I METHODS OF INSTRUCTION /3^ AND ORGANIZATION OF THE SCHOOLS OF GERMANY FOR THE USE OF AMERICAN TEACHERS AND NORMAL SCHOOLS JOHN T; PRINCE Ph.D. AGENT OF MASSACHUSETTS BOARD OF EDUCATION, AUTHOR OF ** COURSES OF STUDIES AND METHODS OF TEACHING " BOSTON LEE AND SHEPARD PUBLISHERS 10 MILK STREET 1892 ^' ,.5r8 Copyright, 1891, by John T. Prince All Rights Reserved Methods of Instruction and Organization of the Schools of Germany PREFACE This book is intended to give a general idea of the organization of the schools of Germany, and such a view of their inner working as may be suggestive and helpful to teachers. If the purpose were to give a complete report of the schools, to show their character as a whole, and to pass judgment upon them, it would be necessary to give fuller extracts from existing laws than are given here, and to go into details of manage- ment and methods which the limits of a single volume would not permit. The aim has been to give important features of organi- zation only, and to confine the statement of methods to what is best and most useful for American teachers to know. Nearly every school exercise noted is one which has a special point of value to teachers. Unprofitable details of lessons, and, so far as possible, repetitions of the same or similar work of teachers, have been avoided. The fragmentary and incomplete character of the notes of lessons heard, is accounted for from the fact that they were copied from my note-book almost exactly as iii IV PREFACE they were written in the recitation-room. I preferred not to revise them or put them in more complete form lest I should give an incorrect report of what I saw. Information relating to statistics and organization of the schools has been derived from several sources ; from teachers and other school officers, and from various school laws, courses of study, catalogues, etc., including S^indtx's Lexikonder Pddagogik, 1889; Giebe's Verord- nungen betrejfend das gesanimte Volksschulwesen in Preussen (Glebe's Verordnungeii) ; Preussische Statis- tik lOi (Preus. Stat. loi) ; Y^ockXo's Lehrplan fiir die ein- fackeit Volksschulen des Konigreichs Sachsen^ DresdeUy 1890 {Lekrplan Sachsen) ; Pddagogischer Yahresbericht^ 1889, von A. Richter {Pad. Yahresbericht) ; Gesetz ueber die Gymnasien, Realschulen und Seminare^ von R. GotZy Leipzig, I ZjJ (Gotz's Gesetz) ; to which reference is made in abbreviated forms as noted in the parentheses. Other references are given in full. Reference to sources of information has not in all cases been made, owing to the fact that some of the notes were taken with no thought of putting them in permanent form. Some of the chapters consist of a revision and ex- tension of articles which originally appeared in the New England Journal of Education, Atlantic Monthly, and Educational Review, whose publishers have gen- erously consented to their use in the present form. Special acknowledgments are due to my colleague, 1 PREFACE V Prof. George A. Walton, who has kindly assisted in reading and correcting the proof-sheets ; also, for a similar service, to Dr. Larkin Dunton, Head Master of the Boston Normal School, and Miss Margaret K. Smith, of the Oswego, N. Y., Normal School, whose knowledge of the German schools has enabled them to give valuable suggestions. With their approval of the book so far as its general accuracy is concerned, it is offered to the profession with the confident belief that it will meet the wants of those who desire material in small compass for the study of the current history of education in Germany. Of special value will such material be to members of normal schools and read- ing-circles, to whom, as well as to the general reader, the marginal topics will be of great convenience. J. T. P. January i, 1892. CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I. ORGANIZATION i Kinds of Schools. — Administration. — Supervision. — Qualifications of Teachers. — Appointment of Teachers. — Female Teachers. — School Buildings and Furnishings. — Courses of Studies. — Classification. — Terms and Ses- sions. — Recitation Periods and Recesses. — Statistics and Reports. — Examinations and Promotions. — Admission of Pupils. — The Sexes in High and Elementary Schools.— School Attendance. IT. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 23 Text-Books. — Reference Books. — Apparatus. — Pro- motion of Teachers with Classes. — Salaries of Teachers. — Tenure of Office. — Pensions. — Teachers' Associations. — Outside Duties of Teacher. — Overcrowded Schools. — Home Study. — School Discipline. — Outside Discipline. — Visitors. III. NORMAL SCHOOLS 35 Size. — Number of Teachers. — Class of Patrons. — Qualifications for Admission. — Course of Studies. — Nor- mal Schools for Females. — State Aid. — Fitting Schools. Practice Schools. IV. HIGH SCHOOLS 44 Gymnasien. — Realschulen. — Realgymnasien. — Pro- gymnasien. — Realprogymnasien. — Oberrealschulen. — Hohere Biirgerschulen. — Hohere Madchen Schulen. — Middle Schools. — Number of Pupils. — Recent Changes. — Latin and Greek. — Modern Languages. — Science. — School Circulars. vii Vlll CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE V. PRIVATE, INDUSTRIAL, AND CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 59 Kinds of Private Schools. — Conditions of Maintenance. — Number of Private Schools. — Kindergarten. — Nurs- eries. — Trade Schools. — Manual Training Schools. — Leipsic School. — Continuation Schools. — Subjects of In- struction. — Times of Sessions. — Discipline. — Attend- ance. — Schools for Girls. — Schools in Berlin. VI. ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 68 Graded Schools. — Partially Graded Schools. — Un- graded Schools. — Course of Studies. — Tuition. — Sexes. — General Characteristics. VII. OBSERVATION LESSONS AND ELEMENTARY SCIENCE -]-] Plans for Early Object Lessons. — Plans for Lessons in Natural History. — Topical Outlines. — Objects Sought. — Relation to Other Studies. — Basis for Scientific Study. — Ethical Treatment of Subjects. — Expression of Thoughts. — The Hat. — Common Objects. — Lesson on Plants. — Lesson on Leaves and Blossoms. — Lesson on Birds. — Lesson on the Beaver. — Lesson on Angle Worm and Insects. — Lessons on Crab and Worm. — Observation, Ex- perience, and Information. — The Surrounding Country. — Model Lesson on the Hazel-bush. — Physics. — Topics and Methods. — Illustrative Lesson in Physics. VIII. READING 96 Reading-Books. — Reading- Frames. — Classification. — Methods of Teaching Beginners. — Illustrative Lessons. — Phonic Method. — Normal Word Method. — Word and Sentence Method. — Reading: Mechanical, Analytical, and .^sthetical. — Time Given to Reading. — Patriotism in the Reading-Class. — History in Connection vv^ith Read- ing. — Study of Literature. — Method of Awakening Thought and Interest. — From Expression to Thought. — Cultivation of Taste. — Fables and Fairy Tales. CONTENTS ix CHAPTER IX. LANGUAGE ARITHMETIC PAGE 114 Language in Every Recitation. — Text-Books and Blank- Books. — Syllabus of Work Prescribed. — Writing. — Use of Pen and Ink. — Blank Writing-Books. — Use of Ger- man Script. — Early Practice. — Dictation Exercises. — Spelling and Derivations. — Recitation from Memory.— Original Compositions. —Technical Grammar. — Illustra- tive Exercises. X. GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY 132 Course of Studies. — Books and Apparatus. — Use of Pictures. — Home Geography. — Plan Drawing. — Mould- ing. — Thorough Study of Germany. — Illustrative Les- sons. — Cause and Effect. — Study of Foreign Countries. — Course in History. — Lecturing. — Patriotism. — Biog- raphy.— Memorizing of Dates. — Geography in Connec- tion with History Pictures. 147 Course of Studies. — Text-Books and Apparatus. — Work of Each Year. — Illustrative Lessons in Primary Grades. — Middle Grades. — Higher Grades. — Short Processes. — Relative Measures. — Systematic Reviews. — Mental Work. MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS OF INSTRUCTION. 171 Drawing. — Manual Training : — Hand-work for Girls.— Hand-work for Boys. — Singing : — Ends Sought. — Teachers. — Musical Instruments. — Singing by Note. — Part-Singing. — Singing in Higher Grades. — Soft and Low Tones. — Connection with other Studies. — Physical Training. — Religious Instruction. THE HERBARTIAN SCHOOLS 183 Interest in Herbartian Philosophy. — End of Educa- tion. — Instruction Defined. — Kinds of Interest. — Sub- jects of Instruction. — Selection and Arrangement of Subjects. — Concentration. — Formal Steps of Instruction. — Illustrative Examples. X CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE XIV. REFORMS 205 Supervision. — Relations between Church and School. — Lessening of Local Powers. — Elementary Schools. — Teachers of High Schools. — Conference on School Re- form. — Elementary School Reform. — School Terms and Vacations. — Changes in the German Language. — Near- sightedness. — Societies for the Reform of German Schools. — The New German School. XV. AMERICAN AND GERMAN SCHOOLS . . .216 Influence of Example. — Educational Systems of Ger- many, Austria, and Switzerland. — Influence of Educational Leaders. — Qualification of Teachers. — Normal School Course. — Needful Requirements for Teaching. — Per- manence of Teaching Force. — Tenure of Teacher's Office. — Plan of Studies. — School Attendance. — Com- pulsory Laws. — School Supervision. — Influence of the Teacher. — Personality of the Teacher in the School- room. — Characteristics of Teachers. — Apparatus. — Museums. — Needed Changes in Subjects of Instruction. — Elements of Weakness in German Schools. — Condi- tion and Prospects of American Schools. V'; I SCHOOLS OF GERMANY CHAPTER I ORGANIZATION There are in Germany both private and public schools. The private schools are established and sup- ported by private individuals under a certain Kinds of amount of governmental supervision, and S^^°°^^- are of all kinds and grades. The public schools are supported wholly or in part at public expense, and are controlled by the state or municipal government. They may be classified as follows: — 1. Normal schools {L ekrer- Seminar e) in which teach- ers for the elementary schools are trained. 2. High schools including {a) classical schools {Gymnasien) in which especial emphasis is placed upon Latin and Greek ; {b) Non-classical schools {Realschtilen) in which the sciences are chiefly taught ; {c) Schools of various kinds in which the courses of studies of the Gymnasien or Realschulen are modified in some degree. 3. Elementary schools known under various names 2 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY and quite generally designated as people's schools {Volkschulen) . The organization and characteristics of these and other schools will be treated in subsequent chapters. The chief power in the administration of educational affairs lies in the central government of each state. Adminis- The details in the execution of this power tration. differ somewhat in the various states ; and yet, as would be expected, there is a quite general uniformity of practice in the main features of school administration throughout the empire. In the organiza- tion of school affairs Prussia has to some extent doubt- less served as an example for other neighboring states. Especially at the time of and since the federation of the empire has the influence of the larger state been most powerful. To show therefore in small compass the most common characteristics of the administration of the schools in all of the states, the details of the admin- istration of Prussian schools only need be given. In Prussia the highest power employed in directing school affairs is the Minister of Instruction^ who is a member of the government. He has as representa- tives and advisers (all together being called the Minis- termm) an under secretary and a number of councillors who constitute four distinct councils, one council having in charge church affairs, another medical affairs, a third 1 The exact title of this official is Minister der geistlichen, Unterrichts- und Medizin alangelegenheiten. ^ ORGANIZATION 3 matters relating to the universities, art and higher institutions of learning, and a fourth matters relating to normal schools and people's schools. The Councillors having in charge educational affairs are skilled men, — one for universities ; three, one of whom is a Catholic, for higher institutions ; and three, one of whom is a Catholic, for normal and people's schools. Immediately under the Ministerium are the universities, technological schools, commissions for ex- amining teachers of higher institutions, and other exami- nation commissions, the normal gymnastic Institute, art academies, the great art collections, etc. Towards all other ,schools the state's relations are exercised through the provincial school boards ^ which have in charge the higher schools, and the district governments {Regier- U7tgs-besirke)y thirty-six in number, which have the people's schools and a greater part of the girls' high schools to look after. The district governments also have supervision of all private institutions, at least so far as to see that the provisions of their charters are complied with. The provincial school board has charge of all institutions, public and private, in Berlin. Of the higher schools some are supported wholly by the general government, some by both general and local governments together, and some wholly by local governments and private persons or societies. Over all these institutions the provincial school boards have 1 There are fourteen provinces in the kingdom. 4 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY supervision, either independently or in co-operation with others. In addition to provincial and district administration, there is a local administration which has mainly to do with the external affairs of the schools, such as attend- ing to repairs of buildings, fixing school fees, and, in certain cases, nominating teachers. For private and municipal schools the local school authorities nominate teachers, but confirmation is always left to the provin- cial or district authorities. In the cities and in regularly laid out districts in the country there are school inspectors who are selected generally for distinguished service as teachers, Supervision. upon whom devolve certain fixed responsibil- ities and duties. Saxony, for example, — a kingdom with about the same area and population as Massachusetts, — is divided outside of the larger cities into twenty-five districts. In each of these districts there is a superin- tendent, — or, as he is called, school-inspector, — who has to make periodical visits to the schools of his dis- trict. In these visits he is required to direct his atten- tion especially (I quote from the laws ^ governing his duties) (i) to the observance of the law in relation to school attendance ; (2) to the industry and demeanor of the teacher, and to the discipline, order, and cleanliness of the pupils ; (3) to the adherence to the plan of study, to the methods of instruction, and to the progress of 1 Das Volksschulwesen im Konigreich Sachsen. — Leipzig, 1876 A. p. 30. ORGANIZATION C the pupils in general, and in each subject; (4) to the apparatus used, and the elaboration of the course of study ; (5) to the scientific studies and additional em- ployment of the teacher ; (6) to the economical man- agement of the school, particularly in respect to the prompt payment of the teacher's salary, and the main- tenance of the school regulations ; (7) to the occupations of the inhabitants of the place ; (8) to the efficiency of the local school board. It is his duty to make an exam- ination of the records of the local school board, and he has the right to cause the president to call a meeting of that board. He is obliged to visit the private schools, to see that the conditions of their establishment are complied with, and that they do not go beyond those conditions. He has to fill temporarily vacant places, and may give temporary leave of absence to teachers. He is obliged to call a meeting at least once a year, of all the teachers of his district, for the purpose of giving them directions. Finally, he must make a report yearly to the highest school board, giving the condition of the schools, and a statement of his work, together with statistics embracing every phase of education in his district. These and other regulations governing the official duties of the superintendent are definite and quite minute. In spite of the minuteness of his inquiry into the work of teachers, there seems to be little or no interference with the individuality of teachers, as will be shown later on. The inspector's visits to a given 6 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY school are sometimes a year or two apart ; but the in- spection, when it is made, is most thorough. I was per- mitted to read one of the inspector's reports made to a district board in Saxony ; and the details respecting the condition of each school and the methods employed by each teacher were very minutely and carefully stated. In Prussia, in addition to duties just enumerated, the dis- trict school inspector has to pass judgment upon plans of school buildings and of alterations ; to ascertain whether the local school inspector performs his pre- scribed duties ; to attend to the supplying of school libraries with good books ; to look after families of deceased teachers, and in general to stand between the government and lower school officers both in issuing government decrees and in reporting to the government what is done or what is omitted. It should be said in passing that not all the districts of Prussia are super- vised by professional superintendents, or even by men whose entire time is given to the duties of their office. In country districts there are local school inspectors, who visit the schools and have certain supervisory duties in the elementary schools. They are generally clergymen, who serve as supervisors without pay. Their duties are mainly advisory, relating to examinations, religious instruction, courses of study, substitute teach- ers, and matters of local interest. In some particulars their duties are connected with those of the district ORGANIZATION 7 inspector, who, on account of the size of his district, is not able to reach all the schools easily or frequently. In addition to the supervision which is made by dis- trict and local school inspectors, there is constant over- sight by principals of the work done in large schools. The number of recitations required to be heard by assist- ant teachers ranges from twenty-four to thirty-two a week, while the principal has, as a rule, to hear but twelve a week. The time not thus employed is given to making the required statistics, and to overseeing the work of his assistants. All schools of every kind share the advantage of rigid state requirements for the qualifications of teach- ers. The tests are based chiefly upon exam- Qualifications inations which are conducted by commissions °^ Teachers, consisting generally of representatives of the higher and local school boards, principals and teachers of schools, and specialists for drawing, gymnastics, etc. No teacher of any kind — not even a teacher in a private family — is permitted to teach unless he holds a certificate from an examination commission, or is permitted under its rules to teach temporarily. In Prussia ^ an examination is given to the graduates of the normal schools at the close of their course to test their fitness to teach for a limited time in the elementary schools. Other persons than normal gradu- 1 From Glebe's Verordnungen, p. i-8. The Prussian plan of examina- tions is not unlike that of the other states. 8 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY I ates may take this examination, but the nature of the examination prevents any considerable number from attempting it. As a matter of fact, there are very few teachers of elementary schools at present who are not graduates of the normal school course. The examina- tion consists of three parts — a written, an oral, and a practical test. The written test, in addition to questions in arithmetic, geometry, geography, history, and natural history, consists of the composition of a choral and two essays, one upon some subject connected with religious instruction for which two hours are given, and one upon some other subject selected by the examining board for which four hours are given. Two translations from, and into Latin, French, or English are voluntary. The practical test consists of a class-exercise with pupils, of which a written analysis is required, and for the preparation of which two days are allowed. The oral examination may be upon all subjects taught in the normal school course. Jewish candidates are not required to pass in religion. Clear and exact answers to all questions are required. If a candidate fails to pass in either religion, language, or arithmetic, or in any three of the other subjects, he does not receive a certificate. The certificate permits the holder to receive a temporary appointment as teacher of any elementary school. Not earlier than two years and not later than five years after the first examination a second examination is given ORGANIZATION 9 to candidates who desire to receive a permanent appoint- ment. This examination is given by the same board which gave the first examination, and consists of written, oral, and practical tests as before. Three written essays are required: one upon a subject connected with school management, one relating to religious instruction, and one relating to instruction in one of the other elemen- tary school branches, — all to be written under the inspection of a member of the examining commission. The practical test is a class exercise as before, the subject of which is announced the day before. The oral examination is upon the history of education, principles of education, school management and methods of teaching the various subjects required to be taught. The work of the candidates in the several subjects is marked as before: ^' very good,'' ^^ good,'' ^^ sufficient," or ''not stfficient." Candidates whose class exercise is marked, '' 7iot stfficient" are rejected. Results in other subjects are marked and counted as in the first examina- tion. To those who successfully pass this examination, certificates are given entitling them to teach perma- nently and to receive a definite appointment. Those candidates who at the first examination are marked ''good" in religion, language, arithmetic, and the 7r^/ studies (geography, history, and natural history), or instead of the real studies a foreign language, and who are marked "good" in all subjects given in the second examination, are entitled to teach in the lower classes lO SCHOOLS OF GERMANY of the middle schools and of higher schools for girls. Other and more severe examinations are given to candidates for the position of teacher in the middle and higher grades of middle schools and higher schools for girls, and also for the principalship of elementary schools. Candidates^ for the position of teacher in high schools {GymTiasien^ Realgymnasien, Oberrealschiilen^ and Jwheren Burgerschtden) are examined by " scientific examination commissions " consisting of seven members, one for each of the principal subjects in which the candidates are examined. Candidates are required to have graduated from a gymnasium or Realgymnasiiim^ and to have studied three years in a university. The examination is written and oral. Besides a brief biography written in Latin, or in French or English, candidates have two or three essays to write upon given subjects, being allowed six weeks' time for each essay. In certain cases the dissertation written to secure the doctor's degree in the university is received in lieu of the essays above mentioned. Severe oral and written tests are given in the subjects selected by the candidates as main subjects, while in other branches, notably philosophy, pedagogics, German language and literature, and reli- gion, candidates are obliged to prove their effici- 1 Information here given is taken from Sander's Lexikon der P'ddagogik ; Article: Preussen. ORGANIZATION 1 1 ency. Having received a certificate — conditional or unconditional — indicating his fitness for one or another position, the candidate is obliged to spend a certain period of time in a gymnasium or Realgymnasium under the direction of the principal before he can receive a permanent appointment. Formerly the time spent in practice was oiflte year, being called a trial year {Probe- jahr). In 1882 the trial period was extended to two years, after which candidates pass another examination, in which they show that their time has been profitably spent in the observation and practice of good methods of teaching. In 1889 it was decreed that seven peda- gogical seminaries should be established in every prov- ince, to be connected with the Gymnasien. A candidate for the position of teacher in a gymnasium is expected to spend a year in the seminary under the direction of a gymnasium director. During this trial year of teaching he is paid a small amount by the government. There are examinations for teachers of abnormal children, — idiots, blind, deaf and dumb, etc. ; also for teachers of special subjects, such as drawing, sewing, gymnastics, etc. These examinations are quite general in character and very thorough. In gymnastics, for example, the examination is oral and written, and covers various subjects, including anatomy, physiology, a description of apparatus and movements, and, for candidates who have not passed the regular teachers' examination, other subjects of elementary instruction. 