 
 savages leaped into a wagon containing 
 twelve little ones and tomahawked them all. 
 The next day Fort Dearborn was burned to 
 the ground. 
 
 This was a sorry beginning for the war, 
 and was followed by another disaster. Gen- 
 eral Van Rensselaer, the commander of the 
 centre of the American line, had collected a 
 force, principally New York militia, at Lewis- 
 ton, on the Niagara river. At Queenstown,, 
 on the opposite side of the river, General 
 Brock had stationed himself with a British 
 force. On the thirteenth of October General 
 Van Rensselaer crossed a force, under Col- 
 onel Van Rensselaer, and attacked the British 
 fort and captured it. General Brock now 
 arrived with a force of six hundred men, 
 and endeavored to regain the fort, but was 
 defeated and killed. General Van Rensselaer 
 hastened back to the American side to bring 
 over more troops, but his men refused to 
 obey his orders, alleging that they could not 
 be ordered out of their own State without 
 their consent. The British were heavily 
 reinforced, and the Americans were attackec 
 and defeated ; all who had crossed to the 
 Canada side being killed or captured. 
 
 Brilliant Successes of the Navy. 
 
 Among the prisoners was Lieutenant- 
 Colonel Winfield Scott, afterv/ards com- 
 mander-in-chief of the American army, then 
 a young man, who had crossed over as a 
 volunteer to aid the force on the Canada side. 
 Utterly disgusted with the conduct of his 
 troops, General Van Rensselaer resigned his 
 command after the battle of- Queenstown. 
 General Smyth, of Virginia, was appointed 
 to succeed him. He made one or two efforts 
 to enter Canada, but being each time pre- 
 vented by his council of war, resigned his 
 command. 
 
 Thus closed the year 18 12, and the first 
 campaign of the war. Its results were dis- 
 astrous and disheartening. The attempts to 
 invade Canada had ended with the surrender 
 of Detroit and the defeat at Queenstown. A 
 large r»art of the frontier was lost, and over 
 
522 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 twenty-five hundred men had been captured 
 by the enemy. These failures had aroused 
 the discontent of a considerable portion of 
 the people of the Union, and the opposition 
 of the New England States to the war was 
 greatly increased. Matters would have 
 seemed hopeless had not the navy, which 
 had been the most neglected branch of the 
 
 they would certainly be captured by the 
 British cruisers. The officers of the navy 
 were indignant at these insinuations, and 
 as soon as the news of the declaration of war 
 was received at New York, several of the 
 vessels of war in that port put to sea at 
 once to avoid the orders which their com- 
 manders feared were on the way to detain 
 
 CAPTURF. OF THE " GUERRIERE BY THE "CONSTITUTION. 
 
 public service, redeemed the national honor 
 by a series of brilliant successes. 
 
 It was the intention of the government at 
 the outset of the war to retain the vessels of 
 the navy in the ports of the country to assist 
 in the defence of the harbors of the United 
 States. The fear was openly expressed that 
 if these vessels should venture to put to sea 
 
 them in port, and also for the purpose of 
 making a dash at the Jamaica fleet, which 
 was on its way to England. They followed 
 this fleet to the entrance to the British chan- 
 nel, but without overtaking it. 
 
 A British squadron sailed from Halifax to 
 cruise off the port of New York. The Amer- 
 ican frigate "Constitution," Captain Hull, 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES MADISON. 
 
 523 
 
 while endeavoring to enter New York har- 
 bor, fell in with this squadron, and was chased 
 by it for four days. Her escape was due 
 entirely to the superior skill of her officers 
 and the energy of her crew. The chase was 
 one of the most remarkable in history, and 
 the escape of the American frigate won great 
 rredit for Captain Hull. Failing to reach 
 New York, Hull sailed for Boston, and 
 reached that port in safety. Remaining there 
 a few days, he put to sea again, just in time 
 to avoid orders from Washington 
 to remain in port. 
 
 In July the American frigate 
 " Essex" captured a transport 
 filled with British soldiers, and 
 a few days later encountered the 
 British sloop of war " Alert," 
 which mistook her for a mer- 
 chantman. The " Essex " suf- 
 fered her to approach, and then 
 opened a rapid fire upon her, 
 which soon disabled her, and 
 forced her to surrender. 
 
 The " Constitution " sailed 
 from Boston to the northeast. 
 On the nineteenth of August, 
 while cruising off the mouth of 
 the St. Lawrence, she fell in with 
 the British frigate " Guerriere," 
 Captain Dacres, one of the ves- 
 sels that had chased her during 
 the previous month. The 
 "Guerriere" immediately stood towards her, 
 and both vessels prepared for action. The 
 English commander opened his fire at long 
 range, but Captain Hull refused to reply 
 until he had gotten his ship into a favorable 
 position, and for an hour and a half he 
 manoeuvred in silence, under a heavy fire 
 from the British frigate. 
 
 At length, having got within pistol shot of 
 her adversary, the " Constitution " opened a 
 Serrib 1 ^ fire upon her, and poured in her 
 
 broadsides with such effect that the " Guer- 
 riere " struck her colors in thirty minutes. 
 The " Guerriere" lost seventy-nine men 
 killed and wounded, while the loss of the 
 " Constitution " was but seven men. The 
 " Guerriere " was so much injured in the fight 
 that she could not be carried into port, and 
 Hull had her burned. 
 
 The " Constitution " then returned to Bos- 
 ton with her prisoners, and was received with 
 an ovation. It was the first time in half a 
 
 COMMODORE HULL. 
 
 century that a British frigate had struck her 
 flag in a fair fight, and the victory was hailed 
 with delight in all parts of the country. 
 
 On the eighteenth of October the Ameri- 
 can sloop-of-war " Wasp," eighteen, Captain 
 Jones, met the British brig " Frolic," twenty- 
 two, convoying six merchantmen. In order 
 to give her convoy a chance to escape, the 
 " Frolic " shortened sail and awaited the 
 approach of the " Wasp." The " Wasp " 
 poured a raking fire into her antagonist and 
 
52 4 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 then boarded her. The boarders found the 
 deck of the " Frolic " covered with the dead. 
 Only one man remained unhurt, and he 
 stood gallantly at his post at the wheel. 
 Before the prize could be secured the 
 British frigate " Poictiers, " 74, hove in 
 sight and captured both vessels. The 
 " Wasp " lost eight men in the engagement ; 
 the " Frolic" eighty. 
 
 On the twenty-fifth of October the fri- 
 gate '' United States," 44, Captain Decatur, 
 
 Captain Bainbridge, captured the British 
 frigate "Java," 38, off the coast of Brazil, 
 after an action of three hours. The 
 " Java " was reduced to a wreck, and as he 
 was notable to get her into a friendly port, 
 Captain Bainbridge caused her to be burned. 
 The "Java" lost one hundred and sixty-one 
 men out of a crew of four hundred; the 
 " Constitution " lost thirty-four in killed and 
 wounded. Among the wounded was Cap- 
 tain Bainbridge. 
 
 THE "WASP BOARDING THE "FROLIC. 
 
 encountered the British frigate " Mace 
 donian," 49, off the Azores, and after a 
 running fight of an hour and a half forced 
 her to strike her colors. The " United 
 States" lost seven killed and five wounded ; 
 the " Macedonian," thirty-six killed and 
 sixty-eighty wounded out of a crew of three 
 hundred men. Decatur succeeded in bring- 
 ing his prize into New York. 
 
 On the twenty-ninth of December the 
 " Constitution," now under the command of 
 
 These victories aroused the greatest en- 
 thusiasm in the United States. The grea* - 
 disparity in the losses sustained by th& 
 respective combatants made it evident to 
 both nations that the American ships had 
 been better handled in every engagement. 
 The British endeavored to account for the 
 American successes by declaring that the 
 United States vessels were seventy-fours in 
 disguise, or that they carried heavier guns 
 than their adversaries ; but the thinking men 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES MADISON. 
 
 525 
 
 of both countries saw that they had been 
 won by the superior skill of the American 
 officers, and that they were the plain an- 
 nouncement of the fact that England had 
 found a rival capable of contesting her 
 supremacy on the ocean. 
 
 British Commerce Damaged. 
 
 The American privateers inflicted great 
 damage upon the commerce of Great Britain. 
 During the year 18 12 these vessels captured 
 about five hundred British merchantmen and 
 made prisoners of three thousand British 
 seamen. The cargoes of the captured vessels 
 amounted to an enormous sum. 
 
 On the eighth of March, 1813, the Rus- 
 sian minister at Washington communicated 
 to President Madison an offer from the Em- 
 peror Alexander of his mediation between 
 the United States and Great Britain for the 
 purpose of bringing about a peace between 
 them. The President at once accepted the 
 Russian offer, and sent Albert Gallatin and 
 James A. Bayard to St. Petersburg to join 
 John Quincy Adams, then Minister to 
 Russia, as ministers to negotiate a treaty. 
 The British government declined the Rus- 
 sian mediation and the matter was drop- 
 ped. 
 
 The thirteenth Congress met on the 
 twenty-fourth of May, 18 1 3, and entered 
 upon the task of providing the means of 
 carrying on the war. The principal measure 
 resorted to was the imposition of direct taxes 
 and internal duties. The financial situation 
 of the government was disheartening. The 
 expenses of the war had greatly exceeded 
 the estimates, and a heavy deficit had to be 
 provided for. To meet the necessities of 
 the occasion new loans were authorized, but 
 they were generally paid in the depreciated 
 treasury notes which had been issued ac- 
 cording to act of Congress, and did not yield 
 much to the government. 
 
 The business of the country was in a state 
 of confusion. Ail the banks, save a few in 
 New England, had suspended specie pay- 
 ments, and the war spirit was dying out 
 in many parts of the Union. . New England 
 had entered into the war with great reluc- 
 tance and was a heavy loser by it. Her 
 opposition to it was increasing daily 
 
 Discontent and Disagreement. 
 
 The government opened the campaign of 
 18 1 3 with the determination to make another 
 effort to conquer Canada. The army of the 
 west, under General Harrison, was stationed 
 at the upper end of Lake Erie ; that of the 
 centre, under General Dearborn, the com- 
 mander-in-chief, was posted along the Niagara 
 river ; and that of the east, under General 
 Wade Hampton, was at Lake Champlain, 
 Simultaneous movements were to be made 
 from these points against the British in 
 Canada. To oppose these forces the British 
 stationed their armies along their frontier as 
 follows : General Proctor was stationed with 
 a considerable force near Detroit; General 
 Sheaf with another force covered Montreal 
 and the approaches from the United States 
 by way of Lake Champlain and the Sore! 
 river; and Sir George Prevost, the com- 
 mander-in-chief, held the line of the Niagara 
 river. 
 
 General Harrison was charged with the 
 duty of recovering the territory lost by 
 General Hull. Volunteers flocked to him 
 from all parts of the west, and especially 
 from Kentucky. A part of his force, under 
 General Winchester, held a fort on the 
 Maumee. In January, 1813, the British 
 made a demonstration against Frenchtown, 
 on the river Raisin, and Winchester sent a 
 detachment to its relief, which compelled 
 the British to retreat. A little later Win- 
 chester followed with the rest of his troops 
 and took position in the open country. His 
 
526 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 whole force amounted to scarcely one thou- 
 sand men. 
 
 Hearing of Winchester's exposed posi- 
 tion, General Proctor marched from Fort 
 Maiden, opposite Detroit, with fifteen hun- 
 dred British and Indians, and, crossing the 
 lake on the ice, attacked Winchester on the 
 twenty-second of January, and after a des- 
 perate encounter forced him to surrender; 
 Proctor promised Winchester that his men 
 
 save his reputation by protecting his prison- 
 ers, and his inhuman conduct in leaving 
 them to the fury of the savages, in violation 
 of his pledge, met, as it deserved, the un- 
 qualified denunciation of every honorable 
 man. It roused a fierce spirit of revenge 
 througout the west. 
 
 Harrison was on his march to Winches- 
 ter's assistance when he learned of his 
 surrender. He halted at the rapids of 
 
 INDIANS TORTURING PRISONERS. 
 
 should be treated as prisoners of war, but in 
 violation of his pledge set out at once on 
 his retreat to Maiden, leaving the wounded 
 Americans behind. The Indians of Proc- 
 or's command fell upon the helpless 
 mounded men, massacred the majority of 
 them, and carried the remainder to Detroit. 
 Some of these they offered to release on pay- 
 ment of heavy ransoms ; the others they 
 held for torture. Proctor made no effort to 
 
 Maumee, and built a fort which he named 
 Fort Meigs, in honor of the governor of 
 Ohio. Proctor advanced in the spring to 
 attack this fort, and on the first of May 
 opened his batteries upon it. A force of 
 twelve hundred Kentuckians, under Gen- 
 eral Green Clay, of Kentucky, advanced 
 to the relief of the fort, and the British 
 and Indians were obliged to raise the siege 
 and retreat. 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES MADISON. 
 
 6 2J 
 
 General Clay was placed in command of 
 Fort Meigs. In July Proctor again advanced 
 and made siege to it, but was unable to cap- 
 ture it. Hearing that Fort Stephenson, on 
 the Sandusky, had a small garrison, Proctor 
 withdrew from Fort Meigs and attacked Fort 
 Stephenson. This fort had a garrison of one 
 hundred and sixty men, and was commanded 
 by Major George Croghan,ayoung man in his 
 twenty-second year. He was summoned to 
 surrender, but answered that he should hold 
 the fort to the last man. On the second of 
 August Proctor made a determined assault 
 upon the fort, and his regulars gained the ditch, 
 into which they crowded preparatory to 
 attempting to scale the parapet. At this 
 moment the only cannon in the fort, which 
 had been doubly charged with musket-balls, 
 opened upon them from a masked port-hole. 
 The British were cut down by the score, and 
 retreated in confusion. That night, fearing 
 that Harrison would come to Croghan's 
 relief, Proctor abandoned the siege, and re- 
 treated towards Maiden. 
 
 Battle of Lake Erie. 
 
 It was clear that nothing of importance 
 could be accomplished in this quarter as long 
 as the British held Lake Erie. Oliver Hazard 
 Perry, a young lieutenant of the United 
 States navy, volunteered to win back the 
 lake from the enemy, who hefd it with a 
 small squadron under Captain Barclay. By 
 extraordinary exertions Perry built and 
 equipped a fleet at Presque Isle, now Erie. 
 It consisted of nine vessels of various sizes, 
 from one which carried twenty-five guns 
 down to one which carried one gun. Its 
 total armament amounted to fifty-five guns. 
 It was manned by a small force of sailors 
 from the east, and by a large number ot 
 volunteers from General Harrison's army. 
 As soon as his fleet was in proper condition 
 Perry stood out into the lake to seek the 
 
 enemy. The British squadron consis^d ol 
 six vessels, carrying sixty-three guns. Each 
 fleet carried about five hundred men. 
 
 The two squadrons soon encountered each 
 other, and on the tenth of September a severe 
 battle was fought between them at the 
 western end of the lake. Perry at the open- 
 ing of the fight displayed a flag from his 
 vessel bearing the words of the brave Law- 
 rence, " Don't give up the ship." It was 
 greeted with cheers from the men. During 
 the battle the American flag-ship, the " Law- 
 
 COMMODORE PERRY. 
 
 rence," was disabled, and Perry passed in an 
 open boat, under a heavy fire, to the " Nia- 
 gara," the next largest ship, and tranferred 
 his flag to her. The result was that the 
 British fleet was defeated and forced to sur- 
 render. Perry announced his victory to 
 General Harrison in the following character- 
 istic message : " We have met the enemy and 
 they are ours. Two ships, one brig, a 
 a schooner, and a sloop." 
 
 This victory was of the highest importance 
 to the Americans. It gave them the com- 
 mand of Lake Erie, and opened the way to 
 
528 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 PERRY S VICTORY ON LAKE ERIE. 
 
 Canada. Harrison hastened to profit by it, 
 and advanced rapidly towards Detroit and 
 
 Maiden. Proctor aban- 
 doned those places and 
 retreated with his own 
 forces and Tecumseh 
 and his Indians into 
 Canada. At Detroit 
 Harrison was joined 
 by thirty-five hundred 
 mountedKentuckians, 
 under the aged Gov- 
 ernor Shelby, one of 
 the heroes of King's 
 Mountain, and Col- 
 onel Richard M.John- 
 son. He at once en- 
 tered Canada in pur- 
 suit of Proctor, and 
 by a forced march of 
 sixty miles came up 
 with him on the banks 
 of the Thames, on the 
 fifth of October. A 
 short but desperate 
 battle ensued, in which 
 Tecumseh was killed 
 and his Indians put 
 to flight. The British 
 were routed, and Proc- 
 tor saved himself only 
 by the speed of his 
 horse. 
 
 By these successes 
 the Americans won 
 back Michigan Terri- 
 tory, and for the pres- 
 sent gave peace and 
 security to the north- 
 western frontier. The 
 Kentuckians returned 
 home, and Colonel 
 Lewis Cass, who was 
 soon after appointed 
 governor o. Michigan, was left to garrison 
 Detroit with his brigade. With fifteen 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES MADISON. 
 
 529 
 
 hundred regulars Harrison embarked on 
 Lake Erie and sailed for Buffalo to assist 
 in the invasion of Canada from that quar- 
 ter 
 
 A small fleet of armed vessels was main- 
 tained in Lake Ontario by each of the com- 
 batants. The American fleet was commanded 
 by Commodore Chauncey. In April General 
 Dearborn embarked a force of seventeen 
 hundred picked men in these vessels and 
 
 stores fell into the hands of the captors. 
 They were transferred to Sackett's Harbor. 
 
 As it was not part of the plan of General 
 Dearborn to hold York, the place was eva- 
 cuated. Just before the withdrawal of the 
 Americans a small building, known as the 
 Parliament House, was burned. The British 
 attributed this act to the Americans, who 
 disclaimed it. The American officers 
 believed that the house was set on fire by 
 
 BATTLE OF THE THAMES — DEATH OF TECUMSEH. 
 
 sailed across Lake Ontario to attack York, 
 now Toronto, the capital of Upper Canada. 
 The Americans landed a short distance below 
 the town, and advanced upon it. On the 
 the twenty-seventh of April the place was 
 carried by assault. The British fired the 
 magazine of one of the works from which 
 they were driven, and General Pike, the 
 commander of the storming party, and one 
 Dr two hundred of his troops were killed by 
 the explosion. A large amount of military 
 34 
 
 the disaffected Canadians, who had threat- 
 ened to burn it. The burning of this build- 
 ing was made by the British the pretext for 
 the destruction of the capitol and other 
 public buildings at Washington, the next 
 year. 
 
 From York General Dearborn sailed to 
 the Niagara to attack Fort George. The 
 commander of this work, on the approach of 
 the Americans, blew up his magazines and 
 retreated to Burlington Heights, near the 
 
53° 
 
 FROM Till-: REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 western end of the lake. Dearborn followed 
 them in pursuit, but was attacked and driven 
 back by the British on the night of the sixth 
 of June. Two American generals, Winder 
 and Chanler were made prisoners in this 
 engagement. Dearborn fell back in haste 
 to Fort George. 
 
 In the meantime General Prevost, having 
 learned of Dearborn's absence from Sackett's 
 Harbor, attacked that place, on the twenty- 
 ninth of May, with one thousand men. He 
 was repulsed with such vigor by the gar- 
 rison, under General Brown, that he retreated 
 to his ships, leaving his wounded behind. 
 
 Failure of a Canadian Expedition. 
 
 Soon after this General Dearborn suffered 
 another reverse at Fort George, and allowed 
 a detachment of six hundred men of his 
 army to be cut off by the British. In con- 
 sequence of these failures General Dearborn 
 was removed by the President, who appointed 
 General Wilkinson, the commander of the 
 troops at New Orleans, as his successor. 
 
 It was proposed that General Wilkinson 
 should enter Canada with his troops and 
 advance upon Montreal, and that General 
 Hampton, commanding the forces on Lake 
 Champlain, should join him on the St. Law- 
 rence. Wilkinson and Hampton were not 
 on friendly terms, and neither of them were 
 possessed of sufficient patriotism to overlook 
 their personal differences for the good of 
 their country. Wilkinson advanced as far 
 as the rapids of the St. Lawrence, and sent 
 a body of troops, under General Brown, to 
 cover the descent of the rapids by the army. 
 
 An engagement occurred at Chrysler's 
 Farm, on the eleventh of November ; the 
 British were driven back ; but the Americans 
 lost more than three hundred men. Wilk- 
 inson now sent word to Hampton t > move 
 forward to his support, but the latter 
 answered that he had abandoned the expe- 
 
 dition, and was going into winter quarters 
 Under these circumstances Wilkinson fell 
 back to French Mills, about nine miles from 
 St. Regis, where he went into winter quar- 
 ters. Hampton prepared to pass the wintei 
 at Plattsburg on Lake Champlain. Thus tht 
 expedition was ruined by the quarrels of itfc 
 commanders. 
 
 British Depredations. 
 
 In December the Americans abandoned 
 Fort George, and retreated across the 
 Niagara river. Before doing so General 
 McClure, the commanding officer, burned 
 the village of Newark, in order to prevent 
 the enemy from using it as quarters for their 
 troops during the winter. There was no 
 necessity and no excuse for the destruction 
 of this village, and it was speedily avenged 
 by the enemy. About the middle of Decem- 
 ber the British crossed the Niagara river, 
 surprised Fort Niagara, and put the garrison 
 to the sword. In retaliation for the burning 
 of Newark they burned every town and 
 house that could be reached on the Amer- 
 ican side of the river, including Lewistown, 
 Youngstown, Manchester, Black Rock, and 
 Buffalo. 
 
 The war was not confined to the northern 
 frontier. In the spring of 1813 Tecumseh 
 had visited the Creek tribes in the southwest 
 and aroused their war spirit. In August 
 seven hundred Creeks attacked and capture/ 
 Fort Mims, on the west bank of the Alabama 
 river, near the mouth of the Tombigbee. 
 Between three and four hundred settlers, 
 who had taken refuge in the fort, were mas 
 sacred. 
 
 The south was soon aroused by the news 
 of this massacre, and in a short while a force 
 of seven thousand volunteers was marching 
 into the Indian country in four divisions. 
 One division, under General Andrew Jack- 
 son, of Tennessee, moved southward from 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES MADISON. 
 
 53i 
 
 General Jackson at Emucfau. Jackson suc- 
 ceeded in repulsing them, but in spite of his 
 victory deemed it best to fall back to Fort 
 Strother. On the twenty-fifth the Indians 
 again attacked him and were again defeated. 
 Soon after this Jackson, being largely rein- 
 
 Nashville ; another from East Tennessee, 
 under General Cocke ; a third from Georgia, 
 under General Floyd, and a fourth from Mis- 
 sissippi Territory. In addition to these 
 forces the lower Creeks took up arms against 
 their brethren, and the Cherokees and Choc- 
 taws joined the Amer- 
 ricans. The principal 
 villages of the hostile 
 Creeks lay on and near 
 the Coosa and Talla- 
 poosa Rivers, and their 
 hunting-grounds ex- 
 tended much farther 
 north. 
 
 The Tennessee for- 
 ces, under General 
 Jackson, were the first 
 to enter the Indian 
 country, and a num- 
 ber of unimportant 
 encounters occurred. 
 On the third of Nov- 
 ember the Indians 
 were defeated in a 
 bloody battle at Tal- 
 lasehatche, and on the 
 eighth of the same 
 month at Talladega. 
 These were hard-won 
 victories for the Amer- 
 icans, and terrible 
 blows to the savages. 
 On the twenty-ninth 
 of November the 
 Georgia volunteers 
 under General Floyd, 
 attacked the Creek captain (afterward sir phi lip) broke. 
 
 town of Autossee, and killed two hundred 
 warriors. 
 
 The Creeks were badly armed, but their 
 spirit was unbroken by their reverses. Early 
 in the year 18 14 they assumed the offensive, 
 and on the twenty-second of January attacked 
 
 forced, advanced into the Indian country 
 with an army of four thousand Tennes 
 seeans. 
 
 At the Horse-Shoe Bend of the Tallaposa 
 the Creeks had their principal settlement, an 
 intrenched camp, in which they had collected 
 
532 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 their women and children, under the pro- 
 tection of one thousand warriors. They 
 were attacked here on the twenty-seventh of 
 March, 1S14, by Jackson's army, and their 
 camp was carried, after a desperate fight, in 
 which six hundred warriors were killed and 
 two hundred and fifty women and children 
 were made prisoners. This terrible blow 
 put an end to the resistance of the Creeks. 
 They sought peace, and were compelled to 
 purchase it by the surrender of more than 
 two-thirds of their hunting-grounds. 
 
 Hot Naval Engagements. 
 
 The year 1813 was eventful and important 
 in the naval history of the republic, and 
 once more the navy sustained the spirits of 
 the country, which had been cast down by 
 the failure of the army. On the twenty-fifth 
 of February the American sloop-of-war 
 " Hornet," Captain Lawrence, captured the 
 British brig " Peacock," off the mouth of 
 Demerara River, after an action of fifteen 
 minutes. The "Peacock" was so terribly 
 cut up by her adversary's fire that she sank 
 in a few minutes after she struck her flag. 
 Captain Lewrence returned to the United 
 States and was promoted to the command of 
 the frigate " Chesapeake, which was lying in 
 Boston harbor preparing for sea. 
 
 While there Lawrence was challenged by 
 Captain Broke, of the British frigate " Shan- 
 non," which was cruising off Boston harbor. 
 Although his ship was badly manned and 
 his crew undisciplined, Lawrence accepted 
 the challenge and put to sea on the first of 
 June to meet the " Shannon." The action 
 was begun about thirty miles east of Boston 
 Light and lasted but fifteen minutes. The 
 "Shannon" was in every way superior to 
 the " Chesapeake," and the latter ship was 
 forced to strike her flag, with a loss of one 
 hundred and forty-six of her crew. Captain 
 Lawrence was mortally wounded, As he 
 
 was being carried below his last words were, 
 " Don't give up the ship ! " — words which 
 have since become the watchword of the 
 service of which he was one of the brightest 
 ornaments. 
 
 Two Commanders Fall. 
 
 The rejoicings in England over the cap- 
 ture of the " Chesapeake " were very great. 
 Although not gratifying to the Americans, 
 yet the little navy of the Union gained 
 1 .'w courage, for its splendid services had 
 won the respect of the " mistress of the seas." 
 
 In the summer of 1813 the "United 
 States," " Macedonian " and " Hornet." while 
 attempting to get to sea from New York 
 through Long Island sound, were driven into 
 the harbor of New London, and blockaded 
 there by a British squadron. In August the 
 American sloop of war "Argus" was cap- 
 tured while cruising in the English channel 
 by the " Pelican." In September the Ameri- 
 can brig " Enterprise," twelve guns, Captain 
 Burrows, captured the British brig" Boxer," 
 Captain Blythe, off the coast of Maine. Both 
 commanders fell in the engagement, and were 
 buried with equal honors. 
 
 During the summer of 18 13 the B'"''ish 
 fleet of Sir George Cockburn entered the 
 Chesapeake repeatedly and ravaged its 
 shores. All the shipping that could be 
 reached by the enemy was destroyed, and 
 the towns of Frenchtown, Georgetown, 
 Havre de Grace and Fredericktown were 
 plundered and burned. An attack was made 
 on Norfolk, but was repulsed with heavy 
 loss. Cockburn then plundered the town 
 of Hampton, and sailed to the southward. 
 The barbarities committed by this fleet 
 along the Chesapeake and its tributaries 
 were horrible. Neither age nor sex were 
 spared by the British sailors and marines, 
 and women were ravished, and old men and 
 little children murdered, with the knowledge 
 
n 
 
 EC 
 
 > 
 ft 
 
534 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 of the admiral, who made no effort to stop 
 the outrages. 
 
 During the winter of 18 13-14 a communi- 
 cation was received from the British govern- 
 ment, stating that although Great Britain 
 had declined the Russian mediation, she was 
 willing to enter into direct negotiations with 
 the United States, either at London or Got- 
 tenburg, in Sweden. The President at once 
 accepted the English offer, and Henry Clay 
 and Jonathan Russell were added to the 
 commissioners already in Europe. Gotten- 
 ourg was at first selected as the place of 
 meeting, which was afterwards changed to 
 <Thent. 
 
 Great Britain Ready for Peace 
 
 At this time the opposition to the varwas 
 /ery great in many parts of the Union. The 
 New England States continued bitterly hos- 
 tile to it, and the legislature of Massachusetts, 
 In a remonstrance addressed to Congress, 
 denounced the war as unreasonable, and 
 urged the conclusion of a peace. Congress 
 itself was more divided upon the support of 
 the war than it had ever been. It contained 
 many n:w men, some of them destined to 
 play prominent parts in the future history of 
 the country. Pre-eminent among those was 
 Daniel Webster, of New Hampshire, who 
 from the first took a high position as one of 
 the most gifted men in Congress. 
 
 Hostilities were resumed by the Americans 
 on the Niagara frontier with the beginning of 
 the spring of 18 14. Early in May General 
 Brown, whose force had been increased to 
 five thousand men, crossed the Niagara. 
 Fort Erie surrendered to him without a blow 
 on the third of July. On the fourth General 
 Scott, with the advanced guard of the army, 
 moved towards the British, who had taken 
 position, under General Riall, at Chippewa, 
 fifteen miles distant. Scott was joined by 
 General Brown., with the rest of the army, 
 
 on the night c f the fourth, and the next day 
 a severe engagement occurred, in which the 
 British were defeated, with the loss of five 
 hundred men. The loss of the Americans 
 was three hundred. 
 
 Victory at Lundy's Lane. 
 
 After his defeat at Chippewa General Riall 
 fell back to Burlington Heights, and the 
 Americans advanced to Queenstown, but 
 soon after withdrew to Chippewa. Being 
 strongly reinforced by a body of troops, 
 under General Drummond, Riall advanced 
 from Burlington Heights to attack the Amer- 
 icans, followed by General Drummond's 
 command ; and at the same time General 
 Brown, who had heard of Drummond's arri- 
 val, set out from Chippewa to attack the 
 British. The advanced forces of the Amer- 
 icans were commanded by General Scott. 
 The two armies unexpectedly met at Bridge- 
 water, or Lundy's Lane, immediately opposite 
 Niagara Falls, at sunset, on the twenty-fifth 
 of July. The British occupied a strong 
 position, and notwithstanding the lateness 
 of the hour, Scott resolved to attack them. 
 The main body of the Americans, under 
 General Brown, soon arrived, and the battle 
 became general. The British had posted a 
 battery on a hill which commanded the field, 
 and were doing great execution in the Amer- 
 ican ranks. It was captured by the regiment 
 of Colonel James Miller, and General Drum- 
 mond, who had arrived on the field and had 
 taken command in place of General Riall, 
 who had been wounded and captured by the 
 Americans, advanced to recover it. 
 
 Drummond made three determined efforts 
 to retake the battery, but was driven back 
 each time. It was now midnight, and about 
 eight hundred men had fallen on each side. 
 The Americans had exhausted their ammu- 
 nition and were dependent now upon the 
 cartridges they obtained from the boxes o* 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES MADISON. 
 
 535 
 
 the fallen British. Finding all their efforts 
 vain the British sullenly withdrew and left 
 the field to the Americans. The latter were 
 so exhausted by their hard march of fifteen 
 miles and five hours of constant fighting 
 that they made no effort at pursuit, and soon 
 withdrew from the hill to their camp. As 
 they had no means of hauling off the cap- 
 tured guns they were obliged to leave them 
 on the field. . General's Brown and Scott 
 were both wounded during the battle,, as 
 were nearly all of the field officers. 
 
 Repulse at Fort Erie. 
 
 The victory of Lundy's Lane was particu- 
 larly gratifying to the Americans. It was 
 won, not over Canadian militia, but over 
 veteran troops who had served under Wel- 
 lington in the wars with Napoleon. It broke 
 the long series of defeats sustained by the 
 Americans since the opening of the war, 
 and showed what could be accomplished by 
 American soldiers under competent and 
 determined commanders and in anything 
 like a fair fight. 
 
 General Browne withdrew to Fort Erie 
 after the battle, and being disabled by his 
 wounds, relinquished the command to Gen- 
 eral Gaines. General Drummond moved 
 forward and on the fourth of August laid 
 siege to Fort Erie. On the fifteenth he 
 attempted to carry the fort by an assault at 
 midnight, but was repulsed with a loss of 
 one thousand men. In spite of this reverse 
 he pressed the siege with vigor, and in the 
 meantime General Brown recovered from his 
 wounds and resumed the command of the 
 fort. On the seventeenth of September the 
 Americans made a sortie against the batteries 
 of the Brittish, which were two miles in 
 advance of their camp. By a sudden dash 
 from the fort they stormed and carried the 
 batteries, spiked the guns, set fire to the 
 magazines, inflicted a loss of six hundred in 
 
 killed and wounded upon the enemy, anrJ 
 retreated into the fort, carrying with them 
 four hundred prisoners. The American loss 
 in this brilliant sally was three hundred men. 
 Drummond immediately raised the siege 
 and retreated across the Chippewa. 
 
 Around Lake Champlain. 
 
 In October a reinforcement of four thou- 
 sand men arrived from Lake Champlain 
 under General Izard, who assumed the com 
 mand of the American Army on the Niagara, 
 Ke was one of the old-style commanders, 
 and at once proceeded to neutralize the 
 gallant achievements of Brown and Scott. 
 He did nothing until November, when, fear- 
 ing that Drummond would be reinforced, he 
 blew up Fort Erie and retreated across the 
 Niagara, leaving the entire Canadian shore 
 in the possession of the British. 
 
 General Izard had succeeded General 
 Hampton in command of the army on Lake 
 Champlain. Upon his withdrawal to the 
 Niagara, General Macomb took command of 
 the troops that remained on Lake Champlain, 
 and held Plattsburg with a force of about 
 three thousand men. Hearing that General 
 Prevost was advancing to attack him, 
 Macomb called on the militia of New York 
 and Vermont to come to his aid, and about 
 three thousand of them joined him, bringing 
 his force to six thousand men. General 
 Prevost having been reinforced from Eng- 
 land, advanced against Plattsburg with a 
 force of twelve thousand veteran troops, for 
 the purpose of invading' the State of New 
 York. 
 
 Upon the approach of this force Macomb 
 fell back behind the Saranac, a deep and 
 rapid stream which empties into the lake at 
 Plattsburg, and the small American squadron, 
 under Commodore Macdonough, was moored 
 across the entrance of Plattsburg bay. This 
 squadron carried eighty-six guns, and was 
 
536 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 manned by eight hundred and fifty-six men. 
 The British army was accompanied by a 
 squadron superior in strength to that of the 
 Americans, and upon which they depended 
 for the control of Lake Champlain. It was 
 commanded by Captain Downie, mounted 
 ninety-five guns, was manned by one thou- 
 sand men, and had plenty of ammunition. 
 
 j 
 
 €3* 
 
 SCENE OF THE BATTLE OF LAKE CHAMPLAIN. 
 
 Prevost arrived before Plattsburg on the 
 seventh of September, and proceeded to erect 
 batteries to cover his passage of the Saranac. 
 On the eleventh of September he made a 
 combined attack by land and water upon the 
 American position. The British squadron 
 advanced to force an entrance into Platts- 
 ' burg bay, and the British army at the same 
 time attempted to force a passage of the 
 Saranac. As the enemy's fleet advanced, 
 
 Macdonough called the crew of his flag-ship 
 around him, and kneeling on the quarter- 
 deck of his vessel, prayed God to crown the 
 American arms with victory that day. 
 
 After a severe engagement of two hours 
 and a quarter, the British fleet was defeated 
 and forced to surrender, with the exception 
 of a few gunboats, which escaped. While this 
 = ^ - battle was going on, 
 
 Prevost tried repeat- 
 edly to cross the Sara- 
 nac, but was each time 
 driven back with heavj 
 loss. During the night 
 the British army re- 
 treated in disorder, 
 abandoning their sick 
 and wounded and a 
 large quantity of mili- 
 tary stores, having lost 
 H, twenty-five hundred 
 men in the engage- 
 ment. 
 
 The country had 
 ample cause to regret 
 the weakness of its 
 §jPf navy during this war. 
 The exploits of those 
 vessels which had 
 managed to get to sea 
 had shown what could 
 be accomplished by 
 this branch of the 
 public service, and 
 
 our deficiency in this respect enabled the 
 enemy to blockade the ports of the Union, 
 and to use the Chesapeake bay with as 
 much freedom as if it were one of their 
 own harbors. In the summer of .^814 a 
 fleet of sixty British ships under Admirals 
 Cockburn and Cochrane, having on boa-d 
 a land-force of five thousand men under 
 General Ross, assembled fn the Chesa 
 peake. 
 
DECATUR'S CONFLICT WITH THE ALGERINE AT TRIPOLI, 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES MADISON. 
 
 537 
 
 Admiral Cochrane endeavored to induce 
 the slaves of Virginia and Maryland to 
 desert their masters, and offered them free 
 transportation to the West Indies and 
 Canada. As it was not known at what 
 oint General Ross would land his troops, 
 General Winder of Maryland was ordered 
 to collect a force of fifteen thousand militia 
 from the neighboring States. He proposed 
 to occupy a central position from which he 
 could cover Washington City, Annapolis, 
 and Baltimore, and was anxious to call out 
 the militia at once ; but General Armstrong, 
 the secretary of war, decided that it would 
 be time enough to call out the militia when 
 the British had revealed their designs more 
 plainly. He did not believe the British had 
 any idea of advancing upon Washington, 
 and thought Baltimore could defend itself. 
 Mr. Madison submitted to the decision of 
 the secretary of war, and the national capital 
 was left defenceless. 
 
 Attack on Washington. 
 
 In the meantime, the British commanders, 
 learning the exposed condition of the city of 
 Washington, determined to attack it. They 
 divided their fleet for this purpose, one por- 
 tion ascending the Potomac, and another the 
 Patuxent. The latter division conveyed the 
 troops of General Ross, and landed them at 
 Benedict, on the Patuxent, about fifty miles 
 from Washington. General Ross at once 
 set out for Washington, advancing slowly 
 and meeting with no resistance. As he had 
 no horses, his troops were obliged to drag 
 their three or four cannon by hand, and. the 
 British made but about ten miles a day. A 
 few determined troops might have driven 
 them back, ana the roads might at least have 
 been obstructed and the progress ol the 
 enemy impeded. 
 
 General Winder gathered a small force of 
 militia, and took position at Bladensburg, on 
 
 the east branch of the Potomac, about three 
 miles from Washington. He was joined here 
 by Commodore Barney with five hundred 
 sailors and marines from the gunboat flotilla 
 in the Patuxent, which Barney, unable to 
 offer any resistance, had burned upon the 
 approach of the British fleet. On the twenty- 
 fourth of August the British reached Blad- 
 ensburg, and attacked the force under Gen- 
 eral Winder. The militia fled at the first 
 fire, but Barney and his sailors and marines 
 stood their ground, and served their guns 
 
 COMMODORE MACDONOUGH. 
 
 with vigor until their position was turned on 
 both flanks by the superior force of ine 
 enemy, when they retreated, leaving their 
 guns and wounded in the hands ot the vic- 
 tors. The so-called battle of Bladensburg 
 was little more than a skirmish. 
 
 General Ross halted to rest his men, who 
 were worn out with the heat, and towards 
 sunset resumed his march, and entered Wash- 
 ington a little before dark. The government 
 had abandoned the city some hours before, 
 and had removed the greater part of its 
 paper ^and archives, and such public property 
 
538 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 as could be carried away, and only a few 
 frightened citizens remained in the town. 
 Admiral Cochrane had some time before 
 announced that the British forces were 
 ordered " to destroy and lay waste ali towns 
 and districts of the United States found 
 accessible to the attacks of British arma- 
 ments," and the army of General Ross now 
 proceeded to carry out these infamous in- 
 structions. They burned the capitol, and 
 with it the library of Congress, the buildings 
 occupied by the treasury and state depart- 
 ments, and plundered the President's mansion 
 and set it on fire. A number of stores and 
 private dwellings were also pillaged and set 
 on fire. The navy yard, with all its contents 
 and several vessels on the stocks, was entirely 
 destroyed. 
 
 Capture of American Vessels. 
 
 The British afterwards attempted to excuse 
 their shameful conduct in Washington by 
 alleging that it was in retaliation for the burn- 
 ing of the parliament house at York in 
 Canada, an act which had been disclaimed 
 by the Americans, and which the British had 
 not been able to prove was their work. 
 General Ross occupied Washington during 
 the night of the twenty-fourth, and until 
 dark on the twenty-fifth. Then, fearing lest 
 the Americans would assemble in such force 
 as to intercept him, he retreated stealthily 
 from Washington on the night of the twenty- 
 fifth, and on the twenty-ninth reached Bene 
 diet and re-embarked his troops. The Eng- 
 lish vessels sent up the Potomae succeeded 
 in passing Fort Washington, which made 
 little or no effort to stop them, and on 
 the twenth-eighth anchored off Alexandria. 
 Twenty-one vessels were captured, and the 
 town saved itself from bombardment by pay- 
 ing a ransom of sixteen thousand barrels of 
 flour and one thousand hogsheads of to- 
 bacco. 
 
 After resting his men, General Ross 
 ascended the Chesapeake to the Patapsco, 
 for the purpose of attacking Baltimore, which 
 was defended by Fort McHenryat the mouth 
 of the harbor, and a force of Maryland militia 
 and some volunteers from Pennsylvania. A 
 force of eight thousand men was landed at 
 the mouth of the Patapsco, under General 
 Ross, and on the twelfth of September ad- 
 vanced towards the city, while the fleet 
 ascended the river to capture Fort McHenry 
 and force its way into the harbor. A small 
 party of Americans contested the advance of 
 the British army, and a skirmish ensued in 
 which General Ross was killed. 
 
 Gallant Defence of Fort McHenry. 
 
 A sharp encounter followed, each side 
 losing about two hundred and fifty men. 
 The American militia retired in good order, 
 and on the morning of the thirteenth the 
 British resumed their march towards Balti- 
 more. The Americans were discovered in 
 considerable force, occupying a line of in- 
 trenchments defended by artillery, and com- 
 manded by General Samuel Smith, an officer 
 of the revolution. The 'British commander 
 now deemed it best to await the result of 
 the engagement between the fleet and Fort 
 McHenry, which was in progress at the 
 time. The British fleet maintained a heavy 
 fire upon the fort, which replied with vigor, 
 and soon made it apparent to the enemy that 
 they could not silence it or pass it. The 
 attack on the fort proving a failure, the 
 British withdrew to North Point on the 
 night ot the thirteenth and reembarked on 
 their ships. 
 
 During this cannonade Francis S. Key, of 
 Baltimore, who had visited the British fleet 
 to obtain the release of certain prisoners, 
 and who was detained by the admiral during 
 the bombardment, wrote the famous song of 
 "The Star -Spangled Banner," which has 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES MADISON. 
 
 539 
 
 ;ince become the national song of Amer- 
 ica. 
 
 The Chesapeake was not the only part of 
 the coast that suffered from the ravages of 
 the British. The shores of Maine were 
 ravaged with great barbarity. Stonington, 
 Connecticut, was subjected to a four days' 
 bombardment by a British fleet, but the 
 militia repulsed every attempt 
 of the enemy to land. The 
 foreign commerce of the coun- 
 try was completely destroyed. 
 The superior naval strength of 
 the British enabled them to 
 blockade the Atlantic ports 
 so thoroughly that the gov- 
 ernment ordered the lights 
 along the coasts to be des- 
 troyed, as they only served as 
 guides to British cruisers. 
 
 The opposition of the New 
 England States to the war, 
 which had caused them such 
 severe loss, increased daily, 
 and at length the legislature of 
 Massachusetts recommended 
 a convention of delegates from 
 the seaboard States to devise 
 amendments to the Constitu- 
 tion for the purpose of secur- 
 ing them from a recurrence 
 of such evils- as they were 
 suffering from. The conven- 
 tion met at Hartford, Con- 
 necticut, on the fourteenth of 
 December, 1814, and was composed of 
 delegates from the New England States. 
 The convention was bitterly opposed by the 
 advocates of the war, who charged it with 
 the intention to make a separate peace with 
 Great Britain, which would have been a 
 practical secession from the Union. The 
 convention continued in session for twenty 
 days, and adoptee! an address to the country 
 
 very moderate in its tone. It proposed to 
 amend the Constitution by making the rep- 
 resentation in the lower House of Congress 
 equal by basing it upon the free population 
 only by forbidding embargo and non-inter- 
 course laws ; and by making the President 
 ineligible for a second term. One of the 
 strong opponents of the embargo was the 
 
 A NEW ENGLAND FARM HOUSE. 
 
 eminent jurist and scholar, Joseph Story, 
 whose influence was widely felt at this 
 time The convention was for many years 
 exposed to the bitterest denunciation of the 
 great mass of the American people. One 
 of the results of the opposition to the 
 war was the complete destruction of the 
 old Federalist party which had opposed the 
 war. 
 
FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 540 
 
 Previous to the assembling of the conven 
 tion the President, in hope of relieving the 
 embarrassments occasioned by the opposi- 
 tion of New England to the war, advised the 
 repeal of the embargo and non-intercourse 
 acts, and the abandonment of the entire re- 
 strictive system. His recommendations 
 /vere carried out by Congress. 
 
 In the meantime stirring events were 
 transpiring in the south. At this time 
 Florida was a possession of Spain, which 
 
 was supposed to be a neutral power. Great 
 Britain had laid Spain under heavy obliga- 
 tions in her struggle against Napoleon, and 
 the British had now no difficulty in entering 
 Florida, and using it as a base of operations 
 against the south. Their fleet entered Pen- 
 sacola harbor and obtained possession of 
 the forts. From this point they began to 
 stir up the Creek Indians to make war on 
 the Americans, and fitted out an expedition 
 against Fort Bowyer, commanded by Major 
 Lawrence, who defended the harbor of 
 
 Mobile. On the fifteenth of September an 
 attack was made upon this fort, and was 
 repulsed with the loss to the enemy of a 
 vessel and a number of men. 
 
 Jackson and New Orleans. 
 
 General Jackson, having collected a force 
 of three thousand Tennesseeans, marched to 
 Pensacola, entered the town on the seventh 
 of November, demanded that the British 
 should leave the place at once, and notified 
 the Spanish Governor that he should hold 
 him ■ responsible for the occupation of the 
 town or the forts by the British for purposes ol 
 hostility towards ^he United States. The 
 British immediately blew up a fort which 
 they had erected seven miles below the town 
 and embarked in their ships. 
 
 Confident that New Orleans would be the 
 next object of attack by the British, anc 
 knowing that the city was poorly prepared 
 to resist, General Jackson at once sent 
 General Coffee with the mounted Tennessee 
 ans to that city, an J followed with the rest 
 of his troops as rapidly as possible. New 
 Orleans was at this time a city of about 
 twenty thousand inhabitants, less than one- 
 half of whom were whites. The whites were 
 principally of French birth or parentage, and 
 cared little for the United States. They could 
 not be relied upon to hold the city against 
 the British. The defences were in a misera- 
 ble state, and the people were demoralized 
 and insubordinate. Jackson set to work with 
 vigor. He proclaimed martial law, and put 
 down the opposition to his measures for the 
 safety of the city with a firm hand. He 
 called for volunteers to defend the city, and 
 urged the free men of color to come forward 
 and enroll themselves. They responded in 
 considerable numbers. The prisons were 
 emptied, and the prisoners enrolled in tht 
 ranks of the army. The services ol Lafitte, 
 a noted smuggler chief ol Barataria bay, and 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES MADISON. 
 
 541 
 
 of his band, were accepted. The British had 
 endeavored to secure the aid of this 
 band as pilots, as they knew the coast 
 thoroughly, but Lafitte and his men had re- 
 fused to hold any communication with them. 
 
 While Jackson was thus engaged, the 
 British fleet arrived on the coast of Louisi- 
 ana, and cast anchor off the mouth of Lake 
 Borgne, the shortest 
 passage by water to 
 New Orleans. It had 
 on board a force of 
 twelve thousand vet- 
 eran troops, just re- 
 leased from the wars 
 against Napoleon, and 
 four thousand marines 
 and sailors. The Bri- 
 tish army was com- 
 manded by Sir Ed- 
 ward Pakenham, the 
 brother-in-law of the 
 Duke of Wellington, 
 and an officer of tried 
 ability, and under him 
 were Generals Gibbs, 
 Keene, and Lambert, 
 Veterans of the penin- 
 sular war. 
 
 The Americans had 
 a small flotilla in Lake 
 Borgne, and by ex- 
 traordinary exertions, 
 Jackson managed to THE PLAIN G f chalmette 
 collect a force of five 
 
 thousand troops, only one thousand of whom 
 were regulars. On the fourteenth of Decem- 
 ber the British sent their boats into Lake 
 Borgne, and after a severe engagement cap- 
 tured the American flotilla, and opened the 
 way to the city. On the twenty-second of 
 December the British landed twenty-four 
 hundred men under General Keene, who 
 advanced to a point on the bank of the Mis- 
 
 sissippi, about nine miles below New Orleans. 
 Jackson attacked this party on the night of 
 the twenty-third with the regulars and 
 Coffee's Tennesseeans dismounted, and drove 
 them to take shelter behind a levee. The 
 success of the Americans in this engagement 
 greatly encouraged them to hope for a 
 similar issue to the final conflict. 
 
 -SCENE OF THE BATTLE OF NEW ORLEANS. 
 
 The next day Jackson took position on 
 solid ground behind a broad and deep 
 trench that extended across the plain of 
 Chalmette from the Mississippi to an im- 
 passable swamp, and covered his position 
 with a line of intrenchments. The British, 
 believing Jackson's force to be much 
 stronger than it really was, made no attempt 
 to interfere with him for several days, and 
 
542 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 he employed this delay in strengthening his 
 line with bales of cotton. The British on 
 the twenty-eighth of December opened a 
 heavy cannonade upon the American line. 
 Jackson replied with energy with his five 
 pieces of artillery, and the firing was con- 
 tinued without accomplishing anything defi- 
 nite for several hours. On the first of 
 January, 1815, they attempted a second can- 
 nonade, but the American guns soon silenced 
 their fire. On the fourth of January a body 
 of twenty-two hundred Kentucky riflemen, 
 who had descended the Mississippi to his 
 assistance, reached Jackson's camp. Only 
 one-half of them were armed. Jackson could 
 not supply the remainder with arms, but set 
 them to work to construct a second lir^ of 
 intrenchments in the rear of his first. 
 
 Brilliant American Victory. 
 
 Having finished their preparations the 
 British erected a battery of six eighteen- 
 pounders on the night of the seventh of 
 January, and on the morning of the eighth 
 advanced to carry the American line by 
 storm. Their centre was led by General 
 Pakenham in person, and other columns 
 under Generals Gibbs and Keene moved 
 against the right and left wings of the 
 Americans. The open space over which the 
 enemy were obliged to pass was nearly a 
 mile in width, and was completely com- 
 manded by Jackson's guns. The British 
 advanced in splendid style, and were soon 
 within range of the American artillery, 
 which opened on them with terrible effect. 
 They never wavered, but closing up their 
 ranks firmly pressed on. As they came 
 within musket shot the Kentucky and Ten- 
 nessee riflemen opened a fatal fire upon them 
 which literally mowed them down They 
 wavered and broke. General Pakenham 
 attempted to rally them, and was shot down. 
 Generals Gibbs and Keene were wounded 
 
 while engaged in the same attempt, tha 
 latter mortally. The command devolved 
 upon General Lambert, who made two more 
 attempts to carry the line by storm. Each 
 time the fatal fire of the American riflemen 
 drove back the tried veterans of Wellington's 
 campaigns, and at last they broke and fled 
 in confusion. General Lambert continued 
 the retreat to the shore of the gulf, where 
 the British fleet lay, and about a fortnight 
 later embarked his troops and withdrew. 
 
 Close of the War. 
 
 The American loss in the battle of New 
 Orleans was seven killed and six wounded. 
 The British lost two thousand in killed and 
 wounded. 
 
 The victory was of the highest importance. 
 It saved not only New Orleans but the 
 mouth of the Mississippi from British con- 
 trol. Had the army of General Pakenham 
 been successful, there is good reason to 
 believe that England wouid have refused to 
 relinquish the Mississippi, and the war would 
 have gone on, or peace would have been 
 made with the mouth of the great river 
 under the control of England. The victory 
 closed the war, and was won as we shall see 
 three weeks after the treaty of peace was 
 signed. 
 
 At sea the war was carried on by the few 
 American cruisers that managed to elude 
 the blockade of our coast. The frigate 
 " Essex," Commodore Porter, went to sea 
 in 181 3, and made a number of captures in 
 the Atlantic. Learning that the British 
 whalers, which had been armed for the pur- 
 pose of capturing American vessels, engaged 
 in the same trade, were doing considerable 
 damage in the Pacific, Commodore Portef 
 sailed around Cape Horn and entered that 
 ocean. He captured twelve armed British 
 whalers in the course of a few months, 
 and then learning that, the British frigate 
 
544 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 " Phoebe " had been sent in pursuit of him, 
 Porter sailed to Valparaiso to look for her. 
 While he lay there the " Phoebe," accompa- 
 nied by the English sloop of war " Cherub," 
 arrived off the harbor. 
 
 The " Phoebe " was herself a full match 
 for the " Essex," but Porter resolved to fight 
 both vessels. As he was leaving the harbor 
 a sudden squall carried away his maintop- 
 mast, and left him at the mercy of his ene- 
 mies, which at once attacked him. His 
 defence was one of the most gallant and 
 
 COMMODORE DECATUR. 
 
 desperate in history, but he was forced to 
 surrender, but not until he had lost fifty- 
 eight of his crew killed, and sixty-six 
 wounded. 
 
 In January, 1 81 5, the frigate " President," 
 Commodore Decatur, managed to elude the 
 blockade of New York, and get to sea. She 
 was chased by a British squadron of five 
 vessels, and a running fight ensued. Being 
 entirely disabled, the " President " was forced 
 to surrender. 
 
 In February, 181 5, while cruising off the 
 port of Lisbon, one fine moonlight night, 
 
 the " Constitution," Captain Stewart, encoun- 
 tered two British sloops of war, the "Cyane," 
 24, and the " Levant," 18, and captured both 
 of them after a short engagement. These 
 vessels were captured after peace was signed 
 and were restored to the British. On the 
 twenty-third of March, the " Hornet," Cap- 
 tain Biddle, captured the British brig " Pen- 
 guin" of the Cape of Good Hope. The 
 " Penguin " was so much injured that Biddle 
 was forced to destroy her. On the thirtieth 
 of June the " Peacock," Captain Warrington, 
 ignorant of the close of the 
 war, captured the " Nau- 
 tilus " in the East Indies. 
 The latter vessel was res- 
 tored to the British. Thus 
 the war, which opened so 
 gloomily for the Americans, 
 closed with a series of bril- 
 liant successes for them. 
 
 In the meantime negotia- 
 tions for peace had been 
 conducted between the 
 American and British com- 
 missioners at Ghent, in 
 Belgium. The American 
 commissioners had been 
 instructed to demand the 
 settlement of the impress- 
 ment question, and at the 
 same time to give assurance that upon the 
 relinquishment of that claim by England 
 Congress would enact a law forbidding the 
 enlistment of English sailors in either the 
 navy or merchant service of the United 
 States. On the fourteenth of December, 
 1 8 14, the labors of the commissioners were 
 brought to a close, and a treaty of peace 
 between the United States and Great Britain 
 was signed. 
 
 The treaty provided that all places cap- 
 tured by either party during the war should 
 be restored to their rightful possessors. 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES MADISON. 
 
 ArraHgements were made for determining 
 the northwest boundary of the United States, 
 and for settling matters of minor importance. 
 The treaty was silent on the subject of 
 
 545 
 
 to revive it, so that the object of the war the 
 protection of American sailors from impress- 
 ment by England, was attained after all. 
 The treaty was unanimously ratified by the 
 
 DECATUR AND THE DEY OF ALGIERS. 
 
 Impressments, the cause of the war. Nev- 
 ertheless Great Britain ceased to exercise 
 her claim to this right as regarded the 
 United States, and has not since attempted 
 
 35 
 
 Senate, and on the eighteenth of February 
 peace was proclaimed by the President. A 
 few days later the President recommended 
 to Congress the passage of a law forbidding 
 
54^ 
 
 FROM THE RFVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 the enlistment of foreign seamen in American 
 vessels. 
 
 The oroclamation of peace was hailed with 
 delight in all parts of the country, especiaLy 
 in the Atlantic cities which had suffered 
 heavily by the war, and the national rejoic- 
 ings were intensified by the news which 
 arrived a few days later of the brilliant 
 victory of New Orleans. 
 
 Soon after the conclusion of peace with 
 Great Britain, the United States were called 
 upon to punish the insolence of the dey 
 
 WILLIAM C. C. CLAIBORNE. 
 
 of Algiers. That ruler, thinking that the 
 United States was too much crippled by 
 their recent conflict with Great Britain to 
 punish his insolence, suddenly made war 
 upon them. He threatened to reduce Mr. 
 Lear, the American consul, to slavery, and 
 compelled him to purchase his liberty and 
 that of his family by the payment of a large 
 ransom. Several American merchantmen 
 were captured by the Algerine pirates, and 
 their crews reduced to slavery. The excuse 
 offered by the dey for these outrages was 
 
 that the presents of the American govern- 
 ment were not satisfactory. 
 
 The government of the United States 
 determined to compel the Barbary powers 
 to make a definite settlement of the questions 
 at issue between them and this country, and 
 in May, 1815, Commodore Decatur was 
 despatched to the Mediterranean with a 
 fleet ol ten vessels, three of which were 
 frigates. He was ordered to compel the 
 dey to make satisfaction for his past out- 
 rages, and to give a guarantee for his future 
 good conduct. On the voyage out Decatur 
 fell in with the largest frigate in the Algerine 
 service, near Gibraltar, on the seventeenth 
 of June, and captured her after a fight of 
 thirty minutes. On the nineteenth another 
 Algerine cruiser was taken. 
 
 Decatur at Tunis and Tripoli. 
 
 The fleet then proceeded to Algiers, but 
 upon its arrival found the dey in a very 
 humble frame of mind. The loss of his two 
 best ships, and the determined aspect of the 
 Americans, terrified him into submission, 
 and he humbly sued for peace. He was 
 required to come on board of Decatur's flag- 
 ship, and there sign a humiliating treaty with 
 the United States, by which he bound him- 
 self to indemnify the Americans from whom 
 he had extorted ransoms, to surrender all his 
 prisoners unconditionally, to renounce all 
 claim to tribute from the American gevern- 
 ment, and to cease from molesting American 
 vessels in future. 
 
 The difficulty with Algiers having been 
 satisfactorily settled, Decatur sailed to Tunis 
 and Tripoli, and demanded of the govern- 
 ment of each of those countries in- 
 demnity for some American vessels which 
 had been captured by the British in their 
 harbors with their connivance. The demand 
 was coupled in each case with a threat of 
 bombardment, and was complied with. 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES MADISON. 
 
 547 
 
 About the middle of the summer Commo- 
 dore Bainbridge joined Decatur with the 
 " Independence," seventy-four, the "Con- 
 gress," and several other vessels, but the 
 energetic Decatur had settled all difficulties, 
 and had so humbled the Barbary powers 
 that they never again renewed their aggres- 
 sions upon American commerce. The 
 American fleet then visited the principal 
 ports of the Mediterranean. The brilliant 
 record made by the navy during the war 
 with England secured it a flattering recep- 
 tion everywhere. 
 
 Indian Tribes at Peace. 
 
 In the autumn of 1815 the Indian tribes, 
 deprived of the support of Great Britain, 
 made peace with each other and with the 
 United States. The northwestern frontier 
 was thus secured against the further hostility 
 of the savages. 
 
 The finances of the country were in a 
 wretched condition at the close of the war. 
 All the banks but those of New England 
 had suspended specie payments, and none 
 were now in a condition to return to a specie 
 basis. The public debt was over $ 100,000,000 
 and there was a general lack of confidence 
 throughout the country. Mr. A. J. Dallas, 
 the secretary of the treasury, in view cf the 
 general distress, proposed to abolish a num- 
 ber of the internal taxes which had been 
 levied for the support of the war. In their 
 place he advised the imposition upon im- 
 ports from foreign countries of duties suffi- 
 ciently high not only to afford a revenue, but 
 also to protect the manufactures which had 
 sprung up during the war, and which were 
 threatened with ruin by the competition of 
 European goods. The President, in his 
 annual message, warmly recommended such 
 a course. Another important measure was 
 
 also enacted. The charter of the first Bank 
 of the United States expired in 181 1. Efforts 
 had been made, without success, to obtain 
 its renewal, and Mr. Madison in Januarv, 
 1 8 14 had vetoed a bill for this purpose 
 which had passed both Houses of Congress. 
 In the spring of 1816 a bill was passed by 
 Congress chartering a new Bank of the 
 United States for twenty years, with a capital 
 °f $35,000,000, and received the President's 
 signature on the tenth of April. It was 
 located in Philadelphia, but had branches in 
 other States. It gave the people a uniform 
 currency, good in all parts of the country, 
 and redeemable on demand in gold and 
 silver, and thus did much to remedy the 
 financial difficulties of the times. Somewhat 
 later a law was passed requiring that all 
 sums of money due the United States should 
 be paid in gold or silver coin, " in treasury 
 notes, in notes of the Bank of the United 
 States, or in notes of banks payable and paid 
 on demand in specie." 
 
 On the nineteenth of April, 18 16, the Ter- 
 ritory of Indiana was admitted into the 
 Union as a State, making the nineteenth 
 member of the Confederacy. William C. C. 
 Claiborne, a distinguished lawyer and states- 
 man and former governor of the Territory, 
 was one of the senators-elect of the new 
 State, and became a famous member of that 
 body. 
 
 The Presidential election took place in the 
 fall of 1 8 16. Mr. Madison having decline 
 to be a candidate for a third term, the 
 Democratic party nominated James Monroe, 
 of Virginia, for President, and Daniel D. 
 Tompkins, of New York, for Vice-President, 
 and elected them by large majorities over 
 the Federal candidates, who were: For 
 President, Rufus King, of New York ; for 
 Vice-President, John Howard, of Maryland, 
 
CHAPTER XXXIV 
 
 The Administrations of James Monroe and 
 John Quincy Adams 
 
 Inauguration of Mr. Monroe — His Tour through the Eastern States — Admission of Mississippi into the Union - -^>«L>la 
 with the Indians — General Jackson's Vigorous Measures against the Spaniards in Florida — Purchase or f'oncia b) 
 the United States — Illinois becomes a State — The First Steamship — Maine admitted into the Union — The Slaver) 
 Question — The Missouri Compromise — Admission of Missouri as a State — The Fourth Census — Re-election of Mr 
 Monroe — The Tariff — Protective Policy of the Government — Recognition of the Spanish Republics — The Monroe- 
 Doctrine — Visit of Lafayette to the United States— Retirement of Mr. Monroe — John Quincy Adams elected President 
 — His Inauguration — Rapid Improvement of the Country — Increase of Wealth and Prosperity — Internal Improve- 
 ments — The Creek Lands in Georgia Ceded to the United States — Death of Thomas Jefferson and John Adams — 
 The Anti-Masons — The Tariff of 1828— Andrew Jackson elected President of the United States. 
 
 JAMES MONROE was inaugurated 
 President of the United States, at 
 Washington, on the fourth of March, 
 1 8 17. He had served during the 
 revolution in the. army of the United States, 
 and had entered Congress soon after the for- 
 mation of the government as a representative 
 from Virginia, and had won great credit by 
 his services in that body. He had been 
 secretary of state during the eight years of 
 Mr. Madison's administration, and had 
 greatly increased his fame by his discharge 
 of the difficult and delicate duties of this posi- 
 tion. He was a man of amiable and con- 
 ciliatory character, and was popular with 
 both parties. 
 
 In his inaugural address he declared his 
 intention to administer the government in ac- 
 cordance with the principles of Washington, 
 and the sentiments of this document were 
 warmly applauded throughout the country 
 by Federalists as well as Democrats. The 
 administration of Mr. Monroe covered a 
 period generally known in our political 
 history as " the era of good feeling." Party 
 lines were almost blotted out, and the people 
 of the country were more united than at any 
 548 
 
 previous or subsequent period in the support 
 of national measures. 
 
 A few months after his inauguration Presi 
 dent Monroe made a tour through the 
 Eastern States. He was received wit! 
 marked attention everywhere, and the Fed- 
 eralist city of Boston entertained him with 
 the cordial hospitality which is one bt her 
 characteristics. 
 
 On the tenth of December, 18 17, the 
 western portion of the Territory of Mississ- 
 ippi was admitted into the Union as the State 
 of Mississippi. The eastern portion of the 
 former Territory became the 1«_.ritory o< 
 Alabama, for which a government was pro 
 vided by Congress. 
 
 Towards the close of the year 18 17 the 
 Seminole Indians, whose lands lay within the 
 Spanish province of Florida, began to com 
 mit depredations along the borders of Geor- 
 gia and Alabama Territory. They were 
 joined by the Creeks, and their operations 
 soon became so important as to demand the 
 immediate action of the federal government. 
 General Gaines, commanding the federal 
 troops in Alabama, attempted to check the 
 Indians, but his forces were inadequate to the 
 
ADMINISTRATIONS OF MONROE AND J. Q. ADAMS. 
 
 549 
 
 task, ami he was compelled to ask assistance 
 of the government. General Jackson, com- 
 manding the southern department, was 
 ordered to call out the militia and take the 
 field against the Indians. He collected a force 
 of one thousand mounted Tennesseeans, and 
 in March, 1818, invaded 
 the Indian country, and 
 in a few weeks laid it 
 waste, the villages and 
 cornfields were burned, 
 and the cattle captured 
 or killed. 
 
 Being satisfied that the 
 Spaniards in Florida had 
 incited the Indians to 
 make war on the United 
 States, General Jackson, 
 as soon as he had pun- 
 ished the Indians, march- 
 ed into Florida and seized 
 St. Marks, on Appalachee 
 bay, the only fortified 
 town of the Spaniards in 
 that part of Florida. An 
 armed American vessel, 
 cruising off the Florida 
 coast, hoisted the British 
 colors, and two promin- 
 ent hostile Creek chiefs 
 were decoyed on board, 
 and were summarily 
 hanged by order of Jack- 
 son. 
 
 In one of his forays 
 against the Indians Jack- 
 son captured two Bri- 
 tish traders, Robert C. 
 Ambrister, or Ambuster, and Alexander 
 Arbuthnot. They were accused of aiding the 
 Indians, were tried and found guilty by a 
 court-martial, and were promptly hanged. 
 The Spanish governor indignantly protested 
 against the invasion of Florida, but Jackson, 
 
 unmoved by this protest, advanced in May to 
 Pensacola, the seat of the Spanish provincial 
 government, which place was immediately 
 surrendered to him. The Spanish governor 
 fled to Fort Barrancas, below the town. 
 Jackson attacked the fort and compelled it 
 
 JAMES MONROE. 
 
 to surrender after a brief resistance, where- 
 upon the governor continued his flight to 
 Havana. The invasion of Florida by Jackson 
 drew forth an indignant protest from the 
 Spanish government, but his conduct was 
 sustained by a decisive majority in both 
 
S<o 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 Houses of Congress. The Spanish govern- 
 ment did not press the matter, as negotiations 
 were soon entered upon which brought about 
 an amicable settlement of the difficulty. 
 
 The Spanish kingdom was indebted to 
 certain citizens of the United States in sums 
 amounting in the aggregate to five million 
 dollars. Spain instructed her minister at 
 Washington to conclude a treaty with the 
 United States ceding Florida tc them as an 
 equivalent for these claims. The treaty was 
 arranged in 1819. Spak ceded to the United 
 States all her claims to East and West 
 Florida, and to the territory claimed by her 
 on the Pacific coast north of forty-two degrees 
 of north latitude, and the federal government 
 assumed the Spanish debt to the citizens of 
 this country. Two years later this treaty 
 was ratified by Spain, and on the twenty- 
 second of April, 1 82 1, the President formally 
 announced the acquisition of Fl^nda by the 
 United States. 
 
 Oregon and Illinois. 
 
 This purchase also included the territory | 
 in Oregon claimed by Spain, and embrace" 1 
 an area of 367,320 square miles. Florida 
 was at one organized as a Territory, and 
 General Jackson was appointed its first gov- 
 ernor. 
 
 On the third of December, 18 18, the Ter- 
 ritory of Illinois was admitted into the Union 
 as a State. 
 
 The year 18 19 was marked by an event Of 
 great importance in the history of the world # 
 Steam had been used for some time in the 
 inland navigation of the Union, but it was 
 not generally believed it could be applied to 
 sea-going vessels. The steamship " Savan- 
 nah," built in New York, but owned in the 
 city from which she was named, made a suc- 
 cessful voyage from New York to Savannah 
 in the early part of 18 19. In May of that 
 year she sailed from Savannah for Liverpool, 
 
 and reached that port in safety From Liver- 
 pool she subsequently made a voyage to St. 
 Petersburg. She was the first steam vessel 
 that ever crossed the Atlantic, and, wherever 
 she went, was an object of the greatest 
 interest. The question of steam navigation 
 on the ocean was thus satisfactorily settled 
 by America. 
 
 On the fourteenth of December, 18 19, 
 Alabama was admitted into the Union as a 
 State, making the total number of States 
 twenty-two. 
 
 North and South. 
 
 On the fifteenth of March, 1820, Maine, 
 which had formed a part of Massachusetts, 
 but had been ceded by that State to the gen 
 eral government, was admitted into the Union 
 as a State. The object of the erection of 
 this new State was to offset the growing 
 power of the Southern States by the creation 
 of? new member of the Union in New Eng- 
 land. The number of the New England 
 States was thus increased to six. 
 
 For some years past the question of African 
 slavery in the States had been assuming an 
 important and alarming position in the public 
 mind. The States of the north and west 
 had gotten rid of such negro slaves as they 
 had originnlly possessed, and had forbidden 
 their citizens to own or bring within their 
 limits for purposes of labor any persons of 
 this class. The Southern States, on the 
 other hand, comprised a region in which 
 slave labor was particularly profitable, and it 
 was believed by the people of this region 
 that the industry of many parts of the south 
 could not be properly developed by white 
 men, as the climate was more unsuited to 
 them than the negroes. The production of 
 cotton, rice, sugar, and tobacco depended on 
 the labor of the negro, and in the States 
 where those great staples were raised slavery 
 was regarded as a necessity. 
 
ADMINISTRATIONS OF MONROE AND J. Q. ADAMS. 
 
 551 
 
 At the period we are now considering 
 slavery existed in the States of Delaware, 
 Maryland, Virginia, North and South Caro- 
 lina", Georgia, Alabama, Louisiana, Missis- 
 sippi, Tennessee, and Kentucky. Being 
 regarded by these States as necessary to their 
 prosperity, they considered any and all plans 
 for its removal as attacks upon their chief 
 source of wealth. 
 
 In the non-slaveholding States the feeling 
 that slavery was sinful 
 gradually 
 
 was recognized and protected by the Consti- 
 tution, and Congress held that it had no right 
 to interfere with the domestic relations of 
 those States in which slavery, thus recog- 
 nized and protected, was established. 
 
 In February, 1819, the Territory of Mis- 
 souri, which was formed out of a part of the 
 Louisiana purchase, asked permission to 
 form a constitution preparatory to being 
 admitted into the Union as a State. When 
 
 had been 
 
 gaining ground 
 
 and M 
 
 there were many per- 
 sons in the south who 
 held the same views. 
 Certain religious bo- 
 dies in the country had 
 distinctly expressed 
 their belief that it was 
 contrary to the teach- 
 ings of Christianity to 
 own slaves, and mem- 
 orials had been pre- 
 sented to the legisla- 
 tures of some of the 
 States, and to the Con- 
 gress of the United 
 States, praying for the 
 abolition of slavery 
 
 The law for the 
 organization of the 
 Northwest Territory 
 forbade the admis- 
 sion of slavery into 
 
 the States to be formed out of that 
 Territory, and thus secured them for free 
 labor. Though Congress did not hesitate 
 to legislate upon the subject of slavery in 
 this case, it steadily refused to comply with 
 the demands of the petitions presented to it 
 praying it to take measures for the abolition 
 of slavery throughout the nation. The exist- 
 ence of slavery within the individual States 
 
 OLD WAY OF PICKING COTTON. 
 
 the bill for this purpose was presented to the 
 House of Representatives on the thirteenth 
 of February, Mr. Tallmadge, of New York, 
 proposed to insert a clause providing " that 
 the further introduction of slavery, or invol- 
 untary servitude, be prohibited, except for 
 the punishment of crimes whereof the party 
 shall have been duly convicted ; and that all 
 children born in said State, after the admis- 
 
552 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 sion thereof into the Union, shall be free at 
 the age of twenty-five years. 
 
 The announcement of this amendment 
 produced a great sensation in the House, 
 and throughout the country. It was believed 
 by the advocates of slavery that the resolu- 
 tions of the House of Representatives of 
 1790, in reply to the first petition presented 
 to it for the abolition of slavery, had settled 
 the question of the powers of the federal 
 government respecting slavery. No effort 
 had been made to revive the subject in the 
 admission of Kentucky, Tennessee, Louis- 
 iana, Mississippi, or Alabama, in each of 
 which States negro slavery existed. Many 
 of the most determined opponents of slavery 
 believed that, under the constitution and the 
 Louisiana treaty with France, Congress had 
 no right to adopt the proposed restriction 
 upon the admission of Missouri as a State. 
 
 Free and Slave Labor. 
 
 Among these were Mr. Jefferson, then 
 living in retirement at Monticello, and John 
 Quincy Adams, the secretary of state in Mr. 
 Monroe's cabinet. Both of these gentlemen 
 were sincerely desirous of the abolition of 
 slavery. Mr. Jefferson believed that the 
 States alone had power to legislate upon the 
 subject within their respective limits. The 
 opponents of slavery, on the other hand, 
 contended that while Congress had no power 
 to interfere with slavery in the thirteen orig- 
 inal States, it had full power to legislate 
 concerning it in the Territories, which were 
 the common property of the States north 
 and south. The advocates of slavery con- 
 tended that, as the treaty under which the 
 Louisiana purchase was made contained a 
 pledge to the inhabitants of that Territory 
 that they should enjoy " all the privileges of 
 citizens of the United States," such a restric- 
 tion as that proposed by Mr. Tallmadge 
 would be a violation of this pledge. 
 
 They claimed also that as slaves were 
 property, and the Territories the common 
 possession of the States, the citizens of the 
 slaveholding States had the right to c3ny 
 their property into the Territories ; and that 
 the prohibition of slavery in the Territories 
 would be to deprive the south of lur share 
 in their enjoyment. The anti-slavery advo- 
 cates replied to this, that slave and free labor 
 could not coexist on the same soil, and that 
 to allow slavery in the Territories would be 
 to drive free labor out of them ; and that it 
 would be a great wrong to allow the intro- 
 duction of a few hundred thousand slaves at 
 the cost of driving millions of free men from 
 the Territories. 
 
 The National Controversy. 
 
 The discussion of this question produced 
 intense feeling between the Northern and 
 Southern States, and the sectional division 
 of the country was drawn too deep to be 
 effaced while the cause of it remained. It 
 was very clear to thinking men that the 
 feelings aroused by this controversy could 
 not be quieted until the institution of slavery 
 should be abolished throughout the country, 
 or should be introduced into every new State 
 formed out of the Territories remaining to 
 the republic. The excitement deepened 
 daily, and at one time became so intense as 
 to threaten the existence of the Union. 
 Good men of all parties gave their best 
 efforts to the task of effecting a settlement ol 
 the difficulty, but amid the storm of passion 
 which was aroused by the debate in Congress 
 it Was hard to accomplish anything. 
 
 The bill allowing the people of Missouri 
 to form a State constitution passed the 
 House of Representatives with Mr. Tall- 
 madge's amendment by a small majority. 
 It was defeated in the Senate. When Con- 
 gress met again in December, 18 19, the 
 debate was renewed upon the Missouri 
 
ADMINISTRATIONS OF MONROE AND J. Q. ADaMS. 
 
 question. The House again passed the bill for- 
 bidding the existence of slavery in Missouri. 
 The Senate struck out Mr. Tallmadge's 
 amendment, and added to the House bill, as 
 a substitute for it, a proviso offered by Mr. 
 Thomas, of Illinois, that slavery should not 
 exist in any part of the Louisiana Territory 
 north of thirty-six degrees and thirty minutes 
 north latitude, and west of the proposed 
 State of Missouri, or in any State to be 
 formed out of this Territory. The House 
 refused to accept the Senate's amend- 
 ment, and in order to adjust their dif 
 erences a committee of conference was 
 appointed by the two Houses. 
 
 Maine, whose admission we have re- 
 lated, was an applicant for admission 
 into the Union at this time, and it was 
 contended by the south that it was 
 unjust to admit her without any restric- 
 tion as to her domestic institutions, and 
 yet to impose upon Missouri a restric 
 tion which would deprive a large part 
 of her population of their property, and 
 close the State against emigration from 
 the south. The result of the committee 
 on conference was that after long and 
 exciting debates the amendment offered 
 by Mr. Thomas, of Illinois, was accepted. 
 Maine was admitted as a free State. It 
 was enacted by Congress that slavery 
 should never exist north of the line of 
 thirty-six degrees thirty minutes north 
 latitude; and that Missouri should be admit- 
 ted into the Union as a slave State upon 
 the adoption of a constitution by her people. 
 This was regarded as an equitable settle- 
 ment of the difficulty, and the measure is 
 known as the Missouri Compromise. The 
 act for the admission of Maine received the 
 President's approval on the third of March, 
 1820, and the State was admitted into the 
 Union under it on the fifteenth of March. 
 The separate act in relation to Missouri was 
 
 553 
 
 approved by the President on the eighth of 
 March, 1820. Its title shows its object. It 
 was " An act to authorize the people of Mis- 
 souri Territory to form a constitution and 
 State government, and for the admission of 
 such State into the Union on an equal foot- 
 ing with the original States, and to prohibit 
 slavery in certain Territories." As we shall 
 see, the State of Missouri was not admitted 
 into the Union under the famous Missouri 
 Compromise. 
 
 HENRY CLAY. 
 
 When Congress met in December, 1820, 
 the constitution adopted by Missouri was 
 presented to that body. It contained a clause 
 which prevented free people of color from 
 settling in the State. " This clause," says 
 Colonel Benton. " was adopted for the sake 
 of peace — for the sake of internal tranquil- 
 ity — and to prevent the agitation of the slave 
 question."* It was objected to in Congress 
 
 * Benton's Thirty Years' View, vol. i., p. 8. 
 
554 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 by the party that had previously opposed the 
 admission of Missouri as a slave State. This 
 party argued that the constitution required 
 that the citizens of one State should be 
 entitled to the privileges of citizens in the 
 other States ; and that as some of the States 
 recognized free people of color as citizens, 
 this provision of the Missouri constitution 
 was in open hostility to the constitution of 
 the United States, since it deprived the citi- 
 zens of some of the States of their rights. 
 
 The friends of the compromise measure 
 were astounded, as they ha 1 supposed that 
 it had removed all obstacles to the admis- 
 sion of Missouri, which had already exer- 
 cised the privileges of a State in electing 
 senators and representatives to Congress, and 
 in taking part in the presidential election of 
 1820. The subject was reopened in Con- 
 gress in all its bitterness, and the country 
 again plunged into profound agitation. 
 
 The Struggle Renewed. 
 
 At this juncture Henry Clay exerted him- 
 self with great energy to bring about a settle- 
 ment of the dispute. He induced the House 
 to commit the matter to a committee of thir- 
 teen, of which he was made chairman. This 
 committee advised the admission of Missouri 
 upon the condition that the obnoxious clause 
 in her constitution should be withdrawn and 
 that her legislature should pass no law vio- 
 lative of the rights of citizens of other States. 
 Mr. Clay supposed that as this recommenda- 
 tion amply met the objection to the admis- 
 sion of Missouri, it would remove the last 
 
 obstacle to the accomplishment of that object. 
 To his astonishment it was defeated by a vote 
 of eighty for it and eighty-three against it. 
 
 The struggle now became more bitter than 
 ever. The anti-slavery party, which had by 
 this time obtained a definite existence, were 
 determined that the right of the general 
 government to control the slavery question 
 should be acknowledged. The pro-slavery 
 party were determined to resist the exercise 
 of that claim. Threats were freely indulged 
 to destroy the Union by the withdrawal of 
 the Stag's. Mr. Clay, undaunted by hs 
 failure, 1 .newed his patriotic efforts to bring 
 about a settlement of the dispute, and at 
 length secured the passage of measures sub- 
 stantially the same as those advised by his 
 first committee. The act of Congress for 
 this purpose was approved by the President 
 on the second of March, 1821. The Missouri 
 legislature on the twenty-sixth of June 
 expunged the obnoxious article from the 
 constitution of the State, and on the tenth of 
 August the President issued his proclamatior 
 admitting Missouri into the Union.* 
 
 The slavery question was quieted for a 
 time by the admission of Missouri, but it was 
 not settled. We shall encounter it again 
 and again in the remaining chapters of this 
 work. 
 
 In 1820 the fourth census of the United 
 States placed the population of the republic 
 at 9,638,191 souls. 
 
 In the fall of 1820 Mr. Monroe and Gov- 
 ernor Tompkins wee re-elected President 
 and Vice-President of the United States. Mr. 
 
 * " A general idea prevails very extensively that Missouri was admitted as a slave State in 1820, under an agree- 
 ment with the Restrictionists, or Centralists, proposed by Mr. Clay, that she should be so admitted upon condition that 
 negro slavery should be forever prohibited in the public domain north of 36 degrees 30 minutes north latitude. No 
 greater error in any important historical event ever existed. The truth is, Mr. Clay was not the author of the territorial 
 line of 36 degrees 30 minutes, incorporated in the act of 1820, nor was Missouri admitted under the provisions of that 
 act. On the contrary, she was admitted on the tenth of August, 1821, by presidential proclamation, upon the * Funda- 
 mental Conditions,' in substance, that the State government, in all its departments, should be subject to the constitution 
 of the United St ites, as all the State governments were, and are." — A Compendium of the History of the United States. 
 By Hon. Alexander H. Stephens, p. 329. 
 
ADMINISTRATIONS OF MONROE AND J. Q. ADAMS. 
 
 555 
 
 Monroe received at the polls a majority of 
 the votes of every State in the Union, and 
 every electoral vote but one, which was one 
 in the college of New Hampshire, and was 
 cast for John Quincy Adams. Mr. Monroe 
 entered upon his second term on the fourth 
 of March, 1821. 
 
 Next in importance to the slavery ques- 
 
 world, and compelled the States to depend 
 upon their own exertions for the supply of 
 their wants. During this period numerous 
 manufacturing enterprises had sprung up, 
 especially in New England, where capital 
 was idle and labor abundant. 
 
 At the close of the war the country was 
 flooded with European goods, which were 
 
 UNIQUE COTTON HARVESTER. 
 
 tion was that of the tariff, or the imposition 
 of a protective duty in favor of home manu- 
 factures. In his inaugural address the Presi- 
 dent had recommended the imposition of 
 such a system of duties. During the war 
 the non-intercourse laws of Congress, and 
 the rigid blockade maintained by the British 
 fleet, entirely cut the United States off from 
 commercial intercourse with the rest of the 
 
 sold at reduced prices for the especial pur- 
 pose of ruining American manufactures. In 
 their weak and helpless condition the Ameri- 
 can enterprises could not endure this com- 
 petition, and the tariff was proposed as the 
 only means of saving them from ruin. The 
 first measure of this kind was passed by 
 Congress in 18 16, and was opposed by the 
 New England States, which were then largely 
 
556 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 engaged in commerce, and was supported by 
 the south. In 1820 the tariff was revised. 
 The New England States, which had directed 
 the chief efforts to manufactures since 18 16, 
 had felt the beneficial effects of protective 
 duties, and now became the warm supporters 
 of the tariff. The south being an agricultural 
 section had found that its interests demanded 
 free trade, had changed its position and 
 resolutely opposed the tariff. In spite of the 
 opposition to the measure, however, the 
 duties were increased in the tariff of 1820. 
 
 Mexico and South America. 
 
 For some years past Mexico and the 
 States of South America formerly held by 
 Spain as provinces had been struggling to 
 achieve their independence of the mother 
 country. Henry Clay had exerted himself 
 with enthusiasm to obtain from Congress a 
 recognition of their independence, but such 
 a step had been considered premature. In 
 March, 1822, however, his efforts were 
 crowned with success, and a bill was passed 
 by Congress in accordance with the recom- 
 mendation of the President, recognizing the 
 independence of Mexico and the South 
 American republics, and providing for the 
 establishment of diplomatic relations with 
 them. 
 
 The next year President Monroe declared 
 in a message to Congress that, " as a princi- 
 ple, the American continents, by the free 
 and independent position they have assumed 
 and maintained, are henceforth not to be 
 considered as subjects for future colonization 
 by any European power." This claim that 
 America belongs to republicanism, and is 
 not to be the scene of European schemes for 
 territorial aggrandizement, has since been 
 known as the " Monroe doctrine," and been 
 regarded as one of the cardinal points of the 
 policy of the government of the United 
 States., 
 
 The last year of Mr. Monroe's administra- 
 tion was marked by an advent of the deepest 
 interest to the whole country. In 1824 the 
 venerable Marquis de Lafayette came to the 
 United States at the express invitation of 
 Congress to visit the nation whose freedom 
 he had helped to achieve. He reached 
 New York on the thirteenth of August, and 
 was received with enthusiasm. He travelled 
 through all the States, and was everywhere 
 received with demonstrations of respect and 
 affection, and he was given abundant evi- 
 dence in all parts of the country that the 
 nation cherished with love and pride the 
 memory of the generous stranger who came 
 to its aid in its darkest hour of trial Re- 
 turning to Washington during the session 
 of Congress, Lafayette spent several weeks 
 there. Congress, as a token of the gratitude 
 of the nation for his services, voted him a 
 a township of land and the sum of two hun- 
 dred thousand dollars. The frigate " Brandy- 
 wine," just finished, was appointed to ccnvey 
 him back to France, a delicate compliment, 
 as the vessel was named after the stream on 
 whose banks Lafayette fought his first battle 
 and was wounded in the cause of American 
 independence. At the time of his visit to 
 the United States Lafayette was nearly 
 seventy years old. 
 
 Election of John Quincy Adams. 
 
 In the fall of 1824 the Presidential election 
 was held amid great political excitement. 
 The " era of good feeling " was at an end, 
 and party spirit ran high. There were four 
 candidates in the field, Mr. Monroe having 
 declined a third term : Andrew Jackson, 
 John Quincy Adams, William H. Crawford 
 and Henry Clay. 
 
 None of these received a popular majority 
 and the election was thrown into the House 
 of Representatives in Congress, and resulted 
 in the choice of John Quincy Adams, of 
 
ADMINISTRATIONS OF MONROE AND J. Q. ADAMS. 
 
 557 
 
 Massachusetts, as President of the United 
 States. John C. Calhoun, of South Carolina, 
 had been chosen Vice-President by the 
 popular vote. 
 
 On the fourth of March, 1825, John 
 Quincy Adams was inaugurated President 
 of the United States. He was the son of 
 John Adams, the second President of the 
 republic, and was in his fifty-eighth year. 
 He was a man of great natural ability, of 
 strong personal character, and of unbending 
 integrity. He had been carefully educated, 
 and was one of the most learned men in the 
 Union. 
 
 Apart from his general education he had 
 received a special training in statesmanship. 
 He had served as minister to the Nether- 
 lands, and in the same capacity at the courts of 
 Portugal, Prussia Russia and England, where 
 he had maintained a high reputation. He 
 had represented the State of Massachusetts 
 in the Federal Senate, and had been secretary 
 of state in the cabinet of Mr. Monroe during 
 the last administration. He was therefore 
 thoroughly qualified for the duties of the 
 high office upon which he now entered. 
 
 "King Cotton." 
 
 He called to his cabinet men of marked 
 ability, at the head of which was Henry 
 Clay, who became secretary ot state. The 
 administration of Mr. Adams was one of re- 
 markable prosperity. The country was 
 growing wealthier by the rapid increase of 
 its agriculture, manufactures and commerce, 
 and abroad it commanded the respect of the 
 world. Still party spirit raged with great 
 violence during the whole of this period. 
 
 The invention of the cotton gin by Eli 
 Whitney, in 1793, by which the seed was 
 separated from the cotton, had so cheapened 
 the cost of producing that great staple, that 
 it had become the principal article of export 
 from the United States, and a source of 
 
 great and growing wealth to the whole 
 country. 
 
 Several important undertakings were 
 prosecuted with vigor, or were completed 
 during Mr. Adams' term of office. The 
 National Road, a splendidly constructed 
 highway, built by the general government, 
 from Cumberland, Maryland, across the 
 mountains, was completed to Wheeling, on 
 the Ohio, in 1820, and was carried beyond 
 that stream during Mr. Adams' administra- 
 
 JOHN QUINCY ADAMS. 
 
 tion, the design being to extend it to the 
 Mississippi. It furnished a broad and well- 
 built thoroughfare between the seaboard and 
 the west, and exerted a marked influence 
 upon the internal trade of the country. The 
 road from Cumberland to Wheeling cost 
 $1,700,000. 
 
 The Erie canal, extending from Buffalo on 
 Lake Erie to the Hudson at Albany, was 
 projected by De Witt Clinton. The plan 
 was at first pronounced impracticable, but 
 Clinton succeeded in inducing the State of 
 
558 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 New York to undertake the scheme, and in 
 1825 the great work was completed and the 
 waters of the lakes and the Hudson were 
 united. The completion of this canal secured 
 to the city of New York the control of the 
 western trade, and added to its wealth and 
 importance in a marked degree. 
 
 Mauch Chunk railway, from the coal mines 
 to the Lehigh river, in Pennsylvania, in 1827. 
 These were merely local works, and of but 
 little importance, except in so far as they 
 helped to demonstrate to the public mind the 
 possibility and the usefulness of such enter- 
 prises upon a larger scale. 
 
 STEAMBOAT LOADING WITH COTTON. 
 
 Steam had been for some years in use as 
 the motive power in the navigation of the 
 rivers of the Union, and it now began to be 
 applied to purposes of land transportation. 
 The first railroad in this country was a mere 
 tramway, for the transportation of granite 
 irom the quarries at Quincy to the Neponsett 
 river, in Massachusetts, and was constructed 
 in the year 1826. This was followed by the 
 
 Charters for roads of more importance 
 were soon obtained in several of the States. 
 In 1828 work was begun on the Baltimore 
 and Ohio railroad, and in 1829 on the South 
 Carolina railroad, In the year 1827 there 
 were three miles of railroad in operation in 
 the United States. In 1875 the number of 
 miles in operation is a little over seventy 
 thousand. 
 
ADMINISTRATIONS OF MONROE AND J. Q. ADAMS. 
 
 559 
 
 For some time previous to the entrance of 
 Mr. Adams upon office, Georgia had been 
 involved in a dispute with the general gov- 
 ernment and with the Creek Indians con- 
 cerning the lands of the latter, which the 
 United States had agreed to purchase for 
 the benefit of Georgia. 
 Twenty-five years passed 
 after the promise was 
 made, and the lands re- 
 mained unpurchased be- 
 cause the Indians would 
 not sell them. A treaty ^, 
 
 was finally made in 1825 «v ^ 
 
 by which some of the 
 chiefs ceded to the gen- 
 eral government the 
 lands in question. 
 
 The majority of the 
 Indians declared the 
 chiefs had no authority 
 to enter into this treaty, 
 and called upon the 
 United States to repudi- 
 ate it. It was cancelled 
 by the general govern- 
 ment, but the State of 
 Georgia determined to 
 enforce it. The general 
 government took the 
 side of the Indians, and 
 for a while it seemed that 
 an open conflict would 
 ensue between the State 
 and federal authorities. 
 The matter was settled 
 by the Creeks consent- 
 ing to sell their lands and to accept new 
 homes in the west. The Indian lands 
 were purchased by the United States, and 
 the Creeks emigrated beyond the Missis- 
 sippi. 
 
 On the fourth of July, 1826, died, within a 
 few hours of each other, two ex-presidents of , 
 
 the republic — John Adams and Thomas Jef- 
 ferson — the latter the author of the Declara- 
 tion of Independence, and the former its most 
 efficient supporter. Mr. Adams died at his 
 home at Quincy, Massachusetts, at the ripe 
 old age of ninety years ; Mr. Jefferson, at 
 
 STATUE OF JEFFERSON AT WASHINGTON. 
 
 Monticello, his beautiful Virginian home, at 
 the age of eighty-two. Both had filled the 
 highest stations in the republic, and both had 
 lived to see the country they loved take rank 
 among the first nations of the globe. They 
 died on the fiftieth anniversary of American 
 independence. 
 
560 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 In the year 1826 a new party made its 
 appearance in our politics. A man named 
 William Morgan, residing in the western 
 part of New York, published a book purport- 
 ing to reveal the secrets of the order of Free- 
 masons. He suddenly disappeared, and it 
 was charged that he had been seized and 
 murdered by the Freemasons in revenge for 
 his exposures. The affair caused great ex- 
 citement in the Northern and some of the 
 Western States, and gave rise to a political 
 
 DANIEL WEBSTER. 
 
 party known as the Anti-Masons, whose 
 avowed object was the exclusion of Masons 
 from office. It acquired considerable strength 
 in some of the States, but in a few years died 
 out. 
 
 The tariff question now engaged the atten- 
 tion of the country once more. The manu- 
 facturing interests were still struggling against 
 foreign competition, and it was the opinion of 
 the Eastern and Middle States that the gen- 
 eral government should protect them by the 
 
 imposition of high duties upon products of 
 foreign countries imported into the Union. 
 The south was almost a unit in its opposition 
 to a high tariff. Being, as we have said, an 
 agricultural section, its interests demanded a 
 free market, and it wished to avail itself of 
 the privilege of purchasing where it could 
 buy cheapest. The south and the west were 
 the markets of the east, and the interests of 
 that section demanded the exclusion of for- 
 eign competition in supplying these markets. 
 In July, 1827, a convention of manu- 
 facturers was held at Harrisburg, Penn- 
 sylvania, and a memorial was adopted 
 praying Congress to increase the duties 
 on foreign goods to an extent which 
 would protect American industry. When 
 Congress met in December, 1827, the 
 protective policy was the most important 
 topic of the day. It was warmly dis- 
 cussed in Congress and throughout the 
 country. The interests of New England 
 I were championed by the matchless elo- 
 quence of Daniel Webster, who clai/ned 
 that as the adoption of the protective 
 policy by the government had forced 
 ^ New England to turn her energies to 
 manufacturers, the government was 
 bound to protect her against competi- 
 tion. 
 
 After a very able and exhaustive dis- 
 cussion, the tariff bill was passed by the 
 House on the fifteenth of April, i828 f 
 and was approved by the President a little 
 later. It was termed by its opponents the 
 " Bill of Abominations." 
 
 In the midst of this excitement the Presi- 
 dential election occurred. Mr. Adams was 
 a candidate for re-election, but was over- 
 whelmingly defeated by Andrew Jackson, ol 
 Tennessee. John C. Calhoun was chosen 
 Vice-President. The election of Jackson 
 was regarded as a popular condemnation of 
 the protective policy of the government. 
 
CHAPTER XXXV 
 
 The Administrations of Andrew Jackson and 
 Martin Van Buren 
 
 Jharacter of Andrew Jackson — Indian Policy of this Administration — The President Vetoes the Bill to Renew the Char- 
 ter of the United States Bank — Debate Between Hayne and Webster — Jackson's Quarrel With Calhoun — Death of 
 ex-President Monroe — The Cholera — Black Hawk's War — Re-election of President Jackson — The Tariff — Action of 
 South Carolina — The Nullification Ordinance — Firmness of the President — The Matter Settled by Compromise — Pa- 
 triotism of Henry Clay — The Removal of the Deposits — -The Seminole War Begun — Great Fire at New York — Settle- 
 ment of the French Claims — Arkansas Admitted Into the Union — The National Debt Paid — Death of ex-President 
 Madison — Martin Van Buren Elected President — Michigan Admitted Into the Union — The Panic of 1837 — Causes of 
 It — Suspension of Specie Payments — Great Distress Throughout the Union — The Sub-Treasury — Repudiation of State 
 Debts — The Canadian Rebellion — The President's Course — The Seminole War Ended — The Anti-Slavery Party — 
 Resolutions of Congress Respecting Slavery— William Henry Harrison Elected President — The Sixth Census. 
 
 ANDREW JACKSON, the seventh 
 President of the United States, was 
 inaugurated at Washington, on the 
 fourth of March, 1829. 
 President Jackson was in many respects 
 one of the most remarkable men of his day. 
 He was of Scotch-Irish descent, and was 
 born in North Carolina during the contro- 
 versy between the colonies and Great 
 Britain, which preceded the revolution. He 
 was left fatherless at an early age, and his 
 youth was passed amid the stirring scenes 
 of the war for independence. At the age of 
 thirteen he began his career by taking part 
 in the fight at Hanging Rock, under General 
 Sumter. The home of the Jacksons was 
 broken up and pillaged by the Tories, and 
 the mother and her two sons became wan- 
 derers. The sons were shortly after made 
 prisoners by the Tories, and the day after 
 his capture Andrew Jackson was ordered by 
 a British officer to clean his boots. He 
 indignantly refused, and the officer struck 
 him with the flat of his sword. The boys 
 were at length exchanged through the exer- 
 tions of their mother. Both had contracted 
 the small-pox during their captivity, and the 
 *lder son soon died of his disease. 
 36 
 
 Not long afterwards Mrs. Jackson, with 
 some other ladies, went to Charleston to 
 minister to the wants of the American pri- 
 soners of war confined there by the British. 
 A fever was raging among these unfortunates 
 at the time, and Mrs. Jackson was soon num- 
 bered among its victims. Thus, at the age 
 of fifteen, Andrew Jackson was left alone in 
 the world without a relative. Though young 
 in years, he had been greatly matured in 
 character by his trials. Even at this early 
 age he was generous to a fault to his friends, 
 and immovable in his resolutions when once 
 formed. 
 
 A few years later he removed to Tennes- 
 see, then a Territory, and upon the admis- 
 sion of the State into the Union was elected 
 as her first representative in Congress. His 
 services during the war of 1 8 1 2- 1 5 have been 
 related. His brilliant victory over the British 
 at New Orleans made him one of the most 
 noted men of the day, and his prompt and 
 decisive measures against the Spaniards in 
 Florida during Mr. Monroe's administration 
 greatly added to his reputation. 
 
 During the administration of John Adams 
 General Jackson occupied a seat in the United 
 States Senate, and gave a cordial support to 
 
 561 
 
562 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 the principles of Mr. Jefferson. Resigning 
 his seat in the Senate before the close of his 
 term, he was elected one of the judges of the 
 Supreme Court of Tennessee. 
 
 The election of General Jackson to the 
 
 ANDREW JACKSON. 
 
 Presidency was regarded with some anxiety, 
 for though his merits as a soldier were con- 
 ceded, it was feared by many that his known 
 imperiousness of will and his inflexibility of 
 purpose would seriously disqualify him for the 
 delicate duties of the Presidency. Nature had 
 
 made him a ruler, however, and his adminis 
 tration was marked by the fearless energy 
 that characterized every act of his life, and 
 was on the whole successful and satisfactory 
 to the great majority of his countrymen. 
 
 General Jackson 
 began his administra- 
 tion by appointing a 
 new cabinet, at the 
 head of which he 
 placed Martin Van 
 Buren, of New York, 
 as secretary of state. 
 Until now the Post- 
 master-General had 
 not been regarded as 
 a cabinet officer. Gen- 
 eral Jackson now in- 
 vited that officer to a 
 seat in his cabinet and 
 a share in its delibera- 
 tions, and his course 
 has since been pur- 
 sued by each and all 
 of his successors. 
 
 The first important 
 act of the new Presi- 
 dent was to recom- 
 mend to Congress the 
 removal of all the In- 
 dian tribes remaining 
 east of the Mississippi 
 to new homes west of 
 that stream. Such a 
 measure, he con- 
 tended, would give 
 to them a broader 
 range, and one more 
 suited to their wants, and would relieve 
 the States east of the Mississippi from all 
 further apprehension of Indian wars. This 
 removal involved considerable loss and hard- 
 ship to the Creeks in Georgia, who had made 
 an encouraging advance in civilization. A 
 
ADMINISTRATIONS OF JACKSON AND VAN BUREN. 
 
 5<33 
 
 bill was passed by the Twenty-first Congress 
 in May, 1830, for the purpose of carrying 
 this policy into effect ; but the removal of the 
 Indians was not completed for some years 
 afterwards. 
 
 In his first annual message to Congress, in 
 1829, the President took strong ground 
 against the renewal of the charter of the 
 Bank of the United States, which was about 
 to expire. This was a bold step, as the bank 
 was the most powerful institution in the 
 United States, and had warm friends in every 
 part of the country. The stockholders of 
 the bank applied to the Twenty-second Con- 
 gress during its first session, which began in 
 December, 183 1, for a renewal of their char- 
 ter, and in the late spring of 1832 a bill 
 renewing this charter was passed by both 
 Houses of Congress. The President refused 
 to sign the bill, and returned it to Congress 
 with his objections. He held that Congress 
 had no constitutional power to charter such 
 a bank, and regarded it as inexpedient to 
 continue its existence. An effort was made 
 by the friends of the bill to pass it over the 
 President's veto, but it failed to obtain the 
 necessary two-thirds vote, and consequently 
 did not become a law. The bank was there- 
 fore obliged to suspend its operations at the 
 expiration of its charter in 1836. 
 
 A Historic Debate. 
 
 In 1830 Senator Foot, of Connecticut, sub- 
 mitted a resolution of inquiry to the Senate 
 concerning the disposal of the public lands. 
 The debate upon the resolution extended far 
 beyond the subject embraced in that docu- 
 ment, and in the course of it Senator Robert 
 Y. Hayne, of South Carolina, a brilliant 
 orator, declared that any State had the right, 
 in the exercise of its sovereign power, to 
 declare null and void any act of Congress 
 which it should consider unconstitutional. 
 This was a plain statement of the doctrine 
 
 that the Union was simply a compact between 
 the States, from which any of the States could 
 secede at pleasure, and it was the first time 
 such a sentiment had been expressed on the 
 floor of Congress. Mr. Webster, of Massa- 
 chusetts, replied to Mr. Hayne, in an oration 
 of superb eloquence. He denied the doc 
 trine that the Union was a compact of sover 
 eign, independent States, from which any 
 one of them could withdraw at pleasure ; and 
 argued that the constitution was the work o 
 the people themselves, not as separate States 
 
 ROBERT Y. HAYNE. 
 
 but as members of a great nation, and was 
 designed to make the Union perpetual ; that 
 the controversies between the States and the 
 general government were to be decided by 
 the supreme court, the tribunal created for 
 that purpose by the constitution, and not by 
 the States themselves ; and that any attempt 
 on the part of the people of a State to with- 
 draw from the Union was treason. 
 
 The debate added greatly to the fame of 
 both senators, and the sentiments of Mr. 
 Webster were unanimously re-echoed by the 
 
564 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 north, and by a large majority at the south. 
 The effect of the debate was to direct the 
 attention of the people to a study of the 
 principles of the constitution. Different 
 views were maintained. The Northern and 
 Western States regarded the Union as indis- 
 soluble, while the Southern States held that 
 *t was a compact of sovereign States, and 
 
 A LUMBERMAN S CAMP IN THE WOODS OF MAINE. 
 
 that any State could withdraw from the 
 Union for just cause. 
 
 During the session of the Twenty-first 
 Congress a breach occurred between Presi- 
 dent Jackson and Mr. Calhoun, the vice- 
 president. The former was told for the first 
 time that Mr. Calhoun, while a member of 
 Mr. Monroe's cabinet, had endeavored to 
 prevent the government from sustaining him 
 
 in his invasion of Florida in 181 8. General 
 Jackson deeply resented this, and the breach 
 between himself and Mr. Calhoun widened 
 daily. Shortly afterwards Mr. Calhoun re- 
 signed the vice-presidency, and was elected 
 to the Senate by the legislature of South 
 Carolina in 1831. In the same year Mr. 
 Clay was elected to the Senate from Ken- 
 tucky, and Edward 
 Livingston was made 
 secretary of state. 
 
 On the fourth of 
 July, 1 83 1, ex-Presi- 
 dent Monroe died in 
 New York, in the se- 
 venty-fourth year of 
 his r ge. 
 
 In June, 1832, the 
 Asiatic cholera made 
 its first appearance in 
 the United States, and 
 swept with fearful ra- 
 pidity over the whole 
 country. Thousands 
 of persons of all ages 
 and conditions died 
 of it within a few 
 months, and a feeling 
 of general terror per- 
 vaded the country. 
 Its principal ravages 
 occurred in the North- 
 ern States and in the 
 valley of the Missis- 
 sippi. 
 In the spring of 1832 the Sacs and Foxes, 
 and some other tribes of Indians, inhabiting 
 the region now known as Wisconsin, made 
 incursions against the frontier settlements of 
 Illinois. General Atkinson was sent by the 
 general government with a force of troops to 
 crush them, and, with the assistance of the 
 militia, after a series of skirmishes, drove 
 them beyond the Mississippi. Black Hawk, 
 
ADMINISTRATIONS OF JACKSON AND VAN BUREN. 
 
 565 
 
 a chief of the Sac nation, and the leader of 
 the movement, was taken prisoner. He was 
 kindly treated, and to impress him with the 
 folly of attacking a great nation, he was 
 taken to Washington, and then to the prin- 
 cipal eastern cities, that he might see for 
 himself the power of the whites. 
 
 Jackson Re-elected. 
 
 Early in 1831 General Jackson was nomi- 
 nated for re-election to the Presidency by 
 the legislature of Pennsylvania. The Presi- 
 dential election took place in the fall of 
 1832. General Jackson was supported by 
 the Democratic party, and Mr. Clay by the 
 Whigs, for the Presidency. The contest 
 was marked by intense bitterness, for Jack- 
 son's veto of the charter of the Bank of the 
 United States, his other vetoes of public 
 improvement bills, and his attitude in the 
 " Nullification " controversy between the 
 United States and South Carolina had 
 created a powerful opposition to him in all 
 parts of the country. In spite of this op 
 portion he was re-elected by a triumphant 
 majority, and Martin Van Buren, of New 
 York, the Democratic nominee, was chosen 
 vice-president. 
 
 In the meantime serious trouble had arisen 
 between the general government and the 
 State of South Carolina. During the year 
 1832 the tariff was revised by Congress, 
 and that body, instead of diminishing the 
 duties, increased many of them. This action 
 gave great offence to the Southern States, 
 which regarded the denial of free trade as a 
 great wrong to them. They were willing to 
 submit to a tariff sufficient for a revenue, but 
 were utterly opposed to a protective tariff 
 for the reasons we have already stated. The 
 States of Virginia, Georgia and South Caro- 
 lina were the most energetic in their opposi- 
 tion to the measure, but the first two, upon 
 Us passage, submitted to it, hoping to carry 
 
 out their wishes by constitutional means at 
 some future time. 
 
 The State of South Carolina, holding the 
 views advocated by Mr. Hayne in the 
 Senate, in his debate with Mr. Webster, 
 resolved to " nullify " the law within its own 
 limits. A convention of the people of the 
 State was held, which adopted a measure 
 known as the " Nullification Ordinance." 
 This ordinance declared that the tariff act of 
 1832, being based upon the principle of pro- 
 
 JOHN C. CALHOUN. 
 
 tection, and not upon the principle of raising 
 revenue, was unconstitutional, and was there- 
 fore null and void. Provision was made by 
 another clause for testing the constitutionality 
 of the law before the courts of the State. 
 
 The State assumed the right to forbid the 
 collection of the duties imposed by the tariff 
 within its limits ; and if the general govern- 
 ment should resist the course of the State 
 by force, the State of South Carolina was 
 declared to be no longer a member of the 
 
5^6 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 Union. This ordinance was to take effect 
 on the twelfth of February, 1833, unless in 
 the meantime the general government should 
 abandon its policy of protection and return 
 to a tariff for revenue only. 
 
 Matters had reached this state when the 
 Presidential election occurred in the fall of 
 1832. The country at large was utterly 
 opposed to the course of South Carolina, 
 and denied its right to nullify a law of Con- 
 gress or to withdraw from the Union in 
 support of this right. Intense excitement 
 
 EDWARD LIVINGSTON. 
 
 prevailed, and the course of the President 
 was watched with the gravest anxiety. He 
 was known to be opposed to the protective 
 policy ; but it was generally believed that he 
 was firm in his intention to enforce the laws, 
 however he might disapprove of them. 
 
 Congress met in December, 1832, and in 
 his annual message President Jackson urged 
 upon that body a reduction of the tariff. 
 The message gave great satisfaction to the 
 opponents of the tariff. A few days later 
 the President issued a proclamation against 
 
 nullification, moderate in language, but firm 
 in tone. He expressed his opinion that the 
 course of South Carolina was unlawful and 
 wrong, and intimated that he would exert 
 the power intrusted to him to compel obedi- 
 ence to the constitution and laws of the 
 Union. He appealed to the people of SoutU 
 Carolina not to persist in the enforcement o r 
 their ordinance, as such a course on their 
 part must inevitably bring them in collision 
 with the forces of the federal government ; 
 and told them plainly that any citizen of any 
 of the States who should take up arms 
 against the United States in such a conflict 
 would be guilty of treason against the United 
 States. 
 
 Referring to the action of the convention, 
 he said : " This ordinance is founded, not on 
 the indefeasible right of resisting acts which 
 are plainly unconstitutional, and too oppres- 
 sive to be endured ; but on the strange posi- 
 tion that any one State may not only declare 
 an act of Congress void, but prohibit its 
 execution; that they may do this consist- 
 ently with the constitution; that the true 
 construction of the instrument permits a 
 State to retain its place in the Union, and 
 yet be bound by no other of its laws than 
 those it may choose to consider as constitu- 
 tional." 
 
 Trouble in South Carolina. 
 
 The leaders of the South Carolina move- 
 ment were Governor Hayne and John C. 
 Calhoun, then a senator of the United States 
 from South Carolina. Governor Hayne re- 
 plied to the President with a counter procla- 
 mation, in which he warned the people of 
 the State against " the dangerous and perni- 
 cious doctrines " of the President's procla- 
 mation, and called upon them to disregard 
 " those vain menaces " of military force, and 
 " to be fully prepared to sustain the dignity 
 and protect the liberties of the State, if need 
 
ADMINISTRATIONS OF JACKSON AND VAN BUREN. 
 
 56; 
 
 be, with their lives and fortunes." The 
 State prepared tc maintain its position by 
 force. Troops were organized and arms 
 and military stores were collected. 
 
 The President, on his part, took measures 
 promptly to enforce the law. He ordered a 
 large body of troops to assemble at Charles- 
 ton under General Scott, and a ship of war 
 was sent to that port to assist the federal 
 officers in collecting the duties on imports. 
 Civil war seemed for a time inevitable. The 
 
 ginia sent Benjamin Watkins Leigh, a dis- 
 tinguished citizen, as commissioner to South 
 Carolina, to urge her to suspend the execu- 
 tion of her ordinance until March 4th, as 
 there was a probability that a peaceful set- 
 tlement of the difficulty would be arrangeo 
 before that time. South Carolina consented 
 to be guided by this appeal. \ 
 
 Henry Clay, with his usual patriotic self- 
 sacrifice, now came forward in the Senate 
 with a compromise which he hoped would 
 
 THE UNITED STATES TREASURY AT WASHINGTON, D. C. 
 
 President was firmly resolved to compel the 
 submission of South Carolina and to cause 
 the arrest of Mr. Calhoun and the other 
 leading nullifiers and bring them to trial for 
 treason. The issue of such a conflict could 
 not be doubtful. 
 
 Fortunately a peaceful settlement of the 
 trouble was effected. Mr. Verplanck, of 
 New York, a supporter of the administra- 
 tion, introduced a bill into Congress for a 
 reduction of the tariff, and the State of Vir- 
 
 put an end to the trouble. He was an ardent 
 advocate of the protective system, but he was 
 prepared to sacrifice it to the welfare of the 
 country. He introduced a bill providing 
 for the gradual reduction in ten years of all 
 duties then above the revenue standard. 
 " One-tenth of one-half of all the duties for 
 protection above that standard Avas to be 
 taken off annually for ten years, at the end 
 of which period the whole of the other half 
 was to be taken off, and thereafter all duties 
 
5 68 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 were to be levied mainly with a view to 
 revenue and not for protection." This 
 measure with some modifications was 
 adopted by both Houses of Congress, and 
 was approved by the President on the second 
 of March, 1833. The people of South Caro- 
 lina rescinded their " Nullification Ordi- 
 nance," and the trouble was brought to an 
 end.* 
 
 It was generally believed that the Union 
 had escaped from a grave peril. The firm- 
 ness of the President received the approval 
 of the nation, except in South Carolina. The 
 action of that State was generally condemned, 
 and the result was looked upon as a decided 
 triumph of the national authority. 
 
 Renewed Excitement. 
 
 On the fourth of March, 1833, General 
 Jackson entered upon his second term of 
 office. The troubles which had disquieted 
 the country had been satisfactorily settled, 
 and the President took advantage of the 
 peaceful condition of affairs to visit New 
 York and the New England States. He 
 was received everywhere with enthusiasm. 
 
 Upon his return to the capital the Presi- 
 dent took a step which plunged the country 
 into great excitement once more. The 
 charter of the Bank of the United States 
 made that institution the legal depository of 
 the funds of the United States. The secre- 
 tary of the treasury, with the sanction of 
 Congress, alone had authority to remove 
 them. The President was of the opinion 
 that the public funds were not safe in the 
 keeping of the bank, and announced his in- 
 tention to remove them from the Bank of 
 
 the United States and deposit them with 
 certain State banks. The majority of the 
 cabinet were opposed to the measure, and 
 the secretary of the treasury, William J. 
 Duane, when ordered by the President to 
 withdraw the funds, refused to obey him as 
 he considered the President's course " un- 
 necessary, unwise, arbitrary and unjust." He 
 was at once removed from his position by 
 President Jackson, who appointed Roger 
 B. Taney, of Maryland, in his place. Mr. 
 Taney issued an order to the collectors, for- 
 bidding them to deposit the public moneys 
 paid to them in the Bank of" the United 
 States. As for the funds already in the pos- 
 session of the bank it was decided to with- 
 draw them as they were needed for the pay- 
 ment of the current expenses of the govern- 
 ment. This measure was productive of 
 great financial distress throughout the 
 Union, which continued for some time. 
 
 President Jackson Censurec 
 
 The President's course also produced open 
 war between himself and the Senate, in 
 which body he was opposed by Clay, Cal- 
 houn and Webster, its foremost members. 
 He was defended by Benton, of Missouri, 
 and Forsyth, of Georgia, but in spite of their 
 efforts a resolution declaring the President's 
 course unconstitutional and severely censur- 
 ing him for it was adopted by the Senate. 
 The President remained firm, however. He 
 submitted an able protest against the action 
 of the Senate, and by the help of the House 
 of Representatives defeated the bank on 
 every point. The Senate subsequently 
 recognized the propriety of the President's 
 
 *" Mr. Clay, on this occasion," says Hon. Alexander H. Stephens, "had to break with his old political friends, while 
 he was offering up the darling system of his heart upon the altar of his country. Whatever else may be said of him, no 
 one can deny that Henry Clay was a patriot — every inch of him — a patriot of the highest standard. It was said that when 
 he was importuned not to take the course he had resolved upon, for the reason amongst others that it would lessen his 
 chances for the presidency, his reply was, ' I would rather be right than be president.' This showed the material he was 
 made of. It was worthy a Marcellus or Cato."— The War Between the Stales, vol. i.,p. 438, 
 
ADMINISTRATIONS OF JACKSON AND VAN BUREN. 569 
 
 action, and of its own motion expunged the 
 resolution of censure from its journal. 
 In pursuance of its policy towards the In 
 
 ship of their great chief, Osceola, opposed a 
 determined resistance to the efforts of the 
 general government. Major Dade, with one 
 
 dians, the government attempted in 1835 to 
 remove the Seminoles from Florida beyond 
 the Mississippi. They were unwilling to 
 relinquish their lands ; and under the leader- 
 
 OSCEOLA, CHIEF OF THE SEMINOLES. 
 
 hundred and seventeen men, was sent from 
 Tampa Bay to the assistance of General 
 Clinch at Fort Drane, which was threatened 
 by the Indians. He was attacked on the 
 
>/o 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 twenty eighth of December, 1835, while on 
 the march, and he and all but four of his 
 men were massacred. On the same day 
 another blow was struck at Fort King, many 
 miles away from the scene of this massacre. 
 Mr. Thompson, the Indian commissioner, 
 and a party of his friends, while dining out- 
 side of the walls of the fort, were attacked 
 by a band of Seminoles led by Osceola in 
 person, and killed and scalped. General 
 Clinch at on:e took the field against the 
 savages, and on the thirty-first of December 
 defeated them at Withlacooche, ninety miles 
 north of Tampa Bay. In February, 1836, 
 General Gaines won an important victory 
 over the savages near the same place. 
 
 The Seminole War. 
 
 The Creeks joined the Seminoles in May, 
 1836, and the war spread into Georgia. The 
 former were soon crushed by the United 
 States troops, and were sent west of the 
 Mississippi. The Seminoles continued the 
 war, and as often as they were defeated in 
 the open field would take refuge in the 
 swamps and everglades, where it was diffi- 
 cult for the whites to follow them, and from 
 which they maintained a constant and effect- 
 ive warfare upon their enemies. Osceola 
 was always ready to make a treaty, and never 
 hesitated to break it. At last he was con- 
 quered by his own weapon of deceit. In 
 October, 1837, he came into the American 
 camp under a flag of truce. He was at once 
 seized, with all his followers, by General 
 Jessup, the American commander. Osceola 
 was. sent as a prisoner to Fort Moultrie, 
 in South Carolina, where he died of a 
 fever. The war went on for several years 
 longer. 
 
 The winter of 1834-5 was one of the 
 coldest ever known in America. The Chesa- 
 peake Bay was frozen from its head to the 
 Capes, and on the eighth of February, 1835, 
 
 the mercury stood at eight degrees below 
 zero as far south as Charleston. On the 
 fourth of January the mercury congealed at 
 Lebanon, New York. On the night of De- 
 cember 16, 1S35, a fire broke out in the city 
 of New York, and in fourteen hours con- 
 sumed the greater part of the business por- 
 tion of the city, and destroyed over seven- 
 teen million dollars worth of property. 
 
 Dispute with France Settled. 
 
 In the last years of his administration Pres- 
 ident Jackson brought to a successful close 
 a vexatious dispute with France, which had 
 long been a source of annoyance to the coun- 
 try. American merchants held claims to the 
 amount of five million dollars against France> 
 for the " unlawful seizures, captures, and 
 destruction of vessels and cargoes" during 
 the wars of Napoleon. The government of 
 Louis Philippe acknowledged the justice of 
 these claims, and in 1831 a treaty was nego- 
 tiated between the United States and France 
 for their payment. 
 
 The Chamber of Deputies refused three 
 times during as many years to appropriate 
 the money for the payment of these claims, 
 and in 1834 President Jackson ordered the 
 United States minister at Paris to demand 
 his passports, and advised Congress to make 
 reprisals on French vessels. This vigorous 
 course brought France to her senses, and at 
 this juncture Great Britain offered her media- 
 tion for the settlement of the difficulty. The 
 Chamber of Deputies appropriated the neces- 
 sary sum, and the American claims were 
 paid and the matter settled to the satisfaction 
 of all parties. 
 
 Claims for similar seizures were brought 
 against Spain, Naples, and Denmark, and 
 were satisfactorily settled through the firm- 
 ness of the President. Treaties of friendship 
 and commerce were negotiated with Russia 
 and Turkey. 
 
ADMINISTRATIONS OF JACKSON AND VAN BUREN. 
 
 On the fifteenth of June, 1836, Arkansas 
 was admitted into the Union as a State. 
 
 One of the most important acts of General 
 Jackson's administration was the payment 
 of the national debt. He not only left the 
 nation free from debt, but handed over to 
 his successor a sur- 
 plus of forty millions 
 of dollars in the na- 
 tional treasury. 
 
 On the twenty- 
 eighth of June, 1836, 
 ex-President James 
 Madison died at 
 Montpelier, his home, 
 in Virginia, in the 
 eighty-sixth year of 
 his age. 
 
 The Presidential 
 election was held in 
 the fall of 1836. Gen- 
 eral Jackson having 
 declined to be a can- 
 didate for a third term, 
 the Democratic party 
 supported Martin Van 
 Buren for President 
 and Richard M. John- 
 son, of Kentucky, for 
 Vice-President. Mr. 
 Van Buren was elected 
 by a large majority; 
 but the electors hav- 
 ing failed to make a 
 choice of a candidate 
 for Vice-President, 
 that task devolved 
 upon the Senate, 
 
 which elected Colonel Richard M. Johnson 
 by a majority of seventeen votes. 
 
 On the twenty-sixth of January, 1837, 
 Michigan was admitted into the Union as a 
 State, making the twenty-sixth member of 
 the Confederacy. The original thirteen 
 
 571 
 
 States had been doubled in number, and the 
 Union was strong at home, and respected 
 abroad. 
 
 At the close of his term General Jackson 
 retired from public life, and passed the 
 remainder of his days at bis beautiful home, 
 
 MARTIN VAN BUREN. 
 
 near Nashville, in Tennessee, which he had 
 named the " Hermitage." He had conducted 
 one of the most remarkable administrations 
 in our history, and one of the most success- 
 ful, and had shown himself to be an earnest, 
 incorruptible, and self-sacrificing patriot, and 
 
572 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 a man of unbending honesty and of extra- 
 ordinary energy and inflexibility of purpose. 
 Martin Van Buren, the new President, 
 entered upon the duties of his office on the 
 fourth of March, 1837. He was in his fifty- 
 fifth year, and had occupied many distin- 
 guished positions in public life. He had 
 represented the State of New York in the 
 Senate of the United States, and had been 
 governor of that State. He had been min- 
 ister to England, had been made secretary of 
 state at the commencement of General Jack- 
 son's first term, and had been elected Vice- 
 President of the United States at the period 
 of Jackson's re-election. 
 
 Wild Speculation. 
 
 The extraordinary prosperity which had 
 prevailed throughout the nation during the 
 last year of Jackson's term came to a sudden 
 end almost immediately after the inaugura- 
 tion of Mr. Van Buren. For some time past 
 a reckless spirit of speculation had engrossed 
 the nation, and had led to excessive banking 
 and the issuing of paper money to an extent 
 far beyond the necessities of the country. 
 The State banks, with which the public funds 
 had been deposited by President Jackson, 
 supposed they would be able to control these 
 funds for an indefinite period, as the revenue 
 of the government was largely in excess of 
 its expenses ; and they made loans freely, 
 and upon not the best securities, in all cases. 
 Few of the new banks which sprang into 
 existence had enough gold and silver in their 
 vaults to redeem the notes with which they 
 flooded the country. Fictitious values pre- 
 vailed in every department of trade, and the 
 banks vied with each other in affording the 
 means for the wildest speculations. 
 
 In the midst of this excitement two acts 
 of the general government brought matters to 
 a crisis. The speculation mania had extended 
 to the public lands, and in order to restrain 
 
 it within manageable bounds President Jack- 
 son caused the secretary of the treasury to 
 issue an order to the collectors at the local 
 offices to receive only gold and silver in pay- 
 ments for land. This order was generally 
 known as the " Specie Circular." In the 
 summer of 1836 a law was passed by Con- 
 gress requiring the President to distribute 
 among the States the funds on deposit in the 
 banks. This was an unexpected measure to 
 the banks, and forced them to call in their 
 loans to meet the withdrawal of the govern- 
 ment funds. The operations of the " Specie 
 Circular" at the same time sent large quan- 
 tities of their notes back to them to be 
 redeemed in coin. 
 
 This complication of difficulties brought 
 them at once to the end of their resources, 
 and they were rendered powerless to extend 
 their usual facilities to their customers. The 
 result was that the business of the country 
 was thrown into a state of hopeless confusion, 
 and by the spring of 1837 the failures in 
 New York alone amounted to one hundred 
 million dollars. All parts of the country 
 were affected by the financial troubles, and 
 in New Orleans the failures amounted to 
 twenty-seven million dollars. 
 
 Suspension of Specie Payments. 
 
 Petitions were addressed to the President 
 from all parts of the Union, praying him to 
 take some steps to relieve the general distress, 
 and in May a deputation of merchants and 
 bankers from New York waited upon Presi- 
 dent Van Buren, and urged him to postpone 
 the immediate collection of duties for which 
 merchants had given bonds, to withdraw the 
 treasury orders requiring sums duethe United 
 States to be paid in gold and silver, and to 
 convene Congress in extra session for the 
 purpose of devising measures of relief. 
 
 The President complied with their request 
 to suspend the collection of duties for which 
 
ADMINISTRATIONS OF JACKSON AND VAN BUREN. 
 
 573 
 
 bonds had been given, but declined to take 
 the other steps asked of him. Within a few 
 days after his answer was known the banks 
 of New York suspended specie payments, 
 and their example was followed by the rest 
 of the banks throughout the Union. 
 
 The Country in Distress. 
 
 The distress of the country was very 
 great. Hundreds of thousands of laborers 
 were thrown out of employment, and busi- 
 ness of all kinds was at a standstill. The 
 government, which a few months before had 
 been out of debt and in possession of a sur- 
 plus of forty millions, now found itself 
 unable to provide funds for its ordinary ex- 
 penses. The President was compelled to 
 summon an extra session of Congress, which 
 met on the fourth of September, 1837. The 
 President in his message attributed the em- 
 barrassed condition of the country to the 
 excessive issues of bank notes, the great fire 
 in New York in 1835, and the reckless 
 speculations of the people for several years 
 past. He suggested no special legislation 
 for the relief of these troubles, as he regarded 
 such a course as beyond the constitutional 
 authority of the general government. 
 
 Indeed, the government could do but little 
 to restore public confidence ; that was the 
 task of the people themselves, and it was not 
 accomplished for several years. To meet 
 the necessities of the government and pro- 
 vide a legal currency Congress, at the re- 
 commendation of the President, issued 
 treasury notes to the amount of ten millions 
 of dollars. Another recommendation of the 
 President did not give such general satisfac- 
 tion. The President advised the creation of an 
 independent treasury for the public funds, as 
 a means of avoiding the risks assumed by 
 the government in depositing its funds in the 
 banks. These treasuries were to be located 
 at certain central points, and the sub- 
 
 treasurers were to be appointed by the Presi- 
 dent, and were to give bonds for the proper 
 fulfilment of their duties. The President 
 believed that the adoption of this measure 
 would withdraw large sums of money from 
 active circulation and so put a stop to specu- 
 lation. 
 
 The bill for the creation of the inde- 
 pendent treasury was warmly opposed in 
 and out of Congress, as it was feared by 
 many that the withdrawal of so much gold 
 and silver from circulation would seriously 
 injure the business of the country. Mr. 
 Calhoun supported the measure with all his 
 great abilities, and Mr. Clay and Mr. Web- 
 ster opposed it. The measure failed at the 
 extra session, but became a law in 1840. In 
 1 84 1 it was repealed, and in 1846 it was re- 
 enacted. It is still in force, and its wisdom 
 and u c efulness are now generally admitted. 
 
 Great Increase of Debt. 
 
 The spirit of speculation had extended to 
 the State governments as well as to private 
 individuals, and State bonds had been issued 
 to the amount of one hundred million dol- 
 lars. The pretext for this excessive increase 
 of debt was the necessity of raising funds to 
 carry out their system of internal improve- 
 ments. The panic involved the States in its 
 effects, and eight of them found themselves 
 unable in 1838 to pay the interest on their 
 bonds. In course of time they made good 
 their obligations, but the State of Mississippi 
 and the Territory of Florida not only refused 
 to pay the interest on their bonds, but repu- 
 diated their debts. The sale of their bonds 
 had been made principally in Europe, and 
 their repudiation of their debts aroused great 
 indignation on the other side of the Atlantic, 
 and brought disgrace upon the whole nation. 
 The effects of this were seen a few years 
 later, when the United States sought to 
 negotiate a national loan in Europe. Not a 
 
FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR 
 or a dollar obtained 
 
 574 
 
 bond could be sold 
 there. 
 
 In 1837 a movement was made by the 
 people of Canada to throw off their connec- 
 tion with Great Britain and to establish their 
 independence. It aroused the sympathies 
 of a large number of the people of the United 
 States, and in northern New York associa- 
 tions called "Hunters' Lodges" were formed 
 for the purpose of aiding the Canadian 
 
 of Schlosser on the American shore to the 
 island. The British authorities in Canada 
 determined to destroy the boat. One dark 
 night in December, 1837, a detachment from 
 Canada was sent to Navy Island for this 
 purpose. 
 
 Not finding the " Caroline " they went 
 over to Schlosser, where she was moored at 
 her dock. The boat was captured after a 
 short struggle, in which one American was 
 
 CANADIAN TRAPPERS. 
 
 patriots. The President of the United States 
 and the Governor of New York endeavored 
 to suppress these illegal associations, but 
 without success. 
 
 A body of seven hundred Canadians and 
 American sympathizers took possession of 
 Navy Island in the Niagara River. The 
 island is a part of Canada, and lies near the 
 shore of that country. The force on the 
 island employed the steamboat " Caroline " 
 to convey men and provisions from the town 
 
 killed, and was carried out into the stream 
 and set on fire. She drifted down to the 
 falls and plunged over them in a blaze. The 
 British minister at Washington at once de- 
 clared the responsibility of his government 
 for the capture of the boat, and justified it on 
 the ground of self-defence. 
 
 In the meantime the President had sent 
 General Wool with a strong force to the 
 Canadian border with orders to prevent any 
 expedition from leaving this country to aid 
 
ADMINISTRATIONS OF JACKSON AND VAN BURKX. 
 
 575 
 
 the Canadians. He compelled the force on 
 Navy Island to surrender, but the border 
 war continued until the close of 1838, when 
 it was put down. 
 
 On the first of September of this year 
 (1838) the United States, by their agent, 
 received the liberal donation which was be- 
 queathed to them in trust for the " general 
 diffusion of knowledge among men," by 
 James Smithson,an Englishman, which con- 
 stitutes the endowment of the Institute in 
 Washington city that 
 bears his name. The 
 amount of the legacy 
 received, in American 
 coin, was $575,169. 
 
 In 1840 the question 
 of the " Carolina " re- 
 vived. Alexander Mc- 
 Leod, a British subject 
 residing in Canada, 
 boasted that he had been 
 engaged in the capture 
 of the " Caroline," and 
 had killed the American 
 who fell in the conflict. 
 Shortly afterwards he 
 visited the New York 
 side of the river and was 
 at once arrested upon a 
 charge of murder by the 
 authorities of that State. 
 The British government 
 demanded his unconditional release on the 
 ground that he had simply obeyed the orders 
 of his government, which was alone respon- 
 sible for his act. The general government of 
 the United States also demanded the surrender 
 of McLeod to the Federal authorities. The 
 State of New York, however, held that the 
 offence with which McLeod was charged had 
 been committed on her soil, and brought the 
 prisoner to trial. As he succeeded in prov- 
 ing that he was not engaged in or present at 
 
 the attack, he was acquitted. This conflict 
 between the Federal and State authority led 
 to the passage by Congress of a law requir- 
 ing similar offences to be tried before the 
 United States courts. 
 
 In the midst of the Canadian controversy 
 a quarrel sprang up between the State of 
 Maine and the British provinces of New 
 Brunswick, concerning the northeast bound- 
 ary of the United States. Both parties pre- 
 pared for a conflict, hut the President sent 
 
 THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, WASHINGTON, D. C. 
 
 General Scott to the scene of danger, and 
 he, by his moderation and firmness, suc- 
 ceeded in maintaining peace until the matter 
 could be settled by treaty. 
 
 The war with the Seminole Indians in 
 Florida continued through the whole of this 
 administration. The capture and death of 
 Osceola, which we have related, though a 
 severe blow to his followers, did not dis- 
 hearten them. On the twenty-fifth of 
 December, 1838, Colonel Zachary Taylor 
 
576 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 inflicted a severe defeat upon the Indians at 
 Lake Okeechobee. The war was at length 
 brought to an end in 1842, but not until it 
 had lasted seven years and had cost many 
 valuable lives and the enormous sum of 
 nearly forty million dollars. The Seminoles 
 were subdued and were removed from Florida 
 to new homes beyond the Mississipi. 
 
 The Missouri Compromise did not quiet 
 the agitation of the slavery question. It 
 gave to the country only a momentary 
 respite. The Anti-slavery or Abolition party 
 had now become one of the recognized politi- 
 cal organizations of the country. Its avowed 
 object was the abolition of slavery in every 
 State in which it existed. It was argued in 
 opposition to their principles that the consti- 
 tution recognized and protected slavery in 
 the States in which it existed ; but they met 
 this assertion by the bold declaration that 
 they would continue their agitation until 
 they had destroyed either slavery or the 
 Union. They did not wish to live under a 
 constitution which protected slavery, and 
 which one of their principal leaders de- 
 nounced as " a covenant with death and an 
 agreement with hell." The body embraced 
 the extreme Anti-slavery men of the north. 
 
 Opposition to the Abolitionists. 
 
 Among its adversaries were some of the 
 sincerest opponents of slavery, who hoped 
 to accomplish their ends by constitutional 
 means and by the influences of a better and 
 more 'enlightened public opinion, and who 
 deprecated and opposed the violence of the 
 extreme Abolitionists. The leader of the 
 ultra party in Congress was John Quincy 
 Adams, who had been returned to the House 
 of Representatives from Massachusetts in 
 1 83 1. Memorials were presented to Con- 
 gress praying the abolition of slavery in the 
 District of Columbia, and gave rise to excit- 
 ing debates in that body, which affected the 
 
 whole country profoundly, and did much to 
 widen the breach between the Northern and 
 Southern States. This agitation continued 
 through the whole of Mr. Van Buren's term 
 of office. 
 
 Congress Must Not Interfere. 
 
 Early in the session of 1838-39, Mr. Ath- 
 erton, of New Hampshire, offered a series of 
 resolutions expressing the relations of the 
 general government towards the States, and 
 declaring the inability of Congress to inter- 
 fere with slavery in those States in which it 
 already existed, or in the District of Colum- 
 bia, or the Territories. These resolutions 
 were adopted by the House by decisive 
 majorities, and were regarded by Mr. Clay 
 and by the leading public men of the country 
 as effectually disposing of the troublesome 
 question as far as the general government 
 was concerned. The resolutions were as 
 follows : 
 
 " Resolved, That this government is a govern- 
 ment of limited powers, and that by the constitution 
 of the United States Congress has no jurisdiction 
 whatever over the institution of slavery in the sev- 
 eral States of the confederacy." 
 
 The vote upon this resolution stood : 196 
 for it, and 6 against it. 
 
 The second resolution was in these words : 
 " Resolved, That petitions for the abolition of 
 slavery in the District of Columbia and the Terri- 
 tories of the United States, and against the removal 
 of slaves from one State to another, are a part of a 
 plan of operations set on foot to affect the institu- 
 tion of slavery in the Southern States, and thus indi- 
 rectly to destroy that institution within their limits.' 
 
 On this resolution the vote stood : 136 for 
 it, and 65 against it. 
 
 The third resolution was in these words : 
 " Resolved, That Congress has no right to do that 
 indirectly which it cannot do directly ; and that the 
 agitation of the subject of slavery in the District of 
 Columbia, or the Territories, as a means, and with 
 a view, of disturbing or overthrowing that institution 
 in the several States, is against the true spirit and 
 
37 
 
 VIEW OF THE NATIONAL CAPITOL AT WASHINGTON. 577 
 
57« 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 meaning of the constitution, an infringement of the 
 rights of the States affected, and a breach of the 
 public faith upon which they entered into the con- 
 federacy." 
 
 The vote on this resolution was : 164 in 
 favor of it, and 40 against it. 
 
 The fourth of this series was in these 
 words : 
 
 " Resolved, The constitution rests on the broad 
 principle of equality among the members of this 
 confederacy, and that Congress, in the exercise of 
 its acknowledged powers, has no right to discrimi- 
 nate between the institutions of one portion of the 
 States and another, with a view of abolishing the 
 one and promoting the other." 
 
 The vote on this resolution was: 174 in 
 favor of it, and 24 against it. 
 
 Resolution Against Slavery Agitation. 
 
 The fifth and last of Mr. Atherton's reso- 
 lutions was in these words : 
 
 " Resolved, That all attempts on the part of Congress 
 to abolish slavery in the District of Columbia, or the 
 Territories, or to prohibit the removal of slaves from 
 State to State, or to discriminate between the insti- 
 tutions of one portion of the confederacy and another, 
 with the view aforesaid, are in violation of the con- 
 stitution, destructive of the fundamental principle 
 on which the union of these States rests, and beyond 
 the jurisdiction of Congress ; and that every peti- 
 tion, memorial, resolution, proposition, or paper, 
 touch' r > rr or relating in any way, or to any extent 
 
 whatever to slavery, as aforesaid, or the abol'Mon 
 thereof, shall on the presentation thereof, without 
 any further action thereon, be laid upon the table, 
 without being debated, printed, or referred." 
 
 The vote on the first branch of this reso- 
 lution was, 146 in favor, and 52 against it ; 
 on the second branch of the resolution the 
 vote stood, 126 for it, and 78 against it. 
 
 As we shall see, this declaration of Con- 
 gress was far from quieting the agitation 
 upon this troublesome question. The slavery 
 conflict had in reality just begun. 
 
 In the fall of 1 840 the Presidential election 
 was held. Mr. Van Buren and Vice-Presi- 
 dent Johnson were nominated for re-election 
 by the Democratic party, and the Whigs 
 supported General William Henry Harrison, 
 of Ohio, for President, and John Tyler, of 
 Virginia, for Vice-President. The financial 
 distress of the country had been but slightly 
 relieved, and was generally attributed by the 
 people to the interference of the government 
 with the currency. This feeling made the 
 Democratic nominees exceedingly unpop- 
 ular, and the political campaign, which was 
 one of the most exciting ever conducted in 
 this country, resulted in the election of Har- 
 rison and Tyler by overwhelming majorities. 
 
 In 1840 the sixth census showed the popu- 
 lation of the United States to be 17,069,453. 
 
CHAPTER XXXVI 
 
 The Administrations of William Henry Harrison anu 
 
 John Tyler 
 
 An Extra Session of Congress Summoned — Death of President Harrison — John Tyler becomes President of the Unites 
 States — Meeting of Congress — The Bankrupt Law — President Tyler Vetoes the Bills to Revive the United States 
 Bank— His Quarrel with His Party— The " Tyler Whigs"— The Tariff of 1842— The Treaty of Washington— The 
 United States will not Tolerate the Exercise of the Right of Search — Dorr's Rebellion — The Mormons — Invention of 
 the Electric Telegraph — Explosion on the " Princeton " — Efforts to Secure the Annexation of Texas — Early History 
 of Texas — The Texan War of Independence — Battle of San Jacinto — Texan Independence Established — Texas Ap- 
 plies for Admission into the Union — Opposition to the Measure — Significance of the Vote at the Presidential Election — 
 James K. Polk Elected President — Texas Admitted into the Union— Iowa and Florida become States. 
 
 ON THE fourth of March, 1841, 
 William Henry Harrison was 
 inaugurated President of the 
 United States at Washington in 
 the presence of an immense concourse of 
 citizens from all parts of the Union. He 
 was in his sixty-ninth year, and had spent 
 forty years of his life in the public service. 
 His services during the Indian hostilities 
 which preceded the war of 1812-15, and his 
 exploits during that war, have been'related. 
 He had served as governor of Indiana Ter- 
 ritory, and had been both a member of Con- 
 gress and a senator of the United States. 
 
 He was a man of pure life and earnest 
 character, and the certainty of a change of 
 policy in the measures of the federal govern- 
 ment had caused the people of the country 
 to look forward to his administration with 
 hope and confidence. He began by calling 
 to seats in his cabinet men of prominence 
 and ability. At the head of the cabinet he 
 placed Daniel Webster, as secretary of state. 
 The President issued a proclamation con- 
 vening Congress in special session on the 
 thirty-first of May, 1841. He was not 
 destined to fulfil the hopes of his friends, 
 however. He was suddenly seized with 
 
 pneumonia, and died on the fourth of April, 
 1 841 — just one month after his inaugura- 
 tion. 
 
 It was the first time that a president of the 
 United States had died in office, and a gloom 
 was cast over the nation by the sad event. 
 The mourning of the people was sincere, for 
 in General Harrison the nation lost a faith- 
 ful, upright and able citizen. He had spent 
 forty years in prominent public positions, 
 and had discharged every duty confided to 
 him with ability and integrity, and went to 
 his grave a poor man. 
 
 " Brave old Cincinnatus ! he left but his plow. ,r 
 
 Upon the assembling of Congress, that 
 body, "out of consideration of his expenses 
 in removing to the seat of government, and 
 the limited means he had left behind," appro- 
 priated the equivalent of one year's presi- 
 dential salary — twenty-five thousand dollars 
 — to Mrs. Harrison. 
 
 According to the terms of the constitution, 
 upon the death of General Harrison, the office 
 of president of the United States devolved 
 upon the vice-president, John Tyler, of Vir- 
 ginia. Mr. Tyler was not in the city of 
 Washington at the time of the death of his 
 predecessor, but repaired to that city without 
 
 579 
 
580 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 loss of time, upon being notified of the need 
 of his presence, and on the sixth of April 
 took the oath of office before Judge Cranch, 
 chief justice of the District of Columbia. 
 Mr. Tyler was in his fifty-second year, and 
 had served as governor of Virginia, and as 
 representative and senator in Congress from 
 that State. On the ninth of April President 
 Tyler issued an address to the people of the 
 United States, in which there was no indica- 
 tion of a departure from the policy announced 
 in the inaugural of General Harrison. He 
 
 WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON. 
 
 retained the cabinet ministers of his prede- 
 cessor in their respective positions. 
 
 On the thirty-first of May the Twenty- 
 seventh Congress convened in extra session. 
 It was known as the " Whig Congress," as 
 a large majority of its members were of that 
 party. Had this party remained united they 
 could have controlled the action of Congress 
 to suit themselves, but as we shall see, the 
 policy of the executive soon divided them. 
 The first act of this Congress was to repeal 
 the sub-treasury bill which had been passed 
 in 1840. The effects of the commercial 
 
 crisis had involved thousands of merchants 
 in hopeless bankruptcy, and under the old 
 laws they had no means of recovering their 
 lost position, as they were crushed down by 
 their debts Neither their creditors nor the 
 country at large derived any benefit from 
 this state of affairs, and Congress at once 
 passed a general bankrupt law for the relief 
 of persons thus situated. It was highly 
 beneficial to the country, and was repealed in 
 1843, when the necessity for it had ceased 
 to exist. 
 
 Important Veto by President Tyler. 
 
 Efforts were made to revive the Bank 
 of the United States, and a bill was passed 
 establishing an institution known as the 
 " Fiscal Bank of the United States." Mr. 
 Tyler, who was a member of the strict con- 
 structionist school, now found himself at 
 variance with a majority of his party in both 
 Houses of Congress. As he did not bjlicve 
 that Congress could constitutionally charter 
 such an institution, he vetoed this bill. The 
 advocates of the measure could not com- 
 mand the requisite two-thirds majority for 
 the passage of the bill over the president's 
 veto, and his action was sustained. Another 
 bill was passed by Congress of a similar 
 character, establishing " The Fiscal Corpora- 
 tion of the United States," but this also was 
 vetoed by the president for the same reasons. 
 His veto was sustained by Congress in this 
 instance also. The vetoes of these measures 
 were generally approved by the strict con- 
 structionists throughout the Union, without 
 regard to party ; but they were bitterly de- 
 nounced by the majority of the Whigs, who 
 charged the president with having violated 
 the implied pledges upon which he was 
 elected, and with having betrayed his party. 
 
 The Whigs were for the time forgetful of 
 the fact that at the time of his nomination 
 to the vice-presidency Mr. Tyler was known 
 
ADMINISTRATIONS OF HARRISON AND TYLER. 
 
 581 
 
 to be opposed to the Bank of the United 
 States. The members of the cabinet, with 
 the single exception of the secretary of state, 
 resigned their positions in consequence of 
 Mr. Tyler's course. Mr. Webster retained his 
 position in order to complete the important 
 negotiations he was 
 at the time conducting 
 with England. The 
 places of the other 
 members of the cabi- 
 net were filled by the 
 President with pro- 
 minent members of 
 the strict construc- 
 tionist school of the 
 Whig party, who sus- 
 tained the President. 
 
 The second session 
 of the Twenty-seventh 
 Congress met in De- 
 cember, 1 84 1, and con- 
 tinued its sittings until 
 August, 1842. It was 
 noted as the longest 
 session ever held up 
 to this time. It found 
 the Whig party divid- 
 ed, and the opposing 
 factions bitterly hostile 
 to each other. The 
 majority, led by Mr. 
 Clay, opposed the 
 administration. The 
 minority, because of 
 their support of the 
 President, received 
 the name of " Tyler 
 
 Whigs." The principal question agitated 
 during this session was the tariff. Accord- 
 ing to the compromise act of 1833, the 
 duties this year were to be regulated accord- 
 Wig to a revenue standard. 
 
 The majority in Congress, however, paid 
 
 no regard to the pledge given in this com- 
 promise, and a new tariff bill was passed by 
 both Houses of Congress, regulating the 
 duties on a strongly protective basis, and 
 with the avowed object of reviving the pro- 
 tective policy. It was vetoed by the Presi- 
 
 JOHN TYLER. 
 
 dent. Another measure of a similar though 
 slightly modified character was passed, and 
 this was vetoed also. Congress then passed 
 the tariff of 1842, in which the principles of 
 the compromise of 1833 were altogether set 
 aside, and the ^utie? made strictly protective 
 
582 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 It required a sharp struggle in Congress to 
 secure the passage of this bill, which received 
 the executive signature on the thirtieth of 
 August. 
 
 Settlement of Disputes. 
 
 In the meantime Mr. Webster succeeded 
 in bringing the negotiations with Great Bri- 
 tain to a successful close. These negotia- 
 tions had grown out of the revolutionary 
 disturbances in Canada, and the controversy 
 respecting the northeast boundary of the 
 United States during the administration of 
 Mr. Van Buren, which we have related. 
 The boundary question was of older origin 
 than the former controversy, and had been 
 pending between the United States and Eng- 
 land for fifty years. Mr. Webster, imme- 
 diately upon his entrance upon the office of 
 secretary of state, had, with the approval of 
 the President, signified the desire of this 
 ccintry to terminate the controversy, and 
 Lord Ashburton had been sent by the British 
 government as special minister to the United 
 States, with full power to settle all the con- 
 troversies between the two countries. The 
 treaty of Washington was concluded in 184.?, 
 and was accepted by both countries as a 
 settlement of the questions at issue between 
 them. 
 
 By the terms of this treaty the northeastern 
 boundary was arranged as it exists at present ; 
 the United States obtained the free naviga- 
 tion of the St. John's river to the sea ; and 
 gained possession of the important military 
 position of Rouse's Point, at the outlet 
 of Lake Champlain. The two countries 
 mutually agreed to surrender upon proper 
 demand all fugitives from justice escaping 
 from the territory of one into that of the 
 other ; and to maintain a certain number of 
 ships of war on the African coast to aid in 
 suppressing the slave trade. 
 
 When the treaty was completed two sub- 
 
 jects presented themselves to the negotiators. 
 One of these was the right claimed by Great 
 Britain for her cruisers to stop and if neces- 
 sary to search merchant vessels belonging 
 to other nations on the high seas ; the other 
 was the impressment of seamen from Amer- 
 ican merchant vessels by British cruisers. 
 Mr. Webster, in a paper of great ability, ad- 
 dressed to the American minister at London, 
 but intended for the British foreign minister, 
 denied the right of search, and sustained his 
 position by arguments that were simply irre- 
 futable. 
 
 In a letter to Lord Ashburton Mr. Web- 
 ster refused to consider the impressment 
 question, as the United States could in no 
 case admit such a claim on the part of Great 
 Britain, and declared that every case of im- 
 pressment would be considered an act of 
 hostility and would be repelled as such. He 
 declared as the unalterable policy of this 
 country the doctrine that " Every merchant 
 vessel on the high seas is rightfully con- 
 sidered as a part of the territory to which it 
 belongs ; " that " in every regularly docu- 
 mented American merchant vessel the ^rew 
 who navigate it will find their protection in 
 the flag which is over them ; " and that " the 
 American government, then, is prepared to 
 say that the practice of impressing seamen 
 from American vessels cannot hereafter be 
 allowed to take place." The tone of the 
 secretary of state, though firm, was courteous 
 and conciliatory, and the negotiations were 
 conducted in the same spirit of conciliation 
 by the British mirv>ter. 
 
 Insurrection in Rhode Island. 
 
 With this treaty the United States for- 
 mally took their position as one of the great 
 powers of the world. The negotiations being 
 completed, Mr. Webster resigned his place 
 in the cabinet in May, 1843, an d was sue" 
 ceeded by Abel P. Upshur, of Virginia. 
 
ADMINISTRATIONS OF HARRISON AND TYLER. 
 
 583 
 
 In 1842 an insurrection broke out in the 
 State of Rhode Island, which required the 
 intervention of the United States for its sup- 
 pression. It is known as the Dorr rebellion. 
 The old charter of the colony, granted by- 
 Charles II., in 1663, had up to this time 
 served as the constitution of the State. It 
 was found to be unsuited to the requirements 
 of the people in their more prosperous condi- 
 tion, and an effort was made to change it. 
 Two parties were formed, one in favor of the 
 proposed changes, the other opposed to them. 
 Each party nominated its candidate for the 
 office of governor and elected him. The 
 '■ suffrage party," which favored the changes, 
 elected Thomas W. Dorr governor, took up 
 arms, and attacked the State arsenal for the 
 purpose of arming their followers. They were 
 repulsed by the State militia assisted by the 
 United States troops. Dorr was arrested, 
 tried for treason, and sentenced to imprison- 
 ment for life. He was released in 1845. 
 The opponents of the " suffrage party " 
 deemed it best to yield to the popular wish, 
 however, and in November, 1842, a new 
 constitution, embracing the desired changes, 
 was adopted by the legislature. 
 
 Mormons Found a City. 
 
 About the same time a series of disturb- 
 ances occurred in the State of Illinois, which 
 were but the forerunners of a more serious 
 embarrassment to the general government at 
 a later period. A new religious sect had 
 sprung up some years before in the western 
 part of New York. They called themselves 
 Mormons, and were founded by a remarkable 
 man named Joseph Smith, who professed 
 to have received a new revelation from God, 
 written on plates of gold. Among the arti- 
 cles of the Mormon faith is one which teaches 
 the doctrine of a plurality of wives. Feeling 
 that the east was not favorable to their 
 growth, the Mormons at an early day 
 
 removed to the west. They settled at first 
 in Missouri, but so exasperated the people 
 
 ~>k ft 
 3 ^ 
 
 1* 
 
 S3 
 
 of that State by their conduct, that they were 
 soon driven out of Missouri. 
 
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 584 
 
ADMINISTRATIONS OF HARRISON AND TYLER. 
 
 585 
 
 Crossing the Mississippi, they settled in 
 Illinois, and founded a city which they called 
 Nauvoo, and built a temple. Their numbers 
 increased rapidly from emigration from 
 nearly every country in Europe. The new- 
 comers were mainly persons of low position 
 and without education. Conscious of their 
 strength they raised troops, and set the 
 authority of the State of Illinois at defiance. 
 The State endeavored to reduce them to 
 obedience, and their conduct, as in Missouri, 
 
 .westward, and after a long and painful jour- 
 ney across the plains, reached the valley of 
 Salt Lake, and established a settlement 
 there. Out of this settlement grew the Ter- 
 ritory of Utah. 
 
 In 1844 occurred one of the most im- 
 portant events in the history of the world. 
 In 1832 Samuel F. B. Morse, a native of 
 Massachusetts, invented the electric tele- 
 graph. He spent some years in perfecting 
 his invention, and in 1838 applied to Congress 
 
 THE MORMON HAND-CART COMPANY CROSSING THE PLAINS. 
 
 turned the people against them. Several 
 conflicts ensued between the Mormons and 
 the authorities. In one of these Joe Smith, 
 the prophet, and his brother were seized and 
 put in jail, and while lying there were 
 murdered by the mob in July, 1844. This 
 brought matters to a crisis, and the people 
 of Illinois determined to drive the Mormons 
 across the Mississippi. Nauvoo was attacked 
 in 1845, and the Mormons were compelled to 
 leave the State. In 1846 they bent their steps 
 
 for a small appropriation to assist him in 
 building a line of wire to demonstrate the 
 usefulness of his discovery. He was obliged 
 to wait five years for a favorable answer, and 
 it was not until he had given up all hope of 
 receiving aid from Congress that that body, 
 on the last day of the session of 1843, appro- 
 priated the sum of thirty thousand dollars to 
 construct a telegraph line between Washing- 
 ton City and Baltimore, a distance of forty 
 miles. The line was completed in 1844, and 
 
586 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 was successfully operated by Professor Morse. 
 This was the first line established in the 
 world. In the number of years which have 
 elapsed since then the use of the telegraph 
 has become general throughout the civilized 
 world, and in the United States alone hun- 
 dreds of thousands of miles of telegraph 
 lines are in operation at the present time. 
 On the twenty-eighth of February, 1844, 
 
 spectators. This sad event was greatly 
 lamented throughout the country. Judge 
 Upshur was succeeded as secretary of state 
 by John C. Calhoun, then a senator from 
 South Carolina. 
 
 The last years of Mr. Tyler's administra- 
 tion were devoted to the effort to secure the 
 annexation of the republic of Texas to the 
 United States. The territory embraced 
 
 the President, accompanied by the members within the limits of Texas constituted a part 
 
 MORMON TABERNACLE AT SALT LAKE, UTAH. 
 
 of his cabinet and a number of distinguished 
 citizens, officers of the army and navy, and 
 ladies, went on board the new steam frigate 
 " Princeton," lying in the Potomac, to wit- 
 ness the experimental firings of a new cannon 
 of unusual size on board that ship, to which 
 the name of " The Peacemaker " had been 
 given. .At one of the discharges the gun 
 exploded, causing the instant death of 
 Messrs. Upshur and Gilmer, the secretaries 
 of state and of the navy, and several other 
 
 of the Spanish-American possessions, and 
 was generally regarded as a part of Mexico. 
 During the last eentury a number of forts 
 had been erected in Texas by the Spaniards 
 as a means of holding the province against 
 the French, and each fort was made a mis- 
 sionary station, from which efforts were 
 made to convert the Indians, but without 
 success. The United States were, in the 
 early part of the present century, inclined to 
 regard Texas as rightfully a part of the 
 
ADMINISTRATIONS OF HARRISON AND TYLER. 
 
 587 
 
 Louisiana purchase, but this claim was 
 waived when Florida was purchased. 
 
 Early in the present century pioneers from 
 the United States began to find their way to 
 Texas which was then a wild country, in- 
 habited only by roving Indians and the gar- 
 risons of the few Spanish forts within its 
 limits. One of these emigrants, Moses Austin, 
 of Durham, Connecticut, conceived the plan 
 of colonizing Texas with settlers from the 
 United States. 
 
 For this purpose he obtained from the 
 Spanish government, in 1820, the grant of 
 an extensive tract of land ; but before he 
 could put his plans in execution he died. 
 His son, Stephen F. Austin, inherited the 
 rights of his father under this grant, and 
 went to Texas with a number of emigrants 
 from this country, and explored that region 
 for the purpose of locating his grant. He 
 selected as the most desirable site for his 
 colony the country between the Brazos and 
 Colorado rivers, and founded a city, which 
 he named Austin, in honor of the originator 
 of the colony, to whom Texas owes its 
 existence as an American commonwealth. 
 Having seen the settlers established in their 
 new homes, Mr. Austin returned to the 
 United States to collect other emigrants for 
 his colony. 
 
 During his absence Mexico and the other 
 Spanish provinces rose in revolt against 
 Spain, and succeeded in establishing their in- 
 dependence. Texas, being regarded as a part 
 of the Mexican territory, shared the fortunes 
 of that country. Upon his return to Texas, 
 Austin, in consideration of the altered state of 
 affairs, went to the city of Mexico and obtained 
 from the Mexican government a confirma- 
 tion of the grant made to his father. Such 
 a confirmation was necessary in order to 
 enable him to give the settlers valid titles to 
 the lands of his colony. Mexico at first 
 exercised but a nominal authority over the 
 
 new settlements, and the colonists were 
 allowed to live under their own laws, subject 
 to the rules drawn up by Austin. In order 
 to encourage settlements in Texas, the Mexi- 
 can Congress on the second of May,- 1824, 
 enacted the following law, declaring, " That 
 Texas is to be annexed to the Mexican prov^ 
 ince of Cohahuila, until it is of sufficient 
 importance to form a separate State, when it 
 is to become an independent State of the 
 Mexican republic, equal to the other States 
 of which the same is composed, free, sover- 
 
 PROFESSOR MORSE. 
 
 eign, and independent in whatever exclu- 
 sively relates to its internal government and 
 administration." 
 
 Encouraged by this decree, large num 
 bers of Americans emigrated to Texas, and 
 to these were added emigrants from all the 
 countries of Europe. The population grew 
 rapidly, new towns sprang up, and Austin's 
 colony prospered in a marked degree, until 
 1830, when Bustamente having made himself 
 by violence and intrigue president of the 
 so-called Mexican republic, prohibited the 
 
588 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 emigration of foreigners to the Mexican 
 territory, and issued a number of decrees 
 very oppressive to the people, and in viola- 
 tion of the constitution of 1824. In order 
 to enforce these measures in Texas, he occu- 
 pied that province with his troops, and placed 
 Texas under military rule. The Texans 
 resented this interference with their rights, 
 and finally compelled the Mexican troops to 
 withdraw from the province. In 1832 
 
 A VILLAGE IN TEXAS. 
 
 another revolution in Mexico drove Busta- 
 mente from power, and placed Santa Anna 
 at the head of affairs as president or dictator. 
 Texas took no part in the disturbances of 
 Mexico, but after the accession of Santa 
 Anna to power, formed a constitution, and 
 applied for admission into the Mexican 
 republic as a State, in accordance with the 
 constitution of 1824, and the act of the 
 Mexican Congress which we have quoted. 
 
 Stephen F. Austin was sent to the city of 
 Mexico to present the petition of Texas for 
 this purpose. He was refused an answer 
 to this petition for over a year, and at last 
 wrote to the authorities of Texas, advising 
 them to organize a State government with- 
 out waiting for the action of the Mexican 
 Congress. 
 
 For this recommendation, which the Mexi- 
 can government regarded as treasonable, 
 Santa Anna caused the arrest 
 of Austin, and kept him in 
 prison for over a year. Texas 
 now began to manifest the 
 most determined opposition 
 to the usurpation of Santa 
 Anna, and measures were 
 taken to maintain the rights 
 of the province under the 
 constitution of 1824. Troops 
 were organized, and prepara- 
 tions made to resist the force 
 which it was certain Mexico 
 would send against them. 
 
 Santa Anna did not allow 
 them to remain long in sus- 
 pense, but at once despatched 
 a force under General Cos, to 
 disarm the Texans. On the 
 second of October, 1835, Cos 
 attacked the town of Gon- 
 zalez, which was held by a 
 Texan force, but was repulsed 
 with heavy loss. A week later, 
 on the ninth of October, the Texans captured 
 the town of Goliad, and a little later gained 
 possession of the mission house of the 
 Alamo. Both places were garrisoned, and 
 the Texan army, which was under the com- 
 mand of Austin, in the course of a few 
 months succeeded in driving the Mexicans 
 out of Texas. 
 
 On the twelfth of November, 1835, a con- 
 vention of the people of Texas met at the 
 
ADMINISTRATIONS OF HARRISON AND TYLER. 
 
 589 
 
 city of Austin, and organized a regular State 
 government. Prominent among the members 
 was General Sam Houston, a settler from the 
 United States. Soon after the meeting of the 
 convention General Austin resigned the com- 
 mand of the army, and was sent to the 
 United States as the commissioner of that 
 State to this government, and was succeeded 
 as commander-in-chief by General Sam 
 Houston. Henry Smith was elected gov- 
 ernor of Texas by the people. 
 
 Orders to Shoot Prisoners. 
 
 As soon as Santa Anna learned that his 
 troops had been driven out of Texas, and 
 that the Texans had set up a State govern- 
 ment, he set out for that country with an 
 army of seventy-five hundred men. He 
 issued orders to his troops to shoot every 
 prisoner taken, and intended to make the 
 struggle a war of extermination. He arrived 
 before the Alamo late in February, 1836 
 This fort was very strong, and was held by 
 a force of one hundred and forty Texans 
 under Colonel Travis. It was besieged by 
 the whole Mexican army, and was subjected 
 to a bombardment of eleven days. At last, 
 on the sixth of March, the garrison being 
 worn out with fatigue, the fort was carried 
 by assault, and the whole garrison was put 
 to the sword. Among the heroes who fell 
 at the Texan Thermopylae was the eccentric 
 but chivalrous Colonel Davy Crockett, of 
 Tennessee, who had generously come to aid 
 the Texans in their struggle for liberty. The 
 capture of the Alamo cost the Mexicans a 
 loss of sixteen hundred men, or over eleven 
 men for every one of its defenders. 
 
