Poil)ts e.^ LIBRA / OF CONGRESS. IJNiTED STATES OF AMERICA^ I POINTS OF HISTORY SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES BY JOHN LORD, LUD., AUTHOR OF "old ROMAN WORLD," "MODERN HISTORY," ETC ^' .6. What errors did they commit ? Not properly guarding the mountain passes, and subsi- dizing the Greeks- an easy thing with their immense treas- 'to ures. 137. What course did Alexander pursue in this great crisis ? He obtained reinforcements from Macedonia, and pene- trated into Cilicia, by the route pursued by Cyrus seventy years before. 138 What decisive battle took place near the mountain passes ? The battle of Issus, where 40,000 men routed 600,000, and slew 100,000. 139 What were the results of this great victor)' ? The flight of the Persians to the banks of the Euphrates, which gave the conqueror time to subdue his enemies m his rear. 140 What was the next eventful feat of Alexander ? The siege and reduction of Tyre, which destroyed the ships of the Phoenicians, on which the Persians now relied. 141. What next occupied his military genius? The conquest of Gaza, built on an artificial mound 250 feet high, and deemed impregnable, which he took by raising a still higher mound around the city. 142. What followed from these successes? The occupation of Egypt, and the founding of the city of Alexandria, and then the invasion of Persia. 143 What battle decided the fate of Persia? That of Arbela, gained by an army of 40,000 infantry and THE HISTORY OF GREECE. 21 7,000 cavalry over a Persian army of a million of infantry and 40,000 cavalry. 144. What were the fruits of this stupendous victory ? The fall of Babylon, Susa, and Persepolis, enormous spoils, and the abject submission of Persia. 145. How great were the spoils ? The enormous sum of 120,000 talents, ten times greater than Athens had hoarded for the Peloponnesian war— probably equal to a thousand millions of dollars in our time, when the relative value of gold and silver is considered. 146. After the conquest of Persia, what next occupied the attention of the ambitious conqueror ? The conquest of India, as far as the Indian Ocean. 147. What arrested his victories ? The discontent of his soldiers, and his death at Babylon, after a debauch, at the age of thirty-two, b. c. 323. 148. What became of his vast empire after his death? It was divided among his generals. 149. What powerful states arose from the division of the empire ? The most powerful were Syria and Egypt, the one ruled by Seleucus, whose capital was Antioch, the other by Ptolemy, whose capital was Alexandria. 1 50. Who were the most celebrated of the Seleucidae who reigned in Syria ? Antiochus the Great and Antiochus Epiphanes. 151. For what are these monarchs best known in history ? For the persecution of the Jews, ruled by the high-priests after the return from Babylon. 22 POINTS OF HISTORY. 1 52. Who rescued the Jews from the yoke of Syria ? Tlie Maccabees, a family of heroic generals, the most fa- mous of whom was Judas. 153. What marked Jewish history between the restoration from cap- tivity to the advent of Christ ? Ecclesiastical dissensions, the rise of powerful religious sects, the development of industry, and the flourishing state of learning. It was the literary period of Jewish history. 154. What marked the reigns of the Ptolemies in Egypt ? Frequent wars with Syria, a rival power, and an extraor- dinary attention to literature at Alexandria, at that time one of the largest and most powerful cities of the world, and a great commercial mart. 155. For what was it most famous ? For its great library of 700,000 volumes, collected by Ptol- emy Philadelphus, for its university and learned men. 156. What powerful oriental prince was most famous for his con- quests after the division of Alexander's empire? Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, who conquered Macedonia and in- vaded Italy. 1 57. What was the grand result of Alexander's conquests ? The introduction of Grecian civilization into Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt. 158. What great state in Europe was becoming powerful during the reigns of the Seleucidae and the Ptolemies ? The Roman republic, which had incorporated the greater part of Italy with its rising empire. References, — Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography, Rawlinson's He- rodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon, Plutarch's Lives, Laertius' Lives of the Pliilosophers, Grote's History of Greece, Thirlwall's History of Greece, Rolliu's Ancient History, Rawlinson's Ancient Monarchies, Encyclopedia Britannica, (Article on Greece). CHAPTEE III. The Roman Republic till the Conquest of Italy. 159. When was Rome founded ? It is supposed in the year 751 b. c, by Romulus, about the period when Grecian authentic history begins, when Babylon was the capital of the most powerful monarchy in the world. 160. What was the government of Rome for 250 years ? That of kings, who were limited in their power by the people and the senate. 161. What was the elemental principle of religion among the early Romans ? The worship of ancestors, as in primitive Greece and Northern India and China, animated by the belief that dead ancestors had power over the living, which led to votive offer- ings, the family altar, the Lares and Penates. 162. What social organization arose from this worship ? The patriarchal rule, as in most ancient states in the in- fancy of society. The head of a family had supreme power over his wife and children, even that of life and death, as in the time of Abraham. 163. What monuments indicate a considerable civilization among the Romans during the reigns of kings ? The Cloaca Maxima — a great sewer wliich drained the city, the temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline HilL, the enclosure of 24 POINTS OF HISTORY. the city by walls embracing the seven hills on which it was built. 164. What political distinctions arose during the reigns of the kings ? The division of the people into patricians, the descend- ants of the original settlers, and plebeians, the descendants of the inhabitants of conquered towns transferred to Rome. 165. Under what king was the constitution organized, or remodeled ? Servius Tullius, the sixth king, who divided the whole population into thirty tribes, called Curige, each of which managed its local affairs. 166. What was the basis of the Servian constitution } The possession of property as a claim to political power, which favored rich plebeians. 167. By whom was the government of kings overturned ? By the patricians, b.c. 510, who ruled the repubhc as a powerful aristocracy, till the time of Julius Caesar. 168. To whom did the revolution intrust executive power ? To two consuls, annually elected by the citizens, and gen- erally from the patrician ranks, who controlled elections. 169. What power had these consuls ? They convened the senate, introduced foreign ambassadors, and commanded the armies. 170. What was the senate ? Those citizens who had held curule offices, or great officers of state, who generally belonged to the patrician class. 171. What were the powers of this aristocratic assembly ? The administration of religious rites, a dictation to consuls THE ROMAN REPUBLIC. 2$ as to the conduct of war, the appointment of governors of provinces, and the initiative in all matters of legislation ; that is, no measure could be acted on by the people in their assemblies until discussed by the senate. 172. Who were the curule officers who, after serving their term, composed the senate ? The consuls ; praetors or supreme judges ; quaestors and cu- rators, or those who had care of the public buildings, and cen- sors, who regulated the manners and finances of the republic. The senate, therefore, was composed of the aristocracy and men of experience. 173. What marked the internal history of Rome under the consuls for 200 years? The oppression of the plebeians by the patricians, who held supreme political power. 174. What first weakened the ascendency of the aristocracy? The establishment of tribunes, chosen from the plebeians, who had rebelled, who had the power of veto in the enaction of laws. 175. After the establishment of tribunes, who was the first Roman that made a mark in history ? Caius Marcius, called Coriolanus, a proud patrician. 176. What made him famous ? His exile, in consequence of proposing a law which should withhold corn from the plebeians in time of famine, until they should relinquish their privileges. 177. What treason did this great aristocrat commit in his exile ? He incited the Yolscians to attack Rome under his leader- ship, which was only saved by the intercession of his patriotic mother Yoluinnia. 2"6 POINTS OF HISTORY. 178. What memorable character next appears in Roman history ? L. Qiiintus Cincinnatus, made dictator b. c. 458, when Rome was threatened by the Equians and Yolscians. 1 79. What was the dictatorship ? The supreme authority of the state for two months, an oc- casional office in great public dangers. 180. Who laid the foundation of Roman jurisprudence ? Appius Claudius, who secured the appointment of ten men to draw up a code of laws, called the ten tables, and who visited Athens at the height of her prosperity, between the Persian and Peloponnesian wars. 181. What political change resulted from the code of the notables ? The appointment of decemvirs, or ten patricians with su- preme power, which, however, was of brief continuance, in con- sequence of the violation of Yirginia by Appius Claudius. 182. What political event of great importance resulted from this outrage ? The creation of ten tribunes, elected by plebeians, whose persons were inviolable, who were admitted into the senate, without a vote, but who had the privilege of veto. 183. What law was passed in the year B. C. 445 which further weak- ened the power of the patricians ? That which permitted marriage between patricians and plebeians. 184. What next contributed to the power of the plebeians? The opening of the office of quaestor to the plebeians, which secured their entrance into the senate. THE ROMAN REPUBLIC. V 185. What political event, about this time, added to the power of Rome ? The siege and fall of Yeii, an Etruscan city, which added Etniria to the republic. 186. What signal misfortune retarded the expansion of Rome soon after the fall of Veii ? The invasion of the Gauls, a Celtic people, who advanced to the walls of Kome and laid siege to the city, but were bought off by a ransom of 100,000 pounds of gold, b. c. 390. 187. Who recovered the fortunes of Rome ? Camillus, whose victories were the most important that the republic had then achieved, and who was contemporaneous with Epaminondas. 188. What war made the Romans the strongest power in Italy ? The Samnite war, which lasted, at brief intervals, for fifty years, from 343 b. c. to 292 b.c, and of which Quintus Flavius was the great hero, a period contemporaneous with Alexander's victories. 189. What was the drawback to this war? The revolt of the Latin cities, which were subdued by Man- lius Torquatus. 190. What secured to the Romans the supremacy of Italy ? The war with the Etruscans, and the reduction of Taren- tum, a Dorian colony of great wealth. 191. Who came, by invitation, to the rescue of the Tarentines ? Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, with a large army and twenty elephants. 28 POINTS OF HISTORY. 192. With what success ? He defeated the Romans, with the aid of the Tarentines, at the bloody battle of Heraclea, b. c. 280, who, however, refused to make peace. 193. What ended the war ? The battle of Beneventum, won by Manlius Curins Denta- tus, six years after Pyrrhus landed in Italy, which secured the fall of Tarentum. 194. What results followed the fall of Tarentum ? The complete ascendency of Rome in Italy, which excited the jealousy of foreign powers. 195. What city became especially jealous of Rome ? Carthage, which had the supremacy of the sea, then the most powerful city of the world. 196. What political influence did Greece have at this period ? Yery little, as her liberties had perished. 197. What compensated the loss of political power ? The flourishing state of literature, art, philosophy and science. 198. Who were eminent among the Greeks at this period ? Euclid, the mathematician ; Zeno, the stoical philosopher ; Demetrius, the comic poet ; Laches, who erected the Colossus of Rhodes ; Praxiteles, the sculptor ; and Epicurus, the philosopher. 199. What vast engineering work in the east was done about this time ? The Chinese wall, as a defence against the Tartars. CHAPTEE lY. EOME TILL THE EeIGN OF THE C^SAKS. 200. What is the great subject of interest in Roman history after the fall of Tarentum. The Punic or Carthaginian wars, which lasted more than a century. 201. What animated these wars ? Rivahy and military ambition. 202. What was the cause of the first war, which commenced B. C 264, only eight years after the fall of Tarentum ? The seizure of Rhegium, in Sicily, which belonged to the allies of Carthage, to prevent the Carthaginians from control- ling the Mediterranean. 203. What did this offensive and aggressive act lead to ? The necessity of a navy, which the Romans constructed from the model of a Carthaginian vessel wrecked on the Italian coast. 204. How did the Romans contend with the Carthaginians on the sea. when they had no naval experience ? They grappled the enemy's ships, one by one, and fought, as it were, hand to hand. 205. What was the first naval battle of importance which the Romans fought ? That of Ecnormus, on the coast of Sicily, in the tenth year of the war, and won by Regulus, the Roman general. 30 POINTS OF HISTORY. 206. How was victory gained ? On the same principle as that adopted by Epaminondas in the Theban wars, by forming the ships in the shape of a wedge, and concentrating them on a single point, and thus breaking the line. 207. What was the result of this victory ? It enabled the Romans to land an army in Africa, and ad- vance within ten miles of Carthage. 208. What saved Carthage ? The recall of Hamilcar, a great general from Sicily, and the assistance rendered by Xantippus, a Spartan general, with Greek mercenaries. 209. What baffled the Romans ? Their defeat, under Regulus, so complete that only 2000 escaped. 210. After this great defeat how were the Romans able to continue the war ? By constructing a new navy and raising a new army. 21 1. What closed the first Punic war? The fall of Panormus in Sicily, which secured that fertile island to the Romans. 212. What were the Roman losses in this war, which closed B.C. 241 ? Four great fleets, and 40,000 men. 213. What became of Regulus after he was taken captive by the Carthaginians on his defeat ? He was sent on an embassy to Rome, and after advising ROME TILL THE REIGN OF THE C^SARS. 3 1 the Romans not to make peace, he voluntarily returned to Car- thage, with chivalric honor, and was tortured and executed. 214. What great military principle did the Romans learn by this war? The necessity of regular forces, rather than a brave militia commanded by agricultural generals. 215. What renewed the war, after twenty-one years of peace ? The victories of Hannibal, son of Hamilcar, in Spain. 216. What brilliant feat gave glory to Carthaginian generals? The capture of Saguntum, a city of great strength, in alli- ance with Home. 217. What were the results of this achievement? Hannibal raised an army of 120,000 infantry, and 16,000 cavalry, crossed the Pyrenees and the Alps, and invaded Italy. 218. What great battle placed Rome in a very critical condition, and filled it with consternation ? That of Cannse, b. c. 216, when 70,000 Romans were slain, and in which Hannibal adopted the tactics of Epaminondas, and of E^apoleon in after times. 219. What prevented Hannibal from advancing on Rome after this great victory ? The failure of re-enforcements, and the unparalleled heroism of the Romans, who called out all their reserves and armed even their slaves. 220. What course did Hannibal pursue ? He was forced to maintain himself in a hostile country, acting on the defensive, for fifteen years, until recalled to Carthage by a change in the fortune of war. 32 POINTS OF HISTORY, 221. What disasters turned the war to the advantage of the Ro- mans ? The invasion of Africa itself by the Romans, under Scipio, called Africanus, and the battle of Metaiirus, in which Hasdru- bal, brother of Hannibal, was slain, which prevented the junc- tion of the Carthaginian forces. 222. What decisive battle ended the war ? That of Zama, gained by Scipio over Hannibal, which secured the cession of Spain to the Romans, the surrender of the Carthaginian fleet, and a fine for the expenses of the war, B. c. 201. 223. What military enterprise did the Romans engage in after the second peace with Carthage, B. C. 201 ? The Macedonian war, in consequence of an attack on Athens by Philip, which was an ally of Rome. 224. What was the result of this war ? The freedom of some of the Grecian cities, and the curtail- ment of the dominion of Philip. 225. Against what state did the conquering Roman general Flamin- ius then turn his arms ? Syria, then ruled by Antiochus the Great, great grandson of Seleucus, one of Alexander's generals. 226. What was the pretense of this war ? The attempt of Antiochus to recover the Greek cities of Asia Minor. 227. To whom was entrusted the conduct of this war ? Scipio Africanus, the conqueror of Hannibal. ROME TILL THE REIGN OF THE CyESARS. 33 228. What battle broke the power of Syria ? The battle of Magnesia, b. c. 190, in which Antiochus lost 50,000 men. 229. What was the political result of this victory ? The annexation of Asia Minor as a province of the Eoman Empire. 230. What became of Scipio ? He died in voluntary exile, at the age of fifty, from the vexation caused by false charges of corruption. 231. What became of his rival, Hannibal ? He committed suicide in Bithynia. 232. What battle soon after annihilated the Macedonian power ? That of Pydna, b. c. 168, won by ^milius Paulus, IM }'ears after the death of Alexander. 233. What was the political result of this victory ? Macedonia and Illyria became Roman provinces. 234. What remarkable fact was brought to light by the battle of Pydna? That it was the last battle in which a civilized state con- fronted Rome on the footing of equality. 235. What very wicked king gained an infamous immortality at this period ? Antiochus Epiphanes, king of Syria, a bitter persecutor of the Jews. 236. What Jewish heroes delivered their country from the tyranny of this monarch ? Judas Maccabeus and his brothers, whose exploits are nar- rated by Josephus and in the Apocrypha. 34 POINTS OF HISTORY. 237. What very illustrious Roman had great influence at Rome be- tween the second and third Punic wars ? CatOj the censor, who insisted that Carthage must be de- stroyed. 238. Was the renewal of the war a political necessity ? No, it was a political crime, since Carthage gave no cause of offense. 239. Could Carthage have made a successful resistance ? Probably not, but she might have prolonged her existence had slie not been compelled to destroy her timber and mate- rials for a new fleet. 240. How large was Carthage on the renewal of the war, after fifty years of peace ? She had 700,000 people, and 300 dependent cities, and 200,000 stand of arms, and 2000 military engines. 241. How long did Carthage resist ? Three years, but yielded at last to the genius of Scipio, after losing more than three-quarters of the population, b. c. 146. 242. What great conquest soon followed the reduction of Carthage ? That of Spain, inhabited by Celtic races, with whom the Komans had been at war for a century. 243. Who was the conqueror of Spain ? Scipio JEmilianus, the conqueror of Carthage. 244. What memorable siege led to the conquest of Spain ? That of ]^umantia, b. c. 133, a city deemed impregnable. 245. What marked the internal history of Rome during the Punic, Macedonian, and Syrian wars ? Great privileges were gained by the people, and plebeians ROME TILL THE REIGN OF THE CMSARS. 35 were admitted to the senate, on account of the great ojfices to which they had been elected. 246. What other class of people had greatly increased ? The slaves, who were chiefly captives taken in war. 247. Who attempted to make radical changes in the constitution ? Tiberius and Caius Gracchus, of an illustrious patrician family. 248. What law did Tiberius Gracchus propose ? That the public lands, then occupied without remuneration, should be sold in small lots to the people. 249. With what result ? It inflamed the jealousy and avarice of the patricians, who raised a tumult, in which Tiberius was slain. 250. What law did Caius Gracchus propose? A change in the manner of voting, which gave increased power to the people. 251. What other change did Caius Gracchus propose? A law which increased the power of the Equites, originally horsemen, or knights, but who had become a great moneyed class. 252. What was the effect of the various laws of the Gracchi ? To weaken the power of the aristocracy, who had held supreme power since the expulsion of the kings, and in the most heroic j)enod of Roman history. 253. What class of men appeared at this period ? Political demagogues, frequently aristocrats, who used the 36 POINTS OF HISTORY. people, whom tliey bought, or influenced by eloquence, for their own political advancement. 254. For whom did these demagogues prepare the way? For the usurpation of Sulla and Caesar. 255. What distinguished Greek astronomer flourished at the close of the Punic wars ? Hipparchus of Alexandria, who discovered the Precession of the Equinoxes. 256. What Greek historian was his contemporary ? Polybius, to whom modern historians are much indebted. 257. What Roman poets lived at this period ? Ennius and Terence, who were the harbingers of Roman literature. 258. What marked domestic Hfe at the close of the Punic wars? The introduction of eastern superstitions, and the worship of the various gods of the conquered nations. 259. What great public works were undertaken at this period ? Several of the aqueducts, the draining of the Pontine Marshes, and the erection of many splendid temples. 260. After the fall of Carthage, what was the most important war of the Romans ? The Numidian war, the heroes of which were Metellus and Caius Marius. 261. What was brought to light by this war ? The venality of the government, the ambition of military chieftains, and the growing ascendency of demagogues. ROME TILL THE REIGN OF THE CAESARS. 37 262. What great danger menaced the Roman republic after the Nu- midian war ? The hostile incursions of the Cimbri and Teutones, b. c. 105, Germanic tribes, more warlike than any of the barbarians with whom the Romans ever fought. 263. What gave Rome serious alarm ? The battle of Aransio, beyond the Alps, in which the Eomans were defeated with the loss of 80,000 men. 264. Who rescued Rome from these barbarians ? Caius Marius, a rough general, who had arisen from the plebeian ranks, and first distinguished himself in the Numidian war. 265. What decisive battle pushed back the tide of barbaric invasion for several generations ? That of Yercillse, fought on Italian soil. 266. What was the next war of the Romans ? The social war, e.g. 90, arising from the revolt of the Italian states, because the right of franchise was denied them. 267. What great general became distinguished in this war ? Sulla, who had fought under Marius and Metellus. 268. What great political change was brought about by this war ? The bestowal of political franchise on all the people of Italy. 269. What marked political history after this social war ? The rivalry between Marius and Sulla for the command of the Mithridatic war and ascendency in the city of Eome. 270. What caused the Mithridatic war ? A combination of the eastern provinces to shake off the 38 POINTS OF HISTORY. yoke of Kome, under the leadership of Mithridates, king of Pontus. 271. What was remarkable about Mithridates ? He was an accomplished hero, so learned that he could administer justice in twenty-two different languages, and so "skillful that he could drive sixteen horses in the chariot races. 272. What were his military resources ? An army of 250,000 infantry and 40,000 cavalry, drawn from the contributions of the various states which he occupied, including Macedonia, Greece, and Thrace. 273. To whom was the Mithridatic war intrusted ? To Sulla, who completely subdued the eastern prince, and forced from him a contribution of 20,000 talents, twice as much as the Athenians had hoarded for the PelopOnnesian war. 274. What was the result of the brilliant successes of Sulla ? An unbounded military eclat^ which excited the envy of Marius, and produced a civil war between his partisans and those of Sulla. 275. Who was the victor? Sulla, who became dictator, and inaugurated a reign of terror. 276. Did he attempt to overturn the constitution ? No, but threw all his influence to uphold the senate and the aristocratic institutions of the state, and then retired, volun- tarily, to private life and to pleasure. 277. What disturbances, after the death of Sulla, B. c. 78, marked the republic ? The servile war, a rising of the slaves, under Spartacus, who ROME TILL THE REIGN OF THE CjESARS. 39 were greatly oppressed, and who were used in gladiatorial shows. 278. Who put down this rebellion? Pompey and Crassns, in reward for which Pompey ob- tained the command of an immense fleet to put down the pirates of the Mediterranean, and then the command of an army against Mithridates, who had again rallied. 279. What success had Pompey in the east ? He totally defeated Mithridates, the most powerful orien- tal conqueror since Cyrus. 280. What political results did these successes secure ? The addition of Syria to the Roman provinces, and Roman ascendency over Phoenicia and Palestine. 281. To what did Pompey aspire after these brilliant services? The supreme control of the Roman republic. 282. Who foiled him in these ambitious projects ? Caius Julius Caesar, whose brilliant victories in Gaul, whicli he added to the provinces, more than eclipsed those of Pompey in the east. 283. What added to the popularity of Csesar ? His popular manners, eloquent speeches, extravagant mag- nificence, and opposition to the aristocracy, to wliom he by birth belonged. 284. What great man at Rome beheld the rivalry and ambition of Cassar and Pompey with serious alarm ? Marcus Tullius Cicero, the most accomplished man iu Roman annals, and one of the most virtuous and patriotic. 40 POINTS OF HISTORY. 285. What distinguished services did this great orator and statesman render his country ? His defeat of the conspiracy of Catiline, when consul ; his prosecution of Yerres, the corrupt governor of Sicily ; his up- right administration of a Roman province, and his defence of the Roman constitution. 286. What services did he render to civilization and to posterity. His orations, essays, letters, and learned treatises, which en- riched the Latin language, and which have proved invaluable in the work of classical education for 2000 years. 287. Who shared with Ccesar and Pompey a monopoly of political power ? Crassus, the richest nobleman of his age, but who died in an expedition against Parthia. 288. After the death of Crassus, who formed a triumvirate with Caesar and Pompey, what is memorable in the history of Rome ? The civil war between the adherents of Csesar and Pompey, one party bent on revolution and the other on the conservation of the aristocratic constitution. 289. What decisive battle destroyed the hopes of the aristocratic party ? The battle of Pharsalia, b. c. 48, in which Pompey was defeated. 290. What course did the conqueror then pursue ? He defeated Pompey's adherents in Africa, and then re- turning to Pome, seized the reins of government as perpetual dictator. 291. How long did he reign supreme? Only a short time, being assassinated by Brutus, Cassius, and other senators, b. c. 44. ROME TILL THE REIGN OF THE CAESARS. 4 1 292. What resulted from his death ? Another civil war, in which the friends of the old consti- tution rallied around Brutus and Cassius in Macedonia and Syria, and Sextus Pompey in Sicily, against the triumvirate composed of Octavius, Antony, and Lepidus. 293. What battle decided the fortunes of the republic ? That of Philippi in Thrace ? 294. What course did the successful triumvirs then pursue ? They massacred all their enemies, including Cicero, and then quarreled among themselves. 