12 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY It is not feasible, were it advisable, to give in detail here the various ways of making appointments in dif- Appointment Cerent parts of the empire. A few of the of Teachers. jjjQgt noteworthy items only are given. Ap- pointments are made by the government ; i.e., by boards representing the government, but nominations for pri- vate and municipal schools are madfe by the local boards. These local boards in sending their nomi- nations may state their preferences, but can send the names only of those who have passed the required examinations. In Prussia teachers are permitted to leave their schools only at the close of a term, and must give three months' notice of their intention to leave, unless excused by the school board from such notice. Certain appointments of elementary teachers are made for three years, and within that time the teachers so appointed are not permitted to resign. Other ap- pointments are made for a longer or shorter time by the provincial or government boards. The number of female teachers in Germany has gradu- ally increased within a few years ; yet in 1886 in the Female entire empire but little more than a tenth Teachers. ^f ^^^ the teachers were females, largely employed in the lower grades of the elementary schools. Custom varies somewhat in the employment of married women as teachers. In some places no married women are appointed, and as soon as a female teacher marries ORGANIZATION I3 she must give up her position. In other places, as in Baden, married women may be employed as teachers whenever their family cares do not interfere with their work. Most of the schoolhouses of Germany were built before the present generation. As a rule, therefore, they are poor, and the schoolrooms are small and School Build- poorly ventilated. Occasionally there is an ings and r 1 -1 1 ^ • 1 r ^ Fumishiiigs. arrangement of the wmdows by which fresh air is admitted without falling directly upon the pupils' heads ; but generally, with the exception of a few new buildings, no means of carrying away the impure air is provided. The seats and desks are of the plainest kind, frequently being rude desks several feet long, with plain board seats — a pattern which existed in our country schools forty years ago. The blackboards are literally black boards, and the amount of surface in a room is very meagre compared with what is provided here. One blackboard, three or four feet wide and five or six feet long, is all that will be found in most schoolrooms. Occasionally two such boards will be found, sometimes with an arrangement for drawing up. Moistened sponges are quite generally used for cleaning the boards ; thus there is avoided the dust so common in our schoolrooms. As a rule, the walls of the schoolrooms are unadorned with pictures, save one or two portraits. The portrait of Luther everywhere abounds both in the schoolrooms 14 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY and in the homes of protestant Germany. In many schoolrooms also there is a portrait of the Emperor. The latter is required by law in Prussia. A general plan of studies is issued by the minister of instruction or corresponding head of educational affairs in each state of Germany ; and this gen- Studies, eral plan is elaborated by masters of schools, subject to the approval of the district school-inspectors. The general plans issued by the government specify the subjects of instruction and the time to be given to each subject. They also give general directions as to methods of teaching. More will be said in subsequent chapters of the courses of studies for the various schools. The graded schools of cities and large towns are classified not unlike similar schools in this country ; i.e., there is a separate class with one teacher in Classification. t i i i every room. 1 saw no large schoolrooms with small recitation rooms adjoining, as are sometimes seen here. In some places there is an approach to the departmental plan of teaching : a teacher, for example, who is especially successful in teaching natural science gives a portion of his time to that subject in several rooms of the building, still keeping general charge of his own room. This practice is more common and is carried farther in the higher than in the lower schools. The schools are in session from forty-two to forty-five ORGANIZATION 1 5 weeks in the year, separated into four terms of from nine to twelve weeks each. The vacations „ Terms and are from one to four weeks in length, gener- Session*, ally occurring at Easter, midsummer, Whitsuntide, and Christmas.^ In the schools of cities and larger villages there is a single grade in a room, and the pupils of each grade, except the lowest, are generally reciting every hour of the day. Six hours a day are thus given, — four hours in the morning and two in the afternoon, with an inter- mission from five to fifteen minutes between recitations. The hours for school sessions are in summer from seven to eleven o'clock a.m. ; in winter, from eight o'clock a.m. to twelve M. ; and in all parts of the year, from two to four o'clock P.M. The sessions of the lower grades are shortened somewhat, the morning session sometimes being but two or three hours in length. In some places the higher schools, and in Berlin all schools, have but one session of five or six hours in the day.^ In Berlin the school day for pupils of the lower grades is but four hours long. There are in most schools where two sessions are held four recitation periods in the forenoon and two in the 1 The school year generally begins after the Easter vacation. In Bavaria by recent ministerial decree the Realgymnasien school year begins September loand ends July 14. * In many parts of Germany local inspectors and principals are authorized to dismiss pupils at noon for the day whenever at eleven o'clock A.M. the thermometer registers 22° Reaumur (about 8i>i»'' Fahrenheit.) l6 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY afternoon. Between the periods there is a recess of a few minutes, givinsr an avera2:e of about Recitation > & & & Periods and fifty minutes to each recitation. This is Recesses. generally the arrangement in graded schools of all grades. In the lowest grades there is frequently given some variety of work during a period, and some- times pupils of such grades recite in sections or groups of a dozen or more. In ungraded schools the same general plan of long recitation periods prevails, but the period in some sub- jects is broken by the adaptation of work to pupils of different ages or capacities. Attached to all schools are playgrounds where chil- dren stay during recesses and before school under the care of at least one teacher. Sometimes the children spend an entire recess in marching under the guidance of a teacher. In many schools, I saw older pupils acting as monitors during the recesses and while the classes were filing to and from the playground. They seemed, in some instances, to have authority to command, and even to punish by boxing the children's ears. This, however, may have been a self-assumed prerogative. The ordinary teacher needs to spend but little time upon statistics of any kind. I saw no signs of marking Statistics ^^^ attainment of pupils by percentages, or and Reports, ^f elaborate monthly reports, or of the dozen other things which vex the life of some American teachers. There are quite extended statistics con- ORGANIZATION 1 7 cerning the parentage, birthplace, religion, etc., of all pupils, but they are made out, kept, and reported by the principals and not by assistant teachers. Books for recording absence and tardiness of pupils are kept by all teachers. In some schools I noticed the following plan for marking absence and tardiness : if a pupil is not present at the beginning of the session, a dot is placed against his name ; if he does not appear during the session, the dot is prolonged into a ver- tical line ; and if no good excuse for the absence is given, the line is crossed. All teachers keep another book in which is placed a record of what is taught each day in every subject ; this record is brief and always, so far as I saw, was made by subjects. Thus at the end of the term or year may be seen a complete record of what is done by each class. In many schools, and perhaps in all, reports indi- cating in a general way the standing of pupils in each subject of study are sent to parents. These reports are sent not oftener than twice a term, and are marked by figures or letters which show that the pupil is either very poor^ poor, fair, or excellent in any given subject. Teachers of ungraded schools and princi- pals of graded schools in Prussia are obliged by law to keep a history of the district in which the school is situated. Examinations may be said to have a different place in 1 8 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY the schools of Germany from what they have in our schools. The public examinations which Exami- nations and occur at the close of the school year may be Promotions. attended by the public, but, consisting as they do largely of rhetorical exercises and singing, they show little of the real work of the school. Class examinations, which in the higher schools occur once or twice a year, are oral and are attended by members of the school board and teachers of the school. The examination of each class is conducted by the teacher in charge, but the principal of the school and other visitors are expected to ask questions. If one of these examinations which I attended is a fair sample, they are most thorough and searching. Great emphasis is laid upon the 'leaving exami- nations " which occur at the close of the courses in higher schools. These examinations are generally very difficult and comprehensive. In the gymnasium and RealscJmle they determine the student's fitness for the university and technological school. The gradua- tion examinations in the normal school are oral and written, and must be passed before permission is given to teach.^ There are occasional written tests in the high schools, and they no doubt assist in determining the pupils' ability to go into a higher grade. Apart from these I could discover no '' examinations for promotion, " 1 For particulars concerning these and Qther examinations, see pages 7-1 1. ORGANIZATION 19 SO common with us. Promotions are in the hands of the principal, who is guided in his judgment by the teacher's opinion of the pupils' merits. In the common schools, failure to pass into a higher grade seems to be much more infrequent than with us. Seldom is a boy or girl found who has not made the required preparation for confirmation at the end of the eighth year in school, the time allowed for the completion of the course. One is struck with the uniformity of age of pupils in the various grades, rarely a year apart instead of two or three years as with us. Children enter school at six years of age and leave at fourteen, rarely at fifteen. One cause of regularity in promotions may be the enforced attendance of all pupils during the entire school year. The age at which children are obliged to begin at- tendance at school in most states is six years, and the time of admission is generally the beginning Admission of the term after the Easter vacation. of Pupils. By reference to the chapter on high schools it will be seen that girls and young women do not have the advantages of education that boys and young ,pjjQ ^^^^^ i^ men have. There are seven kinds of public ^l^^ ^°^ ^ Elementary high schools for boys and only one for girls. Schools. In Prussia there were, in 1886, 1,271 public high schools for boys, and only 185 schools of the same kind for girls. In the courses of studies it will be seen that girls are not permitted to study Latin, Greek, or higher mathe- 20 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY matics in the public school, and that but little provision is made for the study of science. The above figures apply to public schools only. There are a few private girls' schools in which the study of Latin and Greek is permitted. Young women are not allowed to matriculate as students in the universities, nor, except in a very few of them and this by permission of the professors, are they permitted to attend the lectures. This privilege is granted in the Leipsic university, but it is accepted only by a few young women and those largely Ameri- cans. In the graded elementary schools the girls are taught generally in separate classes, except in some of the lower classes where the boys and girls are together. In ungraded schools the boys and girls are generally taught together. School attendance is compulsory for all children between the ages of five or six and fourteen, or until School certain studies are completed. The time for such attendance is the entire time in which the schools are in session, and no one is excused from attendance except children of unsound bodies or minds, and children whose parents or guardians give them at home the same education which they would receive in school. The school authorities and the police work together in enforcing the laws. Lists of children of school age ORGANIZATION 21 are in the hands of the school authorities and police. In Prussia a list of absentees, with cause of absence, is sent to the police board at stated times. Although truants are wrought upon in all possible ways, even to being sent to a reform or truant school, the parents or guardians are generally held accountable for their children's absence from school, and are pun- ished with a fine or imprisonment for a violation of the law. In Prussia a parent or guardian is fined from ten Pfennigs (two and one-half cents) to a Mark (twenty-five cents) for each day of his child's unexcused absence from school ; and, in case the fine is not paid immedi- ately, the parent may be imprisoned from three hours to one day. Instead of imprisonment the person fined may work the same length of time for the benefit of the Commune. Employers allowing children to work during school hours are fined from one to one hun- dred and fifty Marks, or imprisoned not exceeding fifteen days. The following facts ^ show the thoroughness with which the compulsory laws of Prussia are enforced. Statistics of School Attendance, Dec. i, 1885. Whole number of children obliged to attend school 5)333>456 Number in attendance upon public schools . . 4,838,247 Number in attendance upon private and other schools 299,280 Number of children not yet in the school, or of chil- dren who have left — all for good reasons . . 170,439 1 Preus. Stat. loi, p. 10. 22 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY Number not in attendance on account of some physi- cal or mental defect I3>5I9 Number not in attendance for want of room . . . 8,826 Number absent unexcused 3>M5 Of the above number reported in attendance upon the public schools, 131,947 were obliged to go a dis- tance of more than theee kilometres, or one and seven- eighths miles. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 2$ CHAPTER II MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Fewer books for study are used by pupils of the elementary schools of Germany than with us, they beino:, for the most part, outlines, and con- ^ ^ Text-books. taining only the most essential facts. Much of what is found in our text-books is there supplied by the teacher. In some of the elementary schools, only one book is used for geography, history, and natural science. One book of this character I found divided as follows: for geography, 91 pages; history, 126 pages; natural history, loi pages; physics and chemistry, yS pages. The book was designed to be used during the last five years of the course. The conciseness of the text-books and the fewness of them may be comprehended from the fact that most, if not all, pupils carry their books and all their school belongings to and from school every day. These are generally placed in bags or knapsacks strapped to the backs of the children. In the selection of books there seems to be a some- what different policy in the various sections. In Bavaria the selection depends upon the local inspection board, 24 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY and in Saxony upon the Minisermm, or highest school board. In Prussia the selection of books for the ele- mentary schools is determined by the concurrent vote of the local and district boards ; the minister of instruc- tion reserves the right of selection, except in important reading-books, and in books for religious instruction, which must have the indorsement of certain church authorities. For the introduction of any new text-book in a high school, permission is granted by the pro- vincial school board, after a recommendation of the book by the principal and his associate teachers. The recommendation must be accompanied by a statement of reasons. New introductions of books must be made at the beginning of the school year.^ Pupils are expected to furnish their own text-books if able to do so. If not, the government provides them. If the comparatively small number of text-books for pupils is noticeable to the American visitor of German Reference schools, the multiplicity of reference books Books. £^^ teachers is no less so. Many schools are well supplied with books for the use of teachers, upon methods of teaching the various subjects, as well as upon the subject matter to be taught. Where the schools themselves do not furnish such books, there is within easy reach of teachers a reference library, the books of which are supplied at little or no cost to the taker. » Sander's Lexikon der Pddagokik ; Article : Lehrbiicher. ^ MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 2$ As a consequence of the liberality of the general government, and of the professional zeal of teachers, all schools of Germany are well supplied ^ Apparatus. with suitable apparatus for teaching. In most school-buildings there is a room given up wholly to the storing of apparatus, which consists of natural objects, charts, pictures, and mechanical contrivances, some of them bought outright, and some made by the teachers and pupils of the school. The government furnishes a special appropriation for apparatus when a school is established, and a stated sum yearly for the same purpose afterwards. In some country schools, in addition to what is furnished by the government, the communities where the schools are located and local societies furnish what is needed. In the elementary schools of Prussia the following appliances are, by law, required to be provided : — A copy of every text-book used in school ; a globe ; a wall map of the home province ; a wall map of Ger- many ; a wall map of Palestine ; charts for instruction in natural history and philosophy ; large alphabets of wood or of pasteboard ; a violin ; a rule and a pair of compasses ; a numeral frame ; bodies for teaching geometry ; two blackboards ; for Protestant schools, a Bible and a copy of the song-book used in the district. That the provision made by local boards and com- munities far exceeds the statute requirements, is evi- dent to all who have visited the apparatus-rooms con- 26 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY nected with the various schools. Hundreds of objects and charts are stored there ready for use in teach- ing the various subjects. In one elementary school of Prussia I counted among the apparatus for teaching physics and chemistry alone seventy-seven different articles. To prevent a too frequent change of teachers, there is the custom in some graded schools of having the teachers move along from class to class Promotion of Teachers with their pupils. The same end is reached, with Classes. ... , ^ . , to some extent, by havmg teachers of special subjects take the same class for two or more years in succession. To Americans the salaries paid to teachers of Ger- many seem ridiculously small. The highest salaries, Salaries of I think, are paid in Berlin, where the princi- eac ers. ^^j^ ^^ ^^^ Gymnasieii receive about ^1,650^ a year, with free rent of dwelling. Other teachers of high schools in Berlin receive on the average ^900 a year. In other parts of Prussia the average salary of high school teachers is a little less than ^800 a year. From ^60 to $225 a year is allowed to teachers of the upper classes for rent. The average yearly salary of all elementary school teachers of Prussia, in 1886, counting what is allowed some teachers for a dwelling, was 1^318.75. The average of salaries in the cities is 1 All figures here in U. S. money are based upon the rate of four Marks to the dollar. The facts are taken from Sander's Lexikon der Pddagogik. ^ MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 2/ higher than in the country, where from the schools alone teachers receive only an average of $281 a year; but teachers in the country frequently receive extra compensation for their service as choir masters and organists, and by special gifts from societies and local communities. Salaries in Saxony are somewhat higher than in other parts of Germany. Principals of the Gymnasien and Realgymnasien receive ^1,500 and a free dwelling. Principals of other high schools and normal schools receive from ^1,200 to $1,350 and a free dwelling. Head teachers {Oberlehrer) and other assistants of high schools receive from $450 to $1,350. Teachers of elementary schools receive from $210 to $900, and principals $1,200. In estimating the relative value of these salaries some circumstances should be taken into account. In the first place, the cost of living is much less in Germany than in America. Again, in case of disability, teachers receive a pension from the government, and their families receive assistance after their death. Teachers are excused from paying taxes, and they have but ten weeks' military service, instead of a service of one year or three years, as is required of other able-bodied male citizens. One reason why the teachers are contented with the salaries that are paid them is, that when once appointed, they hold their office practically during life, 28 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY or good behavior. Rarely is a teacher dismissed from service, and then only after repeated complaints by Tenure of ^^^ Superintendent and principal. People Office. h3.ve said that if teachers were given a life tenure, they would greatly neglect their work, having lost one great incentive to do well. But I can testify, from wide observation, that such is not the case in Germany. I remember only two teachers who seemed to deserve suspension from duty, and one of them was quite aged. Various percentages of the salaries of teachers are allowed as pensions upon the retirement or death of teachers, these depending upon the time and Pensions. place of service. The pension of teachers in Prussia after ten years' service amounts to one- fourth of the salary of the last year of service, and is gradually raised, until, after forty years of service, the pension amounts to three-fourths of the last year's salary. In other parts of Germany the minimum time of service before pensions are granted is much less. In some of the smaller states pensions may be granted immediately after permanent appointment : in Bavaria after four years, and in Baden after five years. The amount of pension in places other than Prussia ranges from thirty-three and one-third per cent to one hun- dred per cent of the last year's salary. The wife and children of a deceased teacher receive ^ MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 2g a certain percentage of the teacher's pension, ranging from ^40 to ^400 a year. In some states the teachers are obliged annually to subscribe to the pension fund a certain percentage of their salaries. Prussia, in 1888, and Saxony, in 1890, released the teachers from this obligation. The pay- ment of pensions in Prussia is assumed by the state and separate municipalities. The state paid in 1886 about one-half of the entire amount of pensions paid. As a means of keeping up a high professional stand- ard among teachers, and of exercising a strong in- fluence upon public opinion and legislation Teachers' in relation to education, there are main- -Associations. tained throughout the empire a great number of associ- ations of teachers. These exist in great variety, representing all kinds and grades of teachers, from the little organized circle of village teachers to the National Union, now numbering nearly 40,000 mem- bers. It is estimated that there are now upwards of 60,000 active paying members of the various associ- ations. From observation, and from an examination of a recent Year Book of German associations, — a book of two hundred pages, containing subjects of discussion and objects and names of organizations, — I judge that the advantages of associations in Germany over our own lie chiefly (i) in a better organization, whereby the work of small branch associations is made effective, and 30 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY more definite conclusions are reached ; (2) in concen- trating the discussions upon points of vital interest. In many of the associations there are schemes for assisting members in case of sickness, and for pension- ing families of deceased members. In addition to regular duties of the school, the teacher, especially in the country, is frequently em- ployed as chorister and organist for the Outside ^ -^ ^ Duties of church, and, in many places, also as sexton, Teaoher. These duties bring him mto close relation with the people, and the compensation therefor serves to eke out the small salary he receives as teacher. At the same time, the practice is attended with certain dangers from clerical or church influence, to which the attention of reformers is just now being directed. Other duties, notably those of teacher of a continu- ation school (evenings and Sundays), fill the spare time of these much overworked officials. It should be said that in Prussia permission to engage in outside duties must be had from the government. Although the number of pupils to a teacher is limited by law in most parts of Germany, yet the complaint Overcrowded is constant and universal that the schools, ** °° *■ especially the elementary schools, are over- crowded. That there is good ground for complaint, in Prussia at least, is shown from the fact that in fifty-one places situated in nine government districts, the aver- age number of pupils to a teacher in 1886 was over MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 3 I one hundred — in some cases being as high as one hundred and twenty.