 On the 17th of March, 1836, the conven- 
 tion adopted a constitution for an independ- 
 ent republic, and formally proclaimed the 
 independence of Texas. David G. Burnett 
 was elected president of the republic. 
 
 The fort at Goliad was held by a force of 
 
 three hundred and thirty Texans, under 
 Colonel Fanning, a native of Georgia. On 
 the twenty-seventh of March it was attacked 
 by the Mexican army. The garrison main- 
 tained a gallant defence, but their resources 
 being exhausted, and the Mexicans being 
 reinforced during the night, Fanning decided 
 to surrender his force, if he could obtain 
 .honorable terms. He proposed to Santa 
 
 SANTA ANNA 
 
 Anna to lay down his arms and surrender 
 the post on condition that he and his men 
 should be allowed and assisted to return to 
 the United States. The proposition was 
 accepted by Santa Anna, and the terms of 
 the surrender were formally drawn up and 
 were signed by each commander. As soon as 
 the surrender was made, however, and the 
 arms of the Texans were delivered, Santa 
 
59Q 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 Anna, in base violation of his pledge, caused 
 Fanning and the survivors of the garrison, 
 to the number of three hundred men, to be 
 put to death. 
 
 The massacres of the Alamo and Goliad, 
 and the steady advance of the Mexican army 
 under Santa Anna caused a feeling of pro- 
 found alarm throughout the new republic. 
 The government was removed temporarily 
 to Galveston, and General Houston retreated 
 
 GENERAL HOUSTON. 
 
 behind the San Jacinto. Santa Anna pur- 
 sued the Texan forces, and at length came 
 up with them on the banks of that stream. 
 Houston had but seven hundred and fifty 
 men with him, and these were imperfectly 
 armed and without discipline. 
 
 With this force he surprised the Mexican 
 camp, on the twenty-first of April, and routed 
 the Mexican army, inflicting upon it a loss 
 of over six hundred killed, and taking more 
 than eight hundred prisoners. Santa Anna 
 
 himself was among the prisoners. Houston 
 at once entered into negotiations with him 
 for the withdrawal of the Mexican forces 
 from Texas. This was done at once, and 
 the independence of Texas was achieved. 
 Santa Anna also recognized the independ- 
 ence of the new republic, but the Mexican 
 Congress refused to confirm this act. 
 
 Houston was now the idol of the Texan 
 people as the deliverer of their country from 
 the hated Mexicans. At the next gen- 
 eral election he was chosen President of 
 the republic, and was inaugurated on the 
 twenty-second of October, 1 836. General 
 Mirabeau B. Lamar was the third Presi- 
 dent of the republic of Texas, and entered 
 upon his office in 1838. He was suc- 
 ceeded in 1844 by Anson Jones, the 
 fourth President. The territory of the 
 republic was sufficiently large to make 
 five States the size of New York, and 
 its climate and soil were among the most 
 delightful and fertile in the world. It 
 contained a population of about two 
 ^ hundred thousand, and was increasing 
 rapidly in inhabitants and in prosperity. 
 On the third of March, 1837, the inde- 
 pendence of the republic of Texas was 
 acknowledged by the United States, and 
 in 1839 by France and England. Being 
 young and feeble, and being settled al- 
 most entirely by Americans, the people 
 of Texas at an early day came to the 
 conclusion that their best interests required 
 them to seek a union with the United States, 
 and as early as August, 1837, a proposition 
 was submitted to Mr. Van Buren looking to 
 such a union. It was declined by him, but 
 the question was taken up by the press and 
 people of the Union, and was discussed with 
 the greatest interest and activity. 
 
 The south was unanimously in favor of 
 the annexation of Texas, as it was a region 
 in which slave labor would be particularly 
 
ADMINISTRATIONS OF HARRISON AND TYLER. 
 
 profitable ; and a strong party in the north 
 opposed the annexation for the reason that it 
 would inevitably extend the area of slavery. 
 An additional argument against annexation 
 was that it would involve a war with Mexico, 
 which had never acknowledged the inde- 
 pendence of Texas. 
 
 In April, 1844, Texas formally applied for 
 admission into the United States, and a 
 
 59» 
 
 ing issues of the campaign. Its candidates 
 were James K. Polk, of Tennessee, and 
 George M. Dallas, of Pennsylvania. The 
 Whig party supported Henry Clay, of Ken- 
 tucky, and Theodore Frelinghuysen, of New 
 Jersey, and opposed the annexation of 
 Texas. 
 
 During this campaign, which was one ot 
 unusual excitement, the Anti-slavery party 
 
 GENERAL POST OFFICE WASHINGTON. 
 
 treaty for that purpose was negotiated with 
 her by the government of this country. It 
 was rejected by the Senate. 
 
 In the fall of 1844 the Presidential electicn 
 took place. The leading political question 
 of the day was the annexation of Texas. It 
 was advocated by the administration of 
 President Tyler and by the Democratic 
 party. This party also made the claim of 
 the United States to Oregon one of the lead- 
 
 made its appearance for the first time as a 
 distinct political organization, and nominated 
 James G. Birney as its candidate for the 
 Presidency. 
 
 The result of the campaign was a decisive 
 victory for the Democrats. This success 
 was generally regarded as an emphatic 
 expression of the popular will respecting 
 the Texas and Oregon questions. Mr. 
 Birney did not receive a single electoral 
 
592 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 vote, and of the popular vote only sixty-four 
 thousand six hundred and fifty-three ballots 
 were cast for him. 
 
 When Congress met in December, 1844, 
 the efforts for the annexation of Texas were 
 renewed. A proposition was made to receive 
 Texas into the Union by a joint resolution 
 of Congress. A bill for this purpose passed 
 the House of Representatives, but the Senate 
 added an amendment appointing commis- 
 sioners to negotiate with Mexico for the 
 annexation of Texas, which she still claimed 
 as a part of her territory. The President 
 was authorized by a clause in these resolu- 
 tions to adopt either the House or the Senate 
 plan of annexation, and on the second of 
 March, 1845, the resolutions were adopted. 
 Senator Benton, of Missouri, the author of 
 the Senate plan, was of the opinion that the 
 matter would be left to Mr. Polk, the Presi- 
 dent-elect, to be conducted by him ; and that 
 gentleman had expressed his intention to 
 carry out the Senate plan, as he hoped an 
 amicable arrangement could be made with 
 Mexico. Mr. Tyler, however, determined 
 not to leave the annexation of Texas to his 
 successor, and at once adopted the plan 
 proposed in the House resolutions, and on the 
 night of Sunday March 3d, a messenger 
 was despatched with all speed to Texas to 
 lay the proposition before the authorities of 
 that State. It was accepted by them, and 
 
 on the fourth of July, 1845, Texas became 
 one of the United States. 
 
 The area thus added to the territory of 
 the Union comprised two hundred and 
 thirty-seven thousand five hundred and four 
 square miles. It was provided by the act of 
 admission that four additional States might 
 be formed out of the territory of Texas, 
 when the population should increase to an 
 extent which should make such a step desir- 
 able. Those States lying north of the Mis- 
 souri Compromise line — 36 30' north lati- 
 tude — were to be free States ; those south of 
 that line were to be free or slaveholding, " as 
 the people of each State asking admission 
 may desire." To Texas was reserved the 
 right to refuse to allow the division of her 
 territory. 
 
 On the third of March, 1845, the President 
 approved an act of Congress admitting the 
 Territories of Iowa and Florida into the 
 Union as States. 
 
 No President has ever been more unpop- 
 ular during his administration than Mr. 
 Tyler. His administration speaks for itself 
 however, and bears out the truth of his menv 
 orable words : " I appeal from the vituper< 
 ation of the present day to the pen of impar- 
 tial history, in the full confidence that neither 
 my motives nor my acts will bear the inter- 
 pretation which has, for sinister purposes^ 
 been placed upon them." 
 
CHAPTER XXXVII 
 
 The Administration of James K. Polk — The War 
 
 With Mexico. 
 
 The Oregon Question — Position of President Polk respecting it — The Question Settled — Treaty for Settlement of Claims 
 against Mexico — Mexico Resents the Annexation of Texas — General Taylor Ordered to Texas — He Advances to the) 
 Rio Grande — Battles of Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma — The War with Mexico Begun — Invasion of Mexico— [ 
 Occupation of Matamoras — Action of the United States Government — Taylor Advances into the Interior — The Storm- 
 ing and Capture of Monterey — The Armistice — Return of Santa Anna to Mexico — President Polk Duped — SaDt? 
 Anna Seizes the Mexican Government — General Wool Joins General Taylor — Troops Taken from Taylor's Army- 
 Advance of the Mexicans — Battle of Buena Vista — Conquest of California by Fremont and Stockton — Occupation o» 
 Santa Fe — New Mexico Conquered — Doniphan's March — Occupatio' ot Chihuahua — Sailing of Scott's Expedition — 
 Reduction of Vera Cruz — Santa Anna Collects a New Army — Battle of Cerro Gordo — Occupation of Puebla by 
 Scott — Trouble with Mr. Trist — Vigorous Measures of Santa Anna — Scott Advances upon the City of Mexico — Fi 
 Peiion Turned — Battles of Contreras and Churubusco — Capture of Molino del Rey — Storming of Chapultepec — 
 Capture of the City of Mexico — Siege of Puebla Raised — Flight of Santa Anna — Treaty of Peace Negotiated — Clos« 
 of the War — Acquisition of California and New Mexico — Discovery of Gold in California — Rapid Emigration to tho 
 Pacific — Death of John Quincy Adams — The Wilmot Proviso — Revival of the -Slavery Question — General Taylor 
 Elected President. 
 
 THE inauguration of James K. Polk, 
 as President of the United States, 
 took place on the fourth of March, 
 1845. He had served the country 
 as governor of the State of Tennessee, and 
 for fourteen years had been a member of the 
 House of Representatives in Congress from 
 that State, and had been several times chosen 
 speaker of that body. His cabinet was 
 selected from the first men of his party. 
 James Buchanan was secretary of state ; 
 Robert J. Walker was secretary of the treas- 
 ury ; William L. Marcy, secretary of war, 
 and George Bancroft, the historian, secretary 
 of the navy. 
 
 Two important questions presented them- 
 selves to the new administration for settle- 
 ment: the troubles with Mexico growing out 
 of the annexation of Texas, and the arrange- 
 ment of the northwestern boundary of the 
 United States. 
 
 The question of the northwestern bound- 
 ary had been left unsettled by the treaty of 
 
 38 
 
 Washington in 1842. Great Britain was 
 anxious to arrange the matter, and late in the 
 year 1842 Mr. Fox, the British minister at 
 Washington, proposed to Mr. Webster, then 
 secretary of state, to open negotiations. The 
 British proposition was accepted, but nothing 
 further was done until February, 1844, when 
 Sir Richard Packenham, the British minister 
 at Washington, proposed to take up the 
 question of the Oregon boundary and settle 
 it. Mr. Upshur, the secretary of state, 
 accepted the offer, but was killed a few days 
 later by the explosion on board tne " Prince- 
 ton." Six months later, Sir Richard Pack- 
 enham renewed the proposal to Mr. Calhoun, 
 who had become secretary of state, and negO' 
 tiations were entered upon in earnest. 
 
 The territory of Oregon lay between the 
 forty-second and fifty-fourth parallels of north 
 latitude, and extended from the Rocky moun- 
 tains on the east to the Pacific ocean on the 
 west. This region was originally claimed 
 by Spain, by whose subjects it was first 
 
 593 
 
594 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 discovered. At the cession of Florida, Spain 
 ceded to the United States all her territory- 
 north of the forty-second parallel of north 
 latitude, from the headwaters of the Arkan- 
 sas to the Pacific. Mexico, upon achieving 
 her independence, had acknowledged by a 
 treaty with the United States the validity of 
 this boundary. The line of fifty-four degrees 
 forty minutes north latitude was established 
 by treaty between the United States, Great 
 Britain and Russia as the southern boundary 
 of the Russian possessions in America. 
 
 JAMES K. POLK. 
 
 The United States claimed the entire re- 
 gion of Oregon in virtue of the cession of 
 Spain in the Florida treaty ; the discoveries 
 ot Captain Gray of Boston, who circumnavi- 
 gated the globe, and in 1792 discovered to a 
 certain extent and explored the Columbia 
 river ; the explorations of Lewis and Clarke 
 in 1805 and 1806 of the southern main 
 branch of the Columbia, and of the river 
 itself from the mouth of that branch to the 
 sea ; and the settlement of Astoria, planted 
 at the mouth of the Columbia in 181 1 by 
 John Jacob A^^f of New York. Oregon 
 
 was also claimed by England, who also rested 
 her pretensions on discovery, and on the set- 
 tlement made by the Northwest Company 
 on Fraser's river in 1806, and on another 
 near the head waters of the north branch of 
 the Columbia. 
 
 " All of Oregon, or None." 
 
 In 18 1 8 the United States and Great 
 Britain had agreed upon the forty-ninth 
 degree of north latitude, as the boundary 
 between the United States and British Amer- 
 ica from the Lake of the Woods to the sum- 
 mit of the Rocky mountains. Mr. Calhoun 
 now opened the negotiations by proposing 
 to continue this line to the Pacific. The 
 British minister would not consent to this, 
 but proposed to extend the forty-ninth paral- 
 lel from the mountains to the north branch 
 of the Columbia, and then to make the boun- 
 dary follow that stream from this point of 
 intersection to the sea. Mr. Calhoun at once 
 declined to accept this boundary, and the 
 further consideration of the subject was post- 
 poned until Packenham could receive addi- 
 tional instructions from his government. 
 
 During the Presidential campaign of 1844 
 the Democratic party adopted as its watch- 
 word, " all of Oregon or none," and the ex- 
 citement upon the question ran high. The 
 election of Mr. Polk showed that the Ameri- 
 can people were resolved to insist upon their 
 claim to Oregon, and when the new President 
 in his inaugural address took the bold ground 
 that the American title to " Oregon terri- 
 tory" "was dear and indisputable," and 
 declared his intention to maintain it at the 
 cost of war with England, the matter assumed 
 a serious aspect, and for a while it seemed 
 that party passion would involve the two 
 countries in hostilities. President Polk, upon 
 a calmer consideration of the subject, caused 
 the secretary of state to reopen the negotia- 
 tions by proposing to Great Britain the forty 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES K. POLK. 
 
 595 
 
 ninth parallel of latitude as a boundary. The 
 British minister declined the proposition, and 
 the matter was dropped. 
 
 According to the treaties of 1818 and 
 1828, the joint occupation of Oregon could 
 be terminated by either party by giving the 
 other twelve months' notice. The President 
 now proposed to give the required notice, 
 which was done by a resolution of Congress. 
 
 British ministry decided at length to reopen 
 negotiations, and Sir Richard Packenham 
 shortly after communicated to Mr. Buchanan 
 the willingness of his government to accept 
 the forty-ninth parallel as a boundary. 
 
 The time at which thejoint occupation would 
 terminate was rapidly drawing to a close, and 
 the President was anxious to settle the mat- 
 ter, but at the same time was not willing to 
 
 A BASIN ON THE COLUMBIA RIVER, OREGON — AND MOUNTAIN-PEAK IN THE DISTANCE. 
 
 This put an end to the old arrangement, and 
 compelled the two countries to make a new 
 settlement of the difficulty ; and this was the 
 object of the President in terminating the 
 joint occupation. 
 
 The subject was brought to the notice of 
 the British Parliament by Sir Robert Peel 
 who expressed his regret that the last offer 
 of the United States had been declined. The 
 
 assume the responsibility of accepting a 
 boundary which fell so far short of the 
 popular expectations. At the suggestion of 
 Senator Benton, of Missouri, he asked the 
 advice of the Senate as to the propriety of 
 accepting the British offer, and pledged him- 
 self to be guided by its decision. The Senate 
 advised him to accept it, and when the treaty 
 was sent to it, ratified it after a warm debate 
 
5 9 6 
 
 FROM THK REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 extending over two days. Thus the matter 
 was brought to a close. 
 
 By the treaty, which was concluded in 
 1846, the forty-ninth parallel of north lati- 
 tude was made the boundary between the 
 United States and the British possessions, 
 from the summit of the Rocky Mountains 
 to the middle of the channel between Van- 
 couver's Island and the mainland, and thence 
 southerly through the middle of the Straits 
 of San Juan de Fuca to the Pacific. The 
 navigation of the Columbia river and its main 
 northern branch was made free to both 
 parties. 
 
 Trouble with Mexico. 
 
 In the meantime the Mexican difficulty 
 had been found much harder of settlement. 
 Mexico had never acknowledged the inde- 
 pendence of Texas, and since the defeat at 
 San Jacinto had repeatedly threatened to 
 restore her authority over the Texans by force 
 of arms. She warmly resented the annexa- 
 tion of Texas by the United States, and a few 
 days after that event was completed, General 
 Almonte, the Mexican minister at Washing- 
 ton, entered a formal protest against the 
 course of the United States, demanded his 
 passports and left the country. 
 
 Some years before this a number of 
 American ships trading with Mexican ports 
 had been seized and plundered by the Mex- 
 ican authorities, who also confiscated the 
 property of a number of American residents 
 in that country. The sufferers by these 
 outrages appealed for redress to the govern- 
 ment of the United States, which had repeat- 
 edly tried to negotiate with Mexico for the 
 collection of these claims, which amounted 
 to six millions of dollars. Mexico made 
 several promises of settlement, but failed to 
 comply with them. In 1840, however, a new 
 treaty was made between that country and 
 the United States, and Mexico pledged her- 
 
 self to pay the American claims in twenty 
 annual instalments of three hundred thousand 
 dollars each. Three of these instalments 
 had been paid at the time of the annexation 
 of Texas ; but Mexico now refused to make 
 any further payment. 
 
 Troops Sent to Texas. 
 
 Mexico claimed that the limits of Texas 
 properly ended at the Neuces river, while 
 the Texans insisted that their boundary was 
 the Rio Grande. Thus the region between 
 these two rivers became a debatable land, 
 claimed by both parties, and a source of 
 great and immediate danger. It was evident 
 that Mexico was about to occupy this region 
 with her troops, and the legislature of Texas, 
 alarmed by the threatening attitude of that 
 country, called upon the United States gov- 
 ernment to protect its territory. The Presi- 
 dent at once sent General Zachary Tayloi 
 with a force of fifteen hundred regular troops, 
 called the " army of occupation," to " take 
 position in the country between the Neuce? 
 and the Rio Grande, and to repel any inv 
 sion of the Texan territory." 
 
 General Taylor accordingly took position 
 at Corpus Christi, at the mouth of the 
 Neuces, in September, 1845, and remained 
 there until the spring of 1846. At the same 
 time a squadron of war vessels under Com- 
 modore Conner was despatched to the Gulf 
 to cooperate with General Taylor. Both of 
 these officers " were ordered to commit no 
 act of hostility against Mexico unless she 
 declared war, or was herself the aggressor 
 by striking the first blow." 
 
 At the commencement of the dispute 
 between the two countries, Herrera was 
 President of Mexico. Although diplomatic 
 communications had ceased between the 
 United States and Mexico, he was anxious 
 to settle the quarrel by negotiation, but at 
 the Presidential election held about this time 
 
ADMINISTRATION 
 
 Herrera was defeated, and Paredes, who was 
 bitterly hostile to the United States, was 
 chosen President of the Mexican republic. 
 Paredes openly avowed his determination to 
 drive the Americans beyond the Neuces. 
 
 In February, 1846, General Taylor was 
 ordered by President Polk to advance from 
 the Neuces to a point on the Rio Grande, 
 opposite the Mexican town of Matamoras, 
 and establish there a fortified post, in order 
 to check the Mexican forces which were 
 assembling there in large numbers for the 
 purpose of invading Texas. Taylor at once 
 set out, and leaving the greater part of his 
 stores at Point Isabel, on the Gulf, advanced 
 to the Rio Grande, and built a fort and 
 established a camp opposite and within 
 cannon shot of Matamoras. General Am- 
 pudia, commanding the Mexican forces at 
 Matamoras, immediately notified General 
 Taylor that this was an act of war upon 
 Mexican soil, and demanded that he should 
 "break up his camp and retire beyond the 
 Neuces " within twenty-four hours. 
 
 First Blood Shed. 
 
 Taylor replied that he was acting in 
 accordance with the orders of his govern- 
 ment, which was alone responsible for his 
 conduct, and that he should maintain the 
 position he had chosen. He pushed forward 
 the work on his fortifications with energy, 
 and kept a close watch upon the Mexicans. 
 Neither commander was willing to take the 
 responsibility of beginning the war, and Am- 
 pudia, notwithstanding his threat, remained 
 inactive. His course did not satisfy his gov- 
 ment, and he was removed and General 
 Arista appointed in his place. Arista at 
 once began hostilities by interposing detach- 
 ments of his army between Taylor's force 
 and his depot of supplies at Point Isabel. 
 On the twenty-sixth of April Taylor sent a 
 party of sixty dragoons under Captain 
 
 OF JAMES K. POLK. 597 
 
 Thornton to reconnoitre the Mexican lines. 
 The dragoons were surprised with a loss of 
 sixteen killed. The remainder were made 
 prisoners, and Thornton alone escaped. This 
 was the first blood shed in the war with 
 Mexico, the beginning of the struggle. 
 
 Gallant Major Brown. 
 
 A day or two later, being informed by 
 Captain Walker, who, with his Texan 
 Rangers was guarding the line of communi- 
 cation with Point Isabel, that the Mexicans 
 were threatening the latter place in heavy 
 force, General Taylor left Major Brown with 
 three hundred men to hold the fort, and 
 marched to Point Isabel to relieve that place. 
 He agreed with Major Brown that if the fort 
 should be attacked or hard pressed, the 
 latter should notify him of his danger by 
 firing heavy signal guns at certain intervals. 
 He reached Point Isabel, twenty miles dis- 
 tant, on the second of May without meeting 
 any opposition on the march. 
 
 General Arista, attributing Taylor's with* 
 drawal to fear, determined to capture the 
 fortification on the opposite side of the 
 river. On the third of May he opened fire 
 upon it from a heavy battery at Matamoras, 
 and sent a large force across the Rio Grande, 
 which took position in the rear of the fort 
 and intrenched themselves there. In the 
 face of this double attack the little garrison 
 defended themselves bravely, but at length 
 Major Brown fell mortally wounded. The 
 command devolved upon Captain Hawkins, 
 who now felt himself justified in warning 
 Taylor of his danger, and began to fire the 
 signal guns agreed upon. 
 
 Taylor was joined at Point Isabel by a 
 small detachment, and his force was increased 
 to twenty-three hundred men. He listened 
 anxiously for the booming of the signal guns 
 from the fort on the Rio Grande, and at 
 length they were heard. He knew that the 
 
59^ 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 need of assistance must be great, as the little 
 band in the fort had held out so long with- 
 out calling for help, and he at once set out 
 to join them. He left Point Isabel on the 
 seventh of May, taking with him a heavy 
 supply train. The steady firing of the sig- 
 nal guns from Fort Brown (for so the work 
 was afterwards named in honor of its gallant 
 commander) urged the army to its greatest 
 exertions. 
 
 Ringgold's light battery on the right, Dun- 
 can's battery on the left, and a battery of 
 eighteen-pounders in the cen' # e. The 
 artillery was thrown well in front of the 
 infantry, and the order was given to advance. 
 The Mexicans at once opened fire with their 
 batteries, but the distance was too great to 
 accomplish anything. The American bat- 
 teries did not reply until they had gotten 
 within easy range, when they opened a fire 
 
 BATTLE OF PALO ALTO. 
 
 On the eighth of May the Mexican army, 
 six thousand strong, was discovered holding 
 a strong position in front of a chaparral, near 
 the small stream called the Palo Alto, in- 
 tending to dispute the advance of the Ameri- 
 cans. Taylor promptly made his disposi- 
 tions to attack them. His troops were 
 ordered to drink from the little stream and 
 to fill their canteens. The train was closed 
 up, and the line was formed with Major 
 
 the accuracy and rapidity of which astonished 
 the Mexicans. 
 
 Their lines were broken and they fell back, 
 and the Americans advanced steadily through 
 the chaparral, which had been set on fire by 
 the discharge of cannon, until a new position 
 within close range was reached. Paying no 
 attention to the Mexican artillery, the 
 American guns directed their fire upon the 
 enemy's infantry and cavalry, and broke 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES K. POLK. 
 
 599 
 
 them again and again. The battle lasted 
 five hours and ceased at nightfall. It was 
 fought entirely by the artillery of the two 
 armies, and was won by the superior hand- 
 ling and precision of the American guns. 
 
 The loss of the Mexicans was four hun- 
 dred killed and wounded ; that of the 
 Americans nine killed and forty-four 
 wounded. Early in the battle Major Ring- 
 gold was mortally wounded and died a little 
 
 occupying a much stronger position than 
 they had held at Palo Alto. Their line was 
 formed behind f ravine, called Resaca de la 
 Palma, or the Dry River of Palms. Their 
 flanks were protected by the thick chaparral, 
 and their artillery was thrown forward beyond 
 the ravine and protected by an intrenchment, 
 and swept the road by which the Americans 
 must advance. During the night fresh troops 
 had joined the Mexican army, and had 
 
 MAJOR RINGGOLD MORTALLY WOUNDED. 
 
 later. He was regarded as one of the most 
 gifted officers of the army, and to him was 
 chiefly due the precision and rapidity of 
 movement acquired by the " flying artil- 
 lery" of the American army, which were so 
 successfully tested during this war. 
 
 The American army encamped on the 
 battle-field, and the next morning, May 9th, 
 as the Mexicans had retreated, leaving their 
 dead unburied, resumed its advance. In the 
 afternoon the Mexicans were discovered 
 
 increased their force to seven thousand 
 men. 
 
 Taylor formed his line with his artillery 
 in the centre. The artillery was ordered to 
 advance along the road commanded by the 
 Mexican battery, and the infantry were 
 directed to move as rapidly as possible 
 through the chaparral, and drive out the 
 Mexican sharpshooters. The infantry execut- 
 ed this order in handsome style, but the 
 chaparral was so dense that each man was 
 
6oo 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 obliged to act for himself as he forced his way 
 throught it. The Mexican battery was 
 handled with great skill and coolness, and 
 held the -centre in check until some time 
 after the infantry had forced their way close 
 to the edge of the ravine. 
 
 At this juncture Captain May was ordered 
 to charge the Mexican guns, and started 
 down the road at a trot. As he reached the 
 position of the American artillery, Lieutenant 
 
 guns. Leaving the battery to the American 
 infantry which now hurried forward to secure 
 it, the dragoons charged the Mexican centre" 
 and broke it. The whole American line then 
 advanced rapidly ; the Mexicans gave way, 
 and were soon flying in utter confusion 
 towards the Rio Grande, which they crossed 
 in such haste that many of them were 
 drowned in the attempt to reach the Mexican 
 shore. 
 
 CHARGE OF THE DRAGOONS. 
 
 Ridgely suggested that May should halt and 
 allow him to draw the Mexican fire. Ridgely 
 opened a rapid fire on the Mexican guns, 
 which answered immediately. At the same 
 moment May dashed at the Mexican battery 
 with his dragoons, and reached it before the 
 cannoneers could reload their pieces. They 
 were sabred at their guns, and the battery 
 was carried. Captain May himself made a 
 prisoner of General La Vega, as the latter 
 was in the act of discharging one of the 
 
 General Arista, the Mexican commander, 
 fled alone from the field, leaving all his pii- 
 vate and official papers behind him. The 
 Americans lost one hundred and twenty-two 
 men killed and wounded ; the Mexicans 
 twelve hundred. All the Mexican artillery 
 two thousand stand of arms, and six hundred 
 mules were captured by the Americans. 
 
 General Taylor advanced from the battle- 
 field to Fort Brown, the garrison of which 
 had heard the distant roar of the battle, and 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES K. POLK. 
 
 601 
 
 had seen the flight of the Mexicans across 
 the Rio Grande. 
 
 The defeat of the Mexicans at Palo Alto 
 and Resaca de la Palma had greatly disheart- 
 ened them. They not only abandoned their 
 intention to invade Texas, but gave up all 
 hope of holding the Rio Grande frontier. 
 On the night of the seventeenth of May their 
 army evacuated Matamoras, and retreated 
 upon Monterey. On the eighteenth the 
 American army crossed the Rio Grande, and 
 occupied Matamoras. General Taylor 
 scrupulously respected the municipal 
 laws of the town, and protected the 
 citizens in the exercise of their civil and 
 religious privileges. All supplies needed 
 by the troops were purchased at a liberal 
 price, and no plundering or disorder was 
 allowed or attempted. 
 
 In the meantime the news of the attack 
 upon the dragoons under Captain Thorn- 
 ton had reached the United States, and 
 with it the rumor that the American 
 army was confronted on the Texan side 
 of the Rio Grande by a vastly superior 
 force of Mexicans, and that its destruc- 
 tion was almost certain. The President 
 sent a special message to Congress on the 
 eleventh of May, in which he informed 
 that body that " war existed by the act 
 of Mexico," and called upon Congress to 
 recognize the state of war, and to provide 
 for its support by appropriating the necessary 
 funds, and to authorize him to call for vol- 
 unteers. 
 
 Under the impression that the perilous 
 situation of Taylor's army made instant 
 action necessary, Congress appropriated ten 
 millions of dollars for the prosecution of the 
 war, and authorized the President to accept 
 the services of fift) thousand volunteers. 
 One-half of this force was to be mustered 
 into the service ; the remainder held as a re- 
 serve. The President's call was responded 
 
 to with enthusiasm all over the land, and in 
 the course of a few weeks two hundred 
 thousand volunteers offered their services. 
 General Wool was ordered to muster the 
 volunteers accepted by the President into the 
 service. 
 
 Preparations were made by the American 
 government to prosecute the war with vigor 
 At the suggestion of General Scott a com- 
 prehensive plan of operations was adopted. 
 Two separate expeditions were to be organ- 
 
 GENERAL WINFIELD SCOTT. 
 
 ized. One, called the " Army of the West," 
 was to assemble at Fort Leavenworth, on 
 the Missouri, to cross the plains and the 
 Rocky mountains, and to invade and con- 
 quer the northern provinces of Mexico. A 
 powerful fleet was to be sent around Cape 
 Horn to attack the Mexican ports on the 
 Pacific and cooperate with the Army of the 
 West. A second force, called the "Army of 
 the Centre," was to advance from Texas to 
 the city of Mexico, and, if it was thought 
 best, was to cooperate with the "Army of 
 
CO 2 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 Occupation " under General Taylor. As we 
 shall sec, the plan was afterwards modified, 
 and the advance upon the Mexican capital 
 was made from Vera Cruz on the Gulf of 
 Mexico. 
 
 Towards the last of May the news of the 
 brilliant victories on the Rio Grande was re- 
 ceived at Washington, and was hailed with 
 rejoicings throughout the Union. On the 
 thirtieth of May Congress conferred upon 
 General Taylor the rank of major-general by 
 >revet as a reward for his victories. 
 
 On the twenty-third of May the Mexican 
 Congress formally declared war against the 
 'Jnited States, and the call of the Mexican 
 government for volunteers for the defence of 
 that country was responded to with enthu- 
 siasm. 
 
 Thanks to the energy of General Wool, 
 twelve thousand volunteers were mustered 
 into the service of the United States in six 
 weeks. Nine thousand of these were sent 
 forward rapidly to reinforce General Taylor, 
 and with the remainder Wool marched to 
 San Antonio, in Texas, to await further 
 orders, and be ready for action. 
 
 Strong Intrenchments. 
 
 General Taylor had been delayed at Mata- 
 moras for three months by the weakness of 
 his force; but, as soon as reinforcements 
 reached him, he prepared to advance into 
 the interior. His first movement was directed 
 against the city of Monterey, the capital of 
 the State of New Leon, where the Mexicans 
 had collected an army. His army numbered 
 about nine thousand men of all arms, and of 
 these a little over twenty-three hundred men 
 were detached for garrisons, leaving an active 
 force of six thousand six hundred and seventy 
 men. On the twentieth of August General 
 Worth's division marched from Matamoras, 
 and a fortnight later General Taylor set out 
 from the Rio Grande with the main army. 
 
 On the ninth of September the American 
 forces encamped within three miles of Mon- 
 terey. 
 
 Monterey is an old Spanish city, nearly 
 three hundred years old. It lies in a beauti- 
 ful valley, and is about two miles in length, 
 by one mile in breadth. The mountains 
 approach close to it, and protect it on all 
 sides but two. On one of these sides it is 
 approached from the northeast by the road 
 from Matamoras, and on the other by a rocky 
 gorge through which runs the road connect- 
 ing the city with Saltillo. The city has three 
 large plazas or public squares, and is built 
 like the towns of old Spain, with narrow 
 streets, and houses of stone one story in 
 height, with strong walls of masonry rising 
 about three feet above the flat roofs. The 
 city itself is enclosed with strong walls, in- 
 tended for artillery. 
 
 Battle of Monterey. 
 
 Every means of defence had been ex- 
 hausted by the Mexicans. Forty-two heavy 
 cannon were mounted on the city walls, the 
 streets were barricaded, and the flat roofs 
 and stone walls of the houses were arranged 
 for infantry. Each house was a separate for- 
 tress. A strongly fortified building of heavy 
 stone, called the Bishop's palace, stood on 
 the side of a hill without the city walls, and 
 on the opposite side of the city were redoubts 
 held by infantry and artillery. The com- 
 mand of Monterey and its defences was held 
 by General Ampudia, and the garrison con- 
 sisted often thousand veteran troops. 
 
 Ten days were passed by the American 
 army in reconnoitering the town, its peculiar 
 situation rendering such movements very 
 difficult On the afternoon of the twentieth 
 of September General Worth was ordered to 
 turn the hill on which stood the Bishop's 
 palace, gain the Saltillo road, and carry the 
 works in that direction. This movement was 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES K. POLK. 
 
 603 
 
 successfully accomplished; but in order to 
 gain the desired position Worth was obliged 
 to cut a new road across the mountain. His 
 troops bivouacked for the night just out of 
 range of the enemy's guns. During the 
 night the Americans built a battery to com- 
 mand the Mexican citadel. 
 
 On the morning of the twenty-first of Sep- 
 tember the American artillery opened fire on 
 Monterey, and the infantry advanced to carry 
 
 During the night of the twenty-first the 
 Mexicans evacuated the lower part of the 
 city, but kept their hold upon the citadel and 
 the upper town, from which they maintained 
 a vigorous fire upon the American positions. 
 At daybreak, on the twenty-second, Worth's 
 division, advancing in the midst of a fog and 
 rain, carried the crest commanding the 
 Bishop's palace, and by noon had captured 
 the palace itself. The guns of the captured 
 
 CAPTURE OF A BATTERY AT MONTEREY. 
 
 the Mexican works. The brigade of General 
 Quitman carried a strong work in the lower 
 part of the town, and at the same time 
 General Butler, with a part of his division, 
 forced his way into the town on the right. 
 While these operations were in progress 
 General Worth's division seized the Saltillo 
 road, and secured the enemy's line of retreat. 
 Several fortified positions along the heights 
 were also carried, and their guns turned 
 upon the Bishop's palace 
 
 works were now directed upon the enemy in 
 the city below. 
 
 The enemy had fortified the city so thor- 
 oughly that the Americans were not only 
 forced to carry the various barricades in suc- 
 cession, but were compelled to break through 
 the walls of the fortified houses, and advance 
 from house to house in this way. One or 
 two field pieces were drawn up to the flat 
 roofs, and the Mexicans were driven from 
 point to point during the twenty -second and 
 
604 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 twenty-third, until they were confined to the 
 citadel and plaza. On the night of the 
 twenty-third General Ampudia opened nego- 
 tiations, and on the morning of the twenty- 
 fourth surrendered the town and garrison to 
 General Taylor. The Mexican soldiers were 
 allowed to march out with the honors of 
 war. General Taylor was induced to grant 
 this concession by his generous desire to 
 spare the people of the city the sufferings 
 
 days' rations — Taylor agreed to a cessation 
 of hostilities for eight weeks, subject to the 
 consent of his government. The Mexican 
 army withdrew from Monterey, and an 
 American garrison, under General Worth, 
 as governor, occupied the city. The main 
 body of Taylor's army then went into camp 
 at Walnut Springs, three miles distant from 
 Monterey. The Americans lost four hundred 
 and eighty-eight men, killed and wounded, 
 
 LIEUTENANT GRANT GOING EOR AMMUNITION AT MONTEREY. 
 
 which would have been caused by a pro- 
 longed defence. 
 
 The Mexican commander represented to 
 General Taylor that the Mexican government 
 was sincerely anxious for peace, and that it 
 would respond favorably to any fair propo- 
 sitions upon this subject that might be laid 
 before it. In order to afford an opportunity 
 for such an arrangement of the war, and influ- 
 enced by the scarcity of provisions — the 
 American army having at the time but ten 
 
 in the storming of Monterey. The Mexican 
 loss was much greater. 
 
 General Grant, then an unknown younglieu- 
 tenant, was in the battle of Monterey, and 
 distinguished himself on account of " gallant 
 and meritorious services." Several times 
 during the battle he demonstrated his supe- 
 rior judgment and courage, not more in the 
 fierce charge than in volunteering to make a 
 dangerous ride under fire, in search of ammu- 
 nition. 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES K. POLK. 605 
 
 and in the course of a few months that leader 
 found himself at the head of a well-equipped 
 army of twenty thousand men, which was 
 being steadily increased by the arrival of 
 fresh recruits. 
 
 In the meantime the government of the 
 United States had been led into a terrible 
 blunder by its desire to bring the war to a 
 speedy close. Santa Anna, who had been 
 driven out of Mexico by one of the numerous 
 revolutions in that country, was living in exile 
 at Havana. He declared that if he were 
 tallowed to return to Mexico ne would use his 
 , influence in favor of peace, and would secure 
 a treaty for the accomplishment of that end. 
 He was sure he could carry out this scheme, 
 and only needed to be sustained by the 
 United States government with the sum of 
 three or four millions of dollars to enable 
 him to get control of the Mexican govern- 
 ment. President Polk was completely duped 
 by the " illustrious exile," and not only urged 
 Congress to appropriate the sum of two 
 millions of dollars to assist Santa Anna, but 
 issued an order to Commodore Conner, com- 
 manding the American fleet in the Gulf, to 
 permit Santa Anna to pass through his lines 
 and return to Mexico. Santa Anna at once 
 availed himself of this order, and landing at 
 Vera Cruz hastened into the interior. 
 
 Manifesto by Santa Anna. 
 
 Once in Mexico, Santa Anna thought no 
 more of his promises to President Polk. He 
 set to work to gain possession of the gov- 
 ernment, but not with a view to making 
 peace. He issued a manifesto, in which he 
 called on his countrymen to rally under his 
 banner for the defence of their homes and 
 country. He assured them of his undying 
 hatred of the " perfidious Yankees," pointed 
 to the reverses of the government of Paredes, 
 and declared that he alone could save the 
 country. His appeals were successful. The 
 Mexican people rose- at his call, deposed 
 Paredes, and elected Santa Anna President. 
 The repeated defeats of their armies were 
 forgotten in the new enthusiasm which Santa 
 /\nna's presence and proclamations aroused, j 
 
 Justice to the Enemy. 
 
 In the meantime General Wool, with a 
 reinforcement of three thousand troops, had 
 marched from San Antonio to join General 
 Taylor. He had reached Monclova, about 
 seventy miles from Monterey, when he heard 
 of the capture of the latter place by Taylor. 
 His route had lain across an uninhabited 
 and desert region, in which the troops suf- 
 fered greatly for want of water. He was 
 directed by General Taylor to take position 
 in a fertile district in the province of 
 Durango, where he could obtain supplies 
 for his own command as well as for the 
 army at Monterey. General Wool concili- 
 ated the people of the region occupied by 
 him by protecting them in their liberties and 
 property, and paying fair prices for all the 
 supplies furnished by them. The Mexicans 
 were far better treated by the conquering 
 army than they had been by their own 
 rulers. 
 
 In accordance with orders received from 
 Washington General Taylor put an end to 
 the armistice on the thirteenth of November. 
 On the fifteenth General Worth, with seven 
 hundred men, occupied Saltillo, the capital 
 of the State of Coahuila. Leaving a garrison 
 in Monterey, under General Butler, Taylor 
 moved towards the coast to attack Tampico. 
 Upon reaching Victoria, the capital of the 
 State of Tamaulipas, he learned that Tampico 
 had surrendered to the United States squad- 
 ron, under Commodore Conner, on the four- 
 teenth of November. Victoria was occupied 
 on the twenty-ninth of December. The 
 troops under General Wool were now 
 ordered to join General Worth at Saltillo, 
 
6o6 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR.. 
 
 and General Taylor prepared to resume his 
 forward movement into the heart of Mexico. 
 At this juncture his offensive operations 
 were suddenly brought to a close. 
 
 Massing the Forces. 
 
 The plan of the invasion adopted by the 
 government of the United States had been so 
 far modified that the " Army of the Centre," 
 under General Winfield Scott, was ordered 
 to capture Vera Cruz, the principal Mexican 
 port on the Gulf, and advance upon the city 
 of Mexico from that point. Troops in suffi- 
 cient numbers could not be drawn from the 
 United States, and General Scott, as com- 
 mander-in-chief, decided to draw the desired 
 number of men from Taylor's army. The order 
 for the withdrawal of these troops reached 
 General Taylor just as he was about to resume 
 active operations. Taylor was keenly dis- 
 appointed at being thus condemned to 
 inactivity, but like the true soldier that he 
 was, at once obeyed the orders sent him. 
 
 Generals Worth and Quitman, with their 
 divisions, and the greater portion of the 
 volunteers who had come out with General 
 Wool, were at once despatched to the Gulf 
 coast to join the expedition against Vera 
 Cruz. The withdrawal of these troops left 
 General Taylor with a very small force. 
 During the month of January and the early 
 part of February, 1847, reinforcements from 
 the United States increased his army to 
 about six thousand men. A portion of these 
 was placed in garrison at Monterey and Sal- 
 tillo, leaving General Taylor about forty- 
 seven hundred effective troops, of whom but 
 six hundred were regulars. 
 
 Early in January, 1847, General Scott sent 
 Lieutenant Richey with an escort of cavalry 
 to convey a despatch to General Taylor. 
 Lieutenant Richey was killed by the Mex- 
 icans on the way, and his despatches were 
 forwarded to Santa Anna, who learned from 
 
 them the American plan for the invasion of 
 Mexico. He at once resolved upon his own 
 course. Relying upon the strength of Vera 
 Cruz to hold Scott's army in check, he de* 
 termined to attack General Taylor at once, 
 and crush him. By the most energetic and 
 despotic measures he silenced the opposition 
 which prevailed in the city of Mexico, and 
 obtained both men and money for his attempt. 
 On the twenty-sixth of January he began his 
 march upon Saltillo with twenty-three thou- 
 sand well-armed and equipped men, and 
 twenty pieces of artillery. 
 
 Rapid Marches. 
 
 The Mexican army had reached San Louis 
 Potosi, about sixty miles south of Saltillo, 
 when General Wool, commanding at the 
 latter place, learned of their approach. He 
 at once notified General Taylor, who ad- 
 vanced with his whole effective force from 
 Monterey to Saltillo. As the enemy con- 
 tinued to approach, Taylor left his stores at 
 Saltillo, and moved rapidly to Agua Nueva, 1 
 eighteen miles beyond Saltillo, on the road to 
 San Louis Potosi. His design was to secure the 
 southern end of the pass through the Sierra 
 Nevada. With this pass in possession of the 
 Americans the Mexican army would be com- 
 pelled to fight at once, as the country in their 
 rear was incapable of supplying them with 
 provisions. The reports of the reconnoitering 
 parties made it evident that the Mexican 
 force was vastly superior to that of the 
 Americans, and General Taylor also learned 
 that a strong body of Mexican cavalry, under 
 General Minon, was some distance to the left 
 of his position, which could be turned. A 
 daring reconnoissance was made by Major 
 M'Culloch, of the Texan Rangers. He 
 entered the Mexican camp, passed through 
 it, and obtained accurate information of their 
 numbers, and regained his own lines in 
 safety. 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES K. POLK. 
 
 60- 
 
 m&zmm$ 
 
 
 Upon receipt of M'Culloch's intelligence, 
 and the report of the effort of the Mexican 
 cavalry to turn his left, General Taylor fell 
 back from Agua Nueva to a new position, 
 eleven miles higher up the valley on the 
 twenty-first of February. 
 
 The withdrawal of the American army 
 was made in good time. Santa Anna had 
 sent Minon with the cavalry to gain the rear 
 of Taylor's armv, and at the same time en- 
 deavored, by a forced march of fifty miles, 
 to surprise General Taylor 
 at Agua Nueva. Upon ar- 
 riving in front of that place 
 he found to his astonish- 
 ment and disappointment 
 that Taylor had abandoned 
 his position. Interpreting 
 this movement as a flight, 
 the Mexican commander 
 pushed on in pursuit of his 
 adversary, and came up 
 with him on the morning 
 of the twenty :ond of 
 February. 
 
 The position chosen by 
 General Taylor was at the. 
 north end of the valley 
 known as Las Angosturas, 
 or the Narrows, and near 
 the hacienda or plantation 
 known as Buena Vista, from 
 which latter place the battle 
 took its name. It was one of great strength. 
 Its flanks were protected by the mountains 
 which arose abruptly from the defile, and 
 the ground in front was broken by numerous 
 ravines and gullies. The American forces 
 were disposed so as to secure every advantage 
 afforded by the nature of the ground and the 
 road through the pass — the kev to the whole 
 position — was swept by the fire of the artillery. 
 The troops were in high spirits. It was 
 Washington's birthday, and this incident was 
 
 generally commented upon as a good omer 
 About noon a Mexican officer brought a 
 note to General Taylor, in which Santa 
 Anna demanded the surrender of the Ameri- 
 can army. This demand was refused, and 
 skirmishing at once began. During the 
 afternoon Santa Anna sent a force under 
 General Ampudia to ascend the mountains 
 and turn the American left. This brought 
 on severe skirmishing in this quarter, but 
 nothing definite was accomplished during 
 
 :s~ 
 
 
 MEXICAN CART AND OXEN. 
 
 the afternoon. Late in the afternoon the 
 Mexican cavalry under General Minon, 
 which had passed the mountains, appeared 
 in the plains north of Saltillo. Minon was 
 ordered to halt in the position he had gained 
 and await the result of the battle of the next 
 day at Buena Vista. His appearance caused 
 great anxiety to General Taylor, who 
 hastened to Saltillo with reinforcements 
 after nightfall, as he feared Minon would 
 seek to capture that place. 
 
6o8 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 During the night of the twenty-second 
 Santa Anna reinforced the column under 
 Ampudia, and opened the battle at daybreak 
 on the twenty-third of February, by endeav- 
 oring to turn the American left. A little 
 later he opened fire from his artillery, and 
 moved forward three powerful columns of 
 attack against the American centre. The 
 movement of the column of Ampudia was 
 successful, the left of the American line was 
 completely turned, but the attack upon the 
 centre was repulsed by the splendid fire of 
 the American batteries. 
 
 A Blast of Deadly Fire. 
 
 At this moment General Taylor arrived 
 upon the field from Saltillo, bringing with 
 him May's dragoons, several companies of 
 Mississippi riflemen, and a portion of the 
 Arkansas cavalry, embracing every man that 
 could be spared from Saltillo. He had come 
 at a critical moment, for the turning of his 
 left flank by Ampudia had neutralized the 
 natural advantage of the position. Many of 
 the troops were in full retreat upon Buena 
 Vista, and nothing but the courage and con- 
 stancy of those who yet remained firm could 
 save the day. By great exertions Colonel 
 Jefferson Davis rallied the greater part of his 
 own regiment — the Mississippi rifles — and a 
 part of the Second Indiana, and by a rapid 
 advance drove back a strong Mexican col- 
 umn in his front. He had scarcely accom- 
 plished this when he was assailed by a body 
 of one thousand splendid Mexican lancers. 
 Davis quickly formed his own men and the 
 Second and Third Indiana in the shape of 
 the letter V, with the opening towards the 
 enemy, and posted Sherman's battery on his 
 left. The line thus formed awaited in silence 
 the approach of the Mexican cavalry, which 
 came on at a gallop. 
 
 As they drew near the opening of this 
 terrible V the Mexicans, who had expected 
 
 the Americans to fire, when they intended to 
 dash in upon them before the men could 
 reload, were astonished at the silence with 
 which they were received, and slackened 
 their pace until they came to a walk within 
 eighty yards of the opening of the angle. In 
 an instant Davis gave the command, and his 
 men took deliberate aim. Then a volley 
 flashed from the rifles and swept away the 
 head of the Mexican column. The next 
 moment Sherman's guns opened upon the 
 cavalry with grape and canister. Under this 
 combined fire horses and lancers fell in great 
 numbers, forming a barricade over which the 
 enemy could not pass, and the Mexicans, 
 seized with a panic, wheeled about and fled 
 in confusion. 
 
 While this attack was in progress the 
 Mexicans sent a body of cavalry under Tor- 
 rejon to seize the plantation of Buena Vista. 
 Torrejon made his attack with vigor, but 
 was driven back by the Kentucky and Ar- 
 kansas volunteers, assisted by Colonel May's 
 dragoons. Colonel Yell, of the Arkansas 
 regiment, was killed and Torrejon was 
 wounded in this part of the engagement. 
 
 Splendid Valor of the Americans. 
 
 During all this while a steady cannonade 
 had been in progress along the centre of the 
 American line. The Mexicans endeavored 
 to silence the American batteries, but with- 
 out success. 
 
 Santa Anna now sent a strong force to 
 pass around the American left and gain the 
 rear of Taylor's line, and this force was 
 joined by a part of Torrejon's command, 
 which was retreating from Buena Vista. 
 The movement was detected by Colonel 
 May, who met it with his cavalry and 
 several companies of Illinois and Indiana 
 volunteers. General Taylor sent to his 
 assistance all the cavalry he could spare and 
 Bragg's battery. 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES K. POLK. 
 
 609 
 
 The retreat of the Mexicans, who had I the panic which had set in among them. It 
 passed beyond the American left, was cut | seemed that the whole Mexican column, 
 
 off, and they were driven in confusion to the 
 base of the mountain, while Bragg's guns 
 showered canister upon them and increased 
 39 
 
 BATTLE OF BUENA VISTA. 
 
 numbering five thousand men, must sur- 
 render or be exterminated. In this emer- 
 gency the Mexican commander raised the 
 
6io 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 white flag and asked for a parley, professing 
 to have a message from Santa Anna to 
 General Taylor, and the American guns 
 ceased firing. Before the trick was dis- 
 covered the Mexican right escaped under 
 the cover of the flag of truce by passing 
 along the base of the mountain to a point 
 from which they rejoined their main army. 
 
 Bragg's Flying Artillery. 
 
 Santa Anna now brought up his reserves, 
 and late in the afternoon made a determined 
 attack upon the American right, which had 
 been greatly weakened to assist the troops 
 engaged in repelling the attack on the left. 
 The Mexican column, twelve thousand 
 strong, easily drove back the few scattered 
 volunteers that disputed their advance, and 
 captured O'Brien's battery, which was with- 
 out infantry support, but not until every man 
 had been killed or wounded. Washington's 
 guns now opened upon the enemy, and suc- 
 ceeded in holding their cavalry in check for 
 a moment. The Mexican infantry pushed 
 on, firing as they advanced, and it was 
 evident that the crisis of the battle was at 
 hand. 
 
 The battle had been going on for eight 
 hours, and the American troops were greatly 
 exhausted by the unusual exertions they had 
 been subjected to ; while the Mexican col- 
 umn, consisting mainly of their reserves, was 
 fresh, and four times as strong as the whole 
 American army. Keenly alive to his dan- 
 ger, Taylor exerted himself in every possible 
 way to bring up his scattered regiments in 
 time to save the position. The flying artil- 
 lery of Captain Bragg was the first to reach 
 the field. There was not an infantry soldier 
 near to support him, and the salvation of the 
 army depended upon Bragg's efforts. He 
 unlimbered his guns within a few yards of 
 the rapidly advancing Mexicans, and poured 
 in discharge after discharge with a rapidity 
 
 which seemed wonderful. The Mexican 
 advance was checked, and Sherman now 
 came up and opened fire from his guns upon 
 them. Washington's battery a little later 
 joined in the fire. The Mississippi and In- 
 diana volunteers now reached the field, and 
 made a spirited attack upon the enemy's 
 right flank. Under this terrible fire the 
 Mexicans wavered for a few moments, and 
 then broke in confusion and fled from the 
 field. 
 
 The Mexicans made no further attack dur- 
 ing the day, and that night Santa Anna, 
 abandoning his wounded, and leaving his 
 dead unburied, retreated rapidly towards 
 Agua Nueva. The American loss in the 
 battle of Buena Vista was two hundred and 
 sixty-seven killed and four hundred and fifty- 
 six wounded. That of the Mexicans was 
 over two thousand killed and wounded, in- 
 cluding many officers of high rank. Taylor 
 followed the Mexican army on the twenty- 
 fourth, as far as Agua Nueva, and collecting 
 their wounded, removed them to Saltillo, 
 where they were attended by the American 
 surgeons. 
 
 Honors to General Taylor. 
 
 The victory of Buena Vista was decisive of 
 the war. It saved the valley of the Rio 
 Grande from invasion by a victorious Mexi- 
 can army, and enabled the expedition of 
 General Scott against Vera Cruz to proceed 
 without delay to the accomplishment of its 
 objects. It also greatly disheartened the 
 Mexican people, and during the remainder 
 of the year Taylor's army had nothing to do 
 but to hold the country it occupied. 
 
 General Taylor remained at Agua Nueva 
 until he was satisfied that no further trouble 
 was to be apprehended from the Mexican 
 army, and then returned by easy stages to 
 his camp at Walnut Springs, near Monterey, 
 which he reached by the last of March. In 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES K. POLK. 
 
 the summer of 1847, leaving General Wool 
 in command of the army, General Taylor 
 returned to the United States, where he was 
 received with distinguished honor. 
 
 While these events were going on in 
 Mexico Captain John C. Fremont, of the 
 United States army, had been engaged in 
 prosecuting the discoveries in the Rocky 
 mountain region, which he had begun in 
 
 611 
 
 that Territory, and to conciliate the good- 
 will of the inhabitants toward the United 
 States. Fremont had but sixty men with 
 him, but he at once moved into the valley ol 
 the Sacramento. 
 
 The Mexican inhabitants were seriously 
 considering at this time whether they shovlc 
 massacre the American settlers, or whether, 
 in the event of a war between Mexico and 
 
 GENERAL VIEW OF THE YOSEMITE VALLEY. 
 
 1843, in which year he had explored the val- 
 ley known as the Great Basin, the region of 
 the Great Salt Lake, and the valleys of the 
 Sacramento and San Joaquin, on the Pacific 
 coast. In May, 1845, Fremont set out on his 
 third expedition, and passed the winter in the 
 valley of the San Joaquin, then Mexican terri- 
 tory. In May, 1846, he received orders from 
 Washington to move into California and 
 counteract any foreign scheme for securing 
 
 the United States, they should place Cali- 
 fornia under the protection of Great Britain, 
 Fremont was informed of these plots, and, 
 though no war existed as yet between the 
 two republics, he also learned that the Mex- 
 ican General De Castro was advancing to 
 drive him out of California. The American 
 settlers flocked to Fremont's camp, with 
 their arms and horses, and he soon found 
 himself at the head of a considerable force. 
 
6l2 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 He was thus enabled to repulse De Castro's 
 attack, and, after a few conflicts, to drive him 
 from Upper California. By July, 1846, the 
 Mexican authority was entirely overthrown 
 in upper California, and the flag of independ- 
 ence was raised by the settlers. 
 
 Pursued by a British Squadron. 
 
 The American squadron in the Pacific was 
 commanded by Commodore Sloat, who was 
 ordered by the secretary of the navy to seize 
 the port of San Francisco as soon as he was 
 reliably informed of the existence of war 
 between the two countries, and to occupy or 
 blockade such other Mexican ports as his 
 force would permit. In the early summer 
 of 1846 the American squadron was lying 
 at Mazatlan. A British squadron under 
 Admiral Seymour also lay in the harbor, and 
 the American commodore became convinced 
 that the British admiral was watching him 
 for the purpose of interfering with his designs 
 upon California. 
 
 He therefore resolved to get rid of him 
 and put to sea and sailed to the westward, as 
 if making for the Sandwich islands. The 
 British fleet followed him promptly, but in 
 the night the commodore tacked and sailed 
 up the coast to Monterey, while the British 
 continued their course to the islands. Sloat 
 was coldly received at Monterey by the 
 authorities. Hearing of the action of Fre- 
 mont and the American settlers, the com- 
 modore a few days later took possession of 
 the town, and sent a courier to Fremont, 
 who at once joined him with his mounted 
 men. California was now taken possession 
 of in the name of the United States. 
 
 About the middle of July Commodore 
 Stockton arrived in the harbor, and suc- 
 ceeded Commodore Sloat, who returned 
 home, in the command of the squadron. 
 The next day Admiral Seymour arrived at 
 Monterey. He saw he was too late, and 
 
 quietly submitted to what he could not pre 
 vent, though he was greatly astonished to 
 find the town in possession of the American 
 forces. On the seventeenth of August Fre- 
 mont and Stockton occupied Los Angeles, 
 the capital of Upper California. 
 
 In June, 1846, General Kearney, with the 
 " Army of the West," numbering eighteen 
 hundred men, marched from Fort Leaven- 
 worth, on the Missouri, across the plains to 
 Santa Fe, the capital of the Mexican prov- 
 ince of New Mexico. After a march ol 
 nearly one thousand miles, he occupied 
 Santa Fe on the eighteenth of August. 
 Leaving a garrison at Santa Fe, Kearney 
 pushed on towards California, intending 
 conquer that province also ; but upon reach- 
 ing the Gila river, he was met by the famous 
 hunter, Kit Carson, who inform vd him oi 
 the conquest of California by Fremont and 
 Stockton. Kearney thereupon sent two 
 companies of dragoons under Major Sumner 
 back to Santa Fe, and with the remainder 
 continued his march to the Pacific coast. 
 
 Revolt in New Mexico, 
 
 Upon leaving Santa Fe, Kearney had 
 instructed Colonel Doniphan to invade the 
 country of the Navajoe Indians and compel 
 them to make peace with the Americans. 
 Doniphan set out in November, 1 S46, anr] 
 crossing the mountains, succeeded in mak- 
 ing a treaty with the Navajoes, by which 
 they agreed to refrain from hostilities 
 against the people of New Mexico. Pie 
 then marched to the southeast to meet 
 General Wool at Chihuahua. 
 
 The inhabitants of New Mexico, encouraged 
 by the absence of Doniphan with so large a 
 force, rose in revolt against the American 
 forces, and murdered the American governor 
 of the territory and several other officials on 
 the fourteenth of January, 1847. Colonel 
 Sterling Price, commanding the troops at 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES K. POLK. 
 
 613 
 
 Santa Fe, at once marched against the insur- 
 gents, defeated them in two engagements, 
 though they greatly outnumbered his force, 
 and suppressed the rebellion. The insur- 
 gents obtained peace only by surrendering 
 their leaders several of whom were hanged 
 by the Americans. 
 
 Colonel Doniphan, in the meantime, had 
 continued his march. His route lay through 
 i barren region destitute of water or grass, 
 
 the twenty-eighth he occupied El Paso, and 
 there waited until his artillery could join him 
 from Santa Fe. It arrived in the course of a 
 month, and on the eighth of February he 
 resumed his march to Chihuahua. 
 
 On the twenty-eighth he encountered and 
 defeated a Mexican force of over fffteeu hun- 
 dred men with ten pieces of artillery, at a pass 
 of the Sacramento river, a tributary of th^ Rio 
 Grande. The Mexicans lost over three h.^n- 
 
 THE GREAT CANON AND LOWER FALLS, YELLOWSTONE. 
 
 called the Jornado del Muerto — " The Jour- 
 ney of Death." He pressed forward with 
 firmness through this terrible region, his men 
 and animals suffering greatly on the march, 
 and in the latter part of December entered 
 the valley of the Rio Grande. With a force of 
 eight hundred and fifty-six men he defeated 
 over twelve hundred Mexicans at Brazito, on 
 the twenty-sixth of December, 1846, and 
 inflicted upon them a loss of nearly two hun- 
 dred men, losing only seven men himself. On 
 
 dred kilhd and a number wounded. The 
 Americans lost two killed and several 
 wounded. The Mexicans were completely 
 routed, and left their artillery and all their 
 train in the hands of the Americans. 
 
 On the first of March, 1 847, Doniphan 
 entered Chihuahua, and raising the American 
 flag on the citadel, took possession of the 
 province in the name of the United States. 
 Chihuahua was one of the largest cities in 
 Mexico,-and contained nearly thirty thousand 
 
614 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 inhabitants. Doniphan's force was less 
 than one thousand men. He had expected 
 to find General Wool here, and failing to 
 meet him was in utter ignorance of the posi- 
 tions of the American forces. His own 
 position, in the midst of a hostile population, 
 was perilous indeed, but by his firm and just 
 measures he conciliated the inhabitants. He 
 remained at Chihuahua for six weeks, vainly- 
 expecting the arrival of General Wool, and 
 on the twenty-seventh oi April evacuated 
 
 SIDE 
 
 PLAZA — SANTA 
 
 that place, and set out for Saltillo, three 
 hundred and fifty miles distant. He reached 
 that place on the twenty-second of May. 
 Remaining there but three days, he continued 
 his march to Monterey, from which he pro- 
 ceeded to Matamoras. The enlistments of 
 his men being over, they were transported to 
 New Orleans, and there mustered out of the 
 service. 
 
 Thus ended the most remarkable expedi- 
 tion on record. In less than one year a 
 corps of volunteers, unused to t^e hardships 
 
 of war, had marched over snow-covered 
 mountains and across burning deserts, a dis- 
 tance of over five thousand miles, over three 
 thousand of which lay through an unknown 
 and hostile country, abounding in enemies 
 who might have crushed them at any 
 moment had they rallied in sufficient force. 
 In the meantime there had been new 
 troubles in California. In August, 1847, 
 Commodore Stockton appointed Captain 
 Fremont, military commandant of California, 
 and soon after sailed from 
 San Francisco to Monterey, 
 from which place he con- 
 tinued his voyage to San 
 Diego. Soon after the de- 
 parture of the fleet Fremont 
 learned of a conspiracy to 
 overthrow his government. 
 By a forced march of one 
 hundred and fifty miles he 
 surprised and captured the 
 insurgent leader, Don J. 
 Pico. A court-martial sen- 
 tenced him to death, but 
 Fremont wisely spared his 
 life, and Pico, in gratitude 
 for this clemency, gave him 
 his powerful aid in his 
 efforts to tranquil ize the 
 country. 
 General Kearney had con- 
 tinued his march from New Mexico, encount- 
 ering great difficulties along the route, and suf- 
 fering considerably from the repeated attacks 
 of superior parties of the enemy. In Decem- 
 ber, 1847, ne reached San Pasqual, where he 
 was obliged to halt. His situation was des- 
 perate indeed; his provisions were exhausted; 
 his horses had died on the march ; his mules 
 were disabled ; a large number of his men 
 were sick ; and his camp was surrounded by 
 the enemy, who held every road by which 
 he could escape. In this situation three 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES K. POLK. 
 
 615 
 
 men — Kit Carson, Lieutenant Beales of the 
 navy, and an Indian, whose name is unfor- 
 tunately unknown — volunteered to make 
 their way through the enemy's lines to San 
 Diego, thirty miles distant, and inform Com- 
 modore Stockton of Kearney's need of 
 assistance. They succeeded in reaching 
 San Diego, and the commodore promptly 
 sent reinforcements to Kearney, which ena- 
 bled him to drive off the enemy and reach 
 San Diego in safety. 
 
 General Scott's Expedition. 
 
 Commodore Stockton now directed his 
 attention to suppressing the insurrection of 
 the Mexican inhabitants of California, who 
 had gotten possession of Los Angeles. 
 Driven to extremities, they surrendered the 
 town on the condition that the Americans 
 should respect the rights and property of 
 the citizens. 
 
 Commodore Stockton having been re- 
 lieved of his civil functions by orders from 
 Washington, General Kearney claimed the 
 governorship of the territory by virtue of his 
 rank. Fremont refused to recognize his 
 authority, and was brought to trial before a 
 court-martial, which tound him guilty of 
 disobedience of orders and mutiny, and sen- 
 tenced him to be dismissed from the service. 
 The sentence was remitted by the President 
 on account of Fremont's meritorious and 
 valuable services, but Fremont refused to 
 accept the clemency of the President and 
 thus admit the justice of the sentence of the 
 court, and resigned his commission. General 
 Kearney remained in California as governor 
 of that territory. 
 
 The expedition under General Scott sailed 
 trom New Orleans late in November, 1846, 
 and rendezvoused at the island of Lobos, 
 about one hundred and twenty-five miles 
 north of Vera Cruz. The plan of operations 
 for this army was very simple — to capture 
 
 Vera Cruz and march to the city of Mexico 
 by the most direct route. At length every- 
 thing being in readiness, the expedition 
 sailed from Lobos Island, and on the morn- 
 ing of the ninth of March, 1 847, the army, 
 thirteen thousand strong, landed without 
 opposition at a point selected by General 
 Scott and Commodore Conner a few days 
 before. The city and vicinity had been 
 thoroughly reconnoitred, and the troops 
 were at once marched to the positions 
 assigned them by the commander-in-chief. 
 
 Vera Cruz is the principal seaport of Mexico, 
 and contained at the time of the siege about 
 fifteen thousand inhabitants. It was strongly 
 fortified on the land side, and towards the 
 Gulf was defended by the Castle of San Juan 
 de Ulloa, the strongest fortress in America, 
 with the exception of Quebec. 
 
 Attack Upon Vera Cruz. 
 
 On the tenth of March the investment ot 
 the city was begun by General Worth, and 
 the American lines were definitely estab- 
 lished around the city for a distance of six 
 miles. During the day, and for several days 
 thereafter, bodies of Mexicans attempted to 
 harass the besiegers, and a steady fire was 
 maintained upon them by the guns of the 
 castle and the city as they worked at their 
 batteries. The American works being com- 
 pleted, and their guns in position, General 
 Scott summoned the city of Vera Cruz to 
 surrender, stipulating that no batteries 
 should be placed in the city to attack the 
 castle unless the city should be fired upon 
 by that work. 
 
 The demand was refused by General Mor- 
 ales, who commanded both the city and the 
 castle, and at 4 o'clock on the afternoon of 
 the twenty-second of March, the American 
 batteries opened fire upon the town. The 
 bombardment was continued for five days, 
 and the fleet joined in the attack upon the 
 
6i6 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 castle. The city suffered terribly ; a number 
 of the inhabitants were killed, and many 
 buildings were set on fire by the shells. 
 
 On the twenty-seventh the city and castle 
 surrendered, and were promptly occupied by 
 the Americans. Over five thousand prison- 
 ers and five hundred pieces of artillery fell 
 Into the hands of the victors. The garrison 
 
 BOMBARDMENT OF VERA CRUZ. 
 
 were required to march out, lay down their 
 arms, and were then dismissed upon their 
 parole. The inhabitants were protected in 
 their civil and religious rights. The sur- 
 render was completed on the morning of the 
 twenty-ninth. 
 
 Having secured the city and the castle, 
 General Scott placed a strong garrison in 
 each, and appointed General Worth governor 
 
 of Vera Cruz. He then prepared to march 
 upon the city of Mexico, and on the eighth 
 of April the advance division, under General 
 Twiggs, set out from Vera Cruz towards 
 Jalapa. Deducting the force left to garrison 
 Vera Cruz, Scott's whole army amounted to 
 but eighty-five hundred men. 
 
 Santa Anna had not found the consequen- 
 ces to himself of the 
 battle of Buena Vista as 
 bad as he had expected. 
 He had succeeded in 
 pursuading bis country- 
 men that he had not 
 been defeated in th t 
 battle, but had simply 
 retreated for want ot 
 provisions, and they had 
 agreed to give him an- 
 other trial. He had 
 pledged himself to pre- 
 vent the advance of the 
 Americans to the capital, 
 in the event of the fall 
 of Vera Cruz, and with 
 the aid of those of his 
 countrymen who were 
 willing to support him 
 had quelled an insurrec- 
 tion at the capital, and 
 had strengthened his 
 power to a greater de- 
 gree than ever. With 
 a force of twelve thou 
 sand men he had taken 
 position at Cerro Gordo, a mountain pass 
 at the eastern edge of the Cordilleras, to 
 hold the American army in check, and had 
 fortified his position with great skill and care. 
 General Twiggs halted before the Mexican 
 position to awair. the arrival of General Scolt, 
 who soon joined him with the main army. 
 The Mexican lines were carefully reconnoi- 
 tered, and on the eighteenth of April General 
 
^s^ss^^^^M/WfrMr/^f^^&^^&^^^S ^ ^/^Ji^^^^t 
 
 EML.W. T. S M E K 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES K. POLK. 
 
 617 
 
 Scott, avoiding a direct attack, turned the 
 enemy's l<?ft, seized the heights commanding 
 their position, and drove them from their 
 works with a loss of three thousand prisoners 
 and forty-three pieces of artillery. Santa 
 Anna mounted a mule, taken from his car- 
 riage, and fled, leaving the carriage and his 
 private papers in the hands of the Americans. 
 Besides their prisoners, the Mexicans lost 
 over one thousand men in killed andwounded. 
 
 the second city of Mexico, containing eighty 
 thousand inhabitants, was occupied. Gen- 
 eral Scott established his headquarters at 
 Puebla, and awaited reinforcements. The 
 terms of the volunteers would expire in 
 June, and they refused to re-enlist, as they 
 were afraid to encounter the yellow fever, 
 the scourge of the Mexican climate, the 
 season for which was close at hand. They 
 were returned to the United States and Gen- 
 
 BATTLE OF CERRO GORDO. 
 
 Scott's loss was four hundred and thirty-one 
 killed and wounded. 
 
 The brilliant victory of Cerro Gordo opened 
 the way for the American army to Jalapa, 
 which was occupied on the nineteenth of 
 April. Continuing his advance, General 
 Scott captured the strong fortress of Perote, 
 situated on a peak of the Eastern Cordille- 
 ras, which was abandoned almost without a 
 blow by its defenders, on the twenty-second 
 of April. On the fifteenth of May, Puebla, 
 
 eral Scott was forced to spend three months 
 at Puebla in inactivity. The force he had 
 with him was greatly weakened by sickness, 
 and eighteen hundred men were in the hos- 
 pitals of Puebla alone. 
 
 While at Puebla General Scott was ordered 
 by the secretary of war to collect duties on 
 merchandise entering the Mexican ports, 
 and to apply the money thus obtained to the 
 needs of the army. He was also ordered to 
 levy contributions upon the Mexican people 
 
6i8 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 for the use of the troops. He refused to 
 obey this order, declaring that the eountry 
 through which he was moving was too poor 
 to warrant impressments, and that such a 
 measure would exasperate the Mexicans and 
 cause them to refuse to supply the army at all. 
 " Not a ration for man or horse," he said, 
 " would be brought in except by the bayonet, 
 which would oblige the troops to spread 
 themselves out many leagues to the right 
 and left in search of subsistence, and stop all 
 military operations." He continued to buy 
 provisions for his army at the regular prices 
 of the country, and by so doing greatly 
 allayed the bitterness of feeling with which 
 the Mexicans regarded the Americans. 
 
 Attempt to Suspend Hostilities. 
 
 Another annoyance to which the com- 
 mander-in-chief was subjected arose from 
 the ill-advised action of Mr. N. P. Trist, who 
 had been sent out to Mexico in the quality 
 of peace commissioner. Soon after the cap- 
 ture of Vera Cruz, General Scott had sug- 
 gested to the President the propriety of 
 sending out commissioners to his headquar- 
 ters, who should be empowered to treat for 
 peace when a suitable occasion should offer 
 itself. The President selected for this pur- 
 pose Mr. N. P. Trist, who had been United 
 States consul at Havana, and who was 
 acquainted with the Spanish language — a 
 singular selection. 
 
 Mr. Trist was furnished with the draft of 
 a treaty carefully prepared in the state de- 
 partment at Washington, and was intrusted 
 with a despatch from Mr. Buchanan, the 
 secretary of state, to the Mexican minister 
 of foreign relations. He was instructed to 
 communicate confidentially to General Scott 
 and Commodore Perry both the treaty and 
 iiis instructions. General Scott was informed 
 ofTrist's mission by the secretary of war, 
 and was directed to suspend military opera- 
 
 tions until further orders, unless attacked. 
 
 Mr. Trist reached Vera Cruz in due time, 
 but instead of explaining his mission, as 
 directed, to General Scott, he sent a note to 
 the commander-in-chief from Vera Cruz, 
 enclosing the letter of the secretary of 
 war, and the sealed despatch to the Mexican 
 minister, which he requested the general to 
 forward to its destination. The letter of the 
 secretary of war could not be understood by 
 General Scott without the explanations Mr. 
 Trist was directed to give, but failed to 
 make. 
 
 General Scott very properly resented the 
 conduct of Trist as an attempt to degrade 
 him by making him subordinate to that per- 
 sonage, and in his reply to him declared 
 that the suspension of hostilities belonged to 
 the commander in the field and not to the 
 secretary of war a thousand miles away. 
 Trist thereupon wrote to General Scott, 
 giving a full explanation of his mission, but 
 did so in disrespectful terms. In conclusion 
 he claimed to be the aid-de-camp of the 
 President, and as such to possess the right 
 to issue orders to the commander in-chief. 
 Scott referred the matter to the government 
 at Washington, maintaining in the meantime 
 his independence of action as commanding 
 general. In due time explanations came 
 from Washington satisfactory to the general, 
 and Mr. Trist was sharply reprimanded by 
 the secretary of state " for his presuming to 
 command the general-in-chief." 
 
 Santa Anna in Disgrace. 
 
 Aftei his defeat at Cerro Gordo, Santa 
 Anna repaired to Orizaba, where he organ- 
 ized a number of guerrilla bands to attack 
 the American trains on the road between 
 Vera Cruz and Scott's army. He then 
 returned to the city of Mexico, where he 
 was coldly received by the people. The 
 affairs of the Mexican nation were in the 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES K. POLK. 
 
 619 
 
 most hopeless confusion, and the people 
 were utterly disheartened. Their army on 
 which they had depended for the defence of 
 the road to the capital had been routed at 
 Cerro Gordo, and there was no force in exist- 
 ence with which to stay the advance of the 
 victorious Americans. Had General Scott 
 been able to advance upon Mexico immedi- 
 ately after his occupation of Puebla, the city 
 would have fallen at once, and the war have 
 been brought to an immediate close. A 
 number of leaders contested the supremacy 
 at the capital, and the quarrels of these fac- 
 tions paralyzed the efforts of the govern- 
 ment. 
 
 The most capable of these leaders was 
 Santa Anna, and his strong qualities natur- 
 ally attracted to him the largest following 
 By his extraordinary energy he suppressed 
 the opposition to him, secured the money he 
 needed by forced loans from the people, and 
 raised an army of twenty-five thousand men 
 and sixty pieces of artillery, and fortified the 
 city of Mexico. The three months' enforced 
 delay of General Scott's army at Puebla ^ave 
 him time to carry out these measures, and 
 he endeavored to gain still further advantages 
 by opening negotiations secretly with Mr. 
 Trist, and pretending to be anxious for peace. 
 He declared that he needed money to enable 
 him to act with freedom in arranging a 
 treaty, and succeeded in getting about ten 
 thousand dollars from the secret service 
 fund at the disposal of General Scott ; but 
 his designs were soon detected by the Amer- 
 ican commander, and the supply of money 
 was discontinued. 
 
 The American Army Advances. 
 
 Reinforcements from the United States 
 arrived at Puebla in July, and on the seventh 
 of August General Scott resumed his advance 
 on the city of Mexico, with a force increased 
 to ten thousand men. The route lay through 
 
 a beautiful upland country, abounding in 
 water, and rich in the most picturesque 
 scenery. The troops pressed on with 
 enthusiasm, and on the tenth of August the 
 summit of the Cordilleras was passed, and 
 then almost from the very spot from which t 
 more than three centuries before, the follow 
 ers of Cortez looked down upon the halls oi 
 the Montezumas,the American army beheld 
 the beautiful valley of Mexico stretching out 
 for miles before them, with the city of Mexico 
 lying in the midst, encircled by the strong 
 works that had been erected for its defence. 
 
 Another Important Conquest. 
 
 The passes on the direct road to the city 
 had been well fortified and garrisoned by the 
 Mexicans, but the country upon the flanks 
 had been left unprotected, because Santa 
 Anna deemed it utterly impossible for any 
 troops to pass over it, and turn his position. 
 El Penon, the most formidable of these 
 defences, was reconnoitered by the engi- 
 neers, who reported that it would cost at 
 least three thousand lives to carry it. Scott 
 thereupon determined to turn El Penon, 
 instead of attacking it. The city and its 
 defences were carefully reconnoitered, and it 
 was discovered that the works on the south 
 and west were weaker than those at any 
 other points. General Scott now moved to 
 the left, passed El Penon on the south, and 
 by the aid of a corps of skillful engineers 
 moved his army across ravines and chasms 
 which the Mexican commander had pro- 
 nounced impassable, and had left unguarded. 
 General Twiggs led the advance, and halted 
 and encamped at Chalco, on the lake of the 
 same name. Worth followed, and passing 
 Twiggs, encamped at the town of San 
 Augustin, eight miles from the capital. 
 
 As soon as Santa Anna found that the 
 Americans had turned El Penon, and had 
 advanced to the south side of the city, he left 
 
620 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 that fortress and took position in the strong 
 fort of San Antonio, which lay directly in 
 front of Worth's new position. Northwest 
 of San Antonio, and four miles from the city, 
 lay the little village of Churubusco, which 
 had been strongly fortified by the Mexicans. 
 A little to the west of San Augustin was the 
 fortified camp of Contreras, with a garrison 
 of about six thousand men. In the rear, 
 between the camp and the city, was a reserve 
 force of twelve thousand men. The whole 
 number of Mexicans manning these defences 
 was about thirty-five thousand, with at least 
 one hundred pieces of artillery of various 
 sizes. 
 
 Driven Like Chaff. 
 
 General Scott lost no time in moving 
 against the enemy's works. General Persifer 
 F. Smith was ordered to attack the en- 
 trenched camp at Contreras, while Shields 
 and Pierce should move between the camp 
 and Santa Anna at San Antonio, and prevent 
 him from going to the assistance of the force 
 at Contreras. At three o'clock on the morn- 
 ing of August 20th, in the midst of a cold 
 rain, Smith began his march, his men hold- 
 ing on to each other, to avoid being sepa- 
 rated in the darkness. He made his attack 
 at sunrise, and in fifteen minutes had posses- 
 sion of the camp. He took three thousand 
 prisoners and thirty three pieces of cannon. 
 
 The camp at Contreras having fallen, Gen- 
 eral Scott attacked the fortified village of 
 Churubusco an hour or two' later, and car- 
 ried it after a desperate struggle of several 
 hours. General Worth's division stormed 
 and carried the strong fort of San Antonio, 
 and General Twiggs captured another im- 
 portant work. The Mexicans outnumbered 
 their assailants three to one, and fought 
 bravely. Their efforts were in vain, how- 
 ever, and late in the afternoon they were 
 driven from their defences, and pursued by 
 
 the American cavalry to the gates of the 
 city. 
 
 These two victories had been won over a 
 force of thirty thousand Mexicans by less 
 than ten thousand Americans, and a loss of 
 four thousand killed and wounded and three 
 thousand prisoners had been inflicted upon 
 the Mexican army. The American loss was 
 eleven hundred men. 
 
 Santa Anna retreated within the city, and 
 on the twenty-first of August the American 
 army advanced to within three miles of the 
 city of Mexico. On the same day Santa 
 Anna sent a flag of truce to General Scott, 
 asking for a suspension of hostilities, in order 
 to arrange the terms of a peace. The request 
 was granted, and Mr. Trist was despatched 
 to the city, and began negotiations with the 
 Mexican commissioners. After protracted 
 delays, designed to gain time, the Mexican 
 commissioners declined the American con- 
 ditions, and proposed others which they 
 knew would not be accepted. Thoroughly 
 disgusted, Mr. Trist returned to the Amer- 
 ican camp, and brought with him the in- 
 telligence that Santa Anna had violated the 
 armistice by using the time accorded him by 
 it in strengthening his defences. Indignant 
 at such treachery, General Scott at once re- 
 sumed his advance upon the city. 
 
 A Hard-fought Battle. 
 
 The Mexican capital was still defended by 
 two powerful works. One of these was 
 Molino del Rey, " The King's Mill," a foun- 
 dry, where it was said the church bells were 
 being cast into cannon ; the other was the 
 strong castle of Chapultepec. General Scott 
 resolved to make his first attack upon Molino 
 del Rey, which was held by fourteen thou- 
 sand Mexicans. It was stormed and carried 
 on the eighth of September, after a severe 
 contest by Worth's division, four thousand 
 strong. This was regarded as the hardest 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES K. POLK. 
 
 621 
 
 won victory of the war. The Mexicans 
 were nearly four times as numerous as the 
 Americans, and their position was one of 
 very great strength. The Americans fought 
 principally with their rifles and muskets, 
 their artillery being of but little use to them, 
 owing to the nature of the position. Their 
 loss was seven hundred and eighty-seven 
 killed and wounded — nearly one-fourth of 
 the force engaged. 
 
 to the city by the causeway leading to the 
 Belen gate, closely followed by Quitman's 
 division. Worth's division was moved for- 
 ward to attack the San Cosmo gate, while 
 Quitman assailed the Belen gate. The 
 defences of the causeways were taken in 
 succession, and by nightfall the Belen and 
 San Cosmo gates were in possession of the 
 Americans after a hard fight for them. The 
 troops slept on the ground they had won. 
 
 STORMING OF CHAPULTEPEC. 
 
 The castle of Chapultepec stood on a steep 
 and lofty hill, and could not be turned. If 
 won at all, it must be by a direct assault. 
 On the twelfth of September the American 
 artillery opened fire upon it, and reduced it 
 almost to ruins. On the morning of the 
 thirteenth a determined assault was made by 
 the Americans, and the castle was carried 
 after a sharp struggle. 
 
 The fugitives from Chapultepec retreated 
 
 During the night of the thirteenth Santa 
 Anna, with the remains of his army, retreated 
 from the city, leaving the authorities to make 
 the best terms they could with the conquer- 
 ors. The city officials presented themselves 
 before General Scott before daybreak, and 
 proposed terms of capitulation. The general 
 replied that the city was already in his power, 
 and that he would enter it on his own terms. 
 The next day, September 14, 1847. the 
 
622 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 American army entered the city of Mexico, oc- 
 cupied the grand square, and hoisted the stars 
 
 GENERAL SCOTT ENTERING THE CITY OF MEXICO. 
 
 and stripes over the government buildings. 
 Santa Anna retreated with f">ur or five 
 
 thousand men from the capital to the vicinity 
 of Puebla, which was besieged by a Mexican 
 force. The city contained 
 eighteen hundred sick 
 Americans, and was held 
 by a garrison of five hun- 
 dred men under Colonel 
 Childs. This little force 
 held out bravely until the 
 arrival of a brigade from 
 Vera Cruz, under Gen- 
 eral Lane, on its way to 
 reinforce General Scott. 
 Lane drove off Santa 
 Anna's army, and re- 
 lieved Puebla on the 
 eighth of October. Ten 
 days later Santa Anna 
 was reported to be col- 
 lecting another force at 
 Alixo. Lane set out im- 
 mediately for that place, 
 reached it by a forced 
 march, and dispersed the 
 Mexicans beyond all 
 hope of reunion. 
 
 Immediately after the 
 capture of the city of 
 Mexico Santa Anna re- 
 signed the presidency of 
 the republic in favor of 
 Senor Peiia y Pena, pre- 
 sident of the Supreme 
 Court of Justice, but re- 
 tained his position as 
 commander-in-chief of 
 the army. The fall of the 
 city was followed by ..he 
 inauguration of a new 
 government, one of the 
 first acts of which was to 
 dismiss Santa Anna from 
 the command of the army. He at once left 
 the country, and fled to the West Indies. 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES K. POLK. 
 
 623 
 
 The Mexican government was removed to 
 
 the city of Queretaro, and a new congress 
 
 was elected, which began its sessions in that 
 
 city. Negotiations for peace had been opened 
 
 in the meantime, and the meeting's of the 
 1 . . . 
 
 (Mexican commissioners and Mr. Trist were 
 
 held at the town of Guadaloupe Hidalgo, 
 where, on the second of February, 1848, a 
 treaty of peace was signed by Nicholas P. 
 Trist, on the part of the United States, and 
 Senors Couto, Atristain and Cuevas, on the 
 part of Mexico. Though Mr. Trist's powers 
 had been withdrawn by President Polk some 
 time before, he ventured 
 to continue his authority 
 on the ground that the I 
 opportunity for bringing H 
 the war to a close was too 
 favorable to be lost. The 
 commissioners appointed 
 by the President to super- 
 sede him reached Mexico 
 a little later, but found the 
 treaty signed and sealed. 
 It was forwarded to Wash- 
 ington, and was laid by the 
 President before the Senate, 
 which body after a brief 
 discussion ratified it. On 
 the Fourth of July, 1848, 
 President Polk issued a proclamation an- 
 nouncing the return of peace. 
 
 By the terms of the treaty the Rio Grande 
 was accepted by Mexico as the western 
 boundary of the United States and of Texas, 
 and that republic ceded to the United States 
 the provinces of New Mexico and Upper 
 California. For this immense territory the 
 government of the United States agreed to 
 pay to Mexico the sum of fifteen millions of 
 dollars, and to assume the debts due by 
 Mexico to citizens of the United States, 
 amounting to the sum of three and a half 
 millions of dollars. 
 
 The treaty having been ratified, the Ameri- 
 can forces were promptly withdrawn from 
 Mexico. 
 
 By the cession of California and New 
 Mexico, regions as yet unknown, a territory 
 four times as large as France, was added to 
 the dominions of the United States. Califor- 
 nia bordered the Pacific coast for about six 
 hundred and fifty miles, and extended inland 
 for about the same distance. It embraced an 
 area of about four hundred and fifty thousand 
 square miles, comprising what is now known 
 as California, Nevada, Arizona, Utah, and 
 
 A MEXICAN CATHEDRAL. 
 
 parts of Colorado and New Mexico. At the 
 close of the war it contained about fifteen 
 thousand inhabitants. 
 
 In February, 1848, occurred an event des- 
 tined to change the whole history of the 
 Pacific coast. A laborer on the plantation of 
 Captain Sutter, situated in Coloma county, 
 California, on a branch of the Sacramento 
 river, while working on a mill-race, discov- 
 ered gold in the sands of the little stream. 
 The precious metal was soon found to be in 
 abundance in the neighborhood, and the 
 news spread rapidly. It reached the United 
 States about the time of the ratification of 
 
624 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 the treaty, and produced the most intense 
 excitement. 
 
 In the course of a few months thousands 
 :>f emigrants were on their way to California 
 : • dig gold. Some went in steamers and 
 ailing vessels around Cape Horn ; some 
 crossed the Isthmus of Panama, and worked 
 iheir way up the Pacific coast ; and others, 
 and by far the greater number, undertook 
 ihe long and dangerous journey across the 
 plains and the Rocky Mountains, traveling 
 
 HYDRAULIC MINING. 
 
 generally in caravans. In a short time mul- 
 titudes came flocking from every country in 
 Europe to join the throng in search of the 
 precious metal. San Francisco was the cen- 
 tral point cf this vast emigration, and that 
 place soon grew from a village of a few 
 miserable huts to a city of over fifteen thou- 
 sand inhabitants. Within two years after the 
 discovery of gold the population of California 
 had increased to nearly a hundred thousand ; 
 two years later, in 1852, it numbered two 
 hundred and sixty-four thousand. 
 
 The influence of the discovery of gold in 
 California was not limited to this country. 
 It gave an impetus to the commerce and in- 
 dustry of the whole world. 
 
 On the twenty-first of February, 1848, ex 
 President John Quincy Adams, then a mem 
 ber of the House of Representatives in 
 Congress, was stricken with paralysis in his 
 seat in the House. He was carried into the 
 speaker's room, where he died two days later, 
 at the age of eighty. 
 
 On the twenty-ninth of May, 
 
 1848, Wisconsin was admitted 
 
 into the Union as a State, mak- 
 
 ■=. ing the thirtieth member of the 
 
 U confederacy. 
 
 Before the return of peace 
 I with Mexico the slavery ques- 
 | tion had been revived in the 
 8 United States, and had been 
 the cause of an agitation full 
 of trouble to both sections. 
 On the eighth of August, 
 1846, President Polk sent a 
 message to Congress asking 
 an appropriation of three 
 millions of dollars to enable 
 him to negotiate a treaty oi 
 peace with Mexico^ based 
 upon the policy of obtain- 
 ing a cession of territory 
 outside the existing limits 
 of Texas. During the debate upon a bill 
 to grant this appropriation, Mr. David 
 Wilmot, a representative from Pennsyl- 
 vania, made the following amendment, 
 known as the "Wilmot Proviso:" "Provided, 
 That there shall be neither slavery nor in-j 
 voluntary servitude in any territory which 
 shall hereafter be acquired, or be annexed to 
 the United States, otherwise than in the 
 punishment of crimes, whereof the party 
 shall have been duly convicted; Provided 
 always, That any person escaping into the 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES K. POLK. 
 
 625 
 
 same, from whom labor or service is lawfully 
 claimed in any one of the United States, 
 such fugitive may be lawfully reclaimed and 
 conveyed out of said territory to the person 
 claiming his or her labor or service." 
 
 The Country Profoundly Excited. 
 
 This amendment took no notice of the 
 Missouri Compromise line, and was opposed 
 with great warmth by the southern members, 
 who declared it an attempt to rob the 
 Southern States in advance of their fair 
 share of the territory that might be won by 
 the joint efforts of the States. The bill 
 failed in the Senate; but the announcement 
 of the Wilmot Proviso re-opened the slavery 
 question in all its bitterness, and plunged the 
 country into a state of profound excitement. 
 
 The agitation was renewed in January, 
 1 847, when a bill for the organization of a ter- 
 ritorial government for Oregon was reported 
 to the House with the Wilmot Proviso 
 incorporated in it. Mr. Burt, of South 
 Carolina, moved to amend the bill by 
 inserting, before the restrictive clause the 
 words : " Inasmuch as the whole of said 
 territory lies north of 36 30' north latitude." 
 This was an effort to apply to the Oregon 
 bill the principles of the Missouri Com- 
 
 40 
 
 promise ; but the friends of the restriction 
 rejected the amendment. The bill passed 
 the House, but was defeated in the Senate. 
 During the next session the measure was 
 revived, and a territorial government was 
 organized for Oregon with an unqualified 
 restriction upon slavery. 
 
 In the fall of 1848 the Presidential election 
 occurred, The Democratic party supported 
 Senator Lewis Cass, of Michigan, for the 
 Presidency, and General William O. Butler, 
 of Kentucky, for the Vice- Presidency. The 
 Whig party nominated General Zachary 
 Taylor, of Louisiana, for the Presidency, 
 and Millard Fillmore, of New York, for the 
 Vice Presidency. The Anti-slavery or Free 
 Soil party put in nomination for the Presi- 
 dency Martin Van Buren, of New York, and 
 for the Vice-Presidency Charles Francis 
 Adams, of Massachusetts. In the election 
 which followed the political campaign, the 
 candidates of the Whig party were elected 
 by decisive majorities. The Free Soil party 
 failed to receive a single electoral vote, but 
 out of the popular vote of nearly three mil- 
 lions, nearly three hundred thousand ballots 
 were cast for its candidates, showing a 
 remarkable gain in strength in the past four 
 years. 
 
CHAPTER XXXVIII 
 
 The Administrations of Zachary Taylor and 
 Millard Fillmore 
 
 Character of General Taylor — Department of the Interior — Death of ex-President Polk — The Slavery Agitation- 
 Views of Clay and Webster — California Asks Admission Into the Union — Message of President Taylor — -The Omnibus 
 Bill — Efforts of Henry Clay — A Memorable Debate — Webster's " Great Union Speech " — Death of John C. Calhoui. 
 — Death of President Taylor — Millard Fillmore Becomes President — Passage of the Compromise Measures of 1850- 
 Death of Henry Clay — Dissatisfaction With the Compromise — The Fugitive Slave Law Nullified by the Northern 
 States — The Nashville Convention — Organization of Utah Territory — The Seventh Census — The Expedition of Lope2 
 Against Cuba — The Search for Sir John Franklin — The Grinnel Expedition — Dr. Kane's Voyages—Inauguration ot 
 Cheap Postage — Laying the Corner-stone of the New Capitol — Death of Daniel Webster — Arrival of Kossuth — The 
 President Rejects the Tripartite Treaty — Franklin Pierce Elected President — Death of William R. King. 
 
 THE fourth of March, 1849, fell on 
 Sunday, and the inauguration of 
 General Taylor as President of the 
 United States took place on Mon- 
 day, March fifth. 
 
 The new President was a native of Vir- 
 ginia, but had removed with his parents to 
 Kentucky at an early age, and had grown 
 up to manhood on the frontiers of that State. 
 In 1808, at the age of twenty-four, he was 
 commissioned a lieutenant in the army by 
 President Jefferson, and had spent forty years 
 in the military service of the country. His 
 exploits in the Florida war and the war with 
 Mexico have been related. His brillant vic- 
 tories in Mexico had made him the most 
 popular man in the United States, and had 
 won him the high office of the presidency at 
 the hands of his grateful fellow-citizens. He 
 was without political experience, but he was 
 a man of pure and stainless integrity, of 
 great firmness, a sincere patriot, and pos- 
 sessed of strong good sense. He had received 
 a majority of the electoral votes of both the 
 Northern and Southern States, and was free 
 from party or sectional ties of any kind. 
 
 His inaugural address was brief, and was 
 confined to a statement of general principles. 
 626 
 
 His cabinet was composed of the leaders of 
 the Whig party, with John M. Clayton, of 
 Delaware, as secretary of state. The last 
 Congress had created a new executive de- 
 partment — that of the interior — to relieve 
 the secretary of the treasury of a part of his 
 duties, and President Taylor was called upon 
 to appoint the first secretary of the interior, 
 which he did in the person of Thomas Ewing, 
 of Ohio. The new department was charged 
 with the management of the public lands, 
 the Indian tribes, and the issuing of patents 
 to inventors. 
 
 A few months after the opening of Pre 
 sident Taylor's administration, ex-President 
 Polk died at his home in Nashville, Tennessee, 
 on the fifteenth of June, 1849, in the fifty- 
 fourth year of his age. 
 
 Since the announcement of the Wilmot 
 Proviso, the agitation of the slavery question 
 had been incessant, and had increased instead 
 of diminishing with each succeeding year. 
 It was one of the chief topics of discussion in 
 the newspaper press of the country, and 
 entered largely into every political contro- 
 versy, however local or insignificant in its 
 nature. The opponents of slavery regarded 
 the annexation of Texas and the Mexican 
 
ADMINISTRATIONS OF TAYLOR AND FILLMORE. 
 
 627 
 
 war as efforts to extend that institution, and 
 were resolved to put an end to its existence 
 at any cost. The advocates of slavery claimed 
 that the Southern States had an equal right 
 to the common property of the States, and 
 were entitled to protec- 
 tion for their slaves in 
 any of the Territories 
 then owned by the 
 States or that might af- 
 terwards be acquired by 
 them. 
 
 The Missouri Com 
 promise forbade the ex- 
 istence of slavery north 
 of the line of 36 30' 
 north latitude, and left 
 the inhabitants south of 
 that line free to decide 
 upon their own institu- 
 tions. The Anti-slavery 
 party was resolved that 
 slavery should be ex- 
 cluded from the territory 
 acquired from Mexico, 
 and in the Wilmot Pro- 
 viso struck their first 
 blow for the accomplish- 
 ment of this purpose. 
 We have seen that they 
 succeded in prohibiting 
 slavery, by a special act 
 of Congress, in Oregon, 
 although the terms of 
 the Missouri Compro- 
 mise would have ex- 
 cluded the institution 
 from that Territory. 
 
 Their object was fully understood by the 
 southern people, and was bitterly resented 
 by them. The agitation of the subject aroused 
 a storm of passion throughout the country, 
 and produced a very bitter feeling between 
 the Northern and Southern St?*-***- Tn his 
 
 last message to Congress, President Polk had 
 recommended that the line of 36 30' north 
 latitude be extended to the Pacific, and thus 
 leave it to the people south of that line to 
 decide whether they would have slavery or 
 
 ZACHARY TAYLOR. 
 
 not. This proposition was acceptable to the 
 South; but it was rejected by the Anti-slavery 
 party. The Missouri Compromise line had 
 been limited to the Louisiana purchase, 
 which was entirely slaveholding, and had 
 nade more than one-half of it free- To 
 
FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 628 
 
 extend the line to the Pacific would be to 
 give the South a chance to establish slavery 
 in territory which was free at the time of its 
 acquisition by the United States. The North 
 would not listen to such a proposition. 
 
 During the last session of Congress in 
 Mr. Polk's administration, an effort had been 
 made to establish territorial governments for 
 Utah and New Mexico, but had failed in 
 
 the supreme law of the land, it was superioi 
 to any territorial law or act of Congress abol- 
 ishing slavery; and that the constitution 
 clearly and unequivocally established and 
 protected slavery in the Territories. 
 
 Mr. Webster, speaking for the north, de~ 
 clared that the constitution was designed for 
 the government of the States, and not for the 
 Territories. Congress, he said, had the right 
 
 THE WHITE HOUSE, WASHINGTON, D. C. 
 
 consequence of the inability of Congress to 
 agree upon the question of slavery in these 
 Territories. In the debate in the Senate upon 
 these measures, Mr. Calhoun and Mr. Webster 
 took an active part, and each presented in a 
 masterly manner the views of the section he 
 represented upon this great question. Mr. Cal- 
 houn, speaking for the south, argued that the 
 constitution recognized slavery; that as it was 
 
 to govern the Territories independently of 
 the constitution, and he maintained that it 
 often exercised this right contrary to the 
 constitution, as it did things in the Territories 
 which it could not do in the States. He 
 added : " When new territory has been ac- 
 quired it has always been subject to the laws 
 of Congress — to such laws as Congress 
 thought proper to pass for its immediate 
 
ADMINISTRATIONS OF TAYLOR AND FILLMORE 
 
 jwovernmcnt ;;n 1 preparatory state in which 
 it was to remain until it was ready to come 
 into the Union as one of the family of States." 
 He quoted in support of his position the 
 clause of the constitution which declares 
 that the " constitution and the laws of the 
 United States which shall be made in pur- 
 suance thereof, .... shall be the supreme 
 law of the land." 
 
 Congress having failed to make any pro- 
 vision for territorial governments for Utah 
 and New Mexico, those Territories were left 
 in a condition of anarchy. One of the first 
 duties devolving upon the new administration 
 was the alleviation of this evil until it could 
 be definitely settled by Congress. President 
 Taylor instructed the federal officers in 
 those Territories to encourage the people to 
 organize temporary governments for them- 
 selves. 
 
 A New Accession to the Union. 
 
 California in the meantime had grown with 
 such rapidity, and had experienced so much 
 trouble from its sudden increase of popula- 
 tion and the lack of a definite government, 
 that its leading citizens determined to seek 
 admission into the Union. In the autumn 
 of 1849 a convention of the people was held, 
 a constitution formed, and a State govern- 
 ment organized. The action of the conven- 
 tion was promptly ratified by the people. 
 Upon the assembling of the Thirty-first Con- 
 gress in the winter of 1849, California applied 
 for admission into the Union as a State, with 
 a constitution forbidding slavery within her 
 limits. 
 
 The organization of the Thirty-first Con- 
 gress was delayed for three weeks. Parties 
 were about evenly divided, and sixty ballots 
 were taken before a speaker could be chosen. 
 One of the leaders on the Democratic side 
 was Robert Toombs, of Georgia. The choice 
 at last fell upon Howell Cobb, of Georgia, 
 
 629 
 
 who was elected by a plurality. Partisan 
 bitterness ran high during this struggle. 
 
 Upon the organization of the House, Presi- 
 dent Taylor sent in his first and only mes- 
 sage. He recognized the danger with which 
 the sectional controversy threatened the 
 country, expressed his views of the situation 
 in moderate terms, and intimated that he 
 should faithfully discharge his duties to the 
 whole country. He recommended the admis- 
 sion of California with the constitution she 
 had chosen ; and advised that Utah and New 
 
 ROBERT TOOMBS. 
 
 Mexico should be organized as Territories; 
 with liberty to decide the question of slavery 
 for themselves when they were ready to enter 
 the Union as States. A dispute having arisen 
 between Texas and New Mexico concerning 
 the proper boundary between them, the Pre- 
 sident recommended that it should be settled 
 by the courts of the United States. 
 
 The other questions which demanded im- 
 mediate settlement were slavery in the Dis- 
 trict of Columbia, and the demand of the 
 Southern States for a more faithful execution 
 
630 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 of the provision of the constitution which 
 required the arrest and return of fugitive 
 slaves. 
 
 The South opposed the admission of Cali- 
 fornia with a free constitution, and the North 
 demanded the abolition of the slave trade in 
 the District of Columbia, and the Northern 
 States were unwilling to allow their officers 
 to execute the Fugitive Slave Law within 
 their limits. The excitement became intense, 
 and threats to dissolve the Union of the 
 States were freely indulged in by the extrem- 
 ists of both the North and the South. 
 
 Opposing Views in the Senate. 
 
 On the twenty-ninth of January, 1850, 
 Henry Clay introduced into the Senate a 
 series of resolutions designed to settle all the 
 points in dispute by a general compromise. 
 The resolutions were referred to a commitee 
 of thirteen, of which Mr. Clay was made 
 chairman. In due time the committee re- 
 ported a bill known as the " Omnibus Bill " 
 from its embracing in one measure all Mr. 
 Clay's propositions. It provided for the admis- 
 sion of California as a free State ; the organi- 
 sation of the Territories of Utah and New 
 Mexico, without reference to slavery ; the 
 adjustment of the boundary between Texas 
 and New Mexico by paying to the former 
 ten millions of dollars ; the abolition of the 
 slave trade in the District of Columbia; and 
 the enactment by Congress of a more string- 
 ent and effective law for the rendition of 
 fugitive slaves. 
 
 The Omnibus bill was warmly opposed in 
 Congress and in the country at large. The 
 debate in the Senate brought out the views 
 of the leading statesmen of the country. 
 Senator Jefferson Davis declared the bill in 
 no sense a compromise, because it was un- 
 equal in its provisions. The South, he de- 
 clared, gained nothing by the measure, as 
 the constitution already required the rendi- 
 
 tion of fugitive slaves. He proposed, there 
 fore, that the Missouri Compromise line 
 should be extended to the Pacific, " with the 
 specific recognition of the right to hold 
 slaves in the territory below that line." 
 
 Mr. Clay replied to this that " no earthly 
 power could induce him to vote for a specific 
 measure for the introduction of slavery 
 where it had not existed, either north or 
 south of that line. I am unwilling that the 
 posterity of the present inhabitants of Cali 
 fornia and of New Mexico should reproach 
 us for doing just what we reproach Great 
 Britain for doing to us. If the citizens of 
 those Territories come here with constitu- 
 tions establishing slavery, I am for admitting 
 them into the Union ; but then it will be 
 their own work and not ours, and their pos 
 terity will have to reproach them and net us." 
 
 Mi 
 
 Webster's Union Speech. 
 
 Calhoun was too ill to take part in 
 
 the debate in person, but he prepared a 
 speech of great ability, which was read for 
 him in the Senate by Senator Mason of Vir- 
 ginia. He declared that the Union could be 
 preserved only by maintaining an equal num- 
 ber of free and slave States, in order that the 
 representation of the two sections of the 
 country might be equal in the Senate. 
 
 Mr. Webster also took part in the debate, 
 and on this occasion delivered what is known 
 as his " great Union speech of the seventh of 
 March," which occupied three days in its 
 delivery. He expressed substantially the 
 same /iews as those advocated by Mr. Clay. 
 He opposed restriction of slavery in the Ter- 
 ritories, and declared he would vote against 
 the Wilmot Proviso. His speech created a 
 profound sensation throughout the country, 
 and did much to secure the final acceptance 
 of the compromise measures. 
 
 In the midst of this discussion John C. 
 Calhoun died, on the thirty-first of March, 
 
ADMINISTRATIONS OF TAYLOR AND FILLMORE. 
 
 631 
 
 1850. He had entered Congress in 181 1, 
 and had been in public life from that time 
 until the day of his death. He had filled 
 many high offices, both State and national, 
 and had discharged the duties of each and 
 all with disinterested 
 fidelity and admitted 
 ability. He was one of 
 the first statesmen this 
 country has ever pro- 
 duced, and was the ac- 
 knowledged leader of the 
 South in the sectional 
 controversy with the 
 North. His character 
 was above reproach, and 
 he was a sincere and dis- 
 interested patriot. His 
 death was generally la- 
 mented throughout the 
 country, and his political, 
 adversaries joined heart- 
 ily in the tributes of the 
 nation to his many vir- 
 tues and great abilities. 
 
 A few months later 
 President Taylor was 
 suddenly stricken clown 
 with a fever, whict Ai 
 a few days terminated 
 fatally. He died on rhe 
 ninth of July, 1850, amid 
 the grief of the whole 
 country, which felt that 
 it had lost a faithful and 
 upright chief magistrate. 
 Though the successful 
 candidate of one poli- 
 tical party, his administration had received 
 the earnest support of the best men of the 
 country without regard to party, and his 
 death was a national calamity. He had held 
 office only sixteen months, but had shown 
 himself equal to his difficult and delicate 
 
 position. He was sixty-six years old at the 
 time of his death. 
 
 By the terms of the constitution the office 
 of President devolved upon Millard Fillmore, 
 Vice-President of the United States. On 
 
 MILLARD FILLMORE. 
 
 the tenth of July he took the oath of office 
 before Chief Justice Cranch of the District 
 of Columbia, and at once entered upon the 
 duties of his new position. 
 
 Mr. Fillmore was a native of New York, 
 and was born in that State in the year 1800. 
 
632 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 He had served his State in Congress, and as 
 governor, and was personally one of the most 
 popular of the Presidents. The cabinet of 
 General Taylor resigned their offices imme- 
 
 PORTRAITS OF LEADING MORMONS. 
 
 diately after his death, and the new President 
 filled their places by appointing a new cabi- 
 net with Daniel Webster at its head as secre- 
 tary of state. Mr. Fillmore was in active sym- 
 
 pathy with Mr. Clay in his efforts to secure 
 the passage of the compromise measures, as 
 he deemed them the best adjustment of the 
 trouble possible under the circumstances. 
 
 The compromise measures 
 were warmly debated in Con- 
 gress, the sessions of which ex- 
 tended through the summer into 
 the latter part of September. 
 The bill was then taken up and 
 passed, article by article, by the 
 House of Representatives, it hav- 
 ing previously passed the Senate 
 The bill at once received the ex- 
 ecutive approval, and became a 
 law. 
 
 The clause admitting Caliior- 
 nia into the Union as a State 
 was adopted on the ninth of 
 September, 1850. 
 
 The course of Mr. Clay in 
 securing the passage of the com- 
 promise measures of 1850 was 
 justly regarded as the crowning 
 glory of his life. It won for him 
 the love and confidence ot the 
 whole country without regard to 
 party, and the man who "had 
 rather be right than be Presi- 
 dent" had the proud satisfaction 
 of seeing all the faults and mis 
 takes of his earlier years for- 
 gotten in the confidence and gra- 
 titude with which his country- 
 men regarded him. He ceased 
 now to take an active part in the 
 questions of the day, for it was 
 fitting that his life should close 
 with this great service to nis 
 country. His health failed ra- 
 pidly, but he continued to hold his seat in the 
 Senate until the twenty-ninth of June, 1852, 
 when he died at the age of seventy-five years. 
 Honors were showered upon his memory in 
 
ADMINISTRATIONS OF TAYLOR AND FILLMORE. 
 
 633 
 
 all parts of the Union, and he was laid to his 
 rest amid a nation's unaffected mourning. 
 
 measures failed to give satisfaction. The 
 Fugitive Slave Law was bitterly denounced 
 
 CUBAN FILIBUSTERS ON THE MAKC1 
 
 There were still many extremists both 
 North and South, to whom the compromise 
 
 by the Anti-slavery party in the North. As 
 the Supreme Court of the United States had 
 
634 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 decided that the justices of the peace in the 
 respective States could not be called upon 
 to executj the law for the rendition of fugi- 
 tive slaves, a clause was inserted in the Fugi- 
 tive Slave Law of 1850, providing for the 
 appointment of United States commission- 
 ers, before whom such cases could be tried. 
 
 The Fugitive Slave Law. 
 
 The Northern States successively enacted 
 laws for the nullification of the provisions of 
 this law. All their jails and other State 
 buildings were refused to the federal officers 
 for the securing of fugitive slaves, and all 
 State, county, and city officers were forbid- 
 den to arrest or assist in arresting or detain- 
 ing any fugitive slave. In many of the 
 States severe punishments were denounced 
 against masters coming within their limits 
 to claim their slaves, and such fugitives 
 entering these States were declared free. 
 These laws were denounced by the slave- 
 holding States as violative of the constitu- 
 tion of the United States, and gave rise to 
 great bitterness of feeling toward the North. 
 It was maintained that these laws were direct 
 evidence of the intention of the northern 
 people to rob the South of its property in 
 negro slaves. 
 
 The extremists of the South were equally 
 dissatisfied with the compromise. They 
 declared that the South had sacrificed 
 everything and gained nothing by it, and 
 boldly avowed their intention to bring about 
 the secession of the Southern States from 
 the Union. In the summer of 1850 a south- 
 ern convention was held at Nashville, Ten- 
 nessee. Its real end was the dissolution of 
 the Union, and for that purpose it urged the 
 Southern States to appoint delegates to a 
 " Southern Congress." The legislatures of 
 South Carolina and Mississippi alone 
 responded to this invitation, but the great 
 mass of the southern people turned a deaf 
 
 ear to the appeals of the disunionists, and 
 the convention failed to accomplish its 
 object. 
 
 In the inauguration of a territorial govern- 
 ment for Utah, the Mormons, whose settle- 
 ment in that Territory while it was yet a 
 possession of Mexico we have related, 
 endeavored to frame their own government, 
 and gave to the Territory the name of Des- 
 eret, which they declared was a word of their 
 peculiar language meaning " The Land of 
 the Honey Bee." President Fillmore set 
 aside this name and carried out the act of 
 Congress by which the Territory received 
 its present name. Brigham Young, the 
 Mormon leader or prophet, was appointed 
 governor of the Territory. 
 
 In 1850 the seventh census showed the 
 population of the Tjnited States to be 23,- 
 191,876 souls. 
 
 Capture of General Lopez. 
 
 In the early part of President Taylor's 
 administration, General Lopez, a Spaniard, 
 began to enlist men in the United States 
 ostensibly for the purpose of aiding the 
 people of the island of Cuba to throw off 
 their allegiance to Spain and establish their 
 independence, but really for the purpose of 
 driving out the Spaniards and securing the 
 annexation of Cuba to the United States. 
 He succeeded in inducing a number of 
 adventurous persons to join him. 
 
 President Taylor, upon learning of the 
 movement, issued a proclamation forbidding 
 citizens of the United States to engage in it. 
 In spite of this warning, Lopez collected a 
 force of six hundred men, and eluding the 
 vigilance of the United States officers, sailed 
 for Cuba. He landed at Cardenas, but 
 received so little encouragement that the 
 party sailed for Key West. In 185 I, Lopez 
 again entered Cuba, this time at the head of 
 four hundred and fifty men. His party was 
 
ADMINISTRATIONS OF TAYLOR AND FILLMORE. 
 
 63S 
 
 captured almost immediately, and he and a 
 number of his men were put to death by the 
 Spanish authorities at Havana. 
 
 In May, 1850, an expedition of a different 
 character sailed from the United States. The 
 fate of Sir John Franklin, who sailed from 
 England in 1845, in search 
 01" the northwest passage, 
 had long enlisted the sym- 
 pathies of humane and gen- 
 erous souls. It was thought 
 that the daring navigator 
 might be confined to the 
 Arctic regions by the loss 
 of his ships, and that a 
 well-executed search might 
 either result in the dis- 
 covery and relief of Frank- 
 lin or settle the question 
 as to his fate. Mr. Henry 
 Grinnell, a wealthy mer- 
 chant of New York, fitted 
 out an expedition at his 
 own expense, and placing 
 it under the command of 
 Lieutenant Dj Haven, of 
 the United States navy, 
 despatched it to the Arctic 
 regions to search for ^ank- 
 lin and his men, in May, 
 1850. De Haven was ac- 
 companied by Dr= E. K. 
 Kane, in the capacity of 
 surgeon and naturalist. 
 After a year's absence the 
 vessels returned, the search 
 having been unsuccessful. 
 The general government 
 despatched another expedition in 1 85 1 , on the 
 same errand, and placed it under command of 
 Dr. Kane. This expedition was absent four 
 years, and the government, becoming appre- 
 hensive of its fate, sent two vessels to search 
 for Kane and his companions. They were 
 
 found at the isle of Disco, in Greenland, 
 having been forced to abandon their vessel 
 in the ice. Nothing was learned by Dr. 
 Kane concerning the fate of Sir John 
 Franklin ; but the expedition resulted in the 
 discovery of the open Polar sea. Nothing 
 
 SIR JOHN FRANKLIN. 
 
 definite was learned of the fate of Sir John 
 Franklin until 1859, when the steamer 
 " Fox," despatched by Lady Franklin, made 
 the melancholy discovery that Sir John 
 Franklin died on the eleventh of June, 1847, 
 and in 1848 the " Erebus " and " Terror" 
 
636 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 were abandoned in the ice. The survi- 
 vors of these disasters, one hundred and 
 five in number, died one by one from 
 cold and exhaustion on King William's 
 Island. 
 
 In the early part of 185 I Congress reduced 
 the postage on prepaid letters to three cents 
 to all parts of the United States, prepayment 
 being made by means of stamps provided by 
 
 under great disadvantages. His health had 
 been failing for some time past, and his 
 weakness was so great that he could speak 
 only with difficulty. 
 
 This oration was one of the last public acts 
 of the great statesman. On the twenty-fourth 
 of October, 1852, he died at his home at 
 Marshfield, Massachusetts, aged seventy 
 years, and in him perished the first statesman 
 
 RELICS OF FRANKLIN S POLAR VOYAGE. 
 
 the government. The result was a rapid and 
 immense increase of the postal revenue of 
 the country. 
 
 On the fourth of July, 185 1, the corner- 
 stone of the extension of the capitol at 
 Washington was laid by President Fillmore 
 with appropriate ceremonies. The orator of 
 the day was Daniel Webster. His address 
 was one of his best efforts, but was delivered 
 
 of America. He was large and stout in 
 frame, of swarthy complexion, and slow and 
 heavy in movement — a man of noble and 
 commanding appearance. His intellect was 
 cast in the same gigantic mould as his body. 
 His language was simple and chaste, and his 
 arguments irresistible. His patriotism knew 
 no sectional limits. " I am as ready," he 
 once said, " to fieht and to fall for thf 
 
ADMINISTRATIONS OF TAYLOR AND FILLMORE. 
 
 637 
 
 constitutional rights of Virginia as I am for 
 iliose of Massachusetts." 
 
 Alexander H. Stephens has said of him : 
 " He was too great a man and had too great 
 an intellect not to see the truth when it was 
 presented, and he was too honest and too 
 patriotic a man not to proclaim the truth 
 when he saw it, even to an unwilling people. 
 
 rdeal, and that he passed it with unflinch 
 ing firmness is one of the grandest features 
 in the general grandeur of his character 
 Even his detractors have been constrained tc 
 render him unwilling homage in this re 
 spect." * His memory was honored byappro 
 priate demonstrations in all parts of the 
 country, and it is said that the popular 
 
 DR. E. K KANE AND HIS COMPANIONS. 
 
 In this quality oi moral greatness I often 
 thought Mr. Webster had the advantage of 
 his great contemporaries, Messrs. Clay and 
 Calhoun, Not that I would be understood as 
 saying that they were not men of great moral 
 courage, for both of them showed this high 
 quality in many instances, but they never 
 gave the world such striking exhibitions of 
 it as he did Webster often parsed this 
 
 tributes on this occasion were equalled only 
 by those of the nation at the death ol 
 Washington. 
 
 In December, 185 1, Louis Kossuth, the 
 chief of the Hungarian insurrection of 1848, 
 visited the United States. His avowed 
 object was to promote the cause of his 
 
 The War Between tke States, vol. i., pp. 4°5. 4° 6 
 
«38 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 countrymen, and he made frequent addresses 
 in various parts of the Union, which were 
 listened to by vast multitudes who were 
 charmed with his eloquence. He visited 
 Washington, and was granted a public recep- 
 tion by Congress. The Austrian minister at 
 Washington, the Chevalier Hulseman, pro- 
 tested against this reception, and his protest 
 being unheeded, he withdrew from Washing- 
 ton for a while. 
 
 Protection for Cuba. 
 
 The attempt of Lopez upon Cuba had 
 greatly alarmed Spain for the safety of that 
 island. England and France, sympathizing 
 with her, and anxious to render the acquisi- 
 tion of Cuba by the United States impossible, 
 proposed to the American government to 
 join them in a " tripartite treaty," in which 
 each should disclaim any intention to seize 
 that island, and should guarantee Spain in 
 her possession of it. In December, 1852, 
 Edward Everett, who had succeeded Mr. 
 Webster as secretary of state, by direction of 
 the President, replied to the proposition of 
 England and France, declining to accept it. 
 
 " The President," he said, " does not covet 
 the acquisition of Cuba for the United States," 
 but " could not see with indifference that 
 island fall into the possession of any Euro- 
 pean government than Spain." He stated 
 that the situation of the island rendered it 
 peculiarly interesting to this country by 
 reason of its proximity to our coast, and its 
 commanding the ipproach to the Gulf of 
 
 Mexico and the mouth of the Mississippi. 
 The European powers were thus given to 
 understand that the United States would not 
 tolerate their intei ference in a question purely 
 American. 
 
 The year 1852 was marked by intense ex- 
 citement consequent on the political cam- 
 paign which terminated in the fall in the 
 Presidential election. The Democratic party 
 made a strong and successful effort to recover 
 its lost power, and nominated Franklin 
 Pierce, of New Hampshire, for President, 
 and William R. King, of Alabama, for Vice- 
 President. The Whig party nominated Gen- 
 eral Winfield Scott for President, and Wil- 
 liam A. Graham, of North Carolina, for Vice- 
 President. The Anti-slavery party put in 
 nomination John P. Hale, of New Hamp- 
 shire, and George W. Julian, of Indiana. 
 The election resulted in the choice of the 
 candidates of the Democratic party by an 
 overwhelming majority. The Anti-slavery 
 party on this occasion polled but 155,825 
 votes, or a little more than half of the strength 
 it had shown at the previous election. 
 
 Mr. King, the Vice-President-elect, did not 
 long survive his triumph. His health had 
 been delicate for many years, and he was 
 obliged to pass the winter succeeding the 
 election in Cuba. Being unable to return 
 home, he took the oath of office before the 
 American consul, at Havana, on the fourth 
 of March, 1853. He then returned to the 
 United States, and died at his home in Ala- 
 bama on the eighteenth of April, 1853. 
 
CHAPTER XXXIX 
 The Administration of Franklin Pierce. 
 
 _-pute with Mexico — The Gadsden Purchase — Surveys for a Pacific Railway — The Japan Expedition — Treaty with 
 /apan — The Koszta Affair — The " Black Warrior " Seized by the Cuban Officials — The " Ostend Conference " — Dis- 
 missal of the Britisn Minister — The Kansas -Nebraska Bill — History of the Bill — Its Passage by Congress — History of 
 the Struggle in Kansas — Conflict Between the Pro-Slavery and Free-Soil Settlers — Lawrence Sacked — Civil War — 
 The Presidential Campaign of 1856 — James Buchanan Elected President of the United States — Rapid Increase oi 
 the Republican Party. • 
 
 PRESIDENT PIERCE took the 
 oath of office at the capitol at 
 Washington on the fourth of 
 March, 1853, in the presence oi 
 an immense throng. He was in his forty- 
 ninth year, and had won an enviable name 
 by his previous services to the country. He 
 was a native of New Hampshire, and had 
 represented that State for four years in the 
 'ower House of Congress, and for nearly 
 i full term in the Senate of the United 
 States. He had also served with distinction 
 during the Mexican war as brigadier-gen- 
 eral. He placed William L. Marcy, of New 
 York, at the head of his cabinet as secretary 
 of state. 
 
 The first question of importance the new 
 President was called upon to settle grew out 
 of a dispute with Mexico concerning the 
 boundary between that country and the 
 Territory of New Mexico. At the time of 
 the treaty of Guadaloupe Hidalgo the maps 
 were so imperfect that the boundary line 
 had not been drawn with sufficient exact- 
 ness. Both countries claimed the Mesilla 
 valley, which was said to be very fertile, but 
 which was more important to the United 
 States as affording what was generally 
 regarded as the most practicable route to 
 California. 
 
 Santa Anna was now President of the 
 Mexican republic again, and sent a force of 
 
 Mexican troops to occupy the region in dis 
 pute. The matter was settled by negotia 
 tion, however, and the United States 
 obtained the Mesilla valley and the free 
 navigation of the Gulf of California and of 
 the Colorado to the American frontier. For 
 these concessions the federal government 
 paid Mexico the sum of ten millions of dol 
 lars. The district thus acquired was known 
 as the u Gadsden Purchase," and was subse 
 quently erected into the Territory of Ari 
 zona. 
 
 The necessity of more rapid and certaii 
 communication with California had brough. 
 the nation to regard a railway between the 
 Mississippi and the Pacific as a necessity, 
 and as such an undertaking was considered 
 beyond the resources of a private corpora- 
 tion, it was believed that it should be built 
 by the general government, or at least that 
 the general government should bear a part 
 of the expense. The year 1853 witnessed 
 the first steps towards the construction of 
 this great work. Two expeditions were de- 
 spatched under the orders of the war depart- 
 ment to explore the best routes for a Pacific 
 railway. 
 
 The acquisition of California brought the 
 United States into new relations with the 
 nations of the eastern world, as it secured for 
 them a base upon the Pacific from which a 
 direct trade could be conducted with China 
 
 639 
 
640 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 dnd Japan. The empire of Japan, however, 
 was closed to foreigners, and it was very de- 
 sirable to open commercial relations with it. 
 Towards the close of Mr. Fillmore's term of 
 office, Commodore Perry, a brother of the 
 hero of Lake Erie, was despatched to China 
 with a fleet of seven war steamers to nego- 
 tiate a treaty with the Japanese government. 
 He arrived in the bay of Jeddo in the sum- 
 mer of 1853. The natives were greatly 
 astonished at the appearance of his steamers, 
 he first that had ever been seen in those 
 
 FRANKLIN FIERCE. 
 
 waters, and at his boldness in venturing into 
 their harbors. The Japanese officials ordered 
 him to depart, but he refused, and insisted 
 on seeing the emperor, and making known 
 to him the object of his friendly visit. 
 
 They at length decided to lay the matter 
 before the emperor, who consented to grant 
 an interview to the commodore, and named 
 the fourteenth of July for that purpose. On 
 the day appointed the commodore landed, 
 accompanied by a strong body of marines. 
 He was received with great ceremony by the 
 Japanese, and delivered the President's let- 
 
 ter, to which an answer was promised. The 
 answer of the emperor was submitted to him 
 several months later, and was favorable. A 
 treaty was concluded between the United 
 States and Japan, by which the former were 
 allowed to trade in two specified ports — 
 Simodi and Hokadadi. American citizens 
 were permitted to reside at these ports, and 
 consuls were accepted for them. Thus the 
 United States had the honor of being the 
 first to open the rich markets of the island 
 empire to the commerce of the civilized 
 world. Since then the relations between the 
 two countries have steadily grown more cor- 
 dial, and Japan has shown a remarkable 
 rapidity and facility for adopting the civiliza- 
 tion of the west. 
 
 In July, 1853, occurred an event which did 
 much to increase the respect for our navy 
 among the powers of the world. Martin 
 Koszta, a Hungarian, who had taken the 
 preliminary steps to be naturalized in the 
 United States, happening to be in Smyrna, 
 in Asia Minor, on business, was seized as a 
 rebel and a refugee by order of the Austrian 
 consul-general, and taken on board an Aus- 
 trian brig. The United States sloop-of-wa? 
 " St. Louis," Captain Ingraham, was lying in 
 the harbor at the time, and Ingraham was 
 appealed to for protection for Koszta. 
 
 Ingraham Threatens to Fire, 
 
 He at once demanded his release as an 
 American citizen. The demand was refused 
 by the authorities, and Ingraham at once 
 called his crew to quarters and threatened 
 to fire upon the Austrian ship if Koszta was 
 not immediately released. The ^ustrians 
 at once surrendered their prisoner, and ha 
 was placed in custody of the French consul 
 to await the action of the government of the 
 United States. The matter was settled by 
 negotiation between this country and Austria, 
 and Koszta was released. Austria addresseJ 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF FRANKLIN PIERCE. 
 
 641 
 
 to the government at Washington a remon- 
 strance against the conduct of Captain Ingra- 
 ham, but his course was warmly applauded 
 by his countrymen and by disinterested per- 
 sons in Europe. 
 
 In February, 1854, the American merchant 
 steamer " Black Warrior " was seized by the 
 Spanish authorities at Havana, on the pre- 
 text that she had evaded or violated some 
 uncertain revenue law, and the ship and her 
 cargo were declared confiscated. This action 
 of the Havana officials was regarded in the 
 United States as unjust, and aroused a great 
 deal of feeling against the Spaniards, and 
 gave a sudden impetus to the national senti- 
 ment in favor of the acquisition of Cuba. 
 The affair of the " Black Warrior" was satis- 
 factorily settled by the Spanish government. 
 
 While the feeling aroused by the affair was 
 at its height a conference of some of the 
 American ministers in Europe, including 
 Mr. Buchanan, minister to England, Mr. 
 Mason, minister to France, and Mr. Soule, 
 minister to Spain, and some others, was held 
 at Ostend, in Belgium, and a circular was 
 adopted recommending the acquisition of 
 Cuba by the United States. This measure 
 attracted much attention, and elicited con- 
 siderable European criticism of the alleged 
 ambitious designs of the United States. Mr. 
 Soule, on his return to Madrid, was stopped 
 at Calais by order of the emperor of the 
 French, who had personal reasons for dis- 
 liking him. The emperor, however, recon- 
 sidered his action, and allowed Soule to pass 
 through France to the Spanish frontier. 
 
 British Minister Dismissed. 
 
 In 1855 Great Britain, France, Sardinia 
 and Turkey, being engaged in a war with 
 Russia, the agents of the British government 
 undertook to enlist recruits for their army 
 within the limits of the United States in de- 
 fiance of the neutrality laws of this country. 
 
 41 
 
 The matter being brought to the attention 
 of the United States government, it was 
 found that the British minister at Washing- 
 ton and the British consuls in some of the 
 principal cities of the Union had encouraged,, 
 if they had not authorized, these enlistments. 
 The government of the United States there- 
 upon called the attention of Great Britain to 
 the conduct of her minister, and requested 
 her to recall him. The queen declined to 
 comply with this request, and the minister 
 and the consuls v/ere promptly dismissed by 
 the President. The matter caused consider- 
 able irritation in England for a while, but 
 the good sense of the English people at 
 length perceived the propriety of the course 
 of the American government, and cordial 
 relations were re-established between the two 
 countries. 
 
 Territory of Nebraska. 
 
 The most important measure of Mr. 
 Pierce's administration was the bill to 
 organize the Territories of Kansas and 
 Nebraska. The region embraced in these 
 Territories formed a part of the Louisiana 
 purchase, and extended from the borders of 
 Missouri, Iowa and Minnesota to the sum- 
 mit of the Rocky mountains, and from the 
 parallel of 36 30^ north latitude to the 
 border of British America. The whole 
 region by the terms of the Missouri Com- 
 promise had been secured to free labor by 
 the exclusion of slavery. 
 
 Until the year 1850 this vast area was 
 called by the general and somewhat indefi- 
 nite name of the " Platte Country," from the 
 Platte river, which flows through it. Little 
 was known concerning it save that it was a 
 region of great fertility. It was mainly 
 occupied by the reservations of the Indian 
 tribes, which had been removed from the 
 other States to make way for the whites, 
 Across it swept the grand trails of the over. 
 
642 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 land route to Utah and the Pacific. The 
 people of the New England States were very- 
 anxious that the Indian reservations which 
 covered the eastern part should be bought 
 up by the general government and the coun- 
 try thrown open to emigration. Petitions to 
 this effect were presented to the Thirty- 
 second Congress, but no action was taken 
 upon them until December, 1 85 2, when Mr. 
 Hall, of Missouri, introduced a bill into the 
 House to organize the " Territory of Platte." 
 
 STEPHEN A. DOUGLAS. 
 
 It was referred to the Committee on Ter- 
 ritories, which in February, 1853, reported a 
 bill organizing the " Territory of Nebraska." 
 The bill was opposed in the House of Rep- 
 resentatives by the full strength of the South, 
 and in the Senate the only southern sena- 
 tors who voted for it were those from Mis- 
 souri. The Missouri Compromise, as has 
 been stated, secured the entire Nebraska 
 region to free labor; but notwithstanding 
 this the southern members of Congress 
 were resolved to oppose the organization of 
 
 a new free Territory, and to endeavor to 
 obtain a footing for slavery, in at least a part 
 of it. 
 
 The matter was revived in the Senate on 
 the sixteenth of January, 1854, by Senator 
 Dixon, of Kentucky, who gave notice that 
 whenever the Nebraska bill should be called 
 up he would move the following amend- 
 ment : " That so much of the eighth section 
 of an act approved March 6, 1820, entitled 
 ' An act to authorize the people of the Mis- 
 souri Territory to form a constitution and 
 State government, for the admission of such 
 State into the Union on an equal footing with 
 the original States, and to prohibit slavery in 
 certain Territories/ as declares ' That, in all 
 the territory ceded by France to the United 
 States, under the name of Louisiana, which 
 lies north of 36 3o' north latitude, slavery 
 and involuntary servitude, otherwise than in 
 the punishment of crimes whereof the party 
 shall have been duly convicted, shall be for 
 ever prohibited,' shall not be so construed as 
 to apply to the Territory contemplated by this 
 act, or to any other Territory of the United 
 States ; but that the citizens of the several 
 States or Territories shall be at liberty to take 
 and hold their slaves within any of the Terri- 
 tories or States to be formed therefrom, as 
 if the said act, entitled as aforesaid, had never 
 been passed." 
 
 More Slavery Agitation. 
 
 The announcement of this amendment 
 startled the country as much as the Wilmot 
 Proviso had done years before, and produced 
 much angry excitement. It was a clear 
 repudiation of the Missouri Compromise, 
 which it did not even seek to repeal 
 
 Senator Douglas, of Illinois, chairman of 
 the Committee on Territories, on the twenty- 
 third of January, 1 854, reported a bill 
 which provided for the organization of the 
 Platte country into two Territories. The 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF FRANKLIN PIERCE. 
 
 645 
 
 southern portion, which lay directly west of 
 Missouri, stretching to the Rock Mountains 
 on the west, and extending from the thirty- 
 seventh to the fortieth parallel of north lati- 
 tude, was to be organized into a distinct 
 Territory, to be called Kansas. The remain- 
 der was to be called Nebraska, having the 
 line of 43 3c/ for its northern boundary- 
 Senator Douglas, in an evil hour for the 
 country, incorporated in the bill the main 
 features of Mr. Dixon's amendment. The bill 
 contained the following provisions : 
 
 " Section 21. And be it further enacted, 
 That, in order to avoid misconstruction, it is 
 hereby declared to be the true intent and 
 meaning of this act, so far as the question of 
 slavery is concerned, to carry into practical 
 operation the following propositions and 
 principles, established by the compromise 
 measures of 1850, to wit: 
 
 " First. — That all questions pertaining to 
 slavery in the Territories, and in the new 
 States to be formed therefrom, are to be left 
 to the decision of the people residing therein, 
 through their appropriate representatives. 
 
 " Second. — That all cases involving title to 
 slaves, and questions of personal freedom, 
 are referred to the adjudication of the local 
 tribunals, with the right of appeal to the 
 Supreme Court of the United States. 
 
 " Third. — That the provisions of the consti- 
 tution and laws of the United States, in 
 respect to fugitives from service, are to be 
 carried into faithful execution in all the 
 ' organized Territories,' the same as in the 
 States." 
 
 A Blow at the Missouri Compromise. 
 
 The section of the bill which prescribed 
 the qualifications and mode of election of a 
 delegate from each of the Territories was as 
 follows: "The constitution, and all laws of 
 the United States which are not locally inap- 
 plicable, shall have the same force and effect 
 
 within the said Territory as elsewhere ir the 
 United States, except the section of the act 
 preparatory to the admission of Missouri into 
 the Union, approved March 6, 1820, which 
 was superseded by the principles of the leg 
 islation of 1850, commonly called the com- 
 promise measures, and is declared inopet 
 ative." 
 
 Mr. Dixon declared that the bill, as 
 reported by Senator Douglas, met with his 
 hearty approval, and that he would support 
 it with all his ability. The debate on the 
 bill began in the Senate on the twenty-fourth 
 of January, and continued through several 
 weeks. It was conducted with great ability 
 on both sides, and engaged the earnest atten- 
 tion of the whole country. The Free Soil 
 senators unanimously opposed the bill, 
 which they denounced as a violation of the 
 Missouri Compromise, by which the faith of 
 the nation was pledged to the settlement then 
 effected. The southern senators supported 
 it with equal unanimity, as they held that 
 the Missouri Compromise had been super- 
 seded by the compromise of 1850. 
 
 Motion to Strike Out. 
 
 On the sixth of February Mr. Chase, of 
 Ohio, moved to strike out so much of the 
 bill as declared the Missouri Compromise 
 ''superseded" by the compromise of 1850, 
 but the motion was defeated. Whereupon 
 Mr. Douglas, on the fifteenth of February, 
 moved to strike out the clause objected to 
 by Mr. Chase, and insert the following : 
 
 " Which being inconsistent with the prin- 
 ciple of non-intervention by Congress with 
 slavery in the States and Territories, as 
 recognized by the legislation of 1850 (com- 
 monly called the compromise measures), is 
 hereby declared inoperative and void ; it 
 being the true intent and meaning of this act 
 not to legislate slavery into any Territory or 
 State, nor to exclude it therefrom, but to 
 
644 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 leave the people thereof perfectly free to form 
 and regulate their domestic institutions in 
 their own way, subject only to the constitu- 
 tion of the United States." 
 
 Mr. Douglas' amendment was at once 
 adopted, and seemed fair enough on its face. 
 Mr. Chase exposed the hollowness of it by 
 proposing to add to it the following clause, 
 which was promptly voted down : " Under 
 which the people of the Territories, through 
 their appropriate representatives, may, if they 
 
 SALMON P. CHASE. 
 
 sec fit, prohibit the existence of slavery 
 therein." 
 
 The bill was adopted by the Senate by a 
 vote of thirty-seven yeas to fourteen nays, 
 and by the House by a vote of one hundred 
 and thirteen yeas to one hundred nays, and 
 on the thirty-first of May, 1854, received the 
 approval of the President and became a law. 
 
 The whole country engaged warmly in the 
 discussion aroused by the re-opening of the 
 question of slavery in the Territories. The 
 
 North resented the repeal of the Missouri 
 Compromise and in the South a large and 
 respectable party sincerely regretted the re- 
 peal of that settlement. By the passage o( 
 the Kansas-Nebraska bill the Thirty-third 
 Congress assumed a grave responsibility, and 
 opened the door to a bloody and bitter con 
 flict in the Territories between slavery and 
 free labor. The events now to be related were 
 the logical consequences of the repeal of the 
 Missouri Compromise. 
 
 A few months before the final vote 
 upon the Kansas-Nebraska bill the gen- 
 eral government succeeded in purchas- 
 ing the Indian reservations in those Ter- 
 ritories, and removed the Indian tribes 
 to new homes farther west. This action 
 at once threw Kansas and Nebraska 
 open to white settlers, and measures 
 were set on foot in the New England 
 States to encourage emigration thither. 
 Kansas 6eing a more fertile country than 
 Nebraska naturally attracted the greater 
 number of settlers. Before anything 
 could be done by the Free Soil men, the 
 people living on the border of Missouri 
 passed over into Kansas, and selecting 
 the best lands, put their mark upon 
 them, hoping in this way to establish 
 a pre-emption claim to them. Their 
 object was to organize and hold the 
 Territory in the interest of si ivery, but 
 very few of them removed to Kansas, 
 or had any wish to do so. 
 
 In the meantime societies had been formed 
 in the New England States for the promo 
 tion of emigration to Kansas. As the Pro- 
 slavery settlers had come into the Territory 
 so slowly, and in such small numbers, it 
 seemed certain that the northern people could 
 secure Kansas to free labor by sending out 
 settlers to occupy the Territory in good faith. 
 The Pro-slavery party in Missouri determined 
 to prevent this. In July, 1854, a meeting was 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF FRANKLIN PIERCE. 
 
 645 
 
 held at Westport in that State, at which it 
 was resolved that the persons taking part in 
 the meeting would, " whenever called upon 
 by any of the citizens of Kansas Territory, 
 hold ' themselves ' in readiness together to 
 resist and remove any and 
 all emigrants who go there 
 under the auspices of the 
 Northern Emigrant Aid 
 Societies." 
 
 The first party sent out 
 by the New England Aid 
 Societies reached a point 
 on the Kaw river, in Kan- 
 sas, about the middle of 
 July. There they pitched 
 their tents and began the 
 building of a town, which 
 they named Lawrence, in 
 honor of Amos A. Law- 
 rence, of Boston. By the 
 last of the month they were 
 joined by seventy more 
 emigrants and the work of 
 founding their town was 
 pushed forward with en- 
 ergy. There was not a 
 drone in the little commun- 
 ity. They were all honest, 
 intelligent, God-fearing men 
 and women, and they meant 
 to succeed in the undertak- 
 ing they had begun. They 
 were in legal and peaceable 
 possession of their settle- 
 ment, and thus far had mo- 
 lested or wronged no one. 
 
 They were not to live 
 in peace, however. Before 
 they had finished building their houses, they 
 were startled by the announcement that two 
 hundred and fifty armed Missourians had 
 encamped within a short distance of them for 
 the purpose of driving them out of the Terri- 
 
 tory. The next morning the Missourians 
 sent them a formal notice that " the Aboli- 
 tionists must leave the Territory, never more 
 to return to it." They declared their desire 
 to avoid bloodshed ; but notified the settlers 
 
 SCENE ON THE ALLEGHENY RIVER. 
 
 that they must be ready to leave the Terri- 
 tory, with all their effects, at one o'clock 
 that day. This the settlers refused to do, 
 and prepared to defend their homes. The 
 messengers of the Missourians found them 
 
6 4 6 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 drilling behind their tents and reported this 
 fact to their leaders. 
 
 The firm but quiet attitude of the people 
 of Lawrence had a happy effect. The Mis- 
 sou rians made no effort to carry out their 
 threat, but broke up their camp that night, 
 and withdrew across the border, leaving the 
 settlers in peace. Meanwhile the town of 
 Lawrence grew and prospered, and the New 
 England Societies continuing to send other 
 emigrants into the Territory, other towns 
 were founded. Settlers from the Southern 
 States came into the Territory very slowly. 
 
 The general government threw its influ- 
 ence as far as possible in favor of the Pro- 
 slavery party, in the organization of the 
 Territory, by appointing a majority of the 
 territorial officers from the slaveholding 
 States. A. H. Reeder was appointed governor 
 by President Pierce. He endeavored to 
 execute the laws faithfully, and ordered an 
 election for members of a territorial legisla- 
 ture, to be held on the thirtieth of March, 
 1855. On that day large numbers of armed 
 Missourians crossed the border, and, taking 
 possession of the polling-places in Kansas, 
 succeeded in returning a Pro-slavery legisla- 
 ture. 
 
 Oppressive Laws. 
 
 Six districts at once forwarded protests to 
 the governor against the elections, showing 
 beyond all reasonable doubt that they had 
 been controlled by citizens of Missouri. The 
 governor, who was anxious to do justice to 
 all parties, ordered a new election in these 
 districts, each of which, with the exception of 
 Lecompton, returned a Free Soil delegate. 
 The new delegates, however, were refused 
 their seats upon the assembling of the legis- 
 lature, and the successful candidates at the 
 original election were admitted. 
 
 The governor had summoned the legisla- 
 ture to meet at Pawnee City, on the Kansas 
 river, a town nearly one hundred miles dis- 
 
 tant from the border, and supposed to be fat 
 enough away to be free from intimidation by 
 the Missourians; but the legislature, immedi- 
 ately upon assembling, adjourned to Shawnee 
 Mission, on the Missouri border. The reso- 
 lution for this purpose was vetoed by the 
 governor, but was passed over his veto, 
 and was at once carried into effect. Upon 
 reassembling at Shawnee Mission, the Legis- 
 lature proceeded to adopt the laws of Mis- 
 souri as the laws of Kansas, and to frame a 
 series of statutes designedly cruel and oppres- 
 sive. These laws were vetoed by Governor 
 Reeder, who was removed by the President. 
 Wilson Shannon, of Ohio, was then appoint- 
 ed governor of Kansas. 
 
 Bold Acts of Pro-Slavery Men. 
 
 In the meantime the Free Soil settlers had 
 increased so rapidly that they at length 
 largely outnumbered the Pro-slavery settlers. 
 They now felt themselves strong enough to 
 resist the outrages of the Missourians, and 
 accordingly, on the fifth of September, 1855, 
 held a convention, in which they distinctly 
 repudiated the government that had been 
 forced upon them by men who were not 
 residents of the Territory. They announced 
 their intention not to take part in the election 
 of a delegate to Congress, which the territo- 
 rial authorities had ordered to be held on the 
 first of October, and called upon the actual 
 residents of the Territory to send delegates 
 to a convention to meet at Topeka on the 
 nineteenth of September. This convention 
 organized an executive committee for the 
 Territory, and ordered an election to be held 
 for the purpose of choosing a delegate to 
 Congress. Governor Reeder was nominated 
 and elected to Congress. On the twenty- 
 third of October the convention adopted a 
 Free State constitution, and forwarded it to 
 Congress with a petition for the admission of 
 Kansas into the Union as a State. 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF FRANKLIN PIERCE. 
 
 647 
 
 The struggle for the possession of the 
 Territory now passed out of the area of 
 politics. As we have said, the repeal of the 
 Missouri Compromise opened the way for, 
 and was the direct cause of, the conflict 
 between the Free and Pro-slavery settlers of 
 Kansas. The outrages of the Pro-slavery 
 men had forced the Free-Soilers into an atti- 
 tude of direct and uncompromising resist- 
 ance ; and after the action of the latter, at 
 Topeka, the struggle which had hitherto 
 been comparatively bloodless changed its 
 character and became an open and sangui- 
 nary war between the two parties. 
 
 In this struggle the Pro-slavery men were 
 the aggressors. Bands of young men, armed 
 and regularly organized into companies and 
 regiments, came into the Territory from 
 South Carolina, Georgia and the extreme 
 Southern States, with the avowed design of 
 making Kansas a slaveholding State at all 
 hazards. On the morning of May 21st, 
 1856, under the pretext of aiding the United 
 States marshal to serve certain processes 
 upon citizens of Lawrence, they captured 
 that town, sacked it, burned several houses 
 and inflicted a loss upon it amounting to 
 $150,000. From this time the war went on 
 in a series of desultory but bloody encoun- 
 ters, some of which assumed the propor- 
 tions of battles. 
 
 During this month an event occurred 
 which aroused universal indignation 
 throughout the Northern States. Senator 
 Charles Sumner, of Massachusetts, made 
 an eloquent speech in the Senate at Wash- 
 ington on the Kansas question, some parts 
 of which excited the anger of Preston S. 
 Brooks, a southern member of Congress. 
 On the twenty-second of May Brooks 
 assaulted Mr. Sumner while he was sitting 
 in the Senate chamber, and beat him on the 
 head with a cane until he Became insensible. 
 Mr. Sumner was disabled for the public ser- 
 
 vice for several years, but afterward was 
 re-elected almost unanimously and resumed 
 his seat. This cowardly assault was uni- 
 versally condemned. 
 
 In the summer of 1856 Governor Shan- 
 non, of Kansas, was removed, and John W. 
 Geary, of Pennsylvania, was appointed in 
 his place. He exerted himself honestly to 
 restore peace and execute the laws, and 
 ordered " all bodies of men combined, armed 
 and equipped with munitions of * v ar, with- 
 
 CHARLES SUMNER. 
 
 out authority of the government, instantly 
 to disband and quit the Territory." In 
 obedience to this order the Free Soil ~.onv 
 panies nearly all disbanded, but the Vro- 
 slavery party paid scarcely any attention to 
 it. They concentrated a force of two thou- 
 sand men and advanced upon Lawrence to 
 attack it. Governor Geary at once placed 
 himself at the head of the United States 
 dragoons stationed in the Territory, and by 
 a rapid march threw himself with th«se 
 
648 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 troops between the town of Lawrence and 
 the hostile force and prevented another con- 
 flict. 
 
 Matters had reached this stage when the 
 Presidential campaign opened in 1856. The 
 struggle in the Territories had greatly weak- 
 ened the Democratic party, and had given 
 rise to a new party which called itself 
 Republican, and which was based upon an 
 avowed hostility to the extension of slavery. 
 A third party, called the American, or Know 
 Nothing, also took part in the campaign, 
 and was based upon the doctrine that the 
 political offices of the country should be 
 held only by persons of American birth. 
 The Democratic party nominated James 
 Buchanan, of Pennsylvania, for the Presi- 
 dency, and John C. Breckenridge, of Ken- 
 tucky, for the Vice-Presidency. The Repub- 
 lican nominee for the Presidency was John 
 C. Fremont, of California; for the Vice- 
 Presidency William L. Dayton, of New 
 Jersey. The American party supported 
 Millard Fillmore, of New York, for the 
 Presidency, and Andrew J. Donelson, of 
 Tennessee, for the Vice-Presidency. The 
 
 Whig party had been broken to pieces by 
 its defeat in 1852, and had now entirely dis- 
 appeared. 
 
 The canvass was unusually excited. 
 Slavery was the principal question in dis- 
 pute. Party ties had little influence upon 
 men. The sentiment of the nation at large 
 had been outraged by the repeal of the Mis- 
 souri Compromise, and thousands of Demo- 
 crats, desiring to rebuke iheir party for its 
 course in bringing about this repeal, united 
 with the Republican party, which declared 
 as its leading principle that it was " both the 
 right and the duty of Congress to prohibit in 
 the Territories those twin relics of barbar- 
 ism — polygamy and slavery." 
 
 The elections resulted in the triumph of 
 James Buchanan, the candidate of the Dem 
 ocratic party. Mr. Buchanan received 174 
 electoral votes to 114 cast for Fremont. 
 Though a majority of the American people 
 sustained the action of the Democratic party, 
 the significant fact remained that 1,341,264 
 of the voters of the country had recorded 
 their condemnation of it by casting their 
 votes for Fremont and Dayton. 
 
 nU nU nU S ^^^gS^g^ Sgg -^ ^ nU ^u 
 
CHAPTER XL 
 The Administration of James Buchanan. 
 
 Inauguration of Mr. Buchanan — The Mormon Rebellion — The Financial Crisis of 1857 Laying of the Atlantic Tele 
 
 graphic Cable — Minnesota Admitted Into the Union — The San Juan Affair — Admission of Oregon Into the Union— 
 The Kansas Question — The Lecompton Constitution — Its Defeat — The Wyandotte Constitution — Admission of Kan 
 sas Into the Union — The John Brown Raid — Prompt Action of the Government — Brown and His Companions Sur 
 
 rendered to the State of Virginia — Their Trial and Execution — Presidential Campaign of c86o Rupture of the Denu, 
 
 cratic Party — Abraham Lincoln Elected President of the United States — Secession of South Carolina Reasons fo» 
 
 this Act — Secession of the Other Cotton States — Major Anderson Occupies Fort Sumter — Trying Position of the Gen- 
 eral Government — Course of Mr. Buchanan — The " Star of the West " Fired Upon by the South Carolina Batteries 
 
 Organization of the Confederate States of America — Jefferson Davis Elected President of the Southern Republic Th* 
 
 Peace Congress — Its Failure. 
 
 JAMES BUCHANAN, the fifteenth 
 President of the United States, was 
 inaugurated at Washington on the 
 fourth of March, 1857. He was in 
 his sixty-sixth year, and was a statesman of 
 great accomplishments and ripe experience. 
 He was born in Pennsylvania in 1791, and 
 was by profession a lawyer. He had served 
 his State in Congress as a representative and 
 a senator, had been minister to Russia under 
 President Jackson, and had been a member 
 of the cabinet of President Polk as secretary 
 of state. During the four years previous to 
 his election to the Presidency he had resided 
 abroad as the minister of the United States 
 to Great Britain, and in that capacity had 
 greatly added to his reputation as a states- 
 man. 
 
 He avowed the object of his administra- 
 tion to be " to destroy any sectional party, 
 whether North or South, and to restore, if 
 possible, that national fraternal feeling 
 between the different States that had existed 
 during the early days of the republic." The 
 intense sectional feeling which the discussion 
 of the slavery question had aroused had 
 alarmed patriotic men in all parts of the 
 Union, and it was earnestly hoped that Mr. 
 Buchanan's administration would be able to 
 
 effect a peaceful settlement of the quarrel. 
 Mr. Buchanan selected his cabinet from the 
 leading men of the Democratic party, and 
 placed at its head as secretary of state Lewis 
 Cass, of Michigan. 
 
 We have in a previous portion of this work 
 noticed the rise and growth of the Mormon 
 sect, and their settlement in the region of the 
 Great Salt lake, then a part of the Mexican 
 republic. They were not at all pleased with 
 their transfer to the United States by the 
 cession of the territory occupied by them by 
 the treaty of Guadaloupe Hidalgo. Their 
 obj'ect in emigrating to Utah had been to 
 place themselves beyond the limits of the 
 United States, where they could enjoy with- 
 out molestation their religious practices, and 
 maintain among themselves the institution 
 of polygamy, to which they were attached 
 as the foundation of their faith. They were 
 not disturbed by the Mexican government, 
 which was indeed scarcely aware of their 
 existence, and thus unnoticed devoted their 
 energies to building up the country they had 
 occupied. 
 
 Their missionaries were sent into the va« 
 rious countries of Europe, and converts were 
 made with extraordinary success and rapid- 
 ity. They built up a thriving town on the 
 
 649 
 
650 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 borders of the great lake, to which they gave 
 the name of Salt Lake City, and founded 
 other towns in various parts of the Territory. 
 By the year 1850 the population of the Ter- 
 ritory had increased to 11,380. Being on 
 the highway to California, the greater part 
 
 JAMES BUCHANAN. 
 
 of the overland traffic and travel to the 
 Pacific passed through Salt Lake City, and 
 was a source of considerable profit to the 
 Mormons. 
 
 In 1850 the Territory of Utah was organ- 
 ized, and Brigham Youngs who had suc- 
 
 ceeded Joe Smith as the prophet or leader 
 of the Mormons, was appointed by President 
 Fillmore governor of the Territory. His 
 appointment was renewed by President 
 Pierce, and the Mormons were left during 
 these two administrations to manage their 
 affairs very much in 
 their own way. Rely- 
 ing upon the immense 
 distance which sepa- 
 rated them from the 
 States, they paid but 
 little regard to the au- 
 thority of the United 
 States, and finally ven- 
 tured openly to resist 
 the officers of the gen- 
 eral government, and 
 expelled the federal 
 judge from the Ter- 
 ritory. 
 
 President Buchanan 
 thereupon removed 
 Brigham Young from 
 his office of governor, 
 and appointed a Mr. 
 Cumming his succes- 
 sor. The Mormons 
 having declared that 
 the new governor 
 should not enter the 
 Territory, General 
 Harney was ordered 
 to accompany him 
 with a large body of 
 troops and compel the 
 submission of the peo- 
 ple of Utah to the au- 
 thority of the federal government. 
 
 Under the leadership of Brigham Young 
 the Mormons took up arms and prepared to 
 dispute the entrance of the troops into the 
 Territory. They declared that their settle- 
 ment and civilization of Utah had given them 
 
6*1 
 
 inducing the Mormons to lay down their arms 
 and submit. Governor Cumming and the fed- 
 eral officers then entered Salt Lake City and 
 assumed the offices to which they had been 
 appointed, and a force of federal troops was 
 
 ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES BUCHANAN. 
 
 the sole right to the Territory, and that they 
 owed no allegiance to the United States. 
 Their resistance was so formidable that the 
 force under General Harney was largely 
 increased, and the command was conferred 
 upon Brigadier- 
 General Albert Sid- 
 ney Johnston, who 
 was considered the 
 most efficient offi- 
 cer in the service. 
 General Johnston 
 joined his troops 
 at Fort Bridger, 
 about one hundred 
 miles from Salt 
 Lake City, in Sep- 
 tember, 1857. The 
 Mormons in heavy 
 force occupied the 
 passes leading to 
 the valley of the 
 Great Salt lake. 
 The season was so 
 far advanced at the 
 time of his arrival 
 that General Johns- 
 ton concluded to 
 pass the winter at 
 Fort Bridger. The 
 Mormons were 
 very active during 
 the winter in cut- 
 ting off the trains of 
 the federal troops. 
 It was General 
 Johnston's inten- 
 tion to move upon 
 Salt Lake City im- 
 mediately upon the opening of the spring, but 
 before that season arrived the matter was 
 settled through the efforts of a Mr. Kane, of 
 Philadelphia. He was sent out to Salt Lake 
 City by the government, and succeeded in 
 
 THE MORMON 
 
 TEMPLE, SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH. 
 
 encamped near the city to render them such 
 assistance as should be found necessary. 
 PresiJcuJ Buchanan then issued a proclama- 
 tion granting a free pardon "to all, for the 
 seditions and treasons by them committed." 
 
652 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 Subsequently it transpired that a horrible 
 atrocity of the most cruel and bloody descrip- 
 tion had been committed. On the eighteenth 
 of September, 1857, one hundred and thirty- 
 six emigrants, who were said to have offended 
 the Mormons, were massacred in cold blood 
 at Mountain Meadow, Utah. Many years 
 later Bishop Lee, of the Mormon Church, was 
 accused of having ordered this wholesale 
 murder. Brigham Young was exonerated 
 in 1875. Bishop Lee was convicted, sen- 
 
 New York on the thirteenth of October, and 
 by those of Boston on the fourteenth. The 
 failures in the United States for the year ending 
 December 6, 1857, are said to have reached 
 the enormous aggregate of $291,750,000. 
 
 The Western States suffered in a marked 
 degree from the effects of this " crisis ;" but 
 the South was comparatively unharmed by it. 
 Various causes were assigned for the panic, the 
 principal of which were the large speculations 
 in western lands and a heavy fall in the value 
 
 MOUNTAIN MEADOW MASSACRE. 
 
 tenced to death, and shot March 23, 1877, 
 nearly twenty years after the dastardly crime 
 was committed. 
 
 In the fall of 1857 the general business of 
 'the country was thrown into confusion by 
 a sudden financial panic, which seriously 
 embarrassed all commercial and industrial 
 enterprises and caused general distress. On 
 the twenty-sixth of September the banks of 
 Philadelphia suspended specie payments ; and 
 their example was followed by the banks of 
 
 of railway stocks. The New York banks re- 
 sumed specie payments on the twellth of 
 December, 1857; tne Boston banks on the 
 fourteenth of December of that year; and 
 those of Philadelphia in April, 1858. Specie 
 payments were gradually resumed in other 
 parts of the country, but the depression of 
 business continued until during the course 
 of the year 1859. 
 
 In 1858 occurred an event second only 
 in importance to the invention of the 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES BUCHANAN. 
 
 653 
 
 electric telegraph. For some years it had 
 been believed possible to connect the 
 shores of Europe with those of America 
 by means of a submarine telegraphic cable 
 across the Atlantic. In 1857 an unsuc- 
 cessful effort was made by a company of 
 American and English capitalists to accom- 
 plish this object. The attempt was renewed 
 in 1858. Two war steamers were furnished 
 for the work of laying the cable — the 
 " Niagara " by the United States, and the 
 " Agamemnon " by Great Britain. The two 
 vessels met in mid ocean, and sailed each to its 
 own country, paying out the cable as they pro- 
 ceeded on their way. On the fifth of August, 
 1858, the " Niagara" entered Trinity bay, in 
 Newfoundland, and made fast her end of the 
 cable to the shore, and on the same day the 
 " Agamemnon " reached Valentia bay, in 
 Ireland, having successfully accomplished 
 her part of the work. 
 
 The First Ocean Cable. 
 
 The great work was thus ended, and on the 
 i'xteenth of August a message was received 
 iiirough the wires from the Queen of Great 
 Britain and Ireland, addressed to the Presi- 
 dent of the United States, who at once 
 returned a suitable reply. Other messages 
 were exchanged between the two continents, 
 and the practicability of the scheme was fully 
 demonstrated. On the first of September the 
 laying of the cable was celebrated with impos- 
 ing ceremonies in New York, and rejoicings 
 were held in other cities. 
 
 The hopes aroused by the successful 
 accomplishment of the great enterprise were 
 soon disappointed, for after a short time 
 the wires ceased to work, and no effort 
 could re-establish the communication be- 
 tween the two ends of the line. The feasi- 
 bility of the undertaking had been practi- 
 cally demonstrated, however, and the deter- 
 mined men who had carried it through to 
 
 success were convinced that a new effort would 
 be attended with more satisfactory results. 
 
 On the eleventh of May, 1 85 8, the Territory 
 of Minnesota was admitted into the Union as 
 a State. 
 
 In the autumn of 1859 a dispute arose 
 between the United States and Great Britain 
 as to the ownership of the large island of San 
 Juan, lying in the strait which separates 
 Vancouver's island from the territory of the 
 United States. General Harney, commanding 
 the American troops in the northwest, took 
 possession of the island. Governor Douglas, 
 of British Columbia, protested against this 
 occupation, and for a while there was danger 
 that the two parties would come to blows. 
 The general government despatched General 
 Scott to the scene of the controversy, and he 
 succeeded in bringing about an adjustment oi 
 the quarrel. 
 
 On the fourteenth of February, 1859, 
 Oregon was admitted into the Union as a 
 State, the Territory of Washington being 
 separated from it. 
 
 A New Governor for Kansas. 
 
 During the whole of Mr. Buchanan's ad- 
 ministration the question of slavery in the 
 Territories continued to engross the atten- 
 tion of the people. The struggle in Kansas 
 went on with increased bitterness. In the 
 summer of 1857 an election was ordered by 
 the legislature of Kansas for delegates to a 
 convention for the purpose of framing a con- 
 stitution, and care was taken to arrange the 
 matter so that a majority of Pro-slavery dele- 
 gates should be chosen. For this reason, 
 and others of equal force, the Free Soil men 
 refused to take any part in the election, which 
 consequently resulted in the choice of a Pro- 
 slavery convention. The Free Soil party 
 thereupon issued an address to the people of 
 the United States, relating the wrongs they 
 had suffered and were still enduring. 
 
654 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 Governor Geary now resigned his position 
 and President Buchanan appointed, as gov- 
 ernor of Kansas, Robert J. Walker, a man of 
 great eminence and ability, who was in sen- 
 timent opposed to slavery. Mr. Walker sin- 
 cerely desired to effect a settlement of the 
 quarrel, and succeeded in inducing the Free 
 Soil party to vote at the coming election for 
 members of the territorial legislature and a 
 delegate to Congress. They did so, and a 
 fair election was held, which resulted in the 
 choice of the Free Soil candidates by over- 
 whelming majorities. 
 
 Intense Feeling in Congress. 
 
 In the autumn of 1857 the convention 
 elected, as we have seen, assembled at Le- 
 compton, and framed a State constitution. 
 This instrument contained a clause adopting 
 slavery, and the convention submitted this 
 clause only to the people of the Territory for 
 ratification or rejection at the polls. The 
 remainder of the constitution was withheld 
 from the popular vote. The convention also 
 ordered that all whose votes were challenged 
 at the polls should be required " to take an 
 oath to support the constitution if adopted," 
 before being allowed to deposit their ballot. 
 The Free State men refused to take part in 
 the vote on the ratification of this constitu- 
 tion, and consequently all the votes cast were 
 in favor of it. It was declared adopted, and 
 was sent to Congress for the approval of that 
 body. 
 
 The discussion of the Lecompton consti- 
 tution in Congress was marked by great bit- 
 terness. It was supported by the Democratic 
 party and the adm inistration, and was opposed 
 with determination by the Republicans. The 
 latter took the strong ground that the Le- 
 compton constitution was not the work of 
 the people of Kansas, but of a mere faction, 
 and was distasteful to the majority of the 
 citizens of that Territory, who were opposed 
 to slavery. 
 
 Finally, on the thirtieth of April, 1858,8 
 bill was passed to submit the Lecompton 
 constitution to the people of Kansas. This 
 bill declared that if they ratified the consti- 
 tution, they should be given certain public 
 lands for State purposes ; but that if they 
 failed to ratify it, Kansas should not be per- 
 mitted to enter the Union until it had a 
 population of ninety-three thousand. With 
 these strange conditions, the constitution 
 was submitted to the people of Kansas on 
 the second of August, 1858, and was rejected 
 by them by a vote of eleven thousand three 
 hundred against it, to seventeen hundred and 
 eighty-eight votes in its favor. 
 
