Class. Book^ iaXioi 3m ^ CopyrightN" COPYRIGHT DEPOSm HANDBOOK OF ATHLETIC GAMES •Tl ^^y^ THE MACMILLAN COMPANY NEW YORK • BOSTON • CHICAGO » DALLAS ATLANTA • SAN FRANCISCO MACMILLAN & CO., Limited LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA MELBOURNE THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd. TORONTO Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2011 with funding from The Library of Congress http://www.archive.org/details/handbookofathletOObanc HANDBOOK OF ATHLETIC GAMES FOR PLAYERS, INSTRUCTORS, AND SPECTATORS COMPRISING FIFTEEN MAJOR BALL GAMES, TRACK AND FIELD ATHLETICS AND ROWING RACES BY JESSIE H. BANCROFT Assistant Director Physical Training, Public Schools, New York City; Ex-Secretary American Physical Education Association; Formerly Executive Secretary, Girl's Branch, Public School Athletic League, New York; Fellow, Ameri- can Association for the Advancement of Science; Author of " School Gymnastics," *' Games for the Playground, Home, School and Gymnasium," ** The Posture of School Children," etc. AND WILLIAM DEAN PULVERMACHER, A.B., LL.B. Flushing High School, New York City; Formerly Inspector of Athletics, Public Schools, New York City; Member of Officials' List, American Intercol- legiate Football Rules Committee ; Former Player and Coach of Baseball, Football, Hockey, and Basketball, at the Col- lege of the City of New York and Trinity School THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1916 All rights reserved Copyright, 1916, By the MACMILLAN COMPANY. Set up and electrotyped. Published January, 1916. J. 8. Gushing Co. — Berwick «fe Smith Co. Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. JAN^0I9I6 ©CLA418514 fc PREFACE This book is written for two classes of people : for those, first, who do not know the games represented, and who, either as teachers, players, officials, or spectators, want a clear, working description ; and, second, for those who do know the games, but who need a ready reference, clearly classified, to rules and information for all parts of the play. The usual official rules of an athletic game are far from a description of the game, and most descriptive literature on the subject is lacking in the definiteness of rules. The present volume aims to combine these two elements — descriptive and technical — in the most practically usable manner ; to be, in short, an athletic Baedeker, guiding clearly and briefly to the main points of a game, and giv- ing details in such manner that they may be recognized as such at a glance, and used or passed over as conven- ience dictates. To construct a game from its rules alone is almost an impossibility. One reason for the lack of constructive information in rules is that they are mostly of a negative character : they tell players what not to do far oftener than they tell what may be done, and positive directions are usually to be discovered only by inference. On the other hand, most descriptive books are prepared so ex- clusively from the viewpoint of traditional usage that they unconsciously take for granted a large amount of infor- mation which many readers do not possess. The very vi Preface language is often unintelligible, as each game has a dis- tinct vocabulary of its own. The range of games here covered and their treatment are distinctive of the present volume. Within the two covers are comprised all of the major athletic games and events — in Division I, fifteen leading ball games, arranged in alphabetic order, and in Division II, track and field athletics and rowing races ; each Division has an opening chapter on general athletic usage and procedure. This forms a collection of practical and closely related material not before brought together. For each game or event there is, for the novicfe or spectator, a general description ; for the player, a carefully classified grouping of rules and directions according to the logical divisions of the game ; for players and instructors, coaching directions and a selected bibliography for those who wish to have a variety of opinion on these matters ; for officials, an explicit codi- fication of duties and rules over which each official has jurisdiction ; and there are also given typical records for contestants of different ages in track and field events, and for each game official specifications and cost of outfit, and a glossary of technical terms. A greatly intensified public appreciation of all that goes to the upbuilding of health is leading into sports and games many inexperienced people either as players, instructors, or officials ; and any one thrown much with educational institutions, or playground workers, must ap- preciate the w^ide need for constructive playing directions for athletic games. Hundreds of people, both men and women, coach and officiate at games they have never them- selves played, and the ethical standard of sport, as well as the success of the games in other ways, is largely affected by the knowledge and competence of such individuals. How many spectators, in the throngs that crowd the grand stands, have an intelligent idea of the games they Preface vii observe ? Scores of foreigners and others have to ^ask if the pitcher and catcher in baseball are playing against the batter or with him, and ask analogous information about other games. Unquestionably, fair play and honesty in athletics are largely related to the knowledge which players and officials possess of the rules of a game, yet it is usual for both to pick up at random information about rules, fouls, and general procedure — to gather it, as all traditions are gathered, at haphazard. Any one who has seen the re- sult of such a method, or lack of method, either among youthful athletes, or candidates for positions as playground instructors, can but appreciate the need for a clear codifi- cation of directions for each game or event. Clear in- structions cannot insure moral strength or will power for the enforcement of laws ; but they can remove the excuse of ignorance, which is back of much laxity in athletic procedure. It is hoped that this book will thus contribute to the enjoyment of games, to clean, honest play, and to a true spirit of sportsmanship. The writers are heartily in accord with the rapidly growing sentiment that in our American athletics an importance is too often placed on trophies, meets, and publicity, which overemphasizes the element of winning and tends to exclude a wholesome pleasure in the playing of the games themselves. To have the hardi- hood and determination that plays to win, is to have some of the strongest moral qualities which enter into sport and which it, in turn, should cultivate ; but to carry specializa- tion and training beyond the reasonable limits of amateur achievement, is to partake of the inherent nature of pro- fessionalism, and that means unfair competition under amateur standards, however strictly one may observe the rules that define the letter but not the spirit which sepa- rates business and pleasure in sport. viii Preface Those who train our youth in their games have one of the greatest of opportunities for cultivating in their pupils a discriminating moral sense, that will manifest itself not only in sport, but in all the affairs of life. December, 1915. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors are indebted to many friends for the read- ing of manuscript, and for valuable suggestions and assist- ance in many ways. In particular, acknowledgments are due Mr. John Reilly, captain and third baseman of the Yale, 1914, 'varsity baseball team; Mr. W. W. White, of the Board of Governors of the Englewood Golf Club ; Mr. Morgan O'Brien, Jr., Greens Committee, Shinnecock Hills Golf Club ; Mr. Gardner White, former interscholastic golf champion; Mr. Daniel Meehan, forward on the 1912-13- 14 Columbia University basket ball teams ; Mr. Harry Le Gore, Yale fullback, 1914; Mr. Alfred Von der Rupp, of the Yale rowing squad ; Mr. W^alter A. Kinsella, world's professional court tennis champion ; Mr. Frank Ellison, former goal tender of the Brooklyn Skating Club, Hockey Club of New York, and Wanderer hockey teams of the American Amateur Hockey League ; Mr. Paul Pilgrim, former 400- and 800-meter Olympic champion (Athens, 1906), Captain New York Athletic Club track team; Mr. R. W. Holder, manager of the Overseas Wanderer team of the New^ York State Soccer League ; Mr. George Hal- lock, Jr., of the Crescent Athletic Club (Brooklyn) lacrosse and hockey teams ; and Mr. Rupert Thomas, Jr., intercol- legiate 100-yard champion (1912), and member of United States Olympic team, 19 12. To various publishers thanks are due for courtesies ex- tended, and in particular to the publishers of Spalding's Athletic Library. The rules of all games in this volume are those of the official handbooks published in this Library. TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE PREFACE . V ORGANIZED ATHLETICS — Definition of athletic games — Training — Form — Amateur and professional stand- ards — Prizes and trophies — Athletic organizations — Athletic games for different ages and sexes — Competi- tion, Individual, Class, and Team — Non-competitive awards — Match games — Tournaments; round-robin se- ries; elimination series — Championships — Officials . 1 HOW TO INFLATE A LACED BALL .... 23 HOW TO MARK COURTS AND FIELDS ... 26 PART I BALL GAMES BASEBALL GENERAL DESCRIPTION 27, 29 FIELD — Infield or diamond — Bases — Batter's box — Pitcher's plate — Catcher's place — Backstop — Foul lines — Three-foot Hne — Coachers' lines — Players' "benches 33 TEAMS: INNINGS 36 BATSMAN — Batting order — Batter's place — Batter's form in play — Batsman's duties in general — Strikes and balls — Batting — Summary of rules for batsman — The batter is out — The batter is given first base without interference — The batter is given a home run 38 xi xii Table of Contents PAGE BASE RUNNER— Runner for first base — Runners for second, third, and fourth bases — The base runner may return to his base without being put out — The base runner must return to his base, and may be put out — Coaching — Signals 44 COACHERS .51 PITCHER — In general — Skill — Rules for the pitcher . .51 CATCHER — Place and duties — Catching balls — Catcher as fielder — Catcher's return of the ball — Catcher becomes baseman for home base — Catcher's signals ... 54 BASEMEN — In general — First baseman — Second baseman — Third baseman 57 THE SHORTSTOP , . . .60 FIELDERS — Fielder's place — Ground covered — Fielder's catching — Fielder's throwing .61 SCORE — General — As batsman — In the field — Summary of score -T- Method of keeping score . .... 64 OFFICIALS— Umpire— Score keeper 70 MATCH GAMES . 72 OUTFIT — Ball — Bat — Base plates and bags — Dress . . 73 HISTORY 75 BIBLIOGRAPHY . 76 GLOSSARY , n BASKET BALL GENERAL DESCRIPTION 85,87 COURT— Side and end lines — Goals — Free throw line — Free throw lane — Center circle ..... 88 TEAMS — Forwards — Guards — Center — Substitutes — Numbers 91 THE GAME— Choice of goals — Putting the ball in play — Passing and advancing the ball — Throwing for goal — ■ Penalty for fouls ; free throws — Axioms — Out of bounds 93 FOULS AND PENALTIES: CLASSIFIED LIST— Methods of playing ball — Methods between players — Throwing for goal — Player or ball out of bounds — Time, delay, lateness , . . 102 Table of Contents Xlll SCORE MATCH GAMES OFFICIALS — Referee — Umpire — Timekeeper - OUTFIT — The ball — Baskets or goals — Dress HISTORY BIBLIOGRAPHY GLOSSARY • Captains 105 107 108 111 112 113 113 BASKET BALL (LINE GAME) GENERAL DESCRIPTION 115, 117 COURT — Dimensions — Field lines — Goals — Free throw line — Free throw lane — Center circle .... 118 TEAMS — Substitute — Choice of goals .... 120, 121 THE GAME— Putting the ball in play — Passing and ad- vancing the ball — Throwing for goal — Free throws ; penalty for fouls — Out of bounds ..... 122 FOULS AND PENALTIES: CLASSIFIED LIST— Methods of playing ball — Methods between players — Throwing for goal — Player or ball out of bounds — Time, delay, lateness SCORE . OFFICLA.LS OUTFIT . HISTORY BIBLIOGRAPHY GLOSSARY . 128 134 134 138 139 139 139 FIELD HOCKEY GENERAL DESCRIPTION 141, 143 FIELD — Dimensions and lines — Striking circle — Goals — Net — Flags 144 TEAMS — Forwards — Inside right and left — Right and left wings — Half backs — Full backs. — Goal keeper . . 145 xiv Table of Contents PAGE THE GAME — Choice of goals — Bully-off — General direc- tions and rules of play — Rules for the stick — Rules for players — Offside play — Methods of playing the ball — Roll in — Advancing the ball — Dribbling — Passing — • Intercepting the ball 150 PENALTIES FOR FOULS — Free hit — Penalty bully — Corner — Penalty corner — Penalty goal .... 157 CLASSIFIED FOULS AND PENALTIES — Players — Per- sonal interference ^ Obstructing a player — Offside play — Rough play — Ball — Manner of playing ball — Roll-in — Ball sent behind goal line — Fouls made in penalty shots — Breaking rules for free hit — For penalty bully — For corner hit — For penalty corner . .... 161 SCORE— Match games 164 OFFICIALS — Umpires — Linesmen — Captains . . . 166 OUTFIT — Goals — Flags — Sticks — Finger protectors — Ball — Gloves — Shoes — Shin guards — Dress for women 168 HISTORY 170 BIBLIOGRAPHY . 172 GLOSSARY . .172 FOOTBALL FOOTBALL — Different games 175,177 FOOTBALL (INTERCOLLEGIATE) GENERAL DESCRIPTION 179, 181 THE FIELD — Dimensions and lines -^ Goal . . . 186 TEAMS — The various positions — Center — Guard — Tackle — End — Quarter back — Half backs — Full back . . 187 THE GAME — Start — Kick-off — Scrimmage formation and rules — Ball put in play by snapper-back — Snap-back — Advancing the ball — After a kick-off — After a snap- Table of Contents xv PAGE back — Forward pass — Running and tackling — Methods of playing the ball — Batting — Kicking — Place kick — Drop kick — Punt — Fair catch — Ways of making a goal and of scoring — Touchdown — Goal from touchdown — Punt-out — Goal kicked from field — Touchback — Safety 192 SCORE 212 OFFICIALS — Referee — Umpire — Linesman . . .212 OUTFIT— Ball — Dress . . . ... . . .216 HISTORY 217 BIBLIOGRAPHY 218 GLOSSARY 219 GOLF GENERAL DESCRIPTION 223,225 THE COURSE OR LINKS— Tees — Through the green — Fair green — Hazards — The rough — Holes : Putting green 226 CLUBS — Driver — Brassy — Cleek — Mid-iron — Mashie — Niblick — Putter 228 FORM — Grip of Clubs — Stance — Addressing the ball — Strokes; definition of; kinds of; rules for — Penalty stroke 230 DIFFERENT KINDS OF GAMES— Matches or competi- tion — Match play — Stroke competition or medal play — Partners and opponents — Single or twosome — Three- some — Foursome — Thdree-ball match — Four-ball match — Best ball match — Bogey competition .... 234 PRECEDENCE ON THE LINKS — The honor : at the first tee — In successive matches — In a threesome or four- some — In best-ball and four-ball matches — The honor at second and successive tees — Order of individual play through the green — Playing out of turn .... 236 PUTTING THE BALL IN PLAY: SUMMARY — Ball teed; dropped; placed; re-teed 239 xvi Table of Contents PAGE DETAIL : TEEING OFF— Rules for— If played from outside teeing ground — If ball falls off tee — Ball hit out of bounds 240 PLAYING THROUGH THE GREEN — The approach . 242 PUTTING OR HOLING OUT— Rules for— Ball consid- ered to have been holed out — Order of play on putting green — Play in opponent's turn — Play on opponent's ball — Interference of balls — '' Stymie " — Balls within six inches of each other — If player's ball moves competitor's ball — Ball knocked into hole 242 Assistance in hoHng out — Direction of hole may be pointed out — Flag stick maybe left in the hole — Line of putt may not be marked — Loose impedi- ments may be removed — Casual water on putting green 246 SCORE — In match play — In stroke competition — A tie — Score to be called — Score cards — Players may not waive rules or penalties . . . . . . . . 248 HANDICAPS 251 GENERAL RULES FOR PLAYING THE BALL THAT APPLY TO ALL PARTS OF THE GAME : The He of the ball — If hidden — Covered in sand . . 252 Loose impediments — Definition of — When they may be moved 253 Obstacles that may be removed — List of — When ball may be lifted . 253 Casual water — Definition of — Ball lost or lying in or near 254 Hazards — Rules for 254 Water hazards — Ball to be played — Ball lost in . . 256 Moving the ball ; Playing or interfering with ball in motion — Rules for — To move a ball in addressing it — If ball at rest be moved by opponent — By his ball — On putting green — In threesomes, foursomes, etc. — If ball hit a player — Lodge in moving vehicle 257 Ball may be lifted 257 Playing wrong balls — Through the green and in hazards — On the putting green ,.,.,, 260 Table of Contents xvii PAGE Lost balls — Definition of — In match play — In stroke competition — If lost in water — If lost out of bounds — If lost ball found later 261 Advice and information — Player may not ask or receive — General direction may be asked — May ask for opponents' score — May ascertain if opponent's ball is out of bounds ........ 262 OFFICIALS — Committee in charge of competition — Um- pire — Referee ......... 263 OUTFIT — Balls — Clubs — Caddie bags — Shoes — Hole rims — Flags and disks 263 HISTORY 264 BIBLIOGRAPHY 265 GLOSSARY 267 HANDBALL GENERAL DESCRIPTION 273, 275 COURT — Indoor — Dimensions — Ace line — Inner line — Tell board — Outdoor courts ...... 275 BALLS 276 PLAYERS 277 HITTING THE BALL . . . . .277 THE GAME— Singles — Start — Serving— Receiving . 277 General rules and points of play — Hinders — Fouls . 279 Doubles .... - 280 SCORE 281 OFFICIALS— Referee — Scorer ...... 281 OUTFIT— Ball — Dress 282 HISTORY .282 BIBLIOGRAPHY 282 GLOSSARY 283 ICE HOCKEY GENERAL DESCRIPTION 285, 287 FIELD — Dimensions — Goalposts — Goal net , . . 288 xviii Table of Contents PAGE TEAMS — Number and position of players — Substitutes — Duties of players — Goal keeper — Point — Cover point Forwards — Captain 289 THE GAME — Start — General rules and points of play — Offside play 293 FOULS— Sticks — Players — Puck— Penalties . ' . .300 SCORE — Ties .301 MATCH AND CHAMPIONSHIP GAMES .302 OFFICIALS — Referee ~ Umpires — Timekeepers — Penalty timekeeper — Captains . . . . . . . 303 OUTFIT — Goals — Nets — Sticks — Puck — Skates — Gloves — Leg and shin guards 308 HISTORY 310 BIBLIOGRAPHY 310 GLOSSARY 311 INDOOR BASEBALL GENERAL DESCRIPTION 313, 315 FIELD — Infield or diamond — Bases — Pitcher's box — Foul lines . . c . . 318 TEAMS — Innings .320 BATSMAN — Batting order — Batsman's place — Batsman's duties in general — Strikes and balls — Fair and foul hits — 321 Summary of rules for batsman — Batsman should run for first base — Batsman is out — Entitled to first base with- out interference 324 BASE RUNNER — In general — Rules for base running : Runner for first base — Runners for second, third, and fourth bases — Three-foot limit — Overrunning bases — Runners may start — Forced run — Stealing bases — A runner must return — Base runner is out — Entitled to a base — Coaching 326 COACHERS 332 THE TEAM IN THE FIELD: PITCHER— Duties in gen- eral — Summary of rules for pitcher — Pitcher's place — The throw — Strikes and balls 333 Table of Contents xix PAGE FIELDERS — Rules for fielders 336 CATCHER 337 SCORE — Tie or drawn game — Records — For each pitcher — For catcher ......... 338 OFFICIALS — Umpires— Score keeper 341 MATCH GAMES 342 OUTFIT — Ball — Bat — Bases — Home plate — Dress . . 342 HISTORY 344 BIBLIOGRAPHY 344 GLOSSARY 344 LACROSSE GENERAL DESCRIPTION 345, 347 FIELD — Dimensions — Goals — Net — Goal crease — Center circle 349 TEAMS — Number and names of positions-^ Covering — Gen- eral function of players — Detail duties; Goal keeper — Inside home — Outside home — First, second, and third attacks — Center — Point — Cover point — First, second, and third defense — Substitutes, at the opening of the game — During a game ....... 351 THE GAME — Choice of goals — Formation of line-up — The start — Facing the ball — Facing after a foul — After out of bounds — After ball lodging ...... 356 RULES AND POINTS OF PLAY— Mode of playing the ball — Interference with opponents — Checking — Body- checking — Blocking 358 FOULS AND PENALTIES: SUMMARY OF FOULS — The Crosse and its use — Personal interference — Block- ing — Players — Ball — Penalty and procedure for fouls — Free throw .......... 360 SCORE — Time — Change of goals — Goal score — Tie games 360 OFFICIALS — Referee — Umpires — Timekeepers — Field captains 364 OUTFIT— Crosse — Ball — Goals — Net — Dress. . . 369 HISTORY 371 XX Table of Contents PAGE BIBLIOGRAPHY . . .372 GLOSSARY . . . . . . ... o 373 LAWN TENNIS GENERAL DESCRIPTION 377,379 COURT — Dimensions and lines — Net — Backstop . . 380 THE GAME — Varieties of; singles, doubles, three-handed — Singles — The court — Choice of court or service — The server — The striker-out 382 FAULTS; LETS; FORFEITED STROKES — Explanation of — Summary of faults — Summary of lets — Loss of stroke 387 DOUBLES: FOUR-HANDED GAME— Court — Choice of court or service — The serve — Return of ball . . . 389 THREE-HANDED GAME 393 FORM IN PLAY .393 SCORE . . . .394 MATCH GAMES — Handicaps . . . . . .397 OFFICIALS— Referee — Umpire— Linesmen . . .398 OUTFIT — Ball — Racket — Racket presses — Markers and tape — Net — Posts — Backstops — Dress . . . 400 HISTORY . 402 BIBLIOGRAPHY . 402 GLOSSARY . . . . . . . . .403 POLO (EQUESTRIAN) GENERAL DESCRIPTION . ... 407,409 FIELD — Dimensions and lines — Goal 409 TEAMS — Substitutes — Formation of players — Eligibility . 410 THE GAME — Choice of ends — Putting ball in play — Start — Knock-in — Safety — Out of bounds — Time — Method of playing the ball — Fouls and their penalties — Sum- mary of fouls for Riding ; Ponies ; Players ; Playing the ball — Accidents 412 SCORE — Goals — Fouls — Safety — Ties — Game interrupted 419 Table of Contents xxi PAGE OFFICIALS — Referee — Timer — Scorer — Goal judges — Field captains ......... 420 PONIES 423 OUTFIT — Balls — Mallets (sticks) — Goals — Dress . . 424 HISTORY 424 BIBLIOGRAPHY 425 GLOSSARY 425 SOCCER FOOTBALL GENERAL EXPLANATION 427, 429 FIELD — Dimensions and lines — Flags — Goals — Net — Goal area — Penalty area — Penalty kick mark — Corner kick area 429 THE GAME — Teams— Choice of sides— Start— Kick-off — Advancing the ball — Making a goal — Goal kick — Corner kick — Time — Score ...... 432 METHODS OF PLAYING THE BALL— Place kick — Free kicks — -Throw in — Dropped by referee . . . 437 METHODS AND RULES FOR PLAYERS — Using hands, tripping, charging, etc. — Offside and onside play . . 438 SUMMARY OF FOULS AND PENALTIES . .443 OFFICIALS — Referee — Linesmen 444 OUTFIT — Ball — Goal net — Flags — Dress . . . .446 BIBLIOGRAPHY 447 GLOSSARY (See Intercollegiate Football) . . . .447 SQUASH TENNIS GENERAL DESCRIPTION 449, 451 THE COURT— In general — Back wall line — Detail meas- urements — Telltale — Wall service line — Center line — Floor service line 452 THE. GAME — Choice of serve — Service: hard-in — Re- turning the ball, or hand-out ...... 454 GENERAL RULES AND POINTS OF PLAY — Playing the ball — Let 456 SCORE 457 xxii Table of Contents PAGE OFFICIALS 458 OUTFIT — Balls — Racket— Dress . ...» 458 HISTORY .......... 458 BIBLIOGRAPHY 459 GLOSSARY ......:... 459 VOLLEY BALL GENERAL DESCRIPTION 461, 463 COURT— Boundary lines — Net . . . . . .463 TEAMS — Places — Rotation — Substitutes — Players on time 464 THE GAME — Choice of courts or service — Service . . 465 RULES 467 PENALTIES 468 SCORE 468 OFFICIALS — Referee — Linesmen 468 OUTFIT— The ball — Net — Movable standards . . .469 BIBLIOGRAPHY . 470 PART II TRACK AND FIELD GAMES AND ROWING GENERAL PROCEDURE CLASSIFICATION OF 471,473 LIST OF EVENTS 473 CLASSIFICATION OF ATHLETES — Novice — Junior — Senior — Champion — In elementary schools — High schools — Weight classification 474 ROUTINE FOR THE COMPETITOR — Registration — Entry — Handicapping — Report to clerk of course — Re-^ ceive number — Costume — Weighing in — On time for each event . . 476 RUNNING RACES — Start — Form — Crouching start — Standing start — Signals — Penalties for false starts . . 478 Table of Contents xxiii PAGE THE RACE— Rules— Fouls— Finish — Heats . . .482 OFFICIALS — Qualifications — Referee — Clerk of the course — Starter — Inspectors — Judge of walking — Judges at the finish — Timekeepers — Scorer — Field judges — Mar- shal — Press steward — Assistants ..... 486 SCORING — Ties— Score cards or programs . . .503 HISTORY 505 BIBLIOGRAPHY 507 GLOSSARY o .... 508 RUNNING AND WALKING RACES KINDS AND DISTANCES 511,513 SPRINT RACES (DASHES) —Definition — The course — Form — Start — The race — The Finish — Rules — Fouls — ^ Protests — Speed records ...... 514 MIDDLE DISTANCE AND DISTANCE TRACK RACES s MARATHON — Definition — Distances — The course — Form — Start — The race — Changes in gait — Finish — Rules — Fouls — Speed records ..... 519 RELAY RACES — Description — Distances and teams — The course — Arrangement of teams — Handicapping — Start — The race — Touchoff: baton — 'The finish — Heats — Rules: fouls — Officials — Speed records . . . 526 HURDLE RACES — Description — Distances and hurdles — Distances between hurdles — The course — The race — The course: straightaway or curved — Finish — Form — Table of distances, hurdle heights, and records for vari- ous classes .......... 538 CROSS COUNTRY RUN — Explanation — Distances — Score — Records .......... 545 WALKING — As a competitive event — The course — Start — The walk — Form — Finish — Fouls — Officials — Records 547 As non-competitive athletic exercise ..... 549 xxiv Table of Contents JUMPING AND POLE VAULTING PAGE RUNNING BROAD JUMP — The field — Order of jumping — Preliminary — The jump — Form — Fouls — Score — Officials — Outfit — Records 553 STANDING BROAD JUMP— 'The Field — The Jump — Fouls — Score — Officials — Outfit — Records . . . 557 THREE STANDING BROAD JUMPS — Explanation — Measurement — Rules — Record 560 RUNNING HOP, STEP, AND JUMP — Explanation — Measurement — Records ....... 561 RUNNING HIGH JUMP— The Field — Order of jumping — Preliminaries — The . Jump — Form — Score — Hand- icaps — A tie — Officials — Outfit — Records . . . 562 STANDING HIGH JUMP— Explanation— Records . •. 568 THE POLE VAULT— The Field — Poles — Order of vault- ing — Preliminaries — The Vault Rules — Form — Score — Officials — Outfit— Records 569 WEIGHT THROWING SHOT PUT — The Field — The Shot — Order of competing — The Put — Fouls — Measurement : Score — Officials — Outfit — Records .579 THROWING THE DISCUS — Description — The Field — The Discus — The Throw — Free style — Greek style — Fouls — Measurement — Records ..... 584 THROWING THE HAMMER — The Field — The Hammer — The Throw — -Form — Measurement; Score — Records 587 THROWING THE 56-LB. WEIGHT — The Field — The Weight — The Throw — Measurement — Score — Record 590 THROWING THE JAVELIN — The Field — The Javelin — The Throw — Measurement — Records . . . 592 BASEBALL DISTANCE THROW — The Field — The Throw — Score — Officials — Records .... 594 BASKET BALL DISTANCE THROW— The Field — The Throw — Score — Officials — Records .... 596 Table of Contents xxv ROWING RACES THE COURSE — Crews — Stroke — Coxswain — Regattas — Officials — The race — Start — The stroke — Steer- ing — Outfit 612 HISTORY • . . 612 BIBLIOGRAPHY 612 GLOSSARY 613 ATHLETIC GAMES ORGANIZED ATHLETICS DEFINITION OF ATHLETIC GAMES. — Athletic games, like other games, consist of a compe- tition in strength, speed, skill, or endurance, pro- gressing through a regular mode of procedure until a climax is reached in which one of the contestants wins. Athletic games differ from other games in (i) always calling for a considerable amount of physical exertion ; and (2) in emphasizing and equalizing the element of competition. This equalization is accomplished through a strict definition of procedure (rules and regulations) and a penalizing of their infringement (fouls), both of which measures are necessary to insure equality in the competition. Many forms of sport or exercise, such as skating, sailing, and mountain cHmbing, are athletic in vigor, but (except in races) lack the organized procedure, and the element of contest or competition, that would bring them within the range of games. Similarly, many games have definitely formulated rules, such as active parlor games, cards, and checkers, but lack the vigor that would entitle them to the term ^^ athletic." 2 Organized Athletics The two elements, vigor and strict definition of rules, are necessary for a truly athletic game. The term ^^ athletics " is often used to designate track and field events, but is not properly to be limited to those events. Track games are chiefly running races, the shorter distances usually being run over especially prepared running tracks; field games are competitions in skill and strength, and consist chiefly of various kinds of jumping or vaulting for height or distance, and of weight throwing, as of the shot, hammer, or discus. Almost any strenuous game or competition may be put in the athletic class by closely defining the regu- lations that will insure equal competition. Prac- tically all of the great ball games belong to the athletic class. COACHING: TRAINING. — Athletic games re- quire much practice to develop and strengthen heart, lungs, muscular power or neuro-muscular skill. In- deed, such games are largely a test of these powers. For some time immediately preceding important meets or games, players should take up systematic practice (^^ go into training")- This training often includes, besides a program of physical exercise, a special hygienic regimen for diet, sleep, bathing, etc. No one can remain long at this highest point of physi- cal efficiency, a falling off of power occurring soon after this highest point is reached. Such deteriora- tion is called getting stale. The skill or wisdom of a trainer consists largely in getting his team to its highest point of efficiency at just the right time for a competitive event. Coaching: Training: Form 3 Instruction in the form or technique of any athletic game is called coaching. In the more compHcated team games, coaching from some leader is essential for formations and signal play, as well as for the par- ticular form and skill of each individual on the team. FORM. — Neuro-muscular control, skill, or form is fully as important an element in athletic games as the power and endurance of heart, lungs, and muscles. This skill and form show in the position and move- ments of the body or its parts during the different phases of play ; as, for example, in the tilt and swing of trunk and legs over the bar in jumping ; the manner of handling the ball in many different games ; or the strokes in golf or tennis. The positions and move- ments of " good form " are those which experience has shown will give the surest and most economical use of force, and success or failure is often chiefly determined by a player's mastery of form. It is there- fore of great importance that the beginner in any game receive instruction from experts on the form of play, and practice it thoroughly until it becomes habitual. Incidentally it will be found that, such is nature's combination of qualities, the most economical form for the use of force is also the most graceful. AMATEUR AND PROFESSIONAL STAND- ARDS. — Every amateur player who takes part in match games, or is likely to do so, should establish his amateur standing, and be able to produce his cre- dentials of such standing, by registration with some organization concerned with these standards. Every club should be so registered with a national organiza- tion. 4 Organized Athletics One of the most iqiportant questions iq athletics is the distinction between amateur and professional standards, as only on a basis of clear distinction be- tween these two classes of players can competition be kept equal and a true spirit of sport maintained. The amateur plays for the pleasure of the game, and for its physical, mental, moral, and social benefits. Amateur skill is that which may be cultivated in the- leisure time available from the serious business and affairs of life. As soon as a player exceeds this amount of attention to a game, he gains an unfair advantage and thus places himself in another class. A professional player in any game or sport is one who plays, not alone for the pleasure and benefit of the game itself, but as a business, devoting to it an amount of time that develops skill beyond the average attainable by one who takes it up as a recreation. Professional players usually follow a game partly or wholly as a means of income. Thus the entire status of the professional in sport, including his interest, motive, and skill, is on a different plane from that of the amateur. From the classic days of Greece to the present time, playing for money, or for prizes of monetary value, has been considered the main distinction between the amateur and the professional in sport. This includes compensation as an instructor or coach as well as for playing the game. To play with or against a profes- sional has also been held to disqualify an amateur as such and rank him as a professional. The money reward, however, is merely a symbol of a fundamental difference in spirit, motive, and attainment, and there Amateur Standards 5 is a strong latter-day movement to substitute the posi- tive definition of amateurism that, by laying greater stress on other quaUties, will be more basic and do greater justice to both classes of players. For it would seem, on the one hand, that many players who in some casual way infringe the rules of amateurism never place themselves essentially in the professional class. On the other hand, there can be no doubt that intensive training on one phase of play ; overemphasis on the hectic excitement of public competitions, until the more normal pleasures of a game lose interest ; the constant prominence of prizes or trophies as an end for which to strive ; the intense partisanship of interinstitutional competition; the use of substitutes for other purposes than to take the place of disabled players — all of these elements tend to obscure or defeat the true tone and spirit of amateur standards, and introduce elements characteristic of professional play. There is no stigma in being a professional athlete ; there is a stigma in competing with amateurs when one's interest and motives in, and advantages for, a game make competition unequal. If the public is willing to pay to see exceptional skill, any one is priv- ileged to earn his livelihood in whole or in part by such means and still retain the respect of his fellow- men; but by so doing he places himself in a class apart from the great mass of players, who will always be amateurs, and follow sport as a recreation.^ 1 The reader interested in the question of amateur standards is referred to a report of the Committee on Amateur Law of the Ath- letic Research Society, Clark W. Hetherington, Chairman, in the 6 Organized Athletics ATHLETIC ORGANIZATIONS. — There are athletic organizations, national in scope, that control most of the amateur athletic activities of the country, by prescribing uniform rules for games played under their auspices, establishing amateur standards, and conducting championship competitions. Prominent among these are the Amateur Athletic Union, The Young Men's Christian Association Athletic League, The National Collegiate Athletic Association (which appoints members of the Rules Committees for various games), and The Intercollegiate Association of Ama- teur Athletes of America (concerned chiefly with con- ducting games) . There are many other organizations, covering smaller geographical territory and specific classes of institutions, such as educational institutions of various grades, playgrounds, settlements, Sunday schools, etc. Many of thpse more limited organiza- tions are affiliated with one or another of the national bodies. In addition, there are independent national organizations for most of the larger team games, such as golf, tennis, hockey, etc., which prescribe uniform rules for their respective games and for the conduct of tournaments. The great baseball leagues are professional organiza- Physical Education Review for March, 1910; a further report by Dr. John Brown, Chairman, published in Physical Training for January, 191 5, and to other proceedings of the Athletic Research Society ; to the Handbook of the Young Men's Christian Associa- tion Athletic League (an especially discriminating and constructive definition), the Handbooks of the Amateur Athletic Union, and the Intercollegiate Association; for an admirable exposition of the spirit of English amateur standards, the reader is referred to an article on "American Sport from an English Point of View," by H. J. Whigham, in the Outlook for November 27, 1909. Athletic Organizations 7 tions and govern the terms under which professional players may be engaged, the territory to be covered by each organization, etc. Being professional, they are not affiliated with these amateur interests. There is no intercollegiate athletic association for women's colleges, a general sentiment prevailing against competition between women from different institutions. Within the women's colleges and sec- ondary schools, however, intramural athletics are carried on, as outlined in this chapter under '' Lists of Athletic Games.'' The Athletic Research Society should be mentioned for the valuable scientific work it is doing to establish amateur standards, and to improve many other fea- tures of athletic practice. ATHLETIC GAMES FOR DIFFERENT AGES AND SEXES. — The scope of formal athletics is indicated by the following lists of games, for which the larger national organizations prescribe rules. Lists are also given from typical organizations for elementary and high schools for boys and girls, and for women's colleges, as indicating the kinds of athletic activities found suitable and popular for the various ages and conditions represented. It should be understood that most of the standard ball games are played by members of the adult organizations in addi- tion to the events listed. Members of any adult organization may play other games than those in the ofl&cial lists, and retain amateur standing, so long as they observe the amateur standards prescribed by their organization. 8 Organized Athletics AMATEUR ATHLETIC UNION.- Basket ball Billiards Boxing Fencing Gymnastics Handball Hurdle racing Jumping Lacrosse Fence-vault Kicking Pole vaulting Putting the shot and throw- ing the discus, hammer, weights, and javelin Running Swimming Tugs of war Walking Wrestling Potato race Water polo THE YOUNG MEN'S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATION ATHLETIC LEAGUE adds to the above list : Kicking Snap under bar for distance Volley ball Rope climbing Snap under bar for height Handball Skating Eight potato race Water polo Ring vault Relay potato race Boxing Rope vault Sack race P'ence vault Three-legged race THE INTERCOLLEGIATE ASSOCIATION OF AMA- TEUR ATHLETICS OF AMERICA prescribes rules for the following track and field events : Running, — loo, 220, 440 yards, one-half, one, and two miles Relay racing Walking Hurdle racing Running high jump Running broad jump Pole vault Putting the shot (16 pounds) Throwing the hammer (16 pounds) Throwing the discus Javelin throwing WOMEN'S COLLEGES. — While there is no intercol- legiate association for women's colleges, the following Athletics for Different Ages track and field events used at Vassar College, may be considered typical of institutions of this class : 50 yard dash 75 yard dash 100 yard dash 100 yard hurdle 300 yard hurdle Running high jump Running broad jump Standing broad jump Hop, step, and jump Fence -vault Shot put (8 pounds) Baseball throw Basket ball throw THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS ATHLETIC LEAGUE OE THE CITY OF NEW YORK, the pioneer organization of its type, sanctions the following games and events : ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS Baseball Indoor baseball Basket ball Soccer football Swimming Skating Track and Field Events ^^Dash" — 50, 60, 70, 100 yards Relay — 360, 440, 880 yards Standing broad jump Rimning high jump Shot put (8, 10, and 12 pounds) HIGH SCHOOLS Baseball Basket ball Intercollegiate football Lacrosse Marksmanship Rowing Skating Soccer football Track and Field Events Cross country runs "Dash'' — 100 yards Run, — 220, 440, 880 yards, i mile low high 120 Hurdles, yards Hurdles, yards Relays — 440, 880 yards, and I mile Running broad jump Running high jump Pole vault Putting the shot (12 pounds) Throwing the discus 10 Organized Athletics THE GIRLS' BRANCH OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS ATHLETIC LEAGUE OF THE CITY OF NEW YORK, a pioneer and typical organization for girls of elemen- tary and high school age, does not sanction interschool competition, or many track and field events. It has put folk dancing in its athletic list by evolving a method of judging and competition. A considerable list of sports are sanctioned by the Girls' Branch as given in the following list, and a new method of award for their use is explained under ^' Non-com- petitive awards." Walking Swimming Folk dancing Relay Races ^ ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS Potato relay ^ All-up relay ^ Hurdle relay ^ Pass Ball relay ^ Shuttle relay ^ Basket ball throw Team Games End ball i Captain ball ^ Basket ball Punch ball HIGH SCHOOLS General Athletics Walking Swimming Ice skating Horseback riding Golf Tennis Folk dancing Track and Field Simple relay ^ Shuttle relay ^ Potato relay ^ Hurdle relay Basket ball throw Team Games Indoor baseball Field hockey Basket ball Volley ball Captain ball ^ Newcomb End ball ^ Punch ball Pin ball ^ For this game see '* Games for the Playground, Home, School, and Gymnasium." By Bancroft (The Macmillan Co.). Competition ii '^The Girls' Branch believes in running as an activity for girls and strongly favors the training of endurance in running for a much longer distance than that approved in the rules given here. It believes, however, that this should be a phys- ical training procedure and not subject to the excessive phys- ical, mental and emotional strain of competition. Similarly, it beHeves that all girls should be trained to proper form in jumping, so as to avoid harm whenever jumping becomes neces- sary in any of the activities or emergencies of life. It does not favor the extreme effort necessary for high and distance jump- ing, especially in competition." COMPETITION. — One of the most interesting and valuable elements in games of any kind is the competition whereby players pit against each other their wits, skill, strength, speed, or endurance. This may be in the form of an individual contest, a group contest, or the more highly developed and complicated form of contest called team play. INDIVIDUAL COMPETITION is characteristic of track and field athletics and of some ball games. In track and field games, the competition is essentially indi- vidual, even when a group, competing for the honor of their college or organization, is called a team. In such cases the combined score of the different con- testants — whether all enter each event, as in the pentathlon and other all-round contests, or each appears in only his specialized events — determines the win- ning institution ; but there is none of the more com- plicated interplay between different players that dis- tinguishes the term ^^ team play." Some of the most popular ball games are essentially individual competition. This is true of golf, tennis, handball, and squash. 12 Organized Athletics CLASS ATHLETICS are a recent development, for elementary and secondary schools, that offer a form of competition in which all of the members of a class, or a given percentage of them, try their skill in sys- tematic succession in an event, the combined score making a class record. This does away with danger of the excesses that often characterize unmodified individual competition, with its emphasis on star performers ; and it enlists in the athletics practically all the members of a class instead of only a few. TEAM PLAY. — The term '' team," as appKed to games, means a group of players combining effort for a common end. The highest form of team organ- ization is that in which the individuals support and aid each other, each taking an understood part, to a common end. These parts differ according to the special abilities of the players or the needs of the game. For example, a player's strength, height, or agility largely determine whether he shall be a forward, half- back, guard, or goal keeper. In the truest and highest team play, each player comprehends the needs of the shifting conditions of a game, and adapts his own play to whatever will most assist his team mates to bring about the desired result. He helps pass the ball to the best goal thrower or kicker ; or he takes the goal keeper's place if that player be obliged to leave his goal unguarded in some exigency of the play ; or he guards or engages the opponents, to allow a team mate to make some advance toward their goal. These are a few of the ways, varying in the different games, in which the more highly organized team games call on the cooperative power ; the ability to Non-Competitive Awards 13 comprehend a complicated situation ; to adjust one's self instantly to it ; to play any part that helps, how- ever inconspicuous ; to unite with others for a common end. Well- trained teams act as a unit, and the game is as much one of wits as of muscle. In many of these games, of which baseball and football are conspicuous examples, signals are used to indicate certain forma- tions, or some understood sequence in play. While this takes some of the initiative from the individual player, it again illustrates the united cooperation for a common end. The influence of this cooperative play on character is very marked, and aft'ords one of the highest benefits to be derived from this class of games, the power for social adaptation or adjustment for which it calls being one of the greatest elements of success in business or social relations. The power to play in cooperative groups is a comparatively late psychological development in the individual, the tendency for real team play showing itself first at about eleven or twelve years of age. It has been stated that real team play is peculiar to the Anglo-Saxon race. Play in opposing groups is found in oriental games and in the play of compara- tively young children of all countries. But these are not team games in the highest sense of the word, the parts taken by the different players being homogene- ous, with no opportunity for cooperation except that the efforts of each player contribute to the total result for his '' side.'' NON-COMPETITIVE AWARDS. — BeKeving that the true spirit of amateur sport is often defeated through playing for trophies that are to be won in competition, 14 Organized Athletics one of the writers introduced a few years ago, in the public schools of New York City, a plan of outdoor or all-round athletics, for girls, whereby an award of a pin is made at the end of the season to each girl for a certain amount of time devoted to athletic activities. The ultimate design of the pin is a star, a ray being added for each successive year. The plan has been highly successful and very popular. The pupils are rewarded for the express purpose for which the athletic organization exists; namely, for devoting a certain amount of time each week to exercise, and not for beating some one else. The writer believes that the fundamental principle involved in this method should have wider recognition, and that it will do much to induce a more balanced interest in sport. The ac- tivities specified include the playing of team games, so that the excellent moral qualities required for strenuous competition are cultivated, but not made the chief or culminating object of the season's training. MATCH GAMES. — A match game, or championship game, is one played to determine which of two or more contestants is the superior player, the champion- ship being awarded to the player or team that wins. Such match games take various forms, according to the number of contestants. The simplest form of challenge is that in which one player, team, or organ- ization challenges another, there being only the two concerned. Football is a game played in this way, by a given team's challenging individually only a few organizations in a season, as it is too hard a game for tournaments. Three or four hard games are the most that should be expected of a football team in a season. Tournaments 15 A club or organization may conduct open champion- ship games for a given class of institutions, as colleges ; or for a certain geographical territory, as a city, or state, or district; or such competition may be na- tional or international in scope. For many of the more popular games, such as tennis, golf, polo, rowing races, etc., the official national or international organ- ization for that particular game conducts champion- ship games annually, or at longer intervals. TOURNAMENTS. — Baseball, basket ball, hockey, and other games which make lighter demands on the players, and which may be played against a consider- able number of competing teams, are played in tourna- ments. A tournament may take the form of a round-robin series or an elimination series. ROUND-ROBIN SERIES. — In this plan of competi- tion, each team plays every other team. It is there- fore used when not too many organizations are competing, — usually from three to fi.ve. In such a series, team A plays B, C, D, and E ; team B plays A, C, D, and E ; and so on, until each team has played every other team. The winning team is that one which wins the great- est number of games, or the largest percentage of the total number of games played, in the series. ELIMINATION SERIES. — This plan is used where so many teams are to compete that it would be im- practicable for each team to play every other. Then it is decided by lot, or by assignment by the officials in charge (and as delegates, or manager) which two teams shall play against each other in the first and succeeding trials. For example, it may be decided i6 Organized Athletics that in the first trials A and B shall play against each other, C and D against each other, E and F, G and H, and I and J. The winning team in each of these pairs is then paired by the same method with one other winning team ; the winners from the second series of games are paired off, and so on, until, finally, all are eHminated except the final winning team, which is the champion of the series. In one or more of this series of trials there may be an odd team without a competitor. This is called a " bye," and that team is assigned to play with a team in the following series ; in other words, it is not compelled to compete in its particular series in order to have the right to compete in the following series. CHAMPIONSHIPS. — The winner in a championship contest is said to hold the championship title, and this is held until some other player or team wins in sub- sequent games. Sometimes the winning contestant must be met and defeated in order that the title may pass to another; this is the case in some games of individual competition, such as the national and international championships in golf and tennis. Some- times the championship is annual, the 1914 champion, for example, holding the championship only for that year, and not necessarily entering the 191 5 games of the same class, so that the 191 5 champion may, or may not, have to defeat the previous year's champion in order to win. Sometimes, especially in track and field events, it is a record, as well as an individual, that is competed against. Thus, the intercollegiate record in the running high jump for a given year may be unbroken (unsurpassed) for many subsequent years. Handicaps 17 and yet each year's games will have its champion, who makes the highest record for that particular year, though it may be less than the highest intercollegiate record.^ In any games the same champion may hold the title indefinitely by winning in successive years. HANDICAPS. — When a very wide margin of dif- ference exists between the abiUty of two players, com- petition between them would obviously be impracti- cable were one not handicapped. A handicap is an extra burden placed on the more proficient player, whereby he allows to the less proficient a certain number of points on his score, or an equivalent, before a comparison in the two scores begins. Just what form the handicap will take varies for different games. For example, in golf a certain number of strokes are allowed the less proficient player by the one who is handicapped ; in a contest in high jumping a certain height is expected of the more proficient contestant in addition to the height cleared by his competitor; in a race, the handicapped player must cover a greater distance.^ The official organization for each game that is susceptible of handicap regulations has established a systematic method and scale for handicaps. A scratch player is one who starts or plays at par. That is, he starts from the regular starting line. In a handicap race the runner who is handicapped is a ^' scratch man," and those to whom he gives an al- lowance start in front of him. The term is derived ^ See *' General Procedure for Track and Field Athletics " in this volume. c i8 Organized Athletics from the scratch, or starting Hne in a race, though applied to other events. PRIZES AND TROPHIES. — These are usually limited in form or value in all amateur sports; that is, an amateur may not compete for a money prize, or for trophies of great intrinsic value, nor may he sell his trophies. A championship or title is essentially an honor, and there may or may not be tangible evidence of it in the form of a prize or trophy. Sometimes each contestant in match games is given a permanent souvenir in the form of a pin or medal, while the cham- pion receives in addition a loving cup or other prize or trophy to hold until won at subsequent games by some other contestant. OFFICIALS. — For informal games it is not usual to have officials; for all challenge or match games, they are essential. The head official of a game is usually either an Um- pire or Referee, the particular title being specified in the ofiicial rules for each game. The duties per- taining to these two titles are sometimes identical, though in games where both officials are engaged, the duties are different. Other officials customary for ball games are Linesmen, who judge of certain phases of a game in relation to boundary lines; Scorer; Timekeeper; and in track and field games. Judges for the various events; Inspectors; Clerk of the Course; and Marshal. (See '^Officials" in ^'Gen- eral Procedure for Track and Field Athletics,'' in this volume.) The method of selecting officials is prescribed by the Officials 19 official rules of all games, and is set forth in detail for each game in the present work. In every instance the head ofi&cial, at least, must be approved by both parties to a contest. The success of a match game depends immeasurably on the officials and too much care cannot be taken in their selection. While every official of a game should preferably be experienced as a player of the game over which he officiates, it does not follow that every player, however expert, would make a good official. Keen, quick perception ; an immediate, w^orking knowledge of rules ; power of accurate judgment and quick decision; absolute impartiality; superiority to any personal considerations ; and a strong, unflinching will to enforce rules and decisions — these are some of the qualities needed for a successful official. It will readily be seen that they are not easily found. For some games, there are, in some localities, central committees that form lists of authorized officials ; and the custom is spreading of training officials. This latter procedure cannot be too highly commended. When it is more generally used we shall have a higher ethical standard in many athletic games. HOW TO INFLATE A LACED BALL M j^ t5 XI ^ _S 05 1>.00 d\ d H C4 -o r2 'o ^2 ;=! ^ 13 O u '^ O xJ CO c -a '^ IS "^ 03 -S I =i .2 ■& •y-S >^-G gi H cs ro ■^ lA \C) 1^ HOW TO INFLATE A LACED BALL The inflation of a laced ball is a delicate and com- plicated task. Each ball purchased is provided with (i) a leather cover ; (2) rubber bladder ; (3) leather lacer ; (4) needle for lacing. In addition there is needed a pump. Hand pumps are used, but are much more difficult to manipulate, and less satisfactory in other ways, than foot pumps ; and the latter are strongly advised. The leather cover usually outwears several bladders. In buying a ball, it is well to get one or two extra bladders and extra lacers. The steps for inflating a ball are as follows : (i) The rubber bladder is placed inside the ball be- fore being inflated. To do this, fold the bladder, to avoid injury as it passes through the opening in the cover, and after it is inside straighten it out, keeping in the fingers the rubber neck or tube of the bladder. (2) Next, draw the rubber neck through the hole in the flap of the leather cover. (3) Begin the lacing of the ball before the bladder is inflated, as there is then much less liability of puncturing the rubber. Tie a knot in one end of the lacer or leather thong, to prevent its being pulled entirely through. Put the opposite end of the lacer through the eye of the metal needle that comes with the ball. Take the first stitch in one of the end holes, 23 24 Inflating a Ball INFLATING A LACED BALL I. Placing the rubber bladder inside the leather cover. 2. Drawing the neck of the bladder through the hole in the flap of the leather cover. 3. Beginning to lace the ball before it is inflated. 4. Inflating the ball. inserting the needle from the inner side of the cover and puUing it through toward the outside, in a direction away from the opening. To insert the needle toward the opening instead of away from it is certain, in a Inflating a Ball 25 large percentage of cases, to lead to puncture or injury of the bladder. Each stitch is taken in the same manner, alternately toward one side and then the other, until the lacer has passed through each hole. (4) When the lacing is all loosely in (but not pulled up), attach the neck of the bladder to the nozzle of INFLATING A LACED BALL 5. Turning back and winding the neck of the bladder before it is inflated. 6. Pushing the neck of the bladder under the leather cover before drawing it tight and fastening the laces. the pump, place the ball on the floor near the latter (if a foot pump), and inflate to its full capacity, remembering that a finished ball is round and hard. Never inflate a bladder with the breath, as this injures the rubber. ^ (5) When the ball is fully inflated, hold firmly in the fingers the neck of the bladder while detaching it from the pump ; then turn or double the neck over sharply on itself and wind it tightly with a rubber 26 Marking Courts band, to prevent escape of air. It is very inadvisable to use cord for this, as it is liable to cut the rubber. (6) When the neck of the bladder is thus folded and bound, push it well under the leather cover. (7) Finish the lacing by drawing tight the loose stitches, either with the fingers or a buttonhook. It is well to avoid unnecessary use of the needle, as it is very Uable to puncture the bladder. When the stitches are all drawn tight, the end of the lacer should be laced, or otherwise drawn back under them. This will usually be sufficient to fasten it and hold it in place. HOW TO MARK COURTS AND FIELDS Where boundary lines are important in a game and need to be seen from a distance, as in many ball games, they should be plainly marked. On a gymnasium floor, black paint for permanent diagrams is the best. For out of doors, white linen tape may be had, with wooden staples and pins for fastening to the ground, costing from $3.50 to, $6 per set for a court the size of a tennis diagram. A liquid mark may be made of whitewash, and a dry mark by mixing two parts of sand with one of whiting. Marble dust or slaked lime also make good dry marks. Roller markers for plac- ing either wet or dry marks in lines of even width may be had at from $1 to $5 each. PART I BALL GAMES (In alphabetic order) BASEBALL GENERAL DESCRIPTION — Baseball, called the national game of the United States, is played by two opposing teams of nine men each, hence the term " baseball nine/' It is played on a level field in which a square, 90 X 90 feet, is outlined obhquely to the boundaries of the larger inclosure, giving it the general appearance of a diamond, from which comes the term '' baseball diamond." The four angles or corners of this diamond (or infield) are bases and form the strategic points of the game. The score is made by one team at a time alternately throughout the game. This is the team '' at bat.'' A player of this team enters the field as batsman and tries to bat the ball, so it will fall forward, either within the diamond, or beyond it, forward of the foul lines ; this ball is thrown to him by the pitcher of the opposing team. The pitcher and catcher are opponents of the batsmen and base runners. If suc- cessful in his strike, the batsman instantly becomes a base runner. One point is scored for a team, for each player who succeeds in making a run ; that is, a com- plete circuit of all four bases, from the home plate, where the batting is done, to first, second, and third bases in their regular order, and so again to the fourth base or home plate. This may be done in one dash, called a ^^ home run," or by stopping in the circuit at any or all of the other bases, as safety points. 29 30 Baseball When a batsman has either been put out (as herein- after described), or has succeeded in making first base, another member of his team comes to the bat, and so on. There can never be more than four men in the field at once from the team having its inning; that is, one mxan at the bat, and one on each of the other three bases. There are strictly defined rules under which the batting and base running may be done ; also by which the opponents may intercept a base runner by tagging him with the ball (in the hand, not thrown), or while he is between bases, or by reaching a base with the ball before he can get there. This tagging puts a runner ^^out" — that is, retires him from the game tempora- rily, until his turn to bat comes again. After three men on his side have been '' put out,'' his team, in its turn, goes into the field on the defensive and the opposing team goes to bat. A half inning lasts until the team that is batting and running bases has three men put out. Each team is entitled to nine such half innings, and that team wins which has the highest score {i.e.j has made the largest number of runs), at the end. Besides putting out its opponents while they are running bases, the defensive team may be able, through its pitcher^ to put out a batter before he becomes a base runner, by pitching the ball so that it takes unexpected curves when it gets near him, making him miss it. A batsman is entitled to three good balls, or three '' strikes.^' A good ball is one so pitched that it passes over the home plate (the fourth base, beside which the batter stands), and, in passing, is at a height not greater than his shoulder nor lower than his General Description 31 knee. Whether he hits at such a ball or not it is called a '' strike." A poor ball is one that goes outside these Kmits and is called a " ball/' as distinguished from a ^^ strike." If a batsman mistakes a ball for a strike and hits at it, it is counted against him as one of the three strikes to which he is entitled. Although the pitcher is his opponent, he is constrained to pitch at least three good balls (strikes) out of six, as a fourth poor ball from the pitcher entitles the batsman to become a base runner, even though he should have missed two good balls pitched to him. The Umpire calls out for every ball pitched whether it be a ball or a strike. ^^ Four balls ! " is a bad call for the pitcher to hear, as it means he has let the bats- man escape him on poor pitching ; and '' Third strike I " is a critical call for the batsman to hear, as it means he is ^^ out." If, however, the third strike is dropped by the catcher, the runner is entitled to attempt to reach first base before the ball can be tossed to the first baseman. When, however, first base is occupied by a base runner and less than two men have been retired, the batter is automatically out on the third strike, whether the ball be caught or dropped. The batsman's primary object is to hit the ball so far that he will have time to run at least to first base before the ball can be thrown back there to the baseman guarding it. He may be able to make a two-base hit (one on which he can go to both first and second bases), or a three-base hit, or even send the ball so far that he can make all four bases on it — called a " home run," one of the most exciting events in a ball game. 32 Baseball The object of the opponents is, of course, to keep the team that is having its half inning from scoring runs. This they do by putting out three of its men as soon as possible, the half inning being ended when three men are out. The nine men of the defensive team are disposed over the field in a way that helps to the utmost to protect the bases and get a pitched or batted ball back to the players protecting the bases as quickly as possible. Besides the pitcher and catcher, the opposing team consists of a baseman (base keeper or guard) at each of the three bases, fi.rst, second, and third; a shortstop, who does the main work in fielding (catching) batted balls that go between second and third base; and three fielders, who field the balls that are batted far into the out- field {i.e., beyond the diamond). The official who has entire charge of a game is the Umpire. He is entirely neutral, favoring neither side more than the other, and decides all questions . throughout a game — whether the pitched ball be a ball or a strike, whether the batter be out or not, whether a base runner made his base or not, etc. The part to be played by each member of a team, and the most important rules governing this, are given In detail below. The general spectator would find much added interest from knowing these rules, espe- cially the conditions under which base runners steal bases, are put out, etc.