^ Overcrowded classes are not so general in the high schools as in the elementary schools, and yet in the lower classes of these schools, although the number of pupils is limited by law to thirty and forty, there are sometimes found as many as fifty or sixty pupils. In some parts of Germany the time given to home study for pupils of the elementary schools is limited by law or decree as follows : For pupils of Home Study. the lower grades, one hour ; of the middle grades, one hour and one half ; of the upper grades, two hours. No limit, so far as I could learn, was made anywhere to the amount of time devoted to study outside of school hours by pupils of the high schools. The pres- ent emperor, in a speech before a recent conference for school reform, declared that the time given for home study by pupils of class prima of the Gymnasium was from five and one-half to seven hours a day. This is probably an extravagant statement. It is safe to say, however, that pupils of all grades in Germany study more out of school than do pupils of the same grade and age in this country, — a conclusion which I reached after much inquiry of parents, teachers, and children. This disparity may be due in part to the fact that no time is allowed for study in school, every portion of the school day being given to recitations. 1 Preus. Stat. p. 55. 32 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY It should be borne in mind that much of what our children get from books by '' study " is acquired directly from teachers in Germany, and therefore that the nature of home study must be essentially different in the two countries. I noticed in several instances that the work required to be done at home was of a kind that did not permit harmful assistance : such as copy- ing corrected language exercises, memorizing dates and pieces for recitation, and solving and writing out prob- lems that do not require much reasoning. While whipping in many places is practised to a limited extent, and each case is reported to the authori- Schooi ties, there are some forms of corporal punish- iscip ine. j^gj^^ which I think are not reported, and, so far as I could judge, are not much limited in their application. I refer to ear-cuffing, hair-pulling, shak- ing, etc. The use of sarcasm and the calling of names by the teacher are quite general means of correction for the most trivial mistakes in recitation. Failure to answer a question, a careless slip of the tongue, a mispronounced or misspelt word, often brings down upon the offending pupil such anathemas as to make the visitor wonder what would happen if something really worthy of censure should occur. One or more teachers are delegated to oversee the children during recesses, of which there are several in the day. Some- times the entire recess of five or ten minutes is occu- pied in marching up and down the school playground. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 33 Rigid home training, and the military spirit which prevails throughout the country, probably account for the greater severity of discipline in the schools of Germany as compared with that in our own schools. Pupils of all ages seem to be subject to the control of school authorities to a far greater extent than with us. Pupils of high schools in Prussia are Outside forbidden to absent themselves from the city ^^"^ ^°°* or town over night, to attend theatres and balls, or receive private lessons, without permission from the teacher or director. They are forbidden to frequent saloons and taverns, and may not attend certain public performances, except in company with their parents or guardians. Alcoholic liquor or beer cannot be sold to children of school age. In many parts of Germany no one, not even a parent or friend of the pupils, is allowed to visit the school at any time, without permission from the con- J ' ^ ^ Visitors. stituted authorities. To visit the high schools one must get written permission from the minister of instruction or provincial school board. To visit the elementary schools permission from the city or district superintendent must be obtained. In Southern Ger- many there does not seem to be so great strictness in requiring letters of permission as in the northern part. In Saxony and other parts of Southern Germany, the principal of each school seems to be authorized to permit persons to visit the rooms, although even then 34 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY an official letter of permission and introduction goes a great way toward securing favors which would not otherwise be given. Special provision is made in some states for teachers of normal schools to visit schools other than their own. NORMAL SCHOOLS 35 CHAPTER III NORMAL SCHOOLS There are in the entire empire about two hundred normal schools, more than half of which are in Prussia. Most of these institutions are supported by the state, some by cities, and some by private individuals. The schools for males and the schools for females are separate ; a division more or less marked is made also on the basis of religion. For example, in Prussia seventy-two schools are reported as Evangelical, thirty- seven Catholic, and five as placing religious beliefs on an equality {paritdt). As a rule, these schools are not large, numbering in most cases not more than one hundred pupils. The classes are correspondingly small, each class having rarely more than forty pupils. In 1888, there were but five of the one hundred and fifteen normal schools of Prussia which had upwards of one hundred pupils, and but one which had less than fifty pupils. The number of teachers required for each normal school in Prussia is seven : one principal, one head assistant, and five other assistant teachers. In the 36 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY year 1888 the average number of pupils to a teacher Number of was about twelve. The number of teachers eac ers. ^^ove cited does not include the critic teachers, of whom there are two or more in every practice school. The students who enter the public normal schools are generally from the middle classes : merchants, teach- ciassof ^^^' ^^^' ^^ ^^^ 95^ students who attended Patrons. ^^^ Berlin Normal School for males between the years 1830 and 1850, 420 were sons of merchants; 245 of teachers; 114 of lower officials ; 57 of farmers ; 38 of workmen ; 27 of military men ; 16 of clergymen ; II of men who live upon their rents ; 8 of physicians and lawyers ; and 22 of all other occupations. The qualifications for admission to the normal schools are considerably in advance of the qualifications required for similar schools in America. In another Qualifi- cations for respect the German normal schools have an advantage over ours, and that is in respect to the preparation which the pupils receive in the lower schools. The instruction there in all branches is uni- formly good, and but little time is required to train pupils into good habits of study. In the sciences the observation work of the lower schools is particularly helpful to normal-school students, both for the training it gives them, and for the facts which are acquired as a basis for scientific work. The examination for admission to the normal school NORMAL SCHOOLS 37 is oral and written, embracing all subjects required to be taught in the elementary schools. The written work includes a theme upon a given subject and brief tests in the various studies. The oral examination is conducted by members of the faculty, each teacher generally examining in the subject which he teaches. From the prescribed requirements, I quote a few of the principal features. In Prussia candidates for entrance to a normal school for males may not be under seventeen years of age, and not more than twenty-four. They must present certifi- cates as to their physical condition and moral character, and must present a satisfactory guarantee that the father or guardian is able to pay their living expenses during the course. They pledge themselves to serve as teachers in the kingdom at least three years, under penalty of forfeiting the cost of instruction and board. The syllabus of entrance requirements shows that no time of the normal-school course is expected to be given to teaching the subject matter of the elementary schools ; or, if such matter is taught, it is mainly for discipline, and for the purpose of enabling the students to know the subjects from the teacher's stand- point. In language, candidates must know the principal forms of poetry, and must be able to repeat from memory and explain poems of celebrated authors. They must be able to give practical applications of 38 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY grammatical rules, and write correctly short themes on given subjects. Arithmetic, geography, elementary algebra, and the elements of plane geometry are_ expected to be thor- oughly known. The course of studies for the normal school proper extends over three years. In Saxony the course is six Course of years ; but the first three years are given to Studies. preparatory studies. These institutions are supposed to take students directly from the elementary peoples' schools. Other normal schools draw directly from the higher common school {/where Burgherschule)^ or from the higher girls' school. Some of these schools have a two years' preparatory course, beginning where the elementary course is supposed to end. The following tables indicate the distribution of studies in the two kinds of schools mentioned : — Royal Prussian Schools, Three- Years' Course. Number of Recitations Weekly. bUBJECTS. First Year. Second Year. Third Year. Pedagogics 2 2 3 Religion . 4 4 2 German 5 5 2 History 2 2 2 Arithmetic 3 3 I Geometry . 2 2 - Physics 4 4 2 Geography 2 2 I Drawing . 2 2 I Writing 2 I - Gymnastics 2 2 2 Music, instrumental and vocal s 5 3 Foreign language (elective) 1 3 3 2 NORMAL SCHOOLS 39 Six - Years* Course in Saxony, designed for Pupils who have graduated from the Elemeittary People'' s Schools. Subjects. Number of Recitations Weekly. First Year. Second Third Year. Year. Fourth Year. Fifth Year. Sixth Year. Religion German . . . . . Latin Geography . . • . History . . . . . Nature studies . . . . Physics . . . . . Mathematics . . . . Pedagogics . . . . School practice . . . . Music, vocal and instrumental. Gymnastics . . . . Writing Drawing . . . . . Stenography and piano and organ lessons, elective. It will be seen from these plans that much more is required in some branches than our schools require, especially in those branches which are frequently taught in this country by special teachers. In music, for example, every student of the normal school is required to learn to play upon some musical instru- ment, generally, in men's schools, upon the violin. Regular instruction, with several hours of practice weekly throughout the course, gives the students such facility in playing the violin or piano as to enable them to teach music well when they become teachers. In 1890 only twenty-three of the two hundred state normal schools were for females. The requirements for admission to these schools are not unlike „ Normal the requirements for other normal schools.^ Schools for Females. In Prussia less music is required in the en- trance examination for female schools than is required 1 See pp. 36,37. 40 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY for male schools, and hand work — sewing, etc., — is an added subject of examination. The plan of study for these schools is somewhat different from the schools for males, as the following table shows: — Plan of Study in State Normal School for Females y Dresden, 1882 -83. Subjects. Religion German French \ Language English Geography History Natural Science Arithmetic and Geometry Pedagogics School practice Singing . . Harmony and Piano Drawing Writing Sewing, etc. . Gymnastics . Stenography NUMBER OF RECITATIONS WEEKLY. First year. ^ W Second year. Third year. Fourth year. Fifth year. ^ W Total, 30 30 31 I 5 n 31 I 7 II 2? As a rule, fewer changes in classes occur during the course than in our schools, either by accessions, depart- ures, or non-promotions. The following tables show how well the numbers are sustained in three classes of a small normal school in Eisenach. It should be said that this instance of regularity is by no means an exceptional one. NORMAL SCHOOLS 41 School Year, 1886-87. Class. Number left at Easter. Number entered at Easter. Number of Pupils at begin- ning of School Year. Deaths during the School Year. Number left dur- ing the School Year. Number entered during the School Year. Number of Pupils at end of School Year. I. . H. . III. . 21 I I 10 20 14 II — I — 19 14 II Total . 1 22 " 1 45 - 1 - 44 School Year, 1887-88. Tuition is free to all students who intend to teach. In boarding schools the expense of living is very small — in many cases less than eighty dollars a j, ^gg year. Assistance is given by the govern- ment to indigent pupils, amounting in some cases to the entire cost of living. In some of the buildings which I visited there were large sleeping-rooms having thirty or more beds. This arrangement, with the ex- ceedingly simple bills of fare, brings the living expenses of the students down to the lowest possible amount. In some parts of Germany, where preparation for entrance to the normal schools is not easily made in existing institutions, there are special fitting schools established either by private individuals or by the gov- 42 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY ernment. In Prussia there are thirty-two government Fitting- fitting schools, the course of which covers Schools. three years of study. Candidates for these schools are admitted by examination, oral and written, upon the studies of the elementary schools. Some of the normal schools have connected with Practice them two practice schools for observation and '^ °° ^* practice — one ungraded and another graded into four or more classes. All the graded practice schools in Prussia follow the course of the people's elementary schools with the exception of the school connected with the Berlin Normal School for males, which has a nine-years' course, embracing elementary and high school studies. In some schools the amount of observation and practice is much greater than that indicated in the above table. In Prussia students of the normal school observe and assist in the practice school several hours a week during the second year of the course. During the third year of the course students have not less than six hours and not more than ten hours a week of actual practice in teaching and disciplining a school. In the Eisenach Normal School members of the senior class spend eighteen and a half hours a week in the practice school, eight hours of which is spent in teaching. In all the public normal schools which I visited the work required of the pupil teachers was very syste- matic and severe. The student has first to submit to NORMAL SCHOOLS 43 a critic teacher for correction an abstract of the reci- tation which he is about to conduct. The recitation is then subject to the criticism of a critic teacher who has, besides his regular work in the practice school, a few special subjects to teach in the normal school. The programmes of the senior class are so arranged as to permit members to observe and practise during the practice school hours. Thus regular recitations for the senior and junior classes are likely to begin as early as seven a.m., and to continue as late as seven p.m. Sometimes the critic teacher and the entire senior class observe the work of a pupil teacher in teaching, and for a longer or shorter time after the lesson there is a discussion of the merits of the method and manage- ment. These discussions are free, and the criticisms, as a rule, are very severe. In the seminary connected with the University of Jena, one evening a week is devoted to these discussions which are always of a very searching nature, neither professor nor students show- ing any mercy in their criticisms of mistakes. 44 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY CHAPTER IV HIGH SCHOOLS The high schools are designated by different names, depending in part upon the length of the course and in part upon the studies pursued. The names and general characteristics of these schools are as follows : — I. Gymnasien, or schools in which special emphasis is placed upon the study of ancient languages, corre- sponding to the Latin schools of some of our larger cities. The following programme ^ indicates the amount of time spent upon the various subjects in a royal Prussian gymnasium following three years in a primary preparatory school. SUBJECTS. Religion German Latin Greek French History and geography Mathematics Natural history . Physics Writing . . » Drawing . Gymnastics Singing . Total NUMBER OF RECITATIONS WEEKLY. ^> 32 34 ^-> 34 34 si> 34 •£> 34 34 34 ■^> 34 19 21 77 40 21 28 34 Hebrew and, in some schools, English are elective both for four years of the course. 1 Adopted in 1882. HIGH SCHOOLS 45 The Gymnasien have generally six classes, covering a course of nine years, each of the three highest classes being separated into two divisions. The course is begun when the pupil is about nine years of age. In Saxony the requirements are greater in some sub- jects than are indicated in the above table, as is shown by the following : — Programme of Studies '^ for Gymnasium in the Kingdom of Saxony. {Figures zw parentheses denote elective work.) NUMBER OF RECITATIONS WEEKLY. >^ c u u )^ ^ :^ c SUBJECTS. 01 -a t n A rt <« •5 « ^ s ci IS 1^ O > 1^ 5 o In 3 3 H 3 2 2 2 t/! 2 2 2 H Religion 21 German 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 3 3 Latin lO lO ID ID TO ID ID P p Greek - - 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 French - 2(^) 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 Hebrew - - - - - f2) (2) (2) Enc;lish - - - - - (2) (2) (2) (2) Mathematics _ ) Numbers — Arithmetic) 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 Natural History and Physics . 2 2 - 2 2 2 2 2 2 History ) . Geography j • • • • 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 Philosophy - - - - - - - (I) (I) Penmanship 2 2 - - - - - - - Drawing ...... 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 Singing 2 2 2 I I I I I I Gymnastics 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 Stenography — ~ ~ (I) (I) (l) ' ' " 1 Adopted, 1870. Graduation from this course entitles the student to enter the university, and those who pass the examin- ation for the seventh year class {pbersecundd) are entitled to enter the voluntary one-year service in the army. 2. Realschtilen, or schools in which mathematics, 46 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY science, geography, and history are chiefly taught. These schools by the name here given are compara- tively few. Only about one-eighth of all the high schools of Germany are known as Realschiilen. In some places, as in Bavaria and Saxony, they are in all respects like the Higher Burger schools of other parts of Germany. In Prussia the Realschiilen^ called second grade Real- schiilen^ are the same as the Oberrealschulen without the last year of the course. A graduate of these schools is entitled to the one-year voluntary service in the army. 3. Realgyntfiasien, — These are schools having a nine-years' course in which mathematics, natural science, modern languages, and Latin have a promi- nent place. The following programme of a Prussian Realgymnasiuvi shows the kind and amount of work done. As in the course of the gymnasium above given, this course is supposed to follow a three-year preparatory course. Number of Lessons Weekly, Subjects. 1^ Ti rt re ^ re re 1- ■Zc j:: re 'rt (U C 1> t3 fa 2> fa 0) OJ fa Religion 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 iQ German 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 27 Latin 8 7 7 6 6 s 5 5 S S4 trench - 5 .S 4 4 4 4 4 4 34 English - - - 4 4 3 3 3 3 20 History and geography 3 3 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 30 Natural history 2 2 2 2 2 2 12 Physics .... - - - - - 3 3 3 3 12 Chemistry - — — — _ 2 2 2 6 Mathematics 5 4 S 5 5 s <; S S 44 Writing 3 2 - S Drawing 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 18 Total . 1 29 30 30 32 32 32 32 32 I32 281 HIGH SCHOOLS 47 The course of the same grade schools in other parts of Germany does not differ materially from the above plan. In a Leipsic city Realgymnashim a little more time is given to German in the lower classes than in the Prussian schools, and no time is given to penman- ship. Five years are given to physics instead of four, but the whole number of hours is the same as given above. The entire number of Realgymnasien in Ger- many in 1888 was 135. 4. Progymnasien. — These schools are Gymnasien with a shortened course, generally seven years. They are not numerous, nor have they reason for existence independent of the examination for the one-year volun- tary service in the army. By passing this examination at the end of Obersectmda class of the Gymnasium, corresponding to the highest class of the Progymna- sium, a boy is permitted to serve in the army one year instead of three, which is otherwise required of all able- bodied young men. Forty of the fifty-four Progymnasien in Germany in 1888 were in Prussia. 5. Realprogymnasien. — These are schools of a seven- years' course corresponding to the Realgymnasien with- out c\2iss prima. Graduates of these schools may enter the second class of a Realgymnasium, and pupils who have passed an examination for the first class may enter the one-year voluntary service in the army. More than one-eighth of all the high schools of Ger- 48 Schools of Germany i many are of this kind, and are situated mainly in Prussia. Until 1882 these schools were called in Prussia Higher Burger schools. 6. Oberrealschiilen. — These are schools covering nine years, and having a course of study differing from the Realgymnasicft in having no Latin and more French, English, physics, chemistry, mathematics, and drawing. There were only seventeen of these schools in Germany in 1888. 7. H'dhere Biirgerschiilen. — This class of schools has a course of studies extending over a period of six years. In the Prussian high burger schools French is taught the entire six years, English three, and arithmetic or algebra throughout the course. Graduation from these schools entitles the young man to the one-year service in the army, also entrance to the third class of the Oberrealschiilen. It will be understood, of course, that preceding the courses of all of these high schools there is supposed to be a preparatory course of three years, and that all high schools named thus far are for boys only. 8. H'dhere Mddchen Schtden. — These schools have a ten-years' course, including the preparatory course. They are frequently joined with the girls' normal schools as preparatory schools. They differ from the Gymriasien and Realgymnasien in not including in the course either Latin or Greek, and in providing little opportunity for the study of the sciences. On the I HIGH SCHOOLS 49 other hand, they give much time to the study of the French and English languages and of literature. The following programme presents the number of hours given weekly to each branch of study in Prussian schools of this kind: — SUBJECTS. Religion German French English Arithmetic. History Geography Natural History Singing Writing Drawing Gymnastics Sewing Total NUMBER OF RECITATIONS WEEKLY. e> i8 20 24 28 30 30 30 30 30 240 Xi> 20 54 27 12 29 4 14 18 In the public high schools for girls there are, accord- ing to the last reports, more male teachers than female teachers. In Prussia there were, in 1886, 1,271 male teachers and 926 female teachers in these schools. By middle schools {Mittelschulen) is meant in Austria and Southern Germany Gymnasien, Realgymnasien, and OberrealscJmlen. In Prussia they are the kiddie schools which stand between the elementary s*^^oo^s. and high schools, or, rather, they are schools whose courses are modifications of the elementary course in the direction of high school work. The authorized course of studies provides for the study of French and 50 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY a more extended study of physics and geometry than is allowed in the elementary schools. In some of them, also, English and Latin may be studied. A somewhat larger proportion of children take the high school course in Germany than in America. It is Number of estimated ^ that in Prussia, in 1886, from Pupils. 