 In January, 1859, the civil strife having 
 subsided in the Territory, and the Free Soil 
 men having a majority in the legislature, a 
 convention was summoned at Wyandotte. 
 It met in July, and adopted a free State con- 
 stitution, which was submitted to the people 
 and ratified by a large majority. The 
 " Wyandotte Constitution" was then laid 
 before Congress, and a bill admitting 
 Kansas into the Union as a State was passed 
 by the lower House early in i860. 
 
 Kansas Admitted Into the Union. 
 
 The Senate, however, failed to act upon the 
 bill. At the next session the measure was 
 revived, and on the thirtieth of January, 
 1 86 1, the opposition of the South having 
 ceased by reason of the withdrawal of a 
 large number of the southern representatives 
 and senators from Congress, Kansas was 
 admitted into the Union as a free State. 
 
 Two notable events of this year should not 
 escape special mention. They are, however, 
 of a very different character. One was the 
 death of the great American writer and 
 author, Washington Irving, who may be 
 considered as the father of American liter- 
 ature. He was bred a lawyer, but his tastes 
 and aptitudes led him into other fields for the 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES BUCHANAN. 
 
 ^55 
 
 acquisition of both fame and wealth. He 
 commenced writing for the press at the 
 early age of nineteen. His first sketches 
 were under the nom de plume of Jonathan 
 Oldstyle ; then came his " Knickerbocker's 
 History of New York ;" but it was the 
 Sl Sketch Book " which " laid the foundation 
 of the fortune, and the permanent fame of 
 Irving ; the legends of Sleepy Hollow ' and 
 ' Rip Van Winkle ' at once took rank as 
 modern classics, while the pictures of Eng- 
 lish life and customs were so genial, artistic, 
 and withal so faithful, that they fairly took 
 the reading world by storm." This work 
 was brought out in England in good style 
 by the publisher, Murray, in 1820, upon the 
 recommendation of Sir Walter Scott. 
 
 A writer in " Johnson's Cyclopaedia " 
 says, that after this publication, " a new phe- 
 nomenon had appeared in the world of let- 
 ters — the first American author had gained 
 an honorable name in Albemarle street and 
 Paternoster Row. Henceforth the path of 
 Irving was smooth, and his subsequent writ- 
 ings appeared with rapidity." This great 
 author was born in New York City, on the 
 third of April, 1783, and died at his resi- 
 dence, Sunnyside, Tarrytown, on the Hud- 
 son, on the twenty-eighth of November, 
 1859, in the seventy-seventh year of his 
 age. The house in which he lived is a 
 quaint old edifice. It has become one of 
 the shrines of American pilgrimage. 
 
 The other notable event of this year which 
 made a deep impression on the popular 
 mind, North and South, and which was 
 attended with political results of the great- 
 est importance, was the raid of John Brown 
 upon Harper's Ferry. 
 
 On the night of the sixteenth of October, 
 1859, J onn Brown, who had acquired a con- 
 siderable notoriety as the leader of a Free 
 Soil company during the war in Kansas, 
 entered the State of Virginia, at Harper's 
 
 Ferry, with a party of twenty-one compan- 
 ions, and seized the United States arsenal 
 at that place. He then sent out parties to 
 arrest the leading citizens of the vicinity, as 
 hostages, and to induce the negro slaves to 
 join him, his avowed object being to put an 
 end to slavery in Virginia by exciting an 
 insurrection of the slaves. Several citizens 
 were kidnapped by these parties, but the 
 slaves refused to join Brown, or to take any 
 part in the insurrection. At daylight on the 
 
 WASHINGTON IRVING. 
 
 seventeenth of October the alarm was given, 
 and during the morning the militia of the 
 surrounding country was ordered under 
 arms to put down the outbreak. Brown's 
 force was unknown, and was greatly exag- 
 gerated. 
 
 The news of the seizure of the arsenal was 
 telegraphed to Washington, and the govern- 
 ment decided to recover it at once and con- 
 fine the trouble to the spot on which it had 
 originated. General Scott was absent from 
 the capital at the time, and the President ar*d 
 
656 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 secretary of war summoned Colonel Robert 
 E. Lee, a distinguished officer of the army, 
 to consult with them as to the best course 
 to pursue. The interview resulted in the 
 despatching of a battalion of marines to 
 Harper's Ferry, under the command of 
 Colonel Lee. Orders were telegraphed to 
 that poiut to suspend all operations there 
 until Colonel Lee's arrival. He reached 
 Harper's Ferry on the night of the seven- 
 teenth. 
 
 In the meantime, upon the appearance of 
 the militia, Brown and his companions re- 
 treated to the fire-engine house in the arsenal 
 yard. This was a strong stone building, and 
 they barricaded the doors, and during the 
 day maintained a desultory fire upon the 
 town. They had taken Colonel Washington, 
 Mr. Dangerfield, and the other citizens kid- 
 napped by them, into the engine-house with 
 them, where they held them, in the hope that 
 the presence of these gentlemen would pre- 
 vent the troops from firing upon them. 
 
 Capture of the Insurrectionists. 
 
 As soon as Colonel Lee arrived at Har- 
 per's Ferry, he proceeded to surround the 
 engine-house with the marines to prevent the 
 escape of Brown and his men, and deferred 
 his attack upon them until the next morning, 
 lest in a night assault some of the captive 
 citizens might be injured. At daylight on 
 the eighteenth, wishing, if possible, to accom- 
 plish the object in view without bloodshed, 
 Colonel Lee sent his aid, Lieutenant J. E. B. 
 Stuart, to demand the surrender of the insur- 
 gents, promising to protect them from vio- 
 lence at the hands of the citizens, and to hold 
 them subject to the orders of the President. 
 
 Brown refused the terms offered, and 
 demanded to be permitted to march out with 
 his men and prisoners, with the arms of the 
 former, to be allowed to proceed, without 
 being followed, to a point at a certain distance 
 
 from Harper's Ferry, where he would free 
 his prisoners. He was then willing that the 
 troops should pursue him, and to fight if he 
 could not escape. This proposition was 
 inadmissible, but as a last resort, Colonel Lee 
 directed Lieutenant Stuart to remonstrate 
 with the insurgents upon the folly of their 
 course. This duty Stuart performed, re- 
 maining before the engine-house until his 
 personal danger compelled him to withdraw. 
 Finding that nothing but force would avail, 
 Colonel Lee gave the order for the assault, 
 and the marines made a dash at the engine- 
 house, broke in the doors, and captured its 
 inmates. Several of the insurgents were 
 killed and wounded, Brown himself being 
 desperately hurt. The marines lost one man 
 killed and one wounded. Fortunately none 
 of the citizens captured by Brown were 
 injured. 
 
 Execution of John Brown. 
 
 Colonel Lee took care to protect his 
 prisoners, and there is little doubt that but 
 for his precautions in their behalf they would 
 have been shot down by the excited civil- 
 ians. He telegraphed to Washington for in- 
 structions, and was directed to deliver the 
 prisoners to Mr. Ould, the attorney for the 
 District of Columbia, who was ordered by 
 the government to take charge of them and 
 bring them to trial. As soon as Mr. Ould 
 arrived Colonel Lee turned over the prisoners 
 to him, and being satisfied that the danger 
 was over, went back to Washington. 
 
 As Brown and his companions had com< 
 mitted their chief crime against the United 
 States, by seizing the federal arsenal and re- 
 sisting the troops sent to reduce them to 
 submission, it seemed proper that they should 
 be tried for their offences by the general gov- 
 ernment. The attempt to incite an insurrec- 
 tion of the slaves, however, was a crime 
 against the laws of the State of Virginia, and 
 
Administration of james buchanan. 
 
 657 
 
 the governor of that State demanded of the 
 federal authorities the surrender of Brown 
 and his fellow prisoners for trial by the State 
 courts. 
 
 The demand was complied with, and the 
 prisoners were arraigned in the court of the 
 county of Jefferson, the county in which 
 their offence was committed. They were 
 given a fair trial, and were defended by able 
 counsel from the free States, who came to 
 Charlestown for that purpose. Brown frankly 
 confessed that his object was to produce an 
 insurrection among the slaves, and then carry 
 them off to the free States. The prisoners 
 were found guilty of treason, murder, and an 
 attempt to incite insurrection, and were sen- 
 tenced to be hanged. Brown was executed 
 at Charlestown on the second of December, 
 1859, and six of his companions met the same 
 fate a few weeks later. 
 
 Proofs of a Conspiracy. 
 
 During his trial Brown steadily denied 
 that he had been aided or encouraged by any 
 persons in the North. His denial was gen- 
 erally doubted at the time, and it is now 
 known that he was assisted with money and 
 advice by some of the most respectable 
 leaders of the extreme Anti-slavery party, 
 and that several persons high in position 
 knew of the designs of Brown, but failed to 
 warn either the general government or the 
 State of Virginia of the intended attack.* 
 
 The execution of Brown and his compan- 
 ions drew upon the South a storm of furious 
 denunciation from the Anti-slavery men. 
 Brown was regarded as a martyr to the cause 
 of freedom, and the day of his execution was 
 observed in many of the towns of the 
 Northern States by the tolling of bells, 
 
 prayer in the churches, the firing of minute- 
 guns, and other public demonstrations of sor- 
 row and respect. The conservative class in 
 the North, however, and in this number were 
 included some of the firmest opponents of 
 slavery, sincerely deplored Brown's course, 
 and acknowledged his punishment as merited, 
 
 " The Irrepressible Conflict." 
 
 Brown was a man of many good qualities, 
 but the undertaking in which he met his fate 
 was criminal in the extreme. Not even the 
 intention of rescuing the slaves of Virginia 
 from their bondage can excuse him for seek- 
 ing to excite a servile war, in which murder 
 and violence would have been inevitable, and 
 in which the aged and the helpless, the 
 defenceless women and children, would have 
 been the chief sufferers. 
 
 The effect of Brown's attempt upon the 
 southern people was most unfortunate. 
 They regarded it as unanswerable evidence 
 of the intention of the people of the North to 
 make war upon them under the cover of the 
 Union. Regarding this view of the case as 
 true, they came to listen with more favor to 
 the arguments of the extreme class which 
 openly favored a dissolution of the Union, 
 and which asserted that the only safety of 
 the South lay in pursuing such a course. 
 
 The John Brown raid was the most power- 
 ful argument that had ever been placed in 
 the hands of the disunionists, and in the 
 alarm and excitement produced by that 
 event the southern people lost sight of the 
 fact that the great mass of the northern 
 people sincerely deplored and condemned 
 the action of Brown and his supporters. 
 The voice of reason was drowned in the 
 storm of passionate excitement which swept 
 
 * Mr. F. B. Sanborn, one of Brown's confederates, in a series of papers published in The Atlantic Monthly 
 (vol. xxxv.) gives the details of this conspiracy, together with many interesting incidents connected with it, which sus 
 lain the view of the case presented above. 
 42 
 
658 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 over the land, and the extremists on both 
 sides were able to prosecute their unpatriotic 
 work to great advantage. 
 
 While the excitement was at its height the 
 Presidential campaign opened in the Spring 
 of i860. The slavery question was the chief 
 issue in this struggle. The convention of 
 the Democratic party met at Charleston, in 
 April, but being unable to effect an organi- 
 
 EDWARD EVERETT. 
 
 zation adjourned to Baltimore, and reassem- 
 bled in that city in June. The extreme south- 
 ern delegates were resolved that the conven- 
 tion should be committed to the protection 
 of slavery in the Territories by Congress, and 
 failing to control it withdrew from it in a 
 body, and organized a separate convention, 
 which they declared represented the Demo- 
 cratic party, but which, in reality, as the vote 
 subsequently proved, represented but a 
 
 minority of that party. The new conven- 
 tion was joined by a number oi delegates 
 from the Northern and Western States. 
 
 The convention, after the withdrawal of 
 these delegates, nominated for the Presi- 
 dency Stephen A. Douglas, of Illinois, and 
 for the Vice-Presidency Herschell V. John- 
 son, of Georgia. It then proceeded to adopt 
 the platform put forward by the entire party 
 four years before at Cincinnati, upon 
 the nomination of Mr. Buchanan, 
 with this additional declaration : 
 " That as differences of opinion 
 exist in the Democratic party as to 
 the nature and extent of the powers 
 Df a territorial legislature, and as to 
 the powers and duties of Congress 
 under the constitution of the United 
 States over the institution of slavery 
 within the Territories . . . the 
 party will abide by the decisions ol 
 the Supreme Court of the United 
 States on the questions of constitu- 
 tional law." 
 
 The "Seceders' Convention," as it 
 was commonly called, also adopted 
 the Cincinnati platform, and pledged 
 themselves to non-interference by 
 Congress with slavery in the Terri- 
 tories or the District of Columbia. 
 This party held to the doctrine that 
 the constitution recognized slavery 
 as existing in the Territories, and 
 sanctioned and protected it there, 
 and that neither Congress nor the peo- 
 ple of the Territories could frame any law 
 against slavery until the admission of such 
 Territories into the Union as States. The 
 regular convention held that Congress had 
 no right to interfere with slavery in the Ter- 
 ritories, to legislate either for or against it; 
 that the regulation of that question belonged 
 entirely to the people of the respective Ter- 
 ritories acting through their Legislatures. 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES BUCHANAN. 
 
 659 
 
 This doctrine was popularly known as "Squat- 
 ter Sovereignty," and was credited to Mr. 
 Douglas. The " Seceders' Convention " put 
 forward as its candidate for the Presidency 
 John C. Breckenridge, of Kentucky, and for 
 the Vice-Presidency Joseph Lane, of Oregon. 
 
 Republican Nominations. 
 
 The Republican party took issue with both 
 wings of the Democratic party. Its conven- 
 tion was held at Chicago, Illinois, and its can- 
 didates were, for President Abraham Lincoln, 
 of Illinois, and for Vice-President Hannibal 
 Hamlin, of Maine. The platform of principles 
 adopted by the Chicago Convention declared 
 that " the maintenance of the principles pro- 
 mulgated in the Declaration of Independence 
 and embodied in the Federal Constitution is 
 essential to the preservation of our republican 
 institutions. . . . That all men are created 
 equal ; that they are endowed by their Crea- 
 tor with certain inalienable rights. . . . That 
 the Federal Constitution, the rights of the 
 States and the union of the States must and 
 shall be preserved." 
 
 The platform also declared that the rights 
 of the States should be maintained inviolate, 
 " especially the right of each State to order 
 and control its own domestic institutions 
 according to its own judgment exclusively." 
 It asserted " that the normal condition of all 
 the territory of the United States is that of 
 freedom," and denied the right or " authority 
 of Congress, of a Territorial Legislature, or 
 of individuals, to give legal existence to 
 slavery in any Territory of the United 
 States." 
 
 A fourth party, known as the " Constitu- 
 tional Union Party," proclaimed as its plat- 
 form the following vague sentence : "The con- 
 stitution of the country, the union of the 
 States and the enforcement of the laws." The 
 convention of this party met at Baltimore, and 
 nominated for the Presidency John Bell, of 
 
 Tennessee, and for the Vice-Presidency 
 Edward Everett, of Massachusetts. 
 
 The contest between these parties was bit- 
 ter beyond all precedent. When the elec- 
 tion took place in November the result was 
 as follows : 
 
 Popular vote for Lincoln. 1,866,452 
 Douglas, 1,375,157 
 Breckenridge. 847,953 
 " Bell, '590,631 
 
 The electoral vote stood as follows *. For 
 Lincoln, 180; for Breckenridge, 72;^ 
 Bell, 39; tor Douglas, 12. 
 
 Election of Abraham Lincoln. 
 
 Mr. Lincoln was thus elected by a plurality 
 of the popular vote, which secured for him 
 the electoral votes of eighteen States. These 
 States were entirely north of the sectional 
 line, and he received not a single electoral 
 vote from a Southern State. The States, 
 which cast their electoral votes for Brecken- 
 ridge, Bell and Douglas, were entirely slave- 
 holding. The division thus made was alarm- 
 ing. It was the first time in the history of the 
 Republic that a President had been elected 
 by the votes of a single section of the 
 Union. 
 
 The state in which the Presidential election 
 left the country, was alarming. The excite- 
 ment was higher than it had been before the 
 struggle at the polls. The Gulf States had 
 declared at an early period of the political 
 campaign that they would withdraw from the 
 Union in the event of the election of a Re- 
 publican President. The people of the South 
 generally regarded the result of the election 
 as an evidence of the determination of the 
 Northern States to use the power of the fed- 
 eral government to destroy the institution of 
 slavery. The disunion leaders exerted them- 
 selves to deepen this conviction, and to 
 arouse the fears of the South. 
 
66o 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 On the other hand, the Republican leaders 
 took little pains to allay the excitement by 
 declaring their intentions to execute faith- 
 fully the constitution and laws of the Union. 
 Their declarations of fidelity to the Union 
 were abundant, and were generally accom- 
 panied by equally plain assertions of their 
 
 country's history as he had never been 
 needed before; but, alas! statesmanship of 
 any kind was painfully wanting. 
 
 As soon as the election of Mr. Lincoln 
 was definitely ascertained, the legislature of 
 South Carolina summoned a sovereign con- 
 vention of the people of that State, which 
 
 BRIDGE CROSSING THE SUSQUEHANNA RIVER AT HARRISBURG. 
 
 determination to oppose by force the with- 
 drawal of the Southern States — declarations 
 which were ill-suited to calm the fears of the 
 South, or to encourage the party in that sec- 
 tion, which desired a perpetuation of the 
 Union. A statesman of the Henry Clay 
 school was needed at this crisis of our 
 
 met on the seventeenth of December, i860 
 This convention adopted an ordinance of 
 secession on the twentieth of December, 
 and declared the State no longer a mem- 
 ber of the Union. The reasons assigned for 
 this action were thus stated by the conven- 
 tion : 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES BUCHANAN. 
 
 661 
 
 "An increasing hostility on the part of the 
 non-slaveholding States to the institution of 
 slavery has led to a disregard of their obli- 
 gations, and the laws of the general govern- 
 ment have ceased to effect the objects of the 
 constitution. The States of Maine, New 
 Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Con- 
 necticut, Rhode Island, New York, Penn- 
 sylvania, Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Wis- 
 consin, and Iowa, have enacted laws which 
 either nullify the acts of Congress or render 
 useless any attempt to execute them. 
 
 Strong Affirmations. 
 
 " In many of these States the fugitive is 
 discharged from the service or labor claimed, 
 and in none of them has the State govern- 
 ment complied with the stipulations made 
 111 the constitution. . . . Thus the consti- 
 tutional compact has been deliberately broken 
 and disregarded by these non-slaveholding 
 States, and the consequence follows that 
 South Carolina is released from her obli- 
 gation. 
 
 " We affirm that these ends for which this 
 government was instituted have been defeated, 
 and the government itself has been made 
 destructive of them by the action of non- 
 slaveholding States. Those States have 
 assumed the right of deciding upon the pro- 
 priety of our domestic institutions ; and have 
 denied the rights of property established in 
 fifteen of the States and recognized by the 
 constitution ; they have denounced as sinful 
 the institution of slavery ; they have per- 
 mitted the open establishment among them 
 of societies whose avowed object is to disturb 
 the peace and to eloigne the property of 
 citizens of other States. They have encour- 
 aged and assisted thousands of our slaves to 
 leave their homes ; and those who remain 
 have been incited by emissaries, books, and 
 pictures to servile insurrection. 
 
 ■' For twenty-five years this agitation has 
 been steadily increasing, until it has now 
 secured to its aid the power of the common 
 government. Observing the forms of the 
 constitution, a sectional party has found 
 within that article establishing the executive 
 department the means of subverting the con- 
 stitution itself. A geographical line has 
 been drawn across the Union, and all the 
 States north of that line have united in the 
 election of a man to the high office of Presi- 
 dent of the United States whose opinions 
 and purposes are hostile to slavery. 
 
 Charges Against Certain States. 
 
 " He is to be intrusted with the admin- 
 istration of the common government because 
 he has declared that that ' government cannot 
 endure permanently half slave, half free,' and 
 that the public mind must rest in the belief 
 that slavery is in the course of ultimate 
 extinction. 
 
 " This sectional combination for the sub- 
 version of the constitution has been aided 
 in some of the States by elevating to citizen- 
 ship persons who, by the supreme law of the 
 land, are incapable of becoming citizens; and 
 their votes have been used to inaugurate a 
 new policy, hostile to the South, and destruc- 
 tive of its peace and safety. 
 
 " On the fourth of March next this party 
 will take possession of the government. It has 
 announced that the South shall be excluded 
 from the common territory ; that the judicial 
 tribunals shall be made sectional, and that 
 a war must be waged against slavery 
 until it shall cease throughout the United 
 States. 
 
 " The guarantees of the constitution will 
 then no longer exist ; the equal rights of the 
 States will be lost. The slaveholding States 
 will no longer have the power of self-govern- 
 ment or self-protection, and the federal 
 government will become their enemy." 
 
662 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 These reasons were substantially the same 
 as those avowed by the other Southern States 
 in support of their action, and therefore we 
 have quoted them at length. 
 
 The example of South Carolina was fol- 
 lowed by the other States of the far South, 
 which summoned conventions and adopted 
 ordinances of secession. Mississippi with- 
 drew from the Union on the ninth of January, 
 1 86 1 ; Florida on the tenth of January; 
 Alabama on the eleventh of January ; Geor- 
 gia on the nineteenth of January ; Louisiana 
 on the twenty-sixth of January, and Texas 
 on the first of February. The forts, arsenals 
 and other public property of the United States 
 within the limits of these States were seized 
 by the authorities of the States in which they 
 were situated, and were held by their troops, 
 with the exception of Forts Moultrie and 
 Sumter, in Charleston harbor, and Fort Pick- 
 ens, at Pensacola. 
 
 Critical State of Affairs. 
 
 Fort Moultrie was occupied by Major 
 Robert Anderson, of the United States army, 
 with a garrison of eighty men. Becoming 
 alarmed at the rapid concentration of troops 
 -in Charleston, Major Anderson evacuated 
 the fort on the night of December 25, i860, 
 and threw himself with his command into 
 Fort Sumter, which was built in the bay at 
 some distance from either shore. The State 
 troops at once occupied Fort Moultrie, and 
 began to erect batteries of heavy guns at 
 different points along the harbor for the 
 reduction of Fort Sumter. 
 
 Fort Pickens was held by a garrison under 
 Lieutenant Slemmer. The State of Florida 
 occupied the navy yard at Pensacola and 
 the other forts in that harbor with her 
 troops. 
 
 The property of the general government 
 seized by the seceded States amounted to 
 over twenty millions of dollars in value. 
 
 The position of the general government 
 was one of great difficulty. The President 
 was called upon either to recognize the law- 
 fulness of the acts of the seceded States, and 
 thus to join in the work of dissolving the 
 Union, or to maintain the authority of the 
 federal government, and compel the submis- 
 sion of the Southern States to the constitu- 
 tion and laws of the land. The govern 
 ment was almost powerless to enforce its 
 authority. The army, but sixteen thou- 
 sand strong, was stationed upon the re- 
 mote frontier, and the available vessels of 
 the navy were nearly all absent on foreign 
 service. Many of the most prominent federal 
 officials, including several of the cabinet 
 ministers, were in open sympathy with the 
 seceded States. The President's position was 
 unquestionably embarrassing, but he made 
 no use of the means at his command. General 
 Scott, the veteran commander of the army, 
 believed that prompt action on the part of the 
 general government would confine the evil to 
 the six cotton States, and urged the Presi- 
 dent to act with vigor. 
 
 Mr, Buchanan was sorely perplexed, and 
 seemed chiefly anxious to postpone all defi- 
 nite action until the inauguration of his suc- 
 cessor. He was in favor of conceding every- 
 thing but separate independence to the 
 South, failing to perceive that the leaders of 
 the secession movement would accept nothing 
 but separation ; and by his timidity lost the 
 advantages which the government would 
 have gained by a bold, firm course. 
 
 Attempt to Aid Major Anderson. 
 
 As Major Anderson was short of supplies 
 and needed reinforcements, the steamship 
 " Star of the West " was despatched by the 
 government to Charleston with provisions 
 and a detachment of two hundred and fifty 
 men to his assistance. She reached Charles- 
 ton on the ninth of January, 1861, and 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES BUCHANAN. 
 
 663 
 
 attempted to enter the harbor, but was fired 
 upon by the South Carolina batteries, and 
 turned back. 
 
 The President was urged by the friends of 
 the South to order Major Anderson to evac- 
 uate Fort Sumter and return to Fort Moul- 
 trie, but refused to do so. South Carolina 
 then offered to purchase Fort Sumter from 
 the general government, for its full value, but 
 the President refused to make the sale. 
 
 Immediately upon their withdrawal from 
 the Union the six seceded States began to 
 concert measures for their common protec- 
 tion. Delegates were elected to a convention 
 which met at Montgomery, Alabama, on the 
 fourth of February, 1 861, to devise a plan for 
 this purpose. The convention at once pro- 
 ceeded to organize a new republic, for which 
 they adopted the name of The Confederate 
 States of America. On the eighth of Febru- 
 ary, a provisional constitution having been 
 adopted, the convention elected Jefferson 
 Davis, of Mississippi, President, and Alexan- 
 der H. Stephens, of Georgia, Vice-president 
 of the Confederate States. The action of the 
 convention was sustained by all the States 
 comprising the new confederacy, and the 
 provisional government at once entered upon 
 its duties. Mr. Davis was inaugurated Presi- 
 dent of the Confederate States at Montgom- 
 ery, Alabama, February 18, 1861. 
 
 Sketch of Jefferson Davis. 
 
 Jefferson Davis was a native of Kentucky, 
 and was born on the third of June, 1808. 
 His father had removed to Mississippi during 
 his early childhood, and he had grown up to 
 manhood in that State. He was educated at 
 the West Point Military Academy, from 
 which he was graduated in 1828, and passed 
 the next seven years of his life in the army. 
 He served with distinction during the Black 
 Hawk war and against the Indian tribes on 
 the frontier. Entering into politics after his 
 
 withdrawal from the army, he was soon sent 
 to represent his State in Congress, in which 
 body he served until the commencement oi 
 the Mexican war. During that struggle he 
 commanded the Mississippi Rifles, and dis- 
 tinguished himself greatly in the battles of' 
 General Taylor's army, and especially at 
 Buena Vista. 
 
 Upon his return home he was chosen to 
 represent Mississippi in the Senate of the 
 United States. Upon the inauguration of 
 
 JEFFERSON DAVIS. 
 
 President Pierce, he accepted a seat in the 
 cabinet as secretary of war. Returning to 
 the Senate after the close of Mr. Pierce's 
 administration, he remained in that body 
 until the secession of Mississippi, when he 
 resigned his seat and returned home. He 
 was now in his fifty-third year, and was 
 regarded as one of the most brilliant public 
 men in America. His election was generally 
 looked upon in the South as a concession to 
 the more conservative portion of the south- 
 ern people, for he had not been considered 
 
1& _ " \ v^O 
 
 INAUGURATION OF JEFFERSON DAVIS. 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES BUCHANAN. 
 
 665 
 
 as one ol the original or most ultra secession 
 leaders. 
 
 The conservative elements of both sections 
 made great efforts to bring about a recon- 
 ciliation. The State of Virginia called upon 
 all the .States to send delegates to an informal 
 peace congress to meet in Washington. This 
 body assembled in February. Twenty States 
 were represented in it — thirteen northern 
 and seven southern — and the venerable ex- 
 President Tyler was chosen to preside over 
 its deliberations. Various plans of settle- 
 ment were proposed, and a committee, con- 
 sisting of one member from each State, was 
 appointed to prepare a plan upon which the 
 congress could unite. In due time it made 
 its report to the congress, and after a careful 
 and elaborate discussion the resolutions were 
 
 adopted, and were ordered to be laid before 
 the rival governments. 
 
 The congress then adjourned. The plan 
 proposed by this body pleased neither side. 
 The Southern States were not satisfied with 
 the guarantees it offered for the protection of 
 their rights in the matter of slavery; and the 
 Northern States were unwilling to sanction 
 a more rigid enforcement of the constitu- 
 tional provision for the rendition of fugitive 
 slaves. The effort to close the breach be- 
 tween the States only served to widen it. 
 
 Matters were in this unhappy and excited 
 condition when the administration of Mr, 
 Buchanan came to a close. After the inau- 
 guration of his successor, he retired to his 
 home at Wheatland, near Lancaster, Penn- 
 sylvania, where he died in June, i868. 
 
 ^m 
 
 • c.-A 
 
BOOK VI 
 
 The Civil War 
 
 CHAPTER XLI 
 The Administration of Abraham Lincoln 
 
 inauguration of President Lincoln — His History — The Confederate Commissioners at Washington — Attack upon Fort 
 Sumter by the Confederates— The President Calls for Troops — Response of the North and West — Secession of the 
 Border States — Opening Events of the War in Virginia — Withdrawal of West Virginia — Admitted into the Union af 
 a Separate State — Meeting of Congress— The West Virginia Campaign — Battle of Bull Run— The War in Missouri- 
 Kentucky Occupied — The Blockade — Capture of Port Royal— The "Trent" Affair — Insurrection in East Tennessee- 
 State of Affairs at the Opening of the Year 1862 — Edwin M. Stanton made Secretary of War— Capture of Forts Henry 
 and Donelson — The Confederates Fall Back from Kentucky — Battle of Shiloh — Capture of Island No. 10 — Evacuation 
 of Corinth — Capture of Memphis — Bragg's Kentucky Campaign — His Retreat into Tennessee — Battles of Iuka and 
 Corinth — Battle of Murfreesboro', or Stone River — Grant's Campaign against Vicksburg — Its Failure— The War Beyond 
 the Mississippi — Battle of Pea Ridge — Capture of Roanoke Island — Capture of New Orleans -Surrender of Fori 
 Pulaski — The War in Virginia — Johnston's Retreat from Centreville — Battle between the *' Monitor" and "Virginia" 
 
 The Move to the Peninsula — Johnston Retreats to the Chickahominy — Battle of Seven Pines — Jackson's Successes 
 
 in the Valley of Virginia — The Seven Days' Battles Before Richmond — Battle of Cedar Mountain — Defeat of Genera! 
 Pope's Army — Lee Invades Maryland —Capture of Harper's Ferry — Battles of South Mountain and Antietam— 
 Retreat ot Lee into Virginia— McClellan Removed— Battle of Fredericksburg. 
 
 ABRAHAM LINCOLN, the six- 
 teenth President of the United 
 States, was inaugurated at Wash- 
 ington on the fourth of March, 1861. 
 As it was feared that an atterr.pt would be 
 made to prevent the inauguration, the city- 
 was held by a strong body of regular troops 
 under General Scott, and the President-elect 
 was escorted from his hotel to the Capitol by 
 a military force. No effort was made to inter- 
 fere with the ceremonies, and the inaugura- 
 tion passed off quietly. 
 
 The new President was in his fifty-third 
 year, and was a native of Kentucky. When 
 he was but eight years old his father removed 
 to Indiana, and the boyhood of the future 
 President was spent in hard labor upon the 
 farm. Until he reached manhood he con- 
 tinued to lead this life, and during this entire 
 period attended school for only a year. At 
 the age of twenty-one he removed to Illinois, 
 666 
 
 ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 
 
 66f 
 
 where he began life as a storekeeper. Being 
 anxious to rise above his humble position, he 
 determined to study law. He was too poor 
 to buy the-necessary books, and so borrowed 
 them from a neighboring lawyer, read them 
 at night and returned them in the morning. 
 His genial character, great good nature and 
 love of humor won him the friendship of the 
 people among whom he resided, and they 
 elected him to the lower house of the Legis- 
 lature of Illinois. 
 
 He now abandoned his mercantile pursuits, 
 and began the practice of the law, and was 
 subsequently elected a representative to Con- 
 gress from the Springfield District. He 
 took an active part in the politics of his 
 State, and in 1858 was the candidate of the 
 Republican Party for United States Senator. 
 In this capacity he engaged in a series of de- 
 bates in various parts of the State with Sena- 
 tor Douglas, the Democratic candidate for 
 re-election to the same position. This de- 
 bate was remarkable ior its brilliancy and in- 
 tellectual vigor, and brought him promi- 
 nently before the whole country, and opened 
 the way to his nomination for the Presi- 
 dency. 
 
 The Inaugural Address. 
 
 In person he was tall and ungainly, and in 
 manner he was rough and awkward, little 
 versed in the refinements of society. He 
 was a man, however, of great natural vigor 
 of intellect, and was possessed of a fund of 
 strong common sense, which enabled him to 
 see at a glance through the shams by which 
 he was surrounded, and to pursue his own 
 aims with singleness of heart and directness 
 of purpose. He had sprung from the ranks 
 of the people, and he was never false to them. 
 He was a simple, unaffected, kind-hearted 
 man ; anxious to do his duty to the whole 
 country ; domestic in his tastes and habits ; 
 and incorruptible in every relation of life. 
 
 He was fond of humor, and overflowed with 
 it ; finding in his " little stories " the only- 
 relaxation he ever sought from the heavy 
 cares of the trying position upon which he 
 was now entering. He selected his cabinet 
 from the leading men of the Republican 
 party, and placed William H. Seward, of 
 New York, at its head as Secretary of 
 State. 
 
 Mr. Lincoln was sincerely anxious to 
 avoid everything which might precipitate the 
 civil strife ; but at the same time was deter- 
 
 ,.f« 7 
 
 WILLIAM H. SEWARD. 
 
 mined to maintain the authority of the gen- 
 eral government over the seceded States. In 
 his inaugural address he declared his pur- 
 pose to collect the public revenues at the 
 ports of the seceded States, and to " hold, 
 occupy and possess " the forts, arsenals and 
 other public property seized by those States. 
 At the time of his entrance upon the duties 
 of his office Fort Sumter and Fort Pickens 
 were still held by the Federal forces. 
 
668 
 
 THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 The Confederate government was con- 
 vinced that war was inevitable ; and since its 
 inauguration, had been preparing for the 
 coming struggle. Nearly all the officers of 
 the army and navy of the United States, who 
 were natives of the seceded States, resigned 
 their commissions in the old service, and 
 were given similar positions in the army of the 
 
 ARRIVAL OF PRESIDENT LINCOLN AT THE CAPITOL 
 
 Confederate States. The forces collected at 
 Charleston and Pensacola were reinforced by 
 troops from other States, and the command 
 at the former place was conferred upon Gen- 
 eral Pierre G. T. Beauregard, and at the latter 
 upon General Braxton Bragg, both of whom 
 had been distinguished officers of the old army. 
 
 Just before the close of Mr. Buchanan's 
 term of office, the Confederate government 
 despatched John Forsyth, of Alabama, Mar- 
 tin J. Crawford, of Georgia, and A. B. Roman, 
 of Louisiana, to Washington as commission- 
 ers to endeavor to effect a peaceable adjust- 
 ment of the matters at issue between the two 
 governments, and to treat for an equitable 
 division of the public property of 
 the United States. Mr. Buchanan 
 refused to receive the commis- 
 sioners in their official capacity, 
 and after the inauguration of 
 
 f\w the new administration they ad- 
 dressed a note to Mr. Seward, 
 the new Secretary of State, set- 
 ting forth the objects of their 
 mission, and soliciting an official 
 interview with the President. 
 
 Mr. Seward declined to receive 
 them in their official capacity, but 
 answered them verbally through 
 Mr. Justice John A. Campbell, of 
 the Supreme Court of the United 
 States, that he was in favor of a 
 peaceful settlement of the diffi- 
 culty, and that the troops would 
 be withdrawn from Fort Sumter 
 in less than ten days. Mr. Sew- 
 ard's object appears to have been 
 to deceive the commissioners, 
 and lull their suspicions, in order 
 to gain time for the preparations 
 which had been determined upon 
 for the relief of Fort Sumter. 
 
 In the meantime, the govern- 
 ment having resolved to rein- 
 provision Fort Sumter at all 
 hazards, every nerve was strained to carry 
 out this design before it should become 
 known to the Confederates. An expedition 
 consisting of seven ships, carrying two hun- 
 dred and eighty-five guns and twenty-four 
 hundred men, was prepared at New York 
 
 force and 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 
 
 669 
 
 and Norfolk. The southern commissioners, 
 whose suspicions had been allayed by Mr. 
 Seward's message, were alarmed by the ru- 
 mors of these preparations, which they sus- 
 pected were for the relief of Fort Sumter. 
 They waited upon Judge Campbell to ask an 
 explanation, and that gentleman, on the sev- 
 enth of April, addressed a note to Mr. Sew- 
 ard asking if the assurances he had given 
 were well or ill founded. Mr. Seward replied 
 as follows : " Faith as to Sumter fully kept ; 
 wait and see." 
 
 In the meantime the expedition had sailed 
 from New York 
 and Norfolk, and 
 was on its way to 
 Charleston harbor. 
 On the eighth of 
 April, 1 861, Gov- 
 ernor Pickens, of 
 South Carolina, 
 was notified by the 
 general govern- 
 ment of its inten- 
 tion to relieve Fort 
 Sumter at all haz- 
 ards, and of the 
 sailing of the fleet 
 for that purpose. 
 Governor Pickens 
 at once informed 
 
 General Beauregard of this notification, and 
 the news was telegraphed by him to the 
 Confederate government at Montgomery. 
 
 The Confederate Secretary of War there- 
 upon ordered General Beauregard to demand 
 the immediate surrender of Fort Sumter; 
 " and if this should be refused to proceed 
 to reduce it.'" On the eleventh of April 
 General Beauregard demanded of Major 
 Anderson the surrender of the fort. The 
 demand was refused in writing ; but Major 
 Anderson added verbally to the mes- 
 senger, " I will await the first shot, and if 
 
 you do not batter us to pieces, we will be 
 starved out in a few days." 
 
 Beauregard telegraphed this remark with 
 Anderson's reply to his government, and was 
 answered, " Do not desire needlessly to bom- 
 bard Fort Sumter. If Major Anderson will 
 state the time at which, as indicated by him- 
 self, he will evacuate, and agree that, in the 
 meantime, he will not use his guns against 
 us unless ours should be employed against 
 Fort Sumter, you are authorized thus to 
 avoid the effusion of blood. If this or its 
 equivalent be refused, reduce the fort, as 
 
 FORT PICKENS. 
 
 your judgment decides most practicable." 
 The Federal fleet was on its way to Charles- 
 ton, and if the attack of the Confederates 
 was to be made at all, no time was to be lost. 
 General Beauregard, therefore, gave Major 
 Anderson warning that he should open fire 
 upon Fort Sumter at half-past four o'clock 
 the next morning. 
 
 At the designated hour on the morning of 
 April 1 2th, the Confederate batteries opened 
 fire upon Fort Sumter, which replied to them 
 with spirit. The bombardment lasted over 
 thirty-two hours, and the fort was greatly 
 
670 
 
 THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 damaged, and many of the guns were dis- 
 mounted. The fleet arrived off the harbor 
 during the bombardment, but remained in 
 the offing, and took no part in the engage- 
 ment. Not a single life was lost in this 
 memorable battle. Late in the afternoon 
 of the thirteenth, Major Anderson agreed 
 to capitulate, and the firing ceased. The 
 
 MAJOR ANDERSON. 
 
 victors granted liberal terms to Anderson 
 and his men, whose heroism had aroused 
 their warmest admiration ; and on the morn- 
 ing of Sunday, April 14th, the fort was sur- 
 rendered to the Confederate forces, and 
 Major Anderson and the garrison embarked 
 in one of the vessels of the fleet, which at 
 once sailed for New York. 
 
 The attack upon Fort Sumter put an end 
 
 to the last hope of peace, and aroused the 
 most intense excitement in both sections of 
 the country. On the fifteenth of April, Presi- 
 dent Lincoln issued a proclamation calling 
 upon the States to furnish seventy-five 
 thousand troops for the suppression of the 
 rebellion, and convening Congress in extra 
 session on the Fourth of July. The Northern 
 and Western States re- 
 sponded with enthu- 
 siasm to the President's 
 call for troops, and at 
 once began to forward 
 . their quotas to the points 
 designated by the war 
 department. 
 
 The enthusiasm in the 
 South was fully equal to 
 that of the North. The 
 Confederate government 
 issued a call for volun- 
 teers to repel the threat- 
 ened invasion of the fed- 
 eral forces, and it was 
 responded to with ala- 
 crity. 
 
 Until now the States 
 of Maryland, Virginia, 
 North Carolina, Tennes- 
 see, Kentucky, Arkansas 
 and Missouri, generally 
 known as the Border 
 States, had remained in 
 the Union, hoping to be 
 able to effect a peaceable 
 settlement of the quarrel. Their sympathies 
 were with the Southern States, and it was gen- 
 erally believed that in the event of war they 
 would cast their lots with those States. Each 
 of these States was included in the call of 
 President Lincoln for troops. The governors 
 of most of them replied by refusing to furnish 
 the quotas required of them, and by 
 denouncing the President's demand as illegal. 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 
 
 671 
 
 Conventions of the people were held, and 
 all but Maryland, Kentucky and Missouri 
 withdrew from the Union. The secession of 
 Virginia took place on the seventeenth of 
 Api il ; that of Arkansas on the sixth of May ; 
 that of North Carolina on the twentieth of 
 May ; and that of Tennessee on the eighth 
 of June. These States subsequently ratified 
 the constitution of the Confederate States, 
 and became members of the new republic. 
 Kentucky and Missouri remained neutral. 
 
 The passage of the 
 act of secession by the 
 Virginia convention 
 was kept secret for a 
 day or two in order to 
 give the authorities of 
 that State an oppor- 
 tunity to seize the 
 United States arsenal 
 at Harper's Ferry, and 
 the navy yard at Ports- 
 mouth. The officer 
 in command of the 
 arsenal, upon hearing 
 of the approach of a 
 force of Virginia 
 troops, destroyed a 
 number of the mus- 
 kets stored there, set 
 fire to the buildings, 
 and retreated into 
 
 Pennsylvania. The Virginians extinguished 
 the flames and secured a large quantity of 
 arms and equipments and the valuable ma- 
 chinery for the manufacture of arms. The 
 commandant of the navy yard at Portsmouth, 
 upon the approach of the Virginians, made 
 io attempt to defend his post, but spiked the 
 cannon, burned or sunk the war vessels lying 
 in the harbor, set fire to the buildings, and 
 retreated with two war steamers. 
 
 The navy yard was at once occupied by the 
 Virginians, who secured nearly two thousand 
 
 pieces of cannon, and an immense quantity 
 of stores and munitions of all kinds. The 
 .governors of the seceded Border States issued 
 calls for volunteers immediately upon the 
 withdrawal of their States. Men came for- 
 ward in such large numbers that arms could 
 not be provided for all of them. The 
 prominent points of danger in Virginia 
 were occupied and fortified by the State 
 troops ; but the control of the military af- 
 fairs in all the Border States soon passed 
 
 FORT SUMTER IN 1 86 1. 
 
 into the hands of the Confederate govern- 
 ment. 
 
 As it was certain that the first operations 
 of the war would take place upon the bor- 
 ders of Virginia, the city of Richmond was 
 made the capital of the Confederate States, 
 and on the twenty-first of May the Confed- 
 erate government was removed to that city. 
 
 The western part of the State of Virginia 
 refused to join the remainder of the State in 
 its withdrawal from the Union. On the 
 eleventh of June, 1861, the people of the 
 
672 
 
 THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 western counties met in convention at Wheel- 
 ing, declared their independence of the old 
 State, organized a State government, and 
 proclaimed their intention to remain faithful 
 to the Union. The action of this convention 
 was sustained by the Federal government, and 
 on the twenty-sixth of November, 1861, 
 another convention met at Wheeling, and 
 
 FORTS SUMTER AND MOULTRIE. 
 
 adopted a constitution for the new State of 
 West Virginia. This constitution was rati- 
 fied by the people at the polls on the third 
 of May, 1862, and application was made for 
 the admission of West Virginia into the 
 Union as a State, which was accomplished 
 by act of Congress on the twentieth of June, 
 1863. 
 
 In the meantime the Federal government 
 set to work with energy to prepare for the 
 struggle before it. The call of President 
 Lincoln for troops had been answered by 
 three hundred thousand volunteers. On the 
 seventeenth of April, two days after the Pres- 
 ident's proclamation, the Sixth Massachu- 
 setts regiment left Boston for Washington. 
 In passing through 
 Baltimore it was at- 
 tacked by a crowd of 
 citizens who sympa- 
 thized with the South, 
 and three soldiers 
 were killed and eight 
 wounded. Several 
 citizens were killed 
 and wounded. The reg- 
 iment reached Wash- 
 ington the same day. 
 
 In a short time the 
 force at the capital 
 was sufficient to put 
 an end to all fears for 
 its safety. Alexandria 
 and the Virginia shore 
 opposite Washington 
 were seized and for- 
 tified. Baltimore was 
 occupied by a force 
 under General Butler, 
 and the communica- 
 tions of Washington 
 with the North and 
 West were made sure. 
 On the nineteenth of 
 April the President issued a proclamation 
 declaring all the southern ports in a state of 
 blockade ; and on the third of May he put 
 forth another proclamation ordering the regu- 
 lar army of the United States to be increased 
 to sixty-four thousand seven hundred and 
 forty-eight men, and the navy to eighteen 
 thousand seamen. On the tenth of May he 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LfNCOLN. 
 
 673 
 
 issued a fourth proclamation, suspending the 
 writ of habeas corpus in certain localities, and 
 authority to suspend this privilege was con- 
 ferred upon the commanders of military de- 
 partments soon afterward. 
 
 Under the instructions of the government 
 these commanders now proceeded to arrest 
 great numbers of persons in various parts of 
 the country who were suspected of sympa- 
 
 government paid no attention to this deci- 
 sion, and held the prisoner in confinement. 
 A little later the Legislature of Maryland, 
 which was strongly Southern in its sympa- 
 thies, was prevented from meeting by the 
 sudden arrest and imprisonment of a large 
 number of its members by order of the 
 secretary of war. 
 
 On the fourth of July, 1861, Congress 
 
 FORT MOULTRIE, CHARLESTON HARBOR. 
 
 thizing with the South. They were impris- 
 oned at the military posts, and were denied 
 trial by the civil courts. John Merryman, a 
 citizen of Maryland, was one of the persons 
 so arrested. His friends applied for redress 
 to the Chief Justice of the United States, who 
 held the suspension of the habeas corpus act 
 by the President tc be unconstitutional, and 
 ordered the discharge of the prisoner. The 
 43 
 
 convened in extra session at Washington, in 
 accordance with the President's proclama 
 tion. This body proceeded to give to the 
 government a prompt and effectual support. 
 Resolutions were introduced to legalize the 
 extraordinary acts of the President in setting 
 aside the writ of habeas corpus, in ordering 
 the arbitrary arrest and confinement of citi- 
 zens, and in assuming certain other powers 
 
674 
 
 THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 which belonged to Congress. Congress 
 refused to throw over these acts, however 
 necessary, the sanction of the law; but in 
 view of the necessity of prompt and vigorous 
 action on the part of the President, excused his 
 acts on the distinct ground of the " necessities 
 of war." Measures were adopted without 
 delay for putting in the field an army of five 
 hundred and twenty-five thousand men, and 
 for equipping a powerful navy ; and the sum 
 of five hundred millions of dollars was appro- 
 priated for the prosecution of the war. 
 
 During this session Congress also adopted 
 a solemn resolution declaring " that this war 
 is not prosecuted on our part in any spirit of 
 
 THE CONFEDERATE FLAG. 
 
 oppression, nor for any purpose of conquest 
 or subjugation, nor for the purpose of over- 
 throwing or interfering with the rights or 
 established institutions of those [the seceded] 
 States ; but to defend and maintain the 
 supremacy of the constitution and all laws 
 made in pursuance thereof, and to preserve 
 the Union with all the dignity, equality and 
 rights of the several States unimpaired ; that 
 as soon as these objects are accomplished the 
 war ought to cease." 
 
 In the meantime the Confederates had 
 collected troops at important points to resist 
 the advance of the Federal troops intoVirginia. 
 A force under Brigadier-General Garnett 
 
 was stationed in West Virginia to cover the 
 approaches from that direction ; Harper's 
 Ferry, which commanded the entrance into 
 the valley of Virginia, was held by an army 
 of seven thousand or eight thousand men, 
 under General Joseph E. Johnston ; a much 
 larger force, under General Beauregard, took 
 position near Manassas Junction, about thirty 
 miles from Washington, and a column of 
 several thousand men, under General John 
 B. Magruder, was stationed at Yorktown, on 
 the peninsula between the York and James 
 rivers, to cover Richmond iYom the direction 
 of Fortress Monroe at the mouth of Hamp- 
 ton Roads, which was still held by the Federal 
 troops. Norfolk was also held by a strong 
 force. With the exception of that occupied 
 by General Garnett's command, all these 
 positions were carefully fortified. 
 
 Bethel Church and Rich Mountain. 
 
 The Union army at Fortress Monroe num- 
 bered about twelve thousand men, and was 
 commanded by General B. F. Butler. Early 
 in June, Magruder moved a force of eighteen 
 hundred men and several pieces of artillery 
 from Yorktown, and took position at Bethel 
 Church, about half way between Yorktown 
 and Hampton. On the tenth of June he was 
 attacked by a force of four thousand troops 
 under General Pierce, of Massachusetts, but 
 succeeded in repulsing the attack and main- 
 taining his position. 
 
 In the opposite quarter of the State, the 
 Union forces were more successful. In order 
 to prevent the Confederates from overrun- 
 ning West Virginia, a strong body of Ohio 
 and Indiana troops, under General George 
 B. McClellan, was sent into- that region. 
 McClellan set to work at once to drive the 
 Confederates out of West Virginia, and on 
 the third of June a portion of his command, 
 under General Kelly, defeated General 
 Garnett at Philippi. McClellan now advanced 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 
 
 675 
 
 against the main body of Garnett's forces. 
 On the eleventh of July, he attacked the com- 
 mand of Colonel Pegram at Rich Mountain, 
 and defeated it. This defeat compelled Gen- 
 eral Garr.ett to fall back towards the valley 
 of Virginia. He was pursued by McClellan 
 and overtaken at Carrick's ford, on the Cheat 
 river. In the battle which ensued here, Gar- 
 
 mander, Colonel Ellsworth, was killed by a 
 citizen. Strong defences were erected on 
 the Virginia shore between Washington and 
 Alexandria, and the army was encamped 
 within these lines. Two months were passed 
 in organizing and disciplining this force, and 
 in the meantime the people of the Northern 
 and Western States became impatient of the 
 
 THE SIXTH MASSACHUSETTS REGIMENT PASSING THROUGH BALTIMORE. 
 
 nett was killed, and the remnant of his com- 
 mand was driven beyond the mountains. 
 
 The United States had assembled a con- 
 siderable army of volunteers and regulars at 
 Washington under Major-General Irwin Mc- 
 Dowell. On the twenty-fourth of May, Alex- 
 andria, on the Virginia side of the Potomac, 
 nine miles below Washington, was seized by 
 a detachment from this army. Its corn- 
 
 delay, and demanded an immediate advance 
 upon the southern army and Richmond. 
 
 Preparatory to his own advance, General 
 McDowell sent General Patterson with twenty 
 thousand men to cross the Potomac at Wil- 
 liamsport, and prevent General Johnston from 
 leaving the valley and joining Beauregard at 
 Manassas. Upon the arrival of Patterson 
 on the upper Potomac, General Johnston 
 
676 
 
 THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 evacuated Harper's Ferry and took position at 
 Winchester. Patterson made a considerable 
 show of force in the valley, but refrained 
 from attacking Johnston, although the latter 
 sought to induce him to do so. He took 
 position about nine miles from Winchester, 
 and remained inactive there. 
 
 In the meantime the preparations for the 
 
 FORTIFICATIONS IN AND AROUND WASHINGTON. 
 
 advance of McDowell's army were completed, 
 and on the seventeenth of July he began his 
 march from the Potomac towards Bull Run, 
 on the banks of which the Confederates were 
 posted. His army numbered over fifty thou- 
 sand men, and forty-nine pieces of artillery. 
 As soon as the advance of this army was 
 known to him, General Beauregard informed 
 General Johnston of it, and begged him to 
 
 come to his assistance. Johnston skilfully 
 eluded Patterson's army, and hastened to 
 Bull Run, arriving there with a part of his 
 command in time to take part in the battle. 
 The Confederate army had taken position 
 behind Bull Run, and in advance of Manassas 
 Junction. Including the force brought by 
 General Johnston, who assumed the chief 
 
 command b) virtue 
 of his rank, it con- 
 sisted of thirty-one 
 thousand four hun- 
 dred and thirty-one 
 men and fifty-five 
 guns. 
 
 On the eighteenth 
 of July General Mc- 
 Dowell attempted 
 to force a passage 
 of Bull Run at 
 Blackburn's ford, 
 but was repulsed. 
 On the morning ol 
 the twenty-first, the 
 Union army advanced in force, and 
 endeavored to turn the left of the 
 Southern line. An obstinately- 
 contested battle ensued, which las'ed 
 from sunrise until nearly sunset. It 
 resulted in the total defeat of the Federal 
 army, which was driven back in utter 
 rout upon Alexandria and Washington, 
 with a loss of between four and five thou- 
 sand men in killed, wounded and prison- 
 ers, and twenty-eight pieces of artillery. 
 For a while the effects of this disaster 
 upon the Federal army were so great that 
 Washington was almost defenceless ; but the 
 Confederates made no effort to follow up their 
 victory. They were almost as badly de- 
 moralized by their success as the Union 
 army by its defeat. 
 
 Recovering from the dismay of its first 
 great reverse, the government went to work 
 
PORTRAITS OF PROMINENT FEDERAL GENERALS 
 
678 
 
 THE CIVIL \.AR. 
 
 with vigor to repair the disaster. The levy 
 of five hundred thousand men ordered by 
 
 MAP SHOWING THE SHENANDOAH VALLEY 
 
 Congress was raised promptly and without 
 difficulty, so eager was the desire of the 
 
 people to wipe out the d.. grace of Bull Run. 
 
 At his own request General Scott, whose 
 1 bodily infirmities were 
 so great as to render 
 him unable to dis- 
 charge the duties of 
 his position, was re- 
 lieved of the com- 
 mand of the army. 
 Major-General Geo. 
 B. McClellan was 
 given the chief com- 
 mand of the armies 
 of the Union, and or- 
 dered to take charge 
 of the force assem- 
 bling before Wash- 
 ington, which was 
 named the Army of 
 the Potomac. He 
 devoted himself with 
 success to the task of 
 organizing and dis- 
 ciplining the recruits, 
 which came pouring 
 in during the fall and 
 winter. 
 
 The remainder of 
 the year 1 86 1 passed 
 away quietly on the 
 Potomac, with the 
 single exception of 
 the battle of Lees- 
 burg. Colonel Baker, 
 with a force of two 
 thousand men, was 
 sent by General Stone 
 to cross the Potomac 
 at Edward's ferry, and 
 drive back the Con- 
 federate force under 
 General Evans from 
 its position near Leesburg. He made his 
 
 attack on the twenty-first of October, but was 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 
 
 679 
 
 repulsed with the loss of eight hundred killed 
 and wounded, being himself among the slain. 
 The Confederate army held its position at 
 Centreville through the fall and winter, and 
 at one time its outposts were pushed forward 
 within view of the city of Washington. 
 
 In the fall of 1861 an army of ten thou- 
 sand men was sent by the Confederate gov- 
 ernment into the valley of Virginia to pre- 
 vent its occupation by the federal forces. The 
 command of these troops was conferred upon 
 General T. J. Jackson, whose conspicuous 
 gallantry at Bull Run had won him the so- 
 briquet of" Stonewall Jackson," by which he 
 was afterwards known by both armies. He 
 established his headquarters at Winchester. 
 
 Prompt Action in Missouri. 
 
 In the meantime the war had been going 
 on in Western Virginia. After the transfer of 
 General McClellan to Washington, the com- 
 mand of the Union forces passed to Briga- 
 dier-General Rosecranz, an able officer. He 
 had several indecisive encounters with the 
 commands of Generals Floyd and Wise; in 
 the region of the Gauley and New rivers. 
 General Robert E. Lee was sent by the Con- 
 federate government to assume the chief 
 command in the west. He attacked the 
 brigade of General Reynolds at Cheat moun- 
 tain on the fourteenth of September, but was 
 repulsed and obliged to retreat. On the 
 fourth of October, General Reynolds attacked 
 a Confederate force under General Henry R. 
 Jackson on the Greenbrier river, but was re- 
 pulsed. 
 
 The State of Missouri took no part in the 
 secession movements of the spring of 1861. 
 Her people were divided; a large party 
 sympathized with the South ; but still a larger 
 party was determined that the State should 
 remain in the Union. These parties soon 
 came in conflict. The governor and leading 
 officials of the State were in favor of seces- 
 
 sion, and used all their influence ta ^ring 
 about the withdrawal of Missouri from the 
 Union. A camp of the State militia was 
 formed near St. Louis, and was called Camp 
 Jackson in honor of the governor. It was 
 known that the force assembled at this camp 
 was intended to serve as a nucleus around 
 which an army hostile to the federal govern- 
 ment might assemble. By extraordinary 
 exertions Colonel Frances P. Blair, Jr., a 
 member of Congress from St. Louis, and 
 Captain Nathaniel Lyon, commanding the 
 troops at the Jefferson barracks, near St. 
 Louis, succeeded in collecting a force of five 
 regiments of Union volunteers. 
 
 On the tenth of May, 1861, Lyon with 
 these five regiments suddenly surrounded 
 Camp Jackson, and compelled General Frost, 
 the commanding officer, to surrender his 
 whole force, camp and equipments. By this 
 prompt action the State forces were prevented 
 from carrying out their plan for seizing the 
 United States arsenal at St. Louis, which 
 contained sixty thousand stand of arms of 
 the latest patterns, and a number of cannon, 
 and a large quantity of ammunition. For this 
 decisive action Captain Lyon was commis- 
 sioned a brigadier-general by the President. 
 
 Movements of General Lyon's Army. 
 
 Satisfied that the desire of the southern 
 party in Missouri to remain neutral was but 
 a pretext to gain time to arm the State for a 
 union with the Confederates, President Lin- 
 coln determined to compel all the State forces 
 not in the federal service to disband. An in- 
 terview was held at St. Louis on the eleventh 
 of June between Governor Jackson and Gen- 
 eral Lyon, now commanding the federal 
 troops in Missouri. Governor Jackson de- 
 manded that no United States forces should 
 be quartered in or marched through Mis- 
 souri. General Lyon refused to comply with 
 this demand, and insisted that the State forces 
 
6So 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 
 
 68: 
 
 should be disbanded, pledging himself to 
 respect the rights and privileges of the State. 
 At the close of the interview the Governor 
 returned to Jefferson City, the capital of the 
 State, and the next day, the twelfth, issued 
 his proclamation calling 50,000 of the State 
 militia into active service for the purpose of 
 driving the Federal troops from the State, and 
 protecting the " lives, liberty and property of 
 the citizens." General Lyon at once marched 
 upon Jefferson City, and occupied it on the 
 fifteenth, the Governor and his supporters 
 having retired to the interior of the State. 
 On the seventeenth Lyon proceeded to 
 Booneville and defeated the State troops 
 stationed there under General Price. 
 
 The southwestern part of Missouri is rich 
 in deposits of lead, and valuable mines of 
 this mineral are worked there. The State 
 authorities were anxious to hold this region, 
 as it was of the highest importance to them 
 to obtain the use of these mines to supply 
 their army with lead. A column of Federal 
 troops under General Sigel was sent by Gen- 
 eral Lyon to intercept the retreat of the State 
 troops. On the fifth of July, Sigel attacked 
 the State troops under Governor Jackson at 
 Carthage, but was repulsed. 
 
 Battle of Wilson's Creek. 
 
 The next day, July 6th, Governor Jackson 
 was joined at Carthage by General Sterling 
 Price, of the Missouri State Guard, and Gen- 
 eral Ben McCulloch, of the Confederate army, 
 with several thousand men. The command 
 of the whole force was conferred upon Gen- 
 eral McCulloch, who had been ordered by 
 his government to advance into Missouri. 
 The Southern army, according to General 
 McCulloch's statement, numbered 5,300 
 infantry, 6,000 mounted men and fifteen pieces 
 of artillery. It advanced rapidly into the in- 
 terior of the State, and on the ninth of August 
 reached Wilson's Creek, near Springfield. 
 
 General Lyon nacr rasen position there 
 with a force somewhat smaller than that of 
 the Confederates. On the morning of the 
 tenth he attacked the Southern army. The 
 battle lasted six hours, and was hotly con- 
 tested. General Lyon was killed at the head 
 of his troops while endeavoring to turn the 
 left flank of the Confederates, and his army was 
 forced back. His body was left in the hands 
 of the Con r edera'.es, who treated it with 
 becoming respect. 
 
 Springfield was occupied by the Confeder- 
 ates the day after the battle; but McCulloch 
 and Price being unable to agree upon the 
 plan of the campaign, they soon withdrew 
 
 CAPITOL AT RICHMOND, VIRGINIA. 
 
 to the Arkansas border. The Union army 
 after the battle withdrew to Rolla, near the 
 centre of the State. 
 
 A few weeks later General Price with a 
 force of over five thousand Confederates laid 
 siege to Lexington, on the Missouri river, 
 which was held by about three thousand 
 men under Colonel Mulligan. After a gallant 
 defence Mulligan was forced to surrender on 
 the twentieth of September. 
 
 Major-General John C. Fremont was now 
 appointed by President Lincoln to take com- 
 mand of the western army. He forcea 
 Price's command back into the southwestern 
 part of the State. Arriving near Springfield, 
 
682 
 
 PORTRAITS OF PROMINENT FEDERAL GENERALS. 
 
ADMINISTRATION 09 ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 
 
 0. 3 
 
 Fremont prepared to bring the Confederates 
 to a decisive engagement, but on the second 
 of November was removed from his com- 
 mand. He was succeeded by General Hunter, 
 who abandoned the pursuit, and fell back to 
 St. Louis. On the eighteenth of November 
 Hunter was superseded by Major- General 
 Halleck, who by a rapid advance drove Price 
 once more towards the Arkansas border. 
 This movement closed the campaign of 1861 
 in Missouri. The Union army had not only 
 saved the State to the Union, but had con- 
 5ned the Confederates to the Arkansas 
 border. 
 
 Southern Partv in Kentucky. 
 
 In the meantime Governor Jackson had 
 summoned the legislature of Missouri to 
 meet at Neosho. It assembled at that place 
 in October, passed an ordinance of secession, 
 and elected delegates and senators to the Con- 
 federate Congress. Though this action was 
 merely formal, and received the support of 
 but a small part of the people of Missouri, it 
 was recognized as valid by the Confederate 
 government, and Missouri was proclaimed 
 one of the Confederate States. 
 
 The governor and State authorities of 
 Kentucky attempted at the outset of the 
 war to hold the position of armed neutrality 
 between the parties to the contest ; but as in 
 the case of Missouri, this effort failed. Neither 
 the Federal government nor that of the 
 Southern Confederacy could, in the nature 
 of things, respect this neutrality. 
 
 The Federal troops were poured into Ken- 
 tucky, and the Confederates seized Columbus, 
 on the Mississippi, Bowling Green, in the 
 centre of the State, and other positions in 
 the western part. The Southern party in 
 Kentucky, within the protection of the Con- 
 federate lines, organized a provisional govern- 
 ment for the State, sent senators and repre- 
 sentatives to the Congress at Richmond, 
 
 which formally recognized Kentucky as one 
 of the Confederate States. 
 
 The force at Columbus was commanded 
 by General Polk of the Confederate army. 
 At Belmont, on the Missouri shore of the 
 river, immediately opposite Columbus, a 
 body of Confederate troops was stationed. 
 On the seventh'of November, General U. S. 
 Grant having descended the Mississippi from 
 Cairo, attacked the force at Belmont with his 
 command of three thousand men. After a 
 sharp struggle he was repulsed, and forced 
 to retreat to Cairo. 
 
 On October nth, the privateer "Nash- 
 ville," which had been fitted out by the Con- 
 federates to capture Federal vessels, escaped 
 from Charleston harbor and began to com- 
 mit depredations upon the commerce of the 
 North. The bold operations of the " Nash- 
 ville" and other privateers produced a reign 
 of terror on the high seas. 
 
 Naval and Military Expedition. 
 
 At the outset of the war the Confederates 
 occupied the principal ports of the South, 
 and a number of prominent points on the 
 Atlantic coast. These were fortified by them 
 as well as the means at hand would permit. 
 The general government resolved to capture 
 these as rapidly as possible, as their reduction 
 was necessary in order to render the blockade 
 of the southern coast effectual. The first expe- 
 dition was despatched from Fortress Monroe 
 in August, 1 861, under Commodore String- 
 ham aud General Butler, and was directed 
 against the Confederate works at Hatteras 
 Inlet, which commanded the entrance to 
 Albemarle and Pamlico sounds. These 
 works were captured on the twenty-ninth of 
 August. 
 
 The great extent of the coast to be block- 
 aded by the navy made it necessary that a 
 good harbor at some central point should be 
 secured, where supplies could be stored for 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 
 
 685 
 
 the fleet, and where vessels could refill with- 
 out returning to the northern ports. Port 
 Royal harbor, in South Carolina, was selected 
 as the best place for this purpose. It was 
 defended by Fort Walker on Hilton Head 
 and Fort Beauregard on the opposite side of 
 the harbor. A powerful naval and military 
 expedition under Commodore Dupont and 
 General Thomas W. Sherman attacked these 
 vorks on the seventh of November, and 
 reduced them after terrible bombardment by 
 the fleet. Port Royal was at once occupied 
 by the expedition, and during the war was 
 ♦ he principal depot on the southern coast 
 for the fleets and armies of the Union. 
 
 It was not possible, however, to render the 
 blockade effective. Great efforts were made 
 to increase the number of vessels employed 
 in this duty, but the Confederates succeeded 
 in eluding the Union cruisers almost at plea- 
 sure, and a steady communication was main- 
 tained between the southern ports and Eng- 
 land by way of the West Indies. A number 
 of armed vessels in the service of the Con- 
 federacy succeeded in getting to sea. By the 
 close of the year they had inflicted severe 
 damage upon the commerce of the Northern 
 States, and had almost driven the foreign 
 trade of the United States from the ocean. 
 
 Affair of the "Trent." 
 
 During the early part of the war the South- 
 ern government was encouraged to hope 
 that the governments of England and 
 France would recognize the independence of 
 the Confederate States, and in the fall of 
 1 86 1, James M. Mason, of Virginia, and 
 John Slidell, of Louisiana, were ordered to 
 proceed to Europe, as commissioners from 
 the Confederate States, to secure this recog- 
 nition. They sailed from Charleston on the 
 twelfth of October, and reached Cuba in 
 safety. There they took passage for England 
 on board the British mail-steamer " Trent." 
 
 Hearing of this, Captain Wilkes, of the 
 United States war-steamer " San Jacinto," 
 overhauled the *' Trent " upon the high seas 
 boarded her, and seized the two commission- 
 ers and their secretaries and sailed with them 
 to Boston harbor, where they were im- 
 prisoned in one of the forts. 
 
 The "Trent" in the meantime proceeded 
 on her voyage, and upon reaching England 
 her commander informed the British govern- 
 ment of the outrage that had been commit- 
 ted upon its flag. The English government 
 at once demanded of President Lincoln the 
 immediate and unconditional release of the 
 
 LIEUTENANT-GENERAL POLK. 
 
 Confederate commissioners and satisfac- 
 tion for the insult to its flag. It was under- 
 stood that France was prepared to sustain 
 England in her demands. The Federal gov- 
 ernment disavowed the action of Captain 
 Wilkes in seizing the commissioners, and 
 those gentlemen were released and allowed 
 to continue their voyage. They reached 
 England in due time. Mr. Mason proceeded 
 to London and Mr. Slidell to France. 
 Neither the English nor the French govern- 
 ments would receive the commissioners offic- 
 ially. It was understood that the United 
 States would regard the interference of either 
 in the American quarrel as a cause of war, and 
 neither power cared to join in the struggle. 
 
 Tennessee seceded from the Union, as we 
 have related, in the spring of 1861, The 
 
686 
 
 THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 western and central portions of the State 
 were unanimously in favor of joining the 
 Southern States and gave a hearty support 
 to the Confederacy during the war, but East 
 Tennessee, inhabited by a race of hardy 
 mountaineers, was devoted to the Union, and 
 was unwilling to leave it. In the autumn of 
 1 86 1, the East Tennesseans tcok up arms 
 against the Confederate Government, and 
 began to destroy the railway bridges in that 
 part of the State. 
 
 This movement was full of danger to the 
 Confederacy, as the principal line of commu- 
 nication between Virginia and the Mississippi 
 passed through East Tennessee. A consid- 
 erable force of Confederate troops was sent 
 
 JAMES M. MASON. 
 
 into East Tennessee to hold the people in 
 subjection and protect the railroads, but 
 throughout the war, the hostility of the peo- 
 ple of this region was a constant source of 
 danger and weakness to the Confederates. 
 
 When the year 1862 opened, the war had 
 assumed colossal proportions. The military 
 operations extended almost across the conti- 
 nent, and engaged a number of powerful 
 armies, and a formidable navy. The call of 
 President Lincoln for troops had been cheer- 
 fully responded to, and the opening of the 
 year found the United States provided with a 
 force of over half a million 01 men, splendidly 
 armed and equipped, and supplied with every- 
 thing necessary for the successful prosecution 
 
 of the war. The North had profited by its 
 first reverses, and was resolved that its next 
 effort, which was to be made at the opening 
 of the season for active operations, should 
 find it thoroughly prepared for the task it had 
 undertaken. 
 
 A cordial support was given to the meas* 
 ures of the government by the people. Its, 
 wants were supplied by means of a heavy 
 loan which was readily negotiated with the 
 capitalists of the Eastern States. From the 
 moment that the despondency caused by the 
 reverse at Bull Run had subsided sufficiently 
 to enable the people of the loyal States to 
 face the situation calmly, everyone saw that 
 the work of preparation must all be done over 
 
 JOHN SUDELL. 
 
 from the beginning, and it was done bravely 
 and thoroughly. During the fall and winter 
 the army was rapidly increased ; vessels were 
 purchased and built for the navy. 
 
 The Southern armies, en the other hand, 
 had grown steadily weakei The first sue 
 cesses of the Confederate troops had greatly 
 demoralized the Southern people. Volun- 
 teering soon ceased almost entirely. Even 
 the heaviest bounties failed to bring recruits. 
 There was a widespread delusion throughout 
 the South that the war was practically ended. 
 The measures of the Confederate Congress 
 steadily thinned, instead of filling up the 
 ranks of the Southern armies, and when the 
 new year dawned there was grave reason to 
 
THE ARREST OF MASUN AND sLIDELL ON THE BRITISH STEAMER " TRENT." frfy 
 
688 
 
 THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 fear that the spring campaign would find the 
 South without an adequate army unless more 
 vigorous measures were resorted to. It was 
 exceedingly doubtful whether the troops 
 already in the service would renew their en- 
 listments, which expired in the spring of 1 862. 
 During the winter the Southern Congress 
 adopted a law granting a furlough and a heavy 
 bounty to every soldier who would re-enlist 
 for the war. The furlough was to be granted 
 during the winter; the bounty to be paid at 
 a later period. Many of those who went 
 home on these furloughs did so with the 
 intention of remaining there; and the practi- 
 
 grant's head-quarters near fort 
 
 cal effect of the measure was to diminish the 
 strength of the Confederate armies. At length 
 the Confederate Congress was driven by the 
 necessities of the situation to adopt a most 
 stringent and sweeping measure. On the 
 sixteenth of April, 1862, a conscription act 
 was passed, giving to the President of the 
 Confederacy the power to call into the mili- 
 tary service the entire male population of the 
 various States between the ages of eighteen 
 and thirty- five years. In September, 1862, 
 a second act was passed extending the con- 
 script age to forty-five years. 
 
 The measure was acquiesced in by the 
 Southern people, but was never popular with 
 
 them. It served the purpose for which it was 
 intended, however, and enabled the Confed- 
 erate Government to collect a force of several 
 hundred thousand men in the spring of 1862, 
 and thus to fill up the ranks of its armies in 
 the field, and to retain the regiments already 
 in the service. 
 
 When the spring opened, General Halleck, 
 whose headquarters were at St. Louis, held 
 Missouri against the Confederates with a 
 powerful army. General Buell, with a con- 
 siderable force, was stationed in Central Ken- 
 tucky. In his front an inferior force of Con- 
 federates, under General Albert Sidney John- 
 ston, held Bowling Green 
 and covered Nashville 
 and the Tennessee and 
 the Cumberland Rivers. 
 They also held Colum- 
 bus and other prominent 
 points on the Mississippi. 
 The Army of the Poto- 
 mac, under General Mc- 
 Clellan, lay along the 
 Potomac, confronting 
 the Confederate army of 
 Northern Virginia, which 
 held Centreville. A con- 
 donelson. siderable force was col- 
 
 lected at Fortress Monroe, and an army of 
 about 10,000 Confederates, under Magruder, 
 held a strongly fortified line, extending from 
 Yorktown across the Peninsula to the James 
 River. 
 
 In addition to these forces, the Federal 
 Government had collected a powerful flotilla 
 of steamers and gunboats at Cairo, the junc- 
 tion of the Ohio and Mississippi rivers, to 
 assist in the operations of the Western 
 armies. The capture of New Orleans had 
 been resolved upon, and a combined naval 
 and military expedition under Commodore 
 Farragut and General Butler was assembled 
 for that purpose; and another expedition 
 
i;*i 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 
 
 6& 
 
 was organized in the Chesapeake for the 
 reduction of Roanoke Island and the forts on 
 the North Carolina coast. 
 
 Soon, after the opening of the new year, 
 Mr. Cameron, whose administration of the 
 war department had failed to give satisfac- 
 tion to the country, was removed by Presi- 
 dent Lincoln, and sent to Russia as minister 
 from the United States. The President on 
 the thirteenth of January appointed Edwin 
 M. Stanton, of Ohio, Secretary of War. The 
 new secretary was 
 confessedly one of 
 the ablest men in 
 America, and his 
 accession to the 
 control of the war 
 department infused 
 newlifeintothe mil- 
 itary preparations 
 of the government. 
 During the remain- 
 der of the war he 
 occupied this posi- 
 tion, and it is not too 
 much to say that his 
 vigorous adminis- 
 tration of his de- 
 partment was one 
 of the chief causes 
 of the final success 
 of the Union arms. 
 
 Active operations were resumed earlier in 
 the west than in the east. On the nineteenth 
 of January, General George H. Thomas 
 drove the Confederates under General Zol- 
 licoffer from Mill Spring in Kentucky. . The 
 defeated force had held the right of the Con- 
 federate line in Kentucky, the centre of 
 which was at Bowling Green, and the left 
 at Columbus, and its reverse was a serious 
 disaster to the Confederates. 
 
 The department of General Halleck em- 
 braced Kentucky in addition to the country 
 
 44 
 
 west of the Mississippi. In order to hold 
 the Cumberland and Tennessee rivers, which 
 afforded water communication far back into 
 the country in the rear of their line, the Con- 
 federates had built a work, known as Fort 
 Henry, on the Tennessee, a little south of 
 the Kentucky border, and another and a 
 stronger work, known as Fort Donelson, on 
 the Cumberland and a little below Nashville. 
 At the solicitation of Brigadier-General 
 U. S. Grant, commanding at Cairo, General 
 
 
 
 A VIEW OF THE COUNTRY, SHOWING FORT DONELSON IN THE DISTANCE. 
 
 Halleck determined to capture these forts, 
 and so break the Confederate line, and com- 
 pel their army to fall back from Kentucky. 
 Fort Henry was to be first attacked. The 
 fleet of gunboats under Commodore Foote 
 and Grant's troops from Cairo were sent 
 against Fort Henry, which was captured on 
 the sixth of February after a severe bombard- 
 
 ment by the gunboats which had ascended 
 the Tennessee. The garrison escaped to 
 Fort Donelson, twelve miles distant across 
 the country. 
 
690 
 
 THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 The loss of Fort Henry compelled the 
 Confederates to evacuate all their positions 
 
 MAP SHOWING PITTSBURG LANDING AND CORINTH. 
 
 in Kentucky. General Beauregard fell back 
 from Columbus to Corinth, Mississippi, and 
 
 General Sidney Johnston slowly retired from 
 Bowling Green upon Nashville, followed by 
 General Buell. After 
 the capture of Fort 
 Henry the gunboats 
 returned to Cairo, and, 
 taking on board sup- 
 plies and reinforce- 
 ments for the army, 
 ascended the Ohio and 
 entered the Cumber- 
 land, up which they 
 passed to Fort Donel- 
 son. Grant, in the 
 meantime, marched 
 across the country 
 from Fort Henry to 
 Fort Donelson.and in- 
 vested the latter work. 
 The roads were so dif- 
 ficult that although 
 the distance between 
 the two forts was but 
 twelve miles, Grant 
 spent six days in 
 marching it. This 
 delay gave General 
 Johnston an oppor- 
 tunity to reinforce 
 Fort Donelson. He 
 halted at Nashville 
 with his main army 
 to await the result of 
 Grant's attack on the 
 fort. The gunboats did 
 not joiriGrant until the 
 fourteenth of Febru- 
 ary, and the invest- 
 ment was not begun 
 until their arrival. 
 
 The fo 1 1 o w i 11 g 
 graphic description of 
 the capture of Fort Henry is from the pen oi 
 the historian, John Laird Wilson : 
 
 
G ( J1 
 
692 
 
 THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 "Immediately on receiving permission from 
 Halieck to proceed with his proposed plan, 
 Grant made arrangements for the attack on 
 Fort Henry. He had at his disposal some 
 seventeen thousand men. It was arranged 
 that Commodore Foote, with a flotilla of 
 seven gunboats, should move along the 
 Ohio, steer up the Tennessee, and open the 
 attack, while Grant, on the land side, should 
 
 to move slowly and shell the woods, in order 
 to discover whether there were any concealed 
 batteries. 
 
 "On the morning of the sixth it was under- 
 stood that everything was in readiness for the 
 attack, which was to be made simultaneously 
 on land and water. A heavy thunder-storm 
 had raged the previous night; and, as aeon- 
 sequence, the roads were heavy and the 
 
 IRON-CLAD GUNBOAT. 
 
 render what assistance was necessary and cut 
 off all retreat. On Monday, the second of 
 February, Foote left Cairo, and on the 
 morning of Tuesday he was a few miles 
 below Fort Henry. Grant, in the meantime, 
 with the divisions of McClernand and C. F. 
 Smith, had embarked in transports which 
 were convoyed by the flotilla. These landed 
 a few miles below the fort ; and Foote pro- 
 ceeded up the river, having orders from Grant 
 
 streams so swollen that bridges had to be 
 built for the passage of artillery. The land 
 forces, thus encountering unlooked-for obsta- 
 cles, were considerably delayed. Shortly 
 after twelve o'clock Foote opened fire upon 
 the fort. Beginning at a thousand yards 
 distance, he gradually ran his vessels to 
 within six hundred yards of the enemy. The 
 firing for a time was vigorously returned ; 
 but Foote pressed forth with irresistible 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 
 
 6 93 
 
 bravery, and his men worked with a will and 
 as if lV r, meant to win. It was evident to 
 >hman from the first that it was next to 
 impossible for him to hold the fort. He 
 nevertheless exerted himself to the utmost, 
 encouraging his men alike by word and 
 example, going so far as to work one of 
 die guns himself. 
 
 Serious Accidents. 
 
 "A series of accidents meanwhile occurred 
 inside the fort. A rifled twenty-four pounder 
 burst, killing and wounding a number of the 
 men. A forty-two pounder burst prematurely 
 and killed three of the gunners. In a short 
 time the well-directed fire from the gunboats 
 had dismounted seven of the guns and made 
 them useless ; the flagstaff also was shot away. 
 The garrison became completely demoralized. 
 It was in vain that Tilghman attempted to re- 
 place the exhausted gunners. The troops in 
 the camp outside the fort made good their 
 escape, some by the Dover road, leading to 
 Fort Donelson, others on board a steamer 
 which was lying a little above Fort Henry. 
 
 "Foote had promised to reduce the fort 
 within an hour. When he made that promise 
 he counted on assistance from the forces on 
 the land side. Without any such aid — for 
 . the land forces had not yet arrived on the 
 scene — he made good his word; for the hour 
 had scarcely expired when the white flag 
 was raised. There was no unnecessary 
 delay. The main body of his troops having 
 made good their escape, Tilghman, with his 
 staff and some sixty artillerists, surrendered 
 to the victorious Foote. In killed and 
 wounded the Confederate loss was twenty- 
 one men. The only serious damage sus- 
 tained by the fleet in the river was on board 
 the ironclad Essex. A shot from the enemy 
 had penetrated her boiler ; and some twenty- 
 nine officers and men, including Commander 
 Porter, were seriously scalded." 
 
 The capture of Fort Henry was felt by the 
 South to be a damaging blow ; and it led to 
 bitter murmuring and even loud complaints 
 against the authorities at Richmond. It was 
 justly regarded by the North as a victory of 
 great importance. It was full of instruction, 
 inasmnch as it proved the value of gunboats 
 on the narrow rivers of the West, especially 
 when acting in conjunction with land forces. 
 It inspired hope, inasmuch as it reclaimed 
 lost territory, and restored the old flag. 
 " Fort Henry is ours !" said Halleck in his 
 despatch to McClellan. " The flag of the 
 Union is re-established on the soil of Ten- 
 nessee. It will never be removed." Foote 
 was formally thanked by the Secretary of the 
 Navy. " The country," he was told, " appre- 
 ciates your gallant deeds, and this Depart- 
 ment desires to convey to you and your 
 brave associates its profound thanks for the 
 service you have rendered." 
 
 Important Union Success. 
 
 Fort Donelson was a stronger work than 
 Fort Henry, and was held by a force of about 
 thirteen thousand men, commanded by Gen- 
 eral John B. Floyd. On the fourteenth of 
 February the gunboats opened fire upon the 
 fort, and at the same time the army of Gen- 
 eral Grant, reinforced to about thirty thou- 
 sand men, began to occupy the positions as- 
 signed it in the investment. The operations 
 of the fourteenth ended with the repulse of 
 the fleet, Commodore Foote being severely 
 wounded in the engagement. Satisfied of 
 his inability to hold the fort against the over- 
 whelming force of the Federal army,General 
 Floyd resolved to cut his way through, and 
 retreat upon Nashville. 
 
 On the fifteenth he made a gallant attempt 
 to break Grant's lines, but was driven back, 
 and a portion of the Southern intrenchments 
 remained in the hands of the Union army. 
 On the night of the fifteenth a council of 
 
094 
 
 THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 war was held by the Confederate comman- 
 ders. It was evident that escape was impos- 
 sible and a surrender inevitable. General 
 Floyd refused to surrender, and retreated 
 from the fort with a considerable force of 
 infantry and cavalry, with which he suc- 
 ceeded in reaching Nashville. General Pil- 
 low, who was left by Floyd in command, 
 turned over the command to General Buck 
 ner, the next in rank, and joined Floyd in 
 his flight. Being unable to offer further re- 
 sistance, General Buckner, on the morning 
 of the sixteenth, surrendered the fort and 
 his troops unconditionally to the Federal 
 army. 
 
 island no. 10. 
 
 The capture at Fort Donelson was by far 
 the most important success that had yet been 
 won by the Union armies, and was hailed 
 with rejoicings throughout the north and 
 west. By this capture over five thousand 
 prisoners, besides the Confederate wounded, 
 fell into the hands of the Union forces. The 
 Federals also lost heavily in killed and 
 wounded. 
 
 General Johnston, upon learning of the fall 
 Df Fort Donelson, fell back from Nashviile to 
 Murfreesboro', from which place he subse- 
 quently continued his retreat across the 
 State, and eventually joined General Beaure- 
 gard, who had taken position at Corinth, at 
 the junction of two important railway lines 
 
 on the northern border of Mississippi, Beau 
 regard, in falling back from Columbus, had 
 left a force at Island No. 10, which had been 
 strongly fortified, to hold the Mississippi 
 against the efforts of the Federal fleet and 
 army to obtain the control of the river. 
 
 Nashville was occupied by the army ol 
 General Buell, and Grant's army was moved 
 up the Tennessee as far as Pittsburgh Land- 
 ing. General Buell was ordered to march 
 across the country from Nashville to the 
 Tennessee, to unite his forces with Grant's 
 and attack the Confederates at Corinth. 
 
 General Johnston, the Confederate com- 
 mander, had feared this concentration, which 
 
 would make the 
 |§!|r^_^ Federal power in 
 
 this quarter irresis- 
 tible, and had de- 
 termined to attack 
 Grant's army and 
 crush it before 
 Buell could arrive, 
 after which he 
 would be free to 
 engage Buell. His 
 plan was ably con- 
 ceived but his 
 march was delayed by the fearful state of the 
 roads, and he did not arrive opposite the 
 Federal position until two days after the time 
 fixed for his attack. Grant was encamped at 
 Shiloh Church, near Pittsburgh Landing, 
 with the Tennessee river in his rear. On the 
 morning of Sunday, April sixth, his army 
 was suddenly attacked by Johnston, and was 
 driven steadily from its original position to 
 the banks of the Tennessee, where it was 
 sheltered by the fire of the gunboats. The 
 battle was stubbornly contested, and the 
 losses on both sides were very heavy. 
 
 Late in the afternoon General Johnston 
 was mortally wounded, and died soon after- 
 wards. The command passed to General 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 
 
 6 9h 
 
 Beauregard, who failed to follow up his 
 advantage. During the night the army of 
 General Buell arrived, and reinforced Grant. 
 On the morning of the seventh Grant attacked 
 the Confederates, and after a sharp fight 
 drove them back. They retreated slowly 
 and returned to Corinth. 
 
 While these operations were in progress, 
 the gunboats under Commodore Foote and 
 a strong force of Western troops under 
 Pope laid siege to Island No. io, on the Mis- 
 sissippi. After a bombardment of twenty- 
 three days, the Confederate works were cap- 
 tured, together with five thousand prisoners, 
 on the seventh of April, the day on which 
 Beauregard was driven back from Shiloh. 
 
 The Confederates still held Fort Pillow, 
 a strong work a short distance above Mem- 
 phis. If this could be captured, the Federal 
 forces would obtain the control of the river 
 as far south as Vicksburg. General Pope 
 was anxious to move against it at once, but 
 his army was ordered to join General I Ial- 
 leck. Commodore Foot being disabled by 
 his wound received at Fort Donelson, was 
 succeeded by Captain Davis, who descended 
 the river and took position above Fort Pil- 
 low. 
 
 General Halleck now repaired to the Ten- 
 nessee, and took command of the Union 
 armies there, amounting to more than one 
 hundred thousand men. He moved forward 
 leisurely towards Corinth, and laid siege to 
 that place. Beauregard, seeing that it was 
 impossible to hold Corinth against this 
 greatly superior force, evacuated it on the 
 night of the twenty-ninth of May, and 
 retreated to Tupelo, Mississippi. The next 
 day General Halleck occupied Corinth. The 
 loss of Corinth compelled the evacuation of 
 Fort Pillow, which was abandoned by the 
 Confederates on the fourth ot June. On the 
 sixth the Union gunboats descended the river 
 to Memphis, and defeated the Confederate 
 
 flotilla above that city. Memphis at once 
 surrendered, and was occupied by the Union 
 forces. All West Kentucky and West Ten- 
 nessee were now under the control of the 
 Union armies, which now occupied a line 
 extending from Memphis, through Corinth, 
 almost to Chattanooga. 
 
 Early in July news came to the East of 
 another massacre in the Mormon territory. 
 A fanatic by the name of Morris, who 
 claimed to be the true successor of Joseph 
 Smith, and had gathered several hundred 
 followers, was accused of having committed 
 various depredations, and a small force was 
 sent by order of the chief Mormons to arres> 
 
 BURNING HORSES AT SHILOH. 
 
 him. The force was under command of one 
 Burton, sheriff of Salt Lake county. Morris 
 refused to surrender, a conflict ensued, the 
 camp of the Morrisites was riddled with 
 cannon balls, and Morris was shot by Burton. 
 Two Brighamites and ten Morrisites were 
 killed, and a large number were wounded, 
 The attacking party appears to have prac- 
 ticed unnecessary cruelty. 
 
 Returning to the story of the war, the 
 Confederates still held East Tennessee in 
 heavy force. Shortly after the evacuation ol 
 Corinth General Beauregard was removed 
 from his command, and was succeeded by 
 General Braxton Bragg Bragg was strongly 
 
096 
 
 THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 reinforced, and it was determined to make a 
 bold effort to drive back the Federal advance 
 and regain West Tennessee and, if possible, 
 Kentucky. Bragg's army was concentrated 
 at Chattanooga, and Geneneral Kirby Smith 
 at Knoxville was strongly reinforced. Smith 
 was to move from Knoxville, while Bragg 
 was to advance from Chattanooga, and the 
 two armies were to unite in the centre of the 
 State oi Kentucky. Their combined forces 
 amounted to over fifty thousand men, and it 
 
 Smith then occupied Lexington and Frank- 
 fort, and advanced towards Cincinnati ; but 
 ascertaining that a strong force was assem- 
 bling at that city, under General Lewis Wal- 
 lace, he fell back to Frankfort, where he joined 
 General Bragg on the fourth of October. 
 
 Bragg had begun his march as soon as 
 Kirby Smith had gotten fairly started. His 
 objective point was Louisville, and he hoped 
 to be able to elude the army of General Buell, 
 which was at Nashville, and by a rapid ad- 
 
 MASSACRE OF THE MORRISITES. 
 
 was hoped that this movement would compel 
 the Federal army to abandon its advance, 
 and fall back into Kentucky to protect that 
 State and Ohio from the Confederates. Then, 
 by a decisive victory, Bragg expected to be 
 able to overrun and hold Kentucky and 
 even to invade Ohio. 
 
 The division of General Smith moved for- 
 ward about the middle of August, and on the 
 thirtieth of August defeated a Union force 
 under General Manson at Richmond, Ken- 
 tucky, inflicting upon it a loss of 6,000 men. 
 
 vance seize Louisville before Buell's arrival. 
 By the seventeenth of September he was at 
 Munfordsville, Kentucky, which he captured 
 after several slight encounters, taking forty- 
 five hundred prisoners. Buell in the mean- 
 time had divined Bragg's purpose, and had 
 set out from Nashville for the Ohio by forced 
 marches. He reached Louisville before the 
 arrivalof the Confederates, and being heavily 
 reinforced advanced to attack Bragg, who 
 had turned aside and occupied Frankfort on 
 the fourth of October. 
 
PORTRAITS OF PROMINENT CONFEDERATE GENERALS. Qg 7 
 
oqS 
 
 THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 Bragg fell back slowly, ravaging the coun- 
 try along his route, and was followed by Buell 
 with equal deliberation. On the eighth of 
 October an indecisive battle was fought be- 
 tween the two armies at Perryville. After 
 this conflict, in which both sides lost heavily, 
 Buell refrained from attacking Bragg again, 
 and the latter continued his retreat leisurely 
 into Tennessee, taking with him a wagon train 
 forty miles in length, loaded with plunder 
 captured in Kentucky. 
 
 Grant Strikes Decisive Blows. 
 
 During this campaign the Federal army 
 under General Grant had held its line in West 
 Tennessee, extending from Corinth to Mem- 
 phis. A Confederate army under Generals 
 Price and Van Dorn was assembled in Mis- 
 sissippi in front of the Union position. Grant, 
 who was now in command of the Federal 
 forces in West Tennessee (Halleck having 
 been summond to Washington as Com- 
 manding General), ordered General Rosecrans 
 to his assistance. Upon the arrival of this 
 commander with his troops, Grant advanced 
 upon Price at Iuka, and defeated him on the 
 nineteenth of September, He then repaired to 
 Jackson, Tennessee, leaving Rosecrans with 
 nineteen thousand men to hold Corinth 
 against the Confederates. 
 
 After his defeat at Iuka Price was joined 
 by Van Dorn, whose troops brought the 
 strength of the Confederate army to eighteen 
 thousand men. They at once advanced upon 
 Corinth, and on the fourth of October attacked 
 that place. The battle which ensued was 
 noted for the obstinacy with which it was 
 contested by both sides. The Confed* .<*.ces 
 were defeated with a loss A about three thou- 
 sand ki r a and wounded, and were pursued 
 for about thirty miles southward. The Union 
 loss was about five hundred and eighteen 
 killed, wounded and missing. 
 
 The Federal Government was greatly dis- 
 
 satisfied with Buell's failure to intercept 
 Bragg, and upon his arrival at Nashville he 
 was removed from the command of his army, 
 which was conferred upon General Rose- 
 crans, as a reward for his victory at Corinth. 
 Bragg had taken position near Murfreesboro', 
 about thirty miles distant from Nashville, and 
 Rosecrans, towards the last of December, 
 moved upon that place to attack him. Bragg 
 had at the same time completed his prepara- 
 tions to resume the offensive, and had begun 
 his advance upon Nashville, and the two 
 armies encountered each other at Stone 
 River, near Murfreesboro', on the thirty-first 
 of December,, They were about equal in 
 strength, each numbering about forty thou- 
 sand men. 
 
 Bragg Repulsed by Rosecrans. 
 
 The battle was fiercely disputed, but at 
 nightfall Rosecrans was driven back with 
 heavy loss, and Bragg telegraphed to Rich' 
 mond news of a great victory. Rosecrans, 
 however, had merely fallen back to a new 
 and stronger position. On the second oi 
 January, 1863, Bragg renewed his attack, 
 but was repulsed with terrible slaughter. On 
 the third a heavy rain fell and prevented all 
 military operations, and that night Bragg 
 retreated from the field. He retired in good 
 order to Tullahoma, about thirty miles from 
 Murfreesboro'. The losses on both sides in 
 this battle were heavy, ranging from ten 
 thousand to twelve thousand men in each 
 army. 
 
 The Confederates, having lost the uppei 
 and lowef Mississippi, had fortified Vicksburg 
 and Port Hudson, in order to maintain theii 
 hold upon that stream, and to keep open theii 
 communications with the country west of the 
 Mississippi. Vicksburg had been made a 
 post of extraordinary strength, and was gar- 
 risoned by a considerable force of Confed- 
 erate troops. Towards the last of the yea? 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 
 
 O99 
 
 General Grant determined to undertake an 
 expedition against it. He sent General Sher- 
 man with forty thousand men, and a fleet of 
 gunboats, under Commodore Porter, to de- 
 scend the Mississippi and attack the southern 
 works above the city ; 
 and advanced south- 
 ward from Corinth 
 with the main army 
 by land. Grant had 
 accomplished fully 
 half the distance when 
 a strong body of Con- 
 federate cavalry, under 
 General Van Dorn, 
 made a dash into his 
 rear, and on the twen- 
 tieth of December cap- 
 tured Holly Springs, 
 Grant's principal de- 
 pot of supplies. 
 
 This movement 
 compelled Grant to 
 abandon his advance 
 upon Vicksburg, and 
 to fall back and re- 
 establish his com- 
 munications with his 
 base. Sherman, ignor- 
 ant of this disaster, 
 left Memphis on the 
 twentieth of Decem- 
 ber, and a few days 
 later landed his troops 
 on the banks of the 
 Yazoo, from which he 
 advanced upon the 
 Confederate works at 
 
 Chickasaw bayou, on the north of Vicksburg. 
 On the twenty-ninth of December he made 
 a spirited attack upon them, but was repulsed. 
 He withdrew his troops to the boats, and 
 retired to Young's Point, on the Louisiana 
 shore, a short distance above Vicksburg. 
 
 The Confederates were driven out of Mis- 
 souri at the close of 1861, and retired into 
 Arkansas. General Van Dorn was now sent 
 by the Confederate government to take 
 .command of the forces of Price and McCul 
 
 GENERAL SHERMAN AT THE OUTBREAK OF THE WAR. 
 
 loch, which numbered about sixteen thousand 
 men. He reached the head-quarters of this 
 force on the third of March, 1862. The 
 Federal army, under General Curtis, with 
 General Sigel as his second in command, 
 had taken position on the heights of F& 
 
700 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 
 
 7 vi 
 
 Ridge, around Sugar creek, in the north- 
 western part of Arkansas. It numbered 
 about eleven thousand men. On the seventh 
 of March Van Dorn attacked the Union 
 army, in this position, and after a bloody 
 fight, which lasted for about seven or eight 
 hours, drove it back. Curtis took up a new 
 position during the night, and the next 
 morning the Confederates renewed the attack, 
 and were repulsed. 
 
 After the battle of Shiloh, the troops of 
 Price and Van Dorn were withdrawn across 
 the Mississippi to reinforce General Beau- 
 regard at Corinth. We have seen them 
 bearing the brunt of the campaign in northern 
 Mississippi against Grant's army. Towards 
 the close of the summer, it being necessary 
 to make a vigorous effort to hold the trans- 
 Mississippi region against the efforts of the 
 Union forces, the Confederate government 
 sent Lieutenant-General Holmes to take 
 command of it. The operations in ,his 
 region during the remainder of the year were 
 of an unimportant character. 
 
 General Burnside's Expedition. 
 
 The plan of the Federal government for 
 seizing the prominent points on the coast 
 was carried forward with great energy during 
 the year 1862. Between Albemarle and 
 Pamlico Sounds, on the coast of North Caro- 
 lina, lies Roanoke Island, famous as the 
 scene of Sir Walter Raleigh's unfortunate 
 attempts to colonize America, and com- 
 manding the entrance to Albemarle Sound. 
 The possession of this island by the Federal 
 forces would give them the command of the 
 rivers entering into the sounds, place the 
 rear defences of Norfolk at their mercy, and 
 afford them a safe base from which to attack 
 the towns on the North Carolina coast. The 
 Federal government having determined to 
 obtain possession of Roanoke Island, a 
 powerful expedition against it was fitted out 
 
 early in the year, under the commana 01 
 Major-General Ambrose E. Burnside. 
 
 The expedition sailed from Hampton 
 Roads on the eleventh of January, 1862, and 
 after narrowly escaping being scattered by a 
 severe storm, passed through Hatteras inlet, 
 and anchored in Pamlico Sound on the 
 twenty-eighth. On the sixth of February 
 the fleet took position off Roanoke Island, 
 and on the seventh opened fire upon the 
 Confederate works. Under the cover of this 
 fire a force of over ten thousand troops was 
 landed upon the island. On the eighth, Gen- 
 eral Burnside attacked the Confederate in- 
 trenchments and carried them after a sharp 
 contest. The entire Confederate force, num- 
 bering about twenty-five hundred men, fell 
 into his hands as prisoners of war. On the 
 tenth, the Confederate squadron in Albemarle 
 Sound was attacked and destroyed, or cap- 
 tured. 
 
 Having established himself firmly on Ro- 
 anoke Island, General Burnside prepared to 
 reduce the towns along the coast of North 
 Carolina. On the fourteenth of March, New- 
 berne surrendered to him, and on the twenty- 
 fifth of April, Fort Macon, at the entrance of 
 Beaufort Harbor, one of the strongest works 
 on the coast, capitulated. 
 
 Successes on the Florida Coast. 
 
 Some important successes were won on 
 the Coast of Florida during the spring of this 
 year. An expedition from Port Royal cap- 
 tured Fernandina and Fort Clinch, on the 
 twenty-eighth of February, and a little later 
 Jacksonville, on the St. John's River, and St. 
 Augustine passed into the hands of the Fed- 
 eral troops. Brunswick and Darien, import- 
 ant places on the coast of Georgia, were cap- 
 tured about the same time. 
 
 The most important naval expedition of 
 the year was that which resulted in the 
 capture of New Orleans. The Federa 1 
 
702 PORTRAITS OF THE PRINCIPAL NAVAL COMMANDERS DURING THE WAR. 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 
 
 Government had recognized from the firs' 
 the importance of regaining possession of th< 
 Mississippi, and, as we have seen, a large fleet 
 of gunboats had been prepared on the upper 
 waters of that stream to co-operate with the 
 army in its efforts to capture the fortified 
 posts along the river. All these efforts, how- 
 ever, were useless as long as the Confederates 
 retained possession of the lower river or of 
 the important city of New Orleans, the com- 
 mercial metropolis of the South. It was 
 resolved at an early period of the struggle to 
 wrest New Orleans from the Confederates, 
 and a fleet of forty-five vessels of war and 
 mortar-boats was assembled for this purpose, 
 and placed under command of Commodore 
 Farragut, an able and experienced officer. 
 To the fleet was added a force of fifteen 
 thousand troops, under General B. F. Butler. 
 The expedition rendezvoused at Ship Island, 
 near the mouth of the Mississippi, in the 
 early part of March. 
 
 Tactics of Admiral Farragut. 
 
 About twenty miles above the head of the 
 passes of the Mississippi, and about seventy 
 miles below New Orleans, the entrance to 
 the river is defended by two strong works — 
 Fort Jackson on the right bank of the 
 stream, and Fort St. Philip on the left — both 
 built before the war. The Confederates 
 had further strengthened their position by 
 stretching six heavy chains, supported on a 
 series of dismasted schooners, across the 
 river, from shore to shore, to prevent the 
 passage of ships. Early in April the fleet 
 sailed from Ship Island, leaving the troops 
 there to await the result of its operations, 
 and entering the Mississippi took position 
 below the forts. 
 
 On the eighteenth the bombardment of 
 the forts was begun by the ships and the 
 mortar-boats, and was continued with great 
 ngor until the twenty-fourth. The results of 
 
 703 
 
 'his bombardment was most discouraging, 
 and Farragut became convinced that the 
 forts could not be reduced by the fire of the 
 fleet He therefore determined to pass them 
 with his vessels and so neutralize them. 
 
 The chain and raft barricade across the 
 river had been broken by a severe storm, and 
 Farragut sent a party to enlarge the gap 
 made in it, so as to admit the passage of the 
 fleet. This task was accomplished with great 
 gallantry. At three o'clock, on the morning 
 of the twenty-fourth of April, the fleet got 
 under headway and began to ascend the 
 river, the commodore in his flag-ship, the 
 " Hartford," leading the way. The fleet 
 consisted of seventeen vessels, carrying twc 
 hundred and ninety-four guns. 
 
 Desperate Naval Battle. 
 
 As the vessels came abreast of the forts 
 the Confederates opened a heavy fire upon 
 them, to which they responded with vigor. 
 The forts were passed in safety at length 
 and a short distance above them Farragut 
 encountered the Confederate fleet, consisting 
 of sixteen vessels, but eight of which were 
 armed. Two of these were iron-clads, how- 
 ever. A desperate battle ensued, which 
 resulted in the total destruction of the south- 
 ern fleet. When the sun rose on the morn- 
 ing of the twenty-fourth the forts had been 
 passed, and the resistance of the Confederate 
 vessels had been overcome. 
 
 There was nothing now between the 
 Federal fleet and New Orleans, and Farragut, 
 ascending the river slowly and cautiously, 
 anchored in the stream, in front of the city, 
 on the morning of the twenty-fifth. He at 
 once demanded the capitulation of New 
 Orleans, which had been evacuated by the 
 Confederate troops on the previous day. and 
 the city was surrendered to him by the 
 municipal authorities. On the twenty-eighth 
 Forts Jackson and St. Philip surrendered to 
 
704 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 
 
 705 
 
 oaptain Porter, the commander of the mor- 
 tar fleet. New Orleans being taken, word 
 was sent to General Butler, at Ship Island, to 
 hasten forward with his troops to occupy it. 
 He arrived on the first of May, and at once 
 took possession of the city. Baton Rouge, 
 the capital of Louisiana, was occupied by the 
 Federal forces, and Farragut pushed on up 
 the river, and, passing the Confederate bat- 
 teries at Grand Gulf and Vicksburg, joined 
 the fleet of Commodore Davis at Memphis. 
 The capture of New Orleans was a terrible 
 blow to the South. It deprived the Con- 
 federacy of the largest and wealthiest city 
 within its limits, and wrested from it the 
 whole of the lower Mississippi. 
 
 Fort Pulaski Surrender^. 
 
 Another success was gained by the Union 
 arms on the Southern coast. An expedition 
 from Port Royal, under General Hunter, laid 
 siege to Fort Pulaski, near the mouth of the 
 Savannah River. This fort was constructed 
 by the Federal government previous to the 
 war, and constituted one of the principal 
 defences of the city of Savannah. On the 
 eleventh of April, after a bombardment of 
 fifteen days, it surrendered to General Hunter. 
 Its capture closed the Savannah River to the 
 entrance of the class of vessels known as 
 blockade runners, and deprived the South of 
 the use of one of its principal ports. 
 
 The events of this year in Virginia were 
 of the highest importance. The Army of 
 the Potomac, nearly two hundred thousand 
 strong, was ready for active operations with 
 the early spring. General McClellan was 
 anxious to avail himself of the superior naval 
 strength of the United States to transport 
 his army to a point on the Chesapeake Bay, 
 from which it could easily interpose between 
 the Confederate army, under General John- 
 ston, and Richmond. 
 
 Suspecting such a design on the part of 
 45 
 
 McClellan, Johnston abandoned his position 
 at Centreville, on the eighth of March, and 
 fell back to the Rappahannock, and a little 
 later moved back still farther to the line of 
 the Rapidan. McClellan advanced to Cen- 
 treville as soon as informed of Johnston's 
 withdrawal, but was too late to interfere with 
 the movements of the Confederate army. 
 
 Exploits of the " Merrimac." 
 
 Simultaneous with Johnston's withdrawal 
 from Centreville occurred an incident which 
 forms one of the most striking episodes of 
 the war, and led to results of world-wide 
 importance. Upon the evacuation of the 
 Norfolk navy yard by the Federal forces, at 
 the outset of the war, the splendid steam 
 frigate " Merrimac " was scuttled and sunk 
 This vessel was subsequently raised by the 
 Confederates, and rebuilt by them. Her 
 upper deck was removed, and she was covered 
 with a slanting roof. Both the roof and her 
 sides were heavily plated with iron, and a 
 long, stout bow was fitted to her to enable 
 her to act as a ram. She was then armed 
 with ten heavy guns, and named the "Vir- 
 ginia." Thus prepared, she was the most 
 powerful vessel afloat. 
 
 As soon as the " Virginia " was ready fov 
 service the Confederate authorities deter- 
 mined to test her efficiency by attempting tc 
 destroy the Federal fleet to Hampton Roads 
 On the eighth of March the " Virginia," ac 
 companied by two small vessels, left Norfolk 
 and steamed down the Elizabeth River into 
 Hampton Roads. Her appearance took the 
 Federal fleet by surprise, and a heavy fire 
 was concentrated upon her from the fleet and 
 the batteries on shore at Newport News, at 
 the mouth of the James River. Shot and 
 shell flew harmlessly from her iron sides, and, 
 firing slowly as she advanced, she aimed 
 straight for the sloop of war " Cumberland" 
 —the most formidable vessel of her class in 
 
706 
 
 THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 the navy — and sunk her with a blow of her 
 iron prow. 
 
 The frigate " Congress," lying near by, 
 was chased into shoal water and compelled 
 to surrender, after which she was set on fire. 
 
 GENERAL GEORGE B. M CLELLAN 
 
 The ram then endeavored to inflict a similar 
 fate upon the frigate " Minnesota," but that 
 vessel escaped into water too shallow for the 
 iron-clad to venture into. At sunset the 
 "Virginia" drew off, and returned to the 
 Elizabeth River. She had destroyed two of 
 
 the finest vessels in the Federal navy, and 
 inflicted upon her adversaries a loss of two 
 hundred and fifty officers and men. She was 
 herself uninjured, and had but two men 
 killed and eight wounded. 
 
 The success of the 
 "Virginia" struck 
 terror to the fleet in 
 Hampton Roads, and 
 it was by no means 
 certain that the vic- 
 torious vessel would 
 not the next day either 
 attack Fort Monroe, 
 or pass by it and as- 
 cend the Chesapeake, 
 in which case both 
 Washington and Bal- 
 timore would be at her 
 mercy. During the 
 night, however, a most 
 unlooked-for assist- 
 ance arrived. The 
 " Monitor," an iron- 
 clad vessel of a new 
 plan, invented by Cap- 
 tain John Ericsson, 
 entered Hampton 
 Roads on her trial 
 trip from New York. 
 Upon learning the 
 state of affairs her 
 commander, Lieuten- 
 ant Worden, deter- 
 mined to engage the 
 "Virginia" the next 
 day. On the morning 
 of the ninth the "Vir- 
 ginia " again steamed out of the Elizabeth 
 River into Hampton Roads. The " Monitor," 
 though her inferior in size, and carrying but a 
 single gun, at once moved forward to meet her. 
 An engagement of several hours' duration 
 ensued, in which both vessels were foughl 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 
 
 with great gallantry ; and at the end of this 
 time the " Virginia " drew off, and returned 
 to Norfolk severely injured. The arrival of 
 the " Monitor " was most fortunate. It saved 
 the Federal fleet in Hampton Roads from 
 total destruction, and prevented the " Vir- 
 ginia " from extending her ravages to the 
 ports of the Union. The battle between the 
 " Monitor" and the " Virginia " will ever be 
 famous as the first engagement between iron- 
 clad vessels. It inaugurated a new era in 
 naval warfare. In spite of the result of the 
 battle, however, the presence of the " Vir- 
 ginia" at Norfolk deterred the Federal 
 forces from risking an attack on that 
 place, and prevented them from mak- 
 ing any effort to ascend the James 
 River with their fleet. 
 
 In the meantime the army oi "xen- 
 eral McClellan had returned i:o its 
 position near Alexandria, after the 
 retreat of the Confederates to the 
 Rapidan. General McClellan now 
 proposed to move the bulk of his 
 army to Fortress Monroe, and to 
 advance from that point upon Rich- 
 mond by way of the peninsula between 
 the York and James Rivers. About 
 seventy-five thousand men were left 
 on the Potomac to cover Washington, 
 and the remainder, about one hundred 
 and twenty thousand in number, were trans- 
 ported by water to Fortress Monroe. This 
 movement was accomplished by the second 
 of April. 
 
 Johnston's Successful Retreat. 
 
 On the fourth the Army of the Potomac 
 began its march towards the lines of York- 
 town, which were held by about eleven 
 thousand five hundred men. under General 
 Magruder. The Confederate commander 
 had passed the first year of the war in forti- 
 fying his position, and had constructed a 
 
 707 
 
 series of powerful works which enabled him, 
 with his small force, to hold McClellan's 
 whole army in check. On he fifth and sixth 
 of April McClellan made repeated attempts 
 to force the southern lines, and failing in 
 these decided to lay siege to them. The 
 time thus gained by Magruder enabled 
 General Johnston to move his army from the 
 Rapidan to the peninsula. It was in position 
 on the lines of Yorktown by the seventeenth 
 of April, making the force opposed to 
 McClellan about fifty-eight thousand strong. 
 The Confederates did not expect to hold 
 
 VIEW OF THE CHICKAHOMINV NEAR MECHANICSVILLE. 
 
 their position on the peninsula, but from the 
 first intended to move back nearer to 
 Richmond, and occupy the line of theChick- 
 ahominy. When their preparations were 
 completed ihey fell back from the lines of 
 Yorktown, on the night of the third of May, 
 just as McClellan was about to begin his 
 bombardment of their position. 
 
 The Federal army discovered the retreat 
 on the morning of the fourth of May, and 
 moved forward promptly in the hope of inter- 
 cepting the Southern army. On the morning 
 of the fifth the advanced forces attacked the 
 
7o8 
 
 THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 rear-guard of Johnston's army at Williams- 
 burg. The Confederate commander held his 
 
 MAP OF NORTHERN VIRGINIA. 
 
 ground until his trains had gotten off in 
 safety, and then resumed his retreat, and 
 
 reached the Chickahominy about the tenth 
 of May without further molestation from the 
 Union forces. General 
 McClellan, following 
 leisurely, took posi 
 tion on the left bank 
 of the Chickahominy 
 with the river between 
 the two armies. 
 
 In accordance with 
 General McClellan's 
 urgent request, Presi- 
 dent Lincoln decided 
 to order the force left 
 to cover Washington 
 to join the Army of 
 the Potomac, before 
 Richmond, by the 
 way of Fredericks- 
 burg. With his force 
 thus augmented the 
 Union commander 
 had no doubt of his 
 ability to capture 
 Richmond. Alive to 
 this danger General 
 Johnston directed 
 General Jackson, who 
 had been left to hold 
 the valley of Vir- 
 ginia.to manoeuvre his 
 army so as to threaten 
 Washington, and com- 
 pel the Federal gov- 
 ernment to retain the 
 force intended for Mc- 
 Clellan for the defence 
 of Washington. While 
 awaiting the arrival of 
 this force McClellan 
 threw his left wing 
 across the Chicka- 
 hominy, and lodged it in a position neaier to 
 Richmond. The Federal lines now extended 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 
 
 709 
 
 from Bottom's Bridge, on the Chickahominy, 
 to Mechanicsville, north of that stream. 
 
 The evacuation of the peninsula compelled 
 the Confederates to abandon Norfolk also. 
 They withdrew their troops from that city 
 on the ninth of May, 
 and sent them to rein- 
 force General Johns- 
 ton. On the tenth Nor- 
 folk and Portsmouth 
 were occupied by the 
 Federal forces under 
 General Wool. Before 
 leaving the Confeder- 
 ates had set fire to the 
 navy yard, which was 
 destroyed. The iron- 
 clad steamer " Vir- 
 ginia" was taken into 
 the James River, and 
 on the eleventh was 
 abandoned and blown 
 up. The loss of this 
 steamer, which could 
 have held the James 
 against the whole 
 Union fleet, left the 
 river open to within 
 eight miles of Rich- 
 mond. 
 
 The gunboats, in- 
 cluding the " Moni- 
 tor," were sent up to 
 try to force their way 
 to Richmond, but on 
 the fifteenth of May 
 were driven back by a 
 battery of heavy guns 
 
 located on the heights at Drewry's bluff, 
 eight miles below Richmond. They were 
 badly injured by the plunging fire of the 
 Confederates. The river was securely 
 obstructed at this point to prevent a pas- 
 sage of the batteries by the Federal fleet. 
 
 Having been heavily reinforced, General 
 Johnston determined to attack McClellan's 
 exposed left wing, and on the thirty-first of 
 May fell upon it at Seven Pines, and drove 
 it back with heavy loss. General Johnston 
 
 LIEUTENANT-GENERAL T. J. JACKSON. 
 
 was severely wounded towards the close 
 of the day, and was unable to carry out 
 the plan upon which he had begun the 
 battle. The next day there was heavy skir- 
 mishing until about ten o'clock in the morn- 
 ine. but nothing of a more serious nature was 
 
7io 
 
 attempted by either side. General McClel- 
 lan, warned by the narrow escape of his left 
 wing, now proceeded to fortify his position 
 on the south bank of the Chickahominy. 
 
 While these events were in progress on 
 the Chickahominy, General Jackson carried 
 out with brilliant success the movements 
 assigned him in the valley of Virginia. His 
 task required the exercise of the greatest 
 skill and determination. He was to neu- 
 tralize the forces of Fremont, Banks and 
 McDowell, and prevent them from render- 
 ing any assistance to McClellan. Jackson's 
 army fell back from Winchester on the elev- 
 enth of March, and retired as far as Mount 
 Jackson. Then rapidly retracing its steps it 
 attacked Banks' forces at Kernstown, near 
 Winchester. Though repulsed in this 
 engagement, it succeeded in alarming the 
 Federal government for the safety of Wash- 
 ington. Banks' command was therefore 
 retained in the valley to watch Jackson, 
 and the force under McDowell was not 
 allowed to go to McClellan's assistance on 
 the peninsula, lest by so doing it should 
 uncover Washington. After the battle of 
 Kernstown Jackson retired up the valley, 
 and a season of comparative quietude 
 ensued. The Federal government even 
 believed that his troops had been sent to 
 Richmond. 
 
 Jackson's Brilliant Achievements. 
 
 Fremont's army was ordered to move from 
 western Virginia into the valley; Banks was 
 directed to march to Manassas and cover 
 Washington ; while McDowell, with forty 
 thousand men, was ordered to move from 
 Fredericksburg, from which he was to march 
 across the country and unite with McClel- 
 lan's left wing, which was thrown out far to 
 the north of Richmond to meet him. These 
 orders were in process of execution when 
 Jackson, who had been reinforced by a divis- 
 
 THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 under General Ewell 
 
 on under uenerai £,wen, destroyed the 
 whole Federal plan of campaign. 
 
 Knowing that he could not possibly resist 
 the combined forces of Fremont and Banks, 
 Jackson determined to beat them in detail. 
 Marching rapidly westward, he crossed the 
 mountains, fell upon the advance guard of 
 Fremont's army at McDowell, on the eighth 
 of May, defeated it, and drove it back into 
 western Virginia. Then retracing his steps 
 with remarkable speed, he returned to the 
 valley, and on the twenty-third of May 
 attacked Banks' outlying force at Front 
 Royal, and drove it in upon the main body 
 at Strasburg. 
 
 Banks at once broke up his camp and fell 
 back down the valley, pursued by Jackson, 
 who dealt him a terrible blow at Winchester 
 on the twenty-fifth. By extraordinary exer- 
 tions Banks succeeded in escaping across 
 the Potomac, but left about three thousand 
 prisoners, several pieces of artillery, nine 
 thousand stand of arms, and the greater part 
 of his stores in the hands of the Confederates, 
 
 Richmond Saved from Capture. 
 
 This bold advance greatly alarmed the 
 government at Washington, and the Presi- 
 dent ordered Fremont to move with speed 
 into the valley, and directed General Mc- 
 Dowell to suspend his movement to the 
 assistance of McClellan, and send a force of 
 twenty thousand men to gain Jackson's rear 
 and prevent his return up the valley. Mc- 
 Dowell sent the required force under General 
 Shields, and Fremont hurried on to gain the 
 upper valley in advance of Jackson. These 
 movements entirely prevented McClellan 
 from receiving the assistance of McDowell's 
 corps, and saved Richmond from capture. 
 
 Jackson was too good a general to be 
 caught in a trap so skillfully laid for him. 
 He retired up the valley with the greatest 
 speed, and having interposed his army 
 
PORTRAITS OF PROMINENT CONFEDERATE GENERALS. 
 
 711 
 
712 
 
 THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 between Fremont and Shields, turned upon 
 the former, and with a part of his force 
 attacked him at Cross Keys on the eighth of 
 June, and checked his advance. Then re- 
 uniting his forces he fell upon Shields at 
 Port Republic on the ninth of June, and 
 drove him back with heavy loss after one of 
 the hardest fought battles of the war. Hav- 
 ing thus put an end to the pursuit of his 
 antagonists, Jackson withdrew to a safe posi- 
 tion, from which he could hold them in 
 check or go to the aid of the army defend- 
 ing Richmond. 
 
 The latter move being decided upon, he 
 eluded the Federal forces in the valley, and 
 marched rapidly to the Chickahominy. Be- 
 fore his absence from the valley was sus- 
 pected, he had joined General Lee. His 
 campaign in the valley is justly regarded as 
 one of the most brilliant of the war. With 
 less than twenty thousand men he had neu- 
 tralized a force of sixty thousand Union 
 troops, and prevented the execution of Mc- 
 Clellan's carefully laid plans for the capture 
 of Richmond. 
 
 General Lee Takes Command. 
 
 Upon the fall of General Johnston the 
 command of the Confederate army before 
 Richmond was conferred upon General 
 Robert E. Lee, whom subsequent events 
 proved to be the ablest of the Southern 
 leaders. Troops were drawn from every pos- 
 sible point to reinforce General Lee's army, 
 and by the middle of June his forces, includ- 
 ing Jackson's army, amounted to ninety 
 thousand men. The Federal army was one 
 hundred and fifteen thousand strong. Both 
 armies were in fine condition. General Mc- 
 Clellan, finding it impossible to obtain the 
 assistance of McDowell's corps, and fearing 
 for the safety of his communications with his 
 base of supplies, which was at West Point, 
 at the head of the York River, prepared to 
 
 move his army to the south side of the 
 Chickahominy, and establish a new and more 
 secure base upon the James River. 
 
 Before he could put this design in opera- 
 tion he was attacked by General Lee, who, 
 on the twenty-fifth of June, fell upon the 
 right of the Union line at Mechanicsville, 
 and forced it back upon the centre at Cold 
 Harbor. On the twenty-sixth the position 
 at Cold Harbor was attacked and carried by 
 the Confederates after a desperate struggle. 
 With great difficulty McClellan secured his 
 retreat to the south side of the Chickahom- 
 iny, and destroyed the bridges in his rear. 
 
 Having decided to retreat to the James 
 River rather than attempt to retain his com- 
 munication with West Point, McClellan 
 destroyed his stores, and on the twenty- 
 eighth began his retreat from the Chicka- 
 hominy by way of White Oak Swamp. As 
 soon as his movement was discovered pur- 
 suit was made by the Confederates, who 
 attacked his rear guard under General Sum- 
 ner at Savage Station late in the afternoon 
 of the twenty-ninth. Sumner held his ground 
 until the darkness put an end to the action, 
 and during the night of the twenty-ninth 
 withdrew across White Oak Swamp, destroy- 
 ing all the bridges after him. 
 
 End of the " Seven Days' Battles." 
 
 On the thirtieth General Lee made a last 
 effort to prevent McClellan from reaching 
 the James, and towards the close of the 
 afternoon the bloody battle of Frazier's Farm 
 was fought. It was continued until nine 
 o'clock. The Federal force at Frazier's Farm 
 held its ground until the remainder of 
 McClellan's army had safely traversed White 
 Oak Swamp. The object of the battle hav- 
 ing been accomplished, McClellan resumed 
 his retreat to the James River, and took posi- 
 tion upon Malvern Hill, within a short dis- 
 tance of that stream. Here he massed his 
 
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ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 
 
 7M 
 
 artillery, and the gunboats in the James 
 River moved up to a point from which they 
 could throw their shells into the Confederate 
 lines. 
 
 On the afternoon of the first of July the 
 Confederates made a gallant attempt to carry 
 Malvern Hill, but were repulsed with severe 
 loss. The next morning the Federal army 
 withdrew to Harrison's Landing on the 
 James River. Thus ended the " Seven Days' 
 Battles," during which the Federal army 
 lost about twenty thousand men in killed, 
 wounded and prisoners, fifty-two pieces of 
 artillery, thirty-five thousand stand of arms, 
 and an enormous quantity of stores of all 
 kinds. The Confederate loss was nineteen 
 thousand five hundred and thirty -three killed, 
 wounded and missing. 
 
 The retreat of McClellan's army threw the 
 North into the deepest despondency. On 
 the second of July President Lincoln issued a 
 call for three hundred thousand fresh troops. 
 The necessities of the struggle, however, 
 made this force insufficient, and on the fourth 
 of August the President ordered that a draft 
 of three hundred thousand militia should be 
 made and placed in the service of the United 
 States for a period of nine months unless 
 sooner discharged. The States complied 
 with the requisitions upon them, and in the 
 brief period of three months the enormous 
 mass of six hundred thousand fresh troops 
 was raised, armed and placed in the field. 
 
 Battle of Cedar Mountain. 
 
 For the protection of Washington the 
 Federal government now collected the com- 
 mands of Banks, Fremont and McDowell in 
 one army, and placed it under command of 
 Major-General John Pope, whose capture of 
 Island No. io and other points in the west 
 had given him a fair reputation. He assumed 
 his new command with a profusion of boasts, 
 and promised to succeed where McCleilan 
 
 had failed. According to General Pope th; 
 capture of Richmond was the easiest under- 
 taking in the world. His army towards the 
 latter part of July advanced to the Rapidan. 
 To watch this force General Lee, late in 
 July, sent General Jackson's corps to the 
 Rapidan. On the ninth of August Jackson 
 attacked the advanced corps of Pope's army 
 at Cedar Mountain, and defeated it. This 
 defeat suspended General Pope's forward 
 movement. General McCleilan now received 
 orders from Washington to evacuate Harri- 
 son's Landing and to reinforce General Pope 
 with his army. He at once put this order in 
 execution. The withdrawal of his troops 
 was detected by General Lee, who rapidly 
 reinforced Jackson, and finally moved with 
 his whole army to the Rapidan. 
 
 Daring Flank Movement. 
 
 About the same time Burnside's corps, 
 which had been withdrawn from the southern 
 coast, and was awaiting orders in Hampton 
 Roads, was directed to move into the 
 Potomac and reinforce Pope. General Pope 
 had now under his command a force of over 
 one hundred thousand men. The Confed- 
 erate army, which was concentrated upon the 
 Rapidan by the eighteenth of August, num- 
 bered about seventy thousand men. Its 
 strength was greatly overestimated by Gen- 
 eral Pope, who deemed it most prudent to 
 retire behind the Rappahannock, which he 
 did on the eighteenth and nineteenth of 
 August. His new position was well chosen. 
 His right was at Rappahannock Station, and 
 his left at Kelley's ford, some distance lower 
 down the river. 
 
 General Lee now resolved to attack Pope 
 before he could be joined by McClellan's 
 troops. He divided his army into two 
 columns, and sent Jackson's corps by a cir- 
 cuitous route, by way of Thoroughfare Gap, 
 to gain the rear of the Federal army This 
 
714 
 
 THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 daring flank march was accomplished by 
 Jackson, and on the twenty-sixth of August 
 
 trains loaded with supplies. Upon learning 
 of this movement Pope at once fell back 
 
 PORTRAITS OF PROMINENT FEDERAL GENERALS. 
 
 he captured Manassas Junction, Pope's main 
 depot of supplies, with an enormous quantity 
 of stores of all kinds, and several railroad 
 
 from the Rappahannock, intending to crush 
 the isolated corps of Jackson, and at the 
 same time Lee set off rapidly by way of 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 
 
 715 
 
 Thoroughfare Gap to join his endangered 
 lieutenant. 
 
 Pope's army had been reinforced by the 
 corps of Porter and Heintzelman, and Rey- 
 nolds' division of McClellan's army, and was 
 at least one hundred and twenty thousand 
 strong. He moved back rapidly to attack 
 Jackson, and encountered Ewell's division 
 near Manassas Junction on the twenty- 
 seventh. Ewell held his ground, and at 
 night rejoined Jackson, who moved swiftly 
 from Manassas to a new position near the 
 old Bull Run battle-field. This brought him 
 nearer to Lee, and secured his retreat in case 
 of a defeat. Ewell's resistance deceived 
 General Pope, who had posted McDowell's 
 and Porter's corps to hold the road from 
 Thoroughfare Gap, by which Lee must 
 advance to Jackson's assistance. 
 
 Supposing that Jackson meant to make a 
 stand at Manassas, Pope ordered these troops 
 to move from the positions they had taken 
 and to advance upon Manassas Junction. 
 Manassas was reached at noon on the twenty- 
 eighth, and then General Pope saw for the 
 first time how he had been deceived by 
 Jackson, and how he had blundered in leaving 
 the road from Thoroughfare Gap open to 
 Lee. 
 
 His command was in a critical position, 
 and he was so situated that he could not 
 make the best use of the forces which were 
 at his disposal 
 
 Repulse of the Union Forces. 
 
 He endeavored to repair his error by at- 
 tacking Jackson at once. He did attack 
 that general in his new position late in the 
 afternoon of the twenty-eighth, but was re- 
 pulsed with severe loss. On the same after- 
 noon General Lee with Longstreet's corps 
 forced the passage of Thoroughfare Gap, and 
 bivouacked that night in the open country 
 beyond it. On the morning of the twenty- 
 
 ninth he pushed forward with speed, and by 
 noon his advanced division reached Jack- 
 son's position. By four o'clock in the after- 
 noon the Confederate army was reunited 
 under the command of General Lee. About 
 three o'clock in the afternoon General Pope 
 determined to attack upon Lee's position, 
 but was repulsed. 
 
 On the thirtieth, having reunited all the 
 corps of his army, General Pope determined 
 to risk the fate of the campaign upon a de- 
 cisive engagement. The Confederates held 
 a large part of the old battlefield of Bull 
 Run, and the conflict which ensued is usually 
 
 MAJOR-GENERAL PHILIP KEARNEY. 
 
 known as the second battle of Bull Run. It 
 resulted in the defeat of General Pope, who 
 was driven back to the heights of Centre- 
 ville with heavy loss. On the thirty-first 
 Jackson attacked the Federal rear-guard at 
 Chantilly. A spirited encounter took place, 
 and the Federal troops were slowly forced 
 back, losing General Phil Kearney, one of 
 the most accomplished officers in the service. 
 General Pope now withdrew his army within 
 the lines of Washington. 
 
 He had lost since the opening of the 
 campaign over thirty thousand men, includ- 
 ing eight generals killed, thirty pieces ol 
 artillery, over twenty thousand stand ot 
 
yi6 
 
 THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 arms, and an enormous quantity of stores. 
 The Confederate loss was nine thousand one 
 hundred and twelve, including five generals. 
 The defeat of the Union army and the 
 presence of the Confederates on the Poto- 
 mac placed the city of Washington in great 
 danger. The government acted with vigor 
 and decision in this emergency. The losses 
 of Pope's army were made up by reinforce- 
 ments. General Pope was relieved of com- 
 mand, and General McClellan was restored 
 to the command of the army of the Potomac. 
 He set to work with energy to reorganize 
 the broken masses of Pope's army into an 
 effective force. 
 
 McClellan at South Mountain. 
 
 General Lee now crossed the Potomac and 
 invaded Maryland, hoping to be able not 
 only to remove the war from the soil of Vir- 
 ginia, but also to obtain large reinforcements 
 from the southern sympathizers in Maryland. 
 In this he was disappointed, as scarcely any 
 one joined him. On the fifth of September 
 he crossed the Potomac, and on the sixth 
 occupied Frederick City. Harper's Ferry 
 was held by a force of eleven thousand men 
 under Colonel Miles, and it was necessary to 
 reduce this post in order to preserve the com- 
 munications of the Confederate army with 
 its own country. General Jackson was 
 despatched with his corps to capture Harp- 
 er's Ferry. He promptly carried the heights 
 overlooking the town, and on the fifteenth of 
 September the town and garrison surren- 
 dered to him after a feeble resistance. 
 
 General Lee in the meantime had taken 
 position at South Mountain to await the 
 issue of Jackson's attack upon Harper's 
 Ferry. McClellan, advancing slowly from 
 Washington, reached Frederick on the 
 twelfth of September. There he found a 
 copy of General Lee's confidential order to 
 his corps commanders, which had been lost 
 
 by some one. This document gave the Con- 
 federate plan of operations, and enabled 
 McClellan to act with certainty in directing 
 his own movements. Hastening forward he 
 attacked General Lee at South Mountain on 
 the fourteenth of September, and after a 
 stubborn fight Lee fell back behind Antietam 
 Creek, and on the morning of the seven- 
 teenth was joined there by the troops of 
 Jackson, who had made a forced march from 
 Harper's Ferry. 
 
 The Confederate army numbered about 
 forty thousand men, having been terribly 
 reduced by the straggling of the men on the 
 march through Virginia. The Federal army 
 numbered over eighty thousand men, and 
 was eager for a contest. The prolonged 
 resistance of Harper's Ferry, and the losses 
 of his army by straggling, had defeated Lee's 
 plan of campaign. He was now compelled 
 to retire across the Potomac, and he halted 
 on the Antietam only to secure the reunion 
 of Jackson's corps with his army and a safe 
 passage of the Potomac. 
 
 Battle of Antietam. 
 
 On the morning of the seventeenth of Sep- 
 tember General McClellan attacked the Con- 
 federate army in force, but it held its ground 
 during the day, both armies at nightfall occu- 
 pying about the same positions they had held 
 in the morning. The Federal loss was twelve 
 thousand four hundred and sixty-nine, includ- 
 ing thirteen generals wounded, one mortally ; 
 that of the Confederates eight thousand seven 
 hundred and ninety, including three generals 
 killed, five wounded. The eighteenth passed 
 quietly away, and that night Lee silently 
 withdrew from his position and retreated 
 across the Potomac. He retired up the 
 valley to Winchester. The Federal army 
 moved to the vicinity of Harper's Ferry, and 
 did not cross the Potomac until the second 
 of November. 
 
7 i8 
 
 THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 Upon entering Virginia General McClellan 
 moved towards the Rappahannock, with the 
 design of interposing his army between Lee 
 and Richmond. General Lee at once left 
 the valley where he had been detained by the 
 necessity of watching McClellan, and by a 
 rapid march to Warrenton, placed his army 
 between Richmond and McClellan. The 
 Federal army continuing to advance, he fell 
 back to Culpepper Court-house, and McClel- 
 lan moved forward to the vicinity of Warren- 
 
 VIEW OF ANTIETAM BATTLE GROUND. 
 
 ton. On the seventh of November, when 
 about to resume his advance, McClellan, 
 whose conduct of the campaign had not 
 pleased either President Lincoln or the people 
 of the North, was removed from the com- 
 mand of the Army of the Potomac, which 
 was conferred upon General Ambrose E. 
 Burnside. 
 
 Burnside at once advanced to the banks of 
 the Rappahannock opposite Fredericksburg, 
 intending to pass the river at that place and 
 move upon Richmond. Upon his arrival at 
 
 Falmouth, opposite Fredericksburg, he found 
 the Confederate army strongly posted on the 
 heights in the rear of the latter place, pre- 
 pared to dispute his advance. 
 
 He crossed the Rappahannock on the 
 eleventh and twelfth of December, and on 
 the thirteenth attacked the Confederate posi- 
 tion, which had been strongly entrenched 
 He was repulsed with a loss of eleven thou- 
 sand men, and compelled to retreat across 
 the Rappahannock. This terrible reverse 
 
 greatly disheart- 
 ened the Army of 
 the Potomac, and 
 destroyed its faith 
 in its commander; 
 and so the year 
 closed gloomily for 
 the Union cause in 
 the east. 
 
 In the fall of 
 1862 President 
 Lincoln took the 
 bold step of issu- 
 ing a proclamation 
 announcing that if 
 the seceded States 
 did not return to 
 their allegiance to 
 the Union, he 
 would declare all 
 the negro slaves 
 within their limits free from the first of 
 January next. This proclamation was issued 
 on the twenty-second of September, imme- 
 diately after the battle of Antietam. The 
 army and navy of the United States were 
 to enforce the terms of this proclamation, 
 and from the new year there was to be no 
 more slavery within the limits of the Union. 
 The proclamation was avowedly a war meas- 
 ure, buc it was sustained by Congress by 
 appropriate legislation during the ensuing 
 winter 
 
CHAPTER XLII 
 
 The Administration of Abraham Lincoln — The Civil 
 
 War — Concluded. 
 
 The Emancipation Proclamation— Battle of Chancellorsville— Death of Stonewall Jackson— Invasion of the North by 
 Lee's Army— Battle of Gettysburg— Retreat of Lee into Virginia— Grant's Army Ciosses the Mississippi— Battle of 
 Champion Hills— Investment of Vicksburg— Surrender of Vicksburg and Tort Hudson— Battle of Chickamauga— 
 Rosecrans Shut Up in Chattanooga — Grant in Command of the Western Armies— Battles of Lookout Mountain and 
 Missionary Ridge— Defeat of Bragg's Army— The Campaign in East Tennessee— Retreat of Longstreet— Capture of 
 Galveston— Attack on Charleston— Capture of Fort Wagner— Charleston Bombarded —State of Affairs in the Spring 
 of 1864 — The Red River Expedition — Grant Made Lieutenant-General— Advance of the Army of the Totomac — 
 Battle of the Wilderness, Spottsylvania and Cold Harbor — Sheridan's Raid— Death of General J. E. B. Stuart— Battle 
 of New Market— Early Sent into the Valley of Virginia— Butler's Army at Bermuda Hundreds— Grant Crosses the 
 James River — The Siege of Petersburg Begun— Early's Raid upon Washington— Sheridan Defeats Early at Winchester 
 and Fisher'sHill — Battle of Cedar Creek — The Final Defeat of Early's Army — Sherman's Advance to Atlanta — Johns- 
 ton Removed — Defeat of Hood Before Atlanta — Evacuation of Atlanta — Hood's Invasion of Tennessee — Battle of 
 Franklin — Siege of Nashville — Hood Defeated at Nashville — His Retreat— Sherman's " March to Sea " — Capture of 
 Savannah — Battle of Mobile Bay — Attack on Fort Fisher — The Confederate Cruisers — Sinking of the " Alabama" 
 by the" Kearsarge " — Re-election of President Lincoln — Admission of Nevada into the Union — The Hampton Roads 
 Peace Conference — 'Capture of Fort Fisher — Occupation of Wilmington — Sherman Advances through South Carolina 
 — Evacuation of Charleston — Battles of Averasboro' and Bentonville — Sherman at Goldsboro' — Critical Situation of 
 Lee's Army — Attack on Fort Steadman — Sheridan Joins Grant — Advance of Grant's Army — Battle of Five Forks- 
 Attack on Petersburg — Evacuation of Richmond and Petersburg — Retreat of Lee's Army — Richmond Occupied — 
 Surrender of Genenal Lee's Army — Rejoicings in the North — Assassination of President Lincoln — Death of Booth- 
 Execution of the Conspirators — Johnston Surrenders — Surrender of the Other Confederate Forces — Capture of Jeffer- 
 son Davis — Close of the War. 
 
 IN accordance with his proclamation of 
 September 22, 1862, President Lincoln, 
 on the first of January, 1863, issued his 
 proclamation of emancipation, in which 
 he declared all the slaves within the limits 
 of the Confederate States free from that day. 
 The plan of campaign adopted by the 
 Federal government for 1863 was very much 
 like that of the previous year. In the east 
 the Army of the Potomac was to push for- 
 ward towards Richmond ; and in the west 
 the army of General Grant was to capture 
 Vicksburg, and thus open the Mississippi, 
 after which it was to march eastward, unite 
 with the forces of General Rosecrans and 
 occupy East Tennessee, thus cutting the 
 communication between the Border and the 
 
 Gulf States. In addition to these operations 
 an expedition against Charleston, South Ca- 
 rolina, was to be attempted. 
 
 The Army of the Potomac was greatly 
 disheartened by its defeat at Fredericksburg, 
 and had lost confidence in General Burnside. 
 That commander, at his own request, was 
 removed from the command, and was suc- 
 ceeded by General Joseph Hooker on the 
 twenty-fifth of January. Hooker at once 
 began the reorganization of his army, and 
 soon brought it to a splendid state of effi- 
 ciency. By the opening of the spring it 
 numbered one hundred and twenty thousand 
 men and four hundred pieces of artillery. 
 General Lee had remained in his position 
 back of Fredericksburg al ? winter, and his 
 
 719 
 
?20 
 
 PORTRAITS jUMB OF THE GENERALS OF THE \RMY Ol THE POTOMAC. 
 
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ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 
 
 721 
 
 army had been weakened by the withdrawal 
 of General Longstreet's corps, twenty-four 
 thousand strong, by the Confederate govern- 
 ment, leaving him about fifty thousand men. 
 
 General Hooker, upon learning of Lee's 
 weakened condition, determined to attack 
 him. He divided his army into two columns, 
 One of these, consisting of the Second, Fifth, 
 Eleventh, and Twelfth army corps, under 
 his own command, was to cross the Rap- 
 pahannock above Fredericksburg and 
 turn the Confederate position. The other 
 column, consisting of the First, Third, 
 and Sixth corps, under General Sedg- 
 wick, was to cross the river at Fred- 
 ericksburg and attack the heights. Be- 
 tween these forces it was believed that 
 Lee's army would be crushed. 
 
 On the twenty- seventh of April Hooker 
 moved off with the first column, crossed 
 the river on the twenty-eighth and twenty- 
 ninth at Kelley's Ford, and on the thir- 
 tieth took position at Chancellorsville, 
 on the left and in the rear of Lee's forti- 
 fied line. On the twenty-ninth General 
 Sedgwick crossed his column about three 
 miles below Fredericksburg, and during 
 that day and the thirtieth made demon- 
 strations as though he intended to assault 
 the southern position in the rear of the 
 town. 
 
 General Lee's situation was now cri- 
 tical, and demanded the most extra- 
 ordinary exertions of him. Leaving a 
 small force to hold the heights in 
 rear of Fredericksburg, he moved with 
 main body towards Chancellorsville, where 
 Hooker had intrenched himself with about 
 eighty thousand men. His only hope of 
 safety lay in defeating this force before 
 Sedgwick's column could arrive to its assist- 
 ance. On the second of May he sent Jack- 
 son's corps to turn the Federal right, and 
 with the remainder of his force, deceived 
 46 
 
 Hooker into the belief that he meant to 
 storm the intrenched position of the Federal 
 army. Jackson performed his flank march 
 with success, and on the afternoon of the 
 second of May made a fierce attack upon 
 the Federal right, and drove it in upon its 
 centre. In this attack he received a mortal 
 wound, of which he died on the tenth of 
 May. 
 
 the 
 his 
 
 GENERAL JOHN SEDGWICK. 
 
 The next day, the third, having reunited 
 Jackson's corps with his main force, Lee 
 attacked Hooker at Chancellorsville, and 
 drove him back to the junction of the Rap- 
 pahannock and Rapidan rivers. He was 
 preparing to storm this new position when 
 he learned that Sedgwick had defeated the 
 force left to hold the heights of Fredericks- 
 burg on the third of May, and was marching 
 against him. His danger was now greater 
 

 722 
 
 THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 than ever. Leaving a part of his army to 
 hold Hooker in check, he marched rapidly 
 to meet Sedgwick. He encountered him at 
 Salem Heights on the fourth of May, and 
 compelled him to recross the Rappahannock 
 
 GENERAL GEORGE G. MEADE. 
 
 Jt Banks' Ford. Then moving back towards 
 Hooker's position Lee prepared to storm it. 
 General Hooker, however, disheartened by 
 Sedgwick's defeat, withdrew his army across 
 the Rappahannock on the night of the fifth, 
 and returned to his old position on the north 
 
 side of that stream, having lost twelve thou 
 sand men and fourteen pieces of artillery in 
 the battle of Channellorsville. 
 
 The Confederate loss was also heavy. Out of 
 an army of about fifty thousand men, ten thou- 
 sand two hundred and 
 eighty-one were killed, 
 wounded and captured. 
 The victory was dearly 
 bought by the Confed- 
 erates by the death of 
 Stonewall Jackson, who 
 was worth fully fifty 
 thousand men to their 
 cause. At the moment 
 of his success againf 
 the Federal right, he wa 
 shot down by his own 
 men, who mistook his 
 escort for a party of 
 Federal cavalry. 
 
 The success of the 
 Confederates in Virginia 
 was more than counter- 
 balanced by their re- 
 verses in the West and 
 Southwest. The South- 
 ern government, anxious 
 to change the course 
 of the war by a bold 
 stroke, decided to fol- 
 low up the victory at 
 Chancellorsville by an 
 invasion of the North by 
 Lee's army. This army 
 was reinforced heavily 
 and by the last of May 
 numbered seventy thou 
 sand infantry and artillery, and ten thou- 
 sand cavalry. General Hooker's army, on 
 the other hand, had been reduced by deser- 
 tions and expirations of enlistments, to about 
 eighty thousand men, making the two forces 
 about equal. 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 
 
 7*1 
 
 On the third of June, 1863, Lee began his 
 forward movement, and marchinsf through 
 the valley of Virginia, captured Winchester, 
 which was held by General Milroy's com- 
 mand, on the fourteenth, taking four thou- 
 sand prisoners and twenty-nine pieces of 
 cannon. On the twenty-second of June the 
 Potomac was crossed at Williamsport, and 
 the Confederate army moved towards Hagers- 
 town, Maryland. General Hooker had fol- 
 lowed Lee from the Rappahannock, and had 
 manoeuvred his army so as to interpose it 
 between the Confederates and Washington. 
 
 Invasion of the North. 
 
 On the twenty-third the advanced corps 
 of Lee's army, under General Ewell, occupied 
 Chambersburg, Pennsylvania, and on the 
 twenty-fifth and twenty-sixth, General Hooker 
 crossed the Potomac at Edward's Ferry, 
 and marched to Frederick, Maryland. He 
 was anxious to withdraw the garrison of 
 Harper's Ferry, which had retired from that 
 place to the Maryland heights, opposite the 
 town, but the war department refused to allow 
 him to do so. Hooker thereupon relin- 
 quished the command of the army, and was 
 succeeded by Major-General George G. 
 Meade, the senior corps commander, and a 
 soldier of genuine ability. General Lee now 
 moved his army east of the mountains, and 
 directed his advance towards Gettysburg. 
 In ignorance of his adversary's design, Gen- 
 eral Meade hastened forward to occupy the 
 same point. 
 
 The invasion of Pennsylvania by the Con- 
 federate army aroused the most intense ex- 
 citement in the North. President Lincoln 
 called out one hundred thousand militia to 
 serve for six months, unless sooner dis- 
 charged, and as far north as New York, 
 preparations were made to receive the Con- 
 federate army with a stubborn resistance 
 should it succeed in penetrating so far. 
 
 Every effort was made to raise troops and 
 forward them to General Meade in time to 
 be of service to him. 
 
 On the morning of the first of July, the 
 left wing of the army of the Potomac, under 
 General Reynolds, and the advanced corps of 
 Lee's army, under Generals A. P. Hill and 
 Ewell, encountered each other at Gettysburg. 
 General Reynolds was forced back and killed 
 General Hancock was at once sent by Gen- 
 eral Meade to assume the command of the 
 left wing, and upon his arrival he at once 
 recognized the importance of the position 
 at Gettysburg, and occupied it. He was 
 promptly reinforced by General Meade, and 
 by the afternoon of the second of July, the 
 army of the Potomac was securely posted on 
 the heights known as Cemetery Ridge. 
 The Confederate army took position on the 
 opposite hills known as Seminary Ridge. 
 Between the two armies lay the battle-field 
 on which the engagement of the first of July 
 was fought. Heavy skirmishing prevailed 
 throughout the day on the second, the advan- 
 tage being with the Confederates. 
 
 Great Battle at Gettysburg. 
 
 On the third of July General Lee made a 
 general attack upon the Federal position on 
 Cemetery Ridge, which, very strong by 
 nature, had been rendered impregnable by 
 entrenchments. His attack was made with 
 determination, and was a splendid exhi- 
 bition of American courage, which won for 
 his troops the generous admiration of their 
 adversaries ; but it was unsuccessful. The 
 grand charge of the Confederates was made 
 in the afternoon, and was repulsed with ter- 
 rible slaughter. Still Lee's position was so 
 strong, and the morale of his army so unim- 
 paired, that General Meade deemed it best 
 to remain satisfied with his victory, and not 
 to risk its fruits by an attack upon the Con- 
 federate lines. 
 
724 
 
 THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 The stirring events on the third and last 
 day of the battle are vividly described by 
 John Laird Wilson, the eminent war corres- 
 pondent and historian. Mr. Wilson's account 
 is as follows : 
 
 " As early as three o'clock on the morn- 
 ing of the third, there were signs of activity 
 
 attack by discharging his pistol. The battle 
 at once became general. A fearful struggle 
 ensued. A heavy artillery fire was opened 
 at once on the enemy's position. But, as 
 the ground was rugged and broken and also 
 covered with trees, and as every advantage 
 was taken of places of shelter and conceal- 
 
 GENERAU PICKETT'S FAMOUS CHARGE AT GETTYSBURG 
 
 :n the enemy's from. It was evident that an 
 attack was intended ; and Geary, having been 
 informed by General Kane, who commanded 
 his first brigade, of what was going on, 
 resolved to seize whatever advantage might 
 be gained by opening the battle himself. His 
 men were aroused ; and at twenty minutes 
 before four o'clock, he gave the signal for 
 
 ment, the fight partook very much of the 
 character of sharpshooting on a grand scale. 
 " As the battle progressed the contestants 
 got intermingled, and it became more and 
 more difficult to use the artillery. The Con- 
 federates not only held their position, but 
 charged again and again, in heavy masses, 
 on the National lines, only, however, to be 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 
 
 725 
 
 .repulsed with tremendous loss. The slaugh- 
 ter was terrible. The sun arose ; the day 
 advanced ; the air became clouded with dust 
 and smoke ; the heat became almost intoler- 
 able ; but still the battle raged. At last 
 there is a lull in the long-continued tempest. 
 Then, suddenly, there is a fierce yell from 
 thousands of throats ; and Ewell'smen, hav- 
 ing gathered up their strength for a final 
 effort, are seen rushing forward with tremen- 
 dous fury. They are allowed to come within 
 easy musket range, when the men in blue, 
 springing to their feet, pour in upon them a 
 deliberate volley. It was the last charge on 
 this part of the line. Discomfited and dis- 
 couraged, torn and bleeding, their dead and 
 wounded companions piled in heaps on the 
 ground where they fell, the survivors drew 
 back through the woods towards Rock 
 Creek, fighting as they retired, with a courage 
 which commanded the admiration of their 
 foes. 
 
 The Victors Exultant. 
 
 " Shouts of victory now filled the air. 
 ' Men,' says one who was present and shared 
 in the triumph, ' cheered themselves hoarse, 
 laughed, rolled themselves on the ground, 
 and threw their caps high in the air, while 
 others shook hands with comrades, and 
 thanked God that the Star Corps had again 
 triumphed.' Geary, not disposed to allow 
 the Confederates to re-form, as soon as this 
 charge was repelled, made a vigorous coun 
 ter-charge; and the enemy, yielding easily, 
 t he breastworks were reoccupied, and the 
 right flank secured. Thus ended the fighting 
 on the right. 
 
 " Ewell had been completely baffled in his 
 plan. He had flung away his opportunity 
 the night before ; and to reclaim it he had 
 now done his best, and failed. He could not 
 find fault with his men , for never, even under 
 Jackson, had they fought more bravely. ' It 
 
 cannot be denied,' says General Kane, who, 
 with his glorious first brigade, of Geary's 
 division, bore the burden of that morning's 
 fight, 'that they fought most courageously.' 
 But they were pitted against men of equal 
 bravery, of equal determination with them- 
 selves — men who were now on their own soil, 
 and fighting for the sanctity of their own 
 homes. 
 
 " Never, perhaps, before, since the war com- 
 menced, had the fighting been more deter- 
 mined and severe than it was during those 
 long, dreary morning hours. The ground, 
 after the battle, red with gore, and thickly 
 covered with the bodies of the slain, gave 
 evidence of the terrible character of the 
 struggle. The grey and the blue uniforms 
 were sometimes found in one common heap. 
 Some poor fellows, after hours of suffering, 
 and having almost bled to death, were found 
 writhing in mortal agony. The wood in 
 which the battle raged was ' torn and rent 
 with shells and solid shot, and pierced with 
 innumerable rninie balls.' In the following 
 summer, the trees were leafless, as if the 
 mute but stalwart giants of the forest had 
 yielded up their lives with those who fell 
 beneath their shade. 
 
 An Ominous Silence. 
 
 " It was now shortly after ten o'clock. The 
 last sounds of battle had died away. There 
 was silence over the whole battle field. It was 
 evident, however, that preparations were 
 being made inside the Confederate lines for 
 another gigantic and possibly crowning 
 effort. The morning sky had been obscured 
 by broken clouds. As the forenoon advan- 
 ced, the clouds dispersed ; and a hot July 
 sun poured down his rays with a tropical 
 intensity. Pickett's division, of Longstreet's 
 corps, which had not come up on the pre 
 vious day, had now arrived on the field 
 Stuart, also, after his long detour, had joineu 
 
726 
 
 THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 Lee with his cavalry. It soon began to be 
 manifest that the point of attack was to be 
 the National left centre — the depressed part 
 of the ridge immediately north of Little 
 Round Top. By noon, the guns were got 
 into position on the ridge occupied by Long- 
 street and Hill. Meade had an abundant 
 supply of the same instruments of war; but 
 owing to the peculiarity of the ground, he 
 could only, out of the three hundred guns, 
 make use of eighty, against those of the 
 enemy. 
 
 Loud Thunder of Guns. 
 
 " About one o'clock, the report of a Whit- 
 worth gun was heard. It was the signal for 
 attack. Seminary Hill seemed as if swept 
 with a tongue of flame. Then came the 
 loud, thundering roar of artillery ; and one 
 hundred and forty five guns, from their angry 
 mouths, poured death and destruction on the 
 National lines. The National commanders 
 ordered their men to lie flat on the earth, and 
 to take every advantage of objects of pro- 
 tection. All this was done ; but, notwith- 
 standing every precaution, the destruction of 
 life and property was terrible. Solid shot, 
 chain-shot, shrapnel, shells, fell with deadly 
 effect inside the National lines. Men and 
 horses were dreadfully cut up; caissons filled 
 with ammunition were exploded; and gun- 
 carriages and other pieces of war material 
 were shattered to pieces. The shot and shell 
 and canister fell thick and fast in and around 
 General Meade's headquarters, killing men 
 and horses, ripping up the roof ard knocking 
 away the pillars of the cottage. 
 
 " General Hunt, Meade's chief of artillery, 
 was in no haste to reply. Waiting until the 
 first hostile outbreak spent itself, he then 
 ordered the batteries to open fire. Instantly, 
 the whole ridge, from Cemetery Hill to the 
 Round Tops, seemed ablaze. The din was 
 terrific, the thunder of artillery rivalling, in 
 
 fierce grandeur, the most magnificent displays 
 of nature. For two hours this artillery duel 
 lasted; and, during that time, war was ex- 
 hibited in its sublimer and more imposing 
 aspects. 
 
 " At the expiration of two hours, there 
 was a lull in the cannonade. Hunt, dreading 
 the possible exhaustion of his ammunitions 
 and not willing to bring up loads of it from 
 the rear, lest it should be exploded, had 
 ordered a gradual slackening of the fire. The 
 Confederates were deceived. It was Lee's 
 belief that he had silenced all the enemy's 
 guns, except a few which still kept firing 
 front a clump of woods. Now came the 
 more serious business of war. The fire of 
 the Confederate guns also slackened ; and 
 the columns of attack were seen forming on 
 the edge of the woods which crown the 
 summit of Seminary Ridge. It was just 
 three o'clock. When formed, the front was 
 about a mile in extent ; and, as it emerged 
 from the woods, and began to move steadily 
 and firmly down the slope of Seminary 
 Ridge, a thrill of admiration passed through 
 the National ranks. It was a splendid sight, 
 and well fitted to call forth admiration, even 
 in the breast of an enemy. The fresh division 
 of Pickett, composed mostly of veteran Vir- 
 ginians, was singled out and appointed to 
 lead the van. Pickett's men were formed 
 and arranged in double line of battle. The 
 attacking force numbered about eighteen 
 thousand men. 
 
 Ammunition Exhausted. 
 
 " The distance between the two lines of 
 battle was about a mile. For the attacking 
 party there was a hill to descend and a hill 
 to climb, and a valley between. It was matter 
 of observation that, as the columns advanced, 
 the Confederate guns were silent. 'Why?' 
 was the question put by the men Avho were 
 rushing into the jaws of death. ' Why?' 
 
POSITIONS DURING THE SECOND AND THIRD DAYS AT GETTYSBURG. 
 
728 
 
 THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 said the men on the heights behind. ' Why ?' 
 said the Nationals on the heights in front. 
 The reason was not known till afterwards. 
 It was not then known to Lee himself. His 
 ammunition was already exhausted. The 
 silence of the guns in their rear did not affect 
 the firm and steady step of the advancing 
 columns. It did not encourage the Nationals 
 to slacken their artillery fire. On came 
 Longstreet's men, in face of the withering 
 tempest of bullet and canister and shell 
 which, at each successive step, decimated 
 their front. On, on they came; and it was 
 already a question in the National ranks 
 whether their own thin line of defense could 
 resist the fierce onset of those firm and com- 
 pact battalions who seemed to fear no fire, to 
 dread no foe. 
 
 The Green Mountain Troops. 
 
 " The Nationals, however, were not ill pre- 
 pared for the attack. Doubleday was on the 
 left, with Stannard's brigade of Vermont 
 troops well advanced in a little grove on his 
 own right, and at an angle with the main line. 
 Hancock was more to the right with his two 
 divisions of Gibbon and Hays in front. From 
 the direction in which the assaulting columns 
 were moving, it seemed for a time as if the 
 first heavy blow would fall upon Doubleday. 
 Such, however, was the severity of the artil- 
 J ;ry fire from Little Round Top that they 
 were forced to bend more to their own left. 
 Still they moved on, their line of march now 
 bringing them more directly in front of Han- 
 cock's position. 
 
 " Now came the opportunity for Stannard's 
 brave Vermonters. They were in no haste 
 to waste their ammunition. The Confederate 
 columns were allowed to come so well for- 
 ward that their right flank was fully exposed. 
 Then, at the signal given, the Vermont men 
 pour forth a well-directed and most destruc- 
 tive fire. Volley succeeds volley in rapid 
 
 succession ; and the now trembling lines, 
 already torn and tattered, are under the 
 oblique fire of eight batteries in charge of 
 Major McGilvray. Not a few of Pickett's 
 men, unable to endure this terrific fire, were 
 compelled to surrender. The main body, how- 
 ever, presses on, and, inclining still more to hi? 
 own left, Pickett is moving straight on the 
 divisions of Gibbon and Hays. ' Hold your 
 fire, boys ! they are not near enough yet,' 
 was Gibbon's injunction as he moved calmly 
 and compesedly along the ranks. The rifled 
 guns of the National artillery, having fired 
 away all their canister, were now withdrawn 
 to await the issue of the struggle between 
 the opposing infantry. The hostile lines are 
 now within two and three hundred yards of 
 the National front. Gibbon and Hays simul- 
 taneously open upon the advancing columns 
 a most destructive fire. The response is 
 swift and well directed, the Confederates 
 using their muskets for the first time since 
 they began to face this terrific storm of artil- 
 lery and musketry. All at once the battle 
 becomes general. 
 
 Terror and Confusion. 
 
 " The swing made by the advancing col- 
 umns to their own left, after the terrific blow 
 received by them from Stannard, had the 
 effect of flinging Pettigrew, who commanded 
 Heth's division, of Hill's corps, well towards 
 Hays' right. Pjttigrew's men were, for the 
 most part, North Carolina troops, and were 
 comparatively raw and unused to battle. 
 They had been deceived into the belief that 
 they would meet only the Pennsylvania mili- 
 tia. They were quickly undeceived. Hays' 
 men were admirably posted. His right was 
 well advanced ; and the nature of the ground 
 was such as to enable him to open a simul- 
 taneous fire on Pettigrew's troops, not only 
 with his right and front, but also with sev- 
 eral lines in his rear. Woodruff's battery 
 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 
 
 was also in position; and the destructive 
 effects of a very tempest of bullets were to 
 be aggravated by showers of grape and 
 canister. 
 
 "All at once, this tremendous fire fell upon 
 the already torn and decimated lines on 
 Pickett's left; and they knew they were in 
 the presence of the Army of the Potomac. 
 There was no more fight in them. Terror- 
 stricken, Pettigrew's men broke in utter con- 
 fusion, large numbers of them flinging down 
 their arms, and accepting mercy at the hands 
 of their antagonists. General Pettigrew him- 
 self was wounded ; but, being able to retain 
 command, he vainly strove to rally his men. 
 Fifteen colors, and two thousand prisoners 
 rewarded the skill and activity with which 
 Hays met the threatened attack. 
 
 " While disaster was thus befalling the 
 Confederate columns on the right and left 
 Pickett's brave Virginians were pressing 
 forward vigorously towards Gibbon's front, 
 and were about to fall with all their weight 
 on Owen's brigade, now temporarily com- 
 manded by General Webb. 
 
 The Final Struggle. 
 
 " In spite of the dreadful fire of artillery and 
 musketry which was mowing down their 
 ranks, Pickett's men rush bravely on. They 
 are now close to the stone wall. The two 
 National regiments in front, yield and fall 
 back to the regiment in the rear. Webb and 
 his officers are at hand ; the retreating regi- 
 ments are quickly rallied and re-formed ; and 
 the second line is held. But the Confederates 
 have pushed themselves over the breast- 
 works, and planted their battle flags on the 
 wall. The struggle now becomes fierce and 
 terrific in the extreme. It is a hand-to-hand 
 conflict, man facing man, and fighting with 
 the energy of despair. The clothes of the 
 men are actually being burned by the powder 
 of the exploding cartridges; and the National 
 
 729 
 
 cannoneers, refusing to retire, »r^ clubbed 
 and bayoneted at their guns. 
 
 " Pickett, however, is now left entirely alone. 
 The forces which were intended to cover his 
 left have been defeated, captured or driven 
 from the field. Wilcox, whose duty it was 
 to come up and cover his right, has failed to 
 advance. The right of his own division has 
 been badly cut up and destroyed. Hancock, 
 who this day revealed all the qualities of a 
 great commander in actual conflict, now 
 massed his men on the point which was in 
 danger. Hall and Harrow, who had now no 
 longer an enemy in their front, were brought 
 over with their brigades to reinforce the 
 centre. The Nineteenth Massachusetts, Col- 
 onel Devereux, and Mallou's Forty-Second 
 New York, both of Gate's brigade, of Double- 
 day's division, of the First corps, were moved 
 in the same direction. 
 
 " Stannard, at the same time, moved for- 
 ward two of his Vermont regiments to strike 
 the enemy on the right flank. The situation, 
 Hancock tells us, 'had now become very pecu- 
 liar. The men of all the brigades had, in 
 some measure, lost their regimental organiza- 
 tion, but individually, they were firm. The 
 ambition of individual commanders to cover 
 the point penetrated by the enemy, the smoke 
 of the battle and the intensity of the engage- 
 ment caused this confusion. The point, how- 
 ever, was covered. In regular formation, our 
 line would have stood four ranks deep/ 
 Pickett's men were now pressed on all sides 
 
 " The colors of the different National regi- 
 ments were well advanced. Cheered by the 
 words, and fired by the example of their 
 officers, the men pressed bravely forward. 
 It is the climax of the fight ; but the end is 
 at hand. Pickett's men had done their best 
 and their utmost — they had fought like true 
 heroes; but now, utterly overpowered, and 
 reduced to the last stage of desperation, they 
 give up the fight. Flinging their arms from 
 
730 
 
 THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 them, many of them raise their hands in 
 token of surrender; others fall upon the 
 
 MAP SHOWING VICKSBURG AND ITS APPROACHES. 
 
 ground to escape the desti uctive fire ; the 
 remainder seek safety in precipitate flight. 
 