^ 1 The rules embodied in the following text are those of the National Association of Professional Base Ball Leagues. These are for adults and for match games. The modifications officially allowed for junior players (those under sixteen years of age) are mentioned as they oc- The Field 33 FIELD. — A field for baseball should be level and measure not less than 325 feet square. On this the diagram for the game should be marked in white, Catcher ^^ ^ _^ , / o*j hV- 4 Ft- H /^Catche?5 Place \ / ^ Umpire DIAGRAM OF BASEBALL FIELD SHOWING POSITION OF PLAYERS AT THE START OF AN INNING as with lime or chalk, so as to be plainly seen from all parts of the ground. cur. The variations for informal games may be almost anything that conditions warrant — as to grounds and equipment, but the rules for playing should always be strictly observed. D 34 Baseball INFIELD OR DIAMOND. — A rectangle 90 feet square is marked in the center of the inclosure, corner- wise to the outer boundaries, giving it the appearance of a diamond. This diamond is known as the infield, and all territory outside it as the outfield. BASES. — At each corner of this infield, or diamond, and within it, is placed a base. One base, called the '' home plate," where the batter stands, is nearest the grand stand and may not be closer than 90 feet to it. This is made of whitened rubber fastened to the ground and level with its sur- face; it is five sided, measuring 12 inches along the lines of the diamond from the angle, 17 inches across the front, and 8^ inches from the 12-inch lines to the ends of this forward line. This plate is the place over which the pitcher sends the ball, and it also serves as a fourth base, to touch which is the aim of a base runner as that act scores a run for his team. The other three bases are called first, second, and third base, respectively, startingtoward the right from the home plate as one stands at that point looking into the diamond. These each measure 15 X 15 inches, their outer edges following the lines of the diamond. In ofiicial games these three bases consist of white canvas bags filled with soft material, as sawdust, or sand, and fastened securely to the ground by means of spikes and straps. batter's box. — On each side of the home plate, and six inches from it, is drawn an oblong inclosure measuring 6X4 feet. Each of these is a '^ batter's box," in which the batter must stand while hitting the ball. A batter is at liberty to stand in either box, The Field 35 and this is determined by his being right or left handed. A pitcher's plate, or box, is placed practically in the center of the diamond, being close to the batter's side of an imaginary Une from first to third base. This is of whitened rubber Hke the home plate, and measures 24 X 6 inches. It must be level with the surface, but may be on a gradually sloping mound, making it higher, by not more than 15 inches, than the home plate. The pitcher must always stand with at least one foot on the pitcher's rubber slab when delivering the ball. catcher's place. — A triangle which constitutes the catcher's place is drawn immediately back of the home plate, by extending the lines of the diamond and connecting them with a Hne 10 feet from the point of the plate. The catcher must be within this space when the ball is pitched, and no one else except the Umpire is allowed in this inclosure. BACKSTOP. — Usually a high board or wire fence is erected 80 feet back of the catcher's Hne (90 feet back of the home plate) to serve as a backstop for balls not caught by the catcher. FOUL LINES. — The hues of the diamond running forward on either side from the home plate are con- tinued beyond first and third bases respectively to the edge of the playing inclosure. These are called foul Hnes. A ball batted so that it falls within the diamond, or forward of it to the outfield within these lines, is called a fair hit, and entitles the batter to try for first base. Any batted ball falling outside the diamond behind these foul lines, unless first 36 Baseball touched by a fielder, while within fair ground, is a foul hit. The batter may not rua on these, and the first two foul hits are counted against him as strikes. i THREE-FOOT LINE. — When the batter runs to first base he is out if he goes more than three feet outside the boundary of the infield. There is there- fore a line drawn parallel to the diamond from home to first base for the latter half of it, and three feet from it. This is called the '' three-foot line." COACHERS' LINES. — Base runners on first and third bases are allowed each to have the advice of one member of their team called a coacher. These coachers may not go nearer to the outline of the dia- mond than 15 feet, and only that distance toward the home plate from the bases, but may go as far as they wish parallel to the foul lines beyond the diamond. Lines indicating these Hmits are marked as '' coachers' lines '' on the diagram. A coacher is not allowed to touch a base runner. PLAYERS' BENCHES. — For the unoccupied mem- bers of each batting team a bench is placed back of the batter, one team being assigned to one side and the other to the opposite side. These players' benches must be at least 50 feet from the diamond. Each team keeps its bats, caps, etc., near the bench when not in use. No one but members of the teams, substi- tutes, and managers may go to these benches. TEAMS: INNINGS. — Each team consists of nine members, including the Captain ; the latter may fill any position on the team. A team may also have any number of substitutes, but no player having once Teams : Innings 37 given his place to a substitute and left the game may return to the game. Always one team is at bat and the other in the field. The batting team is the only one that scores, the time at bat being called a half inning. A half inning lasts until three men have been put out, either as batters or base runners, when the teams change places and the opponents have a half inning ; these two halves making what is known as an inning. Each team is entitled to nine innings. {For junior players^ games are sometimes shortened to seven innings for each team.) The team that is having the half inning in which it goes to bat enters the game one player at a time, as batsman ; if successful, the batsman becomes a base runner. Each member of every team must therefore act as batsman and base runner, when his team is having the batting half of an inning. In addition to this, each member of each team has a definite position to fill when his team is in the field, or on the defensive. The duties of these defensive positions are highly speciaHzed and are elaborated hereinafter under their respective titles. They may be fisted here as follows : One pitcher ; one catcher ; three basemen, who act as keepers or guards each for one of the bases (these are called respectively first baseman, second baseman, and third baseman) ; one shortstop ; three fielders known respectively from their station in the outfield as right fielder, left fielder, and center fielder. The position taken by the dift'erent players at the opening of an inning is customarily as indicated on the diagram. All are at liberty to move freely, however, except the pitcher, when he is pitching, and the 38 Baseball catcher, when a ball is pitched. These two players may move freely while doing infield work, but are confined strictly to their places while doing battery duty. When a team is having a batting half inning, all of its players and substitutes not actually in the game must sit on the players' bench, except two who may be on the coacher's lines coaching the base runners at first and third bases. BATSMAN. — Each player on'a baseball team must take his turn as batter when his team is at bat (scor- ing), no matter what his position on the team may be, when it is in the field {i.e., on the defensive) ; for only after batting may a player become a base runner, by which means alone the score is made. A batter may be ^' put out " (retired for that inning, unless his turn comes round again), before he tries to run for first base, or he may try and fail to get there ; all of these matters are determined by the kind of balls pitched to him, whether he strikes at them or not, the way he hits them, and whether or not they be caught, the rulings for which points are all very definite. BATTING ORDER. — Before a game begins, the names of the members of each team are written down by its Captain in the order in which they will go to the bat, and handed to the Umpire. This is called the batting order and may not be changed. The oppos- ing Captain is also privileged to see this batting order. The Score-keeper calls the players by name to the bat — one at a time — in the order given him. A player may be declared out by the Umpire for not being in position in the batter's box within one minute after he is called. Batsman 39 After the first inning, the first player called to the bat will be the one next on the list to the one who was last on the batting order to be '' put out.'' A player is considered to have completed his time at bat when he is put out, or when he becomes a base runner in any way ; that is, by (i) being given a base on balls ('' four balls ") ; or (2) making a sacrifice hit ; or, (3) being hit by a pitched bajl; or, (4) being interfered with by the catcher. batter's place. — The batter's place is in one of the boxes beside the home plate. These so-called boxes are rectangles 4X6 feet marked on the ground. There is one on the left of the home plate for right- handed batters, and one on the right of it for left- handed batters. In batting, a batter must have both feet within the batter's box. It is a transgression of the rules, and puts the batter out, should he bat with even one foot out of his box. Most good batters take a step forward toward the ball as they bat, but this step must be entirely within the box. BATTER'S FORM OF PLAY. — The best form for batting is for the batter to face the pitcher as the ball is delivered, with his weight on the foot on the side from which he bats ; that is, on the right foot if he is a right-handed batter, or vice versa. This foot serves as a pivot on which to turn and the other foot should be forward. He should stand close to the plate so that his bat will swing well over it. The bat should be as heavy as the player can swing comfortably without being hampered by its weight. The legal Kmits for length and weight are given under 40 Baseball " Outfit." The bat should be held from four to eight inches from the knob by both hands, the right being uppermost for a right-handed batter and vice versa. The catcher stands close behind the home plate to catch balls that are not batted. The catcher and the pitcher are opponents of the batter; and while the pitcher tries to put most of the balls '' over the plate/' and while it is illegal for the catcher to interfere with the batting, they will both try to deceive the batter as to the kinds of balls to be pitched, so he may not be able to hit the ball. BATSMAN'S DUTIES IN GENERAL. — It is the batter's duty to bat the ball, if it be a good one, and then throw down his bat and run for first base with all possible speed. Should he bat the ball so far that he can get to first base before an opponent can tag him out with the ball, or reach the base with it before him, or before the first baseman, while on the base, has secured the ball, he is said to have made a base hit ; should he bat so far that he can run to first base and from there to second, he has made a two-base hit or a ^^ two-bagger " ; three bases, he has made a three-base hit — or '' three-bagger " ; and should he make a hit that enables him to make all four bases (the home plate is fourth base), he has made a '^ home run." Balls must be thrown so as to reach the catcher, while the catcher is within his limits, to be a legally thrown ball for a batter to hit. He may make three tries to hit^the ball, and must run for first base on the third try, if the catcher has not caught the ball, whether he has batted the ball to a safe distance or Strikes and Balls 41 not. On the other hand, he may advance to the first base without interference as a penalty to the pitcher should the latter throw him four balls in succession. Good balls are called " strikes " and poor balls are called '^ balls." The rules governing these and others affecting the batter are given in detail below. STRIKES AND BALLS. — A ball pitched SO that it passes over the home plate at a height between knee and shoulder is a good ball and the only kind at which a batter should hit. Such a ball is called a " strike/' and a batter is entitled to three such strikes, or chances to hit a good ball, so that he may run to first base. Whether he hits such a ball or not, the ball pitched as a strike is called a strike and counts as one of the three to which the batter is entitled. A ball that does not pass over the home plate, or that passes over it at a height above the batter's shoulder or below his knee, is a low ball and is called a " ball." A batter should not strike at such a ball, but, should he hit it, and it land within the diamond or the outfield, he is entitled to attempt to reach first base before the ball reaches the first baseman. The Umpire determines whether a ball be a ball or a strike, and calls it each time as it is caught. A batter may miss the ball either by hitting at it and failing to touch it ; or by refusing for some reason to hit at it, as, for instance, mistaking a strike for a ball ; or, he may refuse because it is pitched in such a way that he does not think he can hit it to advantage, even though it be a strike. BATTING. — The batter may bat the ball so that it is a fair hit or a foul hit. A fair hit is one that falls 42 Baseball within the diamond or infield, or outside of it if for- ward between the foul lines. A foul hit is one that goes back of the diamond and the foul lines. A ball that hits the ground inside of fair ground, within the diamond, and rolls to foul ground is called a foul hit. One that hits out and rolls back into fair ground is called a foul hit. A ball that strikes within the out- field and rolls out of bounds is a fair hit. The only kind of hit that entitles a batter to run for first base is a fair hit that is not caught by an opponent. On a foul hit neither he nor any of the other base runners may advance. A batter does not wait, however, to know if his hit be fair or foul, or if it be caught, before starting his run to first base. He runs for first base as soon as he has batted, and returns to the batter's box if the ball be foul and not caught, unless this should be his third strike, and then such a failure puts him out. Any fly ball (that is, one batted so that it goes through the air instead of roUing on the ground), that is caught by an opponent, whether it be a fair hit or a foul hit, puts the batter out. Any foul hit that is not caught by an opponent, whether a fly ball or grounder, counts against the batter as a strike until he has two strikes against him; after that, fouls do not count against him except those that are caught ; so, except they be caught, he may then make any number of foul hits without suffering a penalty. A ball may be batted far or near. As a general rule the long distances are of the greatest advantage to the batter and his team mates who may be already on bases, as they can run farther before the ball is Rules for Batsman 43 sent back to tag them out. Should a batter send a ball outside the legal limits of the grounds, or 235 feet, he is entitled to a home run. Stopping the ball simply by holding the bat up for it without any swing is called a bunt. This results in the ball's falHng in the near part of the diamond, when it has to be fielded by som^e member of the infield. The batter is most likely to be put out, before he can reach first base, by a ball so near, but as this will give other base runners a chance to score or at least to advance, it is often done and is called a sacrifice hit, as the batter sacrifices himself to help the others to score.. He will not do this, of course, if there be two out on his side, as it would end the inning for his team, if he, the third man, be put out. Any kind of hit that sacrifices the batter for the purpose of allowing others to score is called a sacrifice hit. The rules for the batsman's base running are men- tioned below and elaborated under '^ Base runner." SUMMARY OF RULES FOR BATSMAN. — The only kind of hit on which a batter may legally make first base is a fair hit that is not caught by an opponent. The batter is allowed three strikes and may try to make his base with the right kind of hit at any one of the three strikes. THE BATTER IS OUT (a) if he does not make his base on the third strike ; (b) if any ball that he bats, be it sent to fair or foul ground, is caught on the fly and held, even momen- tarily, by an opponent ; (c) if he steps out of the batter's box while batting ; 44 Baseball {d) if he is tagged with the ball in the hands of an opponent before he reaches first base ; {e) if an opponent, holding the ball, is on first base ahead of him ; (/) if, in running to first base, he goes more than three feet outside the line of the diamond ; {g) if he interferes in any way with the catcher's work in catching or throwing the ball ; {h) if he is hit on his third strike by a pitched ball. THE BATTER IS GIVEN FIRST BASE WITHOUT IN- TERFERENCE {a) if the pitcher deKvers four '' balls '' in succes- sion; i.e., four balls, that do not go over the plate, or that go over it above the height of the batter's shoulder or below the height of his knee ; {b) if he is hit at any time except on his third strike by any pitched ball which he tries to avoid ; {c) if he bats a ball tha-t hits a base runner ; {d) if the Umpire calls a balk on the pitcher. (See ^^pitcher.'O THE BATTER IS GIVEN A HOME RUN without inter- ference should he bat the ball beyond 235 feet, or, if he bats a ball that strikes the Umpire on fair ground. BASE RUNNER. — Base running is the part of baseball around which all the rest of the game centers, for it is only by running a complete circuit of the bases, starting as batter and touching first, second, third, and fourth bases in regular order, that a player scores one point for his team. This may be done in one dash, called a '' home run," or by stopping on the different bases as safety points en route. The score is the same in either case. < O H o ^ o 2; 46 Baseball The entire object of the defensive team is to pre- vent these runs, by putting out (retiring) the players before they can get to the last base or home plate. Players may be put out by (i) pitching the balls so that the batter misses three strikes, in which case he is put out before he becomes a base runner ; or, (2) by tagging a runner between bases ; (3) in certain cases, by an opponent's getting to a vacant base with the ball, or catching it there, before the base runner arrives ; or, (4) catching a batted ball before it touches the ground. When three players have been put out, that half inning is ended for the team that is batting (scoring). They then go to the field (take the defen- sive) and the opponents have a half inning, i.e., a turn " at bat." Each team is entitled to nine such half innings. Each player on a team has to be a base runner, taking his turn as batsman when his team is ^^ at bat,'' and from that, if successful, becoming a base runner. A player may run to a base, or he may run part of the way and slide the rest of it full length on the ground, either feet first or head first. Sliding to a base is dangerous, as it may lead to injury, but it often gives an advantage by saving time and by the long reach, especially sliding head first with both arms extended. Sliding also makes it more difficult for an opponent to touch a player with the ball. RUNNER FOR FIRST BASE. — A batsman may be put out (i) by poor batting before he becomes a base runner, or (2) he may be put out like any other runner between bases, or, (3) by an opponent reaching first base with the ball ahead of him. Baserunner 47 The only kind of hit on which a batsman is entitled to run to first base is a fair hit ; that is, any kind of hit, ^^ fly/' ''grounder/' or ''bounder/' that falls within the diamond, or forward of it between the foul lines — with the one exception that any fly hit, foul or fair, caught by the opponents, puts him out. A batsman becomes a base runner for first base as soon as he has hit the ball. He should throw down his bat and run immediately on making a hit without waiting to see the result, unless sure of having hit to foul ground. In running to first base a player must not go more than three feet outside of a direct line from first to home base (plate) (the outline of the diamond), or he is out. A three-foot line is drawn on the ground as a guide for this, though the rule is usually interpreted rather leniently. Overrunning or oversliding first base is permissible, if the runner does not attempt to run towards second base after he passes the first base. Should he be going on to second base at once, it is not necessary for him to return to touch first base if he has overrun it. A batter is at liberty to make as many bases as possible on one hit. As the defense concentrates its efforts very largely, however, on keeping a batter from making first base, it is very difficult to go beyond first on one hit. The runner to first base may be put out by (i) a fly catch by the opponents, whether the ball be batted to fair or foul ground ; (2) being tagged with the ball in the hands of an opponent before he reaches first base; (3) by an opponent's being on the base with 48 Baseball the ball before he gets there ; (4) or he puts himself out, if he stops running, while en route. The runner for first base is also put out by his own fowls, as by interfering with the catching or fielding of the ball (see also the rules that retire a batsman), or by running outside the three-foot line. A batter is allowed to go to first base without inter- ference as a penalty for poor play of the opponents as follows : {a) when the pitcher sends him four balls (poor balls as distinguished from strikes) in succes- sion ; this is called giving him '' a base on balls " ; {b) whenever the Umpire calls a '' Balk " on the pitcher; that is, whenever the pitcher makes a foul as described under '' Pitcher '' ; {c) whenever the batter is hit by a ball he tries to avoid, except on his third strike; {d) whenever a batted ball hits the Umpire within fair ground. RUNNERS FOR SECOND, THIRD, AND FOURTH BASES. — After a player gets to first base, if he cannot safely go on to second base on the same hit, he has to wait at first, touching it with his foot or keeping near enough to touch it before an opponent could touch him with the ball, while off the base, until an oppor- tunity comes for advancing. This applies also to the second and third bases. After a fly ball has been caught, he needs must get back to the base he left, before an opponent can touch him with the ball or reach the base with the ball before the runner can get back to it. A base runner may run for the next base on a hit or between hits. A hit lasts from the time a pitcher holds the ball ready to throw to the bat, until the Baserunner 49 batted ball is caught, if a fly hit, or until it is seen to be other than a fly hit. Should a base runner start while the pitcher is dehvering the ball, or while the ball is in the air, or at any other time before a hit is completed, he may keep the base to which he has advanced should the ball prove to be a fair hit that is not caught — that is, any kind of hit to fair ground. For a fair fly that is caught, however, or for any foul hit, he must return to his base, and may, or may not, be put out before he gets there, according to the kind of hit made by the batter. These are as follows : THE BASE RUNNER MAY RETURN TO HIS BASE WITHOUT BEING PUT OUT on (a) any foul hit except a foul fly that is caught ; (b) any pitched ball that is struck at and missed by the batsman and then hits the batsman ; (c) any batted ball that hits the Um- pire not having touched an opponent first; (d) any accidental interference by the Umpire with the catcher's throw\ THE BASE RUNNER MUST RETURN TO HIS BASE, AND MAY BE PUT OUT in either of two ways: (a) by tagging, or (b) by an opponent with the ball on the base after any fly ball is caught (foul or fair) . A runner may run for a base at any time through the game when he thinks the ball sufficiently far away or otherwise engaged to make it safe. Such advancing, by other means than running on hits, is called stealing a base. The danger of stealing lies in having to return to the base just left, in which case an unex- pected throw of the ball to the baseman there may result in putting the runner out. Overrunning, or over sliding a base also makes the 50 Baseball runner liable to be put out, except on first base as previously explained. No base runner while running between bases, except in making a home run, two bagger, or three bagger, may go more than three feet beyond the line connecting the bases. Infringement of this rule puts the runner out. The fielder has the right of way. No runner may be put out while on a base to which he is legally entitled ; he can only be put out while off base or between bases. Only one runner may be on a base at a time, but the last player to arrive at a base is not entitled to it, and any player there before him is not forced to go on to the next base when the second one arrives, except whenever a ground hit is made ; then the man on base ahead is forced torun. This is called a forced play and the player so forced off his base may be put out either by being tagged with the ball between bases, or by a ball fielded to an opponent on the next base before the runner can reach there. To illustrate, if the batter makes first base, on a ground hit, and there is a player of his team already there, the latter is forced to run for second; should there be a player at second, he must run for third, and so on. Should a batter make a home run on a ground hit with players on first, second, and third bases, these three players, by being forced off bases ahead of them, will all complete their runs, and four points would be scored, one for each of the four runners. Besides earning or stealing their bases in any of the ways just described, players may advance one base without interference, the same as the batsman, on a Coacher: Pitcher 51 penalty to the opponents for poor play or fouls (balks or errors). (See ^' Runner for First Base/') COACHING. — Base runners on first and third bases may be assisted in their judgment as to whether or not to run by coaches — members of their team who are allowed for that purpose to come within fifteen feet of those bases. SIGNALS. — In expert games, base runners work closely with the batter through signals, indicating to him or he to them, when a ball may be batted to advantage, etc. COACHERS. — Two members of a team having an inning may act as coachers for its runners on first and third bases. A line is drawn 15 feet from the diamond and parallel to it, by each of these bases, called the fifteen-foot Hne, . or coacher's line, within which coachers may not go. The captain of a team may himself act as coacher, and in any event desig- nates the others who are to serve in this capacity. A coacher's duty is to tell the base runner when it is safe to run or steal, when to return to base, etc. It is illegal for a coacher to address any other players in the field, or any one outside it, or to try in any way to work up sentiment among the spectators. PITCHER. — IN GENERAL. — On the pitcher's skill in delivering the ball depends largely the ability of the opposing batter to make, or fail to make, successful strikes. He also has important work instead of deHvering the ball to the bat, to throw it to basemen that they may put out base runners. The pitcher may also have to field (catch) batted balls that fall near him, and may even on occasion have to 52 Baseball act as baseman to first base if the regular player there be fielding a ball. His most important work, however, is to pitch the ball to the batter. A pitcher may deliver to the bat two kinds of balls, those that are good, called ^' strikes, '^ and those that are poor, called " balls." A good ball (strike) is one that passes over the home plate, and does so at a height between the batsman's knee and shoulder ; a poor ball (ball) is one that does not pass over the plate or does so above or below the height specified. The Umpire calls out after each ball passes the plate whether it is a ball or a strike. There is no appeal from his decision. A pitcher is constrained to pitch a majority of good balls, for should he pitch four balls, as distinguished from strikes, the batter may advance to the first base without interference — called giving him a base on balls. The batter, however, is also punished for poor play by being obliged to run for first base on his third ^^ strike" (if the catcher has dropped the ball) whether he has hit it well, or poorly, or not at all. The pitcher tries, therefore, to send balls that will deceive the batter and make him miss. Pitching has been developed to so high a degree of skill that by dif- ferent ways of holding a ball, or of letting it leave the hand, it is possible to send it in a straight line until it reaches the plate when it suddenly curves outward to right or left, or drops downward in a curve, or at a sudden angle {'' drop ball ") ; or it may unex- pectedly '' jump " (upward) or change in speed. A good pitcher studies the style of batting of a batsman — whether he swings his bat high or low, etc. — and Pitcher 53 throws accordingly. As the catcher, standing just behind the batter, often discerns these pecuharities better, it is usual for a catcher to signal to a pitcher what kind of ball to throw. The pitcher is not obliged to act on these signals, and often himself signals to the catcher what kind of ball he intends throwing, that the latter may be better prepared to catch it. The signals between pitcher and catcher are silent and may consist, for example, of the position in which they stand, or of some movement of the fingers of the ungloved hand, or, in the case of the catcher, the way in which he returns the ball to the pitcher, etc. Besides pitching to the batter, the pitcher has impor- tant work in helping basemen to put out base runners. It is optional with him whether he pitch to the batter or throw to one of his own basemen for this purpose. The catcher, who can better see the position of players, usually signals to the pitcher in which way to play, and, if the ball is to go to a baseman, to which one to throw it. RULES FOR THE PITCHER. — In throwing, the pitcher must face the batter and have at least one foot on the pitcher's plate and he may take but one step. Neither foot may be behind the plate. Should he throw toward one of the bases, a pitcher must take a step in the direction of that base. It is not allowable to make a feint at throwing the ball and not deliver it. This is called a balk, and all base runners may advance one base on it. A pitcher may not purposely delay the game by holding the ball ; he must play promptly when it comes to his hands. 54 Baseball A foul play by the pitcher; that is, infringement of any rule for his position, is called a balk. The Umpire calls a balk whenever one is made and each base runner may advance one base without liability of being put out. Following is a list of ways in which a pitcher may " balk '' : (i) Any feint of throwing to first or to the batter while on the slab without doing so; (2) throwing to a base to intercept a base runner, without taking a step in that direction ; (3) delivering the ball to the bat without having one foot at least on the pitcher's plate ; (4) pitching the ball to the bat without facing the batsman; (5) delaying the game by holding the ball too long ; (6) delivering the ball to the bat while the catcher is outside of his place; (7) moving as though to pitch while on the slab without the ball in his possession. CATCHER. — PLACE AND DUTIES. — The catcher's place is back of the batter, facing the pitcher. He must be within ten feet of the batter when the ball is pitched, and usually stands close to the home plate. The catcher's duties are varied and important; indeed, in the highly developed modern game, he is the most important member of a team, for he not only plays his own part with the ball, but being the only player who can see all parts of the field, practi- cally directs the entire game by signaling to his team mates on bases what they should do. CATCHING BALLS. — The catcher and pitcher to- gether are often called '' the battery," and of course they belong to the team in the field and work in oppo- Catcher 55 sition to the scoring team, whose players are batters and base runners. The first duty of a catcher is to catch the balls delivered to the batter by the pitcher, when the former misses them or allows them to pass him. It is espe- cially important that he catch a third strike (i.e., a good ball that passes over the home plate at the pre- scribed height between the batsman's knee and shoulder), that is, missed or passed by the batter, because a batsman is out, if a third strike be caught by the catcher. He is also out if the catcher catches a foul strike — i.e., one that falls outside of the dia- mond back of first or third base. If a catcher lets a ball pass him, it gives the base runners a chance to move forward in the time he is recovering it, though if there be no backstop at the prescribed distance of ninety feet behind the home plate, they may move up only one base. It is there- fore to the advantage of his team that he should get the ball back into play as quickly as possibly. CATCHER AS FIELDER. — Besides catching these balls, a catcher may go into the diamond to catch a fair hit (a ball that goes within the diamond or for- ward of the foul lines). He is not hkely to do this unless the ball falls in the near part of the field be- tween himself and the pitcher; then either of them may get it, the captain usually signaling by shouting which shall do so when it would be equally convenient for either. CATCHER'S RETURN OF THE BALL. — When a catcher secures the ball in any of these ways, he may send it back to the pitcher or throw it to any of the $6 Baseball members of his team, usually a baseman, who is in a position to put out a base runner. His judgment on which play to make is one of his strongest qualifica- tions. He is in a position to see which base runners are stealing bases, and either by throwing the ball himself, or signaling the pitcher, shortstop, or a fielder, may intercept such a run. CATCHER BECOMES BASEMAN FOR HOME BASE. — Besides catching the ball and directing the game by signaling to his team, the catcher acts as baseman or keeper (guard) at the home base, trying to put out runners from third base either by himself getting to the home plate with the ball in his hand before the runner, or by tagging the latter with the ball held in his (the catcher's) hand. When there is a man on third base, a batted ball is usually sent back to the catcher or third baseman for this purpose by the fielder who secures it. It is therefore necessary for the catcher to be a skillful catcher, a good, speedy thrower, a quick base- man, and at the same time watch the moves of all other players and signal directions to his team. catcher's signals. — One of the most important duties of a catcher is to signal to the pitcher what kind of ball to pitch — a curved ball, a drop ball, or what not. For the catcher is in the best position to study the batter's peculiarities, whether, for example, he hits high or low, steps forward to meet the ball, or shrinks back from it, etc., so he can often judge best what kind of ball he will be likely to miss. The pitcher is not obhged to act on these signals, but it is usually wise to do so. Should he use his own Basemen 57 judgment, he usually signals to the catcher what sort of a ball he will throw, to assist the latter in his catching. The catcher also signals, to baseman, shortstop, or fielders, as explained under '' Returning the Ball/' A catcher's signals should be known only to his team, and are often changed to avoid discovery by opponents. Silent signals are best, and are usually made by the fingers, the position of the cap on the head, etc. BASEMEN. — IN GENERAL. — There are three basemen on a team, who act as keepers, or guards, for the three bases, and try to prevent the batting team from scoring runs by putting out the base runners. This they do by tagging them between bases with the ball (held, not thrown), or by themselves being on a base with the ball, before the base runner gets there. Which of these methods they shall use in putting out a runner is determined sometimes by rule and sometimes by judgment. No baseman may block or interfere physically with the base runner, as by catching, tackling, or tripping ; his only defense is in outrunning him and having the ball. A baseman must also field (catch) any batted balls that come within his range and throw with quick judgment to any player of his team who is in a better position than himself to, put out a runner. In an expert game, where he shall throw is often determined by signals. It is therefore obvious that a baseman must be a quick and accurate thrower, a sure catcher, a quick thinker, and a rapid runner. A delay of a 58 Baseball fraction of a second in any department of his work may enable an opponent to make a base, for it must be remembered that base runners go at sprinting speed, and may make from five to ten feet in half a second. Even straightening up to throw after catching a low ball may make the fatal difference, and basemen must therefore be able to throw swift underhand as well as overhand balls, from practically any position, from that of stooping to stop a grounder, to reaching for a high fly. Of course each baseman, besides this de- fensive play, must be an expert batter and base runner when his team is at bat. The first baseman guards first base; the second baseman, second base ; and the third baseman, third base. All three start an inning near their bases, but there is no rule about this, and they may move freely throughout the game. Their nearness to base will be largely determined by whether or not there is a runner there, or one trying to get there. Obviously a baseman must know well the rules and tactics by which base runners may advance. The runner's main opportunity is when a batted ball is not caught by the opponents, or, being caught, is muffed (dropped ; a poor or insecure catch) . A base runner often does not wait to see the result of the batting, but starts for the next base while the ball is in the air or even before the pitcher throws. If the ball be caught, he must then go back to his base, and that is an opportunity for the baseman, who usually tries to head the runner off by getting to the base before him, signaling the man who fields the ball to throw it to the base for him to catch there. Basemen 59 The base runner is similarly obliged to return to a base on a batted ball that proves to be a foul hit. Under any other circumstances — as a fair hit not caught, or caught and muffed, or when the ball is being used to put out other base runners, or in any way that he can get a chance — a runner may advance to the next base if he can get there. He is especially liable to try this if the ball be not in his vicinity, and it is then that good team work in the defensive team may get the ball to the baseman in time to tag out the runner between bases. THE FIRST BASEMAN has the ball thrown to him oftener than any other, and it may come from any player on the infield, or, less frequently, from the out- field ; for, all of the team combine to help him put out the batter before he can make his first base. The first baseman usually plays with one foot on or near his base, to lose no time in running, and must be expert in catching all kinds of balls from that position. It is important that all throws to him be accurate, not only to keep him near his base and avoid missing or muffing, but to prevent his having to field a ball that goes beyond him; for as there is no fielder back of him he must secure such a ball, and that not only lets in the batter, but gives the other base runners a good chance to advance while the ball is inactive. Bunted or foul balls, or balls from left-handed batters, are apt to come in his direction also, and for these he acts as fielder, if they are out of range of the pitcher, catcher, or second baseman. Should they take him far from base, any of these players may cover his base for him. 6o* Baseball THE SECOND BASEMAN, in protecting his base, plays most with the shortstop and right fielder, but has some very important plays in helping first base. Like most of the other infield players, he throws oftenest to first base when he has the ball. THE THIRD BASEMAN'S position is one of the most important, as it is his duty to head off the final stage of a run (from third to home), as well as to prevent a runner from getting to third. He has to field many batted balls, especially from right-handed batters, and bunted balls. He has little fielding to do for a left- handed batter. He plays closely with the short- stop, pitcher, and catcher, and throws often to first. THE SHORTSTOP stands between second and third bases, usually just outside the diamond, but, like the basemen and fielders, he may move freely. His main duty is to catch batted balls, many of which go to his vicinity ; of course, this carries with it the ensuing duty of throwing the ball to the pitcher, if there be no men on bases, or, according to his judg- ment, to any of the basemen, or to pitcher or catcher should there be men on bases. He must be quick to catch signals for the balls and must cooperate closely with the basemen. Errors on the part of the short- stop are especially liable to allow the batting team to advance, or even to score. He plays especially closely with the pitcher and second basemen to put out runners to second. He may even at times have to cover first or third base when the baseman is field- ing. All fielders usually study the batting of opposing likely teams and move in the direction in which they judge that the ball is to be hit. Shortstop : Fielders 6i FIELDERS. — There are three fielders, a right fielder, a left fielder and a center fielder, whose places are in the outfield, i.e., beyond the diamond. Their duties are to field (catch and return) balls that go to that part of the ground. fielder's place ; GROUND COVERED. — The posi- tion of the fielders is within the foul lines, but they run anywhere that may be necessary to secure the ball, except into the infield, where batted balls are caught by basemen, shortstop, or pitcher, called the infielders. The right field stands back in the outfield to the right (viewing the field from the catcher's position) ; the left fielder has a similar place to the left, and the center fielder in the center well back of second base. How far out a fielder shall stand at the opening of a play will vary with conditions and must be a matter of judgment on his own part. If he knows how a batter is likely to bat, as, for instance, high flies, he can sometimes anticipate the ball by taking a position deep (far back) in the field ; or by coming in close for batters who habitually hit to shorter range. Batting, however, with expert players, is so skillful that hits are apt to be purposely varied to mislead the fielders. A left-handed batter sends many balls to the right side of the field, keeping the right fielder busy, while a right-handed batter hits to the left side, which means more work for the left fielder and shortstop. Both right- and left-handed batters are apt to hit forward toward second base, and for balls that go beyond that point the center fielder must be alert. To what part of the field a ball will go is also largely determined by the way it is pitched. It is therefore 62 Baseball important for a fielder to understand the signals by which a pitcher or catcher indicate to their team the kind of a ball to be thrown. For a ball that goes between fielders, equally con- venient for either to get, both should run, but in such a case collisions should be avoided by the player who gets nearest to the ball calling, '' I have it! " ^^ My ball ! " or ^^ My catch ! " when the other runner should instantly stop. Sometimes the Captain calls which is to catch the ball, but for the outfielders he is usu- ally too far away to do this advantageously. It is also a fielder's duty to run in rather close be- hind a baseman or the shortstop when one of the latter intends catching the ball, so as to '' pick it up " should it get beyond them. In such a case, though the batter will probably make the first base, it is important to get the ball in play again as quickly as possible to prevent any other base running. The fielder should back up in a similar way any other fielder whom he can reach for a difficult catch. De- lays are exceedingly dangerous in giving base runners a chance to advance. It is apparent that a fielder must cover a wide territory and be able to start and run in any direction at sprinting speed. fielder's catching. — A fielder must be an expert in catching the ball. To fail to catch a ball is charged to the fielder in his record as an error, except in the case of a ^^ hot ball" (a very hard-hit ball), or of a very difficult twisting or bounding ball; or, if a ball be dropped in collision between the fielder and a base runner, it is not an error. It is an error if the Fielders 63 fielder fail to hold an ordinarily hit ball (muffs it), or if he fumbles the ball ; that is, having stopped the ball (as, for example, a hard-hit grounder) he fumble it in trying to pick it up. The fielder's catch is of especial importance as the batter's run to first base does not count if the ball be caught on the fly (called a fly ball), and held, even momentarily, before touching the ground; or if a grounder (a ball that rolls on. the ground from the bat) be caught and held, or one that goes outside the foul Hues. FIELDER'S THROWING. — A fielder must have skill and strength for throwing from long distances. Should he throw so far beyond or to one side of a baseman that the latter cannot get the ball (called '' a wide throw ") it is charged to the fielder as an '^ error." A ball thrown by a fielder so that it falls short of a baseman, reaching him on the bound, is also an error on the part of the fielder. A fielder must have a close knowledge of the con- dition of the game and quick, accurate judgment as to where the ball should be sent to head off base runners. The fielder is too far away as a rule to tag out run- ners himself, but must throw to one of the basemen for this. Should a baseman be able, through such a throw, to put out a runner, the fielder is credited with an '' assist '' — that is, with having assisted in putting out the runner. The fielder is also credited with an assist in such a case if his own judgment and throw have been accurate, but the baseman fails to catch the ball or to put out the runner. Should the fielder show poor 64 Baseball judgment in thus throwing the ball, and a base runner succeed in making a base through the opportunity thus given, the fielder is charged with an error. An outfielder seldom tries to throw to the catcher to put out a base runner from third to home, as the dis- tance is apt to be too far for success. Fielders send the ball most frequently to the second baseman, and some- times to first or third, or to the shortstop ; or, if there be no runners on bases, then to the pitcher. In a game between experts a fielder is often informed by signals to which of the foregoing players to send the ball. When the distances are very great a fielder may send the ball to its destination by relays ; that is, throw to another player of either the infield or outfield, to be thrown by him to the baseman for whom it is intended. A fielder may also have a chance to assist a base- man in making a '' run out " between bases — that is, to throw the ball back and forth from one to the other while walking toward each other with a runner who has been caught off base between them. One of them will probably have a chance to tag him with the ball before he can get past to a base. SCORE. — IN GENERAL. — One point is scored for each run (complete circuit of bases by one runner of the team at bat). This is the only way in which points are scored. Only the team at bat scores. That team wins in a game of baseball which has made the larger number of runs during the nine in- nings to which each team is entitled. The game is played in nine innings (i.e., nine for each team) for adults, and for juniors in seven innings if desired. Score 65 The full game is terminated without waiting to complete the last inning in case the score be deter- mined before that time. This may happen (a) if the team that batted first score fewer runs in nine in- nings than its opponents in eight innings ; (b) if the last team to have its last inning make the number of points needed to win before its third man be put out. Should the score be equal at the end of nine in- nings for each, the game is a tie or drawn game, and is continued until one team has scored more runs than the opponents in an equal number of innings. This is called an extra-inning game. Such a game may terminate, however, as in the case of a regular game, when the side second at bat has made a win- ning score, irrespective of whether or not it has com- pleted the inning. The Umpire declares when a game is terminated by calling ^^ Game ! " He also has the privilege of calHng game before the innings be finished, if in his judgment darkness, rain, fire, or other emergency make it impos- sible to continue. In such a case, if each side has played five or more full innings, and the score is equal, the Umpire will declare it a drawn or tie game. It is also declared a drawn game without waiting for the last inning to be finished, should the team that was second at bat at the opening of the game have achieved, in an equal or less number of innings than its opponents, one run more than the latter. A complete and official score of baseball contains, however, much more than the runs scored. It is peculiar in giving for each player and for each team a record of all important points of play. This reveals 66 Baseball skill and ability and whether or not the game was won mostly on the skill of the winning team, or the weakness of opponents. The official rules require that each player's record be kept, for his batting and fielding play, in prescribed columns, after his name, as follows : AS BATSMAN.— ist column, number of times at bat. 2d column, number of runs made. 3d column, number of first-base hits made. 4th column, number of sacrifice hits made. IN THE FIELD.— 5th column, number of opponents put out. 6th column, number of assists (in putting out players). 7th column, number of fielding errors (failures in fielding to throw the ball where it could have been used to put out a baseman). Decisions as to assists and errors, especially the latter, are matters of judgment and often very diffi- cult to determine. It is not unusual for official scorers to differ on these points. The rules define these as definitely as possible. In general an assist is credited to every player who handles the ball in aid- ing to put out a player ; for example, to a fielder, or any one else fielding the ball, who throws it to a base- man in time to put out a base runner. This is done whether or not the last player complete the play by making the put out. This applies to each player who handles the ball after it leaves the bat, or after it is thrown to any player, as distinguished from being pitched to the bat. It does not apply to the player who actually puts out a runner. Score 67 A fielding error consists of such a misplay, either in handling the ball (muffing, etc.) or in poor judgment as to where to throw it, that it prolongs the time at bat of the batsman, or allows a base runner to make one or more runs. Battery errors (i.e., those of the pitcher and catcher) are distinct from fielding errors, and consist of any misplay of these two players which allows the bats- man to run, or gives him a base on balls. Stolen bases are credited to a base runner when he makes a base unaided by a base hit, or put out, or a fielding or battery error. SUMMARY OF SCORE. — In addition to the record of individual players on points mentioned above, official League rules require that a summary of the game be made which shall contain the following points: (i) The score made in each inning and a total score for the game. (2) For the team at bat (a) the number of bases stolen, and (b) the number of two- and three -base hits and home runs made by each player. (3) The number of double and triple plays (i.e., two or three men put out on one hit) made by each side and the names of players assisting in these. (4) For the pitcher , (a) the number of innings in which he has pitched, (b) the number of base hits made from his pitching, (c) the number of times a pitcher succeeds in putting out a batsman on strikes, (d) the number of times he gives a base on balls ; (e) the number of wild pitches, (/) the number of times he hits the batsman with the ball. (5) For the catcher , the number of balls passed (not caught) . (6) Also , (a) the time taken to play the game, and (b) the name of the Umpire. 68 Baseball The standing of individual players and clubs is determined by figuring the percentage of successful plays in batting, fielding, and base running, as much as by the number of games won in a ^^ round robin " series, i.e., a series in which each team plays every other team in a group, the ultimate winner being the champion. The batting average is found by dividing the total number of base hits by the total number of times at bat. For instance, if a man had been at bat five times and had got three hits, his batting average would be .600 ; if a man had been at bat three times and had got one hit, his batting average would be .^^^. The field average of a player is determined by add- ing the times he has put out a player, and assisted in putting out a player, by the number of chances he has had to do this. The number of chances to do it is found by adding the number of his errors to the pre- vious total (put outs and assists). The base-running record is a record of the bases the player has made without help, or base stealing. It is found by dividing the number of bases stolen by the number of games in which the player has played. METHOD OF KEEPING SCORE. — There are many methods of keeping score. Below is a baseball short- hand that is used by baseball writers. All players are numbered and all plays recorded by symbols. Players should be numbered as follows : Pitcher, i ; Catcher, 2 ; First Baseman, 3 ; Second Baseman, 4 ; Third Baseman, 5 ; Shortstop, 6 ; Left Fielder, 7 ; Center Fielder, 8 ; and Right Fielder, 9. CO w ^ g f O f-f (N C^ <^ M <5' i^ ^ 0:^ cu z; in CO t^ < ''t CO O o o O CVJ CO 1-4 00 r-H 15 • o 2 in 1-H 00 CT> f-l CM CM ^ o CM c Q CO t— 1 o o o O 1-4 O o o CM f^ OQ f-H o CVJ o 1—1 O O 1-H o If) cr »-H o o o r-H O O o o CM < •^ '^ c^ ^ '^ •^ •^ 00 CM 00 o A <>- I ■ ■A- A <>- ■A 1 ^■ 1 \ ^. A o If- ^. ^ ■A- If) A ■A- 1 00 ■^- .4l ^ ->■ A -♦ A ■<>- ^■ o\ t^ ■> ^- ■^- .^.. ^ i- r 5^- CD ; CO ?i? i- .5$,-^ 4^ ^ 1 4^ ^ ^■ 1 1 ■<>■ 10 A 4- i 1 ^- Tt 1 ■i^- ^- .♦■ \o o\ Tf^ ■<>■ ■^ X 1 ^. <> 1^1 0- <>■ \o VtJ CO x^- K^ ^- A ^• i ^- "^- .1- C bo c o c^ ■<> ^- ^0 < 1 w ^- ■4- ^■ 1 th\ 00 iH 4° 4^ -f- ^ ■<>- 1 . J. _ 1 I ... , ♦- X I t ( 1 2 3 c « 8 c: q; 'be be ^3 y cq ^3 o DC CO CO 10 ^2 2 CO ft O -g B to 00 Ci Or-( iHr-l 6 feet wide and 4 feet high. The backboard must ex- Right Guard B Left Forward A • End Line 6 Ft. Radius Left Guard B Right Forward A -Center B 2 Ft. Radius Center A Right Forward's Left Guard A Left Forward B Right Guard A o-"' Basket A End Line BASKET BALL Regulation court and position of teams at start of game. 89 90 Basket Ball tend at least 3 feet above the metal ring or goal. The backstop must be perpendicular and firm. FREE THROW LINE. — Directly inward 15 feet from each goal is drawn a free throw, or foul Une, 2 feet long, parallel to the end lines. From this foul line the free throws for goal are made which are awarded to an offended team as penalty for a foul committed by the opponents. This free throw line, and the throw from it, are protected from interfer- ence by a ^^ free throw lane " leading from the goal. FREE THROW LANE. — A lane, ending in a circle 6 feet in diameter (3 foot radius) leads toward the center of the court from each goal. This lane is made by two lines parallel to the side-lines, which start 3 feet on each side of the basket ; from this point they are drawn upon the floor toward the opposite end of the court until they intersect a circle with its center placed 1 5 feet inward from the basket or goal. A similar figure should be drawn upon the floor at the opposite end of the court. CENTER CIRCLE. — Exactly in the center of the court should be drawn a 2-foot circle (diameter) in which the ball is put in play. A player always refers to the territory around the basket, into which his team is trying to toss the ball, as ^^ up the court." His forwards usually play ^' up the court." The territory around the basket into which the opponents are trying to throw the ball, is called ^' down the court." His guards usually play '^ down the court." The basket into which a team is trying to throw the ball is customarily spoken of in basket ball as their Teams 91 own goal, although it is defended by the opponents. Thus, for team A, the goal marked B is called their own goal. It is for this basket that team A makes their free throws. TEAMS. — A team consists of 5 players — 2 for- wards, I center, and 2 guards. These players may move anywhere on the field. FORWARDS. — At the start of the game, the right and left forwards always play well up near the oppo- nents' basket, into which their team is endeavoring to toss the ball; after the start, they may move all over the court. The forwards should be agile, fast players and accurate shots, for to them in good part falls the majority of opportunities to tally. They should be able to get away from the guards of the opposite team, — to use the technical vernacular should be able to ^' lose '' or '' shake off " the opposing guards, each one of whom is playing close to a for- ward in the effort to prevent scoring. This is called " covering the forward." A forward should also be quick enough, after once having shaken off an opposing guard, to get back to him and effectively cover him, if the ball fall info the hands of the opponents, so that the guard, if he be close to his own goal, may not be able to '' shoot '' the ball through his opponent's basket. The forward need not necessarily be tall, as many of the most effective college forwards have been short, aggressive players. GUARDS. — The guards should be as tall and heavy as can be secured, so long as few other requisites as 92 Basket Ball possible are sacrificed. Each should so well cover the forward against whom he is pitted that the forward seldom, if ever, has an opportunity for an undisturbed shot at the basket. A guard should have the ability to make long shots, so that, when opportunity offers, he will be able to score for his team. CENTER. — The center should be a very tall man, who is able to jump and reach high in the air. He should combine all the requisites of a forward and those of a guard. He should be in the very best of physical condition, as he is called upon to exhibit greater stamina than any other man on the team. When a member of his team has possession of the ball, the center must be up with his forwards, prepared to receive a pass from a team-mate and then either to shoot for the goal or pass the ball to another team- mate, who is in a better position for a shot. On the other hand, when a member of the opposing team has the ball, the center must be constantly on the alert, down with his own guards, covering the opposing center, who will be looking for an opportunity to shoot at the basket. When possible, it is his duty to secure the ball and pass it up the court to one of his own forwards. SUBSTITUTES. — In case of sickness or accident, or when, for other reasons, a Captain desires to play a sub- stitute player, he must notify the Referee, who will stop the game (in other words call time), and notify the Scorer before the game is resumed. Such a substitute must report to the Referee and Umpire and be recog- nized by them before entering the game. A player once removed may not later go back into the game. " General Rules 93 NUMBERS. — All players in official games must wear numbers on their backs. These are made of felt, and at least 6 inches high and one inch wide. THE GAME: GENERAL RULES AND POINTS OF PLAY. — CHOICE of goals. — At the beginning of the game, the visiting team has the choice of goals; that is, may select the basket into which they will attempt to toss the ball. At the beginning of the second half the teams must change goals. PUTTING THE BALL IN PLAY. — At the beginning of the game, at the opening of the second half, after each goal made (from the field or as a free throw) and generally after being declared dead, the ball is put in play by being centered. For this the centers face each other within the two-foot circle in the cen- ter of the court. Each center faces the opponent's goal, through which he hopes to toss the ball and thus tally for his team. His two forwards should be " up the court,'' facing him and waiting for him to knock the ball to them. The rules require that the opposing centers, when about to jump for the ball, must each keep one hand behind his back. Opposite a center, and facing him, stands the cen- ter of the opposing team, whose forwards should be facing their own center. Each forward is " covered " by an opposing guard, belonging to the opposing team ; that is, each guard is prepared to prevent a forward from catching the ball and attempting to score, and with that end in view, each guard stands close to his opposing forward. 