295. What battle established imperialism in the person of Octavius, grandson of Julius Csesar ? That of Actium, b. c. 31, in which Antony was defeated, although the ablest of all Caesar's generals, from his infatuated love for Cleopatra. 296. What was the title which Octavius assumed ? That of Imperator. 297. How was he enabled to reign supreme, since he did not destroy the old forms of the republic ? By uniting in himself all the great offices of state, by which he controlled the army, the finances, religious institu- tions, the senate, the courts, and the assemblies of the people. 298. How large was the empire over which Octavius reigned su- preme ? It embraced Italy, Spain, Gaul, Sicily, Africa, Egypt, Syria, Asia Minor, Greece, Macedonia and Illyricum — nearly the whole civilized world, with a population of 120 millions. 42 POINTS OF HISTORY. 299. How would the civilization of the Romans compare with the civilization of modern states and empires ? In a material point of view, it was nearly equal to our own, witli tlie exception of our mechanical inventions and scientific discoveries, and, in the fine arts, it was superior. 300. What may be said of the ancient civilization in a moral point of view ? Great corruption in public and private life, abandonment to pleasure, and devotion to money making. 301. What part of the population were slaves ? About one lialf, and these slaves were treated with brutal cruelty. 302. What were some of the most popular forms of pleasure? Gladiatorial shows and combats, chariot races, theatrical amusements, banquets, and demoralizing and extravagant spectacles. 303. What great statesmen ruled the empire under Octavius, called Augustus ? Maecenas and Agrippa, who were patrons of learning and art. 304. What gave great dclat to the reign of Augustus ? The constellation of literary men, among whom were the poets Yirgil, Horace, and Ovid, the historians Livy and Yarro and the philosopher Strabo. 305. What services did Octavius render the empire? He promoted peace, order, law, literature, and material prosperity. He also erected magnificent public edifices. 306. What transcendent event took place during the prosperous and peaceful reign of Augustus ? The birth of Jesus Christ in Judaea, then ruled by kings and governors under tlie protection of Rome. ROME TILL THE REIGN OF THE CESAR S. 43 307. What was the state of the Roman world on the birth of Christ ? A state of general peace and tranquillity, whicli favored the growth and spread of the new religion. References.— Lord's Ancient History, Niebuhr's Lectures on Roman History, Momm- seu's History of Rome, Plutarch's Lives, Livy, Caesar's Commentaries, Cicero's Orations, Arnold's Rome, Fronde's Life of Cicsar, Rollin's Ancient History, Smith's Ancient His- tory, Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography, Life of Hortensius. CHAPTER V. The Eoman Empieb undeb the C^saes. 308. Who succeeded Octavius to the throne of the civilized world ? Tiberius, his stepson, adopted also by him as Ms heir ; an able administrator of the empire, but jealous and tyranmcal. 309 Who was the most eminent Roman general at this time ? Germanicus, nephew of Tiberius, who fought against the German barbarians. 310. What minister had great influence in the government ? Seianus, prefect of the Prsetorian guards, the favorite sol- diers of the emperor, whose business it was to protect the city. 31 1 By whom was Tiberius succeeded A. D. 37 ? Caius Cissar, called Caligula, son of Germanicus, and great grandson of Augustus, famous for his cruelty and debauchery. 3,2. How did the Romans get rid of the tyrants and monsters who reigned over them ? By assassination, as in oriental monarchies. Caligula was assassinated after a reign of four years. 313 Who was the next emperor ? Claudius, an old man, elevated by the Pr^torian guards, who hoped to use him as a tool. 314 What noted event occurred in his reign? The conquest of Britain and the complete defeat of Carac- tacus, the British hero. THE ROMAN EMPIRE UNDER THE CM BARS. 45 315. What infamous women obtained in this reign a place in history ? Messalina, wife of Claudius, and Agrippina, daughter of Germanicus, whose wickedness was atrocious and unique. 316. Who succeeded Claudius, destroyed by assassination? E"ero, son of Agrippina, a. d. 54, who killed his mother and his wife, and was a monster of cruelty. 317. What eminent philosopher lived in this reign ? Seneca, tutor and minister of Nero, celebrated for his ethi- cal writings, but who was assassinated by the emperor. 318. What other eminent men were his contemporaries ? Quintilian, the rhetorician and critic ; Gallus, Martial and Lucan, the poets ; Demetrius, the cynical philosopher ; Plutarch, the biographer ; and Josephus, the Jewish historian. 319. What great public work marked the reign of Nero ? The palace of the Csesars, surrounded with a triple portico 1000 feet in length, overlaid with gold and adorned with pre- cious marbles. It covered, with its gardens, one of the hills of Home. 320. What marked the death of Nero, destroyed by assassination A. D. 68? The extinction of the Julian line, or the family of Julius Caesar, and the elevation to the empire of soldiers of fortune by the Praetorian guards. 321. Who was the first noted emperor after the extinction of the Julian line ? Titus Flavins Yespasianus, made emperor by the army at the close of the Jewish war. 4^ POINTS OF HISTORY. 322. What political event marked his reign ? The destruction of Jerusalem, after a siege of unparalleled obstinacy and horror, and the final dispersion of the Jews. 323. What great architectural works were erected by this emperor ? The Flavian amphitheatre, or Coliseum, 622 feet long and 513 wide, in the form of an ellipse, which accommodated 87,000 spectators, and the baths of Titus, nearly as stupendous. 324. Who succeeded Vespasian ? His son Titus, who reigned only two and a half years, and was succeeded by his brother Domitian — a miserable tyrant. 325. What marked the reign of Domitian ? The final conquest of Britian by Agricola, and a bloody persecution of the Christians. 326. What good fortune happened to the empire after the assassina- tion of Domitian A. D. 96 ? A succession of five good emperors, during whose reigns the empire reached its culminating point of glory and pros- perity. 327. Who was the first of these good emperors 1 Nerva, soon succeeded by Trajan. 328. What marked the brilliant reign of Trajan ? The conquest of Dacia, which was added to the provinces, the erection of the Forum Trajanum, and the Basilica Ulpia, and a constellation of learned men. 329. Who were the more remarkable of these men ? Juvenal and Martial, poets ; Pliny and Epictetus, philoso- phers ; and Suetonius, the historian. THE ROMAN EMPIRE UNDER THE CJESARS. 47 330. What blotted the fame of Trajan ? A furious persecution of the Christians, then rising into historical importance. 331. Who succeeded Trajan A. D. 115 ? Hadrian, best known for his architectural works, among which were the Temple of Yenus, the Mausoleum of the C^sars, now the Castle of St. Angelo, and the villa at Tivoli. 332. Who succeeded Hadrian ? Antoninus Pius, a. d. 138, in whose rpign flourished Galen, the physician ; Ptolemy, the astronomer ; Appian, the historian ; Justin, the martyr, and Herodes Atticus, the elegant patrician. 333. Who succeeded Antoninus Pius? The most illustrious of all the emperors, after Augustus, Marcus Aurelius, a. d. 161, whose reign was marked by a gen- eral union of the Germanic barbarians for the invasion of the Eoman world, but who were driven back. 334. Who is the first great historic name after Marcus Aurelius ? Septimius Severus, the 18th emperor, a great general, who fought the Parthians in the east, and the Caledonians in Bri- tain. 335. Who were the most distinguished learned men of his time, the latter part of the third century ? Clemens of Alexandria, a renowned theologian, and Origen, the greatest scholar of the early church. 336. Who was the most noted emperor after Septimius Severus ? Alexander Severus, a. d. 222, also a great general, who fought against the Persians and the western barbarians. 48 POINTS OF HISTORY. 337. What great men adorned his reign ? Ulpian, the most famous of the Roman jurists, and Dion Cassius the historian. 338. What marked the history of the church in the third century ? Repeated and cruel persecutions — the age of martyrs, amongj wliom was Cyprian, bishop of Carthage, a great theologian. 339. What marl^ed the empire in this century? Constant wars with external enemies — with the Persians on the east, and the Goths on the west, a Germanic people who in- vaded Greece and plundered Athens. 340. What great general arrested the aggressions of the Persians and Goths } The Emperor Aurelian, who, among other memorable acts, took Palmyra, and led Queen Zenobia as a captive to Rome, A. D. 273. 341. What did the public dangers create ? A succession of warlike emperors, who arrested for a time, the invasions of the barbarians. 342. Who succeeded these emperors ? Diocletian, one of the ablest of all the emperors, who, how- ever, made the mistake of dividing the empire, in order more easily to repel the barbaric invaders. 343. Who again united the empire ? Constantine the Great, a successful general, who became emperor a. d. 306. 344. What has given to Constantine a great name in history ? His conversion to Christianity, when persecutions of the Christians stopped, and the church was united to the state. THE ROMAN EMPIRE UNDER THE CAESARS. 49 345. What memorable council took place under the auspices of Con- stantine ? That of Nice, a. d. 325, composed of 318 bishops and 636 presbyters, which settled the creed of the church. 346. What distinguished theologian governed this council ? Athanasiiis, afterwards bishop of Alexandria, who was the champion of the orthodox party, against Arius, who assailed the doctrine of the Trinity. 347. What great religious controversies marked the age, besides that pertaining to the Trinity ? Those pertaining to the celebration of Easter and the Lord's Supper. 348. What great external event marked the reign of Constantine ? The foundation of Constantinople, as the new capital of the empire. 349. Who governed the empire at his death ? It was divided among his three sons, but was again united under Constantius, who spent his life in incessant wars. 350. Who succeeded Constantius? Julian, called the apostate, who attempted to restore pagan- ism, but who was a learned and accomplished emperor. 351. Under whom was Christianity again restored as the religion of the empire ? Jovian, chief of the imperial household, made emperor by the army on the death of Julian. 352. Under whom did the division of the empire again take place ? Yalentinian, who gave the empire of the east to his brother Valens, retaining the west for himself. 50 POINTS OF HISTORY. 353. What marked the reigns of these emperors ? Perpetual wars with the Germanic nations. 354. What nation among these Germans gained the greatest suc- cesses ? The Goths, who defeated the emperor Yalens in the most disastrous battle in Eoman annals, when 60,000 infantry and 6,000 cavalry were slain. 355. Who was the first historic name among these Goths? Hermanneric, whose dominions extended from the Danube to the Baltic. 356. Who restored once again, and for the last time, the glories of the falling empire, and reunited the whole empire under his own rule ? Theodosius the Great, who became emperor, a. d. 379, at the age of thirty-three, one of the most illustrious sovereigns who ever lived. 357. What great bishop was contemporary with Theodosius ? Ambrose of Milan, who gave great lustre to the episcopal dignity. 358. What bishop was even more illustrious than he in those days of turbulence ? Augustine of Hippo, the great theologian of the church. 359. What particular services did he render to the church ? He defended the Pauline theology against Pelagius, a British monk of great attainments and subtlety of genius, and against the Manichseans, who attempted to engraft the doc- trines of Persian philosophers on Christianity. THE ROM Ah' EMPIRE UNDER THE C^SARS. 5r 360. What were the doctrines which Augustine defended with re- markable success ? Those especially which pertained to the servitude of the will and the efficacy of divine grace, which Pelagius denied. 361. What great churchman, about this time, gave organization to monastic Hfe and institutions ? Basil, a recluse of high birth and great learning, who laid down the four great rules of poverty, chastity, obedience, and silence. 362. What was the spirit of monastic life which spread over the east? It was a protest against the Epicureanism and sensuality of the age, and aimed at a higher religious life. 363. What other great churchman made a mark on ecclesiastical history at this miserable period ? Jerome, a high-born Eoman, of vast learning, who adopted monastic seclusion, and translated the Bible into the Latin lan- guage, called the Yulgate. 364. What distinguished Roman lady was the friend of Jerome? Paula, who owned a whole city, and who devoted herself to the duties of monastic life. 365. What distinguished missionary was his contemporary ? Uphilas, who translated the Bible into the Gothic language, and converted many of the barbarians in Moesia. 366. What distinguished Gothic leader arose after the death of Theodosius ? Alaric, king of the Yisi- or West Goths, who occupied Thrace. 52 POINTS OF HISTORY. 367. Under what emperors did the Goths renew their ravages ? Arcadius and Honorius, sons of Tlieodosius, who again di- vided the empire into the east and the west. 368. What great bishop lived at this time in Constantinople ? Chrysostom, the most eloquent preacher of th-e early church. 369. Who kept the Goths at bay in the reign of Honorius ? Stilicho, one of the last of the great Roman generals, but who was assassinated from imperial jealousy. 370. What great calamity happened to the empire after the death of Stilicho ? The siege, fall, and sack of Rome, by Alaric, leader of the Goths, A. D. 410. 371. What followed the fall of Rome? The settlement of the Franks in Gaul, the Goths in Spain and Italy, and the Yandals in Africa. 372. What became of Britain 1 The Roman legions were withdrawn, and the island was exposed to the future depredations of the Germanic races. 373. What barbaric prince took and ravaged Rome a second time, A. D. 455 ? Genseric, king of the Yandals, whose seat of empire was Carthage, which he took a. d. 439. 374. What great Roman bishop was the contemporary of Genseric ? Leo the First, who laid the foundation of the Papacy, by asserting that he was the successor of St. Peter, to whom Christ had given preeminence among the apostles. THE ROMAN EMPIRE UNDER THE C^SARS. S3 375. What other barbaric race overran the fallen empire ? The Huns, a Sclavonic people, under Attila, called tlie Scourge of God. 376. What great battle delivered Europe from these invaders ? The battle of Chalons, gained by Aetins, the imperial gen- eral, in which 300,000 were slain on both sides, one of the most bloody battles of all history. 377. What did Attila, after this great defeat, meditate ? The invasion of Italy, from which he was diverted by a large bribe and the hand of the princess Honoria. 378. Who was the last of the Roman emperors of the west ? Angustulus, a Pannonian, dethroned by Odoacer, king of the Heruli, a. d. 476. 379. Why did not the Romans make a more effectual resistance to the barbarians ? Because all real vigor had fled, and the mechanism of gov- ernment was worn ont. 380. What were then the primary causes of the ruin of the empire ? The vices of sensuality, sloth, and egotism, which prepared the way for violence. 381. Why did not literature save the empire? Because it was corrupted, and had ceased to be a power, and had no freshness or originality. 382. What was fatal to literature ? The imperialism of the Csesars, which was hostile to genius and independence of mind. 54 POINTS OF HISTORY. 383. Why did not art arrest the ruin ? Because it was prostituted to please tlie perverted tastes of a godless generation. 384. Why did not philosophy prove a conservative force ? Because it Bad also degenerated, like literature, and was Epicurean and material. 385. Why did not Christianity save the empire ? Because it was not worth saving. It had no material to work upon. It was sent to save the race and not a rotten empire. Moreover, it had become itself corrupted. 386. In the general wreck, what survived of the glory of Rome ? The Latin language and literature ; jurisprudence, the in- digenous science of the Bomans, and poetical recollections. 387. What succeeded to the destruction of the empire ? A long night of 1000 years, the shadows of ignorance and superstition, and the complete dismemberment of society — the destruction which was necessary before there could be a new creation. References.— Sallust,Livy, Tacitus, Suetonius, Lives of the Caesars, Polybius, Caesar's Commentaries, Cicero's Letters, The Satires of Lucian, Mommsen's History of Rome, Niehuhr's History of Rome, Arnold, Merivale'| History of the Emperors, Froude's Caesar. CHAPTER YI. The Middle Ages to the Crusades. 388. On the fall of the Roman empire, what power is of greatest his- torical interest ? That wliich was established by the bishops of Rome, a spir- itual power. 389. Who of these bishops first deserves the attention of students, and why ? Innocent the First, a. d. 402 to 417, because he claimed that Christ gave to St. Peter a spiritual jurisdiction over the whole church, and that he, as his successor, inherited this juris- diction. 390. What was the effect of this claim ? It made the bishop of Rome the greatest of ecclesiastical dignitaries, because it was supposed he ruled by divine right. 391. Who was the next great pope? Leo I., whose pontificate commenced a. d. 440. 392. What made him distinguished ? His revival of the claim of Innocent, and a noble defence of the doctrines of the church. 393. Who was a still greater pope ? Gregory the Great, a. d. 590-604, who sent missionaries to convert the Saxons in England, and who established the Gregorian Chant. $6 POINTS OF HISTORY. 394. Who were the Saxons ? One of the Germanic tribes, wlio first invaded England, A. D. 449, under Hengest and Horsa, and founded the kingdom of Kent, after the Koman armies were withdrawn from Britain. 395. What Saxon princes succeeded Hengest and Horsa in the inva- sion of Britain ? Ella, who founded the kingdom of Sussex a. d. 490, and Cerdric, a. d. 519, who established himself in Wessex — the progenitor of the Saxon kings. 396. Who finally united the Saxons under one monarchy ? Egbert, king of Wessex, in the year 824, about 387 years after the first invasion of England by the Saxons. 397. What marked English history under the reigns of the various petty Saxon kings, called the Heptarchy ? Perpetual wars between the various princes, and the grow- ing ascendency of the Christian clergy, who were favored by these princes. 398. What was the most powerful of the Gothic kingdoms of Europe, during the Saxon heptarchy ? That of the Franks, which embraced about a third of modern France. 399. Who was the first noted king who ruled over these Franks ? Clovis, converted to Christianity a. d. 496, with 3,000 followers, through the instrumentality of his wife Clotilda, who opposed Arianism, and formed a close alliance with the pope. 400. Where was the seat of the Frankish power } Paris, which became under the successors of Clovis, called THE MIDDLE AGES TO THE CRUSADES. $7 the Merovingians, a considerable city. The Frankish cities of Metz, Soissons, and Orleans were also important. 401. What may be said of the Merovingian kings? That, on the whole, they Avere impotent, cruel, and de- baiiclied, not one of whom, after Clovis, was worthy of histori- cal notice. 402. What other Germanic nation, which settled in France on the dis- solution of the Roman empire, became powerful ? The Bnrgundians, wdio occupied Alsace and Lorraine, under Gundicar, a. d. 413. 403. What Gothic nation occupied the south of France ? The Visi-Goths, whose seat was Toulouse, and who were distinguished, on their conversion to Christianity, as the de- fenders of Arianism. 404. What great monarch reigned in Constantinople when the Franks were estabUshing their monarchy ? Justinian, who reigned from 527 to 565 a. d. 405. For what was he famous ? For the codification of the Roman, or civil law, with the aid of Tribonian, an eminent jurist, in the shape of the " Code," " Pandects " and " Institutes," and for the erection of the church of St. Sophia. 406. What great modern industry took its rise at this time at Constan- tinople ? The manufacture of silk, previously confined to China, and brought to Europe by Persian merchants. 407. What powerful oriental monarch reigned at this period ? Chrosoes, king of Persia, the last of the dynasty called Sassanides. 58 POINTS OF HISTORY. 408. What great power arose in Spain during the reigns of the Mero- vingian kings ? That of the Saracens, or followers of Mohammed, who con- quered the Goths, and established their rule over the penin- sula. 409. Who was Mohammed ? An Arabian prophet, born at Mecca, A. d. 569, whose chief doctrine was the Unity of God. 410. By what means were his doctrines spread ? By arousing the martial and fanatical passions of his coun- trymen, so that they established a powerful empire in the east, when the west was sunk in barbarism. 411. How far did Saracenic conquests extend? To India in the east and Spain in the west, including Ara- bia, Persia, Syria, Egj^pt, the seat of empire being finally estab- lished at Bagdad on the Tigris. 412. Who arrested the conquests of the Saracens in Europe ? Charles Martel, mayor of the palace to the last of the Mero- vingians, who gained a great victory at Tours, a. d. Y32, over Abderahman, the Saracen caliph of Spain, which resulted in the expulsion of the Saracens from France. 413. Who succeeded Charles Martel as virtual ruler of France } His son Pepin, who deposed Childeric III., the last of the Merovingians, and was crowned king, a. d. 752. 414. For what was he distinguished ? For his wars against the Saxons and Aquitanians, which re- sulted in the annexation of Aquitania to the kingdom of France — the old territory of the Yisi- Goths. THE MIDDLE AGES TO THE CRUSADES. 59 415. What very great man succeeded him, A. D. 768? His son Charles, called the Great, the most illustrious monarch of the Middle Ages. 416. To what did he aspire ? To revive the western empire, and unite Europe under his sway. 417. For what was his reign distinguished ? Perpetual wars, the most important of which were against the Saxons, the predominating power of Germany, by which Germauy was united to his empire. 418. What were some of the most important of his other wars ? Those against the Lombards, by which northern Italy was ioined to his dominions, and those against the Avars, a tribe of Huns, who were driven back from the reahns of civihzation. 419. In what did the greatness of Charlemagne consist, next to his mihtary successes ? His enlightened efforts to civilize his subjects, establislimg schools, codifying laws, fostering all Christian institutions, and allying himself with the clergy. 420 What was the extent of his empire when he died, A. D. 814? It embraced France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, and a part of Spain. 421. What became of this great empire after the death of Charle- magne ? It was divided among his three sons, and afterwards was again subdivided, so that in fifty years it was spht up uito several kingdoms and dul-:edoms. 6o POINTS OF HISTORY. 422. What empire in the East was in the height of prosperity at this epoch ? That of the Saracens, under the rule of the Abbassides, at Bagdad, the greatest of whom was Haroun al Easchid, the contemporary of Charlemagne. 423. What Gothic king in Spain distinguished himself at this era ? Alfonzo II., king of Asturia, who extended his conquests over the Saracens to Castile and Leon. 424. What great calamity disturbed the peace of Europe after the death of Charlemagne ? The incursions of the Danes — Scandinavian pirates, who in- Taded England and inflicted great miseries. 425. Who rescued England from the Danes and established the Eng- lish monarchy ? Alfred the Great, a descendant of Egbert, who became king, A. D. 871, fifty-seven years after the death of Charlemagne. 426. What services did Alfred render to the civilization of England ? The establishment of seats of learning, trial by jury, wise laws, and patronage of the clergy. 427. What new kingdom arose in Europe about this time ? That of Poland, just as Yenice was rising into notice as a mercantile state. 428. On the death of Alfred, A. D. 900, what were the most powerful states of Europe ? France, under the Carlo vingian kings. Burgundy, Germany, Flanders, Tuscany, Bohemia, Denmark and Poland. 429. Who, among the Carlovingian kings, was famous or rendered important services, after the death of Charlemagne ? Kot one of them. They were as imbecile as the Mero- vingians. THE MIDDLE AGES TO THE CRUSADES. 6 1 430. Who loomed up to the gaze of Europe, as great men, in the tenth century ? A few ecclesiastics like Dunstan and Odo, arclibishops of Canterbury ; Ilincmar, archbishop of E-heims, and a few school- men like Erigena. 431. What marked the tenth century ? The multiplication of convents, the rule of priests, and the settlement of the Normans in France, under Rollo, and of the Danes in England. 432. When did the Carlovingian dynasty come to an end in France ? In 987, when Hugh Capet became king and founded the Capetian dynasty. 433. What contemporary monarch became powerful in Germany ? Otho III., grandson of Otho the Great, who was also Idng of Italy, who maintained the subserviency of papal to imperial authority — the great issue of the tenth century. 434. What great pope reigned in the beginning of the eleventh century ? Sylvester 11. , who attempted to revive learning. 435. What marked the history of England in the eleventh century ? The reign of Canute the Dane, the restoration of the Saxon line under Edward the Confessor, and the conquest of England by William, duke of Normandy. 436. What decisive battle gave to the Normans the supremacy of England ? The battle of Hastings, 1066, when Harold was defeated by William. 437. What was the effect of the Norman conquest ? It strengthened the power of kings, and depressed the Saxon people. 62 POINTS OF HISTORY. 438, What occurred in France in the eleventh century, of historical importance ? Nothing memorable, except the universal passion to make pilgrimages to the Holy Land. 439- What was the most powerful state in Europe in this century ? Germany, under the Franconian emperors. 44c. Who was the most celebrated of these emperors ? Henry lY., distinguished for his memorable contest with Pope Gregory YII. about the right of investitures, and his claim to control the election of the pope. 441. Who was Gregory VIII. or Hildebrand } The most famous of all the popes, and the greatest charac- ter, after Charlemagne, of the Middle Ages. 442. In what did his greatness consist ? In attempting to reform the vices of his time, and to raise the spiritual above the temporal power. 443. What did he consider the characteristic vices of the age ? The marriage of the clergy, and simony, or the sale of ecclesiastical benefices. 444. Who sold these benefices } The princes and nobles, who thus elevated unworthy per- sons to places of dignity and trust. 445. In striving to prevent the sale of benefices what contest ensued ? That between the Papal and Imperial powers. 446. Who was victor in this great contest ? Hildebrand, who compelled Henry, in the depth of winter, THE MIDDLE AGES TO THE CRUSADES. 63 in a hair-cloth shirt and with naked feet, to stand for three days before the fortress of Canossa, before he would grant absolution. 447. How was Hildebrand enabled to reduce so powerful an adver- sary as the Emperor of Germany, who was also king of Italy, to this humiliation ? By the weapons of excommunication, of which all Europe stood in abject awe, since the popes were supposed to hold the keys of heaven and hell. 448. What was the result of this victory, A. D. 1037 ? It secured the triumph of spiritual authority over the tem- poral powers, and made the popes the greatest potentates of Europe. 449. What remarkable soldier of fortune attracted great attention by his exploits in this century ? Eobert Guiscard, a !N'orman knight, who succeeded in con- quering Apulia and Calabria in Italy, corresponding with the modern kingdom of Naples. 