 " In this last struggle, Gibbon's divisior 
 took twelve colors and two thousand five 
 hundred prisoners. So far, 
 Hancock had captured twenty- 
 seven battle flags and foui 
 thousand five hundred pris- 
 oners. It was a magnificent 
 trophy. The losses on both 
 sides were very heavy. The 
 face of the hill and the low 
 ground was literally covered 
 with the dead and wounded. 
 In no previous battle had the 
 officers suffered so severely. 
 On the National side large 
 numbers had been struck 
 down, Generals Gibbon and 
 Hancock being among the 
 wounded. The Confederates 
 left on the field fourteen of 
 their field-officers, only one 
 of that rank escaping unhurt; 
 and, of the three brigade com- 
 manders, of Pickett's division, 
 Garnett was killed, Armitage 
 fell within the National lines, 
 fatally wounded, and Kemper 
 was carried off the field, dan- 
 gerously hurt." 
 
 The victory was decisive. 
 It put an end to the Confed- 
 erate invasion. On the night 
 of the fourth of July General 
 Lee withdrew from Seminary 
 Ridge and retreated to the 
 Potomac, which he crossed 
 on the thirteenth and four- 
 teenth without serious opposi- 
 tion from the Federal army. 
 On the fifteenth Lee moved 
 back to Winchester. The Fed- 
 eral loss at Gettysburg was 
 twenty-three thousand, and that of the Con- 
 federates about the same. 
 
 V SCM£ Of MIL£S 
 1 " 
 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 
 
 73i 
 
 On the seventeenth and eighteenth of July 
 General Meade crossed the Potomac below 
 Harper's Ferry, and moving east of the Blue 
 Ridge, endeavored to place his army between 
 Lee and Richmond. The Confederate com- 
 mander by rapid marches reached Culpepper 
 Court-house in advance of him, however, and 
 about the first of August occupied the line 
 of the Rappahannock. The remainder of 
 the year witnessed but one important oper- 
 
 the Federal arms. At the opening of the 
 year the army of General Grant lay on the 
 Mississippi above Vicksburg, assisted by the 
 fleet of gunboats under Admiral Porter. The 
 first three months of the year were passed by 
 the Federal army in a series of movements 
 along the Yazoo River, the result of which 
 was to convince General Grant that Vicks- 
 burg could not be taken from that quarter. 
 He therefore determined upon a new and 
 
 VICKSBURG, MISSISSIPPI. 
 
 ation by the armies in Virginia. In October 
 General Lee made a sudden forward move- 
 ment for the purpose of throwing his army 
 between Meade and Washington, but the 
 latter eluded him and reached Centreville in 
 safety. Lee then withdrew to the Rapidan, 
 and the army of the Potomac took position 
 on the north side of that stream. Both 
 armies passed the winter there. 
 
 In the west and southwest success crowned 
 
 more daring plan of operations. He "ecided 
 to march his army across the Louisiana shore 
 from Milliken's bend, above Vicksburg, to 
 New Carthage, below that city, and to run 
 his gunboats and transports by the bat- 
 teries. 
 
 Should the boats succeed in passing, he 
 meant to cross his command to the Missis- 
 sippi shore, and attack Vicksburg from the 
 rear. By investing the city from the land 
 
732 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 
 
 733 
 
 side his flanks would rest upon and be cov- 
 ered by the Mississippi, and he could re-estab- 
 lish communication between his right wing 
 and his base of supplies at Milliken's Bend. 
 The plan was daring in the highest degree, 
 and required the greatest skill and resolution 
 in its execution. 
 
 In order to retain their hold upon the Mis- 
 sissippi the Confederates had fortified Vicks- 
 burg with great care. Port Hudson, about 
 two hundred and forty miles lower down the 
 river, had also been fortified, but not so 
 strongly as Vicksburg. As long as the Con- 
 federates held these points they were able to 
 keep a considerable extent of the river open 
 to themselves and closed to the Union gun- 
 boats. 
 
 Preparing for the Struggle. 
 
 Thus they were enabled to cross in safety 
 the enormous herds of beef cattle which they 
 drew from the rich pastures of Texas for their 
 armies east of the Mississippi. A strong 
 force held the works at Port Hudson. Vicks- 
 burg was occupied by a large garrison, and 
 was under the command of Lieutenant-Gen- 
 eral John C. Pemberton, who, with an arm}/ 
 of about thirty thousand men, independent of 
 the garrison of Vicksburg, held the country 
 in the rear of that city. Appreciating the 
 importance of defeating the Federal army in 
 this quarter, the Confederate Government, in 
 the spring of 1863, sent General Joseph E. 
 Johnston to take command of all the forces 
 in Mississippi. It failed to supply him with 
 a proper force of troops, and General Pem- 
 berton treated his orders with open defiance. 
 
 Grant having completed his preparations 
 moved his army from Milliken's Bend to a 
 point on the Louisiana shore opposite Grand 
 Gulf. On the night of the sixteenth of April a 
 division of gunboats and transports ran by the 
 Vicksburg batteries, suffering severely from 
 the heavy fire to which they were exposed 
 
 for a distance of eight miles. On the night of 
 the twenty-second a second division passed 
 the batteries with similar loss. Once below 
 Vicksburg, however, the boats were safe. 
 They then proceeded to Grant's position on 
 the river below. On the twenty-ninth of 
 April the gunboats attacked the batteries at 
 Grand Gulf, but were repulsed. The troops 
 were then marched to a point opposite Bruins- 
 burg, Mississippi, and the gunboats and 
 transports were run by the Grand Gulf bat- 
 teries. 
 
 On the first of May the Federal army was 
 ferried across to the Mississippi shore, and at 
 
 GENERAL JOHN C. PEMBERTON. 
 
 once began its march into the interior. Near 
 Port Gibson a part of Pemberton's army was 
 encountered and defeated on the same day. 
 This success compelled the evacuation of 
 Grand Gulf by the Confederates. Grant now 
 boldly threw his army between Johnston's 
 forces at Jackson and Pemberton's army, 
 intending to hold the former in check, and 
 drive the latter within the defences of Vicks- 
 burg. On the fourteenth of May he attacked 
 Johnston at Jackson, the capital of Missis- 
 sippi, and forced him to retreat northward 
 towards Canton. Then turning upon Pem- 
 berton he attacked him at Champion Hills, 
 or Baker's Creek, on the sixteenth, and 
 
734 
 
 THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 inflicted a severe defeat upon him. Pem- 
 berton withdrew towards the Big Black 
 River, and the next day met a second 
 defeat there. He now retreated within the 
 defences of Vicksburg, which place was 
 promptly invested by Grant's army. 
 
 On the nineteenth of May Grant attempted 
 to carry the Confederate position by assault, 
 but was repulsed with heavy loss. The 
 assault was repeated with a like result on 
 the twenty-second. There remained then 
 nothing but a regular siege. This was 
 
 GRANTS HEADQUARTERS NEAR VICKSBURC 
 
 pressed with vigor, and the city was sub- 
 jected to a terrible bombardment, which 
 caused great suffering to the people. While 
 the siege was carried on Johnston's army 
 was held back, and prevented from under- 
 taking any movement for the relief of Vicks- 
 burg. At length, reduced to despair by the 
 steady approach of the Union trenches, Pem- 
 berton surrendered the city and his army to 
 General Grant on the fourth of July. By 
 this surrender thirty thousand prisoners, two 
 hundred and fifty cannon, and sixty thousand 
 
 stand of arms, together with a large quart 
 tity of military stores, fell into the hands o! 
 the Union forces. It was justly esteemed 
 the greatest victory of the war. 
 
 While the siege of Vicksburg was in pro- 
 gress, General Banks ascended the Mis- 
 sissippi from New Orleans and laid siege to 
 Port Hudson. Upon hearing of the fall of 
 Vicksburg, the Confederate commander sur- 
 rendered the post and his army of sixty-two 
 hundred and thirty-three men to General 
 Banks, on the eighth of July. 
 
 These victories wrested 
 from the Confederates 
 their last hold upon the 
 Mississippi. They cre- 
 ated the most intense 
 rejoicing in the Northern 
 and Western States, and 
 a corresponding depres- 
 sion in the South. Being 
 simultaneous with the 
 defeat of the Southern 
 army at Gettysburg, they 
 were regarded as deci- 
 sive of the war: as indeed 
 they were. From this 
 time we shall trace the 
 declining fortunes of the 
 Southern Confederacy 
 and the gradual but 
 steady re-establishment 
 of the authority of the Union over the 
 Southern States. 
 
 After the battle of Murfreesboro", or Stone 
 River, the army of General Rosecrans 
 remained quietly in winter quarters at Nash- 
 ville and Murfreesboro'. Bragg's army 
 passed the winter at Chattanooga. Towards 
 the last of June Rosecrans moved forward 
 from Nashville, and advancing slowly threat- 
 ened Bragg's communications with Rich- 
 mond. The Confederate commander had no 
 wish to emulate the example of Pemberton 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 
 
 735 
 
 at Vicksburg, and at once evacuated Chatta- 
 nooga, on the eighth of September, and 
 
 retired towards Dal- 
 
 ton, Georgia. This 
 
 movement, which was 
 
 interpreted by Rose- 
 
 crans as a retreat, was 
 
 designed to secure the 
 
 union with Bragg's 
 
 army of Longstreet's 
 
 corps, which had been 
 
 detached from Lee's 
 
 army and sent to join 
 
 Bragg. This junc' 
 
 tion was effected on 
 
 the eighteenth, and 
 
 other reinforcements 
 
 arrived from Missis- 
 sippi. Thus strength- 
 ened Bragg suddenly 
 wheeled upon Rose- 
 crans, and on the nine- 
 teenth of September 
 attacked him at Chick- 
 amauga. The battle 
 was severe, but inde- 
 cisive, and was re- 
 newed the next day. 
 Towards noon, on 
 the twentieth, Rose- 
 crans having greatly 
 weakened the other 
 parts of his line to 
 help the left, which 
 was hard pressed, 
 Longstreet made a fu- 
 rious dash at the weak- 
 ened part, and in an ir- 
 resistible attack swept 
 the Federal right and 
 centre from the field. 
 Rosecrans endeavored 
 
 wing, under the command of General George 
 H. Thomas, remained firm. Had that given 
 
 MAP OF THE CHICKAMAUGA AND CHATTANOOGA CAMPAIGNS. 
 
 to stop the retreat, but was borne along in 
 the dense crowd of fugitives. Only the left 
 
 way the rout would have been complete; 
 but all through the long afternoon, Thomas 
 
THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 he withdrew his corps 
 in good order and re- 
 tired upon Chatta- 
 nooga. The Union 
 loss at Chickamauga 
 was sixteen thousand 
 men and fifty-one 
 guns; Bragg's about 
 eighteen thousand 
 men. 
 
 Bragg advanced at 
 once upon the defeated 
 army of Rosecrans. 
 which had taken re- 
 fuge in Chattanooga, 
 occupied the heights 
 commanding the city, 
 and seized the com- 
 munications of the 
 Federal army with 
 Nashville. Thus close- 
 ly besieged, the Union 
 forces suffered consid- 
 erably from a scarcity 
 of provisions. 
 
 General Rosecrans 
 was now removed 
 from the command of 
 the Army of the Cum- 
 berland, and General 
 Grant was appointed 
 to the chief command 
 of all the western ar- 
 mies. He at once set 
 to work to extricate 
 the Army of the Cum- 
 berland, to the com- 
 mand of which Gen- 
 eral Thomas had suc- 
 ceeded, from its peril- 
 ous situation. Hooker 
 
 POSITIONS OF THE ARMIES AT THE BATTLE OF MISSIONARY RIDGE. was Sent with twenty- 
 
 heldon to his position with a grim resolution | three thousand men from Meade's army to 
 which nothing could shake. After nightfall | his assistance, and Sherman was ordered 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 
 
 737 
 
 to march with the force which had taken 
 Vicksburg along the line of the railway 
 from Memphis to Chattanooga. The arrival 
 of these reinforcements soon changed the 
 aspect of affairs. 
 
 On the twenty-third of November the 
 Army of the Cumberland made a vigorous 
 sortie and drove the Confederates from the 
 important position of Orchard Knob. On 
 the twenty-fourth, Hooker stormed Lookout 
 Mountain, the left of the Confederate line, 
 and carried it after a hard fight. The invest- 
 ment was now thoroughly broken, and the 
 Confederates were confined to Missionary 
 Ridge, which had formerly constituted the 
 right of their line. On 
 the twenty-fifth, this posi- I 
 tion was assaulted by the 
 whole strength of the 
 Federal army, and was 
 carried after a stubborn 
 fight. Bragg, beaten at 
 all points, with heavy 
 loss, retreated into Geor- 
 gia, where he was soon 
 after removed from his 
 command and immedi- 
 ately succeeded by Gen- 
 eral Joseph E. Johnston. 
 
 During the progress of this campaign 
 General Burnside had moved from Kentucky 
 with a force of about twenty-five thousand 
 men, about the time that Rosecrans began 
 his advance from Nashville in June. The 
 strong position of Cumberland Gap was sur- 
 rendered to him with scarcely an effort for 
 its defence by the Confederates, and he 
 moved into East Tennessee. Driving back 
 the Confederate forces, which sought to stop 
 his march, he occupied Knoxville. The 
 object of his expedition was to afford a ral- 
 lying point for the Union men of East Ten- 
 nessee. After the battle of Chickamauga, 
 
 and the investment of Chattanooga, President 
 
 47 
 
 Jefferson Davis visited Bragg's army, and 
 being convinced that the capture of Rose- 
 crans' force was inevitable, decided to with- 
 draw General Longstreet's corps from Bragg, 
 and to send it to drive Burnside out of East 
 Tennessee. 
 
 Longstreet's men were in no condition to 
 undertake such a campaign, but under their 
 energetic commander, succeeded in confining 
 Burnside's army to the defences of Knoxville. 
 The siege of that place was formed, and 
 several assaults were made upon the Union 
 works, but were each repulsed with heavy 
 loss. Burnside's men were reduced almost 
 to starvation, but held out with unshaken 
 
 GRANT S HEADQUARTERS NEAR CHATTANOOGA. 
 
 resolution. After the defeat of Bragg at Mis 
 sionary Ridge, Grant ordered Sherman to 
 march with his corps to the relief of Knox- 
 ville. Upon the approach of this force Long- 
 street, on the fourth of December, raised the 
 siege and retreated into Virginia. 
 
 Beyond the Mississippi the war was car- 
 ried on with varying success throughout the 
 year 1863, but to the general advantage of 
 the Federal forces. On the third of July 
 the Confederates, under General Holmes, 
 attacked Helena, Arkansas, but were re- 
 pulsed. By the close of the year the Con- 
 federate forces had been pressed back as far 
 as the Red River. 
 
738 
 
 THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 On the first of January, 1863, Galveston, 
 Texas, which had surrendered to the Federal 
 forces in the fall of 1862, was recaptured by 
 the Confederates, under General Magruder. 
 By the capture of this place, the Confederates 
 obtained one more port from which they 
 could maintain communications with and 
 receive supplies from Europe. 
 
 of land troops, under General Gilmore, effected 
 a lodgment on the south end of Morris' 
 Island, and secured their position by intrench" 
 ments. 
 
 The Union parallels were pushed forward 
 steadily towards Fort Wagner, at the north 
 end of the island, and a final assault of that 
 work was ordered. Before the order could 
 
 CAPTURE OF LOOKOUT MOUNTAIN. 
 
 In the spring ol 1863, a powerful naval I be executed, Fort Wagner was evacuated on 
 
 expedition, under Admiral Dupont, was des 
 patched against Charleston. On the seventh 
 of April, Dupont attempted to force his way 
 into the harbor, but was driven back by the 
 forts and batteries, and nine of his iron-clads 
 were severely injured. Early in July, a force 
 
 the night of the sixth of September. The 
 Federal batteries on Morris' Island now 
 maintained a heavy and constant fire upon 
 Fort Sumter, and reduced it to a shapeless 
 mass of rubbish on the land side. Yet, in 
 this condition it was stronger than at first, 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 
 
 739 
 
 the mass of rubbish offering a more effectual 
 resistance to shot and shell than the walls. 
 The long-range guns on Morris' Island threw 
 shells into the city of Charleston, which was 
 regularly bombarded from this time until its 
 fall, in 1865. The capture of Fort Wagner 
 enabled the Federal forces to close the har- 
 bor of Charleston effectually against blockade 
 runners. 
 
 In spite of the victories of Chancellorsville 
 and Chickamauga, and the invasion of the 
 North, the close of the year found the South 
 fairly on the downward road to final failure. 
 Missouri was freed from the presence of the 
 Confederate army, and the greater part of 
 Arkansas was held 
 by the Federal 
 troops. The Mis- 
 sissippi was lost to 
 the South, and the 
 immense supplies 
 from the trans-Mis- 
 sissippi region were 
 no longer available 
 to the Confederate 
 forces east of the 
 great river. Tennes- 
 see was occupied by 
 
 the Federal forces, and the invasion of the 
 North had ended in disaster. 
 
 The resources of the South were gradually 
 becoming exhausted, and the supply of men 
 was falling off. The North, on the other 
 hand, was increasing in determination. The 
 war had opened new channels of industry, 
 and these had more than repaid the losses of 
 the first period of the struggle. The North 
 was growing richer in spite of the war, while 
 the South was growing poorer because of it. 
 At the end of 1863 the Federal debt had 
 reached the enormous total of $1,300,000,000, 
 with the certainty of a heavy increase during 
 the coming year. Still the people of the 
 loyal States responded with heartiness to the 
 
 heavy demands of the Federal government 
 for men and money. Specie had long since 
 disappeared from circulation, but a system of 
 Treasury notes, which were made a legal 
 tender, had replaced coin as a circulating 
 medium. The new paper money was abun- 
 dant, and the North gave few outward signs 
 of distress. Everything spoke of prosperity 
 The contrast between the condition of the 
 Union and the Confederacy was striking and 
 most suggestive. 
 
 Early in the spring of 1864 an expedition 
 was sent into that part of Louisiana known 
 as the Red River country. It consisted of a 
 force of ten thousand troops, under Generr 
 
 
 ^»m 
 
 
 f^B^S)****^, 
 
 MISSIONARY KIDGE FROM THE CEMETEKY AT CHATTANOOGA. 
 
 Smith, from Vicksburg, and a fleet of gun- 
 boats, under Admiral Porter. On the four- 
 teenth of March Fort de Russy was captured 
 by the troops, and on the twenty-first Natch- 
 itoches was occupied General Banks now 
 arrived with a strong reinforcement of troops 
 from New Orleans, and took command of the 
 expedition. About the first of April he set 
 out for Shreveport, at the head of navigation 
 on the Red River, his army marching along 
 the shore, and the gunboats ascending the 
 stream. The Confederates gathered in heavy 
 force, under the command of General Kirby 
 Smith, to oppose his advance. 
 
 On the eighth of April the Confederate 
 army attacked Banks at Sabine Cross-Roads, 
 
74Q 
 
 THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 near Mansfield, and inflicted a stinging defeat 
 upon him. The Union forces were rallied at 
 Pleasant Hill, where they were attacked by 
 the Confederates on the ninth. The Confed- 
 erates were repulsed, but Banks continued 
 his retreat, and reached Alexandria on the 
 twenty-fifth of April. The expedition then 
 "eturned to the Mississippi. Banks was 
 
 The Red River expedition was thus a total 
 failure, and was a source of great mortifica- 
 tion, as well as serious loss, to the Federal 
 government. 
 
 Early in March General Grant was raised 
 to the grade of Lieutenant-General, that 
 rank having been revived by act of Congress 
 to reward him for his great services during 
 
 THE ATTACK ON FORT SUMTER BY THE MONITOR FLEET. 
 
 relieved of the command at New Orleans, 
 and was succeeded by General Canby. 
 
 General Steele, commanding the Union 
 forces in Arkanses, had moved from Little 
 Rock, on the twenty-third of March, towards 
 Shreveport, to co-operate with General 
 Banks. He was attacked by the Confed- 
 erates and driven back to Little Rock, which 
 he reached on the second of May. 
 
 the war. It had been held only by Wash- 
 ington, General Scott having been given 
 only the brevet rank. He was also appointed 
 commander of all the armies of the United 
 States. He decided to assume the immedi- 
 ate direction of the campaign in Virginia, 
 and established his headquarters with the 
 Army of the Potomac. At the same time 
 General W. T. Sherman was appointed to 
 
PORTRAITS OF PROMINENT FEDERAL GENERALS. 
 
742 
 
 THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 the command of the military division of the 
 Mississippi, in which were included the 
 Armies of the Cumberland, of the Ohio, and 
 of the Tennessee. 
 
 The supreme control of the military oper- 
 ations both east and west was vested in Gen- 
 eral Grant — a great gain, inasmuch as the oper- 
 ations in the two quarters of the Union could 
 now be made to assist each other. The plan 
 of the campaign embraced a simultaneous 
 advance of both armies ; the Army of the 
 Potomac was charged with the task of defeat- 
 ing Lee and capturing Richmond ; the west- 
 ern army, under Sherman, was to force John- 
 ston back into Georgia. 
 
 FORT DE RUSSY. 
 
 xhe Army of the Potomac numbered one 
 hundred and forty thousand men on the first 
 of May, 1864; the Confederate army, under 
 General Lee, about fifty thousand. General 
 Meade retained the immediate command of 
 the Army of the Potomac, but General Grant 
 accompanied it, and directed its movements. 
 On the morning of May 4th — just three days 
 before Sherman moved from Chattanooga — 
 the Federal army crossed the Rapidan, and, 
 turning the right of Lee's position, entered 
 the region known as the Wilderness. Gen- 
 eral Lee determined to attack this force and 
 prevent it from reaching the open country 
 beyond the Wilderness. On the fifth of May 
 
 he encountered the Army of the Potomac in 
 the Wilderness, near the old battle-field of 
 Chancellorsville. 
 
 The attack was made by the Federal 
 forces, which endeavored to drive off Lee's 
 army, which blocked the route by which 
 they were advancing. Lee held his ground 
 during the day, and that night both armies 
 bivouacked upon the field. The battle was 
 renewed on the sixth, but Grant failed to 
 force the Confederate position. The fighting 
 during these two days was carried on in a 
 thickly-wooded region, in which the artillery 
 of the two armies could not be used to advan- 
 tage. On the sixth the Confederates suf- 
 fered a serious loss in the person of General 
 Longstreet, who was severely wounded, 
 I and was incapacitated from continuing in 
 command. The losses in killed and wounded 
 were very heavy on both sides, as the fight- 
 ing was of a desperate character. 
 
 Six Days' Fighting in Virginia. 
 
 On the seventh General Grant moved 
 his army around Lee's right, and marched 
 rapidly to seize the strong position of 
 Spottsylvania Court-house, which would 
 have placed him between the Confederates 
 and Richmond. Lee at once divined his 
 purpose, and fell back rapidly to the heights 
 around Spottsylvania Court house, which 
 he occupied on the eighth. Upon arriving 
 before this position Grant found his enemy 
 strongly entrenched in it, and at once re- 
 solved to drive him from it. On the tenth 
 of May he made a determined attack upon 
 the Confederate line, but failed to carry it. 
 
 On the morning of the eleventh, General 
 Grant sent a characteristic dispatch to the 
 Secretary of War. " We have now," he 
 wrote, " ended the sixth day of very hard 
 fighting. The result to this time is much 
 in our favor. Our losses have been heavy, 
 as well as those of the enemy. I think the 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 
 
 743 
 
 loss of the enemy must be greater. We 
 have taken over five thousand prisoners in 
 battle, while he has taken from us but few, 
 except stragglers. I propose to fight it out 
 on this line, if it takes all summer." 
 
 The eleventh was Wednesday. The 
 morning rose bright and clear. The two 
 opposing armies lay in close proximity to 
 each other. As the day advanced there was 
 some skirmishing ; but on neither side was 
 any attempt made to provoke a general 
 engagement. Both commanders, it was evi- 
 dent, were preparing for battle; nor could 
 doubt remain in any mind that, whatever 
 might be the result, another and even more 
 fearful encounter at 
 Spottsylvania was 
 imminent. 
 
 Grant was still 
 bent on carrying 
 out his policy of 
 continuous ham- 
 mering. His suc- 
 cess, however, on 
 the Tuesday, in his 
 repeated attacks on 
 the enemy's left 
 and left centre, had 
 not been encouraging. There was no rea- 
 son to hope that another attack, made in 
 the same direction, would be attended with 
 any better results. It was resolved, there- 
 fore, to strike a bold and effective blow on 
 the enemy's right centre. At that point, and 
 near the Landrum House, Lee's lines formed 
 a salient. It was Grant's conviction that the 
 point was vulnerable. Arrangements for the 
 attack were made forthwith. Hancock, who 
 was chosen to strike the blow, was ordered 
 to leave his entrenchments in front of 
 A. P. Hill, and, by moving to the left, to 
 take position between the Sixth and Ninth 
 corps. The movement was to have the sup- 
 port of the entire army. Wright was to 
 
 extend his left, and to concentrate on that 
 wing. Warren was to make a diversionary 
 movement on the Confederate left, in his own 
 front, the object being to give the enemy 
 sufficient employment in that direction, and 
 so prevent the withdrawal of his troops for 
 the relief of the menaced point. 
 
 Burnside, for a similar reason, was to make 
 a vigorous assault on the extreme left. Rain 
 fell heavily in the afternoon. When night 
 came the rain-storm had not abated ; and, as 
 the moon was in its first quarter, the night 
 was dark and dismal. Soon after midnight, 
 under cover of the darkness and the storm, 
 Hancock moved out from his intrenchments, 
 
 BAILEY S RED RIVER DAM. 
 
 and, guided by the compass, passed in rear 
 of Warren and Wright, and took position 
 within 1,200 yards of the enemy's front, at 
 the point to be attacked. Barlow's division, 
 in two lines of masses, was placed on the 
 left ; Birney's division, in two deployed lines, 
 was placed on the right; Mott's division, 
 Hancock's Fourth, supported Birney, and 
 Gibbon's division was held in reserve. Of 
 the actual strength of the position about to 
 be attacked, the Nationalists knew nothing. 
 It might be weak and defenceless. It mighl 
 be well fortified and proof against any attack. 
 It mattered not. Hancock was ready, wait' 
 ing for the first streak of early dawn to launch 
 forth his brave battalions to victory ortodzath. 
 
744 
 
 THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 It is now half-past four o'clock on the 
 morning of Thursday, May twelfth. A heavy 
 fog is resting on the entire surrounding 
 country, and the feeble light of the rising 
 sun struggles hard to penetrate the gloom. 
 Hancock's divisions are already in motion. 
 Steadily and silently they move towards the 
 salient — Barlow over open ground, which 
 extends up to the Confederate lines, Birney 
 through the thickly wooded ground more to 
 the right. Not a shot has yet been fired — 
 not a word uttered. More than half of the 
 intervening distance has already been crossed. 
 
 GRANT WRITING DISPATCHES BEFORE CROSSING THE RAPIDAN 
 
 Suddenly there is a loud-resounding cheer, 
 which rings along the whole line. Spontan- 
 eously the men take the double-quick. On 
 they roll like a resistless wave. Nothing 
 can now restrain their fierce impetuosity. 
 They have reached the abatis, torn it up and 
 tossed it aside. 
 
 With wild cries, they rush bounding over 
 1, ie entrenchments, Barlow and Birney's men 
 entering almost simultaneously. Inside the 
 intrenchmects there is a terrible hand-to- 
 hand struggle, the bayonet and the clubbed- 
 musket being freely used. Nothing, how- 
 
 ever, can save the doomed Confederates. 
 Some four thousand men, including General 
 Johnson, of Ewell's corps, and General 
 George H. Stewart are surrounded and cap- 
 tured ; and with them thirty pieces of artil- 
 lery and as many colors. Meanwhile, the 
 remainder of the Confederate force, stricken 
 with terror and thrown into the wildest con- 
 fusion, have fallen back, seeking safety in the 
 rear. 
 
 This attack of Hancock's was justly 
 regarded as the most brilliant feat of arms 
 yet accomplished in the campaign. Never 
 was surprise more com 
 plete or more successful 
 The officers were taken 
 at their breakfast. The 
 captured generals were 
 greatly mortified. An 
 hour only had elapsed 
 since the column of at- 
 tack was formed. Alonp 
 with the prisoners, which 
 he sent to Grant, Han 
 cock sent a note hastily 
 written in pencil, saying: 
 "I have finished up John- 
 son, and am now going 
 into Early." This second 
 task, as we shall soon see, 
 he found to be less easy 
 of accomplishment than the former. 
 
 Early, like Johnson, commanded a divis- 
 ion of Swell's corps. At the point pene- 
 trated, Lee's army, as we have seen, formed 
 a salient. Hancock had, therefore, by his 
 first success, thrust a wedge between the 
 Confederate right and centre. It was his 
 hope that he would be able to cut Lee's 
 army in two ; and there can be no doubt 
 that if sufficient provision had been made, 
 promptly and in force, to follow up the 
 advantage Hancock had won by his first 
 brilliant assault, the desired end would have 
 
Pg^^KR 1 
 
 LL 
 
 EWL. © E 
 
 EAIL 
 
i i 
 
 iL . P. M . S ai E OS » A ft! . 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 
 
 745 
 
 been accomplished. As it was, Hancock's 
 troops, flushed with success, and incapable 
 of being restrained after the capture of the 
 intrenchments, pressed on through the forest 
 in the direction of Spottsylvania driving the 
 flying enemy before 
 them. 
 
 At the distance of 
 half a mile, they were 
 suddenly brought to 
 a halt in their triumph- 
 ant career. They had 
 reached a fresh line of 
 breast-works. Behind 
 these works, Ewell 
 had taken shelter ; 
 and reinforcements 
 had reached him from 
 the corps of Anderson 
 and Hill. The Na- 
 tional advance was 
 now effectually check- 
 ed. It was not only 
 impossible to make 
 headway — it was im- 
 possible to remain in 
 the position in which 
 they found them- 
 selves. The tide of 
 battle was now turned. 
 Gathering themselves 
 up for a supreme ef- 
 fort, the Confederates, 
 in overwhelming 
 numbers and in mag- 
 nificent array, rushed 
 from the breast-works, 
 and, falling with crush- 
 ing weight on Hancock's men, now slightly 
 disordered by their fearless rush through the 
 woods, drove them back to the line which 
 they had captured in the early morning. 
 
 Here, however, Hancock managed to rally 
 his troops ; and, getting them into line on 
 
 the right and left of the angle of the works, 
 he stoutly resisted the fierce and repeated 
 onsets of the enemy, and firmly held his 
 position. His situation, however, was becom- 
 ing every moment more critical. Lee was 
 
 GENERAL JAMES LONGSTREET. 
 
 resolved, if possible, to recover the lost line 
 of works ; and, with this end in view, he was 
 putting forth the most Herculean efforts, and 
 bringing his entire strength to bear on the 
 one point. It was now six o'clock — one horn 
 and a half since the first onset. Ha n cocK 
 

 746 
 
 THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 was still holding his position ; but relief was 
 sorely needed. 
 
 At this opportune moment, when most 
 needed, relief came. Wright, who had been 
 hurried forward with his Sixth corps, arrived 
 on the ground, and took position on the 
 right of the salient. Hancock, thus relieved, 
 concentrated his troops on the left of the 
 angle. A little later, about eight o'clock, 
 and with a view to relieve the pressure on 
 Hancock and Wright, Burnside and Warren 
 were ordered to attack along their whole 
 fronts. The battle now raged furiously at 
 every point. No evidence was given that 
 Lee had changed his purpose. The last line 
 
 THE PLACE WHERE SEDGWICK WAS KILLED 
 
 at the salient was still the object of his ambi- 
 tion. On Hancock and Wright he dealt his 
 heaviest and most terrific blows. Again and 
 again, and in rapid succession, he rolled 
 against them his heavy masses. He seemed 
 resolved to dislodge them. 
 
 Seeing this, and becoming convinced that 
 Burnside and Warren were producing no 
 impression on their respective fronts, Grant 
 detached two divisions from the Fifth corps — 
 those of Cutler and Griffin — and sent them 
 to the aid of the Second and Sixth corps at 
 the angle which was still regarded as the 
 prize of battle, and where was the focus of 
 the fight. Five times did Lee hurl his heavy 
 columns against the National lines entrusted 
 
 with the defense of this position. Five times, 
 after severe hand-to-hand fighting, in which 
 the slaughter on both sides was dreadful, 
 were the attacking columns repulsed. It 
 was not until after midnight that Lee with- 
 drew his shattered and bleeding lines and 
 re-formed them in his interior position. 
 Hancock held the works he had captured 
 in the morning. The battle had lasted 
 twenty hours. The losses on either side 
 were about 10,000 men. 
 
 Such was the great battle of Spottsylvania 
 Court House. Although not a decisive vic- 
 tory it was a positive gain to the National 
 cause. Its moral effect was great. It was 
 
 one of the bloodiest 
 battles of the war. 
 Thesight presented 
 at the angle where 
 the tide of battle 
 surged and roared 
 from earliest dawn 
 till past midnight 
 of that summer 
 day, as described 
 by eye-witnesses, 
 was something 
 shocking to wit- 
 ness. 'The bodies of the dead and wounded 
 were piled in heaps and mingled together 
 in wild confusion. It was, as one has 
 said, " an angle of death — one hideous 
 Golgotha." The severity of the musketry 
 fire was evidenced by the condition of the 
 forest after the battle. The trees were not 
 only pierced by the bullets, but Hterally cut 
 down. At Washington, as a relic of this 
 fight, there is preserved the trunk of an oak 
 tree which was cut through and through by 
 bullets. The trunk is about twenty inches 
 in diameter. 
 
 It was evident that the Confederates could 
 not be dislodged from their position without 
 a still heavier loss to the Union army, and 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 
 
 747 
 
 General Grant determined to draw them 
 from the heights of Spottsylvania by another 
 march to the right. 
 
 On the twenty-first of May the Army of 
 the Potomac moved from Spottsylvania to 
 the banks of the North Anna River, and 
 reached that stream on the twenty-third. 
 Lee had marched rapidly by a shorter route, 
 and his army was in position on the south side 
 of the river when Grant reached the 
 northern shore. Lee had chosen a posi- 
 tion of very great strength in front of 
 Hanover Junction, and had covered it 
 with earthworks. 
 
 On the twenty-fifth Grant crossed a 
 large part of his force to the south side 
 of the North Anna, and endeavored to 
 force the Confederate line, but discover- 
 ing its remarkable strength, withdrew his 
 troops to the north shore, and on the 
 twenty-sixth moved around Lee's right 
 in the direction of the Chickahominy. 
 Lee followed him promptly and took 
 position at Co'd Harbor, on the north 
 side of the Chickahominy, and within 
 nine miles of Richmond, occupying very 
 much the same position held by McClel- 
 lan's army in the battle of Cold Harbor, 
 on the twenty-seventh of June, 1862. 
 He covered his entire line with strong 
 earthworks, 
 
 On the first of June a sharp encounter 
 occurred between the Federal right and 
 the Confederate left wings, and on the 
 morning of the third of June, Grant made a 
 general assault upon the Confederate works. 
 The attack was made with great gallantry, but 
 was repulsed with a loss to the Federal army 
 of thirteen thousand men. The losses of 
 the Army of the Potomac since the passage 
 of the Rapidan had reached the enormous 
 total of over sixty thousand men. The Con- 
 federate loss during the same period was 
 about twenty thousand. Failing to force the 
 
 Confederate line at Cold Harbor, General 
 Grant drew off leisurely towards the James 
 River at Wilcox's Landing, intending to cross 
 that river and attack Richmond from the 
 south side of the James. 
 
 In the meantime, upon reaching Spottsyl- 
 vania Court-house, General Grant had sent 
 General Sheridan, with ten thousand cavalry, 
 to destroy the railroads connecting Rich- 
 
 GENERAL F1TZHUGH LEE. 
 
 mond with Lee's army and the valley of Vir- 
 ginia. Sheridan executed his orders with 
 complete success, and went within seven 
 miles of Richmond. On the tenth of May 
 he reached Ashland. He was attacked there 
 by the Confederate cavarly under General 
 Stuart, and moved off towards Richmond. 
 Stuart, marching by a shorter route, threw 
 his cavalry between Sheridan and Richmond, 
 and aeain encountered him at the Yellow 
 
748 
 
 THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 Tavern, on the Brook turnpike, seven miles 
 from the city. 
 
 Stuart was mortally wounded, and Sheri- 
 dan secured his retreat across the Chicka- 
 hominy and down the peninsula. In General 
 Stuart the Confederates lost their only great 
 cavalry leader. Had Sheridan, instead of 
 halting at Ashland, pushed straight on to 
 Richmond, the Confederate capital must 
 have fallen into his hands. On the twenty- 
 fifth of June he rejoined General Grant. 
 
 a force of about eighteen thousand men, 
 under General Beauregard, and posted them 
 in a fortified line, extending from the James to 
 the Appomattox, in front of the Richmond 
 and Petersburg railroad. On the sixteenth 
 of May, Butler's army, having advanced 
 within a short distance of this line, was 
 attacked by the Confederates and driven back 
 to Bermuda Hundreds. The Confederates 
 then formed their lines across the narrow 
 peninsula, and kept Butler's force enclosed 
 
 BATTLE OF COLD HARBOR. 
 
 At the opening of the campaign, General 
 Butler, with a force of about thirty thousand 
 men, known as the Army of the James, was 
 sent up the James River to attack the defen- 
 ces of Richmond, on the south side of that 
 river. He occupied City Point and Bermuda 
 Hundreds on the fifth of May, and a few days 
 later, advanced up the neck of land lying 
 between the James and the Appomattox 
 Rivers. 
 
 To oppose him, the Confederates collected 
 
 between their works and the two rivers until 
 the crossing of the James River by the Army 
 of the Potomac. 
 
 The Federal plan of campaign also included 
 the seizure of the valley of Virginia, and of 
 the railway connecting Virginia with East 
 Tennessee and Georgia. On the first of May, 
 General Sigel, with an army of ten thousand 
 men, advanced up the valley towards Staun- 
 ton. On the fifteenth, he was defeated with 
 considerable loss by the Confederates, under 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 
 
 749 
 
 General Breckenridge, at New Market, and 
 was driven back down the valley. General 
 Hunter was appointed in Sigel's place, and 
 succeeded in forcing his way to the vicinity 
 of Lynchburg. Lee, becoming alarmed for 
 the safety of that place, sent General Early, 
 with twelve thousand men, to its assistance. 
 
 advanced upon Petersburg. At the same time 
 General Butler moved forward with the Army 
 of the James against the southern works 
 between the James and Appomattox. On the 
 sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth, Grant 
 made repeated attempts to storm the Con- 
 federate works before Petersburg and south 
 
 BATTLE OF SPOTTSYLVANIA COURT-HOUSE. 
 
 Early, at once attacked Hunter, and forced 
 him to retreat by a circuitous route into 
 West Virginia. 
 
 In the meantime, General Grant had 
 reached the James River, where his army was 
 reinforced to one hundred and fifty thousand 
 men. On the fifteenth and sixteenth of June 
 he crossed his troops near City Point, and 
 
 of the James, but was repulsed with a total 
 loss of nine thousand six hundred and sixty- 
 five men. 
 
 Being unable to carry the southern works 
 by storm, he began the siege of Petersburg. 
 His right rested on the James above Ber- 
 muda Hundreds, and from this point his line 
 extended across the Appomattox, with his 
 
750 
 
 THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 
 left thrown out towards the Weldon railroad. 
 During the summer and fall he continued to 
 extend his left until he had seized the Weldon 
 road. From this point he sought to extend 
 his left still further, and to seize the South 
 
 GENERAL J. E. B. STUART. 
 
 Side railroad, Lee's only remaining line of 
 communication with the South and South- 
 west. 
 
 Frequent encounters occurred between the 
 two armies during the summer and fall, a 
 number of which attained the proportions of 
 
 battles, but we have not space to relate them 
 all. On the thirtieth of July a mine was 
 sprung under one of the principal works of 
 Lee's line, and the explosion was followed 
 by an assault by Burnside's corps. The attack 
 was repulsed with a 
 loss of over five thou- 
 sand men to the Union 
 troops. During the 
 early autumn General 
 Grant extended his 
 lines across the James 
 river, and established 
 a force on the north 
 side of that river to 
 lay siege to the de- 
 fences of Richmond. 
 The right of this force 
 was extended as far as 
 the Williamsburg 
 road. This was the 
 situation of the two 
 armies at the close of 
 the year. 
 
 In the meantime 
 Early had advanced 
 into the valley of Vir- 
 ginia after the defeat of 
 Hunter. The retreat 
 of that commander in- 
 to West Virginia had 
 left the Potomac un- 
 guarded, and Wash- 
 ington City exposed 
 to attack. General 
 Lee at once reinforced 
 Early to fifteen thou- 
 sand men, and ordered 
 him to cross the Potomac and to threaten 
 Washington, hoping by this bold movement 
 to compel Grant to weaken his army for the 
 protection of the capital, if not to raise the 
 siege of Petersburg. Early moved rapidly, 
 crossed the Potomac near Martinsburg on 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 
 
 751 
 
 the fifth of July, and on the seventh occupied 
 Frederick City in Maryland. On the ninth 
 he defeated a small force under General 
 Lewis Wallace at Manocacy Bridge, and 
 advanced upon Washington. The Nine- 
 teenth army corps of the Federal army was 
 at Fortress Monroe, where it had just arrived 
 from New Orleans, en 
 route to join Grant's 
 army. It was at once or- 
 dered to Washington, 
 which, until its arrival, 
 was held by a small gar- 
 rison, and Grant at the 
 same time embarked the 
 Sixth corps, and sent it 
 with all speed around to 
 the Potomac. ..... 
 
 These troops reached 
 Washington before the 
 arrival of Early, who 
 appeared before the de- 
 fences of that city on 
 the eleventh of July. He 
 found the works too 
 strongly manned to be 
 att.icked by his force. 
 After skirmishing for 
 several days before them, 
 he withdrew across the 
 Potomac on the four- 
 teenth, and retreated to 
 the neighborhood of 
 Winchester. 
 
 Early's movement so 
 alarmed the Federal gov- 
 ernment for the safety of 
 Washington that a force of forty thousand 
 men, ten thousand of which were the splen- 
 did cavalry of Sheridan, was stationed in the 
 valley, and Major-General Sheridan was ap- 
 pointed to the command of this army. Had 
 Grant been able to retain these troops with 
 his own army, it is safe to say that Lee would 
 
 have been forced to abandon his position at 
 Petersburg in the autumn of 1864. Their 
 absence in the valley enabled the Con- 
 federate leader to prolong his defence through 
 the winter. 
 
 As soon as he had gotten his forces well 
 in hand, Sheridan advanced upon Early, and 
 
 V ^ 
 
 GENERAL WINFIELD S. HANCOCK 
 
 on the nineteenth defeated him at Win- 
 chester, and drove him back to Fisher's 
 Hill, where on the twenty-second, he again 
 defeated him and drove him out of the 
 valley, pursuing him as far as Staunton. By 
 the orders of General Grant, General Sheri- 
 dan now laid waste the entire valley of the 
 
752 
 
 STUART'S CAVALRY CUTTING TELEGRAPH WIRES. 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 
 
 753 
 
 Shenandoah, destroying all the crops, mills, 
 barns, and farming implements, and driving 
 off the cattle with his army as he moved 
 back. 
 
 Early was reinforced after his retreat to 
 the upper valley, and about the middle of 
 October advanced down the valley towards 
 the Federal position with a force of nine 
 thousand men and forty pieces of cannon. 
 The Union army lay at Cedar Creek, and 
 was under the temporary command of Gen- 
 eral Wright during the absence of General 
 Sheridan. On the 
 nineteenth of Oc- 
 tober Early attack- 
 ed this force, and 
 drove it back for 
 several miles. In- 
 stead of continuing 
 the pursuit, his 
 troops stopped to 
 plunder the Federal 
 camp, whichhad fal- 
 len into their hands. 
 
 General Wright 
 rallied his men and 
 reformed them in a 
 new position, and 
 at this moment 
 General Sheridan 
 arrived on the field. 
 
 He had heard the firing at Winchester, 
 " twenty miles away," and had ridden at full 
 speed from that place to rejoin his army. He 
 at once ordered it to advance upon Early, 
 whose men, laden with the plunder of the 
 captured camp, were driven back with terrible 
 force and pursued up the valley for thirty 
 miles. This success cleared the valley of the 
 Confederate forces, for Early was not able 
 after this to collect more than a handful of 
 men, and Lee had no troops to spare him. 
 Sheridan's brilliant victories cost him a total 
 loss of seventeen thousand men. 
 4« 
 
 A more extended account of G neral 
 Sheridan's operations, by the historian. John 
 Laird Wilson, will be of interest to the 
 reader : 
 
 "As Sheridan returned down the valley 
 towards Cedar Creek, he was closely followed 
 by the Confederate cavalry under Rosser, 
 supported by the main body of Early's army. 
 On October ninth, the head of Sheridan's 
 infantry column having entered Strasburg by 
 the east road, while the rear was still some 
 miles further south, the enemy followirg the 
 
 PONTOON BRIDGE AT DEEP BOTTOM. 
 
 cavalry on the west road, had advanced so 
 far as to get on the left flank of the infantry 
 column. Custer and Merritt then turned and 
 attacked with their cavalry, when a report 
 having spread among Rosser's men that the 
 National infantry were at the same time 
 flanking them, they immediately gave way 
 and broke into a stampede. The pursuit was 
 continued seven miles. The loss of the 
 enemy was not great, being only about three 
 hundred men, including prisoners ; but he 
 abandoned eleven guns, four caissons, and an 
 ammunition train. 
 
754 
 
 THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 "Things remained quiet for several days 
 after this affair; but on the twelfth, the Con- 
 federates again appeared in the neighborhood 
 of Strasburg and opened an artillery fire on 
 Emory's and Crook's corps. These troops 
 were then partially withdrawn and Crook 
 pushed out a reconnoissance, which brought 
 
 GENERAL PfUT.TP H. SHERIDAN 
 
 on a smart engagement of three hours' dura- 
 tion. Night, however, closed upon the scene 
 without any advantage and with little loss to 
 either side. 
 
 " On the fifteenth, Sheridan went to Wash- 
 ington on important business, leaving the 
 army under the command of General Wright, 
 
 whose corps was, in the meantime, intrusted 
 to General Ricketts. Fisher's Hill had been 
 abandoned as not affording any good defens- 
 ible line on its southern slope, on which side 
 Early would be likely to approach, and the 
 army had now lain for several days in front 
 of Strasburg, behind breast-works thrown 
 up on rising and rolling 
 ground, mostly along the 
 east side of Cedar Creek — 
 Crook, with the Eighth 
 corps on the left, the Nine- 
 teenth corps in the centre, 
 the Sixth on the right. On 
 the right of the Sixth, a 
 little in the rear and in 
 reserve, were the two cav- 
 alry divisions of Custer 
 and Merritt. The line was 
 four or five miles long, and 
 following the course of the 
 creek, nearly north and 
 South. 
 
 " Crook's corps rested its 
 left flank on the North 
 Fork of Shenandoah and 
 its right on the Winchester 
 * and Strasburg turnpike, the 
 principal highway in that 
 region. Behind Crook's 
 left and at right angles to 
 it, with a view to guard 
 against any turning move- 
 ment on that flank, lay a 
 force about equivalent to 
 a brigade, known as Kitch- 
 ing's provisional division. 
 North of the turnpike came the Nineteenth 
 corps, Grover's division holding its left and 
 resting on the turnpike, where it joined 
 Thorburn's Division of Crook's command. 
 The Sixth corps on the right, and the 
 second cavalry division, were not strongly 
 protected with works, as was all the rest of 
 
PORTRAITS OF FEDERAL CAVALRY COMMANDERS. 
 
756 
 
 THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 the line, but were well posted on high ridges, 
 and held firmly the Middle road, or that 
 which runs next north of the turnpike. A 
 small stream called Meadow Run, flows into 
 the creek between the two roads mentioned. 
 
 was picketed by Powell's cavalry division 
 from Cedar Creek all the way to Front 
 Royal. Weir's battery commanded the fords, 
 supported by cavalry which were so posted 
 as to prevent surprise from the direction cf 
 
 ■ '24 
 
 sheridan's cavalry charge at cedar creek. 
 
 " In front the National position was consid- 
 ered impregnable, except by surprise, and to 
 iurn it would be, it was believed, an under- 
 taking of extreme temerity. To guard 
 against surprise on the left, the North Fork 
 
 the Luray Valley. Artillery was posted in 
 front of the positions of Crook and Emory, 
 so as to command the ford and the bridge 
 over Cedar Creek, as well as the rising ground 
 on the west side. The wagon trains and 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 
 
 757 
 
 reserve artillery lay in the rear on the turn- 
 pike. On the seventeenth, the cavalry on the 
 right, under Custer, 
 was attacked by Con- 
 federate cavalry and 
 infantry, and a severe 
 skirmish ensued, re- 
 sulting in the repulse 
 of the enemy. Next 
 day a careful recon- 
 noissance was made 
 from the left towards 
 Sixasburg and Fish 
 er's Hill; but no sign 
 of movement on the 
 part of the enemy 
 was discovered. Dis- 
 patches, however.were 
 captured; and it was 
 thus ascertained that 
 reinforcements had 
 been sent to Early, 
 for the purpose of 
 enabling him to attack 
 and defeat Sheridan. 
 
 "Early, in fact, had 
 just received a rein- 
 forcement of some 
 twelve thousand men. 
 His actual strength 
 was thus increased to 
 twenty-seven thou- 
 sand. His army was 
 still smaller than that 
 of Sheridan. Encour- 
 aged, however, by so 
 large an accession of 
 strength, Early pre- 
 pared to put in execu- 
 tion one of the most 
 audacious movements 
 of the war. 
 
 " Before break of day on the nineteenth, 
 he arranged his troops at Fisher's Hill and 
 
 began to move against Sheridan's lines. His 
 cavalry and light artillery were directed to 
 
 SCALE OF MILES 
 
 •MATf/IS SO/I/ sr. 
 
 COUNTRY BETWEEN CHATTANOOGA AND ATLANTA. 
 
 advance against the National right, so as to 
 occupy the attention of Torbert and the 
 
758 
 
 THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 Sixth corps. His infantry marched in five 
 columns, of which Gordon's, Ramseur's, and 
 Pegram's were ordered to place themselves 
 by daybreak on the left rear of the whole 
 National position, while Kershaw's and 
 Wharton's were to endeavor to get, about 
 the same time, close under the entrenched 
 rising ground on which lay Crook's com- 
 mand. To turn the National left, it was 
 
 GENERAL JOSEPH E. JOHNSTON. 
 
 necessary that Early's columns should 
 descend into the gorge at the base of the 
 Massanutten Mountain, ford the North Fork 
 of the Shenandoah, and skirt Crook's en- 
 campment for some distance, in some places 
 within four hundred yards of his pickets. 
 
 " It was a hazardous as well as audacious 
 experiment ; but it was executed with won- 
 derful skill, and, as the result proved, with 
 complete success. The movement was con- 
 
 ducted quietly, and with great caution. The 
 result was that before daybreak the Con- 
 federate infantry, formed and ready for battle, 
 lay within six hundred yards of the National 
 camps. Gordon's column was diagonally in 
 the rear of the Nineteenth corps; on the left 
 of Crook, facing Kitching's provisional 
 division, was Ramseur supported by Pegram ; 
 in front of Crook was Kershaw supported by 
 Wharton. Undercover of the morning mist, 
 Kershaw's column moved rapidly through 
 Crook's picket line, and with tremendous 
 fury rushed upon the entrenchments. The 
 onslaught was fearful. The surprise was 
 complete. 
 
 "In a quarter of an hour Crook's gallant 
 army of Western Virginia became a dis- 
 organized mass of fugitives in rapid rout 
 towards the position of the Nineteenth 
 corps. Crook lost several batteries, some 
 seven hundred men made prisoners, and 
 about one hundred in killed and wounded. 
 The Sixth corps was at the same time 
 menaced; and its attention occupied by 
 the enemy's cavalry and light artillery. It 
 fell to the lot of the Nineteenth corps to 
 resist unaided the shock of Gordon's col- 
 umn, now advancing solidly massed up 
 the slope of a broad, bare hill which com- 
 manded Emory's camp. The Confederate 
 force ; including the divisions of Ramseur 
 and Pegram, was as strong as Emory's, and 
 was supported by another column coming 
 up through the woods on the left, and 
 along the turnpike in front. 
 
 " The Nineteenth corps was thus not only 
 taken in the rear, but outnumbered. Still it 
 held out for about an hour ; and then its left 
 gave way, leaving a part of the artillery in 
 the enemy's hands. The left and centre of 
 the National army had now fallen into com- 
 plete confusion ; and all the trains that could 
 be got away were sent off in haste along the 
 turnpike towards Winchester. The sun was 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 
 
 759 
 
 now high in the heavens, and the extent of 
 the disaster was rendered visible. The Con- 
 federates had succeeded in rolling up the left 
 of the line, and in severing Powell's cavalry- 
 division on the extreme left from the rest of 
 the army; and they were now forcing back 
 the entire centre, and occupying the entrench- 
 ments of the Nineteenth corps as they had 
 those of Crook's command. They had also 
 captured eighteen pieces of artillery, thus not 
 only lessening the National power for 
 defense, but increasing their own power for 
 attack. The captured cannon were turned 
 with terrible effect on their late possessors. 
 The Sixth corps was now ordered over from 
 the right ; and these troops, executing quickly 
 2 change of front which brought them at 
 right angles to their former line, were soon 
 engaged in desperate battle. 
 
 A Desperate Struggle. 
 
 " The resistance made by the Sixth corps 
 in covering the retreat afforded opportunity 
 for re-enforcing the fugitives to some extent ; 
 but the Confederates increased their artillery 
 and musketry fire to the utmost, and still 
 pressed the National left flank, with the 
 view, apparently, of getting full possession of 
 the turnpike, that they might seize the trains 
 and get between the National army and 
 Winchester. The enemy pressed the left 
 much more vigorously than the right. 
 Merritt's and Custer's cavalry were trans- 
 ferred from the right to the left ; and a severe 
 contest took place in the thickly-wooded 
 country near Middletown, in which the left 
 had been placed by its rapid retreat. 
 
 " About nine o'clock Sheridan's army had 
 got into line of battle again, and made des- 
 perate efforts to check the enemy. Both 
 sides used artillery ; but the Confederates 
 had greatly the advantage in this arm, having 
 not only their own batteries, but the cap- 
 tured guns of their antagonists besides. The 
 
 Sixth corps held its ground well ; but 
 Crook's corps on the left was forced back, 
 and the whole line gradually gave way, the 
 enemy again getting past the National left 
 flank, and finally gaining the village of Mid- 
 dletown, about three miles northeast of the 
 position from which Sheridan's army had 
 been driven. The principal aim of the 
 National commanders now was to cover the 
 trains and draw off the army with as little 
 loss as possible to Newton, where they hoped 
 to be able to re-form and offer an effective 
 resistance. The battle had been completely 
 lost. Camps, earth-works, some twenty-four 
 guns and one thousand eight hundred pris- 
 oners — all were left in the hands of the 
 enemy. The routed Nationals were flying 
 in all directions, large numbers of them 
 making their way to Winchester. 
 
 " Face the Other Way, Boys ! " 
 
 " The National army fell back, as we have 
 seen, first towards Middletown, and after- 
 wards in the direction of Newton. About a 
 mile or so in the rear of Middletown.Wright 
 succeeded in restoring something like order. 
 Sheridan was still absent. He had been, as 
 we have mentioned, on a visit to Washing- 
 ton. On his return, he spent the night at 
 Winchester. It was not until his army had 
 been defeated that he was made aware of 
 Early's attack. He was in his saddle in a 
 minute. He had scarcely left Winchester 
 when he beheld sad evidences of the disaster 
 which had befallen his army. The road was 
 covered with wagon trains and crowds of 
 weary fugitives. 
 
 " As he rode along on his splendid 
 charger, the air was rent with cheers. The 
 fugitives felt abashed and halted; and the 
 wounded by the wayside feebly waved a 
 joyful salute. He did not slacken his pace 
 to rebuke or encourage. Waving his hat to 
 the cheering crowds, his horse still at full 
 
760 
 
 THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 gallop, he shouted, ' Face the other way, 
 boys ! Face the other way ! We are going 
 back to our camps. We are going to lick 
 them out of their boots.' The words were 
 electric. The tide of fugitives began to turn. 
 Ashe neared the main body, the enthusiasm 
 became unbounded. Officers and men 
 tossed their hats and cheered to the echo. 
 He repeated his fiery words, ' Boys, if I had 
 been here chis would never have happened. 
 We are going back. We'll have all these 
 camps and cannon back again.' What 
 Sheridan said he meant ; and the men 
 believed him. He was in the field shortly 
 after ten o'clock. 
 
 General Early Repulsed. 
 
 "There was a lull in the fight, which 
 lasted several hours. Wright, as has been 
 mentioned, had already restored order, and 
 made dispositions, if not for attack, at least 
 for effective resistance. Sheridan approved 
 of the arrangements; and mid the most 
 enthusiastic cheers, he rode along the lines, 
 studying the ground and encouraging the 
 men. About one o'clock Early made a 
 charge, which was vigorously repulsed by 
 Emory. About three o'clock Sheridan gave 
 the order, 'The entire line will advance. 
 The Nineteenth corps will move in con- 
 nection with the Sixth. The right of the 
 Nineteenth will swing to the left, so as to 
 drive the enemy upon the pike.' 
 
 "The order was promptly obeyed. The 
 entire line moved forward — Getty's divis- 
 ion leading the charge. Merritt's cav- 
 alry covered the left flank ; and Custer's 
 cavalry was thrown out on the right. As 
 the Nationals advanced they were checked 
 for a moment by a tremendous fire of artillery 
 and musketry. The check, however, was 
 but momentary ; for Emory swung around 
 upon the foe, and by two gallant charges 
 greatly disordered his lines. Almost at the 
 
 same moment, the National cavalry fell upon 
 Early's flank. The tide of battle had already 
 turned. 
 
 "The Confederates fought with bravery 
 and determination ; but Sheridan's men now 
 fighting in the presence of their favorite 
 chief, were not to be resisted. The battle, in 
 fact, was already won ; and what was so 
 recently a retreat, was now changed into a 
 pursuit. It was a perfect rout. On his arri- 
 val, Sheridan said, ' We'll have all those 
 camps and cannon back again.' His word 
 was made good. That night, the National 
 infantry halted within their old camps ; but 
 the cavalry pursued, hanging upon the flanks 
 and rear of the retreating foe, until he was 
 beyond Strasburg, and night fell upon the 
 scene. Early halted for the night at Fisher's 
 Hill, and in the morning resumed his retreat 
 southward. In the pursuit, all the captured 
 guns were recovered. The Nationals cap- 
 tured not only their own guns, but twenty- 
 three of those of the enemy, together with 
 one thousand five hundred prisoners, and 
 any quantity of horses, mules, ambulances, 
 wagons and stores of various kinds." 
 
 Sharp Struggle at Resaca. 
 
 The Western army under General Sherman 
 was increased to one hundred thousand men. 
 and was concentrated in and around Chatta- 
 nooga about the last of April. Opposed to 
 this force, General Joseph E. Johnston had 
 collected an army of fifty thousand men at 
 Dalton, Georgia. The objective point of 
 Sherman was Atlanta, Georgia, the key to 
 the railroad system of the South. 
 
 On the seventh of May the Federal army 
 began its advance. The position at Dalton 
 being too strong to be assaulted, Sherman 
 turned it by a flank movement upon Resaca, 
 to which place Johnston fell back. On the 
 fourteenth and fifteenth of May Sherman 
 endeavored to force the Confederate lines near 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 
 
 761 
 
 .esaca, but without success. He therefore 
 moved around Johnston's left again, and com- 
 pelled him to fall back to Dallas. Severe 
 fighting occurred on the twenty fifth at New 
 Hope Church, but Johnston maintained his 
 position. Heavy skirmishing ensued until 
 the twenty-eighth, 
 when Sherman hav- 
 ing turned Allatoona 
 Pass, Johnston oc- 
 cupied a new position, 
 embracing Pine, Lost 
 and Kenesaw Moun- 
 tains. Between the 
 fifteenth of June and 
 the second of July 
 Sherman made several 
 attempts to force this 
 position, which was 
 one of the strongest 
 yet occupied by the 
 Confederates, and fail 
 ing to carry it, again 
 moved to the left and 
 turned it. 
 
 Johnston at once fell 
 back across the Chat- 
 tahoochee and within 
 the lines of Atlanta. 
 He had prepared this 
 city for a siege, and 
 strongly fortified it. 
 He had his army well 
 in hand, and he was 
 determined as soon 
 as the Federal army 
 had passed the Chat- 
 tahoochee to attack 
 
 in its ruin, and at all events would be de- 
 cisive of the campaign. At this juncture, 
 however, he was removed from his command 
 on the seventeenth of July by the Confeder- 
 ate President, who was greatly dissatisfied 
 with the results of the campaign, and who, 
 
 MAJOR 
 
 Sherman and force him to a decisive en- 
 counter. He hoped to defeat him, and had 
 purposely avoided a general battle until 
 now. Should he succeed in his attempt 
 the defeat of the Federal army at such a 
 great distance from its base might result 
 
 GENERAL JAMES B. M'PHERSON. 
 
 it was generally believed, was influenced by 
 his personal hostility to Johnston. 
 
 General John B. Hood, a gallant soldier, 
 but unfit for the great task imposed upon 
 him, was appointed to succeed Genera. 
 Johnston. In Johnston General Sherman 
 
762 
 
 THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 had recognized an antagonist of the first 
 rank, and had conducted the campaign 
 accordingly. He regarded the appoint- 
 ment of General Hood as greatly simplify- 
 ing the task before him. The Federal army 
 had already paid the heavy price of over 
 thirty thousand men for its advance to 
 Atlanta, while Johnston had lost less than 
 eight thousand men. The conditions were 
 now to be reversed. 
 
 GENERAL GEORGE H. THOMAS. 
 
 On the seventeenth of July the Union 
 army crossed the Chattahoochee, and 
 advanced towards Atlanta. On the twen- 
 tieth and twenty- c econd Hood attacked the 
 Federai lines on Peach Tree Creek, but only 
 to be beaten back with a loss of over eight 
 thousand men, without inflicting any serious 
 injury upon the Union army, which, how- 
 ever, lost General McPherson, one of its 
 
 ablest commanders. Sherman now drew in 
 his lines closer to Atlanta, and by a skilful 
 movement thrust his army between the two 
 wings of Hood's forces, thus exposing them 
 to the danger of being beaten in detail. This 
 movement sealed the fate of Atlanta, which 
 was evacuated by the Confederates on the 
 thirty-first of August. On the second of 
 September Sherman occupied the city. 
 Hood retreated towards Macon. The loss 
 of Atlanta was a serious blow to the 
 South. It placed the Federal army in 
 the heart of Georgia, and destroyed the 
 principal source from which the Con- 
 federate armies were supplied with mili- 
 tary stores, which had been manufactured 
 in great quantities at Atlanta. Rome, 
 Georgia, which was captured by Sher- 
 man's army during the campaign, was 
 also largely engaged in the manufacture 
 of arms and ammunition. 
 
 General Sherman was now anxious to 
 march his army through Georgia, and 
 unite with the Union forces on the coast, 
 but he was unable as yet to undertake 
 this movement, as Hood, with an army 
 of thirty-five thousand men lay in his 
 front, and his communications with Chat- 
 tanooga and Knoxville were exposed to 
 the raids of the Confederate cavalry. 
 He now learned that the Confederate 
 government had ordered General Hood 
 to invade Tennessee for the purpose of 
 drawing his army out of Georgia, and 
 concluded to make no effort to prevent 
 this movement. The task of watching Hood 
 was confided to the Army of the Tennessee, 
 under General George H. Thomas, who was 
 given a sufficient force to hold Tennessee, 
 and Sherman set about preparing his army 
 for his march to the sea. Thomas was 
 heavily reinforced from the North. 
 
 Hood began his forward movement towards 
 the last of October, and on the thirty-first of 
 
PORTRAITS OF SHERMAN AND SOME OF HIS COMMANDERS. 
 
 763 
 
7 6 4 
 
 THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 that mcnth, crossed the Tennessee, near 
 Florence. 1 le remained on this river until 
 
 command of General Schofield, and effecting 
 a passage of Duck River, on the twenty- 
 ninth. Schofield fell 
 back to Franklin 
 eighteen miles south 
 of Nashville. He was 
 attacked on the thir 
 tieth, by the Confed- 
 erates and forced back 
 to Nashville, within 
 the defences of which 
 city, General Thomas 
 had collected an army 
 of about forty thou- 
 sand men. Hood in- 
 vested the city, and 
 hastened forward his 
 preparations to assault 
 the Federal works. 
 General Thomas, how- 
 ever, anticipated him, 
 and on the fifteenth 
 of December, attacked 
 the Confederate army 
 and forced it back at 
 all points. The next 
 day, the sixteenth, the 
 battle was renewed, 
 and Hood was com- 
 pletely routed. 
 
 On the seventeenth 
 the Union army set 
 out in pursuit o f 
 Hood's broken col 
 umns, and followed 
 them for over fifty 
 miles. But for the 
 gallantry of a small 
 rear guard, which pre- 
 served its discipline 
 and covered the re- 
 
 THE COUNTRY TRAVERSED BY SHERMAN IN HIS MARCH THROUGH GEORGIA. treat tQ ^q last, the 
 
 the middle of November, and on the nine- 
 teenth, marched northward, forcing back the 
 
 Confederate army would have been scattered 
 beyond all hope of reunion. Hood recrossed 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 
 
 765 
 
 the Tennessee with barely twenty thousand 
 'men out of the thirty-five thousand with 
 which he had begun 
 the campaign. He 
 had lost half of his 
 generals and nearly 
 all of his artillery. He 
 fell back to Tupelo, 
 Mississippi, and on the 
 twenty-third of Jan- 
 uary, 1865, was, at his 
 own request, relieved 
 of his command. In 
 the meantime Gen- 
 eral Sherman, leaving 
 Thomas to deal with 
 Hood, had begun his 
 march through the 
 State of Georgia. Sat- 
 isfied that the war 
 was practically de- 
 cided in the South- 
 west, he proposed to 
 march to the sea near 
 Savannah, and thence 
 through the Confed- 
 eracy to the position 
 of General Grant's 
 army. This move- 
 ment would compel 
 the Confederates to 
 mass their forces in 
 his front, and would 
 confine the decisive 
 operations of the war 
 to the country be- 
 tween his own and 
 Grant's armies, be- 
 tween which it was 
 believed the Southern 
 forces could be crush- 
 ed. Everything being 
 
 in readiness, Sherman cut loose from his 
 communications with Chattanooga and set 
 
 fire to Atlanta. On the fourteenth of No- 
 vember he set out on his " March to the Sea," 
 
 MAP SHOWING THE CITY OF MOBILE AND ITS DEFENCES. 
 
 at the head of a splendid army of sixty 
 thousand men. He ravaged the country as 
 
766 
 
 THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 he went, leaving behind him a broad belt of 
 desolation, sixty miles in width and three 
 hundred in length. 
 
 The Confederates had not sufficient force 
 to offer serious opposition to his march, and 
 
 left at Sherman's mercy, and was occupied 
 by his army on the twenty-second of Dece* n- 
 ber. By this successful march to the s» \, 
 General Sherman had not only gotten h.s 
 army in a position to co-operate with Grant 
 
 in the final struggle 
 of the war, but had 
 struck terror to the 
 South. The most 
 hopeful Confeder- 
 ate now saw thaf 
 the triumph of the 
 Union cause way 
 inevitable and close 
 at hand. 
 
 During the yeai 
 important opera- 
 tions had been un- 
 dertaken by the 
 Federal forces on 
 the coast. In July, 
 a powerful fleet un- 
 der Admiral Far- 
 ragut, accompanied 
 by a strong force of 
 troops under Gen- 
 eral Granger, was 
 sent against Mo- 
 bile. This city was 
 one of the principal 
 ports of the Con- 
 federacy and was 
 strongly fortified. 
 The entrance to the 
 bay was command- 
 ed by Forts Mor- 
 gan and Gaines, 
 two powerful works 
 commodore david g. farragut. built before the war, 
 
 in about four weeks he reached the coast and a number of batteries and a Confederate 
 near the mouth of the Savannah River. On fleet under Admiral Buchanan— who had 
 the thirteenth of December he stormed and commanded the "Virginia" in her fight with 
 captured Fort McAllister, which commanded the " Monitor"— lay beyond the forts ready 
 that river. The city of Savannah was thus to contest the possession of the baw 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 
 
 767 
 
 On the fifth of August Farragut passed the 
 forts with his fleet with the loss of but one 
 iron-clad, and entered 
 Mobile Bay. He im- 
 mediately attacked the 
 Confederate fleet, the 
 flag-ship of which was 
 a powerful iron-clad 
 ram — the " Tennes- 
 see." After one of 
 the most desperate 
 fights in naval annals, 
 the entire fleet was 
 destroyed or captured 
 by the Union vessels. 
 Fort Powell was evac- 
 uated and blown up 
 by its garrison on the 
 same day. On the 
 seventh of August 
 Fort Gaines surren- 
 dered to General 
 Granger, and on the 
 twenty-third Fort 
 Morgan also capitul- 
 ated. These successes 
 made the Federal 
 forces masters of Mo- 
 bile Bay, and closed 
 the port to blockade- 
 runners ; but the city, 
 which was strongly 
 fortified, was not taken 
 until the next year. 
 
 Wilmington, on the 
 Cape Fear River, was 
 now the only port in 
 the Confederacy re- 
 maining open to block- 
 ade runners. It was 
 defended by Fort 
 Fisher, an unusually 
 
 employed during the war was assembled in 
 Hampton Roads under Admiral Porter. A 
 
 CAPE FEAR RIVER AND APPROACHES TO WILMINGTON, N. C. 
 
 formidable work near the mouth of the Cape 
 Fear. A larger fleet than had yet been 
 
 force of eight thousand troops under General 
 Butler was embarked, and the expedition 
 
768 
 
 BOAT OF THE "DEERHOUND" BBS*'*"— ^PTAIN SEMMES. 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 
 
 769 
 
 sailed to the Cape Fear. Fort Fisher was 
 subjected to a vigorous bombardment, which 
 was begun on the twenty-fourth of Decem- 
 ber, and the troops were landed ; but at the 
 last moment General Butler decided that the 
 fort was too strong to be assaulted, and the 
 expedition returned to Hampton Roads. 
 
 Mobile in August of that year. In January, 
 1863, she ran the blockade, and in three 
 months captured and destroyed fifteen mer- 
 chant vessels. She was at length seized in 
 the harbor of Bahia, in Brazil, by a Federal 
 man-of-war, and taken to Hampton Roads- 
 The Brazilian Government, resenting this 
 
 SINKING OF THE " ALABAMA " BY THE " KEARSARGE." 
 
 Since the opening of the war the Confed- 
 erate cruisers had nearly driven the commerce 
 of the Northern States from the ocean. 
 These vessels were built in England, and 
 were usually manned by crews of English 
 seamen under Confederate naval officers. 
 One of these, the " Florida," put to sea in the 
 summer of 1862, and succeeded in reaching 
 49 
 
 breach of its neutrality, demanded the release 
 of the " Florida," but while the negotiations 
 were in progress, she was sunk in Hampton 
 Roads by a collision with another vessel. 
 
 The most famous of all the Confederate 
 cruisers, was the "Alabama." She was built 
 at Liverpool, and was suffered to go to sea 
 in spite of the protest of the American 
 
710 
 
 THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 minister at London. She was commanded by 
 Captain Raphael Semmes, and during her 
 long career, captured sixty-five merchant 
 vessels, and destroyed over ten millions of 
 dollars worth of property. During her entire 
 career, she never entered a Confederate port. 
 In the summer of 1864, she put into the 
 harbor of Cherbourg, in France, and was 
 blockaded there by the United States war 
 steamer, " Kearsarge," Captain Winslow. 
 The French government ordered the "Ala- 
 bama" to leave Cherbourg, and she went to 
 sea on the nineteenth of June. She was at 
 once attacked by the " Kearsarge," and was 
 sunk by the guns of that steamer, after an 
 
 RAPHAEL SEMMES 
 
 engagement of an hour and a quarter. 
 Semmes was saved from drowning by the 
 English yacht : " Deerhound," that had wit- 
 nessed the battle and was set ashore. The 
 destruction of the "Alabama" was hailed 
 with delight throughout the North. 
 
 In the fall of 1864, the presidential election 
 was held in the States remaining faithful to the 
 Union. The Republican party nominated 
 President Lincoln for re-election, and Andrew 
 Johnson, of Tennessee for the vice-presidency. 
 The Democratic party supported General 
 George B. McClellan for the presidency, and 
 George H. Pendleton, of Ohio, for the vice- 
 presidency. Mr. Lincoln received at the 
 
 polls, 2,213,665 votes to 1,802,237 cast for 
 McClellan ; and the electoral votes of every 
 State, save those of New Jersey, Delaware, 
 and Kentucky, were cast for him. 
 
 On the thirty-first of October, 1864, Nevada 
 was admitted into the Union as a separate 
 State. , 
 
 The year 1864 closed brilliantly for the 
 Union cause. Though the Confederates had 
 gained a number of important victories dur- 
 ing the year, they had, on the whole, steadily 
 lost ground. Virginia, Tennessee, Georgia, 
 Alabama, Mississippi and Florida, were over- 
 run by the Federal armies, and on the coast 
 there was not a single port remaining open 
 to the Confederacy save that of Wilmington, 
 which was blockaded by a powerful fleet. 
 
 A Million Union Troops. 
 
 It was evident that the coming spring cam- 
 paign would end the war. The Federal force? 
 had been increased to the enormous total of 
 one million of men. The Confederates could 
 bring into the field scarcely two hundred 
 thousand men, and for these it was difficult 
 to find subsistence. The vicious financial 
 system adopted by the Confederate Govern- 
 ment had run its appointed course, and the 
 notes of the Confederate Treasury were worth 
 scarcely three or four cents on the dollar. 
 
 The year 1865 opened with an effort to 
 secure the return of peace without further 
 bloodshed. In January Mr. F. P. Blair, Sr., 
 came from Washington to Richmond, and on 
 his own responsibility proposed to the Con- 
 federate Government the appointment of 
 commissioners to negotiate with the Federal 
 Government for the close of the war. The 
 following commissioners were appointed by 
 the Confederate Government : Alexander H. 
 Stephens, Vice-President of the Confederate 
 States; R. M. T. Hunter, Senator from Vir- 
 ginia in the Confederate Congress, and John 
 A. Campbell, Assistant Secretary of War. 
 
PORTRAITS OF PROMINENT FEDERAL GENERALS. 
 
 7; I 
 
772 
 
 THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 They proceeded to City Point under a safe 
 conduct from General Grant, and were con- 
 veyed from that place to Hampton Roads in 
 a Government steamer. On the third of 
 February President Lincoln and Secretary 
 Se"'ard having reached Hampton Roads, an 
 
 MAJOR-GENERAL J. M. SCHOFIELD, 
 
 informal conference was held between the 
 President and the commissioners. The Presi- 
 dent refused to entertain any propositions 
 which were not based upon the unconditional 
 submission of the Southern States to the 
 authority of the Union, and as the commis- 
 sioners had no authority from their govern- 
 
 ment to enter into any such arrangement the 
 conference accomplished nothing. 
 
 In the meantime, however, Admiral Porter, 
 undaunted by the failure of Butler to take 
 Fort Fisher, had remained off the fort with 
 his fleet and had asked for troops to renew 
 the attempt. The sime 
 force that Butler had 
 commanded, with fifteen 
 hundred additional men, 
 was placed under Gen- 
 eral Terry's command 
 and ordered to join Por- 
 ter. This force arrived 
 off Fort Fisher on the 
 twelfth of January, and 
 on the morning of the 
 thirteenth accomplished 
 its landing with success. 
 A terrible fire was rained 
 upon the fort by the fleet 
 during the thirteenth and 
 fourteenth, and on the 
 fourteenth a daring re- 
 t-on noissance of the 
 Union force revealed the 
 fact that the fort had 
 been severely damaged 
 by this bombardment. 
 The trenches of the 
 Union army were pushed 
 rapidly through the sand 
 to within two hundred 
 yards of Foit Fisher in 
 order to attract the atten- 
 tion of the garrison, an J 
 on the fifteenth a feint was 
 made by a force of sailors and marines from 
 the fleet in this direction. At the same time 
 the troops under General Terry stormed the 
 fort from the land side, and after a hard hand- 
 to-hand struggle of about five hours, during 
 which each traverse was carried in succession 
 by a separate fight, Fort Fisher was captured. 
 
 
PORTRAITS OF FEDERAL CAVALRY COMMANDERS. 
 
 771 
 
774 
 
 THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 On the sixteenth and seventeenth the Con- 
 federates blew up their other works at the 
 mouth of the Cape Fear and retreated 
 towards Wilmington. The mouth of the 
 river was now in the possession of the Fed- 
 eral forces, and the last port of the South was 
 closed. A number of blockade runners, igno- 
 rant of the capture, ran into the river and fell 
 into the hands of the victors. Later in the 
 month, General J. M. Schofield was placed 
 in command of the department of North 
 Carolina, and on the twenty-second of Feb- 
 ruary occupied the city of Wilmington, North 
 Carolina, with his troops. 
 
 INTERIOR OF FORT STEADMAN. 
 
 Sherman, after the capture of Savannah, 
 allowed his army a month's rest on the coast, 
 and towards the end of January moved 
 northward through South Carolina towards 
 Virginia. His force was sixty thousand 
 strong and moved in four columns, covering 
 a front of fifty miles. His route was marked 
 by the same desolation he had spread through 
 Georgia. The roads were in a horrible con- 
 dition, and in many places the men were 
 forced to wade through the icy waters up to 
 the armpits. Still he pressed on right into 
 the heart of the Confederacy. On the seven- 
 teenth of February he reached Columbia, 
 South Carolina, having destroyed the rail- 
 road leading north from Charleston. 
 
 General Hardee, commanding the Con- 
 federate forces at Charleston, apprehensive 
 of being shut up in that city, which was 
 utterly unprepared for a siege, evacuated 
 Charleston and its defences on the seven- 
 teenth of February and retreated northward 
 to join General Johnston in North Carolina. 
 The next day Charleston was occupied by 
 the Federal forces. Fort Sumter was also 
 taken possession of at the same time. The 
 fort was a mass of ruins ; the city was not 
 much better off. It had suffered severely 
 from the bombardment to which it had been 
 subjected since the fall of Fort Wagner, and 
 the Confederates upon their withdrawal 
 had set fire to a considerable part of it. 
 
 From Columbia, Sherman moved to- 
 wards Fayetteville, North Carolina, driv- 
 ing back the Confederate forces that 
 resisted his progress, and entered that 
 place on the twelfth of March. From 
 Fayetteville he moved towards Golds- 
 borough. 
 
 The Confederate government, in the 
 V emergency to which it was reduced, was 
 obliged to reappoint General Joseph E. 
 Johnston to the command of the force 
 assembling in Sherman's front. Johns- 
 ton succeeded in collecting about thirty-five 
 thousand troops,with which he attacked Sher- 
 man at Averasborough on the sixteenth of 
 March, and again at Bentonville on the nine- 
 teenth. The Confederates fought with their 
 old enthusiasm in these encounters, but were 
 unable to stay the progress of the Federal 
 army, and on the twenty-third of March 
 Sherman occupied Goldsborough. Johnston 
 withdrew towards Raleigh. At Goldsborough 
 Sherman was joined by the forces of Gen- 
 erals Schofield and Terry, which had come 
 up from the coast. 
 
 The armies of Grant and Lee had lain con- 
 fronting each other during the winter. 
 General Lee had little hope of maintaining 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 
 
 775 
 
 his position after the opening of hostilities. 
 His army was growing weaker from sickness 
 and desertion, and no 
 more men could be 
 obtained. The Con- 
 federate Congress 
 made a feeble effort 
 during the winter to 
 enlist negro troops in 
 its service, but with 
 singular recklessness 
 refused to offer the 
 boon of freedom to 
 such of the blacks as 
 would take up arms. 
 That body believed 
 that the negroes 
 would fight for their 
 own enslavement. 
 
 Early having been 
 driven out of the val- 
 ley, General Sheridan 
 was ordered to start 
 from Winchester with 
 a column often thou- 
 sand cavalry, and cut 
 the communications 
 of Lee's army by rail- 
 road and telegraph 
 north and east of Rich- 
 mond. He left Win- 
 chester on the twenty- 
 seventh of February, 
 and defeating Early's 
 force at Waynesbor- 
 ough, broke the Vir- 
 ginia Central Railroad 
 at that point and 
 moved to Charlottes 
 ville, which surrend- 
 ered to him. He then 
 divided his force into 
 
 destroyed the railroad between Charlottes- 
 ville and Lynchburg for about forty miles, 
 
 POSITIONS OF THE ARMIES NEAR PETERSBURG, VA. 
 
 two columns and resumed his "ride" on 
 the sixth of March. He most thoroughly 
 
 and the canal between Richmond and 
 Lynchburg shared the same fate for a 
 
776 
 
 THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 considerable distance. Being unable to cross i the road by which Lee wished to retreat 
 
 the James above Richmond on account of 
 the high water, he moved around the north 
 of Richmond, crossed the river at Deep 
 Bottom and joined Grant before Petersburg 
 'on the twenty-sixth of March. He had 
 utterly laid waste the country along his 
 .route. The arrival of this splendid force of 
 cavalry was of the greatest service to Grant, 
 as we shall see. 
 
 The situation of General Lee's army was 
 
 GENERAL ROBERT E. LEE. 
 
 growing more critical every day. He had 
 less than forty thousand troops. He was 
 fully convinced of the necessity of abandon- 
 ing Richmond and Petersburg, and was anx- 
 ious to do so at once, and unite his army 
 with that of General Johnston and occupy a 
 new position in the interior of the South. In 
 order to secure the withdrawal of his army, 
 he determined to make a vigorous attack 
 upon Grant's right, hoping to compel him, in 
 ^ order to help his right, to draw back his left 
 J wing, which was in dangerous proximity to 
 
 Could he succeed in this effort, he meant to 
 evacuate his position at Petersburg and retire 
 towards Danville, where he hoped to unite 
 with General Johnston. 
 
 On the twenty-fifth of March, he made a 
 heavy attack upon Fort Steadman, on the 
 right of Grant's line, and captured it, The 
 Federal forces rallied, however, and drove 
 the Confederates from the captured works 
 back to their own line, inflicting upon them 
 a loss of three thousand men. Lee had 
 now no alternative but to await the move- 
 ments of General Grant, as he could not 
 afford to make the sacrifice of men which 
 a renewal of his efforts would require of 
 him. 
 
 General Grant lost no time in taking 
 the field. By the last of March, his army, 
 numbering about one hundred and seventy 
 thousand men, including Sheridan's mag- 
 nificent cavalry division, was in readiness 
 to begin the campaign. On the twenty- 
 ninth of March, the advance of the Federal 
 army was begun. Leaving the bulk of his 
 army before Petersburg, Grant sent a col- 
 umn of twenty-five thousand men to turn 
 the Confederate right and seize the South- 
 side railroad, Lee's only means of com- 
 munication with Johnston's army and the 
 country in his rear. By the morning of the 
 thirtieth, the Federal left had gotten fairly 
 to the right of the Confederates. 
 
 On the thirtieth, a heavy storm prevented 
 a further advance, and Lee took advantage of 
 the delay to reinforce his right wing with all 
 the troops he could spare. On the thirty- 
 first, he attempted to drive back the Federal 
 left, but without success. While this battle 
 was going on, Sheridan swung around the 
 Confederate right and seized the important 
 position of Five Forks. Lee then sent Pick- 
 ett's and Johnston's divisions to recover this 
 point, and they drove off the cavalry, and 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 
 
 777 
 
 occupied Five Forks at niyht-fall on the 
 thirty-first. Being joined by the Fifth corps, 
 Sheridan attacked the Confederates on the 
 morning of the first of April, and defeated 
 them after a determined encounter, taking 
 over five thousand prisoners. 
 
 As soon as Sheridan had secured Five 
 Forks, Grant opened a heavy artillery fire 
 upon the lines of Petersburg along his whole 
 front, and continued the bombardment 
 through the night. On the morning of the 
 second of April he made a determined attack 
 upon Lee's line and broke 
 it at several points. Gen- 
 eral Lee was now forced 
 to assume a new and 
 shorter line immediately 
 around Petersburg. The 
 Federal army made a 
 vigorous effort to force 
 its way into the city, but 
 was unsuccessful. 
 
 The fate of Petersburg 
 was now decided. It was 
 impossible to hold it 
 longer. On the night of 
 the second of April Gen- 
 eral Lee withdrew his 
 army from Richmond 
 and Petersburg and re- 
 treated in the direction 
 of Amelia Court-house. 
 His intention was to move towards Danville 
 and endeavor to join Johnston. His retreat 
 was discovered on the morning of the third of 
 April, and the Federal army, leaving a small 
 force to occupy Petersburg, set off in pursuit, 
 following the line of the Southside Railroad. 
 
 On the morning of the third the withdrawal 
 of the Confederates from the lines of Rich- 
 mond was discovered by General Weitzel 
 commanding the Federal forces on the north 
 side of the James. He at once advanced an J 
 occupied the city of Richmond, a large part 
 
 of which was in flames as he entered it, hav- 
 ing been set on fire by the Confederates upon 
 their evacuation of it. Thus fell the Confed- 
 erate capital after four long years of bloody 
 war for its possession. 
 
 Upon reaching Amelia Court-house Gen- 
 eral Lee found that the supplies he had 
 ordered to be sent there from Danville were 
 not to be had. The trains sent from Danville 
 by his instructions had been ordered to Rich- 
 mond to remove the property of the Confed- 
 erate government, and had not been allowed 
 
 THE LAST CAVALRY CHARGE OF THE WAR. 
 
 to unload their stores at Amelia Court-house. 
 This was a terrible blow to Lee, who was now 
 unable to furnish food to his troops, who had 
 eaten nothing since the commencement of 
 the retreat. Parties were sent into the sur- 
 rounding country to obtain supplies, and this 
 consumed the whole of the fourth and fifth of 
 April, which Lee had hoped to spend in 
 pushing on beyond his pursuers. 
 
 The delay enabled Sheridan, with eighteen 
 thousand mounted men, to seize the Confed- 
 erate line of retreat at Jetersville. This 
 
778 
 
 THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 movement put an end to Lee's hope of reach- 
 ing Danville and joining Johnston. A battle 
 was impossible, for Sheridan had a force nearly 
 equal to his own, and Grant was hurrying on 
 with the rest of the Federal army. General 
 Lee therefore turned off and retreated towards 
 Farmville, hoping to be able to reach Lynch- 
 burg, but Sheridan, after passing Farmville, 
 pushed forward again, and by a forced march 
 reached Appomattox Station, on the South- 
 side Railroad, on the night of the eighth, and 
 planted his force squarely across the Confed- 
 erate line of retreat. 
 
 Surrender of General Lee. 
 
 The next morning Lee, when near Appo- 
 mattox Court-house, discovered this obstacle 
 in his way, and about the same time Sheridan 
 was joined by the Army of the James, under 
 General Ord, while the Army of the Poto- 
 mac, under General Meade, was closing in 
 fast upon Lee's rear. General Lee had now 
 but eight thousand men with arms in their 
 hands. The bulk of his forces, being too 
 much broken down by fatigue and hunger 
 to keep their places in their ranks, accompa- 
 nied the regiments in a disorganized mass. 
 As soon as he discovered Sheridan in his 
 front, Lee attempted to cut his way through 
 his lines, but failing in this effort, and being 
 convinced that further resistance would 
 merely be a useless sacrifice of his men, he 
 asked for a suspension of hostilities, and 
 went to meet General Grant. 
 
 The two commanders met at a house near 
 Appomattox Court-house, and after a brief 
 interview arranged the terms of the surren- 
 der. General Grant treated the beaten army 
 with great liberality. The hungry Confed- 
 erates were fed by the victors, and after 
 laying down their arms were permitted to 
 return to their homes. In order that the 
 men might betake themselves as soon as 
 possible to the cultivation of the soil, and so 
 
 avoid the suffering which the failure of the 
 harvest would entail upon the South, Gen- 
 eral Grant released all captured horses which 
 were identified as the property of the sol- 
 diers surrendering them. 
 
 The terms of the surrender were arranged 
 on the ninth of April. On the twelfth the 
 Army of Northern Virginia formed in divis- 
 ions for the last time, and marching to a des- 
 ignated spot near Appomattox Court-house 
 laid down its arms, and disbanded. About 
 seventy-five hundred men with arms, and 
 about eighteen thousand unarmed strag- 
 glers, took part in the surrender. The Fed- 
 eral troops treated their vanquished oppo- 
 nents with true soldierly kindness, and care- 
 fully refrained from everything which might 
 seem to insult the valor that had won their 
 earnest admiration. 
 
 Terms of Surrender. 
 The following is a detailed account of the 
 correspondence which passed between Gen- 
 erals Grant and Lee, and a full statement of 
 the terms upon which the Confederate Gen- 
 eral surrendered his army. On the evening 
 of April 7th Lee received Grant's first letter. 
 
 " April 7th, 1865. 
 
 "General: The result of the last week must con- 
 vince you of the hopelessness of further resistance 
 on the part of the Army of Northern Virginia in this 
 struggle. I feel that it is so, and regard it as my 
 duty to shift from myself the responsibility of any 
 further effusion of blood, by asking of you the sur- 
 render of that portion of the Confederate States 
 army known as the Army of Northern Virginia. 
 "U. S. GRANT, Lieut -General. 
 
 "General R. E. Lee." 
 
 To this letter Lee wrote an immediate 
 answer; but it was not until the following 
 morning that it reached Grant at Farmville. 
 It was couched in these words : 
 
 "April 7th, 1865. 
 " General : I have received your note of this 
 date. Though not entertaining the opinion you ex- 
 press of the hopelessness of further resistance on the 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 
 
 779 
 
 part of the Army of Northern Virginia, I reciprocate 
 your desire to avoid useless effusion of blood, and, 
 therefore, before considering your proposition, ask 
 the terms you will offer, on condition of its surren- 
 der. " R- E. LEE, General. 
 " Lieut.-General U. S. Grant." 
 
 On the instant Grant replied as follows : 
 
 "April 8th, 1865. 
 
 " General : Your note of last evening, in reply to 
 mine of the same date, asking the condition on 
 which I will accept the surrender of the Army of 
 Northern Virginia, is just received. In reply, I 
 would say that peace being my first desire, there is 
 but one condition that I insist upon, viz. : That the 
 men surrendered shall be disqualified for taking up 
 arms against the government of the United States 
 until properly exchanged. I will meet you, or des- 
 ignate officers to meet any officers you may name 
 for the same pumose, at any point agreeable to you, 
 for the purpose jf arranging definitely, the terms 
 upon which the surrender of the Army of Northern 
 Virginia will be received. 
 
 " U. S. GRANT, Lieut- General. 
 
 ■• General R. E. Lee." 
 
 Lee was in a strongly intrenched position, 
 a few miles to the north of the Appomattox. 
 As soon as he indited his reply to Grant's 
 first message he resumed his retreat under 
 cover of the darkness ; and so quietly was it 
 conducted that Humphreys was ignorant of 
 the fact until morning, when he was prepared 
 to renew the attack. Lee's skillful general- 
 ship was again conspicuously revealed. Ever 
 vigilant, ever fertile in resource, and ever 
 active, he had again put miles between him- 
 self and his pursuers. 
 
 Lee's Hurried Retreat. 
 
 The fact that Lee had retreated during the 
 night was at once made known to Grant, who 
 immediately gave orders for the renewal of 
 the pursuit. The Second and Sixth corps, 
 under the immediate direction of Meade, who 
 was accompanied by the General-in-chief, 
 were pushed forward with all possible haste 
 along the north bank of the Appomattox. 
 Sheridan meanwhile had made excellent use 
 
 both of his troopers and of his time. Lee 
 was pressing along that gradually narrowing 
 neck of land which lies between the head- 
 waters of the Appomattox and the affluents 
 of the James. 
 
 It was of the utmost importance that Sheri- 
 dan should be able to interpose his troops 
 between Lee's army and Lynchburg. If he 
 could close the outlet in the direction of that 
 city it would be all over with Lee, pursued 
 closely as he was by the Second and Sixth 
 corps, under the direction of Meade and the 
 General-in-chief. This was precisely what 
 Sheridan was aiming at, and what, within a 
 few hours, he actually did accomplish. Hav- 
 ing learned from one of his scouts early on 
 the morning of the eighth that four trains of 
 cars with supplies for Lee's army were at 
 Appomattox Station, he at once notified Mer- 
 ritt and Crook, and briskly pushed the whole 
 command towards that point. 
 
 Desperate Attempt tc Escape. 
 
 Lee was not ignorant of the extreme peril 
 of his situation; but he kept pressing eagerly 
 forward, still clinging to the skirts of hope, 
 and, in spite of almost irresistible evidence to 
 the contrary, indulging the thought that he 
 might yet find refuge among the ranges of the 
 Blue Ridge, beyond Lynchburg. In these 
 circumstances he received Grant's second let- 
 ter, and replied as follows : 
 
 " April 8th, 1865. 
 
 "General: I received at a late hour your note 
 of to-day. In mine of yesterday, I did not intend to 
 propose the surrender of the Army of Northern Vir- 
 ginia, but to ask the terms of your proposition. To 
 be frank, I do not think the emergency has arisen 
 to call for the surrender of this army ; but as the res- 
 toration of peace should be the sole object of all, I 
 desire to know whether your proposals would tend 
 to that end. I cannot, therefore, meet you with a 
 view to surrender the Army of Northern Virginia; 
 but so far as your proposition may affect the Confed- 
 erate States forces under my command, and tend to 
 the restoration of peace, I should be pleased to meet 
 

 780 
 
 THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 you at ten A. M., to-morrow, on the old stage-road 
 to Richmond, between the picket-lines of the two 
 armies. 
 
 " R. E. LEE, General. 
 " Lieut.-General U. S. Grant." 
 
 This note was received by Grant about 
 midnight ; and he replied next morning in 
 the following terms : 
 
 "April 8th, 1865. 
 
 ' General : Your note of yesterday is received. 
 
 GENERAL JOHN B. GORDON. 
 
 As I have no authority to treat on the subject of 
 peace, the meeting proposed for ten a. m., to-day, 
 could lead to no good. I will state, however, Gen- 
 eral, that I am equally anxious for peace with your- 
 self; and the whole North entertain the same feel- 
 ing. The terms upon which peace can be had are 
 well understood. By the South laying down their 
 arms they will hasten that most desirable event, 
 save thousands of human lives, and hundreds of 
 millions of property not yet destroyed. Sincerely 
 hoping that all our difficulties may be settled with- 
 
 out the loss of another life, I subscribe myself, 
 
 " U. S. GRANT, Lientenani-General. 
 " General R. E. Lee." 
 
 As soon as he had finished this letter 
 Grant left Meade in charge of the Second 
 and Sixth corps and hurried on to join 
 Sheridan and Griffin. While the letter was 
 on its way, and before the General-in-chief 
 had joined the one or the other, further 
 parley had become unnecessary. Sheridan 
 had already settled the question. On the 
 morning of the eighth, after a forced march 
 of about thirty miles, his advance, under 
 Custer, had reached Appomattox Station, 
 about four miles to the south of Appomat- 
 tox Court House. Lee's vanguard had just 
 arrived with four trains of cars, laden with 
 supplies. 
 
 Custer Makes a Dash. 
 
 Custer, with lightning-like rapidity, 
 dashed upon the rear of the trains, and cap- 
 tured them. Supported by Devin, who had 
 come up, he then rushed with fierce energy 
 on the vanguard, and drove it back to Ap- 
 pomattox Court House, near which was 
 the main body of Lee's army. Twenty-five 
 guns, a hospital train, a large number of ad- 
 ditional wagons, with many prisoners, were 
 captured by the National cavalry. Sheridan, 
 hurrying forward with the remainder of his 
 command, flung himself across the line of 
 Lee's retreat, with the determination of hold- 
 ing his ground at any and every risk until the 
 morning, when, he knew, he would be joined 
 by Ord, and the Army of the James, and by 
 Griffin with the Fifth corps. He knew also 
 that by that time, Meade, with the Second 
 and Sixth corps, would be well forward and 
 able to fall with effect on the Confederate rear. 
 Such was the situation of affairs on the 
 night of the eighth. Lee was completely cut 
 off from his own line of retreat. Brave and 
 resolute to the last, and believing that he 
 had nothing but cavalry in front of him, he 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 
 
 781 
 
 decided to make an attempt, at least, to cut 
 through Sheridan's lines. 
 
 Early on the morning of the ninth Lee 
 was ready to carry out his purpose. His 
 heart, however, must have bled within him, 
 when he looked around him, and beheld the 
 wretched remnant of what was once the 
 proud and invincible army of Northern Vir- 
 ginia. It consisted of two thin lines — the 
 one composed of what was left of Hill's, 
 now Gordon's command, the other of the 
 wreck of Longstreet's corps. Between these 
 lines were the debris of the wagon-train, and 
 some thousands of miserable 
 creatures who weie too weak to __ ^__ _ 
 
 carry arms. Lee gave orders to jflll 
 Gordon to cut his way through, 
 at all hazards. The charge was 
 made with tremendous energy. 
 Such, in truth, was the violence 
 of the shock, and so persistent 
 was the pressure, that Sheridan's 
 men who had dismounted to 
 resist the attack, were forced 
 back. 
 
 At this critical moment, Sher- 
 idan, who had been to Appomat- 
 tox Station for the purpose of 
 hurrying forward Ord, arrived on 
 the scene of action. Knowing well 
 the purpose of the enemy, and keenly alive to 
 the value of time, he directed his troopers to 
 fall back gradually, but to continue to offer 
 a firm and steady resistance, so as to allow 
 Ord, with his infantry, to come up and form 
 his lines. This done, they were to move to 
 the right and mount. Sheridan's orders were 
 admirably executed. As soon as the cavalry 
 moved towards their own right, the Confed- 
 erates beheld to their amazement, the glit- 
 tering arms and serried ranks of the in- 
 fantry. 
 
 The unlooked-for vision had all the effect 
 of a stunning and unexpected blow. The 
 
 Confederates immediately discontinued their 
 pressure, and began to give way. The Na- 
 tional infantry were now pressing upon the 
 confused and bewildered multitude. Sheridan 
 had ridden round to the Confederate left 
 flank ; his bugles had sounded the order to 
 remount, and he was just about to fall with 
 all his weight on the already disordered 
 mass, when a flag of truce was presented to 
 Custer who led the advance. Sheridan rode 
 to Appomattox Court House, where he was 
 met by General Gordon and General Wilcox. 
 Gordon asked for a suspension of hostilities, 
 
 THE McLEAN HOUSE. 
 
 and informed Sheridan that Grant and Lee 
 were, even now, making arrangements for the 
 surrender of the Army of Northern Virginia. 
 There was no more fighting between the two 
 great rival armies — the Army of the Potomac 
 and the Army of Northern Virginia. 
 
 On the morning of the ninth, a heavy fog 
 enveloped the entire country around Appo- 
 mattox Court House. Long before that fog 
 dispersed, Lee, clad in a new gray uniform, 
 might have been seen at a camp-fire with 
 Mahone and Longstreet. Care and anxiety 
 were written on each of their countenances. 
 Longstreet, his arm in a sling, and a cigar in 
 
782 
 
 THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 his mouth, sat on the trunk of a felled tree. 
 Gordon had been sent on his mission. It 
 
 SURRENDER OF GENERAL LEE. 
 
 was agreed that if success were denied him 
 there was no longer any chance of escape. 
 
 Of Gordon's failure to penetrate the National 
 lines, they were soon made aware. 
 
 Lee mounted his 
 horse. "General 
 Longstreet," he said, 
 "I leave you in charge; 
 I am going to hold a 
 conference with Gen- 
 eral Grant." He then 
 rode off. On his way 
 he received Grant's 
 letter, before quoted. 
 He replied immedi- 
 ately : 
 
 "April 9, 1865. 
 "General : I received 
 your note of this morning, 
 on the picket-line.whither 
 I had come to meet you, 
 and ascertain definitely 
 what terms were embrac- 
 ed in your proposition of 
 yesterday, with reference 
 to the surrender of this 
 army. I now ask an in- 
 terview, in accordance 
 with the offer contained 
 in your letter of yesterday 
 for that purpose. 
 
 " R. E. LEE, General. 
 " Lieut.-General 
 
 U. S. Grant." 
 
 To this Grant re- 
 plied as follows : 
 
 "April 9th, 1865. 
 "General: Your note 
 of this date is but this 
 moment (11.50 A. m.) re- 
 ceived. In consequence 
 of my having passed from 
 theRichmondand Lynch 
 burg road to the Farmville 
 and Lynchburg road, I am 
 at this writing about four 
 miles west of Walter's 
 
 Church, and will push forward to the front for the 
 purpose of meeting you. Notice sent to me on this 
 
;8 4 
 
 THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 road, where you wish the interview to take place, 
 will meet me. 
 
 " U. S. GRANT, Lieutenant- General. 
 " General R. E. Lee." 
 
 The scene and the main features of the 
 interview have been preserved for i. ; by an 
 eye-witness. It took place at the house of 
 Mr. Wilmer McLean — a square brick build- 
 ing surrounded with roses, violets and daffo- 
 dils. Grant — with his slouched hat, dark 
 blue frock-coat unbuttoned and covered with 
 mud, gray pantaloons tucked in his soiled 
 boots, and a dark waistcoat, and with nothing 
 to indicate his rank, except the double row 
 of brass buttons and the three silver stars — 
 walked up to the house, accompanied by 
 Ord, Sheridan and their respective staffs. 
 Lee had already arrived ; and his blooded 
 iron-gray horse, in charge of an orderly, was 
 nibbling at the grass. Grant and two aids 
 entered the house; the others who accom- 
 panied him, sat down on the porch. Lee 
 was standing beside a table, wearing a bright 
 bluish-gray uniform, a military hat, with a 
 gold cord, buckskin gauntlets, high riding 
 boots, and the splendid dress-sword which 
 had been presented to him by the State of 
 Virginia. Tall and erect, he had a fine 
 soldierly bearing. It was noticed that his 
 hair was long and gray. He was attended 
 only by Colonel Marshall, his chief of staff. 
 On Grant's entrance the two shook hands, 
 sat down and proceeded to business. 
 
 Grant Delivers His Terras. 
 
 As Lee made no special request, Grant at 
 once wrote out his terms : 
 
 " Appomattox Court House, 1 
 April 9, 1865. j 
 
 " General : In accordance with the substance of 
 my letter to you of the eighth instant, I propose to 
 receive the surrender of the Army of Northern Vir- 
 ginia on the following terms, to wit : Rolls of all the 
 officers and men to be made in duplicate, one copy 
 to be given to an officer designated by me, the other 
 
 to be retained by such officers as you may designate. 
 The officers to give their individual paroles not to 
 take up arms against the Government of the United 
 States until properly exchanged, and each company 
 or regimental commander to sign a like parole for 
 the men of his command. The arms, artillery and 
 public property to be parked and stacked and turned 
 over to the officers appointed by me to receive them. 
 This will not embrace the side-arms of the officers, 
 nor their private horses or baggage. This done, 
 each officer and man will be allowed to return to his 
 home, not to be disturbed by United States authority 
 so long as they observe their paroles and the laws 
 in force where they may reside. 
 
 " U. S. GRANT, Lieutenant- General. 
 "General R. E. Lee." 
 
 The following is Lee's letter of acceptance : 
 
 " Headquarters Army of Northern > 
 Virginia, April 9, 1865. } 
 
 "General: I have received your letter of this 
 date, containing the terms of the surrender of the 
 Army of Northern Virginia, as proposed by you. 
 As they are substantially the same as those expressed 
 in your letter of the eighth instant, they are accepted. 
 I will proceed to designate the proper officers to 
 carry the stipulations into effect. 
 
 " R. E. LEE, General. 
 
 " Lieut. -General U. S. Grant." 
 
 The signatures had just been attached, 
 when Lee, after a moment's reflection, said 
 that he had forgotten one thing. Many of 
 the cavalry and artillery horses belonged to 
 the men who had charge of them. It was 
 too late, however, to speak of that now. 
 
 Grant replied, " I will instruct my paroling 
 officers that all the enlisted men of your 
 cavalry and artillery, who own horses, are to 
 retain them, just as the officers do theirs. 
 They will need them for their spring plough- 
 ing, and other farm work." Lee seemed 
 greatly pleased with Grant's prompt com- 
 pliance with his only half-expressed wish. 
 "General," he said earnestly, "there is nothing 
 which you could have accomplished more' 
 for the good of the people or of the govern- 
 ment." Grant's terms were in the last degree 
 magnanimous and liberal. 
 
785 
 
7 86 
 
 THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 The news of the capture of Richmond and 
 Petersburg and the surrender of Lee's army- 
 was received in the North with the greatest 
 rejoicing. Bells were rung, cannon fired, 
 and illuminations flashed from every town 
 and village, for it was understood that these 
 great successes were decisive of the war. 
 
 In the midst of these rejoicings occurred 
 
 
 THE GRAVE OF PRESIDENT LINCOLN. 
 
 a terrible tragedy which plunged the country 
 into mourning. President Lincoln, whose 
 re-election we have related, entered upon his 
 second term on the fourth of March, 1865, 
 amid the congratulations of the country. 
 On the evening of the fourteenth of April he 
 attended a performance at Ford's Theatre, in 
 the city of Washington. During the midst 
 of the performance the report of a pistol 
 
 rang through the house, and the next moment 
 a man leaped from the President's box upon 
 the stage, and waving a pistol over his head, 
 shouted " Sic semper tyrannis" (Thus always 
 with tyrants), and disappeared behind the 
 scenes. The cry was raised that the Presi- 
 dent had been killed, and in the commotion 
 which ensued the assassin escaped. The 
 
 murderer had en- 
 tered the lobby of 
 the theatre,and had 
 fired from the door 
 of the private box 
 upon the unsuspic- 
 ious President, 
 who was sitting 
 with his back to 
 him. 
 
 Mr. Lincoln fell 
 heavily forward and 
 never spoke again. 
 He was conveyed 
 to a house on the 
 opposite side of the 
 street, and the high- 
 est skill was exert- 
 ed to save him, but 
 all in vain. He died 
 on the morning of 
 the fifteenth, sur- 
 rounded by his fa- 
 mily and the lead- 
 ing men of the na' 
 tion. Appropriate 
 funeral services 
 were held on the nineteenth, and the body 
 of the martyred President was conveyed 
 through the principal cities of the North 
 and West to Springfield, Illinois, where it 
 was buried. Along the entire route it was 
 received with the evidences of the nation's 
 grief. Cities were draped in mourning, and 
 dense crowds poured out to greet the fun- 
 eral cortege, and testify their love and sorrow 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 
 
 787 
 
 for the dead man. Even in the South, 
 which had made the election of Abraham 
 Lincoln the occasion of the dissolution of 
 the Union, the unaffected and manly virtues 
 of this simply great man had conquered the 
 people, who had come to regard him as their 
 best and truest friend. 
 
 His death was sincerely lamented there, 
 and in the lamentation of the South, Abra- 
 ham Lincoln had his proudest triumph. His 
 death was a crushing misfortune to the whole 
 country. He was the only man capable of 
 carrying out a policy of generous concilia- 
 tion towards the South, and he had resolved 
 upon such a course. He was sincerely 
 desirous to heal the wounds of the war as 
 soon as possible, and was strong enough to 
 put down all opposition to his policy. His 
 untimely death, as well as the manner of it, 
 threw back the settlement of our national 
 troubles fully five years. 
 
 The Assassin Escapes. 
 
 As he leaped from the President's box to 
 the stage, the assassin's foot caught in an 
 American flag with which the box was 
 draped, and he fell heavily, breaking his leg. 
 He managed to escape, however. It was 
 immediately ascertained that the assassin was 
 John Wilkes Booth, a younger son of the 
 famous actor Junius Brutus Booth. Almost 
 at the same time that the President was shot, 
 another assassin, one Payne, alias Powell, 
 entered the residence of Secretary Seward. 
 Proceeding to the chamber where the Secre- 
 tary was confined to a sick bed, he attacked 
 the two attendants of the invalid and his son, 
 Frederick W. Seward, and injured them 
 severely, and then attempted to cut Mr. 
 Seward's throat. He succeeded in gashing 
 the face of his intended victim, but fl^A 
 before further harm could be done. 
 
 Booth, who was most probably insane, had 
 drawn quite a number of persons into a con- 
 
 spiracy, which had for its object the murder 
 of the President and Vice-President, Secre- 
 taries Seward and Stanton, and Chief Justice 
 Chase. The plot failed through unexpected 
 movements of some of the intended victims 
 and the cowardice of some of the conspirators. 
 Booth and a young man named Harold fled 
 into lower Maryland, from which they 
 crossed the Potomac into Virginia. Thej> 
 were pursued by the government detectives 
 and a squadron of cavalry, and were tracked 
 to a barn in Caroline County, Virginia, 
 between Bowling Green and Port Royal. 
 
 Booth Shot by Sergeant Corbett. 
 
 Here they were surrounded on the twenty- 
 sixth of April. Harold surrendered himself, 
 but Booth, refusing to yield, was shot by 
 Sergeant Boston Corbett, and died a few 
 hours later, after suffering intensely. His 
 accomplices were arrested, and were brought 
 to trial before a military commission at 
 Washington. Payne or Powell, Atzerot, 
 Harold, and Mrs. Surratt were condemned 
 to death, and were hanged on the seventh of 
 July, 1865, for complicity in the plot. Dr. 
 Mudd, O'Laughlin and Arnold were im- 
 prisoned in the Dry Tortugas for life, and 
 Spangler for six years. What Booth expected 
 to accomplish by his horrible deed yet 
 remains a mystery. It is now generally 
 believed that he was insane ; rendered so 
 perhaps by his dissipated habits — and in this 
 state of mind had conceived the idea that 
 Mr. Lincoln was a tyrant, and as such ought 
 to be put to death. He had no accomplices 
 in the South, and his bloody deed was 
 regarded with horror by the southern people. 
 
 We must now return to Sherman's army, 
 which we left resting at Goldsboro'. John- 
 ston's army was in the vicinity of Raleigh, 
 and after the fall of Richmond was joined by 
 Mr. Davis and the various officers of the 
 Confederate government. On the tenth of 
 
788 
 
 THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 April Sherman advanced from Goldsboro' 
 towards Johnston's position, and steadily 
 pressed the Confederate army back. On the 
 thirteenth Sherman entered Raleigh. Being 
 convinced that further resistance was hope- 
 less, and having learned of the surrender of 
 General Lee's army, General Johnston now 
 
 States of the Confederacy to their lost places 
 in the Union, it was disapproved by the 
 Federal government, and Sherman was 
 ordered to resume hostilities. General John 
 ston was at once notified by General Sherman 
 of this order, and on the twenty-sixth ol 
 April entered into an agreement with him by 
 
 INTERVIEW BETWEEN GENERALS SHERMAN AND JOHNSTON. 
 
 opened negotiations with General Sherman 
 for the surrender of his army to the Federal 
 commander. 
 
 The result of these negotiations was an 
 agreement signed by the two commanders 
 on the eighteenth of April. As this agree- 
 ment provided for the restoration of the 
 
 which he surrendered to General Sherman 
 all the Confederate forces under his command, 
 on terms similar to those granted to General 
 Lee by General Grant. 
 
 The example of Generals Lee and John- 
 ston was followed by the other Confederate 
 commanders throughout the South. The 
 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 
 
 789 
 
 last to surrender was General E. Kirby 
 Smith, in Texas, on the twenty-sixth of 
 May. On the twen y-ninth of May Presi- 
 dent Johnson issued a proclamation announc- 
 ing the close of the war, and offering amnesty 
 to all who had participated in it on the Con- 
 federate side, with the exception of fourteen 
 specified classes. 
 
 Upon the surrender of Johnston's army, 
 Mr. Davis and the members of his former 
 cabinet endeavored to make their way to the 
 coast of Florida, from which they hoped to 
 be able to reach the West Indies. Some of 
 
 them succeeded in doing so, but Mr. Davis 
 was captured at Irwinsville, Georgia, on the 
 tenth of May, and was sent as a prisoner to 
 Fortress Monroe, where he was held in con= 
 finement until May, 1867. 
 
 The civil war was over. It had cost the 
 country one million men in the killed and 
 crippled for life of the two armies. In money 
 the North and South had expended proba- 
 bly the enormous sum of $5,000,000,000. 
 The exact amount will never be known as 
 the Confederate debt perished with the gov- 
 ernment which created it. 
 
CHAPTER XLIII 
 The Administration of Andrew Johnson 
 
 The New i*» j« ivintit — Return of the Army to Civil Life — The Public Debt — The Reconstruction Question — Action o{ tKi 
 President — He Declares the Southern States Readmitted into the Union — The Fifteenih Amendment — Meeting oJ 
 Congress — The President's Acts Annulled— Reconstruction Policy of Congress — The Fourteenth Amendment — The 
 Freedman's Bureau and Civil Rights Bills — The Tenure of Office Act — Admission of Nebraska into the Union — The 
 Southern States Organized as Military Districts — Admission of Southern States into the Union — The Fourteenth 
 Amendment Ratified — President Johnson's Quarrel with Secretary Stanton — Impeachment of the President — His 
 Acquital — Release of Jetferson Davis — Indian War — The French in Mexico — Fall of the Mexican Empire — Laying 
 of the Atlantic Telegraph — Purchase of Alaska — Naturalization Treaty with Germany — Treaty with China — Death of 
 General Scott — Death oi ex-President Buchanan — General Grant Elected President — The Fifteenth Amendment. 
 
 UPON the death of Mr. Lincoln, 
 Andiew Johnson, the vice-Pres- 
 ident, Dy the terms of the Consti- 
 tution, became President of the 
 Jnited States. He took the oath of office 
 on the fifteenth of April, and at once entered 
 upon the discharge of his duties. His first 
 act was to retain all the members of the 
 cabinet appointed by Mr. Lincoln. 
 
 Mr. Johnson was a native of North Caro- 
 lina, having been born in Raleigh on the 
 twenty-ninth of December, 1808. At the 
 age of ten he was bound as an apprentice to 
 a tailor of that city. He was at this time 
 unable to read or write. Some years later, 
 being determined to acquire an education, he 
 learned the alphabet from a fellow- workman, 
 and a friend taught him spelling. He was 
 soon able to read, and pursued his studies 
 steadily, working ten or twelve hours a day 
 at his trade, and studying two or three more. 
 In 1826 he removed to Greenville, Tennes- 
 see, carrying with him his mother, who was 
 dependent upon him for support. 
 
 Upon attaining manhood he married, and 
 continued his studies under the direction of 
 his wife, supporting his family in the mean 
 time by his trade. He was subsequently 
 chosen alderman of hio town, and with this 
 election entered upon his political career. 
 790 
 
 Studing law he abandoned tailoring, and 
 devoted himself to legal pursuits and politics. 
 He was succesively chosen mayor, member 
 of the legislature, presidential elector, and 
 State senator. He was twice elected gover- 
 nor of Tennessee, and three times a senator of 
 the United States from that State. Upon the 
 secession of Tennessee trotn the Union he 
 refused to relinquish his seat in the Senate, 
 and remained faithful to the cause of the 
 Union throughout the war, wining consider- 
 able reputation during the struggle by nis 
 services in behalf of the national cause. 
 
 He was an earnest, honest-hearted man, 
 who sincerely desired to do his duty to the 
 country. His mistakes were due to his tem- 
 perament, and proceeded from no desire to 
 serve his own interests or those of any party. 
 In his public life he was incorruptible. A 
 man of ardent nature, strong convictions, 
 and indomitable will, it was not possible that 
 he should avoid errors, or fail to stir up a 
 warm and determined opposition to his policy. 
 
 The first duty devolving upon the new 
 administration was the disbanding of the 
 army, which at the close of the war numbered 
 over a million of men. It was prophesied 
 by foreign nations, and feared by many per- 
 sons at home, that the sudden return of such 
 a large body of men to the pursuits of civil 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF 
 
 Afe would be attended with serious evils, but 
 both the Union and the Confederate soldiers 
 went back quietly and readily to their old 
 avocations. Thus did these citizen-soldiers 
 give to the world a splendid exhibition of 
 the triumph of law and order in a free 
 country, and a proof 
 of the stability of our 
 institutions. 
 
 Two questions — 
 both difficult and de- 
 licate — presented 
 themselves for settle- 
 ment by the govern- 
 ment. In June, 1865, 
 the war debt amount- 
 ed to $2,700,000,000. 
 The interest on this 
 sum was $133 ,000,000, 
 and was nearly all pay- 
 able in gold. The gov- 
 ernment was called 
 upon to raise the latter 
 amount to pay the 
 interest on its bonds, 
 and at the same time 
 to take measures to 
 strengthen the confi- 
 dence of the bond- 
 holders in the security 
 of their investments. 
 The latter object was 
 accomplished by a 
 solemn resolution of 
 the House of Repre- 
 sentatives, adopted 
 with but one dissent- 
 ing voice on the fifth 
 
 of December, 1865, pledging the faith of the 
 nation to the payment of the public debt, 
 " principal and interest." 
 
 In order to provide for the immediate 
 wants of the government Congress levied 
 additional duties on imported articles, and 
 
 ANDREW JOHNSON. 791 
 
 imposed taxes upon manufactured articles, 
 incomes, etc. These burdensome imposts 
 were cheerfully submitted to by the people, 
 and a revenue of over $300,000,000 was 
 raised, providing not only for the payment 
 of the interest on the debt, and of the current 
 
 ANDREW JOHNSON. 
 
 expenses of the government, but also leaving 
 a large surplus, which was applied to the 
 reduction of the national debt. In the year 
 1866, " before all the extra troops called out 
 by the war had been discharged, the debt 
 had been diminished more than thirty-one 
 
f 9 2 
 
 millions of dollars " — a striking proof of the 
 1 Jbility as well as the willingness of the nation 
 7o discharge its financial obligations. During 
 
 THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 which he claimed they had no power to 
 renounce. Now that they had submit- 
 ted to the authority they had formerly endea- 
 
 the remainder of Mr. Johnson's term this i vored to reject, he claimed that they were 
 
 policy was faithfully adhered to under the 
 able guidance of Hugh McCulloch, secretary 
 of the treasury. 
 
 entitled to immediate restoration to their old 
 places in the Union. 
 
 In support of his position he quoted the 
 
 RUINS OF RICHMOND AFTER THE WAR. 
 
 The other question demanding immediate 
 attention was the adjustment of the relations 
 of the States of the South to the Union. The 
 President held that they had never been out 
 of the Union but had simply been in insur- 
 rection, and had been brought back to the 
 acknowledgment of their allegiance to the 
 constitution and laws of the United States, 
 
 solemn declaration of Congress in the sum- 
 mer of 1 86 1, and the assurances of Mr. 
 Lincoln's administration that the war was 
 fought for the restoration of the Union, and 
 not for purposes of conquest. In accordance 
 with these declarations, provisional govern- 
 ments had been formed in some of the South- 
 ern States and their representatives had been 
 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF ANDREW JOHNSON. 
 
 ■93 
 
 admited to Congress during the progress of 
 the war. A considerable party in the North 
 supported President Johnson in this position ; 
 but the Republican party, now the dominant 
 political organization of the United States, 
 opposed his views with great determination. 
 The Republicans insisted that the results 
 of the war should be secured by stringent 
 laws, and that the Southern States, before 
 their admission into the Union, should be 
 
 President Johnson, however, proceeded 
 alone and without delay to the work of 
 restoring the Southern States to their places 
 in the Union. On the twenty-ninth of May, 
 1865, he issued a proclamation appointing a 
 provisional governor for the State of North 
 Carolina, and providing for the assembling 
 of a convention in that State for the purpose 
 of forming a new constitution, under which 
 the State would be recognized by him as a 
 
 FORT WARREN, BOSTON HARBOR. 
 
 compelled to give guarantees for the perpet- 
 uation of these results. The Republican 
 party, moreover, claimed that the work of 
 reconstructing the Union properly belonged 
 to the legislative branch of the government 
 and not to the President. Had the President 
 summoned Congress in extra session and 
 sought the aid of that body in the task 
 before him, a conciliatory policy might have 
 been agreed upon, and the work of recon- 
 struction have been completed without delay. 
 
 member of the Federal Union. In the mean- 
 time North Carolina was kept under military 
 rule. A similar course was pursued by the 
 President towards the States of Virginia, 
 South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, 
 Mississipi, Arkansas, Louisiana and Texas. 
 
 The people of the ten Southern States 
 held conventions in accordance with the 
 President's requirements, annulled their or- 
 dinances of secession, renewed their obliga- 
 tions to the Federal Union, adopted new 
 
794 
 
 THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 State constitutions, and ratified the thirteenth 
 amendement to the constitution of the United 
 States prohibiting slavery forever in all the 
 States of the Union. They also elected sen- 
 ators and representatives to Congress, and 
 were recognized by the President as formally 
 restored to their places in the Federal Union. 
 On the first of February, 1865, Congress 
 passed a resolution submitting to the legisla- 
 tures of the various States the following 
 amendement to the constitution : 
 
 "Article XIII. Section 1. Neither slavery nor 
 involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for 
 crime, whereof the party shall have been duly con- 
 victed, shall exist within the United States, or any 
 place subject to their jurisdiction. 
 
 " Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce 
 this article by appropriate legislation." 
 
 On the eighteenth of December, William 
 H. Seward, Secretary of State, formally an- 
 nounced that this, the thirteenth amendment, 
 had been duly ratified by the States, and had 
 become a part of the constitution of the 
 United States. The ratification of this amend- 
 ment had been required of the Southern 
 States by the President as a condition of 
 their readimission into the Union. 
 
 The Thirty-ninth Congress met in Decem- 
 bre, 1865, and at once took measures to 
 neutralize the reconstruction policy of the 
 President. The Republican party had a 
 large majority in each house, and was thor- 
 oughly united in its opposition to the Presi- 
 dent. The senators and representatives of 
 the Southern States were refused admission 
 to seats in Congress, and the reconstruction 
 measures of the President were treated as 
 null and void. Congress insisted that the 
 Union should not be " restored " as it was 
 before the war, but " reconstructed " upon 
 an entirely new basis. 
 
 The measures of the President had made 
 no change in the political status of the black 
 population of the South. The negroes were 
 
 secured in their freedom by the thirteenth 
 amendment. Congress now proceeded to 
 make the negro a citizen of the United 
 States, and to reconstruct the Union upon 
 this basis. The following, known as the 
 fourteenth amendment to the constitution^ 
 was adopted by Congress and proposed to 
 the States for ratification : 
 
 " Article XIV. Section 1. All persons born or 
 naturalized in the United States, and subject to the 
 jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States 
 and of the States wherein they reside. No State 
 shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge 
 the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United 
 States ; nor shall any State deprive any person of 
 life, liberty, or property, without due process of law, 
 nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the 
 equal protection of the laws. 
 
 "Section 2. Representatives shall be apportioned 
 among the several States according to their respec- 
 tive numbers, counting the whole number of persons 
 in each State, excluding Indians not taxed ; but 
 when the right to vote at any election, for the 
 choice of electors for President and vice-President 
 of the United States, representatives in Congress, 
 the executive and judicial officers of a State or 
 the members of the legislature thereof, is denied to 
 any of the male inhabitants of such State (being 
 twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United 
 States), or in any way abridged except for participa- 
 tion in rebellion or other crime, the basis of repre- 
 sentation therein shall be reduced in the proportion 
 which the number of such male citizens shall bear 
 to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one 
 years of age, in said State. 
 
 "Section 3. No person shall be a senator or repre- 
 sentative in Congress, or elector of President and 
 vice-President, or hold any office, civil or military, 
 under the United States, or under any State, who, 
 having previously taken an oath as a member of 
 Congress, or as an officer of the United States or as 
 a member of any State legislature, or as an execu- 
 tive or judicial officer of any State, to support the 
 constitution of the United States, shall have en- 
 gaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, 
 or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof; but 
 Congress may, by a vote of two-thirds of each House, 
 remove such disability. 
 
 "Section 4. The validity of the public debt of the 
 United States authorized by law, including debts 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF ANDREW JOHNSON. 
 
 795 
 
 incurred foi payment of pensions and bounties for 
 services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, 
 shall not be questioned ; but neither the United 
 States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt 
 or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebel- 
 lion against the United States, or any claim for the 
 ioss or emancipation of any slave ; but all such debts, 
 obligations and claims shall be held illegal and void. 
 
 "Section j. The Congress shall have power to 
 enforce, by appropriate legislation, the provisions 
 of this article." 
 
 This amendement was rejected by all the 
 Southern States except Tennessee, and by- 
 several of the North- 
 ern States. Tennessee 
 ratified the amend- 
 ment, and was admit- 
 ted by Congress into 
 the Union. Congress 
 at this session enacted 
 what is known as the 
 "Freedman's Bureau 
 Bill," creating a de- 
 partment under the 
 Federal Government 
 for the care and pro- 
 tection of the newly 
 emancipated negroes 
 and the destitute 
 whites of the South. 
 This measure was ve- 
 toed by the President 
 as unconstitutional, 
 and was passed over 
 his veto. It was immediately put in operation 
 throughout the South. While the Freed- 
 man's Bureau did much to assist the negro 
 in adapting himself to the duties of his new 
 position, it was productive of an immense 
 amount of corruption and fraud. 
 
 Another measure of Congress which was 
 vetoed by the President upon constitutional 
 grounds, and was passed over his veto, was 
 the " Civil Rights Bill," which secured to the 
 negro the rights of a citizen. 
 
 As the quarrel between the President and 
 Congress deepened, various efforts were made 
 by the latter to hamper the executive and 
 impair his powers. The Thirty-ninth Con- 
 gress adopted for this purpose a measure 
 known as the " Tenure of Office Act," by 
 the terms of which the President was forbid- 
 den to remove any person from a civil office 
 under the government without the consent 
 of the Senate. This bill was promptly vetoed 
 by the President, but was passed over his 
 veto by the Congress. 
 
 LINCOLN MONUMENT IN FAIRMOUNT PARK, 
 
 PHILADELPHIA. 
 
 On the first of March, 1867, a new State 
 was added to the Union by the admission ol 
 Nebraska on an equality with the original 
 thirteen States — four of which were at that 
 time undergoing the process of reconstruc- 
 tion. 
 
 In February, 1867, Congress proceeded to 
 take extreme measures with ihe Southern 
 States that had refused to ratify the four- 
 teenth amendment. The State governments 
 were abolished, the State officers removed, 
 
7 9 6 
 
 THE CTVIL WAR. 
 
 and the Southern States were organized as 
 military districts, and placed under absolute 
 martial law. The writ of habeas corpus was 
 suspended, and the civil law was made to 
 give place to the will of a military com- 
 mander. This was done with the avowed 
 intention of compelling the Southern States 
 to ratify the fourteenth amendment and seek 
 admission into the Union upon the terms 
 prescribed by Congress. 
 
 Bitter Hostility in the South. 
 
 The effect of the measures of Congress was 
 to disfranchise the better class of the South- 
 ern people, and to confer the unrestricted 
 right of suffrage upon the negroes. The 
 intelligence of the Southern States was denied 
 any voice in their government, which was 
 intrusted to the most ignorant and degraded 
 part of their population. The measures of 
 Congress were regarded with bitter hostility 
 by the South, and there were very many of 
 the more thoughtful Republicans of the 
 North who seriously doubted the wisdom of 
 this method of reconstruction. The mea- 
 sures of Congress were vetoed by the Presi- 
 dent, but were passed over his veto, March 
 2, 1867. 
 
 Upon the organization of the military dis- 
 tricts, the commanding generals, who, as a 
 rule, exercised their power with moderation 
 and forbearance, caused a registry of voters 
 to be made, and ordered elections to be held 
 for conventions to form State governments. 
 The conventions so elected could not in any 
 case be said to represent the white people of 
 the South. After a bitter and protracted 
 struggle, some of the conventions ratified 
 the fourteenth amendment, and organized 
 State governments. On the twenty-fourth 
 of June, 1867, Congress passed a bill over 
 the President's veto admiting the States of 
 Arkansas, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louis- 
 iana, North Carolina, and South Carolina 
 
 into the Union, Virginia, Mississippi, and 
 Texas, having refused to ratify the amend- 
 ment, were denied admission into the Union. 
 The fourteenth amendment having been 
 adopted by the requisite number of States 
 was formally declared a part of the constitu- 
 tion on the twenty-eighth of July, 1868. 
 
 Attempt to Impeach the President. 
 
 In the meantime the quarrel between the 
 President and Congress came to a decisive 
 issue. The extreme or radical wing of the 
 Republican party, comprising the majority 
 in Congress, was anxious to remove Mr. 
 Johnson from his position. Could it succeed 
 in doing so, Benjamin Wade, of Ohio, the 
 President of the Senate, would, by virtue of 
 his office, become President of the United 
 States. As Mr. Wade was one of the ex- 
 treme radical leaders, this would place 
 the whole power o f the government in 
 the hands of that party. A quarrel be- 
 tween the President and Mr. Stanton, the 
 Secretary of War, furnished the occasion for 
 this effort. On the twelfth of August, 1867, 
 Secretary Stanton was removed from the war 
 department by President Johnson, who ap- 
 pointed General Grant Secretary of War ad 
 interim. Upon the meeting of Congress, in 
 December, 1867, the President's course was 
 denounced as a violation of the tenure of 
 office act, and on the twelfth of January, 1S68, 
 the Senate refused to sanction the removal of 
 Mr. Stanton. Mr. Stanton thereupon de- 
 manded of General Grant the surrender of 
 the war department, and the latter at once 
 complied with the demand. 
 
 On the twenty-first of February, President 
 Johnson again removed Mr. Stanton, and 
 appointed General Lorenzo Thomas, adjutant- 
 general of the United States, Secretary of 
 War ad interim. He held the tenure of office 
 act to be unconstitutional, and an invasion 
 of his lawful powers as chief magistrate of 
 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF ANDREW JOHNSON. 
 
 797 
 
 the Republic. This second removal of Mr. 
 Stanton brought matters to a crisis, and on 
 the twenty-fourth of February, 1 868, the 
 House of Representatives, by a strict party 
 vote, ordered the President to be impeached 
 of high crimes and misdemeanors.* The 
 Senate, siting as a high court of impeach- 
 ment, met on the fifth of March, 1868, under 
 the presidency of Chief-Justice Chase. The 
 impeachment was conducted by managers 
 appointed by the House, and the President 
 was defended by able counsel. On the 
 twenty-sixth of May, the case being closed, 
 the vote was taken, with the following result : 
 For conviction, thirty- four; for acquittal, 
 nineteen. There not being the requisite 
 two-thirds vote for conviction, the President 
 was acquitted. 
 
 Jefferson Davis Releasd on Bail. 
 
 Jefferson Davis had been confined in For- 
 tress Monroe since his capture by the Federal 
 forces, in May, 1865. All the Confederate 
 officials taken by the Union forces had been 
 released within a year after their capture on 
 giving their parole to answer any prosecution 
 that might be brought against them by the 
 Federal authorities. Mr. Davis was ex- j 
 cepted from this clemency, and remained in | 
 
 prison for two years. A prosecution for 
 treason was instituted against him in the 
 district court of Virginia, but he was not 
 brought to trial. A number of prominent 
 c'tizens of the North who had been so 
 active in their support of the war that 
 their motives could not be suspected, ex- 
 erted themselves to procure his release on 
 bail, and became his sureties. He was ac- 
 cordingly released on bail on the thirteenth 
 of May, 1867. During the following year 
 the indictment against him was quashed by 
 the government. 
 
 During the latter part of the civil war a 
 vexatious and bloody warfare with the 
 Indians broke out on the frontier. It began 
 in 1864, and extended through 1865 and 
 1866, and until the fall of 1868 its ravages 
 were spread along the frontier through 
 Southern Colorado into the Indian Territory, 
 causing severe suffering to the settlers of this 
 region. By the winter of 1865-66 the war 
 had assumed such formidable proportions 
 that General Sheridan was sent with a con- 
 siderable force against the savages. The 
 vigorous measures of Sheridan, and General 
 Custer's victory over the band of Black 
 Kettle at Wacheta, brought the war to a 
 close in the fall of il 
 
 * The charges against the President may be summed up as follows : 1. Unlawfully ordering the removal of Mr. Stanton 
 from the office of Secretary of War, in vi jlation of the provisions of the tenure of office act. 2. The unlawful appointment 
 of General Lorenzo Thomas as Secretary of War ad interim. 3. Conspiring with General Thomas and other persons to 
 prevent Edwin M. Stanton, the lawfully appointed Secretary of War, from holding that office. 5. Conspiring with 
 General Thomas and other persons to hinder the operation of the tenure of office act; and in pusuance of this conspiracy 
 attempting to prevent Mr. Stanton from acting as Secretary of War. 6. Conspiring with General Thomas and others to 
 take forcible possess'on of the property in the war department. 7- The President was charged with having called 
 before him the commander of the troops in the department of Washington, and declaring to him that a law passed on the 
 thirtieth of June, 18 jj, directing that " all orders and instructions relating to military operations, issued by the President 
 or Secretary of War, shall be issued through the general of the army, and in case of his inability, through the next in rank,'' 
 was unconstitutional, and not binding upon the commander of the department of Washington, the design being to induce 
 that commander to violate the law, and obey orders issued directly from the President. 8. That in a number of public 
 speeches the President had attempted to set aside the authority of Congress, to bring it into disgrace, and to excite the 
 ha'red and resentment of the people against Congress and the laws enacted by it. 9. That in August, 1866, in a public 
 speech in Washington, the President had declared that Congress was not a body authorized by the constitution to exercise 
 legislative powers. Then followed a specification of alleged attempts on the part of the President to prevent the execution 
 of the laws of Congress. The impeachment articles were eleven in number. The other two were simply repetitions of 
 some of the above charges. 
 
79* 
 
 THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 While the civil war was at its height, 
 France, England and Spain became involved 
 in a quarrel with Mexico concerning the non- 
 payment of certain claims due citizens of 
 those countries by the Mexican republic, 
 
 the fourth of March, 1862, and withdrew 
 their forces. 
 
 The French, however, continued the war, 
 and after a hard struggle, during which the 
 Mexicans fought gallantly for their country v 
 
 EMPEROR MAXIMILIAN. 
 
 and a joint expedition was despatched to 
 Mexico in the fall of 1861. Discovering 
 that France was seeking to use the expe- 
 dition to destroy the independence of Mexico, 
 England and Spain settled their claims with 
 the republic by the convention of Solidad, on 
 
 Mexico was conquered, and early in June, 
 1863, the French army entered the capital. 
 The emperor of the French now proceeded 
 to overthrow the republic, it being his 
 intention to replace it with an empire which 
 should be dependent upon France. An 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF ANDREW JOHNSON. 
 
 799 
 
 election was held, and under the intimidation 
 of the French, resulted in a majority in favor 
 of the abolition of the republic and the 
 erection of the empire. Through the same 
 influence, the Mexicans chose Maximilian, 
 archduke of Austria, emporer of Mexico, and 
 in an evil hour for himself, that amiable and 
 high-souled prince accepted the crown. 
 
 The government of the United States had 
 viewed the interference of France in Mexican 
 affairs with marked displeasure, but being too 
 much engaged in its efforts to bring the civil 
 war to a successful close to undertake any 
 new difficulty, simply 
 entered its protest 
 against the action of 
 France. The civil war 
 having been brought 
 to a close, however, it 
 took a bolder stand, 
 and demanded of the 
 French emporer the 
 withdrawal of his 
 troops from Mexico. 
 The action of the gov- 
 ernment was sustained 
 by the great mass of 
 the American people, 
 and it was believed by 
 many that a foreign 
 war would be a sure 
 
 and speedy way of bringing about the res- 
 toration of the Union. 
 
 The Emperor Napoleon hesitated for a 
 while, but finally acceded to the American 
 demand. The French troops were recalled 
 at the close of the year 1 866, and the Emperor 
 Maximilian was left to face the Mexican 
 people alone. They at once rose against 
 him, defeated his forces and took him prisoner. 
 On the nineteenth of June, 1867, he was shot 
 by order of the Mexican government, in 
 spite of the efforts of the United States to 
 save him. Thus ended the hope of reviving 
 
 the dominion of France on the American 
 continent. 
 
 The efforts of the gentlemen interested in 
 the laying of a telegraphic cable across the 
 Atlantic did not end with their failures in 
 1858. In 1865 the same company succeeded 
 in laying a cable for about fourteen hundred 
 miles from the Irish coast, when it suddenly 
 parted and sank into the sea. The expe- 
 dition then returned to England. Undis- 
 mayed by this failure, Mr. Cyrus W. Field, 
 of New York, to whose courage and deter- 
 mination the final success of the scheme was 
 
 NATIVES OF ALASKA BUILDING HOUSES. 
 
 due, succeeded in persuading capitalists to 
 make one more effort, and in July, 1866, a 
 cable was laid from Valentia Bay, in Ireland, 
 to Heart's Content, in Newfoundland, a dis- 
 tance of eighteen hundred and sixty-four 
 miles. It was found to work to the entire 
 satisfaction of all parties, and the great enter- 
 prise was now an accomplished fact. 
 
 The fleet then sailed from Newfoundland 
 to the spot where the cable of 1865 had 
 parted in mid-ocean, and proceeded to grap- 
 ple for it. It was recovered and raised from 
 a depth of over two miles, and was then 
 
8oo 
 
 THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 
 splicea to the coil on board the " Great 
 Eastern," the ship employed in the under- 
 taking. The huge steamer then put about, 
 and completed the laying of the cable to 
 Heart's Content, thus giving the company 
 two working lines. The completion of the 
 work was hailed with rejoicings in both 
 America and Europe. 
 
 Purchase of Russian America. 
 
 On the twenty-ninth of March, 1 867, atreaty 
 was concluded between the United States 
 and Russia, by which the latter power sold to 
 the United States for the sum of seven mil- 
 lion two hundred thousand dollars, all of the 
 region in the extreme northwestern part of 
 the American continent known as Russian 
 America. The treaty was ratified by the 
 Senate on the ninth of April. The new 
 territory added to the area of the United 
 States a district of about five hundred and 
 seventy-seven thousand three hundred and 
 ninety square miles. 
 
 In the same year a treaty was negotiated 
 with China, through an embassy from that 
 country, which visited the United States 
 under the charge of Anson Burlingame, for- 
 merly the American Minister to China. It 
 was the first instance in which that exclusive 
 nation had ever sought to negotiate a treaty 
 of commerce and friendship with a foreign 
 nation. Liberty of conscience to Americans 
 residing in China, protection of their property 
 and persons and important commercial privi- 
 leges were secured by this treaty. 
 
 In 1 866 the Fenians, a secret society, organ- 
 ized for the purpose of delivering Ireland 
 from British rule, invaded Canada in large 
 numbers from Buffalo, New York, and St. 
 Albans, Vermont. President Johnson at once 
 issued his proclamation declaring the Fenian 
 movement a violation of the neutrality of the 
 United States, and sent General Meade with 
 
 a sufficient force to the border to execute the 
 laws. This decisive action put an end to the 
 hopes of the Fenians of embroiling this coun- 
 try in hostilities with Great Britain, and after 
 some slight encounters with the British troops 
 in Canada they abandoned the expedition. 
 
 During President Johnson's administration, 
 two distinguished public servants passed 
 away. On the twenty-ninth of May, 1866, 
 Lieutenant-General Winfield Scott, the vet- 
 eran conqueror of Mexico, died at the age of 
 eighty years. On the first of June, 1868, 
 ex-President James Buchanan died at his 
 home at Wheatland, near Lancaster, Penn- 
 sylvania, in the seventy-eighth year of his 
 age. 
 
 In the fall of 1868, the presidential election 
 was held. The Republican party nominated 
 General Ulysses S. Grant, the commanding- 
 general of the army, for the presidency, and 
 Schuyler Colfax, of Indiana, for the vice- 
 presidency. The Democratic party nomin- 
 ated Horatio Seymour, of New York, for the 
 presidency, and Frank P. Blair, of Missouri, 
 for the vice-presidency. The election resulted 
 in the choice of General Grant by a popular 
 vote of 2,985,031 to 2,648,830 votes cast for 
 Mr. Seymour. In the electoral college, Grant 
 received two hundred and seventeen votes 
 and Seymour, seventy-seven. The States of 
 Virginia, Mississippi and Texas were not 
 allowed to take part in this election, being 
 still out of the Union. 
 
 In February, 1869, the two houses of Con- 
 gress adopted the fifteenth amendment to the 
 constitution of the United States, and sub- 
 mitted it to the various States for ratification 
 by them. It was in the following words: 
 " The right of the citizens of the United States 
 to vote shall not be denied or abridged by 
 the United States, o- any State, on account 
 of race, color, or previous condition of servi- 
 tude." 
 
CHAPTER XLIV. 
 
 The Admini c tration of Ulysses S. Grant. 
 
 sany Life of President Grant — Completion of the Pacific Railway — Death of ex-President Pierce — The Fifteenth 
 Amendment Ratified — Prosperity of the Country — The Enforcement Act — The Test-oath Abolished — The Constitu- 
 tionality of the Legal Tender Act Affirmed — Death of Admiral Farragut — Death of General Lee — The Income Tax 
 Repealed — The Alabama Claims — Treaty of Washington — The Geneva Conference — Award in favor of the United 
 States — The San Juan Boundary Question settled — Efforts to annex St. Domingo — Burning of Chicago — Forest Fires — 
 The Civil Disabilities removed from the Southern People — Re-election of General Grant — Death of Horace Greeley 
 — Great fire at Boston — The Modoc War — Murder of General Canby and the Peace Commissioners — Execution of the 
 Modoc Chiefs — The Cuban Revolution — Capture of the " Virginius " — Execution of the Prisoners — Action of the 
 Federal Government —The Panic of 1873 — Bill for the Resumption of Specie Payments — The Centennial Exhibition 
 — The Sioux War — Death of General Custer — Presidential Election — Controversy over it — The Electoral Commission — 
 The Count of the Vote — Hayes declared elected 
 
 ULYSSES S. GRANT, the eigh- 
 teenth president of the United 
 States, was inaugurated at Wash- 
 ington with imposing ceremonies, 
 on the fourth of March, 1869. He was born 
 at Mount Pleasant. Ohio, on the twenty- 
 seventh of April, 1822. His father was a 
 tanner, and wished him to follow his trade, 
 but the boy had more ambitious hopes, and 
 at the age of seventeen, a friend secured for 
 him an appointment as a cadet at West Point, 
 where he was educated. Upon graduating, 
 he entered the army. Two years later he 
 was sent to Mexico, and served through the 
 war with that country with distinction. He 
 was specially noticed by his commanders, 
 and was promoted for gallant conduct. 
 
 Soon after the close of the war he resigned 
 his commission, and remained in civil life and 
 obscurity until the breaking out of the civil 
 war, when he volunteered his services, and 
 was commissioned by Governor Yates, col- 
 onel of the twenty-first Illinois regiment. He 
 was soon made a brigadier-general, and 
 fought his first battle at Belmont. His sub- 
 sequent career has already been related in 
 these pages. He selected the members of 
 his cabinet more because of his personal 
 51 
 
 friendship for them, than for their weight and 
 influence in the party that had elected him. 
 Hamilton Fish, of New York, was made sec- 
 retary of state. 
 
 The most important event of the year 
 1869, was the opening of the Pacific rail- 
 way from the Missouri River to the Pacific 
 Ocean. The eastern division of this road is 
 known as the Union Pacific railway, and was 
 begun at Omaha, Nebraska, in December, 
 1863, and carried westward. But little prog- 
 ress was made in the work until 1865, when 
 it was pushed rapidly forward. The western 
 division, known as the Central Pacific rail- 
 way, was begun at San Francisco, near about 
 the same time, and carried eastward across 
 the Sierra Nevada. The two roads unite at 
 Ogden, near Salt Lake City, in Utah, and 
 the union was accomplished on the tenth of 
 May, 1869, on which day the last rail was 
 laid. The Union Pacific railway, from Omaha 
 to Ogden, is one thousand and thirty-two 
 miles in length ; the Central Pacific, from 
 Ogden to San Francisco, eight hundred and 
 eighty-two miles ; making a total line of 
 nineteen hundred and fourteen miles, and 
 constituting by far the mo^t important rail- 
 way enterprise in the world. 
 
 801 
 
802 
 
 ADMINISTRATION OF ULYSSES S. GRANT. 
 
 By the completion of this great road, to 
 the construction of which the general gov- 
 ernment contributed liberally in money and 
 lands, Portland, Maine, and San Francisco, 
 the extremes of the continent, are brought 
 within a week's travel. The long and difficult 
 journey across the plains has been dispensed 
 with, and the traveler may now pass over 
 this once terrible and dangerous route with 
 speed and safety, enjoying all the while the 
 highest comforts of the most advanced civil- 
 ization. 
 
 ULYSSES S. GRANT. 
 
 The east and the west are no longer separ- j 
 ated, and the rapid development of the 
 resources of the rich Pacific slope has more 
 than repaid the enormous cost of the road. 
 A direct trade with China and Japan has 
 been opened, and the wealth of the Orient is 
 beginning to pour into America through the 
 portals of the Golden Gate. The shortest 
 route to India — the dream of Columbus and 
 the old mariners — has indeed been found. 
 
 On the eighth of October, 1869, ex-Presi- 
 
 dent Franklin Pierce died, at the age of sixty- 
 five years. 
 
 The fifteenth amendment, having been 
 ratified by the necessary number of States, 
 was formally proclaimed by Hamilton Fish, 
 secretary of state, a part of the constitution 
 of the United States, on the thirtieth of March, 
 1870. 
 
 In the year 1870 the ninth census of the 
 United States was taken, and showed the 
 population of the country to be 38,558,371 
 souls. 
 
 The country had now attained a marked 
 degree of prosperity. Gold fell to one 
 hundred and ten, and during the first two 
 years of President Grant's administration, 
 $204,000,000 of the national debt were paid. 
 The effects of the war were being rapidly 
 overcome, and the bitter feelings engendered 
 by the struggle were giving way to a more 
 friendly intercourse between the North and 
 the South. The manufacturing industries 
 of the country had nearly doubled since 
 i860, and the five years that had elapsed 
 since the war had witnessed a marked 
 /improvement in the condition of the South, 
 - which was gradually adjusting her industry 
 upon the basis of free labor, and entering 
 upon new and profitable enterprises of 
 manufacture and commerce. 
 
 The work of reconstruction was concluded 
 in the year 1870. On the eighth of October 
 1869, the State of Virginia ratified the four- 
 teenth and fifteenth amendments, and on the 
 twenty-sixth of January, 1870, was read- 
 mitted into the Union. On the eleventh of 
 January, 1870, Mississippi ratified these 
 amendments, and was readmitted into the 
 Union on the seventeenth of February, 1870, 
 Texas was the last to return to the Union, 
 but came in during the year, having ratified 
 the amendments to the constitution. 
 
 The political troubles in the South, how- 
 ever, did not end with the return of the States 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF ULYSSES S. GRANT. 
 
 803 
 
 to the Union. A great deal of lawlessness pre- 
 vailed in many of the Southern States, and con- 
 siderable suffering was experienced by the 
 negroes, whose sudden endowment with the 
 rights and privileges of citizenship was re- 
 sented by a lawless class of white men. 
 The Federal goverment undertook to remedy 
 these troubles rather than leave them to be 
 dealt with by the States. 
 
 ber issued a proclamation suspending the 
 writ of habeas corpus in nine counties in 
 South Carolina, in order that the law might 
 be enforced without the interference of the 
 Courts of the State. The evils which these 
 severe measures were intended to remedy 
 were unquestionably very great, but the 
 enforcement bill was nevertheless a danger- 
 ous departure from the principles of free 
 
 VIEW ON THE GREENE RIVER AT THE CROSSING OF THE U. P. R. R., WYOMING. 
 
 In the spring of 187 1 Congress passed a 
 measure known as the " Enforcement Act," 
 or the "KukluxAct of 1871," which gave 
 to the Federal officials absolute power over 
 the liberties of the citizens of the States in 
 ■hich these troubles occurred. The Presi- 
 ent carried out the terms of the act with 
 promptness, and on the seventeenth of Octo- 
 
 government as understood in this country. 
 A free people cannot too jealously guard 
 their liberties. 
 
 On the thirty-first of January, 1S71, Con- 
 gress repealed the test oath law, which 
 required all applicants for civil offices to 
 swear that they had not participated in the 
 secession movement. As few Southern men 
 
804 
 
 ADMINISTRATION OF ULYSSES S. GRANT. 
 
 could take this oath, this law excluded the 
 genuine inhabitants of the Southern States 
 from office under the general government, 
 and threw the political power of those States 
 into the hands of a class of adventurers, who 
 had been drawn to the South since the war 
 by the hope of obtaining office. The repeal 
 
 PRESIDENT GRANT ON HIS WAY TO THE INAUGURATION. 
 
 of this law by Congress restored the control 
 of the Southern States to the legitimate 
 citizens and tax-payers thereof. 
 
 In 1870 the Supreme Court of the United 
 States decided that the act of Congress 
 making " greenbacks," or the notes of the 
 Federal treasury, a legal tender, was uncon- 
 stitutional as regarded the payment of debts 
 
 contracted prior to the passage ol tnat act. 
 As this decision had been given by a majority 
 of but one justice, Mr. Hoar, the Attorney- 
 General, moved to reconsider it. The case 
 was heard again, and the decision of the 
 court was reversed by a vote of five to four, 
 on the eighteenth of January, 1871. Thus 
 the constitutionality of the legal- 
 tender act was affirmed. 
 
 In 1870 died Admiral David G. 
 Farragut, on the fourteenth of 
 August, aged sixty-nine ; General 
 George H. Thomas, " the Rock of 
 Chickamauga," and the defender of 
 Nashville, on the twenty-eighth of 
 December, aged fifty-three, and 
 General Robert E. Lee, the com- 
 mander of the Confederate army 
 of Northern Virginia during the 
 civil war, on the twelfth of October, 
 aged sixty-three. 
 
 On the twenty-sixth of January, 
 1 87 1, Congress repealed the income 
 tax. It had been retained long after 
 the necessity for it had passed away 
 and had become odious to the na- 
 tion, which had only submitted to 
 it at first because of the urgency 
 of the need for it. 
 
 Immediately upon the opening 
 of President Lincoln's second term 
 of office, Mr. Charles Francis Adams, 
 the American minister at the court 
 of St. James, was instructed to call 
 the attention of the British Govern- 
 ment to the depredations committed 
 upon American commerce by Confederate 
 cruisers, built, equipped and manned in Eng- 
 land, and to insist upon the responsibility 
 of Great Britain for the losses thus incurred 
 by American ship-owners. Mr. Adams dis- 
 charged this duty in a communication 
 addressed to the British Government, on 
 the seventh of April, 1865. This led to a 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF ULYSSES S. GRANT. 
 
 805 
 
 correspondence which continued through the 
 summer of that year. Great Britain refused 
 to admit the validity of the American claim, 
 or to submit the question to the arbitration 
 of any foreign government. 
 
 The " Alabama question" remained unset- 
 tled for several years, and occasioned a con- 
 siderable amount of ill-feeling between the 
 two countries. Both governments regarded 
 it as full of danger, but to Great Britain it 
 was especially so, as in the event of a war 
 between that country and any foreign power, 
 the United States, fol- 
 lowing the example 
 of England, might and 
 doubtless would allow 
 cruisers to be sent out 
 from their ports which 
 would seriously crip 
 pie, if they did not 
 destroy, the British 
 commerce. After Mr. 
 Adams' return from 
 England, his succes- 
 sor, Reverdy Johnson, 
 was directed by the 
 President to reopen 
 the matter. He nego- 
 tiated a treaty with 
 the Earl of Clarendon 
 on behalf of the Bn> 
 
 ish Government in 1869, but this arrange- 
 ment was unsatisfactory to the Senate, which 
 body refused to ratify it. 
 
 Two years later the matter was revived, 
 and in 1871 a joint high commission, com- 
 posed of a number of distinguished public 
 men, appointed by the American and British 
 Governments, met at Washington, and 
 arranged a settlement known as the treaty of 
 Washington, which was ratified by both 
 Governments. This treaty was ratified by 
 the Senate on the twenty-fourth of May, and 
 provided for the settlement not only of the 
 
 Alabama claims, but of all other questions 
 at issue between the United States and Great 
 Britain. 
 
 The Alabama claims were referred by the 
 treaty of Washington to a board of arbitra- 
 tion composed of five commissioners selected 
 from the neutral nations. This board met 
 at Geneva, in Switzerland, on the fifteenth of 
 April, 1872, and the American and English 
 representatives presented to it their respective 
 cases, which had been prepared by the most 
 learned counsel in both countries. On the 
 
 HUMBOLDT PALISADES, PACIFIC RAILWAY. 
 
 twenty-seventh of June the board announced 
 its decision. The claims of the United States 
 were admitted, and the damages awarded to 
 that Government were $16,250,000. These 
 were paid in due time. 
 
 In our account of the administration of 
 Mr. Buchanan we have related the dispute 
 between the United States and Great Britain 
 concerning the possession of the Island of 
 San Juan, growing out of the uncertainty as 
 to the true course of the northwestern bound- 
 ary of the Union. This had been an open 
 question all through the civil war. By the 
 
8o6 
 
 ADMINISTRATION OF ULYSSES S. GRANT 
 
 thirty-fourth article of the treaty of Washing- 
 ton the two countries agreed to refer this 
 dispute to the friendly arbitration of the 
 Emperor of Germany. Soon after the award 
 of the Geneva conference was made the 
 boundary question was decided by the Emper- 
 or William in favor of the United States, 
 into the possession of which the island of San 
 Juan accordingly passed. Thus were these 
 delicate and dangerous questions satisfactor- 
 
 Measures were introduced into Congress for 
 the purpose of securing this union, but were 
 warmly opposed. A commission of eminent 
 gentlemen was appointed by the President to 
 visit the island and examine into its condi- 
 tion. They reported favorably, but after a 
 warm debate in Congress the measures for 
 the annexation of the Dominican republic 
 were defeated by a decisive majority. 
 
 On the night of Sunday, October 8, 1871, 
 
 
 CHEYENNE INDIANS RECONNOITERING THE FIRST TRAIN ON THE PACIFIC RAILROAD. 
 
 ily adjusted by peaceful methods, and not by 
 the sword. 
 
 In 1870 the republic of St. Domingo, com- 
 prising a large part of the island of Hayti, 
 applied for annexation to the United States. 
 President Grant was very anxious to secure 
 the annexation of this island, and to accom- 
 plish it went to the very verge of his consti- 
 tutional powers — going farther, indeed, than 
 many of his friends believed he had the right. 
 
 a fire broke out in the city of Chicago, and 
 raged with tremendous violence for two days, 
 laying the greater part of the city in ashes. 
 It was the most destructive conflagration of 
 modern times. The total area of the city 
 burned over was two thousand one hundred 
 and twenty-four acres, or very nearly three 
 and one-third square miles. The number of 
 buildings destroyed was seventeen thousand 
 four hundred and fifty. About two hundred 
 
 
6eS 
 
 ADMINISTRATION OF ULYSSES S. GRANT. 
 
 and fifty persons died from various causes 
 during the conflagration, and ninety-eight 
 thousand persons were rendered homeless by 
 it. The entire business quarter was destroyed. 
 The actual loss will never be known. As far 
 as it can be ascertained, it was about one 
 hundred and ninety-six millions of dollars. 
 
 Almost simultaneous with this disaster 
 extensive forest fires swept over the woods of i 
 
 sities of life was liberally extended to the 
 sufferers in Chicago and the other afflicted 
 communities. The telegraph flashed the 
 news across the Atlantic, and in an almost 
 incredibly short time liberal contributions in 
 money came pouring in from England and 
 continental Europe, and even from the far-off 
 cities of India. 
 
 On the twenty-ninth of May, 1872, Con- 
 
 THE BURNING OF CHICAGO. 
 
 Wisconsin, Minnesota and Michigan. Whole 
 villages were destroyed by the flames, which 
 traveled with such speed that it was often 
 impossible for the fleetest horse to escape 
 from them. Over fifteen hundred people 
 perished in Wisconsin alone. 
 
 These terrible calamities aroused the e'en- 
 erous sympathy of the rest of the country, 
 and aid in money, clothing, and the neces- 
 
 gress passed an act removing the disabilities 
 imposed upon the Southern people by the 
 third section of the fourteenth amendment to 
 the constitution. From this general exemption 
 were excepted all persons who had been 
 members of Congress, officers of the army 
 or navy, heads of departments und . r the 
 general government, or ministers to foreign 
 countries, who had resigned their positions 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF 
 
 and joined the secession movement. By this 
 act at least one hundred and fifty thousand 
 men of capacity and experience, whose 
 services were greatly needed by the South, 
 were restored to political life. 
 
 In the fall of 1872 the presidential election 
 occurred. The canvass was marked by the 
 most intense partisan bitterness. The Repub- 
 lican party renominated General Grant for 
 the Presidency, and supported Henry Wilson 
 for the Vice-Presidency. The mea- 
 sures of the administration had arrayed 
 a large numb r of Republicans againsf 
 it. These now organized themselves 
 as the Liberal Republican party, and 
 nominated Horace Greeley of New 
 York for the Presidency, and B. Gratz 
 Brown of Missouri for the Vice-Presi- 
 dency. The Democratic party made 
 no nominations, and its convention 
 endorsed the candidates of the Liberal 
 Republican party. The election re- 
 sulted in the triumph ot the Republican 
 candidates by overwhelming majorities. 
 
 The elections were scarcely over 
 when the country was saddened by the 
 death of Horace Greeley. He had been 
 one of the founders of the Republican A 
 party, and had been closely identified 
 with the political history of the coun- 
 try for over thirty years. He was 
 the " Founder of the New York 
 Tribune" and had done good service 
 with his journal in behalf of the 
 cause he believed to be founded in right. 
 He was a man of simple and childlike 
 character, utterly unaffected, and generous 
 to a fault. In his manner and dress he 
 was eccentric, but nature had made him a 
 true gentleman at heart. His intellectual 
 ability was conceded by all. His experience 
 in public life and his natural disposition 
 induced him to favor a policy of conciliation 
 in the settlement of the reconstruction 
 
 ULYSSES S. GRANT. 809 
 
 question, and, influenced by these convictions, 
 he signed the bail-bond of Jefferson Davis 
 and secured the release of the fallen leader of 
 the South from his imprisonment. 
 
 This act cost him a large part of his popu- 
 larity in the North. He accepted the presi- 
 dential nomination of the Liberal party in the 
 belief that his election would aid in bringing 
 about a better state of feeling between the 
 North and the South. He was attacked by 
 
 HORACE (JREELEY. 
 
 his political opponents with a bitterness 
 which caused him much suffering, and many 
 of his old friends deserted him and joined in 
 the warfare upon him. Just before the close 
 of the canvass, his wife, to whom he was ten- 
 derly attached, died, and his grief for her and 
 the excitement and sorrow caused him by the 
 political contest, broke down his firmness and 
 unsettled his mind. He was conveyed by his 
 friends to a private asylum, where he died on 
 
8io 
 
 ADMINISTRATION OF ULYSSES S. GRANT. 
 
 the twenty-ninth of November, 1872, in the 
 sixy second year of his age. The country 
 could ill afford to spare him. 
 
 On the ninth of November, 1872, a fire 
 occurred in Boston, and burned until late on 
 the tenth, sweeping over an area of sixty-five 
 
 Grant was inaugurated a second time, at 
 Washington, with great pomp. Twelve thou- 
 sand troops took part in the procession which 
 escorted him to the capitol. 
 
 Early in 1873, a troublesome war began 
 with the Modoc Indian tribe, on the Pacific 
 
 PRESIDENT GRANT PASSING THROUGH THE ROTUNDA TO TAKE THE OATH OF OFFICE. 
 
 acres in the centre of the wholesale trade of 
 the city, and destroying property to the 
 amount of seventy-eight million dollars. As 
 this fire was confined to the business quarter 
 of the city, compartively few persons were 
 deprived of their homes. 
 
 On the fourth of March, 1873, President 
 
 coast. These Indians had been removed by 
 the government from their old homes in Cal- 
 ifornia to reservations in the northern part of 
 Oregon. They at length became dissatisfied 
 with their new location, which they declared 
 was unable to afford them a support, and 
 began a series of depredations upon the 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF ULYSSES S. GRANT. 
 
 8im 
 
 settlements of the whites, which soon drew 
 upon them the vengencc of the Federal gov- 
 ernment. Troops were sent against them, but 
 they retreated to their fastnesses in the lava 
 beds, where they maintained a successful 
 resistance for several months. The govern- 
 ment at length reinforced the troops operating 
 against them, and General Canby, command- 
 ing the department of the Pacific, assumed 
 the immediate command of the troops in the 
 field. 
 