205,000 to 207,000 boys attended the high and middle schools, and from 150,000 to 155,000 girls attended the girls' higher and middle schools : or about seven per cent of the whole number of pupils attended schools in advance of the elementary schools. From the same report it is stated, that for every 10,000 in habitants 54 boys attended the high schools, not count- ing those who attended the middle schools or private higher schools. The relative value of the classics and science is being vigorously discussed in Germany, and changes in the Recent plans of study are being constantly made. Changes. ^ comparison of the programmes given above and those of the same schools thirty years ago shows some interesting changes. The Gym?tasium has added weekly in French, 4 hours ; in history and geog- raphy, 3 ; in mathematics, 2 ; in natural history, 2 ; in physics, 2. It has dropped i hour a week in religion and German, 9 hours in Latin, and 2 hours in Greek. The Realgymnasiiim has added 10 hours a week in Latin, and dropped i hour a week in religion, 2 hours 1 Preus. Stat. p. loi. ^ HIGH SCHOOLS 5 1 in German, drawing, and writing, 3 hours in mathe- matics, and 4 hours in science. With such require- ments, it is no wonder that the boys of the high schools of Germany know more of foreign languages than many of our college graduates. Although there is a change going on in respect to the teaching of the classics, and far less is required than formerly, yet the humanistic spirit of Erasmus and Trotzendorf is still rife in many schools, as shown by the wonderful facility with which the boys of the upper classes discuss the literature of Greece and Rome in the language of the authors themselves. The chief end of instruction in the gymnasia is preparation for the university ; and in this preparation the study of Latin and Greek is the central ^atin and point of attention. An estimate of what is ^'^^^• attempted in Latin may be had from the following requirements of the gymnasial course in Saxony : ^ Sexta (fourth year in school). — Regular inflections to deponent verbs ; translation from Latin into Ger- man ; syntax so far as it relates to an understanding of the simple sentence ; memorizing of vocabulary and sentence. Qicinta. — Review of regular inflections; irregular inflections ; some principal rules of syntax ; translation of Latin into German and German into Latin, according to a practice book ; written and extemporary work weekly ; memorizing of vocabulary and sentences. Qiiarta. — Reading of Cornelius Nepos or alternately with reading-book ; review of syntax; translation from 1 Gotz's Gesetz, p. 72. 52 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY ^ German into Latin ; written and extemporary work weekly ; memorizing of verses from the reading. Untertertia. — Reading of CcEsar de bello gallico (at least three books), and a poetical piece ; review of syntax taught in Qiiarta ; cases and pronouns ; rules of prosody and beginning of metre; written and extemporary work weekly, ^^laterial for memorizing is selected from the reading. Obcrtertia. — Reading of Ccesar de bello gallico alter- nately with bellum civile ; in the second half year also the easier orations of Cicero, preferably the ijivectivce in Catilinam, Ovid's Matamorphoses ; tenses and modes after a review of cases ; practice in prosody ; extem- porary written exercises, if possible in close connection with the reading ; material for memorizing from Ovid and Cicero. Untei'secunda. — Reading of Cicero's orations, prefer- ably de imperio PoDipeii, pro Roscio, pro ArcJiia, and Cato 7najor ; reading of Ovid, and in the second half year Vii'gil ; review and extension of syntax ; written and extemporary work ; metrical practice ; memorizing from the reading. Obersecunda. — Readinsr from the works of Sallust and Livy ; Cicero's orations, pro Sulla and the second PJiilippica, Virgil's ^-Eutid ; written and extemporary work ; three short compositions each half year ; ma- terial for memorizins: from the readinsr. Untoprima. — Reading of Cicero's philosophical works, TusculaucB dispiitationes and de offieiis, also of the orations : pro Milone, pro Sestio,pro Miirenay Verrina^ iv. and v. ; of the poets, Horatii Carniiua, also a selection from other Roman lyrics, and for variety an appropriate selection from Terrence ; four compositions each half year ; written, extemporary, and conversation practice ; material for memorizing from the reading, especially from Horace. Oberprima. — Reading of Cicero's rhetorical works, Bmttis, Orator^ de Oratore ; selection of letters ; Tacitus ; ^ HIGH SCHOOLS 53 reading of the poets, Horatii Carniina^ SatircE, and EspistolcB, also a selection from Plautus ; four composi- tions each half year ; written and extemporary work. In regard to the methods of teaching Latin and Greek, the best that can be said is that all teachers of every grade seem to have a common purpose and an intelligent idea of reaching it. In none of the schools which I visited was there any attempt to make the work of the beginners easy or to delay necessary drill in grammar. In Latin the boy begins at the beginning of the gymnasium course the study of grammatical forms, and continues it with great thoroughness for three or four years. At first he uses a small book con- sisting of declensions, conjugations, and rules. Later he is given an exhaustive treatise upon grammar, which he uses throughout the course. In the lowest grade I saw much interesting work in translating, in which the teacher's aim was evidently to teach the pupils how to study. In the abundant time for recitation which pupils of the lower grades have there is opportunity for this work which our teachers do not have. For example, the pupil is asked first to tell how many propositions there are in the sentence and why ; to state what the predicate is ; to give the principal parts of the verb, and conjugate it. He is then, by questions, led to find the subject, and to give the dependencies, first of the predicate and afterwards of the subject. As each new word or phrase is named 54 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY other forms are called for, the teacher giving the Ger- man expression and the pupils giving the Latin. In all of this work the questions are asked rapidly, and the answers are expected to be exact and prompt. From the very beginning is the habit of exactness and promptness cultivated. I have seen children of nine and ten years trained in a way which most American parents and teachers would regard as too severe. Translation from German into Latin is also begun early, and is used as a means of fixing certain forms of construction. For example, after a Latin sentence has been translated and the necessary drill upon it has been given, the teacher asks the pupils to build up sentences progressively, using the words of the trans- lated sentence, thus : Let us sleep. Let us not sleep. Let us not sleep eight hours. Let us not sleep more than eight hours, etc. As the pupils advance, more and more attention is given to a finished style of translation and to the litera- ture. As a help to a good style, the teacher frequently gives his own translation as a model, and afterwards calls upon one and another of the pupils to give their rendering. Criticisms abound both from the teacher and from the pupils themselves. The reading of Latin in the advanced classes is given with much spirit and, judging from the character of some of the criticisms, with great exactness. In poetry expression is most carefully attended to. Every line HIGH SCHOOLS 55 seems to mean something to the reader, and all mem- bers of the class enter into the spirit of the author much as a class of bright high-school pupils in America might enter into the rendering of "Hamlet" or "Mer- chant of Venice." The practice of conducting the recitation of the higher grades wholly in Latin still continues, although it is less extensively employed than formerly, and the practice, I am told, is being gradually abandoned. As is seen in the courses of studies, French and English are the only modern languages Modem Lan- taught in the high schools, the former being ^^*^®^* carried much farther than the latter. The course in French in the Realgymnasien of Saxony is briefly as follows : ^ — First Year. — Rules for pronunciation ; practice in reading ; forms through regular verbs ; learning by heart common words and easy pieces; short written exercises. Second Year. — Completion of declensions and conjugations ; read- ing ; memorizing short selections ; oral and written grammatical practice. Third Year. — Review of declensions and conjugations, especially of irregular verbs ; beginning of syntax ; reading ; memorizing of poetical and prose selections ; practice in conversation and writing. Fourth Year. — Continuation of syntax ; reading, according to ability, from an easy prose author ; practice in conversation, written exercises, and compositions. Fifth Year. — The language of the recitation from this time to be in French ; review and completion of the grammar ; reading of classical authors ; history of literature of the seventeenth and first half of the eighteenth century ; original compositions and speeches. Sixth Year. — Continuation of reading, modern authors ; review and completion of the history of literature ; original compositions and speeches. 1 Gotz's Gestez, p. iii. 56 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY At the close of the course, pupils are expected not only to be acquainted with the grammar, but also to translate, without the use of the lexicon, difficult prose and easy poetry, to understand a lecture delivered in French, to answer questions fluently in French, to write correctly French compositions, to compose letters, and to be acquainted with the history of French literature. Practice varies as to the use of the mother tongue in teaching French and English. In most of the recita- tions of the lower classes, which I heard, the explana- tions and directions were all given in German. In the upper classes more and more use is made of the lan- guage which is being studied. In the courses of studies for the Saxony high and normal schools, the regulation is for the two higher classes to use French only in the French classes, and, "as a rule," only English in English classes. There are a few native French and English teachers, but a large majority of the teachers of French and English are Germans. German boys and girls make difficult and rather poor work in pronouncing English ; but in their knowledge of fine grammatical points they excel many of our high-school pupils. The reading of classic authors, both French and English, is pursued to a surprising degree. Four years of the study of English in a Realgymnasiiim does not enable the student to speak with any degree of fluency, but it puts him in possession of a knowledge of the HIGH SCHOOLS 57 literature which is highly creditable. Irving, Scott, Dick- ens, and Shakespeare seem to be the favorite authors. The results in the study of science do not seem to be so much better than the results obtained in our best high schools, as the greater amount of time Science, given to it would seem to demand. As a rule, the laboratories are not so complete as they are in our best schools, and the experiments by individual pupils are apparently not so common as experiments made by the teacher and exhibited to the pupils. There is, however, a more scientific treatment of the various subjects than is pursued in our public schools; owing, no doubt, to the greater length of the course. Much theoretical and mathematical work is done in physics, independent of experiments. The following course of study in physics and chem- istry in a Realgymnasium of Saxony shows the number and order of subjects studied in the allotted time ; viz., five years for physics and three years for chemistry. Physics. Fifth Year. — Two hours a week : General properties of matter ; equilibrium and movements of solid, liquid, and gaseous bodies. Sixth Year. — Two hours a week: Magnetism and electricity. Seventh Year. — Two hours a week : Heat and light. Eighth Year. — Three hours a week : Galvanism ; mathematical treatment of mechanics. Ninth Year. — Three hours a week : Continuation of 58 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY mechanics ; waves ; acoustics ; optics ; introduction to spherical astronomy ; general reviews. Chejnistry. Seventh Year. — Two hours a week : Introduction to an understanding of chemical processes ; inspection of the most important elements ; chief points of stoichi- ometry ; detailed study of oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, and their combinations with each other. Eighth Year. — Two hours a week : Systematic treat- ment of other elements with special reference to min- eralogy and arts ; lessons in stoichiometry. - Ninth Year. — Two hours a week : Rest of metals and their combinations, with special reference to their technical application. Each of the higher grade of high schools issues every year a circular known under various names, contain- SchooiCircu- ii"^& the course of studies, daily programme, "*• chronicle of events for the year, etc. One important feature of these circulars is an essay of seve- ral pages, generally written by a member of the faculty. The following titles indicate the character of these essays : " Oral practice in teaching Modern Languages in the Lower and Middle Classes of the Realgym- nasinm;'' "Goethe's Relation to History and Poli- tics;" ''The Swedish-Polish War of 1655-60." PRIVATE SCHOOLS 59 CHAPTER V PRIVATE, INDUSTRIAL, AND CONTINUATION SCHOOLS PRIVATE SCHOOLS Private schools, or schools established and supported by private individuals or societies, are of various kinds, including the Kindergarten and other institu- Kinds of Pri- tions for the care of children before they ^ate Schools, arrive at school age, elementary schools, and higher or middle schools. They are under the direction of the state or municipal government, so far at least as quali- fications of teachers and courses of study are concerned. In Prussia and other smaller states no teacher can be employed in a private school, or, for that matter, in . private family, who has not passed certain conditions of examinations required by the government, aintenance. Nor can a private school be established until evidence i presented of the intention and ability of its founders to support a school equal in efficiency to public schools of the same kind. By law also no private school can be established where there is already sufficient accom- modations in the public schools. It is generally un- derstood, however, that this law is not strictly enforced, 60 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY and that there are many private schools, particularly in cities and large towns, where there are ample accom- modations for all pupils in the public schools. The elementary private schools have materially de- creased in number during the past twenty years. The Number of following table ^ shows to what extent they Private Schools. decreased m Prussia between the years 1 87 1 and 1886. CITY SCHOOLS. RURAL SCHOOLS. 1871 1886 1871 1886 Number of Schools . . 1,382 894 486 315 " Classes . . 3,744 3,266 ^-ip 1^1 " Pupils . . 93,720 68,698 13,401 8,438 Most of the private higher or middle schools are for girls, and a large majority of their teachers are women. In Prussia, of the 68,373 children attending the private middle schools in 1886, 55,748 were girls ; and of the 3,126 teachers of such schools, 2,422 were women. ^ Although the Kindergarten of Germany are, many of them, more perfectly developed than ours, they do not „. , .. seem to have as stronsf a hold upon the peo- Kandergarten. 011 pie or to have as large a place in the educa- tion of children in Germany as in America. As in this country, there seem to be two divisions or schools of kindergartners, the chief difference between them being in the closeness of adherence to Frobel's purpose and plans. One of the most complete and satisfactory Kindergarten which I saw was the school 1 Preus. Stat. p. 105. 2 Preus. Stat. p. 106. INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS 6l in direct charge of a niece of Frobel — Frau Schrader. The institution is located in Berlin, and consists of a Kindergarten, classes for primary instruction, classes in handwork for both boys and girls, a normal school for kindergartners, a cooking-school, and a home for young women. The Kindergarten is divided into four sec- tions, each section doing the work of one year. In this school the young ladies of the normal class teach under the direction of experienced teachers. There is a gar- den connected with the school, which is brought into use in the proper season. In addition to the Kindergarten there are other insti- tutions for children under school age, which are in some places partially supported by the city or town, but which are generally in charge of chari- table associations. These institutions consist of day nurseries {Krippeji), where babies are taken care of while their mothers are at work, and of schools for young children ( Warteschulen) whose parents are unable to care for them. In some of these schools there are classes for instruction, but the children cannot be kept in them beyond a certain time. INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS Besides the higher technical schools corresponding to our technological schools, there are in various ° Trade Schools. parts of Germany special trade schools (Baugewerkschulen) receiving more or less assistance 62 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY from the state and municipality, and having a regular four years' course and a graduation examination. Carpenters', cabinet-makers', and machinists' trades are learned in these schools ; and lessons are given in the elementary and higher branches, including algebra, geometry, physics, drawing, and architecture. Prussia has ten such schools, Saxony six, and Bavaria and Wiirtemberg one each. There are other schools {Fachschiileii) in which technical handwork is taught, such as weaving, carv- ing, engraving, working in straw, basket-making, pot- tery-making, etc. These schools are for men and for boys who are not within the legal school age. Within a few years many manual training schools or shops have been founded in which boys of all ages are -- , „ . tauo:ht outside of school hours some form of Manual Tram- ^ ing Schools, handwork. These schools are supported by societies and private individuals, the pupils paying a nominal tuition fee only. About two-thirds of the pupils of these schools are from elementary schools, the rest from middle and private schools. Some of the schools are established for the purpose of aiding a particular industry, as broom and basket making, straw-working, etc. ; but most of them have the evi- dent purpose of training as well as utility, and find the purpose best reached in pasteboard work, wood-carving, and joiner work. A few schools give instruction in iron and brass working. The educational or pedagogi- INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS 63 cal value of the instruction given is shown by the increasing number of professional or regular teachers employed. In 1888 only nineteen per cent of the teach- ers were artisans against seventy-one per cent eight years before. Perhaps the best known and most complete of the manual training schools is the Leipsic school, which is in charge of the German Society for Man- leipsic ual Training, under the leadership of Dr. W. ^^^^°^' Gotze. This school has special courses for teachers during vacations, and also courses for boys out of school hours. The building is provided by the city, free of charge, in which work in pasteboard, wood (carving and joiner work), and metal is done. All classes of boys were in attendance at the time of my visit there, and I was told that the boys of the so-called better families were not so painstaking and patient in their work as the boys of the middle and lower classes. They were given some degree of freedom in selecting their subjects of instruction ; but, after having selected them, their course was carefully graded, and no one could take up the advanced work until he had done satisfactorily the work of the lower grade. From the work I saw completed I judged that utility was the prime object sought, although the educational training value of the work was not lost sight of. Dr. Gotze is the most active and ardent advocate of placing manual training among the required subjects of instruc- tion in the people's elementary schools. 64 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY CONTINUATION SCHOOLS. Continuation schools are schools in which the instruc- tion of the people's elementary schools is continued with reference especially to the practical needs of ap- prentices and other young workmen and workwomen. As a rule, only the study of reading, writing, and arithmetic is made compulsory, although, in many Subjects of places, provision is made for instruction in Instruction, natural history, elementary science, geogra- phy, history, physiology, geometry, book-keeping, and drawing. The last two subjects are taught to appren- tices and always with reference to their needs. Times of These schools are in session from two to Sessions. f^^j. j^Q^j-g a week, either in the evening or on Sundays, depending upon the location of the school and time of year. Discipline is strictly maintained in these as in other schools by the prompt support of boards and judges. ^. . ,. Several instances are s^iven ^ of the punish- Discipline. ° ^ ment of disorderly pupils by fines and im- prisonment. Even the conduct of boys out of school hours seems to be under the control of the school offi- cials in some places. I saw posted, in one room where a continuation school was kept, a notice forbidding boys under a certain age to smoke or to enter a beer saloon. Throughout the greater part of Germany these 1 Padagogischer Jahresbericht, 1889, p. 563. CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 6$ schools are established by law, and attendance upon them is compulsory for boys during a certain Attendance, period of time after the completion of the elementary school course. In Bavaria the time of com- pulsory attendance for such boys is three years, with permission to attend five years. In Saxony and some of the smaller states attendance upon a continuation school is made compulsory for all boys two years after they have graduated from the people's elementary school, unless they attend a trade school of some kind. In Prussia there is no uniform practice, yet it may be said that both trade and continuation schools are common in all parts of the kingdom, and that attend- ance upon them is made compulsory in some sections. Considerable attention has been given lately to the subject of continuation schools for girls. It is urged that instruction in household duties should schools for be made a part of the curriculum, and that the time for compulsory attendance should be increased. At present the attendance of girls upon these schools is obligatory only in Baden and Wiirtemberg. In Saxony and in two of the smaller states the attendance of girls may be made obligatory by the communities. As would be expected, these schools are much better organized in cities than in the country ; and schools in of the cities by far the most extensive sys- tem of evening and Sunday schools is that of Berlin. 66 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY Besides the schools whose object is to instruct in some particular industry, and whose support and man- agement falls partly upon private corporations and partly upon the city, there are the following schools, intended to supplement the work of the public day schools :i — 1. Schools whose course is a continuation of a middle or high school course. The subjects of instruction are French, English, German, mercantile arithmetic, book- keeping, drawing, natural science, commercial law, and commercial geography. There are two terms of twenty weeks each, and the school is in session four evenings in the week and Sunday forenoons. A small fee is charged for tuition, depending upon the number of hours of instruction. 2. Continuation schools for boys who have graduated from the public elementary schools. The subjects taught are German (reading, writing, and language), arithmetic, and drawing, and, under certain circum- stances, book-keeping, geometry, physics, geography, history, foreign languages, and singing. A small fee is charged for advanced studies ; for the others the instruction is free. There are two evening sessions of two hours each, and a Sunday session of four hours — forty weeks in the year. 3. Continuation schools for girls in which German, 1 These facts are taken from Grunds'dtze fiir die Verwaltung des Fortbil- dungs-Schulwcsens der Stadt Berlin ^ 1887. CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 67 arithmetic, book-keeping, drawing, sewing, embroider- ing, and dress-cutting, are taught three evenings a week, and Sunday forenoons. A small tuition fee, from one-half Mark to one Mark a month, is charged the pupils. 