450. What great misfortune befel Christendom in the latter part of the eleventh century ? The conquest of Jerusalem by the Turks, which was the immediate cause of the crusades. 451. What great literary movement commenced in this century ? The rise of the scholastic philosophy, which was a revival of the questions which once agitated the Grecian schools. 452. What was the influence of this movement? It reduced traditional dogmas to the scrutiny of reason, so that theology and metaphysics were combined. 64 POINTS OF HISTORY. 453. What form of philosophy was made to support theology ? The Aristotelian philosophy, which gave aciiteness to rea- soning, but did not enlarge the boundaries of knowledge. 454. Where was this scholastic philosophy taught ? In the rising universities, the chief of which were Paris and Oxford. 455. What eminent scholastic flourished in the latter part of the eleventh century ? Anselm, abbot of Bee, in Normandy, afterwards archbishop of Canterbury. 456. What was one of the great features of this period ? The flourishing state of monastic institutions, and the erec- tion of abbey churches. 457. What can be said in favor of monastic institutions in the Middle Ages? That convents and monasteries were abodes of superstitious piety, beehives of industry, retreats from misery, and a shelter for the learned and religious ; that they afforded spiritual con- solation to an iron age, and were a counterpoise to the power of nobles. 458. Who instituted monastic life in Europe ? Benedict, in the middle of the sixth century, who adopted the rules of Basil, and whose monastry on Mount Casino be- came the model of the Benedictine houses. 459. What were some of the most famous monasteries in Europe, of the Benedictine rule ? That of Cluny in Burgundy, St. Denis near Paris, St. Gall in Germany, and Westminster, Canterbury, and Glastonl)ury in England, all of which were enormously ri(;h and poweriiil. THE MIDDLE AGES TO THE CRUSADES. 65 460. How did the monasteries of Europe become rich ? They were richly endowed by princes and nobles. They owned nearly one-half of the wealth of Christendom, both money and large landed estates. 461. What was the number of the monks in the Middle Ages } From 100,000 to 150,000 in various countries. 462. What was their general character ? They are accused of gluttony, pride, and avarice, but they were the most learned and excellent people of their time. 463. What was Feudalism ? A virtual contract between a lord and his vassals, by which the latter received protection and rendered military service, among other things. 464. How extensive was the feudal system ? It extended over all Europe, so that every country was covered with castles, as well as convents, in which the baronial lords lived, while the peasants, their vassals, tilled the land in poverty, hardship, and ignorance. 465. When was feudalism generally established ? About the ninth and tenth centuries, when allodial tenure gave place to feudal. 466. What was the difference between allodial and feudal tenure ? The allodialist owned the land himself, but was exposed to robbers, while the feudal serf, parted with his land to a pow- erful master for the sake of security and protection. 467. What were the advantages of feudalism in the Middle Ages ? It secured peace and order, developed agricultural industry, (^ POINTS OF HISTORY. and promoted loyalty, patriotism, and chivalry. It rendered great wars and conquests impossible. 468. What were some of its evils ? It was hostile to a central power, and favored the oppres- sion of the poor by the rich. It divided society into noble and ignoble classes. It fostered pride among nobles, and ignorance, dependence and servility among peasants. 469. What effect had feudalism on royalty ? It split up kingdoms into principalities and fettered the power of kings, and prevented royal combinations and aggran- disements. KErERENCES.— Hallam's Middle Ages, Michelet's History of France, Guizot's History of Civilization, Green's History of England, Neander's Church History, Baronius' Annals, Platiua's History of the Popes, Stephens' Essay on Hildebrand, James' Life of Charle- magne, Lingard's History of England, Turner's History of Anglo-Saxons, Thierry's History of Norman Conquest, Dngdale's Monasticon, Maitland's Dark Ages, Mabillon, Mosheim, Lives of the English Saints. CHAPTEK YII. The Middle Ages, from the Ckusades to the Discovery of America. 470. What was the great external event of the Middle Ages ? The crusades. 471. What were the crusades ? A series of aggressive and fanatical wars wliicli Europe waged against Asia, to recover the Holy Sepulchre from the Mohammedans, lasting about two centuries. 472. What was the immediate cause of these expeditions ? The persecutions to which the pilgrims to Jerusalem were subjected from the Mohammedans. 473. Why did pilgrims undertake the long and painful journey to the Holy Land ? It was supposed that this pilgrimage would expiate their sins, one of the forms of penance which entered into mediaeval piety. 474. Who first set in motion warlike expeditions to avenge the wrongs of the Christians ? Peter of Amiens, called the Hermit, commissioned by Pope Urban II. to preach a crusade. 475. Who led the first army, in the first crusade, after the Pope him- self, at the Council of Clermont, 1095, urged the monarchs of Europe to embark in it ? Peter, who marched with a disorderly rabble of 273,000 men, most of whom perished by tlie way. 68 POINTS OF HISTORY. 476. Who led a more powerful army ? The princes of Europe, with 500,000 men, under the com- mand of Godfrey de Bouillon, Hugh, Count of Yermandois, Raymond, Count of Toulouse, Bohemond, Prince of Tarentum, Tancred, Count of Flanders, and Robert, Duke of Normandy — the flower of the European chivalry. 477. What were the results of this crusade ? A series of blunders and misfortunes. Only 10,000 cru- saders lived to return. 478. What consoled Europe for the loss of so many men ? The conquest of Jerusalem, and the establishment of a Latin kingdom, under Godfrey (1099). 479. Who reigned in England during this crusade ? William Bufus and Henry L, sons of the conqueror. 480. What events marked English history during these reigns, from 1087-1135? The union of England with Normandy, the revision of the Saxon laws, the building of Westminster Hall and of the Tower of London. 481. What marked the history of Germany during this first crusade ? The commencement of the contest between the Guelphs and Ghibelines, two parties, the former being the adherents of papal supremacy, and the latter of imperial. 482. What military orders were established about this time ? The Knights Hospitallers and the Knights Templars. 483. What ecclesiastical quarrel was memorable the first part of the twelfth century ? That between Abelard and Bernard, of France, which was THE CRUSADES TO DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 69 virtually the revival of the controversy between Pelagius and Augustine as to Grace, Free Will, and Predestination, 600 years before. 484. Who was Abelard ? A great schoolman, celebrated for his lectures and his love for Heloise. Pie was accused of rationalism and condemned by an ecclesiastical council. 485. Who formed the second crusade (1147) ? St. Bernard, abbot of Clairvaux, a man of extraordinary piety and eloquence, and Pope Eugenius. 486. Who conducted this crusade ? Louis YII. of France and Conrad III., emperor of Ger- many. 487. And with what success ? No success at all. 200,000 men perished. 488. What great French statesman opposed this crusade ? Suger, Abbot of St. Denis. 489. What distinguished man denounced, at this time, the doctrines of Rome ? Arnold of Brescia, who was burned. 490. Who reigned in England during the second crusade 1 Stephen, 1135 to 1154, nephew of Henry I., who usui-ped the throne which belonged to Matilda, daughter of Henry I., who had married Henry Y. of Germany, and afterwards Geof- frey, Count of Anjou. 491. What was the result of this usurpation ? A series of civil wars, which ended in a compromise that 70 POINTS OF HISTORY. Stephen should have the crown during his life, which, on his death, should devolve on Henry, son of Matilda and the Count of Anjou. 492. What made Henry II., a very powerful monarch when he came to the throne of England in 1154? Because, in addition to the English throne, he inherited Normandy and Anjou, and by his marriage with Eleanor he became the possessor of Guienne and Poitou, which four prov- inces were larger than the realm of the king of France. 493. What marked the reign of Henry II. — 11 54 to 11 89.? His famous quarrel with Thomas a Becket, archbishop of Canterbury, respecting the rights of the church. 494. What were the subjects in dispute ? Chiefly the jurisdiction of spiritual courts, which Henry determined to cripple, since they weakened the royal power, and .the claim of the king that no ofiicer of his should be ex- communicated without his consent. 495. What was the result of the quarrel ? A Becket was driven out of the kingdom, and afterwards as- sassinated, which martrydom, in behalf of the church, strength- ened tlie spiritual authority, and kept the Norman kings in check for 300 years. 496. Who opposed the Papal authority at this time } Peter Waldo, of Lyons, the founder of the Waldenses. 497. What marked the history of Continental Europe during the reign of Henry II. } The foundation of the Carmelite order of monks, the insti- tution of the bank of Venice, and the quarrel between Pope Alexander and the Emperor Frederick of Germany. THE CRUSADES TO DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 7 1 498. Who succeeded Henry II. of England in 11 89? Kicliard I., surnamed Coeur de Leon. 499. For what was his reign memorable ? For the third crusade, undertaken by the great monarchs of Europe in person : Richard of England, Philip Augustus of France, and Frederick of Germany, who led 300,000 men into Palestine, 1189. 500. What great general opposed the crusaders ? Saladin, sultan of Egypt, who had taken Jerusalem from the Christians. 501. What was the result of this crusade ? Unfortunate, like the others, although prodigies of valor were performed. 502. What celebrated military order dates to this crusade ? The Teutonic order of knights, who founded the Prussian state. 503. What was the result of the fourth crusade, under Baldwin, Earl of Flanders ? The seizure of Constantinople from the Greek emperor, in revenge for his treachery, and the transfer to Venice of the bronze horses of Lysippus. 504. What famous orders of monks arose about this time ? The Francescan and the Dominican, instituted by Innocent III., the most powerful of all the popes. 505. What persecution made this pope infamous ^ That against the Waldenses and the Albigenses, who main- tained that the Scriptures are the only source of religious truth, and who rejected the necessity of a special priesthood. 72 POINTS OF HISTORY. 506. What general made himself prominent in these persecutions ? Simon de Montfort, Earl of Leicester, whose cruelties were atrocious. This was the era of bitter persecutions, and of the establishment of the Inquisition. 507. Who succeeded Richard on the English throne ? His brother John, 1199, whose reign is memorable for his contests with the barons — who extorted from him, at Runny- mede, Magna Charta, the foundation of English liberties. 508. What great monarch was the contemporary of John ? Frederick XL, emperor of Germany, distinguished for his contests with the popes, and for leading a new crusade. 509. Who was the leader of the last crusade ? Louis IX. of France, called St. Louis, who died in Africa, 1269; 510. What were the immediate consequences of the crusades? Yery disastrous. Europe was demoralized, and two mil- lions of men perished. 511. What were the ultimate results of the crusades ? The arrest of Mohammedan conquests, the weakening of the feudal system, the growth of commercial cities, the im- pulse given to commerce, the growth of central power, and the introduction into Europe of new fruits and vegetables. 512. What commercial cities arose into great importance in conse- quence of the crusades ? Yenice, Genoa, Pisa, and Marseilles. 513. What celebrated league was formed about the period of the last crusade ? The Hanseatic league, which was a confederacy of the northern cities of Europe for commercial purposes. THE CRUSADES TO DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 73 514. What great intellectual movement took place in Europe during the latter part of the crusades ? The study of philosophy in the rising universities. 515. Who were the great lights ? Albertus Magnus, Thomas Aquinas, Bonaventura, and Dun Scotus. 516. What great poems were composed at this period ? Tlie Edda, the sacred book of the Scandinavians, and the Song of the Niebelungen Lied among the Germans. 517. What Venetian distinguished himself by travels in Tartary? Marco Polo, who returned with vivid and poetical descrip- tions of Zipango, a fertile and wealthy island, supposed to be Japan. 518. Who was Roger Bacon ? A great scholar at Oxford, who made interesting experi- ments in science. He invented gunpowder. 519. Where was science, at this period, cultivated with the greatest success ? In Spain, through the patronage of an enlightened monarch, Alphonso X., king of Castile. 520. What great painter arose in Italy, at this period ? Cimabue, who abandoned the servile copying of the artists before him, folded his drapery, and gave expression to his heads. 521. When were parliaments first assembled in England ? During the long and inglorious reign of Henry III. (1265), under whom Normandy and Anjou were ceded to France. 74 POINTS OF HISTORY. 522. What violent English monarch succeeded Henry III.; in 1272? Edward L, who invaded both Wales and Scotland, and who banished the Jews. 523. What Scottish heroes prevented the conquest of their country ? William Wallace and Eobert Bruce. 524. What German emperor was the contemporary of Edward ? Rudolf, the founder of the House of Hapsburg, the present reigning house of Austria (1273). 525. What marked the German emperors during the thirteenth century ? Incessant wars to control the various Italian states. 526. What marked the French kings during this century ? To establish a strong central power, and get possession of the various provinces under foreign rule. 527. What political event happened in North Germany in 1378, preg- nant with future consequences ? The submission of Prussia, a small territory, to the Teutonic knights. 528. What eastern power began, at this time, to be dangerous ? The power of the Turks, under Othman, the founder of their empire. 529. What important parliamentary act received the sanction of the king (1297), Edward I.? That no taxes should be raised without the consent of the knights, citizens, and burgesses in parliament assembled. 530. What remarkable pope reigned in the latter part of the thirteenth century ? Boniface YIII., the most arrogant of all the popes, and wlio THE CRUSADES TO DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 75 attempted to reduce the monarchs of Europe to abject submis- sion. He proclaimed a year of jubilee (1300), wliicli drew in- numerable pilgrims to Rome and thus enriched him. 531. What was the great literary event of the closing century? The appearance of Dante, the Florentine, and of his immor- tal poem, the Divina Commedia, which formed the Italian lan- guage, and gave an immense impulse to learning. He was born 1265 and died 1321. 532. What great painter in Florence was his contemporary ? Giotto, who gave an impulse to art. 533. What hero adorned Swiss history at this period ? William Tell, who it is said killed the Austrian tyrant of his country. 534. What great battle secured the independence of Scotland ? The battle of Bannockburn (1314) gained by Robert Bruce over Edward II. 535. W^ho succeeded Edward II,, who was deposed ? Edward III. (1327), Prince of Wales, at the age of fifteen, one of the greatest of the English kings. 536. For what is his reign memorable ? For his great military successes in France to regain the lost provinces, and the improvement of the English law. 537. What memorable battles were fought ? Crecy (1346) and Poictiers (1356), gained by the Black Prince, son of Edward III. 538. What contributed to give to Edward the \actory of Crecy? The use of gunpowder, invented by Roger Bacon, but per- fected by Schwartz. 7^ POINTS OF HISTORY, 539. What may be said of the use of gunpowder in battle ? It revolutionized, gradually, the art of war. It made modern armies superior to those of the Greeks and Komans. 540. What order of knighthood did Edward institute ? The order of the Garter, which is now one of the most eagerly coveted favors which any monarch can bestow, and rarely granted except to sovereigns, the leading men of Europe, and a few English noblemen of the highest rank. 541. What other heroes distinguished themselves in these French wars? Sir Robert Knolles, Sir John Chandos, Sir Walter Manney, and Du Guesclin — all famous in the rolls of chivalry, then in its most flourishing state. 542. What was chivalry ? It was a spirit of restless valor directed to gallant enter- prises, blending with valor, zeal for God and the ladies. 543. What was the effect of the institution of chivalry ? It softened the manners of feudal nobles, and introduced sentiments of generosity and gallantry. It fostered the senti- ment of loyalty. It had great influence in elevating the female sex. 544. What illustrious woman had great influence in developing the spirit of chivalry ? Queen Philippa, wife of Edward III., the mother of twelve children, a magnificent example of the virtues which graced the chivalric age. 545. What is the connection between chivalry and the crusades ? The crusades brought out the heroic qualities of knights, and gave an aristocratic character to feudal contests. THE CRUSADES TO DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. TJ 546. Wherein consisted the power of a feudal army ? In the cavalry, as knights fought on horseback, covered with mail, while peasants fought on foot, poorly armed. 547. What great public amusement was introduced with the progress of chivalry ? Jousts and tournaments, in which only knights contended, and which were witnessed by women, the most beautiful of whom bestowed the prizes. i 548. What spirit did chivalry create and perpetuate ? An aristocratic sense of superiority, among nobles, the pride of birth, and a contempt of the people. 549. What marked the history of France after the victories of Edward III. ? Miseries, misfortunes, and public disgrace. The country was overrun by English armies. 550. What great calamity afflicted other parts of Europe about the same time ? The plague of Florence, 134:8, when two-thirds of the peo- ple died. Germany lost over a million of people. In London, 50,000 people died. In Castile, Alphonso the king died, and in Venice, the Doge. 551. What literary work did this plague, it is said, call out? The Decameron of Boccaccio. 552. What political hero had great influence at Rome at this time ? Rienzi, the Roman tribune, who attempted to revive the old republic. He furnished a subject for one of Bulwer's best novels. 78 POINTS OF H J STORY. 553. What eminent Italian literary men at this time flourished ? Petrarcli, celebrated for his sonnets, in which he immortal- ized Laura, Yillani the historian, and Boccaccio. 554. What great reformer at this time lived in England ? Wickliffe, an Oxford scholar, called the morning star of the Reformation, protected by the Duke of Lancaster. He trans- lated the Bible into English from the Latin vulgate. 555. What other famous man made a mark in the literature of Eng- land at this time ? Chaucer, the poet, most celebrated for his " Canterbury Tales." 556. What great ecclesiastic ornamented the reign of Edward III. } William of Wykeham, bishop of Winchester, who greatly advanced church architecture, and founded Winchester College, and New College at Oxford. 557. What political events of importance took place in England during the reign of Richard II. (1377-1399?) The insurrection of Wat Tyler, with the design to seize the king, murder the nobility, and plunder London. 558. What does this insurrection indicate ? The misgovernment of Bichard IL and his great un- popularity. 559. What marked the reign of Henry IV., the last of the Plantage- nets, who succeeded Richard II. (deposed), 1 399-141 3 ? The revolt of the Welsh, under Owen Glendower ; an in- cursion of the Scots, under the Earl of Douglas ; an English insurrection headed by Scroop, archbishop of York, and the persecution of the disciples of Wickliffe, called Lollards. THE CRUSADES TO DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 79 560. Who reigned in Scotland at the time ? Eobert Stuart, nephew of Eobert Bruce, the founder of the Stuart dynasty. 561. What great Tartar conqueror ravaged Asia during the reigns of Richard and Henry ? Timour, or Tamerlane, whose conquests were more exten- sive than those of any man since Attila. He took Bajazet, the Turkish sultan, prisoner. 562. Did he found a permanent empire ? No, his career was simply that of devastation and plunder. But he created universal fear, from Constantinople to China. 563. What eminent Greek, at this time, was sent to Italy by the em- peror to beg assistance ? Emanuel Chrysoloras, who introduced Greek literature into Florence. 564. What marked papal history in these disastrous and turbulent times ? The great schism, when rival popes disputed their claims as universal bishops, for forty years. 565. What had been the seat of the papal power during a great part of the fourteenth century, previous to the schism (1378) ? Avignon, where the popes were elected by French influence. 566. What memorable councils of the church took place in the begin- ning of the fifteenth century to heal the division of the church ? Those of Pisa (1409) and of Constance (1414). 567. What eminent Frenchman distinguished himself at the Council of Constance for his labors in behalf of reform ? Gerson, chancellor of the university of Paris, who was sup- ported by tlie French prelates. So POINTS OF HISTORY. 568. How large was the Council of Constance ? It was composed of 29 cardinals, 3 patriarchs, 33 arcli- bisliops, 150 bishops, 100 abbots, 500 monks, besides the repre- sentatives of the kings of Europe. It lasted three and a half years. 569. To what was reform practically directed ? Only to the restoration of the unity of the church. 570. What doctrine was brought out by this council ? That the authority of a universal council was superior to that of the pope. 571. What disgraced this celebrated council? The condemnation and execution of John Huss and Jerome of Prague, leaders in an unsuccessful reform movement. 572. What great political movements took place during the Council of Constance ? The renewed wars between England and France, under Henry Y. of England. 573. What great battle was won by the English ? The battle of Agincourt (1415), followed by the conquest of Normandy, the fall of Paris, and the occupation of the greater part of France by the English armies. 574. Who was king of France when it was plunged into an abyss of misery and shame ? Charles YI. who died (1422) a few months after Henry Y., the victorious king of England. 575. Who was instrumental in arousing the French people to recover their prestige and country ? Joan of Arc, a peasant girl, called the Maid of Orleans, for having caused the English to raise the siege of that city. THE CRUSADES TO DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 8 1 576. Under what reigns did Joan of Arc perform her heroic feats ? During the reigns of Charles YI I. of France, whose corona- tion at Rheims she effected, and of Henry N\. of England, who liad been crowned at Paris. 577. What was the fate of the Maid of Orleans ? She fell into the hands oi the stake at Rouen as a witch. She fell into the hands of the English and was burned at 578. What success attended the French armies during the reign of Henry VI. of England ? They recovered all their territories except Calais. 579. Under what monarch did French prosperity revive ? Charles YII., who substituted standing for feudal armies, and restored law and tranquillity. He also defended the liber- ties of the church against the popes ? 580. What greater monarch succeeded him (146 1) ? Louis XL, cruel and unprincipled, but who succeeded in breaking the power of the feudal nobles, and in cementing an absolute throne. 581. What was the result of the final defeat of the English in France, during the " perpetual minority " of Henry VI. .'* Disturbances, insurrections, conspiracies, discontents at home, ending in civil war. 582. What produced the civil war in England } The contest between the houses of York and Lancaster for the throne. 583. What were their respective claims ? The Duke of York was the son of Philippa, only child of the 82 POINTS OF HISTORY. Duke of Clarence, second son of Edward III., while the Duke of Lancaster had a direct male descent from John of Gaunt, tlih'd son of Edward III. 584. How long did these civil wars, called Wars of the Roses, last ? Thirty years, during which there were twelve pitched battles, and in which eighty princes of the blood, and nearly the whole of the ancient nobility perished. 585. What celebrated nobleman had great power in these wars ? The Earl of Warwick, called the king-maker, the greatest and last of those feudal nobles who overawed the crown and prevented a regular system of civil government. 586. What great political calamity happened to Europe during the reigns of Henry VI. of England and Charles VH. of France ? The fall of Constantinople (1453) into the hands of the Turks, under Mohammed II., which completed the ruin of the Byzantine empire. 587. What was one of the results of that calamity on literature ? The introduction of learned Greeks into Italy, who pro moted the study of the Greek philosophy. 588. What powerful family in Florence patronized literature and art ? The family of the Medici — merchant princes, who gradually seized political power, and reigned triumphant over the liber- ties of Florence. 589. What great invention was introduced into England during the reign of Edward IV. (Duke of York). That of printing, by William Caxton, about twenty-eight years after Guttenberg had invented cut metal types. THE CRUSADES TO DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 83 590. What is the date of the earliest printed book ? The book of Psalms, from the press of Faust and Schoeffer at Mentz, 1457. The first edition of the Bible was completed by Guttenberg, 1460. 591. What is the shortest reign in EngHsh history ? That of Edward Y., son of Edward lY., who reigned less than three months, being murdered by his uncle the Duke of Gloucester, who usurped the crown, and reigned for two years as Richard III. 592. Who hurled this usurper, who was the last of the Plantagenets, from the throne ? Henry Tudor, Earl of Hichmond, a descendant of John of Gaunt, at the battle of Bosworth (1485), who became king in his place. 593. What cemented the power of Henry VII. as king of England ? His marriage with Elizabeth, daughter of Edward lY., by which the houses of York and Lancaster were united, and an end was put to the civil wars. 594. What magnificent prince reigned at this time in Florence ? Lorenzo de Medici, a great patron of reviving art and litera- ture, but a man who corrupted the morals and took away the liberties of the people. 595. What remarkable reformer protested against his usurpations 1 Savonarola, prior of St. Mark, a Dominican monk, but one of the most eloquent pulpit orators who has ever adorned the church. 596. What did this great preacher strive to effect ? A reformation of the morals and manners of Florence, then a very elegant, but very dissolute city. 84 POINTS OF HISTORY. 597. With what success ? He effected a great change in public morals, although it was temporary. He also succeeded, on the death of Lorenzo, in producing the expulsion of the Medici, and a change in the government of Florence. 598. What was the fate of Savonarola ? He was burned at the stake (1498) or, as Yillani says, he was beheaded, a martyr to the cause of Christ and true religion. 599. What wicked pope is responsible for the martydom of Savo- narola ? Alexander YI., of the execrable family of the Borgias, under whose rule the church was disgraced by extreme corruption. 