 At the same time, a commission was 
 appointed by the government to endeavor 
 to settle the quarrel with the Indians peace- 
 ably. This commission held several con- 
 ferences with Captain Jack, the head chief 
 of the Modocs, and the other Indian leaders, 
 but accomplished nothing. At length the 
 commissioners and General Canby agreed 
 to meet the Indians in the lava beds, a short 
 distance in advance of the lines of the troops. 
 They went unarmed and without an escort. 
 While the conference was in progress, the 
 Indians suddenly rose upon the commis- 
 sioners, and killed all but one, who managed 
 to escape with severe wounds. General 
 Canby was shot down at the same time, 
 and died instantly. 
 
 The Indians at once fled to their strong- 
 holds amid the rocks. The troops, infu- 
 riated by the murder of their commander, 
 closed in upon them from all sides, and shut 
 them in the lava beds. Their position was 
 one which a handful of men might defend 
 against an army, and they held it with a 
 desperate determination. They were dis- 
 lodged finally by the shells of the American 
 guns, and such as were not killed were cap- 
 tured. Captain Jack and his associates in 
 the murder of General Canby and the com- 
 missioners were tried by a court-martial and 
 sentenced to death. They were hanged in 
 the presence of their countrymen and of the 
 troops on the third of October, 1873. 
 
 For many years Cuba had been growing 
 dissatisfied with the rule of Spain. In I S68 
 a revolution broke out in that island, having 
 for its object the expulsion of the Spaniards 
 and the establishment of the independence 
 of Cuba. The patriot army was able tc 
 win numerous successes over the Spanish 
 troops, and for several years maintained its 
 position against every effort to dislodge it. 
 Very great sympathy was manifested for the 
 Cuban patriots by the people of the United 
 
 w 
 
 MRS. U. S. GRANT. 
 
 States, and repeated efforts were made to 
 induce the government of this country to 
 recognize the independence of Cuba and 
 assist the patriots, or at least to acknowledge 
 their rights as belligerents. The govern 
 ment, however, faithfully observed its obli- 
 gations as a neutral power, and forbade the 
 organization or departure of all expeditions 
 from this country for the assistance of the 
 Cubans. The Cuban agents were prevented 
 f om shipping arms or military supplies to 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF ULYSSES S GRANT. 
 
 812 
 
 theii forces, and several vessels intended to 
 serve as cruisers against the Spanish com 
 merce were seized and detained by the 
 Federal authorities. 
 
 In spite of the precautions of the govern- 
 ment, however, several expeditions did suc- 
 ceed in getting to sea and reaching Cuba. 
 One of these embarked on the steamer 
 
 the next day. Captain Fry, the com- 
 mander of the " Virginius," and the crew 
 and passengers of the vessel were thrown 
 into prison. 
 
 After a mock trial, in which the simplest 
 forms of decency were disregarded, Captain 
 Fry and a number of the crew and passengers 
 of the " Virginius," about thirty-five or fortv 
 
 THE LAVA BEDS — SCENE OF THE MODOC WAR. 
 
 "Virginius," in the fall of 1873. When off 
 the coast of Jamaica the Spanish war steamer 
 " Tornado " was sighted. She at once gave 
 chase, and though the "Virginius" was on 
 the high seas and was flying the American 
 flag, overhauled her and took possession of 
 her on the thirty-first of October. The 
 " Tornado " then carried her prize into the 
 port of Santiago de Cuba, which was reached 
 
 in all, were shot by order of the military 
 authorities. The other prisoners were held 
 in a most cruel captivity to await the pleasure 
 of the Spanish officials at Havana. The con- 
 sul of the United States at Sanciago de Cuba 
 made great exertions to save Fry and those 
 condemned to die with him. He was treated 
 with great indignity by the Spanish officials, 
 and was not allowed to communicate with 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF ULYSSES S. GRANT. 
 
 813 
 
 Havana, from which point he could consult 
 his government by telegraph. 
 
 When the news of the seizure of the " Vir- 
 ginius " at sea under the American flag 
 reached the United States it aroused a storm 
 of indignation. Meetings were held in all 
 the principal cities, and the press unanimously 
 sustained the popular demand that the gov- 
 ernment should require satisfaction for the 
 outrage upon its flag. The general senti- 
 ment of the people was in favor of instant 
 war, and it was openly declared that a better 
 opportunity would never arise to drive the 
 Spaniards out of Cuba and obtain possession 
 of the island. 
 
 Prompt Demands of the United States. 
 
 The government acted with firmness and 
 prudence. Several vessels of v/ar were sent 
 to Santiago de Cuba to prevent the execution 
 of the surviving prisoners taken with the 
 " Virginius;" the fleet in the West Indies 
 was reinforced as rapidly as possible, and the 
 navy was at once put on a war footing in 
 order to be ready for any emergency. The 
 President was urged to convene Congress in 
 extra session, but he declined to do so, know- 
 ing that that body would be most likely to 
 yield to the popular demand for war, and he 
 was anxious to settle the difficulty by peace- 
 ful means if possible. 
 
 General Sickels, the American minister at 
 Madrid, was ordered to demand of the 
 Spanish government the arrest and punish- 
 ment of the officials implicated in the mas- 
 sacre of Captain Fry and his associates, a 
 suitable indemnity in money for the families 
 of the murdered men, an apology to the 
 United States for the outrage upon their flag, 
 and the surrender of the " Virginius " to the 
 naval authorities of the United States. These 
 demands were at once submitted to Senor 
 Castellar, the President of the Spanish repub- 
 lic. In the critical situation in which Spain 
 
 was then placed by her internal dissensions, 
 Castellar had no choice but to submit to the 
 American demands. Orders were at once 
 transmitted to Cuba to surrender the " Vir- 
 ginius " and all the prisoners to the Ameri- 
 can naval forces. 
 
 The orders of the Spanish government 
 were at first disregarded by the officials at 
 Havana, who blustered a great deal, and 
 declared their willingness to go to war with 
 the United States. They were brought to 
 their senses, however, by the warning of 
 Captain General Jovellar, who told them that 
 their refusal to obey the orders of the Madrid 
 government would certainly involve them in 
 a war with the United States, in which Spain 
 would leave them to fight that power without 
 aid from her. The Havana officials, there- 
 fore, yielded an ungracious obedience to the 
 orders of the home government. 
 
 The survivors of the "Virginius" expe- 
 dition, who were in a most pitiable condition 
 in consequence of the cruelty with which 
 they had been treated during their imprison- 
 ment, were released, and delivered on board 
 of an American man-of-war in the harbor ol 
 Havana. On the twelfth of December the 
 " Virginius" which had been taken to Havana 
 by her captors some time before, was towed 
 from that harbor and delivered to an Ameri- 
 can vessel sent to receive her. She was car- 
 ried to Key West, from which port she was 
 ordered to New York. On the voyage she 
 foundered at sea in a gale off Cape Fear, on 
 the twenty-sixth of December. At a later 
 period the Spanish government paid the 
 indemnity demanded by the United States. 
 
 Financial Crisis. 
 
 In the fall of 1 873 a severe commercial crisis, 
 known as the " Railroad Panic," burst upon 
 the country. It was caused by excessive 
 speculation in railway stocks and the reckless 
 construction of railways in portions of the 
 
JB14 
 
 ADMINISTRATION OF ULYSSES S. GRANT. 
 
 country where hey were not yet needed and j 
 which could wot support them. The excite- 
 ment began on the seventeenth of September, 
 and on the eighteenth, nineteenth and twen- j 
 tieth several of the principal banking firms 
 of New York and Philadelphia suspended 
 payment. The failure of these houses in- 
 volved hundreds of other firms in all parts of 
 the country in their ruin. The excitement 
 
 measures to be taken for the relief of the 
 business of the country. Various measures 
 were urged upon them. A strong appeal 
 was made to the President to lend the whoie 
 or the greater part of the treasury reserve of 
 forty-four million dollars of greenbacks to the 
 banks to furnish the Wall street brokers with 
 funds to settle their losses and resume busi- 
 ness. He at once declined to take so grave 
 
 SCENE IN THE NEW YORK STOCK EXCHANGE DURING THE PANIC OF I 873. 
 
 became so intense that on the twentieth the 
 New York Stock Exchange closed its doors 
 and put a stop to all sales of stocks in order 
 to prevent a general destruction of the values 
 of all securities. The banks were obliged to 
 resort to the most stringent measures to avoid 
 being drawn into the common ruin. 
 
 President Grant and the Secretary of the 
 Treasury hastened to New York to consult 
 the capitalists of that city as to the proper 
 
 a step, and, thanks to his firmness, the credit 
 of the United States was not placed at the 
 mercy of the reckless men who had caused 
 the trouble. 
 
 The government as a measure of relief con- 
 sented to purchase a number of its bonds of 
 a certain class at a fair price, and thus enable 
 the holders who were in need of money to 
 obtain it without sacrificing their securities. 
 On the twenty-second the excitement in New 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF ULYSSES S. GRANT. 
 
 815 
 
 York and the Eastern cities began to subside. 
 The trouble was not over, however. The 
 stringency of the money market which fol- 
 lowed the first excitement prevailed for fully 
 a year, and affected all branches of the 
 industry of the country, and caused severe 
 suffering from loss of employment and 
 lowering of wages to the working classes. 
 
 The panic showed the extent to which 
 railroad gambling had demoralized the busi- 
 ness and the people of the country. It 
 showed that some of the 
 strongest and most trusted 
 firms in the Union had lent 
 themselves to the task of 
 inducing people to invest 
 their money in the secur- 
 ities of enterprises the suc- 
 cess of which was, to say the 
 least, doubtful. It showed 
 that the banks, the deposi- 
 tories of the people's money, 
 had to an alarming extent 
 crippled themselves by neg- 
 lecting their legitimate 
 business and making ad- 
 vances on securities which 
 in the hour of trial proved 
 worthless in many cases, 
 uncertain in most. The 
 money needed for the use 
 of the legitimate business 
 of the country had been 
 placed at the mercy of the railroad gamblers 
 and had been used by them. The funds of 
 helpless and dependent persons, of widows 
 and orphan children, had been used to pay 
 fictitious dividends and advance schemes 
 which had been stamped with the disapproval 
 of the public. 
 
 An amount of recklessness and demoral- 
 ization was revealed in the management of 
 the financial interests of the country that 
 startled even the most hardened. The lesson 
 
 was severe, but it was needed. The panic 
 was followed by a better and more healthful 
 state of affairs. The business of the country 
 slowly settled down within proper channels. 
 Recklessness was succeeded by prudence ; 
 extravagance by economy in all quarters. 
 The American people took their severe les- 
 son to heart, and resolutely set to work to 
 secure the good results that came to them 
 from this harvest of misfortune. 
 
 During the year 1874, sixty persons were 
 
 SCENE ON THE COLORADO RIVER. 
 
 murdered at different times in Texas by 
 raider Indians from the Fort Sill reservation, 
 where they were fed by the government and 
 treated as friends. In addition to these atroc- 
 ities, they also ran off with a large number 
 of horses and mules belonging to settlers on 
 the frontier and to freighters. 
 
 In July, the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, 
 in turning over the savages to the military, 
 directed that " friendly Indians, not partici- 
 pating in late outrages, coming into agencies 
 
8i6 
 
 ADMINISTRATION OF ULYSSES S. GRANT. 
 
 will be protected. All professing to be loyal 
 must enter immediately and be enrolled, 
 and each one capable of bearing arms must 
 answer to daily roll-call. No additional 
 Indians must be received amongst them with- 
 out permission." The result of this announce- 
 ment was the enrollment of one hundred and 
 seventy-three Kiowas, present at the time of 
 the receipt of the commissioner's dispatch, 
 and who, the agent was positive, had not 
 been at war; one hundred and eight Apaches, 
 likewise present; and eighty-three Coman- 
 ches, either there at the time or arriving by 
 August third, the day appointed by Lieuten 
 ant-Colonel Davidson as the last upon which 
 the enrollment could take place. 
 
 Some time after August third, the follow- 
 ing Comanche chiefs asked permission to 
 come in : Big Red Food, Tobermanca, Assan- 
 onica, Little Crow and Black Duck. Word 
 was sent to Assanonica that he would be 
 admitted on condition of yielding up his 
 arms. The rest were forbidden to come, 
 since it was well known that they had been 
 engaged in several massacres. Big Red 
 Food, however, defied the prohibition, and 
 drawing near to the Wichita agency with his 
 band, formed a point around which the dis- 
 affected began to gather. 
 
 The Kiowas Open Fire. 
 
 On the twenty-first of August, Lieutenant- 
 Colonel Davidson received word from the 
 officer commanding at the agency that trouble 
 was anticipated there. He at once marched 
 with four companies of cavalry, and imme- 
 diately upon his arrival effected the arrest of 
 Red Food, chief of the Nocanees, and told 
 him that he and his band must submit. He 
 appeared to consent, but presently escaped 
 from his guard. 
 
 At the same time the troops were fired 
 upon from the rear by Kiowas, many of whom 
 had just been enrolled at Fort Sill as friendly. 
 
 The troops were much perplexed in the 
 endeavor to distinguish the amicable from 
 the hostile Indians ; but by the aid of inter- 
 preters this was accomplished; the inimical 
 band was scattered and its lodges and prop- 
 erty were destroyed. It had undoubtedly 
 been their design to implicate those of their 
 band who were disposed to peace, but their 
 purpose was entirely frustrated, and the affil- 
 iated tribes belonging to the agency were set- 
 tled in their allegiance more firmly than ever. 
 In April, 1875, an engagement occurred at 
 the north fork of Sappa Creek. On the 
 morning of the nineteenth of April Lieuten- 
 ant Austin Henely, of Fort Wallace, Kansas, 
 started to find the trail of a party of Indians 
 reported to be at Punished Woman's Fork. 
 With him were forty men of Company H, 
 Sixth Cavalry, Lieutenant C. C. Hewitt, Sur- 
 geon F. H. Atkins, and Mr. Homer Wheeler, 
 post trader of Fort Wallace, as guide. He 
 also had fifteen days' rations, ten days' forage 
 and two M^.-mule teams. 
 
 On the Trail. 
 
 On the second day he directed that his 
 wagons, with a guard under the command of 
 Sergeant Kitchin, should proceed directly to 
 Hackbeny Creek while he scouted Twin 
 Butte and Hackberry to find a trail. About 
 noon Corporal Morris, commanding the ad- 
 vance, discovered traces of twelve lodges. 
 Lieutenant Henely at once collected his 
 wagons, abandoned one of them, as well as 
 half his forage, rations and camp equipage, 
 notified the commanding officer at Fort Wal- 
 lace of the fact, in order that they might be 
 recovered, and started on the trail at the 
 rate of nearly five miles an hour, reaching 
 Smoky Hill River that night. A heavy rain 
 during the night rendered it difficult to fol- 
 low the tracks the next day. At the Kansas 
 Pacific Railroad the trail was scattered and 
 lost. 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF ULYSSES S. GRANT. 
 
 817 
 
 After considerable deliberation it was de- 
 cided to take a northeast course to the North 
 Beaver and follow it to its source, upon the 
 supposition that the Indians would collect 
 there and pass down for the purpose of hunt- 
 ing. Shortly after daylight a party of hunt- 
 ers was met, who informed Lieutenant Henely 
 that the Indians he was in search of were on 
 the north fork of Sappa Creek, and had 
 robbed their camp during their absence the 
 day before. Three of the hunters volunteered 
 to guide the party to the Indian encamp- 
 ment. 
 
 In the gray dawn of the morning the squad 
 arrived at the creek, about three-quarters of 
 a mile above the camp, being attracted to the 
 spot by the sight of a number of ponies graz- 
 ing. Presently Mr. Wheeler came back, 
 galloping with furious speed, swinging his 
 hat and shouting in a loud voice. As the 
 force came up with him the Indian camp was 
 displayed to view. 
 
 Plan of Attack. 
 
 The plan for the attack had been arranged 
 as follows : Sergeant Kitchin was detailed to 
 kill the herders, round up the herd as near 
 as possible to the main command and take 
 charge of it with half of his men. Corporal 
 Sharpies, with five men, was left with the 
 wagon and instructed to keep as near as pos- 
 sible to Lieutenant Henely, the rest of the 
 command were to attack the savages. 
 
 The north fork of Sappa Creek at this 
 point is very crooked, is bordered by high 
 and precipitous bluffs, and flows sluggishly 
 through a marshy bottom, making it ex 
 tremely difficult to cross. As the men 
 charged down the sides ten or twelve of the 
 Indians ran rapidly up the bluff to a small 
 herd of ponies ; others escaped down the 
 creek to another herd ; while the remainder, 
 the last to be awakened, probably seeing that 
 flight was impossible, prepared for a des- 
 52 
 
 perate defence. By this time the men had 
 reached the creek, which looked alarmingly 
 deep and marshy. 
 
 Lieutenant Henely, realizing that no time 
 was to be lost in searching for a crossing, 
 plunged in with his horse, followed by Mr. 
 Wheeler. By extraordinary efforts their 
 horses struggled through. A corporal who 
 followed became mired ; but at length, by 
 strenuous endeavors, all succeeded in cross- 
 ing just as a number of dusky figures with 
 long rifles confronted them, their heads ap- 
 pearing over a bank made by the creek in 
 high water. 
 
 The Battle-ground. 
 
 This bank, with the portion of the creek 
 and bluffs in the immediate vicinity, possessed 
 the rather remarkable feature of a large num- 
 ber of curious holes or pits, for what purpose 
 constructed did not appear. Some of the 
 Indians took refuge in these hollows ; others 
 lined the bank, with their rifles resting on the 
 crest. Lieutenant Henely rapidly formed 
 his men in line and signalled to the savages 
 to surrender, as did likewise Mr. Wheeler. 
 One, who appeared to be a chief, made some 
 rapid gesticulations which seemed to be 
 motions for a parley ; but it was soon obvious 
 that they were meant for Indians in the rear. 
 
 The lieutenant now ordered his men to 
 dismount and fight on foot, and as they did 
 so the enemy fired, but in so excited a 
 manner that no one was hurt. The troops, 
 posted around in a skirmish-line, were com- 
 manded to fire. If the reader will imagine 
 the dress circle of a theatre lowered to within 
 about five feet of the pit, the men to be 
 deployed about the edge, and the Indians 
 down among the orchestra-chairs, they will 
 have some idea of the relative positions of 
 the parties. The most exposed portion was 
 near the centre of the arc. Here Sergeant 
 Theodore Papier and Private Robert Theims, 
 
8i8 
 
 ADMINISTRATION OF ULYSSES S. GRANT. 
 
 of Company H, Sixth Cavalry, were instantly 
 killed while fighting with great valor. 
 
 After some twenty minutes of firing the 
 
 VIEW IN THE GRAND CANYON OF THE COLORADO RIVER. 
 
 Indians ceased to return the attack, and the 
 lieutenant prepared to draw off his men in 
 pursuit of those who had fled Scarcely had 
 
 they mounted when two savages ran up to 
 the two bodies in the endeavor to gain pos- 
 session of them ; but three or four men 
 charged them at a gal- 
 lop and rendered their 
 efforts useless. At 
 this moment an In- 
 dian, gaudily dressed, 
 jumped from a hole 
 and,with peculiar side- 
 long leaps, attempted 
 to escape, but was shot 
 down. Lieutenant 
 Henely then posted 
 his men at the ends of 
 the crest and resumed 
 the attack, the savages 
 returning it from their 
 pits, but without doing 
 any damage. 
 
 The firing having 
 ceased, it was inferred 
 that all were killed,and 
 the command moved 
 in the direction of the 
 ponies, driving off the 
 Indian guard, and 
 bringing in a herd of 
 the animals. As they 
 returned a solitary 
 shot was fired from 
 the holes, piercing 
 the horse of one of 
 the officers entirely 
 through the body. 
 Lieutenant Henely 
 then determined to 
 make a termination, 
 and ordered the men 
 to advance on all sides, 
 keeping up a steady 
 fire. The only response was a few shots from 
 the pits, which did no damage. 
 
 Nineteen dead warriors were counted, in 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF ULYSSES S. GRANT. 
 
 819 
 
 addition to eight squaws and children acci- 
 dentally killed. From the war-bonnets and 
 rich ornaments, two were judged to be 
 chiefs, and one whose bonnet was sur- 
 mounted by two horns was thought to be a 
 medicine-man. 
 
 The Indian camp was burned and the cap- 
 tured stock, amounting to one hundred and 
 thirty-four animals, driven off. On the re- 
 turn march to Fort Wallace the command 
 was overtaken by a terrible snow-storm and 
 forced to encamp under a bank. It was im- 
 possible to herd the captured stock, the en- 
 tire attention of the men being required to 
 save themselves and their horses from freez- 
 ing to death. Having no tents and but one 
 blanket each, the men passed a night of in- 
 tense suffering. Some of them were frozen; 
 others, who had dug holes in the banks for 
 shelter, had to be extricated in the morninr 
 by their comrades. On the following oa 
 the men disbanded into small squads to 
 search for the captured stock, and succeeded 
 in recapturing about one hundred head. 
 
 In January, 1875, Congress passed an act 
 providing for the resumption of specie pay- 
 ments, and requiring that on and after Janu- 
 ary 1, 1879, the legal tender notes of the 
 Government shall be redeemed in specie. In 
 the meantime silver coin is to be substituted 
 for the fractional paper currency. 
 
 On the fourth of March, 1875, Congress 
 authorized the Territory of Colorado to form 
 a State Constitution. She was admitted as a 
 State August 1, 1876. 
 
 Centennial Celebration* 
 
 The political troubles in Louisiana and 
 Arkansas assumed a most serious character 
 during the year 1873, amounting to civil war 
 in both States. The President, in view of 
 the serious nature of the disturbances, inter- 
 vened with force in each State, and compelled 
 the rival parties to refrain from additional 
 
 hostilities, and the quarrels were settled in 
 the course of the year without further blood- 
 shed. 
 
 The year 1875 completed the period ot 
 one hundred years from the opening of the 
 revolution, and the events of 1775 were cele 
 brated with appropriate commemorative cere- 
 monies in the places where they occurred. 
 The centennial anniversary of the battles at 
 Lexington and Concord was celebrated at 
 those places on the nineteenth of April with 
 great rejoicings. On the seventeenth 01 
 June the centennial of Bunker Hill was cele- 
 brated at Charlestown. Vast crowds were 
 present from all parts of the country. One 
 of the most gratifying features of the cele- 
 bration was the presence and hearty partici- 
 pation in the ceremonies of a large number 
 of troops from the Southern States. Nearly 
 all of these had served in the Confederate 
 army, and their presence in the metropolis 
 of New England was an emphatic proof that 
 the Union has indeed been restored. The 
 n.emory of the common glory won by the 
 fathers of the republic has already done 
 much to heal the wounds and obliterate the 
 scars of the civil war. May the good work 
 go on. 
 
 Imposing Ceremonies. 
 
 As early as 1872 measures were set on 
 foot for the proper observance of the one 
 hundredth anniversary of the independence 
 of the United States. It was resolved tc 
 commemorate the close of the first century 
 of the republic by an International Exhibi- 
 tion, to be held at Philadelphia in 1876, in 
 which all the nations of the world were in 
 vited to participate. Preparations were at 
 once set on foot for the great celebration. 
 
 The European governments with great 
 cordiality responded to the invitations ex- 
 tended to them by the government of the 
 United States, and on the tenth of May, 
 
820 
 
 ADMINISTRATION OF ULYSSES S. GRANT. 
 
 1876, the International Centennial Exhibi- 
 tion was opened with the most imposing 
 ceremonies, in the presence of an immense 
 concourse of citizens from all parts of the 
 Union, and of the President of the United 
 States and the Emperor of Brazil. The ex- 
 hibition remained open from May 10th to 
 November 10th, 1876, and was visited by 
 several million people from the various 
 States of the Union, from Canada, South 
 America and Europe. It was one of the 
 grandest and most notable events of the cen- 
 tury, and illustrated our country's progress. 
 
 MEMORIAL HALL, FAIRMOUNT PARK, PHILADELPHIA. 
 
 On the fourth day of July, 1876, the United 
 States of America completed the one hun- 
 dredth year of their existence as an inde- 
 pendent nation. The day was celebrated 
 with imposing ceremonies and with the most 
 patriotic enthusiasm in all parts of the Union. 
 The celebrations began on the night of the 
 third of July, and were kept up until near 
 midnight on the fourth. Each of the great 
 cities of the Union vied with the others in 
 the splendor and completeness of its rejoic- 
 ings ; but the most interesting of all the 
 celebrations was naturally that which was 
 
 1 held at Philadelphia, in which city the De- 
 i claration of Independence was adopted. 
 
 The arrangements for the proper observ- 
 I ance of the day were confided to the United 
 States Centennial Commission, and extensive 
 preparations were made to conduct them or 
 I a scale of splendor worthy of the glorioui 
 occasion. The city of Philadelphia and the 
 I State of Pennsylvania lent their cordial co- 
 operation to the effort to have all things in 
 readiness for the Fourth, and the work went 
 forward with a heartiness and vigor that 
 could not fail of complete success. 
 
 It was wisely re- 
 solved by the Com- 
 mission that as the 
 Declaration of In- 
 dependence was 
 signed in Independ- 
 ence Hall and pro- 
 claimed to the peo- 
 ple in Independence 
 Square, the com- 
 memorative cere- 
 monies should be 
 fo conducted as to 
 make the venerable 
 building the grand 
 central figure of all 
 the demonstrations. 
 The city authorities 
 
 caused the building to be handsomely draped 
 in the national colors, and enormous stands, 
 covered with canvas awnings and orna- 
 mented with flags and streamers, were 
 erected in Independence Square for the 
 accommodation of the singers and invited 
 guests who were to take part in the rejoic- 
 ings. A new bell of vast proportions — the 
 gift of a patriotic and public-spirited citizen 
 — was hung in the State House tower, 
 ready to join its deep tones to the shouts 
 of the multitude when the moment of rejoic- 
 inir should arrive. 
 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF ULYSSES S. GRANT. 
 
 821 
 
 Being anxious that the Centennial celebra- 
 tion should do its share in cementing the 
 reunion of the Northern and Southern States, 
 the Commission began, at least a year before 
 the occasion, the formation of a " Centen- 
 nial Legion," consisting of a detachment of 
 troops from each of the thirteen original 
 States. The command of this splendid body 
 of picked troops was conferred upon General 
 Ambrose E. Burnside, of Rhode Island, and 
 General Henry Heth, of Virginia, was chosen 
 Lieutenant-Colonel. Both were veterans of 
 the late civil war. The Legion was readily 
 made up, the best volunteer commands of 
 the original States being eager to serve in it. 
 For a week previous to the fourth of July 
 crowds of people began to pour steadily into 
 Philadelphia. Volunteer organizations lrom 
 the various States were constantly arriving and 
 were either encamped at various points in 
 and around the Exhibition grounds or were 
 quartered at the various hotels. 
 
 Gay Decorations. 
 
 The city was gayly decorated with flags 
 and streamers, and the view down any of the 
 principal streets was brilliant by reason of 
 the clouds of bunting with which it was 
 decorated. The principal buildings were 
 almost hidden by the flags which adorned 
 them, or were ornamented with patriotic 
 inscriptions, and at various points on Chestnut 
 street triumphal arches were erected. By 
 the night of the third of July it was estimated 
 that at least two hundred and fifty thousand 
 strangers were assembled in Philadelphia. 
 
 The Centennial ceremonies were begun on 
 the morning of Saturday, the first of July. 
 The leading writers of the Union had been 
 invited to prepare memoirs of the great men 
 of our revolutionary period, which were to 
 be deposited among the archives of the State 
 House, and all who were able to accept the 
 invitation assembled in Independence Hall at 
 
 eleven o'clock on the morning of July I, 
 1876, where they were joined by a number 
 of invited guests. The ceremonies were 
 opened by an address from Colonel Frank 
 M. Etting, the Chairman of the Committee 
 on the Restoration of Independence Hall, and 
 a prayer by the Rev. William White Bronson. 
 Whittier's Centennial Hymn was then sung 
 by a chorus of fifty voices. The names of 
 the authors were then called, to which each 
 responded in person or by proxy, and laid 
 his memoir on the table in the hall. The 
 exercises were then brought to a close, and 
 the company repaired to the stand in Inde- 
 pendence Square, where a large crowd had 
 assembled. 
 
 Odes, Speeches and Orations. 
 
 The ceremonies in the square were begun 
 at half-past twelve o'clock with Helfrich's 
 Centennial Triumphal March, performed by 
 the Centennial Musical Association. Mr. 
 John William Wallace, the president of the 
 day, then delivered a short address, after* 
 which Whittier's Centennial Hymn was sung' 
 by a chorus of one hundred and fifty voices, 
 and Mr. William V. McKean reviewed at 
 some length the great historical event in 
 commemoration of which the ceremonies 
 were held. 
 
 After the band had played " God Save 
 America," the Hon. Leverett Saltonstall, of 
 Massachusetts, delivered an address, which 
 elicited warm applause. ll The Voice of the 
 Old Bell," a Centennial ode, was then sung, 
 and Governor Henry Lippitt, of Rhode 
 Island, made a short speech. The band 
 followed with a number of patriotic airs, and 
 Mr. Wallace announced the unavoidable 
 absence of General John A. Dix, and intro- 
 duced in his place Frederick De Peyster, 
 President of the New York Historical Society, 
 who made a few remarks. After a Cen- 
 tennial Ode, by S. C. Upham, had been sung 
 
822 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF ULYSSES S. GRANT. 
 
 823 
 
 by the chorus, the Hon. Benjamin Harris 
 Brewster delivered an eloquent address, at 
 the close of which another Centennial Hymn, 
 by William Fennimore, was sung. Senator 
 Frank P. Stevens, of Maryland, then said a 
 few words, after which the " Star Spangled 
 Banner " was sung, and the exercises were 
 brought to a close by a prayer from Bishop 
 Stevens. 
 
 All through Sunday, the second, the crowds 
 continued to pour into the city, and on Mon- 
 day, third, the streets were almost impassable. 
 Business was generally suspended from the 
 first to the fifth of July. 
 
 Brilliant Illuminations. 
 
 The celebration ushering in the Fourth of 
 July was begun on the night of the third. A 
 grand civic and torchlight procession paraded 
 the streets, which were brilliantly illuminated 
 along the whole line of march. The proces- 
 sion began to move about half-past 8 o'clock 
 at night, and consisted of deputations repre- 
 sentative of the various trades of the city, the 
 Centennial Commissioners from the various 
 foreign countries taking part in the Exhibi- 
 tion, the Governors of a number of the States 
 of the Union, officers of the army and navy 
 of the United States, civic and political asso- 
 ciations and officers of foreign men-of-war 
 visiting the city. Some of the deputations 
 bore torches, and these added to the bril- 
 liancy of the scene. All along the line fire- 
 works were ascending into the air, and cheer 
 after cheer went up from the dense masses of 
 enthusiastic spectators which filled the side- 
 walks. 
 
 The illumination of the streets along the 
 route of the procession was superb. Chest- 
 nut and Broad streets flashed resplendently 
 in lines of fire and colored lanterns. The 
 dense masses which thronged these streets 
 stood out boldly in the clear light of the illu- 
 mination, and the long, slow-moving line of 
 
 the procession flowed through them like a 
 vast river. 
 
 Crowds had collected around Independence 
 Hall, filling the street before it and the square 
 in the rear of it. An orchestra and chorus 
 were stationed on the stands in the square to 
 hail the opening of the Fourth with music. 
 The movements of the procession were so 
 timed that the head of the column arrived in 
 front of Independence Hall precisely at mid- 
 night. 
 
 Grand Military Parade. 
 
 The crowd, which had been noisy but good 
 natured, was hushed into silence as the hands 
 of the clock in the tower approached the 
 midnight hour, and one hundred thousand 
 people waited in breathless eagerness the 
 strokes which were to usher in the glorious 
 day. As the minute-hand swept slowly past 
 the hour there was a profound silence, and 
 then came rolling out of the lofty steeple the 
 deep, liquid tones of the new liberty bell, 
 sounding wonderfully solemn and sweet as 
 they floated down to the crowd below. Thir- 
 teen peals were struck, and the first tone had 
 hardly died away when there went up from 
 the crowd such a shout as had never been 
 heard in Philadelphia before. It was caught 
 up and re-echoed all over the city, and at the 
 same time the musicians and singers in the 
 square broke into the grand strains of the 
 " Star Spangled Banner." All the bells and 
 steam whistles in the city joined in the sounds 
 of rejoicing, and fireworks and firearms made 
 the noise tenfold louder. When the " Star 
 Spangled Banner " was ended the chorus in 
 Independence Square sang the " Doxology," 
 in which the crowd joined heartily, and the 
 band then played national airs. 
 
 The festivities were kept up until after two 
 o'clock, and it was not until the first streaks 
 of the dawn began to tinge the sky that the 
 streets of the city resumed their wonted 
 appearance. 
 
tf24 
 
 ADMINISTRATION OF ULYSSES S. GRANT. 
 
 
 The lull in the festivities was not of long 
 duration. The day was at hand, and it threat- 
 ened to be mercilessly hot, as indeed it was. 
 As the sun arose in his full-orbed splendor, 
 the thunder of cannon from the Navy Yard, 
 from the heights of Fairmount Park, and from 
 the Swedish, Brazilian, and American war 
 vessels in the Delaware, and the clanging of 
 bells from every steeple in the city, roused 
 the few who had managed to snatch an hour 
 or two of sleep after the fatigues of the night, 
 
 GENERAL J. R. HAWLEY. 
 
 and by six o'clock the streets were again 
 thronged. 
 
 In view of the extreme heat of the weather, 
 the military parade had been ordered for an 
 early hour of the day. The troops numbered 
 about ten thousand men, rank and file, and 
 the whole column was under the chief com- 
 mand of General Hartranft, Governor of Penn- 
 sylvania, and a gallant veteran of the civil 
 war. The command was madf. up of troops, 
 who during that bloody struggle had fought 
 each other gallantly, and who had now come 
 to testify their devotion to their common 
 
 country, and to show to the world that in 
 trusting its defence to its well-regulated mil- 
 itia, the American republic is stronger than 
 the most powerful monarchies of the old 
 world. 
 
 At half-past eight, the column began to 
 move down Chestnut street towards Indepen- 
 dence Hall, in front of which the troops were 
 reviewed by General W. T. Sherman, the 
 Commanding General of the armies of the 
 United States; the Secretary of War; Prince 
 Oscar of Sweden ; Lieutenant-General Saigo, 
 of the Imperial army of Japan ; the officers 
 of the Swedish men-of-war in the harbor; the 
 governors of several of the States; and Gen- 
 eral Hawley, the President of the Centennial 
 Commission. 
 
 As the troops passed along they were 
 greeted with enthusiastic cheers by the 
 crowds on the street. The Centennial Legion 
 and the troops from the Southern States were 
 the objects of an especially hearty demon 
 stration. The route chosen was a short one, 
 the extreme heat forbidding an extended 
 parade, and by ten o'clock, the military cere 
 monies were over. 
 
 Huzzahs in Independence Square. 
 
 As soon as the parade was ended the crowd 
 turned into Independence Square, which was 
 soon hlled The approaches to the building 
 by way of Chestnut and Sansom streets were 
 kept clear by the police, in order that those 
 who were entitled to seats on the stand might 
 reach their places. Four thousand persons 
 were given seats on the stand, and a vast 
 crowd filled the square. As the invited guests 
 appeared and took their seats on the platform, 
 the prominent personages were cheered by 
 the crowd. The Emporer of Brazil received 
 a welcome that was especially noticeable for 
 its heartiness. 
 
 It was hoped that the President of the 
 United States would be present and preside 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF ULYSSES S. GRANT. 
 
 825 
 
 over the ceremonies ; but General Grant 
 declined the invitation to do so, which it was 
 at once his privilege and his duty to accept, 
 and remained in Washington, preferring his 
 selfish ease to a little patriotic exertion and 
 exposure to the heat on this grandest of his 
 country's festivals. His absence was gen- 
 erally remarked and severely condemned by 
 his countrymen. 
 
 At a few minutes after ten o'clock, Gen- 
 eral Hawley, the President of the United 
 States Centennial Commission, appeared at 
 the speaker's stand and signalled to the 
 orchestra to begin. The opening piece, 
 which was an overture entitled " The Great 
 Republic," based on the national air, " Hail 
 Columbia," and arranged for the occasion 
 by Professor George F. Bristow, of New 
 York, was rendered in fine style by the 
 orchestra under the leadership of Mr. P. 
 Gilmore. As the music ceased General 
 Hawley again came forward and introduced 
 as the presiding officer of the day the Hon. 
 Thomas W. Ferry, Vice-President of the 
 United States, who was received with loud 
 cheers. 
 
 Great Enthusiasm Over the Declaration. 
 
 After a few remarks appropriate to the 
 occasion Vice President Ferry presented to 
 the audience Right Reverend William Bacon 
 Stevens, D. D., the Protestant Episcopal 
 Bishop of Pennsylvania, whom he introduced 
 as the ecclesiastical successor of the first 
 chaplain of the Continental Congress. The 
 bishop was in his canonical robes, with prayer 
 book in hand. He delivered a solemn and 
 impressive prayer, during the utterance of 
 which the whole audience stood with un- 
 covered heads, silent and attentive, unmind- 
 ful of the blazing sun which poured down 
 upon them. 
 
 When the prayer was ended the " Hymn, 
 'Welcome to Ail Nations,' words by Oliver 
 
 Wendell Holmes, music, ' Keller's Hymn,' ' 
 was sung. The Vice-President then an- 
 nounced that Richard Henry Lee, of Vir- 
 ginia, a grandson of the patriot of the 
 Revolution who offered the resolution in 
 Congress that " these United Colonies are 
 and of right ought to be free and independ- 
 ent States," would read the Declaration of 
 Independence from the original manuscript, 
 which the President had entrusted to the 
 Mayor of Philadelphia. The faded and 
 crumbling manuscript, held together by a 
 simple frame, was then exhibited to the 
 crowd and was greeted with cheer after cheer. 
 Richard Henry Lee, a soldierly-looking Vir- 
 ginian, then came forward and read the 
 Declaration ; but the enthusiasm of the 
 crowd was too great to permit them to listen 
 to it quietly. 
 
 At the close of the reading the orchestra 
 performed a musical composition entitled 
 "A Greeting from Brazil," a hymn for the 
 first Centennial of American Independence, 
 composed by A. Carlos Gomez, of Brazil, at 
 the request of His Majesty Dom Pedro II, 
 Emperor of Brazil. It was received with 
 cheers by the crowd, which were repeated 
 for the Brazilian Emperor, whose hearty 
 interest in the Centennial celebrations and 
 the Exhibition had made him a favorite in 
 PK'adelphia. 
 
 The Hallelujah Chorus 
 
 Mr. John Welsh, Chairman of the Centen- 
 nial Board of Finance, then, at the sugges- 
 tion of Vice-President Ferry, introduced 
 Bayard Taylor, the poet of the day, who 
 recited a noble ode, which was listened to 
 with deep attention, the audience occasionally 
 breaking out into applause. When the poem 
 was ended, the chorus sang " Our National 
 Banner," the words by Dextei Smith, oi 
 Massachusetts, the music by Sir Julius Ben^ 
 diet, of England 
 
826 INTERSECTION OF NINTH AND CHESTNUT STS., PHILADELPHIA. 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF ULYSSES S. GRANT. 
 
 82> 
 
 As the music died away the Vice-Presi- 
 dent introduced the Hon. William M. Evarts, 
 of New York, the orator of the day. Mr. 
 Evarts was greeted with hearty cheers, after 
 which he proceeded to deliver an eloquent 
 and able address, reviewing the lessons of 
 the past century, and dwelling upon the great 
 work America had performed for the world. 
 
 When Mr. Evarts retired from the speak- 
 er's stand, General Hawley rave the signal 
 to the leader of the orchestra, and the " Hal- 
 lelujah Chorus," from " The Messiah," was 
 sung ; after which the vast audience, at the 
 request of the Vice-President, joined in the 
 One Hundredth Psalm, with which the 
 memorable ceremonies came to an end. 
 
 At night the city was brilliantly illumin- 
 ated, and a magnificent display of fireworks 
 was given by the municipal authorities at old 
 Fairmount. 
 
 War with the Sioux. 
 
 The year 1876, however, was not destined 
 to be entirely a period of peace. In 1 867 
 the Government of the United States made 
 a treaty with the Sioux Indians, by which 
 the latter agreed to relinquish to the United 
 States all the territory south of the Niobrara 
 River, west of the one hundred and fourth 
 meridian of longitude and north of the forty- 
 sixth parallel of latitude. This treaty secured 
 to the Sioux a large reservation in the south- 
 western part of Dakota, and they agreed to 
 withdraw to this reservation by the first of 
 January, 1876. A few years later gold was 
 discovered in the Black Hills country, a very 
 desirable region situated in southwestern 
 Dakota, and lying within the Sioux reser- 
 vation. 
 
 The announcement of this discovery pro- 
 duced great excitement among the mining 
 class. In the summer of 1874 an expedition 
 under General Custer was sent by the War 
 Department to explore the Black Hills 
 
 region, partly for the purpose of ascertaining 
 the character of the country, and partly to 
 discover practicable military routes between 
 Fort Lincoln, in the Department of Dakota, 
 opposite the terminus of the Union Pacific 
 Railway, and Fort Laramie, in the Depart- 
 ment of the Platte. The report of this expe- 
 
 OBVERSE OF CENTENNIAL MEDAL. 
 
 REVERSE OF CENTENNIAL MEDAL 
 
 dition confirmed the stories of the discovery 
 of gold, and immediate preparations were 
 made by parties of miners to proceed to the 
 favored lands for the purpose of working the 
 gold mines. These expeditions being re- 
 ported to the Government, measures were 
 taken by the War Department to prevent 
 
^2S 
 
 ADMINISTRATION OF ULYSSES S. GRANT. 
 
 any intrusion into the Indian reservation. 
 Notwithstanding this prohibition, private 
 expeditions were fitted out and started for 
 the Black Hills. Some of these were driven 
 back by the Indians, with loss of life and 
 property, but others succeeded in reaching 
 the Black Hills. 
 
 It was now evident that a systematic and 
 determined effort would be made to settle 
 the Black Hills, in spite of the opposition of 
 
 to retire to the reservation to which the 
 treaty of 1867 confined them, and now took 
 advantage of the intrusions of the whites into 
 their territory to gratify their long-cherished 
 wish for war. They broke away from their 
 reservation, and made repeated forays into 
 Wyoming and Montana, laid the country 
 waste, carried off the horses and cattle, and 
 murdered such settlers as ventured to oppose 
 them. 
 
 SHOSHONEE FALLS, IDAHO. 
 
 the army ; and the government decided to 
 endeavor to purchase the region from the 
 Sioux and throw it open to emigration 
 Efforts were made during the year 1875 to 
 induce the Sioux to sell their lands, but the 
 weak and vacillating course pursued by the 
 government simply disgusted the Indians, 
 and they refused to make the desired ar- 
 rangement. 
 
 The Sioux had never been really willing 
 
 This brought n. iters to a crisis, and early 
 in 1876 the government resolved to drive 
 the Sioux back upon their reservation. A 
 force of regular troops, under Generals Terry 
 and Crook, was sent into the difficult moun- 
 tainous region of the Upper Yellowstone, 
 and an active campaign was begun against 
 the Indians. The force was too small, how- 
 ever, for the work required of it. 
 
 In spite of the smallness of its numbers, 
 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF ULYSSES S. GRANT. 
 
 829 
 
 the army on the frontier succeeded in forc- 
 ing the savages, who were led Dy Sitting 
 Bull, their most famous chief, and who num- 
 bered several thousand fighting men, back to 
 the Big Horn mountains. The Indians now 
 took up a strong position in the mountains, 
 and on the twenty-fifth of June, 1876, the 
 Seventh Cavalry, under Generals Custer and 
 Reno, were sent forward to ascertain the 
 whereabouts of the enemy. They found the 
 savages encamped on the left bank of the 
 Little Morn River, and occupying a large 
 village some three miles in length. General 
 Custer, with his little command, at once 
 made a gallant attack upon the Indian vil- 
 lage, hoping that General Reno would be 
 able to come up in time to support him. 
 Reno was unable to advance, however, Cus- 
 ter's little band was soon surrounded by sev- 
 eral thousand of the bravest Sioux warriors. 
 The conflict which ensued was one of the 
 most heroic in the annals of the American 
 army, and 0112 of the most disastrous. Cus- 
 ter v. as slain, together with every man who 
 accompanied him into the fight, but not 
 until they had exacted a fearful price for 
 their lives at the hands of the savages. 
 
 The Indians Defeated. 
 
 General Reno, in the meantime, had be- 
 come engaged at the opposite end of the 
 town, and was so hard pressed by the Indians 
 that he was unable to go to Custer's assist- 
 ance. He succeeded in drawing off his men 
 and in retiring to the bluffs of the Little Horn, 
 where he held his position until the arrival 
 of General Gibbon with reinforcements com- 
 pelled the savages to retreat, and saved the 
 remnant of the Seventh Cavalry from destruc- 
 tion. The disaster of the Little Horn was 
 the most terrible defeat ever inflicted upon 
 the United States army by the savages, and 
 was directly due to the criminal folly of the 
 administration in sending a mere handful of 
 
 troops to meet a strong body of the bravest 
 Indian warriors on the continent. 
 
 The disaster aroused such a storm of indig- 
 nation throughout the country that the Gov- 
 ernment hastily forwarded reinforcements to 
 the frontier, and Generals Terry and Crook 
 were able to conduct their campaign with 
 more vigor. The Indians were beaten in a 
 number of engagements, and on the twenty- 
 fourth of November suffered a decisive defeat 
 in a battle with the Fourth Cavalry, under 
 Colonel McKenzie, at one of the passes of 
 
 GENERAL GEORGE CROOK. 
 
 the Big Horn Mountains. Negotiations were 
 in progress during the summer and autumn 
 for the removal of the Sioux to the Indian 
 Territory, and by the beginning of the winter 
 the greater part of the savages had surren- 
 dered. 
 
 A few bands under Sitting Bull and Crazy 
 Horse continued in the field. They were not 
 allowed to remain insecurity during the win- 
 ter, and on the eighth of January, 1877, a 
 decisive victory was won over the band of 
 Crazy Horse at Wolfe Mountains, in Mon- 
 tana Territory, by General Miles, with a force 
 
8 3 o 
 
 ADMINISTRATION OF ULYSSES S. GRANT. 
 
 of infantry and artillery. This victory led to 
 the surrender of other bands of Indians, and 
 
 territory of British America. By the spring 
 of 1877 th^ war had been practically brought 
 n -^ t^ a close. 
 
 The question of the re- 
 construction of the South- 
 ern States was one of the 
 legacies which President 
 Grant received at the hands 
 of his predecessor. It was 
 fondly hoped by the coun- 
 try at large that under the 
 new administration " the 
 work of reconstruction 
 would be accomplished and 
 the wounds of civil war 
 healed." The utterances of 
 President Grant upon en<. 
 tering upon his new duties 
 justified these expectations, 
 as it was not believed that 
 he cherished extreme views, 
 or that he harbored vindict- 
 ive feelings. 
 
 " Nor is it probable," says 
 a distinguished Northern 
 writer,* " that those who 
 relied upon the President's 
 disposition to deal fairly 
 and even liberally with the 
 Southern States, were at all 
 mistaken in that regard; 
 but his ignorance in civil 
 affairs, which in some cases 
 was conspicuous and mor- 
 tifying, seems very early to 
 have thrown him into the 
 hands of managing politi- 
 cians, and these were mainly 
 of the extreme type, who 
 made up in bitterness what 
 they lacked in breadth. The 
 politicians from the South 
 
 INDIANS SURPRISED AND DEFEATED. 
 
 who were most about him were generali; 
 
 early in 1877 the operations against Sitting 
 Bull obliged that chief to take refuge- in the 
 
 * Charles Francis Adams, Jr. 
 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF ULYSSES S. GRANT. 
 
 8^1 
 
 adventurers, who found the power of the 
 government a convenient instrument for 
 the furtherance of personal schemes, and 
 who did not scruple to make use of their 
 influence with the President to that end. 
 Among these was one of the President's 
 brothers-in-law, who amazed the country 
 by his daring disregard of the rights of the 
 
 judicial fairness? Republican leaders who 
 were disposed to amnesty and a real oblivion 
 for past offences, were elbowed out of place, 
 and at last driven to the rear." 
 
 The labors of reconstruction were nomi- 
 nally completed in 1870. " Had the course 
 of the managing men of the party in powei 
 been wise and conciliatory, had it been actu- 
 
 /• ■' -^ 
 
 Tito 
 
 HORSESHOE BEND ON THE PENNSYLVANIA NEAR ALTOONA. 
 
 State which he had chosen as the scene 
 of his operations. The Northern politicians 
 who surrounded the President were largely 
 
 of a similar stripe Was it to 
 
 be expected of such men that they would 
 deal generously with a fallen foe, or was it 
 within the compass of partisanship like theirs 
 that their opponents should be treated with 
 
 ated by high motives and statesmanlike 
 views, and had the men who represented the 
 party in the Southern States been men who 
 were laboring for the good of their section, 
 rather than for the advancement of their own 
 personal interests, it is not to be doubted that 
 the administration would have been able to 
 i attach to itself the support of a majority oi 
 
8 3 2 
 
 ADMINISTRATION OF ULYSSES S. GRANT. 
 
 the Southern people. The colored people 
 were naturally its friends. 
 
 " The patronage of the administration was 
 
 CANYON OF THE LODORE AND GREENE RIVERS, WYOMING. 
 
 large, and it would have drawn a strong 
 support to the party had it been distributed 
 wisely and from an evident desire to accom- 
 
 plish only the purposes for which offices are 
 created. Moreover, the Southern people 
 needed peace and quiet to recuperate their 
 
 exhausted interests; 
 and while many 
 hot-heads were sup- 
 posed to be violent 
 and troublesome, 
 the best and most 
 influential of them, 
 of whom the late 
 Vice-President of 
 the Confederacy 
 was an example, 
 were disposed to 
 accept with grati- 
 tude such advances 
 of their late enemies 
 as promised to 
 render peace pos- 
 sible and perma- 
 nent. But as, un- 
 fortunately, all 
 were not of this 
 class, the persons 
 who had the Presi- 
 dent's ear, and who 
 assumed to speak 
 for the party in 
 Congress, found it 
 convenient for their 
 purpose to present 
 the impracticable 
 and violent as the 
 proper representa- 
 tives of Southern 
 sentiment, and to 
 speak of and deal 
 with the Southern 
 people as unrepent- 
 ant rebels,who were 
 to be held down by the strong hand. 
 
 " That the white people of the South were 
 alienated from the Republican party was not 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF ULYSSES S. GRANT. 
 
 833 
 
 surprising. It was almost a matter of course 
 that the control of the Southern States should 
 pass to the Democratic party, for it was quite 
 impossible to retain all the freedmen in one 
 party, while their late masters, the persons 
 upon whom they now relied for employment, 
 were mainly to be found in the other. The 
 'color line' was drawn when the narrow pol- 
 icy of extreme partisans among the Repub- 
 lican leaders arrayed against them Southern 
 whites ; the drawing of it indeed left some 
 white leaders among the freedmen, but it did 
 not prevent a still greater number of the lat- 
 ter following the political fortunes of those 
 with whose material interests their own were 
 so closely identified ; and the political ascen- 
 dency of the Republican party in the South- 
 ern States was lost permanently."* 
 
 Trouble in Louisiana. 
 
 This interference of the President in the 
 affairs of a State was brought to a crisis in 
 the winter of 1874-75, in the State of Louisi- 
 ana. At the election for members of the 
 Legislature, held during the fall of 1 874, both 
 the Republican and Conservative parties 
 claimed the victory. The Legislature met 
 in New Orleans, on the fourth of January, 
 1875, and a struggle ensued for the control 
 of the organization of the lower House. By 
 their superior strategy the Democrats, or 
 Conservatives, were successful, and proceeded 
 to organize the House and seat five members 
 of their own party, who had contested as 
 many Republican seats in the House. The 
 Democratic triumph was of short duration, 
 however, for in a few moments, General De 
 Trobriand, of the United States army, entered 
 the hall and announced that he had orders to 
 remove the five members sworn in. 
 
 The Democratic Speaker, and the five 
 members themselves, protested against this 
 
 * Charles Francis Adams, Jr. 
 53 
 
 interference on the part of the Federal troops, 
 and declared that they would not leave their 
 seats until forced from them. General De 
 Trobriand immediately summoned a file of 
 soldiers, and the five members were removed 
 from their seats and expelled from the hall, 
 the Democratic Speaker and members at 
 once withdrew from the hall, and the House 
 was organized by the Republicans. 
 
 This strange and inexcusable spectacle of 
 the interference of the Federal troops in the 
 domestic affairs of a State had no parallel in 
 American history. It aroused a feeling of 
 
 SAMUEL J TILDEN. 
 
 general indignation throughout the North 
 and the President was sharply denounced s 
 even by men of his own party, for his inter- 
 ference with the organization of a State 
 Legislature. Several Governors addressed 
 special messages on the subject to the Legis- 
 latures of their respective States, and legisla- 
 lative resolutions were passed denouncing 
 the course pursued by the Federal govern- 
 ment. 
 
 The indignation which thus expressed 
 itself was greatly increased by a dispatch 
 from General Sheridan, commanding at New 
 
834 
 
 ADMINISTRATION OF ULYSSES S. GRANT. 
 
 Orleans, to the War Department, dated fifth 
 of January, 1875, advising the general govern- 
 ment to declare the people of Louisiana 
 banditti, and to turn them over to him and to 
 his troops for punishment. This savage sug- 
 gestion was deeply resented by the people of 
 the whole country, who had by this time 
 good cause to deplore any interference of 
 the military in civil affairs. 
 
 There is reason to believe that the public 
 indignation was felt by even the President, 
 for, in a message to Congress upon the sub- 
 ject, he made this admission, while defending 
 
 THOMAS A. HENDRICKS. 
 
 the course of the administration : " I am 
 well aware that any military interference by 
 the officers or troops of the United States 
 with the organization of a State Legislature 
 or any of its proceedings, or with any civil 
 department of the government, is repugnant 
 to our ideas of government. I can conceive 
 of no case not involving rebellion or insur- 
 rection where such interference by authority 
 of the general government ought to be per- 
 mitted, or can be justified.'' 
 
 In the summer of 1876 the various poiliti- 
 cal parties of the Union met in their respective 
 
 conventions to nominate candidates foi 
 the Presidency and Vice-Presidency of the 
 United States, which officers were to be 
 chosen at the general election in November. 
 The Republican Convention assembled at 
 Cincinnati, Ohio, on the fourteenth of June, 
 and resulted in the nomination of Governor 
 Rutherford B. Hayes, of Ohio, for President of 
 the United States, and of William A. Wheeler, 
 of New York, for Vice-President. The 
 Democratic Convention was held at St. Louis 
 on the twenty-seventh of June, and nomi- 
 nated Governor Samuel J. Tilden, of New 
 York, for the Presidency, and Governor 
 Thomas A. Hendricks, of Indiana, for the 
 Vice-Presidency. A third convention, repre- 
 senting the Independent Greenback party, 
 met at Indianapolis, on the eighteenth of 
 May, and nominated Peter Cooper, of New 
 York, for President, and Samuel F. Cary, of 
 Ohio, for Vice-President. 
 
 Result of the Campaign. 
 
 The campaign which followed these nomi- 
 nations was one of intense bitterness, and was 
 in many respects the most remarkable the 
 country has ever witnessed. A most dis- 
 creditable feature of it was the appearance 
 of Mr. Chandler, the Secretary of the Interior, 
 as the chief manager of the Republican party. 
 It was the first time in the history of the 
 country that a member of the President's 
 Cabinet had ever held so questionable a 
 position ; the first time that the patronage 
 of the government had ever been used 
 so openly in behalf of a political party. 
 Under the leadership of Secretary Chandler, 
 the manly and conciliatory letter of accept- 
 ance of Governor Hayes was ignored, and 
 a campaign of great bitterness was inaugur- 
 ated. 
 
 The election was held on the seventh oi 
 November. The popular vote was as 
 follows : 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF ULYSSES S. GRANT. 
 
 835 
 
 For Samuel J. Tilden, 4,284,265 
 
 '■ Rutherford B. Hayes, 4,033,295 
 " Peter Cooper, 81,737 
 
 Tilden thus received a popular majority of 
 250.970 votes over Hayes, and a majority of 
 (69,233 votes over both Hayes and Cooper. 
 In the Electoral Colleges, one hundred and 
 eighty- five votes were necessary to a choice. 
 
 Carolina to Governor Hayes, Mr. Tilden had 
 fairly carried both Florida and Louisiana, and 
 was entitled to one hundred and ninety-six 
 electoral votes. The revision of the vote in 
 Florida and Louisiana had been confided, 
 since the reorganization of those States, to 
 Returning Boards. 
 
 It was evident from the first that each of 
 
 POINT PLEASANT, OHIO, THE BIRTHPLACE OF PRESIDENT GRANT. 
 
 Of this number, Governor Tilden received 
 one hundred and eighty-four, and Governor 
 Hayes one hundred and sixty-three undis- 
 puted votes. The votes of the States of 
 Florida, Louisiana, Oregon and South Car- 
 olina, twenty-two in number, were claimed 
 by both parties for their respective candidates. 
 It was declared by the Democrats that, even 
 conceding the votes of Oregon and South 
 
 these boards would return the vote of its 
 respective State for the Kepublican candidate, 
 and it was feared that this would be produc- 
 tive of trouble, as the Democrats claimed a 
 majority in these States. Immediately aftei 
 the election, therefore, President Grant 
 appointed a number of prominent Republi- 
 cans to proceed to Florida and Louisiana to 
 watch the counting of the votes of those 
 
836 
 
 ADMINISTRATION OF ULYSSES S. GRANT. 
 
 States; and a number of prominent Dem- 
 ocrats repaired to Tallahassee and New 
 Orleans for the same purpose. These gen- 
 tlemen had no official character, and were 
 without power to interfere in any way with 
 the counting of the vote It was loped, how- 
 ever, that their presence as witnesses would 
 act as a check upon the boards, and thus a 
 fair count be secured. Both States were 
 returned for Hayes. 
 
 Investigations showed that the electoral 
 vote of South Carolina had been fairly cast 
 for Hayes, and it was generally conceded to 
 
 SAMUEL J. RANDALL 
 
 him by both parties. The Democratic Gov- 
 ernor of Oregon attempted by a transparent 
 fraud to give the electoral vote of that State 
 to Tilden, and thus elect him ; but it came to 
 be the general sentiment of the country that 
 the electoral vote of Oregon should right- 
 fully be cast for Hayes. 
 
 This confined the real struggle to the votes 
 ' of Florida and Louisiana. It was the general 
 conviction of the country that both of those 
 States had been fairly carried by the Demo- 
 cratic party, and many earnest Republicans 
 gave open expression to this belief. The 
 
 action of the Return Boards, however, was 
 still within the letter of the laws under which 
 they had acted. The Republican party, there- 
 fore, claimed that as such action was not con- 
 trary to the laws of Florida and Louisiana it 
 must stand ; that neither Congress nor any 
 other body had power to go behind the cer- 
 tificate of the electoral vote of a State, prop- 
 erly signed and authenticated by the State 
 officials ; and that when such certificates were 
 presented to the two Houses of Congress, at 
 the counting of the electoral votes of the 
 States, they must be accepted without ques- 
 tion, and the electoral votes of Florida and 
 Louisiana be counted for Hayes. They 
 declared that the States had power to make any 
 laws they might see fit for the counting of theii 
 popular vote, and that for Congress to seek to 
 interfere with such laws would be to illegally 
 trespass upon the reserved lights of the 
 States. They held, therefore, that as the 
 action of the Return Boards was within tht 
 letter of the laws of their respective States 
 Florida and Louisiana must be counted fot 
 Hayes. 
 
 The Country Agitated. 
 
 The Democrats, on the other hand, main 
 tained that the popular majority for Tilden in 
 Florida and Louisiana was too evident to be 
 doubted being °imply overwhelming in the 
 latter State. -Mid hat the Return Boards had 
 overcome these majorities only by a fraudu- 
 lent use of their powers in throwing out 
 Democratic votes to an extent sufficient tc 
 give Florida and Louisiana to the Republi- 
 cans. They declared, moreover, that, as the 
 Louisiana Board had refused to appoint a 
 Democratic member to the vacancy in that 
 body, as required by the law under which 
 they acted, their action was necessarily ille- 
 gal. They held that, as both Florida and 
 Louisiana had been wrongfully and fraudu- 
 lently given to the Republicans by the Return 
 
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ADMINISTRATION OF ULYSSES S. GRANT. 
 
 837 
 
 Boards in defiance of the will of the people of 
 those States as expressed at the polls, the 
 electoral votes of both of those States should 
 not be counted by Congress. 
 
 Such action on the part of Congress would 
 have resulted in a declaration by that body 
 that there had been no popular choice of a 
 President and Vice-President, and the elec- 
 
 Boards ; and the Republicans announced 
 their decision to insist upon the counting of 
 the votes of those States as certified by the 
 State officials. Each party denounced the 
 other with great bitterness ; the country was 
 deeply agitated, and threats of armed resist- 
 ance were freely indulged in by both parties. 
 The crisis was the most alarming that had 
 
 THE NEW DEPARTMENT OF STATE, WASHINGTON, D. C. 
 
 tion of the President would have devolved 
 upon the House of Representatives, and the 
 choice of the Vice-President upon the Senate, 
 in accordance with the provisions of the Con- 
 stitution. The Democrats, therefore, declared 
 that they would insist upon the rejection of 
 the votes of Florida and Louisiana upon the 
 ground of fraud on the part of the Return 
 
 threatened the country since the outbreak of 
 the civil war. A feeling of general uneasiness 
 prevailed throughout the Union, which 
 showed itself in the depression of business in 
 all sections. 
 
 Congress met on the fourth of December, 
 1876. The House of Representatives was 
 organized by the Democratic majority by the 
 
S 3 8 
 
 ADMINISTRATION OF ULYSSES S. GRANT. 
 
 election of Samuel J. Randall, of Pennsyl- 
 vania, as Speaker. Immediately upon the 
 organization of Congress the question of the 
 manner of counting the electoral votes of the 
 States came up in that body. The Repub- 
 lican majority in the Senate claimed that, by 
 the terms of the Constitution, the Vice-Pre- 
 sident was compelled to open the certificates 
 of the States in the presence of the two 
 Houses of Congress, in joint convention, 
 and declare the result, the two Houses 
 being present merely as witnesses of the 
 
 GEORGE F. EDMUNDS. 
 
 count by the Vice-President. With this 
 view the Republicans in the lower House 
 agreed. 
 
 The Democrats in both Houses maintained 
 that while the Constitution required the Vice- 
 President to open the certificates and count 
 the electoral votes, the two Houses of Con- 
 gress were made the judges of the legality 
 of those certificates, and that, in the case of 
 the presentation of two certificates from the 
 same State, the two Houses were the rightful 
 judges of which was the proper one; and 
 that, in the event of a failure of the two 
 
 Houses to agree in such a decision, the vote 
 of such State must be rejected. 
 
 In support of this view, they brought for- 
 ward the Twenty-second Joint Rule of Con- 
 gress, adopted February sixth, 1865, by a 
 Republican Congress, and under which the 
 counting of the electoral vote in 1865, 1869 
 and 1873 had been conducted. In January, 
 1876, the Senate, still Republican, passed a 
 concurrent resolution adopting the joint rules 
 of the previous session of Congress, as the 
 joint rules for that session, " excepting the 
 Twenty-second Joint Rule." The House 
 failed to act upon the resolutions. At the 
 opening of the session in December, 1876, 
 the President of the Senate ruled that there 
 were no joint rules in operation. The Speaker 
 of the House, on the other hand, ruled that the 
 joint rules previously existing, still existed. 
 
 Angry Speeches and Threats. 
 
 Thus the issue between the two Houses 
 was distinctly made. The House declared 
 its intention of insisting upon the right 
 secured to it by the Twenty-second Joint Rule 
 of objecting to the vote of a State, and that 
 it would withdraw from the joint convention 
 if this right were denied it by the Senate. The 
 Senate declared that, in case of such with- 
 drawal by the House, the count would be 
 continued by the Senate, and the result pro- 
 claimed by the Vice-President. The House, 
 on me other hand, announced its intention 
 of acting in such a case if there had been no 
 choice by the electoral vote; it would at 
 once proceed to elect the President as re- 
 quired by the Constitution. 
 
 Each House was firm in its resolution, and 
 the breach between them widened daily. 
 Angry speeches and threats were made by 
 members of Congress, and the general alarm 
 and uneasiness deepened throughout the 
 country. The time appointed by the Con- 
 stitution for counting the electoral vote was 
 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF ULYSSES S. GRANT. 
 
 839 
 
 rapidly drawing nigh, and it seemed likely 
 that an era of anarchy was about to ensue. 
 Each House would act for itself; two Presi- 
 dents would be declared elected. There 
 was no doubt that President Grant would 
 sustain the choice of the Senate with the 
 army. In such an event civil war was inevi- 
 table. 
 
 The danger was so great that patriotic men 
 of both parties in Congress set to work to 
 devise some means of settlement. It was 
 plain that this could be accomplished only 
 by a compromise. A conference committee 
 was appointed by each House, which com- 
 mittee, after a long deliberation, reported to 
 the two Houses of Congress a bill providing 
 for the appointment of a commission, to 
 consist of fifteen members. Five of these 
 were to be appointed by the Senate, and five 
 by the House of Representatives. The re- 
 maining five were to be chosen from the 
 Justices of the Supreme Court. Four of the 
 justices were designated by the bill ; the fifth 
 was to be chosen by the justices named in 
 the bill. 
 
 The Joint Convention. 
 
 The bill provided for the meeting of the 
 two Houses of Congress in joint convention 
 on the first Thursday in February. The 
 votes were to be opened by the Vice-Presi- 
 dent, and counted by tellers appointed for 
 the purpose. Each House was to have the 
 right to object to the vote of a State, but in 
 cases where only one certificate was pre- 
 sented the objection must be sustained by the 
 affirmative vote of both Houses. If not so 
 sustained, the objection must fall and the 
 vote be counted. Section II. of the bill pro- 
 vided : " That, if more than one return, or 
 paper purporting to be a return from a State, 
 shall have been received by the President of 
 the Senate, purporting to be the certificates 
 of electoral votes given at the last preceding 
 
 election for President and Vice-President in 
 such State (unless they shall be duplicates 
 of the same return), all such returns and 
 papers shall be opened by him in the pre- 
 sence of the two Houses when met as afore- 
 said, and read by the tellers, and all such 
 returns and papers shall thereupon be submit- 
 ted to the judgment and decision as to which 
 is the true and lawful electoral vote of such 
 State," of the commission appointed by thf 
 bill. 
 
 The decision of the commission, with the 
 
 THOMAS F. BAYARD. 
 
 reasons therefor, was to be submitted to the 
 two Houses of Congress. Should objection 
 be made by five senators and five representa- 
 tives to the report of the commission, the two 
 Houses were to separate and discuss the said 
 objections, the time allowed for debate being 
 limited by the bill ; but unless both Houses 
 should agree to sustain the objections, the 
 decision of the commission should stand. 
 
 This plan met with considerable favor from 
 the conservative element of both Houses, but 
 was strongly opposed by the more ultra of 
 both parties. It was debated at length and 
 
84c 
 
 ADMINISTRATION OF ULYJSES S. GRANT. 
 
 with great vigor. It passed the Senate on 
 the twenty-fifth of January, 1877, by a vote 
 of forty-seven yeas and seventeen nays ; ten 
 senators not voting. The vote in the House 
 was taken the next day, and stood, yeas, one 
 hundred and ninety-one; nays, eighty-six; 
 fourteen representatives not voting. The 
 vote in the Senate was divided as follows : 
 Yeas — Republicans, twenty-one; Democrats' 
 forty-six. Nays — Republicans, sixteen; Dem- 
 ocrats, one. In the House it stood : Yeas — 
 Democrats, one hundred and fifty-nine : 
 Republicans, thirty-two. Nays — Democrats, 
 eighteen; Republicans, sixty-eight. The bill 
 was immediately signed by President Grant, 
 who had from the first given it his warm 
 encouragement. 
 
 Counting the Electoral Vote. 
 
 The members of the commission were 
 promptly appointed. They were as follows ; 
 Justices Clifford, Strong, Miller, Field and 
 Bradley, of the Supreme Court ; Senators 
 Edmunds, Morton, Frelinghuysen, Thurman 
 and Bayard ; and Representatives Payne, 
 Hunton, Abbott, Garfield and Hoar. 
 
 The two Houses of Congress met in joint 
 convention on the first of February, 1877, 
 and began the counting of the electoral vote. 
 When the vote of Florida was reached, three 
 certificates were presented and were referred 
 to the Electoral Commission. This body, 
 upon hearing the arguments of the counsel 
 of the Democratic and Republican parties 
 decided that it had no power to go behind 
 the action of the Return Board, and that the 
 certificate of that body giving the vote of that 
 State to Hayes, must be accepted by the two 
 
 Houses of Congress. The vote by which 
 this decision was reached stood eight all 
 Republicans) in favor of it, and seven (all 
 Democrats) against it. The party line appear- 
 ing thus so sharply in the commission mor- 
 tified and disgusted the whole country, which 
 had looked to the commission for a decision 
 that should be beyond question. 
 
 A similar conclusion was come to in the 
 case of Louisiana. Objections were made 
 to the reception of the votes of Oregon and 
 South Carolina. In the Oregon case the 
 decision was unanimously in favor of counting 
 the votes of the Hayes electors. In the 
 South Carolina case the commission decided 
 that the Democratic electors were not law- 
 fully chosen ; but on the motion to give the 
 State to Hayes, the vote stood eight yeas to 
 seven nays. So South Carolina was counted 
 for Hayes. Objection was made, on the 
 ground of ineligibility, to certain electors 
 from Michigan, Nevada, Pennsylvania, Rhode 
 Island, Vermont and Wisconsin, but the 
 objections were not sustained by the two 
 Houses. 
 
 The final result was reached at ten minutes 
 after four o'clock on the morning of the 
 second of March, 1877. The counting of 
 the votes of the States having been con- 
 cluded, Mr. Allison, one of the tellers on the 
 part of the Senate, announced th^ result of 
 the footings ; whereupon the presiding officer 
 of the two Houses declared Rutherford B, 
 Hayes, of Ohio, the duly elected President, 
 and William A. Wheelei, of New York, the 
 duly elected Vice-President, for the term of 
 four years, commencing on the fourth of 
 March, 1877. 
 
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CHAPTER XLV. 
 
 The Administration of Rutherford B. Hayes. 
 
 Euauguration of President Hayes— Sketch of the New President — Civil Service Reform — Troops in South 
 Carolina — Two Legislatures in Session — Investigation by President Hayes — Prompt Action — Settlement 
 of the Troubles in South Carolina and Louisiana — General Grant's Tour Around the World — Enthusiastic 
 Reception by the Crowned Heads of other Nations — Tenth Census of the United States — Election of General 
 Garfield as President — Arctic Expedition of Lieutenant DeLong — Hardy Adventurers Two Winters in the 
 Ice-Pack— Destruction of the "Jeannette " — Relief Expeditions — Death from Starvation. 
 
 RUTHERFORD B. HAYES, the 
 nineteenth President of the United 
 States, was publicly inaugurated at 
 Washington on Monday, March 5, 
 1877. As the fourth of March fell on Sun- 
 day, the President-elect simply took the oath 
 of office on that day. The inaugural cere- 
 monies were carried out on the fifth at the 
 Capitol with the usual pomp and parade, and 
 in the presence of an enormous multitude cf 
 citizens and visiting military organizations 
 from all parts of the country. After the cus- 
 tomary reception by the Senate, the new 
 President was escorted U the eastern portico 
 of the Capitol, where he delivered his inaug- 
 ural address to the assembled multitude, after 
 which the oath of office was publicly admin- 
 istered to him by Chief Justice Waite. 
 
 The new President was a native of Ohio, 
 having been born at Delaware, in that State, 
 on the fourth of October, 1 822. He graduated 
 at Kenyon College, Gambier, Ohio, and 
 obtained his professional education at the 
 Cambridge Law School. He began the prac- 
 tice of the law at Cincinnati in 1856. He was 
 shortly afterwards made City Solicitor, which 
 office he held until the beginning of the civil 
 war in 1861. Soon after the opening of the 
 war he enlisted in the Twenty-third Ohio 
 Volunteers, with which regiment he served 
 as major, lieutenant-colonel and colonel. He 
 'ed his regiment, which formed a part of 
 
 General Reno's division, at the battle of 
 South Mountain, in September, 1862, and 
 was severely wounded in the arm in that 
 engagement. 
 
 In the fall of 1862 he was made colonel of 
 the regiment, and in 1864 was promoted to 
 the rank of brigadier-general of volunteers 
 " for gallant and meritorious services in the 
 battles of Winchester, Fisher's Hill and Cedar 
 Creek," and was brevetted major-general " for 
 gallant and distinguished services during the 
 campaigns c 1 864 in West Virginia, and par- 
 ticularly in the battles of Fisher's Hill and 
 Cedar Cre'k." At the time of this last pro- 
 motion he was in command of a division. 
 He served unt'l the close of the war, receiv- 
 ing four wounds and having five horses shot 
 under him during his military career. In the 
 fall of 1864 he was elected to Congress, and 
 was returned a second time in 1866. In 1867, 
 before the expiration of his Congressional 
 term, he was elected Governor of Ohio, and 
 was re-elected to that office in 1869, being 
 each time the candidate of the Republican 
 party. In 1870 General Hayes was again 
 elected to Congress, and in 1874 was nomi- 
 nated for a third term as Governor of Ohio. 
 His opponent was Governor William Allen, 
 one of the most popular of the Democratic 
 leaders of Ohio. General Hayes was elected 
 by a handsome majority. He resigned this 
 office in March, 1877, to enter upon his 
 
 841 
 
842 
 
 ADMINISTRATION OF RUTHERFORD B. HAYES. 
 
 new duties as President of the United States. 
 President Hayes, in his letter accepting 
 the nomination of his party for the Presi- 
 dency, declared that if elected he would 
 
 RUTHERFORD B. HAYES. 
 
 earnestly and faithfully seek to do justice to 
 the States of the South, and reform the civil 
 service of the country by ridding it of cor- 
 rupt men, and requiring a faithful discharge 
 of duty at the hands of every public officer. 
 
 Immediately upon his inauguration he set to 
 work to make good his promises. He 
 selected his Cabinet from among the ablest 
 men in the country, making ability, and not 
 partisan service, the 
 test of the fitness of 
 the persons selected. 
 William M. Evarts, of 
 New York, was made 
 Secretary of State, and 
 the existence of the 
 Southern States as 
 members of the Union 
 was recognized by the 
 appointment, as Post- 
 master-General, of Mr. 
 Key, of Tennessee, 
 who had sustained the 
 Democratic ticket in 
 the canvass of 1876. 
 Except to the extreme 
 partisans who had 
 done the country so 
 much harm under the 
 last administration, 
 the appointments of 
 the new President 
 gave great satisfaction 
 to the entire nation. 
 
 Measures were 
 promptly set on foot 
 for the inauguration 
 of a better civil service 
 system. The most im- 
 portant matter which 
 presented itself to the 
 new President for set- 
 tlement was the con- 
 dition of the States of 
 Louisiana and South Carolina. In the fall 
 of 1876 an election for Governor and other 
 State officers was held in each of these 
 States. The result at the polls appeared to 
 be in favor of the Democratic or Conservative 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF RUTHERFORD B. HAYES. 
 
 343 
 
 candidates. In each State the revision of 
 the vote was controlled by Republicans, 
 some of whom were candidates for re-elec- 
 tion. The Returning Boards announced the 
 triumph of the Republican tickets in Louis- 
 iana and South Carolina. 
 
 In South Carolina the Conservatives re- 
 solved to inaugurate General Wade Hamp- 
 ton, their candidate, as Governor. The 
 Governor of the State was Mr. Daniel H. 
 Chamberlain, who had been the Republican 
 candidate for re-election. Upon 
 learning the intention of the De- 
 mocrats to inaugurate their Gov- 
 ernor, Mr. Chamberlain applied to 
 President Grant for military aid. 
 His application to President Grant 
 was promptly responded to, and 
 General Ruger, commanding the 
 Department of the South, was or- 
 dered to place the troops stationed 
 in Columbia at Governor Chamber- 
 lain's disposal. Having secured the 
 aid of the troops, Governor Cham- 
 berlain now proceeded to take the 
 first step in his plan. On the night 
 of the twenty-sevenfh of November 
 the State House was occupied by a 
 detachment of troops, which was 
 posted so as to command all the 
 approaches to the halls of the 
 Legislature. 
 
 The twenty-eighth of November, 
 1 876, was the day appointed for the meeting of 
 the Legislature. The Democratic members 
 met in caucus at ten o'clock in the morning, 
 and proceeded in a body to the State House. 
 Arriving there, they found the building occu- 
 pied by the troops, and were compelled to 
 submit their credentials to the officers of the 
 guard, who admitted such as had papers 
 which he pronounced satisfactory. Passing 
 through the troops the members of the Legis- 
 lature reached the door of the hall of the 
 
 Lower House, which they found guarded also 
 by troops. The doorkeeper, backed by the 
 military force, refused to admit certain of the 
 delegates whose credentials he declared were 
 null and void. The entire body of Demo 
 cratic members then withdrew, after protest 
 ing against the interference of the military 
 Under the protection of the troops the 
 Republicans organized the Legislature. 
 
 The interference of the troops aroused the 
 most intense excitement in Columbia, and it 
 
 WILLIAM A. WHEELER. 
 
 was with difficulty that an outbreak was pre- 
 vented, mainly through the influence of 
 General Hampton. The Democrats, on the 
 twenty-ninth of November, succeeded in 
 gaining- admission to the State House, where 
 they organized the House of Representatives. 
 After a struggle of a week with the Repub- 
 licans, they withdrew to South Carolina Hall, 
 and conducted the sessions of the Legisla- 
 ture there, gaining members by degrees from 
 Chamberlain's Legislature at the State House. 
 
844 
 
 ADMINISTRATION OF RUTHERFORD B. HAYES. 
 
 The Republican Legislature declared the 
 election of Governor Chamberlain, and on 
 the seventh of December he was sworn into 
 office, under the protection of the Federal 
 troops. 
 
 The Conservative Legislature continued its 
 sessions at South Carolina Hall, and on the 
 fourteenth of December Governor Hampton 
 
 tion of the taxes to enable him to -:arry on 
 the government were cordially and promptly 
 responded to. The authority o*" Governor 
 Chamberlain was not recognized beyond the 
 limits of the State House in which the 
 Federal troops were quartered ; the people 
 refused to pay their taxes to his government, 
 and his governorship was a mere name. In 
 
 ARRIVAL OF GENERAL GRANT AT SAN FRANCISCO IN THE STEAMER " CITY OF TOKIO. 
 
 was publicly inaugurated amid the greatest 
 enthusiasm. He at once set to work, with 
 his associates, to administer the government 
 of the State. He was recognized by the vast 
 majority of the people of South Carolina, by 
 many even who had voted against him. His 
 authority was everywhere respected ; and 
 his calls upon the people to advance apor- 
 
 view of this state of affairs President Grant 
 was repeatedly urged to withdraw the troops 
 from the State buildings to their barracks, 
 but persistently refused to do so. 
 
 Such was the state of affairs in South Car- 
 olina at the inauguration of President Hayes. 
 The new President, with characteristic cau- 
 tion, proceeded to investigate the matter. 
 
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ADMINISTRATION OF RUTHERFORD B. HAYES. 
 
 845 
 
 After a patient and thorough inquiry he 
 found that the Federal troops were quartered 
 in the State House of South Carolina in an 
 unlawful manner ; that the Constitution gave 
 to the Federal government no authority to 
 interfere in the domestic concerns of a State, 
 leaving the decision of disputed elections to 
 the State courts for settlement ; and that no 
 such state of lawlessness or insurrection as 
 would justify Federal interference existed in 
 South Carolina. 
 
 In view of these facts, his duty in the case 
 was plain. It was to restore the proper rela- 
 tions between the Federal government and 
 the State of South Carolina, and to put an 
 end to the unlawful and unjustifiable interfer- 
 ence with the affairs of that State. The mat- 
 ter was laid before the Cabinet, and on the 
 second of April, 1877, it was resolved to 
 order the troops to withdraw from the State 
 House to their barracks at Columbia. The 
 order was at once issued, and was carried 
 into effect on the sixth of April. The troops 
 were withdrawn, and South Carolina was left 
 to settle her own affairs. This step was fol- 
 lowed by the speedy withdrawal of Governor 
 Chamberlain from the contest. The Hamp- 
 ton government was soon installed in the 
 State House, and its authority was firmly 
 established in all parts of the State, to the 
 great joy of its people. 
 
 The Trouble in Louisiana. 
 
 The State buildings of Louisiana had been 
 held by the Federal troops ever since the 
 expulsion of the members of the Legislature 
 by General De Trobriand, in 1873. At the 
 election, in 1876, Mr. Stephen B. Packard 
 was the Republican candidate for Governor, 
 and Mr. H. T. Nicholls was the candidate of 
 the Democratic party for the same office. 
 The Republicans claimed that there was 
 intimidation of Republican voters through- 
 out the State, and the Returning Board 
 
 declared that Mr. Packard had been chosen 
 Governor. 
 
 The substitution of Mr. Packard for Mr. 
 Kellogg as Governor of Louisiana did not 
 touch the evils from which the people of that 
 State had been suffering for so many years. 
 Their patience was exhausted, and they 
 resolved to sustain the government which 
 they claimed had been chosen. The Conser- 
 vative Legislature was accordingly organized, 
 and on the eighth of January, 1877, Governor 
 Nicholls was publicly inaugurated. On the 
 same day Mr. Packard was sworn into office 
 under the protection of the troops. 
 
 WILLIAM H. ENGLISH, 
 
 The Nicholls government got to work as 
 soon as possible; its authority was recognized 
 throughout the State by the courts and peo- 
 ple; taxes were paid to it and it was indorsed 
 and supported by a vast majority of the peo- 
 ple of Louisiana. President Grant was urged 
 to remove the troops from the State House 
 and other buildings belonging to Louisiana, 
 and was assured that the Packard govern- 
 ment would fall to pieces for lack of support 
 as soon as he should take the troops away. 
 He refused to do so, however. 
 
 President Hayes found Louisiana in this 
 condition when he entered upon his duties as 
 
846 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF RUTHERFORD B. HAYES. 
 
 ><; 
 
 Chief Magistrate. He selected a commission 
 consisting of four Republicans and one Dem- 
 ocrat, and these gentlemen, at his request, 
 proceeded to New Orleans to investigate and 
 report to him the real state of affairs in Louis- 
 iana. They made an investigation of the 
 affairs of the State, and found Packard a gov- 
 
 reported to the President on the nineteenth 
 of April, and the next day he issued the order 
 to withdraw the United States troops in New 
 Orleans from the State buildings to their 
 barracks. The troops were withdrawn at 
 noon on the twenty-fourth of April, amid the 
 rejoicings of the people. Governor Packard 
 
 THE MIRAGE AS SEEN IN THE ARCTIC REGION. 
 
 ernor in name only, while the authority of 
 the Nicholls government extended through- 
 out the State. They found also that the con- 
 dition of affairs in Louisiana was not such as 
 to justify the further interference of the Fed- 
 eral government in the domestic concerns of 
 the State. 
 
 The conclusions of the commission were 
 
 at once abandoned the contest. Tne members 
 of his Legislature joined the Nicholls Legis- 
 lature, and the affairs of the State were once 
 more placed in her own hands. 
 
 The action of the President in withdraw- 
 ing the troops from South Carolina and 
 Louisiana gave great satisfaction to the 
 country at large. A small class of extreme 
 
848 
 
 ADMINISTRATION OF RUTHERFORD B. HAYES. 
 
 politicians were disposed to denounce it, but 
 their partisan outcries were silenced by the 
 general voice of approval which came from 
 all parts of the Union. The nation was sick 
 of civil war and partisan strife, and hailed 
 the action of the President as the beginning 
 of the long-hoped-for, long-delayed era of 
 peace and good will. 
 
 General Grant's Tour Around the World. 
 
 On May 17, 1878, ex-President Grant 
 sailed from Philadelphia in the steamer 
 Indiana for a tour around the world. He 
 had achieved the highest distinction in his 
 native land, and was welcomed with every 
 demonstration of respect by all the nations 
 he visited. The rulers and nobility of Europe 
 and Asia accorded him an enthusiastic recep- 
 tion. On his return trip he arrived at San 
 Francisco September 20, 1879, and was 
 warmly greeted by his fellow-countrymen in 
 every place where he made his appearance. 
 His tour called out the friendly feeling of 
 other countries toward America, and was not 
 without political significance. 
 
 In the year 1880 the tenth census of the 
 United States was taken, and showed the 
 population of the country to be 50,152,- 
 
 559- 
 
 In the summer of 1880 the various politi- 
 cal parties of the country met in convention 
 to nominate candidates for the Presidency and 
 Vice-Presidency of the United States. The 
 Republican Convention met at Chicago on 
 the second of June, and nominnted James A. 
 Garfield, of Ohio, for President, and Chester 
 A. Arthur, of New York, for Vice-President. 
 The Democratic Convention met at Cincin- 
 nati, on the twenty-second of June, and nomi- 
 nated Winfield Scott Hancock, of Pennsyl- 
 vania, for President, and William H. English, 
 of Indiana, for Vice-President. The Green- 
 back Convention met at Chicago, on the 
 
 ninth of June, and nominated James A. 
 Weaver, of Iowa, for President, and B. J. 
 Chambers, of Texas, for Vice-President. 
 
 The election was held on the second of 
 November, and resulted in the choice of 
 General James A. Garfield, who received 214 
 electoral votes to 155 electoral votes cast for 
 General Hancock. The popular vote was as 
 follows : Garfield, 4,437,345 ; Hancock, 
 4,435,0:5 ; Weaver, 305 ,93 1. 
 
 The year 1879 was memorable in Arctic 
 exploration by the expedition of Lieutenant 
 George W. DeLong, of the United States 
 Navy. The expedition was projected by 
 James Gordon Bennett, proprietor of the 
 New York Herald, with the object of reach- 
 ing the North Pole, if possible, by way of 
 Behring Straits. Lieutenant DeLong sailed 
 in the steamship " Jeannette " from San Fran- 
 cisco, July 8, 1879. All of the crew were 
 volunteers, selected with great care from 
 many applicants. 
 
 The outcome of the expedition was disas- 
 trous, and it shared the unhappy fate which 
 has attended many other heroic attempts to 
 explore the polar world. After spending two 
 winters in the ice-pack the hardy adventurers: 
 lost their ship and attempted to make their 
 way southward in the hope of reaching a 
 place of safety in the three boats belonging 
 to the ship. 
 
 The boats were separated during a strong 
 gale ; the provisions were at length exhausted, 
 and in the heroic effort to save their lives 
 Lieutenant DeLong and the men in his boat 
 perished of starvation. Several relief expe- 
 ditions were sent out in search of the "Jean- 
 nette," but these were too late to rescue all 
 the party. The last records of DeLong were 
 found, and also sufficient evidence of the 
 hardships and perils through which he and 
 his men had passed in their endeavor to 
 escape from their perilous situation. 
 
CHAPTER XLVI 
 The Administration of James A. Garfield. 
 
 General Garfield Declared President — Inaugural Ceremonies — Sketch of the New President — Contest with the Stal- 
 warts — The Star Route Cases — Assassination of President Garfield — His Illness — Removal to Long Branch — Death 
 of President Garfield — Removal of the Remains to Washington and Cleveland — Interment at Cleveland — Inauguration 
 of President Arthur — Indictment of Guiteau for Murder — Trial and Execution of Garfield's Assassin — Remarkable 
 Scene upon the Scaffold — The Greeley Artie Expedition — Reaching a point beyond the Eighty-first Parallel — 
 Lieutenant Lockwood's Heroic Exploit — Return of the Exploring Party — Valuable Records — Three Relief Expedi- 
 tions — Terrible Sufferings and Privations — A Crew Charged with Cannibalism — Celebration of the Landing of 
 William Penn — Great Suspension Bridge between New York and Brooklyn — Dimensions of the Bridge and Cost. 
 
 ON the second Wednesday in Feb- 
 ruary, 1881, the two Houses of 
 Congress met in joint-session in 
 the hall of the House of Re- 
 presentatives, for the purpose of counting 
 the electoral vote. The certificates of the 
 electoral colleges of the various States hav- 
 ing been opened and read, with the result 
 mentioned above, the Vice-President an- 
 nounced that James A. Garfield had been 
 duly elected President of the United States, 
 and Chester A. Arthur Vice-President, for the 
 term of four years, from the fourth of March, 
 1881. 
 
 The result of the election was cordially ac- 
 cepted by the country, and the nation began 
 to look forward to a new era of prosperity 
 and happiness. 
 
 On Friday, March 4, 1881, the inaugura- 
 tion ceremonies took place upon a scale of 
 unusual magnificence, and were participated 
 in by numerous military and civic organiza- 
 tions, and by thousands of citizens from all 
 parts of the country. After the new Vice- 
 President had taken the oath of office, Presi- 
 dent-elect Garfield was formally received by 
 the Senate, and escorted to the eastern portico 
 of the capitol, where, in the presence of an 
 immense multitude of citizens and soldiery, 
 he delivered an able and eloquent inaugural 
 54 
 
 address, and took the oath of office at the 
 hands of Chief-Justice Waite. 
 
 The new President had been long and 
 favorably known to his countrymen. He 
 was in his fiftieth year, and in vigorous 
 health. A man of commanding presence, 
 he was dignified and courteous in his de- 
 meanor, accessible tc the humblest citizen, 
 and deservedly popular with men of all 
 parties. Born a poor boy, without influen- 
 tial friends, he had by his own efforts secured 
 a thorough collegiate education, and had 
 carefully fitted himself for the arduous duties 
 he was now called upon tc discharge. En- 
 tering the army at the outbreak of the civil 
 war, he had won a brilliant reputation as a 
 soldier, and had been promoted to the rank 
 of major-general of volunteers. Elected to 
 Congress from Ohio, in 1862, he had entered 
 the House of Representatives in December, 
 1863, and had seen almost eighteen years of 
 constant service in that body, in which he 
 had long ranked as one of the most brilliant 
 and trusted leaders of the Republican party. 
 Early in 1880 he had been chosen a United 
 States Senator from Ohio, but had been 
 prevented from taking his seat in the Senate 
 by his election to the Presidency. Imme- 
 diately after his inauguration he sent to the 
 Senate for confirmation the names of the 
 
 849 
 
850 
 
 ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES A. GARFIELD. 
 
 members of his Cabinet. They were chosen 
 from among the leading members of the 
 conservative portion of the Republican party, 
 and were headed by James G. Blaine, of 
 Maine, as Secretary of State. They were at 
 once confirmed by the Senate, and the new 
 administration embarked upon its short-lived 
 career. 
 
 Very soon after entering upon his dutie*, 
 President Garfield found that the E.^rntiire 
 
 JAMES A. GARFIELD. 
 
 chair was by no means a bed of roses. The 
 Republican party soon divided into two sec- 
 tions, one, known as the " Conservative," 
 supporting the administration, and the other, 
 known as the " Stalwarts," opposing it. A 
 bitter partisan quarrel sprang up between 
 these two wings of the party, and prolonged 
 the Executive session of the Senate until late 
 in June. The quarrel was the fiercest over 
 the appointment of a new collector for the 
 
 port of New York, and culminated in the 
 resignation of their seats in the Senate by 
 Senators Conkling and Piatt of New York, 
 on the sixteenth of May. 
 
 The resignation of these gentlemen was 
 based upon the ground that the President 
 had nominated Judge Robertson to be col- 
 lector of the port of New York, without con- 
 sulting or yielding to the wishes of the 
 senators from that State, the said senators in 
 effect claiming the right to determine 
 what appointments should or should 
 not be made by the President in their 
 State. The President, on his part, 
 insisted upon his right to nominate to 
 office any man whom he should deem 
 worthy of the trust. 
 
 The struggle was in reality a contest 
 for the independence of the Executive 
 in the matter of public appointments, 
 and President Garfield was warmly 
 supported by the great mass of the 
 nation without regard to party. He, 
 therefore, pursued with unshaken firm- 
 ness the policy he had determined 
 upon. After the resignation of Sen- 
 ators Conkling and Piatt, the nomina- 
 S tion of Judge Robertson was con- 
 firmed by the Senate. 
 
 As the time wore on, President 
 Garfield gained steadily in the esteem 
 of his countrymen. His purpose to 
 give to the nation a fair and just 
 administration of the government was 
 every day more apparent, and his high 
 and noble qualities became more conspicu- 
 ous. Men began to feel that the Exec- 
 utive chair was occupied by a President 
 capable of conceiving a pure and noble stand- 
 ard of duty, and possessed of the firmness 
 and strength of will necessary to carry it 
 into execution. The country was prosperous, 
 and there was every reason to expect a con- 
 tinuance of the general happiness. 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES A. GARFIELD. 
 
 851 
 
 Soon after the opening of President Gar- 
 field's administration, the Postmaster-General 
 discovered that certain contracts for carrying 
 the mails on what are known as " The Star 
 Routes," were fraudulent, and that the per- 
 sons interested in them were defrauding 
 the government of large sums of money. 
 The President, Postmaster- General and At- 
 torney-General, sustained by the 
 other members of the Cabinet, 
 without exception, thereupon re- 
 solved to bring the guilty parties 
 to justice. 
 
 The latter being men of wealth 
 and position, bitterly resented the 
 course of the government, and 
 violently denounced it. Never- 
 theless the President caused mea- 
 sures looking to the punishment 
 of the accused parties to be 
 begun, and only the unexpected 
 adjournment of the grand jury 
 and court prevented a formal 
 indictment from being brought 
 against them. Before other mea- 
 sures could be taken, the atten- 
 tion of the entire nation was 
 occupied by an event of graver 
 importance 
 
 While these matters were still 
 in progress, President Garfield 
 Degan preparations for a brief 
 pleasure trip to Long Branch, 
 where Mrs. Garfield was recover- 
 ing from a severe illness; in- 
 tending from that point to visit 
 New England, and be present at the com 
 mencement exercises of his alma mater, 
 Williams' College, in Massachusetts. He 
 was to be accompanied by a distinguished 
 party, including several members of the 
 Cabinet. On the morning of the second of 
 July, the party proceeded to the Baltimore 
 and Potomac depot, where they were to take 
 
 the cars, in advance of the President, who 
 arrived soon after in company with Secretary 
 Blaine, who came simply to see him off and 
 say good-bye. They left the President's car- 
 riage together, and sauntered arm-in-arm 
 through the depot towards the cars. 
 
 In passing through the ladies' waiting- 
 room, the President was fired at twice by a 
 
 MRS. LUCRETIA R. GARFIELD. 
 
 man named Charles J. Guiteau. The nrst 
 shot inflicted a slight wound in the President's 
 right arm, and the second a terrible wound 
 in the right side of his back, between the hip 
 and the kidney. The President fell heavily 
 to the floor, and the assassin was secured a£ 
 he was seeking to make his escape from 
 the building and was conveyed to a police 
 
852 
 
 ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES A. GARFIELD. 
 
 station, from which he was subsequently 
 taken to prison. 
 
 The President lay helpless upon the floor 
 of the waiting-room, the blood flowing 
 copiously from both his wounds. As soon as 
 
 JAMES G. BLAINE. 
 
 those near him recovered from the dismay 
 into which the tragedy had thrown them, he 
 was placed upon a mattrass, physicians were 
 summoned and he was conveyed to an upper 
 room in the depot. He bore his sufferings 
 
 with great firmness, and from the first dis- 
 played a cool courage that won the warm 
 admiration of the country. The surgeons 
 summoned were soon at hand, and found 
 that the President's injuries were very critical. 
 
 It was decided to 
 remove him to the 
 Executive Man- 
 sion, and he was 
 carried down the 
 stairs, placed in an 
 army ambulance 
 and driven rapid- 
 ly to the White 
 House. Arriving 
 there he was con- 
 veyed to his wife's 
 chamber, overlook- 
 ing the Potomac, 
 and placed in bed. 
 Two attempts were 
 made by the sur- 
 geons to find the 
 ball — one at the 
 depot, and one at 
 the White House 
 after his arrival 
 there — but both 
 were unsuccessful. 
 Grave fears were 
 entertained by the 
 surgeons for the 
 President's life, and 
 Mrs. Garfield was 
 summoned by tele- 
 graph from Long 
 Branch. She ar- 
 rived during the 
 evening. 
 The news of the attempt upon the Presi- 
 dent's life spread rapidly throughout the 
 Union, and was everywhere received with 
 horror and indignation. During the after- 
 noon his condition became more alarming, 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES A. GARFIELD. 
 
 853 
 
 and bulletins were issued by the surgeons 
 in charge at frequent intervals, giving the 
 late-t news of the state of the illustrious 
 sufferer. These were telegraphed to all parts 
 of the country, and were watched with eager 
 impatience by vast crowds of citizens wherever 
 they were posted. The sympathy of the 
 whole nation went out warmly towards the 
 wounded President and his afflicted family, 
 and from the governments and nations of 
 
 fulness that astonished his attendants, and 
 encouraged them to hope for a favorable 
 result. 
 
 The afternoon of the second of July wore 
 anxiously away, no signs of a reaction being 
 manifested, but after the arrival of Mrs. Gar- 
 field, in the evening, the President began to 
 rally slightly. The night was passed in 
 anxious suspense. On the morning of the 
 third, the President was calm and cheerful, 
 
 THE ASSASSINATION OF JAMES A. GARFIELD. 
 
 Europe messages of inquiry and sympathy 
 were constantly received through the Atlantic 
 cable. During the entire period of the Presi- 
 dent's illness the official bulletins were issued 
 three times each day, and the nation was 
 thus kept informed of his condition. 
 
 The best medical and surgical skill of the 
 country was employed in the effort to save 
 the President's life, and throughout the whole 
 period of his illness he never lost his calm 
 courage, but displayed a firmness and cheer- 
 
 though he fully realized the gravity ot his 
 situation. He told Dr. Bliss, the surgeon in 
 charge of his case, that he wished to know 
 exactly what his chances for life were ; that 
 while he desired to live, he was prepared to 
 die, and did not fear to learn the worst. 
 Dr. Bliss replied that though his injuries 
 were formidable, he had, in his judgment, a 
 chance for his life. "Well, Doctor," ex- 
 claimed the sufferer, with a cheerful smile, 
 " we'll take that chance." 
 
854 
 
 ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES A. CjARFIELD. 
 
 The day passed away without any event of | was kept all the while in a mo3. painful 
 
 importance, and the anxious nation, as well 
 as the President's attendants, drew some hope 
 from the fact he continued " to hold his own." 
 The popular anxiety and sympathy were 
 strikingly manifested on the Fourth of July, 
 the anniversary of the National Independ- 
 ence, in the listless and careless manner in 
 
 suspense. The surgeons in charge, however, 
 | recognized the true character of the wound 
 from the first, and while they hoped for a 
 recovery, could not conceal from themselves 
 the fact that such a result would be almost 
 miraculous. 
 
 The President's sufferings were very grea; 
 
 DEATH-BED OF JAMES A. GARFIELD, 
 
 which the day was celebrated. The people 
 were too much engrossed with their anxiety 
 to take part in any demonstration of joy. 
 
 The two months following the wounding 
 of President Garfield dragged wearily away, 
 the patient at times showing symptoms of 
 marked improvement, and at others expe- 
 riencing dangerous relapses. The nation 
 alternated between hope and despair, and 
 
 during this period, and were increased by 
 the intense heat of the season and the 
 unhealthy suroundings of the White House. 
 Yet he bore them all with unshaken 
 firmness and unalterable cheerfulness. Dr. 
 Bliss, his chief surgeon, writes of him during 
 this period . — " The time which passed until 
 the twenty-third of July, when the first rigor 
 occurred, was chiefly remarkable for the 
 
855 
 
 the President, accompanied by his family, 
 his surgeons and attendants, was conveyed 
 to Long Branch in a train specially prepared 
 
 ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES A. GARFIELD 
 
 quiet, cool determination of the sufferer. 
 Quite ready for, and evidently expecting the 
 worst, his demeanor was that of the man 
 whose great intellect and 
 wonderful will enabled 
 him to give the most 
 intelligent aid to the 
 physician. Apparently 
 indifferent as to result, so 
 far as it should affect him 
 alone, he still watched 
 every symptom, even 
 making inquiry aft;? 
 each examination as to 
 the temperature, pulse 
 and respiration, and 
 every measure of relief 
 adopted, with evidently 
 firm determination to 
 live for others if pos- 
 sible." 
 
 Towards the last of 
 August, the surgeons in 
 attendance upon the 
 President resolved to 
 remove him from the 
 White Mouse to a more 
 healthful locality. The 
 removal was a risk, but 
 not so great a risk as to 
 permit him to remain in 
 the malarious atmos- 
 phere which surrounJed 
 the Executive Mansion, 
 and which was rapidly 
 destroying the little 
 strength left him. It was 
 decided to convey him 
 to Long Branch, in the 
 hope that the pure and 
 bracing air of the sea 
 would enable him to regain some of his lost 
 vitality. 
 
 THE CATAFALQUE AT CLEVELAND, OHIO. 
 
 Accordingly, on the sixth of September. 
 
 for the purpose. The journey was made 
 quickly and successfully, and after reaching 
 Long Branch the President seemed to rally. 
 
856 
 
 ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES A. uARFIKLD. 
 
 For the first few days after his arrival at the 
 seashore, his symptoms were so much better 
 that renewed hope sprang up in the hearts 
 of his countrymen. It was only for a brief 
 period, however. On the sixteenth of Sep- 
 tember there was a marked change for the 
 worse, with unmistakable evidences of in- 
 creasing weakness in mind and body. On 
 
 passed away appeared more comfortable, and 
 his attendants were hopeful of a quiet night 
 for him. 
 
 Towards nine o'clock in the evening he 
 fell into a quiet sleep, from which he awak- 
 ened, shortly after ten o'clock, in great pain. 
 General Swaim, who was watching by him, 
 alarmed by the President's symptoms, hastily 
 
 JAMES A. GARFIELD LYING IN STATE IN THE ROTUNDA OF THE CAPITOL AT WASHINGTON. 
 
 the seventeenth the President sank still lower, 
 and in the forenoon was seized with a severe 
 rigor. On the evening of the eighteenth 
 another alarming rigor occurred, followed by 
 other grave symptoms. From this time the 
 President continued to grow worse. On the 
 morning of the nineteenth he was attacked 
 with another severe rigor, but after that had 
 
 summoned the family and the surgeons. The 
 President was unconscious when they arrived, 
 and continued to sink rapidly. Efforts were 
 made to revive him with stimulants, but in 
 vain, and at thirty-five minutes after ten 
 o'clock, the brave struggle was brought to 
 an end, and the soul of James A. Garfield 
 passed into eternity. 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF CHESTER A. ARTHUR. 
 
 857 
 
 The sad news of the death of President 
 Garfield was at once telegraphed to New 
 York, and by eleven o'clock the whole coun- 
 try was aware that its Chief Magistrate was 
 dead. Bells were tolled in every city, town 
 and village of the Union, and everywhere 
 citizens draped their houses in mourning. 
 Such a display of national sorrow had never 
 been witnessed before. 
 
 The news of the death of Presi- 
 dent Garfield was at once trans- 
 mitted by telegraph to Vice-Presi- 
 dent Arthur by the members of the 
 Cabinet, present at Long Branch, 
 and he was advised by them to take 
 the oath of office as President with- 
 out delay. Accordingly, Justices 
 Brady and Donahoe of the Supreme 
 Court of New York were at once 
 summoned by the Vice-President, 
 and at a little after two o'clock on 
 the morning of the twentieth of 
 September, he took the oath of 
 office as President of the United 
 States before them at his private 
 residence in New York. 
 
 On the twentieth of September, 
 arrangements were made for remov- 
 ing the body of the late President 
 to Washington City, and on the 
 same day an autopsy was held 
 upon the body by the surgeons 
 who had been in attendance upon 
 the President, assisted by several 
 others. The autopsy revealed the fact 
 that the wound had been fatal from the 
 first. On the morning of the twenty-first, 
 funeral ceremonies were held in the cottagfe 
 at Long Branch in which the President died, 
 and at ten o'clock the remains were placed 
 on board of a special train, and conveyed to 
 Washington, and accompanied by the family 
 and friends of the dead President, and by 
 President Arthur and a number of distin- 
 
 guished personages. Washington was 
 reached at 4.35 in the afternoon, and the 
 body was escorted by a detachment of mil- 
 itary and Knights Templar to the Capitol, 
 where it was laid in state until the twenty- 
 third. 
 
 During the twenty-second and twenty- 
 third it was visited by over one hundred 
 thousand persons. On the afternoon of the 
 
 CHESTER A. ARTHUR. 
 
 twenty-third, the public funeral services were 
 held in the rotunda of the Capitol, after which 
 the body was escorted to the Baltimore and 
 Potomac depot, and conveyed to Cleveland, 
 Ohio, by a special train. Cleveland was 
 reached the next day, and the remains were 
 laid in state in a structure especially prepared 
 for them, until the morning of the twenty- 
 sixth, when they were buried with the most 
 imposing ceremonies in Lake View Cemetery 
 
 
8 5 S 
 
 ADMINISTRATION OF CHESTER A. ARTHUR. 
 
 in the suburbs of that city. Business was 
 suspended and memorial services were held 
 during the clay in all parts of the United 
 States. 
 
 On the twenty-second of September, Pres- 
 ident Arthur again took the oath of office, 
 this time at the hands of the Chief-Justice of 
 the United States, and was quietly inaugura- 
 ted in the Vice-President's room, in the Cap- 
 itol, delivering upon this occasion, a brief 
 inaugural address. 
 
 Soon after the attempt upon the life of 
 President Garfield, a popular subscription was 
 set on foot tc provide a fund for the support 
 
 JOHN A. LOGAN. 
 
 of his family in the event of his death. The 
 movement was successful, and over 5330,000 
 were raised, and invested in United States 
 bonds for the benefit of the widow and chil- 
 dren of the " Martyred President." 
 
 President Arthur entered quietly upon the 
 duties of his administration, and his first acts 
 were satisfactory to a majority of his country- 
 men. As he had been the leader of " the 
 Stalwart," section of the Republican party, 
 it was felt by the members of the Cabinet of 
 the late President that he should be free to 
 choose his own advisers. Therefore, imme- 
 diately upon his accession to the Executive 
 
 chair, Mr. Blaine and his colleagues ten- 
 dered him their resignations. They were 
 requested, however, by the new President to 
 retain their offices until he could find suitable 
 successors to them. To this they agreed, 
 but before the year was out several import- 
 ant changes had been made in the Cabinet. 
 The principal of these were the substitution 
 of Frederick T. Frelinghuysen, of New Jer- 
 sey, for Mr. Blaine, as Secretary of State, 
 and the appointment of Judge Charles J. 
 Folger to the Treasury Department. 
 
 indictment of Garfield's Assassin. 
 
 One of the first acts of the new adminis- 
 tration was to cause the indictment of Charles 
 J. Guiteau for the murder of President Gar- 
 field. The grand jury of the District of 
 Columbia met on the third of October, 1 S8 1 , 
 and promptly found a true bill against 
 Guiteau, who was arraigned in the Criminal 
 Court of the District on the fourteenth of 
 October. After some delay the trial of the 
 assassin began on the fourteenth of Novem- 
 ber. The first three days were consumed in 
 selecting a jury, and then the trial began in 
 earnest. It ended on the twenty-fifth of 
 January, 1882, in the conviction of Guiteau 
 for the murder of the late President. The 
 prisoner was defended by able counsel, and 
 was allowed many privileges never before 
 granted to persons on trial for so grave an 
 offence. 
 
 The plea upon which the defence was 
 based was insanity, but the evidence entirely 
 destroyed this assumption, and the verdict of 
 the jury was received throughout the country 
 as just and proper. An effort was made by 
 Guiteau's counsel to obtain a new trial for 
 him, but this was denied by the court, and 
 on the fourth of February Guiteau was sen- 
 tenced to be hanged on the thirtieth of June, 
 1882. The counsel for the prisoner still 
 continued his efforts to secure a new trial. 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF CHESTER A. ARTHUR. 
 
 859 
 
 but these being unsuccessful in each and 
 every instance, his only resource was an 
 appeal to the clemency of the Executive. 
 The President declined, however, to interfere 
 with the sentence. 
 
 Execution of Guiteau. 
 
 During the interval between his sentence 
 and his execution, Guiteau was confined in 
 the jail of the District of Columbia, at Wash- 
 ington. His conduct during this interval 
 was in keeping with that which had marked 
 his trial — vain, egotistical, and blasphemous. 
 To the last the prisoner was confident that 
 President Arthur would interfere in his 
 behalf, but the result proved this to be a vain 
 hope. 
 
 The execution took place in the District 
 jail on the thirtieth of June, 1882, and was 
 witnessed by about two hundred people, 
 nearly all representatives of the press. Guiteau 
 displayed more firmness than had been 
 expected of him. He walked to the gallows 
 without making the violent scene which had 
 been anticipated by many, and ascended it 
 with a firm step. Upon the scaffold, how- 
 ever, he displayed considerable emotion, 
 which he quickly subdued. His religious 
 adviser, Rev. Dr. Hicks, offered a short 
 prayer, and Guiteau read a selection from 
 the Holy Scriptures. 
 
 Then he read a prayer, strangely at vari- 
 ance with his religious professions, in which 
 he called down the curse of the Almighty 
 upon all who had been engaged in his trial 
 and execution, and upon the nation at large, 
 and denounced President Arthur as a coward 
 and an ingrate. Finally he chanted a poem 
 which he had written during the morning. 
 At the close of this singular recital the trap 
 fell,precisely at forty-three minutes past twelve 
 o'clock, and the great crime against the 
 American people was avenged. Guiteau's 
 neck was broken by the fall, and his death 
 
 was painless. He died without a struggle, 
 and with scarce a tremor. 
 
 At the opening of Congress in 1883, John 
 G. Carlisle, of Kentucky, was chosen speaker 
 of the House. 
 
 In 1 88 1 an attempt was made to establish 
 a signal station at a point north of the eighty- 
 first parallel, and Lieutenant A. W. Greeley, 
 of the United States Navy, was selected as 
 the officer to take charge of the expedition. 
 He received his instructions from the chief 
 
 JOHN G. CARLISLE. 
 
 signal officer, General Hazen. The steamer 
 " Proteus," which was to convey the party 
 to its destination sailed from St. John's, New- 
 foundland, on the seventh of July, and imme- 
 diately encountered rough weather. 
 
 The adventurers pressed forward and, 
 notwithstanding almost insurmountable ob- 
 stacles succeeded in reaching a point beyond 
 the eighty-first parallel, where they estab- 
 lished a post and named it Fort Conger- 
 After landing the party the " Proteus " had 
 returned. 
 
86o 
 
 ADMINISTRATION OF CHESTER A ARTHUR. 
 
 As is usual with all polar expeditions 
 anxiety began to be felt for the safety of the 
 party, and attempts were made in 1882 and 
 1S83 to send relief. The colonists were not 
 found, and at length, on account of their 
 provisions being exhausted, they were 
 reduced to terrible straits. 
 
 The expedition of Greeley is especially 
 memorable for having reached the highest 
 
 the northern sky ; the Arctic moon wore a 
 strange appearance; the air was sharp with 
 penetrating frost ; and the long night of the 
 Arctic winter was attended with a loneliness 
 impossible to describe. 
 
 The brave company at length retreated 
 from their post. Few pages in the history 
 of polar exploration record such terrible 
 hardships and sufferings as fell to the lot o' 
 
 urn 
 
 iill'liv '''1 111™ 
 
 SANDERSON S HOPE, UPERNAVIK, BAFFIN BAY. 
 
 point ever gained sa Arctic exploration. 
 This achievement was due to Lieutenant 
 Lockwood, who approached nearer the 
 ' North Pole than any other explorer cither 
 before or since. The records of the expedi- 
 tion are replete with valuable information 
 concerning the meteorology of that latitude, 
 and with descriptions of very remarkable 
 natural phenomena. Brilliant auroras lighted 
 
 the Greeley expedition. Three relief ships, 
 the "Thetis," "Bear" and " Alert," were 
 sent to Lady Franklin Bay. The survivors 
 were at last found when they were in din 
 distress and must soon have perished from 
 starvation, except for the timely relief which 
 reached them. 
 
 The officers of the expedition were charged 
 with cannibalism and inhuman cruelty. One 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF CHESTER A. ARTHUR. 
 
 861 
 
 of their number who was accised of stealing 
 rations was shot, and if half suppressed 
 reports are to be credited, his body furnished 
 food for his famishing comrades. All who 
 were left of Greeley's command were found 
 on the twenty-second of June, 1884, three 
 years after the party started on its perilous 
 voyage. The heroism oi the brave explorers 
 excited the admiration of the world, and uni- 
 
 trating events in the early history of Penn- 
 sylvania. It was estimated that upwards of 
 four hundred thousand persons attended the 
 celebration. 
 
 One of the notable events of 1883, was the 
 opening of the great Suspension Bridge over 
 the East River, between New York City and 
 Brooklyn. Work commenced January 3, 
 1870, and the bridge was opened to the 
 
 ARCTIC REGION — BEECHEY HEAD. 
 
 versal interest was felt in the thrilling story 
 of their sufferings. 
 
 On the twenty-seventh of October, 1882, 
 the two-hundredth anniversary of the landing 
 of William Penn was celebrated at Phila- 
 delphia, The exercises included public 
 addresses, a military display, and an indus- 
 trial parade. In addition to these there were 
 various historic devices and tableaux, illus- 
 
 public May 24, 1883. The total cost was 
 $15,500,000 The total length from New 
 York to Brooklyn is 5,989 feet, and the 
 length of the main span is 1,595^ feet. The 
 height of the towers is 2767^ feet. The 
 height of the floor of the bridge at the cen- 
 tre, above high water mark is 135 feet. The 
 height of the floor of the bridge at the piers 
 is r 1 8 feet. 
 

 
ADMINISTRATION OF CHESTER A. ARTHUR. 
 
 S63 
 
 The caisson for the New York pier was 
 sunk 78 feet, and that for the Brooklyn pier 
 45 J j feet below the bed oi' the river. Each 
 cable is 15^4 inches in diameter and is 
 made up of 5,000 wires, each )i inch in diam- 
 
 In the campaign of [884, James G. Blaine, 
 of Maine, and John A. Logan, of Illinois, 
 were the nominees of the Republican party 
 for the offices of President and Vice-Pres 
 ident. Grover Cleveland, of New York, and 
 
 THE BROOKLYN SUSPENSION BRIDGE. 
 
 =;ter. The anchorages are 930 feet from the 
 towers and weigh 120,000,000 pounds each. 
 The cables are capable of sustaining 49,200 
 tons. The weight of the central span is 
 6,742 tons. 
 
 Thomas A Hendricks, of Indiana, were the 
 nominees of the Democratic party. The 
 campaign resulted in the election of Cleve- 
 land and Hendricks, the vote in the Elec- 
 toral College being 219 to 1S2. 
 
CHAPTER XLVII 
 
 The Administration of Grover Cleveland. 
 
 Mr. Cleveland's Early Life — Governor of New York — Elected President — Inauguration Ceremonies — Civil Service and 
 Revenue Reform— The New Cabinet — Death of General Grant — Imposing Obsequies — Honors to the Illustrious 
 Dead — Death of General George B. McClellan — Free Trade Conference at Chicago —Death of Vice-President Thomas 
 B. Hendricks — Pension Granted to the Widow of President Grant — President Cleveland's Message — Bill Regulating 
 the Presidential Succession — Labor Agitations — Riot at Chicago Instigated by " Anarchists" — Statue of Liberty En- 
 lightening the World — President Cleveland's Marriage — Soldiers' Pensions — Capital and Labor — Centennial Anni- 
 versary of the Adoption of the Constitution — Nomination of President Cleveland — Nomination of Benjamin Harrison 
 — Harrison's Election. 
 
 THE twenty-second President of the j 
 United States was Hon. Grover 
 Cleveland. Mr. Cleveland was a 
 native of New Jersey, and was born 
 in Caldwell, Essex County, March 18, 1837. 
 He came from sturdy New England stock, 
 many of his ancestors having held honor- 
 able positions in their respective localties. 
 
 President Cleveland, after teaching two 
 or three years, studied law in Buffalo, was 
 admitted to the bar, became sheriff of the 
 county, mayor cf the city, and, having 
 received the nomination for governor of 
 New York, was elected by a large majority. 
 This was followed by his nomination in the 
 Democratic Convention of 1884, and his 
 election in the following November to the 
 Presidency. 
 
 Naturally the departure of the Republican 
 administration and the return of the Demo- 
 cratic party to power after twenty-four years 
 of exile from the highest seats in the coun- 
 cils of the Republic awakened a profound 
 interest. As the fourth of March, 1885, 
 approached, eyes were turned toward Wash- 
 ington, and multitudes went up to the Capital 
 as to a Mecca. Washington itself, accus- 
 tomed to civic displays, exciting events and 
 magnificent parades, was more than usually 
 awakened, and an interest was exhibited in 
 864 
 
 the inauguration which overshadowed all 
 other concerns. The representatives of the 
 press throughout the country were there in 
 full force to record the event and depict the 
 scene in its imposing aspects. 
 
 The ceremonies incident upon the inaugu- 
 ration presented a pageant exceeding in civic 
 and military display any such preceding 
 occasion in the history of the government. 
 There were in attendance more than one 
 hundred thousand visitors, and the city in its 
 profuse decorations was a bewildering maze 
 of bright colors. Among the significant 
 allegorical designs was a great floral ladder 
 reaching to the roof of a business house on 
 Pennsylvania Avenue, which bore upon its 
 rungs the words, " Sheriff," " Mayor," "Gov- 
 ernor," " President," thus graphically sym- 
 bolizing the life-work of the President elect. 
 
 The inaugural of President Cleveland 
 began as follows: 
 
 " In the presence of this vast assemblage 
 of my countrymen I am about to supplement 
 and seal by the oath which I shall take the 
 manifestation of the will of a great and free 
 people. In the exercise of their power and 
 right of self-government they have committed 
 to one of their fellow-citizens a supreme and 
 sacred trust, and he here consecrates himself 
 to their service. 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF GROVER CLEVELAND. 
 
 865 
 
 " This impressive ceremony adds little to 
 the solemn sense of responsibility with which 
 I contemplate the duty I owe to all the people 
 of the land. Nothing can relieve me from 
 anxiety lest by any act of mine their in- 
 terests may suffer, and nothing is needed to 
 
 purpose by which he would be guided in the 
 administrationof the affairs of the government: 
 " In the discharge of my official duty I 
 shall endeavor to be guided by a just and 
 unstrained construction of the Constitution, a 
 careful observance of the distinction between 
 
 GROVER CLEVELAND. 
 
 strengthen my resolution to engage every 
 faculty and effort in the promotion of their 
 welfare." 
 
 Having stated his sense of the importance 
 and sacredness of the trust confided in him, 
 President Cleveland gave expression to the 
 5d 
 
 the powers granted to the Federal govern- 
 ment and those reserved to the States or to 
 the people, and by a cautious appreciation of 
 those functions which, by the Constitution 
 and laws, have been especially assigned to 
 the executive branch of the government." 
 
866 
 
 ADMINISTRATION OF GROVER CLEVELAND. 
 
 Upon the question of civil service reform 
 President Cleveland expressed himself in 
 accordance with the sentiments enunciated in 
 the platform of his party, adopted at the con- 
 vention of 1884: 
 
 " The people demand reform in the 
 administration of the government and the 
 
 influence of those who promise and the 
 vicious methods of those who expect such 
 rewards. And those who worthily seek 
 public employment have the right to insist 
 that merit and competency shall be recog- 
 nized instead of party subserviency, or the 
 surrender of horr-st political belief." 
 
 CHIEF-JUSTICE WAITE ADMINISTERING THE OATH OF OFFICE TO PRESIDENT CLEVELAND. 
 
 application of business principles to public 
 affairs. As a means to this end civil service 
 reform should be in good faith enforced. 
 Our citizens have the right to protection 
 from the incompetency of public employees 
 who hold their places solely as the reward of 
 partisan service, and from the corrupting 
 
 Revenue reform was another topic referred 
 to in President Cleveland's inaugural address. 
 Thus early in his administration he presented 
 a matter which was very fully discussed in 
 his subsequent messages to Congress, andt 
 became the subject of contention between the 
 two great parties. 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF GROVER CLEVELAND. 
 
 "A due regard," he says, " for the interests 
 and prosperity of all the people demand that 
 our finances shall be established upon such a 
 sound and sensible basis as shall secure the 
 safety and confidence of business interests and 
 make the wage of labor sure and steady, and 
 that our system of re venue shall be so adjusted 
 as to relieve the people from unnecessary 
 taxation, having a due regard to the interests 
 
 86? 
 
 Interior; Augustus H. Garland, of Arkansas, 
 Attorney-General; William Crowninshield 
 Endicott, of Massachusetts, Secretary of 
 War; William F. Vilas, of Wisconsin, Post- 
 master-General; William Collins Whitney, 
 of New York, Secretary of the Navy. 
 
 On the fourth of March, the day of Presi- 
 dent Cleveland's inauguration, ex-President 
 Grant was placed on the retired Hst of the 
 
 DEATH OF GENERAL GRANT. 
 
 of capital invested and workingmen employed 
 in American industries, and preventing the 
 accumulation of a surplus in the treasury to 
 tempt extravagance and waste." 
 
 The new cabinet was composed as follows : 
 Thomas Francis Bayard, of Delaware, Secre- 
 tary of State; Daniel Manning, of New 
 York, Secretary of the Treasury; Lucius Q. 
 C. Lamar, of Mississippi, Secretary of the 
 
 army. For some months previous to this 
 there were ominous rumors respecting the 
 state of his health. The great general who 
 had led the Federal forces in the last part of 
 the civil war, and who had gained a military 
 reputation second to that of no commander 
 of modern times ; who had also been lifted 
 to the highest position in the gift of a grate- 
 ful people, and had served eight years in the 
 
868 ADMINISTRATION OF 
 
 White House as our chief executive, was 
 reported to be in his last illness. 
 
 The sympathy of the entire country was 
 profoundly stirred by this announcement. 
 Medical skill of the highest order was sum- 
 moned ; daily bulletins of the condition of 
 the illustrious patient were issued ; hope was 
 expressed that his life might be spared for 
 many years, a hope which soon proved to be 
 unfounded; and although his labors in the 
 preparation of his " Memoirs » continued, it 
 became evident that he was sustained more 
 by will-power than by any increasing 
 
 If 
 
 THE COTTAGE IN WHICH GRANT DIED AT MT 
 
 strength, and that very soon he would be 
 compelled to lay down his pen as he had 
 already laid down his sword. 
 
 In the summer of 1885 he was removed 
 to Mount McGregor, in the northern part of 
 the State of New York, in the hope that he 
 would be invigorated by the mountain air. 
 Disease, however, had progressed so far that 
 his death became inevitable, and this occurred 
 on the twenty-third of July, at 8 o'clock A. 
 M. Demonstrations of sorrow attended his 
 obsequies. A special train bore his remains 
 from Mount McGregor to the city of New 
 York, where the funeral services and the 
 
 GROVKR CLEVELAND. 
 
 interment were to take place. On the sixth 
 of August he was laid in state in the City 
 Hall, and vast crowds of people came to take 
 their last look. On August eighth the 
 funeral took place, which was an extraordi- 
 nary pageantry. It was attended by celeb- 
 rities from all parts of the land. All that 
 statesmen, members of Congress, Governors 
 of States, Judges of Supreme Courts and per- 
 sons in the highest walks of professional and 
 mercantile life could do to give honor to the 
 illustrious dead was rendered on this ocasion. 
 The Grand Army, of which General Grant 
 had been the leader, was fully 
 represented. A procession num- 
 bering from fifty to sixty thou- 
 sand men followed the hearse 
 from the City Hall to the mau- 
 soleum erected on the banks of 
 the Hudson, which was to con- 
 tain the remains of the illustrious 
 dead. The closing scenes of the 
 life of General Grant were as im- 
 pressive as his previous illness 
 had been painful, and fitted to 
 awaken public sympathy. Thus 
 was laid in the tomb another of 
 the renowned sons of the Re- 
 public who had done much to 
 add to her fame and brighten 
 
 McGregor, 
 
 her glory. 
 
 It was not long after this that another 
 death occurred which added to the affliction 
 caused by that of ex-President Grant. On 
 the 29th of October General George B. 
 McClellan died at his residence at Orange 
 Mountain, N. J. General McClellan's name 
 comes out conspicuously in the history of 
 our country since i860. In the early part of 
 the war he was commander of the Army of 
 the Potomac. Having been displaced, the 
 part that he occupied in the war was not 
 afterward prominent. He was widely known, 
 however, in political life, and was invested 
 
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ADMINISTRATION OF GROVER CLEVELAND. 
 
 869 
 
 with several offices, one of which was the 
 governorship of New Jersey. His funeral 
 took place in the city of New York on the 
 second of November. 
 
 The public agitation of the question of 
 free trade and revenue reform took definite 
 shape in the latter part of this year. At 
 Chicago on the eleventh of November there 
 
 more and more prominent, entering more 
 largely into public discussion, and was des- 
 tined to be the leading issue in the next presi- 
 dential campaign. 
 
 On the twenty-fifth of November Vice- 
 President Thomas B. Hendricks died sud- 
 denly at Indianapolis, and his obsequies 
 were attended December first. Thus passed 
 
 GENERAL GRANTS TEMPORARY TOMB, RIVERSIDE PARK, NEW YORK. 
 
 was a national conference of free-traders and 
 revenue reformers. This was preliminary to 
 political action which, it was understood, 
 would be taken afterward. The conference was 
 attended by representative men, views were 
 freely exchanged, and it was thought that 
 by this action the cause of free trade would 
 be materially promoted. Thus it may be 
 seen that the tariff question was becoming 
 
 away another of the prominent figures whose 
 removal made the year 1885 conspicuous as 
 a year of death in high places. 
 
 In December both houses of Congress 
 passed a bill granting a pension to President 
 Grant's widow. This was thought to be an 
 act of justice in consideration of the services 
 rendered to the nation by her distinguished 
 husband — a measure which was heartily 
 
870 
 
 ADMINISTRATION OF GROVER CLEVELAND. 
 
 approved by the people at large, and which 
 was another evidence of the fact that, not- 
 withstanding the old saying that " Repub- 
 lics are ungrateful," ours is not to be classed 
 in that number. 
 
 In the early part of December, Congress 
 reassembled at Washington, and President 
 Cleveland submitted his annual message. In 
 this message the matter of silver coinage was 
 given a prominent place, and in connection 
 with it the existing condition of the laboring 
 classes throughout the country was dis- 
 cussed. The president expressed the gravest 
 anxiety for the prosperity of the country, 
 unless measures should be taken by Con- 
 gress to remedy the existing evils. Another 
 important recommendation had reference to 
 the Indians. It was maintained that the pres- 
 ent laws and regulations for their control 
 should be prudently administered, while at 
 the same time it was stated that there was a 
 lack of fixed purpose or policy on this subject. 
 
 The Presidential Succession. 
 
 The president took the ground that the 
 Indians were within the care of the govern- 
 ment, and their rights should be protected 
 from invasion by the most solemn obliga- 
 tions. It was stated that there was a general 
 concurrence in the proposition that the ulti- 
 mate object of their treatment should be their 
 civilization and citizenship, and it was urged 
 that measures to this end should be pressed 
 forward as speedily as possible. The pass- 
 age of a law was recommended which should 
 authorize the appointment of six commis- 
 sicners to carry out the preceding recom- 
 mendations. These were the most important 
 matters which were submitted by President 
 Cleveland in this message. 
 ' A bill stating the terms of the presidential 
 succession was passed by Congress on the 
 fifteenth of January, 1886. The opinion had 
 long been held by members of Congress, and 
 
 had been discussed by the journals through- 
 out the country, that the statutes regulating 
 the succession in the office of president were 
 not sufficiently adequate. The intention was, 
 by this bill, to set up such safeguards as 
 would prevent any revolutionary act in the 
 event of the death of the chief executive, the 
 vice-president, or both, during a single pres- 
 idential term. 
 
 Agitations upon the labor question con- 
 tinued throughout the country; organiza- 
 tions were rapidly formed, conventions were 
 held, leading agitators inflamed the laboring 
 classes, and the subject assumed such grave 
 proportions that on the twenty-second of 
 April, 1886, President Cleveland sent a spec- 
 ial message to Congress. The object was to 
 recommend such measures as would tend to 
 quiet the labor agitation, and at the same 
 time guard the interests of capital. 
 
 Anarchists Sentenced to be Executed. 
 
 The next event of importance, although 
 occurring in Chicago, very soon assumed a 
 national aspect. On the fourth of May a 
 riot occurred in that city, instigated by a 
 company of revolutionary spirits who have 
 been denominated " Anarchists." After 
 having held secret and public meetings for a 
 long time, which were promoted and reported 
 by one or two journals edited by the leaders 
 in the movement, an open outbreak occur- 
 red on the above date. While a public meet- 
 ing was being held and speeches were being 
 made of a revolutionary description, the 
 police attempted to disperse the crowd. At 
 that instant dynamite bombs were thrown, 
 and seven policemen were killed, and eighty- 
 three officers and citizens were wounded. 
 
 A number of arrests followed, and on the 
 twentieth of August, after a protracted trial, 
 seven anarchists were convicted of murder 
 and sentenced to be executed. Able coun- 
 sel defended them, and managed their trial 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF GROVER CLEVELAND. 
 
 871 
 
 in such a way as to indicate that they were 
 as much in sympathy with the measures 
 proposed by the anarchists as they were 
 with the maintenance of law and order. On 
 the seventh of October a new trial was 
 refused, and on the ninth formal sentence of 
 execution was pronounced. Four were exe- 
 cuted on November 11, 1887, one committed 
 suicide in prison, two were sentenced to 
 imprisonment for life and one to fifteen years 
 in the penitentiary. 
 
 Earthquake at Charleston. 
 
 On the thirty-first of August, 1886, the 
 city of Charleston, South Carolina, was 
 visited by a severe earthquake. Nearly seven 
 thousand buildings were totally destroyed or 
 seriously injured. About one hundred lives 
 were lost, and so great was the work of 
 destruction that more than one-half of the 
 city had to be rebuilt. This calamity threw 
 a gloom over the entire country ; prompt aid 
 was offered the sufferers, and the people of 
 the stricken city began at once to repair their 
 desolated homes. 
 
 On Thursday, October 28, 1886, the great 
 statue of Liberty Enlightening the World 
 was unveiled on Bedlow's Island, in New 
 York Harbor. This massive work was con- 
 ceived and executed by M. Auguste F. Bar- 
 tholdi, of Paris, France, and was presented 
 by the French nation to the peoole of the 
 United States. The first steps toward its 
 construction were taken in I874, when the 
 French-American Union was established, a 
 banquet given, and an appeal made to the 
 people of France. In 1876 M. Bartholdi 
 had begun his great work, and with extended 
 right arm of the statue — the first part that 
 was completed — came to America and 
 placed it with the torch in the Centennial 
 Exhibition at Philadelphia, whence it was 
 subsequently removed to Madison Square, 
 New York. In February, 1877, Congress 
 
 set apart Bedloe's Island for the statue, and 
 a committee was chosen, with William M. 
 Evarts at its head, to make preparations for 
 receiving the great work. 
 
 The statue weighs 450,000 pounds, or 225 
 tons. The bronze alone weighs 200,000 
 pounds. Forty persons can stand comfort- 
 ably in the head, and the torch will hold 
 twelve people. 
 
 The total number of steps in the tempor- 
 ary staircase, which leads from the base of 
 the foundation to the top of the torch is 403. 
 From the ground to the top of the pedestal, 
 195 steps. The number of steps in the statue 
 from the pedestal to the head is 154, and the 
 ladder leading up through the extended 
 right arm to the torch has 54 rounds. The 
 cost of the statue was estimated at $250,000; 
 the cost of the pedestal and the erection of 
 the statue, $350,000. Total cost of the work 
 completed and in place, $600,000. 
 
 President Cleveland's Marriage. 
 
 A social event of great interest during the 
 administration of President Cleveland was 
 his marriage at the White House, on the 
 second of June, 1886, to Miss Frances Fol- 
 som, of Buffalo, New York, who was educated 
 at Well's College, and who, just previously to 
 her marriage, had made the tour of Europe. 
 At seven o'clock in the evening the wedding 
 guests assembled in the Blue Room. Owing 
 to the President's desire that the affair should 
 be as private as possible, the Diplomatic 
 Corps had not been invited. 
 
 The guests placed themselves in the form 
 of a semicircle, Mr. Bayard being at the 
 extreme left and Rev. Mr. Cleveland at the 
 extreme right. 
 
 The Marine Band, which was stationed in 
 the ante-room, gave forth the dulcet strains 
 of the perennial wedding-march of Men- 
 delssohn as the Rev. Dr. Sunderland took 
 his position at the south end of the room, 
 
872 
 
 ADMINISTRATION OF GROVER CLEVELAND. 
 
 and immediately after the bridal party 
 entered. The bearing of the couple was 
 dignified and impressive. They were fol- 
 lowed by the few guests who were closely 
 related to the contracting parties. 
 
 The reverend doctor then performed the 
 marriage ceremony in a manner at once 
 
 MRS. FRANCES FOLSOM-CLEVELAND. 
 
 solemn and impressive, the bride and groom 
 making their responses in clear tones. The 
 ring was then passed and placed on the bride's 
 finger, and the two were pronounced man 
 and wife. The following benediction was 
 spoken by the Rev. Mr. Cleveland, brother of 
 the President : 
 
 " God the Father, God the Son, and God 
 the Holy Ghost, bless, preserve and keep 
 you ; the Lord mercifully fill you with all 
 temporal and all spiritual blessings, and 
 grant that you may so live together in this 
 world that in the world to come you may 
 have life everlasting. Amen." 
 
 Ex-President Chester A. Ar- 
 thur died November 18, 1886, 
 aged fifty-six years. 
 
 In his message of December, 
 1886, President Cleveland made 
 special reference to the statutes 
 granting and regulating pensions. 
 This was done, doubtless, in part 
 to answer criticisms upon his 
 many vetoes of bills passed which 
 granted pensions to disabled sol- 
 diers and their families. He says: 
 "The usefulness and the jus- 
 tice of any system for the distri- 
 bution of pensions depend upon 
 the equality and uniformity of its 
 operation. It will be seen from 
 the report of the Commissioner 
 that there are now paid by the 
 government one hundred and 
 thirty-one different rates of pen- 
 sion. 
 
 " He estimates from the best 
 information he can obtain that 
 nine thousand of those who have 
 served in the army and navy 01 
 the United States are now sup- 
 ported, in whole or in part, from 
 public funds or by organized 
 charities, exclusive of those in 
 soldiers' homes under the direction and con- 
 trol of the government. Only thirteen pei 
 cent, of these are pensioners, while of the 
 entire number of men furnished for the late 
 war something like twenty per cent., includ- 
 ing their widows and relatives, have been or 
 are now in the receipt of pensions. 
 
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ADMINISTRATION OF GROVER CLEVELAND. 
 
 873 
 
 "The American people, with a patriotic 
 and grateful regard for our ex-soldiers — too 
 broad and too sacred to be monopolized by 
 any special advocates — are not only willing 
 but anxious that equal and exact justice 
 should be done to all honest claimants for 
 pensions. In their sight the friendless and 
 destitute soldier, dependent on public charity, 
 if otherwise entitled, has precisely the same 
 
 work an injustice to the brave and crippled, 
 but poor and friendless soldier, who is entirely 
 neglected or who must be content with the 
 smallest sum allowed under general laws." 
 
 In the same message occurred a further 
 discussion of the labor question as fol- 
 lows : 
 
 " The relations of labor to capital and of 
 laboring men to their employers, are of the 
 
 THE NEW POST OFFICE BUILDING, PHILADELPHIA. 
 
 right to share in the provision made for those 
 who fought their country's battles as those 
 better able, through friends and influence, to 
 push their claims. 
 
 " Every pension that is granted under our 
 present plan upon any other grounds than 
 actual service and injury or disease incurred 
 in such service, and every instance of the 
 many in which pensions are increased on 
 other grounds than the merits of the claim, 
 
 utmost concern to every patriotic citizen. 
 When these are strained and distorted, unjus- 
 tifiable claims are apt to be insisted upon by 
 both interests, and in the controversy which 
 results, the welfare of all and the prosperity 
 of the country are jeopardized. Any inter- 
 vention of the General Government, within 
 the limits of its constitutional authority, to 
 avert such a condition, should be willingly 
 accorded. 
 
874 
 
 ADMINISTRATION OF GROVER CLEVELAND. 
 
 
 " In a special message transmitted to the 
 Congress at its last session, 1 suggested the 
 enlargement of our present Labor Bureau, 
 and adding to its present functions the power 
 of arbitration in cases where differences arise 
 between employer and employed. When 
 these differences reach such a stage as to 
 result in the interruption of commerce be- 
 tween the States, the application of this 
 remedy by the General Government might 
 be regarded as entirely within its constitu- 
 tional powers. 
 
 THE NEW CITY HALL, PHILADELPHIA 
 
 " And I think we might reasonably hope 
 that such arbitrators, if carefully selected 
 and if entitled to the confidence of the parties 
 to be affected, would be voluntarily called to 
 the settlement of controversies of less extent 
 and not necessarily within the domain of 
 Federal regulation. 
 
 "I am of the opinion that this suggestion 
 is worthy the attention of the Congress. 
 
 " But after all has been done by the pas- 
 sage of laws either Federal or State to relieve 
 a situation full of solicitude, much more 
 remains to be accomplished by the reinstate- 
 
 ment and cultivation of a true American sen- 
 timent which recognizes the equality of 
 American citizenship. This, in the light of 
 our traditions and in loyalty to the spirit of 
 our institutions, would teach that a hearty 
 co-operation on the part of all interests is 
 the surest path to national greatness and the 
 happiness of all our people, that capital 
 should, in recognition of the brotherhood of 
 our citizenship and in a spirit of American 
 fairness, generously accord to labor its just 
 compensation and consideration, and that 
 contented labor is capital's 
 best protection and faithful 
 ally. It would teach, too, 
 that the diverse situations 
 of our people are insepar- 
 able from our civilization, 
 that every citizen should, 
 in his sphere, be a contrib- 
 utor to the general good, 
 that capital does not neces- 
 sarily tend to the oppression 
 of labor, and that violent 
 disturbances and disorders 
 alienate from their pro- 
 moters true American sym- 
 pathy and kindly feeling." 
 In September, of 1887, 
 the centennial anniversary 
 of the adoption and promul- 
 gation of the United States Constitution was 
 celebrated in Philadelphia. The celebration 
 occupied the three days — Thursday, Friday 
 and Saturday, September fifteenth, sixteenth 
 and seventeenth. On the fifteenth there was 
 a grand industrial disp : ay under the general 
 direction of Colonel A. Louden Snowden, 
 which was seven hours in passing a given 
 point, and was by far the largest exhibition 
 of the sort ever made in America. 
 
 On Friday, the sixteenth, there was a mili- 
 tary parade, composed of United States 
 regular troops, United States marines, Girard 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF GROVER CLEVELAND. 
 
 875 
 
 College cadets and companies of State militia 
 from over half the States in the Union. Fif- 
 teen thousand men were in line, the gov- 
 ernors of States riding at the head of their 
 several State troops, the whole under the 
 command of Lieutenant-General Phillip H. 
 Sheridan. It was reviewed by the President 
 
 in Independence Square, at which President 
 Cleveland presided, the opening and closing 
 prayers being made by Bishop Potter of New 
 York and Cardinal Gibbons of Baltimore, 
 respectively. There were addresses by Presi- 
 dent Cleveland and President Kasson, of the 
 Constitutional Celebration Committee, and 
 
 STEAMSHIP DOCKS ON THE DELAWARE RIVER, PHILADELPHIA. 
 
 of the United States. Stands had been 
 erected along Broad street from Wharton to 
 Dauphin streets, and on Market and Chestnut 
 streets from Broad to Fifth streets, and they 
 were filled with tier upon tier of enthusiastic 
 thousands, the whole forming one of the 
 grandest military spectacles of the century. 
 On Saturday there were public exercises 
 
 the oration was given by Associate Justice 
 Samuel F. Miller, of the United States 
 Supreme Court. 
 
 Hon. Roscoe Conkling, ex-United States 
 Senator of New York, died April 18,1 888, aged 
 fifty-nine. Hon. Morrison R. Waite, Chief 
 Justice of the United States Supreme Court, 
 died March 23, 1888, aged seventy-two years. 
 
8 7 6 
 
 ADMINISTRATION OF GROVER CLEVELAND, 
 
 At St. Louis, June 5, 1888, the Democratic 
 National Convention was held for the pur- 
 pose of nominating candidates for the offices 
 of President and Vice-President. When the 
 convention was called to order the scene was 
 an inspiring one. Back of the delegates rose 
 tier after tier of spectators, a vast, undulating 
 sea of heads and faces. In the galleries the 
 bright ribbons of the ladies and the highly- 
 colored fans fluttered among the red, white 
 and blue, the silver stars and the graceful 
 folds of bunting. The morning was close 
 and muggy and threatened rain, but when 
 
 ALLEN G. THURMAN. 
 
 Chairman Barnum, of the Democratic Na- 
 tional Committee, and Secretary Frederick 
 O. Prince came upon the platform the sun 
 burst through the clouds, and through the 
 windows of the convention hall as well. 
 
 President Grover Cleveland, of New York, 
 was unanimously nominated for the office of 
 President of the United States, and Allen G. 
 Thurman, of Ohio, for the office of Vice- 
 President; after which the convention ad- 
 journed on June 7. The meetings of the 
 convention were attended by scenes of excite- 
 ment and enthusiasm, which indicated com- 
 plete harmony in the Democratic party, 
 
 resolute determination to make the ap- 
 proching campaign one of great vigor, and 
 hope of success at the general election to be 
 held in November. 
 
 The Republican National Convention, held 
 at Chicago from the nineteenth to the 
 twenty-fifth of June, 1888, nominated the. 
 Hon. Benjamin Harrison, of Indiana, for the 
 office of President. 
 
 Previous to the assembling of the con- 
 vention, and even during its early sessions, 
 Mr. Harrison was not so prominently named 
 for the nomination as several others. Sher- 
 man, of Ohio; Gresham, of Illinois; Alger, 
 of Michigan, and that distinguished leader of 
 the Republican party, James G. Blaine, had 
 their respective enthusiactic following. The 
 nomination was given to Mr. Harrison after 
 a long and patient effort to secure the best 
 man for the high honor of leading the Repub- 
 lican hosts. 
 
 Nomination of Benjamin Harrison. 
 
 When the convention, on the eighth ballot, 
 declared in favor of Harrison, the decision 
 was hailed with universal delight. Although 
 the friends of other candidates had worked 
 with great zeal to secure the prize for their 
 favorites, there was a hearty acquiesence in 
 the final decision, the choice was made 
 unanimous, the building shook with hearty 
 plaudits, great waves of excitement swept 
 over the vast audience, and the scene was 
 one never to be forgotten by those who wit- 
 nessed it. At once all differences among the 
 delegates were harmonized, and they pre- 
 pared to push the canvass with vigor up to 
 the day of decision in November. 
 
 Hon. Levi P. Morton, of New York, was 
 nominated for the office of Vice President. 
 
 On the twentieth of July, 1888, the nomi- 
 nation of Melville W. Fuller, of Illinois, as 
 Chief Justice of the United States Supreme 
 Court, was confirmed by the Senate, and <m 
 
w 
 
 o 
 o 
 o 
 
 Eh 
 
 P5 
 o 
 
 i— i 
 
 o 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF GROVER CLEVELAND. 
 
 877 
 
 the fourteenth of August General John M. 
 Scofield was appointed to command the army 
 of the United States. 
 
 General Philip H. Sheridan, the distin- 
 guished cavalry commander, died August 5, 
 1888, aged fifty-seven years. 
 
 In October occurred an incident which 
 resulted in the recall by the British Govern- 
 ment of its Minister at Washington. On the 
 thirtieth Lord Sackvi lie-West was notified by 
 Secretary Bayard that his presence in this 
 country in adiplomatic capacity was no longer 
 desired by the United States. This action 
 was taken because of the publication of a 
 letter from Minister West to a mythical per- 
 sonage named Murchison, in which he advised 
 support of Cleveland for President because 
 he was favorable to British interests. 
 
 Result of the Election. 
 
 On the sixth of November the election was 
 held, which resulted in a victory for the 
 Republican party, the States voting as they 
 did at the election four years before, with the 
 exception of New York and Indiana, which 
 gave their votes to Benjamin Harrison. 
 
 The first session of the Fiftieth Congress 
 was the longest continuous session ever held, 
 having lasted 321 days, ending October twen- 
 tieth. In the Senate 3,641 bills and 1 16 joint 
 resolutions were introduced ; in the House, 
 11,598 bills and 230 joint resolutions — a 
 grand total of 15,585 measures. President 
 Cleveland's message calling attention to the 
 surplus and recommending a revision of the 
 
 tariff forced a discussion of that economic 
 question which extended through and pro- 
 longed the session. 
 
 What became known as the Mills bill was 
 reported to the House, and passed July 
 twenty-first. A substitute measure known as 
 the Senate bill was reported to the Senate 
 
 LEVI P. MORTON. 
 
 October fourth and debated, but no action 
 was taken thereon. So much time was occu- 
 pied by the tariff debate and other discus- 
 sions brought about for effect on the Presi- 
 dential election that there was very little 
 important legislation. About 1,200 bills 
 were passed, of which 800 were private pen- 
 sion bills. 
 
CHAPTER XLVIII 
 
 The Administration of Benjamin Harrison 
 
 inauguration of President Harrison — Imposing Scene at Washington — Vast Assembly — Civic and Military Parade-^ 
 
 President Harrison's Inaugural Address — Celebration of the Centennial Anniversary of Washington's Inauguration 
 
 Fine Naval Parade — Religious and Literary Exercises— Military Display — President Harrison at the Banquet — The 
 President's Address — The New Cabinet — Terrible Calamity at Johnstown — Admission of New States — President's 
 Message to the Fifty-first Congress — Legislation of the First Session of the Fifty-first Congress — The New Tariff Law — 
 Indian War in the Northwest — Death of Sittmg Bull — Restriction of Immigration — Mot Law in New Orleans — 
 Trouble with Chile — Political Conventions of 1S92 — Labor Contest at Homestead — Defeat of the Bland Silver Bill. 
 
 THERE was an imposing demonstra- 
 tion at Washington on the occasion 
 of President Harrison's inaugura- 
 tion, March 4, 1889. A vast con- 
 course of people assembled from all parts of 
 the country, and the civic and military dis- 
 play surpassed all pageantries ever before 
 witnessed at the capital. 
 
 President Harrison's inaugural address, 
 while recommending some important meas- 
 ures, was regarded as conservative in its tone, 
 and served to inspire confidence in the new 
 administration. 
 
 The address traced the necessary growth 
 of tariff legislation. This legislation was 
 adopted in the early history of the nation. 
 
 " Societies for the promotion of home 
 manufactures and for encouraging the use of 
 domestics in the dress of 'die people were 
 organized in many of the States. The 
 revival at the end of the century of 
 the same patriotic interest in the preserva- 
 tion and development of domestic industries, 
 and the defence of our working people 
 against injurious foreign competition, is an 
 incident worthy of attention. It is not a 
 departure, but a return that we have wit- 
 nessed. The protective policy had then its 
 opponents. The argument was made, as now, 
 that its benefits inured to particular classes 
 or sections." 
 
 878 
 
 Continuing, the President said : " 1 look 
 hopefully to the continuance of our protec- 
 tive system and to the consequent develop- 
 ment of manufacturing and mining enter- 
 prises in the States hitherto wholly given to 
 agriculture, as a potent influence in the per- 
 fect unification of our people. The men who 
 have invested their capital in these enterprises, 
 the farmers who have felt the benefit of their 
 neighborhood, and the men who work in 
 shop or field will not fail to find and to 
 defend a community of interest." 
 
 The President gave some timely sug- 
 gestions respecting the formation of trusts 
 and the evils which are likely to attend them. 
 Among other things he said : " The evil 
 example of permitting individuals, corpora- 
 tions or communities to nullify the laws 
 because they cross some selfish or local 
 interest or prejudices is full of danger, not 
 only to the nation at large, but much more 
 to those who use this pernicious expedient 
 to escape their just obligations or to obtain 
 an unjust advantage over others. They will 
 presently themselves be compelled to appeal 
 to the law for protection and those who 
 would use the law as a defense must not deny 
 that use of it to others. 
 
 " If our great corporations would more 
 scrupulously observe their legal limitations 
 and duties, they would have less cause to 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF BENTAMIN HARRISON. 
 
 879 
 
 complain of the unlawful limitations of their 
 rights or of violent interference with their 
 operations. The community that by concert, 
 open or secret, among its citizens denies to a 
 portion of its members their plain rights 
 under the law, has severed the only safe bond 
 of social order and prosperity. The evil 
 works, from a bad centre, both ways. It 
 demoralizes those who prac- 
 tice it, and destroys the faith 
 of those who suffer by it in 
 the efficiency of the law as 
 a safe protector. The man 
 in whose breast that faith 
 has been darkened is natur- 
 ally the subject of danger- 
 ous uncanny suggestions. 
 Those who use unlawful 
 methods, if moved by no 
 higher motive than the 
 selfishness that prompted 
 them, may well stop to in- 
 quire what is to be the end 
 of this." 
 
 The President also recom- 
 mended that our naturaliza- 
 tion laws be so amended as 
 to exclude the worst class 
 of immigrants. "We should 
 not cease to be hospitable to 
 immigration, but we should 
 cease to be careless as to 
 the character of it." 
 
 The address recommend- 
 ed that care be exercised to 
 maintain friendly relations with the other 
 nations of the globe, but not at the expense 
 of our own interests. 
 
 A strong navy for the protection of the 
 United States was urged as a prime consid- 
 eration, with such appropriations as would 
 be needed to build and equip a fleet of war 
 vessels capable of defending our coasts and 
 upholding the dignity of our flag. 
 
 The reform of the civil service, the admis- 
 sion of new States, the freedom of the ballot 
 and the safeguards needed to give efficacy 
 to our election laws, were topics discussed 
 by the address in a timely, patriotic manner. 
 
 The new cabinet was constituted as fol- 
 lows: Secretary of State, James G. Blaine, 
 Maine (resigned), succeeded by John W. 
 
 BENJAMIN HARRISON. 
 
 Foster, Indiana ; Secretary of the Treasury, 
 William Windom, Minnesota (deceased), suc- 
 ceeded by Charles Foster, Ohio ; Secretary of 
 War, Redfield Proctor, Vermont (resigned), 
 succeeded by Stephen B. Elkins, West Vir- 
 ginia; Secretary of the Navy, Benjamin F. 
 Tracy, New York; Secretary of the Interior, 
 John W. Noble, Missouri ; Post-master- 
 General, John Wanamaker, Pennsylvania; 
 
88o 
 
 ADMINISTRATION OF BENJAMIN HARRISON. 
 
 Secretary of Agriculture, Jeremiah M. Rusk, 
 Wisconsin ; Attorney-General, William H. 
 H. Miller, Indiana. 
 
 On the thirtieth of April, 1889, the Cen- 
 tennial Anniversary of Washington's Inaug- 
 uration was celebrated in New York city. 
 On the morning of the twenty-ninth, Presi- 
 dent Harrison was received in New York 
 harbor with a naval parade, which comprised 
 
 The religious exercises comprised a prayer 
 by Rev. R. S. Storrs, D. D., LL. D., and a 
 sermon by Bishop Potter, of New York. 
 The literary exercises comprised a poem 
 written for the occasion by John Greenleat 
 Whittier, and an oration by Hon. Chauncey 
 Depew. 
 
 At a banquet in the evening, President 
 Harrison spoke as follows : 
 
 BIRD'S-EYE VIEW OF NEW YORK CITY. 
 
 ships of the navy, steamboats, and a large 
 number of vessels belonging to the merchant 
 marine. On the thirtieth, religious and liter- 
 ary exercises were held, and these were fol- 
 lowed by a fine military parade, comprising 
 regiments from the regular army and militia 
 from a number of States. On a stand erected 
 at Madison Square, President Harrison and 
 several cabinet officers reviewed the parade. 
 
 " The occasion and all its incidents will be 
 memorable, not only in the history of your 
 city, but in the history of our country. New 
 York did not succeed in retaining the seat of 
 national government here, though she made 
 liberal provision for the assembling of the 
 first Congress in the expectation that Con- 
 gress might find its permanent home here. 
 But though you lost that which you coveted, 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF BENJAMIN HARRISON. 
 
 I think the representatives here of all 
 the States will agree that it was fortunate 
 that the first inauguration of Washington 
 took place in the State and city of New York. 
 " For where in our country could the cen- 
 tennial of the event have been so worthily 
 celebrated as here ? What seaboard offered 
 so magnificent a bay, on which to display 
 our merchant and naval marine ? What city 
 
 your great exchanges have closed and your 
 citizens given themselves up to the observ- 
 ance of the celebration in which we are par- 
 ticipating. 
 
 " I believe that patriotism has been inten- 
 sified in many hearts by what we have wit- 
 nessed to-day. I believe that patriotism has 
 been placed into a higher and holier fane in 
 many hearts. The bunting with which you 
 
 THE POST OFFICE, NEW YORK. 
 
 offered thoroughfares so magnificent or a 
 people so great or so generous as New York 
 has poured out to-day to celebrate that 
 event ? 
 
 " I congratulate you to-day, as one of the 
 instructive and interesting features of this 
 occasion, that these great thoroughfares dedi- 
 cated to trade have closed their doors and 
 covered up the insignia of commerce ; that 
 
 have covered your walls, these patriotic 
 inscriptions, must go down, and the wage 
 and trade be resumed again. 
 
 " Here may I not ask you to carry tho: e 
 inscriptions that now hang on the walls into 
 you homes, into the schools of your city, 
 into all your great institutions where children 
 are gathered, and teach them that the eye 
 of the young and old should look upon that 
 
882 
 
 ADMINISTRATION OF BENJAMIN HARRISON. 
 
 flag as one of the familiar glories of every 
 American. 
 
 " Have we not learned that no stocks and 
 bonds nor land is our country? It is a 
 spiritual thought that is in our minds ; it is 
 the fireside and the home ; it is the flag and 
 what it stands for ; it is the thoughts that are 
 in our hearts ; born of the inspiration which 
 comes with the story of the flag of martyrs 
 
 the inhabitants of Johnstown, Pennsylvania, 
 and the neighboring villages on the preced- 
 ing day. Instantly the whole land was 
 stirred by the startling news of this great 
 disaster. Its appalling magnitude, its dread- 
 ful suddenness, its scenes of terror and agony, 
 the fate of thousands swept to instant death 
 by a flood as frightful as that of the cataract 
 of Niagara, awakened the profoundest horror. 
 
 THE BATTERY AND CASTLE GARDEN, NEW YORK. 
 
 to liberty; it is the graveyard into which a 
 common country has gathered the uncon- 
 scious deeds of those who died that the thing 
 might live which we love and call our coun- 
 try, rather than anything that can be touched 
 or seen." 
 
 On the advent of summer, June first, the 
 country was horror-stricken by the announce- 
 ment that a terrible calamity had overtaken 
 
 No calamity in the history of modern times 
 so appalled the civilized world. 
 
 The South Forks dam, situated a few miles 
 above the city of Johnstown, suddenly gave 
 way, precipitating an immense body of water 
 into the valley below. The impetuous tor- 
 rent swept downward with frightful velocity, 
 overturning trees, carrying with it barns, 
 houses, fences and vast accumulations of 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF BENJAMIN HARRISON. 
 
 883 
 
 debris. People fled in terror to save their 
 lives, but were overtaken by the rushing tor- 
 rent. The destruction to life and property 
 was appalling. 
 
 The greatest damage occurred at Johns- 
 town, a large part of the dwellings being 
 swept away, transforming a flourishing manu- 
 facturing town of twelve thousand persons 
 into a scene of utter desolation. The story 
 of this great disaster is replete with thrilling 
 incidents, narrow escapes 
 from death, the rending 
 asunder of families, the loss 
 of husbands, wives and chil- 
 dren, and in many instances 
 the obliteration of entire 
 households. It was esti- 
 mated that upwards of four 
 thousand persons perished. 
 
 Profound sympathy 
 throughout the world was 
 awakened for the surviving 
 sufferers,and immense sums 
 of money and contributions 
 of clothing were sent to the 
 scene of the disaster. 
 
 On the twenty-second of 
 February, 1889, an act was 
 passed by Congress admit- 
 ting the following Terri- 
 tories into the Union as 
 States: North Dakota, 
 
 South Dakota, Montana, 
 
 and Washington. President 
 Harrison issued his proclamations by which 
 the admission of these Territories took effect 
 during the same year, that of the two Dakotas 
 on November 2, that of Montana on No- 
 vember 8, and that of Washington on No- 
 vember 1 1. The addition of so many States 
 in one year was styled by the President " an 
 event as unexampled as it is interesting." 
 
 The message of the President, sent to the 
 Fifty-first Congress at the beginning of its 
 
 first session, made reference to the conference 
 held during the year of the representatives 
 of all the independent States of North and 
 South America for the purpose of per- 
 petuating and expanding the relations of 
 mutual interest and friendliness existing 
 among them. While it was hoped com- 
 mercial results would follow, the crowning 
 benefit would be found in the better secu- 
 rities that would be devised for the mainten- 
 
 HARBOR OF NEW YORK. 
 
 ance of peace among all American nations, 
 and the settlement of all contentions by the 
 methods of Christian civilization. 
 
 The message also called attention to the 
 international conference at Washington to 
 adopt a uniform system of marine signals and 
 to amend the rules and regulations governing 
 vessels at sea. The foregoing conferences 
 brought together the accredited representa- 
 tives of thirty-three nations- 
 
884 
 
 ADMINISTRATION OF BENJAMIN HARRISON. 
 
 The President then discussed the question 
 of Chinese immigration. After calling 
 attention to the fact that previous legislation 
 had failed, he continued : " While our 
 supreme interests demand the exclusion of a 
 laboring element, which experience has 
 shown to be incompatible with our social 
 life, all steps to compass this imperative need 
 should be accompanied with a recognition of 
 the claim of those strangers now lawfully 
 among us to humane and just treatment." 
 
 cities against foreign attack, the improvement 
 of rivers and harbors, how far " trusts ' : 
 should be brought under Federal jurisdiction, 
 the revision of our naturalization laws, the 
 allotment of lands to the Indians and such 
 legislation as was required for the protection 
 of these wards of the nation in their lawful 
 rights and of the white settlers on our fron- 
 tiers. The message dealt largely with the 
 subject of pensions for our ex soldiers, and 
 urged that, with due regard to the public 
 
 THE BREAK IN THE SOUTH FORKS DAM, JOHNSTOWN, PA. 
 
 The message took strong ground upon 
 the question of protection to American 
 industries. A new schedule of customs 
 duties was recommended. " The inequalities 
 of the law should be adjusted, but the pro- 
 tective principle should be maintained and 
 fairly applied to the products of our farms as 
 well as of our shops." 
 
 Other subjects discussed in the message 
 were silver coinage, provision for our coast 
 
 treasury, Congress should meet every just 
 claim on the part of those who made heroic, 
 sacrifices in the hour of the nation's perih 
 
 The foregoing were the most important 
 subjects treated by the President, all of which 
 were discussed with marked ability and with 
 a breadth of view which impressed the 
 country with his statesmanlike sagacity. 
 
 For many years the Louisiana State Lot- 
 tery carried on its operations in defiance of 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF BENJAMIN HARRISON. 
 
 885 
 
 the moral sentiment of the country. Both 
 Houses of Congress finally passed, without 
 a division, an act lorbidding the use of the 
 United States mails by any person or com- 
 pany engaged in conducting any lottery, 
 gift enterprise, or any scheme for obtaining 
 money by false and fraudulent pretenses. 
 The passage of this act resulted in the sup- 
 pression of the Louisiana Lottery. 
 
 An act was also passed declaring to be 
 illegal every contract, combination in the 
 form of trust or conspiracy in restraint of 
 trade or commerce among the several States, 
 or with foreign nations. This act passed 
 both Houses of Congress without a division. 
 Its aim was to check the growing evils of 
 trusts and all combinations of capital whereby 
 a restriction is put upon the manufacture and 
 sale of commodities which constitute the 
 necessaries of life. 
 
 Increasing the Navy. 
 
 President Harrison's administration was 
 also signalized by important legislation affect- 
 ing the Navy. Provision was made for the 
 construction of three sea-going coast-line 
 battle ships, to carry the heaviest armor and 
 ordnance, the cost not to exceed $4,000,000 
 each ; one protected cruiser, to have a maxi- 
 mum speed of 2 1 knots, and to cost not more 
 than $2,750,000; one swift torpedo cruiser, 
 to have a maximum speed of not less than 
 23 knots; and one torpedo boat. 
 
 Acts were passed admitting the Territories 
 of Idaho and Wyoming as States into the 
 Union, the act admitting Idaho being ap- 
 proved July 3, and that admitting Wyoming 
 July 10, 1890. 
 