4. Free continuation schools for deaf and dumb, and for the blind. The common branches only are taught. 5. Free schools for youth of both sexes, in which, in addition to the common branches, there is given in- struction in special kinds of work, as chimney-sweep- ing, shoemaking, and baking. The rooms, with heating and lighting, are provided by the city. All other expenses are borne by private associations. Nearly all the teachers of the above-named schools are principals and teachers of day schools, their salaries ranging from one Mark to five Marks for each hour's instruction. 6S SCHOOLS OF GERMANY CHAPTER VI ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS Besides the primary preparatory schools ( VorscJmlen) connected with the high schools, there are elementary schools which correspond to our public primary and grammar schools. These schools are now free in many parts of Germany, and where they are not free, only a nominal sum is charged for tuition. The course of the elementary people's schools ( Volksc/mlen) generally covers a period of eight years, and the subjects taught are the same as those which are taught in our elemen- tary schools, together with three or four additional subjects. Pupils of the same age and attainments are placed together for instruction whenever it is possible to do Graded ^o. In cities and large towns it is the Schools. almost universal custom to make a division of the pupils into eight grades, and to place pupils of each grade in one room. Each grade of pupils is in charge of a teacher who may or may not spend his entire time with them. He is frequently given work in other rooms of the building. Sometimes the work 4 ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 69 outside of his room is all of one kind, as geography or arithmetic. The following table indicates the comparative amount of time given to each branch of instruction in graded schools : — Subjects. Number of Recitations Weekly. in O •- 1) W Religion Language . Reading Writing Arithmetic History or geography Object lessons Natural History . Geometry . Physics Drawing Singing _ . . . Gymnastics |.o} 6 6 Total 23 275 i^h 28 28 30 30 Sewing is required in the higher grades of girls' schools. From this programme we learn that the elementary- schools of Germany are required to give instruction in religion (including Bible and church history and the catechism), geometry, elementary science, ancient history and gymnastics, — all of which are seldom or never systematically taught in corresponding schools of this country. The course in arithmetic does not embrace so many subjects as with us, and there is less of the geography of foreign countries and more of home geography than is given in our schools. In 70 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY other respects there is not much difference in the subjects required to be taught in the elementary schools of the two countries. We should always remember, however, that with us the requirements con- cerning subjects of instruction are not always observed. Schools havino^ two, three, or four teachers Partially . Graded are classified so as to give a fair proportion of Schools. , , , work to each teacher. A school having two teachers is divided into two divisions, called primary and advanced. Each divis- ion is divided into two classes, which gives two years' time to each class. The number of hours a week given to each subject of instruction in Prussian schools of this kind is shown in the following table : — SUBJECTS. Religion Language .... ... Arithmetic ....... Geometry ....... Drawing ....... i?^a/^« (geography, history, natural history) Music Gymnastics PRIMARY DEPARTMENT. Lower Higher Class. Class. ADVANCED DEPARTMENT. Lower Higher Class. Class. The ungraded (Einklassige) schools are quite differ- ently classified from what they are in this country. In ungraded schools having but one teacher there are in general two plans. One plan is to separate the school into three divisions and allow as Ungraded Schools. ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 71 much time as possible for each division to recite. In some branches all three classes recite at the same time, the pupils of lower classes following as best they can or working at a given task. The following table indicates the number of hours a week given in Prussia to each subject of study for the three divisions of an Einklassige school. SUBJECTS. Religion Language ........ Arithmetic ........ Geometry ........ Drawing ........ Realen (geography, history, and natural history) Music Gymnastics Total, Lowest Middle Class. Class. 4 5 II ID 4 4 _ I - 6 I 2 - 2 20 30 Advanced Class. 30 A slight departure from this classification seems to be made in some schools. For example, in Eisenach I found a school of thirty-nine pupils divided in most subjects into three sections ; but in arithmetic there were five sections, and in reading four. In this school the pupils who were not reciting were given sufficient work to do, and the recitations of twenty or twenty- five minutes' duration followed each other very promptly. When the number of pupils is too large to be taught by one teacher at a time, or when the conditions are not favorable for two teachers to be employed, half-day schools are formed, the younger pupils, or those of the ;2 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 1 first four years in school, attending afternoons, and the advanced pupils forenoons. By this arrangement the primary class has twelve or more recitations a week, and the advanced class eighteen or twenty recitations. The recitation period, as in the graded school, is about fifty minutes in length ; and, when the class is separated into sections, the pupils of each section are given work to do suited to their capacity, although all are supposed to be reciting during the period. By this arrangement there are about eighteen recitations a week with the older pupils, and twelve with the younger. In a school of this kind near Leipsic the following daily programme was followed : — Forenoon. Hour. MoN. TUES. Wed. Thurs. Fri. Sat. First Catechism. Bible stories and explana- tions. History. Catechism. Bible history and explana- tion. Physics Second Language and reading. German sentences. etc. Arithmetic and geometry. German and writing. German. Sing- ing. Third Arithmetic. Geography. II. Observa- tion lessons, home geogra- phy, and singing. Arithmetic. Drawing. II. Num- bers. Fourth Writing. — II. Reading and writing. Reading and writing. — II. Read- ing and writing. ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 73 Afternoon. First Bible stories. Bible stories. Bible stories. Observation lessons and home geography. — Second Reading and writing. Reading and writing. — Reading and writing. Reading and writing. — Third — Numbers. — — Numbers. — From this programme it appears that the older pupils have eighteen recitations a week, of which six are in language, including reading, writing, and language or grammar, three in arithmetic and geometry, four in religion, Bible history, catechism, etc., one each in geography, history, drawing, singing, and physics. The younger pupils have fourteen recitations a week, of which six are in reading and writing, three in numbers, three in Bible stories, and two in observation lessons and home geography, leaving a short time during one day for singing. Such an order of recitations would hardly be toler- ated in the schools of many of our rural neighborhoods, where it is thought that a teacher is seriously neglect- ing his duty who fails to hear every pupil recite in every branch of the curriculum at least once a day. A detailed course of studies is carefully written out by the graded school principal or by the courggof district inspector. These courses differ only studies. in details of management and methods, since they 74 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY are an elaboration of the general course prescribed by laws or codes. Copies of the course are placed in the hands of assistant teachers, who record in a book provided for the purpose the topics which are taught each day in every subject. In most parts of Germany tuition in the common elementary schools is now free, and text-books are pro- Tuition, vided for all pupils whose parents cannot afford to pay for them. Where tuition is charged it is only a nominal sum, — from two to five dollars a year. So far as I could learn, the cost of maintaining the elementary schools is borne by the community to the extent of its ability. In some of the poorer country districts the schools are supported entirely by the gen- eral government, while in others the local community bears the entire expense by taxation. In the country the boys and girls are generally brought together in the same school. In cities the cus- Sexes. tom is to separate the sexes in all of the upper classes, and in many of the lower classes. In partially graded schools, i.e., in schools having two or three teachers, the preference in Prussia seems to be to separate the sexes and to form ungraded {Einklassige) schools. From what has been said in respect to the required qualifications of teachers, courses of study, character of text-books, and length of recitations, it will be in- ferred that the general character of the work done in m ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 75 the schoolroom is in many respects quite different from that done in our own schools. Less differ- General ence in the quality of teaching, and greater Character- istics, uniformity in results, than with us are ob- servable. Few teachers will be found who have not a definite object in all their work, and who do not strive to reach that object in a systematic and methodical way. We may not always agree with the opinions of these teachers ; yet we cannot doubt that they have well- studied opinions, both in regard to the object to be reached and the means to be taken to reach it. One characteristic of all the instruction in German schools is thoroughness. Not so much is attempted in the same length of time as with us, but it is more thoroughly done. The subjects in geography and arithmetic are fewer than we generally teach, but at the end of the course the pupils have thoroughly learned the subjects. This result is reached by systematic teaching and frequent reviews. Not unfrequently the points of a single lesson will be reviewed several times, and they will be brought in connection with points which were learned a week or a month before. Another characteristic of the German teacher is his entire mastery of the subject he teaches. As he is. expected to supply what many of our text-books give, he must be prepared with all parts of the subject in hand, and all subjects relating to it. In all information studies, like geography and history, he talks earnestly 'J^ SCHOOLS OF GERMANY for several minutes to his listening pupils, who are expected to reproduce what he says in their own lan- guage. They are frequently stopped and corrected for inaccuracies in facts and expressions. Again the sub- ject will be taken up by the teacher, and again repro- duced by the pupils, until the long recitation of fifty minutes or more is ended. At the beginning of the recitation a review of what has preceded is frequently taken, and at the close there may be a general summary of all that has been said. The use of objects and pictures in teaching and in illustrating subjects which have been presented is a marked feature of the elementary schools ; and in all schools the value of skilful questioning in leading pupils to the unknown from the known seems to be well under- stood by teachers. Pupils of the best schools practise in exercise books and in connection with oral recitations the making of diagrams and pictures illustrating facts which have been learned. Further and more detailed accounts of the actual work done in the elementary schools are given in the following chapters. 1 OBSERVATION LESSONS — ELEMENTARY SCIENCE J^J CHAPTER VII OBSERVATION LESSONS AND ELEMENTARY SCIENCE In no respect do the schools of Germany differ from our own schools more than in the extent to which obser- vation and elementary science lessons are pursued. In all of the people's schools nearly as much time is allowed for these lessons as for arithmetic, and quite as much as for geography. From two to four recitations a week, of nearly an hour each, through the entire course are given to lessons upon plants, animals, minerals, physics, or chemistry. The importance of this work lies quite as much in the logical sequence of topics, and in its bearing upon other subjects, as in the extent of the observations. In many schools the observation of plants, animals, and minerals does not begin until the third and fourth years ; or, if these objects are observed, it Plans for is only in a general way. For example, the Early object plan of study for the first three years in the grand duchy of Baden has the following outlines : — First Year. — Naming and describing objects in the immediate neighborhood ; writing clear simple sentences 78 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY in connection with observation ; and showing the rela- tion of children to parents, to household, to school, and to church. Second Year. — Conversations upon familiar plants, animals, and minerals, concerning their uses, etc. ; in the same manner, the various articles in common use and their manufacture ; instruction regarding the treat- ment of animals and care of plants. TJiird Year. — Continuation of animal, plant, and min- eral lessons ; home geography. In the schools working under this and other plans of study for the first three years there are observed and talked about, in addition to the common plants, animals, and minerals, such familiar objects as the stovey the egg, the house, the schoolroom^ the bed, clotJii7ig, food, the garden, the field. The elaborated plans of natural history instruction in many schools seem to be based upon the idea Plans for Les- sons in Natu- of "concentric courses," each course, except ral History. , , , . ..,.,,. the last, bemg a preparation for the followmg one. Some teachers have adopted Luben's idea in this respect as follows : — 1. Observation of individual objects. 2. Comparison of individuals by placing together objects having the same attributes. 3. Classification and geographical location. 4. (For plants and animals) Anatomy and physi- ology. There are many teachers who take exception to the plan of instruction above outlined on the ground that OBSERVATION LESSONS ELEMENTARY SCIENCE 79 it is too systematic and formal, leaving out of account the important features of internal organization and his- torical development according to certain laws from known causes. Still others there are who seem to emphasize the practical value of these lessons, and attach great impor- tance to the study of objects as they exist in relation to their natural surroundings. The following general scheme for the study of plants illustrates the character of work required under this plan : — 1. The plant considered by itself. a. Description : root, stem, leaves, blossoms, fruit, location and time of blossomino:. b. Its life : first appearance, growth, length of life, annual or perennial. 2. The plant as a part of nature. a. Relations to soil, moisture, climate ; opposing influences. b. Relations to the plants in the neighborhood : growing alone or with other plants ; shade ; parasite. 3. The plant in relation to man. Use ; harmful effects of. In a similar manner the animals may be studied. Although these various plans differ in respect to the chief end to be attained, there is no difference of opin- ion as to the necessity of presenting the objects them- selves for study. All insist upon that, and where the 80 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY objects cannot be conveniently presented, representa- tions of them in various forms are used instead. The following topical outlines, copied from a special I plan of study, indicate the kind of work which is Topical attempted in many schools of Southern Ger- Outiines. many, beginning with the fourth year. It 1 should be understood that these topics are placed before the pupils one at a time, as the observations are | made or as the information is given : i. The four fun- damental forms of organs (stem, root, leaves, and hairs). 2. Functions of these organs. 3. Growth of stems, outer and inner. 4. Underground stems. 5. Above- ground stems. 6. Length of life of stem. 7. Buds : growth, kinds, covering, position, unfolding, develop- ment, service to the plant. 8. Malformations and dis- eases of stems. 9. Influence upon the stem of location, soil, light and warmth, height, direction of wind, etc. ID. Growth of root. 11. Kinds of roots. 12. Effects of changing food. 13. Influence of location and soil. 14. Duration of root. 15. Leaves, kinds, etc. 16. Devel- opment of leaves. 17. Forms of leaves. 18. Situation of leaves. 19. Cause of malformation and diseases of leaves. 20. Influence of food, light, etc., upon the leaves. 21. Blossoms. 22. Corolla. 23. Characteristic forms of blossoms. 24. Essential and unessential parts of flower. 25. Use of flower coverings. 26. Influence of light, moisture, etc., upon the formation of the flower. 27. Structure and use of stamens. 28. Structure and OBSERVATION LESSONS — ELEMENTARY SCIENCE 8 I use of pistils. 29. Fertilization. 30. The fruit. 31. Seeds — structure and germination. 32. Dissemina- tion of fruits and seeds. 33. Influence of location upon quantity of fruit and seeds. In the same course of studies there are given lists of plants and animals to be observed each year, and - topics as a guide to individual observations. There is also given a plan for general observation, which is intended to prepare pupils for the study of individual plants and animals. Some points of this general plan are as follows : Plants that grow in the water, in swamps, in fields, in the garden, on the rocks, etc. Difference in the structure of plants and parts of plants in the same and in different localities, — upon the same and different kinds of soil. Change in plants and trees produced by cultivation. What weeds appear in different places and in different kinds of soil. Sud- den appearance and disappearance of plants. Domestic and wild animals. Food and sleeping-places of various animals. Useful and harmful animals. In what time, upon what plants, and under what circumstances, is harm done by animals. So far as I could discover in the general and special plans of study, and in the interpretation of them by teachers, the evident purpose of the natural objects history lessons is, (i) cultivation of the '^""^ *' observing faculties ; (2) assistance to a better under- standing of other studies ; (3) acquisition of facts as a 82 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY basis for scientific study ; (4) development of a love of the beautiful in nature and training in ethics. Even in schools where no attempt is made to connect together the various studies, as is done in the Herbartian schools, observation lessons, other° especially those of the first three years, studies. ^^^ brought into close relation with other studies. This is particularly observable in language, reading, preparation for geography {Heimatktmde), and singing. Many of the reading-books are evidently arranged with special reference to a use in supple- menting the elementary nature-lessons, thus fixing important facts and making a good application of them. Singing-books also abound in songs intended to arouse I a love of nature. % An important end of instruction in natural history seems to be the observation of such features and BasisforSci- objects as will be useful in subsequent clas- entific study, gification. The plan of study for the Saxony elementary schools makes the following provision on this point : In selecting objects for study in the various steps, those should be chosen which are useful as repre- sentatives of classes, orders, and families in the three natural kingdoms. In the early object-lessons, as well as in the later ones in natural history, there is observable far more ethical training than in most schools in this country where similar lessons are taught. For example, in OBSERVATION LESSONS — ELEMENTARY SCIENCE 83 one general plan of study it is stated, after speaking of the obvious purposes of the lessons : *' At ^ ^ Ethical the same time there should be given, in a fit- Treatment . , , of Subjects. tmg way, the representation and comprehen- sion of the ethical relations of the child to the objects observed and talked about." Especially is kindness to animals enjoined upon children in all lessons upon the domestic and harmless animals. Some of the plans of study and daily programmes designate the early object-lessons as lessons for expres- sion {Gedanken Ausdriick). These lessons Expression of are upon familiar objects, as has been said, "^^o^s^^s- and the main purpose of the teacher in them is to develop expression rather than to excite ideas. The following two lessons are examples of this kind of work : — Eighth Class. — First Year. First part of recitation not heard. Pupils answer in entire sentences the following questions : — What is the use of the rim } What is used instead of the rim sometimes } What is the use of the fore- piece } From what do the rim and f orepiece The Hat. protect the eyes } From what does the hat protect the head } (Cold, wind, snow, rain.) When should you keep your hat on } When should you take it off } (Various times given, and a pupil is asked to 84 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY show how he would take his hat off in greeting a ladyl or an older person.) What kind of children take off their hats in greeting ? First Year Grade. Teacher begins by asking the children what they; saw the night before, and the following statements are Common brought out : "■ The moon looked round." Objects. a -pj-^g moon looked round like a circle." ''The stars shone brightly." ''The stars had rays of light." The teacher asks the children what they talked about the day before, and reviews with them the resemblances of the dog and cat. Answers are given in entire sentences. Then the advance lesson is taken, the purpose of which is to observe and state dif- fere7ices in size and shape of head, shape of ears, con- struction of foot, hair, etc. Large charts are hung on the wall before the chil- dren. The teacher insists upon exact answers after! the observation has been made from the chart. The form of statement required in every case is in the form of contrast, like the following : " The dog's head is long like a horse's, but the cat's is short." The children find considerable difBculty in forming the sentences. After a sentence is made in the correct form, it is repeated by the pupils individually and in concert. OBSERVATION LESSONS ELEMENTARY SCIENCE 85 The following notes of lessons observed illustrate various noteworthy points of excellence : — Third Year in School. Subject : Parts of plant. Every pupil (there are sixty in the class) has an entire plant to examine. First part of the lesson is evidently a review of the pre- i^esson on vious lesson. The teacher, by rapid question- ^^^"^^* ing, constantly calls for facts which the pupils observe in the plant. The following order is observed : root, stem, leaf, flower; afterward the chief characteristics of each part are observed and expressed in entire sen- tences, few technical terms being used. The following questions serve as an example of the kind of question- ing upon new observations : — Notice the stem — is it smooth, or rough } What is the color .<* This is the rind, or bark ; what is next .-* What do you see in the middle } What is in the middle of the leaf ? Third Year in School. Charts of leaves before the children. First a review is given of what has been observed in the various shapes of leaves. The pupils draw the shapes Lesson on upon the blackboard and describe them in Leaves and Blossoms. sentences. The advance lesson is upon the blossoms. Parts of flower, color, and form are taught. 86 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY Male and female flowers are observed and characteris- tics of each are given. Sixth Class. — Third Year. Practice School. Subject : "Woodpecker." Stuffed woodpeckers — four varieties — on the desk of the Lesson n teacher. Teacher asks questions, showing Birds. ^Q specimens to the school as a whole and to small groups of pupils. The following points are brought out, each point being discussed until the fact is discovered by one or more of the pupils : Habits of woodpecker observed by children. Similarity in color, — dissimilarity. Structure of foot. Claws of birds previously observed. Claws of woodpecker ; how different } Why } Food of woodpecker ; what and where found } How does the woodpecker know where in the tree the food is } Form of bill ; use. Form of tail ; why long } Why strong } Do they fly in flocks } Why not } Do they remain here in winter 1 Why } In what regions are they found .