600. What powerful influence co-operated in this century to weaken the bands of spiritual despotism ? The revival of learning and the restoration of ancient art. 601. What great lights appeared before the close of the century? Nicholas Y., who founded the Yatican library; Marsilio Ficino, who translated Plato ; Angelo Politiano, the great Florentine scholar ; Chalcondylas, who published an edition of Homer ; Trebizond, who translated the Greek Fathers into Latin; Caxton, who puWished various works in England; Pla- tina, wlio wrote a history of the popes; Cardinal Bessarion, who collected a great library ; Brunelleschi, who erected the dome of the cathedral at Florence. 602. But what most powerfully contributed to the enfranchisement of the human mind ? The translation of the Bible into various European lan- guages during the latter part of the fifteenth century, and the foundation of new universities. THE CRUSADES TO DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 85 603. What great discovery, at this epoch, gave a new impulse tc human energies, and introduced a new era into history ? The discovery of America, bj Christopher Columbus, 1492, the year that Lorenzo de Medici died. 604. Under whose auspices was this great discovery made ? Isabella and Ferdinand of Spain. 605. How did these illustrious sovereigns give lustre to the Spanish monarchy ? By the union of Castile and Aragon, and the expulsion of the Moors from Spain, 1492. 606. What great ecclesiastic prepared the way for the power of the Spanish monarchy ? Cardinal Ximenes, archbishop of Toledo, regent of Spain during the minority of Charles I., and prime minister of Fer- dinand. He combined the statesman, the scholar, and the prelate, like Kichelieu and Alberoni. 607. What disgraced the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella ? The Inquisition, and the expulsion of the Jews from Spain. 608. What new political state arose in Europe at the close of the fif- teenth century, destined to subsequent greatness ? Brandenburg, founded by the Teutonic knights. 609. What Italian prince obtained an infamous immortality during the latter part of the fifteenth century ? C^sar Borgia, son of Pope Alexander YI., created cardi- nal, but wlio renounced the ecclesiastical profession for that of arms, and disgraced himself and his age by spoliation, treachery, and needless murders. 86 POINTS OF HISTORY. 6io. What family at Milan obtained supreme power and kept Italy in turmoil for half a century ? That of Sforza, the most unscrupulous of whom was Lodo- vico, duke of Milan. 6ii. What royal marriage took place in 1496 which led to great 'political consequences ? That of Philip, son of the Emperor Maximilian of Austria and Mary of Burgundy, to Joanna, second daughter of Ferdi- nand and Isabella of Spain. 612. Why was this marriage eventful ? Because the fruit of it, Charles Y., subsequently emperor of Germany, duke of Burgundy, and king of Spain, became by inheritance the most powerful monarch that Europe had seen since Charlemagne. 613. What had contributed to raise the power of Austria in the latter part of the fifteenth century, before the marriage of Philip ? The marriage of his father, Maximilian, archduke of Austria, son of Frederic III., with Mary, daughter and heiress of Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy. 614. Who was Charles the Bold ? The magnificent Duke of Burgundy, who availed himself of tlie wars between France and England to make himself the most powerful monarch of his day. lie created the order of the Golden Fleece, which ranks with the order of the Garter. 615. What marked the fifteenth century, so that it may be considered as the close of the Middle Ages ? The revival of learning ; the breaking up of the power of feudal nobles ; the decline of papal power and the spirit of THE CRUSADES TO DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 8/ commercial enterprise, leading to the discoveries of Columbus, and other mariners. 6i6. What was the religious condition of Europe at the close of the Middle Ages ? Great ignorance and superstition among the people, and great venality and spiritual tyranny on the part of priests. 617. Underneath all this ignorance and superstition what nevertheless marked the people } Susceptibility to religious impressions, belief in God and immortality, and a sense of moral accountability. 618. What marked the people in their civil relation ? The feeling of loyalty to rulers, which made them easy to govern and ready to bear burdens. 619. What was their social condition } Poverty, physical discomfort, and utter absence of luxuries and excitements, so that they seemed coarse and rude, as well as ignorant. 620. What were their amusements ? Boxing, wrestling, cock-fighting, cudgel playing, and vil- lage dances, no intellectual pleasures of any kind. Refebences.— Villani, Froissart's Chronicles, Hallam's Middle Ages, Sismoiidi's Italian Republics, Guizot's Lectures on Civilization, Michelet's and Martin's History of France, Kolrausch'8 History of Germany, Platina's Lives of Popes, Baronius' Annals, Dugdale's Monasticon, Neander's Church History, Michaud's History of Crnsades, Mills' Chivalry, Green's History of the English People, Hume's and Lingard's History of England, Pres- cott's Life of Ferdinand and Isabella, Life of Charles the Bold, Roscoe's Life of Lorenzo de Medici, Irving' s History of Columbus. CHAPTEE VIII. The Sixteenth Century. 621. What were the immediate consequences of the discovery of America ? A great stimulus to commercial enterprise, the increase of the precious metals, and other important discoveries. 622. What were the most important of these early voyages of dis- covery Those of Cabot, under the auspices of Hemy YII., who discovered E^ewfoundland (1497); of Gama, under the au- spices of Portugal, who doubled the Capt3 of Good Hope and explored the Indian Ocean ; of Ojeda, who discovered Brazil ; of Keal, who explored the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and of Bal- boa, who reached the Pacific Ocean across the Isthmus of Darien (1513). 623. What kingdoms most profited by the discovery of America? Spain and Portugal, the former by the subsequent acqui- sition of Mexico and Peru, which furnished gold and silver ; and the latter by the possession of the islands and coasts of the Indian Ocean, which furnished spices, gums, and precious stones. 624. What marked the history of France while these discoveries were made ? The consolidation of the French monarchy under Louis XIL THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 89 625. What marked the history of Italy in the early part of the six- teenth century ? The wars and jealousies between its various states, and the increase of the temporal power of the popes. 626. What distinguished pope reigned at this time ? Julius II., a warrior, statesman, and patron of art, who commenced the erection of St. Peter's Church. 627. What great artist was employed by this pope ? Michael Angelo, equally celebrated as sculptor, painter, and architect — the greatest man that Italy had produced since Dante. 628. What other great artists characterized this age ? Leonardo da Vinci, Andrea del Sarto, Bramenti, Eaphael, Correggio, Holbein, and Albert Durer were among the most eminent. 629. What distinguished literary men adorned these times ? Erasmus, the Greek critic ; Cardinal Bembo, Latin scholar ; Comines, the historian ; Ariosto, poet ; Machiavelli, the political writer, and Guicciardini, historian. 630. What great prelates then flourished, of historical importance ? Cardinal Ximenes, minister of Ferdinand of Spain, and Cardinal Wolsey, who served Henry YIII. of England. 631. What great religious movement took place in France simulta- neous with the English and Scotch Reformation ? That of the Huguenots, whose doctrines were substantially those of Calvin. 632. Under what pope did arts and literature culminate in Italy ? Leo X., of the family of the Medici, who completed St. Peter's Church, and reigned as a powerful tempoi-al prince. go POINTS OF HISTORY. 633. What enabled this pope to complete St. Peter's and ornament his capital ? The sale of indulgences in all the European countries, in accordance with the mediseval doctrine of penance. 634. To what did the sale of indulgences directly lead ? To the reformation of Luther, who preached justification by faith, in opposition to the ideas of penance and self-expia- tion. 635. Who was Martin Luther ? An Augustinian monk, of Saxony, who as professor of the- ology at Wittenberg, taught what are called the doctrines of grace, drawn from St. Paul and St. Augustine. 636. Who was sent to confute him ? Dr. Eck, a great Catholic theologian, who disputed with him publicly at Leipsic, under the protection of the Elector of Saxony. 637. What grew out of this controversy ? The recognition of the Scriptures as the supreme authority in all matters of faith and practice. 638. To what right did this recognition of the Scriptures as the high- est authority in matters of religion lead ? The right of private judgment, or liberty of conscience, the great peculiarity of Protestantism. 639. What followed the declaration of this right ? Great religious agitations in Germany, in the course of which the papal power was defied and important religious reforms took place. THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 9 1 640. What other services did Luther render to the church besides the revolt from Rome and the establishment of Protestantism in Germany ? He translated the Scriptures into the vernacular tongue, and composed many immortal hymns. 641. What great emperor sought to heal the agitations of Germany and restore the authority of the pope ? Charles Y., grandson of Ferdinand and Isabella, whose dominions extended over Spain, Germany, the Netherlands, Burgundy and Kaples. 642. Who were the most noted associates of Luther in the work of reform ? Melancthon, Eeuklin, Carlstadt, and Zwingle, of Switzer- land. 643. What course did Henry VIII. of England take in reference to Luther and the doctrines of the Reformation ? He opposed them violently, and was rewarded by the pope with the title of '^ Defender of the Faith." 644. Why, then, is Henry VIII. associated with the English Reforma- tion ? Because he dissolved the English monasteries and declared himself head of the English church. 645. Why did he quarrel with the pope, and revolt against his au- thority ? Because the pope would not consent to the divorce of his wife Catherine, niece of Charles V. 646. What great English statesman induced Henry to separate from Rome ? Thomas Cromwell, earl of Essex, prime minister after the fall of Wolsey— to whom the work was assigned for tlie sup- pression of monasteries. g2 POINTS OF HISTORY. 6^7. What learned doctor also had a hand in the separation from Rome ? Thomas Cranmer, afterwards arclibisliop of Canterbury, who iiidiiccMl Henry YIII. to declare himself head of tlie En<^lish churcli. 648. Why was he elevated to the primacy of the English church ? Because he favored the divorce, and tlie marriage of the kiiii^ witli Anne 13oleyn, maid of lionor to Catherine. 649. What marked the era of Luther and Cranmer, besides religious agitations and reforms ? Tlie wars of Cliarles Y., to make himself supreme in Europe, and revive the emj^ire of Charlemagne. 650. Who was his most powerful antagonist ? Francis I., son of Louis XII. of France, wlio commenced his reign in 1515. 651. What brought to an end the wars between Charles and Francis I. ? The political agitations of Germany in consequence of the Keformation, and the insurrection of German princes to defend tlie I*rotestant faith, which was defined by the confession of Augsburg (1530). 652. How far had the doctrines of the Reformation extended at the death of Luther? To Switzerland, France, Sweden, Holland and England. 653. What gave a great impulse to religious life in England during the reign of Henry VIU. ? The |Hil)lication of the Bible in the vernacular tongue, by Tyiuhil and Coverdale, in 1535. THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 93 654. Who gave the greatest impulse to the Reformation after the death of Luther ? Jolm Calvin, at Geneva, the most distinguished of the Protestant tlieologians, and who reigned as a religious dictator. He died in 1564. 655. What took place in the Catholic church on the spread of Protes- tantism ? A counter reformation, effected cliicfly by tlie Jesuits. 656. Who were the Jesuits ? A new order of monks founded by Ignatius Loyola, a Spanish enthusiast, and established by Pope Paul III., in 1540. 657. Who were among the most distinguished of the disciples of Ignatius Loyola ? Xavier, missionary to China, and Lainez, who controlled the Council of Trent, and perfected the organization of the society. 658. What was the peculiarity of the society which Loyola founded ? Complete and unreserved obedience to the general, and a rigid rule which made tlie members passive instruments of despotic power. 659. What was the Council of Trent ? A general council of the Catholic church, assembled 1545, with a view to extirpate heresy and settle the creed of the Catholic church. 660. What Spanish conquests in America were made during the reign of Charles V. ? Those of Mexico, by Cortez, and of Peru, by Pizarro, which led to the multiplication of the precious metals and the enrich- ment of Spain. g4 POINTS OF HISTORY. 66 1. What eastern power was very formidably at this time ? Turkey, under Solyman the Magnificent, tlien at its cul- minating height. 662. What great reformer began his work in Scotland in 1547 ? John Knox, the year that Erancis I. and Henry ^m died, during the reign of Mary, daughter of James Y., and ol Jid- ward YI. of England. 663 What marked the reign of Edward VI. of England ? The establishment of the doctrines of the Keformation under Archbishop Cranmer, who promulgated the forty-two articles and the " Book of Common Prayer." 664 Who succeeded Edward VI., after a short reign of six years ? His sister Mary (1553), who restored the Catholic religion, persecuted the Protestants, and executed the Lady Jane Grey. 665. What prominent persons suffered martyrdom for their religion in this reign ? . , . -, tt Cranmer, archbishop of Canterbury, and bishops Hooper, Latimer, Eidley, with a large number of unimportant persons. 666. What was one of the most remarkable events that took place during the reign of Mary ? The abdication of Charles Y., in the plenitude of his power, partly from disease and infirmity, and partly from the disper- sion of tlie illusions of life. 667 To whom did he leave his vast dominions ? To his son Phihp he gave Spain and the Netherlands-his patrimonial possessions -and to his brother Ferdinand, the Austrian dominions. THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY, 95 668. Who succeeded Mary to the throne of England ? Elizabeth, daughter of Henry YIII. and Anne Boleyn, in 1558, who restored Protestantism, and reigned gloriously for forty-five years. 669. What political misfortune happened to England during the reign of Mary ? The loss of Calais, in 1558, the year that Charles V. died. 670. What was the condition of England when Elizabeth came to the throne ? It was beset with j)erils from foreign foes, who aimed to exterminate the Protestant religion, and it was distracted by the claims of rival sects, by conspiracies and cabals. 671. What was the condition of Scotland ? It was agitated by religious dissensions, and the secret efforts and cabals of Queen Mary to restore the Catholic re- ligion. 672. What was the great external event in the histoiy of England during the reign of Elizabeth ? The meditated invasion of England by the Spanish Armada, and the dispersion and defeat of this formidable fleet, by Lord Effingham, in 1588. 673. What was the most important event in the domestic history of the country during this reign ? The establishment of Protestantism on a broad and liberal foundation, called by some a compromise, and effected by the government, who attempted to steer " half way between Rome and Geneva." 674. Wherein did it differ from the religious movement in Scotland ? The Scotch movement was popular, the fruit of ideas pro- rp POINTS OF HISTORY. mulgated by the clergy, at the head of whom was Knox, who established the Presbyterian form, and against the private in- clination of the sovereign. 675. In what respects was Elizabeth a benefactor of England, next to her efforts to establish Protestantism ? By the encouragement she gave to commerce, colonization, agriculture, and manufactures— in otlier words, by her develop- ment of the internal resources of her kingdom. 676. What illustrious man was her prime minister, to whom this wise policy is much indebted, and who, in this respect resembled Colbert, Sir Robert Peel, and Mr. Gladstone ? Lord Burleigh, who served the country for forty years, and who maintained a peace policy, avoiding war, and all entan- gling alliances. 677. What religious dissensions took place in the latter part of the reign ? Those made by the Nonconformists, chiefly Presbyterians, who wished to introduce the creed of Calvin and a greater simplicity in the worship of God, for which they were per- secuted. 678. What was the distinguishing glory of this reign ? The discussion of great ideas, both in government and re- ligion, and the remarkable constellation of men of genius who shed lustre around the throne. 679. Who were some of the most illustrious of these men ? Burleigh and Walsingham as statesmen ; Spenser, Jonson, and Shakespeare as poets ; Bacon and Coke as lawyers ; Jew- ell, Taylor, Parker, and Hooker as theologians ; Kaleigli, Essex, and Sydney as courtiers ; Drake and Frobisher as navi gators ; Ascham, the Greek scholar, and Gresham the financier. THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 97 680. What great religious movement took place in France during tlie reign of Elizabeth ? That under the Huguenots, disciples of John Calvin. 681. How far did his doctrines extend in France ? To all parts of the kingdom. Nearly one-half of the whole population were Protestants. 682. What monarchs attempted to exterminate them, from religious bigotry ? Henry II. (who succeeded Francis L), Francis II., and Charles IX., aided by the Jesuits, and encouraged by the popes. 683. What great crime precipitated the nation into civil war? The massacre of St. Bartholomew (1572), prompted by the Duke of Guise, the Cardinal of Lorraine, and Catherine de Medici, during the reign of Charles IX., in which 30,000 in- nocent people were treacherously and inhumanely assassinated, including Coligny, admiral of France. 684. How long did the civil war last in France between the Catholics and the Huguenots ? At intervals for forty years, which decimated the kingdom, and sowed the seeds of future revolutions. 685. What great hero did this war produce ? Henry IV., the first of the Bourbon kings, descended from Anthony, king of ISTavarre and Jane d'Albret. He became king on the death of Henry III., the last of the princes of the house of Valois. 686. What decisive victory freed the Huguenots from royal oppres- sion ? The battle of Ivry (1590), gained by Henry lY., wliich virtuallv ended the civil war. 98 POINTS OF HISTORY, 6S7. What great act distinguished the reign of Henry IV. ? The edict of Nantes (1598), which granted religious liberty to the Protestants, and gave them admission to civil employ- ments. 688. What else did Henry IV. do for France ? He developed the industrial resources of the kingdom and promoted tranquillity and law. 689. What sullied his glory ? His abjuration of the Protestant faith, of which he had been a glorious defender, and his return to the ranks of the Catholics. 690. What prompted him to this apostacy } Motives of expediency, to secure his crown, to promote public tranquillity, and to make peace with the enemies of the Protestant cause. 691. What was the result of this abjuration ? France became again a Catholic country, and the Protes- tants lost prestige, social position, and political power. The cause of Protestantism was lost in France. 692. What great scheme did Henry IV. contemplate for the peace ol Europe ? A balance of power, with a view to settle national difficul- ties by arbitration, and to establish the principles of interna- tional law. It also had in view the humiliation of the power of Austria, which menaced the liberties of Europe, and the stability of thrones. 693. What prevented the execution of this enlightened scheme, and also further reforms in France ? The assassination of the king by the fanatic Ravaillac, May 12, 1608. THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 99 694. What great statesman served Henry IV., as Burleigh sen-ed Elizabeth ? The Duke of Sully, liis prime iniiiister, who sought to de- velop the internal resources of the kingdom, and establish sound financial principles— one of tlie ablest statesmen that ever served an absolute king. 695. Who governed France on the death of Henry IV. ? His widow, Mary de Medici, as regent, during the minor- ity of Louis XIII. 696. What was the most powerful monarchy in Europe during the reigns of Queen Elizabeth and Henry IV. ? Spain, under Philip II. 697. What events signalized his long reign (1556— 1598) ? A systematic persecution of the Protestants, especially in the Netherlands ; the cruelties of the Inquisition in Spain; the expedition against England, called the "Invincible Armada;" the acquisition of Portugal, and the revolt of the Moriscoes. 698. What was the resTilt of the persecution of the Protestants ? It rooted out Protestantism in Spain, and all liberal opinions. 699. Who rescued the Netherlands from the yoke of Spain ? William the Silent, Prince of Orange, wlio united under him the seven northern provinces in rebellion, since they had become Protestant. Chosen stadtholder 1581, assassinated 1684. 700. What famous general then governed the Netherlands ? The Duke of Alva, the ablest of the Spanish generals, who had served under Charles V. lOO POINTS OF HISTORY. 701. What marked his career ? Excessive cruelties ; he boasted that he had executed 18,000 people. He executed the heads of the Protestant party — Counts Egmont and Horn. 702. What great general succeeded the Duke of Alva in the govern- ment of the Netherlands ? The Duke of Parma, who compelled the submission of the ten southern provinces. 703. Who led the Dutch to victory after the assassination of the Prince of Orange ? Prince Maurice, his second son. 704. What great theologian in Holland opposed the doctrines of Calvin ? Arminius, professor of theology at Leyden, whose doctrines modified theological opinions in all Protestant countries. 705. What probably enabled the United Provinces (Holland) to achieve their independence (1609) ? The great wealth which Dutch commerce, and the Dutch possessions in the East, in Java and other places brought into the country, and the assistance of the English. 706. What great events took place in Germany while the Dutch were achieving their independence, and England was being enriched by the wise administration of Elizabeth ? Severe religious persecutions by the Austrian emperors, which led to powerful leagues among the Protestant princes to defend their religious liberties. 707. What marked the Church of Rome at this period ? The " Counter Keforniation," effected chiefly by the Jesuits, THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. lOI whose marvellous attainments and ente'rprises were the admira- tion of the Catholic world, and who were rewarded with higli places by the austere and religious pontiffs that adorned the latter part of the sixteenth century. 708. In reviewing the sixteenth centur)', what should we say were its great features ? The agitation of religious ideas, the revival of learning, great maritime discoveries, and the triumph of Protestantism in half of the countries of Europe. 709. What great battle was fought towards the end of the century which arrested the conquests of the Turks ? The battle of Lepanto, in 1571, gained by the combined fleets of Yenice, Spain, and Genoa, commanded by Don John of Austria. 710. Who were the great military heroes of this century ? Henry lY. of France, the Duke of Guise, the Duke of Alva, the Duke of Parma, Prince Maurice, and Don John of Austria. 711. What new northern empire arose into prominence in the six- teenth century ? Russia, under Ivan lY., wtio reigned from 1533 to 158-1. 712. What great scholars and prelates adorned the Catholic church during the sixteenth century ? Cardinal Baronius, the historian, and Cardinal Borromeo, archbishop of Milan, whose influence secured the election of good and able popes. 713. What eminent scholars adorned Protestant literature at the same time ? Scaliger, Lipsius, and Heinsius, Ascham, Martin Bucer and Melancthon. 102 rO/JVTS OF HISTORY. yi/[. Who were eminent in the field of science ? Copernicus, Kepler and Tyclio Bralie, who laid the founda- tion of modern astronomy. 715. What eminent French writers flourished at this time? Eabelais, Montaigne, essayist, and De Thou, the historian. 716. Who were the great artists of this century ? The three Caracci, Correggio, Titian, Holbein, Rubens painters ; Lescot and Inigo Jones, architects ; Cellini, sculptor ; and Palestrina, musician. Kefbrences.— Robertson's Charles V., Be Thou, Roscoe's Leo X., Ranke's Lives of the Popes, D'Auhigne'e History of the Reformation, Ranlce's History of the Reformation, Fronde's History of England, Hume's, Lingard's, and Green's Histories of England, Henri Martin's History of Prance, Sully's Memoirs, Henry's Life of Calvin, Lives of the Painters, Motley's History of Philip II., Prescott's History of the Conquest of Peru, Life of John Knox, History of the Jesuits. These are the standard histories, but the lives of all the great men are accessible. CHArXEK IX. Continental Europe in the Seventeenth Centuky. 717. What is one of the most prominent features of the seventeenth century ? Wars to establish the ideas of the Reformation, the balance of power, and civil liberty. 718. What is another prominent feature? Speculations in science, philosophy, and religion. 719. What is a third feature ? The colonization of America, and rise of new states. 720. What was the first great war of this century ? The thirty years' war, to secure religious liberty in Ger- many. 721. Under whose reign did this war take place ? The Austrian emperor, Ferdinand, 1620. 722. What was the first act of the bloody drama ? An insurrection in Bohemia, caused by the deprivation of her religious privileges. 723. What was the second act of the tragedy ? The successes of Count Mansfeldt, who dared to defy the whole imperial power, supported by James I. of England, and Christian, king of Denmark. 104 POINTS OF HISTORY. 724. What great general came to the aid of the emperor and gained great victories over the Protestants ? Wallenstein, the richest nobleman of Bohemia, who raised an army at his own expense. 725. What were his victories ? He compelled the Elector Palatine, son-in-law of James I., to become a fugitive ; he drove the king of Denmark ont of Germany ; he forced the electors of Saxony and Brandenburg to an inglorious neutrality, and devastated Germany with fire and sword. 726. Who came to the rescue of the Protestants, in 1630? Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, the greatest warrior of his century, one hundred years after the confession of Augs- burg and the League of Smalcalde. 727. What were his victories ? In two years he regained all the Protestants had lost. 728. What battle decided the religious liberties of Germany ? The battle of Lutzen, in Saxony (1630), gained by Gustavus, but in which he lost his life. 729. How much longer did the war continue ? Sixteen years, and involved other powers, but nothing deci- sive was effected by either party. 730. When was the war closed ? In 164:8, by the treaty of Westphalia, which guaranteed the liberties of Germany, and broke forever the Austrian as- cendency. This great treaty, the most important in European history, is the foundation of the whole system of modern politics. EUROPE IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. I05 731. What were the immediate consequences of this bloody war? The depopulation of Germany, and a general devastation and demoralization from which it took several generations to recover. 732. What were the uhimate consequences ? The religious liberties of the German nations, and the es- tablishment of a balance of power. 733. What great man in France arose to power during the continu- ance of the thirty years' war? Cardinal Eichelieu, during the reign of Louis XIII,, who aggrandized the French monarchy, although he reduced the kins: himself to insi2:nificance. 