 By a vote of 29 to 5 in the Senate, and a 
 vote of 1 19 to 93 in the House of Represen- 
 tatives, Congress passed an act providing 
 that " All fermented, distilled or other intoxi- 
 cating liquors or liquids transported into any 
 State or Territory remaining therein for use, 
 
 consumption, sale or storage therein, shall, 
 upon arrival in such State or Territory, be 
 subject to the operation and effect of the 
 laws of such State or Territory enacted in 
 the exercise of its police powers, to the same 
 extent and in the same manner as though 
 such liquids or liquors had been produced in 
 such State or Territory, and shall not be ex- 
 empt therefrom by reason of being introduced 
 therein in original packages or otherwise." 
 The act was approved August 8, 1890, 
 
 WILLIAM M KIXLEW 
 
 and was occasioned by a decision of the 
 Un'ted States Supreme Court (three judges 
 dissenting) that brewers in Illinois had the 
 right to import into Iowa beer, and to sell it 
 in original packages without regard to the 
 law of Iowa. Congress took up the matter 
 promptly and provided ample legislation for 
 the enforcement by the various States of 
 their laws relating to the traffic in liquors. 
 
 On the twenty fifth of April, 1890, Con- 
 gress passed an act relating to the Colum- 
 bian Exposition at Chicago. The act 
 provides for an exhibition of arts, indus- 
 tries, manufactures, products of the soil, mine 
 
886 
 
 ADMINISTRATION OF BENJAMIN HARRISON. 
 
 and sea, in 1893, in Chicago, Illinois, in cele- 
 bration of the four hundredth anniversary of 
 the discovery of America by Christopher 
 Columbus. A commission of two persons 
 from each State and Territory to be appointed 
 by the President on the nomination of the 
 Governors, and of eight commissioners at 
 large and two from the District of Columbia, 
 to be appointed by the President, in all which 
 there shall be one from each of the two lead- 
 ing political parties — with alternates— shall 
 be the World's Columbian Commission, with 
 
 CHARLES F. CK1SP. 
 
 power to accept the site, etc., on condition of 
 their being satisfied that $10,000,000 are 
 secured for the complete preparation for said 
 Exposition, The Commission is required to 
 appoint a board of lady managers, who may 
 appoint one or more members of all com- 
 mittees authorized to award prizes for 
 exhibits which may be produced in whole or 
 in part by female labor. 
 
 A naval review is directed to be held in 
 New York harbor in April. 1893, and the 
 President is authorized to extend to foreign 
 nations an invitation to send ships of war to 
 
 join the United States navy in rendevous at 
 Hampton Roads and proceed thence to said 
 review. The buildings shall be dedicated 
 October 12, 1892, and the Exposition open 
 not later than May 1, 1893, and closed not 
 later than October 30, 1893. The Commis- 
 sion shall exist no longer than January I, 
 1898. A government building for $400,000 
 shall be erected, to contain the government 
 exhibits. 
 
 The United States shall not in any manner, 
 .ior under any circumstances, be liable for 
 any of the acts, doings, proceedings or repre- 
 sentations of the said corporation organized 
 under the laws of the State of Illinois, its 
 officers, agents, servants or employees, or 
 any of them, or for the service, salaries, labor 
 or wages of said officers, agents, servants, or 
 employees, or any of them, or for any sub- 
 scriptions to the capital stock, or for any cer- 
 tificates of stock, bonds, mortgages, or obli- 
 gations of any kind issued by said corpora- 
 tion, or for any debts, liabilities or expenses 
 of any kind whatever attending such cor- 
 poration or accruing by reason of the 
 same. 
 
 The foregoing were the main provisions 
 of the act. On December 24, 1890, Presi- 
 dent Harrison issued a proclamation inviting 
 the nations of the earth to take part in the 
 Chicago Exposition of 1893. 
 
 The New Tariff Law. 
 
 One of the most important measures en- 
 acted during President Harrison's admin- 
 istration was the McKinley Tariff Bill. After 
 a lengthy discussion the bill was passed by 
 a party vote, the Republican party being 
 pledged to the principle of protection. The 
 act went into effect October 1, 1890, and in 
 its practical workings was closely watched 
 and universally discussed. 
 
 A remarkable political revolution swept 
 over the country in the autumn of 1890, 
 
887 
 
 without one word of warning each pale face, 
 who would be swept from the face of the 
 
 ADMINISTRATION OF BENJAMIN HARRISON 
 
 which was considered largely due to the 
 enactment of the McKinley Tariff Bill. In 
 the Fifty-first Congress 
 the House of Represen- 
 tatives contained one 
 hundred and seventy-six 
 Republicans and one 
 hundred and fifty-five 
 Democrats. In the Fifty- 
 second Congress there 
 were eighty-eight Re- 
 publicans and two hun- 
 dred and thirty-five De- 
 mocrats. The House 
 was organized by elect- 
 ing Charles F. Crisp, of 
 Georgia, as Speaker. 
 
 In the autumn of 1 890 
 troubles broke out afresh 
 at the Indian agencies. 
 The several tribes were 
 seized with a peculiar 
 craze, and began to per- 
 form the "ghost dance," 
 which was supposed to< j 
 indicate their belief in 1 
 a coming Messiah who 
 was about to appear. 
 
 It seems impossible to 
 trace the exact origin of 
 the Indian faith. An 
 Indian from the upper 
 Columbia River, named 
 Smohalla, preached the 
 doctrine of an Indian 
 Messiah about the year 
 1880. This Indian taught 
 that there would be an 
 upheaval of nature,which 
 would destroy the white 
 man and restore to the 
 Indian his ancestral re- 
 mains, and that the dust of countless dead In- 
 dians would spring to life, and would surround 
 
 SITTING BULL IN HIS WAR-DRESS. 
 
 earth. None of the deadly weapons of 
 civilization or skill in their use would avail, 
 
888 
 
 ADMINISTRATION OF BENJAMIN HARRISON. 
 
 and the blood of eighty millions of whites 
 would atone for the wrongs done to the red 
 race. 
 
 Within a few months the belief in this new 
 religion spread from tribe to tribe with 
 marvellous rapidity. Runners traversed 
 thousands of miles to reach distant tribes 
 •-aid bear the glad tidings. The Arrapahoes, 
 
 CHIEF AMERICAN HORSE. 
 
 the Shoshones, the great Sioux tribes, the 
 Cheyennes, both north and south, and many 
 other tribes, were taught the faith ; and the 
 " ghost-dance," the religious ceremony of 
 the creed, was danced by all these tribes. 
 
 Possessed by these superstitious notions, 
 these extraordinary beliefs, the powerful tribe 
 of Sioux began and continued to perform 
 their fantastic ghost-dances. Sitting-Bull, 
 
 the old deadly foe of the white men, took 
 advantage of the craze to inflame the anger 
 of his people and prepare for deeds of blood. 
 The disquietude among the Sioux Indians 
 resulting from Sitting-Bull's prophecy that a 
 new Messiah was soon to appear to restore 
 to the Indians the land taken from them by 
 the pale-faces, and to bring back the buffalo, 
 ""'"" '"'' "" •'•"• '••"i assumed such proportions that 
 1 on the fourteenth of Novem- 
 ber the Interior Department 
 transferred the control of the 
 Indians of North Dakota, un- 
 der orders of the President, 
 to the War Department, and 
 General Miles, commanding 
 the Department of the Mis- 
 souri, was placed in control. 
 Troops were ordered to be 
 I sent forward, and it was ex- 
 pected that within a short time 
 there would be three thousand 
 regulars massed in North Da- 
 kota. Sitting-Bull had about 
 three thousand warriors, and 
 it was the intention of the War 
 Department to overawe the 
 Indians by bringing against 
 them an equal force of United 
 States soldiers. 
 
 The Indian hostility to 
 those of their number who 
 Were friendly to the United 
 States Government showed 
 itself in the attempted assas- 
 sination of American Horse. This In- 
 dian was a prominent Sioux chief, and a 
 friend of the United States. He was so 
 regarded for years, and was always inclined 
 to be peaceable and loyal. To nothing but 
 the turbulent, hostile and disaffected spirit 
 of the Indians can be attributed the attempt 
 to murder him. They were seemingly 
 angry because American Horse opposed 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF BENJAMIN HARRISON, 
 
 889 
 
 the turbulent spirit manifested by the In- 
 dians. 
 
 On the seventh of December some of the 
 hostile chiefs from the Bad Lands appeared 
 at the Pine Ridge agency to hold a confer- 
 ence with General Brooke. They came bear- 
 ins a flacf of truce and armed with Winchester 
 and Springfield rifles. The entrance of the 
 novel procession cre- 
 ated great excitement. 
 First came the chiefs, 
 who were Turning 
 Bear, Big Turkey, 
 High Pine, Big Bad 
 Horse and Bull Dog, 
 who was one of the 
 leaders in the Custer 
 massacre. Next came 
 Two Strike, the head 
 chief, seated in a bug- 
 gy with Father Jule, 
 a priest who induced 
 the chiefs to take this 
 step. Surrounding 
 these was a body 
 guard of four young 
 warriors. 
 
 All the Indians were 
 decorated with war 
 paint and feathers, 
 while many wore 
 ghost-dance leggings 
 and the ghost-dance 
 shirt dangling at their 
 saddles. The warlike 
 cavalcade proceeded 
 
 at once to General Brooke's spacious head- 
 quarters in the agency residence. At a 
 given signal all leaped to the ground, 
 hitched their ponies and, guided by Father 
 Jule, entered the General's apartments, where 
 the council was held, lasting two hours. 
 
 At the beginning of the pow-wow General 
 Brooke explained that the Great Father, 
 
 through him, asked them to come in and 
 have a talk regarding the situation. A great 
 deal of misunderstanding and trouble had 
 arisen by the reports taken to and fro betweer 
 the camps by irresponsible parties, and it was 
 therefore considered very necessary that they 
 have a talk face to face. Through him, he 
 said, the Great Father wanted to tell them if 
 
 GENERAL NELSON A. MILES. 
 
 they would come in near the agency, where 
 he (General Brooke) could see them often s 
 and not be compelled to depend on heat say, 
 that he would give them plenty to eat and 
 would employ many of their young men as 
 scouts, etc. 
 
 The soldiers did not come there to fight 
 but to protect the settlers and keep peace 
 
390 
 
 ADMINISTRATION OF BENJAMIN HARRISON. 
 
 He hoped they, the Indians, were all in favor 
 of peace, as the Great Father did not want 
 war. As to the feeling over the change in 
 the boundary line between Pine Ridge and 
 Rosebud Agency, he said that and many 
 other things would be settled satisfactorily 
 after they had shown a disposition to come 
 in, as asked by the Great Father. Wounded 
 Knee was suggested as a place that would 
 
 US 
 
 It would be a bad thing for chum to come 
 nearer the agency, because there was no water 
 or grass for their horses here. He could not 
 understand how their young men could be 
 employed as scouts if there was no enemy to 
 be watched. They would be glad to be 
 employed and get paid for it. They might 
 come in, but as the old men and old women 
 have no horses, and as their people have 
 
 CAPTAIN WALLACE FOUND AFTER THE WOUNDED KNEE FIGHTo 
 
 prove satisfactory to the Great Father to have 
 them live. 
 
 The representatives of the hostiles listened 
 with contracted brows, sidelong glances at 
 one another and low grunts. When the 
 General had concluded his remarks, Turning 
 Bear came forward and spoke in reply. He 
 proved a most entertaining person. Sim- 
 mered down to a few words, Turning Bear 
 gave expression to the following ideas : 
 
 nothing generally to pull their wagons, it 
 would take them a long time to come. If 
 they should come they would want the Great 
 Father to send horses and wagons to the 
 Bad Lands camp and bring in great quanti- 
 ties of beef, etc., they had there, and take it 
 anywhere to a new camp that might be 
 agreed on. In conclusion, the speaker hoped 
 that they would be given something to eat 
 before they started back 
 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF BENJAMIN HARRISON. 
 
 891 
 
 To this the general replied that they should 
 be given food. As for horses and wagons 
 being sent after the beef, the general said 
 that and other things would be considered 
 after they had acceded to the Great Father's 
 request to move into the agency. Any 
 reference whatever to the wholesale devasta- 
 tion and depredation, thieving and burning 
 of buildings, etc., was scudiously avoided on 
 both sides. After the pow-wow was over 
 the band was conducted to the quarter- 
 master's department and there given a big 
 feast. The squaws living at the agency came 
 out in gala-day feathers and gave a squaw 
 dance. 
 
 The conference amounted to nothing, and 
 the trouble was no nearer a settlement than 
 before. 
 
 Bloody Engagement with the Sioux. 
 
 The next news received was of a startling 
 character. It was known that General Miles 
 considered Sitting-Bull the chief instigator of 
 the hostilities on the part of the Indians, yet 
 no public notice had been given of his inten- 
 tion to have the crafty old warrior arrested. 
 The Indian police, however, employed on the 
 Pine Ridge reservation, were ordered to 
 make the arrest. The chief was taken, and 
 in the melee which followed an attempt to 
 rescue him he was shot, together with his 
 son and six braves, while four of his captors 
 were slain. 
 
 The following is the dispatch announcing 
 the capture : 
 
 Fort Yates, N. D., December 15, 1890. 
 
 "At daybreak this morning there was a desperate 
 fight at the camp of the hostile Indians, forty miles 
 northwest of Standing-Rock Agency, and before it 
 could be quelled Sitting-Bull, his son, Crow Foot, 
 and six other Indians were killed, besides four of the 
 Indian police, while quite a number on both sides 
 were wounded. The fight was the result of an 
 attempt to arrest Sitting-Bull in order to prevent his 
 departure for the Bad Lands. 
 
 " The Indian police were ordered early this morn- 
 ing to proceed to the camp and arrest the wily old 
 chief, who it was known had arranged to make an 
 early start for the Bad Lands, where he would be 
 almost absolutely safe from arrest. The police were 
 followed by a troop of cavalry in command of Cap- 
 tain Fechet and a company of infantry under Col- 
 onel Drum. When the police reached Sitting-Bull's 
 camp on the Grand River, they found arrangements 
 being made for the departure of the band, and with- 
 out waiting for the soldiers to come up, at once 
 placed the old chief under arrest and started back 
 with him to the agency. 
 
 Efforts to Rescue the Chief. 
 
 " Scarcely had the officers gotten under way when 
 the friends of the old Indian rallied to his rescue. 
 They announced their determination to retake him, 
 and a terrible fight ensued. The police were sur- 
 rounded, and, though greatly outnumbered, they 
 fought like demons and succeeded in holding their 
 own against the redskins until the cavalry, attracted 
 by the firing, came up on a quick run and succeeded 
 in compelling the Indians either to fly or surrender. 
 
 " The fighting was of the hand-to-hand description, 
 and is said to have been exceedingly savage. One 
 of the Indian police jumped on Sitting-Bull's horse 
 as soon as he saw the old man fall and rode back for 
 the infantry, which arrived on the scene shortly 
 after the cavalry had relieved the overmatched 
 police. Then the Indians began to break away, 
 and probably one hundred of the braves deserted 
 their families and fled west, up the Grand River. 
 
 The Killed and Wounded. 
 
 " When the smoke of battle had cleared away it 
 was found that Sitting-Bull was de <d, as also was his 
 son, Crow Foot, and six braves. Four of the police- 
 men, whose names could not be learned, were aloo 
 dead, and three of them badly wounded. A num- 
 ber of the Indians were badly injured, but managed 
 to escape on their ponies. Captain Wallace, com- 
 manding Troop K, of the Seventh Cavalry, was 
 killed, and Lieutenant Garlington of the same regi- 
 ment was shot in the arm." 
 
 After the death of Sitting-Bull his warriors 
 saw the hopelessness of continuing the strife 
 and surrendered, December twenty-second, 
 to the United States troops. 
 
 General William Tecumseh Sherman died 
 at New York City, February 14, 1891, 
 
892 
 
 ADMINISTRATION OF BENJAMIN HARRISON. 
 
 aged seventy-one years. The interment took 
 place at St. Louis, with military honors. 
 Important action was taken by the fifty- 
 
 SCENE ON THE YELLOWSTONE RIVER. 
 
 be excluded from admission into the United 
 States, in accordance with the existing acts 
 regulating immigration : "All idiots, insane 
 
 persons, paupers, or 
 persons likely to 
 become a public 
 charge, persons suf- 
 fering from a loath- 
 some disease or a 
 dangerous conta- 
 gious disease, those 
 who have been con- 
 victed of a felony 
 or other infamous 
 crime or misde- 
 meanor involving 
 moral turpitude, 
 polygamists, and 
 also any person 
 whose ticket or 
 passage is paid for 
 with the money of 
 another or who is 
 assisted by others 
 I to come, unless it is 
 j affirmatively and 
 satisfactorily shown 
 on special inquiry 
 that such person 
 does not belong to 
 one of the fore- 
 going excluded 
 classes, or to the 
 class of contract la- 
 borers excluded by 
 the act of February 
 26, 1885, but this 
 section shall not 
 be held to exclude 
 
 first Congress on the question of immigra- 
 tion. 
 
 The act of March 3, 1 891, provides that 
 the following, besides Chinese laborers, shall 
 
 persons living in 
 the United States from sending for a relative 
 or friend who is not of the excluded classes' 
 under such regulations as the Secretary o" 
 the Treasury may prescribe : Provided, t'lat 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF BENJAMIN HARRISON. 
 
 893 
 
 nothing in this act shall be construed to 
 apply to or exclude persons convicted of a 
 political offense, notwithstanding said polit- 
 ical offense may be designated as a felony, 
 crime, infamous crime, or misdemeanor, 
 involving moral turpitude, by the laws of 
 the land whence he came or by the court 
 convicting." 
 
 Mob Law in New Orleans. 
 
 On March 14, 1891, eleven Italians, who 
 had been accused of conspiracy and the 
 murder of Chief of Police Hennessy, 
 were lynched in New Orleans by an 
 enormous mob, who broke open the 
 jail. The Italian Government made a pro- 
 tect and demanded satisfaction from the 
 United States. Dissatisfied with Mr. Blaine's 
 reply, the Italian Minister to the United 
 States was recalled. Our government finally 
 piid indemnity for the lives lost at New 
 Orleans, and referred all judicial action to the 
 Stale Courts of Louisiana, thereby restoring 
 peaceful relations with Italy. 
 
 The steamer " Itata," loading at San Diegc, 
 California, with arms and ammunition for the 
 Chilean insurgents, was seized on May 6, 
 1 89 1 , by the United States Government. She 
 sailed the following day with the United 
 States deputy marshal on board. The war- 
 ship " Charleston " was sent in pursuit, and 
 the "Itata" was finally turned over to the 
 United States officers in the harbor of Iquique, 
 June fourth. 
 
 An International Copyright Law went into 
 effect July I, 1 891, according to proclamation 
 by President Harrison. The Governments of 
 the United States, Great Britain, France, Bel- 
 gium and Switzerland are parties to the same. 
 
 The Hon. James Russell Lowell, the dis- 
 tinguished author and plenipotentiary, died 
 at Cambridge, Massachusetts, August 12, 
 1 89 1 , aged seventy-two years. The necrology 
 of the year also included the. deaths of the 
 
 two eminent historians, George Bancroft, who 
 died at Washington, January seventeenth, 
 aged ninety, and John Benson Lossing, who 
 died at Chestnut Ridge, New York, June 
 third, aged seventy-eight. 
 
 The Chilean Affair. 
 
 On October 26, 1891, the United States 
 demanded of Chile an explanation and repara- 
 tion for the attacks in the streets of Valpa- 
 raiso on American seamen on the sixteenth 
 instant, and the subsequent action of the 
 Chilean police. The affair caused much 
 excitement throughout the country, and also 
 indignation at what was considered a wanton 
 act of cruelty and an insult to the American 
 flag. President Harrison and his Cabinet 
 took prompt action, a special message detail- 
 ing the outrage was sent to Congress, and 
 soon a satisfactory explanation and apology 
 by Chile ended the unfortunate affair. On 
 July nineteenth the Secretary of State an- 
 nounced that an entirely cordial and mutually 
 satisfactory settlement had been reached 
 between the government of the United States 
 and Chile, respecting the indemnity to be 
 paid by the latter on account of the assault 
 upon the crew of the Baltimore. Seventy- 
 five thousand dollars in gold were to be dis- 
 tributed among families of the two men who 
 lost their lives and to the surviving members 
 of the crew who were wounded. 
 
 On the seventh of June, 1892, the Repub- 
 lican Convention met at Minneapolis. The 
 nomination of President Harrison had been 
 considered a foregone conclusion up to June 
 fourth, when the country was startled by the 
 news that Secretary Blaine had resigned from 
 President Harrison's Cabinet. A letter writ- 
 ten by Mr. Blaine in the preceding February 
 announced that under no consideration would 
 he consent to be a candidate for the Presi- 
 dency. This letter was very generally ac- 
 cepted in good faith, and there was a general 
 
8 9 4 
 
 ADMINISTRATION OF BENJAMIN HARRISON. 
 
 conviction that Mr. Blaine was entirely 
 out of the race. It was known, however, 
 that for some time before the Convention 
 assembled, persistent efforts had been made 
 by enemies of the administration to induce 
 Mr. Blaine to reconsider his letter of Feb- 
 ruary, and allow his name to be used at Min- 
 neapolis ; and when he suddenly resigned 
 from the Cabinet by a curt letter, and his 
 resignation was accepted by President Har- 
 rison in a letter equally brief and barren of 
 all complimentary expressions, it was com- 
 monly believed that the " Plumed Knight " 
 had decided to seek the nomination. 
 
 President Harrison Renominated. 
 
 There was consequently great excitement 
 preceding the organization of the Conven- 
 tion and during its progress. It became evi- 
 dent at once that there would be a hard 
 contest between the two leading candidates. 
 The States at their Conventions had strongly 
 indorsed the administration of Presid' nt 
 Harrison, and many of the delegates had 
 been instructed to vote for his renomination 
 in the National Convention. His friends, 
 after they recovered from the first shock 
 which followed the announcement of Mr. 
 Blaine's resignation, rallied bravely, and 
 remained firm to the end. 
 
 Minneapolis was the scene of animated 
 discussions and unique popular demonstra- 
 tions. The loud huzzahs for Blaine showed 
 that he had a strong hold upon the popular 
 heart ; but the thoughtful mass of delegates 
 who were to decide the question remained 
 true to the President, and worked diligently 
 and wisely to secure his nomination. 
 
 The brilliant eloquence of Chauncey M. 
 Depew, of New York, awakened an unpar- 
 alleled scene of enthusiasm as he placed Mr. 
 Harrison in nomination before the Conven- 
 tion. Mr. Blaine was nominated by Senator 
 Wolcott, of Colorado. 
 
 When the vote was taken it was found to 
 be as follows : Harrison, 535 J; Blaine, 182^; 
 McKinley, 182; Reed, of Maine, 4; Robert 
 Lincoln, of Illinois, 1. On motion of Gov- 
 ernor McKinley, of Ohio, who was chairman 
 of the Convention, the nomination was made 
 unanimous. The Hon. Whitelaw Reid, of 
 New York, was nominated for the Vice- 
 Presidency. 
 
 The platform which was adopted by the 
 Convention was highly commended as a 
 sound exposition of the great principles of 
 the Republican party. 
 
 Ex-President Cleveland Nominated. 
 
 The National Democratic Convention of 
 1 892 was held in Chicago June twenty-first to 
 June twenty-third. It was conceded before 
 the Convention assembled that ex-President 
 Cleveland would again receive the nomina- 
 tion for the Presidency, and the result on the 
 first ballot proved the prediction to have been 
 correct. 
 
 The vote was as follows : For Mr. Cleve- 
 land, 616^3 ; for Senator Hill, of New York, 
 112; for Governor Boies, of Iowa, 103; for 
 Senator Gorman, of Maryland, 36^ ; for 
 Hon. A. E. Stevenson, of Illinois, 16^ ; for 
 Senator Carlisle, of Kentucky, 15 ; for Wil- 
 liam R. Morrison, of Illinois, 5 ; for ex-Gov- 
 ernor Campbell, of Ohio, 2 ; for Governor 
 Robert E. Pattison, of Pennylvania, 1 ; for 
 Hon. William C. Whitney, of New York, 1 ; 
 for Governor Russell, of Massachusetts, 1. 
 
 Ohio moved the rules be suspended and 
 Mr. Cleveland made the nominee by acclama- 
 tion. Governor Flower, of New York, sec- 
 onded the motion to make the nomination 
 unanimous. The motion to suspend rules 
 and declare Mr. Cleveland nominee by accla- 
 mation was carried. 
 
 Hon. Adlai E. Stevenson, of Illinois, was 
 nominated unanimously for the office of Vice- 
 President. 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF BENJAMIN HARRISON. 
 
 895 
 
 " The People's Party of the United States" 
 was formed at a convention at Cincinnati, 
 May 4, 1 89 1. The first National Convention 
 was held in Omaha, Nebraska, July I, 
 1892. On July fourth the nominations were 
 made, resulting in the choice of General 
 James B, Weaver as the nominee for Presi- 
 dent, and George Field, of Virginia, for Vice- 
 President. The platform adopted demanded 
 the free and unlimited coinage of silver, a 
 graduated income tax, the establishment of 
 postal savings banks, the operation of the 
 railroads, the telegraph and telephone by the 
 government, and the election of senators by 
 direct vote of the people. The convention 
 also approved of the Sub-Treasury plan of 
 the Farmers' Alliance, and adopted other 
 resolutions demanding a free and fair ballot, 
 and opposing the granting of subsides to any 
 private corporation for any purpose. 
 
 Prohibition Party. 
 
 The National Convention of the Pro- 
 hibition Party opened in Cincinnati, on the 
 morning of June 29, 1892, and continued in 
 session until July first, The platform declared 
 that the liquor traffic is a foe of civilization, 
 and the manufacture and sale of alcoholic 
 liquors as a beverage should be suppressed; 
 favored female suffrage ; declared that an 
 increase of the volume of money is needed, 
 and its volume should be fixed at a definite 
 sum per capita, and made to increase with 
 population ; favored the free and unlimited 
 coinage of silver and gold ; declared that 
 tariff should be levied only as a defence 
 against foreign governments which levy tariff 
 upon or bar out our products from their 
 markets, revenue being incidental ; favored 
 government control of railroads and tele- 
 graphs, and stricter immigration laws ; con- 
 denmned alien ownership of land ; favored 
 arbitration for settling national disputes, 
 while speculation in margins, the cornering 
 
 of grain, and the promotion of trusts and 
 pools should be suppressed. The party 
 pledged itself to grant just pensions, and 
 affirmed that it was opposed to any appro 
 priation of public money for sectarian schools 
 
 Lockout at Homestead. 
 
 On June 29, 1892, the managers of Car- 
 negie & Co.'s steel works at Homestead, 
 Pennsylvania, closed their establishment, and 
 five thousand employes ceased work. An 
 attempt was made by the company to intro- 
 duce non-union laborers, and in order to 
 protect them, as well as to retain possession 
 of the plant, a Pinkerton force of three hun 
 dred armed men was sent by boat to Home- 
 stead. They attempted to land on the morn- 
 ing of July 6, when a sanguinary contest 
 took place, resulting in the death of severai 
 men on each side and the wounding of many 
 more. The next day the Pinkerton force 
 was withdrawn, and the sheriff of Allegheny 
 county telegraphed to Governor Pattison for 
 a force of State militia sufficient to enable 
 him to hold the company's property. 
 
 After some delay the Governor ordered 
 out the entire militia of the State, under com- 
 mand of General Snowdeno The troops 
 arrived on the twelfth, and were quartered in 
 and around the town,- their presence having 
 a restraining effect upon the strikers. On 
 the fourteenth General Snowden placed the 
 borough of Homestead under martial law. 
 On July twenty-third an Anarchist named 
 Berkman attempted to assassinate Mr. H. C 
 Frick, chairman of the Carnegie Steel Com- 
 pany. Mr. Frick was shot twice, but not 
 fatally. His assailant was captured and 
 lodged in jail. Subsequent developments 
 revealed a plot of the Anarchists to take the 
 lives of leading capitalists. 
 
 What was designated as the Bland Silver 
 Bill was defeated in the House of Representa- 
 tives at Washington on the thirteenth of July, 
 
$96 
 
 ADMINISTRATION OF BENJAMIN HARRISON. 
 
 1892, by a vote of 154 to 136. The bill, 
 which provided for the free coinage of silver, 
 nad previously passed the Senate by a small 
 majority. 
 
 Cyrus W. Field, the projector of the first 
 Atlantic cable, died July 12, 1892, at the age 
 of seventy -three. 
 
 Canadian Tolls. 
 
 On the twentieth of August President 
 Harrison issued a proclamation intended to 
 secure just commercial relations between the 
 United States and Canada. The govern- 
 ment of the Dominion had made a practice 
 of discriminating against the citizens of the 
 United States in the use of the Welland 
 Canal, in violation of the treaty of Washing- 
 ton, concluded May 8, 1871. The President 
 maintained that this discriminating system 
 was unjust and unreasonable. He therefore 
 -iirected that from and after September 1, 
 C892, until further notice, a toll of 20 cents 
 per ton be levied, collected, and paid on all 
 freight of whatever kind or description pass- 
 ing through the St. Mary's Falls Canal in 
 transit to any port of the Dominion of Canada, 
 whether carried in vessels of the United States 
 or of other nations ; and to that extent he 
 suspended from and after said date the right 
 of free passage through said St. Mary's Falls 
 Canal of any and all cargoes or portions of 
 cargoes in transit to Canadian ports. 
 
 During August, 1892, alarming reports of 
 the spread of cholera in Europe caused our 
 government to take action intended to pre- 
 vent the introduction of the pestilence in the 
 United States. On September 1st, President 
 Harrison issued a proclamation subjecting 
 all vessels from infected ports to a quarantine 
 of twenty days. 
 
 George W. Curtis, the eminent author, 
 journalist, and orator, died August 3 1, 1892, 
 aged sixty-eight years. 
 
 The poet John G. Whittier died on Sep- 
 tember 7, 1802. aged eighty-four years. 
 
 The arrival of the steamer " Kite " at Sv 
 John, Newfoundland, September 12, 1892. 
 ended one of the most successful Arctic ex- 
 peditions ever made. The commander was 
 Lieutenant Peary, of the United States N^vy. 
 On his arrival he telegraphed to the Navy 
 Department at Washington as follows • 
 " United States Navy claims highest discov- 
 eries on Greenland, east coast, Independence 
 Bay, 82 degrees north latitude, 34 degrees 
 west longitude, discovered July 4, 1892. 
 Greenland ice cape ends soutl** of Victoria 
 Inlet. The highest point heretofore attained 
 on the east coast is about 75 or yy degrees, 
 and was made by Holdenby, a German. The 
 highest point on the west coast was 83, made 
 by Lockwood and Brainard, of the Greely 
 expedition." Lieutenant Peary's exped ; tion 
 was rich in scientific treasures and geograph- 
 ical discoveries. 
 
 The buildings of the World's Columbian 
 Exposition at Chicago were dedicated, the 
 ceremonies beginning on the nineteenth of 
 October, and continuing to the twenty- 
 second. Distinguished persons were present 
 from all parts of the country, including Vice- 
 President Morton and members of President 
 Harrison's Cabinet. There were military 
 and civic parades, and orations by Hon. 
 Chauncy M. Depew and Hon. Henry Wat- 
 terson. 
 
 On October 25, 1892, Mrs. Caroline 
 Lavinia Scott, wife of President Harrison, 
 died, aged sixty years. Funeral services were 
 held at the White House, Washington, and 
 at Indianapolis. The interment was at the 
 latter place on October 28th. 
 
 The national election on November 8th 
 resulted in the success of the Democratic 
 party by a large majority. The official re- 
 turns showed that Cleveland and Stevenson 
 obtained two hundred and seventy-eight 
 electors, or fifty -five more than a majority oi 
 the Electoral College. 
 
ADMINISTRATION OF BENJAMIN HARRISON. 
 
 897 
 
 On January n, 1893, General Benjamin 
 F. Butler died at Washington, aged seventy- 
 five years. He became prominent during the 
 civil war by the capture and occupation of 
 New Orleans. 
 
 Death of James G. Blaine. 
 
 Closely following the death of General 
 Butler occurred that of James G. Blaine at 
 his residence, in Washington, on January 
 twenty-seventh. From 1862 he served four- 
 teen years in Congress as Representative 
 'rom Maine, and during the last three terms 
 he was Speaker of the House. In the Repub- 
 lican nominations for the Presidency in 1876 
 and 1880 he was defeated by Hayes and 
 Garfield. Appointed United States Senator 
 in 1876, he served till 1881, and acted as 
 Secretary of State under Garfield, but resigned 
 after Garfield's assassination. He was the 
 Republican candidate for the Presidency in 
 1884, but was defeated by Cleveland. 
 
 On the fourth of March, 1888, he received 
 the portfolio' of Secretary of State in Presi- 
 dent Harrison's Cabinet. 
 
 In the long and intricate controversy with 
 Great Britain respecting the Behring Sea fish- 
 eries, Mr. Blaine vigorously maintained the 
 rights of the United States and showed him- 
 self a master of diplomacy. By his speeches 
 and writings he was known as an advocate 
 of protection to American industries, and he 
 made this one of the leading issues in the 
 presidential campaign of 1884. 
 
 To his ability as a statesman was added 
 the charm of varied accomplishments, a com- 
 manding personal appearance, g^e at contro- 
 versial power, and those eminent gifts which 
 distinguish the persuasive orator and suc- 
 cessful leader. Always intensely American 
 in his convictions and sympathies, his con- 
 duct of the State Department at Washington, 
 aimed to maintain our national prerogatives, 
 
 57 
 
 and to extend our influence among the other 
 powers of the globe. 
 
 Early in February, the question of the 
 annexation of Hawaii was brought to the 
 attention of Congress, accompanied with 
 news of a revolution in the Islands. On 
 January fifteenth, the Queen tried to get the 
 Cabinet to sign a new constitution that dis- 
 franchised all foreigners and put the whole 
 government in the hands of the native poli- 
 ticians. The Ministers refused, and when 
 threatened by the Queen, fled for their lives. 
 They returned later and induced the Queen 
 to postpone her stratagem. There was a pub- 
 lic meeting in front of the palace. The Queen 
 announced the failure of her plans, and a 
 native orator demanded the lives of the Min- 
 isters. 
 
 Committee of Public Safety. 
 
 Early in the evening, citizens met and 
 formed a committee of public safety. On 
 January sixteen, the United States steamship, 
 Boston, landed three hundred men, fully 
 armed. They marched to the office of the 
 Consul General of the United States. The 
 marines were sent to the American Legation, 
 while the sailors, with two Gatling guns, 
 camped for a time on private grounds. The 
 committee of public safety rapidly completed 
 its organization, and made arrangements for 
 the proclamation of a provisional government 
 and its protection by armed force. 
 
 Commissioners soon arrived in Washing- 
 ton to conduct negotiations with our govern- 
 ment with a view of forming a protectorate 
 of the Islands or annexing them to the 
 United States. A treaty of annexation was 
 concluded between Secretary of State Foster, 
 and the Commissioners, and on January 
 twenty-first was transmitted to the United 
 States Senate. No action with a view to 
 annexation was taken by Congress. 
 
CHAPTER XLIX. 
 
 Second Administration of Grover Cleveland. 
 
 Second Inauguration of President Cleveland — The New Cabinet — Extraordinary Session of Congre*- 
 Repeal of the Sherman Silver Law — New Tariff Bill — The Bill Passes the House of Reprehentativesr- 
 Discussiou in the Senate — Over Six Hundred Amendments — Senate Bill Rejected by the House — After 
 wards Passed — The President Refuses to Sign the Bill — Bland Seigniorage Bil — Utah Admitted as .- 
 State — Congress Investigates the Relations of the United States to Hawaii — Subsequent Events. 
 
 ON THE 4th of March, 1893, 
 Grover Cleveland entered for 
 the second time upon his duties 
 as President of the United States. 
 The ceremonies of inauguration drew visitors 
 to Washington from all parts of the country, 
 and were of the usual imposing character. 
 Mr. Cleveland announced the members of 
 his Cabinet as follows : 
 
 Secretary of State, Walter Q. Gresham, 
 of Illinois; Secretary of the Treasury, John 
 G. Carlisle, of Kentucky ; Secretary of War, 
 Daniel S. Lamont, of New York; Attorney- 
 General, Richard Olney, of Massachusetts ; 
 Postmaster-General, Wilson S. Bissell, of 
 New York ; Secretary of the Navy, Hilary A. 
 Herbert, of Alabama ; Secretary of the Inte- 
 rior, Hoke Smith, of Georgia; Secretary of 
 Agriculture, Julius S. Morton, of Nebraska. 
 Congress was called together in extraordi- 
 nary session August 7th, and received a mes- 
 sage from President Cleveland. The main 
 object ot the message was to recommend the 
 immediate repeal cf what was known as the 
 Sherman law, relating to the purchase of 
 silver by the govt- rnment for coinage. The 
 session was preceded by a period of great 
 financial depression, the closing of many 
 manufacturing establishments and a general 
 disturbance of the industrial and business 
 interests of the country. A bill for the 
 repeal of the obnoxious law was introduced 
 into the House of Representatives by Hon. 
 William L. Wilson, of West Virginia, and 
 898 
 
 after brief discussion, was promptly passec 
 by a large majority, August 28th. 
 
 The bill then went to tLe Senate, where t 
 protracted struggle ensued, attended at time. c 
 by bitter personalities, and by " filibustering ' 
 on the part of the minority, thereby prevent 
 ing the majority from declaring its expressec 
 will. At length the bill passed the Senate 
 October 30th, by a vote of forty-three tc 
 thirty-two. 
 
 The New *ann Bill. 
 
 The second session of the Fifty-third Con- 
 gress began on the first Monday of Decem- 
 ber, 1893. The most important business 
 was the passage of the Tariff bill. The nev 
 Tariff bill derived its name from Mr. Wilson, 
 Chairman of the Ways and Means Com- 
 mittee. 
 
 Preliminary work was begun upon the 
 bill by the Ways and Means Committee oi 
 the House, in October, 1893, during the extra 
 session called by the President for the repeal 
 of the Sherman Silver act. It was reported 
 to the House on December 19, and on Janu- 
 ary 8, 1894, it began to be discussed in that 
 body. It passed the House, February 1 , by a 
 vote of 204 to 140, having been modified in 
 only one important feature — sugar being 
 made free of duty. On the 2d of February 
 it was reported to the Senate and at once 
 referred to the Finance Committee. 
 
 Promptly on receiving the Wilson bill, the 
 Finance Committee gave over its task to z 
 
SECOND ADMINISTRATION 
 
 sub-committee, consisting of Mills, Jones 
 and Vest, who completed a bill on tariff- 
 reform lines, making few changes in the 
 Wilson bill. This was reported to the full 
 committee on February 26. Thereupon Mr. 
 Gorman called together the Democratic 
 caucus to instruct the sub-committee to go to 
 work again and reconstruct the bill so that it 
 would suit the Protectionist Democratic 
 Senators. 
 
 A New Bill Reported. 
 
 The sub-committee made a new bill, 
 *" amending " the Wilson bill in several hun- 
 dred particulars, and altering its character in 
 a Protectionist sense. It was reported to the 
 Senate on March 20, but was still unsatisfac- 
 tory. On May 5, Mr. Gorman called another 
 caucus to secure unanimity, after which, on 
 May 8, some four hundred new amendments 
 were reported. 
 
 "The Senate bill " had assumed its final 
 form. On July 3 it passed the Senate, and 
 on the 7th — the House rejecting the 634 
 Senate amendments in gross — consideration 
 of points of disagreement between the two 
 Houses was begun in the conference com- 
 mittee. The Senate conferees presented an 
 ultimatum — " the Senate bill as it is or no 
 tariff legislation." 
 
 The House conferees demanded free raw 
 materials and no protection for sugar, but in 
 vain. On July 19, Mr. Wilson reported the 
 continued disagreement to the House, at the 
 same time making public the President's 
 letter insisting on free raw materials. In the 
 Senate, Mr. Gorman replied in a defiant 
 speech, full of personal flings. 
 
 After a week of sensations, Senator Hill's 
 proposal to recede from the amendments 
 putting a duty on ore and coal was voted 
 down and the bill sent back to conference. 
 After some further dickering by the " com- 
 promisers " and an attempt on the part of 
 
 OF GROVER CLEVELAND. 899 
 
 Mr. Hill to kill the bill in the Senate, the 
 House became alarmed at the supposed 
 prospect of failure of all tariff legislation, 
 and on August 1 3 passed the Senate bill. 
 On the same day the House passed four bills, 
 putting sugar^ coal, ore and barbed wire on 
 the free list, but they were not acted on by 
 the Senate. 
 
 The President neither signed nor vetoed 
 the Tariff bill and it became a law without 
 his signature, taking effect August 28, 1894. 
 
 Next in general importance to the Tariff 
 and Silver Repeal bills, were two measures 
 which passed both the Senate and the House, 
 one to receive the approval of the President, 
 and the other to be returned to the body 
 whence it came, accompanied by a veto mes- 
 sage. These were the Bland Seigniorage 
 bill, which was vetoed, and the bill repealing 
 " all statutes relating to Supervisors of Elec- 
 tions and Special Deputy Marshals." 
 
 Action Concerning the Chinese. 
 
 Another important measure enacted into 
 law, was that providing that all Chinese now 
 in the United States should register in the 
 offices of Internal Revenue Collectors. 
 
 An act enabling Utah to enter the Union 
 was also enacted, the same to go into effect 
 July 4, 1895. Acts enabling Njw Mexico 
 and Arizona to become States, were passed 
 by the House. 
 
 Other bills which became laws during the 
 session, were to give effect to the award ren- 
 dered by the Bering Sea Arbitration 
 Tribunal ; to permit the construction of a 
 bridge across the Hudson, between New 
 York City and the New Jersey shore ; to 
 permit the construction of a bridge across 
 the Delaware at Frankford, Philadelphia ; 
 extending the limits of the port of New York 
 so as to include Yonkers ; making Labor 
 Day a legal holiday ; extending for one year 
 the time for final proof and payment of lands 
 
900 
 
 SECOND ADMINISTRATION OF GROVER CLEVELAND. 
 
 claimed under the public land laws; reducing 
 the time of enlistments in the army from five 
 to three years ; to promote the efficiency of 
 the naval militia by allowing the naval 
 reserves of a State the use of a war vessel 
 for manoeuvres ; to exempt the articles of 
 foreign exhibitors at the Inter-State Fair at 
 Tacoma, Washington, from the payment of 
 duties; joint resolutions conferring diplomas 
 upon designers, inventors, and expert artisans 
 who assisted in the perfection and production 
 of exhibits awarded medals or diplomas at 
 the World's Fair; providing for the appoint- 
 ment of a commission to the Antwerp Inter- 
 national Exposition ; permitting taxation of 
 National Bank notes, and authorizing the 
 condemnation of land at Gettysburg for 
 marking the lines of battle and the position 
 of troops, and for opening avenues, etc. 
 
 During the session about 8000 bills were 
 introduced in the House and referred to the 
 various committees. These measures covered 
 every conceivable subject of legislation. The 
 committees acted on about 1500 of them. 
 
 About 800 of them were passed by the 
 House and sent to the Senate, but owing to 
 the extended debate on the Tariff bill in 
 the latter body they did not receive its 
 consideration. 
 
 The policy of the Administration with 
 reference to the admission of Hawaii, and 
 more particularly Secretary Gresham's allega- 
 tion that Queen Liliuokalani's overthrow was 
 accomplished through the presence of United 
 States marines in Honolulu, formed a subject 
 of a long inquiry by the Committee on 
 Foreign Relations. Dozens of witnesses 
 were examined, and the committee finally 
 made a report which was construed to mean 
 a vindication of both Commissioner Blount 
 and Minister Stevens, the Administration and 
 the Provisional Government. The report was 
 not considered in the Senate, but the matter 
 was settled by the adoption of a resolution 
 
 practically indorsing all parties concerned 
 and reaffirming the Monroe doctrine witK 
 respect to Hawaii. 
 
 During the session there were sent to the 
 Senate by the President 246 1 messages con- 
 taining nominations. Inasmuch as some of 
 these messages contained more than are 
 usual, notably, in the case of military and 
 naval promotions, a fair estimate of the total 
 number would be 3000. Of these, all were 
 acted upon but about fifty. The most cele- 
 brated cases that resulted in rejection, were 
 those of Messrs. Hornblower and Peckham, 
 both of New York, nominated to be Asso- 
 ciate Justices of the Supreme Court. 
 
 During the session there were created by 
 Jeath and resignation five vacancies in the 
 Senate and eighteen in the House. 
 
 Subsequent events included two issues of 
 bonds to maintain the gold reserve. Anotho 
 issue was provided for, and the subscription 
 was opened in New York, February 20, 1895. 
 Subscriptions for $60,000,000 were made in 
 a few minutes. 
 
 On April 8, 1895, the United States 
 Supreme Court delivered a decision respect- 
 ing the Income Tax law, which declared 
 that the Federal Government had no author- 
 ity to collect a tax on incomes derived from 
 state, county and municipal bonds. 
 
 A message sent to Congress by President 
 Cleveland concerning the dispute between 
 Great Britain and Venezuela awakened great 
 interest throughout the country, and led to 
 the formation of a Commission for investiga 
 tion. 
 
 On January 4, 1896, President Cleveland 
 issued a proclamation admitting Utah as a 
 state into the Union. 
 
 Bids for $100,000,000 of 4 per cent, bonds 
 were opened at the Treasury Department, 
 Thursday, February 6, 1896. There were 
 nearly 4700 distinct offers, aggregating 
 nearly $700,000,000. 
 
CHAPTER L. 
 
 Cuba and Venezuela. 
 
 Story of Cuban Insurrections — Great Revolution of 1848— Gallant Uprising of the People for Life and Liberty Long 
 
 and Bitter Struggle — Political Situation in Cuba — Insurrection of 1895-96 — Boundary Line Dispute between 
 Venezuela and Great Britain — The Monroe Doctrine Asserted. 
 
 SINCE the beginning of the present 
 century- Cuba has been the scene of 
 revolutions or uprisings of one kind 
 or another. The direct aim of most, 
 if not all, of these has been to free the 
 island from Spanish control. The city armed 
 natives, joined by bands of stragglers and 
 aided by filibusters, have struggled without 
 organization against drilled, uniformed and 
 comparatively well-equipped regular troops 
 representing Spain. 
 
 For a long time insurrection was the term 
 applied to these uprisings. At first and, 
 indeed, until recently, it may be doubted if 
 these uprisings had the genuine sympathy 
 of the Cubans as a body. And, conse- 
 quently, they were foredoomed to be failures- 
 But the history of these struggles is re- 
 plete with brave deeds and exhibitions of 
 personal courage and strategy that would 
 do credit to a body of men familiar with 
 the science of warfare and accustomed to 
 facing danger on the battle-field. 
 
 The Spanish colonies, Cuba excepted, 
 gained their independence in 1820-21. Boli- 
 var was their successful leader, and when 
 he had freed the other provinces of Spain 
 he turned his attention particularly to Cuba. 
 But for a time his project failed ; some revo- 
 lutionists allege that it was the refusal of the 
 United States to countenance such efforts 
 
 which prevented their success. Be that as 
 it may, the efforts of the islanders to throw 
 off the Spanish yoke came to nothing mate- 
 rial. But Bolivar and his fellow-conspirators 
 were determined and sought by every means 
 in their power to stir up rebellion in the 
 island. Commissioners were sent to Cuba 
 to create sentiment favorable to revolution. 
 They were soon seized by the Spanish au- 
 thorities and executed. Bolivar's plan came 
 to a dismal end. 
 
 Revolution was in the blood of many of 
 the Cubans, however, and not many years 
 later it had manifestation. From 1848 to 
 1854 small and ill-planned uprisings took 
 place. Certain elements in the Southern 
 States assisted in t couraging these insur- 
 rections. 
 
 There was for some time in Southern cir- 
 cles a project looking to the annexation 
 of Cuba and its division into four States, 
 each of which, of course, would have been 
 entitled to representation in Congress, giv- 
 ing the South, perhaps, eight Senators and 
 sixteen Representatives, and so throwing 
 the balance of power here into the hands of 
 the slavery advocates. 
 
 The most important of these movements 
 was that headed by Narciso Lopez, who 
 had served in the Spanish army as a gen- 
 eral of division, but who, on going to Cuba, 
 
 901 
 
902 
 
 CUBA AND VENEZUELA. 
 
 espoused the cause of the revolutionists. 
 He, with Crittenden, the Kentuckian, with a 
 force of some 400 Americans and 200 
 Cubans, set out from New Orleans, landing 
 at Cardenas, on the north coast of Cuba, and 
 captured it by assault. 
 
 The victory was a hollow one, for the time 
 had been ill-advised and the country did not 
 rise. 
 
 Finding themselves without support and 
 seeing that without aid from the Cubans, 
 they must be captured or driven into the 
 sea, the invaders returned to Key West. 
 The Cubans on that occasion regarded the 
 movement as one solely in the interest of 
 slavery, and believed its projectors '"^oire^ 
 by mercenary motives. 
 
 His Star in the Ascendant. 
 
 But Lopez was not to be cast down by o^e 
 failure. He made a second attempt, and 
 landed at Bahia Honda. There he encoun- 
 tered a force of Spanish troops, under Gen- 
 eral Henna, and put them to rout. The 
 Spanish commander was killed, and for the 
 time the star of Lopez was in the ascendant. 
 
 Still the country did not rise. Lopez, in the 
 western end of the island, where Spanish 
 troops were strongest and the revolution- 
 ary spirit weakest, soon found himself sur- 
 rounded and overpowered. Crittenden, who 
 was to have joined him, remained on the 
 coast, and finally attempted to escape by 
 taking to the open sea in boats. He was 
 captured, with fifty of his men, and all were 
 put to death in Havana. 
 
 The execution was marked by atrocities, 
 the news of which rang through the civil- 
 ized world. 
 
 The forces of Lopez, overpowered by 
 Spanish troops, were dispersed with ease. 
 The commander himself was garroted. 
 
 The island was quiet for a time then, but 
 not for long. Other attempts to raise the 
 
 country up to 1854 were those of Pinto, a 
 Spaniard of revolutionist tendencies ; Es- 
 trampes and Aguero, the last-named oi 
 whom freed all his slaves before he raised 
 the rebel standard. He was the first out- 
 spoken abolitionist in Cuba. He and the 
 other leaders were captured after a brief 
 struggle and executed. 
 
 Minor Insurrections. 
 
 There were some unimportant risings after 
 that, but none of note untu after the Ameri- 
 can civil war. This conflict abolished .sla- 
 very. Then the Southern States had no 
 further object in meddling with Cuba. The 
 filibustering movements died out. It re- 
 mained for Cuba to attempt to work out its 
 own salvation. 
 
 In 1868 came the hour which thousands 
 of patriots hailed as the dawn of deliver- 
 ance; for on October io, of that year, Ces- 
 pedes raised the five-barred flag at Yara, 
 He was a lawyer and logical above all 
 things , so to begin with he freed his two 
 hundred slaves and they followed him to 
 battle to a man. The entire eastern end ot 
 the island rose against the Spaniards at the 
 call of Cespedes, but the men were without 
 arms or discipline. Their spirit was un- 
 questioned, but they were of. little utility 
 against well-armed and disciplined forces. 
 
 Their leaders were Maximo Gomez, who 
 is now commander-in-chief of the revolution- 
 ary forces ; Marmol and Figueredo. 
 
 The centre of the island, called Cama- 
 guey, flocked to the standard of the Mar- 
 quis de Lucia and the Agramontes in No- 
 vember, and as enthusiasm and confidence 
 came with numbers the be^nning of 1889 
 saw Las Villas in rebellion with 14,000 men, 
 among whom there were not more than 100 
 armed with effective firearms. To oppose 
 these unarmed and undisciplined enthusiasts 
 there were 15,000 regulars. 
 
CUBA AND VENEZUELA. 
 
 903 
 
 The western end of the island proved 
 cold, but even there small uprisings were 
 fomented. They were put down without dif- 
 ficulty. 
 
 Aid from without was not wanting. In 
 December, 1868, General Quesada landed 
 with the first expedition from Nassau, bring- 
 ing the first consignment of arms and muni- 
 tions of war. The revolutionist cause 
 prospered, and on April 10, 1869, a new 
 government was constituted and a House of 
 Assembly established. Cespedes was Presi- 
 dent of the provisional government, and 
 Quesada commander-in-chief of the forces. 
 
 Proclamation of Freedom. 
 
 The government, which had little beyond 
 its name, issued a proclamation giving free- 
 dom to all the negroes in the island — a mat- 
 ter which gave great offence to the Spaniards, 
 even those of liberal tendencies. 
 
 Ten years of desultory warfare followed. 
 The revolutionists held the centre of the 
 island and the mountains, but were unable 
 to obtain any standing in the seaports, as 
 their flag was not recognized there by the 
 great powers, although it was duly saluted 
 from time to time by the South American 
 Republics. The United States did not recog- 
 nize the revolutionists, despite the efforts of 
 General Rawlings and Senator Sherman to 
 that end. 
 
 Every effort was made to send arms to the 
 insurgents. There were continual attempts 
 at blockade running. Some of these expe- 
 ditions evaded capture, but others were taken 
 by Spanish troops and the leaders were 
 promptly executed. The most notable was 
 that of the Virginius, under Captain Fry. 
 The Virginius put out from Kingston, 
 Jamaica. 
 
 The capture of the Virginius and the sum- 
 mary execution of American citizens by the 
 Spanish authorities so excited this nation 
 
 at the time that war with Spain seemed cer- 
 tain. This was one of the most notable inci- 
 dents in Cuban history, at least in point of 
 American interest. 
 
 Public Agitation. 
 
 Had the popular voice been heeded at 
 that time a peaceful solution of the difficulty 
 would have been impossible. Feeling ran 
 so high throughout the country that public 
 meetings were held all over the country 
 denouncing the execution as a butchery, and 
 warlike preparations were begun in many 
 cities. In some cases ships were prepared 
 to go to sea in anticioation of an immediate 
 declaration of war. 
 
 The voyage of the Virginius was begun in 
 November of 1873. The steamer was pur- 
 sued by the Spanish warship Tornado, and 
 captured within sight of the Morant Point 
 Light-house, at the east end of Jamaica. 
 She was towed at once into Santiago de 
 Cuba, despite the fact that she was flying the 
 Stars and Stripes and was in British waters. 
 Fifty-three of her men were shot in a public 
 square in Santiago, in some instances after 
 they had been given a trial lasting only ten 
 minutes. 
 
 Among them was Captain Joseph Fry, 
 who commanded the ship; Bernade Varona, 
 W. A. C. Ryan, Jesus del Sol and Pedro 
 Cespedes. There was no United States 
 cruiser within reach of Santiago, but the 
 British man-of-war Niobe arrived in time to 
 prevent further slaughter of American and 
 English subjects. Her commander, Sir 
 Lambon Lorraine, acted with quickness and 
 determination. 
 
 " Shoot another Englishman or Ameri- 
 can," he said, " and the Niobe will bombard 
 the city." 
 
 Then the slaughter ceased. Both the 
 United States and England protested through 
 their representatives, and sent men-of-war to 
 
9°4 
 
 CUBA AND VENEZUELA. 
 
 protec; the other prisoners. The survivors 
 were delivered up to the rescuing ships and 
 brought to New York, and the Virginias, 
 with a hole in her bottom, sank off Frying 
 Pan Shoals. 
 
 The Difficulty Settled. 
 
 The return of the survivors and an accu- 
 rate knowledge of the details of the shooting 
 only served to fan into fierce blaze the fire of 
 popular indignation. The general voice was 
 for war with Spain, and General Sickles, then 
 American Minister in Madrid, had already 
 asked to be recalled, and was preparing to 
 leave the capital. Finally, however, the mat- 
 ter was adjusted diplomatically. The Spanish 
 Government paid an indemnity for the Amer- 
 ican subjects shot with General Ryan and 
 Thomas Ryan, and the war cloud blew over. 
 
 But in Cuba the revolutionists continued 
 their fight for supremacy. For five years — 
 until 1878 — they strove against terrible odds 
 in the centre of the island and in the moun- 
 tains. At last they saw that the lack of 
 arms and supplies and of money to purchase 
 either had made the struggle a hopeless one, 
 and they decided to make peace. 
 
 A treaty was signed, by which Spain 
 granted the native Cubans certain liberties, 
 promised to reform their administration in 
 some measure, and recognized the freedom 
 of all the slaves who had fought in the 
 Cuban army. It had been a long and des- 
 perate fight. Quesada had been succeeded 
 as general-in-chief by General Thomas Jor- 
 dan, formerly General Beauregard's chief of 
 staff and a West Pointer. He lent much 
 strength to the cause, but abandoned it as 
 hopeless after a year's campaigning in the 
 face of overwhelming odds, and with a few 
 arms and scant supplies. After him came 
 Agramonte, but he died in a year, and then, 
 when the rebel cause seemed to be prosper- 
 ing, General Gomez took command. He 
 
 invaded the western part of the island and 
 almost reached Matanzas, but he, too, saw 
 that he could not gain ground with unarmed 
 men and withdrew his forces. That was in 
 1876, and from that time the revolution 
 waned until the treaty of El Zanjon in Feb- 
 ruary, 1878. 
 
 Still there was not entire quiet. In the 
 east end of Cuba General Maceo refused to 
 recognize the treatv, and continued to fight 
 for eleven months, only to fail in the end 
 and be driven from Cuban soil. 
 
 The Latest Uprising. 
 
 The treaty concessions were by no means 
 liberal enough to maintain order for any 
 length of time. In 1889 General Garcia 
 tried again. He had been captured in Cuba 
 in 1875 and sent to a fortress in Spain. He 
 shot himself while in prison ; but the bullet 
 failed, and when he recovered he made his 
 escape and reached the United States. 
 
 Here he conferred with Jose Marti, Presi- 
 dent of the Cuban revolutionary party, 
 1895-96, and they planned another expedi- 
 tion to Cuba. They landed and held their 
 ground for six months, only to find that the 
 country was not ripe for revolt. The Cubans, 
 weary of continual turmoil and bloodshed, 
 longed for quiet. At last Garcia was cap- 
 tured and sent once more to Spain. 
 
 From this time dates the autonomist party, 
 started by a group of men who maintained 
 that experience would not justify further 
 attempts to gain freedom for Cuba by force 
 of arms, and that the island's hope lay in 
 peaceful measures alone. The party gained 
 a footing very rapidly ; indeed, its existence 
 and doctrine had much to do with the failure 
 of General Garcia. 
 
 Despite the efforts of the peace party, how- 
 ever, there were revolutionist leaders who 
 were ready to try again. In 1884 Generals 
 Gomez and Maceo visited the United States 
 
CUBA AND VENEZUELA. 
 
 905 
 
 an 1 Central America with a view of prepar- 
 ing for another invasion. The movement 
 was opposed bitterly by the home- rule party 
 in Cuba and was abandoned. Small and ill- 
 advised attempts at revolution followed from 
 time to time after that, notably those headed 
 by Limbana Sanchez, Benitez and Aguero. 
 
 The home-rulers, in the meantime, were 
 attempting to get what concessions they 
 could from Spain by peaceful means. In 
 1890 they became restless again. The 
 peace policy did not prosper. Cuba was 
 growing uneasy again. The concessions, 
 small and unsatisfactory at all times, began 
 to be regarded as sops which Spain dis- 
 tributed to maintain peace. They gave no 
 promise of more libera? treatment in future. 
 Men began to say that the native Cubans 
 were cheated at the polls, and in time their 
 representatives went to the Cortes no more. 
 
 Changes in Cuba. 
 
 For fourteen years the home-rulers, led 
 by such men as Govin Monture, Figueroa, 
 Fernandez, De Castro and Siberga, had made 
 most vigorous fights at the polls, and, not- 
 withstanding conservative frauds, had sent 
 their best orators to the Spanish Parliament. 
 It was to no purpose. The home-rulers 
 spoke to empty benches in Spain, and no 
 party there recognized them. They suc- 
 ceeded, nevertheless, in forcing the conserva- 
 tives in Cuba to modify their policy and aided 
 manfully to complete the emancipation of the 
 negro, following the Cuban constitution, 
 which declared that "all men are free." 
 With the economic party they forced the 
 government to celebrate the Spanish-Ameri- 
 can treaty, without which the fate of the 
 island was sealed. 
 
 The conservatives divided into two groups, 
 one leaning toward union with the Cubans 
 on economic questions, and hoping secretly 
 for the annexation of Cuba by the Unite 1 
 
 States. They were demoralized by the re- 
 fusals of the liberals from the polls, the 
 autonomists having declared that unless the 
 obnoxious suffrage laws, which gave the 
 Spaniards a sure majority at the polls and 
 disfranchised the Cuban rural population, 
 were abolished, they would never go to 
 Parliament again. 
 
 The Liberal Party. 
 
 The Spanish liberals really formed the 
 economist party to obtain commercial con- 
 cession and secure a treaty with the United 
 States, and by joining hands with the Cubans 
 they forced Spain's hand in the matter. 
 
 But this, like the other efforts to restore 
 quiet and content, proved a failure. The 
 Cubans complained that in return for the 
 treaty and its benefits to the island, Spain 
 imposed new taxes, which more than coun- 
 terbalanced all the good that had been done. 
 Representatives were sent to the Spanish 
 i^a liament again, the home-rule contingent 
 demanding, as of old, electoral reform suffi- 
 cient to guarantee just representation. 
 
 It was then that the Cuban revolutionary 
 party began to gain prominence — the party 
 which has drawn the sword now — and as- 
 serted boldly that peaceful measures, look- 
 ing to freedom and equality, had failed, and 
 that Cuba must take up arms again and drive 
 the Spanish soldiers into the sea. Such talk 
 was dangerous on Cuban soil. Leaders of 
 the party who were not already in exile left 
 Cuba and began to plan from the outside, to 
 raise money, to stir up the native population 
 by secret agents — in a word, to prepare the 
 island for one grand united effort to be free. 
 
 While this sentiment was being nursed at 
 home and outside of Cuba the peace party 
 was still at work on its own lines. In 1894 
 the reform wing of the Spaniards joined the 
 Cubans in their fight against the Spanish 
 conservatives. They secured some reforms. 
 
go6 
 
 CUBA AND VENEZUELA. 
 
 but these, the Cubans say, are a mere farce, 
 as the proposition now being passed upon 
 is the establishment of a council in Cuba in 
 which the Spanish element will predominate. 
 This council was to consist of thirty mem- 
 bers, of which fifteen were to be appointed 
 by the crown, and the remainder elected. 
 The method of electing, the Cubans contend, 
 would insure a majority for the Spaniards, 
 and in any event the council might be dis- 
 solved at pleasure by the Captain-General, 
 Callejas. 
 
 The Cubans want universal suffrage, and 
 have been unable to secure it, as the Span- 
 iards have insisted upon certain property 
 qualifications. 
 
 Spread of the Insurrection, 
 
 On the 14th of March, 1895, Marti and 
 Gomez, the Cuban exiles, with a handful of 
 companions, landed at Baracoa, on the east- 
 ern coast of Cuba, and proclaimed the re- 
 public. The effect of this bold move was 
 instantaneous. The news spread from end 
 to end of the island, and although the friends 
 of Cuba thought the moment ill-timed, hun- 
 dreds of sympathizers flocked to the patriot 
 standard. Like a prairie fire beiore a brisk 
 breeze the single spark of insurrection fired 
 the dry tinder of the oppressed Cubans, and 
 the rebellion grew in volume as it fL*\v west- 
 ward. 
 
 This is not Spain's first experience of the 
 temper of her colony. For the past seventy 
 years conspiracy, insurrection, rebellion and 
 red war have followed one another in endless 
 progression. A few words will suffice to 
 explain the cause leading up to the conflict 
 of 1895-96. 
 
 Cuba became a possession of Spain by the 
 right of discovery on Columbus' second 
 voyage. He named it Juana, after the son 
 of Ferdinand and Isabella, and it has suc- 
 cessively been known as Juana, Fernandina, 
 
 Santiago, Ave Maria and Cuba, the latter 
 being the native name of the Queen of the 
 Antilles. It was colonized by Spain, and its 
 early history is a series of sacks and ravages 
 by European foes. Not until the rule of 
 Captain-General Las Casas, beginning 1790, 
 did prosperity begin. 
 
 A Wise Administration. 
 
 Under his guidance agriculture and com- 
 merce flourished, and the condition of the 
 native population was ameliorated. The 
 effect of his sagacious rule was felt for over 
 thirty years, and when Napoleon deposed 
 the royal family of Spain, every member of 
 the Cabildo took oath to preserve the island 
 for their monarchy, and, going even further, 
 they declared war against the French con- 
 queror. This much to show the instinctive 
 feeling of the colony toward the mother 
 country. 
 
 Spanish coffers were empty with the re- 
 storation of the Bourbons in the person of 
 Ferdinand VII., and Spain's mistress looked 
 with hungry eyes upon the rich island with 
 her 1800 miles of seacoast, gemmed with 
 prosperous ports and her plantations of in- 
 digo, sugar, tobacco and fruit. It was For- 
 tunata's purse wherein Spain might dip her 
 fingers and forever find it full to overflowing. 
 With this discovery came oppressive taxa- 
 tion. With the gradual impoverishment of 
 Spain came added demands. Then the de- 
 privation of all civil, political and religious 
 liberty and the exclusion of Cubans from all 
 public stations, and in order to enforce this 
 the Cubans were taxed to support a standing 
 army and navy — their gaolers. 
 
 With their oppression came their desire 
 for liberty. In 1829 the Black Eagle con- 
 spiracy arose. The purpose of this was 
 to throw off the Spanish yoke. It was sup- 
 pressed, but was followed in 1 840 by an 
 insurrection of the colored population. After 
 
CUBA AND VENEZUELA. 
 
 <?o> 
 
 smouldering and blazing for a while the fires 
 of insurrection were smothered only to break 
 out eight years later in a genuine conspiracy 
 of the Cubans under the leadership of Nar- 
 ciso Lopez. This rebellion was quelled and 
 Lopez fled. In 1850 he landed in Cuba with 
 600 men from the United States. He made 
 a third attempt in 185 1, and together with 
 most of his companions was captured and 
 executed by the Spanish authorities. 
 
 Insurgents Recognized. 
 
 The Reformist party, which sprang up at 
 this time, succeeded in getting an inquiry of 
 the abuses at Madrid, with the result, how- 
 ever, of increased taxation, In 1868 the 
 Advance party in Cuba rose in the district 
 of Bayamo, and on October io, 1868, signed 
 a declaration of independence at Manzanillo. 
 Their first successes were so great that 
 almost all the Spanish-American republics 
 recognized the insurgents as belligerents. 
 After a war of ten years, that was confined 
 to the mountainous regions east of the town 
 of Puerto Principe, the rebellion was put 
 do.vn. To confine it to that locality the 
 Spanish troops built a great fortified trench, 
 known as La Trocha, across the entire width 
 of the island, in the western portion of the 
 State of Puerto Principe. It was here that 
 Captain- General Campos drew up his forces 
 last summer to prevent the eastward march 
 of the insurgents, who were now heavily re- 
 inforced. 
 
 All during the summer of 1895 the insur- 
 gent leaders were organizing their forces and 
 receiving supplies of arms and ammunition. 
 The people were flocking to the standard of 
 revolt, and during October, 1895, Gomez and 
 Maceo, with ease, penetrated the lines of the 
 Spanish captain-general, crossing La Trocha, 
 and causing the regular troops to fall back 
 to a line just east of Remedios. The insur- 
 gents still pushing on, this was followed by 
 
 a retreat of Campos to Santa Clara, in the 
 province of Santa Clara, still further west. 
 
 Gomez and Maceo were now in supreme 
 authority, for Marti died just as the com- 
 mand started west. This blow to the insur- 
 gent cause was more than offset by the 
 character of the people among which they 
 found themselves. Of all the provinces of 
 Cuba, Santa Clara is the most outspoken and 
 loyal to the cause of liberty. The ranks of 
 Gomez and Maceo were increased by thou- 
 sands of volunteers of an intelligence and 
 physical strength superior even to those of 
 Santiago. Horses were procured in abund- 
 ance, and the bulk of the insurgent army was 
 formed into a speedy and well-equipped cav- 
 alry. They were armed with rifles, and car- 
 ried with them an abundance of ammunition. 
 
 Fully Armed. 
 
 Each man also carried a machete, which is 
 a long, heavily-weighted iron knife, used by 
 the sugar planters to cut the cane, and by all 
 travelers to open up paths through the heavy 
 tropical underbrush. They are terrible weap- 
 ons in the hands of the Cubans, and the 
 Spanish troops fear them more than the 
 rifles. The insurgents took no supply train 
 with them. A stray pig or fowl supplied 
 them with supper, while an ox meant dinner 
 for a company. Thus prepared they turned 
 their faces toward the setting sun and Ha- 
 vana. 
 
 All this while Campos, the Spanish gen- 
 eral, was " concentrating," according to the 
 official dispatches. In other words, he was 
 drawing dead lines across the island at points 
 where he announced that he would bring the 
 insurgents to a pitched battle. Each suc- 
 cessive dead-line was further west than the 
 one preceding it. And each time the insur- 
 gents slipped by the troops, leaving a harried 
 country behind them. Railroads, bridges and 
 roads were destroyed ; plantations burned and 
 
9 o8 
 
 CUBA AND VENEZUELA. 
 
 store-houses empty. The troops, under the 
 spur of necessity, followed as rapidly as pos- 
 sible, leaving the insurgents in possession of 
 the country to the east. 
 
 In this way not only did the Cubans make 
 this remarkable march westward, but they 
 garrisoned it. In Santiago the insurgents 
 kept the Spanish forces in the fortified cities, 
 and in a short time two large expeditions 
 successfully landed at that end of the island. 
 One, armed with cannon, fired upon and 
 crippled the Nueva Espana, of the Spanish 
 navy, while such leaders as Rabi, Martinez 
 and Aguirre were fighting as valiantly there 
 as Gomez and Maceo in the province of 
 Matanzas. 
 
 Similar reports came from Puerto Principe 
 and Santa Clara, showing that the insurgents 
 had complete control of the interior of these 
 provinces. But Campos claimed that it was 
 his plan to get the insurgents between his 
 forces and Havana and crush them as a nut 
 is crushed in a nut-cracker. 
 
 General Campos Repulsed, 
 
 Then came decisive attacks by the insur- 
 gents. Campos was driven from pillar to 
 post, changing his headquarters from Santa 
 Clara to Cienfuegos, from Cienfuegos to Pal- 
 millas, from Palmillas to Colon, from Colon 
 to Jovellanos, from Jovellanos to Limonare, 
 from Limonare to Guanabana, and from 
 Guanabana to Havana, where he was feted as 
 a conqueror by the Spanish authorities, and 
 where he received telegrams of congratula- 
 tion from the Queen Regent of Spain and 
 her Prime Minister. 
 
 Just prior to this noisy welcome, namely 
 on December 24, 1895, General Maximo 
 Gomez, at the head of 12,000 men, by a feint, 
 turned the flank of the Spanish commander 
 at Colon, and passing the sleepy old seaport 
 of Matanzas, marched straight on to a point 
 only fifty miles from Havana, Campos with 
 
 all his 80,000 picked Spamsn troops, to the 
 contrary notwithstanding. Christmas and 
 New Year's passed and the insurgents were 
 still there, marching and countermarching in 
 three columns, holding Spain at bay, and 
 waiting for additional supplies of ammunition 
 and arms before pushing on. The grave 
 question now was what the insurgents would 
 do ? Havanna was in an agony of suspense 
 and preparing for a siege. The loyalty of the 
 citizens was questionable, as well as that of 
 the Grande Civil, or local militia. Campos 
 and all his troops seemed unable to cope 
 w'th the situation. It was believed that 
 should the insurgents push on and take 
 Havana, the defeat of Spain and the liberty 
 of Cuba would arrive. 
 
 Advent of General Weyler. 
 
 The next move on the part of Spain wa& 
 to recall General Campos, his campaign in 
 Cuba having proved a failure. He was 
 replaced by General Weyler, whose tyran- 
 nous policy and barbarous cruelties, when 
 previously commanding the Spanish forces 
 in the island, are well known. 
 
 The steamer Alfonso XIII. arrived at 
 Havana, February 10, 1896, having on board 
 General Valeriano Weyler, the new Captain 
 General of Cuba; Nicolau, Marquis of Tene- 
 riffe ; and Generals Enrique, Barges, Ferde- 
 rico Ochando, Miguel Melquiso, Marinues 
 Ahumada, Luis Castelloi, Sanchez Bernal 
 and Juan Arolas, the latter being the hero of 
 Jolo, Philippine Islands. 
 
 The entire city was brilliantly decorated 
 in honor of the occasion and the bay was a 
 splendid sight, all the warships and merchant 
 craft present being decorated with bunting. 
 The wharfs were crowded with people at an 
 early hour and all the steamers and tugs 
 were loaded with sightseers. The Chamber 
 of Commerce, the Bourse, all the big com- 
 mercial houses and government departments, 
 
CUBA AND VENEZUELA. 
 
 909 
 
 the Canarian Association, General Weyler's 
 countrymen and others, crowded upon the 
 chartered steamers or about the landing- 
 place. 
 
 The troops and volunteers were turned 
 out to a man, together with the fire depart- 
 ment and police, and for a long time no 
 such brilliant display had been witnessed in 
 Havana. Among the high military officers 
 present were Generals Suarez Valdez, Pando, 
 Marin and Navarro, Admiral Yanas and 
 staff, Colonel Castanedo, Major Moriano and 
 many others. 
 
 Enthusiastic Reception. 
 
 General Weyler was welcomed by me 
 City Council on board the Alfonso XIII, 
 He was presented with an address of wel- 
 come and assurance of loyalty. At eleven 
 o'clock the Captain General came ashore 
 and was received by General Marin and 
 staff. The streets were packed with people, 
 who displayed the greatest enthusiasm. In 
 fact, rarely has a distinguished person been 
 received so warmly as was General Weyler 
 when he landed. There is no doubt that 
 considerable real enthusiasm was manifested, 
 in addition to the greetings which would 
 naturally be bestowed upon the representa- 
 tive of Spain. 
 
 The balconies in all the streets about the 
 water front and in the vicinity of the Palace 
 were full of ladies in holiday attire, and they 
 showered flowers upon the new eommander 
 as he passed. Besides, numerous floral offer- 
 ings of the most beautiful description, princi- 
 pally in the shape of crowns, were presented 
 to the general, who expressed his thanks in 
 each case in a few brief words. He seemed 
 to be much pleased with his reception, and 
 upon arriving at the Palace formally took 
 over the duties of the captain-generalship, 
 taking the oath of fealty over a crucifix and 
 upon a Bible. General Marin administered 
 
 the oath of office and soon afterward he 
 received the local military and civil authori- 
 ties, the different corporations and the bishops 
 and priests. 
 
 The German warships which were in the 
 harbor saluted the arrival of General Weyler, 
 as did all the Spanish warships in port and 
 the forts ashore. The Loyalists, of course, 
 were out in the strongest force possible ; 
 but it may be said that the entire popula- 
 tion of Havana turned out, and hardly a 
 representative of the shipping or business 
 interests of the city failed to make the day 
 a holiday. 
 
 Cfieers and Cannonading. 
 
 After the reception of the local military 
 and civil authorities, corporations and clergy 
 was completed, General Weyler appeared 
 upon the balcony of the palace and reviewed 
 the troops. His appearance before the pub- 
 lic was the signal for a long outburst of the 
 most enthusiastic cheering, the firing of can- 
 non and the sound of martial music, all the 
 bands in the city being stationed at different 
 points. In addition to the inhabitants of the 
 city proper, thousands of people flocked into 
 the city from all directions before daybreak. 
 
 Accompanying General Weyler were Cap- 
 tains Gelaber and Linares, who are known 
 as " military editors." They were to have 
 charge of the press censorship, and it was 
 rumored that there would be considerably 
 more difficulty experienced in this connection 
 by the correspondents in the future. The press 
 regulations had been considerably relaxed, 
 and not much difficulty had been experienced 
 in getting average matter upon the cable. 
 But, it was thought, the new captain-general 
 would be very severe with correspondents 
 who sent false accounts of Cuban successes 
 or in any way brought about the publication 
 of false news. By this it was not meant that 
 General Weyler intended to interfere with 
 
9io 
 
 CUBA AND VENEZUELA. 
 
 the proper liberty whicti the press can be 
 allowed in war time. It really meant only 
 that he would Jo everything possible to pre- 
 vent the sending out of news undoubtedly 
 false. 
 
 A disinterested observer of the situation 
 wrote as follows, under date of February io ; 
 1896: 
 
 " So far as the general situation is con- 
 cerned there is not much change. Indeed, 
 no change of importance is expected for 
 some days. General Weyler will first devote 
 himself to a complete review of the opera- 
 tions already undertaken, and he will then 
 figure out the situation as it actually exists. 
 For this purpose, almost immediately alter 
 taking the oath of fealty, he caused orders to 
 be sent to all the commanders in the field to 
 draw up promptly and forward to headquar- 
 ters here complete returns of the condition 
 of their commands, together with the state of 
 railroads, telegraphs and public thorough- 
 fares and the probable location and strength 
 of the enemy in their neighborhood: 
 
 Reasons for this Action. 
 
 " This action upon the part of General 
 Weyler is supplementary to the regular 
 report and returns which were handed over 
 to him by General Marin after the new cap 
 tain-general had been sworn in. While it is 
 no reflection upon General Marin or the 
 other Spanish commanders here or in other 
 parts of Cuba, the captain-general took this 
 step in order thoroughly to go over the 
 ground himself, and possibly in view of the 
 sensational reports which have been circu- 
 lated by agents of the insurgents and others 
 to the effect that large quantities of stores, 
 arms and ammunition are missing from the 
 different depots and have found their way 
 into the hands of the insurgents. Between this 
 and the tales of wholesale dishonesty circu- 
 lated here and elsewhere there is quite a dif- 
 
 ference, and nobooy here believes that there 
 has been any treachery of importance." 
 
 General Marin, who has been appointed 
 captain-general of Porto Rico, is expected to 
 leave for his new post to-morrow. 
 
 Weyler's Plans of Campaign. 
 
 The exact plan of campaign of General 
 Weyler is not known, but it is believed that 
 it will be a very different one from that of 
 Campos. He is likely to call in all of the 
 small detachments of troops, which have 
 from the first had such a weakening effect 
 upon the Spanish operations, and will try to 
 drive the insurgents into a position from 
 which they cannot escape without a pitched 
 battle. General Weyler will also do every- 
 thing possible to muster as strong a force of 
 cavalry as he can. Considerable reinforce- 
 ments of this branch of the service have 
 already arrived here, and more are expected 
 during the week. 
 
 Some reports credit the insurgents with 
 desiring to concentrate all their scattered 
 detachments and columns into one body, and 
 so bring the insurrection to a direct issue. 
 But Spaniards here who are well posted on 
 the situation say that there is no truth in the 
 report that the insurgents will make any 
 effort to risk a pitched battle. 
 
 Captain General Weyler clearly defined 
 the policy he intended to pursue in the con- 
 duct of the campaign for the suppression of 
 the insurrection. Before he had been at 
 Havana many hours he issued the following 
 proclamation : 
 
 " To the People of Cuba : Honored by 
 Her Majesty, the Queen, and her govern- 
 ment, with the command of this island, under 
 the difficult circumstances now prevailing, I 
 take charge of it with the determination that 
 it shall never be given up by me, and that I 
 shall keep it in the possession of Spain, will- 
 ing as she is to carry out whatever sacrifice 
 
CUBA AND VENEZUELA. 
 
 911 
 
 shall be required to succeed, as she has been 
 in the past. 
 
 " I rely upon the gallantry and discipline 
 of the army and navy, upon the patriotism, 
 never to be subdued, of the volunteer corps, 
 and more especially upon the support that 
 I should be given by the loyal inhabitants, 
 born here or in Spain. 
 
 " It is not necessary to say that I shall 
 be generous with the subdued and to all of 
 those doing any service to the Spanish 
 cause. But I will not lack in the decision 
 and energy of my character t punish with 
 all the rigor that the law enact* those who 
 in any way shall help the enc y 9 or shall 
 calumniate the prestige of our name. 
 
 " Putting aside at present any idea of pol- 
 itics, my mission is the honorable one of 
 finishing the war, and I only see in you the 
 loyal Spaniards who are to assist me to 
 defeat the insurgents. But Her Majesty's 
 government is aware of what you are and 
 of what you are worthy, and the status 
 of peace that these provinces may obtain. 
 It will grant you, when it is deemed suitable 
 to do so, the reforms the government may 
 think most proper, with the love of a mother 
 to her children. 
 
 " Inhabitants of Cuba, lend me your co- 
 operation, and in that way you will defend 
 your interests, which are those of the coun- 
 try. 
 
 " Long, live Spanish Cuba ! 
 
 " Your General and Governor, 
 
 " VALERIANO WEV r LER, 
 
 " Marquese of Tenerife." 
 
 To the Volunteers and Firemen. 
 
 General Weyler also offered the following 
 address : 
 
 " Volunteers and Firemen : Being again 
 at your head, I see in you the successors of 
 the volunteers and firemen who fought with 
 me in the previous war and, with their brav- 
 
 ery, energy and patriotism, brought about 
 peace, defended the towns and cities, and 
 contributed most powerfully to save Cuba 
 for Spain. Remember these virtues brighten 
 your spirits, and, relying on my whole atten- 
 tion, my decisive support and my utmost 
 confidence, lend me the same help and co- 
 operation, and with the same ambition save 
 the prestige of your name and the honor of 
 our flag, which, forever victorious, should 
 fly over this island. 
 
 To the Soldiers. 
 
 " Soldiers of the army, I greet you in the 
 name of Her Majesty, the Queen, and of 
 the government. Having the honor of being 
 at your head, I trust that at my command 
 you will continue to show the bravery in 
 face of hardships proper for the Spanish 
 soldier, and that you will confer new wrtaths 
 to add to those already attained under the 
 command of my predecessors, Generals Mar- 
 tinez Campos and Sabas Marin. 
 
 " On my part, answering to the great sac- 
 rifice made by the nation, and using the 
 efforts of all arms and bodies in the work 
 entrusted to each of the organic units, I will 
 not omit anything to place you in the condi- 
 tion for obtaining the victory and the return 
 of peace to this island, which is what she 
 longs for. 
 
 " Sailors, I have again the satisfaction to 
 be at your side, and I again trust that, as in 
 Mindanao recently, you will lend me your 
 powerful co-operation to bring peace to this 
 island. Thus I expect surely that you will 
 afford me a new chance to express my thanks 
 and my enthusiasm to the Spanish navy." 
 
 The following circular of General Weylei 
 was addressed to the military officers : 
 
 " I have addressed my previous proclama- 
 tions at the moment of my landing to the 
 loyal inhabitants, to the volunteers and fin* 
 men, and to the army and navy. 
 
912 
 
 CUBA AND VENEZUELA. 
 
 " I may give you a slight idea of the inten- 
 tions I have and the measures I shall follow 
 as Governor-General-in-Chief, in accordance 
 with the general desire of Spain, and with 
 the decided aim of Her Majesty's govern- 
 ment to furnish all the means required to 
 control and crush this rebellion. 
 
 The Question Argued. 
 
 " Knowing this, and knowing my charac- 
 ter, I may perhaps need to say no more to 
 make you understand what is the conduct 
 that I am to follow. But with the idea of 
 avoiding all kinds of doubt, even keeping (as 
 you are to keep) the circulars to be pub- 
 lished, I deem it necessary to make some re- 
 marks. 
 
 " It is not unknown by you that the state 
 in which the rebellion has come and the raid 
 made by the principal leaders recently, which 
 could not be stopped even by the active pur- 
 suit of the columns, is due to the indiffer- 
 ence, the fear or the disheartenment of the 
 inhabitants. Since it cannot be doubted that 
 some, seeing the burning of their property 
 without opposition, and that others, who have 
 been born in Spain, should sympathize with 
 the insurgents, it is necessary at all hazards 
 to better this state of things and to brighten 
 the spirit of the inhabitants, making them 
 aware that I am determined to lend all my 
 assistance to the local inhabitants. So I am 
 determined to have the law fall with all its 
 weight upon all those in any way helping the 
 enemy, or praising them, or in any way de- 
 tracting from the prestige of Spain, of its 
 army, or of its volunteers. It is necessary 
 for those by our side to show their intentions 
 with deeds, and their behavior should leave 
 no doubt, and should prove that they are 
 Spanish. 
 
 " Since the defence of the country demands 
 the sacrifice of her children, it is necessary 
 that the towns should look to their defence, 
 
 and that no precautions in the way of scouts 
 should be lacking to give news concerning 
 the enemy, and whether it is in their neigh 
 borhood, and so that it may not happen 
 that the enemy should be better informed 
 than we. 
 
 "The energy and vigor of the enemy will 
 be strained to trace the course of our line, 
 and in all cases you will arrest and place at 
 my disposal to deliver to the courts those 
 who in any way shall show their sympathy 
 or s.inpo, l" for the rebels. 
 
 Enlistments Called For. 
 
 " ihe public spirit being heatened, you 
 must not forget to enlist the volunteers and 
 guerillas in your district, this not preventing 
 at the same time the organization, as oppor- 
 tunity offers, of a guerilla band of twenty- 
 five citizens for each battalion of the army. 
 
 " I propose that you shall make the dis- 
 positions you think most proper for the car- 
 rying out of the plan I wish, but this shall 
 not authorize you to determine anything 
 not foreseen in the instructions, unless the 
 urgency of some circumstances should de- 
 mand it. 
 
 " I expect that, confining yourself to these 
 instructions, you will lend me your worthy 
 support towards the carrying out of my plan 
 for the good of the Spanish cause. 
 
 "Weyler." 
 
 The proclamation produced no perceptible 
 change in the situation. The insurgents 
 continued to land arms and ammunition 
 secretly and to carry on their peculiar mode 
 of warfare. No great battles were fought, 
 and in the majority of the skirmishes, the 
 Spanish troops were successful, it being 
 apparently the policy of the rebels to worry 
 and harass their enemy instead of coming to 
 open conflict. Thus far it has been the his- 
 tory of Cuban insurrection repeated — a work 
 of devastation, a scattered warfare, an attempt 
 
CUBA AND VENEZUELA. 
 
 913 
 
 by Spanish troops to rout or capture the 
 insurgents, yet without success. Spain has 
 maintained a large army in Cuba which 
 seems to be incapable of bringing order out 
 of confusion. 
 
 We come now to the trouble between 
 Venezuela and England, with some state- 
 ments showing the spirit and intent of what 
 is known as the American Monroe Doctrine. 
 
 The Venezuelan Question. 
 
 For fifty-five years the location of the 
 boundary line between British Guiana and 
 Venezuela has been in dispute. Nine times 
 the line has been surveyed by British engi- 
 neers, and each time it was unsatisfactory to 
 the South American Republic, and was not 
 accepted. The two governments agreed that 
 neither nation should occupy the ground 
 claimed by both until the controversy should 
 be settled, and the question has dragged 
 along in a neglected way until recent events 
 have opened the old wound afresh. 
 
 Some time ago one Sergeant Behrens and 
 two companions of the British constabulary 
 on duty in Guiana, were discovered on the 
 disputed strip of land, and through some 
 clashing with the authority of the Venezuelan 
 Government, were arrested and taken into 
 custody as trespassers on Venezuelan soil. 
 The English Government contended that the 
 arrest had been made on British soil, and 
 demanded redress for the action, as unlawful 
 and an insult to British citizens. The Vene- 
 zuelan Government protested that the arrest 
 had occurred on its own soil, and therefore 
 Behrens was amenable to the laws of the 
 Republic. 
 
 Thus the question was brought to a crisis. 
 Venezuela offered to arbitrate the whole 
 matter, but Great Britain insisted on the sur- 
 render to itself of a large and important por- 
 tion of the disputed territory, and would then 
 
 submit to arbitration what was left. The evi- 
 58 
 
 dence thus far obtainable on the question of 
 the boundaries was somewhat wrapped in the 
 uncertainties of the terms of the original ces- 
 sion to England of Guiana, which was 
 acquired from Holland in 18 14, and the 
 world cannot form an accurate idea of the 
 merits of the controversy until a tribunal of 
 arbitration has sifted them out. 
 
 There are, however, certain features of 
 England's position which give color to the 
 suspicion generally entertained by the Amer- 
 ican press, that that nation was afraid to trust 
 its case to arbitration, and was bulldozing the 
 weaker Government of the South American 
 State out of a very large portion of its terri- 
 tory. Most people believed that Great Bri- 
 tain's scruples were none too fine to attempt 
 this, and in the public mind, at least, the 
 burden of proof in the dispute rested upon 
 her. The property at issue includes the 
 greater part of the country lying between 
 the Orinoco and Esequibo Rivers, and is 
 believed to contain valuable gold and silver 
 deposits. 
 
 Reply from the British Premier. 
 
 The question between these Governments 
 becomes of special interest to the people of 
 the United States in view of the action that 
 our representatives at Washington have taken. 
 Some time ago Secretary of State Olney 
 addressed a communication to the British 
 Government reminding it that the United 
 States expected it to observe the restrictions 
 which the Monroe Doctrine placed upon the 
 operations of European powers on American 
 soil. Lord Salisbury replied that the matter 
 was of so great moment as to require further 
 consideration before answering. 
 
 Judging from the widely varying com- 
 ments of the press, it would seem that in the 
 public mind the real meaning of that famous 
 doctrine is as uncertain as is the knowledge 
 of the true rights of the foreign countries to 
 
9H 
 
 CUBA AND VENEZUELA. 
 
 whom the doctrine is now sought by some 
 to be applied 
 
 The principle of the Monroe Doctrine 
 originated not with President Monroe, but — 
 oddly enough, as it now seems — with a great 
 English Premier. In the year 1815 the 
 Governments of Russia, Austria and Prussia 
 concluded a treaty known as the " Holy 
 Alliance," by which they pledged mutual 
 support in all military operations of every 
 kind. After a few years the alliance was 
 joined by France, and it then became known 
 as the defender of the divine right of mon- 
 archy, and the powerful combination used its 
 armies to suppress popular movements for 
 liberty in a number of countries, notably in 
 Spain. 
 
 Congress of Nations. 
 
 The Alliance made such progress in the 
 objects of its existence, that in 1823 steps 
 were taken to call another congress of the 
 Powers with the view of crushing the revo- 
 tionary governments in Spanish America. 
 At this point the Prime Minister of England, 
 George Canning, saw in the new proposal 
 a menace to his own country in that the 
 growing commerce of England with the 
 Spanish-American Republics would be di- 
 verted if those countries returned to the 
 condition of colonies of Spain or of any other 
 Power. 
 
 Mr. Canning then proposed to the United 
 States Minister, Mr. Rush, that the two gov- 
 ernments unite in a protest against the inter- 
 ference of the allies with the affairs of the 
 Spanish-American States. This was the 
 origin and the first public proposal of the 
 principle which has since become the most 
 famous rule in the foreign policy of the 
 United States. President Monroe and his 
 Cabinet gave the subject anxious considera- 
 tion. 
 
 Thomas Jefferson, in commenting on the 
 
 proposal, used this language : " Our first 
 and fundamental maxim should be never to 
 entangle ourselves in the broils of Europe; 
 our second, never to suffer Europe to inter- 
 meddle with cis- Atlantic affairs. While Eu- 
 rope is laboring to become the domicile of 
 despotism, our endeavor should surely be to 
 make our hemisphere that of freedom. One 
 nation most of all could disturb us in this 
 pursuit ; she now offers to lead, aid and ac- 
 company us in it. By acceding to her propo- 
 sition we detach her from the bands, bring 
 her mighty weight into the scale of free gov- 
 ernment, and emancipate a continent at one 
 stroke." 
 
 When Congress assembled in the month of 
 December following Mr. Canning's proposal, 
 President Monroe in his annual message de- 
 fined in carefully chosen words the principles 
 by which he proposed to be guided in the 
 matter of the threatened interference of the 
 allies. The statements touching on this for- 
 eign policy are included in the following 
 extract from his message, almost every phrase 
 of which has become a classic in interna- 
 tional history : 
 
 Only Injuries Resented 
 
 " Of events in that quarter of the globe 
 (Europe) with which we have so much inter- 
 course, and from which we derive our origin, 
 we have always been anxious and interested 
 spectators. The citizens of the United States 
 cherish sentiments the most friendly ir favor 
 of the liberty and happiness of their fellow- 
 men on that side of the Atlantic. In the wars 
 of the European Powers in matters relating 
 to themselves we have never taken any part, 
 nor does it comport with our policy to do so. 
 It is only when our rights are invaded or 
 seriously menaced that we resent injuries or 
 make preparation for our defence. 
 
 " With the movements in this hemisphere, 
 we are, of necessity, more immediately con- 
 
CUBA AND VENEZUELA. 
 
 915 
 
 nected, and by causes which must be obvious 
 to all enlightened and impartial observers. 
 The political system of the allied' Powers is 
 essentially different in this respect from that 
 of America. This difference proceeds from 
 that which exists in their respective govern- 
 ments. And to the defence of our own, 
 which has been achieved by the loss of so 
 much blood and treasure, and matured by the 
 wisdom of their most enlightened citizens, 
 and under which we have enjoyed unexam- 
 pled felicity, this whole nation is devoted. 
 
 Dangerous to Our Safety. 
 
 "We owe it, therefore, to candor and to 
 the amicable relations existing between the 
 United States and those Powers to declare that 
 we should consider any attempt on their part 
 to extend their system to any portion of this 
 hemisphere as dangerous to our peace and 
 safety. With the existing colonies or de- 
 pendencies of any European Power, we have 
 not interfered and shall not interfere. But 
 with the governments who have declared 
 their independence and maintained it, and 
 whose independence we have, on great con- 
 sideration and on just principles, acknowl- 
 edged, we could not view any interposition 
 for the purpose of oppressing them, or con- 
 trolling in any other manner their destiny, by 
 any European Power, in any other light than 
 as the manifestation of an unfriendly disposi- 
 tion toward the United States. 
 
 " Our policy in regard to Europe, which 
 was adopted at an early stage of the wars 
 which have so long agitated that quarter of 
 the globe, nevertheless remains the same, 
 which is, not to interfere in the internal con- 
 cerns of any of its Powers , to consider the 
 Government de facto as the legitimate Gov- 
 ernment for us ; to cultivate friendly relations 
 with it, and to preserve those relations by a 
 frank, firm and manly policy, meeting, in all 
 instances, the just claims of every Power, 
 
 submitting to injuries from none. But in 
 regard to these continents, circumstances are 
 eminently and conspicuously different. 
 
 " It is impossible that the allied Powers 
 should extend their political system to any 
 portion of either continent without endan- 
 gering our peace and happiness ; nor can any 
 one believe that our Southern brethren, if 
 left to themselves, would adopt it of their own 
 accord. It is equally impossible, therefore, 
 that we should behold such interposition, in 
 any form, with indifference. If we look to 
 the comparative strength and resources of 
 Spain :.nd those new Governments, and their 
 distance from each other, it must be obvious 
 that she can never subdue them. It is still 
 the true policy of the United States to leave 
 the parties to themselves in the hope that 
 other Powers will pursue the same course." 
 
 Comments of the Press. 
 
 The leading daily papers of New York 
 waged a lively war of words over the proper 
 application of the Monroe Doctrine, arising 
 out of the varying interpretation of some ex- 
 pressions used in this message. It must be 
 admitted that President Monroe had reference 
 solely to the overturning of republican forms 
 of government, when he stated that any at- 
 tempt on the part of European Powers to 
 extend "their system " to any portion of this 
 hemisphere would be considered as danger- 
 ous to our peace and safety. 
 
 The only loophole for controversy is the 
 clause, " We could not view any interposition 
 for the puspose of oppressing them (the 
 Spanish-American republics) or controlling 
 in any other manner their destiny, by any 
 European Power." Does this clause forbid 
 any " oppressing " of whatsoever kind ? Or 
 does it constitute an appendage to the pre- 
 ceding clause and refer only to "oppress- 
 ing " when coupled with the intention to ex- 
 tend the monarchical " system " over the op- 
 
916 
 
 CUBA AND VENEZUELA. 
 
 pressed, and thus establish colonial allegiance 
 to the European Power who may be the 
 aggressor? 
 
 Some influential newspapers and one or 
 more jurists of prominence extended to the 
 word " oppressing," as used above, a mean- 
 ing of almost unlimited scope. They con- 
 strued it to cover almost any sort of unfair 
 dealing by a European Power with an Amer- 
 ican State. The second interpretation, on 
 the other hand, was the one which has usu- 
 ally guided our State Department, and re- 
 ceived the support of Calhoun and Webster, 
 as well as the published opinions of one or 
 more college professors of international his- 
 tory. 
 
 Seward's Interpretation. 
 
 This view was also clearly expressed by 
 Secretary Seward in a note of instruction 
 to our Minister to France at the time of the 
 collision between that country and Mexico in 
 1862: "France has a right to make war 
 against Mexico, and to determine for herself 
 the cause. We have a right and interest to 
 insist that France shall not improve the war 
 she makes to raise up in Mexico an anti- 
 republican or anti-American government, or 
 to maintain such a government there. France 
 has disclaimed such designs, and we, besides 
 reposing faith in the assurances given in a 
 frank, honorable manner, would, in any case, 
 be bound to wait for, and not anticipate, a 
 violation of them." 
 
 If the first interpretation be the proper 
 one, then the United States may have some 
 right to insist on the submission to arbitra- 
 tion of the question at issue between Great 
 Britain and Venezuela. If, however, the 
 second interpretation is correct — and the 
 weight of authority is certainly in support of 
 it — then there is as yet no violation of the 
 principles of the Monroe Doctrine in the 
 Venezuelan controversy, and the United 
 
 States cannot invoke the same in justification 
 of any interference in behalf of the South 
 American republic. 
 
 The tremendous sensation created all over 
 the world by President Cleveland's message 
 to Congress in December, 1895, on the con 
 troversy between Great Britain and Ven 
 ezuela quieted down, and the general belief 
 among Government circles was that an ami- 
 cable settlement would be reached by the 
 two nations most intimately concerned, with- 
 out the necessity of further action on the 
 part of the United States. 
 
 It was well known that the Foreign Office 
 at London was trying to bring about this 
 result. British sentiment seemed to incline 
 more and more toward the propriety of mak- 
 ing concessions, if necessary, to preserve 
 peace with the United States, and very strong 
 speeches were made in Parliament favoring 
 arbitration of the entire dispute and recog- 
 nizing the justice of the position of the 
 United States. 
 
 A Senate Resolution. 
 
 The indications were that President Cleve- 
 land's action would result in establishing the 
 force of the Monroe Doctrine in its broadest 
 application, and its efficacy as a rule of 
 American international law would not be 
 disputed in the future. 
 
 The Monroe Doctrine has had some dis- 
 cussion in the Senate, arising from a resolu- 
 tion introduced by Senator Davis, of Minne- 
 sota, which aimed to commit Congress to a 
 definite positive declaration of the existence 
 and enduring force of the doctrine in the 
 widest meaning which American construc- 
 tion has placed upon it. The resoluti< n was 
 vigorously opposed by a few of the Senators 
 as an ill-timed agitation of the question, an 
 unwise extension of the meaning of the 
 doctrine. 
 
EMINENT AMERICANS. 
 
 COMPRISING 
 
 Biographies of Distinguished Statesmen, Inventors, Financiers, Etc, 
 
 THE foregoing history of the United 
 States may appropriately close with 
 a concise account of the most fa- 
 mous of our celebrities. There are 
 names that shine resplendent in the firma- 
 ment of human achievement, and with tttem 
 are associated triumphs and successes that 
 can never perish from the annals of time. Not 
 alone in the stormy period of the Revolution, 
 or during the sanguinary struggle of the 
 
 Civil War, do we gaze upon these illustrious 
 ones. In more recent history there are 
 those who challenge our admiration, and 
 are an honor to our country. America is 
 rich in her distinguished citizens, and in 
 every walk of life, in every pursuit, we 
 trace the footsteps of the giants who have 
 given fame to the Republic, and whose 
 noble deeds and achievements are among her 
 proudest possessions. 
 
 THOMAS A. EDISON. 
 
 NO inventor since the world began has 
 achieved greater distinction than 
 Thomas A. Edison. He is noth- 
 ing less than a phenomenon in 
 the realm of science, more especially in that 
 part of it which relates to electricity. His 
 discoveries have been the wonder of the age, 
 and have placed him in the front rank of 
 inventors. 
 
 We find him at the age of ten reading the 
 histories of Gibbon and Hume, yet his biog- 
 raphers assert that he went to school only 
 two months in his boyhood. Like the vast 
 majority of those men who have left a deep 
 impression upon their time, he was born in 
 poverty and obscurity, being conspicuously 
 a self-made man. His education was under 
 the direction of his mother, yet at best was 
 but superficial. 
 
 Mr. Edison was born at Alva, Ohio, Feb- 
 ruary nth, 1847. As soon as he was old 
 enough to become interested in any study, 
 he showed great fondness for chemistry. 
 This indicated the bent of his mind, and was 
 a prophecy that the natural sciences would 
 be his favorite pursuit. While he was em- 
 ployed as a newsboy on a railway train, he 
 determined to learn telegraphy. Here was 
 the beginning of that remarkable career, and 
 of those discoveries which, if they have not 
 revolutionized the telegraph system, have 
 certainly promoted its efficiency and per- 
 fected its instruments. While residing at 
 Adrian, Mich., he opened a shop for repair- 
 ing telegraph instruments and making new 
 machinery. Subsequently, at Indianapolis, 
 he invented his automatic repeater, which 
 i was greatly in advance of any telegraph in- 
 
 917 
 
Ql8 
 
 EMINENT AMERICANS. 
 
 strument then in existence, except the origi- 
 nal one invented by Professor Morse. 
 
 Having lived a short time at Cincinnati, 
 still devoting himself to electrical science, he 
 removed to Boston, where he startled elec- 
 tricians with his duplex telegraph. Many 
 attempts had previously been made to invent 
 such an instrument, yet without success. 
 Mr. Edison was still a young man, but hav- 
 ing shown pre-eminent abilities, Ik was made 
 president oi the New York Gold Indicator 
 Company, and moved his shops to Newark, 
 X. ). He did not, however, remain long in 
 the latter place, but, determining to devote 
 himself exclusively to the work of invention, 
 he established himself permanently at Menlo 
 Park, where he has an extensive laboratory 
 and is occupied constantly, with a large 
 corps oi' assistants, in his various researches. 
 
 Mr. Edison's history is more than usually 
 rich In incidents oi m\ interesting character. 
 When he was selling papers and candies on 
 the trains of the Grand Trunk Railw; 
 was making a hobby oi chemistry. At this 
 time he was a mere boy. Not having am 
 other facilities for experimenting, he con- 
 structed mi amateur laboratoryin one corner 
 of a baggage-car. When other boys would 
 have been at play, he was amusing and in- 
 structing himself in that corner. During his 
 absence one day a bottle of phosphorus, by 
 being upset, or in some way broken, set the 
 ear on fire. Grave doubts were entertained 
 as to the propriety oi having so dangerous 
 a lad on board the train, and the baggage- 
 master kicked his chemicals and apparatus 
 out of the car, which did not, however, put 
 an end to the boy's passion for chemistry. 
 He improvised another laboratory in a differ- 
 ent place, and continued his studies as 
 before 
 
 Mr. Edison was also at one time an ama- 
 teur printer, and the publisher of a paper 
 which bore the rather hiefh-sounding title of. 
 
 77/< - Grand Trunk Herald. It came about in 
 this way : on one of his trips to Chicago, the 
 publisher of one of the daily papers in that 
 city made him a present of a lot of worn-out 
 type. Thinking that this could be used to 
 advantage, Edison established his journal 
 which was filled with items of news that were 
 of special interest to the hands employed on 
 the railroad. During the great battle at 
 Shiloh, he persuaded the telegraph operators 
 to send reports of the engagement to the 
 different stations along the road. This crea- 
 ted an immense demand for papers, and the 
 young newsboy reaped a handsome profit by 
 supplying them. 
 
 About this time an incident occurred 
 which has had an important influence on his 
 life from that day to this. He proved him- 
 self to be a young hero one day by saving 
 the child of a telegraph operator from being 
 killed by a train. The father sought to re- 
 ward him in some way, and was informed that 
 the best reward, and one that would be the 
 most acceptable, would be to teach the res- 
 cuer of his child the art of telegraphing. 
 This being done, the lad provided himself 
 with wires and batteries, and soon became 
 quite an expert in the use of telegraphic in- 
 struments. 
 
 Naturally a mind so alert was constantly 
 seeking out new inventions. He never saw 
 an instrument without immediately asking 
 himself whether it could not in some way be 
 perfected. Very often his inventive genius 
 would instantly discover something that had 
 been entirely overlooked by the original in- 
 ventor. Having pursued this plan all his 
 life, his name has become identified with a 
 vast number of inventions of various kinds — 
 all this in addition to his own original dicov- 
 eries. 
 
 Having perfected himself as a telegraph 
 operator, and being extremely expert, he 
 readily secured a situation where he was ex- 
 
EM INK NT AMERICANS. 
 
 919 
 
 pected to do night work, and was required 
 to telegraph the word " Six" to the Superin- 
 tendent, in order to let this man know he 
 was at his post and wide-awake. It did not 
 take him long to contrive a machine that did 
 the work for him, and left him free without 
 interruption to pursue his favorite study of 
 chemistry. His clever trick was, however, 
 discovered, and by reason of it he lost his 
 situation. 
 
 It happened, while Mr. Edison was resid- 
 ing in New York, that one day the Western 
 Union wire to Albany gave out, and no mes- 
 sages could be transmitted. The electricians 
 of the company were baffled, and were una- 
 ble to discover the trouble. After experi- 
 menting a number of days, as a last resort, 
 they called in Mr. Edison. He obtained 
 communication with Albany byway of Pitts- 
 burg. Then he requested the best operator 
 at the other end of the line to sit at the ma- 
 chine, with whom he experimented for a 
 couple of hours with currents of different in- 
 tensity. He then told the officers of the 
 company what the difficulty was, and exactly 
 where it was located. This achievement 
 gave him much reputation, and proved his 
 pre-eminent ability as an electrician. 
 
 One of Mr. Edison's famous inventions is 
 the Phonograph. The manrer of its dis- 
 covery shows the readiness with .vhich he 
 seizes upon every new fact, even every hint 
 developed in the study of electrical science. 
 He was at work upon an apparatus for record- 
 ing a telegraphic message by making, with a 
 needle, indentations on a piece of tin foil 
 wrapped around the cylinder. 
 
 I he message would thus be punctured or 
 indented on this tin foil, then by substituting 
 another needle — blunt — for the sharp one, 
 and turning the cylinder, there would be a 
 vibration as the needle entered into and 
 passed out of the indentation. In the course 
 of the experiments he turned the cylinder 
 
 very rapidly, and instead of a succession of 
 " clicks " a musical sound v/as produced. 
 He seized the idea, and the Edison Phono- 
 graph is the result. 
 
 The perfected Phonograph of to-day con- 
 sists of a cylinder of wax, or other plastic 
 material, which is revolved either by hand, 
 foot power or an electric motor. This cylin- 
 der, called the phonogram, is used for record- 
 ing the sound. This is done by a diaphragm 
 such as is used in a telephone, into the centre 
 of which is fastened a sharp needle, which 
 rests upon and just touches the phonogram. 
 
 When the words are spoken the diaphragm 
 vibrates, moving this needle up and down, 
 and a series of indentations are made in a 
 spiral line on the phonogram, which is turn- 
 ing around about eighty-five times a minute. 
 To make the Phonograph speak, or repeat 
 the words, another diaphragm, having a 
 blunt, instead of a sharp needle, is placed at 
 the starting point, and the phonogram is 
 made to revolve. Of course, as the needle 
 passes over the indentations it vibrates the 
 diaphragm, and the words are reproduced as 
 in the Telephone. Thus we can get a faith- 
 ful reproduction of instrumental music, songs, 
 whistling, conversation, all sorts of sounds, 
 and the phonograms can be packed into a 
 mailing tube, anu sent all over the world to 
 be used as often as desired. 
 
 This certainly is a most remarkable inven- 
 tion. It shows what possibilities are con- 
 nected with the science of electricity. If 
 there are more wonders in heaven and earth 
 than are dreamt of in our philosophy, a large 
 proportion of them find their home in Mr. 
 Edison's laboratory. His inventive genius 
 is always alert and active. No new phase of 
 electricity ever presents itself without start- 
 ing the inquiry in his mind as to how it can 
 be made to serve some useful and practical 
 end. He has been so successful in devising 
 strange things, such as were never before 
 
C,20 
 
 EMINENT AMERICANS. 
 
 dreamed of, that he has been given the ap- 
 propriate title of " Wizard." 
 
 The idea of the Telephone has long been 
 in existence. It was first practically applied 
 in the construction of toys. One called the 
 " Lover's String" was made in 1831, and is 
 the simplest form of a Telephone. The dis- 
 coveries and improvements of Mr. Edison 
 have aided greatly in perfecting this instru- 
 ment. The transmitter, constructed and im- 
 proved by him and Blake, is combined with 
 the Bell Telephone and makes the Telephone 
 of general use. To such a state of perfection 
 has the instrument been brought that over 
 long distances, even between some of our 
 great cities, communication can be success- 
 fully carried on. 
 
 Special mention must be made of Mr. 
 Edison's invention for the multiplication, or 
 printing of copies made by pen and ink 
 and the typewriter. This is found very ser- 
 viceable in large establishments that send 
 out circulars, etc. Its fundamental principle 
 is the stylus or point, the writing implement 
 of man since the art was first invented. It is 
 the natural tool by which the hand can trace 
 characters, and it is this stylus or point, used 
 in the instrument, which has created for it 
 such a decided and permanent popularity. 
 
 The sheet of paper upon which the copy 
 is to be printed is placed upon a blotter 
 resting on the base-board beneath the stencil 
 sheet, and the ink roller is passed over the 
 stencil sheet, forcing the ink through perfora- 
 tions, thus making the impression upon the 
 paper. This operation is repeated until the 
 required number o r copies are obtained. It 
 is a quick and simple process of reproducing 
 letters and circulars in quantities large or 
 small. 
 
 One of the latest and most interesting 
 inventions of Mr. Edison is the Kinetoscope, 
 which is nothing more nor less than the 
 
 reproduction of motion. The observer looks 
 through a glass into a small cabinet and sees 
 what appear to be living figures. They may 
 be men or animals, and they are in action. 
 Thus the movements of horses, children at 
 play, men and women walking, exercises in 
 gymnastics, etc., are faithfully reproduced. 
 This, it must be admitted, is a marvelous 
 triumph of inventive genius. 
 
 It is not too much to say that Mr. Edi- 
 son's ideas have entered largely into all the 
 electrical discoveries of recent time. He, or 
 his assistants, prompted by his original con- 
 ceptions, have contributed largely to all the 
 scientific journals of the country. His inven- 
 tions consist of improvements in the electric 
 light and the telephone. He is also the in- 
 ventor of the phonograph, the quadruplex 
 and sextuplex transmitter, the microphone, 
 the megaphone, the kinetoscope, the mimeo- 
 graph, the electric pen, etc. 
 
 No one can foresee what discoveries are 
 yet to be made in the science of electricity. 
 The field is as wide as it is interesting. 
 Already the marvels are on every side of us. 
 Especially is the thought of electricians occu - 
 pied with the endeavor to obtain a motive 
 power that shall supersede steam. That this 
 will be accomplished is certainly within the 
 bounds of possibility; but whatever the 
 future discoveries are to be, it is safe to pre- 
 dict that Mr. Edison will be among the fore- 
 most of those who achieve success in this 
 department of science. 
 
 In person Mr. Edison is rather tall, some- 
 what stocky, with smooth face and a youth- 
 ful expression. He is capable of a great 
 amount of work and has been known to 
 spend sixty hours consecutively in his 
 laboratory without sleep, He bears the 
 title of Count, which was conferred upon 
 hirn in Italy, in honor of his brilliant dis- 
 coveries. 
 
 
CHAUNCEY M. DEPEW. 
 
 THERE are Americans who do not 
 need to be placed in official posi- 
 tion, who do not need to be Gov- 
 ernors, Senators or Presidents, to 
 exert a commanding influence and stand in 
 the eye of the nation. They are capable of 
 winning celebrity in more private walks. 
 Some of our most distinguished citizens have 
 never been placed to any considerable extent 
 under political responsibility. There are 
 those who appear to be naturally outside of 
 office, if not altogether superior to it. Their 
 worth lies entirely in themselves ; rrespective 
 of position or surroundings. 
 
 If one were asked to name the most emi- 
 nent citizens of our country Chauncey Mitchell 
 Depew would be mentioned as one of them. 
 His fame has gone into all parts of the land, 
 among men of business, politicians, leaders 
 of thought, those who are especially inter- 
 ested in moral reform — in fact, among all 
 classes of our citizens Mr. Depew is known 
 for his estimable qualities, his intellectual 
 ability and his genial nature. He did, 
 indeed, at one time hold office, but this was 
 many years ago, and, while he has always 
 been interested in politics, and has even been 
 suggested as the candidate of his party for 
 the Presidency, he does not appear to have 
 sought distinctions of this description. 
 
 Mr. Depew is a man of broad and liberal 
 education. He was born in Peekskill, N. Y., 
 April 23, 1834. Even in his boyhood he 
 was a gifted declaimer, and gave prophecy 
 then of his distinguished career as an orator. 
 The old saying that "the boy is the father 
 to the man" is illustrated in his case. He 
 graduated from Yale College in 1856, having 
 taken high rank during his course, especially 
 in the department of rhetoric and oratory. 
 Many were the contests he had in college, 
 and many were the times that he emerged 
 
 from them with complete success. His social 
 disposition, his breezy manner, his happy 
 knack of merry-making and his fund of anec- 
 dote, rendered him a general favorite. 
 
 In 1858 he began practicing law, consider- 
 ing that this profession furnished the widest 
 opportunities for such abilities as he could 
 command. His public career as an orator 
 was begun in '856 in the Fremont campaign. 
 At this time he identified himself with the 
 young Republican party, of which he has 
 since been a prominent and enthusiastic 
 member. He became widely known through- 
 out the eastern part of New York for his 
 pithy and eloquent stump-speeches, and very 
 soon found himself in favor with the older 
 leaders of the par f y. His youth, his self- 
 possession, his fluency, his grasp of the 
 subjects he treated, his unbounded enthu- 
 siasm, drew immediate attention and marked 
 a coming man. 
 
 In 1 80 1 he was sent to the Legislature of 
 New York, and two years later he was 
 elected Secretary of State, declining a re- 
 election two years subsequently. He found 
 it necessary to devote his time somewhat 
 exclusively to his profession, considering 
 that this was his legitimate calling, and to 
 pursue it would prove of lasting benefit to 
 him in the end. In 1866 he was chosen 
 attorney for the New York and Harlem 
 Railroad, and. three years later, when the 
 railroad was consolidated with the New York 
 Central, he became general counsel of the 
 company. He was elected second Vice- 
 President of the Central Railroad in 1882, 
 and the following year President of the 
 " Vanderbilt roads." 
 
 In person Mr. Depew is above the medium 
 height, has prominent features and a clear, 
 penetrating voice that can be heard by the 
 largest audiences. 
 
 921 
 
PHILIP D. ARMOUR. 
 
 THE ancient classic nations were in the 
 habit of speaking of the seven won- 
 ders of the world. If we were asked 
 to give a list of the seven wonders of 
 America, the city of Chicago would most 
 assuredly be one of them. It sits like a 
 queen at the feet of the great chain of lakes 
 which, taken together, are nothing less than 
 an immense inland sea. Its growth has oeen 
 rapid and phenomenal. Within the memory 
 of living men, it was only a village, located 
 on marshy ground, then giving no promise 
 of becoming the great metropolis of the West. 
 
 The explanation of this remarkable growth 
 is something which does not especially con- 
 cern us. That location has had much to do 
 with it is doubtless true. Here is a wonder- 
 ful centre of railroads, branching out into all 
 parts of the West. Here are facilities for 
 navigation which are unsurpassed by those 
 of any inland waters on the face of the 
 globe. Lying around Chicago, and extend- 
 ing through leagues of fertile territory, are 
 farms and homesteads which have sprung 
 into existence with startling rapidity. Chi- 
 cago looks out upon a vast country that 
 may appropriately be called the garden of 
 America, producing grains, cattle, sheep and 
 swine, in almost boundless affluence. Natur- 
 ally these must all have a market, a central 
 point for distribution to other parts of the 
 country and the eastern world. 
 
 While all these causes have combined to 
 render Chicago a city whose growth has 
 been extraordinary, it is no less true that 
 much is due to the enterprise of her citizens, 
 among whom are numbered men of broad 
 ideas, exceptional business ability, and an 
 integrity made of gold unmixed with dross. 
 One of these citizens whose remarkable suc- 
 cesses have given fame to Chicago is Mr. 
 Philip D. Armour— z full-grown man, looked 
 922 
 
 at from every point of view, whose business 
 career, whose unimpeachable character and 
 faithful endeavors in every walk of life, have 
 made him conspicuous in the city of his resi- 
 dence and widely known throughout thi 
 country. He was born in Stockbridge, N. 
 Y., May 16, 1832, and received his education 
 in the district school of his native town. 
 
 Like many young men, he was under the 
 impression that some other part of the coun- 
 try than the one in which he was born and 
 reared would afford a wider field for activity 
 and success, and started out to seek his for- 
 tune, going to California in 1851. This was 
 only two or three years after the discovery 
 of gold, but Mr. Armour found, even at thai- 
 time, that fortunes are not picked up in a day, 
 and he was doomed to disappointment. In 
 1856, he left California, convinced that he 
 could do better elsewhere. 
 
 Still, it is true that even at this time he 
 exhibited those qualities of industry, tact and 
 perseverance, which have since distinguished 
 him and are really the secret of the success 
 that has made him a millionaire, or it would 
 be more correct to say, a multi-millionaire, 
 for his possessions must be numbered among 
 the millions. Mr. Armour went to Milwau- 
 kee, Wio., where he embarked in the com- 
 mission business, meeting with the success 
 that might be expected from a man of his 
 ability. He saw that there was a wide and 
 growing field in the provision trade, that the 
 West was destined, if not to feed the world, 
 yet to contribute largely toward it, and this 
 led to the widening of his plans and the 
 beginning of the business in which he has 
 made his fame and fortune. 
 
 In connection with John Plankington, of 
 Milwaukee, he established a packing house, 
 and for a number of years devoted to the 
 business his time and energies. This was in 
 
EMINENT AMERICANS. 
 
 9 2 3 
 
 1863, and in 1868 the Chicago establishment 
 of P. D. Armour & Co. was founded, which 
 has branch houses in Kansas City and New 
 York, and extends its trade all over the 
 world. These packing houses are immense 
 establishments, and, except by actual obser- 
 vation, no one would be able to get an accu- 
 rate idea of the vast business that is carried on. 
 
 To one unused to such sights, the rapidity 
 with which live animals are converted into 
 provisions, ready to be shipped, is something 
 amazing. Various mechanical arrangements 
 are in use, and inventive genius has employed 
 itself in furnishing facilities for expediting 
 the work. Many as are the remarkable 
 sights of Chicago, a visit to the packing 
 houses cf P. D. Armour & Co. is one of the 
 most interesting and one that is seldom 
 omitted by Strangers. That a business should 
 have grown up in a few years so large as to 
 extend itself into all parts of the world, is a 
 high tribute to the enterprise of its controlling 
 head, and to the resources of the great West. 
 
 Mr. Armour does not believe in turning 
 his business over to others and merely super- 
 vising it in a general way. Like all success- 
 ful business men, he has a rare faculty for 
 dealing with details. The imprint of his 
 hand is on every part of the great enterprises 
 he carries on ; his personality is felt every- 
 where. Among all the thousands of his 
 employees there is probably not one who 
 performs the daily amount of labor that he 
 does himself. He is not a man to merely 
 say, " Do this, or that," but is himself a 
 worker, and is always found at his post. 
 
 At the same time Mr. Armour is a very 
 benevolent man, giving away large sums of 
 money and doing this, not merely by spas- 
 modic contribution, but as a daily habit. 
 He not only gets, but he gives, and in this 
 respect his ideas and activities are on a scale 
 with the vast plans that enter into his busi- 
 ness. The Armour Mission is one of the 
 
 religious institutions of Chicago, and he is 
 not content merely to provide the ways and 
 means, but also shows his interest in the 
 work by his personal presence and super- 
 vision. 
 
 Thus it will be seen that Mr. Armour is 
 something more than a man of business, con- 
 fining his thoughts and energies entirely to 
 his own immediate concerns. As a citizen 
 he is interested in public affairs, although he 
 has never sought office. He has been willing 
 that others should occupy positions which 
 could have been filled most satisfactorily by 
 a man of his ability and character. Honors 
 would have been placed upon him by his 
 fellow-citizens if he had been willing to 
 receive them ; but he has never sought 
 them, and when they have sought him he has 
 gracefully declined. 
 
 While such a man would doubtless have 
 achieved great success in any pursuit, it 
 seems evident that Mr. Armour luckily found 
 the one to which he was especially adapted. 
 He has given very close attention to it, and 
 from first to last has been a working man. 
 He has no time to waste. With him life 
 means unremitting labor and the furtherance 
 of his great enterprises. It is impossible to 
 conceive of a man possessed of his energy 
 and business capacity contenting himself 
 with meagre results. He does not look at 
 obstacles and hesitate ; he masters them by 
 the force of his will and the energy of his 
 active nature. His honorable career is well 
 worthy to be recorded as an example and 
 a stimulus to others who are engaged in 
 industrial pursuits. 
 
 One of the most magnificent presents 
 Chicago ever received was from him, and the 
 Armour Institute, fully endowed, stands not 
 only as one of the finest ornaments of the 
 city, but also as a monument that will per- 
 petuate the memory and philanthropic dis- 
 position of the founder. 
 
THOMAS B. REED. 
 
 THE history of our country shows 
 that in every great o.sis and emer- 
 gency men have come forward who 
 were equal to the occasion. An 
 extraordinary demand has always developed 
 extraordinary characters and has been fruit- 
 ful in remarkable achievements. From the 
 period of the Revolution down to the pre- 
 sent time, statesmen who would compare 
 favorably with those of any other nation, 
 have appeared upon the scene of action. 
 Those who established our national policy 
 and guided the young republic through 
 its early career, were not more conspicuous 
 than those who, in later times, have shaped 
 the events whose record is written upon the 
 enduring pages of history. It is but just to 
 say that our nation has been gifted with wise 
 and able statesmen, nor do we need to go far 
 back to discover their names. 
 
 Stormy times always bring grand men to 
 the front, the occasion affording opportunity 
 for leaders of intellectual force, heroic cour- 
 age and glowing patriotism. It has been no 
 light task to guide American affairs during 
 the period immediately following our great 
 Civil War. The conflict of opinions has 
 raged under the dome of the Capitol. This 
 was only to be expected, for a nation like 
 ours, covering so vast an extent of territory, 
 the life of which is composed of interests so 
 varied, and where there is always a strong 
 local feeling, must find that there will be 
 differences of opinion respecting many ques- 
 tions of national policy. 
 
 Few men have lately occupied more public 
 attention than Thomas Brackett Reed, a man 
 constructed on a broad plan, with abundance 
 of material put into his original composition, 
 and physically and intellectually the peer of 
 the most conspicuous Americans who have 
 gone before him. As a party leader, he has 
 924 
 
 shown pre-eminent abilities, while at the same 
 time he possesses the elements of personal 
 popularity to a remarkable degree. He ap- 
 pears to have gained his full growth, is not 
 confined within narrow limits, and is so 
 ample in thought, energy and deed, that he 
 must be considered a grand outgrowth ol 
 American institutions. 
 
 Mr. Reed was born in Maine, October 
 1 8th, 1839. After the usual common- school 
 education, which the most of American boys 
 are fortunate in being able to obtain, he con- 
 tinued his studies and graduated at Bowdoin 
 College in i860. The choice of his profes- 
 sion was that of law, and he immediately 
 began its study after leaving College. For a 
 short time he was diverted from the practice 
 of his profession, becoming acting paymaster 
 in the Navy in 1864. Here, however, he 
 remained only a year, and then resumed his 
 profession. 
 
 His comprehensive knowledge of current 
 politics and his sound Republican principles 
 made him widely known in his own locality, 
 and he was honored with an election to the 
 lower branch of the Maine Legislature in 
 1808. At the next election, he was made 
 Senator and was transferred to the upper 
 house. For two years he was attorney- 
 general of the State, and city solicitor for 
 Portland for a term of four years. During 
 all this time his reputation was extending, 
 his marked qualities were showing them- 
 selves, his strong individuality was attracting 
 observation, and it became evident that he 
 had abundant qualifications for a sphere of 
 the widest political action. 
 
 The next step in his career was his election 
 to Congress, in 1876. He has since been 
 continuously re-elected, a fact in itself afford- 
 ing sufficient evidence of his great popularity 
 and the unbounded confidence reposed in 
 
EMINENT AMERICANS. 
 
 925 
 
 him by his constituents. It was soon ad- 
 mitted in Washington that a man of extra- 
 ordinary parts had taken his seat in the 
 House of Representatives. He did not com- 
 mit the error of expressing his views on 
 every little subject, on every little occasion, 
 but when the turning-points came and mat- 
 ters of weighty import were to be decided, 
 Mr. Reed stood in the centre of the arena, a 
 valiant champion of his party faith, and an op- 
 ponent with whom few dared to measure arms. 
 
 Mr. Reed showed an intricate knowledge 
 of parliamentary law and usages, having 
 made the conduct of public business a special 
 study. He was quick to detect any blunder 
 or mistake in the deliberations and modes of 
 procedure on the floor of the House. 
 Naturally he became the leader of his party, 
 having a clear and comprehensive conception 
 of its principles, and being able to express 
 his views with such force and eloquence as 
 to command attention. He assumed his 
 position at the front without effort, without 
 courting favor, purely upon his own merits 
 as a statesman of broad views, generous im- 
 pulses, magnetic force and calm judgment. 
 
 He became the central figure of the Re- 
 publican party, and in the Fifty-first Con- 
 gress was elected Speaker of the House. It 
 soon became evident that a man of stern will 
 and remarkable executive ability was in the 
 chair. Business was to go on. The country 
 expected legislation and was to have it. The 
 subterfuges and delays for defeating measures 
 of public importance were to be branded as 
 infamous. The old-time usages and rules 
 which blocked legislative machinery were to 
 be dragged forth and slain, as Samuel hewed 
 Agag in pieces before the Lord in Gilgal. 
 
 Of course, there was a stir among the dry 
 bones. It had never been so seen in Wash- 
 ington before. A new man was at the helm, 
 a new life and vigor were infused into the 
 deliberations and actions of the House of 
 
 Representatives. Men who had resorted to 
 the most unscrupulous methods for defeating 
 projects which they did not favor, were 
 respectfully but firmly told to take a back 
 seat. Rules were adopted for " counting a 
 quorum," and permitting public business to 
 be transacted, a very wise and indispensable 
 proceeding, as would be said by any man of 
 common sense. It was justly concluded that 
 where something was expected to be done, it 
 was the height of idiocy and obstinacy to 
 allow a small minority to paralyze all action, 
 resulting in the doing of nothing. 
 
 As might have been expected, a storm of 
 criticism was awakened. In the midst of it 
 all Mr. Reed stood like a rock, conscious 
 that he was right and that the position he 
 had taken was a public necessity. Americans 
 do not like a weak man. They had found a 
 strong one, and the entire approbation of his 
 party sustained Mr. Reed and applauded his 
 administration. He was unmoved by assaults, 
 bitter criticisms, storms of vituperation. His 
 enemies gave him the title of " Czar," berated 
 what they called his tyranny, yet inwardly 
 respected him and bowed before the majesty 
 of his will. Time has justified fully the 
 position Mr. Reed assumed, and the very rules 
 which the minority opposed they were com- 
 pelled to adopt when they became the majority. 
 Mr. Reed's views upon great public ques- 
 tions are so well known as to require little 
 reference here. Suffice it to say, he is a 
 thorough American, believes in a strong for- 
 eign policy, is an advocate of reasonable pro- 
 tection to American industries, and stands 
 with his windows open to the light, ready for 
 any and all measures that will promote the 
 widest public welfare. 
 
 In personal characteristics and force of 
 character Mr. Reed is a typical American 
 and seems abundantly able to bear the re- 
 sponsibilities which have fallen to his lot as 
 a public man. 
 
MELVILLE W. FULLER. 
 
 LAWYERS of high reputation are 
 found in all parts of our country, 
 and here, more than in almost any- 
 other profession, it is difficult to 
 draw distinctions and say that one is superior 
 to another. Taken as a whole, the profession 
 of law exhibits keen intellectual ability and 
 marked oratorical power. 
 
 Some members of the profession have been 
 eminent as jurists, such as Chief Justice 
 Marshall and Chief Justice Chase. Others 
 have been eloquent pleaders, like Webster 
 and Choate. Others have excelled in that 
 intellectual acuteness which is especially re- 
 quired in untangling the meshes of the law. 
 
 It is true that very able jurists have been 
 placed upon the bench of the Supreme Court. 
 Yet these never have enjoyed a monopoly of 
 legal talent. Others of equal ability might 
 have been elevated to the same position,. ful- 
 filling its duties with equal efficiency. 
 
 The subject of this sketch did not have a 
 national reputation until he was nominated 
 for Chief Justice by President Cleveland and 
 promptly confirmed by the Senate. That 
 such an honor is great is universally con- 
 ceded; it is one of the highest that can be 
 conferred. It has been said that the Supreme 
 Court is peculiarly the pride and glory of our 
 country. Although this was said by a mem- 
 ber of the Court and appears to have a touch 
 of self-praise about it, nevertheless it must 
 be admitted to be true. Here is the tribunal 
 of last resort. Here questions are decided 
 which pertain even to the Constitution and 
 government of the country. Matters of the 
 gravest import are constantly before the 
 Court, vast interests hinging upon their de- 
 cision. Beyond this tribunal there is no 
 appeal. Its word is final and is not to be 
 disputed. Its decisions pass into laws, into 
 principles of action, and even become a part 
 of our unwritten Constitution. 
 926 
 
 History furnishes a record of many tribu- 
 nals, some just, some unjust, some cruel, some 
 merciful, some pure, and many corrupt, but 
 in all the long story of civilization from an- 
 cient Egypt down through the Greek and 
 Roman Empires to the present day, there 
 can be found no judicial organization more 
 worthy of high honor and profound respect 
 than the Supreme Court of the United States. 
 
 Intimately interwoven as its proceedings 
 have been with the national and individual 
 life of our people, calmly deciding, as it has, 
 matters of the gravest import, involving vast 
 measures of wealth, political consequences 
 unmeasurable in mere money, and questions 
 on the turn of which hung millions of lives, 
 no taint of suspicion ever sullied its honor, 
 the serious charge has seldom made, even in 
 the heat of sectional strife and bitterness, that 
 its decision, or the decisions of its individual 
 members, were guided by aught save the 
 cold, passionless mandate of the law, clothed 
 with the significance that each one attached 
 to its utterance. 
 
 It was characterized by an eminent jurist 
 as " The court which interprets the living 
 voice of the Constitution." " In whatever 
 has concerned the national welfare, this court 
 has," he said, " always stood for the con- 
 science of the people of the United States." 
 
 The character and eminence of its mem- 
 bers must ever be a subject of deepest inter- 
 est to all Americans, for it is readily conceiv- 
 able that without a Marshall, a Waite, a 
 Storey and a Chase, as Chief Justices, our 
 national and political development might 
 have proceeded upon lines far different from 
 the ones which it has followed. 
 
 The position held by the Supreme Court, 
 the importance of the cases brought to its 
 judgment and the far-reaching effects of its 
 decisions, require jurists of the most profound 
 learning, the widest experience, the utmost 
 
EMINENT AMERICANS. 
 
 927 
 
 patience and candor, and personal characters 
 above reproach. That Mr. Fuller meets these 
 requirements to a most eminent degree, is 
 universally admitted. He was born in Au- 
 gusta, Maine, February 11, 1833, and twenty 
 years later graduated from Bowdoin Col- 
 lege, an institution which has been peculiarly 
 favored in its distinguished graduates. Hav- 
 ing studied law at Harvard College, Mr. 
 Fuller entered upon the practice of his pro- 
 fession in his native city in 1855. 
 
 His mind seems to have had a leaning 
 toward journalism, and he became the editor 
 of the Augusta Age, while at the same time 
 he became prominent in local politics, having 
 been made president of the Common Council 
 during his editorship. In 1856 he was 
 elected City Attorney. But, like many young 
 men born and reared in New England, he 
 was seized with the Western fever, and de- 
 termined to go West to find a wider field for 
 his energies. He removed to Chicago, where, 
 for thirty-two years, he conducted a highly 
 successful law practice, having gained imme- 
 diately a wide reputation for legal acumen, 
 and for honorable methods in the manage- 
 ment of his cases. 
 
 At the same time, he did not divorce him- 
 self from public affairs. He was a member 
 of the Illinois Constitutional Convention in 
 1862, and of the Illinois House of Represen- 
 tatives in 1863. A strong Democrat, he 
 served as a delegate to all the national Con- 
 ventions from 1864 to 1880 inclusive, and 
 was always prominent in the councils of his 
 party, where his word had the greatest influ- 
 ence. His successful career naturally pointed 
 to a higher position of service than he had 
 hitherto occupied. Not only the men of his 
 own party, but his fellow-citizens generally 
 looked upon him as an able, honorable and 
 upright man. 
 
 When President Cleveland selected him to 
 fill the vacancy on the Supreme Bench of the 
 
 United States caused oy the death of Chief 
 Justice Waite, the choice was pronounced a 
 wise one by those who knew Mr. Fuller best. 
 Those who had not known him were some- 
 what surprised at his selection, but subse- 
 quent events have justified the wisdom of the 
 choice. He was confirmed by the Senate 
 July 20, 1888, and took the oath of office on 
 the 8th of October following. 
 
 In the social life of Washington, Mr. Fuller 
 and his family are widely known, making it 
 a point to entertain their friends and show 
 attention to strangers. Their delightful hos- 
 pitalities are widely extended and thoroughly 
 enjoyed. A large family of daughters, brigli 
 and well educated, lend attraction to tl 
 home. These have been reared, not aftei the 
 straight-laced fashion, but, while placed undei 
 judicious parental restraint, they have been 
 allowed such freedom as develops individu- 
 ality of character, and, to a considerable ex- 
 tent, independence of action. They think 
 for themselves, have opinions of their own, 
 and are fully equal to all the social func- 
 tions in which they are required to take 
 part. 
 
 Mr. Fuller has received the degree of 
 LL.D. from Bowdoin College, and also from 
 the Northwestern University. This is simply 
 the recognition of those distinguished abilities 
 which have placed him at the head of the 
 highest judicial tribunal in the land. In 
 person he is of medium height and build, 
 and not at all remarkable for what we are in 
 the habit of calling " presence." His hair is 
 white and is worn long ; his face smooth, 
 with the exception of a somewhat heavy 
 mustache. His features are clear cut, giving 
 evidence of the scholar and the thinker. 
 
 His decisions are marked by learning, pro- 
 found insight into the merits of the case, and 
 a simplicity and clearness of expression 
 which render them capable of being compre- 
 hended by the average mind. 
 
JOHN WANAMAKER. 
 
 THE career of no business man in 
 the United States has been more 
 successful than that of John Wana- 
 maker. . From the poor boy to the 
 foremost merchant of our time, is an amazing 
 step. Others may be accounted self-made 
 men, miracles we might call them of energy 
 and achievement, but to no other does the 
 term phenomenal apply with as much force 
 as it does to the subject of this sketch. 
 
 Not only is Mr. Wanamaker the greatest 
 merchant in America, he is also one of our 
 greatest men. By this we do not mean that 
 he is brilliant from all points of view, that he 
 is a profound scholar or a great orator, but 
 in all the elements which go to form a true 
 and noble manhood, a man successful in all 
 his undertakings, and a private and public 
 citizen of pre-eminent worth and influence, 
 he may be considered unique. 
 
 It has been quite customary for instruc- 
 tors of the rising generation to point to Mr. 
 Wanamaker as a shining example for young 
 men. The young as well as the old learn 
 best from object lessons. That Mr. Wana- 
 maker shoifld have been selected so fre- 
 quently as a pattern for imitation is not 
 surprising to those who know him best. 
 Standing conspicuously as he does before 
 the public, it is not to be wondered at that 
 he should have his critics, perhaps even 
 enemies. All positive characters do have 
 them, and it is greatly to their credit that they 
 do. What impresses one especially is, that 
 Mr. Wanamaker has so many sides to his 
 character, and shows so much of genius, not 
 only in one direction, but in many. It is 
 not too much to say that if he had been en- 
 gaged in any other pursuit than the mercan- 
 tile, he would instantly have come to the front. 
 
 The secret of all this is simply in the man 
 himself. Having the ability, it cannot help 
 928 
 
 exhibiting itself under all circumstances. 
 The man who is a natural-born leader is 
 pretty sure to lead wherever you place him. 
 He carries in his own strong will and iron 
 arm successes beyond the reach of feebler 
 men. Such an one does not need to have 
 greatness thrust upon him; he is great al- 
 ready. The world always has estimated, and 
 always will estimate, men by their successes. 
 Judged by this inevitable standard, Mr. 
 Wanamaker is a Saul among the Prophets. 
 
 He was born in Philadelphia, July 11, 
 1838 ; attended a country school until he was 
 fourteen, and there obtained about the only 
 education he ever received. His first place 
 was that of messenger boy with the publish- 
 ing house of Troutman & Hayes, at the ex- 
 ceedingly modest salary of $1.25 a week. He 
 lived over four miles from the store, and 
 footed it morning and evening, eating at 
 noon the plain lunch brought with him from 
 home, put up for him by a loving mother's 
 hands. Subsequently the family lived for a 
 time in Kosciusko County, Indiana, but re- 
 turned to Philadelphia in 1856, where young 
 Wanamaker eventually obtained employment 
 in Tower Hall, then the largest clotning 
 house in that city. 
 
 At the outbreak of the Civil War in 1861, 
 when he was twenty-three years old, he 
 married Miss Brown, and, having obtained a 
 very small capital, he went into the clothing 
 business in partnership with his brother-in- 
 law. Here the qualities of the man began 
 to show themselves, and he became conspic- 
 uous for that business shrewdness, push, 
 and perseverance, enterprise, courage, and 
 breadth of views which have distinguished 
 him ever since. 
 
 Of course, the business prospered and 
 grew rapidly, until in time his clothing house 
 became the largest in America. A second 
 
EMINENT AMERICANS. 
 
 9*, 
 
 store was opened in the city, and afterwards 
 several branch houses in other parts of the 
 country. It is noticeable that from early 
 manhood Mr. Wanamaker devoted himself 
 enthusiastically to religious work, his activity 
 in this respect keeping pace with that dis- 
 played in his business. He established a 
 mission school in what was then a poor, 
 neglected part of the city, so infested with 
 rough, criminal characters, that it was 
 scarcely safe for a respectable citizen to walk 
 through its streets after nightfall. 
 
 This mission has grown to amazing pro- 
 portions. It was the forerunner of the great 
 Bethany Church and Sunday-schools, which 
 have attracted attention, not merely in Phila- 
 delphia, but in all parts of the country. It 
 may as well be said here that in connection 
 with Bethany, advantages have been offered 
 to young persons in humble circumstances 
 for the study of various secular branches, a 
 knowledge of which is intended to prepare 
 them for business life. Moreover, arrange- 
 ments have been made for the founding of 
 an institute which will cost from one to two 
 million dollars, where at a nominal rate 
 young persons of both sexes can pursue 
 academical studies, and have ample opportu- 
 nities for manual training. This is one of 
 Mr. Wanamaker's crowning achievements. 
 
 After the Centennial Exhibition of 1876, 
 with the financial management of which he 
 was prominently connected, he opened the 
 great general store in Philadelphia which 
 continues to be one of the wonders of the 
 age. It occupies an entire square in one 
 direction and half this space in another. The 
 building was once a large freight depot, and 
 when Mr. Wanamaker conceived the idea 
 of opening a store of such gigantic dimen- 
 sions it was freely prophesied that he would 
 fail. Notwithstanding all reports to the con- 
 trary, there has doubtless never been a time 
 
 when Mr. Wanamaker was anywhere near 
 59 
 
 the point of failing. Failure does not seem 
 to be in the man. 
 
 Mr. Wanamaker's methods of conducting 
 business have shown his original genius. 
 These have been quite different from those 
 long pursued, being especially noticeable in 
 the liberality shown to the public. They are 
 made to feel quite at home in the great 
 establishment, are treated with the utmost 
 courtesy, and if, after making purchases, 
 these are not satisfactory, they can be re- 
 turned. The theory is, that to treat the 
 public liberally pays. 
 
 Quite naturally Mr. Wanamaker became 
 prominent as a citizen and public man. He 
 appeared to have no ambition for office, but 
 for many years was fully occupied with the 
 management of his vast concerns. His coun- 
 sel and advice were, however, often sought, 
 and it is probable that no preferment within 
 the gift of his native city would have been 
 denied him. But he was destined to hold a 
 much higher position and one that would 
 identify him with the affairs of the nation at 
 large. Having many times declined public 
 office, in 1889 he accepted the portfolio oi 
 Postmaster-General in President Harrison's 
 Cabinet, and introduced into the department 
 the most approved business methods. His 
 efficient administration did much toward 
 perfecting and extending the postal service. 
 
 Mr Wanamaker has long been distin- 
 guished for his liberal contributions to 
 benevolent work, and it is certain that more 
 than one institution, endowed by his munifi- 
 cence, will stand as a monument to his busi- 
 ness capacity and liberal spirit. 
 
 He takes the view that a considerable part 
 of his vast estate should be distributed dur- 
 ing his lifetime under his own care and 
 supervision. He is not willing merely to 
 part with his money when compelled to by 
 grim death, after the example of a great 
 many. 
 
CHARLES FREDERICK CRISP. 
 
 M 
 
 R. CRISP has been a well-known 
 figure in Congress since the period 
 of his first election. He had 
 gained a wide celebrity in Geor- 
 gia, had shown himself, in various ways, to 
 be a man suited to leadership, and his eleva- 
 tion to the House of Representatives was 
 only to be expected, and was a worthy tribute 
 to the man. He seems to have been by 
 nature marked out for political life, and it 
 will be generally admitted that in Washington 
 he found his appropriate sphere. 
 
 Mr. Crisp was born in Sheffield, England, 
 January 20, 1845. His parents were Ameri- 
 cans, temporarily residing in England, and 
 returned to this country in 1846, when the 
 subject of the sketch was about one year 
 old. Thus, although Mr. Crisp is not a na- 
 tive of the United States, he comes as near it 
 as one possibly can, being distinctively Am- 
 erican by parentage and education. 
 
 The family having settled in Georgia, the 
 boy was placed in the common schools, where 
 he received his education. While quick to 
 learn and exhibiting qualities of mind much 
 above the average, he also displayed marked 
 traits which have been prominent through 
 all his subsequent career. He was indepen- 
 dent, positive, aggressive, and self-reliant. 
 He was not in the habit of allowing any of 
 his rights to be invaded without showing 
 quick resentment. In time, he became a 
 leader among the young men by whom he 
 was surrounded, and over whom he exerted 
 great influence. 
 
 Even at this period he seemed to combine 
 in a remarkable degree wise foresight and 
 judgment with impetuous force. He was 
 evidently born to be a power in whatever 
 sphere or circumstances placed him. He 
 shared the spirit of the South which flamed 
 out in secession, and in this he was only like 
 930 
 
 the great body of young men in the Southern 
 States. It is a well-known fact that quite 
 largely the Confederate Army was composed 
 of this class. They were strong in their con- 1 
 victions ; they were eager for action in the 
 field ; they were willing to take risks and 
 make sacrifices. They did not count their 
 lives dear to them, and history shows that 
 tens of thousands of them fell upon the 
 battle-field, reddening its sod with their warm 
 blood. 
 
 In 1 86 1 Mr. Crisp entered the Confederate 
 army as a lieutenant. He saw a good deal of 
 active service in the field, showed himself to 
 be a good soldier, and won the approbation 
 of his superiors. He was a prisoner of war 
 from May, 1864, until June, 1865. After his 
 release he studied law, and practiced first at 
 Ellaville, and afterward at Americus, Ga., 
 which latter place became his subsequent 
 home. He quickly took high rank in his 
 profession, and gained rapid prominence, 
 being well thought of by older lawyers as 
 well as by the community in which he lived. 
 
 In 1872 he was appointed solicitor-general 
 of the South-western Judicial Court, and held 
 that office until the middle of 1877, when he 
 became judge of the Superior Court of the 
 same circuit. He showed himself to be 
 fully equipped for the exacting duties of his 
 position, lending dignity to his office, and 
 evincing that impartial spirit which properly 
 belongs to the occupant of the judicial bench. 
 He could have remained in this position if he 
 had chosen, but whether satisfied with his 
 successes or not, his fellow-citizens had 
 already expressed their wishes to have him 
 represent them at Washington. 
 
 He resigned from the bench in September. 
 1882, to accept the Democratic nomination 
 for Congress. He was permanent president 
 of the Democratic Convention which assem- 
 
EMINENT AMERICANS. 
 
 93i 
 
 bLa in Atlanta in April, 1883, to nominate a 
 candidate for governor. Thus his steps all 
 seemed to be in the natural order of things, 
 one following the other in a kind of logical 
 sequence. He was elected to the Forty- 
 eighth Congress, and immediately took high 
 rank among the members of the House, 
 being prominent on all occasions in the 
 deliberations of his party, and regarded as 
 one of the wisest and most efficient leaders. 
 
 When the Democratic party came into 
 power with Mr. Cleveland's second adminis- 
 tration, Mr. Crisp was unanimously selected 
 to assume the responsible duties of Speaker 
 of the House, and was chosen to that position. 
 His knowledge of parliamentary law, his ex- 
 perience upon the floor of Congress, his 
 character for impartial judgment, gained 
 when connected with the courts of his 
 adopted State, all marked him out as pos- 
 sessing the necessary qualifications for the 
 Speakership. During the sessions of the 
 Fifty-second Congress he added greatly to 
 his reputation, and it was generally conceded 
 that he was a worthy successor of the able 
 presiding officers who had gone before him. 
 
 Even his political opponents agreed that 
 his rulings and decisions showed at all times 
 careful consideration, and were unbiased by 
 prejudice. 
 
 In manner, Mr. Crisp is a type of the cul- 
 tivated gentleman, urbane, cordial, courteous, 
 and approachable upon all occasions. Pos- 
 sessed of great independence and resolution, 
 always looking at public questions from a 
 practical point of view, firm in the mainte- 
 nance of his opinions, and immovable as a 
 rock when conscious that he is in the right, 
 he affords a central point around which the 
 sentiment of his party shapes itself. In de- 
 bate, he is incisive, fluent, forcible, and ordi- 
 narily shows a thorough study and complete 
 grasp of his subject. 
 
 He has proved himself to be a formirlable 
 
 antagonist, and many are the weapons of 
 lesser men that have been broken upon his 
 shield, and have fallen harmless at his feet. 
 At times his utterances are bold and almost 
 defiant, yet his evident sincerity assures him 
 a respectful hearing, while the honesty of 
 his convictions is always plainly apparent. 
 Taking him all in all, he is a typical repre- 
 sentative of the locality from which he comes 
 and of the party whose ideas and principles 
 he holds with tenacity and expounds with 
 such marked ability. 
 
 After the shifting fortunes of political par- 
 ties had deprived Mr. Crisp of his position at 
 the head of the House of Representatives, he 
 resumed his place on the floor to represent 
 again the district that had repeatedly hon- 
 ored him. He did not seem to lose interest 
 in national legislation, but, although acting 
 with the minority, and knowing beforehand 
 that measures advocated by himself and 
 friends were not certain to be passed, he did 
 not relax his vigilance, or in any way dimin- 
 ish his efforts in behalf of what he deemed 
 essential to the public welfare. 
 
 By common consent he was the leader of 
 his party, and, being so regarded, he had 
 the chief voice in its deliberations. His en- 
 tire history as a public man had been so free 
 from mistakes, and so contrary to the in- 
 trigues of the mere self-seeking partisan, that 
 he commanded the utmost respect and confi- 
 dence. It was sufficient to know what were, 
 his views on public questions in order to 
 gather around him a strong and loyal band 
 of supporters. 
 
 Not that he has ever been in the habit of 
 exercising a domineering spirit, or of show- 
 ing any attempt to override the honest con- 
 victions of other men. His appeal has always 
 been to reason and common sense. Mr. 
 Crisp's native qualities have been his success; 
 at the same time they have been quickened 
 by a broad culture and large experience. 
 
MARSHALL FIELD. 
 
 GIVEN the man and the opportu- 
 nity, and the combination is com- 
 plete. The opportunity is the 
 great West, even the world ; the 
 man is Marshall Field. 
 
 There is no special merit in being an 
 Eastern boy or being born even in Massa- 
 chusetts. Yet, in numerous instances, our 
 Eastern boys, who are the flowering and the 
 growth of a hard-headed, industrious, thrifty 
 ancestry, have honored their parentage, have 
 amassed fortunes and risen to enviable posi- 
 tions in every walk of life. It is useless to 
 say that nothing depends upon the kind of 
 stuff of which a young man is made. No 
 one can sharpen a stirk and make of it a 
 razor. 
 
 That enterprises should be conducted on a 
 grand scale in Chicago and other parts of the 
 West, is only to be expected. Man's plans 
 appear to follow nature's, and nature's plans 
 in America are broad and comprehensive. 
 Our rivers are more than rivulets, our prairies 
 are more than garden patches, our Northern 
 lakes have a suggestion of the sea about 
 them, and in keeping with this breadth and 
 fulness is American enterprise. We are an 
 ambitious, nervous, pushing, money-making 
 people. The Eastern boy, in fact, every boy, 
 has dreams of a fortune. 
 
 Marshall Field was born in Conway, Mass., 
 in 1835. His father was a farmer, and that, 
 too, in a locality where it is no easy matter 
 to make two blades of grass grow where one 
 grew before. It was not needful that the 
 father should make fortunes and successes for 
 the son ; the son had fortunes and successes 
 in himself. He went to Chicago in 1856 and 
 obtained employment in the wholesale dry- 
 goods house of Cooley, Wadsworth & Co., 
 afterward Cooley, Far well & Co., and subse- 
 quently the John V. Farwell Company. 
 032 
 
 In 1860 he obtained an interest in the con- 
 cern, but in 1865 Mr. Field and L. Z. Leiter 
 withdrew from the house, and in connection 
 with Potter Palmer organized the firm ol 
 Field, Palmer & Leiter. Mr. Palmer with- 
 drew in 1867, and the firm became Field, 
 Leiter & Co. Since the retirement of Mr. 
 Leiter, in *i88i, the house has been known by 
 the name of Marshall Field & Co. 
 
 To say that its business has been extended, 
 not only throughout America, but into other 
 parts of the world, until it is, perhaps, the 
 most extensive of its kind of which we have 
 any record, speaks volumes for the tact and 
 enterprise, sound judgment and persevering 
 energy of those who have had the manage- 
 ment of it. While Mr. Field has been asso- 
 ciated with men of ability and not capable of 
 making many mistakes, his guiding thought 
 and practical business talent have been dis- 
 played throughout. 
 
 This great mercantile establishment has 
 branches in Paris, Manchester, Yokohama 
 and other foreign centres, and carries on a 
 business that amounts to many million dollars 
 a year— just how many it would be difficult to 
 say, for the reason that in every mercantile 
 establishment the volume of business may 
 vary according to times and circumstances. 
 The amount of labor involved in starting, 
 extending and conducting a business of such 
 vast proportions can be known only to those 
 by whom the burden has been borne. 
 
 Let no one suppose for a moment that there 
 has been any recklessness which rushes on 
 without taking any thought of consequences. 
 There has been a conservative management 
 on the one hand, and a bold, energetic, for- 
 ward movement on the other. There has 
 been nothing whatever in the nature of wild 
 speculation. There has been no jumping at 
 chances, but in a straightforward, mathema- 
 
EMINENT AMERICANS. 
 
 933 
 
 tical way, business has been pushed, and the 
 results could almost be foreseen. This seems 
 to have been the great cardinal principle on 
 which Mr. Field has always acted. When 
 financial depressions have come, and every 
 morning's bulletin made startling announce- 
 ments of failures, he has been able to meet 
 the emergencies and conquer all threatening 
 disaster. It is said that his rule is to never 
 borrow, never give a note, never to speculate 
 in stocks, and to buy for cash. 
 
 He has never considered himself under 
 any obligation to be influenced by the whims 
 and caprices of the hour. When others have 
 departed from sound business principles and 
 have extended credits in order to quicken 
 the pulses of trade, he has marked the line of 
 clanger and has pursued an opposite course. 
 
 Moreover, he has always conducted his 
 dealings with a view to gain the confidence 
 of the public, guaranteeing the quality of the 
 goods sold, and absolutely refusing to sell 
 goods of inferior character. Confidence is 
 one of the corner-stones of sound and suc- 
 cessful business. The man who deals hon- 
 estly and justly, who is willing to make his 
 word good, and who will stand by every 
 statement made, is the one who will draw 
 custom and reap a corresponding benefit. 
 Honesty is not only right, but it is the best 
 policy. All policy aside, honesty should be 
 the rule of action because it is right. 
 
 In Mr. Field's long business career, he 
 has, of course, encountered difficulties, and 
 has sometimes been placed in trying posi- 
 tions. He was a sufferer from the great fire 
 in 1 87 1, which laid a large part of Chicago 
 in ashes. Although well insured, so many 
 of the insurance companies failed that his 
 losses were immense. He turned away from 
 the smouldering ruins ot his establishment, 
 and with new energy and courage started 
 afresh. On the corner of State and 20th 
 Streets were some horse-car sheds that had 
 
 been spared by the fire ; these were rented, 
 business was re-established, and in the follow- 
 ing year new stores were ready to be occu- 
 pied. Other buildings have been erected since, 
 as they were needed, equipped with all facili- 
 ties and admirably adapted to their purpose. 
 
 In 1873 came the great panic which affect- 
 ed the business of the entire country. Few 
 such periods of depression have ever been 
 known, and many of the strongest concerns, 
 some of which were almost becoming vener- 
 able through their long careers of prosperity, 
 were compelled to succumb. But Mr. Field's 
 house owed nothing, had an excellent class 
 of customers, who had paid their bills up to 
 within two months of the time when the 
 panic fell with such disastrous results, and it 
 stood like a rock. Never has there been a 
 time since it was founded when it could not 
 promptly meet its obligations. 
 
 The business continued to grow steadily 
 until, in 1885, it was necessary to erect ano- 
 ther building. This was constructed of 
 granite and sandstone, and is one of the most 
 substantial and conveniently arranged dry- 
 goods establishments in the world. Building 
 after building has been added to the retail 
 store to meet the growing demands of the 
 business. 
 
 Mr. Field has never been infatuated with 
 the idea of making money merely to hoard 
 it up. His charities are large and without 
 ostentation. He has been a public-spirited 
 citizen, taking an interest in all that con- 
 cerned the growth and welfare of Chicago. 
 Many institutions have profited by his liberal 
 bequests. He gave one million dollars to 
 the Columbian Museum fund, has been a 
 large contributor to the Chicago University, 
 and in numberless private channels has shown 
 his benevolent spirit. It is but simple truth 
 to say that he is a noble specimen, not only of 
 the merchant-prince, but of the highest type 
 of man. 
 
JOHN SHERMAN.- 
 
 OUR Civil War and the stirring 
 times that followed it have 
 developed some statesmen of 
 distinguished ability, who will 
 long be remembered and honored for the 
 invaluable services they have rendered to 
 the nation. There is always a large class of 
 people prating about the " good old times," 
 telling how superior the early statesmen 
 were to those of more recent date, glorifying 
 the founders of the Republic, and implying 
 that with their death a large part of our 
 national capacity for public affairs went out 
 of existence, never to return. 
 
 It is well to be patient with those who live 
 in the shadow of bygone days, although we 
 may be compelled to pity their simplicity. 
 They show very little knowledge of current 
 history, if they imagine that all the virtue 
 and all the statesmanship belong to a past 
 generation. With all due respect to the 
 ability of that great class of heroes and 
 patriots whose deeds have given lustre to our 
 early American history, it must yet be re- 
 membered that there are giants in these 
 days, and that the next generation will 
 outline their figures in grand proportions, as 
 we do those of former times. 
 
 The name of John Sherman has been 
 closely associated with our national affairs 
 for more than thirty years. During this long 
 period few men have wrought more valiantly, 
 have stood out more prominently in the eye 
 of the nation, have marked their career with 
 greater achievements or have committed 
 fewer mistakes. An eminently wise and safe 
 man he has been. Always strong in his 
 party convictions, he has yet been something 
 more than a politician. He was originally 
 freighted with material sufficient to enable 
 him to fill every position he has occupied, so 
 that it has never been said of him that he 
 934 
 
 was unequal to the occasion. From early 
 manhood he has given to the public an im- 
 pression of massive strength, great intellectual 
 insight, close familiarity with public affairs 
 unswerving integrity, and an ability, espe 
 cially in the matter of finances, second to 
 that of no other man in the nation. To 
 write Mr. Sherman's history is to write his 
 eulogy. 
 
 He was born in Lancaster, Ohio, May 10, 
 1823. When he was but six years old his 
 father died, leaving a large family in reduced 
 circumstances, and he was subsequently 
 adopted by a relative living at Mt. Vernon, 
 Ohio. At the age of twelve a sister took 
 charge of him and put him in a school at 
 Lancaster, where he acquired an education. 
 
 He studied law with his brother, C. T. 
 Sherman, at Mansfield, where he afterward 
 practiced for ten years, and where he was 
 married, in 1848, to a daughter of James 
 Stewart. He was looked upon as a rising 
 man, and gained a distinction which was not 
 confined to the limits of his profession. His 
 neighbors and friends believed that he pos- 
 sessed unusual qualifications for public life 
 
 In 1855 he was elected to the 34th Con- 
 gress in the interest of the Free Soil party, 
 and was re-elected to the 35th and 36th Con- 
 gresses. He became a power on the floor 
 and in committees, and was recognized as 
 the foremost man in the House, particularly 
 in matters affecting finance. He was again 
 elected to Congress in i860, but in the fol- 
 lowing year was chosen to the United States 
 Senate, where he at once became a leader. 
 After the close of the Civil War he and 
 Thaddeus Stevens prepared the bill for the 
 reconstruction of the Southern States, which 
 was passed by Congress in the winter of 
 1866-67. 
 
 In March, 1877, Senator Sherman was 
 
 
EMINENT AMERICANS. 
 
 935 
 
 appointed by President Hayes, Secretary of 
 the Treasury, a position which he retained 
 until the close of Mr. Hayes' administration, 
 in 1 88 1, when he re-entered the Senate, of 
 which he has been a member ever since, 
 having discharged his duties with such fidel- 
 ity and efficiency as to insure his continual 
 re-election. Few men have ever had such 
 confidence placed in them, and few have ever 
 done so little to disappoint : t. Having made 
 the subjects of Finance and Revenue a special 
 study, he was looked upon as eminently 
 fitted for his position in the Cabinet, and 
 when he returned to the Senate and there 
 found grave problems confronting the coun- 
 try, he addressed himself earnestly to the 
 task of solving them and putting the finances 
 of the nation upon a sound basis. It was 
 due to his management, while at the head of 
 the Treasury, that the resumption of specie 
 payments was effected in 1879, without dis- 
 turbance to the financial or commercial inter- 
 ests of the country. Naturally he has been 
 brought into close relations with capital, wfth 
 banks and bankers, with moneyed men of 
 every description, who have placed great 
 reliance on his judgment and advice. 
 
 He was a prominent candidate for the 
 Republican presidential nomination ;n 1 880, 
 and again in 1888, but if this was ever seri- 
 ously his goal of ambition, he stopped short 
 of gaining the prize. Lacking, probably, in 
 some of those magnetic qualities which be- 
 long to a great popular leader, he has never 
 been able to command a following large 
 enough to place him at the head of his party 
 in a presidential campaign. His intellect is 
 cold and keen, his manner is dignified and 
 somewhat reserved; he means business, and 
 that only, so constantly, that he has never 
 drawn around him a sufficient number of 
 influential men who were willing to make him 
 their idol and stake everything upon his 
 advancement. 
 
 Mr. Sherman would not be selected as a 
 shining example of the brilliant statesman. 
 He is not possessed of that peculiar magne- 
 tism by which many other prominent men in 
 the nation have been distinguished, but he is 
 a fine type of those substantial, useful quali- 
 ties by which the best results are always 
 brought about. He has never aimed to 
 startle the public by dash and enthusiasm. 
 His mind is judicial, and as a jurist he would 
 be preeminent. 
 
 His ripe age, calm judgment, and devotion 
 to his constituents on the one hand, and to 
 his own political faith on the other, have 
 drawn to him universal respect. His life is 
 one that is well rounded and complete. Es- 
 pecially has he shown himself familiar with 
 our national finances, upon which he has 
 long been an authority. 
 
 That his service in Washington has been 
 as useful as it has been protracted, will be 
 denied by no one. He was, until 1893, 
 chairman of the Committee on Foreign Re- 
 lations, and a member of the Committee on 
 Finance, the Committee on Organization, 
 Conduct and Expenditures of the Executive 
 Departments, the Select Committee on the 
 Quadro-Centennia and the Committee on 
 Rules. 
 