-* Where not found } Why } What kind of trees contain the food '^. Why } Out of what does the woodpecker build its nest } How is the nest built '^. Why } Review of all in good statements. The two points emphasized in this lesson are : first, encouragement of children to observe birds ; secondly, leading them to know the use of the woodpecker. OBSERVATION LESSONS ELEMENTARY SCIENCE 8/ Fourth Class. — Fifth Year. Large colored charts hung before the pupils. Black- board used for drawing special parts. The following questions indicate the kind of facts learned ^ ^ Lesson on the by observation of the pictures. Answers leaver, interspersed with information given by the teacher. Occasional review by pupils of points of observation and information. What is the color of the fur } What about its thick- ness .'* Use of the fur } Shape and situation of teeth } Why .-^ Kind and number of claws .-^ Use .-^ Shape of tail } Use } Where is its home } What is its food } What its habits t At the close of lesson all facts are reviewed and told in a connected story. Third Class. — Sixth Year. After observation from specimens and chart, the fol- lowing questions are asked and answered in complete sentences. How is the worm like the beetle } Name all points of resemblance. Name all points of difference. How many parts has the beetle } What do we call Lesson on animals that have three parts } {Korper Angleworm diZid. Jns6c^s Thiere). What other name, using a foreign word 1 {insecta.) Name all the insects you know. What two great divisions of insects .-* Examples of insects 88 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY that have a perfect metamorpohsis ? Examples of insects that have an imperfect metamorphosis ? The blackboard is in constant use in illustrating points of difference and resemblance. Intermediate Grade. Subject: "The Crab and the Worm." A specimen in a glass case, also pictures on the wall. Pupils first asked to repeat the substance of previous Lesson on Crab and lesson. The points of difference between Worm. the crab and other animals stated in complete sentences, in respect to color, form of parts, habits, use, etc. Then follows a new lesson upon the worm, the pupils being led to observe the specimen or picture, and answer questions like the following : What can you say of its length } It consists of what } How many parts 1 What do you see on the outside 1 What is it like } What are its habits .•* What must it have to bore with } How is the borer constructed } How is it a weather prophet } When does it burrow deep in the ground .'' When shallow } Its food consists of what 1 Where found } Why } Use of the worm } An outline is placed upon the blackboard ; five points are made, each point expressed by a single word. Pupils take up each point separately and give oral statements in correct language. They afterwards OBSERVATION LESSONS — ELEMENTARY SCIENCE 89 write out a description of the worm in books provided for the purpose. There are frequently combined in the oral observation, lessons, matters of observation, experience, andinfoma- and information, as shown by the following *^°"' notes of a lesson heard in Leipsic. Upper Primary Grade, Map of the city and vicinity hung before the pupils. The boundaries of the inner or old part of the city are pointed out. Where is the new part of the ^. . , ^ TheSur- city } What does it include } Compare in rounding 1 • -11 t -1 • Country. Size the inner part with the whole city. Compare the inner part with the outer part. Compare the boundaries. Why was the old city small } What can you say of the walls } Why was there a wall } Here the teacher explains the use of the wall, etc. Pupils are asked to give directions of certain places from the schoolhouse. Map placed in different posi- tions and directions noted. Brooks and their branches pointed out. They flow in what direction 1 Into what do they flow } Into what does the water flow finally } What is the use of the water here } The mills are pointed out, and pupils are asked what is manufactured here, and what flour is made from. The experience of Robinson Crusoe is referred to. The pupils find diffi- culty in answering the question how water helps to make the flour, and the teacher goes to the board and 90 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY draws a water-wheel and water flowing upon it so as to make it move. He describes the parts of the wheel as he draws, and asks questions to bring out certain ideas. He then shows in the same way the connection of the water-wheel with other wheels for the manufacture of the flour. Pupils repeat singly the points that have been taught and told, giving the origin of the different streets and places, e.g., Goethe, Schiller, Kloster (Clois- ter), Barfuss Muhle (Barefoot Mill), etc. The above examples give a general idea of the methods usually employed in giving observation lessons in the lower grades. Without the use of shorthand it is difficult to give a full report of a lesson, or to give such a report as will show exactly how these recitations are conducted. To do this, and, at the same time, to illustrate the kind of work done in the intermediate (fourth or fifth year) grades, I quote in full the follow- ing model lesson given in one ^ of the many books for teachers. Some answers which the pupils are supposed to make are omitted. The hazel-bush is made the subject of instruction Lesson in twice in the year, in spring and in the full upon autumn. The lesson in sprinsr treats of the theHaiel- ^ ^ ^ bush. hazel-bush while it is in blossom, and the fol- lowing facts are brought out concerning the growth of blossoms and stem : — 1 Lehrbuch der Erziehung iind des Unterrichts fUr Lehrer und Lehrerinnen, von F. Leutz, II. Theil, pp. 266, 267. OBSERVATION LESSONS ELEMENTARY SCIENCE QI Whence come so many hazel-bushes in the woods ? If you wish to plant one in the garden, what would you do ? We put a hazel-nut in the earth. On account of the moisture the kernel is spread open and the little root- let which grows in the earth comes out, and a little stem which grows in the air also appears. Any one may see these little things in the hazel-nut kernels. We will cut a nut in two and split open the kernel. Here below, see. How do the young shoots of the hazel-bush grow ? Straight in the air like rods, as you see here on the chart. The old stems spread into branches. There are no leaves here, as you see. Where will they come from ? Why are they enveloped in so many coverings ? What do the little buds consist of ? Where are they on the branch ? There is where the leaves were last year. You can see traces of them in the three black points near the buds where the leaf-stalks grew. The most remarkable things are the little catkins. They are the blos- soms of the hazel-bush. Are they suddenly grown in the spring ? They have hung there since autumn. All through the winter have they been there, but they have not been of such a beautiful golden color. Whence does the color come ? From the warmth of the sun. The blossoms you see come before the leaves. What other trees or bushes bear blossoms first? Look carefully and see what the long catkins are made of? What do you see under every little scale ? I will draw on the blackboard one of these little scales, only larger. There are here eight little golden bodies separated in the middle. We have seen already similar little bodies. They are little dust-bags. Now you can guess where all the golden dust comes from if the branch is shaken. The bush is often shaken. How ? When the wind shakes out all the dust then the little catkins become empty and fall off. You know where the pollen must be if there is to be any fruit. Think of the tulip. It was, you remember, very conveniently constructed. Why ? The stamens and the stigmas were close together. Where are the stigmas here ? In the catkins, are they not? Who sees them? Look at all the little buds carefully. You will see red threads on the points of some of them. Those are the stigmas. You cannot see them in winter, but when the warm spring sun comes then they put out their little heads. They are covered with bud scales. Why ? Just like little children in a warm. bed. When the wind blows and clouds of dust come out of the little catkins, then many of the little grains will fall from the red threads, and then what will happen ? See. So wonderfully is the bush made that the wind must help it make hazel-nuts. But sometimes our little red threads will be caught by frosty weather, then they will freeze, or in the time when the powder will fall out it will rain a long time, so that there can be no stigmas. What will follow then ? 92 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY Now again answer the questions. What do the little catkins consist of? What do they carry ? When does the dust-bag empty itself ? Why? Where are the stigmas ? When does the fruit appear ? What is the difference between the construction of the blossom of the hazel-nut and that of the tulip ? (Others compared.) In the hazel the dust-threads and stigmas are together. In other flowers they are found in different blossoms. Here all together (not masculine and feminine, but dust blossoms and fruit blossoms). What plants have similar blos- soms? Walnut, alder, oak. What do you call the blossoms? Catkins. What may we name all of these trees then ? Catkin-trees or catkin- bearers. A second lesson on the hazel-bush is given for the purpose of observing the stem. In August another lesson is given to observe the leaves and fruit. Physics and, in some places, chemistry are taught in the last year or two years of the elementary people's _, . schools. In all of the courses of study the Physics. •' teachers are directed to teach only the most important peculiarities of the forces and phenomena of nature, such as gravitation, sound, light, heat, and elec- tricity, and to explain the most useful machines, such as the balance, pulley, lever, pump, etc. The kind and amount of instruction generally pur- sued in these schools are seen from the following outline taken from a text-book in common use.^ The part de- voted to physics consists of less than fifty pages, and is entirely devoid of illustrations. The subjects are supposed to be taught before the book is studied. 1 Welt Kunde — von Hiitmann, Marten, Renner. Hannover, 1889. OBSERVATION LESSONS — ELEMENTARY SCIENCE 93 I. Solid Bodies. I. Solid, liquid, and gaseous bodies compared. 2. Weight; gravity ; attraction. 3. Equilibrium, stable and un- stable. 4 Lever — pulley, wheel and axle. 5. In- clined plane ; Parallel forces. 6. Falling bodies, laws. 7. Inertia ; friction. 8. The pendulum. 9. Mechan- ical work; machines. II. Liquid Bodies. I. Height of fluids in connecting tubes. 2. Floating bodies. 3. Specific gravity. 4. Adhesion and capil- lary attraction. III. Gases. I. Elasticity. 2. Pressure of the atmosphere. 3. Barom- eter ; pump. IV. Sound. I. Origin and transmission. 2. Echo. V. Heat. I. Creation of heat by means of friction, pressure, blows, etc. 2. Creation of heat by chemical action. 3. Heat from the sun's rays. 4. Expansion of bodies by heat. 5. The thermometer. 6. Effect of heat upon water. 7. Water and air currents. 8. Melting of solids. 9. Evaporation of water by heat. 10. Steam-engine. 11. Transmission of heat; good and poor conductors. 12. Radiation of heat. 13. Specific heat. 14. Nature of heat. VI. Light. I. Luminous and non-luminous bodies. 2. Extension of light. 3. Sight. 4. Reflection of light. 5, Plain mirror. 6. Curved mirror. 7. Refraction of light. 8. Refraction of light through convex lenses. 9. Colored light. 10. Spectrum. 11. The rainbow. 12. Colors. 13. The eye and sight. 14. Optical in- struments. 15. The nature of light. VII. Magnetism. I. Magetic phenomena. 2. Relation of two magnets to each other. 3. Magnetic extension. 4. Manufacture of magnets. 5. Compass. 94 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY VIII. Electricity. 1. Electric phenomena. 2, Conductor and non-con- ductor of electricity. 3. Opposite electricity. 4. Distribution of Electricity. 5. Electrophorus and Ley- den jars. 6. The electrical machine. 7. Tempest. 8. Galvanism. 9. Galvanic battery. 10. Electro-mag- netism. II. Telegraph. Two characteristics of the teaching of physics in the elementary schools are noticeable: ist, Directing of attention to simple and important facts by Methods of . . -n • 1 teaching the aid of questions ; 2d, Practical charac- ^^^^^' ter of explanations and applications of sim- ple laws. The use of objects — simple, home-made appliances — and charts and blackboard is universal. Perhaps the use of the last-named aid is the most noticeable, frequently being used as a test of the pupil's knowledge as well as a means of teaching. The following notes illustrate some methods in gen- eral use.^ Second Class. — Seventh Year in School. Apparatus : A dish of water, a goblet, and a ready- Lesson on rnade glass pump — valves, etc., visible, the Pump. -phe parts are first described and their action explained. Answers to the following questions are given by individual pupils by show of hands : — If I press this piston down, what will be the result ? Why does the upper valve rise .'' Now, as I draw up the piston, what will happen } How many think that the lower valve will open t What will cause it to open } 1 For model lesson in physics, see page 201. OBSERVATION LESSONS ELEMENTARY SCIENCE g$ What else will happen ? What will cause the water to rise ? Where will the water go ? Let us see (teacher presses down and raises the piston slowly). Now, if I press the piston down again, what will be the result ? Why does the upper valve close ? Some of the pupils from their answers do not seem to understand, and the teacher uses the blackboard, reviewing step by step the movements and results. Second Class. — Apparatus : A water-tight box with tubes of various materials. The following questions are asked, and if a satisfactory answer is not , J Lesson on given, repeated in other forms : — Heat. These tubes are of different materials : what are they } If I fill the tubes with hot water, what will you expect to find in feeling of them } Will all feel warm } Why } Will all the materials be conductors of heat ? Which will be the best conductor of heat } (Difference of opinion on this point. Some think that the tube which feels the warmest will be the best conductor. Others think that the tube which feels the warmest first will be the best conductor. Tubes are filled with water, and all agree with the latter opinion.) Which of all these materials is the best conductor of heat } Which is the poorest } What kinds of cloth are poor conductors of heat } What kinds are better } What kinds should be worn in summer } What kinds in winter } Why } What influence has heat upon water } Upon the air } Uses of this knowledge t 96 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY CHAPTER VIII READING i The reading-books of Germany throw much light upon the progress which has been made in teaching ,. reading, and they also show the various Books. kinds of opinions now held as to the proper method of teaching reading to beginners. In the oldest reading-books — similar, perhaps, to the horn-books first used in this country — the letters of the alphabet were printed in order. At the end of the book were the catechism, Lord's Prayer, and other prayers, and finally the multiplication table. On account of the too great cost of these books, rude charts with the letters printed in large type were placed before the children and used instead. At the end of the seventeenth century illustrations were first used in the ABC books. These were probably suggested by Commenius's Orbis pictus, which first appeared in 1657. At about this time rhymes under the pictures began to be made. The rhymes seem to indicate the purpose of making the process of learning to read less tedious than it had been, and also of assisting the memory in learning simple facts about animals. Later, or in the READING 97 beginning of the present century, appeared books in which the pure phonic method was presented. A few years later — 1817 — appeared the first book in which script was placed before the printed forms ; and it was not until 1841 that the first German book was pub- lished which presented the present widely prevalent word and sentence method.^ Books now in use gener- ally introduce the word before its elements, although there are some books used which present first the elements for sounding and subsequently the words. From the beginning, the contents of reading-books have been of an instructive character. The material of the first reading-books was chiefly of a religious nature — Bible history, Lord's Prayer, catechism, etc. At present, instructive lessons upon plants, animals, and minerals abound in reading-books of the lower grades, and books of all grades are filled with selec- tions intended to awaken moral, patriotic, and religious sentiments. Poetry also abounds in all the reading- books, even in those designed for beginners. In one First Reader I noticed that all the pieces were of an instructive nature. The following are the titles of a few of the first pieces : The School, The House and Yard, The Church, The Churchyard, The Market, Water, The Little Brook, Bread, Potatoes, Meat, The Garden, The House, The Cow. In all of these pieces 1 These facts are gathered from Kehrein's Handbuch der Erziehung und des Unterrichts, bearbeitet von Dr. A. Keller^ p. 311-313. 98 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY simple descriptions of familiar objects and actions are given, together with moral admonitions and poetical sentiments. About one-third of the pieces are poetry selected from good authors. There are but few pictures in this reader, and those not very good. In a third reader of two hundred and eighteen pages, I counted three hundred and eight pieces, all of which were designed to give instruction concerning facts of nature. Some were written in the form of stories and fables, and others in simple direct descriptions. There are a few crude pictures scattered through the book. The contents of another book extensively used in the highest classes of the people's schools I found divided into nine parts as follows : — 1. Poems having a spiritual signification. 2. Adages and proverbs. 3. Fables, parables, and stories in prose. 4. Poetical fables, fairy tales, stories, and legends. 5. Miscellaneous pieces. 6. Poems of nature and of the fatherland. 7. Patriotic pieces. 8. Concerning natural history and geography. 9. Works of native poets in order, from the time of the Reformation to the present time. ID. Poetry selected from the most celebrated poets. Most of the articles were written by classic authors, and every one of them seems to have been selected to READING 99 serve a distinct educational purpose. This standard, which may be said to be a general one in German read- ing-books, of having only models of literary excellence and instructive lessons, is much higher than that of many of our reading-books which are far from being classical or instructive. In some respects, however, — in binding, printing, and illustrations, — our reading- books, especially for the lower grades, are far superior to those of Germany. In respect to quantity of read- ing matter, many of our schools are far better equipped than any schools which I visited abroad. There few schools have more than one reading-book during a year, and in some schools one book has to last two years. The reading-frame {Lesemaschine), although not so much used as formerly, is seen in many schoolrooms of the first grade. It is so constructed that j^gading- words may be made by slight changes, frames. The frame is regarded as especially useful in schools where the normal word method ^ is taught, — the nor- mal words being allowed to remain for some time before the children. In some schools I saw a particu- larly good device for changing the letters of words. It was a frame with a double thickness of boards, con- structed in such a way as to allow the insertion of slides vertically and laterally. The vertical slides had single letters upon them ; the others, combinations of 1 Described on page 103. 100 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY letters. Thus the words cat^ can^ cab^ etc., could be easily and quickly formed. Occasionally I found a school of the lowest grade Classification divided into two or more sections, one sec- for Reading. ^^^^ reading while the others were employed with slate and pencil. Generally, however, all pupils of the graded schools were found reciting together. In ungraded schools the practice of classification for reading varies considerably. Some schools of this kind which I visited were divided into three sections — primary, middle, and advanced. Many ungraded schools are divided into two sections, the older pupils attending school forenoons, and the younger pupils afternoons. In such schools all the pupils are heard together in reading, following a programme which will be found in another place.^ From what I have said of the character of the first readers at present in use in Germany, it may be in- Methods of f erred that all methods except the Alphabet Ee^aVng to "lethod are used in teaching reading to be- Beginners. ginners ; and such is the fact, although the greater number seem to favor the word-script method. Much is made by all teachers of vocal drill exercises, the object being twofold : distinct articulation and facility in recognizing new words from their elements. Much repetition in this, as in other subjects, is notice- able. Frequently the teacher spends an entire recita- 1 Page 72. READING 101 tion period of fifty minutes upon a few lines, which are read over and over again, seemingly for the sake of enunciation only. The first recitation which I heard in Germany was of this character, and, as it was very different Illustrations from what I expected to hear in a German of Lessons heard. school, it made a great impression upon me. It was a school of forty little girls who had been in school but a few months. The teacher was a large man with a heavy voice, and his manner was Example of a somewhat harsh, quite in contrast to the Poor Method, gentleness which I had been accustomed to see in primary teachers at home. The first thirty minutes of the recitation were spent upon six lines which had been previously taught and read. The pupils were first asked to read the piece together, which they did very slowly, each syllable being pronounced separately and very emphatically. No attempt to secure natural expression was made. Again and again were the lines repeated, the teacher saying before each repetition, *' Once more, and very distinct." After this the pupils were called upon to read two or three lines apiece, which they read somewhat more connectedly than they had read in concert, but still with little or no expres- sion. Some of the words were then pronounced and talked about by the children, and little original sen- tences containing the words were given. The piece was again read over by the children in concert, this 102 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY time with a nearer approach to good expression. The new lesson of a few lines was then read over very distinctly by the teacher, after which the pupils were asked to take their slates for writing. Pupils wrote upon the slates the review lesson in reading, which the teacher said would be written in blank-books the next day. During the reading I noticed considerable inat- tention on the part of pupils. The teacher stood during the recitation with no book in his hand, occa- sionally hissing when the children became too noisy, and speaking sharply to a child now and then for inat- tention. But not many lessons which I heard were of this kind. I soon found that, generally speaking, the teacher even of the lowest grade had an intelligent purpose in his work, and a philosophical plan of carrying that pur- pose into effect. Indeed, the teacher whose work I have just noted proceeded after a definite plan. The only doubt was as to the wisdom of his purpose and plan. The following extracts from my note-book will illus- trate the phonic method, which is sometimes employed Phonic ^^ ^^^ beginning and sometimes after several Method. words as wholes have been taught. Teacher writes in large letters the following, in German script (Latin letters are not generally used until the second year) : m, /, r,/, h,fl,fr, a, a, au, ei. As review, these are sounded by the children in concert, each three READING 103 times. Several repetitions of this exercise are made, after which the same sounds are combined with others in making words. For example, the teacher sounds aii-s, aii-fy and the pupils pronounce the words which the sounds make, aiis, aiif. This is done by individual pupils with a great variety of short words. The teacher questions pupils to bring out certain words, thus : What do you do with your hands ? Pupils answer, Rub (reib). The teacher then points to the signs in their order, r-ei-b^ writing the word upon the board. The same is done with words which have been taught orally. The answers are given by the pupils all together and individually. The reading of sentences is begun when several words have been learned in this way. " Spelling by sound " is practised only during the first year. Letters are first named in the second year. In many schools I found a method of teaching read- ing known as the analytic-synthetic method, or as the normal word method. Twenty or more short formal Word words are carefully selected to be taught in ^6^^°<^« regular order ; first as wholes, afterwards in parts. The sounds and signs thus learned are then put together to make new words. The advocates of this method do not agree among themselves in respect to the words to be used, or