94 Basket Ball The Referee makes certain that both teams, the Umpire, Timekeepers and Scorers are ready, and then, with the ball in his hand, steps to the side of the centers, and when just outside of the center ring, tosses the ball high in the air, so that it will drop be- tween the centers, who are facing each other. When the ball has reached its highest point, the Referee blows his whistle, to signify that the game has begun. The opposing centers jump high for the ball, each tries to bat it with an upraised hand to one or the other of his forwards. Neither center may catch the ball until another player has touched it. Out of bounds. — If, when the ball is centered, either center should bat it outside of the boundary lines of the court, the ball must be centered again. After a ball in play has gone out of bounds, it is put in play again by a player of the team that was not re- sponsible. The Referee indicates the team entitled to possession of the ball, and a member of that team plays it in ta a team mate by passing, tossing, or rolling. If the Referee is uncertain which of two opponents was nearer the ball when it went out of bounds, he tosses the ball between them, just within the boundary line, at the spot where the ball went out of bounds. When the game has been stopped for any reason (that is, when ^^ time " has been called), the two opposing players nearest the spot where the ball was last in play, must jump in this way for the ball when the game is resumed. Under these circumstances the Referee throws the ball in the air between them as near as possible to the spot where it was when the game Passing and Advancing the Ball 95 was stopped. If for any length of time two opposing players both hold and tug at the ball, the Referee blows his whistle, stops the play, and puts the ball again in play by tossing it between the two at the spot where the holding was done. PASSING AND ADVANCING THE BALL. — After the ball is put in play each team tries to keep it in posses- sion by quickly passing it from one member to another around the bodies, between the legs, or over the heads of the opponents, until the ball is within range of their own basket, when one of the forwards, or the center, usually takes a shot at the goal. The ball may be thrown in a number of ways. The underhand manner of tossing the ball is the one that comes most easily to the beginner. The ball is held between the two hands on a level with the knees, which are slightly bent. As the body is straightened, the arms are brought upward. The ball can be thrown overhand, by holding it between the two hands just in front of the chest, with the knees sKghtly bent. As the body is straightened, the arms are shot upward and outward. This is con- sidered the most effective manner of shooting for goal. A third manner of passing or shooting is by holding the ball between the hands, over and behind the head, with the body bent sHghtly backward. By straightening the body and quickly bringing the arms forward, the ball can be accurately sent in the desired direction. These shots may be slightly varied ; or they may be made with one arm and hand instead of two, by bal- ancing the ball in the flat, open hand instead of hold- 96 Basket Ball ing it between the palms of both hands. One-arm- shots, however, are not usually so accurate as those propelled by both arms and hands. Shots and passes should be made quickly and the player should not wait to adjust the ball in his hand, for by that time the opposing player will have borne down upon him and blocked the throw. Practice of the various kinds of throws and passes explained under ^' Passing and Advancing the Ball " will lead to their being used almost or quite unconsciously in these quick plays. When making a low, underhand pass to a team-mate, the ball should be aimed at a point slightly higher than the pit of the opponent's stomach. Seldom should a pass be made very swiftly. Moderate speed will in- sure no fumbles, as missed balls are called. The low, underhand toss should be used for short passes and the overhead or overhand pass for the long distances. The ball should always be passed slightly in advance of a runner and not at his face. The receiver of a pass should always allow his hand or hands to give way a bit, at the moment that the ball comes in contact with his hands, and his fingers should point outward, so that there may be no danger of the ball touching the fingers before it strikes the palms. The ball may be advanced not only by passing, tossing, or other kinds of throws, but may also be rolled or batted. These plays may be made in any direction and with one or both hands. The ball may also be dribbled. Dribbling. — By dribbling is meant the act of tak- ing three or more steps, and at the same time bounc- Passing and Advancing the Ball 97 ing the ball one or more times along the floor with one hand; both hands may be used, to start the dribble, and to pass the ball or throw for goal ; but after a dribble is once started if both hands touch the ball again simultaneously, it must be thrown immediately to another player or for the goal, or it is considered dead. A player may shoot for the basket after dribbling. A player may turn around with the ball without making progress. He may not run with the ball, kick it, or strike it with his fist, or hold it with any other part of his body than the hands, even to assist the hands. Two players of one team may touch the ball at the same time that a player of the opposing team is touching it, but no second player of a team may, under such circumstances, charge any player so touching the ball. Players may not strike, tackle, trip, push or hold an opponent, grasp his clothing, or in any way use the hands or arms to interfere with his progress. They may not ram an opponent with the shoulder, hack (strike a blow with the forearm when he is about to pass the ball), put one or both arms around him, or use any unnecessary roughness, or profane or abusive language. A player having the ball may not be impeded in any way, either by personal contact or otherwise. This is called holding. The only way to intercept his play is to catch the ball as he throws it. It is not legal to interfere in any way with a player who does not have the ball. This is called blocking. 98 Basket Ball THROWING FOR GOAL. — A player should always learn to make shots directly through the iron ring and not endeavor to have the ball first carom off the back- board into the ring. If the ball strikes the ring and does not bound through in a clean try, there is a chance that it will strike the backboard and then bound through the ring; whereas if the attempt is made to play off the backboard, it is most difficult to strike the exact spot from which the ball will carom into and through the goal. It is always weU to shoot high in order that the ball drop into the basket. The method of throwing for goal may be the under- hand or overhand throw, or the throw from behind head, described under '^ Passing and Advancing the Ball.'^ The overhand shot for basket is preferable to the underhand, for the latter can be easily blocked. When trying a shot for goal, it is well to throw the ball, not directly at the edge of the basket, but so as to compel it to describe an arch, that the ball may drop through the ring from above and not just skim over the edge of the goal. It is a foul for a player to touch the basket while the ball is on the edge of it, or to touch the ball when it is in such a place. A goal does not score if the player throwing the ball had at that time any part of his body touching the floor outside the boundary lines. A goal does not count if made immediately after the commission of a foul by a team-mate and before the official has blown his whistle. Penalties: Free Throws 99 PENALTY FOR FOULS: FREE THROWS — Whenever a team violates certain rules of the game, the Referee or Umpire blows his whistle for the play to stop, and awards to the opposing team as a penalty the right to take a free throw from the free throw Hne. By that is meant that any member of the opposing team may step behind the short foul line, which is fifteen feet in front of his own goal (the goal defended by the opponents), and attempt to toss the ball through his own goal, without interference. While he is doing this, neither team mates nor opponents may approach within the free throw lane or circle. The ball must be thrown within ten seconds after the Referee places it on the free throw line. The player who is selected by his Captain for the free toss usually stands about three to six inches behind the free throw line, with his feet spread a foot or two apart, and throws the ball either by means of an underhand or overhand toss. The training of a clever man to score on these free throws is an important factor in the strength or weakness of a team. If the ball passes through the goal from a free throw, a point is awarded to the side having made the throw and the ball is then put in play again at the center for the regular game ; that is, it is thrown up by the Referee at the center of the court, exactly as at the beginning of the game. If the ball fails to go through the iron hoop from the free toss, the players of both teams attempt to secure it and the gar.ie goes on as at any other time, when the ball is in play. At such time, however, no player may enter the free throw lane until the ball has touched the basket or backstop. 100 Basket Ball If a foul be called upon a player of each of the oppos- ing teams at the same time, they are penaHzed by another player from each team being awarded a free throw ; but after both attempts, the ball is dead ; that is, it is not in play, and after the second trial is again centered. If, however, two fouls are called upon the same team at the same time, two free throws being awarded to the opponents as penalty to the offending team, the first thrower may have but one trial for the goal, and the ball is dead (not in play) after this throw. The second of the two players having a free trial may, however, have a second trial if ^his first throw missed. The ball is dead after the second trial, and must be centered. A player may not foul an opponent or his ball in any way, as by interference, when the latter is trying for goal in a free throw, nor may an opponent step within the free throw lane during such a throw. A player trying for goal with a free throw must make an honest try for the basket and must not step over the fifteen-foot mark before the ball has entered or missed the basket. AXIOMS. — Always stand between an opponent and his basket when his team has the ball. Always pass the ball high (over team-mate's head) in preference to passing it low. Always pass in front of a team-mate. Never make a short pass or dribble under opponent's basket ; in this way the ball is kept out of what is called the danger zone. FORMATIONS. — All well-coached teams have regular formations, which they use at the time of Out of Bounds loi passing the ball to each other in an effort to get it into an advantageous position for a shot at goal. Hours of practice enable a player to know just where his team- mates will be under certain circumstances, and al- most without thought he passes the ball in the proper direction. At the beginning of the game the center, by some understood signal, very often signifies in what direc- tion he will attempt to bat the ball. It may be that a very innocent looking crook of his right arm will signify to his entire team that he intends to at- tempt to bat the ball to his right forward. In the meantime the center runs toward his own goal and the right forward quickly passes the ball back to the center, who tries for a goal. Each of the other men has his assigned place during such a formation. A well-drilled team has many such formations, which, played at various stages of the game, often leave less able teams helpless and bewildered. OUT OF BOUNDS. — The ball is considered out of bounds when it has crossed one of the boundary Hnes and touched the floor, or when it is carried by a player who has one or both feet outside of one of the side or end Hnes. Whenever the ball goes out of bounds and bounces in again, it is considered in play. When the ball is carried or bounds out of bounds, to put it in play again, the Referee blows his whistle and awards the ball to the team that did not cause the ball to go out of bounds. A player of that team plays it from outside the boundary line, at the spot where it crossed that Hne, by tossing it into the court to a team-mate. 102 Basket Ball If the Referee be uncertain as to which of two players caused the ball to go out of bounds, he tosses the ball between them. To purposely carry a ball across a boundary line, or to purposely cause the ball in any other way to go out of bounds, is a foul. A player to whom the ball has been awarded out of bounds must wait until he has passed the ball before stepping in again. If he was awarded the ball by the Referee he must toss it in to another player ; usually he attempts to pass it to an uncovered team-mate, that is, a team-mate who is not close to an opponent. This he must do from the spot where the ball went out, being careful not to step over the boundary line and into the court, while passing or before passing, the ball. He may not run in quickly and play the ball himself before another player has touched it. There may be no interference with a player who holds the ball out of bounds, and no player may hold the ball out of bounds for more than five seconds. CLASSIFIED FOULS AND PENALTIES methods of playing the ball (technical fouls) foul penalty Kicking or striking the ball Free try for goal, with the fist. Running with the ball Al- " lowance is to be made for player's momentum. Player may turn around without mak- ing any progress. Classified Fouls and Penalties 103 FOUL Use of both hands more than once, when dribbhng, un- less ball is immediately thrown to player or for goal. PENALTY Free try for goal. METHODS BETWEEN PLAYERS (classed as personal FOULS; FOR FOUR OF THESE A PLAYER IS DISQUALIFIED) Tackling, holding, or push- ing opponent. Blocking or using the hands or arms to interfere with the progress of a player. Grasping the clothing or person of an opposing player. A third player charging in with bodily contact when ball is held by two opponents. Free trial for goal, may disqualify. Referee THROWING FOR GOAL (CLASSED AS PERSONAL FOULS; FOR FOUR OF THESE A PLAYER IS DISQUALIFIED) Charging, pushing, or other rough play on a player throw- ing for basket. Flagrant roughness on player throwing for basket. Touching of basket or ball by opponent while ball is on the edge of the basket. Two free throws. Goal, if made, counts and offended team is allowed two free throws. Free trial for goal. This is a technical foul. 104 Basket Ball FOUL If a player trying for a goal, after having been awarded a free throw from the fifteen-foot mark, step over that free throw mark, before the ball has touched or missed the basket. Player, having been awarded a free throw from foul line, does not make an honest effort to throw the goal ; but instead throws the ball in such a man- ner that the ball will rebound into the hands of a team-mate. For a player to stand within or touch the free throw lane, or disconcert the player before ball reaches the basket. Goal is made, immediately after the commission of a foul and before the official had had an opportunity to blow his whistle. PENALTY Goal, if made, does not count. If not made, ball is not in play, but is tossed up from the center of the court in the usual manner by the Referee. Free trial for goal. If opposing team offends, player has another try, if goal missed ; if goal made it counts. If a member of his own team offends, goal does not count, and ball is in play. Goal does not count. PLAYER OR BALL OUT OF BOUNDS Intentionally crossing a boundary line (with one or both feet) with the ball in player's possession. Player out of bounds holds the ball more than five seconds. Player to whom ball has been awarded out of bounds steps over boundary and into court, before he has passed the ball. Ball goes to opponent out of bounds. Ball goes to an opponent out of bounds. Score 105 FOUL Interference with passing of ball by player outside of the court, before it has crossed the boundary line. To throw in a ball from out of bounds, a player must stand outside the court on an imaginary line drawn at right angles to the boundary Hne from the spot where the ball went out. He may not quickly run into the court and play the ball that he has thrown in, until another player first has touched it. PENALTY Free trial for goal. Ball goes to opponent out- side of boundary line. TIME —DELAY — LATENESS -— COACHING Persistent or intentional delay of game. One team fails to make its appearance or refuses to play after so instructed by Referee. If delay of more than one minute after Referee calls play for second half, or after time out. No player may be coached by any one during a game. Free trial for goal. Game goes by default to opponents. Ball put in play as though both teams on floor. Free trial for goal. SCORE. — A goal from the- field (that is, when the ball is in play ordinarily and not from a try for foul) , counts 2 points. A goal from the free throw line, called a free throw or try for goal, counts i point. Such a free throw is awarded when certain fouls have been committed. The team scoring the greater number of io6 Basket Ball points after both halves have been played, wins the game. In case of a tie at the end of the game the teams play on for 5 minutes, and if tie continues, repeat 5-minute intervals of play until the game is decided. If a team defaults or forfeits the game, the score is 2 to o, in favor of the team that has not offended. The game is played in two halves of 20 minutes each with a rest of 10 minutes between. For young players a rest of 2 minutes midway in each half is desirable. No change of goal is then made, nor may players be coached or leave the floor in that time. A simple way of keeping score is illustrated below. The score sheet represents the Flushing High School score in an imaginary game against Bryant High School. The first column contains the names of the players and their positions. In the second column are registered the goals made by each player and the goals as a result of free throws because of opponents' fouls. The latter are represented by + with a circle around it and the former by + without the circle. As the goals made in regular play each count 2 points, and the goals as a result of free throws allowed be- cause of opponents' fouls count i point, Flushing scored 8 points during the first half. In the second half, 7 points were scored. A similar sheet records Bryant's points. If desired, a record of attempts to throw a free goal which missed, can be kept by placing a o in the second column next to the player's name. The fact that Donoghue, Sasse, and S. Trowbridge each made a foul during the first half is recorded by + in the third column opposite their respective names, Match Games 107 if the foul was technical, and with Pi (or 2, 3, 4) if foul was personal. The record of personal fouls and their numbering is important, as four such fouls disquahfy a player. NAME OF TEAM FIRST HALF i SECOND HALF Flushing H. S. GOALS FOULS GOALS FOULS Robertson, RF + + + Donoghue (Capt.), LF + e © Pi + © Sasse, C + Pi P2 B. Trowbridge, RG + Pi S. Trowbridge, LG + ' li 8 i 1 7 WHERE PLAYED Bryant H. S. DATE i 6 15 REFEREE Mr. A. Burroughs UMPIRE Mr. R. Smith TIMEKEEPER Mr. B. Kennedy SCORER A. Sherman WON BY Flushing High School SCORE 15-13 MATCH GAMES. — The ball should be provided by the home team. It should be tightly inflated, in good condition, and so laced that it cannot be held by the lacing. The Amateur Athletic Union of the United States maintains that whenever match games between two teams representing two organizations are played, and the individuals on both teams are not registered, the players disqualify themselves from further partici- io8 Basket Ball pation against registered teams and from cornpetition in amateur track and field sports. Both the Amateur Athletic Union and the Young Men's Christian Association Athletic League issue sanctions for games and register players. The Amateur Athletic Union requires that teams from educational institutions must get sanctions for their games and register their players in the Amateur Athletic Union, whenever they play other teams not representing educational institutions. . OFFICIALS. — The officials for a match game of basket ball are a Referee, one Umpire, two Scorers, and two Timekeepers. Each team has its own Captain. THE REFEREE. — The visiting team has the right to choose the Referee, provided they notify the home team of their selection four days before the date of the game. The Referee may allow so-called ground laws, acceptable to both teams, and necessitated because of the local conditions of a particular court, and he may also allow a change in the time of halves, if both Captains are willing that the change be made. He is judge of the ball, decides when a goal has been made, when a foul has been committed, when the ball is in play or dead, and must approve of the other officials. He calls ^^ Foul ! " whenever he sees one committed, and play is thereupon suspended. He prescribes all penalties and promptly places the ball on the free throw line when he awards a free throw. The Referee puts the ball in play at the beginning of the game and after each temporary stop, by tossing Officials 109 it up, between two opposing players, as explained under '' Putting the ball in play." He blows his whistle to start the game at the opening of twenty- minute halves, and after any interruption in the play, as for fouls. The Referee also blows his whistle to stop the game for any cause whatever, except for the expiration of the twenty-minute halves, though he relies mainly on the Umpire to signal for play to stop because of a foul. The Referee signals to the Timekeepers when time is to be taken out ; that is, when the Timekeeper is to stop his stop watch. The signal is usually made by raising his right hand and calling ^' Time out.'' The Timekeeper does not again start his watch until the ball is actually in play; that is, when the Referee again tosses the ball between opposing players, or when a player who has been awarded the ball by the Referee actually passes it. UMPIRE. — The home team is entitled to choose the Umpire. It is the main duty of this ofi&cial to blow his whistle whenever a foul is committed. The game is thus stopped. He then apprises the Referee of the foul committed and indicates the offender. The Referee then awards the penalty. He observes es- pecially players not near the ball, assists the Referee in out-of-bounds decisions, and helps to enforce the rule that forbids coaching. Fouls within the province of the Umpire are : Kick- ing or striking the ball with the fist ; running with the ball ; intentionally crossing the boundary line with the ball in player's possession ; use of both hands more than once when dribbling unless a throv/ or try for no Basket Ball basket is made immediately by player who has dribbled ; tackling, holding, or pushing opponent ; using hands or arms to interfere with the progress of a player; grasping the clothing or person of an opposing player ; striking, kicking, tripping, or hacking an opposing player ; putting one arm or both about an opposing player ; and fouling an opponent trying for goal. SCORERS. — The two Scorers are appointed by the home team. The duty of these officials is to keep an accurate account of the free tries for the goal, of the number of goals made by each team, and of the number of goals made by each player. They should note especially the number of fouls made by each player, and whether technical or personal.. They should notify the Referee promptly w^hen a fourth personal foul has been made by any player. Score books, filled out in blank upon which such records can be easily kept, can be purchased at any sporting goods store. Should the score of the two Scorers differ, the Referee decides, and in favor of the lower score unless he knows facts to verify the higher one. TIMEKEEPERS. — The Timekeepers are appointed by the home team. It is a Timekeeper's duty to blow his whistle at the moment that the twenty-minute halves expire. That is, he notes the time at which the game begins, and blows his whistle twenty minutes later to signify the end of the first half. In estimating this, he does not include in the twenty minutes any time that the Referee has ordered taken out for such interruptions as stops, disputes, or accidents. A Outfit III Timekeeper never gives the signal for the game to start : this is done by the Referee. Neither does the Timekeeper give the signal to stop for a foul or for anything except the expiration of a twenty-minute playing period. CAPTAINS. — The Captains of each team report to the Referee before the game begins, and thereafter they, and they only, are entitled to bring to the notice of the officials violations of the rules or privileges claimed. Captains decide when substitutes are neces- sary, select these, and report the fact at once to the Referee. OUTFIT. — The BALL is round, not less than 30 and not more than 32 inches in circumference. It consists of a rubber bladder which is inserted in a leather cover and inflated. The opening in the cover is then laced together. The completed ball must weigh, according to official requirements, not less than 20 nor more than 23 ounces. Basket balls range in price from S4.50 to $6. A good ball costs $5. The BASKETS OR GOALS are nets of cord fastened to metal rings 18 inches in diameter. These rings are attached to wooden backgrounds, or back-stops, 6 feet long horizontally and 4 feet high, the boards three quarters of an inch in thickness. The regulation height of baskets for adults is 10 feet from the ground. Goals (baskets) cost $4 per pair, without the back-stop. For out-of-doors, the backboards and baskets may be attached to posts sunk in the ground. A pair of posts, backboards, and nets can be bought for $40. DRESS. — Rubber-soled, well-fitting, soft, leather shoes are well-nigh a necessity for the expert player. 112 Basket Ball So-called suction shoes, the rubber soles of which have perforations which enable the player to obtain a firm purchase on the floor, cost $4 per pair. Men usually wear short, padded flannel trousers and a sleeveless worsted shirt. Women wear gymnasium suit, including short, Zuave trousers or knickerbockers. HISTORY. — The game of basket ball is of com- paratively recent origin. Dr. James Naismith in- vented the game in 1892. He was then connected with the Young Men's Christian Association Training School at Springfield, Massachusetts, in a class that was studying the elements of successful games and trying to invent new games to include these elements. He recognized the need of a game to fill the breach between the football season in the fall and that of baseball in the spring. One rule and change after another was added to the original simple game, as need arose, until, through a gradual evolution, the present game resulted. Basket ball is the first deliberately invented ball game to become largely popular. Now no gymnasium or playground is complete without provision for it, and in the United States match games are witnessed yearly by hundreds of thousands of spectators during the winter months, when many outdoor sports must needs be temporarily abandoned. Glossary 113 BIBLIOGRAPHY Official Handbook Official Basket Ball Guide. Spalding's Athletic Library. (New York, American Sports Publishing Company.) The Game How to Play Basket Ball. By George T. Hepbron. Spalding's Athletic Library. (New York, American Sports Publish- ing Company.) Athletic Games for Women. By Gertrude Dudley and Frances A. Kellor. (New York, Henry Holt and Company, 1909.) GLOSSARY Backboard ; Back stop. Board (6' X 4') back of the goal. Basket. The goal. Blocking. Impeding the progress of a player who does not have the ball. Center. The player on each team who occupies the center of the playing space at start of game, and first tries for the ball. Also used to designate the circle in the center of the court, over which the ball is put in play. Center ball. Ball thrown up between opposing centers at the center of the playing space by Referee. Centered ball. Sam.e as center ball. Clean-shot. A shot that sends the ball through the goal without first touching the backboard or rim of basket. Court. Playing space, bounded by side and end lines. Covered. A player is covered w^hen his opponent follows' him so closely that he is not free to pass the ball or shoot for goal. Dead-ball. A ball no longer in play, the game being in sus- pense until it is again formally put in play. Forward. Player whose position is close to the basket into which his team is attempting to toss the hall. I 114 Basket Ball Free throw lane: Foul lane. A space marked in front of each goal within which no player may enter while an opponent is making a free throw for goal. Free throw line: Foul line. Short line behind which a player stands for a free throw. Foul made. Expression used to signify that the player en- titled to a free throw has succeeded in tossing the ball into the basket; he has ^^made his foul.'' Fumble. A ball unintentionally dropped by player receiving it. Goal. Another term for the basket; also used to signify the act of having tossed the ball into the basket. Ground rules. Rules especially applicable to a particular court, because of some obstruction or other defect. Halves. The two twenty-minute periods, that make up the playing time. Held ball. A ball held by one or both hands by each of two opponents. Holding. To interfere in any manner with the progress of a player who has the ball, whether by personal contact or otherwise. In play, a ball legally active in play. Made his foul. A phrase signifying that a player has suc- ceeded in a free throw, awarded for an opponent's foul. Own goal. The basket into which a team is trying to throw the ball (defended by the opponents) is called the thrower's own goal. Sanction. Permission to compete given by the governing body. Shot for basket. Attempt to toss ball into basket. Tie. The score when both teams have made the same number of points. Time-called. Time that, as a result of an interruption is "called" by the Referee, and not counted in estimating halves. Try for foul. Act of attempting to toss the ball into the basket from the foul line ; a free throw. Try for goal. Free throw, same as above. Up the court. Territory about the basket, into which a team is attempting to throw the ball. BASKET BALL (LINE GAME) ^ 9 I^H r| 1 f "^ " mI 1 I^'^^mh ^^^^B K ^^B' ^v^^ 1 BASKET BALL AT SMITH COLLEGE Overguarding (incorrect) Correct vertical guarding Guarding round (incorrect) Correct aidewise guarding From the "Official Basket Ball Guide for Women," by Senda Berenson Abbott; courtesy of (ii6) Spalding's Athletic Library BASKET BALL (LINE GAME) GENERAL DESCRIPTION. — This game, as in the original form of basket ball, is played by two teams, each of which tries to toss or throw a ball into the opponents' goal, which consists of a suspended basket. Each player is guarded by a player of the opposing team. Methods of playing the ball, of guarding, and of interfering are carefully prescribed by the rules. Most infringements of rules (fouls) are penalized by stopping the game and allowing the opponents a free throw {ix., a throw without interference) for the goal, guarded by the opponents, the throw being made from the free throw line 15 feet in front of that goal. A goal thrown from the field when the game is actively in progress, scores 2 points ; a goal made from a free throw scores i point. The game is played in two halves of 15 minutes each, with a ten-minute intermission between. The team wins which has the higher score at the end of the second half. The line game differs from regular basket ball in several particulars, all designed to make the game less strenuous. It is used by both men and women, but so much by the latter that it is often called '' Basket Ball for Women.'' The court is divided by transverse lines into three (sometimes two) separate sections, or zones. Players 117 ii8 Basket Ball (Line Game) from each team are stationed in each zone and may not go beyond it. This does away with the mass play which largely characterizes the regular game. A larger number of players may participate, and some of the playing rules are modified. COURT. — DIMENSIONS. — The game is played indoors or out of doors on level ground, free from obstruction. On this a court is outlined loo feet long by 60 feet wide. By mutual consent of two con- testing teams outside boundary lines may be omitted. This is done for lines close to walls or fences. FIELD-LINES. — One third of the distance from each end, a field-line, parallel to the end-lines, is drawn en- tirely across the court from side-Hne to side-line. These two field-lines divide the field into three equal zones, called the home section (the one nearest a team's own goal), the center section, and the guard section. When the court is less than 2500 square feet in area, it may be divided into two equal sections, instead of three, by one field-line drawn across the center. Opposing centers may then run from one field to the other (This they may not do on a three-zone field), but may not shoot for goal from the field or foul lines. GOALS. — In the center of each end-line is fastened a goal or basket. This consists of an iron ring 18 inches in diameter (inside measurement), to which is hung a small net, open at the bottom, the rim of the basket being placed 10 feet above the floor. The basket, if not placed on a wall or other obstructing surface, must be provided with a background or back- stop, 6 feet wide by 4 feet high. This backstop must extend at least 3 feet above the metal ring or goal End Line Home Section for Team B Guard Section for Team A Left Forward • Right Forward Forward Center Q 2 Ft. Radius Jumping Center Center Section for Both Teams ^ Back Center Field Line Left Guard Home Section for Team A Guard Section for Team B Right Guard End Line Goal for Team A Basket 4- ^ 60 Ft.-. -:-- BASKET BALL (LINE GAME) Regulation court and position of one team of nine players at start /jjg\ of a game: Team A in the field. 120 Basket Ball (Line Game) basket, and must be perpendicular and j&rm. The rim of the goal basket must be 6 inches in front of this wall or backstop. FREE THROW LINE. — At a distance of 15 feet in front of each goal is a 24-inch free throw or foul line, parallel to the end lines ; from this are made the free throws for goal which are awarded a team for various- fouls committed by the opponents. FREE THROW LANE. — Leading to this free throw line, and surrounding it, is a free throw or foul lane within which no other player than the thrower may enter when a free try for goal is being made. The free throw lane consists of two straight lines, which start at the end-line, 3 feet on each side of its center (i.e., 3 feet on each side of the point over which the basket is placed), and drawn from there inward, toward the center of the court 12 feet. They are parallel to each other and to the side-lines and make a lane 6 feet wide. At their inner ends they intersect the arc of a circle, 12 feet in diameter (a 6-foot radius) the center of which is the center of the free throw Kne. CENTER CIRCLE. — In the exact center of the field is drawn a 2-foot circle (i-foot radius) in which the centers stand when the ball is put in play. Note. —This court differs from that of the original, or one-field game, in that it is larger in its total area and is divided in sections by field-lines. In all other particulars it is the same. TEAMS. — Teams may consist of from 5 to 9 players each. If 5 play, they are named left and right forward, center, and left and right guard, as in the regular game. The two forwards are restricted to the Choice of Goals 121 home section, the center to the center section (except on a small court, as explained under "' Court ") and the guard to the guard section. If more players are used, each is assigned to one of the three zones, until the maximum number, 9, is reached, when 3 players are placed in each zone. When 6 players make up a team, the additional player becomes a side-center in contradistinction to the jumping-center (i.e., one who jumps for the ball when it is put in play) . When 9 play, a goal-guard assists the guards, and usually plays nearer the goal than the right and left forwards, who play up near the field-line. The jump- ing-center is then assisted by a back-center, who usually plays over to the right and back of the center zone, and by a forward-center, who plays to the left and forward portion of the center zone. A goal keeper, who plays near the basket into which he hopes to throw the ball, assists the two forwards, who play up nearer the field- line. Each team elects a Captain. SUBSTITUTES. — Substitutes may take the place of players disabled or disqualified. When this is done the Referee calls '' Time,'' and play is suspended until the change is made, but this may not be for more than five minutes. A player who has once left a game may not return to it. CHOICE OF GOALS. — Before the game starts the Captains decide by lot which shall choose the first goal. For the second half the teams must exchange goals, changing places to defend the goal which they attacked during the first half. 122 Basket Ball (Line Game) THE GAME. — PUTTING THE BALL IN PLAY. — The game is started by centering the ball. For this, the two jumping-centers stand facing each other within the center circle. Their feet must be entirely within the circle. The Referee then throws the ball high in the air so it will drop between them, blowing the whistle as he does so. On this signal the centers jump for the ball, each trying to bat it with the open hand toward a team-mate. The center may play the ball before another player has touched it. The ball is thus put in play at the center at the open- ing of each half, and always after a goal has been made, whether from the field or from a free throw. PASSING AND ADVANCING THE BALL. — Each team attempts to keep the ball in its possession by quickly passing (throwing) it to team-mates around the bodies, or over the heads of the opponents, until the ball is within range of its own basket (i.e., the basket guarded by the opponents), when one of the forwards, or the center, usually takes a shot at the goal. Throwing and batting, with one or both hands, are the only methods of advancing the ball. It may not be handed, kicked, bounced, or hit with the fist. The ball must be caught with two hands, as a player is not considered to have secured it unless it is in both hands. , After receiving the ball, a player should at once pass it to a team-mate, being careful not to advance (run or walk) with the ball in his possession. A player may, however, turn on one foot while holding the ball so long as he does not advance. While the ball must thus be played from the spot Guarding and Interfering 123 where it was received, allowance must be made for the impetus of a running player receiving it. If a player receives the ball while traveling quickly toward an end-Kne or side-line, he is not considered out of bounds if his impetus carry one foot over the line. Both feet must be over the line, if he is to be considered out of bounds. The ball must be thrown within three seconds after it is received, unless a player has fallen or is out of bounds. For a fallen player, the three seconds are counted from the moment he regains liis feet. A player awarded the ball out of bounds may hold the ball five seconds, but not longer. The ball may be bounced, only once, and this may be with one or both hands ; but if bounced, it must bound at least as high as the knee. To bounce the ball more than once in succession is called dribbling and is not permissible. Neither may the ball be tossed in the air and bounced on the hand to evade the rule that forbids holding the ball. This is called '' juggling,'' and, Hke dribbhng, is not permissible. A player must be on his feet or jumping when play- ing the ball; that is, no player may hand, bounce, or roll the ball to another player, nor may the ball be passed to a team-mate by a player when prone on the ground. This is one of the distinctive rules of the line game, being intended to prevent the players falling on one another, or any play on the ground. GUARDING AND INTERFERING. — To keep oppo- nents from passing the ball to their own team-mates, or throwing a goal, each player acts as a guard to an opponent. Guarding is done entirely in a vertical 124 Basket Ball (Line Game) plane. That is, the arms of the guard may be stretched vertically upward or downward, or directly to the side in adateral line ; and a guard may jump or crouch to block the throw of a ball ; but he may not reach forward or around an opponent with the arms, or lean forward with the body. To so reach or bend forward in guarding is a foul. When the raised arms are arched over an opponent it is called over-guarding. A player may not be guarded by two opponents at the same time, one in the front and one behind. That manner of foul is termed ^' boxing up.'' A player may gain possession of the ball only when an opponent has thrown, bounced, or dropped it. In other words, the ball may not be snatched, batted, or in any way taken from the hands of a player, or knocked from his grasp. In the language of the official rules, ^' A player may not guard with the hand touching the ball ; neither may one put a hand on the ball after an opponent has secured it. Two players on the same team may not play the ball at the same time." Personal interference is not permissible ; that is, no holding, tackling, pushing, kicking, shouldering, tripping, or striking is allowable. Grasping the cloth- ing is considered holding a player. As before stated, all interference must be by blocking, that is, by inter- posing one's arms or other part of the person in the path of a player or ball, or by catching a ball after it has left the hands of an opponent. THROWING FOR GOAL. — The main object of the game is, of course, throwing the ball into the goal (basket) that is guarded by the opponents. While Throwing for Goal 125 (except for free throws) this may be done from any part of the field, it is not considered good play to risk a throw from too great a distance, so goal- throwing is left to the forwards, the other players on a team try- ing to pass the ball to their forward players. Much practice and skill are needed to receive a ball and throw it quickly into the basket before the op- posing guard can interfere. A player throwing for goal from the field {i.e., not a free throw) and missing it, may throw any number of times in succession without the ball first going into the hands of another player. A player to score a goal, must have his feet, and all parts of his person, within bounds when throwing. A goal thrown with a foot even partly over the line does not score ; if the goal is not made from such a throw for the basket, the ball is considered in play, and the game goes on without stopping. A goal does not score if a foul has been committed by the throwing team so closely before the throw that the Referee's whistle could not be blown. Under any circumstances, a ball leaving the thrower's hands before an official's whistle is blown, scores if it makes the goal. A ball to score must go in the basket and stay there (not bound out) or pass completely through if the net be open at the bottom. A ball may not be touched by an opponent while it is on the edge of the basket, nor may the basket be touched under such circumstances. For such inter- ference with the making of a goal, i point is awarded to the offended team (the team that threw the ball). Players sometimes commit a foul when an opponent 126 Basket Ball (Line Game) is throwing for the basket, thinking the opponent's score will gain less by such means than by a goal made. Such intentional fouls are penalized if committed three times while one player is trying to throw the goal. The penalty consists in i point awarded to the opponents, who are also awarded a free throw for each of the three fouls, and, in addition, should the ball make the goal, will score the usual 2 points for that. On such a play it is therefore possible to make 5 points as follows : Goal thrown 2 points Goal made from each of 3 free throws 3 points For 3 fouls in succession while throwing for goal . . i point; Total 5 points FREE THROWS ; PENALTIES FOR FOULS. — The punishment for most fouls is a free throw for goal awarded to the opponents. This throw may be made only by one of the forwards designated by the Captain of the offended team. The thrower stands in front of his own goal (a term used in basket ball to desig- nate the goal guarded by the opponents) and back of the 15-foot line. No other player may be within 6 feet, or within the free throw lane (foul lane). If an opponent transgresses, another try is awarded ; if a team-mate transgresses, the goal if made does not count, and whether made or not, the ball is afterward put in play at the center. : If a foul is called upon each team at the same time, both are entitled to a free throw ; but the ball is dead after each try and is thrown up at center, after each team has had its try. Out of Bounds 127 If a goal is made from a free throw, without fouls by either team, the ball is thereafter considered dead and is put in play by being thrown up in the center between the jumping-centers. If a goal is not made from a free throw, the ball is considered in play and team-mates or opponents may at once enter the free throw lane to play upon it. OUT OF BOUNDS. — A ball is out of bounds when it has completely crossed a side or end line, either on the ground, or in the hands of a player having one or both feet over the line. A ball touching a line is not out of bounds. A ball touching the ground beyond a Hne, but overhanging the line, is out of bounds. When the ball goes out of bounds, the Referee's whistle is blown for play to stop, and the ball is thrown in as here described. ^ A ball that goes out of bounds and then of itself immediately returns again, is considered in play, and the game is not stopped, unless the Referee's whistle is blown. If the whistle is blown, the ball is thrown in as described below. A ball out of bounds must be thrown in by a player of the team opposed to the one that caused it to go out ; that is, by the team opposed to that of the player who touched it last. For this purpose the Referee desig- nates a player standing nearest to where the ball left the field of play. If the Referee cannot decide which side touched the ball last, he tosses the ball between any two opposing players, 5 feet within the boundary Hues, but on a Hne at right angles to the point where the ball went out. To throw the ball in from out of bounds, the player 128 Basket Ball (Line Game) designated must stand on an imaginary line drawn at right angles to where the ball crossed the boundary- line. He may stand at any distance outside the boundary and throw in the ball in any direction. This player may then enter the field, but may play the ball only after another player (of either team) has touched it. The player who is throwing in the ball may hold it for 5 seconds, but not longer. He must not re-cross the boundary line before playing the ball. No other player may be outside the boundary Kne when the ball is being thrown in, nor may the thrower-in be inter- fered with in any way. In case of failure to observe all of these rules for correct throwing in of the ball, the Referee must require the same player to throw it in again. CLASSIFIED RULES, FOULS AND PENALTIES METHODS OF PLAYING THE BALL Violations of Rules Penalties Jurisdiction of Advancing with the ball, Free throw from Referee or while in bounds. foul line. Umpire. Ball bounded on floor '' '' more than once. Ball held more than 3 " " seconds. Ball may be bounded once and then thrown. If, however, player delays game, foul must be called by Referee or Umpire. (A player may hold the ball 5 seconds when it is out of bounds.) To place hand or hands Classified Fouls 129 Violations of Rules Penalties Jurisdiction of on ball after opponent has Free throw from Referee or secured it. (Player must foul hne. Umpire. have two hands on ball, in order that it be considered in his possession.) Snatch or bat ball out of yy 9> opponent's hands. Ball may not be juggled, )9 99 i.e., tossed and caught again to avoid violation of the three-second-holding rule. To hand, bounce, or roll » » ball to another player. To throw ball to another » jj player while not on one or both feet or jumping in the air. More than one player of » '99 the same team tackling the ball at the same time, pro- vided an opposing player touch it at the same time. Kicking or striking the W J> ball with the fist. Running with the ball. » l> Allowance is to be made for player's momentum. Play- er may turn around without making any progress. METHODS BETWEEN PLAYERS Guarding in other than Free throw from Referee or vertical plane; it is a foul line. Umpire. breach of rules to reach - over, or around opponent in order to prevent a pass. 130 Basket Ball (Line Game) Violations of Rules Two players, one on each side of an opponent, hold up their hands and ^'box him up" so that he can not try for basket. Commission of three suc- cessive guarding fouls of same kind, or of three line fouls. Commission of four guarding fouls of same kind, or of four line fouls. Tackling, holding, or pushing opponent. Using the hands or arms to interfere with the prog- ress of a player. Grasping the clothing or person of an opposing player. Putting one arm or both about an opposing player. Penalties Jurisdiction of Free throw from foul line. Warning. Referee or Umpire. Disqualification. Referee. Free throw from foul line. Referee or Umpire. THROWING FOR GOAL Player, while trying for goal, fouled three times. Touching of basket or ball by opponent, while ball is on the edge of the basket. If a player trying for a goal, after having been Extra point for offended team ; goal counts if made and a free throw is awarded for each foul committed. Point awarded to the offended side. Goal, if made, does not count. If Referee or Umpire. Referee. Classified Fouls 131 Violations of Rules awarded a free throw from the 15-foot mark, step over that foul Kne mark, before the ball has entered or missed the basket. Player, having been award- ed a free throw from foul line, does not make an hon- est effort to throw the foul ; but instead throws the ball in such a manner that the ball will rebound into the hands of a team-mate. To stand within or step within the foul lane, or in- terfere vath the ball before it reaches the basket, when a player is trying for a foul. Penalties Jurisdiction of Goal made by player, a portion of whose body touches the floor or ground, outside of the boundary line. Goal is made, immedi- ately after the commission of a foul by a team-mate and before an official has had opportunity to blow his whistle. not made, ball is not in play, but is tossed up from the center of the court in the usual man- manner by the Ref- eree. Goal, if made, does not count, and whether made or not, the ball is brought back to the center of the court and there centered by the Referee. If opposing team offends, player has another try. If a member of his own team offends, or if members of both teams offend, goal does not count, and if missed or made, ball is thrown up at center. Goal not allowed. If not made, ball is in play. If made, ball is centered. Goal does not count. Referee. 132 Basket Ball (Line Game) PLAYER OR BALL OUT OF BOUNDS Violations of Rules Crossing line out of bounds with one or both feet. (Allowance to be made for the momentum of a player, who was running and then stopped.) If one foot unintentionally goes over the boundary line, it is not a foul, but if the other follows, foul must be called. (Player may turn around with ball; but one foot must be kept in same line.) Touching field-line ^or zone with any part of body or clothing. (Player may pick up ball from adjoin- ing zone, if he can do so without violating above rule. ' Intentionally crossing a boundary line with the ball in player's possession (with either one or both feet). Player causes ball to go out of bounds, by allowing it to touch any other part of his body, by batting or other means. Penalties Jurisdiction of Free throw from foul line. Ball goes to op- ponent at the spot where it left field of play. If it is doubtful as to which player caused the ball to go out of bounds, the ball should be tossed up between two nearest oppo- Ref eree or Umpire. Linesman. Referee or Umpire. Referee. Classified Fouls 133 Violations of Rules Player out of bounds holds the ball more than five seconds. Player out of bounds steps over boundary and into court, before. the ball is played. Interference by opponent of player who holds the ball- outside of the court. To throw in a ball from out of bounds, a player must stand outside the court on imaginary line at right angles to boundary line where ball went out. He may not quickly run into the court and play the ball that he has thrown in, until another player first has touched it. Penalties Jurisdiction of nents, where ball went out of bounds. Ball goes to op- ponent at same spot. Ball goes to op- posing player at same spot. First interfer- ence, ball goes back to player outside, to be passed in again. Second in- terference, foul for delaying tlie game. Ball goes to op- ponents at same spot, outside of boundary line. ' Referee. TIME; DELAY; LATENESS Persistent or intentional delay of the game. One team fails to make its appearance. Both teams late, but later team fifteen minutes behind . Free throw from foul line. Game by default to other team. Later team must play short-handed or forfeit the game. 134 Basket Ball (Line Game) SCORE. — A goal from the field (that is, thrown when the ball is in play ordinarily and not from a free try for foul) counts 2 points. A goal from the foul line, called a free throw or try for goal, counts i point. Such a free throw is awarded when certain fouls have been committed. The game is played in two halves of 15 minutes each, with an intermission of 10 minutes between. Captains and Referee may agree to change this time ; or, in championship games, the committee in charge may do so. The team scoring the greater number of points after both halves have been played, wins the game. In case of a tie at the end of the game, the teams play on until one team or the other has made two more points than its opponent, either from the field or from free throws or by both methods. If a team defaults or forfeits the game, the score is 2 to o, in favor of the team that has not offended. OFFICIALS. — These consist of a Referee, 2 Umpires, 4 Linesmen, a Timekeeper, and a Scorer. Note, — This list of officials differs from the original game in having an additional Umpire (two instead of one) and four Linesmen, there being no officials of the latter kind in the other game. REFEREE. — The visiting team in a match game has a right to choose the Referee, provided they notify the home team of their selection four days before the date of the game. The Referee has general direction of the game and is its supreme authority. In detail his duties consist in : (a) Judging of the ball ; that is, whether or not it Officials 135 has gone through the basket and scored a goal; whether it is out of bounds, in play, or out of play. (b) Putting the ball in play at the beginning of each half, and at any other time when it has been out of play; namely, after each goal made, after all fouls, and after any other stoppage in the game, as for accidents or disputes. (c) He signals for the start and close of each half of the game, and for play to be resumed after fouls or other cessation of play. This he does by blowing a whistle as he tosses the ball. (d) He signals for play to stop for any fouls which he sees, and which are not signaled by the Umpires, though he relies mainly on the Umpires and Linesmen for these. (e) He signals to the Timekeeper to take out time for any stoppage of the game, in estimating the twenty- minute halves. (f) He indicates which team is to have the ball after it has been out of bounds (the team, whose member was not guilty of having caused the ball to go out of bounds, is entitled to possession). (g) He takes general direction of the game and of its other officials ; he is its supreme authority. He decides all disputed points. He should be well in- formed on all the rules of the game and on the duties of other officials, and should be experienced in the game, that he may judge of rapid action and make quick decisions. UMPIRES. — The two Umpires are appointed by the home team. The Umpires are assigned each to one half of the 136 Basket Ball (Line Game) field. Their main duty is to watch for fouls in which players interfere illegally with one another, or play the ball wrongly. Umpires are not concerned with fouls that consist in overstepping the lines, as these are called by the Linesmen, nor with whether or not the ball be out of bounds or make a goal, as the Referee judges of the ball in these ways. An Umpire calls a foul as soon as he sees it ; that is, he blows his whistle for play to stop and calls " Foul ! " He then indicates the offender and reports the foul to the Referee. The latter then awards the penalty. A player may not dispute with him. The fouls to be observed by an Umpire are : Advancing with the ball. Stepping out of bounds with one or both feet. Holding the ball longer than three seconds. Dribbling ; juggling ; overguarding ; boxing up ; guarding with one hand touching the wall; personal interference. Touching a ball in hands of opponents. Two players of one team having hands on ball held by opponent. Snatching or batting ball from opponent. Kicking or striking ball with fist. Touching a field line or ground beyond it. Passing the ball in any way but by a throw in air (no bouncing or rolling), the thrower on one or both feet, or jumping (not lying, sitting, or kneeling on ground). LINESMEN. — Two Linesmen are appointed by the home team in a match game, and approved by the Referee. Officials ^ 137 Their duty is to judge of the fouls of players in stepping on or over field Unes, or touching these Hues or the ground beyond them with any part of the per- son or clothing. These they report to the Referee. One Linesman judges of but one half the field. He stands as indicated by the Referee, but usually moves with the shifting activity of the game so that he can look down the length of the field lines from a side line. TIMEKEEPER. — This official, appointed by the home team and approved by the Referee, is the sole judge of the length of halves. He informs the Referee at the close of each half, and that official signals for play to stop. See ^^ Score " for length of halves. In estimating time, the Timekeeper begins his reck- oning with the Referee's signal for play to start. He may deduct only such time for stoppages as the Ref- eree may authorize, time consumed in free throws not being deducted in estimating halves. An assistant Timekeeper may be appointed if de- sired. He will act under direction of the Timekeeper. SCORER. — One Scorer (and an Assistant Scorer, if desired) is appointed by the home team and approved by the Referee. Before a game begins the Scorer should ascertain from the Captain or Manager of each team the names of the players and their positions. His official record includes all goals scored, according to the decisions of the Referee, and for each player he should also designate fouls committed. (See score card for Basket Ball.) The score board is also in charge of the Scorer, or an assistant. From his record the Scorer assists the Referee in 138 Basket Ball (Line Game) determining when players should be disqualified for rough play or interference (second offense) or for guarding or line fouls (four fouls in succession). OUTFIT. — The BALL is round, not less than 30 nor more than 32 inches in circumference. It consists of a rubber bladder which is inserted in a leather cover and inflated. The opening in the cover is then laced together. The completed ball must weigh, according to official requirements, not less than 18 nor more than 20 ounces. Basket balls range in price from $4.50 to $6. A good ball costs $5. The BASKETS OR GOALS are nets of cord fastened to metal rings 18 inches in diameter. These rings are attached to wooden backgrounds, or backstops, 6 feet long horizontally and 4 feet high, the boards three quarters of an inch in thickness. The regulation height of baskets for adults is 10 feet from the ground. Goals (baskets) cost $4 per pair, without the back- stop. For out-of-doors, the backboards and baskets may be attached to posts sunk in the ground. A pair of posts, backboards, and nets can be bought for $40. DRESS. — Rubber-soled, well-fitting, soft, leather shoes are well-nigh a necessity for the expert player. So-called suction shoes, the rubber soles of which have perforations which enable the player to obtain a firm purchase on the floor, cost $4 per pair. Men usually wear short, padded flannel trousers and a sleeveless woolen shirt. Women wear gymnasium suits, including short, Zouave trousers or knickerbockers. Bibliography: Glossary 139 HISTORY. — The Kne game of basket ball was developed at Smith College by Mrs. Senda Berenson Abbott as a result of one season's trial of the regular game, which was invented by Dr. James Naismith at Springfield in 1892. It was in that same year that the modified or line game was formulated. BIBLIOGRAPHY Official Handbooks Basket-hall Guide for Women. Spalding's Athletic Library (New York, American Sports Publishing Co.) The Game Athletic and Outdoor Sports for Women. Edited by Lucille E. Hill. (New York, The Macmillan Company.) Athletic Games for Women. By Gertrude Dudley and Frances A. Kellor. (New York, Henry Holt & Company.) GLOSSARY The glossary for the original game of basket ball appHes also to the line game. A few terms peculiar to this game are here given. Center Section. Zone to which the centers are restricted. Field Line. Zone of the two lines that divide the court into three zones. Guard Section. Zone to which the guards are restricted. Home Section. Zone to which the forwards and goal keepers are restricted. Juggle. To throw the ball up into the air and catch it again. Line Gajvie. Game of basket ball in which the court is divided by cross lines and the players are restricted to certain zones so outUned. Linesman. Official who judges whether or not the player has touched or stepped over a field line. FIELD HOCKEY FIELD HOCKEY GENERAL DESCRIPTION — Field hockey is played out of doors on a large, level field covered with turf, and marked with white lines. In the center of each end line a goal is erected consisting of upright posts, with a cross bar, and a net attached at the rear to catch the ball. The field is divided through the center by a line parallel to the two end or goal lines, and each half is defended by a team of ii players. The game is played with a small cricket ball made of leather, about the size of a baseball, and painted white. This ball is played entirely by a curved stick; it is never kicked, or played by the hand. A goal is scored each time a team puts its ball through the opponents' goal, with a shot made from within what is called the striking circle, an area marked in front of each goal. The game is played in two halves of thirty or thirty- five minutes each. The ball may not be played on by any attacking player who was between it and the opponent's goal when it was last hit, unless at least three of the op- ponents are nearer their own goal than this player. This rule about off-side play leads to certain players of a team, as forwards, or half backs, keeping in rank, or parallel with one another, as they advance up the field toward the opponents' goal, passing the ball from one to another. 