 In person Mr. Sherman is very tall and 
 somewhat spare. He has a nervous, ener- 
 getic temperament, and is capable of great 
 endurance and of a vast amount of work. 
 Having risen from the poverty of boyhood 
 to the commanding heights of personal 
 power and influence, he affords a fine illus- 
 tration of the ample success within the grasp 
 of every young American possessed of abil- 
 ity, industry and laudable ambition. He 
 has left his imprint upon the recent history 
 of our country, which cannot be written with- 
 out frequent reference to the important 
 measures conceived and fostered by his wise 
 and eminent statesmanship. 
 
LEW WALLACE. 
 
 M 
 
 OST men who have distinguished 
 themselves as authors have been 
 authors only, devoting their en- 
 tire time and energies to literary- 
 pursuits. This may be said of Washington 
 Irving, Henry W. Longfellow, Dr. J. G. 
 Holland, and many others whose works have 
 been widely known and read. Occasionally 
 some brilliant genius like Nathaniel Haw- 
 thorne has been compelled to combine busi- 
 ness pursuits with literary labors in order 
 to obtain the very necessary commodities of 
 bread and butter. There is in our country a 
 growing class of writers who aim to devote 
 themselves exclusively to authorship, realiz- 
 ing that in this way only the best work can 
 be accomplished. 
 
 It must be admitted, howevi ', that some 
 of our most popular fictions have been writ- 
 ten amidst exacting labors, not at all con- 
 nected with authorship; for example, Mrs. 
 Stowe's famous story, which has been more 
 extensively read than any other similar pro- 
 duction, and which was penned amidst oner- 
 ous household duties and the most absorbing 
 cares. This, however, is no evidence against 
 the truth of the statement, that here as else- 
 where, to make the most of the pursuit 
 requires that it should be followed tc the 
 exclusion of all others. It seldom happens 
 that any one individual shows particular 
 aptitude for more than one calling. The 
 merchant must be a merchant only, the 
 teacher must be only a teacher, the clergy- 
 man only a clergyman, the lawyer only a 
 lawyer, the farmer a farmer only. 
 
 In the person of General Lew Wallace we 
 have the example of a man who has been 
 successful in several directions and has ex- 
 hibited an unusual combination of talents. 
 He was born at Brookville, Franklin County, 
 T ndiana, in 1827. He was fortunate in hav- 
 936 
 
 ing good advantages for education in his 
 boyhood, and always showed himself to be a 
 diligent and painstaking scholar. He began 
 the study of law, but upon the outbreak 01 
 the Mexican War his patriotic ardor and 
 spirit of adventure carried him into the army, 
 where he became a lieutenant of Indiana 
 volunteers. Returning from active service 
 in the field, he practiced law at Covington 
 and Crawfordsville in his native state. 
 
 He lived a comparatively uneventful life 
 until the outbreak of the Civil War, when 
 he immediately came to the front, fired ap- 
 parently with the old war spirit of earlier 
 days. He was appointed adjutant-genera) of 
 Indiana and became colonel of volunteers. 
 At the capture of Fort Donelson, he com- 
 manded a division, and was promoted major- 
 general of volunteers in March, 1862. He 
 took an active part in the battle of Shiloh, 
 and in 1863 prevented the capture of Cincin- 
 nati by General Kirby Smith. His success 
 at this time showed that he possessed mili- 
 tary ability of no mean order. 
 
 His troops were defeated by overwhelm- 
 ing numbers at Monocacy, July 9, 1864. 
 General Early was marching upon Wash- 
 ington with 28,000 men, while Wallace had 
 only 5 800; yet with this inferior force he 
 detained Early for some days, and thus en- 
 abled Grant's troops to reinforce Washing- 
 ton before the Confederates could get there. 
 Yet, by reason of incompetency, supposed or 
 real, he was removed from his command by 
 General Halleck, but was reinstated by Gen- 
 eral Grant. He was mustered out of volun- 
 teer service in 1865 ; returned to the practice 
 of law at Crawfordsville, Indiana; was Gov- 
 ernor of Utah from 1878 to i88r, and served 
 from 1 88 1 till 1885 as United States Minister 
 to Turkey. 
 
 He afterwards devoted himself to the 
 
EMINENT AMERICANS. 
 
 937 
 
 practice of law and to literature at his home 
 in Crawfordsville. From the stirring public 
 life he had led hitherto, he settled down into 
 quiet pursuits. No one would have been 
 likely to predict that a man of his make-up 
 would have any idea of devoting himself to 
 authorship, but the old Scotch saying that, 
 u What is in the heart must come oot o' the 
 heart," is fully illustrated in his case. Mr. 
 Wallace was born, not merely to be a soldier 
 and diplomat, but also a writer of unusual 
 merit. 
 
 His conceptions are bold and original ; he 
 has the gift of imagination and the happy 
 faculty of combining characters and circum- 
 stances in his works, in a way that awakens 
 the interest of his readers, and, considering 
 the large sale of his publications, he must be 
 considered one of the most successful authors 
 of the day. 
 
 Mr. Wallace has issued two widely-read 
 novels, namely, " The Fair God, A Story of 
 the Conquest of Mexico," and " Ben Hur, A 
 Tale of the Christ." The former was pub- 
 lished in 1873, the latter in 1880. The chief 
 reputation of the author is built upon " Ben 
 Hur," which furnishes graphic pictures of 
 Jewish life and character, and weaves around 
 the central figure of the story an air of cap- 
 tivating romance. Many of the incidents 
 are worked out with the most exacting atten- 
 tion to details. The work begins in a style 
 somewhat prosaic, yet gradually becomes 
 more interesting as it progresses; and al- 
 though it cannot be read so hurriedly as 
 lighter works of fiction, once begun it is 
 likely to be finished. 
 
 Mr. Wallace is also the author of a " Life 
 of Benjamin Harrison," published in 1888. 
 Another work, entitled " The Boyhood of 
 Christ," was issued during the same year. 
 In 1893 he published "The Prince of India," 
 yet it is true of him, as of other writers, that 
 there is one work which constitutes the 
 
 crowning achievement and the author cannot 
 surpass himself. The later works of Mr. 
 Wallace have added little or nothing to his 
 fame. 
 
 It will be noticed that his writings are not 
 in the ordinary realm of fiction. He makes 
 no attempt, as most novelists do, to portray 
 the great master passion of the human heart. 
 Yet he deals with all the emotions, weaves 
 together the facts of history, depicts charac- 
 ters of an unusual type, and for these reasons 
 can lay claim to a large measure of origi- 
 nality. 
 
 There are multitudes of writers of light 
 fiction, in fact, fiction so frothy and unsub- 
 stantial that it has only a momentary life, 
 and, it may be said, ought not to have even 
 that Like a flood it comes, and the one 
 compensation is that it goes as fast as it 
 comes. There is nothing in it of permanent 
 endurance. It whiles away a passing hour 
 of the " summer girl," and of that class of 
 readers who have a mania for novels of the 
 sensational order. Only now and then comes 
 a work cf transcendent merit which makes it 
 a thing of life. 
 
 It will doubtless be conceded that Mr. 
 Wallace's works are not of the former class. 
 They are written so carefully and are of such 
 a high order that they are likely to be known 
 and read in after time. 
 
 Mr. Wallace is courtly and affable, an 
 agreeable friend and companion, showing the 
 cultivated scholar and gentleman under the 
 rugged exterior of the soldier, who has been 
 accustomed to the rough life of the camp and 
 the field. He has often appeared upon the 
 platform as a lecturer and with considerable 
 success. He affords a striking example of 
 what may be accomplished by untiring indus- 
 try and those natural endowments which, if 
 not far above the average, can be made to 
 take on strength and lustre by their diligent 
 use. 
 
FRANCES E. WILLARD. 
 
 IN every walk of life where it is possible 
 for woman to display her talents, her 
 success has been conspicuous. Our 
 country has every reason to be proud 
 of those members of the gentler sex who have 
 commanded attention in authorship, some- 
 times in business, especially in works of re- 
 form, and whose influence has always been 
 upon the side of good morals, higher educa- 
 tion, and the development of the noblest 
 womanhood. 
 
 While our progress as a nation has been 
 rapid and such as to draw the wondering 
 attention of the world, it is not all due to 
 soldiers or statesmen. Our history could 
 not be correctly written without mention of 
 those women who, in the walks of private 
 life, and frequently in more public spheres, 
 have made their influence felt and have been 
 leaders of thought and public opinion. 
 
 One of our most distinguished American 
 women is the subject of this sketch. No one 
 is more widely known or universally re- 
 spected. She is possessed of talents of an 
 unusual order, a warm and earnest spirit, 
 untiring energy, the ability to influence 
 others, and seems to be lacking in none 
 of those qualities essential to successful 
 achievement. 
 
 Miss Willard is known throughout the 
 country for her devotion to the cause of re- 
 form, especially that branch of it embraced 
 in Temperance work. She has attended 
 meetings and conventions, and has lectured 
 in every part of the land, and has always 
 been received with the attention due to her 
 position and character and the worthy ob- 
 jects she seeks to promote. She is eloquent 
 in the best sense of the term, very fluent in 
 speech, possessed of unusual tact, and has 
 been heard by multitudes who are in the 
 938 
 
 habit of affirming that they " do not care to 
 hear a woman speak in public." 
 
 It may be truthfully said that her career 
 exhibits all those elements which go to 
 make one independent, aggressive, and pro- 
 gressive likewise. Throughout her life she 
 has never thrust herself into notice, but has 
 simply embraced the opportunities open to 
 her, and has entered the field of usefulness 
 when she heard the call for service. She was 
 born in Churchville, N. Y., September 28, 
 1839, and was educated at Milwaukee and 
 the Northwestern Female College at Evans- 
 ton, 111., from which she graduated in 1859. 
 She became Professor of Natural Science 
 there in 1862, and was principal of Genesee 
 Wesleyan Seminary in 1866-67. 
 
 Considering that no person's education is 
 complete without those advantages furnished 
 by travel and contact with the world, she 
 spent two years abroad, and then returned 
 to become Professor of Esthetics in North- 
 western University and Dean of the Woman's 
 College. This position she filled from 1871 
 to 1874, and there developed her system of 
 self-government, which has attracted wide 
 attention and has been adopted by other 
 educators. She became convinced at this 
 time that there was a work for her to do in 
 connection with the cause of Temperance. 
 
 In consequence of this decision she gave 
 up all other engagements in 1874 to identify 
 herself with the Woman's Christian Tem- 
 perance Union. She was immediately made 
 corresponding secretary, discharging the 
 duties of this office until 1879, when she 
 was elevated from the position of secretary 
 to that of president. 
 
 In 1876 she assisted Dwight L. Moody in 
 his evangelistic work and rendered efficient 
 service. During these years she traveled 
 
EMINENT AMERICANS. 
 
 939 
 
 through the country, addressing legislatures 
 and people's meetings in behalf of temper- 
 ance and prohibition. She organized the 
 Home Protection Movement, and sent an 
 appeal from nearly two hundred thousand 
 people to the Legislature of Illinois, asking 
 for the Temperance ballot for women. She 
 has always been of the opinion that the great 
 reforms needed in America will never be 
 brought about until women are permitted to 
 vote, having a voice not merely in domestic 
 affairs, but in public measures for the welfare 
 of the community. Some of her hardest 
 work has been done in the advocacy of this 
 project. 
 
 On the death of her brother, Oliver A. 
 Willard, in 1879, she succeeded him as chief 
 editor of the Chicago Evening Post, but re- 
 signed soon afterward to devote all her 
 time to the work which was dear to her 
 heart, and in which she had exerted a wide 
 and commanding influence. In 1886 she 
 accepted the leadership of the White Cross 
 movement in the societies founded by her- 
 self, and obtained enactments in many states 
 for the protection of women. 
 
 In 1888 she was made president of the 
 American branch of the International Council 
 of Women and of the World's Christian 
 Union. In 1892 she visited England, and 
 received an enthusiastic welcome from the 
 friends of reform in that country. She was 
 at the head of the Women's Committee of 
 Temperance Meetings at the World's Fair in 
 1893. She is the editor-in-chief of the Union 
 Signal, a journal of large circulation, and 
 has issued nine volumes, containing addresses 
 and other matter connected with those reform? 
 in which she has been so conspicuous a 
 figure. 
 
 Miss Willard bears her honors with be- 
 coming modesty and grace. Although a 
 positive character, she is never bold or ob- 
 trusive, giving evidence constantly of the 
 
 cultivated lady, the considerate adviser, and 
 the warm-hearted, genial friend. In person 
 she is a little above the medium height, has 
 a clear-cut intellectual face, is always self 
 possessed and affable in manner. 
 
 In Miss Willard's career we have a 
 graphic illustration of the influence woman 
 can exert upon all the great questions of the 
 day. She and others rightly believe that the 
 great fountain of a pure national life is the 
 home. This must be carefully guarded, and 
 the rising generation must be correctly 
 taught Sound morals must be inculcated, 
 and the noblest aims held up to view. 
 
 But what kind of a home can that be 
 which is cursed by the ( power of drink ? 
 What is to be done with this great evil that 
 throws its withering blight over the whole 
 land ? If women can be excused, even com- 
 mended ^nd applauded, for showing an in- 
 terest in public questions, urging on all true 
 reforms, it surely is in the present case, 
 since by efforts to check and destroy the 
 evil of intemperance much is done for the 
 salvation and the uplifting of the home. We 
 are mainly concerned with Miss Willard's 
 crusade, which could not be carried on 
 without bringing her into public notice and 
 incurring the criticism that she is stepping 
 out of the domestic sphere. Let her and 
 all others step out, if thereby lasting good 
 shall come to the country. 
 
 She will be identified with Temperance 
 work and other reforms as long as she lives, 
 and the best and truest womanhood will owe 
 her a debt of profound gratitude. She stands 
 for what is noblest in her sex, and may be 
 congratulated upon having escaped hostile 
 criticism to so large an extent. 
 
 The best wishes of her country-women 
 are with her in her great labor of love. 
 There are many sympathetic souls who pray 
 that her life may long be spared, and her 
 influence widely extended. 
 
WILLIAM B. ALLISON. 
 
 THE career of this distinguished Sena- 
 ator affords another striking proof of 
 the power and influence belonging to 
 the individual man. Money talks for 
 some men, social influence for others, learn- 
 ing and culture for others, and brains for 
 others. The last-named element of success 
 belongs especially to Mr. Allison. Combined 
 with it is his sterling integrity and a charac- 
 ter that has never been called in question. 
 
 For a long time he has stood in the halls 
 of the United States Senate, taking an active 
 part in all its deliberations and debateSo He 
 is considered a statesman, eminently wise and 
 safe. While it may be said that he has 
 gained large experience in Congress, it may 
 also be said that he brought his experience 
 with him. He was a man of public affairs, 
 prominent and widely known before going 
 to Washington. It was but natural that, 
 having gained a local celebrity, he should be 
 transferred to the wider field. 
 
 His native state is Ohio, where he was 
 born at Perry, Wayne County, March 2, 1829. 
 Like many others who have molded the 
 affairs of the nation, he spent his early years 
 upon a farm. While the pursuit of agricul- 
 ture is honorable and, fortunately, is univer- 
 sally considered so, it is proverbial that far- 
 mers' boys rebel against the hard labor and 
 monotonous life incident to a farm and seek 
 some other calling. 
 
 These sons of farmers constitute some of 
 the best timber we have in the nation. Their 
 surroundings are not generally luxurious, 
 they are trained to habits of industry, they 
 usually obtain at least a good common-school 
 education, and by the sheer force of intellec- 
 tual ability and perseverance, they often rise 
 to positions of great honor and usefulness. 
 It did not take long for Mr. Allison to out- 
 grow the farm. He had an ambition which 
 940 
 
 could not be gratified by any such pursuit 
 He was educated at Allegheny College, Pa., 
 and at the Western Reserve College, Ohio, 
 after which he took up the study of law and 
 practiced his profession in Ohio until 1857. 
 He wished to locate farther west, where he 
 could be identified with a growing town. He 
 removed to Dubuque, Iowa, where he has 
 since made his home. Being by nature a 
 citizen of public spirit, interested in all that 
 concerned the town of his adoption, he soon 
 became widely known, and was not more 
 widely known than he was respected. His 
 gift of speech was such as to inspire confi- 
 dence. Matters of grave responsibility were 
 at once committed to his hands. Like many 
 lawyers, he anticipated public life and politi- 
 cal preferment. 
 
 He was sent as a delegate to the Chicago 
 convention that nominated Abraham Lincoln 
 for the presidency in i860, and in the follow 
 ing year became a member of the staff of the 
 governor of Iowa. When the war broke out 
 he was among the first to offer his services to 
 the government, being willing to let his pro- 
 fession suffer in order to help maintain the 
 cause of- the Ur+ion. He rendered valuable 
 service in raising troops and organizing vol- 
 unteer regiments for the war. Those were 
 stirring times, and the exigencies brought 
 into prominence many men who might other- 
 wise have remained in comparative obscurity. 
 
 In 1862, Mr. Allison was elected to the 
 38th Congress as a Republican. He served 
 in this capacity with such fidelity and dis- 
 tinction that he was re-elected to the three 
 succeeding Congresses. His re-election, his 
 neighbors were accustomed to remark face- 
 tiously, was chronic. He served continuously 
 as a member of that body from December 7, 
 1863, until March 3, 1871. Often he was 
 appointed on important committees, and being 
 
EMINENT AMERICANS. 
 
 94* 
 
 a willing worker, was soon known as one of 
 the most industrious members of the House. 
 
 At the same time, he kept in close . touch 
 with his constituents at home. They marked 
 his achievements and were proud of his ad- 
 vancement in the estimation of the public. 
 He was always found at the post of duty, 
 never shuffled or evaded any question of 
 importance, was always willing to have his 
 opinions known, and was always able to give 
 a reason for the faith that was in him. 
 
 In 1873, he was elected by the Legislature 
 of Iowa to the United States Senate to suc- 
 ceed James Harlan, and since that time has 
 been re-elected almost without opposition. 
 Thus it will be seen that he has had one of 
 the longest terms of service that has fallen 
 to the lot of any public man. There are no 
 sensational elements in his character. He 
 does not glare like a meteor nor astonish 
 others by ill-considered and unexpected 
 methods. Mr. Allison's character, attain- 
 ments and public services have been such as 
 to point to him for a presidential nomination. 
 Accordingly, on several occasions, his name 
 has been mentioned in the national Republi- 
 can Conventions. While he has had a large 
 following, and many prominent men in the 
 Northwest and elsewhere have endorsed him, 
 others have distanced him in the race. 
 
 It is, however, a high distinction to be 
 prominently named for a presidential nom- 
 ination. Such an honor can never be con- 
 ferred upon a weak, insignificant man. Mr. 
 Allison is one who fully justifies the confi- 
 dence of the public and whose elevation to 
 the highest position in the nation would be 
 fittingly bestowed. 
 
 It is frequently the case that men of repu- 
 tation diminish and appear to disadvantage 
 as one gets near to them. They do not 
 stand out in all the grand proportions pic- 
 tured by our imagination. " 'Tis distance 
 lends enchantment to the view," and as they 
 
 are looked at from afar they are apt to be 
 invested with very heroic qualities. Then, 
 as we get a nearer view, the charm is dis 
 pelled, and the delusion and disappointment 
 become apparent. Very few men gain much 
 by a close inspection. We are apt to place 
 our public men on a pedestal, and look up 
 to them with a kind of awe. Upon a nearer 
 approach we find that they stand on the 
 ground, and perhaps are not so very far 
 above the common level. 
 
 It has, however, been said of Mr. Allison, 
 that the near view is the one most favorable. 
 He bears acquaintance remarkably well, and 
 while not showy or dazzling, there is much 
 about him to be commended, and the service 
 he has rendered as a national legislator forms 
 the record of an honored page of our history 
 
 The personal appearance of Mr. Allison 
 indicates strength of body and of mind. He 
 is large and well formed. His face is not that 
 of a scholar, but rather the man of affairs. 
 He is a type of the sturdy, honest, practical 
 man, who conveys at once the impression of 
 good sense and the possession of a level 
 head. In his speeches he does not circum- 
 navigate his subject, but comes at it at once. 
 He always speaks to the point. Having 
 something to say and being able to say it, 
 others are willing to listen and be instructed. 
 
 He has the rare faculty of saying what he 
 means and clothing his thoughts in such 
 language that no double interpretation can 
 be put upon his statements. The quaint ole 
 adage of calling a spade a spade applies in 
 his case. As a type of the useful citizen, the 
 able legislator, the genial and hearty friend 
 the man of culture, breadth and fullness, Mr 
 Allison is conspicuous. Such men at th 
 head of public affairs give stability and con 
 fidence to the nation. Our country has bee* 
 favored with many of this description, an 
 among this galaxy of shining ones must b 
 placed the subject of this brief biography 
 
RICHARD OLNEY. 
 
 A POSITION in the Cabinet at Wash- 
 ington requires abi''ty of a high 
 order. Especially is this true of the 
 positions of Attorney-General and 
 Secretary of State. An Attorney- General 
 must add to profound legal knowledge a 
 sound judgment, a wise discretion, and execu- 
 tive ability equal to that of any manager of a 
 large and exacting business. It is not 
 enough that he should be merely a shrewd 
 lawyer, a man skilled in the supposed tricks 
 of the profession, nor is it expected that he 
 should practice any of the unscrupulous arts 
 that are so often charged upon the members 
 of the bar. 
 
 A Secretary of State is expected to be a 
 statesman. He must understand the policy 
 of the government, and know by a kind 
 of instinct what position to take upon all 
 critical questions. He must be a profound 
 student of international law and be well 
 acquainted with our relations to foreign 
 governments. 
 
 That Richard Olney meets these unusual 
 demands in an eminent degree, is universally 
 conceded. By natural ability and broad cul- 
 ture, he is amply qualified for the positions 
 he has held at Washington. 
 
 He was but little known, except in his 
 native State of Massachusetts, when called 
 to the Cabinet during the second administra- 
 tion of President Cleveland, although it 
 must be said that his associates considered 
 him one of the ablest lawyers of his time. 
 He comes from one of the oldest New Eng- 
 land families, and has back of him a sturdy 
 stock and ancestry which have had so much 
 to do in molding the nation and shaping its 
 history. 
 
 He was born in Oxford, Mass., in 1835, 
 and at the comparatively early age of twenty 
 one graduated with high honors from Brown 
 942 
 
 University, at Providence, R. i. In college 
 he was distinguished for close application to 
 his studies, rare scholarship and excellent 
 literary ability. He was easily the peer of 
 the brightest and most brilliant of his 
 class. He seemed to be able to do easily 
 what others could do only by the hardest 
 labor. 
 
 After his graduation he entered the Har- 
 vard Law School, and in two years completed 
 the course Thus, at the age of twenty- 
 three, he was prepared to enter upon his pro- 
 fession. He was fortunate in being able to 
 associate himself with Judge B. F. Thomas, 
 a descendant of Isaiah Thomas, the pub- 
 lisher of the old Thomas Almanac, a publi- 
 cation known everywhere in Massachusetts, 
 and regarded with a feeling almost akin to 
 veneration. He was also the founder of the 
 well-known journal, The Worcester Spy. In 
 1 86 1 Mr. Olney married the daughter of 
 judge Thomas, thus uniting two distinguished 
 families. 
 
 Efforts have been made in Massachusetts 
 to make Mr. Olney one of the judges on the 
 Supreme Bench of the State, but on two 
 occasions he has declined the honor, and 
 also, for the most part, has separated himself 
 from political life. His ambition appeared 
 to lie in other directions, and many positions 
 of honor would have been conferred upon 
 him if he had been willing to accept them. 
 He did, however, in 1874, represent Roxbury 
 in the State Legislature, proving himself to 
 be a useful member of that body and thor- 
 oughly acquainted with the duties of a repre- 
 sentative. In 1876 he was a candidate for 
 Attorney-General of the State on the Demo- 
 cratic ticket, but was defeated with the other 
 candidates of his party 
 
 He has been counsel for two big western 
 railroads, the Atchison, Topeka and Santa 
 
EMINENT AMERICANS. 
 
 946 
 
 Fe and the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy. 
 This shows the estimate placed upon his 
 legal ability. His work is always thorough, 
 his arguments are logical and presented with 
 admirable skill, he is quick to take advantage 
 of the weak places in the case of his oppo- 
 nent, he exhibits a complete mastery of law, 
 and, withal, impresses others as a man of 
 honor and high character. His political 
 party has always placed great confidence in 
 his judgment, and in all critical periods have 
 sought his counsel and advice. 
 
 It is said that during the first administra- 
 tion of President Cleveland his name was 
 favorably considered for the position of Chief 
 Justice of the United States Supreme Court ; 
 but the President did not quite reacii ths 
 point of sending his name to the Senate for 
 confirmation. That he would have been an 
 able member, an ornament of that dignified 
 body, is doubted by none who are acquainted 
 with his qualifications and his admitted in- 
 tegrity. 
 
 Tn 1893 he was appointed by President 
 Cleveland Attorney-General of the United 
 States, where his strength of character, his 
 eminent ability and profound knowledge of 
 international law have made him conspicuous. 
 Upon the death of Secretary Gresham, which 
 occurred May 28, 1895, Mr. Olney was made 
 Secretary of State. He has had the hand- 
 ling of some very important matters con- 
 nected with the foreign policy of our govern- 
 ment, and has acquitted himself in such a 
 manner as to command the admiration of his 
 fellow-countrymen. He believes in a vigorous 
 policy, yet one that is always founded upon 
 right principles. He never takes a position 
 which he is unable to defend and maintain. 
 
 He is a man of method, carrying on his 
 work always in an orderly way, and showing 
 marked attention to those details upon which 
 success in any pursuit so largely depends. 
 
 He is not accustomed to do things in any 
 fitful or spasmodic manner, but on the con- 
 trary always shows cool judgment and calm 
 deliberation. There is an absence of impulse 
 and recklessness of decision which helps to 
 fit him for his official duties. 
 
 Exhibiting these characteristics, he soon 
 gained the confidence of public men in Wash- 
 ington. What opportunities in public life 
 may lie before him no one can predict ; nei- 
 ther would an)' oue be surprised if he were 
 to have larger -responsibilities placed upon 
 him. 
 
 A recent biography says : " Mr. Olney is a 
 man of dignified bearing, one who appre- 
 ciates the responsibilities of the position he 
 occupies, and his reputation is that of a pro- 
 found legal scholar, whose judgment on 
 questions of law is seldom at fault." 
 
 Mr. Olney is a substantial, well-built man, 
 capable of a great amount of labor; he has 
 a genial, pleasant face, but never gives one 
 the impression that he is courting popularity. 
 Kis manner is calm, yet his addresses are 
 full of force, always engaging the attention 
 of his hearers. There is a sharp expres- 
 sion to his eyes and a forward thrust of the 
 head which seems to indicate a disposition 
 to see his way, and a determination to go 
 straight through every matter that occupies 
 his attention. 
 
 Although not widely known when he went 
 to Washington, he has become a man of 
 national reputation. The best elements of 
 manhood enter into his composition. He is 
 a wise and safe counsellor, is possessed of 
 marked individuality, and must be considered 
 as one of the brightest ornaments of his pro- 
 fession. His comparatively quiet yet suc- 
 cessful career furnishes a good example to 
 the rising generation of lawyers. It shows 
 what can be done by ability well applied and 
 by industry that never tires. 
 
JAMES WHITCOMB RILEY. 
 
 ANEW generation of writers has 
 come forward, with characteris- 
 tics widely different from those 
 of their predecessors in the field 
 of literature. Their writings are more dis- 
 tinctively American — perhaps it would be 
 more appropriate to say — West-American. 
 There is a breeziness about them — an off- 
 hand dash — a disregard of conventionalities 
 which we do not discover among such men 
 as Irving, Bryant, Longfellow and others, 
 who may be said to have created our litera- 
 ture and stamped it with their genius. 
 
 Both fiction and poetry have taken on 
 what may be called a new style. The aim to 
 entertain, to present the humorous side of 
 things, to make a quick, even though super- 
 ficial impression, is very apparent. 
 
 It would be unjust, however, to deny 
 unusual merit to the new class of authors. 
 They are splendidly endowed. To brilliant 
 native talent many of them add great indus- 
 try, a profound knowledge of human nature, 
 and are able to discern what is demanded by 
 the popular taste. They simply write as the 
 time and the people require that they should. 
 While the writer helps to form national 
 character, it is also true that the national 
 character helps to form him. 
 
 Americans are almost omnivorous readers. 
 They devour newspapers and periodicals by 
 the million. There is a large and probably 
 growing class who are cultivated in the broad 
 sense of the term, who are students of science 
 and philosophy, and who have a keen relish 
 for thoughtful, substantial works, such 
 as instruct the mind and promote scholar- 
 ship, but the number of those who are 
 patrons of light literature is so great that 
 authors in this field multiply very rapidly, 
 and may find sufficient encouragement to 
 cause them to make authorship a pursuit. 
 
 944 
 
 James Whitcomb Riley has been given 
 the title of the "Hoosier Poet of America." 
 This is partly owing to the State in which 
 he was born and lives. He has been a con- 
 tributor for some years to current literature, 
 showing in his writings so much of pith and 
 pungency, together with a healthful moral 
 tone, that his productions have been widely 
 read and enjoyed. 
 
 He was born in Greenfield, Indiana, in 
 1852. In his boyhood he often accompanied 
 his father, who was an attorney, as he went 
 from place to place transacting his business, 
 and thus early came into contact with the 
 world, which has so much to do with the 
 education and development of the young 
 mind. At an early age he left home to fol- 
 low the calling of a wandering sign-writer. 
 
 For a time he was connected with a thea- 
 trical troupe, and showed some aptitude for 
 revising and adapting plays. He also began 
 to show a talent for song-writing and impro- 
 vising lines on the spur of the moment, thus 
 indicating that he had a ready wit, and not 
 merely the kind which is studied up and 
 manufactured for the occasion. 
 
 Over the name of "Benjamin F. Johnson, 
 of Boone," he began, about the year 1875, to 
 contribute verses in the Hoosier dialect to 
 the Indianapolis papers. These attracted 
 considerable attention, suggesting an inter- 
 esting field of literature, which he resolved, 
 sooner or later, to occupy. It was evident 
 that dialect poems were relished by the pub- 
 lic, and as these were written upon subjects 
 near at hand, and such as appealed to the 
 popular heart, Mr. Riley found himself grow- 
 ing in favor, and from that day has .continued 
 in active literary work. 
 
 He is gifted in the art of imitation, which 
 was shown by his writing a piece after the 
 style of Edgar Allen Poe that was accepted 
 
 
EMINENT AMERICANS. 
 
 945 
 
 by many critics as the work of that author. 
 Such a feat as this required something more 
 than ordinary talent. Poe's writings have 
 an individuality peculiarly their own, and to 
 be a successful imitator of them, one must 
 possess literary ability somewhat akin to that 
 of the gifted author of " The Raven " and 
 " The Bells." 
 
 Mr. Riley finally accepted an engagement 
 with the Indianapolis Journal, and has also 
 been a constant contributor to various peri- 
 odicals. In addition to many dialect pieces, 
 he has published poems of a more serious 
 character, proving that he possesses ability 
 for the graver as well as the lighter strains 
 of thought and feeling. 
 
 He has issued a number of volumes, in- 
 cluding " The Old Swimmin' Hole," " After- 
 whiles," " Neighborly Poems," " Pipes o' 
 Pan," " Green Fields and Running Brooks," 
 " Rhymes of Childhood," " The Flying 
 Islands of the Night," and others. His works 
 abound in pictures of Western life, and 
 around the most commonplace objects he 
 throws a peculiar charm. Like the ballads 
 of Carlton, many of his songs deal with the 
 farm, the old homestead, the old arm-chair, 
 the boys who whistle and shout and play, 
 and the old people whose eyes are already 
 growing dim and whose forms are bending 
 toward the grave. Thus it will be seen that 
 much of his popularity is due to the subjects 
 which he treats. These are always such as 
 to afford a fine opportunity for sentiment and 
 wholesome moral lessons. While his writ- 
 ings are intended to engage the attention of 
 the reader and furnish entertainment, they 
 are nearly always pointed with a moral, and 
 there is something worth storing in the 
 memory. 
 
 No one could form an accurate estimate 
 of Mr. Riley's writings and leave out what 
 may be called the human element that is 
 
 always prominent. There is no attempt to 
 60 
 
 reach the towering heights of the English 
 poets of earlier times. No stately measures 
 of verse appeal to the most cultivated mind 
 and arouse the admiration always accorded 
 to genius. There is, however, a genius less 
 commanding and imposing. Mr. Riley de- 
 scends into the common walks of life, and 
 makes himself at home with ordinary peo- 
 ple. His language is so simple, his meaning 
 is so clearly comprehended, there is such an 
 evident comprehension of everyday life, that 
 not as a stranger, but as a friend, does he 
 step into the home. 
 
 Much of Mr. Riley's popularity is un- 
 doubtedly due to the dialect noticeable every- 
 where in his work. Often the same thought 
 clothed in different phraseology would be 
 comparatively tame, but by the dialect used 
 it takes on a different complexion, and comes 
 home to the reader with much greater 
 force. 
 
 Mr. Riley has often appeared as a public 
 reader of his own works. He has met with 
 a large degree of success, being able, gen- 
 erally, to command large and interested audi- 
 ences. It is not always that an author suc- 
 ceeds in the endeavor to interpret his own 
 writings before a critical audience. Dickens 
 was able to do this, but there has never been 
 more than one Dickens, and it will be long 
 before the world will see his like again. 
 
 Mr. Riley has been much sought after for 
 the platform, and has succeeded in giving full 
 meaning to those dialect pieces in the pro- 
 duction of which he has exhibited so much 
 of literary skill and ability. Whether his work 
 will be lasting, or will ever add greatly to 
 the fame of American literature, is a question 
 which we do not need to discuss, and one 
 upon which there might be a difference of 
 opinion. His career, however, points him 
 out as a man of mark, whose distinction has 
 been justly gained, and who merits the suc- 
 cess that has crowned his labor. 
 
REV. CHARLES H. PARKHURST, D.D. 
 
 THE late Reverend Howard Crosby, 
 D. D., was for many years Presi- 
 dent of the Society for the Preven- 
 tion of Crime, a large and influen- 
 tial organization in the city of New York. 
 Upon the death of Dr. Crosby, it was con- 
 ceded that it would be difficult to find a 
 person possessing the peculiar qualifications 
 necessary for the position he had held with 
 such distinguished ability and efficiency. Dr. 
 Parkhurst had been favorably known as a 
 member of the organization, was noted for 
 intellectual ability and zeal in the work of 
 reform, and the choice of the society placed 
 him at its head. 
 
 It became evident immediately that a man 
 of great courage, political insight, enthusiasm 
 in carrying out his objects, and able to com- 
 mand the co-operation of the most influential 
 men in New York, was now fully identified 
 with the great reform movements contem- 
 plated by the society. His strong person- 
 ality was immediately felt. For several 
 years he has been one of the most noted 
 figures in New York, applauded by some, 
 and execrated by others. 
 
 Dr. Parkhurst was born in Framingham, 
 Mass., April 17, 1842. He came from a 
 vigorous stock, containing a pretty strong 
 infusion of old Puritan element. Thought- 
 ful and studious in his boyhood, he marked 
 himself out for the career of a professional 
 man, and having become an earnest and 
 devout adherent of the Christian faith, his 
 family and friends naturally set him aside for 
 the work of the ministry. 
 
 Accordingly he prepared for college and 
 graduated from Amherst in 1866. He did 
 not consider that his education would be 
 complete if confined within narrow limits of 
 thought, or favored with only meagre advan- 
 tages. He studied theology at Halle, Ger- 
 946 
 
 many, in 1869, and at Leipsic in 1872 and 
 1873, during the intervals of which studies 
 he was principal of the High School in 
 Amherst, and professor of Williston Semi- 
 nary at Easthampton, Mass. Thus it seems 
 that he was in no excessive hurry to enter 
 upon his life-work, being occupied with 
 laying broad and deep foundations upon 
 which to rear a superstructure of strength 
 and commanding proportions. 
 
 From 1874 f o 1880, he was pastor of the 
 Congregational Church at Lennox, Mass., 
 where he became widely known for his emi- 
 nent pulpit ability. His congregation, espe- 
 cially during the summer months, contained 
 many persons of culture, who enjoyed his 
 keen, intellectual discourses and looked upon 
 him as one of the rising men in the ministry. 
 Upon the death of Rev. Dr. Adams, who 
 had long been the pastor of the Madison 
 Square Presbyterian Church, New York 
 City, and who was a man of peculiar gifts, 
 the church sought far and near for a suitable 
 successor. Not being very successful in the 
 attempt, attention was turned toward Dr. 
 Parkhurst, who was chosen as pastor in 
 1880. 
 
 Since this period he has occupied one of 
 the most influential positions in New York. 
 The church has been largely attended, the 
 aggregation of wealth is great, the culture 
 and refinement of the congregation are con- 
 spicuous, merchants and professional men 
 are found there in large numbers, and, added 
 to large benevolent contributions, is the mis- 
 sionary work, in which many of the mem- 
 bers take a special personal interest. 
 
 In 1893 Dr. Parkhurst became prominent 
 through his efforts to make the Society for 
 the Prevention of Crime true to its name. 
 He saw no reason why a society, organized 
 for a special purpose, confessedly a good one, 
 
EMINENT AMERICANS. 
 
 947 
 
 should not be active and accomplish some- 
 thing for the welfare of the city. He had no 
 fear of those petty criticisms aimed at minis- 
 ters who take some interest in public affairs. 
 Dr. Parkhurst considered that his profession 
 had not only the right to promote all true 
 reform, but, in fact, was bound to do it. 
 Those who were disturbed in their nefarious 
 business were the ones who were so anxious 
 that he should keep to what they called his 
 legitimate work. 
 
 He felt that his position would be stronger 
 and his influence more widely felt if he could 
 speak of the gigantic evils in New York 
 from personal observation. He wanted the 
 facts that did not come by hearsay, Vague 
 insinuations, statements that could easily be 
 doubted and opinions based upon guesses 
 were not the ammunition with which to load 
 his guns, trained against the enemy. He 
 wanted facts, and such only as came within 
 the sphere of his personal knowledge. 
 
 It cannot be doubted that Dr. Parkhurst 
 went about bis work in the right way. Con- 
 vinced himself from his own observation, he 
 was able to convince others. In company 
 with judicious friends he stepped into the 
 haunts of vice, some of them almost under 
 the shadow of his own church, and others of 
 palatial gorgeousness located in some of the 
 most respectable and aristocratic quarters of 
 the city. Each new step in the investigation 
 convinced him of the enormity of the evils 
 on every side and of the connivance of city 
 officials in allowing them to exist. His 
 blood was stirred, and he came forth like a 
 prophet of old to denounce the wickedness 
 that cursed the city. 
 
 When he began his crusade he was fully 
 armed and equipped with the facts he had 
 gathered. Even with these a smaller man 
 would have made little or no impression, but 
 embodied in him were intellectual power, 
 commanding force of speech, a position in 
 
 the pulpit second to that of none, a mighty 
 array of influential men and ample resources 
 for the great struggle. The downfall of the 
 corrupt political organization that ruled the 
 city was assured. The rotten fabric trembled 
 to its base under the strokes of the sturdy 
 foe, who had decreed its overthrow. 
 
 It is said that in college Dr. Parkhurst's 
 professor of rhetoric criticized his style of 
 writing very severely, but there are few 
 public men who can put so much into a sin- 
 gle sentence. His thoughts are at once bold 
 and striking, and his style is pre-eminently 
 concise and original. He has contributed to 
 various magazines and has published several 
 volumes, including " The Forms of the Latin 
 Verb, Illustrated by Sanskrit," " The Blind 
 Man's Creed, and other Sermons," and " Pat- 
 tern in the Mount, and other Sermons." 
 
 In person Dr. Parkhurst is of medium 
 size, compactly built and a fair specimen of 
 muscular Christianity. His great courage, 
 persistence and untiring energy have made 
 him the most successful political leader of 
 the day, and given him a wide and enviable 
 fame. 
 
 Nor has his influence been confined to 
 New York City alone, but other cities 
 throughout the country have patterned by 
 the movement he has inaugurated, and have 
 taKen active steps for the investigation of 
 municipal evils and misrule. He addressed 
 large audiences in a number of towns, pre- 
 senting the plan of reform of which he is the 
 acknowledged chief exponent, and thus 
 awakened public interest which resulted in 
 organized effort. 
 
 Dr. Parkhurst's career teaches especially 
 the lesson of strong and persistent courage 
 and endeavor in the face of opposition. The 
 consciousness of being in the right always 
 arms a man with aggressive weapons, and 
 keeps him firm and patient, even though 
 robbed for the moment of success. 
 
CLAUS SPRECKELS. 
 
 NOT as a scholar, orator or statesman, 
 is Claus Spreckels known, yet his 
 name is familiar from the Atlantic 
 to the Pacific. In the great chan- 
 nels of trade and business a wonderful suc- 
 cess has attended his efforts, and he has built 
 up one of the largest fortunes in the world. 
 It is, then, as a business man that he is to be 
 considered, and as such his life affords valu- 
 able lessons by which younger men of our 
 generation may well profit.. 
 
 Mr. Spreckels was born in Lamstedt, King- 
 dom of Hanover, in July, 1828. His early 
 life was spent in Germany, where his oppor- 
 tunities for education were none of the best. 
 Had he remained in his native land, it is not 
 likely that he would have become a million- 
 aire, for the chances would have been much 
 fewer and the opportunities more limited. 
 
 When twenty years old Mr. Spreckels 
 came to America and went to Charleston, S. 
 C, in pursuit of employment. He obtained 
 a situation as clerk in a grocery store. He 
 had no thought of remaining as a mere clerk, 
 but had his eye upon the proprietorship of 
 the place. In two years he owned the store 
 and largely extended its trade. Going into 
 the wholesale business, he became an im- 
 porter, and was very soon known in com- 
 mercial circles throughout the South. Wish- 
 ing for a wider field of operations, he removed 
 his business to New York City in 1855. 
 
 Having a brother who was engaged in the 
 grocery trade in San Francisco, Mr. Spreckels 
 left the East and went to that city to reside. 
 He soon bought out his brother and contin- 
 ued the business. A year later he started 
 what was known as the Albany Brewery. 
 His shrewd business foresight was fully jus- 
 tified by the results. The business sprang at 
 once into prominence and promised a fortune 
 for its founder. He soon disposed of his 
 948 
 
 grocery business, devoted his time and ener- 
 gies to the brewery, and so continued until 
 1863. 
 
 Mr. Spreckels had long had his mind fixed 
 upon sugar refining, and the time had now 
 come for him to realize his ambition in this 
 respect. He sold out his interest in the 
 brewery, and, with others, founded the Bay 
 Sugar Refinery. Being a practical man. and 
 wishing to gain a more thorough knowledge 
 of the sugar business, he went to Europe to 
 familiarize himself with the process of manu- 
 facturing beet-root sugar. He meant to lean; 
 the process from the beginning, and with this 
 in view he actually entered the great refiner) 
 at Magdeburg as a workman. Few men pro- 
 bably would have been willing to come down 
 to such a capacity after they had already 
 acquired what was considered an ample for- 
 tune, but it is the practical man whose knowl- 
 edge of his pursuit is complete who always 
 carries off the palm. 
 
 Having gained an intimate knowledge of 
 the Sugar Refining business, Mr. Spreckels 
 returned to San Francisco and immediately 
 built another and larger refinery. In 1867 
 he organized the great corporation of the 
 California Sugar Refinery, of which he be- 
 came the president and was the principal 
 owner. The vast business carried on by this 
 company is one of the marvels of the Pacific 
 coast. It refines fifty million pounds of sugai 
 every year. The whole country may be said 
 to be a market for this immense product. 
 The success of this great concern is almost 
 entirely due to the enterprise and skillful 
 management of its founder. Not merely the 
 general oversight, but to a large extent the 
 minor details, are constantly under his eye. 
 
 Mr. Spreckels possesses a nervous temper- 
 ament, strong features, and has a prompt and 
 incisive manner of doing business. 
 
william Mckinley 
 
 PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES 
 

 CAPTAiN CHARLES O. HIGSBgg 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 Latest Events of American History. 
 
 IN the beginning of 1 896 a remarkable 
 interest was shown by the press and 
 the people throughout the country in 
 the pending Presidential campaign. 
 There was a stir in the nation like that in the 
 forest which precedes the coming storm. 
 Radical differences of opinion existed upon 
 the monetary question, and it was evident that 
 these would find expression in the national 
 conventions which were soon to be held. On 
 the one hand, the majority of the Republi- 
 can party were prepared to maintain the gold 
 standard. As time advanced it became evi- 
 dent that a large part of the Democratic 
 party had adopted the cause of free silver, 
 although President Cleveland, Secretary 
 Carlisle, and many other influential party 
 leaders were opposed to the free coinage of 
 silver at the ratio of 1 6 to I. The wave of 
 discussion rose higher and higher and the 
 country was filled with clamor. Among all 
 classes of citizens national questions were 
 discussed, and the heat and fervor of the 
 pending campaign were such as had not been 
 witnessed since the days of the Civil War. 
 
 The eleventh Republican National Con- 
 vention met at St. Louis on June 16th, and 
 nominated as the candidates of the Republi- 
 can party Hon. Win McKinley, of Ohio, for 
 President, and Hon. Garret A. Hobart, of 
 New Jersey, for Vice-President. The Con- 
 vention was an unusually harmonious one, 
 choosing its platform without debate, except- 
 ing for the protests of the advocates of a 
 plank for the free coinage of silver, who were 
 voted down by a large majority. 
 
 Twenty-one silver advocates under the 
 lead of Senator Teller, of Colorado, there- 
 upon " bolted " from the Convention and 
 severed their allegiance from the Republican 
 party. The scene in the Convention was im- 
 pressive when Senator Teller, under deep 
 emotion, made a farewell address to the 
 representatives of the party of which he had 
 so long been a conspicuous member, and, 
 followed by twenty of the delegates, left the 
 hall. 
 
 Both Mr. McKinley and Mr. Hobart were 
 nominated on the first ballot long before the 
 roll call of the States was finished, and the 
 enthusiasm for McKinley was intense. For 
 some time before the holding of the Conven- 
 tion it was plain that Mr. McKinley would 
 be the choice of the Republicans, the rising 
 tide in his favor engulfing all opposition. He 
 received the nomination amidst the acclama- 
 tions of the vast majority of his party. 
 
 The platform pledged renewed allegiance 
 to the principle of protection ; declared in 
 favor of the gold standard; demanded reci- 
 procity ; reasserted the Monroe doctrine ; . 
 expressed sympathy for suffering Cuba ; de- 
 manded that the immigration laws be rigidly 
 enforced ; renewed the party's declarations ia 
 favor of civil service; insisted upon the right 
 of trial by jury for criminals, in opposition to 
 lynchings, and recommended arbitration for 
 the settlement of the differences which may 
 arise between employers and employed en- 
 gaged in interstate commerce. The nomi- 
 nations and the platform were favorably 
 received and were at once heartily ratified by 
 
 949 
 
950 
 
 LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 public meetings and the formation of political 
 clubs. 
 
 The Democratic National Convention met 
 at Chicago on July 8th, and nominated for 
 President, Hon. Wm. J. Bryan, of Nebraska, 
 and for Vice-President, Hon. Arthur Sewall, 
 of Maine. The remarkable feature of the 
 Convention was the strength of the supporters 
 of free coinage of silver, who constituted 
 over two-thirds of the delegates and repre- 
 sented chiefly Southern and Western States. 
 This turn in the Convention was quite unex- 
 pected to many and suddenly revealed a 
 strong sentiment in favor of free silver in 
 many parts of the country. Mr. Bryan's 
 nomination was largely due to a speech he 
 made in the Convention which received the 
 hearty applause of many of the delegates. 
 
 The silver question thus became the prime 
 issue of the national campaign, and large 
 contingents from both the old parties aban- 
 doned former political ties and enrolled 
 themselves on the one side or the other of 
 the monetary question. The populous East- 
 ern States were the strongholds of the gold 
 standard of currency, and scarcely a doubt 
 was entertained that the movement looking 
 towards free coinage of silver by the United 
 States without waiting for an international 
 agreement could not prevail. The success 
 of the silver advocates in the Democratic 
 convention, however, gave the cause of the 
 white metal a great impetus, and roused the 
 people of the nation to study the currency 
 question with more earnestness and thought 
 than they had ever done before. A cam- 
 paign of education was carried on in which 
 the arguments for and against free coinage 
 of silver were widely circulated and discussed. 
 
 The Democratic platform denounced the 
 gold standard, opposed the issue of bonds in 
 time of peace ; declared in favor of an in- 
 come tax and tariff for revenue only ; recom- 
 mended that the Federal government have 
 
 more control over railroads|; denounced the 
 arbitrary interference by Federal authorities 
 in local affairs, and expressed opposition to 
 a third teim for President. 
 
 The divided btate of public sentiment on 
 the silver question appeared strikingly in the 
 convention of the Prohibition party, which 
 was held in Pittsburg, May 2. A large 
 number of delegates were present, represent- 
 ing all parts of the country. The silver 
 question was thrust into the deliberations of 
 the convention, and created great excitement. 
 Many of the delegates wanted Prohibition 
 without any other issue ; many others wanted 
 Prohibition and free silver. The conven- 
 tion was rent in twain ; the seceders met and 
 formed a new party, and the outcome was a 
 complete disruption of that very considera- 
 ble body of citizens who considered legis- 
 lation on the Temperance question the first 
 duty of the nation. 
 
 Hon. Joshua Levering, of Maryland, was 
 nominated by the Prohibitionists for Presi- 
 dent, and Hon. Hale Johnson, of Illinois, for 
 Vice-President. The National party nomi- 
 nated Hon. Joseph E. Bentley, of Nebraska, 
 for President, and Hon. J. H. Southgate, of 
 North Carolina, for Vice-President. Neither 
 of these parties acted any conspicuous part 
 in the campaign, as the financial question 
 overshadowed all others, affecting, as it did, 
 every individual in the nation. 
 
 A number of influential Democrats ex- 
 pressed a strong opposition to the action of 
 the Democratic Convention at Chicago, and 
 resolved that some movement should be 
 inaugurated to save the party, if possible^ 
 from being entirely captured by the advocates 
 of free silver. The sound-money delegates 
 in the convention, under the leadership of 
 Senator Hill, of New York, entered a strong 
 protest against the rule of the majority. 
 This, however, was without avail, and during 
 the latter part of the convention those who 
 
,*•■• 9 
 
 
 
 ADMIRAL GEORGE DEWFV 
 The Hfro of Manila 
 
LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 951 
 
 favored the gold standard took no part in 
 the proceedings. 
 
 It was felt by many of the old-line Demo- 
 crats that something should be done to pre- 
 serve the party-name and its time-honored 
 principles. A call was issued for a conven- 
 tion to be held at Indianapolis, September 2. 
 The delegates were among the most influen- 
 tial and conservative of the Democratic party, 
 and were thoroughly in earnest. A platform 
 was adopted, denouncing free-silver coinage, 
 and advocating the gold standard. Strong 
 denunciations were hurled at the Populistic 
 notions and ideas so prevalent in many of 
 the States. The first paragraph of the plat- 
 form was as follows : 
 
 " This convention has assembled to up- 
 hold the principles upon which depend the 
 honor and welfare of the American people, 
 in order that Democrats throughout the 
 Union may unite their patriotic efforts to 
 avert disaster to their country and ruin from 
 their party. The Democratic party is 
 pledged to equal and exact justice to all men 
 of every creed and condition; to the largest 
 freedom of the individual consistent with 
 good government; to the preservation of the 
 Federal Government in its Constitutional 
 vigor, and to the support of the States in all 
 their just rights; to economy in public ex- 
 penditures, to the maintenance of the public 
 credit and sound money, and it is opposed to 
 paternalism and to all class legislation. The 
 declarations of the Chicago Convention attack 
 individual freedom, the right of private con- 
 tract, the independence of the judiciary and 
 the authority of the President to enforce Fed- 
 eral laws." 
 
 Hon. John M. Palmer, of Illinois, was 
 nominated for President, and Hon. Simon B. 
 Buckner, of Kentucky, for Vice-president. 
 They made an active canvass throughout the 
 country, but failed to unite the Democratic 
 forces to any great extent, as it was conceded 
 from the outset that there was no possibility 
 of their election. 
 
 The campaign throughout was one of un- 
 exampled activity, the eminent leaders of all 
 parties entering the contest with great spirit. 
 All the influences and resources of the press 
 and of men in public life were brought to 
 bear upon the great issues involved which, it 
 was admitted by all, affected the integrity of 
 the nation, if not its very existence. 
 
 In the election of November, Mr. McKin- 
 ley received 7,101,401 of the popular vote; 
 Mr. Bryan 6,470,656; Mr. Palmer, 132,056, 
 and Mr. Levering 130,560. Of the Electoral 
 College, Mr. McKinley received 271 votes, 
 and Mr. Bryan 176. 
 
 On the 4th of March, 1897, Mr. McKinley 
 was inaugurated President with imposing 
 ceremonies, and Mr. Hobart was inducted 
 into the office of Vice-president. A multi- 
 tude of people from all parts of the country 
 assembled in Washington, and nothing oc- 
 curred to mar the success of the inaugura- 
 tion. Mr. McKinley entered upon the 
 duties of his office with the best wishes, not 
 only of his party, but of all classes of his fel- 
 low-countrymen. His Cabinet was consti- 
 tuted as follows: Secretary of State, John 
 Sherman, of Ohio; Secretary of the Trea- 
 sury, Lyman J. Gage, of Illinois ; Secretary 
 of War, Russell A. Alger, of Michigan ; At- 
 torney-General, Joseph McKenna, of Califor- 
 nia; Postmaster-General, James A. Gary, of 
 Maryland; Secretary of the Navy, John D. 
 Long, of Massachusetts; Secretary of the 
 Interior, Cornelius N. Bliss, of New York; 
 Secretary of Agriculture, James Wilson, of 
 Iowa. 
 
 Mr. McKinley immediately called an extra 
 session of Congress, which assembled on 
 March 15th, for the express purpose of revis- 
 ing the tariff, providing a revenue sufficient 
 for the wants of the Government, and placing 
 the finances of the nation upon a sound 
 basis. Hon. Thomas B. Reed, of Maine, was 
 re-elected Speaker of the House. 
 
952 
 
 LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 The extraordinary session of Congress was 
 called by President McKinley two days after 
 he took the oath of office on the steps of 
 the Capitol. It met in pursuance to his 
 proclamation at noon on March 15. The 
 special message transmitted by him to both 
 Houses on the opening day was brief. It 
 explained the deficiencies in the revenues, 
 reviewed the bond issues of the last Adminis- 
 tration, and urged Congress promptly to cor- 
 rect the then existing condition by passing a 
 tariff bill that would supply ample revenues 
 for the support of the government and the 
 liquidation of the public debt. No other 
 subject of legislation was mentioned in the 
 message, and the tariff bill was the all-absorb- 
 ing feature of the session. The Republican 
 members of the ways and means committee 
 of the preceding House had been at work 
 throughout the short session, which ended 
 March 4, giving hearings and preparing the 
 bill which was to be submitted at the extra 
 session. 
 
 Three days after the session opened the 
 tariff bill was reported to the House by the 
 ways and means committee, and thirteen days 
 later, March 31, 1897, it passed the House. 
 It went to the Senate, was referred to the 
 committee on finance, and the Republican 
 members of that committee spent a month 
 and three days in its consideration and in 
 preparing the amendments, which were sub- 
 mitted to the Senate May 4. Its considera- 
 tion was begun in the Senate May 7, and 
 exactly two months later, July 7, it passed 
 the Senate with 872 amendments. The bill 
 then went to conference, where after a ten 
 days' struggle, on July 17, a complete agree- 
 ment was reached by which the Senate re- 
 ceded from 118 amendments and the House 
 from 511. The others, 243 in number, were 
 compromised. The conference report was 
 adopted by the House July 19 at the con- 
 clusion of twelve hours of continuous debate. 
 
 The report was taken up in the Senate July 20 
 and adopted Saturday July 24. The tariff 
 bill was signed by the President the same 
 day. 
 
 In open session, after much debate, the 
 Senate passed the Cuban belligerency resolu- 
 tion, a bankruptcy bill, including both volun- 
 tary and involuntary features, and the u free- 
 homes bill." But none of these important 
 questions received consideration in the 
 House. 
 
 Late in July reports came of the discovery 
 of rich gold deposits in the Yukon Valley, 
 Alaska.- Upwards of $1,000,000 worth of 
 gold dust was brought by one steamer to 
 Seattle, Wash., and many prospectors from 
 all parts of the country set out for the new 
 gold fields, while others were deterred 
 from doing so by reports of the terrible 
 hardships and dangers incurred by the 
 miners. 
 
 In August President McKinley promul- 
 gated amendments to the civil service rules 
 which elicited enthusiastic praise from civil 
 service reformers. The order considered of 
 most importance provides that " no re- 
 moval shall be made from any position sub- 
 ject to competitive examination except for 
 just cause and upon written charges filed with 
 the head of the department or other appoint- 
 ing officer, and of which the accused shall 
 have full notice and an opportunity to make 
 defence." 
 
 Through the Hon. Stewart L. Woodford, 
 American Minister to Spain, our Cabinet at 
 Washington addressed a note in September 
 to the Spanish government concerning the 
 war in Cuba, urging that the most strenuous 
 efforts be made to bring it to an end and 
 offering mediation between the contending 
 parties. Spain's reply, which was received 
 in November, was considered satisfactory and 
 not likely to lead to any rupture between the 
 two countries. 
 
CAPTAIN ROBLEY D. EVANS 
 Commander of the Battleship Iowa 
 
WORKING RAPID-FIRE GUNS IN THE GREAT NAVAL BATTLE 
 OF SANTIAGO 
 
LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 953 
 
 In February, 1898, an incident occurred 
 which created universal comment. A letter 
 was written by the Spanish Minister at Wash- 
 ington, Senor De Lome, reflecting seriously 
 upon President McKinley, in connection 
 with the policy our administration was 
 pursuing toward the government of Spain 
 with regard to the insurrection in Cuba. 
 This letter was written by De Lome to a 
 friend, but failed in some way to reach its 
 destination, and was made public. Public 
 indignation was expressed at this perfidy of 
 the Spanish Minister, and he was compelled 
 to resign, being subsequently recalled by the 
 government at Madrid. 
 
 The struggle in Cuba for independence 
 continued to be the one absording topic that 
 occupied the attention of Congress. Gen- 
 eral Weyler ordered all the inhabitants of 
 Cuba who were suspected of sympathizing 
 with the insurgents into the towns, where 
 they were left to obtain the necessaries of 
 life as best they could. This act, which was 
 pronounced inhuman by the American peo- 
 ple, resulted in the death of tens of thou- 
 sands of men, women and children by star- 
 vation. Meanwhile, accurate reports of the 
 appalling situation in Cuba were brought by 
 several members of Congress who visited 
 the island with a view to ascertaining the 
 exact facts. 
 
 These reports so inflamed the Senate and 
 House of Representatives that a number of 
 resolutions were introduced demanding that 
 belligerent rights should be granted to the 
 Cubans, and further that the United States 
 should intervene with force of arms to end 
 the war in Cuba, and secure the independence 
 of the island. These resolutions, which were 
 referred to the committee on foreign relations, 
 were indicative of the temper of Congress. 
 
 A profound sensation was created by the 
 destruction of the United States battleship 
 •" Maine " in the harbor of Havana. The 
 
 " Maine " was lying in the harbor, having 
 been sent to Cuba on a friendly visit. On 
 the evening of February 15th a terrific ex- 
 plosion took place on board the ship, by 
 which 266 sailors and officers lost their 
 lives and the vessel was wrecked. The 
 cause of the explosion was not apparent. 
 The wounded sailors of the " Maine" were 
 unable to explain it. The explosion shook 
 the whole city of Havana, and the windows 
 were broken in many of the houses. The 
 wounded sailors stated that the explosion 
 took place while they were asleep, so that 
 they could give no particulars as to the 
 cause. 
 
 The Government at Washington and the 
 whole country were horrified at the destruc- 
 tion of one of our largest cruisers and the 
 loss of so many of our brave sailors. The 
 excitement throughout the country was in- 
 tense. The chief interest in the " Maine " 
 disaster now centered upon the cause of the 
 explosion that so quickly sent her to the 
 bottom of Havana harbor. 
 
 A Naval Board of Inquiry, composed of 
 Captain Sampson, of the "Iowa;" Captain 
 Chadwick, of the " New York ; " Captain 
 Marix, of the "Vermont," and Lieutenant- 
 Commander Potter, of the " New York," 
 went to Havana, and proceeded promptly to 
 investigate the causes of the explosion that 
 destroyed the battleship. 
 
 The further the inquiry into the causes 
 that led to the " Maine " disaster proceeded, 
 the more remote appeared the chances that 
 any evidence would be discovered to show 
 that the disaster was due to accident. Those 
 divers who penetrated into the forward part 
 of the wreck found that the whole forward 
 end of the ship from a point just abaft the 
 forward turret had been twisted fifteen or 
 twenty degrees to starboard. That part of 
 the vessel was a wilderness of debris and 
 curled and twisted plates. 
 
954 
 
 LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 For upwards of twenty days the country 
 awaited in profound suspense the result of 
 the inquiry of the Naval Board. During this 
 time all sorts of conflicting rumors were 
 afloat, but it was well understood that the 
 government at Washington was pursuing a 
 conservative course and would not plunge the 
 country into war without the greatest provo- 
 cation. At length the investigation by the 
 Naval Board was completed and was trans- 
 mitted to Congress, accompanied by a mes- 
 sage from President McKinleyas follows: 
 
 " To the Congress of the United States : 
 
 " For some time prior to the visit of the 
 ' Maine ' to Havana harbor our consular repre- 
 sentatives pointed out the advantages to flow 
 from the visit of national ships to the Cuban 
 waters in accustoming the people to the 
 presence of our flag as a symbol of good will 
 and our ships, in the fulfillment of the mis- 
 sion of protection to American interests, even 
 though no immediate need therefor might 
 exist. 
 
 "Accordingly on the 24th of January last, 
 after conference with the Spanish Minister, 
 in which the renewal of visits of our war 
 vessels to Spanish waters was discussed and 
 accepted, and the peninsular authorities at 
 Madrid and Havana were advised of the pur- 
 pose of this government to resume friendly 
 naval visits at Cuban ports, and that in that 
 view the ' Maine ' would forthwith call at the 
 port of Havana. This announcement was re- 
 ceived by the Spanish Government with 
 appreciation of the friendly character of the 
 visit of the ' Maine ' and with notification of 
 intention to return the courtesy by sending 
 Spanish ships to the principal ports of the 
 United States. Meanwhile, the ' Maine ' en- 
 tered the port of Havana on the 25th of 
 January, her arrival being marked with no 
 special incident besides the exchange of 
 customary salutes and ceremonial visits. 
 
 " The ' Maine ' continued in the harbor of 
 
 Havana during the three weeks following her 
 arrival. No appreciable excitement attended 
 her stay; on the contrary, a feeling of relief 
 and confidence followed the resumption of 
 the long interrupted friendly intercourse. So 
 noticeable was this immediate effect of her 
 visit that the Consul General strongly urged 
 that the presence of our ships in Cub;m 
 waters should be kept up by retaining the 
 ' Maine ' at Havana, or, in the event of her 
 recall, by sending another vessel there to take 
 her place. 
 
 " At forty minutes past nine in the evening 
 of the 15th of February the ' Maine ' was de- 
 stroyed by an explosion, by which the entire 
 forward part of the ship was utterly wrecked, 
 In this catastrophe two officers and two hun- 
 dred and sixty-four of her crew perished, 
 those who were not killed outright by her 
 explosion being penned between decks by 
 the tangle of the wreckage and drowned by 
 the immediate sinking of the hull. 
 
 " Prompt assistance was rendered by the 
 neighboring vessels anchored in the harbor, 
 aid being especially given by the boats of the 
 Spanish cruiser 'Alphonse XII.' and the 
 Ward Line steamer ' City of Washington,' 
 which lay not far distant. The wounded 
 were generously cared for by the authorities 
 of Havana, the hospitals being freely opened 
 to them, while the earliest recovered bodies 
 of the dead were interred by the municipality 
 in the public cemetery in the city. Tributes 
 of grief and sympathy were offered from all 
 official quarters of the island. 
 
 "The appalling calamity fell upon the 
 people of our country with crushing force, 
 and for a brief time an intense excitement 
 prevailed, which in a community less just 
 and self-controlled than ours might have led 
 to hasty acts of blind resentment. This 
 spirit, however, soon gave way to the calmer 
 processes of reason and to the resolve to in- 
 vestigate the facts and await material proof. 
 
LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 955 
 
 before forming a judgment as to the cause, 
 the responsibility, and, if the facts warranted, 
 the remedy. This course necessarily recom- 
 mended itself from the outset to the Execu- 
 tive, for only in the light of a dispassionately 
 ascertained certainty could it determine the 
 nature and measure of its full duty in the 
 matter. 
 
 " The usual procedure was followed, as in 
 all cases of casualty or disaster to national 
 vessels of any maritime state. A Naval 
 Court of Inquiry was at once organized, 
 composed of officers well qualified by rank 
 and practical experience to discharge the 
 duty imposed upon them. Aided by a strong 
 force of wreckers and divers, the Court pro- 
 ceeded to make a thorough investigation on 
 the spot, employing every available means 
 for the impartial and exact determination of 
 the causes of the explosion. Its operations 
 have been conducted with the utmost delibe- 
 ration and judgment, and while independ- 
 ently pursued, no source of information was 
 neglected, and the fullest opportunity was 
 allowed for a simultaneous investigation by 
 the Spanish authorities. 
 
 " The finding of the Court of Inquiry was 
 reached after twenty-three days of contin- 
 uous labor, on the 21st of March, and having 
 been approved on the 22d by the Com- 
 mander-in-Chief of the United States naval 
 force of the North Atlantic station, was 
 transmitted to the Executive. 
 
 " It is herewith laid before the Congress, 
 together with the voluminous testimony 
 taken before the Court. Its purport is in 
 brief as follows : 
 
 " When the ' Maine ' arrived at Havana 
 she was conducted by the regular govern- 
 ment pilot to buoy No. 5, to which she was 
 moored in from five and one-half to six 
 fathoms of water. The state of discipline on 
 board and the condition of her magazines, 
 boilers, coal bunkers and storage compart- 
 
 ments are passed in review, with the con- 
 clusion that excellent order prevailed, and 
 that no indication of any cause for an inter- 
 nal explosion existed in any quarter. 
 
 " At 8 o'clock in the evening of February 
 15 everything had been reported secure and 
 all was quiet. At forty minutes past 9 
 o'clock the vessel was suddenly destroyed. 
 There were two distinct explosions, with a 
 brief interval between them. The first lifted 
 the forward part of the ship very perceptibly- 
 the second, which was more open, prolonged 
 and of greater volume, is attributed by the 
 Court to the partial explosion of two or 
 more of the forward magazines. 
 
 " The evidence of the divers establishes 
 that the after part of the ship was practically 
 intact and sank in that condition a very few 
 minutes after the explosion. The forward 
 part was completely demolished. Upon the 
 evidence of a concurrent external cause the 
 finding of the Court is as follows : 
 
 "' At frame 17 the outer shell of the ship, 
 from a point eleven and one-half feet from 
 the middle line of the ship and six feet above 
 the keel when in its normal position, has 
 been forced up so as to be now about four 
 feet above the surface of the water ; therefore 
 about thirty-four feet above where it would 
 be had the ship sunk uninjured. 
 
 " The outside bottom plating is bent into a 
 reversed V shape, the after wing of which, 
 about fifteen feet broad and thirty-two feet 
 in length (frame 17 to frame 25) is doubled 
 back upon itself against the continuation of 
 the same plating extending forward. At 
 frame 18 the vertical keel is broken in two 
 and the flat keel bent into an angle similar to 
 the angle formed by the outside bottom 
 plates. This break is now about six feet 
 below the surface of the water and about 
 thirty feet above its normal position. 
 
 " In the opinion of the Court this effect 
 could have been produced only by the explo- 
 
956 
 
 LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 sion o( a mine situated under the bottom of 
 the ship, at about frame 18 and somewhat 
 on the port side of the ship. 
 
 "The conclusions of the Court are : That 
 the loss of the ' Maine ' was not in any re- 
 spect due to fault or negligence on the part of 
 any of the officers or members of her crew 
 
 " That the ship was destroyed by the ex- 
 plosion of a submarine mine, which caused 
 the partial explosion of two or more of her 
 forward magazines ; and 
 
 " That no evidence has been obtainable 
 fixing the responsibility for the destruction 
 of the ' Maine ' upon any person or persons. 
 
 " I have directed that the finding of the 
 Court of Inquiry and the views of this gov- 
 ernment thereon be communicated to the 
 government of her Majesty, the Queen Re- 
 gent, and I do not permit myself to doubt 
 that the sense of justice of the Spanish 
 nation will dictate a course of action sug- 
 gested by honor and the friendly relations o' 
 the two governments. 
 
 " It will be the duty of the Executive to 
 advise the Congress of the result, and in the 
 meantime deliberate consideration is invoked 
 
 Signed " William McKinley. 
 
 "Executive Mansion, March 28, 1898." 
 
 The following is the full text of the 
 report of the Court of Inquiry appointed to 
 innvestigate the disaster to the " Maine " at 
 Havana: 
 
 "U. S. S. Iowa, 1st rate, Key West, Fla., 
 Monday, March 21, 1898. — After full and 
 mature consideration of all the testimony 
 before it, the court finds as follows : 
 
 " 1. That the United States battleship 
 'Maine' arrived in the harbor of Havana, 
 Cuba, on the twenty-fifth day of January, 
 Eighteen Hundred and Ninety-eight, and was 
 taken to Buoy No. 4, in from five and one- 
 half to six fathoms of water, by the regular 
 
 government pilot. The United States Consul 
 General at Havana had notified the author- 
 ities at that place the previous evening of the 
 intended arrival of the ' Maine.' 
 
 " 2. The state of discipline on board the 
 ' Maine ' was excellent, and all orders and 
 regulations in regard to the care and safety 
 of the ship were strictly carried out. All 
 ammunition was stowed in accordance with 
 prescribed instructions, and proper c.ire was 
 taken whenever ammunition Avas handled. 
 Nothing was stowed in any one of the maga- 
 zines or shell rooms which was not permitted 
 to be stowed there. 
 
 " The magazines and shell rooms were 
 always locked after having been opened, and 
 after the destruction of the 'Maine' the keys 
 were found in their proper place in the cap- 
 tain's cabin, everything having been reported 
 secure that evening at 8 P. M. The tem- 
 peratures of the magazine and shell room 
 were taken daily and reported. The only 
 magazine which had an undue amount of 
 heat was the after 10-inch magazine, and that 
 did not explode at the time the ' Maine ' was 
 destroyed. 
 
 " The torpedo warheads were all stowed in 
 the after part of the ship under the ward 
 room, and neither caused nor participated in 
 the destruction of the ' Maine.' The dry- 
 gun cotton primers and detonators were 
 stowed in the cabin aft, and remote from the 
 scene of the explosion. 
 
 " Waste was carefully looked after on 
 board the ' Maine ' to obviate danger. Spe- 
 cial orders in regard to this had been given 
 by the commanding officer. Varnishes, dry- 
 ers, alcohol and other combustibles of this 
 nature were stowed on or above the main 
 deck and could not have had anything to do 
 with the destruction of the ' Maine.' The 
 medical stores were stowed aft under the 
 ward room and remote from the scene of the 
 explosion. No dangerous stores of any kind 
 
,-<•'* 
 
 .\1 )MIKAI . 
 
 W.S.SCHhKY 
 
LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 957 
 
 were stowed below in any of the other store 
 rooms. 
 
 " The coal bunkers were inspected daily. 
 Of those bunkers adjacent to the forward 
 magazines and shell rooms four were empty. 
 One bunker had been in use that day and 
 another was full of new river coal. This coal 
 had been carefully inspected before receiving 
 it on board. The bunker in which it was 
 stowed was accessible on three sides at all 
 times. 
 
 " The fire alarms in the bunkers were in 
 working order, and there had never been a 
 case of spontaneous combustion of coal on 
 board the ' Maine.' The two after boilers of 
 the ship were in use at the time of the dis- 
 aster, but for auxiliary purposes only, with a 
 comparatively low pressure of steam and 
 being tended by a reliable watch. These 
 boilers could not have caused the explosion 
 of the ship. The four forward boilers have 
 since been found by the divers and are in a 
 fair condition. 
 
 " On the night of the destruction of the 
 ' Maine' everything had been reported secure 
 for the night at 8 P. M. by reliable persons, 
 through the proper authorities, to the com- 
 manding officer. At the time the ' Maine ' 
 was destroyed the ship was quiet, and, there- 
 fore, least liable to accident caused by move- 
 ments from those on board. 
 
 "3. The destruction of the 'Maine' oc- 
 curred at 9.40 P. M. on the 15th day of 
 February, 1898, in the harbor of Havana, 
 Cuba, she being at the time moored to the 
 same buoy to which she had been taken upon 
 her arrival. 
 
 " There were two explosions of a distinctly 
 different character, with a very short but dis- 
 tinct interval between them, and the forward 
 part of the ship was lifted to a marked degree 
 at the time of the first explosion. 
 
 " The first explosion was more in the na- 
 ture of a report, like that of a gun, while the 
 
 second explosion was more open, prolonged 
 and of greater volume. This second explo- 
 sion was, in the opinion of the court, caused 
 by the partial explosion of two or more of 
 the forward magazines of the ' Maine.' 
 
 " The evidence bearing upon this, being 
 principally obtained from divers, did not en- 
 able the court to form a definite conclusion 
 as to the condition of the wreck, although it 
 was established that the after part of the ship 
 was practically intact and sank in that con- 
 dition a very few minutes after the destruc- 
 tion of the forward part. 
 
 " 4. The following facts in regard to the for- 
 ward part of the ship are, however, estab- 
 lished by the testimony : That portion of the 
 port side of the protective deck which ex- 
 tends from about frame 30 to about frame 41 
 was blown up aft, and over to port, the main 
 deck from about frame 30 to about frame 41 
 was blown up aft, and slightly over to star- 
 board, folding the forward part of the middle 
 superstructure over and on top of the after 
 part. 
 
 " This was, in the opinion of the court, 
 caused by the partial explosion of two or 
 more of the forward magazines of the ' Maine.' 
 
 "5. At frame 17 the outer shell of the ship, 
 from a point eleven and one-half feet from 
 the middle line of the ship and six feet above 
 the keel when in its normal position, has 
 been forced up so as to be now about four 
 feet above the surface of the water, therefore, 
 about thirty-four feet above where it would 
 be had the ship sunk uninjured. The outside 
 bottom plating is bent into a reversed V-shape, 
 the after wing of which, abo t fifteen feet 
 broad and thirty- two feet in length (from 
 frame 17 to frame 25) is doubled back upon 
 itself against the continuation of the same 
 plating extending forward. 
 
 "At frame 18 the vertical keel is broken 
 in two and the fiat keel bent into an angle 
 similar to the angle formed by the outside 
 
958 
 
 LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 bottom plating. This break is now about 
 six feet below the surface of the water and 
 about thirty feet above its normal position. 
 
 " In the opinion of the court this effect 
 could have been produced only by the explo- 
 sion of a mine situated under the bottom of 
 the ship at about frame 18, and somewhat on 
 the port side of the ship. 
 
 ' ' 6. The court finds that the loss of the 
 ' Maine ' on the occasion named was not in 
 any respect due to fault or negligence on the 
 part of the officers or men of the crew of said 
 vessel. 
 
 "7. In the opinion of the court the 
 'Maine' was destroyed by the explosion of 
 a submarine mine, which caused the partial 
 explosion of two of her forward magazines. 
 
 " 8. The court has been unable to obtain 
 evidence fixing the responsibility for the de- 
 struction of the ' Maine' upon any person 
 or persons. " W. T. Sampson, 
 
 " Captain U. S. N., President. 
 "A. Marix, 
 " Lieutenant Commander U. S. N., Judge 
 Advocate. " 
 
 Following the destruction of the battle- 
 ship " Maine," which, as already noted, 
 stirred the resentment of the entire country 
 to a marked degree, negotiations were con- 
 tinued by our government with Spain for the 
 purpose of putting an end to the war in 
 Cuba, which, it was admitted by all, had 
 been attended with intolerable cruelties. Per- 
 haps the exact number of those who perished 
 by starvation, as a result of the Spanish 
 policy in that island, will never be known; 
 suffice it to say, that the land was in desola- 
 tion ; starvation and death on every side 
 aroused the indignation of the civilized 
 worldr 
 
 Meanwhile there was a very restless feel- 
 ing in Congress and definite action toward 
 intervention between Spain and Cuba was 
 
 delayed only by the expectation of a message 
 from President McKinley that would deal 
 vigorously with the whole question. The 
 message was held back in order that the 
 views of our government might, if possible, 
 be accepted by Spain and the issues between 
 the two countries settled by diplomacy. 
 
 The President's Message was sent to Con- 
 gress at noon, April nth, accompanied by 
 the Consular reports. 
 
 The Message opened with a detailed ac- 
 count of the revolution and of its effect upon 
 American interests. It called attention to 
 the fact that President Cleveland's offer of 
 mediation was rejected by Spain. A descrip- 
 tion was then given of the " new and inhuman 
 phase " added to the horrors of the strife by 
 the concentration of the inhabitants in forti- 
 fied places, which brought the narrative 
 down to the opening of the present Adminis- 
 tration, when 300,000 or more people had 
 been herded in towns and villages, and half 
 of them had died of starvation and the 
 diseases incident thereto. 
 
 The new Administration in Spain, while 
 not admitting mediation, proposed reforms 
 in the government of Cuba, and, while ne- 
 gotiations were in progress, relief plans were 
 proposed and accepted, under which nearly 
 $200,000 in money and supplies reached the 
 sufferers, and then the Spanish Government 
 revoked the orders of General Weyler, per- 
 mitted the reconcentrados to return to their 
 homes, and appropriated $600,000 for their 
 relief. 
 
 The President said that the war in Cuba 
 was of such a nature that a final military 
 victory for either side seemed impracticable. 
 Realizing this, he submitted to the Spanish 
 Government propositions for an armistice 
 until October 1 for the negotiation of peace 
 with the good offices of the President. He 
 also asked for a revocation of the order for 
 reconcentration. 
 
LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 959 
 
 Spain replied that the preparation of terms 
 of peace would be referred to the Insular 
 Parliament. The President then abandoned 
 negotiations. 
 
 The President then discussed, in the light 
 of freely quoted State papers, the untried 
 measures — recognition of the insurgents as 
 belligerents, recognition of the independence 
 of Cuba, neutral intervention to end the war 
 by imposing a rational compromise between 
 the contestants, and intervention in favor of 
 one or the other party. He showed that we 
 could not at this time, without departing 
 from the settled policy of the Government, 
 recognize the insurgents as belligerents or 
 recognize the independence of Cuba. He 
 used the destruction of the " Maine" to illus- 
 trate the elements of danger and disorder 
 that prevailed in Cuba and called for inter- 
 vention, and said of the Maine disaster: 
 
 " In any event the destruction of the 
 ' Maine,' by whatever exterior cause, is a 
 patent and impressive proof of a state of 
 things in Cuba that is intolerable. This con- 
 dition is thus shown to be such that the 
 Spanish Government cannot assure safety 
 and security to a vessel of the American 
 navy in the harbor of Havana on a mission 
 of peace and rightfully there." 
 
 An able argument in favor of intervention 
 was followed by these conclusions and re- 
 commendations : 
 
 " The long trial has proved that the ob- 
 ject for which Spain has waged the war can- 
 not be attained. The fire of insurrection 
 may flame or may smoulder with varying 
 seasons, but it has not been and it is plain 
 that it cannot be extinguished by present 
 methods. The only hope of relief and re- 
 pose from a condition which can no longer 
 be endured is the enforced pacification of 
 Cuba. In the name of humanity, in the 
 name of civilization, in behalf of endangered 
 American interests which give us the right 
 
 and the duty to speak and to act, the war 
 in Cuba must stop. 
 
 " In view of these facts and of these con- 
 siderations I ask the Congress to authorize 
 and empower the President to take measures 
 to secure a full and final termination of hos- 
 tilities between the Government of Spain 
 and the people of Cuba, and to secure in the 
 island the establishment of a stable govern- 
 ment capable of maintaining order and ob- 
 serving its international obligations, ensuring 
 peace and tranquillity and the security of its 
 citizens as well as our own, and to use the 
 military and naval forces of the United 
 States as may be necessary for these pur- 
 poses. 
 
 " And in the interest of humanity and tc 
 aid in preserving the lives of the starving 
 people of that island, I recommend that the 
 distribution of food and supplies be con- 
 tinued, and that an appropriation be made 
 out of the public treasury to supplement the 
 charity of our citizens. 
 
 " The issue is now with the Congress. It 
 is a solemn responsibility. I have ex- 
 hausted every effort to relieve the intolerable 
 condition of affairs which is at our doors. 
 Prepared to execute every obligation im- 
 posed upon me by the Constitution and the 
 law, I await your action." 
 
 The President submitted the armistice 
 granted by Spain at the eleventh hour as a 
 fact to be considered by Congress and said 
 of it : 
 
 " If this measure attains a successful re- 
 sult, then our aspirations as a Christian, peace- 
 loving people will be realized. If it fails, it 
 will be only another justification for our con- 
 templated action." 
 
 There was no doubt whatever from the 
 manifestations and utterances of Senators 
 and Representatives on both sides that the 
 Message had not met popular expectation. 
 The opinion had obtained that the President 
 
960 
 
 LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 would disclaim against Spain in the most 
 vigorous terms and that his recommenda- 
 tions would be favorable to legislative action 
 that would speedily lead to hostilities. 
 
 Congress debated a week over the recom- 
 mendations contained in the President's 
 message, and on April 18th both Houses 
 united in passing a series of resolutions call- 
 ing for the intervention of the United States 
 to compel Spain to withdraw her forces 
 from Cuba, and thus permit the authorities 
 at Washington to provide the Island with a 
 free and independent government. The de- 
 mand contained in the resolutions was sent 
 to the Spanish Minister at Washington on 
 April 20th, who at once called for his pass- 
 ports and left for Canada. 
 
 On the same date the ultimatum of our 
 Government was sent to United States Min- 
 ister Woodford, at Madrid, who was curtly 
 handed his passports before he had an oppor- 
 tunity of formally presenting the document. 
 These transactions involved a virtual declara- 
 tion of war, although Congress did not for- 
 mally declare that war actually existed until 
 April 25th, dating the time back to the 21st. 
 
 The North Atlantic Squadron was imme- 
 diately ordered to blockade the Cuban ports, 
 and on April 22d proceeded to carry out the 
 order. On the same date the United States 
 gunboat " Nashville " captured the Spanish 
 merchantman " Buena Ventura" in the Gulf 
 of Mexico. In this capture the first gun of 
 the war was fired. The next day President 
 McKinley promulgated a resolution calling 
 for 125,000 volunteers. On the sara* date 
 Morro Castle, commanding the harbor of 
 Havana, fired on the United States flagship 
 " New York," but without doing damage. 
 Subsequent events comprised the capture of 
 a number of Spanish vessels by Admiral 
 Sampson's squadron. 
 
 On April 26th Hon. John Sherman, Secre- 
 tary of State, resigned, and Hon, Wm. R. 
 
 Day, of Ohio, was appointed to be his suc- 
 cessor. Movements were at once set on foot 
 for mobilizing our army at Chickamauga, 
 Tenn., and Tampa, Fla., for the purpose of 
 invading Cuba and capturing Havana. Mean- 
 while a powerful Spanish squadron had pro- 
 ceeded to the Cape Verde Islands and was 
 there awaiting orders. Mystery attended the 
 movements of the fleet, and even after it 
 sailed, its destination could only be surmised. 
 
 Stirring news from our Asiatic fleet was 
 soon received. On May 1st Admiral Dewey 
 practically destroyed the Spanish squadron 
 in the harbor of Manila, Philippine Islands, 
 capturing nine vessels and inflicting a loss of 
 400 killed and 600 wounded. 
 
 The sailing of the American fleet from 
 Hong Kong on April 27 was promptly cabled 
 to Manila, and despite all that the authorities 
 could do to prevent, it was soon known 
 throughout the island. 
 
 Many of the better class of residents at 
 once hurried aboard merchant vessels with 
 their valuables and fled. Those left behind 
 took no courage from the confident boastings 
 of the Spanish army and naval officers, but 
 gave way to panic from fear of what would 
 happen when the native insurgents made an 
 attack on the town. 
 
 It was known to the Spanish authorities 
 that the American fleet would be almost cei- 
 tain to arrive on the evening of Saturday, 
 April 30th. 
 
 The Spanish fleet, which at first put tc 
 sea to meet and destroy the " cowardly Yan- 
 kees," was recalled Saturday afternoon and 
 lined up at Cavite, where the arsenals, dry- 
 docks and naval warships are defended by a 
 long line of earthworks. 
 
 These works had been greatly strength- 
 ened, notably by the addition of several big 
 modern guns. They were regarded as very 
 formidable by old-fashioned Spanish military 
 engineers, as were also the fort on Corregidor 
 
LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 961 
 
 Island, the battery on Cabilla Island, and the 
 works on the mainland points to the north 
 and south. These islands were all in readi- 
 ness, ahd a chain of mines which guarded 
 both channels was prepared to blow up each 
 American ship as it passed. 
 
 Saturday night fell with the Spaniards on 
 land and water quite ^ 
 cheerful over the com- 
 
 ing engagement. A 
 short time after mid- 
 night, the darkness 
 being intense, one of 
 the guns in Corregi- 
 dor suddenly boomed 
 out, and all the other 
 guns about the en- 
 trance to the bay took 
 up the cry, and the 
 anxious people in Ma- 
 nila poured into the 
 streets. They thought 
 the battle had begun. 
 In reality the Ameri- 
 can fleet was already p| 
 past the entrance and 
 was on its way up the 
 opposite side of the 
 bay. 
 
 It was a night of 
 terror in Manila. The 
 women and children 
 fled to the churches, 
 and men rushed to 
 and fro in the streets- 
 Dismay seized upon the Spanish soldiers. 
 They had not believed that the Americans 
 ;ouid ever get past the entrance to the bat- 
 teries and past the mines. Long before dawn 
 the panic became a frenzy because of reports 
 tha'c came from the interior of the island that 
 nat/ves were massing for a descent upon the 
 city to pillage i*nd massacre. When day 
 oroke *h* tens of thousands watching on all 
 
 sides of the vast and beautiful harbor saw the 
 enemy in line of battle about ten miles out, 
 directly in front of Manila. There were nine 
 vessels in all. 
 
 The "Olympia," 5800 tons, a swift com- 
 merce destroyer, carrying four terrible 8-inch 
 guns and ten deadly 5-inch quick-firers. 
 
 </* 
 
 MANILA HARBOR— SCENE OF THE GREAT BATTLE 
 
 The " Baltimore," scarcely less formidable 
 than the " Olympia," with four eight-inch 
 guns and six six-inch rapid-firers. 
 
 The " Boston," smaller than the " Olympia '' 
 and " Baltimore," but still a real and powerful 
 floating fort, with her two eight- inch guns 
 and her six six-inch rapid-firers 
 
 The " Raleigh," similar to the " Boston," 
 
 with one six-inch and ten five-inch guns. 
 
 61 
 
962 
 
 LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 The " Concord," with six six-inch guns. 
 
 The gunboat " Petrel," with five six-inch 
 guns. 
 
 To the rear of these the transport shipSj 
 with coal, ammunition and accommodations 
 for wounded. 
 
 With a bright American flag floating gayly 
 over each ship, the decks and all visible 
 appointments neat and trim, the fleet seemed 
 to be out for a holiday rather than awaiting 
 an opening for the only real demonstration 
 of an ironclad fleet in action that the world 
 has had. The Spaniards could hardly be- 
 lieve their own eyes. That this formidable 
 apparition was in the very centre of their har- 
 bor, almost within firing distance of the capi- 
 tal city of their last remaining Eastern pos- 
 sessions seemed incredible, impossible. 
 
 They had not long to watch and speculate. 
 The sun was hardly clear of the horizon 
 before the American fleet began to steam in 
 slow and stately fashion straight toward the 
 city, near which were anchored three men-of- 
 war from three different nations, French, 
 German and English. The decks and rigging 
 of each of these ships were thronged with 
 eager officers and sailors, discipline seeming 
 to have been forgotten in an intense desire to 
 see what the Yankees would do — these Yan- 
 kees who in three-quarters of a century have 
 never sent a hostile fleet into any port of a 
 European Power. 
 
 On came the American fleet until it was 
 within about three miles of Manila, and then 
 a Spanish gun on the battery at the end of 
 the Mole spoke ; but the shot fell short. 
 Then from the Spanish fleet, steaming slowly 
 up from Cavite, came several shots at the 
 American fleet. The two duelists were now 
 'ace to face. 
 
 To expert eyes the Spanish fleet seemed 
 far inferior, yet to the people watching, and, 
 apparently, to the Spanish officers and sail- 
 ors, the difference did not seem great. The 
 
 Spanish ships were of older patterns, rather 
 than smaller, and were far more numerous. 
 There were : 
 
 The " Reina Cristina," of 3090 tons, with 
 six six-inch and two three-inch guns. 
 
 The " Castilla," with four six-inch guns. 
 
 The smaller cruisers "Velasco," "Don 
 Juan de Austria" and "Don Antonio de 
 Ulloa," besides ten gunboats. 
 
 Then there were the batteries on shore all 
 along the low peninsula. 
 
 To get the full effect of all of these guns 
 the Spaniards formed so that the Americans 
 would have to face not only all the guns 
 afloat, but also all the guns on shore at 
 Cavite, while from the rear the strong bat- 
 teries of Manila could, perhaps, send aiding 
 shots. When the American manoeuverings 
 brought their ships within range, at about 
 6.45, the real duel began. The Spanish fleet 
 stood ready, flanked by the Cavite batteries 
 on the south. 
 
 The American fleet began to steam lan- 
 guidly to and fro. Suddenly there were one 
 or two sharp cracks, and then a succession of 
 deafening roars, and then one long, reverber- 
 ating roar, that boomed and bellowed from 
 shore to shore. A huge cloud of smoke lay 
 close upon the waters, and around it was a 
 penumbra of thick haze. 
 
 Through this the American ships could be 
 seen moving, now slowly, now more rapidly, 
 flames shooting from their sides, and answer- 
 ing flames leaping from the Spanish ships 
 and land batteries, while now and then from 
 the direction of Manila came hollow rumbles 
 as the big guns there were discharged, more 
 from eagerness to take part than from the 
 hope of lending effective aid. 
 
 It was impossible to see from shore the 
 effect of many of the shots, but from the fact 
 that the American ships were alternately 
 advancing and retreating in the course of 
 their manceuverings, the Spaniards on shore 
 
LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 963 
 
 got the impression that the Yankees were 
 being beaten. When the ships were again 
 seen, the " Reina Cnstina" was wrapped in 
 rlames. On her decks sailors, Spaniards and 
 natives, were rushing frantically about. The 
 "Isle De Cuba" came near, and part of the 
 "Reina Cristina's" crew — perhaps all that 
 were still alive— and the Spanish Admiral 
 
 At this juncture the "Don Juan de Aus- 
 tria " became a centre of interest. She had 
 been in the very front of battle and received, 
 perhaps, more of the American shots than 
 any other ship. Admiral Montojo, on the 
 burning " Isla de Cuba," threw up his arms 
 with a gesture of despair as a heavy roar 
 came from the " Don Juan de Austria " and 
 
 UNIFORMS OF UNITED STATES 
 went aboard her, but hardly were they aboard 
 when she, too, burst into flames. 
 
 Confusion now reigned throughout the 
 Spanish fleet. On every vessel the decks 
 were slippery with blood and the air filled 
 with the shrieks and groans of the Spaniards. 
 The native sailors rushed about in a frenzy 
 of rage rather than terror. The Americans 
 were seemingly calm and cool, and still in 
 good order they pressed their advantage. In 
 fact, they pushed on too closely, for now the 
 fire from the Cavite batteries became effective. 
 
 MARINES AND NAVAL OFFICERS., 
 part of her deck flew up in the air, taking 
 with it scores of dead, dying and mangled. 
 A shot had penetrated one of her magazines. 
 She was ruined and sinking, but her crew 
 refused to leave her. Weeping, cursing, 
 praying and firing madly and blindly they 
 went down with her, and as the " Don Juan 
 de Austria" went down the " Castilla" burst 
 into flames. 
 
 The remainder of the Spanish fleet now 
 turned and fled down the long, narrow inlet 
 behind Cavite. Several of the gun-boats 
 
9 6 4 
 
 LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 were run ashore, others fled up a small creek 
 and were grounded there. The guns of 
 Cavite kept on thundering, and the Ameri- 
 cans, pressing their advantage no further, 
 drew off. As they steamed away toward 
 their waiting transports the Spaniards went 
 wild with joy. 
 
 They thought that in spite of outward ap- 
 
 This second engagement was short. The 
 last Spanish ship was soon grounded or sunk. 
 The American guns were now trained on 
 Cavite, and one ship after another steamed 
 along pouring in a deadly fire. At 1 1.30 the 
 batteries at Cavite ceased to answer, and the 
 American fleet with ringing cheers from its 
 exhausted, but triumphant crews steamed 
 
 STREET SCENE IN MANILA— PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 
 
 pearances the American fleet was crippled, 
 and that as it would be unable to escape from 
 the harbor it would fall into their hands. 
 This was telegraphed up to Manila, and soon 
 to Madrid, where it filled the Ministry with 
 momentary delight; but before the Ministers 
 at Madrid had read the false news, the Amer- 
 ican fleet, with decks again cleared and with 
 fresh supplies of ammunition, was steaming 
 back toward Cavite. 
 
 jubilantly back to the transport ships. And 
 to the long list of splendid naval victories 
 beginning with the Revolution was added 
 the glorious victory of Manila. 
 
 In honor of his distinguished services 
 Commodore Dewey was raised to the rank 
 of Admiral, and Congress passed a series of 
 resolutions thanking him and his men for 
 services rendered their country. 
 
 On May 1 ith Ensign Bagley, of the torpedo 
 
ADMIRAL W. T. SAMPSON 
 
XT 
 
Ilpii nyui 
 
 T: ? , "!! , l',P I 
 
966 
 
 LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 boat " Winslow," and five men were killed, 
 and five others were wounded, in Cardenas 
 harbor, on the northern coast of Cuba, in an 
 engagement with Spanish gunboats. The 
 Americans displayed great bravery in the 
 face of danger, the action of the United States 
 gunboat " Hudson " being especially notable 
 in going to the rescue of the " Winslow," 
 and towing her out of range of the enemy's 
 fire. Ensign Bagley was the first to lose 
 his life in the war. On the same date there 
 was an engagement between United States 
 vessels and Spanish troops at Cienfuegos, on 
 the southern coast of Cuba. One American 
 was killed, and six badly wounded. The 
 object of the expedition, however, was suc- 
 cessful in cutting the cable from that point. 
 
 On May 12th General Wesley Merritt was 
 appointed Military Governor of the Philip- 
 pines, and orders were given for troops to be 
 sent to Manila for the purpose of capturing 
 the town and occupying the Island. Agree- 
 ably to this order the cruiser " Charleston " 
 sailed on May 18th for Manila, loaded with 
 supplies and ammunition. 
 
 On May 12th Admiral Sampson's squadron 
 arrived off Porto Rico, and for three hours 
 bombarded the forts of San Juan, inflicting 
 serious damage upon them and the town. 
 The Admiral then withdrew, stating that his 
 object was not to capture San Juan, but to 
 find, if possible, the Spanish fleet which had 
 sailed some days previously from the Cape 
 Verde Islands. Great mystery attended the 
 movements of the Spanish squadron. 
 
 On May 19th the long suspense occasioned 
 by the difficulty of ascertaining what Admiral 
 Cervera intended to do with his fleet was 
 over, and it was definitely known that his ves- 
 sels were entrapped in the harbor of Santiago. 
 The government resolved to send troops at 
 once to that point to aid the fleet in captur- 
 ing the town. While it was known that the 
 Spanish vessels were inside the harbor of 
 
 Santiago it was considered impossible for our 
 battleships to enter the harbor on account of 
 mines which had been planted, and the for- 
 midable attack sure to be made by batteries 
 on shore. 
 
 The entrance to the harbor of Santiago is 
 very narrow, and vessels are compelled at 
 one point to go through a channel not much 
 over three hundred feet wide. Here occurred 
 on the morning of June 3d one of the most 
 gallant acts recorded in the annals of naval 
 warfare. Lieutenant Hobson, naval construc- 
 tor, on the flagship of Admiral Sampson, 
 
 LIEUT. R. P. HOBSON. 
 
 conceived the plan of blocking this narrow 
 entrance by sinking the collier " Merrimac," 
 thus "bottling up" Cervera and his fleet. 
 The reader will be interested in a detailed 
 account of this remarkable exploit. 
 
 When the Admiral's consent for making 
 the daring venture was obtained, Mr. Hobson 
 became impatient of all delay, and that very 
 night, after the moon went down, he set the 
 time for the attempt. Volunteers were called 
 for on all the ships of the fleet. Whole cheer- 
 ing crews stepped forward at the summons 
 for the extra-hazardous duty. About three 
 hundred on board the " New York," one 
 hundred and eighty on board the " Iowa," 
 
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LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 967 
 
 and a like proportion from the other ships 
 volunteered, but Mr. Hobson decided to risk 
 as few lives as possible. 
 
 He picked three men from the " New York" 
 and three from the " Merrimac." The latter 
 were green in the service, but they knew the 
 ship, and had pleaded hard to go, and one 
 man stowed away on board the collier. 
 
 Six other men, selected from various ships, 
 with Ensign Powell in command, manned 
 the launch, which was to lie at the harbor 
 mouth and take off those who escaped. The 
 " Merrimac " was made ready. Six torpedoes 
 were strung along her port side, with wire 
 connections to the bridge. Her anchors 
 were lashed at the bow and stern. Her 
 cargo of coal was shifted, and her cargo- 
 ports were opened so that she would more 
 readily fill when the time came to cut her 
 anchor-lashings, open the seacocks, and tor- 
 pedo her bulkheads. 
 
 The work was not completed until after 
 four o'clock in the morning; but, with the 
 sky paling in the east, Mr. Hobson headed 
 in on his desperate mission. 
 
 On board the ships of the fleet picketed 
 about the entrance every officer and man, 
 with many warm heart beats for their brave 
 comrades, awaited the issue, with eyes anxi- 
 ously fixed on the jutting headlands that 
 marked the entrance of the harbor. But as 
 the "Merrimac" steamed forward Rear Ad- 
 miral Sampson, pacing the deck of the flag- 
 ship, looked at his watch and at the streaks in 
 the east, and decided that the " Merrimac " 
 could not reach the entrance before broad 
 daylight. Consequently, the torpedo boat 
 " Porter," which was alongside, was de- 
 spatched to recall the daring officer. Mr. 
 Hobson sent back a protest, with a request 
 for permission to proceed. But the Admiral 
 declined to allow him to take the risk, and 
 slowly the "Merrimac" swung about. 
 
 During the day Lieutenant Hobson went 
 
 aboard the flagship. So absorbed was he in 
 the task ahead of him that, unmindful of his 
 appearance and of all ceremony and naval 
 etiquette, he told the Admiral, in a tone of 
 command, that he must not again be inter- 
 fered v/ith. 
 
 " I can carry this thing through," said he, 
 " but there must be no more recalls. My 
 men have been keyed up for twenty-four 
 hours and under a tremendous strain. Iron 
 will break at last." When Mr. Hobson left 
 the ship and the extended hands of his ship- 
 mates, more than one of the latter turned 
 hastily to hide the unbidden tear. But the 
 Lieutenant waved them adieu with a smile 
 on his handsome face. 
 
 The "Merrimac" started in shortly after 
 three o'clock Friday morning. The full 
 moon had disappeared behind a black cloud- 
 bank in the west. Three thousand strained 
 eyes strove to pierce the deep veil of night. 
 
 Suddenly there were several shots from 
 the rocky eminence on which Morro Castle 
 ; s situated. They were followed by jets and 
 streams of fire from the batteries opposite. 
 The " Merrimac " had reached the entrance 
 of the harbor. She must have passed so 
 close that a stone loosened from the frowning 
 parapet of the Castle would have fallen on 
 her deck. It seems a miracle that her appar- 
 ently riddled hull could have reached the 
 goal. After five minutes the firing ceased 
 and all became dark again. 
 
 When the curtain of the night was at last 
 lifted the light disclosed a tiny steam launch 
 riding the waves at the very throat of the 
 entrance of the harbor. In an instant the 
 guns of the shore batteries were turned upon 
 her, and, with a last lingering, vain look for 
 the crew of the " Merrimac," Ensign Powell 
 headed his launch close along shore to the 
 westward. In this lay his salvation. The 
 guns of the batteries to the westward could 
 not be depressed enough to hit the little 
 
9 68 
 
 LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 launch, and the guns on Morro Castle would 
 not bear upon her. 
 
 But the Spaniards, nevertheless, fired wildly, 
 overshooting the launch, until the latter was 
 fully two miles up the coast. Then some of 
 the shells began to drop fairly close, and one 
 of them threw a cloud of spray on board the 
 small craft. In the meantime the ships of 
 the fleet had drawn on until the " New York," 
 " Massachusetts," " Texas" and " Marblehead" 
 were barely three miles from Morro Castle. 
 
 The fire of the great guns continued, but 
 the eunnerv seemed 
 
 Lying closer in than the warships, Powell 
 had seen the firing when the " Merrimac " 
 and her dare-devil crew, then well inside Morro 
 Castle, were probably first discovered by the 
 Spaniards. He also heard an explosion, 
 which may have been caused by Hobson's 
 torpedoes. The Ensign was not sure. He 
 waited vainly, hoping to rescue the heroes of 
 the " Merrimac," until he was shelled out by 
 the forts. 
 
 The work, however, was done. The big 
 vessel had been swung across the narrow 
 
 gunnery 
 to grow worse, until 
 the Spaniards became 
 tired. They were not 
 rash enough, except in 
 two instances, to fire at 
 the fleet, fearing prob- 
 ably to provoke an 
 antagonist with the 
 strength of Admiral 
 Sampson. Knowing 
 of Hobson's desperate 
 plan, the despatch 
 boat had taken up a 
 position opposite to 
 the narrow harbor en- 
 trance and just outside the line of the block- 
 ading war ships. 
 
 From here the " Merrimac" was seen enter- 
 ing the harbor. A few minutes later the fire 
 of the Spanish batteries was seen to be con- 
 centrated westward close to the shore. There 
 a tiny thread of smoke disclosed their target. 
 It was the " New York's" launch which En- 
 sign Powell had gallantly held close under 
 Morro's walls until after daylight, when 
 driven out by the fire of the big guns, he had 
 run far up the shore, under the partial cover 
 of the bluffs and had turned and eventually 
 boarded the " Texas " out of range. Then he 
 passed the " New York," broken-hearted at 
 not finding Hobson and his men. 
 
 HARBOR AND FORTIFICATIONS OF SANTIAGO. 
 
 The star shows where the Merrimac was sunk. 
 
 entrance to the harbor, the torpedoes had 
 been fired, the explosion had come, the great 
 collier was sinking at just the right point; 
 and her gallant crew, having jumped into the 
 water to save their lives, were taken on board 
 the flagship of the Spanish Admiral, who 
 praised their bravery, and sent an officer 
 under flag of truce to assure Admiral Samp- 
 son that the heroic band was safe and would 
 be well cared for. . Spanish chivalry was 
 forced to admiration. 
 
 Within three hours, on the morning of 
 June 6th, the American fleet silenced nearly 
 all the fortifications at the entrance to the 
 harbor of Santiago de Cuba. The formidable 
 Estrella and Cavo batteries failed to reply 
 
HEROES IN OUR WAR WITH SPAIN 
 
LATEST EVENTS OF AMKRICAN HISTORY. 
 
 969 
 
 
 during the last hour of the bombardment. 
 They were so shattered that it is doubtful 
 whether they could be of the smallest service 
 to the Spaniards in the future. 
 
 There was a heavy fog and a steady rain 
 during the engagement. The American gun- 
 ners, however, rose superior to the mist, and 
 their keen eyes, supplemented by high skill, 
 directed the shot and shell with terrific effect. 
 Again the Spaniards proved to be miserable 
 marksmen They managed to hit the battle- 
 ship " Massachusetts" once. Her fighting 
 top was struck, but that was all the damage. 
 The other ships did not suffer. Not one of 
 our sailors was rei>orted killed. 
 
 The formation of the American ships was 
 in double column. About six o'clock in the 
 morning the war vessels stood off six miles 
 from the beetling Morro Castle. The weather 
 was nasty ; but no rain nor fog could depress 
 the spirits of the sailors, who were eager for 
 the fray. 
 
 The ships moved slowly to within three- 
 thousand yards of the shore. One line, com- 
 posed of the " Brooklyn," " Texas," " Massa- 
 chusetts " and the " Marblehead," turned 
 westvvardly. The flagship of Commodore 
 Schley led. In the second line were the 
 "New York," "Oregon," "Iowa," "New 
 Orleans " and " Yankee." The " New York " 
 was at the head of the line. The second line 
 moved eastward ly. Far out on the left were 
 the " Vixen " and the " Suwanee," whose 
 crews watched the riflemen on shore. The 
 sailors on the " Dolphin " and the " Porter' 1 
 guarded the right flank. Admiral Sampson's 
 column directed its attention to the new 
 earthworks near Morro Castle Commodore 
 Schley's vessels went opposite the Estrella 
 and Catalina batteries 
 
 There was no firing until the American 
 ships were in the most strategic position for 
 fighting. The bad weather evidently had 
 caused the Spaniards to believe that there 
 
 would be no bombardment while the heavy 
 
 fog and rain lasted. The movement of the 
 ships had not been noticed, apparently, until 
 they were close to the batteries. But the 
 battle-ship "Iowa" waked the Spaniards 
 from their reveries A shot from one of her 
 great guns hit a battery with serious effect. 
 
 Both columns of ships then poured a fu- 
 sillade into the fortifications and earthworks 
 on either side of the harbor entrance. The 
 Spaniards rushed to their guns and started 
 to blaze away wildly What they lacked in 
 skill they made up in passion. But firry 
 temperaments with poorly trained eye, and 
 bad nerves behind guns were no match for 
 the superior gunners of Sampson and Schley's 
 columns. 
 
 The Americans fired with great effect, but 
 the Spaniards' shots were reckless and wide 
 of the mark. There was a splendid chance 
 for the enemy to display any proficiency in 
 marksmanship, for the United States war 
 Is remained at their chosen stations, 
 and did not resort to manoeuvring, In this 
 grand battle great clouds from the guns in- 
 < reased the heavy fog. It was a magnificent 
 spectacle, even though the conditions were 
 opposed to a thoroughly accurate survey of 
 what was taking place. But glimpses left a 
 vivid idea of the terrors of bombardment by 
 great modern war ships 
 
 Admiral Sampson had issuer! instructions 
 that no firing should be directed upon Morro 
 
 Castle, for in it were imprisoned Lieutenant 
 
 Hob.son and the other seven heroes of the 
 "Mernmac's" volunteer crew. But several 
 shells did strike tin- castle on the- promontory 
 and left gaping wounds. 
 
 As the bombardment proceeded the ships 
 in Commodore Schley's column moved nearer 
 to the shore in order to bring speedier de- 
 struction to the shore batteries. Thi S a< tioil 
 
 resulted in the "Texas," "Massachusetts" 
 and " Brooklyn " dealing such awful broad* 
 
97Q 
 
 LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 sides that the earthworks were torn up and 
 the Spanish gunners took to their heels for a 
 less exposed place. But these three ships 
 were not the only vessels in Schley's column 
 that were doing their duty. The " Vixen " 
 and the "Suwanee" drew in close to the 
 shore and entered the fray with startling 
 zeal. These small ships hammered away 
 with their rapid-fire guns and demolished a 
 shore battery. 
 
 The main interest in Schley's column was 
 centered on the Estrella fortification. This 
 fort offered great resistance, but when the 
 " Texas " and the " Marblehead " trained their 
 guns upon it at a closer range the woodwork 
 of the fortification was set on fire and the 
 defence was silenced. 
 
 The American gunners were doing their 
 duty in the same glorious manner in the east- 
 ward column, from which Admiral Sampson 
 was watching the engagement. Cavo battery 
 was silenced by the " New York" and the 
 " New Orleans." This required an energetic 
 fire for quite a time, but the Spaniards were 
 not able to endure the sustained attack. 
 Their guns were dismounted and their de- 
 fence was wrecked. 
 
 At the close of the second hour of the 
 engagement the vessels of the American 
 fleet turned so that they could use the port 
 batteries upon what was left of the enemy's 
 defences. Part of the time the firing was not 
 accurate, because of the location of several 
 fortified points on shore, which were difficult 
 to hit. But in spite of the numerous disad- 
 vantages the American tars sent many shells 
 into the right places. 
 
 There was great rejoicing among the Am- 
 erican gunners when they saw that the Cata- 
 lina fort was on fire. The guns in it spoke 
 no more and the Spaniards could not be 
 seen. With fire added to a rain of death- 
 dealing shells, there was no withstanding the 
 attack. Our fleet threw shell after shell into 
 
 the Spanish fortifications until ten o'clock. 
 Then the enemy made no responses. The 
 American war ships had completed their task 
 with despatch and with great destruction. 
 Rear-Admiral Sampson signalled for the 
 ships to stop the bombardment. 
 
 As the war ships steamed away some Span- 
 ish gunners returned to the very few guns 
 that had not been dismounted and fired sev- 
 eral shells, which, as usual, went very wide 
 of their mark. None of our men were killed 
 and few were injured. 
 
 Shortly after the engagement came to an 
 end the inquiry was made whether we had lost 
 any men. The question was answered, "Not 
 a man." Later it was learned that one of the 
 men on the "Suwanee" was injured. 
 
 What the loss was among the Spaniards 
 was only a matter of conjecture. If they had 
 remained at their guns tenaciously they would 
 have suffered terribly, but, as many did not 
 endure the terrific fire from our ships, it is 
 believed that the loss was not enormous. But 
 the fortifications at the entrance to the Santi- 
 ago harbor were in ruins. Only two small 
 shore batteries were not dismantled. 
 
 On June 7th, five American war ships ap- 
 peared off the entrance to the Bay of Guan- 
 tanamo just as the rising sun began to redden 
 the horizen. With the " Marblehead " in the 
 lead, the little squadron sailed into the bay 
 and proceeded to a position which com- 
 manded the cable house, under the guns of 
 the Spanish fortifications. While the " Mar- 
 blehead," the " St. Louis," and the " Yankee " 
 formed in battle order before the forts and 
 opened fire, the little gunboats darted out 
 from the line and began to grapple for the 
 cable. 
 
 The fire from the cruisers was rapid and 
 well directed, and was replied to with vigor 
 by the Spanish. All the men on board the 
 warships worked with enthusiasm, the New 
 York Naval Reserves on board the " Yan- 
 
JOHN D. LONG 
 Secretary of the Navv 
 
~1 
 
 SuS 
 
 MAJOR GENERAL 
 
 FITZHUGH LEE. 
 
LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 971 
 
 kee" earning their share of laurels at the 
 guns. 
 
 The bombardment continued until the 
 gunboats cutting the cables had concluded 
 their labors. This was at two o'clock in the 
 afternoon. The fleet then sailed out of the 
 bay and took up a position about three miles 
 from shore. 
 
 The shells from the warships early began 
 to tell on the fortifications, from which the 
 fire became weaker and weaker. One bat- 
 tery after another was silenced, until finally 
 not a shaft of fire or balloon of smoke issued 
 from the face of the forts to tell of continued 
 resistance. 
 
 As the walls of the fortifications began to 
 tumble upon them the Spanish gunners de- 
 serted their posts of duty and ran to the 
 town, which was in a state of high excite- 
 ment. With the silencing of the forts a still 
 greater panic fell upon the residents of Caima- 
 nera, who feared the Americans would com- 
 plete their work by destroying the town, and 
 there was a general movement to places of 
 safety. After the cessation of firing from the 
 forts, the fleet concentrated its fire upon the 
 block-house, at which the cables of the 
 French Cable and Telegraph Company land, 
 and speedily demolished it. The cables 
 which connected the block-house with Caima- 
 nera were cut. 
 
 Rear-Admiral Sampson's fleet again bom- 
 barded the batteries at Santiago de Cuba at 
 daylight on the morning of June 16th. For 
 hours the ships pounded the batteries at the 
 right and left of the entrance, only sparing 
 El Morro, where Lieutenant Hobson and his 
 companions of the " Merrimac " were in 
 prison. 
 
 The western batteries, against which the 
 main assault was directed, were badly 
 wrecked One was utterly destroyed. In 
 others many guns were dismounted. At 
 first the Spaniards replied passionately and 
 
 wildly, but impotently. Then most of the 
 guns were deserted. Not a ship was struck 
 nor a man injured on the American side. 
 
 As a preliminary to the hammering given 
 the batteries the dynamite cruiser " Vesuvius " 
 was given a chance. Three two hundred and 
 fifty pound charges of gun cotton were sent 
 over the fortificati®ns at the entrance. The 
 design was to drop them in the bay, around 
 the angle, back of the eminence on which El 
 Morro is situated, where it was known that 
 the Spanish torpedo-boat destroyers were 
 lying. 
 
 From where the fleet lay the entrance to 
 the harbor looked, in the black night, like a 
 door opening into the livid fire of a Titanic 
 furnace. An immense crater was blown out 
 of the side of Cayo Smith, and was clearly 
 seen from the ships. 
 
 Admiral Sampson issured orders for the 
 bombardment the night before. Coffee was 
 served to the men at half-past three in the 
 morning, and with the first blush of dawn the 
 men were called quietly to quarters. The 
 ships steamed in five-knot speed to a three 
 thousand yards range, when they closed up, 
 broadside on, until a distance of three cables' 
 length separated them. They were strung 
 out in the form of a crescent, with the heavy 
 fighting ships in the center, the flag-ship on 
 the right flank and the " Massachusetts " on 
 the left flank. The line remained stationary 
 throughout the bombardment. The " Vixen " 
 and " Scorpion " took up positions on oppo- 
 site of flanks, close in shore, for the purpose 
 of enfilading any infantry that might fire 
 upon the ships. 
 
 When the ships got in position it was still 
 too dark for any firing. The Admiral signaled 
 the ships not to fire until the muzzles of the. 
 enemy's guns in the embrasures could be 
 seen by the gun captains. 
 
 Fifteen minutes later, at 5.25 a. m., the 
 " New York " opened with a broadside from 
 
972 
 
 LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 her main battery at the works on the east of 
 the entrance to the harbor. All the ships 
 followed in red streaks of flame. The fleet, 
 enveloped in smoke, pelted the hills and 
 hurled dirt and masonry into the air. It was 
 a magnificent spectacle from where the dis- 
 patch boat " Dauntless " lay. 
 
 Though the gun captains had been cau- 
 tioned not to waste ammunition, but to fire 
 with deliberation, the firing was so rapid 
 that there was an almost continuous report. 
 The measured crash of the big 13-inch guns 
 of the battleships sounded above the rattle 
 of the guns of the secondary batteries like 
 thunder claps above the din of a hurricane. 
 A strong land breeze off the shore carried 
 the smoke of the ships seaward, while it let 
 down a thick curtain in front of the Spanish 
 gunnery. 
 
 The Spanish guns responded spiritedly at 
 first, but the frenzied, half-crazed fire could 
 not match the cool, ever-trained eyes and 
 skilled gunnery of the American sailors. 
 Our fire was much more effective than in 
 preceding bombardments. 
 
 In fifteen minutes one western battery was 
 completely wrecked. The " Massachusetts " 
 tore a gaping hole in the emplacement with 
 a thousand-pound projectile, and the "Texas" 
 dropped a shell into the powder magazine. 
 The explosion wrought terrible havoc. The 
 frame was lifted, the sides were blown out 
 and a shower of debris flew in every direc- 
 tion. One timber, carried out of the side of 
 the battery, went tumbling down the hill. 
 The loss of life must have been great. 
 
 The batteries on the east of Morro were 
 harder to get at, but the " New Orleans " 
 crossed the bows of the " New York " to 
 within five hundred yards of the shore, and 
 played a tattoo with her long 8- inch rifles, hit- 
 ting them repeatedly, striking a gun squarely 
 muzzle on, lifting it off its trunnions, and send- 
 ing it in somersaults high in the air. 
 
 Several times Admiral Sampson signaled 
 the ships temporarily to cease firing, in order 
 to allow the smoke to clear from the batteries. 
 When the order came at 6.30 to cease firing 
 every gun of the enemy had been silenced 
 for ten minutes, but as the ships drew off 
 some of the Spanish courage returned, and 
 a half-dozen shots were fired spitefully at the 
 " Massachusetts " and " Oregon," falling in 
 their wakes. 
 
 Throughout the bombardment the dyna- 
 mite cruiser " Vesuvius " and the " Porter," 
 by direction of the Admiral, lay outside of 
 the right flank. The steam launch of the 
 flag-ship scurried among the ships carrying 
 messages. 
 
 At the close of the action a stream of 
 multi-colored flags floated from the " New 
 York," generally complimenting the ships, 
 and especially commending the work of the 
 "Texas" and "New Orleans." The men of 
 the "New Orleans" raised a cheer, which 
 was passed quickly from ship to ship, until 
 every sailor in the fleet was shouting himself 
 hoarse. 
 
 The destruction and death at the western 
 batteries must have been appalling. Many 
 of the guns had been mounted during the 
 preceding two days. From this it was in- 
 ferred that Admiral Cervera had given up all 
 hope of extricating himself from the trap in 
 which he was caught, and had removed the 
 guns from some of his ships to strengthen 
 the land defences. Admiral Sampson was 
 highly gratified with the results of the bom- 
 bardment. 
 
 Vigorous preparations for landing troops 
 in Cuba had been going on at Tampa. Under 
 command of General Shafter about 16,000 
 men, including officers, sailed on June 13th 
 and arrived at Santiago on the 20th. 
 
 It was not long after General Shafter's army 
 landed before the United States troops were 
 engaged in active service and had a sharp con- 
 
GENERAL NFLSON A. MILES 
 
LIEUT. R P- NORSON 
 
LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 973 
 
 flict with the enemy. The initial fight of Col- 
 onel Wood's Rough Riders and the troopers 
 of the First and Tenth regular cavalry will be 
 known in history as the Battle of La Quasina. 
 That it did not end in the complete slaughter 
 of the Americans was not due to any miscalcu- 
 lation in the plan of the Spaniards, for as per- 
 fect an ambuscade as was ever formed in the 
 brain of an Apache Indian was prepared and 
 Lieutenant-Colonel Roosevelt and his men 
 walked squarely into it. 
 
 For an hour and a half they held their 
 ground under a perfect storm of bullets 
 from the front and sides, and then Colonel 
 Wood, at the right, and Lieutenant- Colonel 
 Roosevelt at the left, led a charge which 
 turned the tide of battle and sent the enemy 
 flying over the hills toward Santiago. 
 
 The fight was opened by the First and 
 Tenth Cavalry, under General Young. A 
 force of Spaniards was known to be in the 
 vicinity of La Quasina, and early in the 
 morning Lieutenant-Colonel Roosevelt's men 
 started off up the precipitous bluff back of 
 Siboney to attack the Spaniards on their right 
 flank, General Young at the same time tak- 
 ing the road at the foot of the hill. 
 
 About two and one-half miles out from 
 Siboney, some Cubans, breathless and excited, 
 rushed into camp with the announcement 
 that the Spaniards were but a little way in 
 front and were strongly entrenched. Quickly 
 the Hotchkiss guns out in the front were 
 brought to the rear, while a strong scouting 
 line was thrown out. 
 
 Then cautiously and in silence the troops 
 moved forward until a bend in the road dis- 
 closed a hill where the Spaniards were 
 located. The guns were again brought to 
 the front and placed in position, while the 
 men crouched down in the road, waiting im- 
 patiently to give Roosevelt's men, who were 
 toiling over the little trail along the crest of 
 the ridge, time to get up. 
 
 At 7.30 a. m., General Young gave the 
 command to the men at the Hotchkiss guns 
 to open fire. That command was the signal 
 for a fight that for stubbornness has seldom 
 been equaled. The instant the Hotchkiss 
 guns were fired, from the hillsides command- 
 ing the road came volley after volley from 
 the Mausers of the Spaniards. 
 
 In the two hours' fighting, during which 
 the volunteers battled against their concealed 
 enemy, enough deeds of heroism were done 
 to fill a volume. One of the men of Troop 
 E, desperately wounded, was lying squarely 
 between the lines of fire. Surgeon Church 
 hurried to his side, and, with bullets pelting 
 all around him, dressed the man's wound, 
 bandaged it, and walked unconcernedly back, 
 soon returning with two men and a litter. 
 The wounded man was placed on the litter 
 and brought into our lines. Another soldier 
 of Troop L, concealing himself as best he 
 could behind a tree, gave up his place to a 
 wounded companion, and a moment or two 
 later was himself wounded. 
 
 Sergeant Bell stood by the side of Captain 
 Capron when the latter was mortally hit. 
 He had seen that he was fighting against 
 terrible odds, but he never flinched. " Give 
 me your gun a minute," he said to the ser- 
 geant, and, kneeling down, he deliberately 
 aimed and fired two shots in quick succes- 
 
 on. At each a Spaniard was seen to fall. 
 Bell in the meantime had seized a dead com- 
 rade's gun and knelt beside his captain and 
 fired steadily. 
 
 When Captain Capron fell he gave the 
 sergeant a parting message to his wife and 
 father, and bade the sergeant good-bye in a 
 cheerful voice, and was then borne away 
 dying. 
 
 Sergeant Hamilton Fish, Jr., was the first 
 man killed by the Spanish fire. He was 
 near the head of the column as it turned 
 from the woodside into the range of the 
 
974 
 
 LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 Spanish ambuscade. He shot one Spaniard 
 who was firing from the cover of a dense 
 patch of underbrush. When a bullet struck 
 his breast he sank at the foot of a tree with 
 his back against it. Captain Capron stood 
 over him shooting and others rallied around 
 him, covering the wounded man. The 
 ground was thick with empty shells where 
 Fish lay. He lived twenty minutes. He 
 gave a small lady's hunting-case watch from 
 his belt to a messmate as a last souvenir. 
 
 The American officers showed the utmost 
 energy in preparing for the attack on Santi- 
 ago; by July 1st everything was in readiness, 
 and General Shafter ordered a forward move- 
 ment with a view of investing and capturing 
 the town. The advance was made in two 
 divisions, the left storming the works at San 
 Juan. Our forces in this assault were com- 
 posed of the Rough Riders, commanded by 
 Lieutenant- Colonel Roosevelt, and the First, 
 Third, Sixth, Ninth and Tenth dismounted 
 cavalry. Catching the enthusiasm and bold- 
 ness of the Rough Riders, these men rushed 
 against the San Juan defences with a fury 
 that was irresistible. 
 
 Their fierce assault was met by the Span- 
 iards with a stubbornness born of desperation. 
 Hour after hour the troops on both sides 
 fought fiercely. In the early morning the 
 Rough Riders met with a similar, though 
 less costly, experience to the one they had 
 at La Quasina just a week before. They 
 found themselves a target for a terrific 
 Spanish fire, to resist which for a time was 
 the work of madmen. But the Rough Riders 
 did not flinch. Fighting like demons, they 
 held their ground tenaciously, now pressing 
 forward a few feet, then falling back, under 
 the enemy's fire, to the posttion they held a 
 few moments before. 
 
 The Spaniards were no match for the 
 Roosevelt fighters, however, and, as had 
 been the case at La Quasina, the Western 
 
 cowboys and Eastern '' dandies " hammered 
 the enemy from their path. Straight ahead 
 they advanced, until by noon they were well 
 along toward San Juan, the capture of which 
 was their immediate object. 
 
 There was terrible fighting about the 
 heights during the next two hours. While 
 the Rough Riders were playing such havoc 
 in the enemy's lines, the First, Third, Sixth, 
 Ninth and Tenth cavalry gallantly pressed 
 forward to right and left. 
 
 Before the afternoon was far gone these 
 organizations made one grand rush all along 
 the line, carrying the Spaniards off their 
 feet, capturing the San Juan fortifications, 
 and sending the enemy in mad haste off 
 toward Santiago. It was but three o'clock 
 when these troops were able to send word to 
 General Shafter that they had taken posses- 
 sion of the position he had given them a day 
 to capture. 
 
 In this attack the cavalrymen were sup- 
 ported by the Sixth and Sixteenth infantry, 
 who made a brilliant charge at the crucial 
 moment. The advance was up a long steep 
 slope, through a heavy underbrush. Our 
 men were subjected to a terrific fire from the 
 enemy's trenches, and the Rough Riders 
 and the Sixth cavalry suffered severely. 
 
 There was no artillery to support the 
 attack. The dynamite gun, which a detach- 
 ment of Rough Riders, under charge of 
 Sergeant Hallett Alsop Borrowe, had hauled 
 up from the coast with such tremendous 
 effort, was jammed during the opening hours 
 of the engagement and rendered useless for 
 the time. 
 
 On the right General Lawton's division, 
 supported by Van Home's brigade, under 
 command temporarily of Colonel Ludlow, of 
 the Engineers, drove the enemy from in 
 front of Caney, forcing them back into the 
 village. There the Spaniards for a time 
 were able to hold their own, but early in the 
 
>* \ y* vrfr 
 
LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 975 
 
 afternoon the American troops stormed the 
 village defences, driving the enemy out and 
 taking possession of the place. Gaining the 
 direct road into Santiago, they established 
 their lines within three-quarters of a mile of 
 the city at sunset. 
 
 General Shafter's advance against the city 
 of Santiago was resumed soon after daybreak 
 on the morning of July 2d. The American 
 troops renewed the attack on the Spanish 
 defences with impetuous enthusiasm. They 
 were not daunted by the heavy losses sus- 
 tained in the first day's fighting. Inspired 
 by the great advantages they had gained on 
 the preceding day, the American troops were 
 eager to make the final assault on the city 
 itself. Their advance had been an uninter- 
 rupted series of successes, they having forced 
 the Spaniards to retreat from each new posi- 
 tion as fast as it had been taken. Admiral 
 Sampson, with his entire fleet, joined in the 
 attack. 
 
 The battles before the intrenchments 
 around Santiago resulted in advantage to 
 General Shafter's army. Gradually he ap- 
 proached the city, holding every foot of 
 ground gained. In the fighting of July 2d, 
 the Spanish were forced back into the town, 
 their commanding general was wounded, and 
 the day closed with the certainty that soon 
 our flag would float over Santiago. 
 
 The fleet of Admiral Cervera had long 
 been shut up in the harbor, and during the 
 two days' fighting gave effective aid to the 
 Spanish infantry by throwing shells into the 
 ranks of the Americans. On the morning of 
 July 3d, another great naval victory was 
 added to the successes of the American arms, 
 a victory no less complete and memorable 
 than that achieved by Dewey at Manila. 
 
 Admiral Cervera's fleet, consisting of the 
 armored cruisers " Cristobal Colon," " Almi- 
 rante Oquendo," " Infanta Maria Teresa," 
 and " Vizcaya/' and two torpedo-boat de- 
 
 stroyers, the " Furor " and the " Pluton," 
 which had been held in the harbor of San- 
 tiago de Cuba for six weeks by the combined 
 squadrons of Rear-Admiral Sampson and 
 Commodore Schley, was sent to the bottom 
 of the Caribbean Sea off the southern coast 
 of Cuba. 
 
 The Spanish admiral was made a prisoner 
 of war on the auxiliary gunboat " Glouces- 
 ter," and i.oooto 1,500 other Spanish officers 
 and sailors, all who escaped the frightful car- 
 nage caused by the shells from the American 
 warships, were also made prisoners of war by 
 the United States navy. 
 
 The American victory was complete, and 
 the American vessels were practically un- 
 touched, and only one man was killed, though 
 the ships were subjected to the heavy fire of 
 the Spaniards all the time the battle lasted. 
 
 Admiral Cervera made as gallant a dash 
 for liberty and for the preservation of the 
 ships as has ever occurred in the history of 
 naval warfare. In the face of overwhelming 
 odds, with nothing before him but inevitable 
 destruction or surrender if he remained any 
 longer in the trap in which the American 
 fleet held him, he made a bold dash from the 
 harbor at the time the Americans least ex- 
 pected him to do so, and, fighting every inch 
 of his way, even when his ship was ablaze 
 and sinking, he tried to escape the doom 
 which was written on the muzzle of every 
 American gun trained upon his vessels. 
 
 The Americans saw him the moment he 
 left the harbor and commenced their work of 
 destruction immediately. For an hour or 
 two they followed the flying Spaniards to the 
 westward along the shore line, sending shot 
 after shot into their blazing hulls, tearing 
 great holes in their steel sides and covering 
 their decks with the blood of the killed and 
 wounded. 
 
 At no time did the Spaniards show any in- 
 dication that they intended to do otherwise 
 
976 
 
 LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 than fight to the last. They displayed no 
 signals to surrender even when their ships 
 commenced to sink and the great clouds of 
 smoke pouring from their sides showed they 
 were on fire. But they turned their heads 
 toward the shore, less than a mile away, and 
 ran them on the beach and rocks, where their 
 destruction was soon completed. 
 
 The officers and men on board then 
 escaped to the shore as well as they could 
 with the assistance of boats sent from the 
 American men-of-war, and then threw them- 
 selves upon the mercy of their captors, who 
 not only extended to them the gracious hand 
 of American chivalry, but sent them a guard 
 to protect them from the murderous bands 
 of Cuban soldiers hiding in the bushes 
 on the hillside, eager to rush down and 
 attack the unarmed, defeated, but valorous 
 foe. 
 
 One after another of the Spanish ships be- 
 came the victims of the awful rain of shells 
 which the American battleships, cruisers and 
 gun-boats poured upon them, and two hours 
 after the first of the fleet had started out of 
 Santiago harbor three cruisers and two tor- 
 pedo-boat destroyers were lying on the 
 shore ten to fifteen miles west of Morro Cas- 
 tle, pounding to pieces, smoke and flame 
 pouring from every part of them and cover- 
 ing the entire coast line with a mist which 
 could be seen for miles. 
 
 Heavy explosions of ammunition occurred 
 every few minutes, sending curls of dense 
 white smoke a hundred feet in the air and 
 causing a shower of broken iron and steel 
 to fall in the water on every side. The bluffs 
 on the coast line echoed with the roar of 
 every explosion, and the Spanish vessels 
 sank deeper and deeper into the sand or else 
 the rocks ground their hulk to pieces as they 
 rolled or pitched forward or sideways with 
 every wave that washed upon them from the 
 open sea. 
 
 Admiral Cervera escaped to the snore in 
 a boat sent by the " Gloucester " to the assist- 
 ance of the " Infanta Maria Teresa," and as 
 soon as he touched the beach he surrendered 
 himself and his command to Lieutenant 
 Morton and asked to be taken on board the 
 " Gloucester," which was the only American 
 vessel near him at the time, with several of 
 his officers, including the captain of the flag- 
 ship. The Spanish admiral, who was wounded 
 in the arm, was taken to the " Gloucester," 
 and was received at her gangway by her 
 commander, Lieutenant Richard Wain- 
 wright, who grasped the hand of the gray- 
 bearded admiral and said to him : 
 
 " I congratulate you, sir, upon having made 
 as gallant a fight as was ever witnessed on 
 the sea." 
 
 The only casualties in the American fleet 
 were one man killed and two wounded on 
 the " Brooklyn." A large number of the 
 Spanish wounded were removed to the Amer- 
 ican ships. 
 
 An incident of special interest was the 
 'exchange of Lieutenant Hobson and his 
 brave men for Spanish prisoners on July 7th 
 Hobson and his band of heroes were escorted 
 through the American lines by Captain Chad- 
 wick, of the " New York," who was awaiting 
 them. Every step of their journey was 
 marked by the wildest demonstrations on 
 the part of the American soldiers, who threw 
 aside all semblance of order, scrambled out 
 of the entrenchments, knocked over tent 
 guys and other camp paraphernalia in their 
 eagerness to see the returning heroes, and 
 sent up cheer after cheer for the men who 
 had passed safely through the jaws of death 
 in their desire to serve their country. General 
 Miles arrived at Santiago on the 12th of July 
 and took command of the army. 
 
 On the 14th of July General Toral surren- 
 dered Santiago and his entire army, numbei- 
 ing ten or twelve thousand men. 
 
LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 977 
 
 We are able to furnish a reliable account 
 of the preliminaries that preceded the sur- 
 render. It appears that on Monday, July 
 I ith, General Shafter did not again demand 
 the unconditional surrender of Santiago, 
 which General Toral had refused on Sun- 
 day ; but he offered, as an alternative propo- 
 sition, to accept the capitulation of the enemy 
 and to transport the Spanish officers and 
 troops to Spain, they to leave all their arms 
 behind. He offered also to accept their 
 parole. This proposition General Toral de- 
 clined. 
 
 It was decided next morning to hold a 
 personal interview with General Toral. Gene- 
 ral Miles and his staff, accompanied by Gene- 
 ral Shafter and his staff, rode out to the front 
 shortly before eight o'clock under a flag of 
 truce. 
 
 A request for a personal interview with 
 the Spanish commander-in-chief was made 
 and acceded to, and about nine o'clock 
 General Miles, General Shafter, General 
 Wheeler, General Gilmour, Colonel Morse, 
 Captain Wiley and Colonel Mestre rode up, 
 passed over our entrenchments and went 
 down into the valley beyond. They were 
 met by General Toral and his chief of staff 
 under a spreading mango tree, at the bottom 
 of the valley, about half way between the 
 lines. The interview that followed lasted 
 almost an hour. 
 
 The situation was placed frankly before 
 General Toral, and he was offered the alter- 
 native of being sent home with his garrison 
 or being attacked by the combined Ameri- 
 can forces. The only condition imposed was 
 that he should not destroy the existing forti- 
 fications and should leave his arms behind. 
 This latter condition the Spanish general,who 
 does not speak English, explained through 
 his interpreter, was impossible. He said the 
 laws of Spain gave a general no discretion. 
 He might abandon a place when he found it 
 <52 
 
 untenable, but he could not leave his arms 
 behind without subjecting himself to the 
 penalty of being court-martialled and shot. 
 His government, he said, had granted him 
 permission to evacuate Santiago. That was 
 all. Further than that he was powerless to go. 
 
 Without saying so in words, General Miles 
 stated that the tenor of General Toral's re- 
 marks all betrayed his realization that he 
 could not hold out long. When General 
 Shafter explained that our reinforcements 
 were coming up, that he was completely 
 surrounded, and that new batteries were 
 being posted,General Toral simply shrugged 
 his shoulders. "I am but a subordinate," 
 said he, "and I obey my government. If it 
 is necessary we can die at our posts." 
 
 General Toral appeared to be a man sixty 
 years old, with a strong, rugged face, and 
 fine soldierly bearing. His brave words 
 inspired a feeling of respect and admiration 
 in the hearts of his adversaries. Neverthe- 
 less, the Spanish General's anxiety to avoid 
 further sacrifice of life in his command was 
 manifest, and he did not hesitate to ask for 
 time to communicate the situation to Madrid, 
 although he dubiously shook his head when 
 he spoke of the probable response. 
 
 During the course of an interview General 
 Toral said the bombardment of Sunday and 
 Monday had done little damage. He ad- 
 mitted the shells from the guns of the fleet 
 had destroyed four houses, but he asserted 
 that only half a dozen soldiers of the garri- 
 son had been injured. He also volunteered 
 the information when General Miles gallantly 
 inquired after General Linares' condition that 
 the latter would in all probability have his 
 left arm amputated at the shoulder. 
 
 General Miles at the interview did not at- 
 tempt to assume the direction of the nego- 
 tiations, but, as General of the United States 
 Army, he vouched for the conditions General 
 Shafter offered. Upon the return of our com- 
 
978 
 
 LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 manders to the American lines an important 
 consultation was held at General Wheeler's 
 headquarters. Generals Garcia and Castillo, 
 with their staff, had ridden around from the 
 extreme right to see General Miles. It was 
 a notable group gathered under the protecting 
 awning of General Wheeler's tent. 
 
 General Miles, in blue fatigue uniform, 
 with the double star on his shoulders, and 
 his campaign hat encircled by a single strand 
 of gold braid, sat on an empty ammunition 
 box and formed the centre of the party. 
 
 On the right of General Miles sat General 
 Shafter, and on his left was General Garcia, 
 in mud-spotted white uniform, with heavy 
 riding boots and jingling spurs. The Cuban 
 General wore a large, weather-worn Panama 
 hat, and at his side was a silver mounted 
 machete. General Garcia has a strong, 
 swarthy face, with a deep bullet scar in his 
 forehead. In a general way he is not unlike 
 a Cuban edition of General Miles. 
 
 General Wheeler, with grizzled beard, small 
 of stature, and in a brown campaign uniform, 
 faced the three officers mentioned, while 
 about them sat the aides-de-camp of the four 
 Generals. Assistant Naval Constructor Hob- 
 son, the hero of the " Merrimac," who had 
 come to headquarters with messages from 
 Rear Admiral Sampson, was also present. 
 
 The situation was discussed with the aid of 
 a profusion of maps, and at the conclusion of 
 the conference luncheon was served. It 
 consisted of beans, hard tack and coffee. 
 After this meal, General Miles, General Shaf- 
 ter and General Garcia, with their staffs, rode 
 off, to inspect the position on the right flank. 
 They all agreed that General Toral was 
 securely wedged in and that escape was 
 impossible. 
 
 After further communication with the Span- 
 ish government General Toral, on July 14th, 
 surrendered his entire command, including 
 all the troops in Eastern Cuba, guns and 
 
 ammunition. The surrender was hailed with 
 joy throughout the United States, and 
 already there was talk of peace. 
 
 The formal sanction by the Madrid gov- 
 ernment of the terms of capitulation unrav- 
 eled the tangled skeins of demands and 
 counter-demands between the opposing com- 
 manders which threatened to end the nego- 
 tiations and compel a return to arms. 
 
 The agreement consisted of nine articles : 
 
 The first declared that all hostilities should 
 cease pending the agreemeikC of final capitu- 
 lation. 
 
 Second. That the capitulation includes all 
 the Spanish forces and the surrender of all 
 war material within the prescribed limits. 
 
 Third. The transportation of the troops to 
 Spain at the earliest possible moment, each 
 force to be embarked at the nearest port. 
 
 Fourth. That the Spanish officers shall 
 retain their side arms and the enlisted men 
 their personal property. 
 
 Fifth. That after the final capitulation the 
 Spanish forces shall assist in the removal of 
 all obstructions to navigation in Santiago 
 harbor. 
 
 Sixth. That after the final capitulation, the 
 commanding officers shall furnish a complete 
 inventory of all arms and munitions of war, 
 and a roster of all the soldiers in the district. 
 
 Seventh. That the Spanish general shall 
 be permitted to take the military archives 
 and records with him. 
 
 Eighth. That all guerrillas and Spanish 
 irregulars shall be permitted to remain in 
 Cuba if they so elect. 
 
 Ninth. That the Spanish forces shall be 
 permitted to march out with all the honors 
 of war, depositing their arms to be disposed 
 of by the United States in the future, the 
 American commissioners to recommend to 
 their government that the arms of the sol- 
 diers be returned to those "who so bravely 
 defended them." 
 
LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 979 
 
 On the evening of Juiy 17th the War De- 
 partment at Washington posted the follow- 
 ing despatch from General Shatter : 
 
 " I have the honor to announce that the 
 American flag has been this instant, 12 
 o'clock, noon, raised over the House of the 
 Civil Government in the city of Santiago. 
 An immense concourse of people was pre- 
 sent, a squadron of cavalry and a regiment of 
 infantry presenting arms and a band playing 
 national airs. The light battery fired a sa- 
 lute of twenty-one guns. 
 
 " Perfect order is being maintained by the 
 municipal government The distress is very 
 great, but there is little sickness in the town. 
 Scarcely any yellow fever. A small gun- 
 boat and about two hundred seamen, left by 
 Cervera, have surrendered to me. Obstruc- 
 tions are being removed from the mouth of 
 the harbor. 
 
 " Upon coming into the city I discovered 
 a perfect entanglement of defences. Fighting 
 as the Spaniards did the first day, it would 
 have cost five thousand lives to have taken it. 
 Battalions of Spanish troops have been de- 
 positing arms since daylight in the armory 
 over which I have guard. General Toral 
 formally surrendered the plaza and all stores 
 at 9 a. M." 
 
 Amid impressive ceremonies the Spanish 
 troops laid down their arms between the lines 
 of the Spanish and American forces at nine 
 o'clock in the morning of July 17th. General 
 Shafter and the American division and brig- 
 ade commanders and their staffs were escorted 
 by a troop of cavalry, and General Toral and 
 his staff by one hundred picked men. Trum- 
 peters on both sides saluted with flourishes. 
 
 General Shafter returned to General Toral 
 the latter's sword after it had been handed to 
 the American commander. Our troops, lined 
 up at the trenches, were eye-witnesses to the 
 ceremony. General Shafter and his escort, 
 accompanied by General Toral, rode through 
 
 the city, taking formal possession. The city 
 had been sacked, before they arrived, by the 
 Spaniards. General McKibben was ap- 
 pointed temporary military governor. 
 
 The ceremony of hoisting the Stars and 
 Stripes was worth all the blood and treasure 
 it cost. A vast concourse of 10,000 people 
 witnessed the stirring and thrilling scene, 
 that will live forever in the minds of all the 
 Americans present. A finer stage-setting for 
 a dramatic episode it would be difficult to 
 imagine. The palace, a picturesque old dwell- 
 ing, in the Moorish style of architecture, 
 faces the Plaza de la Reina, the principal 
 public square. Opposite rises the imposing 
 Catholic Cathedral. 
 
 On one side is a quaint, brilliantly painted 
 building, with broad verandas — the club of 
 San Carlos; on the other a building of much 
 the same description — the Cafe De La Venus. 
 Across the plaza was drawn up the Ninth 
 Infantry, headed by the Sixth Cavalry Band. 
 In the street facing the palace stood a picked 
 troop of the Second Cavalry, with drawn 
 sabres, under command of Captain Brett. 
 Massed on the stone flagging, between the 
 band and the line of horsemen, were the 
 brigade commanders of General Shatter's di- 
 vision, with their staffs. 
 
 On the red tiled roof of the palace stood 
 Captain McKittrick, Lieutenant Miley and 
 Lieutenant Wheeler ; immediately above 
 them, upon the flagstaff, the illuminated 
 Spanish arms and the legend " Vive Alfonso 
 XIII." All about, pressing against the ve- 
 randa rails, crowding the windows and doors 
 and lining the roofs, were the people of the 
 town, principally women and non-combatants. 
 The chimes of the old cathedral rang out the 
 hour of twelve; the infantry and cavalry pre- 
 sented arms. Every American uncovered, 
 and Captain McKittrick hoisted the Stars 
 and Stripes. 
 
 As the brilliant folds unfurled in a gentle 
 
980 
 
 LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 
 
 breeze against a fleckless sky, the cavalry 
 band broke into the strains of " The Star 
 Spangled Banner," making the American 
 pulse leap and the American heart thrill with 
 joy. At the same instant the sound of the 
 distant booming of Captain Capron's battery, 
 firing a salute of twenty- one guns, drifted in. 
 
 When the music ceased from all directions 
 around our line came floating across the plaza 
 the strains of the regimental bands and the 
 muffled, hoarse cheers of our troops. The 
 infantry came to " order arms " a moment 
 later, after the flag was up, and the band 
 played " Rally Round the Flag, Boys." In- 
 stantly General McKibben called for three 
 cheers for General Shafter, which were given 
 with great enthusiasm, the band playing 
 " Stars and Stripes Forever." 
 
 Since 4 o'clock in the morning a stream 
 of refugees had been pouring into the city, 
 some naked, and all hungry. Many had 
 fallen by the wayside. The town of Santiago 
 presented a dismal sight. Most of the houses 
 had been sacked and the stores had all been 
 looted and nothing to eat could be had. In 
 the streets of the city, at the intrenchments, 
 at the breastworks and at every hundred feet 
 or so of the barbed wire fences were the liv- 
 ing skeletons of Spanish soldiers. 
 
 Among the arrivals were the German, 
 Japanese and Portuguese Consuls and their 
 families, the British and French Consuls hav- 
 ing arrived two days before. 
 
 The United States military expedition 
 under the command of Major General Nel- 
 son A. Miles, commanding the Army of the 
 United States, which left Guantanamo Bay 
 during the evening of Thursday, July 21, 
 was landed successfully at Guanica, July 25, 
 after a skirmish with a detachment of the Span- 
 ish troops and a crew of thirty belonging to 
 the launch of the United States auxiliary gun- 
 boat Gloucester. Four of the Spaniards were 
 killed and no Americans were hurt. 
 
 At noon on the 24th, General Miles called 
 for a consultation, announcing that he was 
 determined not to go by San Juan Cape, but 
 by the Mona Passage instead, land there, 
 surprise the Spaniards and deceive their 
 military authorities. The course was then 
 changed and the Dixie was sent to warn 
 General Brooke and the transports convey- 
 ing our troops, which had been ordered to 
 Cape San Juan. 
 
 Early in the morning the Gloucester, in 
 charge of Lieutenant Commander Wain- 
 wright, steamed into Guanica harbor in order 
 to reconnoitre the place. With the fleet 
 waiting outside, the gallant little fighting 
 yacht Gloucester braved the mines which 
 were supposed to be in this harbor and 
 found that there were five fathoms of water 
 close in shore. Guanica Bay is a quiet place, 
 surrounded by cultivated lands. In the rear 
 are high mountains, and close to the beach 
 nestles a village of about twenty-one houses. 
 
 The Spaniards were taken completely by 
 surprise. Almost the first they knew of the 
 approach of the army of invasion was in the 
 announcement contained in the firing of a 
 gun from the Gloucester, demanding that the 
 Spaniards haul down their flag, which was 
 floating from the flagstaff in front of a block- 
 house standing to the east of the village. 
 
 The first couple of three-pounders were 
 fired into the hills right and left of the bay, 
 purposely avoiding the town, lest the pro- 
 jectiles hurt women or children. The Glou- 
 cester then hove to within about six hundred 
 yards of the shore and lowered a launch, 
 having on board a Colt rapid-fire gun and 
 thirty men, under the command of Lieutenant 
 Huse, which was sent ashore without en- 
 countering opposition. 
 
 Quartermaster Beck thereupon told Yeo- 
 man Lacy to haul down the Spanish flag, 
 which was done, and they then raised on the 
 flagstaff the first United States flag to float 
 
MAJOR-GENERAL W. R. SHAFTER 
 
 Commander of Our Army in the Santiago Campaign 
 
COPYRIGHT, 1898, BY GEO. G. ROCKWOOD, «. Y 
 
 COLONEL THEODORE ROOSEVELT 
 
 CEl fc BR.\ ."ED COWaNDFR OF THF ROUGH RIDERS 
 
LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 981 
 
 over Porto Rican soil. Suddenly about 
 thirty Spaniards opened fire with Mauser 
 rifles on the American party. Lieutenant 
 Huse and his men responded with great gal- 
 lantry, the Colt gun doing effective work. 
 Almost immediately after the Spaniards fired 
 on the Americans the Gloucester opened fire 
 on the enemy with all her 3 and 6-pounders 
 which could be brought to bear, shelling 
 the town and also dropping shells into the 
 hills to the west of Guanica, where a number 
 of Spanish cavalry were to be seen hasten- 
 ing toward the spot where the Americans 
 had landed. 
 
 Lieutenant Huse then threw up a little 
 fort, which he named Fort Wainwright, and 
 laid barbed wire in the street in front of it in 
 order to repel the expected cavalry attack. 
 The lieutenant also mounted the Colt gun 
 and signaled for 1 enforcements, which were 
 sent from the Gloucester. 
 
 Presently a few of the Spanish cavalry 
 joined those who were fighting in the street 
 of Guanica, but the Colt fired to a purpose 
 killing four of them. By that time the Glou- 
 cester had the range of the town, and of the 
 blockhouse, and all her guns were spitting 
 fire, the doctor and the paymaster helping to 
 serve the guns. 
 
 Soon afterwards white-coated galloping 
 cavalrymen were seen climbing the hills to 
 the westward, and the foot soldiers were 
 scurrying along the fences from the town. 
 By 9.45, with the exception of a few guer- 
 rilla shots, the town was won, and the enemy 
 was driven out of its neighborhood. The 
 Red Cross nurses on the "Lampasas" and a 
 detachment ot regulars were the first to land 
 from the transports. 
 
 After Lieuteuant Huse had captured the 
 place he- deployed his small force into the 
 suburbs. But he was soon reinforced by the 
 regulars, and then by other troops in quick 
 succession. All the boats of the men-of-war 
 
 and the transports were used in the work of 
 landing the troops, each steam launch towing 
 four or five boats loaded to the rails with 
 soldiers. But everything progressed in an 
 orderly manner, and according to the plans 
 of General Miles. The latter went ashore 
 about noon, after stopping to board the 
 Gloucester and thank Lieutenant-Commander 
 Wainwright for his gallant action. 
 
 Report from General Miles. 
 
 The War Department at Washington post- 
 ed the following bulletin : 
 
 "St. Thomas, July 26, 1898, 9.35 p.m. 
 " Secretary of War, Washington : 
 
 " Circumstances were such that I deemed it 
 advisable to take the harbor of Guanica first, 
 fifteen miles west of Ponce, which was suc- 
 cessfully accomplished between daylight and 
 1 1 o'clock. Spaniards surprised. The Glou- 
 cester, Commander Wainwright, first entered 
 the harbor; met with slight resistance; fired 
 a few shots. All the transports are now in 
 the harbor, and infantry and artillery rapidly 
 going ashore. This is a well-protected har- 
 bor. Water sufficiently deep for all trans- 
 ports and heavy vessels to anchor within 
 two hundred yards of the shore. The Span- 
 ish flag was lowered and the American flag 
 raised at 1 1 o'clock to-day. Captain Hig- 
 ginson, with his fleet, has rendered able and 
 earnest assistance. Troops in good health 
 and best of spirits. No casualties. 
 
 " Miles, Major-General Commanding." 
 
 Ponce, Guayama and other towns in Porto 
 Rico were captured in quick succession by 
 General Miles' army. The people every- 
 where gave a hearty welcome to the Ameri- 
 can troops, and there was great rejoicing at 
 their escape from the authority of Spain. 
 
 Coincident with the landing of our troops 
 at Guanica the Spanish Government made a 
 move to end the war and secure peace. The 
 proposition was formally submitted to the 
 
982 
 
 LATEST EVENTS OE AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 President at 3 o'clock, July 26th, by the 
 French Ambassador, M. Jules Cambon, who 
 had received instructions from the foreign 
 office at Paris to deliver to the United States 
 Government the tender of peace formulated 
 by the Spanish Cabinet. President McKin- 
 ley and his advisers immediately took the 
 proposition into consideration. 
 
 In an engagement five miles beyond Gua- 
 yama on August 8th, the Americans were 
 caught in an ambuscade. It was just 1 
 o'clock in the afternoon when a horseman 
 came galloping into Guayama shouting: 
 "Send the dynamite guns at once! The 
 Fourth Ohio is being annihilated!" In less 
 than five minutes the alarm had spread 
 throughout the town, and the streets were 
 filled with soldiers hurrying to their quar- 
 ters. 
 
 The Spanish attack grew out of the fact 
 that Colonel Coit, Major Dean and Lieuten- 
 ant Wardman of General Brooke's staff, had 
 started early in the morning to reconnoitre 
 to the northward with the object of ascer- 
 taining the truth of the report that the Span- 
 iards had mined the bridges on the road to 
 Cayey, whither General Brooke's command 
 was bound. On account of the smallness of 
 the reconnoitring party, the report that they 
 had been attacked by the Spaniards caused 
 consternation at the Guayama headquarters. 
 
 A strong force was, however, at once hur- 
 ried to the front. There were no horses to 
 haul the dynamite guns, but the men buckled 
 to and dragged them over the hills for five 
 miles to the scene of action. Soon the dy- 
 namite guns got into action. The first shell 
 landed at one side of the blockhouse and 
 exploded with a terrific roar. The Span- 
 iards were simply thrown into a state of 
 panic by the explosion of the shell and were 
 seen fleeing from the hill at top speed in all 
 directions except toward the Americans. 
 They could hardly be derided for evincing 
 
 such a pressing desire to get out of range. 
 The shell tore a hole in the ground for a 
 distance of fifty feet and the shock of the ex- 
 plosion could be felt where the Americans 
 stood. 
 
 From the place in the road where the guns 
 were fired the sight was a beautiful one. 
 All up the hill the American soldiers, their 
 brown hats silhouetted against the sky, kept 
 volleying away at the enemy and chatting at 
 the same time in a manner to shock regular 
 troops. After the third shot from the dyna- 
 mite guns the Spaniards were in full retreat. 
 The Americans then retired to Guayama for 
 the night. 
 
 There was a two hours' fight before day- 
 break at Cape San Juan August 9th. Eight 
 hundred Spaniards attempted to retake the 
 lighthouse, which was guarded by forty of 
 our sailors, commanded by Lieutenant At- 
 water. The Spaniards were driven back by 
 shells from the " Amphitrite," "Cincinnati " and 
 "Leyden." Refugees reported that one hun- 
 dred Spaniards were killed. The Spanish 
 advance began from Rio Grande, whither the 
 Spaniards had retreated after the first landing 
 of troops at Cape San Juan the week before. 
 They marched through Luquillo and pulled 
 down the American flag at Fajardo and re- 
 placed the Spanish flag. 
 
 The terrified refugees warned the light- 
 house force that the Spanish were coming. 
 Sixty women and children were in an out- 
 building of the lighthouse during the fight. 
 The Spaniards opened with a machine gun at 
 a distance of three hundred yards. The " Ley- 
 den," Ensign Crosley commanding, rushed 
 within one hundred yards of the shore and 
 poured one-pounders into the Spaniards. Cap- 
 tain Barclay, of the "Amphitrite," used six- 
 pounders and the "Cincinnati" five-inch guns. 
 
 The ships landed two hundred and fifty 
 men during the fight and reinforced the 
 lighthouse. A machine gun, rifles and am- 
 

 COPYRIGHT, 1888, BV I. (. BOVCE 
 
 MAJOR-GENERAL JOSEPH WHEELER 
 Commander of the Cavalry Division of General Shafter'S Army 
 

 MAJOR-GENERAL H W LAWTON 
 
LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 983 
 
 munition were left by the retreating Span- 
 iards. Ensign Crosley took the refugees off 
 at daybreak and went to Ponce. Our flag 
 was still on the lighthouse, but the forces 
 were withdrawn. The Amphitrite guns 
 covered the lighthouse, ready to annihilate it 
 if our flag was hauled down. It is one of the 
 most important lights on the island. 
 
 The Department of State at Washington, 
 on the afternoon of August 2d, issued a 
 statement announcing officially the Presi- 
 dent's terms of peace, which were handed to 
 Ambassador Cambon. They were that 
 Spanish sovereignty must be forever relin- 
 quished in the Western Indies; that the 
 United Stated should have a coaling station 
 in the Ladrones, and that this country would 
 occupy Manila's bay and harbor, as well as 
 the city, pending the determination of the 
 control, disposition and government of the 
 Philippines. The statement was as follows: 
 
 "In order to remove any misapprehension 
 in regard to the negotiations as to peace be- 
 tween the United States and Spain, it is 
 deemed proper to say that the terms offered 
 by the United States to Spain in the note 
 tendered the French Ambassador on Sat- 
 urday last are in substance as follows: 
 
 <: The President does not now put forward 
 any claim for pecuniary indemnity, but re- 
 quires the relinquishment of all claim of sov- 
 ereignty over or title to the Island of Cuba, 
 as well as the immediate evacuation by Spain 
 of the Island; the cession to the United 
 States and immediate evacuation of Porto 
 Rico and other Islands under Spanish sov- 
 ereignty in the West Indies, and the like 
 cession of an island in the Ladrones. 
 
 " The United States will occupy and hold 
 the city, bay and harbor of Manila, pending 
 the conclusion of a treaty of peace which 
 shall determine the control, disposition and 
 government of the Philippines. 
 
 "If these are accepted by Spain in their 
 
 entirety, commissioners will be named by the 
 United States to meet commissioners on the 
 part of Spain for the purpose of concluding a 
 treaty of peace on the basis above indicated." 
 
 The announcement on August 7th, from 
 Madrid, that the Spanish Ministry had 
 formally decided to accept the proposition of 
 the United States for a peace convention re- 
 lieved the anxiety that was felt for a definite 
 decision. No doubt was entertained that 
 Spain would agree to the terms offered by 
 President McKinley, nor was the faith of the 
 President shaken in the ultimate outcome by 
 reason of what the impatient public regarded 
 as delay on the part of Spain in making 
 answer. 
 
 There were reasons why an immediate re- 
 ply could not be made to the American pro- 
 position, and these reasons were understood 
 and appreciated by the President and Secre- 
 tary Day. Convinced that Spain would 
 accept the terms, there was no disposi- 
 tion on the part of the President to in- 
 sist upon hasty action. It was felt that the 
 reply would be made within a reasonable 
 time, and the good judgment and sagacity of 
 the President were vindicated by the action 
 of the Spanish Cabinet. 
 
 On the evening of August 12, 1898, Presi- 
 dent McKinley issued the following proclama- 
 tion : 
 
 " By the President of the United States of 
 "America. — A Proclamation. 
 
 "Whereas, By a protocol concluded and signed 
 August 12, 1898, by William R. Day, Secretary of 
 State of the United States, and His Excellency Jules 
 Cambon, Ambassador Extraordinary and Minister 
 Plenipotentiary of the Republic of France at Wash- 
 ington, respectively representing for this purpose the 
 Government of the United States and the Govern- 
 ment of Spain the United States and Spain have 
 formally agreed upon the terms on which negotia- 
 tions for the establishment of peace between the two 
 countries shall be undertaken ; and 
 
 " Whereas, It is in said protocol agreed that upon 
 its conclusion and signature hostilities between the 
 
9 8 4 
 
 LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 two countries shall be suspended, and that notice to 
 that effect shall be given as soon as possible by each 
 government to the commanders of its military and 
 naval forces : 
 
 " Now, therefore, I, William McKinley, President 
 of the United States, do, in accordance with the 
 stipulations of the protocol, declare and proclaim, 
 on the part of the United States, a suspension of 
 hostilities, and do hereby command that orders be 
 immediately given, through the proper channels, to 
 the commanders of the military and naval forces of 
 the United States to abstain from all acts inconsistent 
 with this proclamation. 
 
 " In witness whereof, I have hereunto set my hand 
 and caused the seal of the United States to be 
 affixed. 
 
 " Done at the city of Washington, this 12th day of 
 August, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight 
 hundred and ninety-eight, and of the independence 
 of the United States the one hundred and twenty- 
 third. William McKinley. 
 
 " By the President, William R, Day, Secretary 
 of State." 
 
 The protocol, signed by Secretary Day on 
 behalf of the United States and by Ambassa- 
 dor Cambon on behalf of Spain, contained 
 the following provisions : 
 
 That Spain will relinquish all claim of 
 sovereignty over and title to Cuba. 
 
 That Porto Rico and other Spanish islands 
 in the West Indies, and an island in the 
 Ladrones to be selected by the United States, 
 shall be ceded to the latter. 
 
 That the United States will occupy and 
 hold the city, bay and harbor of Manila 
 pending the conclusion of the treaty of peace, 
 which shall determine the control, disposi- 
 tion and government of the Philippines. 
 
 That Cuba, Porto Rico and other Spanish 
 Islands in the West Indies shall be imme- 
 diately evacuated, and that commissioners, to 
 be appointed within ten days, shall, within 
 thirty days from the signing of the protocol, 
 meet at Havana and San Juan, respectively, 
 to arrange and execute the details of the 
 evacuation. 
 
 That the United States and Spain will each 
 
 appoint not more than five commissioners to 
 negotiate and conclude a treaty of peace. 
 The commissioners are to meet at Paris not 
 later than the 1st of October. 
 
 On the signing of the protocol, hostilities 
 will be suspended and notice to that effect 
 will be given as soon as possible by each 
 government to the commanders of its mili- 
 tary and naval forces. 
 
 The closing chapter of events that led up 
 to the signature of the protocol and the ces- 
 sation of hostilities was full of interest It was 
 4.23 o'clock, in the afternoon of August 1 2th, 
 when the final signatures were attached to 
 the protocol, and within the knowledge of 
 all the officials present this was the first time 
 that a protocol or treaty had been signed at 
 the White House. 
 
 The President took the han ^ of the Am- 
 bassador and through him returned thanks 
 to the sister republic of France for the exer- 
 cise of her good offices in bringing about 
 peace. He also thanked the Ambassador 
 personally for the important part he had 
 played in this matter, and the latter replied 
 in suitable terms. As a further mark of 
 his disposition, President McKinley called 
 for the proclamation which he had caused 
 to be drawn up suspending hostilities, and 
 signed it in the presence of M. Cambon, 
 who expressed his appreciation of the 
 action. 
 
 Messages were immediately sent to all 
 army and navy commanders announcing that 
 the war was ended and ordering them to 
 cease hostilities. 
 
 Before the message reached Manila, Ad- 
 miral Dewey and General Merritt resolved to 
 capture the city. The war ships bombarded 
 the forts on August 13th, and the land forces 
 at the same time made an attack. After a 
 spirited resistance by the Spaniards they sur- 
 rendered, knowing it was useless to longei 
 resist. 
 