to the priority of script, or to the time spent upon each word. Some teachers spend much time in talking about the object represented by 104 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY the word ; others use the word simply for reading and writing. The extreme course is shown by teachers who spend three or four recitation hours upon a single word. Thus bed is talked about (a toy bed being shown the children) for two hours, concerning its use, its parts, uses of each part, how it is made, habits of children in sleeping, etc. The talking is carried on wholly by questions and answers, the answers being in entire sentences. Then the teacher draws a picture of the bed on the blackboard, talking as he draws. The next step is to sound the word slowly and carefully until each sound is learned. The teacher then writes the word on the blackboard, and talks about each part. The pupils copy the word several times upon the slate, after which they ''read" the word and designate each sign, carefully giving its proper sound. The last lesson upon the word consists in learning an appropriate piece of poetry and in singing. Not all the advocates of this method spend so much time upon any word, and some have the word written before it is analyzed. But all use the sounds and signs thus learned for the forma- tion of other words. The number of normal words thus taught before reading is begun varies considerably. The least num- ber of words in the charts and books in use is sixteen and the greatest is one hundred. The word and sentence method is used quite gener- ally, but nowhere abroad have I seen it carried out so READING 105 well, or with as good results, as it is in our best schools. In many schools where this method _ , , •' Word and is employed good expression is not insisted Sentence ^ ^ . Method. upon until the sentence has been read many times. A practice quite general with teachers of lower grades is to give object lessons upon the subject to be read in order to familiarize the pupils in the use of new words, and in the subject matter. An illustration of this method will be seen in the following notes taken in a first-year's class of a people's school in Leipsic. As I enter the room there are various fruits upon the teacher's table, and pictures of others hanging upon the wall. The teacher asks many questions like the following, the pupils answering in entire sen- tences: How is this fruit used.? What is this drop called.? (squeezing the grape.) Of what use is the grape 1 What must fruits and berries be to be of use } (ripe.) What kind should we not eat t I have told you a story about poison berries. Who can tell the story.? It will be observed that the teacher's object in this object-lesson and questioning is to lead the pupils to understand the thoughts expressed in the reading-lesson, and to give the words and expressions which they are subsequently to read. The children read with good expression and fluency. I notice that their articulation is good, particularly of ^'s, /s, and/'s. When a word is not readily given in the reading, the pupil is allowed to pause a moment, seeming to sound I06 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY the word to himself, when it is pronounced correctly. A second reading shows little or no hesitation in calling the words. Silent reading, as a preparation for oral reading, is not practised in any part of the recitation. A German teacher and author has divided reading into three parts, — mechanical, analytical, and aesthetic ; and no one of these features of reading Eeading : Mechanical, is likely to be neglected by the average Analytical, and^s- teacher in Germany. In the first year or two the mechanical feature is particularly emphasized, — more, I think, than in our best schools, — especially in respect to phonics and articulation. Afterward, the analytical and aesthetic features re- ceive most attention ; and in these respects, I think, we may learn much from our German friends. As I shall attempt to show later, the analysis of standard poetry and prose in elementary schools is carried on to a remarkable degree. I have heard brought out by pupils of the middle grades fine shades of meaning which we rarely find in our high schools. It may be that we are underrating the analytical powers of our children. In our zeal to have them read much we may forget what they read for. The American visitor to German schools is struck not only with the limited extent of the reading in them. Time given ^^^ ^^^^ '^^^^ ^^^ limited time of the recita- to Reading. ^-^^^ period given to reading. I have fre- quently heard but half a dozen pupils of a class of READING 107 forty read during a period of fifty minutes. The rest of the time would be given to discussion by pupils and teacher of the meaning of words and expressions, and of subjects connected with the reading. As has been said, the reading-books are made up of pieces calculated to awaken moral, poetic, and patriotic senti- ments, and the efforts of teachers are wisely directed to the same ends. I shall never forget the intense interest awakened in one school by a teacher's description of the last events of the Franco-German War, sug- Patriotism gested by a piece of poetry which was being in the Eead- ing-class. read. The teacher walked up and down before the class, wildly gesticulating, while the boys listened with breathless interest. Occasional questions were asked which could have but one answer — mainly in respect to the cowardice and incapacity of the French soldiers. To efforts like this, repeated in schools of every kind and grade, is due, to great ex- tent, the strong spirit of patriotism which pervades the new empire. I was frequently struck with the great amount of supplementary work done in connection with the read- ing recitation. I recall the interest which History in pupils of a seventh grade, in Eisenach, Connection with Reading. manifested in a patriotic poem. The sub- stance was first given of that part of the poem which had been read the day before. The language of pupils I08 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY was correct and fluent. William I. and Frederick I. were spoken of, and the teacher drew from the pupils a parallelism between William I. and Barbarossa, espe- cially in uniting the kingdom. A story of Barba- rossa was then told, also a poem of the same repeated from memory by several pupils. History of the period just after the time of Barbarossa was given, and the knights and minstrels were talked about. This was called by the teacher the budding-time of the German national literature. Names of poets and writers of this period were given. The relation of minstrels to litera- ture was spoken of, and their effect upon the people. Then followed the reading, the teacher reading first, and the pupils following singly and together. Inter- spersed in the reading were questions to bring out the meaning of various expressions. The exercise closed with a comparison of the poem with another which had been read. Works of classical writers, especially of Goethe and study of Schiller, are very thoroughly read in the higher grades even of the people's schools. I recall a school in Leipsic of eighth-year pupils, who showed a somewhat remarkable knowledge of German literature. The pupils repeated from memory several of Goethe's poems, and told the story of Hermann and Dorothea, which they had read. They also gave a sketch of Goethe's life. The same pupils told who the leading writers of a certain period were, and, at the READING 109 request of the teacher, repeated from memory a few lines from each of several poems. Of course this was an exhibition exercise, given for my benefit. But it was an exhibition of which boys and girls of fourteen years of age might well be proud. I have spoken of the remarkable reading and under- standing of poetry shown by pupils of the lower grades. The work of the higher grades in this regard is no less remarkable. As an example of the practice of teachers in prepar- ing pupils for reading, and in awakening their thought and interest, I copy the following notes in jjethodi^ full of a visit I made to a e^irls' school in awakening ^ Thought and Eisenach. The pupils had been in school interest. four and two-thirds years, and were about eleven years of age. The piece for reading is " The Diver," by Schiller, and the teacher says they are about to read of a man who, at the request of the king, jumped into the Cha- rybdis after a golden cup. Then follows rapid ques- tioning of pupils, such as : What is the Charybdis ? Why dangerous .'' What other whirlpool near by ? Where was it supposed to be ? T9 what sea does the Strait of Messina belong } The map is used freely, and points which the pupils do not know are told them by the teacher. The teacher then speaks of the peculiar and danger- ous fish in those waters, and shows pictures of them no SCHOOLS OF GERMANY upon a chart. Names and characteristics of all given. Occasionally pupils allowed to answer in concert, espe- cially difficult names. At this point the teacher asks the pupils to repeat all that has been given. The teacher then tells the story of the Diver, begin- ning with some imaginary references to the king, his journey from Palermo to the sea, and the purposes of it. Occasionally, to keep the interest of the pupils, he asks questions like the following : What would the king be likely to carry on such a journey ? What do you suppose prompted the king to throw the cup into the whirlpool ? Would the knights like to do the king's bidding ? Why ? Why did they hesitate .-* Why did the youth volunteer to go after the cup .'' As the story proceeds, headings are placed upon the blackboard, the teacher asking the pupils to decide what the headings should be. At certain points, as before, the pupils are called upon to repeat what has been said. The reading of the piece follows, the pupils criticis- ing each one as she reads. Animated expression and clear enunciation are the special features of the read- ing. Questions are asked by the teacher to bring out the thought expressed and to hold the attention. Fre- quently the answers are expected to be in the words of the poem. At other times answers in entire sentences in the pupils' own words are given. A few of the rhetorical beauties of the poem are pointed out. When REAPING I 1 1 the reading is not expressive or fluent enough, the pupil is asked to read silently. Two or three lines are occasionally read in concert. There is no interruption of a pupil while reading. The same class at the next reading recitation contin- ued the same subject as follows : The girls asked to repeat the substance of the poem as far as it has been read. Questions asked upon advance lesson which require pupils to look in the book. Answers to ques- tions given in words of the book. Sometimes the answers are given in words of the pupils after silent reading. Oral reading of a portion follows. Much attention given to enunciation and expression. Some concert reading. Questions follow the reading, to bring out the pupils' understanding of certain expres- sions. The same course is taken with another portion ; viz., — 1. Questions to induce thought. 2. Pupils read silently. 3. Pupils explain, telling the substance of what has been read silently. 4. Oral reading, attention to expression, and enun- ciation. 5. Questions upon contents of portion read, and also upon rhetorical features. One more portion treated in the same way, and then entire poem read. 112 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY From thought to expression seemed to be the motto of the teacher in this exercise — by no means an excep- tional instance of a faithful application of the principle. Occasionally, however, I saw an attempt to reverse the process : as when a teacher in one of the Berlin schools read with pronounced expression a From Ex- . . pressionto poem, following the reading of each line Thought. . with an explanation or paraphrase of it. The pupils were then asked to repeat precisely what he had said, and when the piece had been gone through in that way the pupils were asked to read and explain the whole. The possibility of being deceived in an inspection of results simply is shown in this case. If I had not seen the method of the teacher, I might have judged the work of his pupils to be as good as that which I had seen in the Eisenach school. The difference, how- ever, was world-wide. One teacher led his pupils into habits of thoughtful attention to nice shades of mean- ing, and developed in them a love of the best literature. The other cultivated one faculty alone, that of the memory, and led his pupils, in the most effective way, to dislike good literature. From what has been said it will be seen that the teacher of reading from the very lowest grade has Cultivation clearly in mind the end of cultivating the of Taste. taste of the children. Not how much, but how well, is the constant motto of the school in read- READING IX^ ing ; and the teacher, in most cases, is careful to see that the good quality demanded is not confined to ex- pression, but that as much of the author's thought be understood as the pupils are capable of understanding. The school library found in many of the elementary schools admirably supplements the work of the class- room in enabling the teacher to guide in a large degree the reading of the pupils out of school hours. Much seems to be made of fables and fairy tales in the lowest grades. In schools taught according to principles laid down by Herbart as inter- Fables and preted by Ziller, the reading during the first ^^'""^ and second years consists wholly of fairy tales. At various times I heard parts of lessons in these sub- jects, and was much impressed by the interest which the children manifested, and by the ingenious methods pursued by some teachers to secure good results.^ 1 For methods employed in teaching fables in the first year see p. 192. 114 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY CHAPTER IX LANGUAGE Language, or " German," as given in the course of studies, includes reading, writing, spelling, syllabication, punctuation, use of capitals, word building, derivations, memorizing of selections, composition, and grammar. From what has been said of the teaching of the vari- ous subjects, it will be seen that in every recitation lan- guage is carefully taught. Language is, in Language in i • i i every Recita- all grades, evidently considered an expres- sion of thou-ght, and whenever there is a thought to be expressed, it is required to be put into the best possible form. Thus accuracy and fluency of expression are made as much ends of instruction as are the facts themselves. The effect of this kind of language teaching is especially noticeable in connection with the elementary object and science lessons. Here every fact observed is clothed in proper form, and all facts closely related are brought together in a series of connected statements. One feature of the recitation peculiar to the German schools gives an especially good opportunity for lan- guage training. As has been said, the German text- LANGUAGE II5 books contain much less matter than ours. What our text-books leave out, the German teacher supplies by word of mouth at the time of recitation. Several times during a recitation the teacher makes several statements in the way of information, and then asks the pupils to reproduce in substance what has been said. Thus pupils get accustomed to listening closely, and to expressing in good language what they have heard. Again, pupils are constantly called to account for using ungrammatical or bungling sentences, and are made to repeat their language until it is satisfactory to the teacher. Besides being a means for excellent drill in spoken language, the work of the regular recitation furnishes a good basis for all written work. Aside from books upon grammar, there are few lan- guage text-books used either by teachers or pupils, and in grammar the books for elementary schools •' Text-books are limited to important points. Three sets and Blank- books of blank-books are generally found in all of the elementary schools — one for penmanship, one for dictation exercises, and one for compositions. These books are regularly used each week, and in all the schools I visited the teacher marked with red ink the mistakes of every exercise. The rewriting of the cor- rected exercises is generally given for home work. In examining the exercise books I was struck with the small number of mistakes made by the pupils and Il6 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY noted by the teachers. This excellence of work was, I thought, due to the careful grading of the exercises, to frequency of reviews, and to the teacher's severity in the correction of mistakes carelessly made. The following syllabus ^ outlining the work to be done in the partially graded {Zweiklassige) schools of Prussia show in compact form what is Syllabus of ^ Work pre- attempted in all departments of language scribed. study. Correct oral and written expression of thoughts which enter into the life of the people and ability to read good literature with profit are the aims of lan- guage work. Special attention should be paid to ordinary business forms. PRIMARY DEPARTMENT. Lower Class {^\Q.-\[Q.n hours). — Object method. The pupils are led to talk of objects within their line of vision. The powers of observation are trained by study of objects in their vicinity. School, playground, garden, field, forest, and home afford a great variety in the material for this instruction. Enunciation and expression receive attention. In teaching reading and writing, the method of the normal school of the district is to be followed. The alphabet method is strictly forbidden. At the close of the first six months the pupils must be able to divide simple statements into words, the words into syllables, the syllables into their respective 1 From the New York Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1891. Appendix, p. 166. Mr. Parsons's Report is republished by C. W. Bardeen, Syracuse, N.Y. LANGUAGE 11/ sounds. They must be able to make and name the let- ters representing these sounds. At the close of the first six months the pupils learn the printed characters and the names of the letters of the alphabet. From the outset, to prevent mechanical reading, children should be taught to associate words and, later, statements with the objects or ideas they repre- sent. Each selection read must be thoroughly understood by the pupils. Simple proverbs, aphorisms, and short easy selec- tions should be learned by heart and repeatedly reviewed. In teaching writing the teacher should show upon the blackboard the formation of the letters. Orthography is encouraged through careful attention to enunciation, attentive reading, copying, and dictation. From the very beginning children in writing should be taught to use the proper punctuation. At the close of the second school year the children should be able to read with facility and correctness the selections they have taken ; to answer simple questions as to subject matter ; to reproduce these selections orally ; to copy correctly from the primer, and to write from memory the proverbs and sayings learned by heart. They should have had simple exercises in dic- tation. Higher Class (eight hours). — In this class the reader for middle classes is used. The instruction of the lower class is continued, with closer attention to subject matter and expression. Pupils are led to reproduce orally selections read. At first they will confine themselves quite closely to the words of the book. The teacher, by judicious questioning, will force pupils to express themselves more or less in their own words. Selections in prose and poetry are to be learned by heart. Il8 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY Orthography is continued as in the lower class. Special attention is now given to 1. The use of capital letters. 2. The shortening and lengthening of vowels. 3. The Umlantmg. 4. Hard and soft consonants at the beginning of words and syllables. $. The finding of final consonants through lengthen- ing words. 6. The use of the letters t^ thy dt ; fy Vyph,pf; x, chs, cks, gs, ts, 2. In writing, the forms of the German script alphabet are now taught in regular order. The pupils learn the comparative size and position of letters, the proper dis- tance between letters and between words. Time writ- ing is then practised in concert. The formation of the plural of nouns is taught. Statements are formed with personal pronouns and verbs in the present tense, and afterward in the past and future tenses. Adjectives are studied in the same way. Word building, effect of affixing the syllables, chen, lein, eTy and iji to nouns ; igy lichy and iscJiy to adjectives ; of prefixing the syllable 2in to adjectives. ADVANCED DEPARTMENT. * Lower Class (eight hours). — The pupils read the more difficult selections of the middle-class reader. Correct expression and a thorough understanding of the subject matter are required. Pupils have now acquired the ability to reproduce selections from reader orally with facility, and to repeat readily that which has been learned by heart. For practice in orthography the selections learned by heart are written from memory and corrected by book. Simple rules are learned. Writing is continued as above. Pupils learn to com- pare adjectives and to form the indicative and impera- LANGUAGE IIQ tive modes of verbs. They are drilled in the declension of nouns with and without definite and indefinite articles. All the work should be practical, the pupils forming statements and simple sentences introducing the various forms of words desired. Sentences are transposed, and the subjunctive mode is introduced. Word building is continued. Words not understood by the pupils are best defined by practical examples ; i.e., the teacher forms sentences introducing such words. The pupils learn the parts of a simple sentence. The pupils reproduce in writing short stories by teacher, selections from the reader, etc. Closer attention is given to form and style of oral expression. Composition receives attention. An effort is made to teach pupils to express themselves in writ- m an extent as to call to the service of elemen- s- Influence of Educational tary education the best thought of the ' Leaders. country. True, that thought has been er- - ratic and at times abnormal in its application, yet it has 3 always been vigorous and powerful, whether exercised -' in the severe, classical formalism of Trotzendorf anols Sturm, or in the free naturalism of Comenius and ^ Basedow. The experience, therefore, of Germany in the management of her schools has been a thoughtful one ; and as such it commands our respect, and invites our attention to some features of their system of schools in contrast with some of our own. AMERICAN AND GERMAN SCHOOLS 2ig I. ORGANIZATION. Whatever may be said of the superiority of natural over acquired qualifications for the teachers' calling, no one, I suppose, will doubt the general state- ^^ ^ ment that the efficiency of teachers is en- of Teachers. I hanced by special preparation for their work. That \ being conceded, we turn to inquire how much so- called professional preparation is demanded of teachers in the United States. From a recent report of the Commissioner of Education ^ it will be seen that in California, Illinois, Kansas, New Hampshire, New York, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Vermont, and Wisconsin — the only States making full reports — only one teacher out of every seventeen was in 1886 a graduate of a normal school. A larger proportion, ^ or about twelve per cent, of all teachers employed are reported as having attended a normal school. f These States, doubtless, have other training-schools in which some of the teachers have received more or less professional training. Making a liberal allow- I ance for the number attending such schools, and for the probable advance that has been made, it is safe to say that not more than one-fourth of the present I teachers of the above-named States have had any pro- fessional preparation for their work. The character of elementary education in these States is certainly as high 1 Report of 1886-87, p. 453. 