143 144 Field Hockey In general form the game is almost identical with soccer football, though the ball; and the method of playing it, are radically different. The following detailed description is based on the official rules of the American Field Hockey Associa- tion. FIELD. — DIMENSIONS AND LINES. — Field hockey is played on a level, turf field. While this does not have to be as smooth as a tennis court, the fewer in- equalities in the surface, the pleasanter the game. The turf should have frequent cutting and rolling. The length of a hockey field is from 90 to 100 yards; for schools the minimum may be 85 yards. The maximum width is 60 yards, and the minimum 55 yards. This outline is marked in white, the longer lines being called side lines, and the connecting lines at the end, goal lines. Flags are placed at the corners. The field is divided into halves by a transverse line midway between goals, and is again marked off in each half with a transverse line 25 yards from the goal line. A cross is drawn in the exact center of the field, on the halfway line. A dotted line is usually marked parallel with the side lines and five yards within them. This is called the 5-yard line, and though not required by the official rules, it assists very much in carrying out the regulations of the game. The only other marking on the ground is that of the striking circle around each goal. Field 145 Striking Circle . — In front of each goal is an area inclosed by a line, called the Striking Circle. To score, a ball going through the goal must have been hit from within this circle. The Striking Circle is made by drawing, 15 yards in front of each goal, a line 4 yards long, and parallel with the goal lines. Each end of this line is then joined to the goal line with a quarter circle, for which the goal post on that side is the center. GOALS. — In the center of each goal line is erected a goal made of posts 7 feet high, and not more than 2 inches broad and 3 inches deep. These are placed 4 yards (12 feet) apart (inside measurement), and are connected by a cross bar, rectangular in shape; neither cross bar nor uprights may extend beyond the point where they intersect. NET. — Each goal should be fitted with a net to catch the ball and assist in determining whether or not the goal has been made. Such a net is cubical in shape, not pyramidal, as in Lacrosse, Ice Hockey, etc., and is often made of wire netting. FLAGS. — The strategic points of the field are usually marked by a flag set outside of the lines. They are required at the four comers, and on either side of the center line. They must be one yard out- side of the lines, as must any other flags used, and must be on posts that are at least 4 feet high. TEAMS. — Field hockey is played by two teams of II players each. The particular number of players to be assigned to each position is not made compulsory by the rules, though the correct formation of a team is supposed 146 Field Hockey to include 5 forwards, 3 half backs, 2 full backs, and a goal keeper. These positions, however, may be changed by the Captains, though this is not usual for match games. For practice games, it may be advisable at times to have three full backs and no goal keeper, one of the full backs guarding the goal whenever the ball is near it, the three full backs tak- ing turns in this. The line up of the players of each team at the open- ing of the game is as follows : Left Wing, Left Inside, Center Forward, Right Inside, Right Wing, Left Half Back, Centre Half Back, Right Half Back, Left Full Back, Right Full Back, Goal Keeper. The players take these positions whenever the ball is bullied-off in the center of the field. The center player bullies the ball from the middle of the field at the beginning of each half and after each goal scored. The other forwards at this time must be in position, ready to follow up the ball should it go into the opponents' territory. FORWARDS. — All five of the forwards constitute what is called the attack ; that is, they are the aggres- sive players of a team and it devolves upon them (center forward excepted) to carry the ball down to the opponents' goal and shoot the goal from within the striking circle. These players should keep as nearly as possible in even rank, — that is, parallel to one another, — so as to be able to give and receive passes from one another without infringing the rules for off-side play. In this they are closely followed Forwards ' Half Backs ; Full Backs -<: Goal Lines 50 or 60 Yards In Length - - ■ FIELD HOCKEY Diagram of field and position of teams at opening of game, 147 148 Field Hockey up and helped by their half backs, who feed the ball toward them whenever it gets nearer to their own goal. The forwards usually act as a defense ^only between the 25-yard lines. INSIDE RIGHT AND LEFT. — These players need to be very alert to receive the ball or to follow it up when it is bullied-off. Their form of play is often a dribble, but frequently consists in passes between themselves, or passes to the wings. RIGHT AND LEFT WINGS. — These players usually have most to do with taking the ball to the opponent's goal. Their place, except in exigencies, should be between the 5-yard line and the side line. Their form of play consists usually very much of dribbling, but they have to be quick and expert in taking and giving passes on the run. These players should keep the ball from going out of bounds, or '' in touch," as the English phrase has it. In playing down the field in an attack, the wings should keep parallel with the other forward players of their team until the 25-yard line is reached, when they should close into the circle and take their place within it, keeping well to the sides to intercept the ball when it is hit away from the goal by the defenders. In such a case they should immediately return the ball to their own inside or center players, who should also be within the striking circle ; or the wings may shoot a goal themselves should a good opportunity occur. The position of right wing is the easier of the two because of the rules forbidding left-hand play. This rule makes the left wing position very awkward. The ball may best be played toward the center by the Teams 149 left wing by getting sKghtly in front of it and hitting it as it rolls, or by stopping and then hitting it. HALF BACKS. — In an attack, the main duty of the half backs is to feed the ball to their forwards, follow- ing them up the field to, or even within, the striking circle. They may pass the ball to their forwards or shoot a goal themselves. In defense play, the half backs should intercept the opposing forwards as they come toward them, and try to get the ball as they pass it from one to another. The half backs leave the defense immediately around the striking circle to the full backs, always dropping back when they get to the full backs' territory so as to be ready to receive the ball and pass it out to their own forwards. It may, however, be necessary at times for the half backs to take the place of the full backs, immediately outside the striking circle, should the latter have to go within the circle to help in de- fending the goal. FULL BACKS. — These are defense players stationed on the 2 5 -yard line. When the ball gets as far as the full backs, it is very near the goal and must be stopped, usually with the foot, before hitting, so as to avoid the added risk of running shots. It should be hit away with hard strokes that are purposeful and well aimed. This requires a cool head and good judgment. When the ball gets within the striking circle, the full backs should fall back within the circle to assist the goal keeper, remembering, as should all defending players, that a ball should be hit to one side and not simply sent farther out in front of the goal ; from the latter position it may more easily be sent through. ISO Field Hockey The full backs should never take part in an attack by their own team on the opponents' goal, though they may play well up to the center, and even over the center line. It is of the utmost importance that when their forwards and half backs are doing aggres- sive work in the - opponents' half of the field, they should be near the center line to ward off a sudden onset from the opponents. GOAL KEEPER. — It is needless to say that the goal keeper is one of the most important and hard- worked players in a team. The usual position for a goal keeper should be very slightly in front of the goal line, not between the posts or behind them. It is very seldom that a goal keeper should leave the goal and then only when he has a much better chance than the nearest opponent to hit the ball. It is usually advisable for a goal keeper to keep to the side of the goal from which a shot is coming. The goal keeper should be fearless to stop the ball with the foot or any part of the person. He is the only plaj^er on a team privileged to kick the ball, but may do this only within his striking circle, and not in playing a penalty bully. THE GAME. — CHOICE of goals. — The Cap- tains (usually the Captain of the home team) toss for choice of goals. Goals are changed for the second half of the game, each team defending the goal it previously attacked. BULLY-OFF. — The ball is put in play by what is called a bully-off. This is done by two players, one from each team, who stand with the ball between them ; each touches the ground with his stick on his 152 Field Hockey own (right) side of the ball, and hits his opponent's stick above the ball, alternately, three times in suc- cession, after which each tries to hit the ball towards his opponent's territory. No other player may hit the ball until one of these players bulhdng-off has done so. The two center forwards are usually assigned the duty of bullying-off. They must stand with one foot on each side of the center line, squarely facing the side lines, each with his left side toward his op- ponent's goal. Every other player of a team must be nearer his own goal than the ball is; i.e., between the ball and his own goal. It is wise for the players nearest the center to close in toward him for the bully-off. The ball is thus put in play with a bully at the center of the field at the beginning of each half and after each goal scored ; also after it has gone over the goal lines outside the goal. A bully is given as a penalty for certain fouls on the spot where the foul occurred, as described under " Fouls." After an accident, the ball is put in play by a bully at the point where it was when the accident occurred, the exact spot to be decided by the Umpire. For failure to observe any of the rules connected with it, a bully must be repeated. There is no other penalty for such failure. GENERAL DIRECTIONS AND RULES OF PLAY. — Field hockey is essentially a game of the ball; that is, all methods of advancing or intercepting the ball are confined to direct play on the ball itself, no tack- ling or interference with players being permissible. Rules, for Players 153 Rules are very definite about handling the sticks, methods between players, and modes of playing the ball. RULES FOR THE STICK. — The stick is almost in- variably held in both hands for a stroke, both being close together at the top, the left hand grasping the upper end. The sticks are made with the left-hand side of the blade flat, and the opposite side rounded. All strokes must be made toward the left, it befiig a foul to hit the ball toward the right, or with the rounded back of the stick, or in any way to make a left-handed play. Rules relating to the stick may be summarized as follows : No part of a stick may be raised above the shoulder during any part of a hit, either at the begin- ning or end of the stroke. For this the Umpire or Captain should call '' Sticks ! '' at once, and enforce the penalty of a free hit for the opposing team from the point where the breach occurred, if outside the striking circle. It is not permissible to hit an opponent's stick as in the checking of ice hockey. There may be no play with the back of the stick, either for hitting or stopping the ball. All play must be from the flat side of the stick. No player without a stick in hand may interfere in the game in any way. RULES FOR PLAYERS. — The rules regarding players may be summarized as follows : No personal inter- ference is allowed, either kicking, collaring, shinning, tripping, charging, or body-checking. 154 FieM Hockey It is not allowable to obstruct an opponent by get- ting between him and the ball. It is a foul to cross an opponent from the left, un- less in so doing the ball be touched before the opponent touches it. OFFSIDE PLAY is one of the most important points for players to understand. '' Offside " refers to the position of a player as related to the ball (when it is hit), and his opponents and their goal. He is offside, and may not play on the ball, if he be between the opponent's goal and the ball when it is hit, unless at least three of the opponents are nearer their own goal line than himself. This offside position would give him an unfair advantage in shoot- ing their goal. If he be offside when the ball is hit, he may not touch the ball, nor approach it, nor stay within 5 yards of it, nor may he in any way interfere with any other player, until the ball has been hit by a player of the opposite side. It will be noticed that this refers only to a ball hit by a player's own team mate. He is not offside when in front of a ball hit by one of his opponents. He is not offside in his own half of the field, nor may he be penalized for merely standing in an offside position. It is playing in that position that constitutes an infringement of rules. Offside play is penalized by granting to the op- ponents a free hit from the place where the play occurred, whether this were inside or outside the circle. METHODS OF PLAYING THE BALL. — This is always rolled, not purposely lofted, and never kicked by any player except the goal keeper, who may so keep it away from the goal. Roll-In 155 The ball may be stopped (but not otherwise played) by any part of the person, or apparel ; it may even be caught in the hand, but must be dropped at once, perpendicularly {i,e,^ not thrown to a distance). If stopped by the foot, the latter must be taken away at once. The ball may not be picked up, thrown, carried, or kept (except by the goal keeper within the striking circle), or knocked back and forth in any way, except with the stick. It is considered carrying the ball to change it from the right hand to the left when it is caught in the hand. ROLL-IN. — After being '' in touch '' (going out of bounds over the side Unes), the ball is put in play by what is called a roll-in. It must be entirely over the line to be considered out of bounds. For the roll-in, a player of the opposing side to the one that sent it out (usually a wing player) rolls the ball in by hand. It must be rolled along the ground, not thrown or bounced, and from the point at which it crossed the hne ; it may be sent in any direction. A player who rolls in the ball must stand with both feet and stick beyond the side hne and may not touch the ball again until it has been touched or hit by some other player. For a roll-in no other player may stand within 5 yards of the side hne. It is to assist in the enforce- ment of this rule that the 5 -yard dotted hne is drawn on the grounds. Should the ball go out of bounds behind the goal line, it is treated as a foul, whether such a play is made willfully or accidentally. The penalties for the defending or attacking side under these circum- 156 Field Hockey stances are given under '' Fouls '' and consist either in a bully, a corner hit, or a penalty corner hit. The method for putting the ball in play for each of the penalties for fouls — free hit (from field), corner (free hit), penalty corner hit, and penalty bully — are described under ^' Fouls." ADVANCING THE BALL is done by dribbling and passing. In dribbling, one player runs with the ball, carrying it along with him by a series of light strokes that do not send it out of reach. Dribbling becomes danger- ous when an enemy is near, who might intercept the ball; under such circumstances a pass to a team- mate is in order. Passing consists in sending the ball from one team- mate to another. It is well for a player to form the habit of looking over the right shoulder for a ball coming up from the rear, playing as much as possible with his left side toward the opponents' goal. Short passes are far more frequent, and safer, than long ones. A player may receive and return a pass on the run, without stopping the ball; or he may stop the ball (as with stick or foot) and then hit it. For passing, to avoid infringing the rule for offside play, players should be as nearly as possible in a Une, side by side, when going toward an opponents' goal. INTERCEPTING THE BALL. — A ball being played between opponents may be intercepted in a pass. No personal interference with an opponent is permis- sible; that is, no charging, tripping, shinning, or body-checking of any kind. Penalties for Fouls 157 PENALTIES FOR FOULS. — The fouls in field hockey are not more numerous nor varied than in many other games, but appear rather complicated because the penalties vary for the same foul, accord- ing to whether it is committed within or without the striking circle, or is made by the attacking or defend- ing side. These variations in the kinds and varieties of penalties arise primarily from the fact that any ball, to score a goal, must have been hit from within the striking circle by a player of the attacking side ; hence, if the attacking side offend within the striking circle, the defense is usually allowed a free hit as a means of keeping the ball away from their own goal. On the other hand, if a foul be committed by the defense within their own striking circle, the attacking side is allowed either a bully, a corner, or a penalty corner which gives them a possibihty of making a goal either directly from one shot, or indirectly through two players (corner hit) . The fouls and their penalties under various circumstances are appended in a classified Hst. Penalties for fouls are, briefly stated,^ {a) A free hit ^ (anywhere on the grounds where offense occurred ; no other player within 5 yards) . {h) Penalty bully ^ (mainly for offenses within the striking circle. A bully by offender and opponent, all other players to be beyond the 25-yards Une). (c) Corner hit ^ (a hit made from opponents' side line or goal line — within 3 yards of corner flag, — defending team to be behind their own goal Une, and attacking team beyond the striking circle). ^ See fuller explanation immediately following. 158 Field Hockey {d) Penalty corner ^ (A hit made from opponents' goal Kne — but at least lo yards from nearest goal post — no other player within 5 yards of the striker ; defending team behind their own goal line ; attacking team outside the striking circle) . These penalties for fouls may be elaborated as follows : A FREE HIT is one accorded an opponent on a spot where a foul has occurred and is made while no other player than the striker is within 5 yards of the spot where the hit is made. The hit must be a clean stroke and not a '^ scoop.'' The striker may not touch the ball again until another player of either his own or the opposing team has touched or hit it. Should a striker miss a ball on a free hit, he may re- peat the stroke. The penalties for infringing any of these rules for a free hit are given in the classified list that follows. PENALTY BULLY. — A penalty bully is awarded for certain fouls, mainly those which are intentionally committed, or which prevent a goal that would other- wise have been made, such fouls being committed within the striking circle by the defending team. The bully takes place between a player of each side on the spot where the foul occurred, and all other players of both teams must be beyond the nearer 25-yards line. The object of the penalty bully is to give the offended team, which in this case is the attacking team, an opportunity to shoot a goal on a bully, or to place the ball advantageously for this. The offended team may choose any one of its players to play this bully. ^ See fuller explanation immediately following. Penalty Shots 159 If the player of the attacking team sends the ball between the goal posts, it scores a goal for his team. If he sends it wholly over the goal line outside the goal posts, or either of the two players sends it outside the striking circle, the penalty bully is completed, and the game is started over again by a bully made regularly from the center of the nearer 2 5 -yards line. If, in a penalty bully, the offending player sends the ball over the goal line (but not between the goal posts) the bully shall be repeated ; if the offending player sends the ball over the line between the goal posts, the attacking team is awarded a penalty goal (scores one point). Any breach of rules made during a penalty bully incurs penalties that differ according to the player offending. If committed by the original offender (of the de- fending team) the attacking team is given a penalty goal. If committed by the player of the attacking team, the defending team is allowed a free hit. If committed simultaneously by both players, the bully is repeated. CORNER (also called a corner hit or penalty corner). This is awarded, when, in the Umpire's opinion, a ball has glanced off, or in some other way been inten- tionally put behind the goal Une by a defending player. This corner hit is a free hit, taken from the side or goal Hne within 3 yards of the nearest corner flag. A corner hit differs from a free hit in the point at which the ball is placed and the position of other players. All players of the defending team must be i6o Field Hockey behind their goal line and all players of the attacking side outside the striking circle. The players all line up at about equal distances on these lines. Neither feet nor sticks may be within these limits, and no player may be within 5 yards of the striker. No goal may be scored from a corner hit until the ball has been stopped (not necessarily motionless) by one of the attacking side, or shall have touched the person or stick of a player of the defending side before the last stroke that sent it through. A player making a corner hit may not play again until another player has played on the ball. Should the player making a corner hit miss the ball, he may hit again, unless he has broken some rule about sticks. Should any player of the attacking team shoot for goal after a corner hit has been made, without the balFs first having been stopped (not necessarily mo- tionless), the defending team may have a free hit. PENALTY CORNER. — This is a free hit made from any point on the opponents' goal line, except within 10 yards of the nearest goal post. The penalty corner hit differs from the corner hit only in being limited to the goal line. The same rules apply as follows : All players of the defending team (including feet and sticks) must be behind their own goal line, and all players of the attacking team similarly outside the striking circle. No player may be within 5 yards of the striker. A goal may not be scored from such a hit until the ball has either been stopped (not necessarily motion- less) or touched by one of the defending side. Classified Fouls and Penalties i6i The player making the hit may not play on the ball again until another player has done so. Should the first strike miss the ball in a penalty corner hit, the player may hit again. For any infringement of rules in a penalty corner hit, a free hit is awarded to the opposing team. PENALTY GOAL. — This is awarded for a breach of rules in making a penalty bully. It consists simply in the opposing side's being allowed one point on their score. CLASSIFIED FOULS AND PENALTIES FOULS RELATING TO PLAYERS Foul Outside of Cir- cle BY EITHER Side Inside Circle BY Attacking Side Inside Circle BY Defense Personal Interfer- ence Tripping, shinning, charg- ing, collaring, shoving, body- checking, strik- ing or hooking with stick. Obstructing play- er. Running be- tween player and ball ; crossing him from left unless touch ball before touching him. Of side play Rough play Opponents awarded free hit from spot where foul occurred. Free hit from spot where foid occurred. Opponents awarded free hit from spot where foul occurred. Free hit from spot where foul occurred. Opponents awarded pen- alty corner. If intentional, or intercepting a goal shot, then penalty bully Free hit from spot where foul occurred. Suspended at discretion of Umpire, with or without preliminary warning. l62 Field Hockey MANNER OF PLAYING BALL. Foul Propelling in any way but by stick (except kick by goal keeper ; no kick- ing by other players allowed) . To catch ball with hand and not drop it at once. To carry ball, even from left to right hand. To kneel, sit, or stand on ball. Roll-in Outside of Circle by Either Team Free hit by other side from spot where offense oc- curred Inside Circle by Attack Free hit by defending team from spot where occurred. Inside Circle by Defense Penalty comer. If intentional, or preventing a goal from being made, then a penalty bully from spot where occurred. When opposing player to one who makes roll-in is within 5 -yard line, repeat the roll- in. If player who rolls in breaks the rules, the roll-in is given to the opponents. Ball sent behind Goal Line By a player of attacking team. Unintentionally by, or glances off, stick or person of defender, horn, farther than 2 5 -yard line. Unintentionally by, or glances from, person or stick of defen- der, nearer than 2 5 -yard line. Intentionally by defending team. Penalty Bully from 25-yards line, at right angles to goal line at point where ball went out. Bully from 25-yards line, at right angles to goal line at point where ball went out. Corner hit awarded to at- tacking team. Penalty corner hit awarded to attacking team. Classified Fouls 163 USE OF STICKS Foul . Outside of Circle by Either Team Inside Circle by Attack Ins]!de Circle by Defense To interfere in Free hit Free hit by Penalty corner. the game with- by other defending If intentional, or out a stick in side from team from preventing a goal hand. spot where spot where from being made, offense oc- occurred. then a penalty curred. bully from spot where occurred. ^^ Sticks '' — (to raise stick above )) j> Penalty corner. shoulder) . To hit or stop Penalty corner. with back of If intentional, or stick. 5) » preventing a goal from being made, then a penalty bully from spot where occurred. To strike at sticks (check- ing). V )? >) To hook sticks. Free hit Free hit by Penalty corner. by other defending If intentional, or side from team from preventing a goal spot where spot where from being made, offense oc- occured. then a penalty curred bully from spot where occurred. To hook person J? >j J) of opponent. 164 Field Hockey FOULS MADE IN PENALTY SHOTS Breaking Rules Outside of Inside Circle by Inside Circle by for Free Hit Either Side Attack Defense (a) Any player Hit to be Hit to be Hit to be within 5 yards. taken again. taken again. taken again. (b) If striker Free hit by Penalty Penalty plays on ball be- team oppos- corner. corner. fore it is hit by ing the of- another player. fender. (c) For ''scoop- Free hit by ing '' ball. one of oppos- ing team. j> >> Breaking rules for penalty bully (a) By offender. Penalty goal awarded to attacking team. (b) By player Free hit awarded to defending team. taking bully for attacking team. (c) Simultane- Bully to be repeated. ously by both players. Breaking rules for corner hit Free hit awarded to offended team. Breaking rules for penalty corner Free hit awarded to offended team. SCORE. — One point is scored for a team for each ball put through the opponents' goal from the front, by a hit made by the attacking side within the strik- Score: Match Games 165 ing circle. A glance-off from the stick scores the same as a shot, if the ball goes through the goal. To score a goal a ball must go entirely over the line. Should a goal post be displaced, the Umpire may award a goal if in his judgment the ball passed within what would have been the goal boundaries. The Umpire decides , calls, and records all goals scored. A penalty goal, accorded for an opponent's breach of rules, scores the same as a goal hit. The ball is bullied-off at the center of the field after each goal is scored and at the beginning of the second half. The game is played in two halves of 35 minutes each (one hour and ten minutes of playing time), with a rest between. For schools and colleges games are allowed in 30-minute halves, but any match games of this length must be recorded as '^ 60-minute matches." The time is estimated by the Umpire . In doing this he deducts any time in which the play is sus- pended for accidents to a player, but not for the balFs being out of bounds. Teams change places (goals) after the first half. After an accident , the ball is started again with a bully-off from a spot selected by the Umpire in the half of the ground occupied by the team of the injured player. MATCH GAMES. — For match games it is customary for the Captain of the home team to toss for choice of goals. The home team should furnish the balls, a new ball being put in play for the second half. 1 66 Field Hockey OFFICIALS. — Two Umpires are usually pro- vided, one by each team, and are the only officials. It is permissible, however, to conduct the game with one Umpire and two Linesmen. Each team elects a Captain. Where no Umpires appear or are appointed, the Captains should fill these positions, making all deci- sions in the game. UMPIRES. — It is usual for each club to select its own Umpire. Each Umpire has jurisdiction over one half the field (from transverse center line to goal) and for all of one side line (from goal line to goal line), but this does not include corner hits. Umpires retain their position on the field through- out the game, not crossing over at half time when the teams change goals. The Umpires are entirely independent of each other, each being a supreme authority in his own half of the field. The duties of the Umpire consist in (a) Inspecting the grounds, goals, and flags as to lines and distances; the dress, shoes, sticks, and general equipment of the players, before a game, to see that all of these points conform to the rules. (b) Placing the ball and blowing the whistle for all starting and stopping of play, including the beginning of each half after each goal is scored and at any other times when this is necessary through the game. The Umpire decides at what point the ball should be bullied, after play has been suspended for rough play or accidents, or after any foul ; also after going Officials 167 out of bounds, at what point it should be rolled in and by which team. A ball hitting an Umpire is not dead and not out of play. (c) Acting as timekeeper, noting when a half be- gins, deducting all time lost by accidents (not for fouls or penalties) and on this basis deciding when the half ends. The Umpire should blow his whistle at the beginning and close of halves. A half should end on time, except if it interrupts a penalty bully, for which time allowance should be made until the bully is completed or a goal scored. In estimating time, the Umpire should remember that in this game the time consumed for a ball out of bounds is not deducted from the playing time ; play does not stop for a foul until the Umpire's decision is given, and no time is deducted for any fouls, penalties, or discussion relating thereto. The ball is in play from the time the Umpire blows his whistle for play to begin until he blows it again for play to stop. Play should cease only at half time and for accidents, not for fouls and their penalties. Under these rules also an Umpire should not enforce any penalty, if by so doing an advantage would be given to the offending side. (d) The Umpire is responsible for accurate knowl - edge of all fouls and must be prepared to give a deci- sion on these and all other points promptly, without waiting for appeal. For rough play the Umpire may suspend a player from the game, using his discretion about a prelimi- nary warning before doing this. 1 68 Field Hockey (e) The Umpire decides whenever a goal is made, announces it, and keeps the score. (/) Position. — In order to decide all points con- nected with the manner of playing the ball, and off- side play, the Umpire should keep in line with the ball when it is in his territory. An Umpire may do no coaching during a game. LINESMEN. — Where these are appointed, their duties consist in watching certain lines — one side and end — to note when ball or players are within, on, or over the line ; where the ball should be rolled in after going out of bounds, and by which team this should be done. A Linesman may not coach during a game. CAPTAINS. — The two Captains of a team toss for choice of goals at the beginning of a game. It is cus- tomary for the Captain of the home team to do this. The Captains should be chiefly instrumental in selecting the Umpire for their respective teams. Where no Umpires are appointed from outside the teams, the Captains may serve as Umpires, each for his own team, or assign another member of the team to this duty. Each Captain indicates his own goal keeper. OUTFIT. — GOALS. — Detail specifications are given in description of field. For field hockey, in- cluding uprights, cross bar and galvanized wire netting may be had complete for $35 per pair. Up- rights and cross bar without the netting may be had at $15 per set. FLAGS. — Boundary flags may be had at 50 cents each and staffs for them, seven feet high, at 50 cents each. Outfit 169 STICKS for field hockey are made of wood, in whole or in part. No sharp edges or metal fittings are allowed. The best sticks are usually made with rattan cane handles, wound with tape or cord Hke a whip handle, attached to a head or blade made of ash. A hockey stick may be of any length, but must not weigh more than 28 ounces complete. The handle is rounded, but the head, or blade, is fiattenec out and curved. Only one side of this, however, may be perfectly flat, and that must be the left-hand side as the stick is held with the blade curving away from one. This head or blade must have a rounded end — no sharp corners or points. It is permissible to place a rubber ring on the stick where the handle and blade join to prevent other sticks from sHding up to the hand. This ring must not exceed four inches in external diameter. Both the rubber ring, and the whipping or binding of the handle, are included in the weight. The entire sticks must be of a size to permit its passing through a two-inch ring. Good hockey sticks cost from Si to S2.50 each. RUBBER-RING FINGER PROTECTORS to sHp on hockey sticks may be had at 50 cents each. BALL. — The official specifications call for a cricket ball painted white or covered with white leather. A cricket ball is of the same size as a baseball ; that is, 9 to gj inches in circumference, but is one-half ounce heavier in weight, being from 5§ to 5! ounces. Official balls cost from*$i to $2.75 each; practice balls 50 cents each. GLOVES made to give freedom to the hand, but with fingers of rubber to protect from accidents with the stick, cost $2.50 per pair. 170 Field Hockey SHOES. — No metal spikes or projecting nails are permissible on shoes used in field hockey. It is permissible, however, to use rubber heels, or small rubber disks, which may be had at five cents each and are attachable to any shoes. They prevent slipping. SHIN GUARDS may be had for $i per pair. These should be worn by all players. DRESS FOR WOMEN. — Hats having hard brims, or hatpins, are prohibited by the rules. The regula- tions specify that skirts shall be 8 inches from the ground all around. HISTORY. — In its primitive form field hockey is one of the oldest ball games in the world. Records of it are known as far back as 1330. In the Copen- hagen National Museum is an altar pot showing, in the decoration, two players bullying with a ball. An engraving of this is given in the yearbook of the Danish Hockey Association. The name is thought to have been derived, like that of Lacrosse, from the name given to the hooked stick used in the game. In the case of Hockey the word is thought to be of old French origin, derived from the word Ho quel, meaning a shepherd's crook. The modern development of the game is dis- tinctively English, the growth of its popularity in England being almost unprecedented in the history of modern team games. No attempt to formulate rules was made prior to 1875, at which date an Asso- ciation was formed of hockey clubs near London, and a few rules formulated, which formed the basis of the later development of the game. This Association History 171 died, and was succeeded, in 1883, by the Wimbledon Club ; but the highest development of the modern game did not take place until the formation of the EngHsh Hockey Association in 1886. From this grew other Hockey Associations in Great Britain and all her colonies, in France, Germany, Holland, Bel- gium, Denmark, Egypt, India, and America. In the United States and Canada, an International Hockey Board, presumably originating in England, was formed in 1907. International matches have become a regular feature. These were first played between England and Ireland in 1894. Since then such matches have been played between England, Scotland, Germany, France, and Belgium. Oxford and Cambridge have had annual matches since 1890. In 1910 there were 700 Hockey Clubs in Great Britain, exclusive of 60 or 70 regimental and university clubs, and those for pubHc school boys and girls. The game has become, perhaps, the most popular outdoor game for women in England. The first Women's Hockey Club was formed there in 1886, and the various clubs combined under the All England Women's Hockey Association in 1895. One of the most distinguishing features of the EngHsh play, and probably the large secret of its popu- larity, has been the effort to keep it a purely amateur game, by prohibiting all matches for trophies. The game was introduced in the United States in 1901, by Miss Constance M, K. Applebee, who in that year started it in several of the leading Women's Colleges (Vassar, Bryn Mawr, and Smith) and in the Harvard Summer School of Physical Training. 172 Field Hockey BIBLIOGRAPHY On iciAL Handbooks Field Hockey. (Compiled by Constance M. K. Applebee.) (New York, Spalding's Athletic Library.) Official Publi- cation of the American Field Hockey Association. Rules of the Game of Hockey (English). Issued under the authority of the International Hockey Board. (London, England, Hoiiace Cox, Publisher.) Authorized Rules of the Game of Hockey and of the All-England W amends Hockey Association. (London, C. North, Pub- lisher.) The Game Hockey for Men and Women. By H. L. Bourke. (London, British Sports Pubhshing Co., 1907.) Hockey. By Frank S. Creswell. (London, Bell, 1909.) Athletic Games for Women. By Gertrude Dudley and Frances A. Kellor. (New York, Henry Holt and Company.) Hockey. By. E. H. Green and E. E. White. (London, E. Nash, 1912.) Athletics and Outdoor Sports for Women. By Lucile Eaton Hill. (New York, The MacmiUan Company.) Hints on Hockey. (London, W. Blackwood, 1907.) Encyclopedia of Sport. Edited by the Earl of Suffolk and Berkshire. (Philadelphia, J. B. Lippincott and Company; London, Heinemann.) Hockey as a Game for Women. By Frank C. Tompkins. (New York, Longmans, Green and Co., 1904.) Complete Hockey Player. By E. E. White. (Philadelphia, G. W. Jacobs and Co. ; London, Methuen, 1909.) GLOSSARY Attack. Name given to the group of five forward players on a team, most of whom lead the attack on the opponent's goal. Glossary 173 Bully; Bully-off. The procedure by which the ball is put in play. Corner; Corner-hit. A free (unimpeded) hit awarded to one team as penalty to the opponents for a foul com- mitted by one of their number. It is confined to a certain area and made according to prescribed rules. Defense. The full backs and goal keeper of a team are spoken of as the defense, as their most important duty is to de- fend the goal. Dribbling. Sending the ball along by a series of short strokes that keep it in motion; but close to the player. Foul. A misplay or breach of rules. Free-hit. A play free from interference by opponents. This is awarded to a team under prescribed conditions, as a penalty to the opponents for having infringed certain rules. Offside. A player is ^^ offside/' and may not play on the ball, when he is between the ball and the opponent's goal, and less than three of the opponents are nearer their own goal than he. Passing. The act of sending the ball from one player to an- other of the same team. Penalty bully. A bully awarded to an attacking team, for a foul committed within the striking circle by a defend- ing team. Penalty corner. A hit, free from interference, made from within prescribed limits. The penalty corner hit is awarded an attacking team for certain fouls by a defend- ing team. Penalty goal. A score of one point (the same as for making a goal), awarded to a team for certain breach of rules by the opponents. Roll-in. The particular method of putting the ball in play after it has gone out of bounds beyond the side lines; or the act of so putting it in play. "Scoop.'' A term applied to a certain way of striking a ball, so that it is lofted. Under some circumstances this is permissible. 174 Field Hockey Sticks. The implements with which alone the ball may be played. The call of '^Sticks ! '' is used to indicate the foul of lifting the stick above the shoulder at either the begin- ning or end of a stroke. Striking circle. A prescribed area outlined in front of the goal. Undercut. A method of hitting the ball. Wings. Two of the forward players, called Right Wing and Left Wing. FOOTBALL FOOTBALL DIFFERENT GAMES. — Four distinct forms of football are in general use. In America, what is called Intercollegiate football is the most popular game, though the English Association, or Soccer football is rapidly growing in favor. In England Rugby football is the most famous game of this type, and in Ireland a GaeUc football is played. The Enghsh Rugby game is quite similar to the American Intercollegiate, but one important rule changes the entire tone and aspect of the game. In Rugby no player is allowed in front of the man carry- ing the ball; in other words, there is no '' on side " play, which practically does away with the inter- ference that results in the mass play of the American game. It might be said that Rugby is more a game of the ball, and the American Intercollegiate game more one of the players. The Enghsh Association football, often called in America Soccer, is more truly deserving of the name of football than either of the above-mentioned games, as in it the ball is advanced only by kicking. There are other differences between the games. 177 FOOTBALL (INTERCOLLEGIATE) FOOTBALL (INTERCOLLEGMTE) GENERAL DESCRIPTION. — The American game of Intercollegiate football is played by two opposing teams, mmibering ii players each (22 in all) who start the game and each quarter thereafter, fac- ing each other in scrimmage formation from opposite halves of a large rectangular field. At the far end of each hah of the field is a goal made of upright posts supporting a cross bar. The ball is prolate spheroid in shape, commonly called the oval or Rugby ball. The object of the game is for a team to advance the ball beyond the goal at the rear of the opponents' half of the field. There are two ways of doing this : the ball may be kicked over the goal above the cross bar between the two upright posts, which is called '' kicking a goal,'' or it may be carried over the rear boundary or goal line in the hands of a player of the opposing team and there touched to the ground, called a " touchdown." After making a touchdown a team has a free (unimpeded) try at goal with a kick, made from either the point of the touchdown, or after punt- ing the ball back into the field (a punt-out). Such a goal from touchdown scores i point. A goal kicked from the field in regular play scores 3 points for the team making the play ; a touchdown scores 6 points for the team achieving it. To prevent so high a score 1 82 Football (Intercollegiate) by the opposing team, a play called a ^^ safety " is often made by a defending team. A safety consists in a player of the defending team kicking, carrying, or pass- ing a ball back over his own goal line into the field to be there touched-down by some other player of his team. Such a play scores 2 points against the team making it — that is, the opponents score 2 points on a safety made by the opposite team. It is, obviously, often to the advantage of a team to make a safety even though it scores for the opponents, as it pre- vents the latter making a higher score through a touch- down. The ball is usually advanced but short distances in each attempt, the team possessing the ball seeking to touch it to the ground in the hands of one of its players at each advance. After such a '' down " a ball is out of play until put formally in play again with a scrimmage. In a scrimmage the opposing teams line up opposite each other, the seven rushers, or forwards, on a line, and the backs in formation behind them. The ball is then put in play by the snapper-back, or center rusher, who snaps it back with his hands to the quarter back, who is behind him, who in turn usually passes it to one of the half backs, or to the full back, either for a run or a kick. A kicked ball may be allowed to fall to the ground by the receivers, in which case any player of the receiving team may fall upon it and thus gain possession of it ; or the kicked ball may be caught by one of the receiv- ing team with what is called a fair catch; that is, the opponent may raise an arm above his head as a General Description 183 signal that he is going to make a fair catch, in which case he may not be interfered with. A team must advance a ball at least 10 yards in four attempts (downs), or the ball goes^ to the opponents. The three such plays that follow the first down are num-bered consecutively, second, third, and fourth downs. Should a team achieve the required distance in its fourth or any earlier down, the next play becomes the first down in a new series. The opponents try to prevent the advance of the ball and the dow^n. This is very often done by tack- ling the runner who is carrying it. Only the five middle men in the rush line of the defending team may tackle a runner below^ the knees ; all other players must tackle at other parts of the body, such as the shoulder or thigh. To protect him from tackling, a player running with the ball is usually accompanied by other players of his team who run with him to ward off the opponents and are called the interference. These players are often disposed in regular formations. To a spectator, the game is a series of line-ups for a kick-off or scrimmage, with the teams in formal ar- rangement opposite each other. The quarter back of the team which has possession of the ball then often shouts a series of numbers, letters, or other words which are unintelligible to any but his team and serve as blind signals to his players for their next play ; meaning, for instance, ''Play through left guard''; or ''Run around your own left end, your left tackle and left end, pushing the opposing right tackle toward the center, your left half back and full back forming an interference,'' etc. Having heard the signals, all 1 84 Football (Intercollegiate) of the players on the rush hne, and those at the rear, crouch, ready to spring when the ball shall be put in play. These line-ups are moments of suspense, followed by an exciting rush with the ball. These rush moments often end with the players of both teams piled in a mass ; and one of the most intense moments of a ball game is the disclosure, when this pile of players breaks up, of which team is in possession of the ball, i.e., whether or not the ball has been lost in a fumble, or what distance it has been advanced. Such a mass play for a touchdown over a goal line is another of the crucial moments in which the spec- tators, anxious to see if a scoring play has been made, are apt to rise to their feet, with a roar of groans and cheers. Other moments of great intensity are when the ball is advanced a considerable distance by a sensational run or kick, when a goal is made, or a safety success- fully played. The advance of the ball is usually plainly indicated by two poles, connected by a ten-yard chain, which are moved along a side line as the ball moves backward or forward, as a means of aiding officials in judging distances. A spectator, to understand the game, should be familiar with other rules, such as those governing '' off side " and " on side " play ; the different kinds of kicks — drop kick, place kick, or punting — and when these kicks are permissible; when the ball is out of play ; the official position and duties of the different players, as half back, quarter back, etc. Some knowledge of the talents and previous achieve- General Description 185 ments of the individual players also adds greatly to the interest. The game is played in four quarters of 15 minutes each, with a 15-minute intermission between the sec- ond and third quarters and one minute between the first and second and the third and fourth. The side which has the higher score at the end of the fourth quarter wins. In computing time for the quarters, the officials do not include time required for unusual incidents, or anything not connected with the play, such as accidents. A team is allowed to displace any player with a sub- stitute at any time if such exchange is first reported to the Referee or Umpire. A player so displaced may again return once to the game, at the beginning of a subsequent quarter or at any time during the last quarter. The following detailed directions for the game are based on the Ofl&cial Intercollegiate Rules. Ex- planations and rules are grouped under the following headings : (a) THE FIELD ; (b) TEAMS : the various positions; (c) THE GAME: quarters, choice of goal, start, kick-off, scrimmage, formation and rules; (d) ADVANC- ING THE BALL : after a kick-off, after a snap-hack, for- ward pass, running and tackling; (e) METHODS OF PLAYING THE BALL: batting, kicking, fair catch; (/) WAYS OF MAKING A GOAL AND OF SCORING: touchdown, goal from touchdown, punt out, goal kicked from field, touchback, safety; (g) SCORE; (h) OFFI- CIALS; (i) OUTFIT; (j) HISTORY; (k) BIBLIOGRA- PHY; (m) GLOSSARY. 1 86 Football (Intercollegiate) End Line END ZONE Goal Line T" ,10 Yds. \ Goal \ Right Half Back Full Back Left Half Back Right End Left End Quarter Back Right Tackle Left Tackle Right Guard Left Guard Center THE FIELD. —DIMENSIONS AND LINES. —The field consists of a rectangle, measuring 360 X 160 feet. The three-hun- dred-and-sixty- foot lines are called side lines and the one-hun- d r e d - and-sixty- foot lines at the ends are called end lines. In addition to these boundary lines, 10 yards inside of each end line is drawn parallel with it, a goal line that marks off the " end zone." Parallel to these end and zone lines, at in- tervals of 5 yards, other par- allel lines are drawn, to assist the officials in judging the dis- tances which the ball is advanced, and for other purposes. The end lines, goal lines (10 yards from end lines), and 20- and 40-yard lines -y — ^- • • ©Ball • 15-35 0, « • Quarter Back oc 18 Ft. 6 in. /Go Goil/'^ 10 Ft. Goal Line END ZONE - -160 Ft. 10 Yds. J 3 30 35 40 45 V) 50 i 45 40 End Line FOOTBALL (INTERCOLLEGIATE) Diagram of field, showing position of players at kick-off. The Center 187 in each half of the field are usually made especially heavy, as they are likely to be used for various pur- poses in the course of the game. The marking of the ground should be done with Hme and a regular marker. The Unes should be very dis- tinct, especially the boundary lines of the field, as a ball touching them is ^^ in goal " or ^^ out of bounds '' and the fact of the touch must be plainly discernible. The effect produced by the many intersecting lines of a ball field is what has given rise to the designation of the field as the Gridiron, GOAL. — A goal is placed in the center of each of the goal fines. A goal consists of two upright posts which must be more than 20 feet in height, placed 18 feet 6 inches apart. On these uprights a horizontal cross bar is placed 10 feet from the ground. There is no goal box made of netting as in some other ball games. TEAMS. — THE VARIOUS POSITIONS. — Football is played by two teams of 11 men each. The duties of each player are highly speciaHzed. The players on a team consist of one center, two guards, two tackles, two ends, one quarter back, two half backs, and a full back. Each player must be perfectly cognizant of his own duties, in order to be efficient. A guard cannot effectively play at tackle nor an end at half back without special training. THE CENTER. — The duty of the center in a scrim- mage, when his team has possession of the ball, is to pass it to the quarter back and then quickly charge the opposing center to prevent him from crashing through the line and tackling the man \^th the ball. 1 88 Football (Intercollegiate) He thus serves both as snapper-back and inter- ference. The center should stoop over, with his right foot sUghtly back of the left and his body well braced, so that a pull forward will not land him on his face nor a push backward send him sprawKng. The center should place both hands flatly over the half of the ball farthest away from his body, the thumbs well up over the top and the arms straight. A swinging motion of the arm and snap of the wrists will carry the ball accurately to the quarter back. After having passed the ball, he should charge so quickly and with his body so low, that the opposing center will be carried backwards and off his feet. The center should note the signals carefully, so as to know in what direction to charge the opposing center. An opponent should always be pushed in a direc- tion away from that to be taken by the runner with the ball. If the ball is to be carried through a hole between right guard and center, the latter should charge his opposing center to the left. The left guard should assist the center, paying little attention to his own guard, who will be unable to get in the way. If, however, the quarter back goes back on line with the other three backs, the ball will be passed directly to the player ('' direct pass ")? who is to run with it. In that case the center must watch the body of the back about to carry the ball and pass it shghtly ahead of the runner, so that the latter need not slow up, when about to catch the ball. When on the defensive, the center, if a heavy man The Guard 189 who is not exceptionally fast, should play up in the line and charge through the instant the ball is passed. If he find that he cannot get through the opposing line, he should throw the opposing center back into the play and thus prevent those in the back field from getting a quick start. When about to charge, his hips should be low, his shoulders slightly higher than his hips, his right leg a little farther back than his left, and his body facing the opposing Hne. He should take advantage of the rule that allows a defensive player to use his hands as should every other player on the line. This is an immense advantage to the defenders and is too often overlooked. The team with the ball has not this privilege ; but must charge with the shoulders in order to get an opponent out of the way. If the center be a lighter, quicker man, he may well be played a yard and a half behind the center of the line, where he is in a position to stop a runner coming through any part of the Kne. THE GUARD. — The guard is usually a heavy man. His duty on the offensive is to quickly get into the interference, when the ball is being carried around an end or through the opposite side of the Hne, and to get his opponent out of the way, when the runner with the ball is attempting to get through the line to the right or left of this same guard's position on the line. If the right guard, he should always remember to help the center when the ball is being carried between the center and left guard, and to help his tackle when expedient. When on the defensive, his duties are similar to 1 90 Football (Intercollegiate) those of the center. The foot nearer that of the center should always be locked with the center's and the other foot a little in advance. His crouch should be the same as that of a defensive center. THE TACKLE. — When his team has possession of the ball, the tackle should play close to his guard, crouched low, hips close to the ground, finger tips on line, prepared to ^^ box " opposing tackle; that is, he and his end to charge into the opposing tackle and prevent the latter from tackling or breaking up a play. When on the defensive, he should play farther away from his guard, with head up, body crouched low and prepared to use his hands on opponents in order to get past the opposing line and break up and stop a play before it reaches the line. A heavy, aggressive player is the most efficient at tackle, and a weak man there often means defeat. THE END. — When his team has possession of the ball, the end plays close to the tackle, crouched low, prepared to help his tackle '' box " the opposing tackle the moment that the ball is passed. The end should play four or five yards away from his tackle when on the defensive. Crouched up on the line, he should, with a sprinter's start, take two steps straight forward, when the ball is passed, and then, if he be the left end, diagnose the play and w;ith a quick turn to the right, dive into and break ilp the opposing interference. If possible, he should get the man ; if not, leave that to his half back. Under no circumstances, if there be an attempted end run around him, should the interference get by him. The Quarter Back 191 The end should always be on the lookout for a fumbled ball, prepared to pounce upon it at once. If his team kicks the ball to the opponents, the end should be down the field as fast as the ball, prepared to tackle the catcher the instant the ball drops into the catcher's arms, unless the catcher has raised his arm to signal for a fair catch. THE QUARTER BACK. — Of all positions, that of the quarter back is the most important. He should, by letters or numbers, termed the signals, notify his team-mates of the formations to be executed. Either by signal or when the center is prepared to pass the ball, the quarter receives it and passes it backwards to the back, who will carry it toward the opposing line. Before the ball is passed, the quarter back should crouch back of the center with his hands spread apart in position for a pass from the center. When passing to a runner charging straight through the line, the quarter should aim the ball for the runner's stomach. If, however, a back is about to run around an end, the quarter back should toss the ball to the runner. In as much as a direct pass to a back is allowable, the quarter back often gives a signal to signify that he will drop on line with the other backs, and then the center will either snap the ball to the '^ quarter " or to one of the other backs, while the quarter back helps to get opposing players out of the way. When the .opposing team has possession of the ball, the quarter back should play far back of the line of scrimmage, prepared to tackle any runner with the ball, who might break through the line of defense. While 192 Football (Intercollegiate) far back, he should attempt to understand his op- ponent's plays and should notify the men on the line of any activity behind the opponents' line. THE HALF BACKS AND FULL BACK. — The half backs and full back when on the offensive either carry the ball straight through the line or around the ends. Occasionally an end or tackle is given the ball to be carried around the opposite end or tackle. The backs should start the second that the ball leaves the center's hands. They should be prepared to start quickly by assuming a crouching, sprinter's start, five yards back of the center, — the full back between the two half backs. If the signal notifies a certain back that he is to carry the ball through or around a certain position on the enemy's line, the duty of the other backs is to clear the way by charging opposing players. When on the defensive, the half backs play about four or five yards back of their respective ends, pre- pared to intercept either a forward pass or a runner coming outside of tackle, around end or straight through the line. Ends and half backs must avoid being drawn in towards the center of the line by false moves of the opponents, while a runner prepares to dart around the end. The full back, when on the defensive, usually plays five or six yards behind the center of the line of scrimmage, prepared to dash forward and tackle an opposing runner with the ball coming through the line. THE GAME. — QUARTERS : CHOICE OF GOALS : The game is played in four divisions called quarters, each fifteen minutes in length, exclusive of time taken Start 193 out for accidents, etc. Teams change goals after each quarter. Half way through the game the in- termission between quarters (second and third) is fifteen minutes to give the players a rest ; the other intermissions (between first and second, and third and fourth quarters) are only long enough (one minute) to admit of changing goals. No player may leave the field in these one minute intervals. At the start of the game, the captains toss a coin. The winner of the toss has his choice of the goal which he desires to defend. The loser will then kick-off to the winner. The v/inner may elect to kick-off. The loser then has the choice of goals. At the beginning of the second quarter, the teams change goals; but the team that at the end of the first quarter had possession of the ball retains pos- session and the down ; the relative position of the ball and the distance to be gained remain the same as at the end of the initial quarter ; that is, the ball is placed in the same relative position in the opposite hah of the field. After a fifteen minute intermission, the captain of the team that lost the toss has the same choice that the winner of the toss had at the beginning of the game. At the start of the fourth quarter, the teams again change goals and the same rules apply as do those at the start of the third quarter. START : A game of football opens with a kick-off from the center of the field, the teams being in kick-off formation. The third quarter of a game also opens with a kick-off, and the ball is always put in play by a kick-off after a goal kicked from the 194 Football (Intercollegiate) field, and after a try-at-goal that follows a touch- down. For the second and fourth quarters the ball is put in play by a scrimmage. Penalty (Referee). — For putting the ball in play by any method other than that permissible by the rules, the scrimmage line is moved 5 yards farther away from the opponents' goal. KICK-OFF. — The player who kicks off stands sev- eral yards behind the ball, having placed it in position on a little mound of earth, its long axis parallel to the side lines, and then, after noting if his team mates are ready, kicks it toward a certain opposing player. On each side of the kicker, if he is the center, is a guard, then the tacklers and backs. Nearest to each side line is an end whose duty is to rush down the field, always careful not to cut in toward the center of the field too soon, so that the runner with the ball will be forced toward the center of the field and not be able to circle around and outside of the oppo- nents. The team to which the ball is kicked usually plays its center about 10 or 15 yards in front of the ball, with their other players dividing their territory. SCRIMMAGE FORMATION AND RULES. — The rules provide that at least seven players of the offensive team must be on the scrimmage line, and usually seven players of each side are on their own scrimmage line ; the balance of the players of a team are usually in a regular formation behind the scrimmage line. The opponents' scrimmage line must be 10 yards back in their own territory. Scrimmage Formation and Rules 195 For other scrimmages than those which open the second and fourth quarters of the game, the ball is placed anywhere on the field where it was declared dead by the Referee, and the scrimmage lines are then imaginary lines drawn respectively through the two ends of the ball parallel to the side lines. A player to be considered on the line of scrimmage must have both hands or both feet up to or within a foot of this line, or one foot and the opposite hand within that distance. The two guards, who stand respectively on either side of the snapper-back, or center, may ^Mock legs'' with the snapper-back; that is, each may place one foot inside his team-mate's nearest foot so that the legs and knees brace or re- enforce each other. No other players on the scrim- mage may lock legs ; that is, all of the others on this line must stand with both feet outside of the outside foot of the player next him on the line. In a scrimmage no part of any player, except the snapper-back, may be in advance of the scrimmage line. The snapper-back, for the purpose of playing the ball, may have his head and his hands in advance of his scrimmage line. To have any other part of his body ahead of the line is a foul. Penalty (Umpire). — For a wrong position of any player,, the offending team loses 5 yards; that is, the scrimmage line must be moved that much farther away from the opponents' goal. Ball put in play by snapper-back. — In a scrim- mage the ball is always put in play by the snapper- back of the side having possession of the ball. He 196 Football (Intercollegiate) does this by snapping it back with his hands between his feet to some other player of his team. Position of ball. — The ball must be placed flat on the ground, exactly (for the opening of quarters), on the center of the field, with its long axis parallel to the side lines. For other scrimmages than those which open the second and fourth quarters of the game, the ball is placed at any point on the field where it was declared dead by the Referee ; but wherever placed, the position of the ball itself must always be the same ; that is, it must lie flat on the ground with its long axis parallel to the side lines. Snap-back. — This is done with a quick, continuous motion of both hands. Any ^^oluntary movement of the ball by the snapper-back other than a genuine snap-back, whether such movement be a feint or only hesitation, is considered as putting the ball in play and opening the scrimmage. Should any feint or false move be deliberately made by any other player of the snapper-back's side for the purpose of mislead- ing the opponents and drawing them ^^ offside'' (ahead of the ball), the scrimmage is not considered as begun, whether the ball has been snapped back or not. Penalty (Referee) . — For such a false play the offending side pays a penalty of 5 yards ; i.e., must move the scrimmage line 5 yards farther away from the opponents' goal. The snapper-back may not be interfered with in any way by the opponents before he puts the ball in play either by their touching him or the ball. Penalty (Referee) . — For such interference the offending side loses 5 yards ; that is, the scrimmage line is moved 5 yards nearer to the goal line of the side not having the ball. Advancing the Ball: After a Kick-off 197 On the other hand, no player of the side having the ball may grasp an opponent, or obstruct him in any way except with the body, while the obstructor's arms are close to his side or chest. Penalty (Umpire) . — For wrong interference the side having the ball loses 1 5 yards ; that is, must move the scrimmage line 15 yards farther away from the opponents' goal. At the moment that the ball is put in play from a scrimmage, no player of the side having the ball may be ahead of the ball (toward the enemy's goal), either in whole or part of his person, with the sUght exception, mentioned above, of the snapper-back. At the moment that the ball is snapped back, only one player of the side having the ball may be in mo- tion, and this one player may move only toward his own goal, presumably to receive the ball being put in play. That is, he may run backward to catch the ball as it is snapped back. Penalty (Referee) . — Should more than one player of the side having the ball be in motion at the moment the ball is put in play, the offending side loses 5 yards; that is, must start the scrimmage line 5 yards farther away from the opponents' goal. ADVANCING THE BALL: AFTER A KICK-OFF. — The ball must go at least 10 yards into the opponents' territory, or be touched by an opponent, before any player of the side puting the ball in play may touch it. Any player of the receiving side may try to get pos- session of such a kicked ball. Such a player may stop the ball with the hands, as with a fair catch, or by dropping upon it. iqS Football (Intercollegiate) A ball kicked down the opponents' field gives the opponents a fair and equal chance to gain possession of it; but should the kicking side regain possession of the ball, after it has crossed the goal line, it counts as a down for them. A ball, however, must have been sent over the scrimmage line, have been touched by an opponent, to be considered as giving the opponents a fair and equal chance to play for it. Without such fair and equal chance, the team putting the ball in play are considered to have had it con- tinually in their possession, in which case they are required to advance it beyond the scrimmage line lo yards in four consecutive downs. It is, therefore, much to the interest of the side having the ball to put it in play in such a manner as to take it as far as possible beyond the scrimmage line. ADVANCING THE BALL : AFTER A SNAP-BACK. — The ball is usually caught by the quarter back, who stands a short distance behind the snapper-back, with his hands extended and parted, ready for the catch. The quarter back usually passes (tosses) the ball to one of the half backs for a run around the ends of, or through, the rush line, toward the enemy's goal. The player first receiving the ball from the snapper- back (presumably the quarter back) may himself carry the ball forward beyond the scrimmage line, or kick it, or he may pass it back to one of the other backs, or pass it forward to an end, or half back, or full back, who has darted ahead, after the ball was passed ; this play is termed a " forward pass." Thus the first move in a scrimmage, unless the snapper-back chooses to kick the ball forward, is usually back toward the Forward Pass 199 side's 6wn goal as a preliminary to the advance of the ball. FORWARD PASS. — The ball may, with certain re- strictions, be passed or thrown forward toward the opponents' goal at the time of scrimmage by the team that put the ball in play, but not by the oppo- nents. In the first place, the pass must be made from a point at least 5 yards back of the line of scrimmage. Penalty (Referee) . — If the ball is passed forward by a player nearer to the scrimmage line than 5 yards, and this occurs before a fourth down, the ball must be brought back and put in play, at the spot of the preceding down; but the foul pass counts as a down; if the offense is committed after a fourth down, the ball must go to the opponents at the spot of the preceding down. The same penalty is given for an attempt to make a second forward pass in the same scrimmage ; also if the ball, after having been passed forward, strikes the ground either before or after having been touched by a player of either team eligible to receive it. This is called an incompleted forward pass. No player of the attacking side is eligible to receive the forward pass, except one who was at least one yard back of the line of scrimmage, when the play began, or else was on either end of the line. Penalty (Umpire). — If a tackle, guard, or other ineligible player of the passer's eleven, catches or even touches the ball, while being passed forward, the ball goes to the opponents at the spot of the preceding down. If the foul was committed between the opponents' lo-yard line and their end line, the ball may go to the opponents as a touchback. 