GOPYRRIGHT, 1868, BY KURZ 4 ALLI80N 
 
 ADMIRAL DEWEY ON THE BRIDGE OF THE OLYMPIA DURING THE 
 GREAT NAVAL BATTLE OF MANILA 
 
IAJOR-GENERAL J. R. BROOKE 
 
LIEUTENANT-COLONEL JOHN JACOB ASTOR 
 
 WHO RAISED AND EQUIPPED A BATTERY FOR OUR GOVERNMENT 
 AT HIS OWN EXPENSE 
 
LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 985 
 
 Details of the battle before Manila show 
 that the American land and naval forces 
 captured the city after several hours of fight- 
 ing. Thirteen thousand prisoners, twenty- 
 two thousand rifles, a number of field guns 
 and an immense quantity of ammunition fell 
 into the hands of the victors. 
 
 The fortifications and shore defences and 
 part of the city itself were destroyed by 
 American shot and shell dur- 
 ing a terrific bombardment of 
 two hours by eight ships of 
 Admiral Dewey's fleet. The 
 Americans killed lost their 
 lives in storming the Spanish 
 trenches, when they swept 
 everything before them like a 
 whirlwind, and gave the Span- 
 iards and Filipinos a splendid 
 exhibition of Yankee valor. 
 
 Three demands for the sur- 
 render of the city were made 
 by Admiral Dewey before 
 Manila was attacked. The 
 first was made on August 
 7th. In it the Spaniards were 
 given forty-eight hours to lay 
 down their arms. The Ger- 
 man Consul immediately em- 
 barked all German subjects 
 on the German warships for 
 protection. On the afternoon 
 of August 9th the demand for 
 surrender was again made. 
 The Spaniards asked a delay 
 to enable them to get instruc- 
 tions from Madrid. This was 
 refused. On the 13th the final demand was 
 made. A message was sent to the Spanish 
 commander at 8 o'clock. The Spaniards were 
 given one hour in which to surrender. They 
 immediately refused to do so. The Ameri- 
 can squadron promptly cleared for action. 
 They moved into a line between Malate and 
 
 Old Manila. There were eight vessels in 
 the squadron — the Olympia, the flagship; 
 the Monterey, the Boston, Baltimore, Charles- 
 ton, Petrel, Raleigh and Hugh McCulloch. 
 The German and French vessels lay north of 
 the Passig river. The greatest excitement pre- 
 vailed among the vessels of the foreign fleet, 
 which lay across the bay. The British and Jap- 
 anese warships were nearest the American fleet. 
 
 ADMIRAL GEORGE DEWEY. 
 
 At 9.30 o'clock the signal to open fire 
 fluttered from the signal lines of the Olym- 
 pia. The flags were scarcely set when there 
 was a roar from the big guns of the flagship 
 herself. Instantly all the other vessels 
 opened, and a shower of steel missiles sped 
 toward the doomed city. At the same time 
 
986 
 
 LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 along the line of the American intrench- 
 ments the field guns opened on the Spanish 
 position, and the American infantry were 
 massed in the intrenchments ready for the 
 final assault. 
 
 The din was terrific. The heavier guns of 
 the warships roared at intervals, while the 
 rapid-fires barked viciously and the guns of 
 the secondary batteries spat and sputtered 
 fast and furiously. Through the awful noise 
 the great 13-inch guns of the big monitor 
 
 GENERAL WESLEY MERRITT. 
 
 Monterey could be heard distinctly like great 
 thunderclaps, and the awe-inspiring shrieks 
 of her immense shells could be readily 
 distinguished from the tenor and alto notes 
 of the smaller missiles. 
 
 Great gaps were torn in the Spanish forti- 
 fications as the shells struck and exploded, 
 and buildings in the outskirts of the city 
 could be seen to tumble or rise in the air as 
 the shells passed through or exploded within 
 
 them. In the midst of the bombardment the 
 order to storm the Spanish trenches was given 
 to the American soldiers. The Spanish lines 
 extended a distance of ten miles around the 
 city, and from two to four miles outside the 
 walls. 
 
 With a cheer the Americans sprang from 
 their trenches and dashed for the Spanish 
 earthworks. The First Colorado Volunteers 
 were in the van. A deadly fire was poured 
 in from the heights occupied by the Spaniards, 
 and it was this that caused the Ameri- 
 can losses. 
 
 But the men never hesitated. They 
 swept the enemy from the outer line 
 of intrenchments to the second line 
 of defence. This was at once at- 
 tacked, and from there the Spaniards 
 were driven into the walled city. Then 
 the Spanish commander saw that fur- 
 ther resistance was useless, and he sent 
 up a white flag. The bombardment 
 was at once stopped, and soon after- 
 ward the American forces entered 
 the city. General Merritt assumed 
 command and temporarily restored 
 the civil laws. 
 
 The Spanish forces were well in- 
 trenched. The American losses under 
 the circumstances were considered 
 small. The Colorado troops were the 
 first to storm the trenches, and every 
 man was a hero. 
 
 The Commissioners appointed in be- 
 half of the United States to arrange for the 
 Spanish evacuation of Cuba were Rear-Ad- 
 miral Sampson and Major-Generals Wade and 
 Butler. The commissioners for Porto Rico 
 were Rear-Admiral Schley and Major-Gen- 
 erals Brooke and Gordon. The commis- 
 sioners appointed by Spain were as follows : 
 For Cuba : Major-General Gonzales Parrado, 
 Rear-Admiral Pastor y Landero, Marquis 
 Montoro. For Porto Rico : Major-Gen- 
 
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LIEUTENANT RICHARD WAINWRIGHT ENSIGN WORTH BAGLEY 
 
 COMMANDER OF THE. GLOUCESTER KILLED ON THE WINSLOW IN CARDENAS HARBOR 
 
 COPYRIGHT, 1898, BY GEO. R. BUFFHAM 
 
 LIEUTENANT VICTOR BLUE 
 FAMOUS FOR SCOUTING SERVICE AT SANTIAGO 
 
 COPYRIGHT, 1898, BY GEO. R. BUFFHAM 
 
 ENSIGN JOSEPH W. POWELL 
 SENT TO RESCUE HOBSON AND HIS MEN 
 
LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 987 
 
 eral Ortega y Diaz, Commodore of First 
 Rank Vallarino y Carrasco, Judge-Advocate 
 Sanchez del Aguila y Leon. 
 
 On August 24th it was announced that 
 the following American Peace Commissioners 
 to settle the future of the Philippine Islands 
 had been selected by President McKinley : 
 William R. Day, of Canton, Ohio, Secretary 
 •of State ; Cushman K. Davis, United States 
 Senator from Minnesota, Chairman of the 
 Foreign Relations Committee; William P. 
 Frye, United States Senator from Maine, 
 member of the Foreign Relations Committee. 
 He has served ten years in the House of 
 Representatives and fifteen in the Senate ; 
 succeeded James G. Blaine in the Senate ; 
 Whitelaw Reid, of New York, for several 
 years American Ambassador to the French 
 Republic ; and George Gray, United States 
 Senator from Delaware, who succeeded 
 Thomas F. Bayard in the Senate in 1885. 
 The sessions of the Peace Commission were 
 to be held in Paris, commencing not later than 
 October 1st and continuing until an agree- 
 ment was reached. 
 
 Terms of Peace with Spain. 
 
 On the 28th of November, 1898, the Peace 
 Commissioners appointed by the United 
 States and Spanish Governments reached an 
 agreement respecting the terms for establish- 
 ing peace between the two nations. The 
 Commissioners met in Paris on October 1st 
 and at once began their labors. Reports 
 from time to time indicated that serious dis- 
 agreements had developed, and it was even 
 rumored that it would be impossible to reach 
 an agreement that would satisfy both parties. 
 The result, however, proved the contraiy. 
 
 The Spanish Commissioners were com- 
 pelled to yield to the force of circumstances, 
 to realize the hopelessness of further oppo- 
 sition and to accept the inevitable. In other 
 words, the title of the United States to the 
 
 possession of a vast colonial territory was 
 confirmed and ratified at the meeting of the 
 Joint Commission in Paris on the above date. 
 This territory includes Porto Rico, the 
 Island of Guam and the Philippine Archi- 
 pelago, considered in its broadest geograph- 
 ical sense — that is, comprising the Sulu 
 Islands. At the same time the Spanish 
 sovereignty over Cuba was also relinquished. 
 
 Confined to the Main Question. 
 
 The length of the proceedings alone would 
 indicate that every concession was wrested 
 with difficulty from the Spanish delegates, 
 while the completeness of their surrender 
 proves the moral strength of the American 
 position. It seemed at one time that the 
 sittings might be dragged out indefinitely. 
 The American Commissioners, however, 
 gradually and skillfully bound down their 
 adversaries to the real issue. At length it 
 became manifest that the moment had arrived 
 when Spain must decide between accepting 
 the essential conditions of the United States 
 or the resumption of hostilities. 
 
 The American Commissioners presented a 
 long, detailed reply to all the Spanish objec- 
 tions. The arguments advanced were shown 
 to be inadmissible. The different points of 
 law raised by Spain were discussed and 
 disposed of, and the Americans finally pointed 
 out that, as the negotiations had lasted nearly 
 two months, it was impossible to prolong the 
 unreasonably strained situation that at any 
 moment might jeopardize the peace of the 
 civilized world. 
 
 They, therefore, in diplomatic but unmis- 
 takable language, gave Spain the choice 
 between an acceptance of their terms and a 
 fresh appeal to arms. 
 
 These terms were, first, the relinquishment 
 of Spanish sovereignty in Cuba; second, the 
 complete and unconditional cession to the 
 United States of Porto Rico, the Island of 
 
988 
 
 LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 Guam and the Philippines, between latitudes 
 5 degrees and 20 degrees north, and longi- 
 tude 115 degrees and 130 degrees east. 
 
 The ceding of all the Philippines cannot 
 have been an afterthought upon the part of 
 the Commissioners, for a careful collation of 
 information from various sources proves that 
 from the very beginning they included the 
 Sulu Archipelago in the Philippine group, to 
 which it belongs, both geographically and 
 politically, as it has always been governed 
 from Manila — a view amply borne out by the 
 action of Germany and Great Britain some 
 twenty years before. 
 
 Upon the condition that these preliminaries 
 should be accepted the United States Com- 
 missioners expressed their willingness to 
 discuss amicably the settlement of the vari- 
 ous questions which the change of regime 
 made it desirable to have regulated. 
 
 Seeking a Cable Station. 
 
 Among these were the purchase of an 
 island in the Carolines, preferably Ualan, the 
 most easterly of the group, for a cable 
 station, the release of political prisoners and 
 the establishment of religious freedom in the 
 Caroline Islands. The necessity of an island, 
 to be used as a naval station, between Hono- 
 lulu and Guam, is made clear by a glance at 
 the map. 
 
 With reference to the second point, the 
 release of political prisoners, the United 
 States could not humanely take any other 
 attitude than one of commiseration and 
 interest in those who have fallen into disgrace 
 while struggling to throw off the' rule of 
 Spain in either Cuba, Porto Rico or the 
 Philippines. The Commissioners, therefore, 
 deserve the hearty approbation of all for hav- 
 ing included this matter among those it is 
 desirable to have arranged in the peace 
 treaty. 
 
 The establishment of genuine religious 
 
 freedom in the Carolines is also a question 
 intimately concerning the United States. 
 These islands have offered a wide and fertile 
 field for missionary work. The majority of 
 the natives are Christians, and their conver- 
 sion is, in a preponderating measure, the 
 work of the American missionaries. There- 
 fore, in endeavoring to secure a real, as 
 opposed to a theoretical religious freedom, 
 the United States Commissioners were only 
 assuring to their countrymen peaceful enjoy- 
 ment of the fruits of their labors in the cause 
 of Christianity. 
 
 Pledge of the " Open Door." 
 
 The Commissioners further went on to 
 discuss the treatment to be accorded to 
 Spanish importations to the Philippines. 
 After assuring the Spaniards that the policy 
 of the United States was an " open door" in 
 these islands, they offered to guarantee, 
 during a certain period, identically the same 
 commercial privileges to Spain as would be 
 accorded to America, and, indeed, to Europe. 
 This agreement would still be binding upon 
 the United States, even though their policy 
 in this respect might otherwise undergo 
 modification. 
 
 It appears that this term of years is suffi- 
 ciently long to be worth Spain's considera- 
 tion, while not so extended as to unduly bind 
 the United States. The Commissioners, in 
 fact, were actuated, on the one hand, by a 
 desire not to pledge the government here to 1 
 a definite policy for too lengthy a period, 
 and, on the other hand, to avoid the accusa- 
 tion of trifling with their adversaries by 
 making a derisive offer of commercial ad- 
 vantage. 
 
 This, in substance, was the ultimatum 
 given to the Spanish Commissioners, and 
 subsequently Spain replied to it. While re- 
 fusing to admit the arguments of the United 
 States, and at the same time disputing the 
 
CAPTAIN CHARLES E. CLARKE 
 
 COMMANDER OF THE BATTLESHIP OREGON 
 
 COMMODORE JOHN W. PHILIP 
 
 COMMANDER OF THE BATTLESHIP TEXAS 
 
 CAPTAIN F. J. HIGGINSON 
 COMMANDER OF BATTLESHIP MASSACHUSETTS 
 
 CAPTAIN B. H. McCALLA 
 
 COMMANDtR OF THE MARBLEHEAD 
 
LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 989 
 
 justice of their conclusions, the Spanish dele- 
 gation yielded to the force of circumstances 
 and accepted the inevitable, avowing their 
 willingness to agree to these terms. 
 
 There was a mutual agreement concern- 
 ing the indemnity of $20,000,000 offered by 
 the United States, this being accepted by 
 Spain as part and parcel of the agreement. 
 
 The document presenting this acceptance 
 of our terms by the Spanish Commission 
 contained only 300 words. It opened with 
 a reference to the final terms of the United 
 States, and said that the Spanish Commis- 
 sioners, after having taken cognizance of the 
 terms proposed by the Americans, replied 
 that their government had tried to give as 
 equitable an answer as possible, but that 
 they were not prepared to commit their gov- 
 ernment to the acceptance of the principles 
 embodied in the American argument. Spain 
 rejected these principles, the note continued, 
 "as she always has rejected them." 
 
 Won't Give Up Her Principles. 
 
 Basing her attitude on the justice of her 
 cause, the note then said she still adhered 
 to those principles " which she has here- 
 tofore invariably formulated." 
 
 However, the note added, in her desire for 
 peace she had gone so far as to propose 
 certain compromises, which the Americans 
 had always rejected. She had also at- 
 tempted, it was further asserted, to have sub- 
 mitted to arbitration some of the material 
 points upon which the two governments dif- 
 fered. These proposals for arbitration, it 
 was added, the Americans had equally re- 
 jected. 
 
 These allegations in Spain's reply as to 
 attempted arbitration referred to her pro- 
 posal to arbitrate the construction of the 
 third article of the protocol, and also to 
 submit the Spanish colonial debt of Cuba 
 and the Philippines to arbitration. The last 
 
 proposition was made in a written commu- 
 nication. Subsequent to its presentation, 
 and in return for such arbitration, Spain of- 
 fered to cede the territory in dispute. The 
 Americans refused both propositions for ar- 
 bitration. 
 
 Spain's reply in substance continued by 
 declaring that the United States had offered, 
 as a kind of compensation to Spain, some- 
 thing very inadequate to the sacrifices the 
 latter country makes at this moment, and 
 she feels, therefore, that the United States' 
 proposals cannot be considered just and 
 equitable. 
 
 Prepared to Submit. 
 
 Spain had, however, exhausted all the re- 
 sources of diplomacy in an attempt to justify 
 her attitude. Seeing that an acceptance of 
 the proposal made to Spain was a necessary 
 condition to a continuance of negotiations, 
 and seeing that the resources of Spain were 
 not such as to enable her to re-enter upon 
 war, she was prepared, in her desire to avoid 
 bloodshed and from considerations of hu- 
 manity and patriotism, to submit to the con- 
 ditions of the conquering nation. She was 
 therefore ready to accept the proposals of the 
 American Commission* as presented at the 
 last sitting. 
 
 The reading and the translation of the 
 document occupied less than five minutes. 
 At the conclusion of the translation the 
 Commissioners empowered Senor Ojeda, 
 Secretary of the Spanish Commission, and 
 Secretary Moore, of the American Commis- 
 sion, to draw up articles which were to 
 embody the relinquishment of Cuba by Spain 
 and the cession of Porto Rico and the Phil- 
 ippines. 
 
 The Commissioners left the Foreign Office 
 immediately after the secretaries had been 
 directed to prepare the articles of the peace 
 treaty. There was scarcely any conversation 
 
990 
 
 LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 between the American and Spanish Commis- 
 sioners after the adjournment. 
 
 Among the Americans only the most 
 grave consideration for their Spanish 
 colleagues was apparent. The Spaniards 
 seemed to be relieved at having arrived at 
 the conclusion of a long controversy. 
 
 Having embodied in the treaty articles all 
 the protocol questions, the two Commissions 
 entered upon friendly negotiations regarding 
 the matters suggested in the American ulti- 
 matum, matters subsidiary and incidental to 
 the principal provisions, which must form 
 part of the peace treaty as finally signed. 
 
 Spain's Great Losses. 
 
 Thus Spain honorably accepted the situa- 
 tion, and while entering a protest against the 
 demands of the United States, yielded to 
 superior force and entered into a treaty upon 
 the conditions imposed. Beyond the general 
 rejoicing that the war was thus definitely and 
 successfully ended, there was no disposition 
 among Americans to exult over the fallen 
 foe. The very completeness of Spain's defeat 
 and her acknowledged helplessness appealed, 
 if not to sympathy, at least to consideration, 
 and strengthened the conviction everywhere 
 of the inevitableness of the result. 
 
 The time had come, in the course of his- 
 tory, when Spain's government of her colonies 
 had failed and they must of necessity pass 
 under more enlightened control, for the sake 
 of the people themselves and of the wide 
 interests of humanity. Circumstances threw 
 this necessary task upon the United States, 
 and our ground for rejoicing is that we were 
 equal to the opportunity. We can see now 
 that to Spain's weakness as well as to our 
 strength was due the quickness and com- 
 pleteness of her overthrow in both her 
 Western and her Eastern possessions, and 
 that these have passed into our hands be- 
 cause she was no longer fit to hold them 
 
 and because in the natural evolution of 
 events their control has devolved upon 
 ourselves. 
 
 Thus the agreement at Paris is not merely 
 the acquiescence of a defeated nation in the 
 demands of its conquerors, but rather the 
 recognition, upon both sides, of an historical 
 event of vast importance which neither side 
 nor both together could successfully avert 
 and which their disagreement could no more 
 than delay. Spain's great part in the devel- 
 opment of a new world has long been played 
 and the power she was unable to hold has 
 passed from her finally. That Spain may 
 eventually be the stronger by the concentra- 
 tion of her energies at home is quite con- 
 ceivable. Whether this country shall become 
 stronger by the wide extension of its energies 
 in new fields must depend entirely upon the 
 use we make of the opportunities and duties 
 which have come to us in the history of the 
 world. 
 
 How Regarded by Senators. 
 
 Upon the assembling of Congress at Wash- 
 ington on the 5th of December, measures 
 were taken for ascertaining the sentiments of 
 the Senators concerning the terms of the 
 treaty, and it was discovered that, without 
 doubt, the work of our Peace Commissioners 
 at Paris would be endorsed and the treaty 
 would be ratified by the Senate. 
 
 It was thought by the majority of the 
 Senators that our demands on Spain were 
 quite reasonable under the circumstances. 
 There were others, however, who voiced a 
 certain public sentiment by affirming that we 
 did not want the Philippine Islands at any 
 price and would be better off without them. 
 
 Meanwhile the Joint Commission at Paris 
 continued its deliberations. Much of the 
 discussion concerned details as to the guar- 
 anteeing of the rights of Spanish citizens in 
 the ceded colonies. The debate was occa- 
 
LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 991 
 
 sionally energetic, and the Spaniards often 
 appeared to be dejected. 
 
 The Spanish Commissioners received 
 authority to bind their government on certain 
 matters, but there were important questions 
 on which their instructions were unsatis- 
 factory, and it was thought that many of the 
 details involved in the change of sovereignty 
 in the Spanish possessions would have to be 
 left for settlement by the regular diplomatic 
 processes when relations between the two 
 governments are resumed. 
 
 The history of the document which will 
 certify the downfall of the oldest colonial 
 power in the world and the advent of the 
 newest was epitomized by Judge Day in a 
 single sentence : "A peace treaty can contain 
 anything which the victors put into it." 
 
 What the Spanish Commissioners 
 Wanted. 
 
 The Americans listened with their accus- 
 tomed patience to the technicalities employed 
 by the Spaniards with their customary 
 shrewdness and persistency against every 
 proposal making for the dismemberment of 
 their empire. 
 
 The burden of the Spanish arguments was 
 that matters outside the bare cession and 
 evacuation of the conquered territories, 
 which the Americans proposed to cover by 
 the treaty, were beyond the legitimate and 
 customary scope of a peace treaty. Behind 
 this bulwark Senor Montero Rios, president 
 of the Spanish Commission, fortified himself, 
 bombarding his opponents with a supply of 
 arguments and precedents which inspired 
 the feebly expressed admiration of the Amer- 
 icans. Finally Judge Day summarized the 
 American position in the foregoing memo- 
 rable utterance. It was given and taken in 
 good spirit, and from that moment the pro- 
 ceedings were entirely friendly. 
 
 The bargain for a coaling station in the 
 
 Carolines was not cemented, and was thought 
 likely to fail. The temper of the Americans 
 in this matter was: We have made you a 
 good offer for an island. You may take or 
 leave it. 
 
 The Spaniards seemed disposed to leave it. 
 The Americans did not regard it as a prize 
 which they could demand as one of the nat- 
 ural fruits of the war, while the whole policy 
 of the Spaniards was to confine the negotia- 
 tions as narrowly as possible to the letter of 
 the protocol signed in Washington, and to 
 exclude all extraneous matters. The result 
 of this policy may be the leaving of many 
 details involved in the change of sovereignty 
 over the various possessions to settlement by 
 the regular diplomatic processes when nor- 
 mal relations between the two governments 
 have been resumed. 
 
 Treaty of Peace with Spain. 
 
 The Treaty of Peace between the United 
 States and Spain was at first comprised in 
 eight articles containing the essential fea- 
 tures of the agreement. These were after- 
 wards subdivided into seventeen articles as 
 follows : 
 
 The United States of America and her 
 Majesty the Queen Regent of Spain, in the 
 name of her august son, Don Alfonso XIII., 
 desiring to end the state of war now existing 
 between the two countries, have for that pur- 
 pose appointed as Plenipotentiaries : 
 
 The President of the United States, Wil- 
 liam R. Day, Cushman K. Davis, William P. 
 Frye, George Gray and Whitelaw Reid, citi- 
 zens of the United States ; and her Majesty 
 the Queen Regent of Spain, Don Eugenio 
 Montero Rios, President of the Senate ; Don 
 Buenaventura de Abarzuza, Senator of the 
 Kingdom and ex-Minister of the Crown ; 
 Don Jose de Garnica, Deputy to the Cortes 
 and Associate Justice of the Supreme Court ; 
 Don Wenceslao Ramirez de Villa-Urrutia, 
 
992 
 
 LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Pleni- 
 potentiary at Brussels, and Don Rafael 
 Cerero, General Division. 
 
 Who, having assembled in Paris, and hav- 
 ing exchanged their full powers, which were 
 in due and proper form, have, after discussion 
 of the matters before them, agreed upon the 
 following articles : 
 
 Article I. Spain relinquishes all claim 
 of sovereignty over and title to Cuba. 
 
 And as the island is, upon its evacuation 
 by Spain, to be occupied by the United States, 
 the United States will, so long as such occu- 
 pation shall last, assume and discharge the 
 obligations that may under international law 
 result from the fact of its occupation, for the 
 protection of life and property. 
 
 Article II, Spain cedes to the United 
 States the island of Porto Rico and other 
 islands now under Spanish sovereignty in the 
 West Indies and the island of Guam in the 
 Marianas or Ladrones. 
 
 Article III. Spain cedes to the United 
 States the archipelago known as the Philip- 
 pine Islands, and comprehending the island 
 lying within the following line : 
 
 A line running from west to east along 
 or near the twentieth parallel of north lati- 
 tude, and through the middle of the navi- 
 gable channel of Bachi, from the one hundred 
 and eighteenth (n8th)to the one hundred 
 and twenty-seventh (127th) degree meridian 
 of longitude east of Greenwich, thence along 
 the one hundred and twenty-seventh (127th) 
 degree meridian of longitude east of Green- 
 wich to the parallel of four degrees and forty- 
 five minutes (4°45') north latitude, thence 
 along the parallel of four degrees and forty- 
 five minutes (4 45') north latitude to its in- 
 tersection with the meridian of longitude one 
 hundred and nineteen degrees and thirty-five 
 minutes (119 35') east of Greenwich, thence 
 along the meridian of longitude one hundred 
 
 and nineteen degrees and thirty-five minutes 
 (119 35') east of Greenwich, to the parallel 
 of latitude seven degrees and forty minutes 
 (7 40') north, thence along the parallel of 
 latitude seven degrees and forty minutes 
 (7 40') north to its intersection with the one 
 hundred and sixteenth (116th) degree mer- 
 idian of longitude east of Greenwich, thence 
 by a direct line to the intersection of the tenth 
 (10th) degree parallel of north latitude with 
 the one hundred and eighteenth ( 1 1 8th) degree 
 meridian of longitude east of Greenwich, and 
 thence along the one hundred and eighteenth 
 (n 8th) degree meridian of longitude east of 
 Greenwich to the point of beginning. 
 
 The United States will pay to Spain the 
 sum of twenty million dollars ($20,000,000) 
 within three months after the exchange of 
 the ratifications of the present treaty. 
 
 Article IV. The United States will, for 
 the term of ten years from the date of the 
 exchange of the ratifications of the present 
 treaty, admit Spanish ships and merchandise 
 to the ports of the Philippine Islands on the 
 same terms as ships and merchandise of the 
 United States. 
 
 Article V. The United States will, upon 
 the signature of the present treaty, send back 
 to Spain, at its own cost, the Spanish sol- 
 diers taken as prisoners of war on the capture 
 of Manila by the American forces. The arms 
 of the soldiers in question shall be restored 
 to them. 
 
 Spain will, upon the exchange of the rati- 
 fications of the present treaty, proceed to 
 evacuate the Philippines, as well as the island 
 of Guam, on terms similar to those agreed 
 upon by the Commissioners appointed to 
 arrange for the evacuation of Porto Rico 
 and other islands in the West Indies under 
 the Protocol of August 12, 1898, which is 
 to continue in force till its provisions are 
 completely executed. 
 
LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 993 
 
 The time within which the evacuation of 
 the Philippine Islands and Guam shall be 
 complete shall be fixed by the two Govern- 
 ments. Stands of colors, uncaptured war 
 vessels, small arms, guns of all calibres, with 
 their carriages and accessories, powder, am- 
 munition, live stock, and materials and sup- 
 plies of all kinds, belonging to the land and 
 naval forces of Spain in the Philippines and 
 Guam, remain the property of Spain. Pieces 
 of heavy ordnance, exclusive of field artillery 
 in the fortifications and coast defences, shall 
 remain in their emplacements for the term of 
 six months, to be reckoned from the ex- 
 change of ratifications of the treaty ; and 
 the United States may, in the meantime, 
 purchase such material from Spain, if a satis- 
 factory agreement between the two Govern- 
 ments on the subject shall be reached. 
 
 Article VI. Spain will, upon the signa- 
 ture of the present treaty, release all prisoners 
 of war, and all persons detained or imprisoned 
 for political offences, in connection with the 
 insurrections in Cuba and the Philippines and 
 the war with the United States. 
 
 Reciprocally the United States will release 
 all persons made prisoners of war by the 
 American forces, and will undertake to ob- 
 tain the release of all Spanish prisoners in 
 the hands of the insurgents in Cuba and the 
 Philippines. 
 
 The Government of the United States will 
 at its own cost return to Spain, and the Gov- 
 ernment of Spain will at its own cost return 
 to the United States, Cuba, Porto Rico, and 
 the Philippines, according to the situation of 
 their respective homes, prisoners released or 
 caused to be released by them, respectively, 
 under this article. 
 
 Article VII. The United States and 
 Spain mutually relinquish all claims for in- 
 demnity, national and individual, of every 
 kind, of either Government, or of its citizens 
 
 63 
 
 or subjects, against the other Government, 
 that may have arisen since the beginning of 
 the late insurrection in Cuba, and prior to 
 the exchange of ratifications of the present 
 treaty, including all claims for indemnity for 
 the cost of the war. 
 
 The United States will adjudicate and set- 
 tle' the claims of its citizens against Spain 
 relinquished in this article. 
 
 Article VIII. In conformity with the pro- 
 visions of Articles I, II and III of this treaty, 
 Spain relinquishes in Cuba, and cedes in Porto 
 Rico and other islands in the West Indies, in 
 the island of Guam, and in the Philippine 
 Archipelago, all the buildings, wharves, bar- 
 racks, forts, structures, public highways and 
 other immovable property which, in con- 
 formity with law, belong to the public domain, 
 and as such belong to the Crown of Spain. 
 
 And it is hereby declared that the relin- 
 quishment or cession, as the case may be, to 
 which the preceding paragraph refers, can- 
 not in any respect impair the property or 
 rights which by law belong to the peaceful 
 possession of property of all kinds, of prov- 
 inces, municipalities, public or private estab- 
 lishments, ecclesiastical or civic bodies, or any 
 other associations having legal capacity to 
 acquire and possess property in the aforesaid 
 territories renounced or ceded, or of private 
 individuals, of whatsoever nationality such 
 individuals may be. 
 
 The aforesaid relinquishment or cession, 
 as the case may be, includes all documents 
 exclusively referring to the sovereignty relin- 
 quished or ceded that may exist in the ar- 
 chives of the Peninsula. Where any docu- 
 ment in such archives only in part relates to 
 said sovereignty, a copy of such part will be 
 furnished whenever it shall be requested. 
 Like rules shall be reciprocally observed in 
 favor of Spain in respect of documents in the 
 archives of the islands above referred to. 
 
994 
 
 LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 In the aforesaid relinquishment or cession, 
 as the case may be, are also included such 
 rights as the Crown of Spain and its authori- 
 ties possess in respect of the official archives 
 and records, executive as well as judicial, in 
 the islands above referred to, which relate to 
 said islands or the rights and property of 
 their inhabitants. Such archives and records 
 shall be carefully preserved, and private per- 
 sons shall without distinction have the right 
 to require, in accordance with law, authenti- 
 cated copies of the contracts, wills and other 
 instruments forming part of notarial proto- 
 cols or files, or which may be contained in 
 the executive or judicial archives, be the lat- 
 ter in Spain or in the islands aforesaid. 
 
 Article IX. Spanish subjects, natives of 
 the Peninsula, residing in the territory over 
 which Spain by the present treaty relinquishes 
 or cedes her sovereignty, may remain in such 
 territory or may remove therefrom, retaining 
 in either event all their rights of property, 
 including the right to sell or dispose of such 
 property or of its proceeds ; and they shall 
 also have the right to carry on their industry, 
 commerce and professions, being subject in 
 respect thereof to such laws as are applica- 
 ble to other foreigners. In case they remain 
 in the territory they may preserve their alle- 
 giance to the Crown of Spain by making, 
 before a court of record, within a year from 
 the date of the exchange of ratifications of 
 this treaty, a declaration of their decision to 
 preserve such allegiance; in default of which 
 declaration they shall be held to have re- 
 nounced it and to have adopted the nationality 
 of the territory in which they may reside. 
 
 The civil rights and political status of the 
 native inhabitants of the territories hereby 
 ceded to the United States shall be deter- 
 mined by the Congress. 
 
 Article X. The inhabitants of the terri- 
 tories over which Spain relinquishes or cedes 
 
 her sovereignty shall be secured in the free 
 exercise of their religion. 
 
 Article XI. The Spaniards residing in 
 the territories over which Spain by this treaty 
 cedes or relinquishes her sovereignty shall be 
 subject in matters civil as well as criminal to 
 the jurisdiction of the courts of the country 
 wherein they reside, pursuant to the ordinary 
 laws governing the same; and they shall 
 have the right to appear before such courts 
 and to pursue the same course as citizens of 
 the country to which the courts belong. 
 
 Article XII. Judicial proceedings pend- 
 ing at the time of the exchange of ratifica- 
 tions of this treaty in the territories over 
 which Spain relinquishes or cedes her sover- 
 eignty shall be determined according to the 
 following rules: 
 
 1. Judgments rendered either in civil suits 
 between private individuals, or in criminal 
 matters, before the date mentioned and with 
 respect to which there is no recourse or right 
 of review under the Spanish law, shall be 
 deemed to be final, and shall be executed in 
 due form by competent authority in the ter- 
 ritory within which such judgments should 
 be carried out. 
 
 2. Civil suits between private individuals 
 which may on the date mentioned be unde- 
 termined shall be prosecuted to judgment 
 before the court in which they may then be 
 pending, or in the court that may be sub- 
 stituted therefor. 
 
 3. Criminal actions pending on the date 
 mentioned before the Supreme Court of Spain 
 against citizens of the territory, which by this 
 treaty ceases to be Spanish, shall continue 
 under its jurisdiction until final judgment; 
 but, such judgment having been rendered, 
 the execution thereof shall be committed to 
 the competent authority of the place in which 
 the case arose. 
 
 Article XIII. The rights of property 
 
LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 995 
 
 secured by copyrights and patents acquired 
 by Spaniards in the Island de Cuba, and in 
 Porto Rico, the Philippines and other ceded 
 territories, at the time of the exchange of the 
 ratification of this treaty, shall continue to be 
 respected. Spanish scientific, literary and 
 artistic works, not subversive of public 
 ►rder in the territories in question, shall 
 continue to be admitted free of duty into 
 such territories for the period of ten years, 
 to be reckoned from the date of the exchange 
 of the ratification of this treaty. 
 
 Article XIV. Spain shall have the 
 power to establish consular offices in the 
 ports and places of the territories, the sover- 
 eignty over which has been either relin- 
 quished or ceded by the present treaty. 
 
 Article XV. The Government of each 
 country will, for the term of ten years, 
 accord to the merchant vessels of the other 
 country the same treatment in respect of all 
 port charges, including entrance and clear- 
 ance dues, light dues and 
 tonnage duties, as it ac- 
 cords to its own merchant 
 vessels, not engaged in the 
 coastwise trade. 
 
 This article may at any time be terminated 
 on six months' notice given by either Gov- 
 ernment to the other. 
 
 Article XVI. It is understood that any 
 obligations assumed in this treaty by the 
 United States with respect to Cuba are limited 
 to the time of its occupancy thereof; but it 
 will, upon the termination of such occupancy, 
 advise any Government established in the 
 island to assume the same obligations. 
 
 Article XVII. The present treaty shall be 
 ratified by the President of the United States, 
 by and with the advice and consent of the 
 Senate thereof, and by Her Majesty the Queen 
 Regent of Spain ; and the ratification shall be 
 exchanged at Washington within six months 
 from the date hereof, or earlier if possible. 
 
 In faith whereof we, the respective Pleni- 
 potentiaries, have signed this treaty and here- 
 unto affixed our seals. 
 
 Done in duplicate at Paris, the tenth day 
 of December, in the year of our Lord one 
 thousand eight hundred and ninety-eight. 
 
 
 
 EUGENIO MONTERO RIOS. 
 
 B, DE ABARAZUZA. 
 
 J. DE GARNICA. 
 
 W. R. DE VILLI-URRUTIA. 
 
 RAFAEL CERERO. 
 
 The treaty of peace was signed at 8.45 on 
 the evening of December 10th, 1898. The 
 treaty consisted of seventeen articles, it hav- 
 ing been found advisable to subdivide some 
 of the articles in the draft agreed upon at 
 the last meeting. 
 
 The commissioners of the two nations 
 wrote their signatures on two copies of the 
 treaty, one copy being for the archives. The 
 document was prepared by Secretary Moore 
 in behalf of the United States commission 
 
99<5 
 
 LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 and by Senor Villaurutia for Spain, on ac- 
 count of the illness of Secretary Ojeda, of the 
 Spanish commission. 
 
 Each copy contained the English and Span- 
 ish texts of the treaty in parallel columns. 
 The wording had been approved previously 
 by the commissioners without a joint meet- 
 ing, so there was no controversy on the sub- 
 ject. 
 
 There]was a great contest among the fami- 
 lies and friends of the American Commis- 
 sioners for the pens with which the signa- 
 tures of the treaty were written Some of the 
 Americans were provided with handsome 
 pens purchased for the purpose. The Span- 
 iards appeared to be unaffected by the sou- 
 venir craze, and contented themselves with 
 the ordinary quill pens. 
 
 An Impressive Scene. 
 
 Arthur Ferguson, the interpreter of the 
 American Commission, requested Senor 
 Montero Rios to give him his pen, saying : 
 " Have you any desire to preserve the pen 
 with which you will sign?" 
 
 " Not the slightest/' said the Spaniard, 
 with a courtly bow. 
 
 The signing of the treaty would have af- 
 forded a subject for a great historical paint- 
 ing. The group gathered about the table in 
 the stately chamber of the French Foreign 
 Office was impressive, while the fact that the 
 sense of the importance of the issues which 
 the act consummated was deeply felt by all 
 the participants, gave an impressive and 
 solemn tone to the scene. 
 
 Around the great mahogany table sat the 
 ten arbiters of the destinies of an old and a 
 young nation. Ranged standing behind 
 them were numerous attaches of the Amer- 
 ican commission. The jets from the crystal 
 chandeliers above the heads of those present 
 magnified the green and scarlet upholstering, 
 giving the whole room a brilliant appearance. 
 
 There was a theatrical contrast between 
 the black-clothed actors and the scenery. 
 To the Americans it was a happy ending of 
 the drama of war ; for the Spaniards it was 
 plainly a bitter tragedy, none the less painful 
 because long foreseen. They sat silently, as 
 though almost crushed, and none could with- 
 hold sympathy from Senor Montero Rios, the 
 President of the Spanish Commission, who, 
 coming from his bed, was bundled in a great 
 overcoat, though logs were burning in the 
 fireplace near by. 
 
 Details of Signing the Treaty. 
 
 The spirits of the two bodies were symbol- 
 ized by the clothes worn by the members of 
 the commission, for the Americans were 
 attired in evening dress for the dinner given 
 to them after the meeting by the Due de 
 Loubat, and the Spaniards wore black frock 
 coats. 
 
 When the seals were prepared to be af- 
 fixed, attendants were sent to procure rib^ 
 bons of the French tri-color with which the 
 documents were sealed, as a compliment to 
 the French hosts of the commissions. 
 
 The seal being impressed, the commis- 
 sioners rose, and without formality each 
 member shook the hands of all his antago~ 
 nists and exchanged assurances of sincere 
 personal esteem. 
 
 The signing was finished at 8.54. At that 
 time the door of the chamber opened, and 
 Senor Villaurutia appeared and exclaimed to 
 a group of correspondents who were waiting 
 in the corridor, " C'est fini." [It is finished.] 
 The other members of the Spanish commis- 
 sion followed Senor Villaurutia and hurried 
 silently through the vestibule to their wait- 
 ing carriages. The American commissioners 
 strolled out chatting complacently, and as 
 they descended the steps the " hts in the 
 chamber were darkened 
 
 Further details were soon learned as to the 
 
LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 997 
 
 wording of the treaty. The Americans are 
 to pay for the repatriation of the Spanish 
 troops from all the colonies. The Spaniards 
 are to return all prisoners held by them. 
 They are to retain possession of all military 
 stores and munitions of war in the Philip- 
 pines, and of such ships as have not been 
 captured. 
 
 Renewal of Commercial Relations. 
 
 The commercial treaties between the two 
 nations which the war ruptured are to be 
 renewed at the convenience of the two 
 nations. 
 
 The United States Peace Commissioners 
 appreciated the respite from the long strain 
 of daily conferences and almost daily ses- 
 sions, the intensity of which they hardly rea- 
 lized until it was over. 
 
 Warm personal friendships and mutual re- 
 gard had arisen between the two commis- 
 sions as the result of their extended contro- 
 versy, and several members of both commis- 
 sions exchanged calls. 
 
 The American Commissioners unofficially 
 informed the Spaniards that they would be 
 glad to have the two commissions dine to- 
 gether. The reply was that the Spaniards 
 would be most pleased, but feared it would 
 be inadvisable, because it might be miscon- 
 strued at Madrid, where already much feeling 
 existed against the Spanish Commissioners. 
 Americans in Paris congratulated our Com- 
 missioners upon the successful termination of 
 their labors. They had taken a deep interest 
 in the proceedings, feeling confident that the 
 result would reflect honor upon our country. 
 
 The treaty was placed in the hands of 
 President McKinley, who immediately trans- 
 mitted it to the Senate. As the time for 
 voting upon it approached, public interest 
 became intense. Not since the excitement 
 immediately following the destruction of the 
 battleship Maine were the people of Wash- 
 
 ington so aroused as they were when the 
 vote was to be taken. The Capitol halls and 
 corridors were thronged from early morning 
 with crowds who were intent upon witnessing 
 the proceedings. The fact that our flag had 
 been insulted and our soldiers and sailors at 
 Manila subjected to wounds and death ac- 
 centuated national interest in the pending 
 treaty. 
 
 Long before noon the public and private 
 galleries of the Senate were filled and people 
 streamed into the big marble building on 
 Capitol Hill. But very few Senators were 
 present before the gavel fell at noon. The 
 Senators were in their various committee 
 rooms, discussing the situation, and working 
 with the supposed doubtful Senators to in- 
 duce them to place patriotism above party 
 and vote for the treaty. 
 
 The Treaty Ratified. 
 
 The treaty of peace was ratified in the 
 executive session of the United States Sen- 
 ate, February 6th, by a vote of 57 to 27, the 
 supporters of the treaty mustering but a sin- 
 gle vote more than the necessary two-thirds. 
 There was no doubt whatever that the Span- 
 ish Cortes would ratify the treaty and the 
 war with Spain was therefore concluded. 
 
 The long agitation in Congress and 
 throughout the country concerning the 
 peace treaty was over and the way was 
 prepared for Congress to adopt such meas- 
 ures as it might see fit for the future gov 
 ernment of the Philippine Islands. The de- 
 bate in the Senate had been very able and 
 for some time the result was in doubt. Ef- 
 forts were made to pass a resolution declar- 
 ing that it was not the policy of the United 
 States to acquire possession of the Islands ; 
 and make them a part of the territory of the 
 United States. 
 
 The insurgent army of Aguinaldo, which 
 had resolutely maintained its position near 
 
998 
 
 LA i EST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 Manila after the town was surrendered by 
 the Spaniards to the American soldiers and 
 sailors, made a fierce attack on the American 
 lines in the evening of February 4, 1899. 
 
 Defeated in a desperate effort to break 
 through the American lines and enter the 
 city of Manila, the insurgent forces, after 
 fourteen hours of continuous fighting, were 
 driven from the villages of Santa Anna, Paco 
 and Santa Mesa. They were compelled to 
 retreat to a position quite a distance further 
 out in the suburbs than the one they held 
 before attacking the city. 
 
 The losses of the insurgents were heavy, 
 the American troops having gone into the 
 engagement with great enthusiasm and de- 
 termination. They made the streets of the 
 cily ring with their cheers when they were 
 notified of the attack and were ordered to 
 advance. 
 
 Several of the vessels in Admiral Dewey's 
 squadron participated in the fight, firing on 
 the natives in Malate and Caloocan, and 
 driving them inland from both of those 
 places and inflicting heavy losses. 
 
 How the Fight Began. 
 
 This engagement was brought about by 
 the action of three native scouts, who, ad- 
 vancing close to the American lines near 
 Santa Mesa, made a feint to go through. 
 They retreated upon being challenged, but 
 returned again in a short time. Once more 
 they retreated. When they returned a third 
 time and attempted to make their way past 
 the outposts of the Nebraska troops a corpo- 
 ral challenged them and then fired. One of 
 the natives was killed and another wounded. 
 
 This affair was followed at nine o'clock by 
 a general attack on the American outposts. 
 The insurgents advanced all along the line 
 from Caloocan to Santa Mesa. Our troops 
 lost no time in replying to the attack. Mem- 
 bers of the North Dakota, Nebraska and 
 
 Montana regiments returned the insurgent 
 fire with great vigor and succeeded in hold- 
 ing the natives in check until the main body 
 of the American troops arrived on the scene. 
 There was a lull in the fighting after the 
 first reply of our troops, but the firing was 
 continued for five hours with much regu- 
 larity. During the early hours of the morn- 
 ing it became more brisk, and at daylight the 
 American troops made a firm advance. 
 
 Insurgents again Routed. 
 
 In the daylight it was found that the in- 
 surgents had massed themselves about Santa 
 Mesa and Caloocan, and that they had a 
 considerable force about Gagalangin. Our 
 troops directed their movements primarily 
 against the natives between the first named 
 places, and ultimately drove them out of the 
 two villages. Telling work was done at the 
 same time against the insurgents about Gag- 
 alangin, and when the fighting ceased our 
 troops were in possession of Santa Anna, in 
 which village the natives had congregated 
 for weeks prior to the fight. 
 
 While the American troops were doing 
 such effective work in repelling the attack, 
 news of the fight was received on board the 
 vessels of the American squadron, and the 
 monitor Monadnock, which was lying off 
 Malate, joined with the gunboat Concord 
 and the cruiser Charleston, lying off Mala- 
 bon, in firing on the insurgents. 
 
 Aguinaldo's forces were completely routed 
 and were driven from six to ten miles beyond 
 the positions they occupied when the battle 
 began. On February 10th a force of 6,000 
 insurgents that had gathered at Caloocan 
 was attacked by the Americans and de- 
 feated with heavy loss. 
 
 On February nth Iloilo was captured by 
 General Miller and the force under his com- 
 mand, aided by the warships Petrel and Bal- 
 timore. No casualties resulted to our troops 
 
LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 999 
 
 On February 2ist the transport Newport 
 arrived at Manila from Iloilo, having on 
 board Senor Aranita, the President of the 
 provisional governmentof Negros, and other 
 representative natives of the island. They 
 called upon the American authorities. These 
 men visited General Miller at Iloilo and dis- 
 cussed the situation with him. They then 
 returned to Silay, the principal town in the 
 northern part of Negros, and hoisted the 
 American flag, The flag was also raised at 
 Bacoloo, the capital of the island, and was 
 saluted with twenty-one guns. Afterward 
 the men returned to Iloilo in order to embark 
 for Manila to confer with General Otis. 
 
 The people of Negros never sympathized 
 with either the Tagal or Visayan insurgents, 
 and obviously were desirous of settling down 
 to peaceful occupations. 
 
 The Island of Cebu. 
 
 It was soon ascertained that the island of 
 Cebu was ready to submit to the authority of 
 the United States. Cebu is one of the most 
 important of the Vasayas group of the Phil- 
 ippines. It hoisted the American flag on 
 Washington's birthday, February 22d. A 
 battalion of the Twenty-third Infantry was 
 sent by General Otis to uphold the authority 
 of our government. 
 
 On February 2 1st there was great excite- 
 ment throughout the city of Manila. Three 
 fires were started by the insurgents at Santa 
 Cruz, Tondo and the Binondo Market. The 
 latter fire worked its way toward the wharves. 
 The natives cut the hose. One thousand na- 
 tive houses and hundreds of business places 
 were burned. The refugees thronged the 
 streets with their rescued property. The 
 houses fired were marked with red. 
 
 An idea of the extent of the loss by fires 
 in the suburbs of Manila may be obtained 
 from the figures herewith given : — Sixty 
 buildings of stone and 1 50 substantial wooden 
 
 structures with iron roofs were destroyed. 
 In addition 8,000 nipa houses of the natives 
 were burned. 
 
 The flying column under General Wheaton 
 started the aggressive campaign against the 
 insurgents on the morning of the 13th. The 
 line consisted of three troops of the Fourth 
 cavalry on the extreme right, and next in 
 their order the Twenty-second infantry, the 
 Oregon volunteers, and the Washington vol- 
 unteers. The latter, who were on the extreme 
 left, were opposite Guadaloupe on the river. 
 
 General Wheaton's Flying Column. 
 
 A lieutenant of Scott's battery fired the 
 signal gun at five minutes of seven o'clock, 
 and at once the Fourth cavalry, mounted, 
 swung forward. Then all the infantry regi- 
 ments, formed in three lines, left their trenches 
 and moved on the enemy. It was a beauti- 
 ful sight, this clock-like regularity of the 
 advance. The cavalry met a heavy fire on 
 the right. The men dismounted and drove 
 the enemy out of their intrenchments. 
 
 General Wheaton, commanding the United 
 States flying column, attacked and defeated 
 a force of 3,000 Filipinos at Pasig, in the 
 afternoon of the 15th, inflicting a heavy loss 
 upon them. The American loss was slight. 
 The Americans captured many Filipinos. 
 Many bodies of rebels killed in the engage- 
 ment were seen floating down the river. 
 
 The Washington volunteers captured and 
 burned Pateros, meeting with a sharp fire 
 from the enemy while crossing the river. 
 The day's fighting was like that of the pre- 
 ceding week, the insurgents occasionally 
 making a stand, but eventually fleeing. 
 
 General Wheaton's column advanced be- 
 yond Pasig to the shore of Laguna de Bay, 
 sweeping everything before it. The enemy 
 made a running fight and suffered a severe 
 loss. 
 
 The rebels' avenue of communication north 
 
IOOO 
 
 LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 and south was closed, the American cordon 
 stretching over a mile from the river to the 
 lake. The rebels were in force at Pateros 
 and Taguig. At about eight o'clock the 
 Twenty-second regular infantry advanced 
 until it encountered a number of volleys. 
 This fire was returned with interest. The 
 strongly fortified village of Gaitai was cap- 
 tured after a desperate fight by the Twentieth 
 iegular infantry. 
 
 On Friday, March 17th, the Queen Regent 
 signed the treaty of peace, which was for- 
 warded to the French Ambassador at Wash- 
 ington, M. Jules Cambon, for exchange with 
 the one signed by President McKinley. The 
 draft of the treaty was signed in Paris on 
 December 10, 1898. The Commissioners 
 appointed by the two Governments began 
 their labors on the 1st of October. 
 
 Another Town Captured. 
 
 Fighting continued near Manila, the object 
 of the American troops being to rout the in- 
 surgents, and by one blow end their rebellion. 
 From detailed accounts it appears that at 
 daybreak MacArthur dashed beyond Polo 
 and to the north-east, and captured Meycau- 
 ayan. This place is two miles beyond Polo. 
 It was not taken without a fight. The insur- 
 gents left detachments in all the trenches to 
 delay the advance. Meycauayan is at the 
 base of the rough hills and the jungle. 
 
 The railroad over the conquered country 
 to the rear was repaired and fresh troops 
 were rushed forward, Malabon was burned 
 by the insurgents, and the 5000 rebels who 
 constituted its garrison retreated to rejoin 
 Aguinaldo's main column of insurgents at 
 Malolos. The town of Malinta, beyond 
 the Tuliahan river, was taken by General 
 Wheaton's division. The fighting was sharp 
 all day, and the battlefield was carpeted with 
 the insurgent dead. Our own losses were 
 comparatively slight, though among our dead 
 
 was Colonel Harry C. Egbert, a hero of two 
 wars. 
 
 The plan to cut off the 5000 insurgents in 
 Malolos failed by reason of the roughness of 
 the ground and the thickness of the jungle, 
 which prevented General MacArthur from 
 getting far enough around to the north of 
 Polo to shut the enemy in. We had to be 
 content with a victory consisting of our hav- 
 ing driven the enemy from his position. The 
 victory in this light was a sweeping one. 
 The insurgents, though beset with cavalry, 
 infantry and artillery, volunteers and regulars, 
 fought desperately in their trenches. 
 
 Flight T>f the Filipinos. 
 
 The advance to Malinta was made ove 
 the Nivaliches Rial. Hale's command in the 
 flank movement of MacArthur's division 
 surprised the insurgents in the northern 
 trenches. The Filipinos fled along the rail- 
 road, burning rice mills, tearing up the tracks 
 and obstructing all they knew how. They 
 finally took refuge in the church at Malinta, 
 where they made a stand. The American 
 troops were coming on the run, however, 
 and Malinta was taken by assault, the rebels 
 continuing to retreat toward Polo, destroy- 
 ing as they went. As they fell back the in- 
 surgents broke up into comparatively small 
 bodies, so the day's fighting was really a 
 series of small battles. 
 
 General MacArthur's division advanced 
 along the torn-up railroad toward Malabon- 
 Ahead of them could be seen the black 
 smoke rising from the burning town. The 
 insurgents realized that they could not hold 
 Malabon, and alarmed at the narrow escape 
 they had from being caught in it, as in a 
 trap, they fled back toward Malolos as fast 
 as they could go. 
 
 The day's action was beautifully conducted. 
 When Wheaton's brigade was wading the 
 river the insurgent bullets were churning 
 
GENERAL OTIS 
 COMMANDER OF THE AMERICAN FORCES IN THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
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GENERAL MILLER 
 THE HERO OF ILOJLO 
 
LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 IOOI 
 
 and spattering the water in their faces. Our 
 soldiers dashed up the north bank dripping, 
 and without stopping to shake the water 
 from them, swept on over the ridge and into 
 the rebel entrenchments. In the midst of it 
 all came volley after volley from the left. 
 And as suddenly as if it had been a battle on 
 the stage, MacArthur's right wing appeared 
 over the hill, cheering wildly. 
 
 Their sudden appearance was too much for 
 the insurgents. They threw down their rifles 
 and ran. The American forces, in a great 
 triangle, rushed after them, and the slaughter 
 among the fleeing natives was terrific. It 
 was a magnificent picture of war, with the 
 Fourth Cavalry galloping along the crest of 
 the farthest hills shooting as they rode. 
 Cannon, carbine and rifles were all belching 
 forth death, and the smoke framed it all. 
 
 As if Swept by a Cyclone. 
 
 The American army advanced at 6 o'clock 
 on the morning of the 29th, sweeping onward 
 three miles before 10 o'clock, and driving the 
 insurgents beyond Bocave, to the east of 
 Bulacan and on the railroad leading to Malo- 
 los. Our troops met with but slight resist- 
 ance. The Filipinos fired volleys for the pur- 
 pose of drawing the American fire and dis- 
 closing the locality of our positions. Two 
 men of the Pennsylvania regiment and one 
 man belonging to the Dakota regiment were 
 wounded. The Americans remained silent. 
 
 The country between Marilao and Manila 
 presented a picture of desolation. Smoke 
 curled from hundreds of ash heaps, and the 
 remains of trees and fences torn by shrapnel 
 were to be seen everywhere. The general 
 appearance of the country was as if it had 
 been swept by a cyclone. The roads were 
 strewn with furniture and clothing dropped 
 in flight by the Filipinos. The only persons 
 remaining behind were a few aged persons 
 too infirm to escape. They camped beside 
 
 the ruins of their former homes and begged 
 passers-by for any kind of assistance. The 
 majority of them were living on the generos- 
 ity of our soldiers, who gave them portions 
 of their rations. The dogs of the Filipinos 
 cowered in the bushes, still terrified and 
 barking, while hundreds of pigs were to be 
 seen busily searching for food. 
 
 Bodies of dead Filipinos were stranded in 
 the shallows of the river, or were resting in 
 the jungle where they crawled to die, or were 
 left in the wake of the hurriedly retreating 
 army. These bodies gave forth a horribk 
 odor, but there was no time to bury them. 
 
 Fled in a Panic. 
 
 The inhabitants who fled from Marilao 
 and Meycauayan left in such a panic that on 
 tables our soldiers found spread money and 
 valuables, and in the rooms were trunks con- 
 taining other property of value. This was the 
 case in most of the houses deserted. They 
 were not molested by our soldiers, but the 
 Chinese who slipped in between the armies 
 were looting when they could, and took pos- 
 session of several houses, over which they 
 raised Chinese flags, some of which were 
 torn down. An old woman was found hid- 
 den in a house at Meycauayan yesterday just 
 dead, apparently from fright and hunger. 
 
 Malolos, the insurgent capital, was cap- 
 tured on the morning of March 31st by the 
 American troops, after a hot fight. The final 
 advance began before daylight. After eating 
 a good breakfast the troops started from their 
 former line in the following order, extending 
 from left to right : 
 
 Third United States Artillery ; Montana 
 Volunteers; Kansas Volunteers; Tenth Penn- 
 sylvania ; South Dakota Volunteers ; Ne- 
 braska Volunteers ; Fourth United States 
 Cavalry. 
 
 Shortly before 3 o'clock the army began 
 its cautious advance, meeting almost imme- 
 
1002 
 
 LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 diately with a heavy fire on the right. The 
 troops advanced regardless of the rain of 
 bullets, driving the insurgents from their 
 trenches into the thickets. The army then 
 advanced two miles and discovered an in- 
 surgent outpost strongly intrenched. The 
 natives came forward flying a white flag and 
 asked for mercy. They assured our troops 
 that they were unarmed, but when they re- 
 turned to their trenches they immediately 
 opened a sharp fire on our lines, which was 
 soon silenced. 
 
 Our Troops in Malolos. 
 
 Major General MacArthur entered Malo- 
 los, the seat of the so-called insurgent gov- 
 ernment, at half-past nine in the morning, the 
 rebels burning the city and simultaneously 
 evacuating it. 
 
 The service of our troops in the Philippines 
 was such as to cause every American heart 
 to swell with pride. There was not one act 
 of cowardice nor a step of retreat, and 
 good generalship was supported by a sol- 
 diery whose courage, patience and fighting 
 would make the honor page of any coun- 
 try stand more gloriously forth in its his- 
 tory. 
 
 The campaign in the East had, however, 
 peculiar qualities which commended those 
 engaged in it to the hearts of their country- 
 men. It was fought chiefly by the citizen 
 soldiers, the regiments of the National Guard, 
 not one of whom had until within a few 
 months seen a shot fired in battle, and they 
 all conducted themselves with the precision 
 of regular troops and of veterans. 
 
 The regiments furnished by their respec- 
 tive States were volunteers, the boys from 
 the plow, the clerks from the store, and offi- 
 cers who had only until within less than a 
 year looked upon soldiery as a military pic- 
 nic, a playtime period for armory drills and 
 dances, a matter of uniform and flirtation. 
 
 But back of this existed the real soldier's 
 spirits, the fighting capacity which belonged 
 to the Old Guard, the armies of Marlborough, 
 Cromwell and Frederick the Great. Being 
 called upon to exhibit it they responded with 
 such splendid courage that the nation which 
 sent them forth began to realize the poten- 
 tiality of the race and to know that it is a peo- 
 ple of strength in war as in the other chan- 
 nels through which it has attained gran- 
 deur, and promoted the well-being of man- 
 kind. 
 
 The next event of importance in the Philip- 
 pines after the downfall of Malolos was the 
 capture of Santa Gruz, on Laguna de Bay, 
 by General Lawton's forces on the morn- 
 ing of April ioth. This was done after a 
 sharp engagement with the rebel defenders, 
 who were commanded by Pac-Wah, a 
 Chinaman. 
 
 Battle at Quingan. 
 
 A furious battle was fought between the 
 Americans and Filipinos on April 23d. The 
 scene of the battle was Quingan, five miles 
 northeast of Malolos. Major Bell, of the 
 Fourth United States Cavalry, was ordered 
 to make a reconnoissance in order to develop 
 the strength of the insurgents. He took 
 Lieutenant Rutherford and sixty-one men of 
 the Fourth Cavalry. At daybreak this little 
 body of Americans reaehed the insurgent 
 position. Major Bell and Lieutenant Ruther- 
 ford, with five men, went ahead of the rest of 
 the reconnoitering party. The insurgents 
 saw them, but withheld their fire, evidently 
 expecting that the remainder of the company 
 would soon come within range. 
 
 Major Bell's orders from General Mac- 
 Arthur explicitly instructed him to ascertain 
 the strength of the enemy. The remainder 
 of the cavalry was advanced. As soon as the 
 little command came within range the insur- 
 gents opened with a hot fire. One American 
 
LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 1003 
 
 soldier was killed and five wounded by the 
 first volley. 
 
 Major Bell immediately sent for reinforce- 
 ments. The cavalry held its ground bravely. 
 The insurgents fought like demons. The 
 Filipinos sent canoe loads of soldiers down 
 the river. These landed on both the right 
 and left sides of the American soldiers, sur- 
 rounding them on three sides. They were 
 forced back, but they fought hard for every 
 inch of ground which they gave to the 
 rebels. 
 
 The Filipinos followed up their advantage. 
 They had driven Major Bell and his men 
 nearly three-quarters of a mile from Quingan, 
 when Major Morford, with a battalion of the 
 First Nebraska Volunteers, hastened up to 
 the assistance of the retreating cavalrymen. 
 Instead of the new troops changiog the tide 
 of battle and causing the Filipinos to retreat, 
 the insurgents held their ground and fought 
 more savagely. The battle was fought in a 
 fog, which enabled the enemy to keep close 
 to the Americans without being seen. 
 
 Shot in the Charge. 
 
 Next two companies of the Iowa Regiment 
 advanced to the fighting line, but later they 
 were withdrawn, being on guard duty. The 
 rest of the Nebraska Regiment next came 
 up. General Hale arrived shortly afterward 
 with the rest of the Iowans. The Americans 
 were ordered forward to take the positions 
 which the insurgents were holding. 
 
 Just as the forward movement began Col- 
 onel Stotsenberg came dashing up and took 
 his place at the head of his regiment. He 
 had just returned to Malolos from Manila, 
 where he had been visiting his wife. He 
 heard of the battle, rushed to Quingan and 
 reached his men in time to lead them in 
 the storming of the insurgent trenches. Dur- 
 ing this charge in the withering hail of bul- 
 lets Colonel Stotsenberg, of the Nebraska 
 
 Volunteers, was shot. An insurgent bullet 
 pierced his heart, and he dropped dead within 
 a few yards of the trenches. 
 
 Three guns from the Utah Artillery reached 
 the fighting ground just as the Nebraskans 
 were making their charge. Their advance, 
 assisted by the shells from the artillery, broke 
 the resistance of the insurgents, and after half 
 an hour more of fighting they were driven 
 from Quingan. The village was occupied by 
 the Americans. 
 
 A Brilliant Victory. 
 
 The most brilliant exploit and the winning 
 of the greatest American victory in the bat- 
 tles around Manila occurred on the 27th. 
 The taking of the bridge over the Rio Grande 
 at Calumpit was a deed of astonishing daring. 
 It was the most strongly defended position 
 held by the insurgents. Located on the 
 north shore of the Rio Grande v opposite 
 Calumpit, it is the most valuable stragetic 
 point in Luzon. The fact that it was guarded 
 by the most trustworthy and best disciplined 
 regiments of General Aguinaldo made the 
 feat more noteworthy. Army officers said 
 the daring displayed by the American troops 
 was almost unparalleled in the annals of 
 modern warfare. 
 
 It was a notable day for the Twentieth 
 Regiment of Kansas Volunteers, commanded 
 by Colonel Funston. One hundred and 
 twenty men belonging to that regiment 
 crossed the river in the face of a deadly fire 
 from 3,000 insurgent Mausers. This torrent 
 of bullets was augmented by a fusillade of a 
 Maxim gun, of which the insurgents had ob- 
 tained possession. 
 
 Colonel Funston, with only nine men, 
 charged the trenches manned by thousands 
 of insurgents, discharging their rifles as they 
 ran up the embankments. The American 
 artillery on the south shore of the Rio Grande 
 poured shot and shell into the Filipino 
 
roo4 
 
 LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 stronghold. The rebels were stampeded. 
 They went north, toward Bacolor. Despite 
 the extraordinary risks and chances taken 
 by the Americans our troops suffered very 
 few casualties. Only one man was killed, 
 and the wounded did not exceed a dozen. 
 The insurgents lost heavily, fully twenty-five 
 were killed during the mad charge of Colonel 
 Funston's men on the trenches. 
 
 The two batteries of artillery known at 
 Manila as the " Mormons " became famous 
 on account of their heroic exploits. Sturdy 
 city men from Pennsylvania, plainsmen from 
 Nebraska, Kansas and South Dakota, and 
 miners and cowboys from Montana and Ida- 
 ho, have all charged under the protection of 
 the twelve guns of the Utah artillery, and 
 the generals have taken pride in giving credit 
 and promotion to its brave men. 
 
 Officers of the Battery. 
 
 There is special interest in the East, too, 
 in the performances of this organization. 
 Major Richard W. Young, the senior officer 
 of the battalion, is a graduate of Columbia 
 University Law School, a West Pointer, and 
 spent many years on Governor's Island as 
 Judge Advocate of the Department of the 
 East under General Hancock. Major Grant, 
 Commander of the Second battery, was a 
 graduate of the Canadian School of Artillery, 
 and spent many years of his life in the 
 East. 
 
 Utah prepared in 1886 for the distinction 
 that has now come to her by purchasing 
 eight 3.2-inch modern field guns immedi- 
 ately after she was admitted to the Union. 
 At that time there was a large sum in the 
 Treasury at Washington, the accumulation 
 of many years' allowances for militia organi- 
 zation. This, on the advice of Major Young, 
 formerly an officer of the Fifth artillery, then 
 a lawyer in Salt Lake City, was used in the 
 purchase of the cannon, and when the war 
 
 began he was entrusted with the organization 
 of three batteries of volunteers. 
 
 Two of these were taken on the transports 
 Colon and China on the second military ex- 
 pedition to Manila, embarking on June 15, 
 1898, and it was their fortune to be engaged 
 in the first battle with the Spaniards. Four 
 of the guns were posted to guard the ad- 
 vanced post of the American troops in front 
 of Malate. Barely eight hundred yards in 
 front of them were the Spanish trenches and 
 forts, and only the Tenth Pennsylvania was 
 near to support them. 
 
 Onslaught by the Insurgents. 
 
 The handful of men at the guns had a 
 memorable taste of war on the night of July 
 31st, wnen a tropical rain was flooding the 
 trenches and shutting out everything from 
 their sight. In the midst of the storm the 
 Spaniards opened fire from their trenches, 
 and soon a body of more than three thousand 
 were charging on the guns and the Pennsyl- 
 vanians. 
 
 Captains Young and Grant and almost all 
 the other officers of the batteries were with 
 General Greene at Camp Dewey. The guns 
 were in charge of Lieutenant Orrin M. Grow,, 
 who was barely twenty-seven years old. Sup- 
 ported by the Pennsylvanians, the men held 
 to their position, pouring shrapnel in the di- 
 rection of the Spanish lines, and at one time 
 seeing the faces of their charging foes by the 
 flash of their guns. Finally when their am- 
 munitior was almost exhausted General 
 Greene came up with infantry support, and 
 Captains Young and Grant led the other 
 eager men of the Utah batteries, who were 
 pulling their guns through mud that reached 
 the hubs of the carriages. 
 
 Even the advance of the Americans proved 
 a danger for the brave little band, however, 
 for when the Californians saw the flash of the 
 Utah guns in the darkness they opened fir/* 
 
LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 1005 
 
 on the two score of men in the trenches and 
 kept it up until they realized they had been 
 shooting at friends. 
 
 In the capture of Manila the post of honor 
 was given to the Utah batteries. They opened 
 fire early in the morning on the Spanish fort 
 at Malate, and covered the advance of Gen- 
 eral Greene's division, which forced its way 
 even to the walls of the old city. Special 
 mention was made of the artillerymen and 
 their officers in the report of the engagement. 
 When the alarm sounded after the insurgent 
 attack on the night of Februnry 4th the Utah 
 guns, now increased to twelve by the capture 
 of cannon from the Spaniards, were in the 
 city. But to each had been given its station, 
 and soon the boys were rattling through the 
 streets, dragging their guns in the midst of 
 bullets that came from every side. At day- 
 light they were guarding the infantry from 
 the beach north of Manila to the Pasig river. 
 
 In the Thick of the Fight. 
 
 Two of the guns under Lieutenant W. C. 
 Webb were directly in front of San Juan 
 Bridge, over which had been fired the shot 
 of the American sentry that brought the 
 armies into conflict. So close were the can- 
 non to the enemy that after the first fire the 
 insurgents concentrated their attention on 
 them, and two of the gunners were killed 
 before the infantrymen could reach the rebel 
 trenches. 
 
 From one position to another along the 
 whole front of the left wing the Utah batteries 
 for three days covered the advance of the in- 
 fantry. In the recapture of the Manila water 
 works, on which depended the safety of the 
 city, seven of the guns shelled the insur- 
 gents from hill to hill. Churches, convents, 
 monasteries and other buildings wherein 
 Aguinaldo's men took refuge bear the marks 
 of the accurate fire of the Westerners. 
 
 On the right wing in this engagement 
 
 Utah artillerymen acted on the water, Lieu- 
 tenant Naylor commanding the gunboat 
 Laguna de Bay, dubbed by the soldiers the 
 " Mud Hen," which prepared the way for the 
 advance up the Pasig River. Afterward 
 Major Grant, who had received promotion in 
 company with Major Young for gallantry in 
 action, was put in command of the fleet of 
 gunboats which guarded the Pasig River and 
 swept around Laguna de Bay, disorganizing 
 the insurgents and later covering the landing 
 of Lawto/t's expedition on the lake shore. 
 From Caloocan to Calumpit insurgent works 
 show evidence of the work of the Utah gun- 
 ners. They were in the advance line of 
 MacArthur's troops, covering the advance 
 with canister that shook the bravery of 
 Aguinaldo's best troops. 
 
 Nearly All Mormons. 
 
 As a reward for his efficiency Major Young 
 was offered a commission in the regular 
 army. During the early days of the occu- 
 pation of Manila he was judge of the provost 
 court, and his name was recommended to 
 President McKinley for an appointment as 
 lieutenant colonel in the Judge Advocate 
 General's Department. 
 
 Probably three-fourths of the men in the 
 two batteries are Mormons. Many of them 
 served their two or three years as missiona- 
 ries for that Church and a Mormon chaplain 
 was with the battalion. Major Young is a 
 grandson of Brigham Young, and an elder 
 and Mormon home missionary. Major Grant 
 is a Gentile in Utah, in company with several 
 of the brave officers in the battalion. There 
 was no church feeling in the batteries, how- 
 ever. 
 
 Ambassador Cambon, as the diplomatic 
 representative of the Spanish government in 
 Washington, called at the State Department 
 on May 1st and received from Secretary Hay 
 four warrants for $5,000,000 each, making 
 
ico6 
 
 LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 £2O,O0O,0O0, due to Spain under the treaty 
 of Paris. 
 
 There was little formality about the trans- 
 fer of warrants. The Ambassador showed 
 to Secretary Hay his authority from the 
 Spanish government to receive the money, 
 and after the warrants had been handed him 
 he signed four copies of a receipt. He re- 
 tained one copy and another was stmt to Mr. 
 Storer, the newly appointed American Min- 
 ister to Spain. A third was sent to Ambas- 
 sador Porter, at Paris, and the fourth was 
 sent to the Treasury Department to be filed. 
 
 This ended the details connected with the 
 treaty of peace between our Government and 
 Spain, and prepared the way for diplomatic 
 relations to be resumed. The negotiations 
 were conducted by A nbassador Cambon 
 with excellent judgment and tact, and his 
 work was highly commended. 
 
 Our Troops Advance. 
 
 General Lawton's force was engaged in 
 hard fighting early in the morning of May 
 2d. He marched in a westerly direction on 
 Balinag, where a large body of rebels was 
 concentrated General Hale started from 
 Calumpit at daybreak with the Iowa and 
 South D.ikota regiments, and a squad of 
 cavalry and two guns of the Utah battery in 
 a northeasterly direction, to co-operate with 
 the Macabebees, who asked the Americans 
 to arm them in order that they might fight 
 the Tagals. The Macabebees had already 
 organized a company of Bolomen to guard 
 the town. They brought Tagal prisoners to 
 General MacArthur. 
 
 Refugees reported that the Filipino army 
 was deserting San Fernando and massing at 
 Santo Tomas, where General Luna's head- 
 quarters were located, and that strong en- 
 trenchments were being constructed at the 
 .-.ides of the railway and on the swamp front, 
 in the best positions possible. 
 
 On May 5th, Major General MacArthur 
 carried San Tomas, after encountering a 
 strong resistance. In spite of the peaceful 
 overtures of their commissioners, the Fili- 
 pinos vigorously resisted the advance of 
 General MacArthur s division from Apalit 
 towards San Fernando, fighting desperately 
 at long range after running from trench to 
 trench when driven out by the American 
 artillery. 
 
 The movement commenced at half-past 
 five in the morning. General Hale's brigade 
 advanced along the road a few miles we^t of 
 the railway line. General Wheaton, with 
 Hotchkiss and Gatling guns, under the com- 
 mand of Lieutenant Naylor, of the Utah 
 Light Artillery, mounted on hand cars, 
 pushed ahead. 
 
 Stubborn Resistance. 
 
 Both brigades met with resistance simul- 
 taneously on approaching the river near San 
 Tomas, which is about eight kilometers from 
 Apalit. The centre span of the railroad 
 bridge had dropped into the river, and the 
 rebels had only left a small force to check 
 General Wheaton, their main body lining the 
 strong trenches in front of General Hale. 
 
 Although the attacking force poured a very 
 heavy artillery and musketry fire across the 
 river, the enemy stubbornly resisted for over 
 an hour, ultimately breaking when Major 
 Young shelled their left flank, and then re- 
 treating along the river bank under cover. 
 
 So soon as they discovered that the nature 
 of the country would permit only a few skir- 
 mishers on each side of the embankment, 
 the rebels regained their courage and fought 
 desperately for three-quarters of an hour, in 
 the face of the American volleys and a rapid- 
 fire fusillade, until flanked by the Montana 
 Regiment. Then a general scramble ensued, 
 most of the enemy boarding trains that were 
 in readiness and the others taking the road 
 
LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 1007 
 
 to San Fernando, after burning the villages of 
 San Tomas and Minalin. 
 
 About noon General Wheaton crossed the 
 broken bridge, cleared the stragglers out of 
 the villages and advanced towards San Fer- 
 nando. General Hale effected a crossing 
 simultaneously, after a slight delay necessary 
 to repair a stone bridge. After a short rest 
 the advance was continued, General Wheaton 
 encountering the first series of entrenchments 
 near San Fernando. The rebels now opened 
 a hot fire. Colonel Funston, of the Twen- 
 tieth Kansas, was wounded, one lieutenant 
 was killed and four were wounded while lead- 
 ing four companies of the Kansas Regiment 
 to outflank the enemy. General Hale pushed 
 along the road, flanking the trenches. 
 
 The first Filipino municipal government 
 sanctioned by the Americans was established 
 at Balinag May 9th. General Lawton au- 
 thorized the Filipinos at this village to select 
 a native for Mayor, which was done. A 
 municipal council, composed of Filipinos, 
 was elected, and the Filipino government 
 took control of the city. 
 
 Influx of Filipinos. 
 
 Thousands of Filipinos came through the 
 insurgent lines, and moved southward into 
 Ihe territory under American control. Gen- 
 eral Lawton welcomed them back, and gave 
 them to understand that they were to be 
 treated kindly and justly. Hundreds of na- 
 tives received food supplies of rice and sugar 
 from the insurgent stores. These stores 
 were captured by General Lawton when 
 he seized Balinag. The great number of 
 these returning natives was regarded as a 
 sure indication that Aguinaldo's power was 
 weakening. 
 
 There was a hard fight on the same date 
 at San Ildefonso. A reconnoitering party, 
 consisting of one company of Minnesota vol- 
 unteers and two companies from the Oregon 
 
 regiment, ran into a force of insurgents 
 strongly entrenched at San Ildefonso. A 
 system of heavy earthworks extended from 
 an impenetrable swamp on the left along the 
 ridge fronting the town. Flanking trenches 
 had been thrown up, commanding every ap- 
 proach to the village. The Americans were 
 within short range of the earthworks before 
 they were aware of the presence of the Fili- 
 pinos. A furious fusillade came from the 
 insurgent stronghold. The Americans were 
 forced to withdraw. Major Diggles, of the 
 Minnesota regiment was shot through the 
 head. 
 
 Another Town Captured. 
 
 On May 17th General Lawton's advance 
 guard, under Colonel Summers, of the Ore- 
 gon troops, took San Isidro, the insurgent 
 capital, at 8.30 o'clock a.m. Colonel Sum- 
 mers' command, consisting of the Twenty- 
 second Infantry on the left, the Minnesota 
 Regiment in the centre and the Oregon 
 and North Dakota Regiments on the right, 
 preceded by scouts and accompanied by 
 Scott's Battery of Artillery, advanced from 
 Baluarte at daylight. 
 
 The troops first encountered the enemy 
 two miles from San Isidro. The rebels re- 
 tired when our artillery opened fire. Just 
 outside the town a rebel force estimated to 
 number 2,000 men was entrenched. It made 
 a slight resistance, but evacuated its position 
 when our troops turned its right flank. The 
 enemy's loss was fifteen men killed and 
 twenty wounded. Our troops also captured 
 three prisoners and many rifles. On the 
 American side one soldier of the Oregon Re- 
 giment and one of the Minnesota Regiment 
 were slightly wounded. After capturing the 
 town, Colonel Summers' troops continued 
 the advance, pursuing the retreating rebels 
 for several miles. 
 
 On May 24th thirty Filipinos were killed 
 
ioo8 
 
 LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 and over sixty wounded in the battle between 
 the American forces and the insurgents, one 
 mile north of San Fernando. The Americans 
 lost one man. Twelve of our troops were 
 wounded. The insurgents made the attack. 
 About 9 o'clock the Filipinos opened fire 
 upon the outposts of General MacArthur's 
 command. The American scouts fought 
 bravely, and held the natives back until they 
 were reinforced by troops from San Fernan- 
 do. General MacArthur, at the head of two 
 battalions of the Montana Regiment, and 
 General Funston, leading two battalions of 
 the Kansas Regiment ; two guns from the 
 Utah Battery, one Hotchkiss and one Gat- 
 ling gun, hurried to the assistance of out- 
 posts. 
 
 Obstinate Resistance. 
 
 The insurgents were occupying the tren- 
 ches which they had previously vacated at 
 the fall of San Fernando. The Kansas troops 
 deployed to the right, while the Montana 
 soldiers went to the extreme left. The ar- 
 tillery was left in the centre of the line. The 
 Filipinos made an obstinate resistance. Fi- 
 nally they attempted to retreat, but found 
 themselves flanked by the Kansas troops. 
 General Funston charged his men and drove 
 the insurgents right over into the fire of the 
 Montana volunteers. At length they escaped 
 from this fearful fire, but they left their dead 
 and wounded where they had dropped on 
 the battlefield. Besides the killed and 
 wounded ninety were made prisoners, while 
 over ioo stands of arms were captured, 
 having been dropped by the natives in their 
 wild flight from the Americans' fire. 
 
 The opening of a new and vigorous cam- 
 paign against the insurgents was inaugurated 
 on June ist. The capture of Cainta on the 
 3rd was followed on the 4th by the occupa- 
 tion of Antipolo after a running fight between 
 the forces of General Hall and the insurgents 
 
 lasting nearly twenty-four hours, the rebels 
 being forced to retreat by the gallant charges 
 and well-directed fire of the American troops. 
 The artillery played an important part in the 
 battle, our guns shelling the jungle which 
 concealed the rebels and inflicting heavy loss. 
 
 In a Strong Position. 
 
 The position of the American troops at 
 night indicated that they would sweep the 
 peninsula of Morong, the land projecting to 
 the south into Laguna de Bay, where the in- 
 surgents were supposed to have a large force, 
 near the town of Morong, as well as the bat- 
 tery on the western shore of the peninsula, 
 which smashed the propeller of the gunboat 
 Napidan. 
 
 The original plan was to surround the 
 forces of General Pio del Pinar, so that he 
 must retreat to the Morong peninsula, where 
 capture would have been inevitable. This 
 was not a complete success, because General 
 Hall's column found the country full of hand- 
 icaps to marching. There were several 
 streams to be bridged or forded, and the 
 troops frequently floundered through mo- 
 rasses, waist deep in mud, an experience 
 which, under the terrific sun, exhausted the 
 Americans quite beyond endurance. Most 
 of General Pio del Pinar's followers are sup- 
 posed to have escaped northward, probably 
 reaching Bosoboso, a stronghold in the 
 mountains. 
 
 Colonel Wholley, having successfully com- 
 pleted his share of the movement, brought 
 the Washington regiment to the river Pasig, 
 where about midnight the men embarked 
 upon cascoes and started for their destination, 
 under the convoy of the gunboats. 
 
 They encountered a repetition of the expe- 
 rience undergone by almost every expedition 
 on attempting to enter Laguna de Bay, as the 
 boats went aground in the shallows at the 
 mouth of the river and were detained there 
 
LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 1009 
 
 several hours. Major General Lawton, in 
 the meantime, was indefatigable, riding from 
 one force to another and supervising the load- 
 ing of the cascoes, without sleep for two 
 nights. 
 
 General Hall's column, which assembled 
 at the water works or pumping station late on 
 the 2nd, under cover of a moonless sky, con- 
 sisted of the Second Oregon Volunteers, 
 who marched to the point of rendezvous 
 from the city barracks; a battalion of the 
 Second Wyoming Regiment, four troops of 
 the Fourth Cavalry — one mounted on the 
 big American horses which so impressed the 
 natives, the others unmounted — two battalions 
 of the Fourth Infantry, one battalion of the 
 Ninth Infantry, the first six companies of the 
 First Colorado Regiment, and two mountain 
 guns. The men rolled themselves in their 
 blankets and lay upon the wet grass for a few 
 hours under a drizzling rain. 
 
 Driven from the Hills. 
 
 At 4 o'clock on the morning of the 3ro, 
 they began to cross the San Mateo river and 
 about noon easily repulsed a large band of 
 Filipinos about twelve miles east of Manila, 
 between Mariquina and Antipolo. The Ore- 
 gon regiment, the cavalry, the artillery and 
 the Fourth Infantry accomplished this task, 
 driving the insurgents from the hills, the 
 other troops being held in reserve, but after- 
 wards joining the main column in the pur- 
 suit towards the sea. 
 
 A running fight was in progress all the 
 
 afternoon. A Filipino outpost first attacked 
 
 a few American scouts, whereupon the 
 
 Fourth Cavalry formed a skirmish line and 
 
 drove the insurgents into the hills. Then 
 
 the Oregon regiment moved across a wet, 
 
 soggy rice field, in extended order, toward 
 
 the hills, where it was believed a large force 
 
 of the enemy had concentrated. When the 
 
 Oregonians were within about a mile of the 
 64 
 
 position, the Filipinos opened a heavy fire, 
 the Americans replying and pressing forward 
 more rapidly. 
 
 After a few volleys the insurgents were 
 seen scattering over the crest of the hills in 
 every direction, and their panic was increased 
 when the artillery opened upon them and the 
 shells began to explode all around them, un- 
 doubtedly causing great loss of life. The 
 bombardment by the batteries and the mus- 
 ketry was maintained for nearly half an hour, 
 after which not a Filipino could be seen on 
 the hills, and not a shot came from the posi- 
 tion. The heat was intense and the troops 
 suffered greatly, but they continued on the 
 trail taken by the fleeing enemy in the hope 
 of driving them toward the lake. 
 
 Combining Forces. 
 
 Colonel Wholley with two battalions of the 
 First Washington Regiment, a battalion of 
 the Twelfth Infantry, two guns of Scott's 
 Battery and a party of scouts under Major 
 Jeisenberger left San Pedro Macari on the 
 3rd, and after forcing the river Pasig advanced 
 northeast upon Cainta, while General Hall 
 approached the town from the opposite 
 direction, the gunboats Napidan, Covadonga 
 and Ceste co-operating in the river. 
 
 This important movement was kept so 
 secret that the public thought the plan was 
 to send General Ovenshine's lines forward 
 against the insurgents who were intrenched 
 south of the city. The Signal Corps dis- 
 played admirable enterprise in laying wires 
 with the troops, but the native sympathizers 
 cut them behind the army, even within the 
 American lines. 
 
 General Hall's column in the movement 
 upon the Morong peninsula completed a cir- 
 cuit of twenty miles, over rough and moun- 
 tainous country, having two engagements 
 with the insurgents, one of them severe, 
 keeping up an almost constant fire against 
 
IOIO 
 
 LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 scattered bands of rebels for nearly twenty- 
 four hours from 4 o'clock on the morning of 
 the 3rd, when the column left the pumping 
 station. 
 
 The Filipinos were driven in every direc- 
 tion, and the country through which General 
 Hall passed was pretty thoroughly cleared. 
 At 10 o'clock in the morning of the 4th the 
 column reached a point a few miles from Tay 
 Tay, where General Hall was met by Gen- 
 eral Lawton, who had already entered the 
 town and found it deserted. General Hall's 
 objective point was Antipolo, ten miles off, 
 and there was desultory firing all along the 
 line of march. The gunboats could be heard 
 shelling the hills in advance of the column. 
 
 The Second Battle. 
 
 The column, after driving the rebels from 
 the foothills near Mariachino, with a loss of 
 but two or three slightly wounded, proceeded 
 with all possible haste toward Laguna de Bay, 
 the Fourth Cavalry in the lead, the Oregon 
 Regiment next and the Fourth Infantry last. 
 At 5 o'clock on the 3d, these three regiments 
 fought their second battle of the day, and it 
 resulted like the first, in the complete rout 
 of a large Filipino force located in the moun- 
 tains and having every advantage of position. 
 
 The progress of the column was consider- 
 ably delayed while passing up the steep 
 mountain grade by a small band of insur- 
 gents, but these were effectually routed by 
 the Fourth Cavalry, which was in advance, 
 and the troops reached Antipolo in a few 
 hours. Our lines were immediately thrown 
 around, on three sides of the town, and then 
 the final advance was made. But it was found 
 unnecessary to fire a shot. Not a rebel was 
 visible and the town was entirely abandoned. 
 Two hours later, after a conference between 
 General Lawton and General Hall, the col- 
 umn proceeded toward Morong to drive away 
 any rebels found in that quarter. 
 
 When the start was made for Antipolo in 
 the morning the Oregon Regiment and the 
 Ninth Infantry were left behind as a rear 
 guard, and there was considerable firing along 
 their lines in clearing the enemy from the 
 high hill between their position and the lake. 
 
 Morong was captured at noon on June 5th 
 by Colonel Wholley with the First Washing- 
 ton Regiment and the army gunboats Napi- 
 dan and Cavadonga. This regiment, which 
 had been stationed at Pasig, moved north to- 
 gether with two battalions of the Thirteenth 
 Infantry, four battalions of the Ninth Infan- 
 try, part of the Nebraska Volunteers and 
 Scott's guns of Dyer's Battery. This force, 
 under the command of Colonel Wholley, 
 joined General Hall in the attack on Cainta. 
 It later moved its position near to Tay Tay 
 and waited there until General Hall struck 
 Antipolo when it took Tay Tay without loss. 
 No resistance was made to our advance by 
 the enemy, but the journey was exceedingly 
 hard, owing to the difficult road and the 
 intense heat. 
 
 South of Manila. 
 
 At daybreak on June 10th, a force of 4,500 
 men, under Generals Lawton, Wheaton and 
 Ovenshine, advanced from San Pedro Macati, 
 sweeping the country between the Bay of 
 Manila and Bay Lake, south of Manila. By 
 noon the country had been cleared almost to 
 Paranaque. The Americans lost two officers 
 killed and twenty-one soldiers wounded. The 
 rebels resisted desperately at the stronger of 
 their positions, and left fifty dead in the 
 trenches. Many more wounded were left 
 behind by the rebels in their retreat. The 
 heat during the day was overpowering, and 
 there were many prostrations of American 
 soldiers from that cause. 
 
 General Wheaton's advance over barren 
 country was slow and accompanied with 
 great suffering to the men. The land trav- 
 
LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 IOI I 
 
 ersed was high and hilly, devoid of vegetation, 
 and the blazing sun made the sandy soil ter- 
 rible to march over. Besides, the insurgents 
 constantly harassed the soldiers from the 
 trenches located on the crest of the hills, 
 from which they fired on the Americans and 
 inflicted considerable loss. 
 
 The Colorado Volunteers led the advance 
 of General Wheaton's brigade. The march 
 was a constant succession of gallant charges 
 up the hillsides in the face of a galling fire, 
 only to find each time that the insurgents had 
 retreated to the next hilltop before the Colo- 
 rado men reached them. These tactics were 
 repeated time and again. 
 
 Filipinos Intrenched. 
 
 The Fourteenth Infantry, of General Oven- 
 shine's brigade, met with strong opposition 
 from a band of Filipinos, which was in a 
 large and strongly-constructed trench. The 
 Americans were repulsed in their first and 
 second attempts to capture this trench, but 
 the third time they dashed up to the breast- 
 work and gained possession of it, but most 
 of the insurgents succeeded in making their 
 escape. 
 
 The most exciting incident of the day was 
 the flank attack made upon General Wheat- 
 on's troops. The Americans were approach- 
 ing Manila Bay, about a mile South of Las 
 Pinas, for the purpose of completing the semi- 
 circle enclosing Las Pinas and Paranaque. 
 General Lawton and General Wheaton, with 
 their respective staffs, were in advance. In the 
 t following column were a troop of the Fourth 
 Cavalry, the Colorado Volunteers and the 
 Ninth Infantry. 
 
 On approaching Zapote River the advance 
 guard met a sudden and fierce fire from 
 across the stream. The Colorado men hur- 
 riedly formed a skirmish line along the bank 
 of the river. While attention was thus directed 
 to the force across the river, the American 
 
 officers were amazed to observe the insur- 
 gents had thrown out a long skirmish line 
 600 yards to the left. As soon as the Amer- 
 ican line began its advance the insurgents 
 opened with a fierce fire. The American 
 line was between two fires, because all this 
 time the rebels across the river were keeping 
 up an incessant firing on our troops. 
 
 Two guns from the artillery were hurried 
 out. They began to shell the insurgent lines, 
 and the Filipinos, who had made the flank 
 attack, retreated. They ran towards the lake, 
 thus escaping from the semi- circles of Ameri- 
 can troops which had been drawn around Las 
 Pinas and Paranaque, and also keeping in a 
 position where they would be able to attack 
 the Americans from the rear. 
 
 Desperate Resistance. 
 
 General Lawton's forces had an all-day 
 battle with the insurgents at Las Pinas on 
 June 13th. He called out the whole force of 
 3,000, but at 5 o'clock was only able to push 
 the insurgents back 500 yards to the Zapote 
 River, where they were intrenched. The in- 
 surgents resisted desperately and aggres- 
 sively. They attempted to turn the left flank 
 of the American troops. The American loss 
 was conservatively estimated at sixty. 
 
 The fight at the Zapote River was the most 
 desperate and obstinate of all that occurred 
 after the beginning of hostilities in February. 
 Almost exactly a year before the insurgents 
 of Cavite province fought the greatest engage- 
 ment of the Spanish-Filipino war at this same 
 place, defeating a strong force of Spaniards, 
 which had been sent from Manila against 
 them. Their successful defense of the bridge 
 at that time doubtless inspired them with 
 greater courage than they otherwise would 
 have shown The insurgents of Cavite pro- 
 vince are the most warlike of any in the 
 Island of Luzon. This is the province of 
 Aguinaldo, and the men who were met and 
 
ICJ2 
 
 LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 defeated by General Lawton's troops were 
 those who did the severest fighting against 
 the Spaniards under the direction of Aguin- 
 aldo and his immediate lieutenants. 
 
 The Zapote River is two miles east of Ba- 
 coor. The Americans captured the passage 
 of the river after a long and desperate battle 
 in which ten were killed and forty-eight 
 wounded. The insurgent loss was forty 
 killed and one hundred and twenty wounded. 
 Forty-eight armed Filipinos were captured 
 by the Americans. The fighting began early 
 in the forenoon and continued until evening. 
 It was accompanied by a terrific bombard- 
 ment by the American warships lying near 
 the shore. 
 
 Heavy Losses. 
 
 By this desperate battle the insurgents lost 
 a district which they superstitiously believed 
 to be invulnerable against any attack of their 
 enemies, it having been the scene of many 
 former victories against the Spaniards. The 
 American forces engaged were all regulars of 
 the Ninth, Twelfth, Fourteenth and Twenty- 
 first Infantry, and all of them showed mag- 
 nificent valor. The sailors who were landed 
 undoubtedly saved the detachment on the 
 beach from destruction or capture, and the 
 hearty co-operation shown by these, and by 
 the men at the guns on the warships, caused 
 the soldiers to feel the warmest gratitude and 
 affection for the men of the navy. 
 
 The small gunboat Napidan, captured from 
 the Filipinos, arrived at Manila June 17th, 
 and her commander, Franklin, reported the 
 details of an engagement with the rebels on 
 the lake on June 10th. While Brigadier- 
 General Wheaton was fighting near Taguig, 
 Franklin saw a party of 500 insurgents ad- 
 vancing under cover of the bluffs to attack 
 Wheaton's left flank. The Napidan steamed 
 unseen by the rebels to within 500 yards of 
 the shore, when she opened fire upon the 
 
 enemy with every gun on board, two and 
 three-inch Hotchkiss, revolving Colt, rapid- 
 fire Gatling and rifles in the hands of the 
 crew. It was a tremendous surprise to the 
 insurgents. 
 
 The first discharge scattered the rebels • nd 
 threw them into utter confusion. The Fili- 
 pino commander, who was mounted, belab- ' 
 ored his men with the flat of his sword, striv- 
 ing to rally them, but they would not stand 
 to be cut down by the murderous fire of the 
 gunboat. Finally the rebels fled over the 
 hill, the Napidan shelling them until the last 
 man disappeared. 
 
 The Third Battalion of the Fourth Regi- 
 ment, under the command of Major Bubb, 
 and one gun of the Sixth Artillery, com- 
 manded by Lieutenant Koehler, started south- 
 ward from Imus June 19th, on a reconnois- 
 sance, and met the enemy near Perez das 
 Marinas. While the American troops were 
 in a sunken road a force of insurgents at- 
 tacked them on the left flank. The Ameri- 
 cans retreated in good order for several 
 miles, losing five killed and twenty wounded. 
 
 Enemy Driven Back. 
 
 Finally, being reinforced by Robinson's 
 Battalion of the Fourth Infantry, they ad- 
 vanced upon the foe. The fighting still con- 
 tinued until the enemy was driven off, with 
 considerable loss. Our loss during the day 
 amounted to a total of forty killed and 
 wounded. 
 
 Reports were received that Das Marinas 
 had been deserted by the insurgents. The 
 Alcalde of the place came to Imus and for- 
 mally surrendered this town. The houses 
 along the roadside were filled with natives pro- 
 fessedly friendly, and the battalion advanced 
 confidently until within three-fourths of a mile 
 of Das Marinas, when they discovered the 
 enemy, paralleling the road at a long distance 
 on bot'i sides and practically surrounding 
 
LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 1013 
 
 the little force. Natives began firing from 
 houses in the rear, and natives in white 
 clothes were captured with guns in hand. 
 
 The whole scheme was to wipe out the 
 small body of American troops, and might 
 have succeeded but for the marvelous cour- 
 age of the troops and officers. The fight be- 
 gan at noon, and the enemy's fire was silenced 
 in one hour. The Americans, on retiring, 
 d'scovered that they were surrounded. 
 
 Bravery of Rear Guard. 
 
 The skirmish lines were crowding the Fili- 
 pinos back toward Imus. Outflankers were 
 thrown out right and left under a flanking 
 fire. The rear guard was desperately hold- 
 ing the enemy's rushes in check in spite of an 
 incessant and galling fire on the main road. 
 Men were falling everywhere, the ambulances 
 being filled, and carts were impressed and 
 loaded with the wounded, and dragged by 
 hand by the prisoners. Two of our dead 
 were left behind. At 3 o'clock it looked as 
 if nothing could save the battalion. At 4 it 
 had pressed the enemy off to the right, and 
 was at last behind them, and fifteen minutes 
 later Captain Hazzard, an aide to General 
 Wheaton, pushed through alone with the 
 news that Wheaton was coming to their re- 
 lief. The men cheered wildly as they sprang 
 at the Filipinos. 
 
 General Wheaton found the enemy a thou- 
 sand strong moving to intercept the road 
 where it runs at right angles. He opened on 
 them with shrapnel, and mowed down the 
 insurgents. The way cleared, our left ad- 
 vanced rapidly, and at 4.30 had the enemy in 
 full rout and gained a mile and a half of lost 
 ground. The regiment bivouacked at last in 
 the rice fields, and food and ammunition were 
 rushed forward. It was the most determined 
 and best-planned resistance yet made by the 
 Filipinos. 
 
 The more thoroughly all the facts regard- 
 
 ing the battle near Perez des Marinas are in- 
 vestigated, the more clear is it that General 
 Wheaton saved the First Battalion of the 
 Fourth Infantry from a great disaster by his 
 timely arrival on the scene with reinforce- 
 ments. 
 
 The movement was very slow, and every 
 step had to be contested with the enemy. 
 The 2,000 insurgents were making a supreme 
 effort to destroy the Americans and were 
 sending in a galling fire from all directions. 
 Lieutenant Kohler's one field gun was used 
 with telling effect on the enemy, and assisted 
 materially in opening a path for the harassed 
 battalion. One company was cut off at one 
 time from the rest of the force, and was com- 
 pelled to charge twice over an open fire-swept 
 field to regain its place on the left of the ad- 
 vancing column. The sunken road afforded 
 no protection. 
 
 Under Constant Fire. 
 
 The ambulance containing the dead and 
 wounded was under fire continually, and as 
 the supply of ammunition became nearly ex- 
 hausted the condition of the Americans was 
 desperate. Lieutenant Wolf, with his men, 
 was sent to the left flank, and there fought 
 with great heroism. Four hours of this kind 
 of fighting had taken the battalion only three 
 miles in its retreat. Then it made a stand to 
 collect and care for the wounded. 
 
 At that time Lieutenant Hazlett, an aide to 
 General Wheaton, and Lieutenant Cunning- 
 ham, of the signal corps, galloped up the 
 Imus road bringing word that reinforcements 
 were on the way. Hearty American cheers 
 greeted this welcome news. The Filipinos 
 answered with a heavier fire, their bullets 
 sweeping the road with fearful effect. At 
 last the guns of General Wheaton's men, 
 consisting of the Second Battalion of the 
 Fourth Infantry, were heard on the left. This 
 soon turned the tide of hattle. 
 
ioi4 
 
 LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 The fresh troops, with their ammunition 
 belts well filled, dashed to the relief of the 
 First Battalion. Deploying on the left and 
 charging front with precision, they drove the 
 insurgents for a distance and recovered the 
 dead bodies of the Americans which had 
 been left behind. 
 
 Throughout the action the conduct of the 
 men was magnificent, though at times it 
 seemed as if they could expect nothing ex- 
 cept destruction. The officers remained cool, 
 riding along the road and giving their orders 
 with a calmness which added much to the 
 confidence of the men. The enemy at the 
 end of the engagement was driven in confu- 
 sion off the field and was followed within two 
 miles of Pedez des Marinas, when darkness 
 put an end to the engagement. 
 
 The American loss was four killed and 
 twenty wounded. Ninety-three dead Fili- 
 pinos were recovered from a part of the bat- 
 tlefield, and many more doubtless were slain 
 during the battle. 
 
 Aguinaldo in Charge. 
 
 At this juncture of affairs Aguinaldo look 
 charge of the army formerly under command 
 of General Luna, who, as reported, was as- 
 sassinated by command of the insurgent 
 leader. He massed the largest force yet 
 brought together, about 8,000 men, bringing 
 2,000 from the Antipolo region. The enemy 
 became very troublesome and constantly an- 
 noyed our troops, who had to be on the alert 
 to repel the attacks and were compelled to 
 sleep on their arms. Aguinaldo seemed fully 
 resolved to continue his warfare, and it was 
 surprising how rapidly he brought forward 
 his forces. 
 
 On July 20th severe fighting took place at 
 Bobong. Captain Byrne, of the Sixth Infan- 
 try, with seventy men, surprised a force of 
 450 Babaylones, of whom 115, by actual 
 count, were killed and many more were 
 
 wounded. Only one of the enemy was cap- 
 tured. The American loss was one man 
 killed and one wounded. Fighting was 
 mostly at close quarters with bayonets and 
 clubbed guns. A large quantity of supplies 
 and arms were captured. 
 
 On July 26th an expedition comprising 
 troops from San Pedro Macati, Pasig and 
 Morong, under Brigadier-General R. H. Hall, 
 captured Calamba, an important trading town 
 on the south shore of Laguna de Bay. There 
 were two hours of fighting, during which 
 four soldiers were killed and twelve wounded. 
 
 An Important Town. 
 
 Calamba is about thirty miles southeast of 
 Manila. It is much further south than the 
 United States troops had before penetrated 
 on land. It is in the province of Laguna. It 
 has a population of 11,476, and is twenty- 
 seven miles from Santa Cruz, on the eastern 
 shore of the bay. 
 
 Later details of the fight at Calamba 
 showed that it was a warm one. The insur- 
 gents were unwilling to abandon the place, 
 which is the key to the lake road. General 
 Hall, hearing that General Malbar was pre- 
 paring to make an attack, sent Major Weis- 
 enberger with three companies of the Twenty- 
 first Infantry, three troops of cavalry and one 
 of Hamilton's guns to attack the insurgents. 
 Ihis detachment found a force of 1,000 rebels 
 behind hastily-made intrenchments. The 
 rebels held their fire until the contingent of 
 the Twenty-first Regiment was within 300 
 yards, when they fired a volley. The Amer- 
 icans dropped in the high grass out of sight 
 and returned the fire. 
 
 Lieutenant Love, who was walking erect 
 along the front of the men, was shot in the 
 arm. An insurgent officer, equally brave, 
 stood at the top of the trenches, directing the 
 fire of the insurgents until he was kiUed, 
 when the Filipinos fled. 
 
LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 1015 
 
 During the fighting on the north side of 
 the town a small body of insurgents attempted 
 to enter on the south side, but a troop of 
 cavalry repulsed them. The total American 
 loss at Calamba was seven killed and twenty 
 wounded. Sixteen dead insurgents were 
 found. 
 
 Military operations in the Philippines were 
 nearly suspended during the rainy season, 
 but on August 9, 1899, General MacArthur, 
 with a force of 4,000 men, pushed northward 
 five miles from San Fernando, meeting and 
 defeating 6,000 insurgents, who left many 
 dead and wounded on the field in their re- 
 treat. The American loss in several sharp 
 encounters was known to have been at least 
 eight killed and twenty-six wounded. The 
 objective point was Angeles, one of the rich- 
 est towns north of Manila. 
 
 Armored Cars. 
 
 The movement on Angeles had been 
 planned for some time, but was delayed by 
 rains. Finally two days of sunshine dried 
 the ground sufficiently to warrant the attempt, 
 and the movement began. 
 
 Armored cars, each with a 6-pounder and 
 two Gatling revolving cannon on board, 
 moved out on the railroad track in the 
 centre of our lines. Their guns did sharp 
 execution throughout the day. The Filip- 
 inos were evidently surprised at the move- 
 ment, having expected the American forces 
 to move against Tico. They were well pro- 
 tected by trenches, and followed their usual 
 tactics of holding their positions until the 
 American fire became too warm and then re- 
 treating in disorder. 
 
 On August 28th there was a great demon- 
 stration at Pittsburg in honor of returning 
 soldiers. Through cheering multitudes of 
 people, who packed eight miles of sidewalks, 
 occupied every window and observation point 
 along the route, and alternated their cheers 
 
 with tears, the Tenth Pennsylvania Volun- 
 teers, the only volunteer regiment east of the 
 Mississippi to see Philippine service, triumph- 
 antly marched through Pittsburg. 
 
 Enthusiastic Reception. 
 
 The occasion was made memorable by the 
 presence of the President of the United 
 States, Major-General Wesley Merritt, Gen- 
 eral Francis V. Greene, United States Senator 
 Boies Penrose, the Governor of the State, 
 and other prominent persons who gathered 
 to receive the farmer boys who made an hon- 
 orable record in the Spanish and Philippine 
 wars. The President delivered a speech, in 
 which he welcomed home the members of 
 the regiment, and made an emphatic declara- 
 tion of his Philippine policy. 
 
 Active military operations in the Philip- 
 pines were almost entirely halted by the wet 
 season, but an occasional brush with the 
 enemy served to keep our troops on the alert 
 and in fighting mood. The United States 
 cruiser Charleston, the monitor Monterey and 
 the gunboats Concord and Zafiro, with marines 
 and bluejackets from the cruiser Baltimore, 
 left Cavite on September 18th, and proceeded 
 to Subig Bay to destroy an insurgent cannon 
 there. Owing to the bad weather the operation 
 was postponed until the 23d, when the war- 
 ships bombarded the town of Olangapo and 
 the intrenchments where the gun was situ- 
 ated. 
 
 The Monterey opened fire with her second- 
 ary and main batteries at twenty-five minutes 
 past seven o'clock, the Charleston and Con- 
 cord joining in the firing immediately. At 
 twenty-two minutes to eight the insurgent 
 cannon answered, the first shot passing close 
 to the Monterey's smokestack. 
 
 The American bombardment became gen- 
 eral. At half-past nine o'clock the Monterey 
 advanced to a range of six hundred yards, 
 using her main battery. Two hundred and 
 
ioi6 
 
 LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 fifty men were landed about eight hundred 
 yards east of the cannon at eleven o'clock 
 under a severe Mauser fire from the shore. 
 The cannon was found to be a 6-inch Krupp 
 gun that the insurgents had obtained from 
 the Spaniards. Fifty pounds of gun-cotton 
 were used in destroying it. 
 
 The insurgents captured the United States 
 gunboat Urdaneta in the Orani River, on the 
 northwest side of Manila Bay, on September 
 25th, where she was patrolling. 
 
 New Secretary of War. 
 
 When President McKinley selected his 
 Cabinet, he made Hon. Russell A. Alger, of 
 Michigan, Secretary of War. Mr. Alger 
 continued in office until July 22, 1899, when 
 he resigned, and Hon. Elihu Root, of New 
 York, was appointed his successor. Mr. 
 Root entered upon the administration of his 
 office in the most efficient manner, and very 
 soon had additional forces on their way to 
 the Philippines, with a view of suppressing 
 as speedily as possible the insurrection in 
 those islands. 
 
 The greatest public demonstration in honor 
 of any individual in the history of our coun- 
 try took place in New York upon the return 
 of Admiral Dewey from his great victory in 
 the harbor of Manila. The Admiral arrived 
 on the 26th of September, 1899, ar, d was 
 warmly greeted by city and state officials. 
 As his flagship, the Olympia, came into the 
 harbor, she was received with noisy demon- 
 strations, and a multitude of people, on land 
 and water, testified in every possible way, 
 their admiration for Admiral Dewey. 
 
 On the 29th, there was a naval parade that 
 was participated in by the North Atlantic 
 squadron, and a vast number of vessels all 
 gaily decked. It was the most imposing 
 naval spectacle ever witnessed on this conti- 
 nent. Hundreds of thousands of interested 
 spectators lined the shores, from the Battery 
 
 to Grant's tomb on the Hudson, and cheered 
 our battleships and other naval vessels. 
 
 Welcome to Dewey. 
 
 On the 30th there was a land parade in 
 which 30,000 soldiers and civilians partici- 
 pated. Admiral Dewey was escorted first 
 to the City Hall where he was presented by 
 the Municipal Government with a loving cup 
 in the presence of a vast throng of people. 
 Thence he was escorted to Riverside Drive, 
 and from there made his way through a vast 
 concourse of applauding people to the arch 
 erected in his honor at Twenty-fourth Street 
 and Fifth Avenue, where he reviewed the 
 parade. Many state governors, their escorts 
 and a large number of city and state officials 
 were in the parade, and all attempts to describe 
 the enthusiasm of the populace would fail. 
 
 It was a memorable day in the history of 
 the United States, as it showed the patriotic 
 feeling of the people and their admiration 
 for the famous hero of the Spanish war. 
 
 From New York the Admiral made his 
 way to Washington, where he again met 
 with a most cordial reception, and on the 3d 
 of October was presented with a sword that 
 had been voted in his honor by Congress. 
 An immense concourse of people surrounded 
 the Capitol, on the steps of which the Ad- 
 miral took his stand and was welcomed in 
 an eloquent speech by Hon. John D. Long, 
 Secretary of the Navy. 
 
 President McKinley then presented the 
 Admiral with the diamond sword. He made 
 a brief and graceful reply thanking Congress 
 and the American people for the distinguished 
 consideration that had been shown him. 
 Other receptions to the Admiral followed, 
 all of which showed the appreciation of the 
 public and gave evidence of the very high 
 esteem in which he was held for his bravery, 
 his adherence to duty -and his gallant ex- 
 ploit at Manila. 
 
LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 1017 
 
 General Funston and the 20th Kansas 
 Infantry, having done heroic service in the 
 Philippines, returned from the seat of war, 
 and on November 2d their arrival home was 
 signalized by an enthusiastic welcome. 
 
 It was officially announced at Washing- 
 ton, November 8th, that an agreement had 
 been arrived at between Great Britain 
 and Germany, by which the Samoan 
 Islands would be left by the former 
 to Germany and our own country. 
 The negotiations were conducted in 
 a friendly spirit, and there was general 
 satisfaction at the result on the part 
 of our own government officials. 
 
 Garret Augustus Hobart, Vice- 
 President of the United States, died 
 at half- past eight o'clock on the 
 morning of November 21st, of or- 
 ganic heart disease, at his home in 
 Paterson, N. J. Mr. Hobart was the 
 sixth Vice-President to die in office. 
 The others were George Clinton, of 
 New York, who died in 18 12, while 
 Madison was President ; Elbridge 
 Gerry, of Massachusetts, who died 
 in 18 14, Madison still being Presi- 
 dent ; William R. King, of Alabama, 
 who died in 1853, while Pierce 
 was President ; Henry Wilson, of 
 sachusetts, who died in 1875, having 
 been elected with Grant, and Thomas 
 A. Hendricks, who died in 1885, dur- 
 ing Cleveland's first administration. 
 Wilson, and Hendricks all died 
 vember. 
 
 Senator William P. Frye, of Maine, was 
 re-elected president pro tern, of the Senate, 
 and presided over that body when it assem- 
 bled on December 5th. Under the law- 
 enacted after Mr. Hendricks' death, the Sec- 
 retary of State will succeed to the Presidency 
 
 should the Chief Executive die or leave 
 office. 
 
 General Lawton, who had made a brilliant 
 record in the Philippines by his great sa- 
 gacity, courage, and generalship, was killed 
 instantly on December 1 8th, while engaged 
 in driving insurgents from the San Mateo sec- 
 tion of country, northeast of Manila. General 
 Lawton' s death was felt to be a great loss 
 
 Mas- 
 
 Gerry, 
 in No- 
 
 HON. GARRET A. HOBART. 
 
 to our army, and the whole country united 
 in praise of his manly virtues and heroism. 
 
 Lieutenant J. C. Gilmoreand other Amer- 
 icans from the gunboat "Yorktown," cap- 
 tured by the Filipinos at Baler in April, 
 were rescued by Colonel Hare's column in 
 northern Luzon. 
 
 Congress assembled on the 5 th of Decem- 
 ber and received President McKinley's mes- 
 sage. The topics treated that came closest 
 home to the people were the currency and 
 the trusts. The President declared in the 
 strongest terms for the enactment of the 
 
ioi8 
 
 LATEST EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 gold standard and for breaking the " endless 
 chain " by providing that greenbacks when 
 once redeemed should assume the character 
 of gold certificates, being paid out again only 
 for the yellow metal. 
 
 Citing the great prosperity of the country 
 and the plentitude of gold, he argued that 
 these conditions made this the most fitting 
 time to insure continuance of the gold stand- 
 ard and to be prepared to meet less favorable 
 conditions when they recur. The President, 
 however, suggested no plan of currency re- 
 form to make the gold standard effective. 
 
 National Banking System. 
 
 After urging its adoption and that the Sec- 
 retary of the Treasury be given power to 
 uphold it — presumably by the sale of bonds 
 when necessary — Mr. McKinley merely in- 
 vited the attention of Congress as to " whether 
 or not such reasonable modifications can be 
 made in the National Banking act" as will 
 render possible an increase in volume of the 
 existing bank notes. 
 
 Touching the trusts, Mr. McKinley forti- 
 fied his own remarks with liberal excerpts 
 from Presidential messages of Mr. Harrison 
 and Mr. Cleveland. His own recommenda- 
 tions were of a general character. " If the 
 present law," he said, " can be extended 
 more certainly to control or check these mo- 
 nopolies or trusts, it should be done without 
 delay Whatever power Congress possesses 
 over this most important subject should be 
 promptly ascertained and asserted." The 
 most practical of his recommendations on the 
 subject dealt with the lack of uniformity of 
 State laws on the subject, urging that they 
 be made to harmonize, and that Congress 
 may supplement the work so as to make a 
 complete system of laws throughout the 
 United States. 
 
 The President was " satisfied that the judg- 
 ment of the country favored the policy" of 
 paying bounties on shipping, and the plan 
 fathered in the last Congress by Senator 
 Hanna and now to be introduced in substan- 
 tially the same form appeared to have his 
 approval. This would call for payments of 
 about nine millions a month, and it was as- 
 serted in the minority report that it would 
 within twelve months involve contracts run- 
 ning over the period of twenty years to an 
 aggregate of 165 millions. On the Isthmian 
 Canal the President said that the reasons he 
 presented a year before for early action were 
 even stronger now. He renewed his appeal 
 for a commission to visit China and study its 
 commercial possibilities and its resources. 
 
 The message covered a wide range of 
 topics, from the need of making good roads, 
 lynchings, pensions, Indian affairs and armor 
 plate, at home, to the unsatisfactory attitude 
 of Turkey abroad. In passing he told of the 
 preparations for the Paris Exposition of 1900 
 and of the magnificent manner in which 
 American Industries would be represented. 
 The President very tersely presented the 
 reasons for setting before the world the re- 
 sults of our artistic skill and inventive genius 
 at the approaching great exposition. 
 
 On January 15th, 1900, the Senate Inter- 
 oceanic Canal Committee agreed to report 
 favorably the Hepburn bill for the construc- 
 tion of the Nicaragua Canal by the United 
 States, and the measure was pushed in 
 both houses of Congress. Secretary Gage's 
 estimates of the Government's expenses for 
 1901 showed an increase of more than $38,- 
 000,000 over the year's appropriation for 
 1899. The Currency bill, establishing the 
 gold standard, was passed by the House of 
 Representatives by a vote of 1 89 to 150, and 
 was sent to the Senate. 
 
Our New Possessions. 
 
 THE area of Cuba is about equal to 
 that of Pennsylvania, the length 
 being 760 miles, and the width 
 varying from 35 to 130 miles. 
 The productive soil, mineral wealth and 
 climatic conditions of the island entitle it to 
 rank among the foremost communities of the 
 world. The soil is a marvel of richness, and 
 fertilizers are seldom used, unless in the case 
 of tobacco, even though the same crops be 
 grown on the same land for a hundred years, 
 as has happened in some of the old sugar- 
 cane fields. The mountains are of coral 
 formation, while the lowlands of Eastern 
 Cuba at least seem to be composed largely 
 of fossils of sea matter from prehistoric times, 
 and are extremely rich in lime and phos- 
 phate, which accounts for the inexhaustible 
 fertility of the soil. 
 
 Products of Cuba. 
 
 Although founded and settled more than 
 fifty years before the United States, Cuba 
 has still 13,000,000 acres of primeval forests; 
 mahogany, cedar, logwood, redwood, ebony, 
 lignum-vitae and caiguaran (which is more 
 durable in the ground than iron or steel) are 
 among the woods. If all the land suitable 
 to the growth of sugar-cane were devoted to 
 that industry, it is estimated that Cuba might 
 supply the entire Western Hemisphere with 
 sugar. The island has already produced in 
 a single year for export 1,000,000 tons, and 
 its capabilities have only been in the experi- 
 mental stage. The adaptability of the soil 
 for tobacco culture has long been known. 
 Cuba takes great pride in the quality of her 
 coffee, and until the war the plantations were 
 
 flourishing. The land is not suited to the 
 cultivation of cereals. 
 
 The tobacco crop on an average, says the 
 Consul General, is estimated at 560,000 bales 
 (one bale is no pounds), 338,000 bales being 
 exported, and the remainder used in cigar 
 and cigarette manufacture in Havana. The 
 cigars exported in 1896 numbered 185,914,- 
 000. Tobacco leaf exported in 1895, 30,466,- 
 000 pounds; in 1896, 16,823,000 pounds; 
 the decrease being due to a decree of May, 
 1856, forbidding tobacco leaf exports except 
 to Spain. About 80,000 of the inhabitants 
 are ordinarily engaged in the cultivation of 
 tobacco. 
 
 Principal Cities. 
 
 The several principal cities of Cuba are 
 thus described, and the information will be 
 especially interesting and instructive at this 
 time, when they are under the control of the 
 land and naval forces of the United States : 
 Habana (Havana), the capital city of the 
 province of that name and of the Island of 
 Cuba, is situated on the west side of Havana 
 Bay, on a peninsula of level land of limestone 
 formation, and is on the narrowest part of 
 the island. Its strategic position at the 
 mouth of the Gulf of Mexico, has aptly given 
 it the name of the Key of the Gulf, and a 
 symbolic key is emblazoned in its coat of 
 arms. 
 
 The entrance to the harbor, guarded on 
 one side by the Morro and the frowning 
 heights of La Cabana Fort, and on the other 
 by the Punta and Reina batteries, is narrow > 
 but expands into a wide and deep harbor, 
 where a thousand ships can safely ride. 
 
OUR NEW POSSESSIONS. 
 
 Havana is a strongly-fortified place, sur- 
 rounded by imposing fortifications, such as 
 the Cabana, Morro Castle, Castillo del Prin- 
 cipe, Fort Atares, Punta Reina Battery and 
 Fort No. 4. The streets are generally nar- 
 row in the older part of the city, but outside 
 the walls are many wide avenues. 
 
 The city also contains many notable build- 
 ings, as the Cathedral, formerly a Jesuit con- 
 vent, now the depository of the ashes of the 
 immortal discoverer of America ; the palace 
 of the government, fine private residences, 
 public parks, and statues of Columbus, Fer- 
 nando VII., Isabel III., etc. There are 
 many churches and convents, a commemo- 
 rative chapel fronts the palace, close to a 
 large ceiba tree, under which Diego Velas- 
 quez, the founder of the city, celebrated mass 
 in 1 5 19. There are numerous cigar and 
 cigarette factories, tanneries, manufactories 
 of sweetmeats, rum, candles, gas, beer, car- 
 riages, soap, perfumery, glycerine, etc. 
 
 Climate and Population. 
 
 The population of Havana, from reliable 
 official estimate, is about 220,000. Its prin- 
 cipal exports to the United States consist of 
 tobacco, fruit, wax and honey, sugar and 
 molasses. All kinds of breadstuff's, lumber, 
 coal and machinery are imported from the 
 United States. The climate is generally 
 warm and humid, and marked by two clearly 
 defined seasons — the wet and dry, the former 
 ranging from June to December ; September 
 and October being considered the hurricane 
 months. The trade winds blow generally 
 with great regularity, and the heat of the day 
 is cooled by evening breezes. 
 
 Matanzas is beautifully situated on Matan- 
 zas Bay, on the north coast of Cuba, sixty 
 miles east of Havana. It is divided into 
 three parts by rivers, the principal business 
 part occupying the central portion, and ex- 
 tending west one and one-half miles. The 
 
 chief warehouses, distilleries, and sugar re- 
 fineries are on the south of the river San 
 Juan, easily accessible to railroads and 
 lighters. The population is 49,384, and that 
 of Matanzas province 271,000, according to 
 the 1893 census. The principal industries 
 are rum distilling, sugar-refining, and manu- 
 facture of guava jelly. There are railroad 
 car and machine shops. The climate is fine, 
 and Matanzas is considered the healthiest 
 city on the island. With proper drainage 
 and sanitary arrangements, yellow fever and 
 malaria would be almost unknown. 
 
 The Oldest City. 
 
 Santiago de Cuba, the second city in size 
 on the island, is probably the oldest city of 
 any size on this hemisphere, having been 
 founded by Velasquez in 15 [4. It fronts on 
 a beautiful bay six mites long and two miles 
 wide, on the south-eastern coast of Cuba, 
 100 miles west of Cape Maysi. The popu- 
 lation in 1895 was 59,614. The mean tem- 
 perature in summer is 88 degrees; in winter, 
 82 degrees. It is regarded as very unhealthy, 
 yellow fever being prevalent throughout the 
 year and small-pox epidemic at certain times. 
 These conditions are due to the lack of sani- 
 tary and hygienic measures ; all refuse matter 
 as well as dead dogs, cats, chickens, etc., be- 
 ing thrown into the streets to decay and fill 
 the air with disease germs. A railroad called 
 the Sabanilla and Maroted, runs from the 
 city to San Luis, twenty-five miles distant, 
 with a branch to Alto Songo, twelve in length. 
 It is largely owned and controlled by citi- 
 zens of the United States. 
 
 Santiago is the headquarters for three 
 large mining plants owned by United States 
 citizens, viz., the Jurugua, the Spanish Amer- 
 ican, and the Sigua, together representing 
 the investment of about $8,000,000 ; the last 
 named are not in operation. Santiago is the 
 capital of this province and oriental region. 
 
OUR NEW POSSESSIONS. 
 
 in 
 
 There are a number of tobacco factories, but 
 the chief business is the exportation of raw 
 materials and the importation of manufac- 
 tured goods and provisions. Sugar, iron 
 ore, manganese, mahogany, hides, wax, cedar 
 and tobacco are exported to the United States. 
 
 City and Harbor of Cienfuegos. 
 
 Cienfuegos is on a peninsula in the Bay 
 of Iagua, six miles from the sea. The depth 
 of water at the anchorage in the harbor is 27 
 feet, and at the different wharves from 14 to 
 16 feet. The commercial importance of the 
 place was recognized as long ago as 1850, 
 and has increased with the development of 
 the sugar industry. This port is now the 
 centre of the sugar trade for the south of the 
 island. It is connected by rail with Havana 
 and the principal points on the north of the 
 island. The population in 1895 was 2 4»°3°- 
 Sugar and tobacco are exported to the 
 United States, and soap and ice are manu- 
 factured. 
 
 The climate from December 1st to May 
 1st is dry and moderately warm, the temper- 
 ature ranging from 60 degrees to 78 degrees 
 during the day and falling several degrees at 
 night. At this season almost constant winds 
 prevail from the north-east or north-west, 
 accompanied by clouds of dust. For the 
 rest of the year the temperature ranges from 
 75 degrees to 93 degrees, descending a few 
 degrees at night. During this season there 
 are frequent and heavy rainfalls and wind- 
 storms. The yellow fever is then epidemic. 
 But little attention is given by the municipal 
 authorities to hygienic or to sanitary meas- 
 ures. Water for household purposes is in- 
 sufficiently supplied by two small plants, the 
 principal source being the Jicotea river, 10 
 miles distant. The death rate is 42.82 to 
 1,000. 
 
 Cardenas is a seaport on the north coast 
 of Cuba, about 135 miles east of Havana. 
 
 In 1893 it had 23,517 inhabitants. The tem- 
 perature is pleasant during the winter, but 
 from a2>out the middle of May to the middle 
 of October the weather is hot and sultry, the 
 thermometer during the day being usually 
 94 degrees in the shade and falling some five 
 degrees at night. Sanitary conditions an.* 
 bad. Yellow fever, typhus, typhoid and pei* 
 nicious fevers prevail throughout most of tli£ 
 year, being worse in the hot season. Cases 
 of small pox also appear at times. 
 
 Trinidad de Cuba is located on a slope of 
 the mountain called La Vijia (Lookout), 
 which has an elevation of about 900 feet 
 above sea level. The port, Casilda, lies 
 about one league to the south ; the harbor is 
 almost landlocked, and has very little depth. 
 Vessels drawing 10 feet 6 inches are liable to 
 run aground with the least deviation from 
 the tortuous channel. About half a mile 
 west of Trinidad is the River Guarabo, nav- 
 igable for small boats only. Four miles east 
 lies Masio Bay, which will accommodate 
 deep-draft vessels. The population numbers 
 about 18,000. Sugar and a little honey are 
 exported. The climate is very healthy, the 
 death rate being 21 to 26 per 1,000, though 
 sanitary measures are almost unknown. The 
 town is so situated that the heavier it rains 
 the cleaner it becomes. The town and 
 vicinity are considered the healthiest in Cuba. 
 
 The Island of Porto Rico. 
 
 The island of Porto Rico has an extent of 
 about 3668 square miles, being 37 miles broad 
 and 108 miles long. The population is placed 
 at 813,937; one-half are white and the bal* 
 ance negroes and Creoles. San Juan is situ 
 ated on a long and narrow island, separated 
 from the main island at one end by a shallow 
 arm of the sea, over which is a bridge con- 
 necting it with the mainland, which runs out 
 at this point in a long sand spit, some nine 
 miles in length, apparently to meet the 
 
OUR NEW POSSESSIONS. 
 
 smaller island ; at the other end the island 
 ends in a rugged bluff or promontory some 
 hundred feet high and three-fourths of a mile 
 distant from the main island. This promon- 
 tory is crowned by Morro Castle, the princi- 
 pal fortification of the town. At this end of 
 the island is the entrance to the harbor, with 
 a narrow channel and rocky bottom, so close 
 under the headland that one can almost leap 
 ashore from a passing vessel. The water 
 here is some thirty feet deep. 
 
 To a mariner unacquainted with the local- 
 ity, or when a norther is blowing, this en- 
 trance is one of difficulty and danger. After 
 rounding the bluff, one finds a broad and 
 beautiful bay, landlocked, and with a good 
 depth of water which is being increased by 
 dredging. It is by far the best harbor in 
 Porto Rico, and probably as good a one as 
 can be found in the West Indies. However, 
 it has its drawbacks. Sailing vessels are 
 frequently detained by the northerly winds 
 during the winter months, and even steamers 
 -with a draft of over twenty feet are sometimes 
 delayed ; but these occasions are rare. When 
 they do occur, the "boca," or entrance to the 
 harbor, is a mass of seething, foaming water, 
 and presents an imposing spectacle. 
 
 Good Specimen of a Walled Town. 
 
 To see steamers of 1 6 or 1 8 feet draft enter 
 in a severe norther is a sight to be remem- 
 bered, as the great waves lift them up and 
 seem about to hurl them forward to destruc- 
 tion. At such times there is need of a 
 staunch vessel, steady nerves, and a captain 
 well acquainted with the channel, as no pilot 
 will venture out. 
 
 The island upon which the city stands is 
 shaped much like an arm and hand; it is 
 about two and a half miles long and averages 
 less than one-fourth of a mile in width. The 
 greatest width is a little over half a mile in 
 the portion representing the hand, which also 
 
 contains the major part of the city. San Juan 
 is a perfect specimen of a walled town, with 
 portcullis, moat, gates, and battlements. Built 
 over two hundred and fifty years ago, it is 
 still in good condition and repair. The walls 
 are picturesque and represent a stupendous 
 work and cost in themselves. Inside the 
 walls, the city is laid off in regular squares, 
 six parallel streets running in the direction of 
 the length of the island and seven at right 
 angles. The houses are closely and com- 
 pactly built of brick, usually of two stories, 
 stuccoed on the outside and painted in a 
 variety of colors. The upper floors are occu- 
 pied by the more respectable people, while 
 the ground floors, almost without exception, 
 are given up to negroes and the poorer 
 classes. 
 
 Life on the Ground Floor. 
 
 The population within the walls is esti- 
 mated at 20,000, and most of it !ives on the 
 ground floor. In one small room, with a 
 flimsy partition, a whole family will reside. 
 The ground floor of the whole town reeks 
 with filth and conditions are most unsanitary. 
 In a tropical country, where disease readily 
 prevails, the consequences of such herding 
 may be easily inferred. There is no running 
 watei in the town. The entire population 
 depends upon rain water, caught upon the 
 flat roofs of the buildings and conducted to 
 the cistern, which occupies the greater part 
 of the inner court yard that is an essential 
 part of Spanish houses the world over, but 
 that here, on account of the crowded condi- 
 tions, is very small. 
 
 There is no sewerage, except for surface 
 water and sinks, while vaults are in every 
 house and occupy whatever remaining space 
 there may be in the parts not taken up by 
 the cisterns. The risk of contaminating the 
 water is very great, and in dry seasons the 
 supply is entirely exhausted. Epidemics are 
 
OUR NEW POSSESSIONS. 
 
 frequent, and the town is alive with vermin, 
 flies, cockroaches, mosquitoes and dogs. The 
 streets are wider than in the older part 
 of Havana, and will admit two carriages 
 abreast. The sidewalks are narrow, and in 
 places will accommodate but one person. 
 The pavements are of a composition manu- 
 factured in England from slag, pleasant and 
 even, and durable when no heavy strain is 
 brought to bear upon them, but easily broken 
 and unfit for heavy traffic. The streets are 
 swept once a day by hand, and, strange to 
 say, are kept very elean. 
 
 The Sickliest Season. 
 
 From its topographical situation the town 
 should be healthy, but it is not. The soil 
 under the city is clay, mixed with lime, so 
 hard as to be almost like rock. It is, conse- 
 quently, impervious to water and furnishes 
 a good natural drainage. The trade wind 
 blows strong and fresh, and through the har- 
 bor runs a stream of sea water at a speed of 
 not less than three miles an hour. With 
 these conditions no contagious diseases, if 
 properly taken care of, could exist; without 
 them the place would be a veritable plague 
 spot. 
 
 A study of the orographic features of the 
 island shows that its mountain systems are 
 developed most extensively in its south-cen- 
 tral region and in its northeastern division. 
 Taking it as a whole the island is approxi- 
 mately roof-shaped, so that the rainfall is 
 rapidly drained off. For drainage purposes 
 there are forty-five considerable rivers and 
 countless rivulets, seventeen of the rivers 
 running to the north, sixteen to the south 
 and nine to the east coast. And it is very 
 noticeable that there is no extensive lake 
 nestling in the highlands of the interior. 
 
 Though there are no extended climatic 
 observations covering the whole Porto Rican 
 territory, the Spanish series of international 
 
 observations at San Juan, published by the 
 Weather Bureau, show the general conditions 
 prevailing in that city and its vicinity. The 
 most marked feature of the climate is that 
 the summer's heat and rainfall keep up until 
 late autumn. This constancy of tropical 
 heat has a very relaxing effect upon the body, 
 and is, therefore, injurious to the health of 
 strangers, though the heat is mitigated by 
 trade winds and stiff land and sea breezes. 
 But in August and even later on the north 
 coast the air is often intensely sultry, oppres- 
 sive and almost calm, with little or no relief, 
 so that Colonel Hinter pronounced this the' 
 sickliest time for foreigners. For this reason 
 he advised residents of temperate climates 
 not to visit Porto Rico until November, when 
 the weather becomes exquisitely fine and set- 
 v led, continuing generally good during the 
 w v \ter and early spring. 
 
 Heat, Rainfall, Winds and Hurricanes. 
 
 In this beautiful island, under new auspices, 
 doubtless there will spring up eventually a 
 number of inviting winter resorts and sanita- 
 ria. For in the winter and early spring Porto 
 Rico is less subject than even Cuba to chilling 
 winds, blowing out from freezing anti-cyclones 
 that move east off the American coast toward 
 Bermuda. 
 
 At San Juan the average temperature in 
 August is nearly 81 degrees Fahrenheit; 
 in September 80.5 degrees, and in October 
 79.3 degrees. 
 
 The rainfall in the capital — which is a fair 
 index of that along the northeast coast of 
 the island generally — averages about 6.65 
 inches during August, 5.30 during Septem- 
 ber, and 7.10 during October. But in some 
 years September brings the heaviest rains. 
 It is obvious that with such heavy rainfall 
 the narrow roads leading from the east coast 
 to San Juan and those skirting the north 
 coast are liable in these months to be at 
 
OUR NEW POSSESSIONS. 
 
 times badly washed by the heavy showers. 
 The southern side of the island is relatively 
 much drier than the northern, though the 
 former is liable to excessive rair s during the 
 passage of a hurricane. 
 
 The prevailing winds at San Juan from 
 \ugust 1st to October 31st, as deduced from 
 he fragmentary data, are southeasterly and 
 easterly, contrary to the general idea, a 
 rather light sprinkling of northeasterly winds, 
 while southerly winds figure considerably. 
 The calm days in the hottest months average 
 not far from ten per month, and in some 
 months exceed eighteen, and even twenty. 
 
 Destructive Tornadoes. 
 
 Fortunately for Porto Rico, it does not lie 
 directly in the track of West Indian cyclones. 
 At long intervals it has been visited by a 
 desolating hurricane. The usual track of 
 hurricanes runs in a northwestwardly course, 
 a little north of the island in August and a 
 little south of it in September and October, 
 So erratic, however, are these tremendous 
 whirlwinds of the tropics, so liable to be 
 deflected from their wonted paths, that it will 
 be unsafe to assume, at least until late in 
 autumn, that the danger has passed for Porto 
 Rico. And commanders of all vessels on or 
 near the coasts of the island should exercise 
 extreme vigilance to avoid being caught in a 
 hurricane. 
 
 It cannot be said that the anchorages are 
 the best in the world, but a few of them are 
 excellent and most of them sufficiently deep 
 for ordinary craft. Mayaguez Bay, on the 
 west coast, admitting vessels of any size, is 
 the best anchorage in the island. Guanica 
 is the best on the south coast. The east 
 coast is fairly indented and washed by a sea 
 usually smooth. On the rugged north side 
 there are no good anchorages between Are- 
 cibo and San Juan, and the ocean current 
 sets to southwestward. But the port of San 
 
 Juan, affording good shelter, will be an im- 
 portant centre of merchant shipping, as well 
 as an attractive rendezvous for yachts, whose 
 owners are seeking health and pleasure in a 
 winter cruise to the sunny seas of the tropics. 
 Things go on in San Juan much as they 
 have been going for a hundred years. Hun- 
 dreds of officers, soldiers and policemen block 
 the sidewalks and appear in the shops and 
 cafes. San Juan has more policemen than 
 any city of the same size on earth. They are 
 not needed. A more quiet and law-abiding 
 population could scarcely be found. Street 
 fights and brawls, so common in American 
 towns, are comparatively unknown. Days 
 pass without a single arrest, and those which 
 do occur are almost invariably for petty 
 thievery. Yet one cannot move without 
 .bumping against a policeman armed with a 
 revolver and a heavy short sword. 
 
 Shops Closed at Midday. 
 
 San Juan awakes early. By seven o'clock 
 the shops are open, and a stirring of wide 
 shutters in the upper stories of the houses 
 show that even the women are about. Hun- 
 dreds of men are having their coffee in the 
 cafes. Probably a band is playing somewhere, 
 which means a detachment of troops return- 
 ing from early mass in the Cathedral. By 
 ten o'clock this early activity has worn itself 
 out. The sun has got well up into the sky, 
 white and hot. It falls in the narrow, un- 
 shaded streets, and the cobblestones begin to 
 scorch through thin shoe soles. It is a time 
 to seek the shade and quaff cooling drinks. 
 Business languishes. About eleven shop 
 shutters begin to go up, and soon the streets 
 are as deserted as at midnight. 
 
 This is breakfast hour, and until well after 
 noon not a shop or public building will be 
 found open. About two or three, whether 
 the siesta is long or short, people begin to 
 reappear and shops reopen. Gradually traffic 
 
OUR NEW POSSESSIONS. 
 
 Vll 
 
 revives. By four o'clock, when the Palais 
 de Justice has cast its cooling shadow over 
 half the blazing Plaza, loungers begin to ap- 
 pear to occupy the numerous benches and 
 blink idly at the guards about the gloomy 
 Palais entrance. With each passing hour the 
 city presents a livelier appearance, until at six 
 o'clock it is fully awake and ready for dinner, 
 the principal meal of the day. 
 
 Music and Parades. 
 
 In tne evening is when the inhabitants of 
 San Juan really live. These are the pleasant 
 hours of the day. From the sea comes a 
 breeze, cool and fresh, to whisper io the few 
 shade trees in the plazas and revive ener- 
 vated humanity. Twice a week one of the 
 military bands plays in the principal piaga 
 Then it is worth while to go, hire a comforta- 
 ble arm chair from a " muchacho " for ten 
 cents in Porto Rican silver and sit and ob- 
 serve and listen. 
 
 These military bands — several are always 
 stationed in San Juan — are equal to Sousa or 
 Herbert on a considerably smaller scale. 
 They play beautifully voluptuous airs of 
 sunny Spain, the strains swelling and quick- 
 ening until they entice an answer in the liv- 
 ened step and unconscious swaying bodies of 
 hundreds of promenaders; then slowly dying 
 to a sweet, soft breath, borne to the ear 
 from distant guitars nnd mandolins. Italian, 
 French and German composers are not ne- 
 glected, while occasionally there will come a 
 spirited bit from some modern light opera; 
 or even a snatch from a topical song of the 
 day. 
 
 On band nights San Juan may be seen at 
 her best. The concerts begin at eight o'clock. 
 Prior to that hour the private soldiers are 
 permitted the liberty of the Plaza, and hun- 
 dreds avail themselves of the opportunity for 
 an airing. At eight they must retire to their 
 barracks, leaving the plaza to the officers. 
 
 The music racks are set at one end of the 
 Plaza, and the musicians stand during the 
 two hours of the concert. By the time the 
 second number on the programme is reached 
 the Plaza is thronged with the wealth, beauty 
 and fashion of the Porto Rican capital. A 
 row of gas street lamps, thickly set, encircles 
 the Plaza, while at each end rise iron towers, 
 upon which are supported electric arc lights. 
 All the houses surrounding the Plaza are 
 illuminated, their bright coloring and Eastern 
 architecture giving an Oriental effect. The 
 balconies — every house has a balcony — are 
 filled with gayly dressed women and officers, 
 and through open windows glimpses of richly 
 furnished interiors can be obtained. On the 
 street level, the Grand Central and other 
 cafes, tha Spanish Club and a dozen brilliantly 
 , ?ighted drug stores and shops help flood the 
 I v Vza with light and lend life and gayety to 
 th-. scene. 
 
 Many Women in the Throng. 
 
 And the women. They are out in fore, 
 dressed in the latest fashion of Madrid and 
 Paris. Here and there some gentleman walks 
 with his wife and family, but usually the 
 women promenade alone until joined by male 
 acquaintances. A group of girls will be ac- 
 companied by a duenna, who keeps discreetly 
 in the background if any men approach. 
 Oftenj however, two or more senoritas will 
 promenade entirely alone, with a freedom 
 which would be considered unbecoming in 
 the United States. 
 
 This is one of the occasions when rigorous 
 Spanish etiquette is somewhat relaxed, and 
 unmarried women enjoy a fleeting glimpse ol 
 social freedom. So the crowd, constantly 
 swelling, until progress is almost impossible, 
 moves in a circle back and forth along the 
 length of the Plaza. Mingling with it are 
 scores of police, in their bright uniforms, 
 who seem to have no business there except 
 
Vlll 
 
 OUR NEW POSSESSIONS. 
 
 to accentuate the crush, and hundreds of 
 civilians in their best dress. Nowadays there 
 is a sprinkling of American navy and army 
 officers, in quiet uniforms, and a good deal 
 of attention they attract. And so it goes 
 until the concert ends. The band, preceded 
 by an escort of cavalry, marches away to a 
 wonderfully quick quickstep, the lights fade 
 and slowly the crowd disperses through the 
 shadowy streets. 
 
 Sights by Night. 
 
 Not all San Juan, however, is to be seen 
 in the grand plaza. Only fashionable and 
 official life centralizes there. In other sec- 
 tions of the city the evenings pass differently. 
 Take a stroll from the brilliantly lighted 
 plaza into the eastern part of town, near the 
 barracks. There the whole lower strata will 
 be found in the narrow, badly lighted streets, 
 or in the plaza Cristobal Colon and the 
 S£3?Uer breathing places of the densely popu- 
 _^ city. Here hand organs and dirty 
 wandering minstrels, who perform semi-bar- 
 baric music upon cracked guitars and raspy 
 mandolins, accompanied by the "gucro" — a 
 native instrument made of a gourd — furnish 
 the music. 
 
 Venders of " dulce " squat beside their 
 trays of sweetmeats, dolorously crying their 
 wares. Non-commissioned officers and pri- 
 vates mingle with the people and chat with 
 the women. Everybody smokes cigarettes, 
 even children hardly able to toddle. The 
 shops and meaner cafes are open and crowded. 
 Further on one can wander through streets 
 more narrow and darker than alleys to where 
 the massive gray battlements of the ancient 
 city walls lift their sombre, jagged towers to 
 greet the moon. 
 
 Inquisitive sentinels, with rifles in hand, 
 walk here to turn intruders back, but by 
 exercising discretion glimpses may be ob- 
 tained of tiny balconies ensconced in nooks 
 
 and crannies high up in the wall and over- 
 looking the sea and the twinkling city. Per- 
 haps a peep may be had into the odd habita- 
 tions within, with dusky senoritas gazing out 
 through a curtain of flowers and vines. This 
 is a different San Juan from that which prom- 
 enades in the plaza, but not less interesting. 
 
 The Philippine Islands. 
 
 The war between Spain and the United 
 States directed public attention to the Philip- 
 pine Islands, and the victory of the United 
 States naval squadron and land forces at 
 Manila has emphasized the great resources of 
 these islands. Under the circumstances, a 
 general review of some of the industries of 
 the islands will be interesting. 
 
 In 1834, the port of Manila, the capital of 
 the islands, was opened to resident foreign 
 merchants, but before that date the Philip- 
 pine Islands were little known in the foreign 
 markets and commercial centres of Europe. 
 So decided was the spirit of exclusiveness 
 and abhorrence of foreign intercourse that 
 the Spaniards, in 1738, preferred a war with 
 England to the fulfillment of a contract, for 
 freer commerce, entered into under the treaty 
 of Utrecht. Before 1834 a Mr. Butler applied 
 for permission to reside in and open up a 
 trade between Manila and foreign ports, but 
 the application was promptly rejected, though 
 subsequently the American firm of Russell & 
 Sturgis, having the support of the Governor- 
 General, made a similar application, which 
 was successful, and since then many for- 
 eigners have settled in the open ports of the 
 Philippine Islands for business purposes.' 
 Banks have been established and other agen- 
 cies necessary to facilitate and promote trade 
 are now a part of the business machinery of 
 the islands. 
 
 During the reign of Isabella II. (1833- 
 1868) a Philippine coin was issued, and 
 about the year 1868 gold coin sold for less 
 
OUR NEW POSSESSIONS. 
 
 IX 
 
 than the nominal value in silver, and as much 
 as 10 per cent, was paid to exchange an onza 
 of gold ($16) for silver. In 1878 gold and 
 silver were worth their nominal relative 
 value, and gold gradually disappeared from 
 the islands, large quantities being exported 
 to China. At the beginning of 1885 as much 
 as 10 per cent, premium was paid for Philip- 
 pine gold of the Isabella II. or any previous 
 coinage, but at the present day gold is ob- 
 tainable in limited quantities and about the 
 same rate as sight drafts on Europe. 
 
 Manufacturing in the Philippines. 
 
 The monetary crisis, attributed by some to 
 the depreciation of silver, was experienced in 
 the islands, and the Spanish Government 
 added to the embarrassment by coining half 
 dollars and twenty-five cent pieces without 
 the intrinsic value expressed. It was in con- 
 sequence of such a false value that exchange 
 fell lower, and in Spain the silver then coined 
 was rejected by the Government officers and 
 merchants, which still further impaired the 
 interests of the islanders. The action of the 
 Spanish Government was a retrograde move- 
 ment. The coinage of a nation denoting its 
 political condition, the deterioration of it in- 
 dicates an age of decrepitude. 
 
 The manufacturing industry of the islands 
 is in its infancy, and the industrial arts have 
 not been fostered. It may be said that cigars 
 are about the only manufactured export 
 staple, though occasionally some cordage, 
 hides and a parcel of straw or finely split 
 bamboo hats are shipped. In some of the 
 provinces hats and straw mats are made, in 
 others a rough cloth is woven from hemp 
 fibre. 
 
 These last are principally woven in the 
 province of Yloilo, where also is made a 
 muslin of pure pine leaf fibre, and a fabric of 
 mixed pine-leaf and hemp filament. The 
 province of Hocos has a reputation for its 
 
 woolen and dyed cotton fabrics, and that ot 
 Batangas produces a special make of cotton 
 stuffs. Pasig, on the river of that name, and 
 Sulipan in Pampanga are locally known for 
 their rough pottery. The centre of the white 
 wood furniture and wood carving is Palte, 
 the extreme east of Sagina de Bay. In 
 Mariquina, near Manila, wooden clogs and 
 native leather shoes are made, and the gold 
 and silver workers are at Santa Cruz, a ward 
 of Manila. In the more civilized provinces 
 the native women produce pretty specimens 
 of embroidery on European patterns, and on 
 a small scale there are centres of manufac- 
 ture of straw bags, alcohol, bamboo furni- 
 ture, buffalo hide, leather, wax candles and 
 soap. 
 
 The first brewery was opened October 4, 
 1890, in Manila, by Don Enrique Barretto. 
 The manufactures indicated are supported 
 by native capital, and the traffic and con- 
 sumption being mostly local, the addition to 
 the wealth of the islands is not large. Out- 
 side of the open ports there is little scope 
 for the natives to profitably pursue the in- 
 dustrial arts, and whatever capacity they 
 possess appears to be lost in the want of an 
 opportunity under competent guidance. 
 
 Agriculture Past and Present. 
 
 There is one railroad running from Manila 
 to Dagupin, about 220 miles, built by a Brit- 
 ish company, called the Manila Railway Com- 
 pany, Limited ; between Manila and Dagu- 
 pin there are four railway stations. We have 
 no statistics as to the earnings of the road, 
 but the civilizing influence it exerts is quite 
 evident, and shows that when the islands are 
 properly governed, and modern industrial ap- 
 pliances are utilized, the personnel of the na- 
 tives as well as the resources are capable of 
 great improvement and development. 
 
 Agriculture has never flourished in the 
 islands. Before competition in other colon- 
 
OUR NEW POSSESSIONS. 
 
 ies became so active there were fair remuner- 
 ative returns from the cultivation of hemp 
 and sugar — the main staple products ; labor 
 was then cheaper, as were the beasts for till- 
 ing the soil ; the necessities of the laboring 
 classes were fewer, and though the aggregate 
 production was not so large, the natives were 
 in a sounder position than the same class are 
 generally now. It would seem that in pass- 
 ing from the primitive to a more civilized 
 state one may look back with fond regret to 
 the simple wants of the former as compared 
 with those of the latter. 
 
 One of the causes of agricultural failure in 
 the islands is the same which results in fail- 
 ure elsewhere. Some embark in agriculture 
 with insufficient capital and end by becoming 
 the slaves of the money lender, having them, 
 selves to blame for want of foresight, but in_ 
 variably blaming the one who loaned them 
 money which they needed, and cursing the 
 lender for the high rate of interest which 
 they agreed to pay. 
 
 Business Done on Credit. 
 
 Thus it is in the Philippine Islands as in 
 other parts of the world, proving that every 
 departure from sound economic laws entails 
 losses if not financial ruin. It is not so cer- 
 tain that the natives of the Philippines are 
 readier to begin work on insufficient capital 
 and pay high rates of interest than the natives 
 of more civilized lands, but a marked charac- 
 teristic of the islanders is their indifference to 
 adequate provision for crop failures. It is es- 
 timated that if all the Philippine planters had 
 to liquidate within twelve months as many 
 as 50 per cent, would be insolvent. 
 
 The value of agricultural land is, of course, 
 in proportion to its productive capacity and 
 its nearness to the open court. In the pro- 
 vince of Manila land is usually higher priced, 
 Manila being the capital and the largest, 
 commercially, of the open ports. In the 
 
 province of Bulacan, which adjoins that of 
 Manila, an acre that produces 20 tons ot 
 cane would probably sell for $115, while in 
 a province more remote from Manila, the 
 average value of land, yielding 20 tons per 
 acre, would not sell for more than $75 per 
 acre. The finest sugar-cane 'producing 
 island is the island of Negos, in Visaya dis- 
 trict, between 9 and ii° N. latitude. The 
 area of the island is about equal to that of 
 Porto Rico, but it has never been made to 
 yield its full capacity. 
 
 How Sugar-Cane is Cultivated. 
 
 The sugar estates are small, and from 
 those inland the sugar is transported to the 
 open ports in buffalo carts. The system of 
 planting is different from that prevailing in 
 the West Indies. In the latter the planters 
 set the canes out widely, leaving plenty of 
 space for the development of the roots, and 
 the ratoons serve from five to twenty years, 
 while in the Philippines the setting of cane 
 points is renewed each year, with few excep- 
 tions, and the planting is comparatively 
 close. The system of labor in the northern 
 and southern parts of the islands is different. 
 The plantations in the north are worked on 
 the co-operative principle. The estate is 
 divided by the owner into tenements, each 
 tenant being provided with a buffalo and 
 agricultural implements to work and attend 
 to the crop of cane as if it were his own 
 property, and when cut and the sugar i: 
 worked off, 'the tenant receives one-third, 
 and sometimes as much as one-half of the 
 output. 
 
 The cane crushing and sugar making are 
 at the expense of the tenant, but the land- 
 owner furnishes the machinery and factory 
 establishment and takes the risk of typhoons, 
 inundations, droughts, locusts, etc. If the 
 tenant has no means the landlord generally 
 makes the necessary advances against the 
 
OUR NEW POSSESSIONS. 
 
 estimated value of the tenant's share. In the 
 southern part of the islands the plantations 
 are worked on the daily wages system. The 
 sugar produced is of different grades and the 
 price is according to grade. 
 
 The staple food of the islanders is rice, 
 which is cultivated more or less largely in 
 every province, and is the only branch of 
 'agriculture in which the lower classes of 
 natives take a visible pleasure and which 
 they understand ; but much of the land 
 formerly devoted to rice cultivation is now 
 devoted to cultivating sugar-cane, which 
 yields a more valuable return. 
 
 Hemp is another staple industry. The 
 hemp plant grows in many parts of the 
 islands, and the leaves so closely resemble 
 those of the banana that it is difficult to dis- 
 tinguish between them, those of the hemp 
 plant being of a darker hue and greener. 
 The plant appears to thrive best on an in- 
 clined plane, and though requiring a con- 
 siderable amount of moisture, it will not 
 thrive in swampy land, and must be shaded 
 by other trees to attain any great height. 
 The average height of the tree is about ten 
 feet, and being endogenous, the stem is en- 
 closed in layers of half-round petioles. 
 
 Preparing Hemp for Shipment. 
 
 The hemp fibre is extracted from the peti- 
 oles which, when cut down, are separated 
 into strips, five or six inches wide, and drawn 
 under a knife attached at one end by a hinge 
 to a block of wood, whilst the other end is 
 suspended to the extremity of a flexible 
 hook. The bow tends to raise the knife, and 
 a cord, attached to the same end of the knife 
 and a treadle, is so arranged that by a move- 
 ment of the foot the operator can bring the 
 knife to work on the hemp petiole with the 
 pressure he chooses. The last is drawn 
 through between the knife and the block, the 
 operator twisting the fibre, at each pull, 
 64 
 
 around a stick of wood, while the parenchy- 
 matous pulp remains on the other side of the 
 knife. The knife should be without teeth or 
 indentations, but it often has a slightly-ser- 
 rated edge. The fibre is then spread out to 
 dry, and afterwards tightly packed in bales 
 with iron and rattan hoops for shipment. 
 
 Machinery has not been used with satis- 
 factory results, and this is because the me- 
 chanical apparatus should be so arranged as 
 to reduce the tension of the fibre in a strip of 
 bast by means of a cylinder, though experi- 
 ments have been and are being made, and 
 some are more or less satisfactory. The 
 plant is grown from seed or suckers; if seed, 
 it requires about four years to arrive at cut- 
 ting maturity, and if from suckers, not more 
 than three are required. The stem should 
 be cut for fibre drawing at the flowering ma- 
 turity, and in no case should it be allowed to 
 bear fruit, as the fibre is thereby weakened. 
 As the fibre known as Manila hemp is a 
 specialty of the islands, competition and over- 
 production to the extent of annihilating pro- 
 fits are remote. 
 
 Cultivation of Coffee. 
 
 The cultivation of coffee dates from the 
 early part o*" the present century, and some 
 of the original trees are still alive and bearing 
 fruit, but after twenty-five years the tree does 
 not bear profitably. The best coffee comes 
 from Sugon Island, embracing the provinces 
 of Batangas, La Laguna and Cavite. There 
 is one crop gathered in the Philippine Islands. 
 In the West Indies the beans are found dur- 
 ing eight months of the twelve, and in Brazil 
 there are three gatherings annually. 
 
 The tobacco seed was introduced into the 
 Philippines from Mexico by Spanish mission- 
 aries soon after the possession of the islands 
 by Spain, and, from the islands, into the 
 south of China in the sixteenth or seven- 
 teenth century. The Spanish Government 
 
OUR NEW POSSESSIONS. 
 
 for a long time enjoyed a monopoly of the 
 tobacco trade, but the monopoly ceased in 
 1882, and the cultivation and trade were 
 handed over to a private enterprise. The 
 Manila cigar has a world-wide reputation, 
 and under better cultivation the quality can 
 be improved. 
 
 In addition to the industrial products 
 named, the soil and climate of the islands are 
 favorable to the cultivation of Indian corn, 
 cotton, chocolate and the bamboo, and all 
 kinds of tropical fruit. It may be said that 
 the Philippine Islands, under the rule of a 
 just government and an intelligent system of 
 cultivation, would become rich in mineral 
 and agricultural products, and a valuable 
 possession, strategically and otherwise. 
 
 Admiral Dewey's Achievement. 
 
 If the word failure was in Admiral Dewey's 
 lexicon, it is only necessary to consider the 
 position his naval squadron would have been 
 in had the Manila engagement been indecis- 
 ive, to conclusively show how important it is 
 for the United States to own a base of opera- 
 tions in Asiatic seas and lands. There was 
 not a port in the whole of Asia where Ad- 
 miral Dewey could have gone to refit his 
 squadron had he met with a reverse. He was 
 excluded by neutrality proclamations from 
 every port, save that of his own brave and 
 loyal heart, which is better than all, but no 
 naval commander was ever so completely 
 isolated from his country as was Admiral 
 Dewey when war was declared between Spain 
 and the United States ; and such a condition 
 of affairs should never be allowed to exist 
 again. 
 
 The policy of isolation, which has long 
 been the policy of the United States, to every 
 proper extent ought to be abandoned for a 
 policy that will safeguard American interests 
 everywhere against all contingencies, for the 
 most liberal and enlightened nation in the 
 
 world cannot escape the responsibilities mat 
 attend liberality and enlightenment, and has 
 no right to hide its light under a bushel. The 
 rule of Spain in the Philippines is as oppress- 
 ive as Spanish rule has been in Cuba, and 
 both of these provinces should be freed from 
 a despotism which has crushed the spirit and 
 energy of the inhabitants. 
 
 The sun, in his course, does not shine 
 upon any lands of greater fertility than Cuba 
 and the Philippine Islands, and upon none 
 more capable of proportionately contributing 
 to the necessities and comforts of mankind \ 
 but under the government of Spain no pro- 
 gress has been made, and honest industry is 
 denied the right of just returns. With Hawaii 
 as a part of the United States, Cuba and the 
 Philippines liberated from serfdom, and the 
 Nicrragua canal cut, the position of the 
 United States would be commanding in both 
 of the great oceans of the world, and enabled 
 to foster commercial enterprises which, in 
 all ages, have been promotive of free institu- 
 tions. Other nations should not be allowed 
 to monopolize commercial advantages which 
 nature has placed nearest within our reach. 
 
 Trade with Other Countries. 
 
 The following synopsis of the report of 
 Oscar F. Williams, the American Consul at 
 Manila, on the trade relations of the United 
 States and the Philippine Islands, will be 
 interesting in this connection. He says that 
 twenty-two consulates, representing the lead- 
 ing commercial countries of the world, are 
 established at Manila. He adds this sur- 
 prising statement : " The volume of the ex- 
 port trade coming under my official supervi- 
 sion equals that of my twenty-one consular 
 colleagues combined." 
 
 He then shows in detail how the trade of 
 the Philippines with the United States ex- 
 ceeds that of all other countries combined, 
 and is growing at a rapid rate. As indicating 
 
OUR NEW POSSESSIONS. 
 
 xin 
 
 the extent of this trade, he says : " To-day I 
 have authenticated invoices for exports to the 
 United States amounting to $ 188,606." He 
 says the exports to this country average 
 $1,000,000 a month. The report states that 
 216,000 bales of hemp were exported during 
 the preceding three months. Of these, 
 138,782 went to the United States, and 
 77,218 to Great Britain and other countries. 
 Mr. Williams shows from this that the 
 United States had 64 per cent, of the trade 
 from the Philippines as against 36 per cent, 
 of Great Britain and other countries. He 
 says that in 1897 the increase of shipments 
 to the United States was 133,000 bales and 
 the decrease of shipments to Great Britain 
 22,000 bales. 
 
 He adds: "Of the increase of shipments 
 from the Philippines, those to the United 
 States were 54 per cent, greater than to all 
 other countries combined." 
 
 He also gives details of the large ship- 
 ments of sugar, tobacco, hides, shells, indigo 
 and coffee. In the item of sugar, which is 
 second in importance, the shipments to the 
 United States were 55 per cent, of the total 
 to all points. Under a proper government 
 the vast resources of the Philippines could be 
 developed, and these tropical islands would 
 become of great value and importance from a 
 commercial point of view. What is needed 
 is a stable and liberal government, a good 
 system of education, and abundant capital for 
 supporting industries. 
 
 The Hawaiian Islands. 
 
 A study of this new territory reveals some 
 '•tferesting facts. The islands were discov- 
 ered in 1720 by Captain Cook, an English 
 navigator. For some abstruse reason, pro- 
 bably because they were too far away to be 
 of any service to any of her colonies, Eng- 
 land never took possession of the islands. In 
 feet, her course toward them has been one 
 
 equivalent to the relinquishment of whatever 
 rights she had to the islands. 
 
 Since the islands were discovered attempts 
 have been made to establish a government 
 on them, once by an English body of colon- 
 ists, and once by French colonists. Both, 
 however, were abandoned in due course of 
 time, neither the English nor French Gov- 
 ernment thinking it wise or worth while to 
 give official sanction to the same. After 
 awhile a monarchy arose, but a revolution, in 
 which the good offices of the United States 
 troops were found necessary, put an end to 
 it. It was this revolution which made Queen 
 Lil abdicate the throne. Later on, the gov- 
 ernment became a republic, and it comes into 
 the United States as such. 
 
 Number of Square Miles. 
 
 The Hawaiian Islands are 15 in number, 
 are a little over 2,500 miles from San Fran- 
 cisco, and have a coast over 800 miles long. 
 Altogether they comprise about 6,640 square 
 miles. The shortest distance between any of 
 the islands is five miles, while some of the 
 islands are at least 25 miles apart. Five of 
 the islands do not possess a single inhabi- 
 tant. The chief island is Oahu, which con- 
 tains 600 square miles, and has a population 
 of 40,205. Upon this island is situated 
 Honolulu, which is the seat of Government, 
 or, in other words, the capital of the islands. 
 The island is almost entirely given up to 
 sugar plantations, in which at least 30,000 of 
 its people are engaged. 
 
 The Island of Neehau contains 97 square 
 miles, and has a population of only 14 fami- 
 lies. Ownership of it is claimed by an Eng- 
 lishman, who asserts that he bought it from 
 the former king of the islands. It is given 
 entirely to grazing, and from 30,000 to 40,000 
 sheep are raised on it annually. The Island 
 of Keani contains 590 square miles, and has 
 a population of 15,362. There is a party of 
 
OUR NEW POSSESSIONS. 
 
 German colonists, who claim that they own 
 the island, which is entirely given up to 
 sugar plantations. 
 
 The island that is probably best known 
 throughout the world is Molokai. It com- 
 prises 270 square miles, and has a population 
 of 2,307. It is a leper settlement, and over 
 1,200 of the residents are sufferers from lep- 
 rosy. The island came into great notoriety 
 several years ago through the death of the 
 celebrated Father Damien, who, it will be 
 remembered, contracted the dread disease 
 while ministering to the spiritual and tem- 
 poral needs of those who are afflicted with 
 it. At the island of Maui, which contains 
 760 square miles, and which has a popula- 
 tion of 17,726, are the immense sugar planta- 
 tions of Claus Spreckles, the California sugar 
 king. The island of Lauai contains 105 
 people, who maintain themselves by grazing. 
 Another large island is Hawaii, which con- 
 sists of 4,210 square miles, and which has a 
 population of 32,285. 
 
 The chief product of the islands is sugar. I 
 Sugar forms 99 per cent, of the exports of 
 the islands. In 1897 the sugar sent out from 
 the islands amounted to the enormous total 
 of 502,000,000 pounds. The population of 
 the islands, according to the most accurate ' 
 statistics, is about 109,000 
 
 The Island of Guam. 
 
 The Marianne or Ladrone Islands lie to 
 the north of the western end of the Carolina 
 band. They are physically associated with 
 the Japanese Islands. This group has fifteen 
 islands large enough to note. They aggre- 
 gate about 440 square miles and have about 
 10,000 inhabitants. The largest is Guam, 
 with 200 square miles and 7,000 inhabitants. 
 This island was captured and the United 
 States flag was hoisted over it by officers 
 and marines from the United States cruiser 
 "Charleston" on June 21st, 1898. The 
 " Charleston " was on its way to join Admiral 
 Dewey's squadron at Manila.