734. What were the means employed by Richelieu in raising the power of the crown ? He aided the Protestants of Germany in order to humiliate Austria, whose ascendency was dangerous ; he broke the power of the nobles ; he subdued the Huguenots, and humbled the parliament of Paris. 735. Why did he decimate the nobles ? Because they were full of cabals and intrigues against tho government and were hostile to a central power. 736. Why did he reduce the Huguenots ? Because they composed an imperium in irajperio^ and were also hostile to the ascendency of a central power, and kept the kingdom in constant alarm. 737. Why did he cripple the parliament ? Because, as a body of pedantic, aristocratic lawyers, they thought more of enjoying their privileges than of securing the peace of the realm. I06 POINTS OF HISTORY, 738. What else did Richelieu effect for the benefit of France, beside the establishment of the power of the crown ? lie developed the resources of the kingdom, founded a navy, placed able men in office, punished traitors and culprits, and encouraged learning and art. 739. What legacy did he bequeath to France ? Absolutism, then much needed, under Louis XIY., whose greatness was the secpel of Richelieu's policy. 740. When did Louis XIV. commence his reign ? IS'ominally in 1643, but being an infant the government was really in the hands of Mary de Medici as regent. 741. What great minister ruled France during the regency? Cardinal Mazarin, whom Eichelieu, dying, recommended as his successor. 742. What marked the administration of Mazarin ? The war of the Fronde — a civil war in which the nobles contended for j)0wer. 743. Who were the chief actors in this civil war? De Eetz, archbishop of Paris, the Princes of Conde and Conti, the Duke de Longueville, and Marshal Turenne. 744. What characterized this war ? The perpetual intrigues and shifting scenes, undecisive contests, and alternate victory and defeat of the government. 745. What famous religious controversy arose in France during tlie war of the Fronde ? That between the Jesuits and the Jansenists, which grew out of the disputed questions pertaining to Grace and Predes- EUROPE IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. lO/ tination, similar to the controversy between St. Augustine and Pelagius in the latter days of the Roman empire. 746. Who were the great men on the Jansenist side ? Cornelius Jansen, Jean de Yerger, Arnauld d'AntilJy, Lc Maitre, and Pascal — all of whom were distinguished scholars or theologians. 747. What famous book did Pascal publish against the Jesuits } The " Provincial Letters," remarkable for irony, sarcasm, and grace of style, which turned the Jesuits into ridicule, and undermined the respect of Europe. 748. Whom particularly did he ridicule ? The Casuists, like Molina : a class of writers, chiefly Jesuits, who defended the doctrine that the end justifies the means ; so that the persecutions and spiritual despotism and lax morality of the Catholics were justified. 749. For what was Pascal especially distinguished ? For his scientific discoveries and great mathematical 750. When did Louis XIV. commence to reign ? Ilis nominal reign commenced in 1643, when he was a boy of five years. His real reign commenced on the death of Mazarin, 1661, when he was eighteen. 7,51. What first turned attention to Louis XIV. ? His ambitious and unjustifiable wars, in which lie sought to add Flanders and Holland to his dominions. 752. Who were his generals in this war? Conde, Turenne, and Luxemburg were the most famous. I08 POINTS OF HISTORY. 753. Who was his principal minister ? Colbert, controller-general of the finances, who furnished the money for Louis to play the part of an Alexander. 754. What was remarkable about Colbert? He improved the finances and developed the industrial resources of the kingdom. 755. What was the fundamental principle of his financial policy? That of protection to manufactures, a principle generally adopted by political economists until the " Wealth of I^ations" was written by Adam Smith, the father of free trade. 756. Who was the great war minister of Louis XIV. ? Louvois, who laid out his campaigns, and enabled Louis to raise and equip the largest armies of regular forces that Europe had seen since the Antonines. 757. With what success did Louis meet in war on the United Pro- vinces ? They were completely overrun, and in a few weeks all of them surrendered but Holland and Zealand. 758. In this crisis who was raised up for the defence of Holland ? William, Prince of Orange, afterwards king of England, who advised the Hollanders to reject the humiliating terms of the French king, and fight to their last ditch. 759. Was William able to keep the French forces at bay ? Yes, aided by storms and inundations, he jDrevented Conde and Turenne from subduing Holland. 760. Who was employed by Louis to construct fortresses in the Netherlands ? Yauban, the great engineer, who fortified the citadels of the French king. EUROPE IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. IO9 761. What powerful league was formed to arrest the conquests of Louis XIV. in 1672 ? That of Germany, Brandenburg, and Spain. 762. Why did not England join also ? Because England was then ruled by Charles II., and he was a pensioner of Louis XIY. 'jdl. What was the great battle of this war } That of Senef, between Conde and the Stadtholder, Wil- liam (1674). 764. For what was this war memorable ? The desolation of the Palatinate and Bhine provinces by Turenne, killed 1675. At the close of the campaign Conde retired from active service. 765. What treaty closed the war ? That of ]N'imeguen, 1678, which left Louis XIV. with no accession of territory except Franche Comte and some for- tresses in Flanders. 766. How long did peace continue } Nine years, during which Louis reigned with unparalleled splendor, surrounded with idolators. 767. Who made the court of Louis both brilliant and infamous } Madame de Montespan, an imperious beauty, who dispensed the royal favors, encouraged the most boundless extravagance, and instituted a perpetual succession of balls and fetes and gayeties. 768. What was the characteristic feature of the reign? An absolute despotism, and the concentration of all the wealth and power of France to give lustre to the throne. no POINTS OF HISTORY. 769. What great combination was made in 1687 to break her power, which was regarded as dangerous to the liberties of Europe, as the power of Austria was regarded the century before ? The League of Augsburg, to preserve the balance of power, composed of Germany, Spain, Holland, and afterwards of England. 770. What course did Louis pursue amid so many threatening evils ? He put forth all his energies, and sent 400,000 men into the field. 771. Who commanded the forces of Louis ? Luxemburg was the most famous. 772. Who commanded the allied forces ? William of Nassau, now king of England, the Duke of Marlborough the Elector of Bavaria, the Duke of Lorraine, and the Duke of Saxony. 773. What great battles were fought in this long war of nine years ? The battle of Fleurus, 1690, gained by Luxemburg; the naval battle of La Hogue, 1692, which crippled the French navy ; the battle of Steinkirk, gained by the French ; the battle of Keerwinde, which was disastrous to the English and Dutch ; and the battle of Namur, gained by William. 774. Were any of these battles decisive ? No, but they were bloody, and crippled the forces of all the contending parties, so that peace became a necessity. 775. What was this peace called ? The peace of Ryswick, 1697, by which France retained the conquests she had made, and William III. was recognized as king of England, but which left the contending parties pretty' much as they were before the war. EUROPE IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. Ill Tj(i. Who were the heroes of this war ? Luxemburg on the part of France, and William of Nassau on tlie part of the allies. ']']']. How did the French regard this war ? As covering Louis XIY. with glory, while, in reality, it crippled his resources. 778. What extraordinary woman played a prominent part in French history at this time ? Madame de Maintenon, who secretly became the wife of Louis XIY., in 1685. 779. What was remarkable about this woman ? She arose from an obscure position by her talents, her tact, and her graces, to be the virtual ruler of France for nearly forty years. 780. What was the influence she exerted ? She encouraged learning, patronized able men, reformed the manners and morals of the court, and assisted Louis to bear with dignity his reverses. 781. Wherein was her influence bad ? She encouraged religious persecution and cruelly oppressed the Protestants. She, incited by the Jesuits, persuaded the king to revoke the Edict of Nantes, which Henry IV. had signed, 1685. 782. What was the extent of the religious persecution which dis- graced the reign of Louis XIV. ? About 200,000 were executed, and as many more iled the kingdom or were exiled, and these people were among the best people of France. 112 POINTS OF HISTORY. 783. What persecution for religious opinion took place besides that of the Huguenots? Tliat which was directed against the Jansenists, stimulated by the Jesuits. 784. Was Louis permitted, when he was an old man, to live in peace ? No ; a new confederation was formed against him in which England and Germany took the principal part. 785. What caused this new combination of enemies ? Chiefly the unrelenting hostility of William III., and the jealousy of the leading powers of Europe. 786. What was this war called ? The war of the Spanish succession, arising openly, from the effort of Louis XIY. to j^lace his grandson on the throne of Spain, on the death of Charles II., the last of the Austrian kings. 787. What was the issue of this long and bloody war, which lasted twelve years ? It was disastrous to France, exhausted the resources of the kingdom, and overwhelmed the latter days of Louis XIY. with disgrace and humiliation. 788. Who were the heroes of this war ? The Duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugene. 789. What were its decisive battles ? That of Blenheim, 170-1, when 40,000 were killed or taken ])risoners ; that of Kamillies, 1706, which secured the conquest of Brabant ; and that of Malplaquet, which compelled Louis to sue for peace. 790. What was settled by the treaty of Utrecht in 171 3 ? Chiefly that the House of Hanover should succeed to the EUROPE IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. I 1 3, throne of Englimd, and that Philip Y. of Spain, grandson of Louis XIV., should relinquish all claims to the throne of France in case of the death of the heir apparent. 791. What made the treaty of Utrecht the most important that had been signed in Europe since the treaty of Westphalia ? It crippled the French monarchy, so that it was no longer the ascendant state of Europe, and made England one of the leading powers. It gave to the Protestant states of Europe an equality with the Catholic. It secured the balance of power until the conquests of Napoleon. ** 792. How long did Louis survive his humiliation ? Only two years. He died an embittered and miserable old man, after the longest reign in French annals, aged seventy-six years. All his delusions were dispelled. 793. What chiefly caused his great reverses ? His unnecessary wars, in which glory was succeeded by shame, and his passion for palace building, which ina,ugurated an outrageous extravagance at the court of France. 794. What great power continually declined after the reign of Philip II. ? That of Spain. 795. What were the causes of her decline ? The revolt of the Netherlands, under William the Silent, weakened her military prestige ; the defeat of the Invincible Armada ccippled her naval power ; the disproportionate for- tunes made by commerce weakened the middle class ; the In- quisition and the tyranny exercised by the clergy destroyed independence and manliness. 114 P0INT3 OF HISTORY. 796. While Spain was declining in political importance what powers were rapidly rising ? Those of Russia and Pnissia. 797. What great man gave an immense impulse to the power of Russia? Peter the Great, a descendant of the Czars who had exter- minated the Tartar rule in the fifteenth century. 798. What was the capital of the dominion of the Czars ? Moscow, where they reigned witli unlimited power. 799. Why may Peter the Great be numbered in the list of national benefactors ? Because he developed the resources of his kingdom, civil- ized his countrymen, created an efficient army and navy of disciplined men, improved the whole civil administration of the empire, and tolerated all religions. 800. How was he enabled to centralize power around his throne ? By instituting a regular standing army, and humiliating the nobles. 801. Who of all the great modern statesmen did he most admire and imitate ? Cardinal de Richelieu, who strengthened the throne of Louis XIY. and centralized the French monarchy. 802. What foreign war first occupied the attention of Peter the Great ? That with Charles XII. of Sweden, at that time the most powerful of the northern nations of Europe. S03. With what success did Peter invade Sweden ? He was disgracefully defeated by an army one-third as large as his. EUROPE IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. II5 804. What was the moral effect of that defeat ? It simply stimulated him to greater exertions, while the success of Charles intoxicated him, and filled him with pre- sumptuous self-confidence. 805. What policy did Charles pursue after his victory ? He invaded Russia, after conquering Poland, with 80,000 veterans ; but, as Peter avoided a battle, he was decoyed into the heart of Russia, where his army melted away. 806. What checked the military career of Charles XII. ? The battle of Pultowa, 1709, which drove Charles into Turkey, as a fugitive. 807. What schemes did Charles set on foot in Turkey } He enlisted the Sultan in his cause, who sent an army of 250,000 men into Russia. 808. How was Peter extricated from his dangers, after being defeated at Pruth ? He made a favorable treaty with the Turks, with the assist- ance of his wife. 809. Who was his wife } Catherine, originally the daughter of a poor woman in Li- vonia, but a woman of prodigious tact, who became empress after the death of Peter. 810. To what did Peter give his attention after his defeat at Pruth? To the construction of a navy by which he became master of both sides of the Gulf of Finland, and by which his empire was protected from invasion. 811. What religious change did Peter make ? He abolished the patriarchate and declared himself liead of Russian church, which was of the Greek religion. Il6 POINTS OF HISTORY. 8 1 2. What great city did he build? St. Petersburg, situated in the midst of marshes at the mouth of the Il^eva, and against the influence of the Russian nobles. 813. What were the obstacles ? Innumerable : 100,000 men perished before the city was completed, but which became the capital of Russia. 814. What great minister rendered invaluable services to the Czar .^ Menzikoff, originally a seller of pies at Moscow, but whose great talents were detected by Peter, and magnificently re- warded. 815. What was very extraordinary in the life of Peter .^ His two tours of Europe, as a private man, with the object of studying the laws and institutions of different countries. In Holland he worked as a carpenter in a ship-yard. 816. What was the bequest of Peter to Russia ? His labors in behalf of civilization. He found his empire semi-barbarous; he left it a first-class power. He was the greatest civilizer since Charlemagne. 817. Why did not Sweden increase in political power after the death of Gustavus Adolphus, since at his death it was one-third larger than France when Louis XIV. commenced his reign ? Because it was misgoverned by his daughter Christina, who abdicated her throne for the pleasures of Italy. 818. What misfortunes happened to Sweden in consequence of the ambitions of Charles XII. ? They were divested of all their conquests, and Peter gained what Charles lost. EUROPE IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. WJ 819. What did Sweden retain ? Her ancient limits, her religion, and her institutions. But she sunk to the rank of a second-class power. 820. What greater misfortunes happened to Poland ? Internal dissensions, from the ambition of nobles, who de- prived the king of a great share of his power. 821. What was the condition of Poland in the sixteenth centiir)' ? It was a powerful state under the Jagcllons, but on the death of Sigismund IL, 1572, the last of the dynasty, the nobles made the kingdom elective. 822. In whom were vested the right of election ? The whole body of the nobles, assembled on the plain of Praga ; and these feudal warriors made exactions subversive of the royal dignity, without gaining constitutional liberties, as in England. 823. Who was the first elected monarch of Poland ? Henry of Yalois, afterward Henry III. of France. 824. Who of the elected kings of Poland distinguished himself? John Sobieski, a Polish nobleman, who with 10,000 Poles defeated 80,000 Cossacks. 825. What was the condition of Poland when this patriot was elected king, 1674? It was reduced to the verge of ruin by desolating wars with the Cossacks and Tartars, the hereditary enemies of Poland. 826. What great service did this illustrious man render to the cause of European liberties? He defeated the Turks, who had laid siege to Vienna with 200,000 men, and caused them to raise the siege. Il8 POINTS OF HISTORY. 827. What reward did Austria give to the Poles for this timely aid ? She subsequently entered into an alliance with Russia and Prussia, for the dismemberment of Poland — one of the greatest political crimes on record. 828. Who succeeded the gallant Sobieski (John III.), 1696? Frederic Augustus, Elector of Saxony, whose reign was a series of disasters, ending in his own dethronement by Charles XII. 829. What is noteworthy in the history of Germany from the peace of Westphalia during the seventeenth century ? Disastrous wars with France, the loss of the Hhenish prov- inces, and the rise of the power of Prussia. 830. What distinguished generals did these wars with France pro- duce ? Montecuculi, who opposed Marshal Turenne on the Phine, and Prince Eugene of Saxony in the war of the S23anisli suc- cession. 831. What were the trophies of Prince Eugene ? He gained, with the Duke of Marlborough, the great vic- tory of Blenheim, 1704, and of Malplaquet in 1709. 832. What great elector of Brandenburg elevated his electorate into a kingdom, and laid the foundation of the power of Prussia? Frederic III., proclaimed king at Konigsberg, 1701, the old capital of the Teutonic knights, soon after the Prince of Orange became king of England. 833. What was the condition of Turkey during the seventeenth century ? A visible decline, which took place after the battle of Lepanto, 1571, which destroyed the naval ascendency of the EUROPE IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. I IQ Turks in tlie Mediterranean. The defeat of the Turks, under the walls of Vienna, by Sobieski, also further weakened the Turkish military power. 834. What employed the attention of the sultans during the seven- teenth century ? Conflicts with the Janizaries, or the imperial guard, who made and unmade sultans, as the old Pretorians of Rome made and unmade emperors. 835. What great Eastern prince reigned in India in the latter part of the seventeenth centur)' ? Aurungzebe, who erected the Mogul empire. 836. What was the condition of the Papacy during the seventeenth century ? A great reaction in its favor, called the counter revolution, effected by able and pious popes, and the transcendent services of the Jesuits. 837. What colonial conquests were made the latter half of the century ? The Dutch took away from the Portuguese most of their possessions in the East Indies. 838. What colonial settlements were made ? By the French, in the West Indies and Canada. 839. What great jurist flourished in Holland during this century? Grotius, the founder of the system of international law, the most learned man of his age. 840. What eminent philosophers in France and Germany adorned this century ? Descartes and Leibnitz. I20 POINTS OF HISTORY. 841. What great astronomers did this age produce ? Kepler and Galileo, the latter of whom, by his telescope, discovered the satellites of Jupiter, which gave the holding turn to the opinions of astronomers respecting the Copernican system, and established the fact that the sun is the centre around which tlie earth revolves. 842. What great painters flourished in the seventeenth century ? Rubens, Yandyck, and Tleml)randt in Holland, Salvator Rosa in Italy, Poussin and Le Brun in France, Murillo in Spain. 843. Who were the poets of this century in France ? Corneille, Moliere, Boileau, and Racine. 844. What eminent writers in the seventeenth century ? Bossuet, Fcnelon, Pascal, Arnauld, Mabillon, and Tillemont — all Frenchmen. References.— Russeirs Modern Europe, Martin's History of France, Ranke's History of the Popes, History of the Thirty Years' War, Life of Gustavus Adolphus, Schiller's Wal- lenstcin, Life of Richelieu, Miss Pardee's History of Louis XIV., History of the Fronde, Memoirs of Cardinal de Retz, Life of Pascal, Provincial Letters, Memoirs of Madame de Maintenon, Life of Peter the Great, Voltaire's Life of Charles XII., Lives of Bossuet and F6nelon, Voltaire's Life of Louis XIV., Browning's History of the Huguenots. CHAPTER X. English History m the Seventeenth Centtjey. 845. Who succeeded Queen Elizabeth ? James I., the first of the Stuarts, son of Mary Queen of Scots. 846. What marked his reign, 1603 — 1625 ? The Gunpowder Plot, the persecutions of Catholics and Nonconformists, and efforts on the part of the crown to exer- cise despotic power. 847. Who was his tool and favorite ? George Yilliers, duke of Buckingham, a fop and flatterer, who pandered to the king's tastes and trampled upon the con- stitution. 848. What execution sullied the reign of James? That of Sir "Walter Raleigh, who had been cruelly impris- oned twelve years for the failure of his expedition to Guiana in quest of gold. 849. What great disgrace, in the reign of James, happened to Francis Bacon, in spite of all his illustrious labors in philosophy ? He took bribes while lord high chancellor, and was de- graded from his office and condemned to pay a heavy fine. 850. What eminent man rivalled Bacon in the law ? Sir Edward Coke, lord chief justice, whose severe scruti- 122 POINTS OF HISTORY. nies into the abuses of tlie crown prepared the way for more radical reforms in the next reign. 851. What were the abuses which disgraced the reign of James I. ? The sale of monopolies, arbitrary arrests, Star Chamber de- crees, the intolerance of the High Commission Court, and the rule of favorites. 852. What especially irritated the nation? The contemplated marriage of the Prince of Wales with the Infanta of Spain, whicli he was obliged to give up, but which led to a war with Spain. 853. What course did Charles I., who succeeded James in 1625, pur- sue on ascending the throne ? He continued, more boldly, the struggle for royal preroga- tives, and increased the monopolies and illegal taxation, and continued the persecution of the Puritans. 854. What course did the House of Commons pursue? It granted paltry subsidies, and fettered the government by withholding the necessary supplies. 855. How did the king retaliate ? He dissolved the parliament, and resolved to rule without one, on principles of absolutism. 856. Who were his favorite ministers ? Thomas Wentworth, earl of Strafford, and Laud, archbishop of Canterbury, who goaded on the king to imprudent measures, which were subversive of the liberties of the nation. 857. What great men led the House of Commons in its resistance to the crown ? Pym and Hampden were the most distinguished — both Presbyterians, and both resolved on constitutional reforms. ENGLISH HISTORY— SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 1 23 858. What was the mistake of the king? In not yielding to constitutional reforms, which might have crippled his power, but would not have endangered his throne. 859. What mistakes did the leaders of reform make ? In not patiently waiting to secure reforms in a constitu- tional manner, which they might have effected ultimately, since they controlled supplies. 860. What great blunder did the king then make ? He imprisoned members of parliament and extorted money in an illegal manner, especially he imposed a tax on the inland counties and cities under pretence of supporting the navy. 861. Who refused to pay this tax? John Hampden, who was prosecuted by the crown lawyers, and condemned, which produced great commotion (1637). 862. What increased the public discontents ? The attempt of Laud to impose the English liturgy on the Scottish nation which was chiefly Presbyterian. 863. What compelled the king, at last, to assemble a parliament after having ruled eleven years without one, and in the most arbitrary manner, with fines, imprisonments, and confiscations ? His necessities. He had exhausted his expedients to raise money. 864. How long did this parliament last ? Only a few months, since it was refractory. 865. What bold measures did the next parliament adopt ? It impeached Laud and Strafford, and openly confronted the government. 124 POINTS OF HISTORY. 866. What retaliation did the king make ? He attempted to arrest five of the parliamentary leaders, who fled, and prepared for civil war. 867. Was war inevitable ? Yes, since both parties refused to make concessions, and both were inflamed with deadly animosities. 868. What great general did the civil v^ar produce ? Oliver Cromwell, a rigid Puritan, and member of parlia- ment, who had hitherto been a mere country squire. 869. What was the first battle of note ? That of Edge Hill (1642), in which Cromwell was captain of a troop of horse. 870. Who commanded the Parliamentary army ? The Earl of Essex, who was a Presbyterian. 871. What battle gave the ascendency to the Puritans ? That of Marston Moor (1644:), in which Cromwell, now lieutenant-general, distinguished himself, by the discipline of his men. 872. What battle led to the captivity of the king and made Cromwell the first man in England ? The battle of Naseby (1645), when Cromwell commanded the right wing against Prince Kupert and Charles. 873. What was the next important battle ? That of Preston (1648), in which Cromwell defeated the Scotch, commanded by the Duke of Hamilton, which opened Edinburgh to his troops and made him connnander-in-chief of the armies of the commonwealth. ENGLISH HISTORY—SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 12$ 874. Who then obtained the ascendency in England ? The Independents— the party to which Cromwell belonged. 875. What disgraced this triumphant party? The trial and execution of the king (1649), seven years after both parties had appealed to arms. 876. Was this execution a crime or a blunder? A blunder, since the death of Charles I. did not destroy the claims of Charles II., and, moreover, provoked sympathy. It was not a crime, since Charles had appealed to the sword, and the fortune of war had placed him in the hands of his enemies, who regarded his death as a military necessity. 877. What was the next great event in Cromwell's career? The conquest of Ireland (161:9), as Lord Lieutenant, marked by great severities. 878. What battle ended the civil war ? " The crowning mercy of Worcester," which resulted in the defeat and flight of Charles II., and the complete ascendency of Cromwell. 879. How did Cromwell improve his victories ? He availed himself of the popular enthusiasm to assume supreme authority, under the title of " Lord Protector," and reign absolutely, as Charles had sought to reign. 880. Why did not Parliament prevent the usurpation ? Cromwell had dissolved it, backed up by his army and the enthusiasm of his party. 881. What services did Cromwell render to his country as supreme ruler ? He restored law and order, encouraged enterprise, rewarded 126 POINTS OF HISTORY. learning, defeated foreign enemies, developed the resources of England, and bestowed religious liberty. 882. What were the defects of Cromwell ? His visionary enthusiasm, which led him to believe he had a right to rule England as the strongest man ; and his Jesuiti- cal principles in making the end justify the means. 