200 Football (Intercollegiate) Any player of the side not having made the pass, may intercept the forward pass, and secure the ball on the fly. If, however, the ball goes out of bounds, before having touched the ground, it goes to the opponents at the spot where the ball crossed the side Kne. No player may intentionally throw the ball to the ground, while attempting to make a forward pass, and after he has seen that no one of his players is free to receive the pass. Penalty (Referee). — The team having so offended before a fourth down must put the ball in play lo yards back of the spot of the preceding down and the attempted pass counts as a down. If, however, the offense was committed after a fourth down, the ball goes to the opponents at a spot lo yards back of the spot of the preceding down. RUNNING AND TACKLING. — A player running with the ball may ward off opponents with his hands and arms, and his opponents may tackle him with their hands and arms, or try in that way to get any intervening opponent out of the way in their effort to get at the ball; or they may so stop the player carrying it. This tackling, however, whether with hands or arms, or other parts of the body, may not be below the knees, except by those players of the defending scrimmage line who were not on its ends when the ball was put in play. The two players on the ends of the scrimmage line (offensive) may not tackle below the knees. Penalty (Referee, Umpire, or Linesman). — For tackling be- low the knees a side loses 5 yards measured from the spot where the tackle was made. Running and Tackling 201 The body, at the time of tackling, should be plunged at the runner, one foot firmly on the ground, head to one side of the runner, shoulders aimed at a spot mid- way between his knees and hips. With a quick grasp of the arms draw the runner's legs toward the tackler's body. Never plunge so that the tackler's body, if the tackle is missed, will fall behind the runner and thus not impede his progress, but rather obliquely cross his path in front of him. A player running with the ball may not be tripped ; that is, obstructed below the knee by an opponent's leg below the knee or foot. No player may be tackled when out of bounds; that is, when he has crossed the side lines. Penalty (Referee, Umpire, or Linesman) . — For such an ille- gal tackling a loss of 1 5 yards from the spot where the tackle was made is the penalty. Should a player running with the ball drop or fumble it, any player of either team may try to secure it. Should a player running with the ball be success- fully tackled, that is, should the opponents stop his progress, — or any portion of his person, except his hands or feet, touch the ground while in the grasp of an opponent, — the Referee blows his whistle as signal that the ball is dead and it is called a down. Or the player running with the ball may himself call '^ Down " if he finds further progress impracticable, in which case the Referee will also declare the ball dead. Should a player running with the ball run out of bounds (over the side lines), that also ends his play, 202 Football (Intercollegiate) as the ball is declared dead at the place where he or the ball touches or crosses the side line. There may be no tripping or tackling, nor any piling up on a player out of bounds or after the Referee has declared the ball dead. Penalty (Referee, Umpire, or Linesman). — For piling up on any player after the Referee has declared the ball dead, the offending side losses 15 yards; that is, the line for the next scrimmage is moved 1 5 yards nearer the opponents^ goal from the point where the ball was declared dead. METHODS OF PLAYING THE BALL. — The methods of playing the ball vary according to whether the ball is being played toward the opponents' goal or away from it. Under given circumstances, the ball may be kicked in various ways and also carried and batted. The ball may be played backward toward one's own goal in any way, at any time, and be caught by any member of one's own team. Thus any player may receive the ball from any player of his own team who is in front of him (between himself and the opponents' goal), but not from any player of his own team who is behind him. There is only one exception to this rule, the exception being called the ^^ forward pass." These restrictions are designed to prevent gaining ground by throwing or passing the ball for- ward, the spirit of the game being to confine such advance to kicking or carrying of the ball, with the exception of the forward pass previously mentioned. BATTING. — The ball may be batted in any direc- tion except toward the opponents' goal. Fair Catch ' 203 Penalty (Umpire, or Referee) . — For batting the ball to- ward the opponents' goal the offending side loses the ball, being obliged to give it to the offended side on the spot where the foul occurred. KICKING. — There are three methods of kicking the ball, called respectively place kick, drop kick, and punt. A place kick is one in which a team-mate of the kicker holds the ball to a given place on the ground by placing a finger on top of it. The ball is held with its long axis perpendicular. A drop kick is one in which the kicker drops the ball from his own hands and kicks it after the first bound. A punt is a drop kick, in which the kicker drops the ball and kicks it before it touches the ground. FAIR CATCH. — A fair catch is a catch of a kicked ball by an opponent before the ball strikes the ground. The catcher must make a signal to indicate his inten- tion of making a fair catch and is then exempt from interference by any other player. The signal consists in raising a hand clearly above his head. Usually the entire arm is stretched upward, as the Referee may refuse to recognize as a fair catch a signal not clearly made. A player may so signal only in case he has opportunity to make a fair catch. Such opportunity consists in his being in such a position that it would be possible for him to reach the ball before it touches the ground. No other player of his side may touch the ball after the opponents' kick before the fair catch is made. Should any other player so touch it, the catch is invalidated. After a player has signaled 204 Football (Intercollegiate) that he is going to make a fair catch, no opponent may interfere with him or the ball in any way. A signal for a fair catch does not protect from inter- ference any other player of the catcher's team. Penalty (Umpire). — For interference with a fair catch the offending side loses 15 yards; that is, the ball is moved 15 yards nearer to the goal of the offending side from the point where the fair catch would have been made, and the offended side is considered as having made the catch, whether the ball was caught or not; that is, they may put the ball again in play by any kind of kick or by a scrimmage. A player making a fair catch may not take more than two steps with the ball after the catch. In other words, he may not run with the ball, the spirit of this play being to give the catching side the ad- vantage of gaining ground through a subsequent kick or a scrimmage^ Penalty (Umpire). — Should a player making a fair catch take more than two steps with the ball, he loses the chance of putting the ball in play by a kick and must put it in play by a scrimmage 5 yards back of the mark of the catch; that is, 5 yards back of the spot at which the ball was actually caught, and this is counted a first down. After a player has made a fair catch he may not be thrown to the ground. Penalty (Umpire). — For throwing to the ground a player who has made a fair catch a side loses 1 5 yards ; that is, the mark of the catch is considered to be 15 yards farther away from the opponents' goal. After a fair catch the ball is dead, and the catcher may not run with it. The ball may be put in play again either by a scrimmage, punt, drop kick, or Ways of Making a Goal and Scoring 205 place kick, made by the catcher or any player of his side, either from the mark of the catch or from some point directly back of it. This gives a freedom for choice of action without interference that makes the fair catch a very desirable form of play. After a fair catch, when the ball is put in play with a free kick (i.e., a kick without interference), no player of the side that made the catch and is going to make a kick may carry the ball. All players of this side must be behind the ball when it is kicked ; that is, they must be behind a Hne passing through the mark of the catch and parallel to the goal line, but once the ball is in play they may run forward of such a Kne. Penalty (Referee). — ^^ For violation of any rules by a side making a free kick after a fair catch, the ball is to be kicked again from a point 5 yards back of the mark of the catch, the opponents moving forward 5 yards from their assigned position. When a side makes a free kick after a fair catch the opponents must be behind a line 10 yards in front of the mark of the catch, until the ball is kicked or is released by a foul on the part of the side having the ball. Penalty (Referee) . — Should the opponents violate any of these provisions, the side making the free kick after a fair catch may make another kick 5 yards forward of the mark of the catch, and their opponents — the offending side — must move back toward their own goal 5 yards. WAYS OF MAKING A GOAL AND OF SCOR- ING. — There are two ways of making a goal — by a touchdown or a kick from the field ; and four ways of scoring — by a touchdown, a goal from touchdown, 2o6 Football (Intercollegiate) a goal kicked from the field, and a safety. Detail explanation and rules for these are as follows : TOUCHDOWN. — A touchdown may be made by any player of a team who may lawfully have the ball in his possession ; that is, a player who is on side. He may himself carry the ball over the goal line and there touch it down, or he may touch down beyond the goal line a ball that has been kicked there by his side. For a touchdown it is enough for the ball to touch the opponents' goal line, or be on or beyond it. The touchdown is marked at the point where the ball is called down by the Referee, not at the point where it is carried across the line. Should it be carried beyond the side lines, — that is, an imaginary extension of the side lines beyond their intersection with the goal lines, — the touchdown is marked at the point where the goal line and side line meet. Goal from touchdown. —After a touchdown the ball belongs to the side that made the touchdown and they must put it again in play with a try at the goal or goal from touchdown ; that is, a free or un- impeded place kick for the opponents' goal. This place kick may be made from directly back of the point where the ball was declared dead by the Referee, or the side having the ball may punt-out; that is, they may kick the ball, without interference, back into the field of play with a punt for a fair catch by another player of the same side and, from the mark of the catch, try at goal. If the try at goal, after a touchdown, be made without a punt-out, i.e., without kicking the ball back into the field of play, the kicker may choose his Goal from Touchdown 207 own point for placing the ball for this try at goal, so long as it is on an imaginary line drawn through the point where the touchdown was declared by the Referee, the imaginary line to be parallel with the side lines. In other words, the kick must be made from back of the goal line and directly forward or back- ward of the point of the touchdown. The kicker must indicate to the Referee the exact point from which he will make the kick. Making a goal with such a kick after a touchdown scores one point. The side scored upon lines up on the goal line, and rushes forward in the attempt to prevent the goal from touchdown. All of the players of the kicker's side must be behind the ball when it is kicked. Penalty (Umpire) . — For a wrong position of the players of the kicker's side during a punt-out, or for placing the ball at an illegal point, the offending side must move the ball 5 yards directly back of the original mark or point. When a try at goal is made without a punt-out, the opponents must stand on or behind the goal until the ball is kicked. . Penalty (Umpire). — Should the opponents infringe the rule restraining their position during a try for goal, the kick- ing point for the ball may be moved 5 yards ahead of its origi- nal position, and the restraining line for the opponents is moved 5 yards back of the goal line. After this try at goal following a touchdown, whether the goal be made or not, the ball is put in play by a kick-off at the center of the field, as at the opening of the game, except that the side scored upon has the option of kicking off or having their opponents kick off, and the teams do not change goals. 2o8 Football (Intercollegiate) PUNT-OUT. — If a touchdown is not made at a point from which the goal might be conveniently kicked, as written before, the side making the touch- down may punt-out ; that is, kick the ball back into the field for a fair catch by one of their own side, after which a place kick is made from the mark of the catch or any point directly behind it. To punt out after a touchdown, the punter must kick from within an angle, made by drawing an im- aginary line parallel to the side line through the spot of the touchdown. For a punt-out the other players of the punter's side must be, when the ball is kicked, within the field of play, not less than 5 yards from the goal line. Penalty (Umpire) . — Should the players of the punter's side be within illegal distance of the ball when it is kicked (less than 5 yards) the ball shall be punted out again, with the restraining line of the punter's side 5 yards nearer their own goal line. The opponents during a punt-out may line up any- where on the goal line or behind it within 5 yards of the punter's mark, and until the ball is kicked may not enter the field of play or go nearer than 5 yards to the punter's mark. Penalty (Linesman) . — Should the opponents go beyond their legal restraining line during a punt-out, the ball is punted out again, the opponents being behind a new restraining line placed 5 yards back of the goal line. The side making a try at goal after a touchdown must kick the ball on the first try, or if they punt out, must succeed with a fair catch on the first try, or 210 Football (Intercollegiate) lose the opportunity for further try. at goal, as the ball must thereafter be put in play by a kick-off at the center of the field. A try at goal after a touchdown is made with a place kick, whether preceded by a punt-out or not. Should a punt-out precede it, the kick is made from the mark of the catch, or any point directly behind it. If the try at goal is made without the punt-out, the place kick must be made from some point outside the goal on a line parallel to the side line and passing through the point where the touchdown was declared. In other words, without the punt-out the kicker may move the ball back of the point of the touchdown if he indicates his intention to do so to the Referee. The method of kicking the ball for a try at goal is always a place kick, the ball being held for the kick by another player of the kicker's side. The ball may not at such a point in the game be put in play in any other way than with a kick. In other words, it is illegal at such time for any player of the kicker's side to run with it or pass it, and the opponents may not advance beyond the goal line until the ball has touched the ground for a kick. When this occurs they may at once press forward beyond the restraining line. Unless the ball is kicked instantly when it strikes the ground for a place kick, the Referee signals with his hand that the ball has touched the ground. Such a signal, or the kicking of the ball itself, or a foul by any player of the kicking side running with the ball, releases the opponents and they may at once run forward of their restraining line. Touchback: Safety 211 Penalty (Umpire) . — Should the opponents advance con- trary to these restrictions, the ball may be kicked from a point 5 yards ahead of its original mark, and the offending side may have a new restraining line 5 yards back of the goal line. These rules are intended to give the side having the ball a fair try for the goal, and the penalties for in- fringement of distance rules by opponents are intended to make it more difficult for them to get at the ball after it has been kicked. GOAL KICKED FROM FIELD. — A goal may be kicked from the field by any player on a team. The kick must be a drop kick or a place kick — not a punt. The ball must pass over the cross bar and between the uprights. TOUCHBACK. — A player defending his own goal may stop the ball on or beyond the goal line, so that the Referee declares it dead. If the impetus which sent the ball was from an opponent, and the defending player has the ball in his possession when it is declared dead, such a play is called a touchback. SAFETY. — As a ball sent or carried over a goal line does not score unless there touched down by one of the attacking team, the defenders may prevent the touchdown by a safety, which consists in carrying such a ball back over their own goal line into the field of play and there touching it to the ground. This scores 2 points for the attacking team, but as it pre- vents a score of 6 points, it is an advantageous play. After a safety the ball is put in play by the defend- ing team (whose goal was crossed) by a scrimmage on their own 20-yard line. For a safety, the impetus which caused the ball to 212 Football (Intercollegiate) go back over the goal line must have been given by the side defending the goal and may have been the result of a ^^ kick, pass, snap-back, or fumble by one of the player's own side/' a kicked ball hitting a player of either team behind the goal line and bound- ing back into the field, ^^ or in case a player carrying the ball is forced back, provided the ball was not declared dead by the Referee before his goal line was reached or crossed." ^ SCORE. — There are four ways of scoring in foot- ball: (i) A touchdown scores 6 points for the team mak- ing it. (2) The side making the touchdown may score one further point on a goal kick. This is the same whether the kick be from behind the point of the touchdown, or from the field of play after a punt-out. (3) A goal kicked from the field scores 3 points. (4) A safety is penalized by 2 points added to the score of the attacking team. OFFICIALS. — The officials in a match game of foot- ball are a Referee, Umpire, Field Judge, and Linesman. These officials are usually selected by the home team, their names being sent to the visiting team for approval some days in advance of the game. - Stated briefly, the duties of these officials are as follows : The Referee is the head official in charge of the game. He is the judge of time limits, of the score, and, in general terms, of all rules relating to the ball as distinguished from the players. He alone gives signals for play to start and stop, at the beginning Referee 213 of quarters, or for fouls. This he does with a whistle. Other ofl&cials signal fouls (with bell or horn), but play continues until the Referee blows his whistle for it to stop. These other officials report all fouls in their juris- diction to the Referee, and he enforces the penalties. In detail the duties of officials are as follows : REFEREE. — The supreme authority in a football game is the Referee. His duties begin before the game opens, when he should inspect the field to see that dimensions and marking are correct, and the goal and ball (the latter furnished by the home team) according to specifications. He then has responsible charge of the conduct of the entire game, except that within certain jurisdiction the judgment of his sub-ofiicials is final. Before the game opens the Referee must see that the proper ofiicials are present and ready. From each Captain he must learn that his team is ready. Of this readiness of officials and players he must make sure also before he orders play to begin after the game has been stopped ; that is, before every kick-off, and after time has been taken out for any reason. The number of players engaged is thus a matter for the Referee, but rules about their dress are enforced by the Umpire. No substitute may take part in a game without first reporting personally to the Referee, and this official must see that the replaced player does not return to the game. The ball is particularly under the jurisdiction of the Referee. He is the judge of all rules relating to the ball, as distinguished from those relating to the players. He is responsible for seeing the ball put 214 Football (Intercollegiate) properly in play at any time through the game, and is the sole judge of its position, such as its relation to goals and side lines. He it is who judges whether or not the ball has been advanced, and, if so, how far. Players are observed by the Referee (and reported by him to the Umpire) for unlawful obstruction and use of hands and arms, and for offside and onside play. Where such joint service occurs, precedence belongs to penalties declared by the Umpire. The score is decided by the Referee. Time limits are announced by the Referee, though estimated and reported to him, by the Linesman. He signals with a whistle for play to start and stop, both at the beginning and end of quarters and for fouls. Position. — The Referee usually stands just back, and a little to one side, of the backs of the team in possession of the ball, where he can watch the ball as it is being passed. UMPIRE. — This official acts as an assistant to the Referee, and judges of the position and conduct of players, as distinguished from the supervision and progress of the ball, which duties belong to the Ref- eree. The Umpire judges of fouls in the nature of holding, offside plays, and unfair tackling. When he sees a foul, the Umpire signals with horn or bell, and immediately reports it to the Referee, who alone has power to suspend play, and to enforce penalties. The Umpire usually stands at the end of the scrim- nrage line oppposite to that which the Linesman is watching ; or else in the territory 6 or 7 yards back of the defensive center. Officials 215 • FIELD JUDGE. — This official simply acts as an " assistant to the officials under the direction of the Referee." In many games a Field Judge is omitted, and an Assistant Linesman used in his place. The Field Judge, if one be used, is usually assigned a position 15 yards in advance of the team with the ball, so as to be in a position to watch the receiver of a forward pass and those who may attempt to interfere with the catch. The Field Judge signals to the Referee when he sees a foul. This he does with a horn or by holding up his hand. The Field Judge must keep the time, counting the time only when the ball is actually in play ; he also acts as an assistant to the other officials. LINESMAN. — This official is particularly charged with noting the distance which the ball is advanced, and estimating time Hmits. The Linesman marks after each down the point where a Hne through the ball, and at right angles to the side Hne, would intersect the side Hne. Two assistants each hold a rod about 6 feet long. To the end of each rod is attached a chain 10 yards long. The assistants keep this lo-yard chain taut, so that the Referee can judge whether or not 10 yards have been gained after 4 attempts to plunge through, or around the end of, the opposing line. The Linesman also reports to the Referee any off- side play, tripping of ends, or " encroachment upon the neutral zone.'' The Referee must, of necessity, then enforce the penalty for those fouls. He must notify the Captain of the time remaining 2i6 Football (Intercollegiate) to play when between lo and 5 minutes before the end of a quarter and must comply with the request of a Captain to know the time at any time during the game, with the exception that he may not comply with such a request more than 3 times within the last 5 minutes of play in either quarter. He may report to, or assist, the Referee or Umpire in the matter of determining just when a ball went out of bounds, how often Captains have asked for ^^time to be called " {^' time out '')? length of delay of game, coaching from the side lines and rough, unfair, or unsportsmanlike conduct of a player. The Linesman remains near the side line and moves back and forth with the ball. OUTFIT. — THE BALL. — Intercollegiate football is played with a prolate spheroid ball, — the so-called oval or Rugby ball. This is what is commonly known as a laced ball, and consists of an inflated rubber bladder, usually filled ('^ blown up'^) with a foot or hand pump, and then inclosed in a laced leather cover. The diameters of the ball are not officially specified, but are about gj X 6| inches. The weight must be from 14 to "15 ounces. The ball used has a rubber bladder, covered by a leather case. The best grade of ball costs $5. DRESS. — Leather head guards to protect the skull cost from $2 to I4. Rubber nose guards cost 50 cents. Shoulder pads and collar-bone protectors of * leather, padded with felt, cost from .$2 to $5. A jersey costs $3 ; padded pants, $3.50; shin guards of leather, $1.50; and leather cleated shoes, from $4 to $8. History 217 HISTORY. — The beginnings of modern football are very far in the past. The Ancient Greeks played a seizing game of ball, in which two opposing sides tried to seize and carry away a ball (called harpas- tum). Another form of play, exactly opposite, was their epikoinos, in which, starting the ball on a certain line, each party tried to send it over the opponent's goal line. For centuries in England whole village communi- ties divided annually in two opposing parties that drove a ball from one end of the village to another. Like many other games, football earned the distinc- tion of several royal edicts forbidding its play in England in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. Doubtless the game had undergone considerable modifications from the wild play of these early days, when it was adopted, about 1800, by English schools and universities. The beginning of the modern Rugby is indicated by a tablet at Rugby School which reads : This stone commemorates the exploit of WILLIAM WEBB ELLIS who with a fine disregard for the rules of football as played in his time first took the ball in his arms and ran with it thus originating the distinctive feature of The Rugby Game A.D. 1823. 2i8 Football (Intercollegiate) Harvard University is credited with introducing this game to the United States in 1875, after its teams had played the game in Canada. Doubtless cruder forms of football had already existed here. The English game was subjected to changes here. The Intercollegiate game of to-day is a distinct variety of football differing from the English game, and also from the American game of a few years ago. BIBLIOGRAPHY Official Handbook Official Football Guide. Spalding's Athletic Library. (New York, American Sports Publishing Company.) Official rules. . ■ The Game How to Play Football. A primer on the modern college game. Edited by Walter Chauncey Camp. Spalding's Athletic Library. (New York, American Sports Publishing Com- pany.) American Football. By Walter Chauncey Camp. (New York, Harper & Brothers, 1891.) With thirty-one portraits. The Book of Football. By Walter Chauncey Camp. (New York, The Century Company, 19 10.) Football for the Spectator. By Walter Chauncey Camp. (Bos- ton, R. G. Badger, 1911.) Football, the American Intercollegiate Game. By Parke Hill Davis. (New York, C. Scribner's Sons, 191 1.) Encyclopedia of Sports and Games. Edited by the Earl of Suffolk and Berkshire. (Philadelphia, J. B. Lippincott Company ; London, Heinemann.) The American Game of Football as Related to Physical Educa- tion. By David Starr Jordan. (In National Education Association of the United States, Journal of Proceedings and Addresses, 1910, pp. 357-362.) Glossary 219 The Teaching of Gymnastic Games. By Wilbur P. Bo wen. (Ypsilanti, Mich., 1909.) Twenty Modern Football Plays. By George Levene. (Mount Vernon, N.Y., 191 1.) Football for Public and Player. By Herbert Reed. (New York, Frederick A. Stokes Company, 19 13.) With twenty diagrams and sixteen illustrations from photographs. A Course in Football for Players and Coaches. By Glenn Scobey Warner. (Carlisle, Pennsylvania, 1908.) GLOSSARY Coach. Man in charge of the coaching and the training of a team. To instruct, drill and train a team. Crawling. Trying to advance a ball that has been declared dead. Down. Touching the ball to the ground to make good an advance. Drop-kick. A kick of the ball after being dropped from the hands of the kicker and after it has touched the ground and rebounded. End. Player on the end of the line of scrimmage. End line. Farthest line bounding the end zone, or end of the field of play. End-zone. Ten-yard territory between the end line and the goal line. Fair catch. Catch, without interference, after having raised an arm as a signal; not more than two steps may be taken after the signal. Field goal. Goal made as a result of a drop- or place-kick, from the field of play over the crossbar of the goal. Forward pass. Act of passing the ball forward to a team- mate in the direction of the opponents' goal. Free kick. A kick, at the time of which the opponents may not come within a prescribed distance of the kicker, un- til the ball is put in play. Goal line. Line, ten feet inside of the end line and parallel to it. 220 Football (Intercollegiate) Guards. Players on each side of the center on the line of scrimmage. Interference. Players, who run ahead of the man with the ball. KlCK-OFE. Act of kicking the ball from the 40-yard line at the beginning of the game or after each touchdown. Neutral zone. Open space on the line of scrimmage be- tween the opposing players. Offside. Ahead of that team-mate who has the ball; i.e., between him and the goal opponents are defending. Onside. On line with, or back of, that team-mate who has the ball; i.e., between him and the goal one is defend- ing. Out of bounds. On or over the restraining side-lines or end lines. Place kick. Act of kicking a ball, held to the ground by a team-mate. Punt. Act of kicking a ball, before it reaches the ground, after having been dropped from the hands. Punt-out. Act of kicking from behind the goal line to team- mates in the field of play after touchdown. Safety. Act of defenders, when in danger of being scored upon, touching the ball down back of their own goal line. For this the opponents score two points. Scrimmage. Meeting of opposing lines. Scrimmage line. Line formed when the contending teams face each other, preliminary to putting the ball in play. Side-line. Restraining three hundred sixty foot line on each side of the field of play. Signals. Numbers or letters cried out by the quarter back to apprise his team-mates of the nature of the succeeding play. Snapper-back. Another name for the center. Snapping the ball. Act of center, when passing the ball to the quarter back. Tackle. Player, whose usual position is just outside of the guard on the line of scrimmage. Glossary 221 Act of throwing the arms around a player having the ball in an attempt to throw him. TouCHBACK. Ball sent over the goal Hne by an opponent, but in possession of a defender of the goal. Touchdown. Ball (legally in possession of a player), any part of which is placed by him, on or over the opponents' goal Hne. GOLF GOLF GENERAL DESCRIPTION. — Golf is an outdoor game, — almost the only walking game played with a ball. Its popularity is doubtless due largely to this combination, as well as to the skill required. Distinctly the national game of Scotland, it is popular in England, France, America, and other countries. The game is played over links (called also a golf course) which may be laid out on any grass-covered or sand-covered stretch of sufficient length. Through- out the course, at distances of several hundred yards, are holes (in the ground) four and a quarter inches in diameter. The game consists in driving a small ball by means of clubs from hole to hole, using as few strokes as possible. The first stroke toward each hole is made from a smooth area called the teeing ground. The holes are surrounded by smooth turf called the putting green. Between the teeing ground and the putting green are sections of ground having varied characteristics, that make play over them varied in difficulty. These sections are called the fair green, the rough, and hazards. The game, like others, falls into several natural divisions. Explanations, rules, and etiquette relating to each division are here grouped under their respec- Q 225 226 Golf tive headings, which are as follows : (a) THE COURSE OR LINKS ; (b) CLUBS ; (c) FORM : grip, stance, ad- dressing the hall ; stroke, definition of, kinds of, rules for ; (d) DIFFERENT KINDS OF GAMES, MATCHES, OR COMPETITION : match play, stroke competition, three-, four-, and best-ball matches, bogey competition; {e) PRECEDENCE ON THE LINKS : the honour, at the first lee, in diferent matches, at second and successive tees, order of individual play through the green, playing out of turn; (/) PUTTING THE BALL IN PLAY: SUM- MARY — by teeing, dropping, etc, — DETAIL — of teeing of, ball dropped, placed, re-teed, out of bounds; (g) PLAYING THROUGH THE GREEN: the approach; (h) PUTTING OR HOLING OUT : stymie, assistance in holing out; (i) SCORE; (j) HANDICAPS; (k) GEN- ERAL RULES FOR PLAYING THE BALL THAT APPLY TO ALL PARTS OF THE GAME : the lie of the ball, loose impediments, obstacles that may be removed, casual water, hazards, water hazards, moving a ball and play- ing or interfering with a ball in motion, ball may be lifted, playing wrong balls, lost balls, advice and infor- mation; (/) OFFICIALS; (m) OUTFIT; (n) HISTORY; (o) BIBLIOGRAPHY; (p) GLOSSARY. THE COURSE OR LINKS, — In Scotland, the native home of golf, the most famous links are situated on undulating ground along the coast; but courses may be laid out wherever sufficient distance is avail- able, a varied surface making the most interesting links. A standard course may have 9 or i8 holes (some have 12 and 15) though most games are i8-hole games. The total length of a course will vary from The Links 227 about 3000 to 6500 yards (2^ to 3! miles). The distance between holes is rarely shorter than 100 yards or longer than 600 yards. TEES. — At the start for each hole is a teeing ground, a smooth area, the front of which is indicated by two disks set on staffs so as to point at right angles to the course. From behind the imaginary line between these two disks, a player drives his ball, usually from a small mound of sand, or tee, about an inch high. This is called teeing the ball. He may not set the ball back farther from the imaginary line than two clubs' lengths. The teeing ground for each hole is placed compar- atively near to the putting green of the previous hole. THROUGH THE GREEN is the general name given to all ground (except hazards) that lies between a teeing ground and a putting green. FAIR GREEN. — About midway between the teeing ground and the putting green is a section called the fair green, which affords a fine playing surface, not occupied by hazards, or intentionally left as the rough. The presumption is that the player will cover the fair green in few strokes, being able to address and strike his ball without encountering a bad lie. HAZARDS. — Through the green, there may be all manner of hazards ; that is, obstacles to the flight of the ball. A hazard may, for instance, be a bunker — i.e., a mound of earth or embankment — a pond, marsh, road, fence, trees, stream, or sand trap. These hazards may be natural or artificial ; they add to the zest of a game by catching the ball from poorly played shots. 228 Golf THE ROUGH. — In addition to recognized hazards, patches of uncut grass and sections of uneven ground are located on either side of the fair green, and gener- ally for a considerable distance in front of the tee, to penalize a shot that is off direction, or a tee shot that does not travel a sufficient distance. Such patches of ground are called the rough. HOLES : PUTTING GREEN. — Each hole is located in an area of closely cut, smooth turf, called the putting green, generally at least 20 yards square. Each hole is 4J inches in diameter and at least 4 inches deep. It has a metal lining; but the metal edge of the Uning must be i inch below the level of the ground, that there may be no danger of the balPs striking it, before rolling in. A flag marks the posi- tion of each hole. Some putting greens are practically level and many are slightly undulating. On the most difficult courses putting greens sometimes have sand pits dug in them as a hazard. The selection and laying out of golf grounds is a very critical matter and should have the best expert advice obtainable. CLUBS vary in length, weight, and shape. The driver has a long shaft, and wooden head. It is used for long shots from the tee or where the ball is virtually teed up. The brassy is akin to the driver except that the head is more laid back, or pitched, and it has a brass sole. It is used to play long shots from the top of a fairly good lie and when a maximum distance is desired. A cleek has an iron head and long shaft and is the GOLF CLUB6, BALLS AND CADDIE BAG 1, driver ; 2, brassie ; 3, cleek ; 4, mid-iron ; 5, mashie ; 6, niblick ; 7, putter By courtesy of Messrs. A. G. Spalding and Brothers 229 230 Golf iron-headed club used for long shots. Its head has very little pitch. It is used for long shots when the lie is not quite good enough for a brassy, or when the distance desired is not quite so great. The mid-iron has a shorter shaft than the cleek, a deeper head, is heavier, has more pitch, and is used to throw the ball into the air when approaching the hole. The mashie has a shorter iron blade than the mid- iron, has more pitch to its head and is used for short approaches, or to play the ball out of difficult lies. Only a half- or three-quarter swing is brought to bear upon the ball when the mashie is used. The niblick has a small, round head, and is used to play the ball out of sand holes, or other hazards. The putter has a short handle and stands upright. It is used for the short shots, played on the putting green. There are other clubs, but the above are the most important. FORM. — Every would-be golf player is advised not to attempt playing from printed instructions, or to teach himself. The technique of golf is different from that of any other game ; the use of a golf club does not in the least resemble that of a baseball bat, a croquet mallet, or a billiard cue, and personal instruction and observation are essential. It is doubtful if there is any other game in which the finer positions and movements of every part of the body contribute so largely to the result. GRIP OF CLUBS. — This varies with different in- dividuals and for different clubs ; but there are two Form: Addressing the Ball 231 general modes — one in which the fingers overlap each other and one in which they do not. STANCE. — The manner of standing when about to strike the ball {'' stance '0 is important if one is striving for accuracy. The legs should be well apart, the toes pointed outwards and the ball two or three inches nearer the left foot than the right. When holding the end of the shaft of the club at one's waist, one should be able to reach the ball easily. The arms should be bent and directed outwards and the eye kept on the ball. It is permissible for a player to bend such growing things as are necessary to take his stance, but nothing beyond this. {Rule XV.) ADDRESSING THE BALL. — A drive is usually begun by addressing the ball. That is, the player stands firmly near the ball (takes stance) with club in hand, and places the head, or striking end of the club, next the ball. Before hitting the ball, the club is swung back and forth over the ball in the direction of the hole a few times and then (except in hazards), rested on the ground (grounded) behind the ball for a moment. This is called addressing the ball. A player is considered to have addressed the ball when he has taken his stance and grounded his club, except in a hazard , where the club may not be grounded, and the stance and swing alone are con- sidered as addressing the ball. {Definition 17, Rule XXV.) Grounding the club while addressing the ball may be done with only a Ught pressure, and the club may 232 Golf not be drawn backward and forward across the line of play. Penalty^ in Match Play, loss or hole; in Stroke Competition, two strokes. {Rule X.) It is permissible to touch the ball with the club in addressing it , but in so doing it must not be moved from its original place. {Rule IX, i.) If a ball fall off a tee, it may be struck while so falling, or it may be re-teed, without penalty. {Rule II, I.) In a hazard it is not permissible to ground the club in addressing the ball, but it may be swung for- ward and backward preliminary to the stroke. {Rule XXV,) In a hazard, if the ball move after the player has taken his stance , he is considered to have moved it, and is penalized one stroke in both Match and Stroke play. {Rule XII, 4.) STROKE. — Definition of . — This is a term used to describe the swing and contact of the club in hitting the ball. The stroke begins when the head of the club is moved back after addressing the ball, to com- mence the swing with which the ball is hit. Each club requires a different stroke, and several varieties of stroke may be played with any particular club, according to the location of the ball, the distance of the hole, and the height of the ball's flight. Personal instruction, observation, and practice are especially necessary for the strokes. Kinds of strokes. — Long shots are called drives. Shots from near the putting green, designed to place the ball on the green, are called the ap- proach. Form: Stroke 233 After the ball has reached the green, the strokes for the hole (holing out) are called putting. To lift the ball more than enough to clear the ground is called lofting it. This is necessary over bunkers and often for a bad lie. The face of the different clubs is laid back at different angles to facilitate or avoid lofting. To draw the ball with the club toward the left side, instead of driving it straight ahead, is called pulling the ball. To send the ball toward the right, instead of straight ahead, is called slicing it. To hit the ball near the top, instead of full on the face, is called topping the ball. To hit the ground behind the ball, before the face of the club reaches the ball, is called sclaffing. Rules for strokes . — No one should move or talk when a player is making a stroke, or stand close to the ball or directly behind it. (Etiquette.) The ball should be struck by the center of the hitting surface of the club (the face) and this face should come in contact with the middle of the side of the ball oppo- site to the direction in which it is intended to drive. If it is intended to raise (loft) the ball, it should be hit a little below that point. No means of propelling the ball by the club other than with a stroke with the head of the club is per- missible ; that is, the ball may not be drawn along (spooned), or pushed, or scraped. For such play, the penalty in Match Play is loss of the hole, and in Stroke Competition, two strokes. (Rule V.) For hitting the ball twice with one stroke (i.e., 234 Golf making or completing the stroke while the ball is moving) the penalty in both Match and Stroke Com- petition is one stroke, {Rule XIV.) No player may ask of, or receive from, any one but his own caddie, his partner or partner's caddie, advice as to which club to use, or how to use it, or any detail directions as to aiming a shot. {Definitions^ 2.) The general direction or line to a hole may be in- dicated to a player by any one through the green, or the direction from a hazard, before a stroke is made ; but no person or marker may be placed in line with the hole as an aid to aiming the shot. An infringe- ment of this rule is penalized in Match Play by loss of the hole; in Stroke Competition ^ by two strokes. {Rule IV, 4) A penalty stroke is one added to the score as a penalty for breach of rules, and not a stroke actually taken. One or two strokes is the usual penalty in Stroke Competition, but occasionally this form of penalizing is used also in Match Play. {Defini- tions ^ 14.) DIFFERENT KINDS OF GAMES, MATCHES, OR COMPETITION. — There are two estabhshed modes of play, called (i) Match Play, and (2) Stroke Competition, or Medal Play ; a third, called Bogey Competition, is of comparatively recent origin. In Match Play the object is to win holes ; that is, to make each hole in fewer strokes than the opponent. The important point of the score is holes won, not number of strokes over the entire course. In Stroke Competition, or Medal Play, the object is to go over the entire course with as few strokes as Bogey Competition 235 possible. The score is therefore primarily of total strokes rather than of holes won. PARTNERS AND OPPONENTS. — In both Match Play and Stroke Competition two players may play against each other — called a Single (sometimes called a Twosome). Or two partners, playing one ball between them, may play against another pair ; this is called a Foursofue or Scotch Foursome. Or one player may compete against two who play one ball between them ; this is called a Threesome. In tournaments in Stroke Competition, singles only are allowed ; that is, not more than two competitors may play together. (Rule /, 2.) There are also Three-Ball, Four-Ball and Best-Ball Matches, in both Match Play and Stroke Competition. A Three-Ball Match is one in which three players play against each other, each playing his own ball. A Four-Ball Match is a game in which four balls are used, two partners playing their better ball (which- ever it may prove to be) against the better ball of the opposing two. A Best-Ball Match is one in which any number, from three up, may compete, each playing his own ball. The best ball v/ins. BOGEY COMPETITION is a form of play in which each player compares his score for each hole with an arbitrary, imaginary score fixed by a Committee. The player wins, loses, or halves each hole with this Bogey exactly as he would with an opponent. This Bogey score represents the number of strokes in which a good player might reasonably be expected to make each hole. 236 Golf Bogey is thus a good average score, and should not be confused with par, which is theoretical perfection in the number of strokes for a hole. When several players play Bogey at once, each keeps his own record, and the one wins who at the end has to his credit the largest number of holes up (has won the largest number), or the fewest down. A player is often allowed a handicap in playing against Bogey as though he were playing against a scratch player. This handicap is arbitrarily assigned in the form of one or more strokes at certain holes, and is adjusted to the general handicap allowed each player by his club or golf association. PRECEDENCE ON THE LINKS. — Through the green a singles , threesome , or foursome has precedence over any other kind of match (such as three-ball, four-ball, or best-ball matches, or a Bogey com- petition), and may pass them. {Rule 7.) A single player has no standing and any kind of match has right of way past him. Two players play- ing one ball rank as a single player. {Rule I.) A match playing an entire round of the links may pass a match which is playing a shorter round. {Rule I.) A match that is playing so slowly as to be less than one clear hole ahead of a match coming up from behind, may be passed on request from the players who are gaining. {Rule I.) Players l ooking for a lost ball should voluntarily offer to allow players coming up to pass them, and should not resume their own play until these players are at a safe distance. {Etiquette.) Precedence: at the First Tee 237 Precedence on the putting green has special rules that are given under '' Putting." THE HONOR: AT THE FIRST TEE. — The player who drives off first from any teeing ground is said to have the honor. At the first tee the honor is decided for the first game by lot {Rule II, 2), except in tournaments in Stroke Competition ; for such tournaments com- petitors strike off in the order of their names on the ofl&cial starting list. {Rule I, j.) In successive matches (games) the winner of the last match takes the honor at the first tee ; or, if the match wxre halved (a tie), the winner of the last hole has the honor for the new match. {Rule II, 2.) If a player drive off from any teeing ground when the honor belonged to an opponent, he is penalized, as follows : In Match Play the ball may be recalled at once by the opponents at their option ; there is no penalty, and the ball should be re-teed in its proper turn. {Rule II. 2.) In Stroke Competition the ball may not be recalled and there is no penalty. {Rule I, 3-) In a threesome or foursome , partners alternate with each other in striking off from the teeing ground, where their side holds the honor. {Rule III.) If a player play out of his turn , in a threesome or foursome {i.e., when his partner had the honor), a penalty is imposed : In Match Play his side loses the hole; in Stroke Competition, the player is dis- quaUfied. {Rule III) In best-ball and four-ball matches, the balls on the 238 Golf side having the honor may be played in any order the side desires. {Rule VI.) THE HONOR AT SECOND AND SUCCESSIVE TEES. — The player or side that had the honor at the first tee retains it for succeeding tees until an opponent wins a hole. Thereafter the honor belongs to the player who won the last preceding hole. {Rule II, 2) If the last hole were halved (a tie), the one who had the honor at the previous teeing ground retains it. {Rule 1 1, 2) In a three-ball match, where all three players had the same score for the previous hole, they drive off in the same order as from the last teeing ground. {Rule IV.) All other rules for the first tee are the same for all other tees. ORDER OF INDIVIDUAL PLAY THROUGH THE GREEN. — After teeing off, the ball to be played next is always the one farthest from the hole, irrespective of how many strokes are played on it in comparison to the other balls in the match. {Rule VII.) PLAYING OUT OF TURN. — In Match Play, in singles, threesomes, or foursomes, if a player play out of turn through the green, or in a hazard, the opponent may have the ball recalled. There' is no penalty. The ball is then dropped as near as possible to where it lay before the stroke. {Rule VII.) The method of dropping the ball is described under General Rules. In Stroke Competition, and in any three-ball, best-ball , and four-ball matches (Stroke or Match), if, through the green, a player play when an opponent Putting the Ball in Play 239 should have done so, the stroke may not be recalled, and there is no penalty. {Rule III.) In three-ball, best-ball, and four-ball matches, any player may request that another ball be played or lifted at any time, if, in his judgment, it hes so as to interfere with, or be of assistance to, other players. {Rule /.) PUTTING THE BALL IN PLAY: SUMMARY. — In golf a ball is considered to be in play from the first stroke on it on a teeing ground until it is holed out at the next hole, except when lifted according to rules. On a nine-hole course the fewest number of times a ball could be put in play would therefore be nine. Teeing : The first stroke for a hole is called teeing the ball, though it may rest on the ground or on a tee at the option of a player. See ^^ Detail of Teeing off " following. Between the teeing ground and holing out, certain contingencies may arise that will necessitate putting the ball in play again ; it is then either dropped, placed, or re-teed. A ball is dropped for one that has gone out of bounds. It must be dropped by the player of the ball it re- places. To drop a ball, a player must face the hole, and, standing erect, drop the ball behind him, over his shoulder. If the ball touch him as or after it falls, there is no penalty. If a dropped ball roll into a hazard or casual water, it may be re-dropped without penalty. {Rule VIII,) 240 Golf A ball is placed by the hand, usually on the putting green. Except for lifting and placing a ball that lies nearer the hole or for identification (or in teeing), no ball may be touched by hand during a game. Re-teed . — In Stroke Competition a player may have any other ball lifted by its owner at any time that it interferes with his play. Such a ball is again put in play by being re-teed as near as possible to where it lay, but not nearer the hole. {Rule XL) DETAIL. — TEEING OFF. — A player may not drive from a tee until the players in front are at a safe dis- tance, having played at least a second stroke. It is customary when driving from a tee, to warn players ahead by calling ^' Fore ! " before the stroke is made. (Etiquette.) The first stroke or drive for any hole is made from the teeing ground for that hole. The teeing ground is understood to include a rectangular space extending not more than two club lengths back of the markers which indicate the front of the teeing ground and the direction of the hole. (Definitions, 4.) Should a ball be played from outside the teeing ground, in Match Play the opponent may, at his option, require its immediate recall. There is no penalty, but the ball must be re-teed on the teeing ground. In Stroke Competition, the stroke counts, but the ball must be immediately recalled and teed again from within the proper limits, with a second stroke. For failure to so re-tee the ball a player may be disqualified. (Rule II, i.) Teeing the bal l is placing it for the first stroke. It is optional with the player whether he place the Teeing ofif 241 ball on the ground, or drop it, or place it on a tee. The more usual method is to erect a small tee of sand or earth about one inch high, and place the ball on top of it. {Definitions^ 16.) If a ball falls off a tee , or if the player knocks it off while addressing it, or if the player strikes it while it is falling off, there is no penalty, and the player may at once re-tee it. {Rule II, i.) To hit a moving ball under any other circumstances except in moving water is not permissible. If a stroke from the teeing ground carry a ball out of bounds , a player may tee another ball on the teeing ground and count it as a second stroke. {Rule XXIIL) Out of bounds is understood to mean all ground on which play is forbidden. When the greater part of a ball lies in a prohibited area, it is considered out of bounds. {Definitions, 8-g.) If doubtful about a ball's having gone out of bounds, a player inay (i) make a five minutes' search for the ball out of bounds, and his opponent may search for it simultaneously in bounds ; or, (2) to avoid delay w^hen in doubt, a player may play a provisional second ball from the tee, and, should he later find his first ball in bounds, continue his play on the first ball without penalty. If such a provisional second ball be played, the player must search for the first ball for five minutes when he reaches the place where it is likely to be found. A player may stand out of bounds to play a ball that is within bounds. {Rule XXIIL) Players looking for a lost ball must allow other matches to pass them. {Etiquette) 242 Golf PLAYING THROUGH THE GREEN— After each player has made his first drive, the next stroke is made upon the ball that lies farthest from the hole, irrespective of whose ball it is or how many times it is so played. {Rule VII.) There are some exceptions on the putting green. Many of the rules of golf apply to the contingencies that arise between the teeing ground and the putting green (called playing through the green), such as the lie of the ball, dealing with impediments, obstacles, hazards, water, lost balls, etc. These rules are given in the classified list under their various headings. HAZARDS. — Rules for playing hazards are given under ^'General Rules.'' THE APPROACH is the stroke that places the ball on the putting green. It is usually made with a three-quarter, half, or wrist shot with a lofting iron, as distinguished from the full swing for a drive. The approach ^hot combines strength and accuracy and requires much skill. PUTTING, OR HOLING OUT. — RULES FOR. — When a ball has reached the smooth putting green most difficulties would seem to be over, and a good golfer should be able to hole out in two strokes ; for here there are no large obstacles, and hard strokes give place to gentle taps on the ball. Yet it is often said that more games are lost on the putting green than in any other part of the play. The putting green is considered to be all ground (except hazards) within 20 yards of the hole. {Defi- nitions, 10) No player should play a ball that lies on the putting Putting, or Holing Out 243 green until the opponent's ball is at rest . The penalty for so doing in Match Play is loss of the hole ; in Stroke Competition, two strokes. {Rule XXX,) After a player has holed out, he should not try his putts over again when other players are coming up. {Etiquette.) A ball is considered to have been holed out by a player at his last stroke if {a) the stroke put the ball in the hole ; (6) a competitor's ball knocked the player's ball into the hole (in Match Competition only) {Rule XXXII, 2) ; {c) the ball lodged against a flag stick (Match Play only). In Stroke Competition, for a ball to hit the flag stick is penalized by two strokes {Rule XXXII, i) ; {d) a ball, resting on the lip of the hole, roll in, after an opponent, having holed out, has neglected to knock away the impinging ball {Rule XXXII, 3). The Order of pla}^ on the putting green is, in general, the same as through the green ; that is, the ball farthest from the hole is to be played. The few exceptions are noted below. If a player on the putting green play when his opponent should have played , the latter may have the stroke recalled at once, and the ball replaced for play in its proper order. {Rule XXXI, 2.) In Match Play Competitions, this recall and replacing of a near ball played out of turn, is compulsory. // not com- plied with, both competitors are disqualified. {Special Rules, I.) If a player play an opponent's bal l on the putting green, the ball must be replaced. {Rule XX, i, b.) 244 Golf Interference of balls on putting green . — Two balls in line with the hole are called a Stymie if more than six inches apart. There are special rules for stymies, and also for balls six inches or less apart, in both Match Play and Stroke Competition ; also, for one ball's hitting another on the putting green, or knocking it into the hole. Stymie . — If another ball lie in line with a player's putt to the hole (the two balls being more than six inches apart), the condition is called a Stymie. This is treated differently in the various kinds of play and matches. In Match Play (singles, threesomes, or foursomes) a stymie must be negotiated; that is,. the ball to be played must be lifted over, curved around, or played to strike, the offending ball. In a stymie in three- ball, best-ball, and four-ball matches, a player (before he plays his stroke) may request an opponent to either lift his ball, or play it first. {Special Rules, I.) In a stymie in Stroke Competition, the competitor whose ball is farther from the hole may require that the nearer ball be either lifted or played first, as its owner may choose. // the owner refuse . to do this when so requested, he is disqualified. {Stroke Rule XIII, 3) When balls lie within six inches of each other on the putting green (measured from their nearest points), the nearer ball may be either lifted or played. This may be done on the initiative of either the player of the intervening ball, or the opponent. If the oppo- nent request it, the player of the nearer ball must com- ply (under penalty, in Stroke Competition, of dis- Putting, or Holing Out 245 qualification, Stroke Rule XIII, j), but may choose between the two alternatives of Hfting or playing the ball. This applies both to Match Play and Stroke Competition. {Rule XXXI; Stroke Rule X, 2; XIII, J, 4.) It applies to all kinds of matches, sin- gles, threesomes, foursomes, three-ball, best-ball, and four-ball matches. {Three-ball Rule I.) If a player's ball moves a competitor's ball on the putting green , in Match Play, the competitor may, if he wish, replace it before another stroke has been played by either side. {Rule XXXII, 2.) In Stroke Competition, the player is penalized one stroke, and the displaced ball must be replaced. {Stroke Rule XIII, 2.) If the player's ball should have stopped on the spot that was occupied by the competitor's ball before it was displaced, the competitor, when his turn comes, may have the player's ball lifted until he replaces and plays his own ball. {Rule XXXII, 2.) If a player's ball knock an opponent's ball into the hole, in Match Play, the opponent is credited with having holed out with his last stroke. {Rule XXXII, 2.) In Stroke Competition, each competitor must hole out with his own ball at every hole, or incur a pen- alty of disqualification. {Stroke Rule VIII.) There- fore in Stroke Competition a ball that might be knocked into a hole by a competitor's ball, must be lifted or played first (whichever its player choose) at the request of the competitor. A refusal to comply with such a request is penalized by disqualification. {Stroke Rule XIII, 3.) The player whose ball is nearer the hole may, in Stroke Competition, lift or 246 Golf play it first on his own initiative. {Stroke Rule XIII ^ 4.) This may not be done while the opponent's ball is in motion, under penalty of one stroke. {Stroke Rule XIII, 5.) ASSISTANCE IN HOLING OUT is very carefully guarded by the rules, and is the same for all kinds of matches (singles, threesomes, foursomes^ three-ball, best-ball, and four-ball) in both Match Play and Stroke Competition. The direction of the hole may be pointed out to a player on the putting green by his caddie, his partner, or partner's caddie, but they may not in any way touch the ground or mark the line of the putt for him. {Rule XXIX, J.) A player may send his caddie to stand at the hole, or any player or caddie in the match may stand there, but the}^ may not try to shield the ball from the wind. A player not be- longing to the match may not stand at the hole if either side object. For breach of any of these rules a player is penalized by loss of the hole in Match Play, and two strokes in Stroke Competition. {Rule XXIX, 2.) If a ball strikes a player standing at a hole, or is stopped by such a player, the player of the ball is penalized two strokes. The flag stick may be left in the hole , or removed, as desired by either side. If a ball hits a flag stick that has been removed by its player, his partner, or their caddies, that player's side loses the hole in Match Play, and two strokes in Stroke Competition. {Rule XXXII.) If the flag stick is left in the hole, and the ball rests against it, the player of the ball is entitled to remove Putting, or Holing Out 247 the flag stick. Should the ball then fall into the hole, the player is considered to have holed out at his last stroke. {Rule XXXII.) The line of the putt may not be marked in any way. The player may not draw his club over it or touch it in any way, except to place his club immediately in front of the ball in addressing it. He may not touch the ground beyond the hole as an aid in aiming his shot. Penally, in Malch Play, loss of hole; in Slroke Competition, two strokes. {Rule XXVIII, 3.) Loose impediments on any part of the putting green may be removed, no matter what their relation to the player's ball. These include loose leaves, branches or twigs, or stones, live worms, and a sand box from a teeing ground. These must be Hfted and removed by the hand. The club may be used to scrape aside dung, worm casts, mole-hills or tracks, snow and ice, which are also loose impediments ; but even for these it must not rest on the ground with more than its own weight. Nothing on the putting green may be pressed down, with the club, or in any other way. {Rule XXVIII, I, 2.) No growing thing may be moved , bent, or broken more than enough for the player to take his stance and swing his club for the stroke. {Rule XV.) Casual water on the putting green , as anywhere else, is a temporary accumulation of water ; but on the putting green, ice is also included in the defini- tion. If the ball He in such casual water, or so near it that the player cannot well take his stance, or so that the water is between the ball and the hole, the player 248 Golf may either play it as it lies, or lift and place it else- where by hand (not drop it) . If placed elsewhere, it must be placed within two club lengths of where it lay, and directly behind that spot. If this is impracticable, it must be as near as possible to such a place, and yet afford a putt to the hole without the water intervening. {Rule XXVII , 3, 4^ 5) SCORE. — One round of the links (unless otherwise agreed) is considered a match {i.e., a game). It is not considered possible to play satisfactorily at the same time both the Match Play and Stroke Com- petition. In Match Play (as distinguished from Stroke Com- petition) the side wins which makes the larger number of holes, each in fewer strokes than the opponents. It is not customary to play out all of the holes, except in tie games. When a side leads by a number of holes greater than the number remaining to be played, so that the opponents could not win even though they made all of the remaining holes, that side has won the match. When both sides make a hole in the same number of shots, the hole is said to be halved — a terni equiva- lent to a tie; neither wins. Similarly, if both win an equal number of holes in the course, the match is halved. The side which is one or more holes ahead is, in golf phraseology, one up, or two up, or whatever the number may be ; the opponent is then one down or two down. Whenever a side has won so many holes that even Score 249 though the opponent win all the remaining holes, the result can be only a tie, then the side with the higher score is dormie. If one side were two holes ahead, with only two more to be played, that side would be dormie two, and if it won the next hole, it would have won by three holes and one to play. The one hole unplayed is called the bye. Between holes, if one player is one stroke ahead of the other, the second then plays the like. The other then plays the odd; in other words, is a stroke ahead. If a player is three strokes ahead of an opponent, and about to play, he plays one of three, then two of three, and then the like. In Stroke Competition the player who holes the stipulated course in the fewest strokes wins the game. {Stroke Rule I.) It is not considered possible to play at the same time satisfactorily both Match Play and Stroke Competi- tion. In official competitions in Stroke Play, singles only are allowed, that is, competitors play in couples ; no threesomes, foursomes, three-ball, four-ball, or best-ball matches are included in such official com- petitions. An odd player plays with a non-competitor in the match, or alone with a marker accompanying him. {Stroke Rule /, 2.) A tie between two competitors is decided by another round. In official competitions, this is played on the same or a succeeding day, as decided by a Committee in charge of the competition. A tie between an uneven num.ber of competitors in an official match is decided by placing their names on 250 Golf FOR FOURSOME OR 2ROUNDSOFTWOSOME-8 Hole Self. Opponent Self. Opponent Bogie Handicap Distance 1 4 4 4 6 300 1 2 3 4 3 8 190 2 3 4 5 4 7 250 4 1 5 4 5 3 420 5 1 4 4 4 5 330 6 4 3 3 9 170 1 7 6 5 5 1 510 1 8 5 5 5 2 480 2 B 5 4 4 4 370 40 38 2 37 GOLF SCORE CARD The larger figures under " Self " and " Opponent " indicate the number of strokes in which the hole was made ; the smaller figures indicate the number of holes that one player is ahead of the other. a list in an order determined by ballot ; they play in couples in the order of names, the odd competitor being provided with a marker ; or the odd competitor Handicaps 251 may be assigned to play with two others, if all three consent. {Stroke Rule III.) It is customary for competitors in Stroke Competi- tion to keep each other's score ; or a player outside the match may be assigned to each couple as a marker. A caddie may not serve as a marker, unless by special permission from the Committee in charge of a Compe- tition. The score for each hole should be called out as it is completed. {Stroke Rule V, i.) Score cards, before being handed in, must be signed by the person making them, and approved by the com- petitors. The Committee in charge of a Competition is responsible for the addition of scores. {Stroke Rule F, I, 2) A player should announce promptly when he has incurred a penalty. {Etiquette.) In Match Play Competitions, no player may waive a penalty which an opponent incurs. Penalty , loss of hole. {Comp. Rule II.) Competitors in Match Play Competitions may not agree to exclude any rule. Penalty^ disqualification, {Comp. Rule III.) HANDICAPS. — For a tournament, unless all competitors are scratch men {i.e.