220 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY as it is in the rest of the Union. It may be said, there- fore, that as many as three-fourths of all the teachers of this country at the present time entered upon their work without the slightest theoretical knowledge of the science or art of teaching. In other words, a majority of the people of the country regard teaching as less of an art than carpentry or horse-shoeing, for which some preparation at least is thought to be necessary. When it is considered that a large proportion of these un- trained teachers are new to their work every year, the seriousness of the matter becomes apparent. The enormous waste of money which is occasioned by I the misdirected energies of this army of novices is of j little consequence beside the irreparable injury which i ^ their experiments and mistakes cause to the children. ^ ^ To raise this low standard of requirements for teach- ., , ing to the standard which Germany has set ^ will be no ^ . easy matter ; but that it must be done before we can .. , seriously make a comparison of the schools of the two 5 . countries, or even before we can claim that there is a ^ „ profession of teaching in this country, is beyond ques- tion. Our normal schools should demand a higher degree of scholarship for admission than they now demand. Normal or else their courses of study should be Course. broader and more extended than they are in most States of the Union. There should also be 1 For Germany's requirements see page \ I' I AMERICAN AND GERMAN SCHOOLS 221 given in the normal course a greater opportunity for professional practice than is now given. Graduation from such a course, or its equivalent, should be required for the position of teacher in all elementary Needful schools. Of the secondary school teachers ments7o"r there should be demanded, in addition to T^^-ching. graduation from college, at least one year of profes- I sional training. To establish this high, or an equally high, standard of requirements for teaching is the duty of the state. Wherever in the state there is inability to reach it, assistance should be given ; and wherever in the state 'there is unwillingness to reach it, force should be )Used. If such a policy should be opposed on account jof a fear of centralization, let it be remembered that centralization is dangerous only as the central power usurps or takes away individual and local rights. It is plain to see that the delegation of this power to the i state protects in the best possible way the rights of both individuals and separate localities. Efficient service depends not only upon intelligent effort, but also upon a continuance of that effort. A frequently changing personality in any de- Permanence partment of industry means a loss in unity of Teaching Force, of purpose and effort, and consequent weak- ness. This is especially true in teaching, which requires united and harmonious efforts toward a com- mon purpose. If we step to-day into any one of the 222 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY one hundred thousand schoolrooms in Germany, we shall j find a teacher who feels that he is engaged in his life- work, and in a large proportion of those schoolrooms we shall find teachers who have the practical assur- ance of their government, that their continuance in office depends only upon good behavior and faithful service. Very rarely are the permanently elected teachers changed from the position to which they are appointed, and more rarely still are they dismissed | from service. Aside from the efficiency of these professional workers, their permanence of place makes their efforts felt in a way not known in a system of constant changes like ours. From recent statistics^ we learn that an average of twenty-six changes occurs in the United States yearly in every one hundred teachers* positions ; that is, the average length of the teacher's service is less than four years. In some quarters the rule is to " make a change " every term, the term consisting of ten or twelve weeks. So accustomed are we to a want of permanency in the teacher's position, that we regard it not out of place for a young woman to make it a con- venient waiting-place for matrimony, or for a young man to use it as a stepping-stone to one of the so-called learned professions. What other business would per- mit such a large " tramp " element to impair its effi- ciency, or lower its standard of effective usefulness ? 1 Report of U. S. Commissioner of Education, 1886-87, P* 7'* !^1 AMERICAN AND GERMAN SCHOOLS 223 I i fifj In this matter, as in that of the qualifications of i \i teachers, the state should take a decided stand. Havins: ) demanded of teachers the best possible preparation for L their work, the state should give them, or Tenure of jl oblige the municipalities to give them, a per- office. ' 'j manent tenure of office during good behavior, good A health, and professional faithfulness. In this act of (jjustice to teachers there is found the only safeguard I against the evils of frequent changes of teachers on the I one hand, and of political wire-pulling on the other. 'f A good plan of studies is to the teacher what the ^Ikhart and compass are to the navigator. By its aid rogress in the right direction may be meas- pi^^of red ; without it there is likely to be much studies. Ivork done which is aimless and useless, if, indeed, it is pot absolutely injurious. The making of a good plan of studies implies not only a knowledge of the subjects to ^ pe studied, but also such acquaintance with the powers \ 4nd capacities of the growing mind as to know the I oroper sequence of subjects, and the relative amount of )work to be done in successive periods. Such knowl- 1 ledge, it must be admitted, is scientific, and can be '^acquired only by long and varied experience. \$) In many parts of the United States the arrangement |i of a plan of studies is left to the local board, — a board which is made up of men who can, it may be, run a farm or factory, but who have no special fitness to direct teachers in respect to subjects of study. As a conse- 224 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY quence there are many towns which have no plan of studies for their schools, absolutely no guide to what is expected to be done, beyond the wishes of parents who are ambitious for their children to go through or over many books. This may not be less harmful than a faith- ful adherence to the requirements of some plans which are made by persons wholly unfit to make them. And . all these hindrances to good and systematic work are I' but little worse than the constantly changing courses I of studies which ambitious school committees, superin-' tendents, and principals are fond of putting out as essential improvements over what has preceded, or as proofs of their ability as reformers. i Instead of these doubtful guides, which are as likely to be incorrect as correct, and which are subject tc frequent changes, there should be a general plan foi each grade of schools, made and sanctioned by high professional authority, and authorized as a guide for/ every- school in the state. These plans should be sub- ject to such enlargement and explanations as local! superintendents or principals may think necessary. ^ Thus we should follow in the main the policy of Ger- j many, whose plans of study may be said to be the ' result of the best educational thought of the state : on the one hand so well defined as to make the teacher's duty clear, and on the other hand so unre- stricted as to leave much freedom and independence of action. l\ k AMERICAN AND GERMAN SCHOOLS 22$ i' In estimating the value of an educational system, \' jthe attendance of children upon the schools should not ,^, (be left out of the account. No school sys- ^^^^^i \ Item can be said to be good which is not Attendance, supported by laws requiring a certain standard of edu- cation for all. How far the practice of many parts of our country s from this standard appears from statistics which ,how that in twenty-one States there are no compul- :^ory laws of school attendance, and that in other States, according to the Commissioner of Education,^ ' ''in many instances the compulsory attendance law, if ' ot actually a dead letter, is practically so." In many i the Northern States where the percentage of attend- ^lice is the highest there is gross neglect, not only in ^forcing the laws of compulsory attendance upon the Schools, but also in providing proper truant schools. vhis neglect is due largely to the fact that the execu- / ^on of the laws is left to local authorities, who for ^ Political and social reasons fail to do their duty. Mem.- '^ers of the school board do not stand a good chance hr re-election who by an enforcement of the law entail extra expense upon the town ; and they are few, espe- ;:ially in country towns, who are willing to proceed against a neighbor, or a neighbor's children, in case of a violation of the law. To prevent the evil of illiteracy, as well as the enor- 1 Report, 1886 S7, p. 56, [ I 226 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 1 mous waste of money, which our records of school P J ^ attendance imply, is a matter of no small Laws. concern, and should receive the immediate attention of both state and nation. It may not be possible for us to adopt the same rigorous policy of coercion which Germany enforces with her strong military spirit, and with her complete state police sys- tem. But that we should follow her example of pro- tecting the rights of children, so far, at least, as to make school attendance compulsory up to a certain^ age, must be admitted, especially when we consider ^^ the dangers of an ignorant citizenship in a government like ours. Having made these compulsory laws we should see to it that the means of executing them ar'' as effective as are the means of executing other law upon the statute book. Experience has proved the necessity of wise super vision in most departments of labor ; and nowhere h School ^^^ necessity more apparent than in a com Supervision, pj^^ system of schools, involving various interests and requiring great technical skill. German) has for many years observed this principle in the man- agement of her schools, and the results clearly demon- strate its importance. In that country the organization of the schools, the examination of teachers, the criti-"^ cism and direction in methods of teaching, in short, all duties involving wisdom and skill, are given mainly into the hands of professional men.^ 2 For details in the System of Supervision, see p. 4. \ AMERICAN AND GERMAN SCHOOLS 22/ I No uniform method of school supervision is practised [in this country; each state, and in some states each 'I town, determining the methods to be employed. The ^ J schools of most of the cities, and of some of the large 1 towns, are well supervised by skilled superintendents, I who are appointed on account of their superior qualifica- tions. The weak points in the supervision elsewhere, ' vhich means, of course, in the larger part of the country, , .re quite apparent to all who know the worth of intelli- t f^ent direction in school affairs. In some sections there is absolutely no supervision of the schools other than what is done by members of school boards, who, as a >fule, have little time to attend to the duties of their :)ffice, and who are likely to have neither natural nor acquired fitness to criticise and direct the teachers' special work. In other sections county superintendents are either appointed by a board, or elected by popular vote. Some of these persons are, doubtless, efficient supervisors ; but their field of labor is frequently so >i large as to prevent their service from being felt to any 'appreciable degree in the schools. In general it may be said, therefore, that a greater part of the school ^ supervision of this country is ineffectual because of the f largeness of the supervisor's field of labor, or of his * dependence in election to and retention in office upon i the will of the people, or of his want of proper qualifi- / cations to perform the duties of his office. Important as is a recognition of the value of skilled 228 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY or professional supervision, the perception of its prov-|i| ince and limitations is no less so. Germany's policy] of having the v/ork of teachers guided wisely, without having it cramped and narrowed, is a policy which America might adopt with profit to her schools. I Skilled supervision, which should be provided by law, } implies wisdom, — the wisdom which can be possessed- only by /r^^j"^"/^;^^/ superintendents. f II. TEACHERS AND TEACHING. Having considered the conditions under which thej ^ schools are maintained, and some possible reforms of those conditions suggested by Germany's experience) •• we have next to inquire what lessons intimately con-P' nected with the work of the schoolroom may be learned^' from Germany's practice. ; The central object of interest and of profitable study r is the teacher, whose influence in educational affairs isjj Influence of deservedly strong. This influence is notj- the Teacher, ^ewly acquired. It is an inheritance fromls the past, a transmission of powers won by the courage,!^ zeal, and intellectual strength of the teachers of three centuries. Beginning with the Reformation, — the time from which the present school system of Germany' dates, — the teacher has filled a prominent place in all educational reforms ; not only in promulgating new phil- osophies and methods of teaching, but in putting into AMERICAN AND GERMAN SCHOOLS 229 practice new courses of study, in calling forth for educa- Ition the active interest of princes and people, and, whenever it was necessary, in shaping legislation rela- ting to education both high and low. It is this inherit- ' rv ance of influence in educational affairs into which the L A German teacher of to-day has come ; and most worthily, \ \as I believe, does he use and keep it. I { He does not wait for writers of occasional and sensa- Itional articles to shape public opinion, — writers whose /^criticisms of the schools rest on no knowledge of their ^'condition, and whose conception of their needs has not the basis of philosophy or experience. Neither does he allow newly fledged members of school boards to initiate schemes of reform which may not have merit enough to last through a single administration. The German teacher does not take his cue from such men, nor does he wait to take his cue from anybody. He prefers to have the first as well as last word in all ques- tions of reform, whether it be in methods, programmes, I or organization. To him belongs, almost exclusively, ♦the privilege of educating the public in school affairs through the public press. He uses professional asso- Iciation meetings, of which there are many, in discussing questions of reform, and he exercises the right of peti- ' tion to the government all the more readily because he knows that his petition will receive consideration. The present notable measures of reform of higher education had their rise in associations of teachers who I 230 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY formulated their opinions two years ago in a monster » petition of over twenty thousand signers to the Prussian Diet. Whether it was this petition which caused the appointment of the recent commission in Prussia, it is hard to say ; yet there can be no doubt that the school- masters themselves began the discussion of questions considered in the conference last December, and the government's confidence in their ability to pass judg- ment upon the subjects presented was shown in the large number of schoolmen appointed to serve on the.\ commission. The influence of the teachers in inaugurating reforms and in guiding legislation is due partly to the fact that they are, upon main issues of administration, clear and united, partly because they insist upon being heard, and partly because their action is pointed and systematic. I well remember the earnestness and point of a discus- i sion carried on by a village association in Southern [ Germany. The association consisted of eight men, — all the teachers of the town. The subject was manual training. Two or three meetings had been held pre- viously, and the conclusions of the association were care- 1 fully noted in a series of statements, after being discussed and voted upon. These conclusions were to be sent to a higher body which was to formulate all conclusions received, and print them in what is called a Year Book. Who can doubt that conclusions thus reached would and should have great weight in the counsels of the Nation ? AMERICAN AND GERMAN SCHOOLS 23 1 It is influence of this kind which our American schools most need. Not only do teachers fail to make themselves felt, as they should be felt, in certain features of school legislation, but they are obliged frequently to give way to the politician in matters purely profes- sional. In some places promotions are made, examina- tions are conducted, and even courses of studies are arranged, by persons who can lay no claim to profes- sional knowledge. Whatever the cause of the teacher's want of influence in directing educational affairs in this country, certain it is, that so long as the schools are controlled by politi- cians, independent of professional advice, there will be poor schools and a waste of money. It is to be hoped that the practice of Germany in heeding the advice of teachers in all matters relating to education will in good time become the settled policy of all parts of this coun- try. That time may come when the high requirements for teaching already spoken of have been fully met. I have spoken of the teacher's influence in Germany in what may be called outside affairs. In the school- room his personality is even more marked. Personality Here we learn the secret of his power, which iVt^eSdioo^ is that he is in earnest in carrying out a pur- "°™- pose. That is what most impresses visitors from abroad. They may not always think the purpose a good one ; but the value of a well-defined purpose is clearly seen, es- pecially when behind that purpose — as is generally the 232 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY case in Germany — there are both intelligence and pro- fessional training. Ask any teacher of the elementary or secondary schools in Germany the reason for any particular method or practice, and you will find him ready with an answer, given in a way which leaves no doubt as to his sincerity, even though he does not con- vince you of the wisdom of his course. One general purpose quite manifest in schools of all grades is that of leading the children to think for themselves by the use of objects and pic- tics of tures, and by questioning. The latter fea- ture of the recitation is particularly noticeable. The questions asked are not strictly Socratic, but they are of such a character as to impress or to develop ideas. When they are of the latter kind they are called ** development questions," leading the pupils to pass from the known to the unknown, or to discover an effect from a known cause. Another characteristic of the work of German teachers is the frequency of giving reviews. The salient points of previous lessons are frequently re- viewed, especially those points which have some rela- tion to the subject in hand. The reason for some of the reviews seems to be twofold — first, to refresh the pupils' memory, and secondly, to present all parts of a given subject in their logical relation. In all information studies — history, geography, reading, and natural history — the teachers show that AMERICAN AND GERMAN SCHOOLS 233 they have a large fund of information which is always ready for use in the recitation. The necessity of the teacher's proficiency in this regard is, perhaps, not so great in America where the text-book is supposed to give much needed information ; yet the great interest which is awakened in the recitation whenever such information is given by the teacher, and the increased confidence and power which such communication gives, are advantages which our American teachers would do well to consider. Perhaps the most noticeable difference between recitations here and in Germany, is in the manner of the teacher. In Germany the teacher always stands and manifests a vigorous, watchful interest, both in the subject matter and in the pupils. I would not have our teachers adopt the same vigorous means of secur- ing interest and exactness as are sometimes employed by German teachers, but I wish they could have some of their enthusiasm in the schoolroom. There should be provided by the state or municipal- ity far more apparatus than is now generally provided for the schools. In large graded schools Apparatus, the apparatus should be conveniently located for use in a room provided for the purpose. There should be in convenient places for the benefit of teachers, museums containing all kinds of apparatus, text-books, and reference books. It is to Museums. our shame that we have not lon^ ere this 234 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY established institutions of this kind, which have been found in other countries of such great practical value to teachers. It may not be advisable to include in our courses of studies all the branches of instruction which are Needed taught in Germany ; but, even in this re- changesm spect, we may 2:et some assistance from Subjects of t" ' ■/ o Instruction. German courses. Nature and elementary science lessons, for example, have as prominent a place in the elementary school programmes of Germany, as arithmetic or geography have, and no good reason can be given why they should not have equal prominence in our programmes. With the possible exception of reading and writing they are, when properly taught, the most valuable subjects' in the elementary school course. Two or three hours a week, therefore, should be given to lessons upon plants, animals, and minerals in the lower and middle grades, supplemented by elementary physics or chemistry in the higher grades. The interest which the German boys of the people's schools manifest in the study of geometry, is an indi- cation of the place which that study may have in our grammar school course, first, in supplementing the study of form in the lower grades, and secondly, in accompany- ing the study of arithmetic in the higher. The introduction of these subjects of instruction would necessitate lessening the amount required in other subjects, and that can best be done, perhaps, in AMERICAN AND GERMAN SCHOOLS 235 arithmetic and geography, which are at present over- loaded with useless details. When we consider the time that is frequently taken to complete the grammar school course, and the appar- ent advantage which German children possess in having a short preparatory course for the high school, it seems advisable to rearrange our classification or courses of studies, so as to permit pupils to begin earlier than they now do the direct preparation for a special classical or scientific course. Following the lead of Germany in placing great emphasis upon the study of the mother-tongue, we should do far more in English in all grades than is generally done in respect to both language and literature. Again, more time than is now generally allowed should be given in our high schools to a single science. Instead of a one year course in chemistry, for example, there should be a course of three or four years, so as to give time to develop a scientific spirit and to make the study of practical worth. And finally, Germany's example of giving all the children of the schools a regular, methodical, and con- tinuous course in physical training may well be fol- lowed by us. In what I have said of the German schools I have felt called upon to emphasize their good f ea- Elements of tures only. With such elements of strength, j^Gg^^man we should expect to find some elements of Schools. 236 SCHOOLS OF GERMANV weakness. These faults have their origin in the ends or purposes of a people who are intellectually strong, and whose political safety lies in keeping up a military spirit. Few text-books are used in the elementary schools of Germany, — fewer, I believe, than is good for the pupils, — firsty because a knowledge of the use of books and a good habit of using them are most valuable to people of any walk in life, and secondly ^ because a proper use of them prevents too great dependence upon the teacher. The programmes of graded schools are so arranged as to prevent pupils from studying independently and without interruption in school ; and the constant talk- ing of teachers, however stimulating it may be to pupils, is not without its bad effects. Moreover, the demands upon pupils, especially in the high schools, are frequently so great as to make school work a grind- ing burden, and so intensive as to preclude opportunities for general culture. Again, so far as I could learn, the cultivation of the will is sadly neglected in many of the schools of Ger- many. The higher forms of self-control and self- respect are lost sight of in discipline, and obedience is often exacted by the severest means. In these particu- lars, at least, the teachers of Germany can learn wisdom from us. Perhaps they will be willing to do so when the menacing armies upon either side of their country are disbanded, and when circumstances no longer com- AMERICAN AND GERMAN SCHOOLS 237 pel them to train their children for the stern conflicts of war. One word, in closing, upon our own prospects for the future : I have said that our schools are poor in com- parison with the schools of Germany. And condition and vet, I believe I am not inconsistent in say- ^^o^pectsof •' ' -^ American ing that the best we have are better for us Schools, than the best that exist in Germany would be. The trouble is, our very good schools are far too few. Instead of finding good schools everywhere, as we do in Germany, in the country as well as in the city, and in all parts of each, we are obliged in this country to make a hunt for them, even in the most favored places. When they shall be found not the exception, but the rule, not depending upon exceptional condi- tions, but resulting from a wisely planned organization, then we shall not have to sit at the feet of Germany as learners, but we can bid the teachers of that country come to us, and learn how to train boys and girls into intelligent, self-respecting, self-ruling, and God-fearing men and women. It is for American teachers to work steadily toward the accomplishment of this much- desired end. 3477 5 LIBRARY OF CONGRESS DD0^ss^D^5[D