883. Who was one of his greatest admirers and eulogists ? John Milton, whose glorious efforts in behalf of religious liberty were only excelled by his immortal poems. 884. What other distinguished men flourished in England during the reign of Cromwell, 1649 — 1658 ? Sir Matthew Hale, who gave dignity to the courts of law ; Harvey, who discovered the circulation of the blood ; Hobbes, who speculated on philosophy ; Lord Napier, who invented logarithms ; George Fox, who founded the Society of Friends ; Bishop Usher, the chronologist, who wrote annals of the Old Testament; and Chillingworth, who defended Prot- estantism on Bible grounds alone. 885. What English admiral greatly distinguished himself during the administration of Cromwell ? Admiral Blake, who raised the naval glory of England to a higher point than it had ever reached before. 886. What were some of his victories ? Those over the Dutch, commanded by De Witt, De Euyter, and Yan Tromp, and afterwards over the Spaniards. 887. What was the cause of the Dutch war ? Commercial jealousy, which led to the famous ITaviga- tion Act, which prohibited all nations from importing into EXGLISII HISTORY— SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 1 27 England, in their bottoms, any commodity wliicli was not the growth or manufacture of their own country. 888. How did this act affect the Dutch ? They were then the general carriers and factors of Europe, and it was an injury to their commerce. 889. What was the result of the Spanish war ? Spain lost Jamaica, and a great many treasure ships and military prestige. 890. What colonies in America had been successfully planted when Cromwell died, 1658? Yirginia, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Pennsylvania, New York, Maryland, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and North Carolina. 891. Who succeeded Oliver Cromwell to the Protectorate, on his death, 1658? His son Richard, an amiable but feeble man, and unlit to cope with the difficulties which surrounded him. 892. What were those difficulties ? The cabals of discontented officers, and a general state of anarchy, which compelled him to resign in less than two years. 893. Who restored the monarchy ? General Monk, afterwards Duke of Albemarle, one of the general officers of Oliver Cromwell, who commanded the army in Scotland. 894. What were the, motives of Monk in turning against the family of his friend ? To deliver the nation from anarchy. Moreover, he per- ceived that the nation was wearied both with tlie rule of par- 128 POINTS OF HISTORY. liament and the rule of the army, and hankered for the olden times. 895. On what conditions was Charles Stuart restored ? None at all. He was restored in a torrent of national en- thusiasm, the reaction to the military despotism of Cromwell. 896. Whom did he call around his throne as ministers and sup- porters ? Men of all parties. Tho Earl of Manchester, wlio had once led the parliamentary forces, he made lord chamberlain; Sir Edward Hyde, created Earl of Clarendon, was made lord chan- cellor and prime minister ; the Duke of Ormund, steward of the household ; the Earl of Southampton, high treasurer, and Sir Edward Nicholas, secretary of state. . 897. Who was the most famous of these men ? The Earl of Clarendon, whose daughter married James II. and who wrote the history of the great rebellion — the earliest of the great English historians. 898. What was the first act of the reign of Charles II., of historical importance ? The act of uniformity, 1662, which required all ministers to be reordained, and declare their assent to tlie Book of Com- mon Prayer and to take the oath of Non-resistance. 899. What was the result of this act } About 2,000 Presbyterian and Independent ministers were ejected from their livings, and Episcopacy was restored as the national religion. Among the ejected were Baxter and Calamy. 900. What exceedingly unpopular act did Charles II. commit soon after he felt secure on his throne ? Tie formed an alliance with Louis XI Y., and sold Dunkirk, ENGLISH HISTORY—SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 1 29 one of the fruits of Cromwell's victories, to the French, for which he received an annual pension of £200,000. 901. What illustrious patriot did Charles cause to be executed, against his promise to the last parliament ? Sir Henry Yane, who had filled high offices, and was the ornament of his party. 902. What war broke out in 1665 ? A war with the Dutch, from commercial and naval jeal- ousy, in which France soon joined the Dutch. 903. Who were the chief admirals of this naval war ? Albemarle and Prince Eupert on the part of the English ; De Kuyter and Van Tromp on the part of the Dutch ; and the Duke of Beaufort on the part of the French. 904. What calamity happened to the city of London during this war, which ended with the peace of Breda, 1667 ? The great fire, which lasted three days and three nights, and which consumed St. Paul's Cathedral. 905. What was the first political event of importance in the domestic government of England ? The dismissal and exile of Clarendon, and the formation of the " Cabal," mainly made up of Clifford, Ashley, Bucking- ham, Arlington, and Lauderdale, who virtually sold their country to the French king, and encouraged the king to en- croach on the liberties of England. 906. What was the first of the royal encroachments ? The shutting up of the exchequer, where the bankers had deposited their funds, which was virtually the seizure of the money which belonged to individuals, and by which Charles gained £1,300,000, and the bankers failed. 130 POINTS OF HISTORY. 907. What other encroachments ? Charles imj^osed restrictions on the press ; took away the charter of the cor^^oration of the city of London ; caused juries to be fined who refused to act according to the direction of judges, and unlawfully increased taxation. 908. What domestic event caused extraordinary popular agitations ? The " Popish Plot," one of the delusions of the times, which was based on the perjuries of Dr. Titus Gates, a broken- down clergyman, in reference to the schemes of the Catholics, and which led to their civil disabilities, which lasted one hun- dred and thirty years. 909. What celebrated act of parliament followed these accusations ? The Test Act, 1678, by which no members of the House of Lords or Commons could sit or vote without openly rej)udi- ating virtually all the distinguished doctrines of the Koman Catholic Church. 910. What more celebrated act was soon after passed ? The " Habeas Corpus " Act, one of the safeguards of Eng- lish liberty. 911. Through whose instrumentality was this act passed } The Earl of Shaftesbury, an exceedingly able man, who espoused the popular party and opposed the court, which he had formerly served, and most unscrupulously. 912. What was the " Rye House Plot" (1683) ? A conspiracy to overturn the government and destroy the life of the king, now very un]3opular. 913. What illustrious men suffered, justly or unjustly, from supposed complicity with this plot ? Lord William Kussell, son of the Earl of Bedford, and Al- ENGLISH HISTORY-SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 131 gernon Sidney, son of the Earl of Leicester, distinguished for his liberal ideas. 0,4. What infamous judge condemned these patriots ? Judge Jeilries-the judge who imprisoned Baxter, and wlio converted England into a sliambles. Q 1 5, What great political parties arose in this reign ? Whigs and Tories-tems of reproach ; the former a Scotch word for low seditious fanatics, and the latter an Irish designa- tion of despoiled papists. qi6 What great men flourished in this reign? Selden, the lawyer; Dttgdale, ^^^^ '^'^^j^i^^'^f " ' /™: Taylor, Pierson, and Fuller, divines of the Church of England Baxter and Ca amy, leaders of the Presbyterians ; Algernon sSey, the politidl essayist; Sir Thomas Browne, the physi- ^iln William Penn, the Quaker; Izaak Walton author the "Angler" ; Sir Isaac Newton, mathematician ; Dry den and Wallet poets; Sir Christopher Wren, the architect: Sir Wil- iTaL Temple/the diplomatist; Cudworth, the tiieologian and phLophe'r;' John lunyan, author of "The Pilgum's Pro- gress ; " and Andrew Marvel, the wit. 917 Who succeeded Charles 11. in 1685 ? His brother, the Duke of York, as James II. 0,8. What marked his short reign of three years ? _ The continuation of an arbitrary policy, the increase of the regular army without the sanction of parliament, the employ- mfnt of C-iholics, the persecution of Dissenters, and the re- establishment of the Court of High Commission. 9,9 What especial cruelties signalized the reign ? The fines and executions inflicted by Judge Jeffries, who was made lord chancellor, and of Colonel Kirke. 132 POINTS OF HISTORY. 920. What great criminals suffered ? The Duke of Monmouth and the Earl of Argyle, for trea- son and rebellion. 921. What did James II. obviously aim at besides the restoration of absolute power ? The re-establishment of the Catholic religion. The wliole power of Ireland was entrusted to Catholics, and the great offices of state were taken away from Protestants. 922. What precipitated the ruin of the king ? His attempt to impose a Catholic president on Magdalen College, at Oxford, and the arrest of Protestant bishops who refused to obey his mandates. 923. What prevented his possible arrest, trial, and execution by an outraged nation ? His flight to France, where he was protected by Louis XIY. 924. Who was summoned to occupy the vacant throne ? William Prince of Orange, who had married Mary, daugh- ter of James II. by Anne Hyde. He was also the son of Mary, daughter of Charles I. 925. What was the bequest of the revolution which drove James II. from the throne ? The famous Declaration of Rights, which recapitulated the privileges which had been gained by one hundred and fifty years' contention. 926. What are some of these privileges ? That money could not be lawfully raised to carry on the ENGLISH HISTORY— SEVENTEENTH CENTURY, 1 33 government without the vote of parliament ; that a standing army could not be maintained in time of peace without its consent ; that the people had a right to choose their represen- tatives freely, and that members of parliament had the right of unrestricted debate. 927. What were the first events of importance in the reign of William III. ? The rebellion of Ireland, the war with France, and the dis- cussion of great constitutional questions. 928. What produced the rebellion of Ireland ? The intrigues of James II. to regain his throne. 929. Who headed the Irish rebellion during the reign of William ? The Earl of Tyrconnel, whom Lord Clarendon, as lord- lieutenant, on the Restoration, had made commander-in-chief of the army in Ireland, in order to pacify the Catholics. 930. Whom did William send against Tyrconnel ? Marshal Schomberg, who had distinguished himself in the wars against Louis XIV. But soon after William himself appeared in Ireland, with an army of 24,000 besides the 16,000 under Schomberg. 931. What decided the fate of James II. and the island ? The battle of the Boyne, 1690, followed by the capture of Limerick. 932. What progress did the English make in constitutional liberty during this reign ? The liberty of the press was obtained, the House of Com- mons secured the complete control of the public revenues, 134 POINTS OF HISTORY. judges acquired the right to remain in office during good behavior, and the succession to the throne was forever secured to Protestant princes. 933. What animosities were gradually allayed during this reign ? Those against the Catholics, which had been exceedingly bitter since the Restoration, and which led to great injustice. 934. What chiefly engrossed the attention of the king ? The war with Louis XIY., whom he detested, and w^hom he resolved to humble at any cost. 935. What was the result of the French war? Nothing decisive, although bloody battles were fought both on the sea and on the land. 936. What were the services which William III. rendered to his own country and to England ? He delivered them from Louis XIY., whose ambition was unscrupulous, and he advanced the Protestant cause. 937. What great moneyed institutions were chartered during this reign ? The Bank of England (1694) and the Bank of Scotland. 938. What benevolent institution was established about the same time ? Greenwich Hospital for disabled seamen. 939. What was one of the last acts of William which had great politi- cal importance ? The renewed war against Louis XIV. called the ^' War of the Spanish Succession," 1701, but which he did not live to carry on. He died the next year, in consequence of a fall from liis horse. ENGLISH HISTORY— SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. I35 94c. What distinguished men adorned the reign of William III. ? Sir Isaac Newton, Bisliop Burnet, Archbishop Tillotson, Dr. Bentlej, the great critic, and Dryden, the poet. References.— Clarendon's History of the Rebellion, Carljie's Life of Cromwell, Hume's and Lingard's Histories of England, Macanlay's Essays, Macaulay's History of England, Neals' History of the Puritans, Lives of Bacon, Milton, and Russell's Modern Europe, Life of Newton, Guizot's History of English Revolution, Foster's Lives of the Statesmen of the Commonwealth, Fox's History of James II., Burnet's History of his Own Times, Lord Mahon's History of England, Hallam's Constitutional History, Coxe's Life of Marlborough. CHAPTER XL Continental Eukope in the Eighteenth Century. 941. What event marked the latter days of Louis XIV. ? The war of the Spanish succession, caused by the elevation of a Bourbon prince to the Spanish throne. 942. What were the decisive battles of this v^ar ? The battles of Blenheim (1704), Ramillies (1706), and Mal- plaquet (1709), which resulted in the expulsion of the French from Germany and Flanders. 943. What great generals distinguished themselves in this war ? The Duke ot' Marlborough and Prince Eugene. 944. What was the bequest of Louis XIV. to his successors ? A large national debt, an impoverished country, a deci- mated people, and a tarnished military name. 945. Who succeeded him ? His great grandson, Louis XV., a boy of five years of age, in the year 1717. 946. To whom was the regency of the kingdom entrusted ? The Duke of Orleans, a profligate prince, who complicated the difficulties with which he was surrounded. 947. Who was his prime minister? Cardinal Duljuis, one of the most profligate ecclesiastics in history, who encouraged all kinds of extravagance. EUROPE IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. l^ 948. What noted financier flourished at this time who promised won- derful things to the embarrassed government ? John Law, a Scotch banker, who devised a plan to reduce the national debt. 949. What was his scheme ? The creation of the Mississippi Company, endorsed by the government, the shares of which rose to a fabulous amount, since it promised enormous dividends, from the supposed rich- ness of Louisiana in the precious metals. 950. How did this company reHeve the government ? It was connected with a bank, of which Law was the di- rector, which indefinitely issue 1 notes, secured by the shares of the Mississippi Company. In other words, the national creditor was paid in the notes of the bank, with which he bought shares in the company, which, for some time, continued to rise in value rapidly. 951. What was the upshot of the whole thing ? A scheme to increase the paper currency and supersede the use of gold and silver. The paper currency, or the notes of the bank, was based on the supposed value of the shares of the Mississippi Company, rather than on specie. 952. What was the natural consequence of this delusion ? A great inflation in the value of all kinds of property, from the abundance of paper money, so that everybody felt rich and became extravagant. 953 What broke the spell ? A run on the bank, which was obliged to pay gold and bilver un demand, and was thert;fore broken. 138 POINTS OF HISTORY. 954. What effect had the bursting of the bubble on the people? It filled them with indignation, for they had been cheated by delusive promises, and had lost their investment. When the shares of tlie company were seen to be valueless, the bank was broken, for its wealth was based on these shares, and not on gold and silver. 955. How was the government profited ? It had paid off half of the national debt by the issue of worthless paper money. 956. What great law of political economy was settled by this de- lusion ? That the notes of banks have no value beyond what can be redeemed by gold and silver, or by government bonds in which a nation has confidence. 957. When did the regency of the Duke of Orleans close ? On the death of Cardinal Dubois (1723), when Louis XV. was declared of age. 958. Who ruled France respectably for seventeen years as his prime minister ? Cardinal Fleury, who relieved the government from finan- cial embarrassments, and instituted a peace policy. 959. What memorable quarrel marked his administration ? The controversy between the Jesuits and Jansenists in ref- erence to the doctrines of Grace and Free Will, the old ques- tions discussed by St. Augustine and Pelagius. 960. What great genius entered into this controversy ? Pascal, who had distinguished himself by his "Provincial Letters," in which he ridiculed the casuistry of the Jesuits. EUROPE IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 139 961. What political result had this controversy ? A quarrel between the king and the parliament of Paris, which took the side of the Jansenists. 962. Who succeeded Cardinal Fleury as prime minister ? The Duke of Choiseul, who arose to power by the favor of Madame de Pompadour. 963. Who was Madame de Pompadour ? The prodigal and imperious mistress of Louis XY., who ruled the king and the nation, and virtually appointed all the great public functionaries. 964. What memorable event is connected with the reign of this royal favorite ? The fall of the Jesuits, whom she hated and persecuted. 965. How were they treated ? They were banished from all the countries of Europe where the Bourbons had influence, and the revocation of their order was even decreed by Pope Clement XIV. 966. Of what were the Jesuits accused ? Of interference with political affairs, of casuistry, and of a systematic attempt to fetter the human mind. 967. Who were the great enemies of the Jesuits in league with Madame de Pompadour ? The infidel philosophers of the age, who led the fashiona- ble and learned classes. 968. Who was the most famous of these philosophers ? Voltaire, whose popularity was unparalleled. 140 POINTS OF H J STORY. 969. For what was he distinguished ? For his wit, sarcasm, learning, cynicism, and infidel specula- tions. He was poet, philosophePj historian, and critic. He wrote 200 volumes. 970. In what consists his real excellence ? His transcendent clearness of statement, and marvellous felicity of style. 971. What other remarkable men followed him in savage attacks on religion } Helvetius d'Olback, Marquis Mirabeau, Diderot, and d'Alembert — all men of great eloquence and learning. 972. What still greater men adorned the literature of France in this reign ? Montesquieu, who wrote the " Spirit of Laws," and Kous- seau, who furnished the watchwords of the French Revolution. He blended truth wdth error so plausibly that his writings had a prodigious influence. 973. What military enterprises marked the reign of Louis XV. ? The wars between France and England in reference to colonial possessions, and those which grew out of the seven years' war, and the war of the Austrian succession, which were all interlinked with each other. 974. What was the first war of importance in which the French engaged ? That of the Austrian succession, in which the French were opposed by the English in North America. 975. When did the battle of Fontenoy take place ? In 1745, won by Marshal Saxe over the English ; the only EUROPE IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. I4I success of importance which the French gained in war during this reign, but bahinced by the loss of Louisburgh. 976. When did this war end ? In 1748, by the treaty of Aix la Chapelle, by which the French were stripped of their Flemish conquests. 977. When did the seven years' war commence ? In 1756, caused by the seizure of Silesia by the king of Prussia, which involved all Europe. 978. Who was the king of Prussia ? Frederic II., who became king in 1740, and who signalized his accession to the throne by unexampled robberies, especially from Maria Theresa. 979. Who was Maria Theresa ? The Empress of Germany, and hereditary Queen of Hun- gary and Bohemia, who became empress by virtue of the Praocmatic Sanction. ~h' 980. What was the Pragmatic Sanction ? A law which the Emperor Charles passed, by which his daughter, Maria Theresa, became empress — a claim guaranteed by the leading powers of Europe. 981. What induced Frederic II. to seize Silesia, a province which be- longed to Austria? Passion for military aggrandizement, which has since marked the kings of Prussia. 982. Who were leagued against Frederic II., in order to wrest from Prussia the stolen province of Silesia and restore it to Maria Theresa ? Fiance, Kussia, Sweden, and Saxony. 142 POINTS OF HISTORY. 983. Why did not England join this league ? Because it was hostile to France on account of colonial possessions which it wished to gain. 984. What was the first great battle of the allied forces against Frederic II. ? That of LowositZj in 1756, by which Frederic gained posses- sion of Saxony. 985. What was the next eventful battle? That of Kossbach, in 1757, in which Frederic defeated the French, though double in number. 986. What was the next memorable battle ? That of Leuthen, in which Frederic defeated the Aus- trians. 987. What was the third great battle of the war ? That of Zorndorff, in 1758, in which Frederic defeated the Russians. 988. What was the effect of these great victories ? They gave an imperishable military fame to the Prussian king; but, as the forces against him were still overwhelming, he was forced to fight on the defensive, and was nearly re- duced to despair. 989. What rescued Frederic from his perils ? The death of the Russian empress, Elizabeth, in 1762, and the accession of Peter III., who was an admirer of the Prussian hero. 990. What closed the war ? The peace of Hubertsburg (1763), by which Frederic was enabled to retain Silesia. EUROPE IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 1 43 991. What were the immediate consequences of this war? The exhaustion of Prussia, the humiliation of France, the crippling of Austria, and thfe aggrandizement of England, who rifled the French of their possessions, both in America and the East Indies. 992. What were the ultimate results ? The inauguration of a military policy in Prussia, to which all other interests were made subordinate ; the rise of the mari- time greatness of England ; and the seeds of discontent planted in France, which prepared the way for revolution. 993. What great political crime marked this century ? The partition of Poland between Eussia, Austria, and Prussia. 994. What Polish hero attempted to rescue his country from political ruin? Kosciusko, who for some time held his enemies at bay. 995. What great sovereign reigned in Russia after the death of Peter III. in 1762? Catherine II., a German by birth, memorable for her abili- ties and her vices ; supposed to have murdered her husband, Peter III. 996. What great war did she engage in ? That against the Turks, from 1768 to 1774, in which Turkey lost Wallachia, Moldavia, Bessarabia, and the Crimea, and by which Russia also gained the free navigation of the Black Sea. 997. What distinguished men were her ministers and favorites ? Alexis Orloff and Prince Potemkin, disgraced by every 144 POINTS OF HISTORY. vice, but successful in war. Both received great honors and rewards, and enjoyed great power. 998. What can be said in praise of Catherine II. ? She aggrandized Kussia, pursued an enlightened policy,^ and displayed great executive ability. 1 999. Who gave the first great check to Turkey in this century ? The Russian generals Galitzen, Suwarrow, RomanzofP, Orloff, and Potemkin, who reduced Turkey to a second-class power. 1000. What marked the closing years of the reign of Louis XV. in France ? The disgraceful prodigalities and extravagances of his court, and the general discontent of the nation. looi. What marked this century, until the French Revolution, in a literary point of view ? The comparative absence of men of original genius, espe- cially in Germany. 1002. What state ceased to have political influence in this century .^ Yenice, which for 500 years had been the queen of the Adriatic. Eeferences.— De Tocqueville's Philosophical History of the Reign of Louis XV., Lacretelle's, Martin's, Voltaire's, and Crowe's Histories, Du Pin's Ecclesiastical History, Stephen's Essay on the Port RoyaUsts, Qninet's Fall of the Jesuits, Coxe's House of Aus- tria, Macaulay's Essay on Frederic II., Carlyle's History of Frederic ihe Great, Kohl- rausch's History of Germany, Russell's Modern History, Tooke's Life of Catherine II., Heeren's Modern History, Segur's Vie de Catharine IL, Fletcher's History of Poland, Smyth's Lectures, Coyer' s Vie de Sobieski. CHAPTER XIL England in the Eighteenth Centuby. 1003. Who succeeded William III. in 1702? Queen Anne, daughter of James II. 1004. What especially marked her reign ? The war of the Spanish succession, in which England liumbled the French monarchy. 1005. Who was the great hero of this war on the side of England, after William III. ? The Duke of Marlborough, whose victories at Blenheim, Eamillies, and Malplaquet have already been mentioned, and which laid the foundation of the military power of England. 1006. What may be said of this general? That he was singularly fortunate. He never lost a battle : he was munificently rewarded. He enjoyed great political in- fluence ; he was a popular favorite, but he lost his popularity with the queen and nation by his imperious pride, his venali- ties, and his avarice. 1007. What other great statesman ruled England in this reign ? Lord Godolphin, the prime minister, who carried out the warlike policy of William III. 1008. What political parties divided the nation with their bitter ani- mosities ? The Whigs and Tories, whose names originated during the reign of Charles II. 146 POINTS OF HISTORY. 1009. What were their principles ? The Whigs were the advance or progress party, and sup- ported the war — the Tories were advocates of absohitism and High Church principles ; but both were equally aristocratic^ and led by the great nobles. 1 010. Which party had the ascendency during this reign ? The Whigs at first ; but after the war closed, the Tories ruled at court and in parliament. loii. Who were the Tory leaders who ousted Marlborough, Godol- phin, and Sunderland ? Harley (Earl of Oxford), St. John (Lord Bolingbroke), the Duke of Buckingham, the Earl of Rochester, and Lord Dart- mouth were the most distinguished. 1012. What event contributed to the overthrow of the Whigs ? The impeachment and trial of Dr. Henry Sacheverell, a violent Tory divine, who inculcated passive obedience and the persecution of Dissenters, which doctrines were popular with leading churchmen and with the universities. 1 01 3. What great domestic event marked the reign of Anne ? The imion of Scotland with England, under the name of Great Britain, by which the Scotch were represented in parlia- ment. 1014. What poets adorned this age ? Addison, Swift, Collins, Gay, Pope, Steele, and Arbuthnot were the most distinguished. 1015. What distinguished the " wits of Queen Anne's reign ? " The elegance and polish of their language, and the bitter- ness of their political writings, for which they were rewarded by the great political leaders. ENGLAND IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. I47 1016. By whom was Queen Anne succeeded, in 1714? By George I., Elector of Hanover, grandson of Elizabeth, only daughter of James I. 10 1 7. Which political party did he support ? The "Whigs, to whom the Dukes of Bedford and Devon- shire belonged, as well as many other great nobles. 1018. What was the first event of importance under the new Whig ministry, then headed by Lord Cowper? The invasion of Scotland by the Pretender, Prince James Frederick Edward Stuart, son of James II., supported by the more bigoted of the Tories, called the Jacobin faction. 1 01 9. What great minister ruled the country the greater part of this reign ? Sir Eobert Walpole, afterwards Earl of Orford, a great financial genius. 