^ players who receive no handicaps), a handicap committee should agree on the number of strokes the most proficient player should use. Other competitors are allowed an addi- tional number of strokes, usually no more than eighteen. If a player who has received no handicap (scratch man) wins too often, he is sometimes peiialized several strokes. 252 Golf In Match Play singles, competitors are given three quarters of the difference between their Stroke Play handicap. Thus, if A had a Stroke Play handicap of 15, and B one of 8 strokes, A in Match Play would be allowed three quarters of the difference (7), or 5 strokes (a half stroke or over counts as one more). In Match Play foursomes, a handicap is allowed of three eighths of the difference between the handicaps that the competitors would receive in Stroke Play competition. Each club course has a most difficult hole to make, and it is usually at this hole that the player is ordered to take his first handicap stroke, the others being taken on successive holes thereafter. Bisque is a handicap that may be taken at any hole ; but the competitor must so declare his intention before leaving that hole for another. GENERAL RULES FOR PLAYING THE BALL THAT APPLY TO ALL PARTS OF THE GAME. — THE LIE OF THE BALL. — As a general rule, a ball must be played from where it Hes, either in or out of hazards, or the hole given up. {Rule VI.) No irregularities of surface may be removed or pressed down by a player himself, or for him {Rule X) ; no rock may bO' moved that is embedded in the ground {Definitions, 12), no growing thing may be bent, broken, pressed down, or moved, more than enough to give the player a good stance for addressing the ball {Rule XV) or to swing the club ; such growing things may, if neces- sary, be hit by the club as it swings for a stroke. (Rule XXV,) General Rules 253 Penalty, in Match Play, loss of hole ; in Stroke Competition, two strokes added to score. If a ball is hidden in long grass, bent, bushes, or the like, these may be moved enough to disclose the ball, but not to release it. Penalty for breach of rule^ in both Match Play and Stroke Competition^ loss of a stroke. {Rule XXII, i.) From a ball completely covered in sand , enough may be removed to disclose the top of the ball. // more sand is removed, the penalty in Match Play is loss of the hole; in Stroke Competition, two strokes added to the offender's score. {Rule XXII, 2.) The only opportunities for improving the He or flight of a ball relate to loose impediments, casual water, and some fixed or moving obstacles. LOOSE IMPEDIMENTS may be removed if within a club length of the ball, but not beyond that length. {Rule XII) Such impediments are loose stones (not rocks em- bedded in the ground), mole hills or mole tracks, worm casts, live worms, dung, snow, and ice {Defini- tions, 12), and, on the putting green, fallen leaves and loose sand. // a ball moves as a result of a player, his partner or caddie moving a loose impediment, it counts as one stroke in both Match and Stroke play. {Rule XII, i.) OBSTACLES THAT MAY BE REMOVED include all articles connected with the equipment or upkeep of the grounds, such as any movable guide post, guide flag, or flag stick, wheelbarrow or other vehicle, tool, roller, grass-cutter, or box. A ground surface disturbed for the upkeep of the grounds is likewise 254 Golf not considered a necessary hazard ; such, for instance, as ground under repair, holes in such ground, or flag- staff holes. Rain covers, water pipes, or hydrants are not considered as hazards. Any of these obstacles that are movable may be moved, or a ball touching any of them may be lifted and dropped a club length away, but not nearer the hole. {Rule XI.) CASUAL WATER through the green (ice, or any tem- porary accumulation of water from rainfall or flood- ing) {Definitions, 7 ; Rule XXVII) is not a recog- nized hazard. A ball lost or lying in such casual water may be removed and dropped, or another dropped in its place. This must be dropped within two club lengths of the margin of the water, and as near as possible to where the ball lay, but it must not be nearer to the hole. There is no penalty, and if the dropped ball rolls into the water, it may be re-dropped, with Hke im- munity. {Rule XXVII.) If a ball lies so near to casual water that the player cannot take a good stance, the ball may be dropped as though it were in the water. {Rule XXVII, HAZARDS. — A player may do nothing to improve the lie of a ball in a hazard, except to remove it from water, or to remove steps or planks used regularly for access to, or egress from, the hazard. As on the* green, he may not bend or move growing things except as incidental to a good stance or for the swing of the club for a stroke. LOFTING OUT OF A BAD HAZARD From " The Woman's Book of Sport," by J. Parmly Paret. By courtesy of Messrs, D. Appleton and Company. Copyrighted 255 256 Golf He may not, in a hazard, even touch the ground with the club in addressing the ball. Penalty, Match Play, loss of the hole; Stroke Com- petition, two strokes added to the offender's score. {Rule XXV.) Bushes or long grass may be moved enough to find a lost ball, but not more ; sand may be removed from a completely covered ball enough to disclose the top of it, but not more. (Rule XXII.) WATER HAZARDS. — A ball while in water may or may not be played, at the discretion of the player. If he wishes to play it while it is in the water, and it is moving, his stroke must be made at once before cur- rent or wind have bettered its position. For a delay under such circumstances the penalty is loss of the hole in Match Play and two strokes in Stroke Competition. {Rule XXVI.) A ball lying or lost in a water hazard may be re- placed (under penalty of one stroke in both Match and Stroke play) by dropping another ball, either in the hazard or outside it, as explained below. This is true whether the ball is actually in the water or not. and whether or not the water is a regular water hazard or casual water in a hazard. To drop a ball within the hazard under such cir- cumstances, the player must so stand as to keep be- tween himself and the hole the spot at which the ball entered the water. To drop a ball behind the hazard, the player must so stand as to keep between himself and the hole the spot at which the ball crossed the margin of the hazard. {Rule XXVII, i.) General Rules 257 If a ball dropped under these circumstances rolls into the water, it may be re-dropped. There is no penalty. {Rule XXVII, 2.) MOVING A BALL ; PLAYING OR INTERFERING WITH A BALL IN MOTION. — A ball has moved if it has left its original position, however slightly. It is not considered to have moved if it oscillates in its original position and then remains there. (Definitions, ig.) To move the ball in addressing it (either with the club, or in a hazard, in taking the stance), is counted as a stroke in both Match and Stroke Competition. {Rule XII.) If a hall is moved by its player, his caddie, or partner, in removing loose impediments, or accidentally in any other way, the penalty is one stroke in both Match and Stroke Play. {Rule XII, i, 3.) In a hazard if a ball is moved while removing planks or steps, it may be replaced without penalty. {Rule XXV.) If a ball at rest is moved by an opponent, his club , or caddie, the opponent or his side shall lose the hole. {Rule XVIII.) The only exception to this is in the moving of a lost ball by an opponent or his caddie while searching for it. There is no penalty for this, but they must replace the ball or be penalized by losing the hole, in Match Play, and two strokes in Stroke Competition. Through the green, if any agency outside a match (except the wind) displaces a ball at rest , the player may drop a ball as near as possible to where the ball lay before being disturbed. For not so dropping a hall a player is penalized, in Match Play hy the loss 258 Golf of the hole, and in Stroke Competition, by two strokes, {Rule XVII, 3.) On the putting green the ball shall be replaced in its original position instead of dropped. If a ball is moved by an opponent's ball, in singles, threesomes, or foursomes, either through the green or in a hazard, the opponent has the option of dropping a ball where the disturbed ball lay ; this must be done before either side has played another stroke. {Rule IX, 2.) In three-ball, best-ball, and four-ball matches, if a ball is moved by any other ball, the ball that was moved must be replaced as near as possible to its original position. There is no penalty, except for failure to so replace it, which is penalized in Match Play, by loss of the hole, and in Stroke Competition by disqualifica- tion, {Rule II.) Except as noted below, a ball in motion may not be played. The penalty for so doing is, in Match Play, loss of the hole in Stroke Competition, two strokes. {Rule XIII.) The only conditions under which a moving ball may be played without penalty are {a) when a teed ball falls off a tee {Rule II) ; {b) when a ball is moving in water. {Rule XXVI.) If a ball in motion is interfered with by its player, his partner, their caddies or clubs {i.e., if it strikes them or they interfere in any way with it), in singles, three- somes, or foursomes, the penalty, in Match Play, is loss of the hole; in Stroke Competition, one stroke. {Rule XIX; Stroke Rule IX.) In best-ball and four-ball matches, if a ball strikes General Rules 259 or is stopped by its player, his partner, or their caddies or clubs, the player playing the ball is disqualified for that hole. {Rule VIII.) If a ball in motion strikes an opponent, his caddie, or clubs, in Match Play, the opponent's side loses a hole. {Rule XVIII.) In Stroke Competition the ball is played from where it lies and there is no penalty except within twenty yards of the hole, where the loss is two strokes. {Rules X, XIII, i.) In a three-ball match , if a ball strikes, or is stopped or moved by an opponent or his caddie or clubs, that opponent is penalized in Match Play by losing the hole to the offended player. The third player is not affected. {Rule V.) In best-ball and four-ball matches, if a ball strikes, or is stopped, or moved by, an opponent, his caddie or clubs, that opponent is penalized, in Match Play, by loss of the hole; in Stroke Competition there is no penalty, and the ball is played from where it lies. {Rule VII.) If a ball in motion hits any one not connected with the match , or is stopped or deflected by a forecaddie or any agency not belonging to the match, it is called a rub of the green. There is no penalty, and the ball should be played from where it lies. Should the player move it, he loses the hole in Match Play, and two strokes in Stroke Competition. {Rule XVII, i.) If a ball in motion lodges in a moving vehicle , or anything in motion, a ball must be dropped as nearly as possible to where the moving object was at the moment the ball lodged in it. For not so dropping a ball J the penalty is loss of the hole in Match Play and 26o Golf loss of two strokes in Stroke Competition. {Rule XVII, 2.) A ball may be lifted (on the green or in a hazard) if it is within a club's length of an opponent's ball, and nearer to the hole (singles, threesomes, and four- somes). {Rule XVI.) If a ball would interfere with, or be of assistance to, a player anywhere in a three-ball, best-ball, or four- ball match, any player may require that its player either lift it or play it, irrespective of the regular order of play. {Rule I.) PLAYING WRONG BALLS. — Through the green and in hazards . — In Match Play, if a player plays an opponent's ball, his side loses the hole unless the mistake is due to wrong information by the opponent or his caddie. If both opponents play each other's balls there is no penalty, but the hole is played out with the exchanged balls. In Stroke Competition there is no penalty for one stroke on a competitor's ball, but a player is dis- qualified for a second stroke of this kind, except in a hazard. There is no penalty for playing the wrong ball by mistake in a hazard, provided no stroke is played on it beyond the hazard. // played beyond the hazard the player is disqualified. {Rule XX; Stroke Rule VIII, 2, 3.) In best-ball and three-ball matches, a player is disquahfied for a hole if he plays a partner's ball and the mistake is discovered and the opponents informed before they have played a stroke. Under such circumstances, the partner is not penalized and puts another ball in play by dropping it as near as General Rules 261 possible to the spot where the mistaken stroke was made. // the opponents play a stroke before the mistake is discovered, in Match Play, the oJffe7iding side loses the hole; in Stroke Competition, the of ending player is disqualified for the hole. {Best Ball Rule IX.) If a ball belonging to any one outside the match is played by mistake, the player incurs no penalty if he discovers the mistake and informs his opponent before the latter has played his next stroke. // the opponent has played a stroke before the mistake is discovered and announced, the of ending player, or his side, loses the hole. {Rule XX, 2.) On the putting green, a wrong ball played must be replaced. There is no penalty. This applies to all kinds of matches in both Match and Stroke Play. LOST BALLS. — A ball is considered lost when it cannot be found in a five minutes' search. {Defi- nitions, 20) In Match Play, if a ball is lost anywhere but in water, casual water, or out-of-bounds, a side loses the hole as penalty for losing the ball. If the oppo- nent's ball should also be lost, the hole is halved. {Rule XXI) Another ball is put in play at the next teeing ground. In Stroke Competition, another ball is teed from as near as possible to the spot of the last stroke. There is no penalty. If the ball is lost in water (a regular hazard, or casual water — whether it lies in the water or not) the penalty in both Match and Stroke Play is one stroke. Another ball should be dropped within two club lengths of the 262 Golf margin (of casual water) or behind, or in, a regular hazard, with the spot at which the ball entered the hazard (or the water), between the player and the hole. For lack of proper observance of these rules, a player loses the hole in Match Play, and two strokes in Stroke Competition. {Rule XXVII.) If a ball is lost out of bounds , from a stroke made anywhere but on the teeing ground, another ball is dropped near the place of the last stroke ; if from a teeing ground, another ball is teed. {Rule XXIII, i.) If a player finds his lost ball on the course, after putting another in play, he must resume play on the lost ball.. There is no penalty. {Rule XXIII, 2.) ADVICE ANB INFORMATION. — The intention and spirit of the rules of golf are to throw a player or a side upon his or its own judgment as to the choice of clubs, the method of striking, or the finer details of the direction or aiming of a shot. {Definitions, 2.) A player may not ask or receive willingly advice of this kind from any one but his own caddie, his partner, or partner's caddie, under penalty, in Match Play, of losing the hole, and in Stroke Competition, of disquali- fication. {Rule IV, I.) A player may not receive advice from a forecaddie. The general direction toward a hole may be inquired of any one, but no person or marker may be placed in line with it to aid in aiming a shot. Transgression of this rule is penalized in Match Play by loss of the hole; in Stroke Competition by loss of two strokes. {Rule IV, 4) A player may at any time inquire as to his oppo- nent's score. {Rule IV, 2.) Officials: Outfit 263 A player may at any time ascertain if the oppo- nent's ball is out of bounds and get this information before continuing his own play. {Rule XXIII , 3.) OFFICIALS. — For ofl&cial competitions, there should be a Committee in charge of the Competition. This committee is responsible for the condition of the course, and the order and time in which competitors shall start. The Committee shall receive the scores at the end of a competition and be responsible for the addition thereon. They shall appoint an Umpire and a Referee to officiate during the competition. An Umpire is a judge of all facts ; that is, of any- thing that happens during the competition. A Referee is the responsible authority on the Laws or Rules of Golf. {Definitions, 22.) Both Umpire and Referee should note all breaches of rules during a competition, whether appealed to in the matter or not. {Rule XXXV.) OUTFIT. — The balls used vary shghtly in size and weight, but are about if inches in diameter and usually weigh about an ounce and a half. Golf balls are made of gutta percha and sometimes have a rubber core. The outside is serrated. They cost from $6 to $12 per dozen. Clubs may be bought for from $2 to $3 each. Caddie bags . — Leather caddie-bags to hold the clubs cost from $5 to $12, and duck bags from $3 to $10. Shoes . — Hob-nailed or rubber-soled shoes are im- portant, as they prevent slipping when taking a shot. The cost of a pair is from $5 to $8. Hole rims of iron ; $1 each. 264 Golf Flags and disks for marking grounds and holes, 50 cents to $1. HISTORY. — Golf is well termed ^^ The Royal and Ancient Game." For several centuries it has been the national game of Scotland. As early as the fifteenth century it was so popular there that an act of Parliament forbade its play because it hindered the practice of archery, then used for nationS.1 defense. Toward the end of that century indictments were fre- quent in Scotland for breaking the Sabbath by playing '' Gowff.'' Many old tombstones in Scotland recite the achieve- ments in golf of the departed, as a famous general's victories in battle might be noted. Whether or not the game originated in Scotland is not known. Old Dutch tiles picture what might have been the crude beginnings of the game, but no certainty attaches to this. It is known, however, that balls for the game were early imported into Scot- land from Holland — to such an extent that in 16 18 this was forbidden as taking too much money out of the country. Golf balls at that time were made of leather stuffed with feathers. The modern development of the game is due largely to the discovery of gutta percha and its use in balls, which marked an epoch in the history of the game. Such balls were in general use about the middle of the nineteenth century. The popularity of the game outside of Scotland is even more recent. In England, although some golf organizations are almost as old as those in Scotland, the game was not general until the end of the last Bibliography 265 century. It was first played in the English Univer- sities about 1880, and became general only in the early '90's. Apparently it was about that time that women began to play. The seriousness of the British golfer's regard for his game is shown by the following quotation from a modern English work : '^ It is difficult for a whole- souled golfer to reconcile the addiction of the royal family of Stuart for golf with their unsatisfactory character in some other particulars." In the United States the game became general in the last few years of the nineteenth century. No other outdoor game engages actively so many men of all ages, and probably no other one agency does so much to keep overworked business and professional men in health. In the United States of America, the United States Golf Association is the ruling organization for this game, and of this practically all of the larger clubs are members. The United States rules are based on those of the Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St. Andrews, and follow them closely. These official rules are the basis of the foregoing classified description of the game. Disputed points may be referred to the Executive Committee of the United States Golf Association. BIBLIOGRAPHY Official Handbooks Rules of the United States Golf Association, Official Golf Guide. Edited by Thomas Bendelow. (New York, Spalding's Athletic Library.) 266 Golf Rules of the Game of Golf, as Approved by the Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St. Andrews. (St. Andrews, Scotland, W. C. Anderson and Son.) The Game Great Golfers; Their Methods at a Glance. By George W. Beldham. (New York, 1904.) Advanced Golf; or Hints and Instruction for Progressive Players. By James Braid. (London, Methuen and Company, 1908.) Analysis, discussion and advice for the experienced player. How to Play Golf. By James Braid and Harry Vardon. Spald- ing's Athletic Library. (New York, American Sports Publishing Company,) Golf for Women. By Genevieve Hecker (Mrs. Charles F. Stout). (New York, Baker and Taylor Company, 1904.) Modern Golf. By Harold H. Hilton. (New York, Outing Publishing Company.) Golf for the Late Beginner. By Henry Hughes. (New York, McBride, Nast and Company, 1913.) The New Book of Golf. Edited by Horatio Gordon Hutchin- son, with contributions from Mrs. Ross (nee Miss May Hazlet), Bernard Darwin, James Sherlock, A. C. M. Croome, and C. H. Hutchinson. (New York, Longmans, Green and Company, 191 2.) A full treatise on the game from the English viewpoint. The Game of Golf. By WilUam Park, Jr. (New York, Long- mans, Green and Company, 1896.) Pro and Con of Golf. By Alexander Hamilton Re veil. (Chi- cago, Rand, McNally and Company, 191 5.) Lessons in Golf. By Alexander Smith. (New York, Arthur Portow, 1907.) Travers^ Golf Book. By Jerome Dunstan Travers. (New York, The Macmillaij Company, 1913.) Forty-eight illus- trations. Practical Golf. By Walter J. Travis. (New York and Lon- don, Harper & Brothers, 1909.) Illustrations for different parts of different strokes, clubs, Ues, etc. Glossary 267 How to Learn Golf. By P. A. Vaille. (New York, Spalding's Athletic Library, 191 5.) The Complete Golfer. By Harry Vardoii. (New York, Mc- Clure, Phillips & Company, 1907.) With sixty-six illustrations. How to Play Golf. By Harry Vardon. (Philadelphia, G. W. Jacobs & Co., 191 2.) Golf for Beginners — and Others. By Marshall Whitlatch. (New York, Outing PubHshing Company, 1910.) Care- ful analysis of strokes, with illustrations looking down on player (from above him) on a diagrammed field. A book of detailed instructions for the different strokes and sticks. The Links Plans of Twelve Leading Golf Links. By Anderson. (Lon- don, Anderson, Anderson and Anderson, Limited, 1902.) Lawns, Golf Courses, Polo Fields, and How to Treat Them. By Samuel Alfred Cunningham. (New York, the Coe- Mortimer Company, 1914.) The Golf Courses of the British Isles. By Bernard Darwin. (London, Duckworth and Company, 1910.) Illustrated by Harry Rountree. A book of delightful literary quality, especially suitable for a gift to a golf lover. Val- uable suggestions on play, but especially on golf archi- tecture. Colored illustrations. The Seeding and Preservation of Golf Links. By Thorburn. (New York, J. M. Thorburn Company, 1908.) GLOSSARY Addressing the ball. Movements of a player and club preparatory to a stroke. Approach. The strokes that place a ball on the putting green. Best ball. The ball that is holed in the fewest number of strokes. Bisque. A handicap stroke taken at any hole the player prefers. 268 Golf Bogey. An imaginary score for a course, usually established by a Committee. It represents the number of strokes that would be taken for each hole by an average player. Brassey. a heavy wooden club, shod with brass. Bunker. A natural or artificial obstruction or hazard, such as a sand pit, or embankment of earth. Bye. Hole remaining unplayed after a match is won. Caddie. Boy who carries golf sticks. Casual water. Water not permanently on the course, in- cluding ice. Cleek. Iron-headed playing club. Club. The special stick or implement with which the ball is played. Dead. In golf a ball is dead when it lies where it falls with- out rolling. Also when it lies in relation to the hole so that there can be no doubt of its being holed out in the next stroke. DoRMiE. Score of a player when he cannot lose the game, but may be tied. Drive. Any stroke with any club, made with a full swing. The first shot from the teeing ground is called a drive. Drop-ball. A ball put in play by dropping. The rules pre- scribe that it must be dropped over the shoulder when standing erect, facing the next hole. Fore. A call intended to warn players in advance on a course that a ball is coming. The word is an abbreviation of Before. It is called just before or after a stroke. Face. That side of the head of a club that comes in contact with the ball. Fluke. A successful but unpremeditated play. Follow-through. The continued movement of a club after it has hit the ball. Forecaddie. Caddie, who precedes a player and locates the baU. Four-ball match. A game in which each of four players competes against each other ; each playing his own ball. Foursome. A game in which two players compete against an opposing pair, each side playing one ball. Glossary 269 Green. A term applied both to an entire golf course, and to the putting green. Halved. When each player has taken the same number of strokes to make a hole, the hole is said to be halved. Hazard. Any obstruction to the path of the ball except casual water, bare patches, sheep tracks, snow, ice or sand sprinkled on grass for its preservation. Hazards include bunker, water, ditch, bush, sand, path or road. Head. That portion of a club which is attached to the shaft and which comes in contact with the ball in a stroke. Heel. That portion of the hitting surface of a club that is nearest the shaft. Hole. The hole or cup in the putting green into which the balls are played. Hole out. To play the ball into the hole on the putting green. Holes up. The number of holes that one player has to his credit over the score of an opponent. Honor. Ttie privilege of driving first from teeing ground. Jigger. An iron club between a mid-iron and mashie. Iron. An iron-headed club. Lie. Position of the ball on the course, in relation to ob- structions, etc. Like. The stroke that will equalize the number played by two competitors. Links. The grounds or course on which the game of golf is played. LoET. To lift a ball in the air with a stroke; such a ball is said to be lofted. The angle at which the face of a club is laid back is called the loft of the club. Mashie. Iron-headed club, with deep face. Match. In golf a game is called a match ; also the players competing against each other in a game. Match play. Game in which the number of holes won determines the winner. Medal play. Another name for Stroke Competition. A game in which the total number of strokes made deter- mines the winner. 270 Golf Mid-iron. Iron-headed club ; the face has less pitch than a mashie. Niblick. Iron club with small head. Odd. The stroke that will make one's score one stroke more than an opponent's number of strokes. Par. An ideal score for a hole or course. Putt. To play short strokes on the putting green; holing out. Putter. Club with iron or wooden head used mostly for short strokes on the putting green. Putting green. Level, grass-covered turf around a hole; technically, within twenty yards of the hole. Round. Once over the course. Run. a ball is said to run when4t skims the ground instead of being lofted. The term also denotes the distance a ball rolls after striking the ground; this is called the run of the drive. Rub or the green. Term used when a ball in motion strikes a forecaddie or is deflected by any other agency not of the match. The ball is played next from where it lies. There is no penalty except in holing out. ScLAFF. To hit the earth with a club before the ball is struck. Scratch man. One who receives no handicap. Shaft. The handle of a club, — the part which is grasped by the player, and to which the head is attached. Single. A game in either Match Play or Stroke Competi- tion in which one person is pitted against one other. Slice. A stroke that sends the ball to the right instead of straight ahead. Sole. That side of the head of a club that rests on the ground when addressing the ball. Stance. The position of a player's feet before swinging at the ball. Its relation to the ball and the direction of the hole have an important effect on the stroke. Stroke play. A game in which that competitor wins who has taken the fewest strokes to complete the course. Stymie. A lie of the balls on a putting green, in which an opponent's ball intervenes between a player's ball and Glossary 271 the hole, and is more than six inches away from the player's ball. Tee. The elevation, usually a pinch of sand, on top of which the ball is placed for a drive. The ball is usually teed for the first stroke toward a hole. Teeing ground. Ground from which the first stroke must be taken for each hole. Top the ball. To hit the ball on its upper part. Three-ball match. A game in which each competitor plays against two others, each playing his own ball. Threesome. A game in which one player competes against an opposing pair, who play one ball between them. Undercut. To hit the ball from below upward. A ball should rise high from such a stroke and fall dead after it. HANDBALL HANDBALL GENERAL DESCRIPTION. — Handball is a game that calls for strenuous, all-over muscular exer- cise, and great skill and quickness. It is played on an outdoor or indoor court having a front and side walls and smooth floor. The object of the game is to bat a small rubber or leather-covered ball with the open hand toward a wall, from which it will rebound, and to which it will be returned by an opposing player or players. Failure to bat the ball back to the wall is a miss. The score is made, as in tennis, only by the player who serves, or puts the ball in play ; he scores on the opponent's failures. COURTS. — INDOOR COURT : DIMENSIONS. — A regulation court is the shape of a rectangular room 60 feet long and 24^ feet wide. The front wall should be 35 feet high ; the side walls, where they meet the front wall are of the same height (35 feet) but slope down- ward toward the rear of the court, where they may be from 10 to 30 feet high. The rear wall should be the height of the side walls where they join it — that is, 10 to 30 feet high, and of the same width as the front wall, 24I feet. The walls may be made of wood, cement, or marble. The lighting should be from a skylight, so that it will be diffused. ACE LINE. — Thirty feet from the front wall, and parallel to it, a line is drawn across the floor, called the 27s 276 Handball ace line. A served ball, after hitting the front wall, must rebound from the floor beyond this ace line — • that is, on the farther side of the ace line from the wall. INNER LINE. — Parallel to the ace line, and 2 feet nearer the front wall, a second line is drawn. In serving the ball, a server must stand in the space .between the inner line and the ace line. TELL BOARD. — A board 6 inches high (wide) with its upper edge beveled, is placed on edge at the bottom of the front wall. For a ball to strike the upper edge of the tell board is equivalent to striking the floor. In other words, a ball, to be fair, must strike the wall at least 6 inches above the floor. OUTDOOR COURTS often consist of merely a front wall and flooring ; but the better ones are made of concrete or masonry and have side walls. Flooring should be of the best white pine, well sup- ported by beams closely laid so as to give the proper resiliency. BALLS. — The regulation handball differs slightly under American and Gaelic rules. The American balls are made both of rubber and leather. The speci- fications for the balls of the Amateur Athletic Union of America call for a ball measuring i| inches in diameter, with a weight of if ounces. The Irish official handball is smaller and heavier than that of America and is generally made of rubber. The official ball called for by the Gaelic Athletic Association of Ireland is hard, covered with sheep- skin or any other leather, and is not less than i J ounces nor more than if ounces in weight. Serving 277 PLAYERS. — The game may be played by two or four players at once, called respectively singles and doubles. In a game of singles, one player is pitted against an opponent. In doubles, two players compete against an opposing pair. One player (or pair) acts as server, and puts the ball in play ; they score on the opponent's failures to properly return the ball. The opponent or opponents are re- ceivers, and must return the ball according to rules. HITTING THE BALL. — The ball must always be played with the hand — never with the foot or any other part of the person. The proper way to strike the ball is to make a cup with the palm and fingers, and strike with an under- hand swing of the arm, hitting the ball not squarely with the palm, but between the fingers and the palm, at about the third joints of the fingers, counting from the tips inw^ard. Either hand may be used, but never both at once. THE GAME : SINGLES. — START. — The choice of position is given to the player who wins a toss of a coin. ^ The winner may elect to serve the ball or to receive. SERVING. — Serving is putting the ball in play. The server must stand for serving in the two-foot space between the ace line and the inner line, but on either the right or left side of the court, as he may choose. The server, while serving, must not step twice in succession over the inner line. For this he loses the hand (changes places with the receiver) . 278 Handball To serve the ball, the player allows it to drop to the floor, and when it has rebounded waist high, strikes it with his hand against the front ball, so it will rebound from the floor beyond the ace line ; that is, from the side of the ace line farther from the wall. If a served ball touches the floor inside the ace line (between that line and the front wall), it is called a short ball. The receiver may or may not play on it, as he chooses. A server loses his hand (his turn as server) if he serves three short balls in succession. He may serve any number of them with full-served balls in between. A served ball must hit the front wall before it hits either side wall, roof, or floor. To fail in this means loss of hand to the server. The served ball is sometimes so played that after striking the front wall, it will rebound from a side or back wall before touching the floor behind the ace line. This is not only permissible, but requires very skillful work from both server and receiver. A server scores an ace every time that he properly sends the ball to any part of the court beyond the ace line and the receiver fails to return it to the front wall. Every time the receiver returns the ball to the front wall, the server must recover it {i.e., hit it himself again to the wall) either on the fly or on a first bound from the floor, or his hand is out and he must exchange places with the receiver. RECEIVING. — After the ball has been served, the opponent, who now receives the ball may not hit it until it has bounded from the floor, but he must hit it when it has bounded once, or his failure scores an General Rules 279 ace for the server. The receiver may strike it with either hand and should try to so hit it that it will re- bound from the front wall to any spot on the floor, on either side of the ace line ; but it is to his interest that it should strike the floor as far as possible from the server. The latter now attempts to play the ball back to the front wall before or after the ball has bounded once from the floor. This goes on until one or the other fouls, or fails to knock the ball back to the front wall. If a served ball drops within the rectangle formed by the ace line, side walls, and front wall, the receiver, if he so desire, is at liberty to play the ball after its rebound ; but he is not obliged to do so, and his failure to do so does not score an ace for the server. If the receiver fails to send the ball back to the front wall, the miss counts as a point, or an ace, for the server. If the server misses, he is out, termed hand out. The receiver then becomes the server and the former server receives. GENERAL RULES AND POINTS OF PLAY. — HINDERS. — Each player must attempt to keep out of the way of an opponent when that opponent is running toward, or about to play, the ball. Any such interference, if unintentional, is termed a hinder, and the ball must be served again. If such inter- ference is intentional, a foul is called by the Referee. If the server interferes intentionally, he is out; but if the receiver intentionally interferes, a point (ace) is awarded to the server. A server after having been retired must be given time to prepare to receive the ball ; in other words, the 28o Handball incoming server may not jump to place, serve the ball, and catch unawares the outgoing server, who is about to receive. FOULS are (a) To use the foot to strike the ball. (b) To strike the ball with both hands. (c) To touch the ball twice in succession when batting it. (d) To stop a ball going to the front wall. If any one of the above is committed by the server, the penalty is loss of hand ; that is, hand out or end of opportunity to serve ; if committed by the receiver, a point, or ace is awarded to the server. DOUBLES. — When partners play against an oppos- ing pair, the partner who does not serve usually stands next to one of the receivers, midway between the front wall and the ace line, both players turning their backs to the left wall. The server first stands in the same position as does the server in singles, and his opponent farther back in the court. In addition, the following hinders (fouls) apply to doubles : (a) If a served ball strikes the server's partner (bounding from or touching him), it is a hinder. Penalty, loss of hand, (b) If a server's partner interferes with the ball before it is played by either of the two opposing players, it is a hinder. Penalty, loss of hand, (c) If a receiver (recoverer of serving) strikes the ball so that it touch his partner, it is a foul (hinder). Penalty, a point awarded to the receiving side. (d) If a receiver strikes either of his opponents with the ball, it is a hinder. // intentional, at the Officials 281 discretion of the Rejeree^ an ace may be awarded to the receiving side. A ball is out of play after a hinder and must be again served. SCORE. — The serving side scores an ace (one point) every time the opponents fail to return a properly served ball to the front wall after one bound on the floor. An ace is also awarded in one or two instances for fouls as noted. According to the rules of the American Athletic Union for singles, the player who first makes 21 aces wins a game ; the number of games that make up a set is determined by a Committee of the Union. Under GaeHc rules, 15 aces make a game. OFFICIALS. —A Referee and a Scorer officiate. THE REFEREE decides upon all questions of service, and return of the ball ; in other words, he decides whether or not the ball struck in the proper rectangle or court on the floor, struck the proper wall, or was hit properly. He decides when a point, termed an ace, is made, and when the player who is serving is out, termed hand out. THE SCORER keeps track of the number of aces made, has co-jurisdiction with the Referee in deciding hinders (interference with the progress of the ball) and fouls (failure to return the ball to the front wall, or a transgression of rules) . The Referee, when appealed to, should decide promptly and his decision is final. To disobey the order of a Referee or Scorer is punishable by disqual- ification. 282 Handball OUTFIT. — BALL. — Rubber handballs cost 35 cents and leather-covered balls cost from fifty cents to $1 each. DRESS. — Regulation gymnasium dress, or, for men, running costume, is worn. Both men and women should wear rubber-soled gymnasium shoes. Special gloves may be worn, and cost from 75 cents to $3. HISTORY. — The hitting of a ball against a wall is an instinctive form of play, but just when or where this became formulated into a game with rules is not definitely known. The game of Handball, as known in America, was introduced from Ireland about 1840. It is generally considered indigenous to Ireland, where it has the importance of a national game. In England the game is called '' Fives " and played in two forms with somewhat more elaborate rules. There is a plain court or Rugby game, and an Eton game played in a court having a step and a projection on one side making a " pepper box." This irregular court game originated between certain of the Eton buildings, the accident of the architectural obstruc- tions resulting in a distinctive game. The American game follows closely the Irish in form. The American rules are used in the directions given herewith. BIBLIOGRAPHY Handball and How to Play It. By Michael Egan. (New York, Spalding Athletic American Sports Publishing Company.) Court Games. By Frederick R. Toombs. New York, Spald- ing's Athletic Library. (American Sports PubHshing Com- pany.) Glossary 283 Fives. See the Encydopcedia of Sport. Edited by The Earl of Suffolk and Berkshire. (Philadelphia, J. B. Lippincott and Company.) GLOSSARY Ace. The term for point scored. Court. Enclosure in which the game is played. Doubles. Game in which two pairs of players are pitted against each other. Foul. A breach of rules. Hand-out. Term signifying that server has lost privilege of serving, and must take his turn as receiver. Hinder. A misplay, which interferes with the progress of the ball, as by hitting the person of a player. Receiver. One who is prepared to bat or return a served baU. Recovery. Successful return of the ball by the receiver. Ser\tng. Act of striking the ball, after allowing it to bound out of one's hand, at the beginning of a game or after hand-out. Short ball. A served ball that strikes the floor within the ace line. Singles. Game in which only one player competes against another. Tell board. Six-inch board at base of front wall. A ball hitting the top of this board is considered to have hit the floor, and is a foul. ICE HOCKEY ICE HOCKEY GENERAL DESCRIPTION. — Ice hockey is probably the most popular and widely used of skating games, particularly in Canada and the northern United States. In the large cities if is played in rinks, but may also be played on the open ice. The game is "usually played by two opposing teams of 6 or 7 players each, whose object is to put through the opponents' goal a small cyhndrical piece of vulcanized rubber called a puck. The puck is played entirely by long slender sticks, flattened out into a blade at the end and set at an angle to the handle. It is against the rules to play upon the puck in any other way, though it may be blocked by the body, but not propelled by it in any way. To the spectator, the game is a rapid series of dashes from one end of the rink to the other, with skillful shots of the puck and occasional scrimmages. One point is scored for a team each time it puts the puck through its opponents' goal posts from the front. The game is played in two halves of 20 minutes each with a rest of 10 minutes between ; the team wins which has scored the larger number of goals at the end of the second half. The teams change goals for the second half, guarding the goal which they previously attacked. The supreme ofl&cial is the Referee who is assisted by an Assistant Referee and two Goal Umpires, who 287 288 Ice Hockey decide whether or not the puck has gone through the goals; a Penalty Timekeeper, who keeps time for players who are penalized for infringement of rules by being expelled temporarily from the game; and two Timekeepers who keep record of the actual playing time and determine when a half is concluded. Time lost for fouls, accidents, or any other delay that puts the puck out of play is deducted in estimating the time. The Referee blows his whistle whenever the game is to be suspended in this way and again sounds the whistle or calls play when it is to be resumed. The puck is put in play by a method called facing, that is, it is thrown on the ice between the sticks of two opposing players, who try each to get it toward his own goal on the Referee's signal to play. Ice hockey in its general formation and rules is very similar to Field Hockey and bears a strong resemblance to Lacrosse. In all of these games no tackling is allowed, the only means of attacking an opponent being (i) to block him by getting in his way and com- pelling him to dodge; (2) to body-check him by a shove with a shoulder or hip from the front or side, never from the rear ; or (3) to check his stick by hit- ting it with one's own. The rules embodied in the following directions for the game are those of the American Amateur Hockey League. FIELD. — Hockey is played on the ice ; in the larger cities, in rinks which are padded around the edges. The rink must be at least 112 feet long by 58 feet wide. Two goal posts are erected at either end of the rink, at least 10 feet from the edge of the ice. Teams 289 The distance between goals is not specified. The goal posts must be firmly upright, measure 4 feet high, and be placed 6 feet apart. Attached to these goal posts is a net that must be 4 feet high and 6 feet wide. This net is sloped downward and backward to a level with the ice and captures the ball should it go through the posts. No ball scores that goes past the posts above their tallest point. Should a post or net become displaced or broken during a game, the Referee must sound his whistle to suspend the game until the damage is repaired. TEAMS. — Each team consists of 7 players who face each other from opposite halves of the field. Their positions are, respectively, the goal keeper, point, cover point, right and left wing, right and left center. The right center is called the rover. Canadian teams now number six players, right center having been dropped. POSITION OF PLAYERS. — The position of goal keeper is close to the goal. The point stands directly in front of him, and at some distance ; the cover point still farther in front of the point ; the right and left centers continue the line forward to near the center of the field ; the right and left wings stand on either side respectively at a point about midway between the right and left centers. The goal keeper, point, and cover point, are called the defense players of a team. The other four players are the forwards, the center and wings being particu- larly charged with attack play on the opponents' goal. The positions indicated are taken by the players whenever the puck is faced at the center of the field. 290 Ice Hockey It is needless to say that they shift their positions very rapidly through the game and are not restricted to J — ■■ — - Minimum 58 Ft.- (S— R.Wing ® LWing O Goaf _6a— -O •Goal -Tender Point # Cover Point R.Centre (Rover) L. Centre L. Centre ® R.Centre (Rover) (§) Cover Point -Point Goal Goal-Tender -9 LWing ® R.Wihg OPENING FORMATION OF TEAMS IN ICE HOCKEY any given territory, the only rule limiting their play being the regulations for offside play described under " Rules and Points of Play." Duties of Players 291 SUBSTITUTES. — No change of players may be made after a match begins, except for accident or injury. Should a player be injured during the first half of a game, his Captain may put in a substitute. Should such injury occur during the second half of a game, the Captain of the opposing team has the option of dropping a player to equalize the teams, or of allowing his opponents to put in a substitute. Prior to a match game, the Secretary of each Club must file with the Secretary of the League conducting the match a list of the players of his team. Prior to the opening of a game the Captain of a contesting team must hand to the Referee the names of the players in his team on forms supplied by the Secretary of the League. No player may join in a match game who has been a member of a club for less than thirty days before the game, or who does not meet all of the requirements as to amateur standing. Each team elects one of its own members to act as Captain. His duties are described under '^ Offi- cials." DUTIES OF PLAYERS : GOAL KEEPER. — The goal keeper is responsible for preventing the passage of the puck through the goal. He may block the puck with any part of his body, skates, or stick, but he may not grasp or throw it. Should he block it with his hand, he must immediately open the hand to let it drop at his feet. The goal keeper usually stops more shots with his body than with his stick. He may not lie, kneel, or sit on the ice during a game, but must main- tain a standing position. 292 Ice Hockey It is dangerous for a goal keeper to leave the goal, but he may have to do so on occasion, when the point should immediately fill his place. In defending the goal, should the puck be in front of it, the goal keeper should keep to the center. Should the puck be to the right or left, he will find it good policy to keep to that side, with his body close to the goal post. After stopping the puck, the goal keeper should endeavor at once to get it away from the vicinity of the goal either by playing it to one side or by lifting it toward the opponents' goal. It is well in this latter play to advance it to his defense, or forward players, and let them make the longer shots with it. A goal keeper's equipment may consist of padded clothing, but he may not wear any garment large enough to help him by its size in checking the puck. A goal keeper often wears shin guards, gloves, and other padded clothes for protection from shots. A short-handled stick with long blade is best for his position, and his skates should not be too sharply pointed as he will need to move around easily and quickly from one position to another. POINT. — The point is a defense player. His posi- tion should be directly in front of the goal tender and some distance from him and back of the cover point. It is unwise for the point and cover point to be too close together, as it lessens the opposition to be met by opposing players as they approach the goal. The point's position is of great importance in protecting the goal and he should stay more closely near his assigned position than any other player, except the goal keeper. Should the goal keeper need to leave his The Game 293 place, the point should immediately fall back to that position. COVER POINT. — This player is also essentially a defense player, but somewhat freer in his range of movement than the point. He should keep close to his position, if the puck is at his end, especially early in the game. He may play up toward the center when the puck is near the opponents' goal, so as to be ready to receive it if shot out by his own forwards. He may possibly shoot either goal from this position ; or, toward the end of the game, when his own forwards are tired, may help them by more advanced, aggressive work toward the opponents' goal. The cover point's position is a good one for Captain of the team, as he is in touch with both the defense and forward players, whom he may need to coach. The stick used by the cover point should have a long handle to increase his reach ; it should be rather heavy, to enable him to make long shots if necessary, and should have a thin blade for raising the puck. FORWARDS. — The four forward players, known as right and left wing and right and left center, are the attack players of a team. The center should pass the puck, when it is put in play, at the center of the field. The right center, or rover, is a very free player in the range of his activities. Although he is essentially an attack man, he must help any part of his team needing it, whether attack or defense. CAPTAIN. — Each team elects a Captain. His duties are summarized under '' Officials." THE GAME. — START. — The puck is put in play by a method called facing. This consists in its 294 Ice Hockey being placed on the ice by the Referee between the sticks of two opposing players, who, on the Referee's signal to play, try each to get possession of it or to send it to other players of his team. The puck is faced in this way in the center of the field at the beginning of each half and after each goal is scored. It is similarly faced at other times in the game as follows : After going out of bounds or off the ice behind a goal line, the puck is brought by the Referee to five yards within the goal line and at right angles to it, opposite the place at which it went out, unless that should be less than five yards from the nearest goal post, when it should be kept out to that distance. It is cus- tomary to call the two nearest opponents to face for the puck. Should the puck go off the ice on a side, it is similarly brought in by the Referee and faced five yards within the side line and at right angles to it. After a foul, the puck may, at the discretion of the Referee, or at the request of the Captain of the offended team, be taken back to the point at which it was last played previous to the foul, and there faced. The Referee has power to face the puck at any time or place he may deem necessary, and it is in order, though not absolutely necessary, to start the play in this way whenever play is resumed after a stoppage. The puck is always within play between the Ref- eree's signals of stop and start, and such intervals of time are deducted by the Timekeepers in estimating the length of the halves. GENERAL RULES AND POINTS OF PLAY. — The spirit of play in ice hockey is that the game shall be 296 Ice Hockey one of skill with the sticks, and all rules are designed to secure this character of game. The puck is advanced mostly by shoving or sliding it over the ice by means of the sticks, or occasionally by lifting it with the sticks. It is not permissible to kick the puck, to catch or throw it with the hand, or to propel it in any way by the skates or any part of the body. Its passage, however, may be blocked by any part of the body, which means that it is simply brought to a standstill, dropping dead to the ice at that point. Permissible methods for defense in hockey consist (i) in blocking an opponent (getting in front of an advancing player so that he has to dodge or go around) ; or (2) blocking the puck and getting pos- session of it with one's stick ; (3) checking the oppo- nent's stick by hitting it with one's own, or (4) body- checking an opponent, which consists in shoving him with the hip or shoulder from the front or side, never from the rear. It is quite usual for a player who has not an oppor- tunity to pass the puck to a team-mate to play it so that it will carom against the side of the rink, so avoid- ing a blocking player and enabling the player who shot it to pick it up again after passing his antagonist. In passing the puck from one player to another, it should be remembered that a skating player is advanc- ing rapidly and the puck should be aimed at some distance in front of him, not directly at him. For such passing it is better to slide the puck than to lift it, as the player receiving it is then better able to stop it. Lifting is advisable in trying to pass an opponent General Rules and Points of Play 297 and is very effective in sjiooting a goal, especially if the puck is aimed at al)out the height of a goal keeper's knee. Lifting is done quite similarly to lofting in golf. The blade of the stick is placed below the lower half of the puck, the broad surface of the blade directed upward. It IS as a rule easier to get up speed in a bent posi- tion than when upright. It is permissible to check the stick of an opponent by hitting it with one's own. Should this be done, a heavy blow should be given, as a light knock is in- effective. It is permissible to body-check an opponent as in Field Hockey and Lacrosse. Body-checking consists in shoving the opponent with one's shoulder or hip, always from the front or side. It is a foul to do this from the rear. Body-checking is rather exhausting to the player doing it, and is not advised for forwards who need their strength for dashes toward an oppo- nent's goal. The advisability of body-checking, on the ice espe- cially, is rather questionable, and there would seem little doubt that a cleaner, higher type of play, testing more truly the skill of opponents, obtains without it. On this point the following may be quoted from Mr. Arthur Farrell's ''How to Play Ice Hockey." ^^This practice of body checking is permissible, and, to a certain degree, scientific, but it is questionable whether it be not a less noble way of overcoming a dangerous opponent, than by expert stick handling, or by some gentler means. It can- not be said to be directly in accordance with the strictest, the 298 Ice Hockey highest sense of polished, fair, scientific play. It certainly is a feat, difficult of accomplishment, to stop a man who is rush- ing towards you with the speed of an express train, and upset him without the slightest injury to yourself, but is this the fairest way of defending your flags? It savors too much of roughness, and can be the cause of a serious accident, because a fall on the ice at any time is usually painful and dangerous enough, without any additional impetus from without. If it is allowable, it is most unfair to ^body' a man into the side of the rink." No body-checking or charging may be done from the rear and no other personal interference is allowed, such as tripping, collaring, kicking, pushing, or cross- checking. By cross-checking is meant holding one's stick horizontally as a means of blocking a player. For such personal interference a player may be penal- ized by the Referee's ruling him off the ice for any time at his discretion. To receive a body-check a player should endeavor to have his feet as firmly placed as possible, but should somewhat relax the upper part of the body to break the force of the impact. Mass play for concentrated interference, as in the flying wedge in football, is contrary to the spirit and rules of hockey, as it cannot be done without infring- ing the rule against offside play, which prevents a player from obstructing an opponent in advance of the puck. The puck should be propelled from the near end of the blade, not from the farther tip, as the former gives a much stronger blow and surer aim. The stick should be grasped in both hands. A right- handed player should have his right hand advanced Offside Play 299 down the stick and the left holding the butt end, the palms directed inward. A left-handed player should grasp the stick in reverse manner. Sticks may not be raised above shoulder height, except in lifting the puck. OFFSroE PLAY. — The only rule limiting the part of the ground at which a player may play on the puck is that governing what is called offside play. A player must keep on his own side of the puck, that is, between the puck and his own goal. In other words, he is said to be offside and may not play on the puck, when the puck is behind him as he faces the opponent's goal, if it is being played by any member of his own team. No player may, therefore, advance beyond the puck toward the opponent's goal, to receive a pass from one of his own team. As soon as an opponent touches a puck that is be- hind a player, or is touched by it in any way, even as to his clothing or skates, an offside player is put onside ; that is, he is then at liberty to play the puck. This is true whether the opponent be behind him or not. It is also put on-side when one of his own team advances in front of him ; that is, gets nearer to the opponent's goal than himself, carrying the puck with him, or after he, the advancing player, has played it. Any player who is offside may not interfere with an opponent any more than he may play the puck, until the latter has been played or touched by an opponent or one of his own side has passed him. The only exception to this offside play is for a defending team, when the puck rebounds from its goal keeper's body. Under such circumstances, any 300 Ice Hockey player between the puck and the goal is at liberty to play on it. The penalty for off-side play consists in the puck's being brought back and faced at the point where it was last played before the offense occurred. The Referee or his assistant make all such rulings as to offside plays and their penalties. Most goals are scored on a rush, not from a scrim- mage. Long shots, or those taken at a wide angle from the goal, are most liable to be unsuccessful. A shot that lifts the puck is apt to be a successful one, especially if it raises the puck to about the height of the goal keeper's knee. FOULS. — STICKS. — It is a foul to lift a stick higher than the shoulder, except in lifting the puck. It is a foul to throw one's stick, to hit or trip an oppo- nent with it, or to use it for cross-checking. Any player who loses his stick through the game must leave the ice until he secures another. PLAYERS. — Body-checking, or any form of charging from behind, is a foul. It is also a foul to trip, kick, collar, push, cross-check, or hold with the hand or stick any player. No player may interfere in any way with an oppo- nent who is not playing the puck. it is a foul for any player to use profane or abusive language to any other player or to an official. It is a foul for the goal keeper to sit, lie or kneel on the ice during the game; he must maintain a standing position. PUCK. — It is a foul to catch or throw the puck with the hand, to carry it with any part of the body Fouls : Score 301 or to knock (propel) it by any part of the body. In other words, the play on the puck must be entirely with the stick. It is permissible to block the puck with the skates, stick, or any part of the body, but in this case it may not be grasped or carried. PENALTIES. — The penalty for a foul consists in the offending player's being ruled off the ice for the entire match or for any part of it, at the discretion of the Referee. It is customary for the Referee to specify a rather short interval (as ten or fifteen minutes) for which a player is to be thus penalized. The Penalty Timekeeper keeps a record of this trans- action and notifies the offending player when he may return to the game. For OFFSIDE PLAY, the penalty consists in returning the puck to the point from which it was last played before the foul occurred and there having it faced. Should a foul occur behind the goals, the Referee brings the puck five yards within the goal line at right angles to the latter, and at least five yards from the nearest goal post, and there has it faced. SCORE. — One point is scored for a team for each time it sends the puck through the opponents' goal. The Umpire, stationed behind the goal, informs the Referee when the puck has thus gone through, and the Referee decides if a goal has been made and an- nounces the score. A puck to score must pass between the goal posts at a height lower than their highest point. The game of hockey is played in two 20-minute halves, with an intermission of 10 minutes between. Any other stops occurring through the game, as for 302 Ice Hockey fouls, puck off the ice, etc., must be limited to 5 minutes. The Timekeepers keep record of the time, estimating it from the Referee's sequel to play, and deducting any time between his signals to stop and resume the game. They usually sound a gong at the end of the halves. The teams change goals for the second half. The team wins which has scored the greater number of goals at the end of the second half. TIES. — Should the score be a tie at the end of a second half, the play continues until one side secures a point, unless otherwise agreed by the Captains before the game. MATCH AND CHAMPIONSHIP GAMES.