1020. What famous act of parliament was passed in 1716? The Septennial Act, by w^hich parliament was prolonged from three to seven years, the present term. 1021. What singular mania intoxicated the nation during the admin- istration of Walpole ? The South Sea Company, similar in character to the Mis- sissippi Company, which proved so disastrous in France about the same time. 1022. What was peculiar to this company ? It was a scheme, proposed by Sir John Blount, to make this company the sole national creditor, and which, favored by great monopolies, gave a bonus to the government of seven millions. 148 POINTS OF HISTORY. 1023. How high did the stock rise in the general delusion ? To 1000 per cent, above par v^ilue, since it promised great dividends. But the bubble burst. 1024. What effect did this have on the nation ? It produced general distress and bankruptcy, wliicli were only relieved by the financial genius of Walpole. 1025. What marked the administration of Walpole? Th'? settlement of the national finances, the removal of com- mercial restrictions, and his peace policy — a policy afterwards carried out more fully by Sir Robert Peel and Mr. Gladstone. 1026. What was the effect of this policy ? It gave a great impulse to trade and manufactures, which enriched England. 1027. What disgraced his enlightened administration ? His unblushing and unscrupulous system of bribery, by which he was enabled to carry his measures through parlia- ment. 1028. What great corporation dates to this reign ? The East India Company, incorporated 1708. 1029. What was the first daily newspaper of England ? The Daily Coiirant^ 1709, the same year that the Tatler was published by Steele. 1030. What literary and scientific men gave lustre to this reign ? Bentley, the critic and scholar, Eolingbroke, Sir Isaac Newton. 1 03 1. What distinguished man was prosecuted for corruption in this reign ? Lord Chancellor Macclesfield, who was disgraced and fined £30,000. ENGLAND IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. I49 1032. When did George II. succeed to the throne? In 1727, the year that Sir Isaac Newton died. 1033. Who was his prime minister ? Sir Robert Walpole, who ruled England for thirty years. 1034. What religious movement took place near the close of his memorable administration ? The rise of the Methodists, from the preaching of Wesley and Whitefield. 1035. What made Wesley a great reformer ? His great piety and eloquence, and his marvellous power as an administrator and organizer. He was originally a clergy- man of the Church of England. He was the author of the ecclesiastical polity of the Methodists. 1036. What marked the clergy of the Church of England at this period ? Great religious indifference. They were worldly, and given to fox-hunting and convivial pleasures with country squires. 1037. What marked the Dissenters ? The Independents had become Arminian, and the Presby- terians were inclined to Socinianism. 1038. What is meant by Arminianism ? Opposition to Calvinism in regard to Grace, Predestina- tion, and Free Will. It was not a sect but a doctrine, advo- cated by Arminius, a celebrated Dutch theologian, and bore great resemblance to the Pelagianism which St. Augustine had combated. 150 POINTS OF HISTORY. 1039. What was Socinianism ? Also a system of theological doctrines, the most marked of which repudiated the divinity of Christ. In our times the Socinians are called Unitarians. 1040. What marked English society in general during the reigns of George I. and II. ? A laxity of morals and indifference to the great questions which had agitated the preceding century. 1041. What great man in America gained distinction during the administration of Walpole ? Benjamin Franklin, who published his "Poor Richard's Almanack " in 1732. 1042. What great American divine flourished about this time ? Jonathan Edwards, the most able and logical of all the American divines, distinguished for his metaphysical divin- ity, one of the peculiarities of Puritan theology. 1043. What was the condition of the American colonies when Frank- lin commenced his career ? The inhabitants were chiefly agriculturists, with small for- tunes and good morals, ruled by provincial governors — a body of men attached to their families and towns, and well grounded in the fundamental principles of religion and liberty 1044. Who succeeded Sir Robert Walpole, in 1742, in the government of England i Lord Granville for a short time, and then Henry Pelham, and his brother, the Duke of Newcastle, who headed a great coalition of political leaders, both Whig and Tory. ENGLAND IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 15I 1045. For what is the Pelham administration memorable ? For the attempt of the Young Pretender, Charles Edward, to recover the throne of his ancestors. 1046. What was the result of the Scotch rebellion, 1745 ? The signal defeat of the Pretender, at Culloden, by the Duke of Cumberland. 1047. What ultimately became of the exiled family of the Stuarts ? The Pretender, Charles Edward, died in Rome, 1788 ; and the last male heir of the house, the Cardinal of York, died at Rome, 1807. 1048. What was the next event of importance in the history of Eng- land under George II. } The great war begun by Sir Robert Walpole, called the " War of the Austrian Succession," w^hich ultimately involved the European powers, and led to a sanguinary contest be- tween France and England. 1049. What misfortunes had the English ? The defeat of General Braddock in America, and the fail uTe of the attack on Fort Du Quesne, near Pittsburgh. 1050. What had these distant military operations in America to do with the war between France and England ? Both kingdoms had extensive colonial settlements in America, and it was maintained that the French encroached on the English colonies, with a view of possessing the whole of ISTortli America. 105 1. What was the result of military operations on the continent of Europe between the French and English ? The defeat of the English by Marshal Saxe, at Fontenoy 152 POINTS OF HISTORY, (1745), over the Duke of Cumberland, the subjugation of the Austrian Netherlands by the French, and the disgraceful fail- ure of Admiral Byng to relieve Minorca, which was captured by the French, 1756. 1052. What was the result of these unfortunate military operations in America and the Netherlands ? They made the Pelham ministry unpopulai, and compelled a change. 1053. Who succeeded the Duke of Newcastle in the government of Great Britain, 1756? William Pitt, really, though the Duke of Devonshire was nominally premier. 1054. What marked the government of Pitt ? Exceeding vigor and ability. Louisburg was taken by General Amherst, Fort Du Quesne was abandoned, and Gen- eral Wolfe captured Quebec, which led to the complete con- quest of Canada and the ruin of the French cause in America. 1055. What other successes attended the English arms? Conquests in the East Indies, by which the French were despoiled of their settlements, and the English power was finally settled on the Ganges, by Clive and Hastings. 1056. What men gave the greatest impulse to human thought in Eng- land during the reign of George II. ? Bishop Butler, author of the " Analogy," and Berkeley, the idealist. 1057. Who inaugurated a new era in fiction ? The novelists De Foe, Smollett, Richardson, and Fielding. ENGLAND IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 1 53 1058. Who succeeded George II., in 1760? George III., soon after the victories of the English in Canada. 1059. What was the condition of England on his accession ? Great political and commercial prosperity. The peace of Paris, 1763, which closed the seven years' war, established the naval supremacy of England. 1060. Who was the prime minister of George III. on his accession ? William Pitt, who, however, resigned the following year, and became Earl of Chatham. 1 06 1. Who succeeded Pitt? Lord Bute, who did nothing memorable, except to make peace with France. He was succeeded two years after by George Grenville. 1062. What marked the administration of Grenville ? The prosecution of Wilkes for a libel on the government, and a scheme to tax the American colonies. 1063. What gave to the prosecution of Wilkes so much political im- portance ? Because it was a virtual struggle between the people, who elected him to Parliament, and the House of Commons, who rejected him. 1064. What was the moral effect of the quarrel between Wilkes and the House of Commons ? The commencement of public meetings and their influ- ence on English politics, and the increase of the power of the press. 154 POINTS OF HISTORY. 1065. What was the political result of the persecution of Wilkes? It was so unpopular that it contributed to the resignation of Grenville, and Lord Eockingham became prime minister. 1066. What other political event led to the fall of Grenville ? The Stamp Act, which Grenville devised as a precedent to tax the colonies. 1067. What was the effect of the Stamp Act in America ? It created great disturbances, for the colonies would not submit to taxation without a representation of their interests in parliament. 1068. What great English statesman opposed the Stamp Act? Edmund Burke, who gained great eclat, and became the leader of the opposition. 1069. What marked the Rockingham administration ? The repeal of the Stamp Act, 1766. 1070. Who succeeded the Marquis of Rockingham as prime minister? The Duke of Grafton, 1767, although Mr. Pitt, recently created Earl of Chatham, was virtually prime minister. 1 07 1. What marked the administration of the Duke of Grafton ? The imposition of new taxes on the colony, in the shape of offensive duties, which produced renewed disturbances. 1072. What was the consequence of these disturbances in England ? They led to the fall of the Duke of Grafton's ministry, 1770, who was succeeded by Lord North. 1073. What marked his ministry ? The repeal of the obnoxious duties, except that on tea, ENGLAND IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 1 55 which he retained to show the right of England to tax America. 1074. What resulted from this determination of the government to tax America ? Kenewed disturbances, popular riots, indignation meetings, revolutionary orations, and the violent measure of throwing overboard 342 chests of tea in Boston Harbor. 1075. Who fanned the revolutionary spirit, of marked eloquence? Patrick Henry, of Virginia, John Adams, Josiah Quincy, and James Otis. 1076. Who opposed the measures of Lord North in England ? Edmund Burke, the Earl of Chatham, Lord Camden, Colonel Barre, and Charles J. Fox, but without effect. 1077. What measures did the government then take ? It declared the colonies in a state of rebellion, and at- tempted to coerce them. 1078. What then resulted ? The battle of Lexington, 19th of April, which opened the Kevolutionary War, and led to the meeting of Congress, or the delegates from the thirteen States, and the appointment of George Washington as commander-in-chief. 1079. What was the next important battle of the Revolutionary War ? That of Bunker Hill, 17th of June, 1775, which led, on 00th sides, to great military preparations. 1080. What marked the first campaign of 1775 ? The unsuccessful invasion of Canada, under General Mont- gomery and Benedict Arnold. 156 POINTS OF HISTORY. 1 08 1. What marked the campaign of 1776 ? The evacuation of Boston by the English, under General Howe, the occupation of New York and Long Island, and the battles of Trenton and Princeton. 1082. What was the great event of the year, and of the century ? The Declaration of Independence, 4th of July, which sur- prised Great Britain and cemented the union of the colonies. 1083. What events of importance marked the campaign of 1777 ? The arrival of the Marquis of Lafayette, the evacuation of the Jerseys, the battles of Bennington and Brandywine, the capture of Philadelphia by the British, and the surrender of General Burgoyne to General Gates at Saratoga, which proved the impossibihty of England conquering America with what forces she could command, as predicted by Burke. 1084. What v^as the condition of the American army after their great success ? Great sufferings at Yalley Forge, near Philadelphia, for lack of clothing and provisions, and the dissensions and jeal- ousies of the American generals. 1085. What marked the campaign of 1780? The treason of Benedict Arnold, who sought to deliver West Point to the enemy, and the battle of Camden, gained by Lord Cornwallis over Gates. 1086. What event practically settled the war ? The surrender of Lord Cornwallis, at Yorktown, in the next campaign of 1781. 1087. When did the war close ? In 1783, when peace was declared, which led to the resig- I ENGLAND IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 1 5/ nation of Lord Korth, and intense national humiliation on the part of England, and equally intense enthusiasm on the part of the United States. 1088. What constituted the great merit of Washington in his defence of American liberties ? His wonderful sagacity, intrepid moral courage, consum- mate prudence, lofty patriotism, profound wisdom, and trans- cendent dignity of character. 1089. By whom was he most ably supported ? By the great patriotic orators of Congress, and Generals Gates, Green, Lincoln, Lee, Steuben, but most of all, by his aid-de-camp, Alexander Hamilton, whose intellectual resources were unbounded. 1090. Who rendered important services to the American cause by his financial genius ? Robert Morris, of Philadelphia — a wealthy Quaker. 1091. What aid did Benjamin Franklin render? His encouragement and diplomatic skill as minister to the courts of St. James and Yersailles. 1092. Who were among the most eminent statesmen that asserted the cause of liberty ? Franklin, Adams, Jefferson, Jay, Pinckney, Quincy, Han- cock, Henry, Morris, Laurens. 1093. What noted events in the domestic history of England took place during the administration of Lord North ? The efforts of John Howard in j^rison reform, the suicide of Lord Clive, the voyage of Captain Cook, the death of the Earl of Chatham, great improvements in the art of spinning cotton, the anti-Popery riots, headed by Lord Gordon. 158 POINTS OF HISTORY. ~ 1094. What important military events marked this administration, beside the American revolutionary war ? The conquests of Warren Hastings in India. ,«| 1095. Who succeeded Lord North as prime minister? The Marquis of Rockingham, who made Burke paymaster ^of the forces, and Charles Fox foreign secretary, and Sheridan under secretary of state, but who died in a few months. 1096. Who succeeded him ? Lord Shelburne, who was soon after succeeded by Pitt, at the age of twenty-four, 1783 — the youngest statesman who ever held the reins of government in England as minister — a prodigy of talent and precocity. 1097. What first made the ministry of Pitt memorable? The India Bill, which gave the political control of East Indian affairs to the ministry, instead of the East India Com- pany, under whose auspices the victories of Clive and Hastings liad been gained, by injustice, cnielty, and treachery. 1098. What were the services of Hastings ? He rescued the possessions of the East India Company from Hyder Ali, the Mohammedan sovereign of Mysore, the most vigorous and powerful enemy that England ever encountered in the East, and added to the wealth and dominion of the company. 1099. What political crimes did he commit in order to compass hi3 end ? He robbed Benares, the sacred city of India, and one of the richest cities of the East, and took possession of its territories. He also robbed the Princesses of Oude, by which he was en- abled to carry on successful war on the Carnatic, and establish the British ascendency in the Indian peninsula. • ENGLAND IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 1 59 1 100. What was the effect of the iniquities of Hastings on the EngHsh ? They excited great indignation, and lie was impeached at the bar of the House of Lords. His trial took place in West- minster Hall. iioi. Who conducted the prosecution ? Edmund Burke, one of the greatest and most upright statesmen of modern times, assisted by Charles James Fox, and Kichard Brinsley Sheridan. 1 102. What was the result of this famous trial, which lasted eight years ? Hastings was acquitted, in consequence of his services and the assistance of the East India Company, and the apathy of men in power, and the private sympathies of George III. 1 103. What was the moral effect of the trial ? It opened the eyes of the nation to the greed, unscrupu- lousness, and enormities of the East India Company, and led to the transfer of its political power to the hands of a board of control and a board of directors, appointed mainly by the government and the governor-general, 1784. 1 104. Who became the first governor-general under the new con stitution ? Lord Cornwallis, sent to India in 1786. 1 105. What marked his government ? War with Tippoo Saib, son of Hyder Ali, who lost half of his dominions, and four million pounds sterling. 1 106. Who succeeded Lord Cornwallis? Sir John Shore, and he by the Marquis of Wcllesley, who l6o POINTS OF HISTORY. defeated Tippoo, and took possession of the Southern pen- insula. 1 107. What subsequent war established British power in India ? A war with the Mahratta powers, in which Delhi, the capital of the great Mogul, fell into the hands of the English. 1 108. What great subject was agitated in England about this time ? , That of the abolition of the slave trade, advocated with great eloquence by Wilberforce, who introduced a motion into the House of Commons for its abolition, in 1787. 1 109. What other great measure was brought forward about this time ? A bill by Pitt for parliamentary reform, which, however, failed. mo. Wherein consisted the peculiar genius of Pitt? His financial skill, only paralleled by that of Alexander Hamilton in America. nil. What was one of his great financial measures? To remove restriction of trade between England and Ireland, by which the latter country had been impoverished, 1784. 1 112. What other financial measure had a great commercial value? His treaty of commerce with France in 1787, which abol- ished import duties. 1 1 13. From what great man did Pitt learn his financial and commer- cial wisdom ? t Adam Smith, educated at Oxford, and afterwards professor at Glasgow. \ ENGLAND IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. l6l 1 1 14. What was his great work, which revolutionized the science of political economy ? His " Wealth of I^ations," published 1776, one of the most remarkable books of modern times, in which the author showed that the source of wealth was labor and industry, rather than precious metals, and that labor should be free and unrestricted. 11 15. What great inventions took place in England a little before this period, which greatly added to her wealth ? That of the spinning-machine, in 1768, by Arkwright ; of the spinning- jenny, in 1764, by Hargreaves ; and of the mule, by Compton, in 1776. 1 1 16. What was the effect of these improvements in weaving ? They turned Lancashire into a hive of industry. 1 1 17. What other contemporaneous inventions added to the wealth of England ? The potteries of Staffordshire, established by Wedgwood in 1763. 1 1 18. What great internal improvements marked England at this time ? A series of canals, which joined the Trent with the Mereey, the Thames with the Trent, the Forth with the Clyde ; also a great improvement in post-roads. 1 1 19. What was the most wonderful invention of all? The discovery of the power of steam by Watt, in 1765. 1 120. What great political agitation marked the ministry of Pitt? 'That which grew out of the French Revolution, causing riots and disturbances, the chief of which were those of Bir- mingham, during which Dr. Priestley greatly suffered. l62 POINTS OF HISTORY. 1 121. Who was Dr. Priestley? A dissenting minister, distinguished chiefly for his philo- sophical writings, and for his discoveries in natural science. 1 122. What eminent actor was his contemporary } Garrick, the ornament of the British stage. 1 1 23. Who was remarkable as a painter at this time.? Sir Joshua Reynolds, whose portraits are still greatly admired. 1 1 24. Who was the most remarkable man in the field of literature during the early part of the administration of Pitt ? Samuel Johnson, wliose greatest work was an English dic- tionary. He was also poet, essayist, biographer, and moralist, and liad great individuality of character. 1 125. Who was the best poet of this period ? Probablv Oliver Goldsmith, whose " Deserted Yillage " is an immortal production. 1 1 26. What still greater man than either of these was a member of the Turk's Head Club } Edmund Burke, whose greatest claim to immortality is his " Reflections on the French Revolution," published in 1790, in which he preached a crusade against the revolutionists. 1 1 27. What other memorable authors were contemporary with Gold- smith and Johnson ? Bishop Lowth, author of " Hebrew Poetry," and Paley, author of Moral Philosophy. 1 1 28. What policy did Pitt pursue in reference to French affairs ? That of conciliation and peace ; but he was at length forced into war, in 1793. ENGLAND IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 1 63 1 1 29. What important embassy was sent to China on the breaking out of the war ? That of Lord Macartney, which was unsuccessful. 1 1 30. What important accession to the British empire in Africa about this time ? The capture of the Cape of Good Hope, by Admiral El- phinstone, 1795. 1 131. What great naval victory shed glory on England in 1797 ? That of J^elson over the Spaniards off Cape St. Yincent. 1 132. What general shed lustre on the British arms in India ? Lord Wellesley. 1 133. What venerable man died the last year of this century? George Washington. References.— Lord Mahon's History of England, Coxe's Memoirs of Walpole, Boling broke's State of Parties, Coxa's History of the Pelham Administration, Horace w'alpole's Reminiscences, Jesse's Memoirs of the Pretenders, Ray's Bistory of the Rebellion Wal- pole's Memoirs of George II., Doddiiigton's Diary, Elphinstone's and Mill's Histories of India, Macaulay's Essays on Clive and Hastings, Tomline's Life of Pitt, Belsham's History of George III., Walpole's Life of Fox, Annual Register, Schlosser's Modern History Moore's Life of Sheridan, Burke's Works. CHAPTEK XIII. The French Revolution, and Napoleon Bonaparte. 1134. In what year did Louis XVI. succeed to tiie throne of France ? The year 1774, when he was nineteen years of age, hav- ing married Marie Antoinette, daughter of Maria Theresa, of Austria. 1 135. What was the legacy he inherited from his grandfather, Louis XV.? A debt of four thousand million livres, probably equal to about $2,000,000 in our time. 1 1 36. What other difficulties was he compelled to meet? The discontents of his subjects, fanned by the infidel phi- losophers and political economists. 1 1 37. Who was his first prime minister? Count Maurepas, an old courtier, who was far from com- prehending the situation of public affairs. 1 138. Who succeeded Maurepas, whom the people clamored the king to dismiss ? Turgot, who desired to effect reforms, but was not able. 1 1 39. What great man co-operated with Turgot in aiming at re- forms ? Necker, the finance minister, a banker from Geneva. 1 140. What baffled these reformers ? The annual deficit, on account of the expenses of the court " i THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 1 65 and army, and general mismanagement, and above all the op- position of the nobles, so that Turgot was compelled to resign, and Calonne succeeded him. 1 141. How did he perform his difficult tasks ? By adopting substantially the plans of Turgot, which were those of reform ; so that he, although previously in the interests of the aristocracy, raised a storm of execration from tlie privi- leged orders, so that he too was obliged to resign. 1 142. What then stared the nation in the face ? National bankruptcy and general disintegration. 1 143. What remedy was proposed as a last resort ? The convocation of the States-general, or the meeting of the three estates — the nobles, the clergy, and the representatives of the people. 1 144. Who was minister when this meeting was definitely fixed ? !N^ecker, whom the king was compelled to recall — an able financier, but not great enough for tlie public exigencies. 1 145. What controversy distracted the nation in reference to the meeting of the States-general ? Whether the States-general, which had not been assembled for 200 years, should meet, as before, in three separate cham- bers, or form a single assembly, in which the third estate should have a double number of votes. 1 146. What side did Necker favor ? That the third estate should have a double number of votes, but he was silent on the main question. 1 147. When did the States-general, composed of 1,200 persons, meet ? The fifth of May, 1789 — the inauguration of an immense future, to which the revolution dates. 1 66 POINTS OF HISTORY. 1 148. What was the first blunder on the part of the ministers of the crown ? Thej should have imperatively decided how the assembly should meet, but this question they left to the three estates. 1 149. And what was the result ? A long strife between the three estates, which ended in the assumption of the third estate that this body composed the representatives of the nation alone. 1 1 50. On whom rests the responsibility of cutting the knot ? The Abbe Sieyes, deputy from Paris, a theoretical politician. " We," said he, "represent ninety-six parts of the whole nation : the people is sovereign ; we, therefore, as its representatives, constitute ourselves as a national representation." 1 1 51. What did this declaration practically amount to ? Open war between theoretical principles and existing rights and institutions. 1 1 52. Who was the great original oracle and propounder of these theoretical principles ? Rousseau, who advocated in his " Social Contract," that the majority cannot err and ought to rule, and that what is not supported by reason should no longer exist. 1 1 53. What great statesman looms up, at this time, in the history of France ? Mirabeau, a nobleman by birth, but who abjured his rank to become a deputy of the three estates. 1154. What were his views in this crisis of affairs ? An abolition of feudal privileges and a new form of gov- ernment, but to be effected in a constitutional way, and in THE FRENCH RE VOL U TION. I (>^ furtherance of public order. His principles were radical, but his mode was conservative. 1 155. What did he propose to Necker .? Co-operation in reform ; but his overtures were rejected, since I^ecker, the prime minister, was envious of his talents, and detested his private character, sullied by imprudence and crimes. 1 1 56. What was the result of the commons decreeing themselves as the national assembly, which was an open usurpation and defiance of the rights of the nobles and clergy } A series of revolutionary decrees, or laws, which swept away the old regime. 1 1 57. By whom was the national assembly sustained? By the people of Paris, and various revolutionary clubs, whose violence destroyed the power of the government, and produced a general demoralization, which reached even to the army. 1 1 58. What great act of violence opened the revolution ? The destruction of the Bastille, a state prison fortress, by the people, the garrison making no proper defence. 1 1 59. What followed this violence ? The flight of 'many of the nobles from France, a general panic throughout France, and the formation of a National Guard, on the proposal of Mirabeau, at the head of which was placed La Fayette. 1 1 60. What was the first most important revolutionary measure on the part of the national assembly ? The abolition of feudalism. In one night the assembly 1 68 POINTS OF HISTORY. decreed the abolition of serfdom, the suppression of imperial jurisdiction, the redemption of tithes, the equality of taxes, the suppression of pensions, and the admission of all citizens to civil and military employments. It then proceeded to abol- ish the law of primogeniture, all armorial bearings, all honorary titles, all appellations of rank. 1161. What did the assembly attack next? The clergy. It confiscated the church property, which produced a yearly revenue of 1,800,000 livres. 1 162. What was the plea for the confiscation of the church property, the gift of kings and bishops and nobles for several centuries ? That it belonged to the nation, and therefore that the rep- resentatives of the nation had a right to dispose of it, in accord- ance with the doctrines of Rousseau, and the suggestion ot reason. 1 163. If this plea could be sustained, what doctrine logically follows? That the property of all charitable institutions, all colleges, and all churches may be confiscated lawfully, when money is needed by the state. 1164. What next occupied the attention of the assembly? The formation of a constitution which should limit or abolish royal authority, which led to the formation of three great parties. 1 165. What was the most powerful of these parties, at first? The Girondists, or the centre — men who advocated radical reforms, but not by violence. 1 166. What party gradually got the ascendency ? The left — the extreme men, as led by Hobespierre. THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 169 1 167. Who controlled the left? The clubs of the Palais Royal, in which figured the most violent and bloody politicians of the day, led by Danton and Marat, and which virtually became all powerful, since they intimidated the assembly. 1 168. What position had Mirabeau in the work of revolution ? The very highest. He led the assembly. He was the greatest statesman of the revolution. Had he lived he might have saved France, but he died in 1791, worn out with ex- cesses and labors. 1 169. Who was Talleyrand ? Bishop of Autun, one of the leaders of the revolution, afterwards a great diplomatist. He celebrated high mass at the Champ de Mars, in 1790, at the great national federation — that imposing mockery, when the king was made to swear to the new constitution. 1 170. What, then, was the state of France at the close of the year 1791 ? Anarchy, soon succeeded by violence and crime. 1 171. When did Necker resign ? In 1790, unable to stem the excesses which had deprived the king of executive power. 1 172. What great folly did the king commit in 1791 ? He attempted to fly from his kingdom and join the Bour- bon princes at Coblentz and Worms,^with a view of conquer- ing the revolution. 1 173. What great events marked the year 1792 ? The invasion of France by Prussia, the deposition and im- 170 POINTS OF HISTORY. prisonment of Louis XYI., the victories of Dumonriez over the invaders of France, the ascendency of the Jacobin orators, and the abolition of the monarchy. 1 1 74. What marked the year 1793? War with England, trial and death of Louis XYL, coalition of European powers against France, institution of a committee of public safety with absolute power, the reign of terror, and the execution of Marie Antoinette. 1 175. Who were the monsters that ruled France at this time? Robespierre, Danton, and Marat, the last of whom was assassinated by Charlotte Corday. ~ 1 1 76. What marked the year 1794 in France? Disgust of the nation in view of the excesses of the reign of terror, and a reaction, followed by the execution of Robes- pierre, Danton, and Camille Desmoulins, with seventy-one others of his party. 1 1 77. What marked the history of France in 1795 ? The end of the reign of terror, the inauguration of a new constitution, the reign of five directors, of whom Barras and Carnot were the most influential, and the defence of Paris en- trusted to I^apoleon Bonaparte, who had distinguished himself at the siege of Toulon, in 1793. 1 178. What marked the year 1796? The victories of Xapoleon in Italy, to the army of which he had been appointed general-in-chief by the directory. 1 179. What great treaty established peace in 1797 ? The treaty of Campo Formio, October 17th, by which Venice was ceded to Austria, the Ionian Isles and the Nether- THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. I /I lands to France, and which enabled Kapoleon, after two bril- liant campaigns, to return to Paris. 1 1 80. What marked the year 1798? The Egyptian campaign of Napoleon, and the defeat of his fleet by Lord Is"elson. 1 181. What took place in 1799, of great political importance? The return of I^^apoleon from Egypt, and the coup d'etat which changed the government, and made Napoleon first consul. 1 182. What was the sequence of the French Revolution ? The establishment of a military dictatorship under Na- poleon. 1 183. What was the great error of the revolution ? The attempt to secure reform by violence, instead of con- stitutional resistance. 1 184. What were the great crimes of the revolution ? The deposition, trial, and execution of the king ; the spo- liation of the clergy, and excesses of the reign of terror, which led to the decimation of the nobility, and the cruel execution of some of the best men in France, including Condorcet and Lavoisier, the chemist. 1 185. What were the follies of the revolution ? The inexperience of the new legislators, and the formation- of constitutions which were based on impracticable theories, un- supported by and hostile to human experience. The greatest absurdity w^as the dream of liberty before the nation was fit for it. 172 POINTS OF HISTORY. 1 1 86. What were some of the substantial and permanent benefits of the French Revolution ? The awful warning to wicked and tyrannical governments, the abolition of feudal distinctions and privileges, the cur- tailment of the power of the clergy, and a preparation, through blood and slaughter, for free institutions. 1 187. What is the upshot of the whole matter ? That sanguine reformers pursued a good end with bad means, so that the experiment of liberty failed. 1 1 88. What eminent men in France adorned the age in spite of the general wickedness and misery ? JSTecker, the financier; Turgot, the statesman; Condorcet, the philosopher ; the Marquis de la Fayette ; Buffon, the natu- ralist ; David and Yernet, painters ; Lavoisier, the chemist ; the Abbe Eaynal, philosopher; Lavater, the natural philosopher. In 1799 La Place commenced the publication of the " Meca- nique Celeste," and Cuvier his " Comparative Anatomy." 1 189. What noted invention took place in 1783 } The use of stereotype plates in printing. 1 1 90. What other inventions marked the close of the century ? The introduction of gas and of vaccination, and the extrac- tion of sugar from the beet root. 1 191. What great German authors flourished at the close of the century ? Kotzebue, the dramatist ; Wieland, Schiller, Goethe, Zim- ' mermann, and Kant, the philosopher. 1 1 92. What politically marked the close of the eighteenth century ? The victories and ascendency of I^apoleon, the brilliant THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 173 administration of William Pitt, the great career of Nelson, English conquests in India, the increase of the power of Russia, the extinction of Poland, the fall of the Italian republics, the death of Catherine IL, of Burke and Washington, and the pro- motion of the Marquis of Wellesley, afterwards Duke of Wel- lington. 1 193. What marked the close of the century in a literary and moral point of view ? The great revival of learning in Germany, and educational and philanthropic movements in England, and a reaction to the infidel philosophy of Prance. 1 1 94. What great female writer arose to distinction at the close of the century ? Madame de Stael, hated and persecuted by Napoleon. 1 195. What was the first act of importance performed by Napoleon as first consul ? He made overtures of peace to Great Britain, which were rejected. He was forced to continue hostilities, and against a coalition of powerful states. 1 196. What was the probable desire of Napoleon in proposing peace ? To develop the resources of Prance and promote public tranquillity. 1 1 97. What services did Napoleon render, as first consul, to his country ? He appointed able and experienced men to places of trust and responsibility, restored the credit of the country, released priests from confinement, rebuked the fanaticisms of the ultra revolutionists, restored the right to dispose of property by will, instituted the Bank of Prance on sound financial principles, 174 POINTS OF HISTORY. brought to a close the war of La Yendee, and guaranteed liberty to all who did not oppose the government. Nor did he seek to restore those old privileges of feudalism which the revolution had abolished. 1 198. What verdict, then, will posterity pass on Napoleon as first consul ? That he ruled ably, and for tlie good of France. 1 1 99. What was the result of his being forced into war by England and her allies ? Another brilliant campaign, marked by the passage over the Alps and the victory of Marengo, June 14, 1800, one of the most decisive of the battles of Napoleon. I2QO. What were the results of this series of victories ? The recovery of Italy, the possession of Belgium by France, and of the whole left bank of the Rhine. 1 201. What famous treaty guaranteed to France both peace and aggrandizement ? That of Amiens, March, 1802, which left Napoleon in the proudest position which it has been the destiny of any mortal to fill in these our modern times. 1202. What followed the peace of Amiens ? Yast internal improvements for the improvement of France, whose limits were now bounded by the Ocean, the Pyrenees, the Alps, and the Ehine. 1203. What were some of these improvements? The Simplon across the Alps, a work of great engineering skill ; the cultivation of the beet root and tobacco, the improve- ment of education, the construction of fortresses, navies, and canals. THE FRENCH REVOLUTION, 175 1204. What did he effect for religion ? He made a treaty with the Pope, restored the old religious institutions, and reseated the bishops in their dioceses. 1205. What did he do in the way of legislation ? He gave the Code Napoleon, which has been universally admired as a monument of enhghtened intellect. 1206. What would probably have been the destiny of France had Napoleon been contented with the office of first consul, given to him for life by a vote of the French people of 3,368,000 out of 3,557,ooo ? France probably would have remained to this day the most powerful nation in Europe, and would have vindicated her revolution. 1207. What great crime or blunder did Napoleon commit as first consul ? The assassination of the Duke d'Enghien, March, 1804— the only member of the Bourbon family he feared. 1208. What was the result of this murder? It aroused the jealousy and hatrec' of the European monarchs and led to another coalition aga^ ^t France. • 1209. In the mean time, what other folly did ipoleon commit, which intensified the fears of Europe, and revealed his .n .rdinate ambition ? He caused himself to be crowned Emperor of the French, 18th of May, 1801, in great pomp at Notre Dame, by the Pope himself. 1 210. What was one of his first acts as emperor? The creation of eighteen marshals of France, all famous generals. 1^6 POINTS OF HISTORY. 121 1. What daring scheme did he meditate, after a new coalition had been formed against him ? The invasion of England with an army of 114,000 men, splendidly equipped. 1 21 2. What foiled this enterprise? The vigilance of the British navy, then composed of more than 120 ships of the line, besides other ships. 1213. Frustrated in this attempt, what plan did Napoleon conceive? The campaign on the banks of the Danube, against the Austrians. 1 214. What great victory did Napoleon win ? The battle of Austerlitz, December 2, 1805, against the Archduke Charles, the most brilliant of all his victories. 1 21 5. What were the results of this famous battle ? The humiliation of Austria, and great discouragement to England, which so affected Pitt that lie died prematurely, at the age of forty-seven. 1216. What victory, gained October 21, 1805, was an offset to the battle of Austerlitz ? The naval ba e of Trafalgar, won by Lord Nelson over the French and >anish, the most brilliant naval battle of modern times. 1217. What happened to the victor? He was killed, but obtained a nation's gratitude; and his brother, who inherited his title, was created an earl, with £6,000 a year and an estate worth £100,000. 1 218. What great victory followed the battle of Austerlitz ? That of Jena, gained over the Prussians, 14th of October, THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 1 77 1806, which led to the occupancy of Berlin, and the humilia- tion of Prussia, and the levying of enormous contributions for the expenses of the war. 1 2 19. What other great battle was fought by Napoleon ? That of Eylau, Sth of February, 1807, against the Eussians, in which 50,000 were slain. 1220. What followed these great victories over the Austrians, the Prussians, and the Russians ? The peace of Tilsit, July 8, 1807, made in person between Napoleon, the Emperor of Russia, and the King of Prussia, on the river Niemen. 1 22 1. What was the position of Napoleon after the peace of Tilsit ? The proudest that mortal man ever filled. He w^as the arbiter of Europe, regarded now as invincible. He returned to Paris to reign in all the pomp of ancient kings, with all Europe at his feet, in fear or admiration. 1222. What was the effect of all these glories on the mind of Napo- leon ? He w^as dazzled by his position, powder, and the universal homage paid to him. His brain reeled. He seated his brothers on the old thrones of Europe. He assumed a tone and manner of unbearable arrogance and insolence. He insulted in turn the other monarchs of Europe. He looked upon himself as irresistible. He concentrated in Paris the spoils of conquered countries. 1223. What passion now seemed to guide his life ? A desire to build up a universal empire. The ruling prin- ciple of his life seems to have been egotism, not patriotism ; not the nation's welfare, but his own glory and aggrandize- ment. 178 POINTS OF HISTORY. ^ 1224. In the midst of this glory and intoxication, what great mistal 235. Franklin, Sir John, 258. Frederic, 70. Frederic Augustus, 118. Frederic Charles, 223. Frederic II., 72, 141. Frederic III., 118. Frederic William, 223. Frederic William IV., 202. Fredericksburg, 263. Free Church, 206. Free Trade, 207. Frobisher, 96. Froude, 106. Frolic, 241. Froissart, 223. Fugitive Slave Law, 257, 431. Galen, 45, 47. Galileo, 120. Gall, 198. Gall, St. 64. Galvanism, 191. Galitzin, 144. Gambetta. 224. Garner, 88. Garrison, 249. Garter, 76. Garibaldi, 230. Gaunt, John of, 82. Garrick, 162. Gates, 156. Gauls, 27. Gautama, 5. Gay, 146. George I., 147. George II., 152, 186. George III., 152. Geneva Conference, 215. Genseric, 52. Germany, 52. Germanic Barbarians, 44. Germanicus, 44. Gerson, 79. Gettysburg, 265. Ghibellines, 68. Giotto, 75. Girondists, 168. Gladiatorial Shows, 42. Gladstone, 204, 210, 212, 217, INDEX. 283 Glastonbury, 64. Godfrey, 68. Godolphin, 145. Goethe, 172, 198. Gold Discoverers, 209, 25^ Golden Fleece, 86. ^Goldsmith, 162. Goodrich, 187. Gordon, 157. Gortschakoff, 227, 232. Goths, 50. Graham, 206. Granicus, 19. Granville, 150, 212, 214. Grafton, 154. Grant, 263, 264. Great Britain, 146. Greene, 157. Greek Revolution, 157. Greek Dramatic Poets, il. Greenwich Hospital, 134. Gregory the Great, 55. Gregory VII., 62, 63, 67. Gregory XIII.. 233. Gregorian Chant, 55. Greenville, 153, 183. Gresham, 96. Grey, 189. Grote. 204, 218. Guadaloupe, 255. Guatemala, 195. Grotius, 129. Guelph, 68. Guerriere, 241. Guizot, 198, 199, 200. Guiscard, 63. Guise, 97. Gundicar, 57. Gunpowder, 75. Gunpowder Plot, 121. Gutenburg, 62. Gustavus Adolphus, 104. H. Habeas Corpus, 130. Hadrian, 47. Hague, no. Hale, 126. Hall, 141. Halleck, 263. Haman, 229. Hamilcar, 30, 157, 160, 218. Hamilton, 124, 238. Hampton, 122, 123. Hampton, 242. Hancock, 157. Hannibal, 30, 32, 33. Hanseatic League, 72. Hapsburg, 74. Harold, 61. Harrison, 240, 241, 242, 261. Hardinge, 207. Harley, 146. Harvey, 126. Hastings, 152, 158. Hastings, Battle of, 61. Havelock, 212. Haydon, 218. Hazlitt, 192. Hegel, 198. Hellenes, 3. Hellespont, 10. Helots, 15. Heinsius, lOl. Helvetius, 140. Hengest, 56. Henry, 68, 155, 157. 263. Henry II., 70, 97. Henry III., 73, 117. Henry IV., 62, 78, 97. 284 INDEX. Henry V„ 8o. Henry VI., 8l. Henry VIH., 91. Heraclea, 28. Hercules, 7. Hermanneric, 50. Herschel, 191. H erodes Atticus, 47. Herodotus, 12. Herzegovina, 233. Hesiod, 8. Hieroglyphics, 198. High Commission, 122. Hildebrand, 63. Hill, 157. Hincmar, 61. Hipparchus, 36. Hobbes, 126. Hogg, 192. Holbein, 102. Holy Alliance, 181, 193. Homer, 8. Hooker, 96, 263. Hooper, 94. Hoplites, 13. Ibrahim Pasha, 202. Illinois, 245. Immigration, 248. Imperator, 41. Independence, 156. Independents, 125, 128, 149. India, 5, 21. India Bill, 158. Indians, 237. Inductive Philosophy, 18. Indulgences, 90. IngersoU, 241. Innocent I., 55. Inquisition, 85, 99. Invalides, 200. Ionian Cities, 14. Irish Land Act, 215. Irish Poor Laws, 208. Isabella, 85, 201, 202. Issus, 20. Ivan IV., loi. Ivry, 97. Jackson, 242, 244, 245, 265. Jaggelons, 147. Jamaica, 127. James I., 103, 121. James II., 131. James VI., 121. Janizaries, 138, 196. Jansen, 107. Jansenists, 106. Japan, 6. Japhet, 2. Java, 100, 241. Jay, 157, 235, 237. Jefferson, 157, 236, 237. Jeffreys, 131, 237. Jeffrey, 218. Jena, 176. Jerome, 57, 80. Jerusalem, 46, 68. Jesuits, 93, 100, 106, 130, 138, 198,233 Jewell, 96. Joan of Arc, 80. John, 72. ^ Joshua, 162. Johnson, 96, 265. Johnston, 241. Joint Stock Company, 208. Jones, 102. Josephine, 198. INDEX. 285 Josephus, 33. Jovian, 49. Jousts, 77. Judas Maccabeus, 33, Julian, 49. Julius, II, 89. Jupiter, 8, 23. Justin Martyr, 47. Justinian, 57. Juvenal, 46. Kain, 25. Kant, 172. Kansas, 258. Kars, 233. Kent, 56. Kentucky, 273. Kepler, 102, 120. Kirke, 131. Knights Hospitallers, 68. Knolles, 76. Know Nothings, 259. Knox, 94. Kosciusko, Kossuth, 202, 257. Kotzebue, 172. Laches, 28. Lahore, 207. La Fayette, 156, 167, 194, 246. La Fitte, 199. Lainez, 93. Lamartine, 200. Lamb, 192. Lamoriciere, 2(X). Lancaster, 78. Lancashire, 161, 166. Landor, 192. Lansdowne, 183. Lanterne, 222. La Place, 172. I^atins, 19. Laud, 122, 123. Lauderdale, 129. Laurens, 143, 157. Law, 137. Laura, 78. Lavater, 132. La Vendee, 134. Layard, 209. League of Smalcalde, 104. Le Bran, 120. Lee, 157, 263, 265. Leuctra, 15. Leibnitz, I19. Leipsic, 179. Le Maitre, 107. Leo L, 52, 55. Leo X., 89. Leonidas, 10. Leopold, 135. Lepanto, loi. Lescot, 102. Letter Postage, 257. Lepidus, 41. Leuthen, 142* Levant, 243. Lexington, 155. Liberals, 204. Limerick, 133. Lincoln, 157, 261, 265. Lipsius, loi. Literary Period of Jews, 2 Liverpool, 184. Livy, 42. Lockhart, 192. Lollards, 78. Lombards, 59. 286 INDEX Lombardy, 222, 230. Londonderry, 186. London University, 188. Longueville, 106. Longstreet, 264. Lopez, 257. Lorenzo de Medici, 83. Lorraine, 59, 97. Louisburg, 142, 152, 230. Louis VIL, 69. Louis IX., 72, 81. Louis XIL, 88. Louis XIV., 99, 106, 107, 109, 113, 134, 164. Louis XV., 136. Louis XVIIL, 193. Louis Napoleon, 201, 230. Louis Philippe, 199. Louisiana, 137. Louvois, 108. Lowe, 214. Lowositz, 142. Lowth, 162. Loyola, 93. Lucan, 45. Luther, 90. Lutzen, 104. Luxemburg, 107, lio, III Lyndhurst, 186, 204. Lysander, 14. M. Mabillon, 120. Macaulay, 192. Maccabees, 22. Macartney, 163. McClellan, 262. McCulloch, 192. Macclesfield, 148. Macedonia, 241. Macedonian War, 32. Mackinaw, 240. McMahon, 221, 223, 225. Mackenzie, 207. Mackintosh, 192. Madison, 239, 245. Madrid, 185. Maecenas, 42. Magdalen College, 132. Magenta, 222. Magnesia, 33. Mahratta, 159. Maine, 245. Maintenon, ill. Magi, 6. Malplaquet, 145. Malte Brun, 198. Malthus, 192. Manchester, 128. Manichsean, 50. Manlius Dentatus, 28. Manlius Torquatus, 27. Manning, 218. Mansfeldt, 103. Mantinea, 15. Marat, 169. Marathon, 9. Marco Polo, 73. Marcus Aurelius, 47. Marcy, 253, 257. Marengo, 174. Maria Theresa, 141. Mary de Medici, 99, 106. Marie Antoinette, 170. Marius, 36, 37. Marlborough, iio, 112, 118, 136, 145. Manning, 76. Marseilles, 72. Marshall, 238. Marston Moor, 124. INDEX. 287 Martial, 45, 46. Mary of Burgundy, 86. Marvel, 131. Mason, 241. Maupas, 219. Maurepas, 164. Maurice, loi, 218. Maximilian, 86, 222. Mazzini, 202, 230. Meade, 265. Mecca, 58. Mecanique Celeste, 172. Medes, 5. Medici, 82. Mehemet Ali, 202. Melancthon, 91, loi. Melbourne, 190, 203. Mencius, 5. Menzikoff, 116. Merovingian, 57. Messalina, 45. Metaura, 32. Metellus, 36. Meton, 12. Methodists, 149. Metternich, 195, 202, 228. Metz, 57, 224. Mexican War, 253. Mexico, 195, 223, 255, 258. Michael Angelo, 98. Mill, 192, 218. Miltiades, 9. Milton, 126. Minorca, 152. Mirabeau, 140, 166, 167. Mississippi Company, 137. Missolonghi, 196. Missouri, 246. Mithridates, 38, 39. Mithridatic War, 37. Mohammed, 58. Mohammed II., 82. Moliere, 120. Molina, 107. Moltke, 227. Monk, 127. Monmouth, 132. Montecuculi, 118. Monroe, 245. Monroe Doctrine, 258. Monterey, 254, Montespan, 109. Montesquieu, 140. Montgomery, 155, 192. Montpensier, 2CX3. Moore, 184, 192. Moriscoes, 99. Morpeth, 204. Moscow, 114, 179. Moses, 3. Murfreesborough, 264. Murillo, 120. N. Namur, no. Nantes, 98. Napier, 126. Napoleon, 73, 170, 175. Napoleon III., 219, 220. National Bank, 244. Narvaez, 201. Naseby, 124. Nashville, 263. Navigation Act, 126. Navigation Law, 208. Navarino, 196. Nebraska, 259. Necker, 164, 165, 167, 169. Needle Gun, 227. Nelson, 163, 182. 288 INDEX, Neerwinde, IIO. Nero, 45. Nerva, 46. Netherlands, 113. New Castle, 150. New Mexico, 255. New Orleans, 244. Newman, 268. ^ewton, 147. Niagara, 243. Nice, 49. Nicias, 13. Nicholas, 199, 2IO, 229^ 231. Nicholas V., 84. Niebuhr, 198. Niebelungen Lied, 73. Niemen, 177. Nimeguen, 109. Nineveh, 4. Nonconformists, 96, Noah, 2. North, 154, 156. Norwalk, 258. Normandy, 7(X Numantia, 34. Numantian War Numidian, 36. Gates, 130. O'Brien, 209. O'Connell, 204. Octavia, 41. Odo, 61. Ohio, 237. Ojeda, 88, Ollivier, 223. Olympic Games, 7. Orange Lodge, 191. Orleans, 51, T36, 194. Orloff, 143. Ormond, 128. Osceola, 249. Ostracism, 8 Othman, 74. Otho, 202. Otho IIL, 61. Otis, 155. Gude, 158. Ovid, 42. Owen Glendower, 78. Oxford, 64, 146, 147. Oxford Tracts, 206. P. Pakenham, 244. Palmerston, 184, 186, 204, 210, 212. Palmyra, 48. Palais Royal, 169. Palace of the Caesars, 45. Panormus, 30. Palestivna, 102. Papineau, 204. Paraguay, 195. Paris, 56, 210, 224. Parliaments, 73. Parliament of Paris, 105. Parker, 96. Parma, 100. Parthian, 47. Parthenon, 11. Pascal, 109, 120, 138. Patrician, 24. Patriarchal Rule, 23. Pedro, 195. Peel, 186, 187, 204, 206, 210. Pelopidas, 15. Pelagius, 50, 51. Pelasgians, 3. Pelham, 150. Peloponnesian War, ii, 12. INDEX. 289 Penn, 131. Penny Postage, 206. Penguin, 243. Pepin, 58. Percival, 183. Perier, 199, 225. Perry, 241, 243. Pericles, 11. Persecution, 47, iii. Persepolis, 21. Persians, 47. Peru, 195. Peter, 114, 115, 116. Peter III., 142. Peter Waldo, 70. Petrarch, 78. Pharsalia, 40. Phidias, ii. Philadelphia, 156. Philippa, 76. Philip, 17, 32, 86. Philip II., 99. Philip v., 113. Philip Augustus, 71. Phoenicia, 4. Piedmont, 222. Pierson, 131. Pinckney, 157, 238, 241, 242. Piraeus, 11, 12. Pisa, 72, 79. Pisistratus, 8. Pitkin, 241. Pitt, 16, 82, 152, 153. Pittsburgh, 151. Pius IX., 230. Pizarro, 93. Plague of Florence, 77. Plattsburgh, 243, 240. Platina, 84. Plato. 16. Plebeians, 24. Pliny, 46. Plutarch, 41. Poictiers, 75. Poland, 60, 143, 197, Polk, 253, 255, 256. Polignac, 194. Politiano, 84. Polygnotus, 12. Polybius, 36. Pompey, 39, 40. Pontine Marshes, 36. Popery Riots, 157. Pope, 146. Popish Plot, 130. Port Royal, 264. Portland, 183. Pompadour, 139. Portugal, 195. Potato Rot, 255. Potemkin, 143. Poussin, 120. Praetorians, 45. Praxiteles, 28. Precession of Equinoxes, 36. Presbyterians, 96, 128. Presbyterian Church, 251. Press, 133. Preston, 124. Pretender, 149. Proctor, 242. Priestley, 161. Privateering, 210. Protestantism, 90. Provincial Letters. 138. Ptolemy, 21, 22, 47. Ptolemy Philadelphus, 22. Pugin, 218. Pultovva, 155. Punic War, 29. 290 INDEX. Pusey, 206. Pydna, 33. Pyirhus, 22. Pym, 122. Pyrro, 18. Quaestors, 25, 26. Queenstown, 240. Quintus Flavius, 27. Quintilian, 45. Quincy, 155. R. Racine, 120. Raglan, 210. Railways, igi. Railway Mania, 208. Raleigh, 96, 121. Ramilles, 136. Ravaillac, 98. Raynal, 172. Raymond, 68. Reform Bill, 189, 214. Regulus, 29, 30. Rembrandt, 120. Remusat, 225. Republican, 234. Reuchlin, 91. Resaca, 254. Reynolds, 162. Rhegium, 29. Rhode Island, 252. Ricardo, 192. Richardson, 152. Richard, 71. Richard II., 78. Richard III., 83. Richelieu, 105, 114. Richter, 198. Rienzi, 77. Robespierre, 168, 170. Rochester, 146. Rockingham, 154, 158. Rogers, 192. Roman Empire, 41. Roman Jurisprudence, 26. Roman Navy, 29. Romulus, 23. Rose, 212. Rosecrans, 265. Rossbach, 142. Rousseau, 166. Rubens, 102, 120. Rudolph, 74. Rupert, 129. Russell, 130, 188, 189, 204, 208, 209, 213. Russia, 178. Rye House Plot, 130. Ryswick, no. Sacheverell, 146. Sacs, 248. Sadowa, 228, 231. Safety Lamp, 191. Saguntum, 31. Saladin, 71. Salamis, 10. Salisbury, 216. Salvator Rosa, 120. Samnites, 19, 27. San Jacinto, 253. San Louis Potosi, 254. Santa Anna, 254. Saracen, 58. Saracenic Conquest, 58. Sardinia, 210. Savannah, 192. INDEX. 291 Savonarola, 83, 84. Saxe, 140, 151. Saxe Coburg, 205. Say, 198. Scaliger, loi. Schiller, 172. Schlegel, 198. Schoeffer, 83. Schomberg, 133. Schwartz, 75. Scinde, 206. Scipio, 23. Scipio Africanus, 32, 33. Scipio ^milianus, 34. Scotch Church, 206. Scott, Dred, 260. Scott Walter, 192. Scott General, 243, 252, 254. Scroop, 78. Sebastopol, 210, 231. Sedan, 224. Selden, 131. Seleucus, 4. Senef, 109. Seminoles, 242. Senate, 24, 25. Senate French, 219. Seneca, 45. Sepoys, 210. Septennial Act, 247. Serfs, Emancipation of, 232. Servile War, 38. Servius Tullius, 24. Septimius Severus, 47, Seward, 265. Sextus Pompey, 41. Shaftesbury, 130. Shakespeare, 96. Sheil, 204. Shelburne, 158. Shem, 2. Shepherd Kings, 3.. Sherman, 264, 265. Shiloh, 264. Shore, 159. Sieyes, 166. Sikhs, 207. Silesia, 141. Silk Manufacture, 57. Simon, 226. Simon De Monlfort, 72. Simplon, 174. Sismondi, 198. Slavery, 35, 190, 249, 256, 265. Smith, 160. Smolensk, 178. Smollett, 152. Sobieski, 117. Social War, 37. Socinianism, 149, Socrates, il. Soissons, 57. Solferino, 222. Solyman, 94. Solon, 7. Sophists, II. Soult, 199. Southey, 192. South Sea Company, 147. Spain, 34, 113. Spanish Succession, H2, 134 Sparta, 7, 13. Spartacus, 38. Spirit of Laws, 140. St. Arnaud, 200, 2IO, 219, St. Clair, 236. St. Denis, 64. St. John. 146. St. Petersburg, 116. St. Simon, 198. 292 INDEX. St. Sophia, 57. Stael, 173. Stamp Act, 154. Stanley,, 204, 206, 2l8. Star Chamber, 122, State Rights, 236. States-General, 165. Steele, 146. Steinkirk, no. Steinmetz, 223. Stephen, 69. Stephenson, 218. Stewart, 79. Steuben, 157. Stevens, 262. Stockton, 241. Strafford, 122. Strieker, 243. Stuart, 147. Submarine Telegraph, 209 Sub-treasury, 250. Suetonius, 46. Su§:er, 69. Sulla, 37. 38, 99- Sumner, 259. Sumter, 262. Susa, 21. Sussex, 56. Sutter's Mill, 256. Suwarrow, 144. Swift, 146. Sydenham, 206. Sydney, 96, 131. Sylvester II., 61. Syracuse, 16. Syria, 21, 32. T. Talavera, 184. Talleyrand, 161. Talent, 2i. Tancred, 68. Tarentum, 27. Tariff, 236, 244. Taylor, 96, 131, 253,. 255, 256. Tell, 75. Telegraph, 191. Templars, 68. Temple, 131. Tennis, 237. Tennyson, 218. Terence, 36. Teutonic. 37. Teutonic Order, 71. Teutonic Knights, 74. Texas, 249, 253. Thackeray, 214. Thales, 9. Theban War, 30. Thebes, 14, 199, 200, 224. Theodosius, 50. Themistocles, 10, 13. Thermopylae, 10. Thespis, 8. Thomas, 264. Thompson, 260. Tiberius, 44. Tiberius Gracchus, 35. Tillemont, 120. Tilsit, 177. TiKiour, 79. Timoleon, 16. Tippoo Saib, 159. Tippecanoe, 251. Titian, 102. Titus, 46. Totleben, 210. Tower, 131, 145- Tower of London, 65. Toucey, 260. INDEX. 293 Tournaments, 77. Trebizond, 84. Trent, 213. Trafalgar, 176, 183. Trochu, 224. Trojan War, 4. Tribune, 25, 26. Triremes, 13. Tudor, 83. Turgot, 164, Turner, 218. Turks, 74. Turkey, 118, 197, 233. Turenne, 118. Tycho Brahe, 102. Tyrconnel, 133. Tyler, 251. Tyre, 20. Tyndale, 92. U. Ulpian, 48. Uniformists' Act, 128, Unitarian, 150. University Reform, 215. Upshur, 252. Utrecht, 112. V. Victor Emmanuel, 222. W. 104. Wall, 161. Waller, 131. Wallenstein Walton, 131. Wallace, 74, 78 Walpole, 147. Warwick, 82. Walsingham, 96. Wasp, 241. Washington, 155, 235. Waterloo, 180. Wayne, 237. Wealth of Nations, 161. Wellington, 173, 178, 184, 206, 209. Westminster, 64, 68. Westphalia, 104. Webster, 241, 246, 251, 256. Wesley, 149. Wellesley, 149, 150, 163. Wentworth, 122. Wessex, 56. Whigs. 131, 141, 255. Wickliffe, 78. Wieland, 172. Wilberforce, 160, 183, 218. Wilkes, 253. Wilderness, 264. William I., 61. William III., no, 132. William IV., 188. William the Silent, 99. William of Nassau, no. William of Orange, 108. Wilkinson, 242. Wilson, 192. Winchester, 78, 241. Winnebagoes, 248. Xantippus, 30. Xenophon, 14. Xerxes, lo. Ximenes, 85. Z. Zomdorf, 142. Zwingle, 91, Deacidified using the Bookkeeper process. 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