— Championships within a League, or between Leagues, are decided by a series of games decided on at a Con- vention composed of one delegate from each club represented. Each club so entered should play every other club in the series, the club winning the greatest number of games being declared the champion. The place for playing such games must be arranged for by the Executive Committee of the League arranging for the championship. The Captains of contesting teams must give the names of their players on written forms supplied by the Secretary of the League to the Referee at the opening of each game. No player is eligible who has not been resident within fifty miles of the headquarters of his club within sixty days previous to the game, and a member of the club at least thirty days. No player who has played in any other club during the current season is eligible for such match games. Officials 303 The Referee for championship games must be selected at these conventions. The goals, nets, and pucks must be in accordance with the specified rules. The home club must furnish the Referee with a new puck before a match begins. OFFICIALS. — The supreme official for a game of hockey is a Referee. For match games he may have an Assistant Referee, and should always be assisted by two Umpires and two Timekeepers, selected, like himself, by the Captains of the contesting teams, and a Penalty Timekeeper, selected by himself, who keeps the time for offending players who are penalized by exclusion for a Kmited time from the game. REFEREE. — The Referee is in supreme charge of the game. He may be either an amateur or profes- sional, but must not belong to the competing clubs. The duties of the Referee cover the control of the game in all points, as to when it shall start and stop, the observance of rules and infliction of penalties for their infringements and the awarding of goals. He has full control of all players and other officials, as well as all disputes, and his decisions are final. Prior to the beginning of the game, the Referee shall assign an Umpire to duty behind each goal. These positions shall not be changed during the game. He shall also make sure that the timekeepers understand their duties. In case of dispute as to the positions of Umpires or Timekeepers, it is within the power of the Referee to remove and replace them during a game. The Referee, prior to a game, should inspect the field to see that the ice is in condition and that goal 304 Ice Hockey posts and nets are properly placed and meet the re- quirements. He should inspect the players as to their equipment ; to see that rules are observed as to skates (which may not be sufficiently sharp or pointed to injure other players), and as to sticks (which may not have a blade wider than three inches nor longer than thirteen inches. The length of the stick other- wise is not specified.) The Referee should address the players before the game, reminding them of the rules against personal interference, abusive or profane language, and dis- cussion with officials other than their own Captain, warning them that he will strictly enforce the penalties for infringement of these rules. The Referee starts the game at the opening of each half by placing the puck to be faced in the center of the field and also after each goal scored. He does this by placing the puck on the ice between two opposing players who try for it on his signal to play. Should they not succeed in playing fairly for it, he is at liberty to rule them away and call for two other players. The Referee faces the puck similarly after it goes out of bounds, — that is, off the ice. Should this happen back of a goal, he brings the puck five yards within the goal line, at right angles to the latter and opposite the point at which it went off the ice, unless that should be nearer than five yards to the nearest goal post, when he should move it out to that distance. The two nearest opponents are usually called to face under the circumstances . Should the puck go off the ice on the sides, the Referee brings it in similarly at right angles to the side lines and five yards within them. Officials 305 The Referee sounds his whistle for play to stop after each goal scored and after each foul or irregularity of play. The puck is not played from the time he signals for play to begin until he gives such a signal for it to cease. It is out of play and may not be touched by any player after he has signaled for play to stop until he again orders play to be resumed. After a foul the Referee usually faces the puck at the point at which it was last played before the foul was committed. The Referee will need to follow the game very dosely, keeping within view of the puck, but not so close to the players as to interfere with them or with the puck. It is well, if the puck is in the center, for the Referee to keep to the side, and vice versa, and he should move from end to end of the ground as neces- sity dictates. The Referee should be thoroughly familiar with all rules about personal interference, which are counted fouls, such as tripping, charging from behind, kick- ing, collaring, shinning, striking personally or with the stick, or throwing a stick. For such foul he may rule off the ice for the entire match, or for any portion of its playing time as he sees fit, the player committing the foul. The Penalty Timekeeper should keep for him a record of the player's name, the offenses, and the time at which the penalty begins and ends. It is the duty of the Penalty Timekeeper to inform a player when he may return to the game under this ruling of the Referee, and to see that he does so. The Umpires report all goals scored to the Referee, who announces these scores and also the final result 3o6 Ice Hockey at the end of the game. The Timekeepers keep the written records of these, as far as announced by the Referee. If any variance occurs in the time of the two Timekeepers, who note the length of the halves, they report this promptly to the Referee, who decides the question. UMPIRES. — Two Umpires are chosen for each game by the Captains of the contesting teams. The duties of the Umpire are concerned entirely with deciding whether or not a goal has been made. Each Umpire is assigned to his position behind a goal, by the Referee, before the game begins, and holds this position without change to the end of the game. The puck is considered to score only when it goes between the goal posts from the front below the level of their tops. An Umpire should immediately signal to the Referee when a goal is thus made. Should any dispute arise as to the decision of an Umpire, the Referee may remove and replace him. TIMEKEEPERS. — Two Timekeepers are appointed by the Captains of the contesting teams and a Penalty Timekeeper by the Referee. The duties of the Timekeepers are the same, the duplication being intended to serve as a check or cor- roboration. Any variance in time should be reported promptly to the Referee who should decide the question. In case of any dispute as to the decisions of the Time- keepers, the Referee has power at his discretion to remove and replace them. The duties of the Timekeepers consist in recording the time that should be counted in determining the Officials 307 halves of the game, which consist of twenty minutes of playing time each. They begin to reckon time on the Referee's signal to play ; this continues until his signal to stop (for a foul or other cause) or, should there be no such interruption, until the twenty minutes have expired; in other words, in estimating the twenty-minute halves, all time is deducted between the Referee's signal for play to cease and his signal for it to resume. It is usual to have a gong for the Timekeepers with which to signal the end of halves. This is required by the Canadian rules. PENALTY TIMEKEEPER. — A Penalty Timekeeper, selected by the Referee, keeps a record of any players ruled out of the game by the Referee for infringement of rules, the offense for which this is done and the time at which they may return. When this time arrives, it is the duty of the Penalty Timekeeper to notify the player and see that he returns to the game. This record is to be given to the Referee at the close of the game. Sometimes the Penalty Timekeeper is called upon to keep the score, instead of the other Timekeepers. CAPTAINS. — Each team should elect a Captain, who should be a member of the team. The Captains toss for choice of goals before a game ; they also decide before a game begins how a tie score should be settled, whether by the side which wins the first game after the end of the second half, or otherwise. It is also the duty of the Captains to make various preliminary arrangements for a game, such as deciding on a Referee, two Umpires, and two Timekeepers which are mu- 3o8 Ice Hockey tually acceptable to them. Should they be unable to decide on these officials for match games, in a league the governing body decides on the Referee and the Referee on Umpires and Timekeepers. During a game, a Captain is the only member of a team who may make a complaint to or enter into dis- cussion with the Referee. No other player on a team may discuss such points with the officials. Should any player be injured during the second half of a game, it devolves upon the Captain of the opposing team to decide whether he will drop one of his own players to equalize the teams, or allow the opponents to put in a substitute. In case of such injury during the first half of a game, his team is allowed a sub- stitute without discussion. Should there be any dispute between Captains as to whether an injured player is able or not to return to the game, the question should be decided by the Referee. It is at the discretion of the Captain whether or not after a foul committed by an opposing team the puck shall be moved back to the place at which it was last played before the foul and there faced. OUTFIT. — GOALS for ice hockey consist of two upright posts, 4 feet in height, placed 6 feet apart. These must be at least 10 feet from the edge of the ice. NETS are required on goals for all match games. These are made of heavy twdne and must be 6 feet wide and the full height of the posts (4 feet) . The net must be drawn down level with the ice, back of the goal. Outfit 309 The cost of goal posts and net complete is from $18 to $20 per pair of two goals. STICKS. — Hockey sticks are made of wood, so hard that they will not fray easily on the edges, or soak up water from the ice. No metal may be used in the construction of the stick, but it is permissible to wind the handle with tape. Sticks may be of any length in the handle, but the blade must not be more than 13 inches long, and no part of the stick must be more than 3 inches in width. Good hockey sticks cost from 50 cents to 75 cents each; for practice, 25 cents. PUCK. — Pucks for ice hockey are made of vul- canized rubber, are cylindrical in shape, and must be I inch thick throughout and 3 inches in diameter. The weight must be at least 7^% ounces and not more than j-^q ounces. Pucks for official games cost 50 cents each ; prac- tice pucks, 25 cents. SKATES suitable for hockey must not be sharply pointed or sharpened, so as to injure other players. The Referee may rule out of the game a player in- fringing this rule. Good skates for hockey may be had at from $2 to $5 per pair. GLOVES for hockey are made of leather with rattan reeds worked in the gauntlet to protect the hand from injury from opponents' sticks. These may be had at $3 per pair. LEG AND SHIN GUARDS are often worn by goal- keepers and sometimes by forwards. Shin Guards may be had at from $1 to $2.50 per pair and leg guards from $3.50 to $6. 310 Ice Hockey HISTORY. — The early history of hockey is rather obscure, but it is thought to be a development from games known in Great Britain in very early times under the names of Shinny, Shinty, and Hurling. The name of hockey is said to be first mentioned in some English statutes as early as 1527. In its present highly developed form, hockey is due to the Canadians among whom the game is widely used. Teams for shinny were organized in Canada in 1 88 1. Montreal is credited with the first organized Hockey Club ; that is, with the first club in which the game was definitely defined, with the beginning of the modern rules. The first League games in Canada were played in 1884. The game was introduced into the United States at Johns Hopkins University by Mr. C. Shearer, a student from Montreal. International games between Canada and the United States were first played in 1895. The game was introduced in Europe by Mr. George A. Meagher of Montreal. The first European team was in Paris, with London and Scotland soon following. The game is now widely known abroad. BIBLIOGRAPHY Official Handbooks Official Ice Hockey Guide. Edited by Frederick R. Toombs. Spalding's Athletic Library. (New York, American Sports Publishing Company.) History and Constitution, Rules of Competition and Laws of the Game. Ontario Hockey Association. Spalding's Athletic Library. (New York, American Sports Publish- ing Company.) Glossary 311 The Game Ice Hockey and Ice Polo Guide. By Arthur Farrell. Spald- ing's Athletic Library. (New York, American Sports Publishing Company.) The Complete Hockey Player. By Eustace E. White. (Phil- adelphia, G. W. Jacobs & Company.) With contributions by Philip Collins and L. M. and J. Y. Robinson. With thirty-two illustrations, including many special action- photographs and a plan. How to Play Ice Hockey. By Samuel Trafford Hicks. Spald- ing's Athletic Library. (New York, American Sports Publishing Company.) The Book of School and College Sports. By Ralph Henry Bar- bour. GLOSSARY Attack. Those players on a team who are charged with attack play on the opponent's goal. They consist of the forwards, center and wings. The act of trying to put the ball into the opponent's goal. Body-check. To shove an opponent with the hip or shoulder. This is permissible if done from the front or side, but never from the rear. Block. To interfere with an opponent by getting in front of him, so that he has to go around. The puck may also be blocked with the body or a stick, but not with the hand, except by the goal keeper. Check. To hit the stick of an opponent with one's own. This is permissible. Face. To put the puck in play between the sticks of two oppo- nents ; called facing the puck. Lift. To lift the puck in the air with a stroke of the stick. This is a permissible form of play. Offside. A player is said to be offside, and may not play on the puck, if he be between the puck and the opponent's goal, if the puck is being played by a member of his own team. 312 Ice Hockey Onside. a player is onside, and may play on the puck, if he be between the puck and his own goal. Puck. The cylindrical piece of hard rubber with which ice hockey is played, as a ball is played in many other games. Sticks. The long-bladed sticks with which alone the ball may be propelled in ice hockey. A call of ^'Sticks!" is sometimes used to indicate the foul of raising a stick above shoulder height. This height is allowed only in lifting the puck. Tackle. To take hold of a player with the hands or arms. In ice hockey this is a foul. Defense. Those players on a team who are responsible for defending their own goal. These are the goal keeper, point and coverpoint. The act of trying to keep the ball from one's own goal. INDOOR BASEBALL 2nd Base Left Fielder v/^ 3d Baseman /'' , 3d Base <^ 3x7 Ft. Pitcher's Box ""^ ^ • 2nd Baseman Right Fielder I8xl8'" 1st dasemar) e^ Ist Base Batter's Box- Batter if Right Handed XHomd Pla r .*^ ^ 1 ^ 3x4 Ft. 4th 3x4 Ft: Batter's Box Batter if Left Handed 2hd Umpire Base INDOOR BASEBALL Diagram of field and position of players at start of gamSo 314 INDOOR BASEBALL GENERAL DESCRIPTION. — Indoor baseball is an adaptation of the regular game of baseball to limited space and the indoor conditions prevailing in the usual gymnasium. A space 40 X 50 feet is about the smallest practicable for a successful game. The game has also grown very popular for use in small outdoor spaces, and has gained favor as much for women and girls as for men and boys. The modi- fications from the regular outdoor baseball include implements* size of ground, number of players, and several changes in the rules of play, as follows : The infield or diamond is smaller, measuring for the usual gymnasium 27 feet on each side, instead of 90 feet as in the outdoor game. For large armory floors it is sometimes enlarged to 35 feet. The pitcher's box is farther from the batter than in the regular game, and the batter's boxes are somewhat smaller. The bases are smaller, and are not fastened to the floor. The ball is larger and softer than the outdoor baseball, being made to go a shorter distance when batted, and to be less harmful should it hit anything. The bat is shorter and smaller in circumference, and with it the ball cannot be batted to so great a distance as with the regular outdoor bat. The game may be played with different numbers of players, though nine is the usual number. With nine, the right fielder usually comes into the diamond 315 3i6 Indoor Baseball as a shortstop on the right side, and the center fielder moves to the right. The second baseman remains on his bag (second base). With seven players these two shortstops are dispensed with. The most important differences in playing rules are : (a) The ball may be pitched only with a full swing of the straight arm at the side, — never an overhand throw. The arm may not be brought above the shoulder. (b) A ball is fair or foul according to its first point of contact, and not according to where it rolls, as in the outdoor game. (c) There may be no stealing of bases, a base runner not being allowed to leave his base while the pitcher holds the ball. (d) The batsman, in overrunning first base, may turn either to right or left. (e) Base runners for second, third, and home bases are not out if they overrun the base, as in the out- door game, provided, however, that they carry the base with them. (/) Two Umpires are required, one who calls bails, strikes, and all other matters relating to the ball, or to pitching or batting; this Umpire stands behind the catcher. The second Umpire stands about ten feet back of this position and to one side ; he judges of base plays except at the home plate. The two Umpires exchange places at the close of each full inning. As in the regular outdoor game of baseball, the game is played by two opposing teams, usually of nine General Description 317 members each. The members of one team — those '' at bat '' — go into the game one at a time. This player enters as a batsman, and if successful becomes a base runner. The team at bat scores one point for each player who successfully touches in their regular order all four bases, finishing at the home plate where he started as a batter. This may all be done in one run (called a home run), or the runners may stop at the different bases en route as points of safety. The opposing team, called fielders, may prevent these runs by intercepting or heading off the base runners. This is done by tagging a base runner with the ball held in the hand of the tagger when the base runner is between bases, or by touching (while holding the ball) the base he is trying to make before he can get there. The batsman may also be put out before he becomes a base runner, by failing to bat at three good balls. A good ball is one pitched so that it passes over the home plate at a height between the batsman's knee and shoulder. Such a pitched ball is called a strike ; a ball pitched outside these limits is called a ball. The Umpire decides and calls in the case of each ball pitched whether it be a ball or a strike. The pitcher tries to pitch balls that will curve unex- pectedly, or otherwise lead to poor play by the bats- man. The batsman is obliged to run on a third strike, if the catcher did not hold the ball ; otherwise he is put out by being touched with the ball. After a fourth ball (poor ball), the batsman is entitled to proceed without interference to first base. When three pl^^yers of the team '' at bat " have been 3i8 Indoor Baseball put out, either while batting, or as base runners, it is called a half inning and the teams change places. A game consists of nine such innings for each team, and the team wins which has scored the largest number of runs in that time. The details of the game follow, and notes indicate differences from the usual game of baseball, which is here referred to as the regular, or outdoor, game. FIELD. — Indoor baseball may be played on al- most any clear floor space large enough to be used for a gymnasium, if not proportioned too long and narrow; 40 X 50 feet is about the smallest space that admits of a good game. On such a field is out- lined on the floor an I INFIELD OR DIAMOND. — This consists of a square placed cornerwise to the outlines of the general in- closure, giving it somewhat the appearance of a dia- mond. For a gymnasium floor the official rules call for an infield measuring 27 feet on each side. This infield is placed at one end of the room, leaving at least ten or fifteen feet behind the home plate for the catcher ; that is, between the corner nearest one end of the room and the wall. On a very large floor, as in an armory, the diamond is enlarged to 35 feet square. On such a field all other dimensions remain the same as here described, except the distance of the pitcher's box from the home plate, as described under ^^ Bases.'' BASES. — Within each of the four angles of the infield is placed a base. That nearest the end of the room is called the home plate or fourth base, and consists of a sheet of rubber one foot square. The Field 319 balls are pitched for this plate, and the boxes, in one of which the batsman stands, are drawn on either side of it. In the other three corners of the infield are placed bags measuring i^ feet square on their upper and lower surfaces, and a few inches thick. These are half filled with sand, sawdust, or other soft material, and must not be fastened to the floor. These constitute the first, second, and third bases, going to the right from the home plate. pitcher's box. — An inclosure within which the pitcher stands is drawn on the floor, and measures 7X3 feet. It is on a direct line forward from the home plate, and its forward line is required, on a 27- foot field, to be 23 feet from the center of the home base. On the 35-foot field used on armory floors, the pitcher's plate is 30 feet from the center of the home plate. FOUL LINES. — The rear outlines of the diamond — that is, the lines running forward from the home plate to first and third bases — are continued forward to the boundaries of the ground, forming foul lines. The diamond and the ground forward of it between these foul lines is fair ground, and that to the rear of them foul ground. Note. — The most important differences between the laying . out of the ground for the indoor and outdoor or regular game of baseball are, that in the game of indoor baseball, no place is defined for the catcher as in the outdoor game : he merely stands directly behind and close to the batsman ; there are no three-foot lines as a limit for base runners, and no coachers' or players' lines, as in the outdoor game * the diamond is 320 Indoor Baseball smaller; the bases are smaller and not fastened to the floor;, the home plate is smaller and square instead of five -sided ; the pitcher's box is larger and is placed nearer to second base, and the batter's boxes are shorter. TEAMS: INNINGS. —A team may consist of seven or nine players. Two such teams are neces- sary for a game. Only one team may score at a time, that is, the team at bat (the team batting and run- ning bases) . The players of the opposing or defensive team are called fielders, and the two teams exchange places when the team at bat has had three players put out, as explained under '' Batsman ^' and " Base Runners.'^ This turn at bat is called a half inning, and a game consists of nine such innings for each team. (For junior players this is sometimes shortened to seven.) When a team is at bat, each player on it enters the game as a batsman, and, if successful, becomes a base runner, so that each member of each team should be qualified to play these two positions. In addition, when a team is in the field (on the defensive), its players specialize on different positions. For the indoor game these are not as closely defined as in the outdoor game ; all are called fielders and are disposed at the direction of the Captain of the team, who may vary or interchange the position of basemen, fielders, and shortstop. In the outdoor game there is a pitcher, catcher, a keeper, or guard for each of first, second, and third bases, called basemen (the catcher serves as baseman on the fourth or home base), a right, left, and center fielder, who field (catch and return) balls batted far outside the diamond, and a shortstop who Batsman 321 fields balls falling near the left boundary of the dia- mond. In the indoor game the positions of all but pitcher and catcher may vary considerably, especially the fielders and shortstop. The right fielder is often made a shortstop on the right-hand side, the center fielder playing more to the right. A usual position for players is shown in the diagram. The Team at Bat BATSMAN. — BATTING ORDER. — Each player on every team has, at some time during a game, and perhaps many times, to take his place as batsman; the names of the players in the order in which they will go to the bat are written down by the Captain of the team and handed to the Umpire before the game. This is called the batting order. The opposing Cap- tain is privileged to see this order. The Score Keeper calls the players to the bat by name as they come in the batting order. A player may be declared out by the Umpire should he fail to take his position as batsman within one minute after being called. After the first inning, the player to be called to the bat is the one whose name appears on the batting order next to the one who last completed his time at bat. A player is considered to have completed his time at bat when he has been put out or become a base runner ; the only exceptions to this are when he has been given a base for poor play on the part of the opponents for (a) four balls, (b) being hit by a pitched ball, or (c) interfered with by the catcher, or (d) when he 322 Indoor Baseball makes a sacrifice hit. In these cases he is not con- sidered to have completed his time at bat. batsman's place. — The batsman stands in one of the batsman's boxes, beside the home plate, making his choice of the two according to whether he be right or left handed. The batter must stand entirely within his box. To step outside it in batting consti- tutes a foul strike and puts the batter out. BATSMAN'S DUTIES IN GENERAL. — The main ob- ject of the batsman is to hit the ball, pitched to him by his opponent, the pitcher, so far, or so effectively, as to be able to run to first base at least, and if possible farther., before the ball can be fielded (caught) by the opponents and thrown back to a baseman in time to put the batsman out before he can reach his base. This putting out may be done either by (i) tagging the batsman with the ball (held, not thrown) while he is between bases, or (2) by an opponent standing on the advance base with the ball in his hand before the batsman can reach it. It is also a batsman's duty to so bat the ball as to give his team-mates who have become base runners a chance to advance. Sometimes he does this with a hit that he knows will, in all probability, enable the opponents to put him (the batter) out. This is called a sacrifice hit. The kinds of ball pitched to him, the way in which he bats them or tries to, and whether or not the opponents catch them, all determine whether or not the batsman is entitled to run for first base, or whether or not he must be allowed to take it without inter- ference, as a penalty to the opponents for poor play. Strikes and Balls 323 STRIKES AND BALLS. — A batter is allowed three good chances to hit the ball, and must then become a base runner whether he has hit the ball or not, pro- vided the catcher drop the last chance ; if the catcher holds the third good ball (makes a good catch), the batter is '' out." Note. — When there is only one man already out, a call of '^ Third strike!'' puts a batsman out if there be a base runner on first base. A good chance, or good ball, is one that passes over the home plate, and does so at a height not greater than the batter's shoulder, or lower than his knee. This is called a strike, whether he hits it or not. A poor ball is one that does not pass over the home plate, or that goes over it higher or lower than the limits mentioned. This is called a ball, as distinguished from a strike. The Umpire judges of every ball pitched, and calls aloud "^ Ball '' or ^^ Strike '' (and how many, as " Two balls,'' " Three balls ") after every ball pitched. On '* Four balls " the batsman may advance to first base without interference from the opponents. This is called giving him a base on balls. Should a batsman make a mistake and hit, or hit at, a poorly pitched ball (a ball as distinguished from a strike), it counts against him as one of the three strikes to which he is entitled. A ball which he intentionally gets in the way of, so that it hits his person and becomes a ^^ dead ball," is also called a strike. A skillful pitcher will try to mislead a batsman by so pitching the ball that it suddenly swerves to one side 324 Indoor Baseball or the other, or upward or downward, just as it reaches the plate. FAIR AND FOUL HITS. — A fair hit ]^ a ball so batted that it falls within the infield or diamond, or forward of it between the foul lines, or on these lines. A foul hit is one that falls to the rear of these limits. The first touch of the ball to the floor or other object determines whether it be foul or fair. Note that the term '^foul hit'' refers to the part of the ground to which the batsman hits a ball, and *'foul strike'' to his stepping out of the batter's box while batting. A fly ball caught by the opponents, before the ball hits anything, whether the ball be foul or fair, puts the batter out. Unless sure that his hit was to foul ground, a bats- man should throw down his bat and run immediately upon making a hit, without waiting to see if it be fair or foul ; if the hit be foul and the ball not caught, the batter should return to his box. SUMMARY OF RULES FOR BATSMAN.— THE BATSMAN SHOULD RUN FOR FIRST BASE, BUT MAY BE PUT OUT (i) by being tagged with the ball before reaching it, or (2) by an opponent's being before him on the base holding the ball, under the following circumstances : (a) If he bats a ball to fair ground (a '' fair hit ")• The only exception to this is when the opponents catch a fly ball ; that puts the batter out. He should run instantly, however, on a fair hit, without waiting to see if the ball is caught. (b) If three strikes are called. Here, again, the The Batsman is Out 325 batsman should run instantly, without waiting to see if the ball is caught by the catcher. A fly catch of such a ball puts him out anyway. THE BATSMAN IS OUT : (a) If the opponents catch any fly ball from his bat before it touches any other object, whether it goes to fair ground or foul. (b) If a third strike is similarly caught before touch- ing the ground or any other object, whether the bats- man has hit it or not. (c) If three strikes are called when there is one player only out and one on first base. (d) If, on the third strike, he is hit by the ball. (e) If he makes a foul strike ; that is, bats the ball while stepping or otherwise touching the ground out- side . the batter's box. Note that the term ^' foul strike " refers to the batter's position while batting, and '^ foul hit " to the part of the ground to which he sends the ball. (/) If he interferes with the catching of the ball in any other way than by batting. (g) If on his third strike he purposely gets in the way of the ball so that it hits him and becomes a dead ball. (h) If he kicks or otherwise interferes with a ball he has just batted. (i) If he fails to be in position for batting within one minute after being called by the Umpire. (/) If he bats out of his turn. THE BATSMAN IS ENTITLED TO FIRST BASE WITH- OUT INTERFERENCE (i.e., without liabiUty of being put out) : 326 Indoor Baseball (a) When the pitcher has dehvered four ^^ balls " (i.e., four balls as distinguished from '' strikes")- The batsman should run for the base instantly when he hears the Umpire's call of '' Four balls ! " (b) When the pitcher delivers the ball illegally; that is, (i) when, in pitching it, any part of his person is out of the box ; (2) when he fails to heel the rear line of the pitcher's box with bpth feet just before throwing ; or (3) when he takes more than one step in the act of pitching. (c) If a fair-hit ball strikes the person or clothing of the Umpire. Note.. — The main differences between rules for batsmen in the outdoor and indoor games are that in the indoor game the batsman is not entitled to a base on ^^ balls'' by the pitcher (only on illegal delivery). BASE RUNNERS. — IN GENERAL. — The score in baseball is made entirely through the running of bases, one point being scored for each player who suc- ceeds in touching, in regular order, the first, second, third, and fourth bases. The latter is the home plate, over which the ball is pitched and beside which the batter stands before he becomes a base runner. The circumstances under w:hich a batsman may become a base runner are explained under '' Batsman.'' He may be able to run only to first base on a hit, or to second base (called a two-base hit) , or to third base (three-base hit) , or even make the entire circuit to the home plate, called a ^' home run.'' Nothing scores but reaching the fourth base, or home plate, after touching all of the other bases, and that scores one Base Runners 327 point, whether made in a home run or by stopping e?i route at the bases. Bases may be made either by running or by sliding. The latter is often done at full length on the ground. In this indoor game it is good form in sliding a base to approach it head first, with an arm extended, but there is no rule about this. The object of the opposing team, which is ^^ in the field,'' is to put out the base runners before they can get to the fourth base. This is done (i) by tagging a runner with the ball, held in the hand, not thrown ; or (2) by a player holding the ball while on a base before the runner gets to it. A base is a point of safety, and no runner may be put out or touched out while he is touching a base to which he is legally entitled. It is only between bases that the danger lies. Any player of the opposing team may put out a base runner, and the opponents will assist each other to do this by throwing the ball to any player who is in a position to put out a runner. There are certain conditions under which base runners may or may not run to the next base, and in indoor baseball these follow very closely the conditions that allow the batsman to try for first base. One of the distinctive points of indoor baseball is that, because of the limited distances, the stealing of bases is restricted by the rules under which players may advance. Only one runner may be on a base at a time. When a runner comes to an occupied base, the runner there before him is obhged to advance. This is called being forced off, or a forced run. 328 Indoor Baseball RULES FOR BASE RUNNING : RUNNER FOR FIRST BASE. — The runner for first base is not obliged to follow the base line or keep within a specified distance of it as for the other bases, or as in the regular out- door game. A runner may overrun (run beyond) first base without liability of being put out after touching it, provided he returns at once 'and touches it again. Having done this, he is liable to be put out if off base. A runner may overrun first base and keep right on to second base, without returning and touching the first, but loses the exemption from being put out while off base after passing first. In overrunning first base the runner may turn either to right or left to return to the base. The conditions under which the batsman is entitled to try for first base, or is accorded it as a penalty to the opponents for poor play, are given under " Bats- man." RUNNERS FOR SECOND, THIRD, AND FOURTH BASES : THREE-FOOT LIMIT. — In running for these bases, a runner must follow closely the base line (out- line of the diamond). Should he go more than three feet away from this on either side, to avoid a fielder with the ball, he is out, unless the fielder be neces- sarily in the base runner's path to catch a batted ball ; in such a case the runner may diverge without penalty. OVERRUNNING BASES. — A runner for second or third base may overrun or overslide the base without liability of being put out, provided he carry the bag with him and cling to it, and also provided he return the bag to its proper place before going on to another base. Base Runners 329 In overrunning the fourth base, or home plate, it is not necessary to return to it if he has, in passing, touched the base or the place, where it should be. BASE RUNNERS MAY START from first, second, or third bases only when the ball is not in the hands of the pitcher. From the time the pitcher gets the ball, until it leaves his hands in a throw or pitch, base runners must touch their bases. The rules also seek to limit the stealing of bases by holding runners on bases until the result of a pitched ball be known, and though runners take some chances on these, the stealing of bases is much less than in the regular outdoor game. The rules referred to are as follows : Should the batted ball be a fly (either to fair or foul ground), and the opponent catch it, the base runner may start from his base only after the catch. He may, however, start immediately after such a catch is made. Should he have started before the catch, in an attempt to steal a base on the chance that the ball will not be a fly catch, he must return and touch his base before making the advance. A base runner may make as many bases as possible when the ball goes among the spectators, either from the bat or a throw, unless there be special ground rules obtaining in the place where the game is played, which Hmit the number of bases. If a pitched ball is not struck, the base runner may not leave his base until it has reached or passed the catcher. This implies that he must wait to see whether or not the ball is struck. After the ball is struck, or has reached the catcher, 330 Indoor Baseball a base runner may run without waiting to seethe result, but under certain circumstances, as hereinafter speci- fied, he may not hold the advanced base, and must return to the one from which he started. FORCED RUN. — As only one player at a time may occupy a base, a base runner is obliged to advance when another runner comes to his base from behind, entitled to stay there. This is called being forced off, or a forced run. A player is Kable to be forced out while making a forced run under all circumstances, except when the batsman be given a base on balls ('^ four balls ")• STEALING BASES. — To steal a base is to take chances on reaching it before knowing whether the result of a play of the ball will entitle the base runner to stay, or compel him to return to the base from which he came. Because of the short distances between bases, the rules of indoor baseball are so framed as to make base stealing especially hazardous, and almost to eliminate it. The most effective rules for this are (i) the requirement that in the case of a fly catch from the bat a base runner must touch the base from which he starts after the catch ; and (2) that in case a pitched ball is not hit, it must have reached or passed, the catcher before the base runner may start. The Umpire can send a player back to his base for starting too soon. A RUNNER MUST RETURN to the base from which he started, and in so doing may not be put out, if the Umpire decides (a) That he started too soon ; (b) That the ball was a foul hit, not caught ; Base Runners 331 (c) That it was a foul strike (the batter out of his box) ; (d) That it was a dead ball (had hit the batter) ; (e) That it had hit the umpire. BASE RUNNER OUT. — A base runner may be put out only by a ball fielded after a fly hit from the bat. This fly hit may be either to fair or foul ground. To put him out an opponent must (i) touch him with the ball held in the hand (not thrown) while the base runner is not touching a base to which he is entitled ; or, (2) he may be put out by the opponent (holding the ball), being on the base to which the runner was legally entitled when the ball was struck. A base runner is automatically out as a penalty for bad play (i) if he interferes with a fielder's catching of a batted or thrown ball, or (2) if, in running bases, he goes more than three feet on either side of the base line to avoid being tagged out; and, (3) if a fair-hit ball hits the runner while off base, before hitting anything else. ENTITLED TO A BASE. — A base runner may advance one base without being put out, as a penalty to the opponents for certain misplays, as follows : (a) If the Umpire calls a ball (i.e., failure of the pitcher to deliver the ball after making a motion of doing so, or the pitcher's holding the ball long enough to delay the game) . (b) If the Umpire calls an illegal pitch (i.e., a delivering of the ball by the pitcher while stepping out 332 Indoor Baseball of the pitcher's box, or taking more than one step in it, or failing to heel the back line of the base with both feet just before pitching the ball) . (c) If the pitcher should not give him time to return to his base when the rules require his going back. (d) If an opponent purposely obstructs his path. (e) If a fair-hit ball strikes the Umpire. (/) If he is forced off a base by the batsman's being given a base, either on '^ four balls " or for illegal dehvery of the ball by the pitcher. COACHING. — A base runner may be coached by a player of his team called a coacher ; that is, he may have the judgment of such a player as to when it is safe to run, etc. For the rules governing coaching, see ^' coachers." Note. — The main differences in rules for base runners be- tween the indoor and outdoor games are: (i), that only a batted ball caught on the fly may be used to put a player out (this may be fielded as necessary) ; (2) that the base runner must touch the base from which he starts after a fly catch (either fair or foul), or, in case the ball be not hit, after it has reached or passed the catcher ; (3) any base runner may over- run a base without liability of being put out, but on second and third bases must carry the bag with him, and return it to place before going to the next base ; in overrunning first base he may turn either way, and is not liable to be put out if he go back to first ; but he must return and touch the base before going to second, or he may be put out before making that base. COACHERS. — Base runners are allowed assist- ance from one or two players of their own team, called coachers, who are not allowed on fair ground, but take places near first and third bases. Their help may consist only in giving advice or encouragement to the Pitcher 333 base runners. They may not address the spectators. Being in a position to see the entire field, they may be better able than the runner to know when it is safe to run, when to steal bases, etc. In indoor baseball no coacher is allowed on the field when there are no players on bases ; only one coacher is allowed when there is but one base runner, and two (never more), when two or more bases are occupied. The Team in the Field PITCHER. — DUTIES IN GENERAL. — The pitcher is that player of the defensive team who pitches the ball for the batsman to hit. The batter is his oppo- nent; the catcher, standing behind the batter, is of his own team ; together they make what is called the battery. By skillful pitching a pitcher may be able to retire a batsman before he becomes a base runner, in which capacity he may score for his team. Each batter is allowed three '' strikes,'' that is, three hits at the ball, and must run for first base on the third strike if the catcher did not hold the ball, whether or not he has hit it. Should he not hit at a good ball, it is counted just the same as one of his three strikes. What consti- tutes a good or poor ball is described under '' Strikes " and '' Balls." By skillful pitching, a pitcher may deceive a bats- man as to where the ball coming toward him will pass over the plate. This is done by pitching what are called curve or drop balls ; that is, balls that leave the hand in such a way that they suddenly swerve from 334 Indoor Baseball a direct line, either to right or left, upward or down- ward, just as or before they reach the plate. SUMMARY OF RULES FOR PITCHER: PITCHER'S PLACE. — The pitcher's box is larger in indoor base- ball than in the regular outdoor game, and is placed nearer to second base. A pitcher must stand wholly within his box while delivering the ball. Before throwing, he must take a position facing the batter, and heel the rear line of his box ; that is, touch that line with both heels. In this position he must hold the ball in front of his body in plain sight of the Umpire. In the act of delivering the ball he may take not more than one step, and that must be within the box. In playing on a large armory floor with 35-foot base lines, and 30-foot pitching distance, the pitcher may heel a line drawn across his box 18 inches from the rear, and may do this either with one or both feet. In delivery he is restricted to one step within the box, as on the smaller diagram. Any ball pitched to the bat with infringement of these regulations as to the position of the pitcher in his box, is called an illegal ball. As a penalty for such a throw, the batsman is allowed to go to first base, and runners already on bases are allowed to advance one base. THE THROW. — An underhand ^throw is the only kind allowed in pitching to the bat in indoor base- ball. The arm must be swung at the side, parallel to the body, in delivering the ball. The pitcher is at hberty to make any kind of preliminary movements with the arm, but must release the ball from a side swing. Rules for Pitchers 335 A motion to deliver the ball without doing so is called a ^^ balk/' and is penaHzed by allowing each base runner (but not the batsman), to advance one base. It is also a balk for the pitcher to delay the game by holding the ball unnecessarily. This also advances base runners a base as above. On the other hand, the pitcher must hold the ball long enough to give any base runner time to return to his base should the rules call for such return, as failure to so hold the ball en- titles the base runner to advance one base without interference. A base runner may not leave his base while the pitcher holds the ball ; should he have left it after the throw, but before the result of the play be known, he must return to his base should the Um- pire decide that (a) he started too soon ; (b) that the ball was a foul hit not caught ; (c) that it was a foul strike ; {d) that it had hit the Umpire ; ( ^ ) at any time when the Umpire calls '' Time '' ; and then he may not run again until a legal opportunity is offered after the Umpire calls ^^ Play." STRIKES AND BALLS. — A good ball is one that passes over the home plate, and in doing so is not higher than the batsman's shoulder or lower than his knee when he is standing erect. Such a good ball is called a strike. A poor ball is called a ball, as dis- tinguished from a strike, and is one so pitched that it goes outside of these limits ; that is, does not pass over the home plate, or does so higher or lower than the limits specified. The Umpire decides whether a ball be a strike or a ball, and calls it after every ball pitched. 336 Indoor Baseball There is a limit to the number of poor balls a pitcher may deUver, as the batsman is allowed to go to first base without interference on the fourth ball. This is called giving him a base on balls. Note. — The main differences between indoor baseball and the regular outdoor game, in rules for the pitcher are {a) the pitcher's box is larger and placed nearer second base ; {h) the pitcher may not step out of his box in pitching ; {c) he must stand with both heels on the rear line of the box in pitching ; {d) he may pitch the ball only in an underhand throw, with a full side swing of the arm ; {e) he must hold the ball long enough to enable base runners to return to their bases, but no longer ; (/) because of the limitations on. stealing bases, he will have less to do in throwing the ball to other players than the bats- man, for the purpose of intercepting base runners, but there are rules about this ; because of the smaller field he will have less to do in fielding the ball, but there are no rules against this. FIELDERS. — In indoor baseball, all of the players in the field, except the pitcher, are called fielders. As implied by this, there is less specializa- tion in their positions and duties than in the regular outdoor game. The Captain may assign these players to any position on fair ground that he chooses, but such assignment follows in the main the positions in the regular game. These players, five or seven in number (to make a team of seven or nine), are dis- posed in any way that may best protect the bases and field the b^^tted balls. One player is on or near each base; one or two fielders are in the outfield {ix,, forward of the diamond, between the foul lines), and one or two act as shortstops, standing usually Fielders: Catcher 337 within the diamond on either side. There is also a catcher. RULES FOR FIELDERS. — A base runner may be put out (i) by being tagged with a ball caught on the fly and held in the hands of an opponent (not thrown) ; i.e., the fielder must hold the ball in his hand after he has touched the runner ; (2) by a fielder, holding a batted ball caught on the fly by himself or one of his team mates, being on a base which the runner is trying to make before the latter can get there. It will be noticed that this fly catch is not limited to fair or foul ground, but the ball must not have touched any other object after leaving the bat before reaching the hands of the fielder. A ball may not be used to put out a runner, but must be returned directly to the pitcher, when it is (i) a foul strike (i.e., the batter out of his box) ; (2) hit to foul ground and not caught; (3) on a dead ball (one that has touched the batter) ; or (4) one that has hit a base runner off base on fair ground and so put him out. It should be noted that a foul hit caught may be used to put out a runner, and any fair hit except one hitting a base runner. CATCHER. — The catcher stands behind the bats- man or home plate. He does not have a lined-in space as in the outdoor game, and there is no rule, as in the former game, about his nearness to the plate when the ball is pitched. His main duties are quite the same as those of the catcher in the outdoor game : (i) to catch all pitched balls and either throw them to a baseman with which to put out a runner, or 338 Indoor Baseball return the ball to the pitcher ; and (2) to act as base- man, or guard for the fourth base (home plate). SCORE. — The score in indoor baseball, as in the outdoor game, is made solely by the team at bat. One point is scored for each player who reaches the home plate (fourth base), after touching first, second, and third bases in their regular order. This may be done in one run, called a home run, or by stopping at the various bases en route. The score is the same in either case. The teams change places when the team at bat has had three men put out. This is called a half in- ning. A full inning gives each team a turn at bat. That team wins which has scored the largest number of points (runs) in nine innings. The nine full innings are not played out and the game is decided on the score as it stands, if (i) the team second at bat scores more in eight innings than its opponents in nine ; or (2) if the team second at bat scores a winning run in its ninth inning before the third man is out. TIE GAME, OR DRAWN GAME. — Should the score be the same for each team at the end of the ninth in- ning, it is called a tie or drawn game. This is settled by continuing the innings until one team has a higher score than the other in an equal number of innings, or until one team has made more points than the team first at bat. For an indoor game, where darkness does not inter- fere, it is not necessary to defer successive innings to another date. Score: Records 339 RECORDS. — In addition to the actual points scored in the game, an official baseball score contains a record of the plays made by each player, set down in columns opposite his name. There are some slight differences from the outdoor game, as shown in the following table : 1ST 2ND 3RD 4TH 5TH 6th COL. COL. Col. Col. Col. Col. !z; "Z iz: "Z Z W c C c c ^ B 3 B B 3 cr cr cr cr cr ^ CD o o <-l •-t •-t ^ ►t o o o rf- tr ;:i f-f- Indoor Baseball . . B w ■ p in B p B 3 ' t3 C/3 ^ P Q r+- 13 In explanation of the above records for Indoor Baseball it should be said that : (i) The number of times at bat is the number of times completed at bat as described under '' Batsman." (2) The number of hits made are those that are not fielded or stopped at once by the opponents, enabling the runner to reach first base, before being tagged by an opposing player with the ball. (3) The number of runs is the number of complete circuits of the bases. (4) A player is credited with putting out an oppo- nent when he {a) tags him out with the ball, or {b) puts 340 Indoor Baseball him out by being on base before him with the ball. Every player put out is credited as a put-out to some one of the team in the field, even when the player is retired for a misplay of his own. Thus, the catcher is credited with a put-out when the batsman makes a foul strike, or bats out of his turn ; and a fielder is credited with a put-out when (c) he would have put a player out but for the runner's infringing the rule about not evading fielders by running off the base line, or (d) when the batsman interferes with the ball. (5) A player is credited with an assist whenever he makes a play that enables a team-mate to put out an opponent, as by throwing him the ball in time. This credit is given even when the last player fails to complete the play. (6) An error is recorded against a fielder whenever he might have played the ball, but did not, so as to prevent a base's being made. This does not apply to the pitcher and catcher for battery errors ; that is, for misplays in their capacity as pitcher and catcher ; it does apply to them for misplays in fielding. A summary of each game of indoor baseball is required of the scorer, and according to official rule, must contain the following items : (i) The score made in each inning of the game and, presumably, the total. (2) The number of two base hits, three base hits, and home runs made by each player. (3) FOR EACH PITCHER : (a) The number of hits made from his pitching ; (b) The number of times batsmen are put out on his pitching ; Officials 341 (c) The number of times batsmen are given a base on four balls ; (d) The number of wild pitches he makes ; (4) FOR THE CATCHER : The number of balls he allows to pass him without catching ; (5) THE TIME in which the game is played, men- tioning hours and minutes ; and (6) THE NAMES OF THE UMPIRES. Note. — The summary for indoor baseball differs from that for the regular outdoor game in containing the number of hits (not base hits) made from the pitching of each pitcher ; and in omitting the following items : — The number of base hits made from each pitcher ; the number of stolen bases ; the number of double and triple plays, and the names of the players assisting in these ; the number of innings in which each pitcher pitched, and the number of times the pitcher hits a batsman with a pitched ball. OFFICIALS. — Two Umpires and one or two Scorers constitute the officials for a game of indoor baseball. The Umpires are in entire charge of the game and their decisions on all matters of judgment (as to balls and strikes, the making of bases, etc.) may not be dis- puted. A Captain (no other player) may protest to an Umpire as to the interpretation or appHcation of rules, but not as to matters of judgment. The first Umpire stands behind the catcher. He starts and stops the game by calling ^^ Play ! " or '' Time ! '' ; he decides when the batsman is out or may run ; he decides all matters relating to the ball, its 342 Indoor Baseball pitching, or batting, including balls, strikes, blocks, dead balls, balks, illegal deliveries, foul strikes, and fair and foul hits ; also all points relating to the fourth base, such as whether base runners have made it or not. The second Umpire stands about ten feet back of the diamond, about midway between the home plate and first or third base. He is at liberty to move around. The second Umpire decides on all base plays except those at the home plate; that is, whether or not a player has made first, second, or third base, is out, or must return to his base. In case of doubt the two Umpires may confer. The two Umpires change places at the end of each •full inning ; that is, when each team has had a turn at bat. THE SCORE KEEPER keeps the official score according to the decisions of the Umpires, and as explained under '' Score." He should call the batters to bat, as each batter's turn comes. MATCH GAMES. — The regulations for these are quite the same as for the outdoor game. The choice of innings (which team shall go first to the bat), is determined by flipping a coin. OUTFIT. — BALL. — The ball for indoor baseball is larger and softer than that used for the outdoor game. This prevents its being batted to long dis- tances, and makes it less dangerous in hitting persons or objects. These balls vary from 15 to 17 inches in circumference, or about 5 inches in diameter, and weigh from 8 to 8f ounces. They are slightly larger than the so-called '^playground ball," but of the same soft construction. Outfit 343 The official ball specified by the National Indoor Baseball Association of the United States is not less than i6f nor more than 17J inches in circumference, and weighs not less than 8 nor more than 8f ounces. A covering of white skin is required, and most of the balls have red stitching. Good balls cost from 75 cents to $1.25 each. BAT. — Indoor baseball bats are shorter and smaller in circumference than those used in the regular out- door game, and with them a ball cannot be sent so far. Official regulations call for a bat 2f feet long and not larger than if inches in diameter in the largest part. The handle may be wound with string or tape, or have a rubber tip, to prevent sHpping and to give a firm hold. The bat must be made of wood, and may be made heavier by a metal rod passed through the center, but no loading with lead to give weight is permissible. Indoor baseball bats cost 40 and 50 cents each. BASES. — Bags for marking first, second, and third bases are made of canvas, half filled with sand or other soft material. They are merely laid in place, not fastened, as in the outdoor game. Where bases are near walls, padded gymnasium mats should be on edge against the wall as a buffer for players sHding bases. A set of three canvas or duck bases, unfilled, costs from $2 to $2.50. HOME PLATE. — A rubber home plate, for indoor baseball, is 12 inches square, being smaller than in the outdoor game, and four instead of five sided. They cost 75 cents each. 344 Indoor Baseball DRESS. — Padding at knee and hip, either made in the suit or adjustable, is very necessary for base runners, to prevent injury in sliding base. All players are required to wear rubber-soled shoes. The corrugated rubber is best. Gloves and mask are rendered unnecessary by the soft ball, but are used by many players. HISTORY* — Indoor baseball was devised in 1887 by Mr. George W. Hancock, of Chicago. The need for indoor athletic games for the winter season, and the necessity of playing in limited space, both indoors and out of doors, at all seasons, has led to wide popu- larity for the game. BIBLIOGRAPHY Official Handbook National Indoor Baseball Association of the United States; Official Handbook, (New York, Spalding's Athletic Library.) The Game Athletic Games for Women. By Gertrude Dudley and Frances A. Kellor. (New York, Henry Holt & Company, 1909.) GLOSSARY See Glossary for Baseball (regular game). LACROSSE LACROSSE GENERAL DESCRIPTION. — Lacrosse is one of the most beautiful and highly developed of the out- door team games. Its most distinctive features to a spectator are that it is played on the run, and that the ball is played by throwing and catching with a long netted stick, called a crosse, much longer than a tennis racket. The game is played on a large level field, preferably covered with turf. A goal is erected at each end, the object of the game for each team of twelve men being to put the ball through the opponent's goal. It is usually shot through by a throw from a stick, but may bound through, or even be kicked through from a scrimmage, or get through in any way except by being carried. One point is scored for a team for each goal made ; the team which has scored the larger number of goals at the end of the playing time wins. The game is played in 2 halves of 35 minutes each, with a 10 minutes' rest between. The teams change goals (defend the opposite goal) at the beginning of the second half. A very distinctive feature of the game is the forma- tion or position of the teams. Each team of twelve players is lined up from end to end of the ground ; that is, from goal to goal, instead of facing each other from opposite halves of the field, as in hockey, foot- ball, and most other team games. Each player is 347 348 Lacrosse paired off with an opponent, and usually stands at the opening of the game with his left side toward the goal he is attacking. There is no offside play, — that is, no rules prohibiting a player receiving or playing on the ball if he be between it and the opponent's goal. Neither are the players confined to any limited terri- tory ; but each has distinctive functions. An interesting point for spectators to know is that the only methods of interference allowed are '^ check- ing " and " body-checking.'' Checking consists in hitting an opponent's crosse with one's own (allow- able only when both are trying to play the ball) , either to dislodge the ball or in some other way to interfere with his stick play. Body-checking consists in shoving a player with the shoulder or hip from the front or side, never from behind. Tackling, as used in foot- ball, is not allowed, nor any form of interference with the hands. The goal keeper is the only one who may use the hands to touch the ball and then only to block it, not to catch or throw. The ball is started in the middle of the field. The ^ method of putting it in play is called " facing," and consists in two players of opposite teams putting their crosses edgewise on the ground and back to back, with the ball between them, and on a signal drawing each his own crosse rapidly away from the center. The ball is thus faced at the center at the opening of the game and at the beginning of the second half : also after a goal is scored. It is faced in a similar way from other parts of the ground at various times (after fouls, out of bounds, etc.) through the game, as explained in the rules. Field 349 The directions in the following rules are founded on the laws of the United States Intercollegiate Lacrosse League. FIELD. — Lacrosse is played on a large level field. This should preferably be covered with turf, as such covering is less shppery and makes it easier to pick up the ball from the ground with the stick than an un turfed field. No boundaries are marked for the ground, ground rules (limits) being agreed upon before the game by the respective captains. DIMENSIONS. — The distance between goals ranges from no to 125 yards ; the width is not specified, but is understood to be from 50 to 75 yards. GOALS. — The goals are placed, if possible, 125 yards apart, though a minimum distance of no yards is specified in official rules. The goals consist of two upright poles which must be 6 feet above the ground and placed 6 feet apart, connected with a rigid top cross bar. NET. — x\ttached to this goal, at the rear, is a net, pyramidal or cone shaped, extending 7 feet back of the goal and staked to the ground all around. The netting may not have a mesh of more than i^ inches in size. This net is to catch the ball as it goes through and helps to determine whether or not a goal has been made. GOAL CREASE. — The only marking on the ground, aside from the twelve-foot circle at the center which is used for facing the ball, is a goal crease, which con- sists of an outlined square or oblong surrounding the goal. This measures 12 X 18 feet, being 6 feet in front of and behind the goal posts and 6 feet to 350 Lacrosse either side of them. No goal scores if the ball is hit through from within the crease, or if, when it goes through, any attacking player be within the <-- --12 Ft. — -. ._-__5^ Goal Crease A 1 1 A 1 \ 1 3 1 if < = 6Ft --^ ■^^<9)%— 6Ft. 1 »-^ Goal Crease § 00 <—. --6Ft. ^^^>% 6Ft. ^ T w 1 '" 1 1 J 1 1 1 1 ! 1 Goal Crease y Ji^ DIAGRAM OF LACROSSE GOAL AND GOAL CREASE crease. The goal keeper may not be checked while within the crease. Teams 351 CENTER CIRCLE. — The only other marking on the grounds, in addition to the goal crease is a center circle, usually in the middle of the field, measuring 12 feet in diameter, i.e., drawn with a 6-foot radius. The ball is put in play by being faced at the center of this circle at the opening of each half and after each goal is scored. TEAMS. — NUMBER AND NAMES OF POSITIONS. — Twelve players constitute the full official number for each team. The twelve players of a team, accord- ing to their positions, beginning with the home goal, are called goal keeper, point, cover point, first defense, second defense, third defense, center, third attack, second attack, first attack, outside home, inside home. COVERING. — Each player is said to cover the opponent with whom he is paired off, when he is so close to him that he could easily interfere with his catching or tossing of the ball. In the exigencies of the game a player may leave his original protagonist to cover some other player, there being no rule as to the territory in which any man may play. Good team work, however, requires both that a player may be depended on to take care of his assigned part of the game and also that he use quick judgment as to where else he should assist his defense or aUack. GENERAL FUNCTION OF PLAYERS. — There is no offside play in Lacrosse, and, as above stated, no player is confined by rules to any particular territory, except that no player but the goal keeper (or any other man on his team, when the goal keeper needs must leave his place) may stand within the goal crease ; and any 352 Lacrosse goal made while a player of the attacking side is within the goal crease is a foul and does not score. Each team is divided generally into what are called the attack and the defense. The first three players for a team (point, cover point, and first defense) are the main defense players for a team, next to the goal keeper, and the opponents paired off with them (in- side and outside home and first attack) are the main attack players for the opposing team. The centers start the game by facing the ball, and they and the other players in or near midfield try to get the ball in the possession of their own team and feed it to their attacking members. DETAIL DUTIES : GOAL KEEPER. — The goal keeper usually takes his position at the opening of a game about one and one half feet in front of a line drawn between the goal posts. His main duty, of course, is to obstruct the ball so as to prevent its passing through the goal. He may do this with his crosse, his hands, or any part of his body. He may not catch and throw with the hand, but may block or bat the ball with the hand. Should he get possession of the ball, he should play it judiciously toward the opposing goal. It is usually safer for a goal keeper to step away from in front of his own goal to do this, rather tha» keep the ball in line for a shot through the goal. He may leave the goal or even the goal crease at any time if hecessary to assist his defense, but his absence from the goal is a dangerous thing and should be covered at once by the point or cover point. The goal keeper, while within the crease, may not Duties of Players 353 hold the ball on his crosse longer than necessary to step out of the crease. The goal keeper may not be checked within the goal crease, but may be checked outside it. No player of the attacking team may stand within the goal crease and no goal scores if any attacking player be within the crease when the ball goes through the goal. INSIDE HOME. — The inside home stands very close to the crease. With the other attack players of his side, he shoots for goal, though not so often, perhaps, as the outside home. He is paired off with the point, and should try to get between point and goal, or to entice point to one side so as to give other attacking players a better chance to shoot for goal. The inside home should be ready to pick up a ball parried by the goal keeper and play it again for goal. He must always remember that no attacking player may stand within the goal crease ; that any goal to score must be shot from outside the crease ; that no goal scores if an attacking player be within the crease when the ball goes through the goal. Also that the goal keeper may not be checked within the crease, but may be checked outside it. OUTSIDE HOME. — The outside home, the most important attack player, plays very similarly to the inside home, and also has very close team work to do with this player. He takes the place of the inside home when the latter is called away from in front of the goal. The outside home makes many shots for goal. He is paired off with cover point. 2A 354 Lacrosse FIRST, SECOND, AND THIRD ATTACKS. — These players feed the ball to their home men, trying to keep it in toward the center of the field, from which a goal may more readily be shot, and away from the outer boundaries. The first attack may shoot for goal, but it is not considered good play for second and third attack to do so. The third attack assists second in getting the ball for their team when it is faced at the center at the opening of the game or at other times, being careful to observe the rule that prohibits a player's being within lo feet of the ball until it is put in play. CENTER. — The center starts the game by facing the ball, closely seconded by his third attack and third defense men, who help him to get possession of the ball. His main duty, aside from starting the ball, is to check the opponents and feed the ball to his own attack. On rare occasions he may help the defense. POINT. — Point is a defense man who stands nearest the goal keeper. He should keep very close to the goal. He is paired off with the inside home, but should cover any man who gets near to the goal. His object is not only to check the play of such oppo- nents, but to keep the men themselves as far away as possible from the goal, as long shots are less likely to go through, and give the goal keeper a better chance to defend. Point should be able to defend the goal, and should interchange places with the goal keeper whenever the latter is away from his post. An im- portant duty of this player is to coach the other players on the defense, as he is in a position to see the whole field. Substitutes 355 COVER POINT. — Cover point is one of the main defense men. He may interchange places with point, and even serve as goal keeper in an emergency. He usually has a wider range of action than point, though, Hke all of the defense men, usually plays within a Hmited range. Of course, his main object is to pre- vent the attacking players from putting the ball through the goal. He is paired off with the outside home, but, as with any other players, may check any members of the opposing team. He should always take the uncovered man coming down the field. FIRST, SECOND, AND THIRD DEFENSE. — The men in these positions have mainly to gain possession of the ball and feed it toward their own attack. The third defense assists center in getting the ball after it is faced, observing the rule about not being nearer than 10 feet to the ball at such time. It is not considered good team play for any of the defense to try for goal, as the hazards of long shots or runs are against an attacking team. A defense man, however, if he sees an open- ing, will dash toward his opponent's goal with the ball. SUBSTITUTES. — At the opening of a game , should one team be short the required number of 12 players, the Captain of the opposing team may, at his discre- tion, drop players until the teams are equal in number, though a match game may not be played with less than 10 on each team. When a player is dropped to equalize the number on the teams, he is designated by his Captain and may or may not be from a position on the team corresponding to that of the absent player. During a Game substitutes may be put in at any time, but when this is done the Referee must be 356 Lacrosse notified by both players and the incoming player may not come on the field until the player whose place he takes, has left it. No player may return to the game having once left it. In a tie game no substitutes are allowed, except in case of injury, when the Captain of the opposing team may choose between dropping a player of his own to equalize, or allowing his opponents to put in a substitute. THE GAME. — CHOICE OF GOALS. — Before a game the Captains toss for choice of goals. The teams change goals for the second half. FORMATION OR LINE-UP. — At the opening of a game the goal keeper stands in front of his own goal and the other eleven players of a team are arranged from end to end of the field, each with his left side toward the goal he is attacking. This formation is very distinctive of Lacrosse, differing radically from most team games, in which the teams usually face each other from opposite halves of a center dividing line, as in football. In Lacrosse each player is paired off with an opponent as follows : Team A Team B ♦ Inside home Goal keeper Outside home Point First attack Cover point Second attack First defense Third attack Second defense Center Third defense Third defense Center Second defense Third attack First defense Second attack Cover point First attack Point Outside home Goal keeper . Inside home Facing the Ball 357 THE START : FACING THE BALL. — The ball is put in play by the two centers by a method called facing. This is done at the beginning of each half and after each goal scored in the center of the field. For facing, the Referee places the ball on the ground between and touching the reverse sides of the crosses of the two centers ; that is, the crosses are placed back to back, overlapping about two thirds the length of the netting. Each player must have his left side toward the goal he is attacking when the Referee calls '' Play I " At that signal, each of these two players draws his crosse straight backward toward himself {i.e., toward the butt end of the crosse, or side bound- aries of the field) . In the twirl of the ball resulting, one of these players, or his team, gets possession of it. In this play for the ball the center is assisted by his third attack or third defense. When the ball is faced, no other player may be within 10 feet of those facing the ball until it is in play. No center player may use a left-handed crosse. The ball is similarly faced from other parts of the field under other circumstances, as follows : FACING AFTER A FOUL that is claimed but disallowed. A foul that is disallowed by the Referee is penalized, at his discretion, by the player fouled being allowed a free throw, or the ball at the point where the foul was claimed, or at least 10 yards from the goal. FACING AFTER OUT OF BOUNDS. — After going OUt of bounds the ball is brought back to the point where it left bounds and faced by the nearest two opponents, the other players standing where they were when the Referee called time. 3S8 Lacrosse FACING AFTER BALL LODGING. — Should the ball lodge in a place from which it cannot be removed by the crosse, or be caught in the goal netting, it may be taken out by hand, by a player who shall face for it with his nearest opponent at lo feet within playing limits. A ball lodging in a crosse must be freed by hitting the crosse on the ground, and not with the hand. Should any player facing for the ball at other parts of the field than the center, use a left-handed crosse, which would prevent his facing properly, the ball may be put in play at such times by the Referee's tossing it between the two players, RULES AND POINTS OF PLAY. — MODE OF PLAYING THE BALL is by throwing and catching with the crosse or stick. This is done nearly always on the run, the players advancing the ball by rapid passes from one to another. It is unusual for any one player to run far with the ball because of the increased chance for checking by opponents. A ball on the ground should be recovered by stick work alone. For a dead ball, this is done by a player's drawing the ball toward him with his crosse and scooping it up when it is in motion. There is no rule against kicking the ball, but it is usually resorted to only in scrimmages or similar emergencies. On no account may the ball be played by the hand. The Goal Keeper is the only player who may touch the ball with the hand, and he may only bat or block it, not catch or throw. No goal may be scored by a ball carried through in any way. Checking: Blocking 359 INTERFERENCE WITH OPPONENTS is done by checking, body-checking, and blocking. CHECKING consists in hitting the opponent's crosse with one's own, to dislodge a ball or to prevent his catching or picking it up. This may be done, however, only when both players are contending for the ball; to check an opponent at any other time is a foul. It is a foul to detain an opponent's crosse with one's hand, leg, or with one's own crosse, or in any other way. To use the crosse for what is termed the square or cross check is strictly forbidden. This consists in charging into a player with one's crosse held in both hands so that it will meet his body. BODY-CHECKING is the only other permissible mode of personal interference with an opponent. Body- checking consists in shoving the opponent with the shoulder or hip and that only from the front or side. To do this from the rear or to body-check an oppo- nent into a fence or other obstacle are considered most flagrant fouls. No opponent may be charged or body-checked after he has thrown the ball. Tackling or tripping or checking an opponent with the hands, elbows, or feet, are strictly forbidden. It is also a foul to use the crosse in any way to strike, trip, or body-check. BLOCKING. — A player running with the ball may be blocked (aside from body-checking) only by getting between him and the goal so as to make him dodge. One may not, however, block or interfere in any way with a player who is in pursuit of an opponent or of the ball. Thus a player may not be surrounded by players of his team, forming an interference as in 360 Lacrosse football. When two players are in pursuit of the ball, one may not keep the other from it by kneeling, lying down, or dropping in front of him. There is thus a clear distinction between blocking an opponent who has the ball in his possession and one who is in pursuit of the ball or of an opponent. FOULS AND PENALTIES: SUMMARY OF FOULS. — THE CROSSE AND ITS USE. — It is a foul To take an opponent's crosse or attempt to knock it out of his hands in any way unless both are contend- ing for the ball. To hold or trip an opponent with the crosse. To deliberately strike an opponent with the crosse. To hold an opponent's crosse with the hands, arms, or legs. To throw the crosse at a player or at the ball. To use the square or cross check. To take part in the game in any way without a crosse in the hand : any player losing his crosse is out of play until he recovers it ; players are permitted, how- ever, to change crosses during a game. To check the goal keeper while the latter is within the bounds of the crease. PERSONAL INTERFERENCE. — It is a foul To strike, hold or trip an opponent; to push him with the hand. To wrestle with legs entwined so as to throw him. To body-check an opponent from behind (jump at, or shoulder him) while he is running for the ball or after he has reached it. To charge an opponent after he has thrown the ball. To forcibly body-check an opponent into a fence. Summary of Fouls 361 BLOCKING. — It is a foul To run in front of a player who is trying to get the ball, so as to keep him from it until another player reaches it. To interfere in any way with a player who is in pur- suit of an opponent. For a player who is trying to get the ball to deliber- ately drop, he down, or kneel in front of the opponent who is also trying to get it, so as to keep him from the ball. PLAYERS. — It is a foul For any player to move from his position after time is called until the ball is again faced. To attempt to influence the decision of an Umpire. To use profane or obscene language to any player or elsewhere. To take part in the game in any way without a crosse. To stand within the goal crease or to be within the crease when the ball is put through the goal. To check the goal keeper within the crease. See also ^^ Personal Interference " and ^' Blocking.'^ The goal keeper while within the crease may not hold the ball in his crosse longer than necessary to step within the crease. BALL. — It is a foul To play the ball with the hand in any way, except for the goal keeper to block it with the hand "(not catch or throw). To persistently throw the ball out of bounds, lie on the ball, or try in any way to detain it, so as to prolong the time of a game. 362 Lacrosse PENALTY AND PROCEDURE FOR FOULS. — The Referee calls time or blows his whistle for play to stop whenever he sees a foul committed or one is reported to him by a Captain, provided the player who committed the foul succeeds in taking the ball from his opponents. For a foul which leaves the ball with the opponent fouled or his team, the Referee may not suspend play. On the Referee's signal all players must stand still and remain in their places until the Referee gives the signal again to play. The ball must not be touched in the interval and should any player have it when time is called, he must drop it. Should the Referee decide that a foul has been com- mitted that has taken the ball away from the team fouled, the offense is penalized by allowing the player fouled, at the discretion of the Referee, either to have a free throw or to face the ball. In no case may this be done within 10 yards of the goal. For a mistaken claim of foul, the team claiming it is penalized by allowing the wrongfully accused player a free throw or facing at the discretion of the Referee. In addition to the above penalties the Referee has the right, at his discretion, to inflict suspension from the game on a player committing a foul, or he may first warn him and later suspend for a repetition of the offense. A player is to be removed from a match at once (no discretion allowed the Referee) for (i) profane or abusive language to any player or official during any game, or (2) for deliberately striking another with his crosse or in any other way. Time: Score 363 FREE THROW. — In a free throw the player fouled and the one committing the foul are placed in the same positions that they occupied immediately before the foul was committed, the player fouled having the ball on his crosse. At the word '^ Play " from the Referee, each is allowed to play in any manner allowed by the rules of the game. It will thus be seen that a free throw in Lacrosse does not mean the complete freedom from possible interference customary for a free throw in basket ball or a free kick in football. No free throw may be made within 10 yards of the goal. SCORE. — TIME : CHANGE OF GOALS. — The game consists of two 35-minute halves, with an interval of 10 minutes between (70 minutes of actual playing time). In estimating time, the intervals are de- ducted for fouls or ball out of bounds, from the mo- ment the Referee calls time or blows his whistle for play to stop, until he again signals for play to begin. The teams change goals for the second half. GOAL SCORE. — One point is scored for a team for each ball which it puts through the opponents' goal. The team, which has the higher score at the end of the second half wins. A ball to score must go through from the front and must be shot from outside the goal crease. No ball scores if an attacking player is within the goal crease when it goes through. The Umpire decides whether or not a goal has been made. The ball is usually shot or thrown through from a crosse, but may be kicked through or bound through or go through in any way, except by being carried. 364 Lacrosse If the goal defenders send a ball through acci- dentally, it scores for the attacking team. If a ball is put through by any one not a player, it does not score, and must be put in play again at the center. Should a goal pole be knocked down during a game, the ball scores if it goes within the limits that the pole would define, if standing. The Umpire decides this point. Should the ball enter the goal after time has been called for a foul, it does not score. Should a goal be made after a foul is claimed but before time is called, the goal is scored if the foul is not allowed by the Referee or should he decide that the foul did not take the ball from the attacking team. Should a ball enter the goal after a foul is claimed, but before time is called, and the Referee sustains the claim of foul and finds that the foul did take the ball from the attacking side, the goal is not scored and the Referee at his discretion penalizes the offender as for other fouls, by granting a free throw to the offended side or facing the ball. TIE GAMES. — In case of a tie score at the end of the playing time, play is continued after an interval of 10 minutes, for 15 minutes. The team which at the end of that time has scored the greater number of goals wins. Should the game still be a tie at the end of this 15-minute period, the Captains decide as to whether the game shall be postponed or play continued until a goal is scored or the game declared a tie. OFFICIALS. — The officials for a match game in Lacrosse consist of one Referee, two Umpires, two Timekeepers, and two Field Captains. Officials 365 REFEREE. — The Referee is the highest official in the game of Lacrosse. He is chosen by mutual con- sent; must not be a member of either of the contesting clubs (unless by mutual consent) and must be' abso- lutely non-partisan. The duties of a Referee begin before a -game. (i) He must receive from Captains the names of their respective teams and learn the Captain's deci- sion as to playing bounds ; (2) he must assign the Umpires . to their respective goals, which they will hold throughout the game ; (3) he must see that Timekeepers are on hand ; (4) he must inspect the field to see that its condition is proper and all measure- ments, including the goals, correct ; (5) he must line up the players and inspect them to see that all regu- lations are observed as to ball, crosses, and shoes. The Referee starts the game at the center, when both sides are in position, by placing the ball for facing and calling ^' Play ! " or blowing his whistle. He thus places the ball at the center, and signals for facing at the beginning of each half and after each goal is scored. He similarly starts play with facing from other parts of the ground, after the game has been suspended for fouls or ball out of bounds, but at no time may the ball be faced nearer than 10 yards to the goal. The Referee suspends play by calling " Time,'' or blowing a whistle, whenever he observes a foul or one is reported to him by a Captain, unless the player who has been fouled or one of his team is still in pos- session of the ball ; in that case the Referee may not suspend play. Should a goal be made before the Referee can call 366 Lacrosse time for a foul, he must decide whether the goal shall be allowed or not, or whether the ball shall be faced, or the opponents given a free throw. Any goal made after the Referee has blown his whistle or called time does not score. The Referee enforces the penalties for all fouls and must therefore be familiar with the fouls and their penalties. All disputes during a game are settled by the Referee and his decision is final. All complaints must be made to him by the Captains of the respective teams and no other members of a team may enter into discus- sion with him, unless at his own request. The Referee must hear both sides of a question before making his decision. Throughout a game the Referee has authority over all other oflScials. Should complaint be made against the decision of an Umpire, and the complaint be proven, the Referee must remove the Umpire and appoint a successor, setting aside and reversing the decision to which exception was taken. This may occur at any time through the game. Except in such a case (where the decision of an Umpire is questioned) the Umpire's decision as to the making of a goal shall be final and must be accepted by the Referee. The Timekeepers report to the Referee when the time of halves has elapsed or at any time through a game. When the two Timekeepers do not agree, they report the fact promptly to the Referee, who at once decides the question. The Field Captains are under the control of the Officials 367 Referee as well as the players of their teams, and are subject to the same rulings. The Referee may order a Field Captain to leave the game for infringement of rules, and in case of his refusal to comply, the Referee shall declare the opposing team to have won the game. UMPIRES. — The two Umpires are chosen for a match game by the Captains. Their positions are directly behind the goals, one for each. They are assigned to their respective goals by the Referee, before the Captains toss for choice of goals. An Umpire remains at the same goal throughout a game, not changing when the teams change goals. The duty of an Umpire is to decide when a goal has been made. This decision is final, and he must give it without comment, simply saying '' Goal " or '' No Goal." Should a Captain take exception to the ruling of an Umpire, the Referee must at once investi- gate the matter, and should he find that the ruling was unfair, must at once remove the Umpire for the re- mainder of the game, and appoint a successor. An Umpire must, of course, be familiar with all of the rules under which a goal may be scored, as follows : A goal may be scored only by a ball passing between the goal posts and below the cross bar from a shot made from in front of the goal and from outside the goal crease and while none of the attacking team are within the crease. A ball ^accidentally put through by the defending team, scores for the attacking team. The ball may be thrown from a crosse, batted, kicked, or bound through, or go through in any way, except being carried, or thrown by the hand. 368 Lacrosse TIMEKEEPERS. — The rules call for two Time- keepers to be appointed, one by each Captain. Their duties consist in 'deciding when the 3 5 -minute halves, or the full playing time of the game, have transpired. The time is estimated from the moment the Referee blows his whistle or calls '' Play," for the first facing, and in estimating it, deductions should be made for any stoppages of actual play, such as those required for ball out of bounds, fouls, disputes, or injuries to players, for any of which causes the Referee calls time. The guide for the Timekeeper is the Referee's signal. These interruptions are estimated from the moment the Referee calls time or blows his whistle, until he signals for play to again begin. Of course a Time- keeper should use a stop watch. When there is a difference of opinion between two Timekeepers they must report this promptly to the Referee who at once makes a final decision on the question. FIELD CAPTAINS. — Each team selects a Field Captain to superintend or take general direction of its play and players throughout a game. A Field Captain must be a member of the Club for whose team he acts ; he may or may not be a player of the game. If not a player, he may not carry a crosse, or be in the uni- form of the team, and in this case the opposing Cap- tain must consent to his serving. Captains are subject to the authority of the Referee and may be expelled from the game by that official or violation of rules. The Captain's duties begin before a game, when each Captain must (a) select a Timekeeper ; (b) give Outfit 369 a list of the players of his team and substitutes to the Referee ; {c) decide with the opposing Captain on the bounds of the playing field ; (d) toss for choice of goals. During a game, besides taking general direction of the game, it devolves upon a Captain to make all claims for fouls to the Referee, no other member of a team being permitted to do this. The Captain is the only member of a team who may represent his team in a discussion with the Referee. The Captain may have to decide during a game or before it, any questions arising as to substitutes. The Captain may request the Referee to remove an Umpire whose decision seems to him unfair. In case of a tie game, after an extra 15 minutes of play, it devolves upon the Captains to decide whether a game shall be declared a tie, or play con- tinued until a goal is won, or the game postponed. OUTFIT. — CROSSE. — The crosse is made from a long stick, rounded at one end (the butt) and flattened at the opposite end ; the fiat end is drawn around in a curve, which forms the end for the widest part of the netting. It is thus a curved crook or stick. The specifications for the size and make of a crosse are arbitrary. The crosse may be of any length, but must not exceed one foot in width at the widest part. The netting must be of catgut or clock string or rawhide, not of cprd or soft leather. '' A string must be brought through a hole in the side of the tip of the turn, to prevent the point of the stick from catching an opponent's crosse. A leading string 370 Lacrosse resting on the top of this stick may be used, but must not be fastened so as to form a pocket lower down the stick than the end of the length strings." A bumper or stop may not be used. No metal in any form, whether wire or sheet, or any screws are allowable in a crosse. Each player should have two crosses, well broken in, for every game, the alternate to be used in case of accident. A player without a crosse in his hand is considered out of play. The best crosses for adults cost from $1.75 to $4.50 each ; for boys from 75 cents to $3. ' BALL. — The ball for lacrosse is made of sponge rubber. Its weight is from 4! to 5 ounces ; the size not less than 7^ nor more than 8 inches in circumference. For match games the home team furnishes the balls, three to be given to the Referee at the opening of the game, and others as called for. Good balls cost $.65 each. GOALS. — Upright goal posts measure 6 feet above ground and are placed 6 feet apart. The uprights are joined by a firm cross bar, above which they may not extend. NET. — A pyramidal-shaped net is fastened to the goal posts and cross bar and extends backward for 7 feet, where it is fastened firmly to the ground with pegs, staples, or bars. This is intended to catch the ball, and the mesh of the netting must be small enough to do this. Goals complete, including posts and net, may be had for $30. History 371 DRESS. — Because of the running, light-weight clothing is worn for lacrosse. The suit usually con- sists of running trousers, jersey, and shoes. The official rules specify that the shoes worn must be of canvas with flexible rubber soles, with or without rubber cleats. Padded gloves are sometimes worn by lacrosse players to prevent injury to the bones and joints of the hands. These have reeds worked in to break the force of any blow from an opponent's crosse. They may be had for $2 per pair. HISTORY. — Lacrosse originated with the North American Indians, by whom it was called '^ The ball game.'' It was played in all parts of the country, apparently, and was substantially the same game in different localities, though there might have been some differences in the construction of the crosses and balls. The game, like most Indian events, was preceded by religious rites, invoking the aid of the Great Spirit. These consisted partly of an all-night dance around the goals, followed by some water rites in the morning. From several hundred to one thousand players are said to have taken part on each side. It is perhaps needless to say that each player did not have an assigned part in the game as under the modern developed team rules. The squaws entered the game, not to play, but to urge on their husbands by switching them. The modern game of lacrosse, with its improved implements, -highly developed skill, dift'erent functions assigned to different players, and highly developed team cooperation, is the result of an interest taken in 372 Lacrosse the game by the white men of Canada. Dr. George Beers of Montreal is credited with having recognized the possibiHties of the game and commenced its de- velopment in 1850. It is now recognized as the national game of Canada. The present name was given to the Indian game by the French Canadians, who saw in the curved stick from which the crosse is made, resemblance to a bishop's crozier (la croix). The game was introduced into England in 1865 by Canadian boys at school near Reading. It is played in England by Cambridge University teams and latterly by Oxford. The game has spread to Aus- tralia, South Africa, and other places where English- speaking players have carried it. The United States took up the game somewhat later than the Canadians. BIBLIOGRAPHY Official Handbooks Constitution, By-laws and Playing Rules of the United States; Intercollegiate Lacrosse League. Spalding's Athletic Li- brary. (New York, American Sports Publishing Company.) Laws of Lacrosse of the National Intermediate Lacrosse Union of Canada. Issued by the Union at Montreal, Canada. The Game Lacrosse, the National Game of Canada. By A. G. Beers. (Montreal, Dawson Bros., Publishers, 1879.) W. A. Townsend and Adams, New York, 1869. Lacrosse. By WiUiam Harvey Maddren. Contained in the book entitled Lawn Tennis by J. Parmly Paret. (New York, The Macmillan Company.) Concise playing directions, Glossary 373 advice and history of the game written from the Canadian viewpoint. Lacrosse. By F. Sachs. (London, British Sports Publishing Co., 1909.) From Candidate to Team. By William C. Schmeisser. Capt. Johns Hopkins University, Champion Intercollegiate Lacrosse Team in 1902. Spalding's Athletic Library. Directions and advice for all phases of play, from the individuals handling the school to the interplay of the members of the team. Football, Hockey or Lacrosse Club Book. By Sec's-Pal. (Lon- don, W. Bourne, 191 2.) Encyclopedia of Sport. Edited by the Earl of Suffolk and Berk- shire. (Philadelphia, J. B. Lippincott & Company; London, Heinemann.) Edition of 191 1. An excellent account of the game with playing directions and rules used in England. Cricket and Lacrosse. By Henry J. Wehman. (New York, 1902-1903.) B.oy^s Modern Playmate. By J. G. Wood. (London and New York, Frederick Warne & Company.) Brief playing directions and rules for the game written for boys from the English viewpoint. History Letters and Notes on the Manners, Customs and Conditions of the North American Indians. By Catlin. (London, 1841, Vol. n, page 123.) Games of the North American Indians. By Stewart Culin. (Washington, D.C., Bureau of Ethnology, 1907.) Mr. Culin gives the most varied and exhaustive collection of accounts of this game among the Indians, from original sources, from Catlin and others. GLOSSARY Attack. In Lacrosse the attack is understood to mean the attempt to put the ball through the opponent's goal, or 374 Lacrosse the players who are especially charged with this feature of the game. These are the in home, out home, first, second and third attacks. Shooting the goal is usually left to the first three players mentioned. Body-checking is the only means permissible in lacrosse of personal interference with an opponent, and consists in shoving him with the shoulder or hip from the front or side. To do this from the rear is a most flagrant foul. No player may be charged after he has thrown the ball nor at any time may he be body-checked into a tree, fence, or other obstacle. Checking consists in hitting an opponent's crosse with one's own to dislodge the ball or prevent a catch or throw. Check sticks. Checking as above described. Checking a throw consists in interfering with a throw from an opponent's crosse, by hitting his crosse or stick with one's own. Cover. One is said to cover an opponent when keeping so close to him that he could be easily checked or body- checked should the ball come near. Crosse. The netted stick used in lacrosse. The terms ^'crosse" and ''stick" are used interchangeably. Defense. The defense in lacrosse consists of those five players who stand nearest the home goal and are mainly respon- sible, with the goal keeper, for warding off the opponents' attack. The defense, besides the goal keeper, consists of point, cover point, first, second and third defense. Draw. A player is said to draw the ball when in the act of fac- ing he succeeds in making it come toward him or his team. Draw game is a tie game. Facing is the method by which the ball is put in play in lacrosse. Long throwing means attempting to pass the ball or shoot a goal over a long distance. Long throwing is often done by the player's turning his back in the direction in which the ball is to go and tossing it backward over his head. Muff. To muff the ball is to make an imperfect catch, as letting it touch the crosse without retaining it. Glossary 375 Passing. In lacrosse this consists in throwing and catching the ball with the stick or crosse. Picking up. This term is used to denote picking up the ball from the ground on the crosse or with it. Shot. A ball thrown at the goal is said to be shot at the goal. Stand. In Canadian usage this term is used as an equivalent for "Time," the call of the American Referee to suspend play, as when fouls are claimed, or when a half is finished. Stick. A term used interchangeably with crosse. Uncover. To get so far away from an opponent that he has a good chance to catch or pass the ball, without inter- ference. LAWN TENNIS LAWN TENNIS f GENERAL DESCRIPTION. — Lawn tennis is a ball game played on a diagramed court, which is outlined on a level expanse of turf or dirt. It is played by two, three, or four persons, who alternately send a cloth-covered rubber ball across a net to each other. The player, or one of two partners, who fails to send the batted ball back over the net to his opponent or opponents forfeits a point; that is, the opponent scores one point on this failure. The ball is batted by means of a wooden racket, oval in shape, netted with catgut. Putting the ball in play is called serving, and the player who does this is called the server ; the opponent is the striker-out. The players alternate in serving after different games or sets (series of games) . The server must stand outside the base line, and to one side of the center ; the served ball must fall within the service court (small, inner court, bounded by service lines) on the diagonally opposite side of the net. The striker-out must return a served ball (with a stroke from his racket) after it has touched the ground (bounded) once. The server then in his turn returns the ball, and for this may either strike the ball while it is in the air {i.e., before it strikes the ground 379 380 Lawn Tennis — called a volley) or he may strike it after a first bound, and thus return it. At no time throughout a game is a return after a second bound allowable. After the service is returned, either player may volley the ball, or return it after a first bound, as he chooses. A returned ball may drop anywhere on either half of the opponent's court, between the net and the base line. * The two players continue to send the ball back and forth over the net until one or the other succeeds in either placing the ball out of the reach of his opponent, or too swiftly for his opponent to return, or in some way compels his opponent either to miss the ball altogether, or fail to drive it over the net and within the proper lines. A certain number of points constitute a game, as explained under "^ Score." Games are played in sets, usually of six each. The directions here given follow the Ofl&cial Rules of the United States National Lawn Tennis Association. Explanations and rules are here grouped under the following divisions: (a) COURT; (b) THE GAME, VARIETIES OF: (singles, doubles, three-handed; (c) SINGLES : court, choice of court or service, the server, the striker out, faults, lets, forfeited strokes, summary of faults, lets, and forfeited strokes ; (d) DOUBLES, OR FOUR-HANDED GAME : court, choice of court or serve, the serve, return of ball; (e) THREE-HANDED GAME: (/) FORM IN PLAY; (g) SCORE: match games, handi- caps; (h) OFFICIALS; (i) OUTFIT; (j) HISTORY; (k) BIBLIOGRAPHY; (I) GLOSSARY. COURT. — Lawn Tennis is played on either a Court 381 Base Line T R-4-^ C D • Y Service Line N L_ Service Court Net t Service Court •4 Service Court I i'(/l Service Court Service Line H G 1-^ _j_ U *3FtT*J 36Ft— ---'- ^-ii REGULATION LAWN TENNIS COURT court of rolled dirt, or on a grass court. In either case a diagram is marked on the ground by means of broad, white bands of linen or tape. 382 Lawn Tennis DIMENSIONS AND LINES. — The outer lines meas- ure 36 by 78 feet. Those on the sides are called side lines (Diagram, A to H and D to E) and those on the ends, base lines (Diagram, A to D and H to E). Within this rectangle are drawn two service lines (parallel to the end or base lines) and two side-service lines (parallel to the side lines) . The service lines are drawn across the court from side to side, parallel to the end or base lines and the net, 21 feet from the net and 18 feet from the base lines. (Diagram, / to K, and Lto M.) The side-service lines are parallel to the side lines and 4^ feet within them (Diagram, B to G, C to F.) The service lines are joined to each other by a half -court line, 42 feet long, drawn lengthwise through the center, parallel to the side lines (Diagram, OtoN) NET. — Directly across the center of the court, from side to side, is stretched a net. This is sup- ported on posts placed 3 feet outside of the side lines. (Diagram, R and P). The top of the net at the posts is 3^ feet high, and at the center 3 feet. BACKSTOP. — It is advisable to inclose a tennis court with a backstop of twine or wire netting, from 7 to 1 2 feet high, to cage the ball. This should not be nearer to the side lines than 4 feet, nor nearer than 12 feet to the base lines. THE GAME. —VARIETIES OF SINGLES, DOUBLES, THREE-HANDED. — There are three forms of game : '^singles,'' played by two players, "" doubles,'' played by four players, and a three-handed game. The rules for the three- and four-handed games are the same. The Server 383 SINGLES. — The court. — - The two-handed game dispenses with the side Hnes and is played on the smaller area bounded by the side-service lines. The base and service Unes are the same in all games. The three- and four-handed games are played on the full court, having both side and side-service Unes. CHOICE OF COURT OR SERVICE. — In either singles or doubles, the players determine by the toss of a coin or racket in which end of the court they will play, and which side shall have the first serve. The winner of the toss may choose the end or the serve, but not both ; or, he has a right to insist that the opponent choose either one or the other. If the player having first choice should elect one end of the court, his opponent is not obUged to serve, but may choose to receive. THE SERVER. — A player serves throughout one entire game. The player who serves must stand for service back of the base line (the side farther from the net), and must make his first serve for every game from behind the right half of this line as he faces the court. For example, if he serve from behind the base line GF, the first serve will be from between UF. His second serve will be from the opposite half, between GU, and thereafter his service must be alternately from these two halves. If a player serves from the wrong court, the serve is considered incorrect (a fault) and must be repeated from the correct court. If a server serves out of his turn, any score made by the opponent stands, but the service must go at once to the player who should have served. 384 Lawn Tennis If a served ball should not be delivered correctly in any way, it is called a ^' fault." For two consecu- tive faults the opponent scores one stroke. A server may, if necessary, have two tries or efforts for any one serve. If his first try results in a correct serve, he must change to his other court for his next serve ; should his first effort result in a fault, he may make a second try in the same court, unless the fault consisted in serving from the wrong court. The server puts his ball in play, or serves it, usually with an upward toss, and then strikes it downward toward the opponent's court with an overhead stroke of the racket. Should a server fail entirely to touch the ball with his racket, even though he strike for it, the effort does not count in any way and he may repeat the trial in the same court. Should his racket touch the ball ever so slightly, it counts, either as a serve (if properly delivered) or — which is more likely from a light hit — as a fault. A server may receive no assistance from a walk, run, jump, or hop. He must stand in one spot, with both feet back of, and not touching, the base line. He may, in delivering his service, lift one foot, but must replace it where it was, so that it could not be con- strued as a step ('' foot fault ")• The served ball must drop within the diagonally opposite court, within or on the service lines ; that is, within the court which is bounded on its two ends by the net and service line, and on the sides by the half- court and side-service lines (Diagram, NSMV, if served from between UF). The Striker-out 385 A ball touching a line is considered to be within the court. If a served ball hits the net, it does not count as a serve, even though it afterward strike the ground within the proper court. Such a ball is a ^Met '' — that is, it does not count in any way, even as a fault. But a returned ball that touches the net is considered a good return. The server must not serve until the striker-out is in position and ready. Should he do so, the serve does not count in any way, either as a try or a fault : it is a let. A striker-out may not claim that he was not ready after he has made any attempt to return the ball, or after the next service has been deUvered. The second game is begun with a service by the player who was striker-out in the previous game. He serves from behind the right half of his base line for his first service, and thereafter throughout the game alternates his serves from the left and right halves. THE STRIKER-OUT. — The striker-out may move anywhere within his entire court, but as the served ball must drop within his right-hand service court, and may be returned only after a bound in that court, it is customary for him, in receiving a serve, to stand in the outer court on that side of his field, quite well back towards the base line, so as to run in for the ball, in whatever direction it may bound. The ball may not be served until the striker-out is ready. After the ball is hit he may not make a claim of not ready, and he is considered ready if he make any attempt to return the ball. If the ball is 386 Lawn Tennis served before he is ready, it is a let and does not count either as a serve or a try. In that case the server must repeat the trial. The striker-out must return a served ball after it has bounded once in his own service court, sending it so that if it dropped, it would fall anywhere within the opponent's court (Diagram, VW, FG). He may not return it before it bounds, as that would be to volley it. After this first return from the serve, the striker-out and his opponent are both at liberty to volley the ball (hit it before it strikes the ground) or to play it after a first bound, as they choose. When either player fails to return the ball properly, the opponent scores one point or stroke. Or, stated differently, the player who made the last successful return, scores one point. It is considered a good return at any time if the ball touch the net on its way to the opponent's court, if it does not land in the net; but a served ball so touching the net does not count ; it is a let. The striker-out may not take {i.e.^ play) a fault — a ball that was incorrectly served in any way. Such a play would not score for him. It is usual to let such a ball fall dead. After a game has been scored by one player or the other (see " Score"), the striker-out becomes server for the next game, serving first from behind the right half of his base line, and then from the left half, and so on alternately; or the players may agree to change sides only after each set. In match games, the Umpire must be notified of such an agreement before the end of the second game. Summary of Faults 387 Players change sides (courts) at the end of the first and third games and alternate games thereafter. FAULTS, LETS, FORFEITED STROKES. — The term ^' foul " is not used ordinarily in tennis, as in most games, to denote a misplay or infringement of playing rules. The terms ^' fault " and 'Met" are used* instead, and some misplays have no specific name, but are penalized by loss of a stroke (the opponent scores one stroke). The term fault applies to play of the server only. It covers a failure to observe the conditions of a correct serve. In other words, it is a misplay on the part of the server, either as to his own form of delivery, or as to the place where the ball drops. The penalty for a first fault is loss of one of the two trials at the time of service. After a fault on his first try, a server tries again to serve from the same half of his court. A second fault from behind the same half of the base line {i.e., two consecutive faults) entitles the opponent to score a stroke, and the server then steps over to the other half of the base line and again attempts to serve. SUMMARY OF FAULTS : Serving from the wrong court. Standing without both feet back of the base line. Taking a walk, run, jump, hop or step in the act of serving. Failing to drop the ball in the diagonally opposite service court, or on the lines bounding it. Ball served into net. Touching the ball, ever so slightly, with the racket, though not an effective stroke. 388 Lawn Tennis SUMMARY OF LETS. — A play that does not count, even as a fault or try, and the stroke is taken over again. A served ball that strikes the top of the net and then falls in the correct court. A ball properly served, but when the striker-out was not ready. The player (whether server or striker-out) ob- structed by any accident beyond his control (per- manent fixtures around a court, including seats of any kind, are not considered accidental obstructions). If a let occurs on a server's first attempt at any given serve, he still has two tries ; or he still has one more try if it happen at the time of his second attempt. An opponent does not score on a let, only on two successive faults. A fault followed by a let, and then by another fault, would score for the opponent, as the first fault is not annulled by the let, and the two faults are considered to succeed each other. LOSS OF STROKE. — For some misplays the offending player loses a stroke ; that is, the opponent scores one point or stroke. The server loses a stroke (i,e., his opponent, the striker-out, scores one point or stroke) if The server serves two faults in succession. Server fails to return the ball. Server returns ball so that it drops outside the proper court. The striker-out loses a stroke (and the server scores one) if the striker-out volleys the service instead of waiting for the ball to bound. Fails to return the ball. Doubles, or Four-handed Game 389 Returns the ball so that it drops outside the proper court. Either player loses a stroke to the opponent if he Touches the net or its fixtures with his person or racket while the ball is in play. Volley the ball before it has completely crossed the net into the opponent's court. Touches the ball more than once with his racket on same play. Ball in play touches him personally, or anything worn or carried by him except his racket. If a ball in play strike a permanent fixture of the court, other than the posts or net (seats of any kind are considered a permanent fixture), before it touches the ground, the point is lost by the player who made the stroke (i.e., his opponent, serves). If, however, the ball strikes a permanent fixture after it has bounded from the ground on the opponent's side of the net, the point counts against the receiver and for the player who made the stroke. If a player volleys the ball before it has passed the net, — in other words, if a player reaches over the net and strikes a ball back to his opponent, before it has crossed the net, — a point is awarded to the opponent. DOUBLES, OR FOUR-HANDED GAME. — All rules and methods of play in force for singles apply also to doubles, as the game is called when two players on one side of the net are pitted against two on the other side; Court. — When four are playing, the entire court is used ; that is, the side lines make the side boun- 390 Lawn Tennis daries, instead of the side-service lines as in the two- handed game. On the diagram, the court will then include all space between AD and HC, Choice of court or serve. — This is a choice made, as in the singles game, by the winner of a toss of coin or racket. The two partners (X and 2, or Y and 4) stand on the same side of the net ; they decide between them which shall be the first to serve. The opponents decide which of the two shall receive the first service. The serve. — ^ The server stands anywhere between UE or UHj or in corresponding territory on the opposite end if he is stationed at that end. A served ball must drop within the same inner court (diagonally opposite), as in the singles game (between service and side-service lines) , but in return- ing the ball a player has a larger court into which to return it, as it may drop anywhere on either half of the opponent's court between net and base Kne, or from side line to side line (Diagram, net to AD). The same server and striker-out continue to play against each other throughout a game, but for the second and alternate serves thereafter their partners play the service. That is, the service remains on the same side of the net throughout a game, but is taken alternately by the two partners, and the same rule appUes to striking out. For the second game, the service is taken by the partner of the first striker-out, and the partner of the first server becomes striker-out. Courts are riot changed by any player until the end of the set. Return of ball. — While the serve and its return rest with the two players chosen for that purpose 392 Lawn Tennis (they should stand diagonally opposite, as in singles), the return of the ball from either side after the service is returned may be by either one of the two partners. In other words, after the serve and its return, all four players may play the ball, until a failure to return, provided that only one of the players strike it for each return. In playing " doubles '' both partners sometimes stand near the service line, and they usually volley their returns ; or both stand far back in the court ; or, lastly (the usual way), the server remains at the back of the court, covering that territory, while his partner plays near the net, prepared to return all balls that can well be handled. For example, the opponents Y and 4 decide which shall be the first to receive the first service. It may be that they will decide upon Y. X now takes posi- tion somewhere behind the right half of the base line VE and has two trials for his effort to serve into the service court MNSV. Behind MNSV stands Y, prepared to return the ball after its first bound some- where over the net into the doubles court or upon the lines that bound it. Either X or 2 returns the ball within the confines of the opposite half of the doubles court, and this is kept up until one of the pairs fails to make a return. X now serves from behind the left half of the base line HE into LNWS and 4 now returns the ball and the play goes on until a member of either team fails to properly return the ball. After X has alternately served from one side and then from the other until the game is over, 4 now serves as did X ; but 4 serves first from behind the Form in Play 393 right half of his own base Hne AD. After that game has been won or lost 2 serves, and in the fourth game Y serves. Then X again serves and the games go on until the set has been won or lost. THREE HANDED-GAME. — In a three-handed game, the two partners stand on the same side of the net, and the single player serves every alternate game. All served balls must fall within the service court on the diagonally opposite side. Balls returned by the single player may drop any- where in the doubles court (between sidehnes,net,and base line) ; but the two partners in returning a ball to the single player, must keep the ball within the singles court ; that is, between the side-service Knes, net and base line. FORM IN PLAY. —As to the handhng of the racket, it should be gripped tightly at the end, and the forefinger should never be placed along the handle. Steady and persistent practice will teach a player how to draw his racket along the ball at the time of contact and cause the ball to curve in direction, or to take an unnatural bound when the ball strikes the court. The object of every return is to place the ball where an opponent will not be able to reach it, or to send it with such speed or with such a curve that the oppo- nent's best efforts will be useless. For the first service the ball should be sent at great speed by an overhand stroke and the second at a lesser rate of speed, though no less certainly aimed for the proper service court. In an attempt to make the court the server should be careful not to overdo his effort and '' lob " ; that is, lift the ball high in the air and 394 Lawn Tennis over the net ; for then an opponent can easily place the return anywhere he desires in the server's court, and he will be more Ukely to place it out of reach. In singles, it is usual to stand a foot or so behind the service line, after the served ball has been returned, and then all balls that easily drop over the net or near the side lines can be returned after a bound, whereas those aimed at the base line can be volleyed. A player should watch his opponent's racket at the time it meets the ball, and he will soon be able to discern whether the opponent has attempted to easily drop the ball over the net, has tried a fast, straight, hard return, or by slashing the ball in one direction or the other, has attempted to make it curve and take an unnatural bound after it has struck the ground. SCORE. — A player (or partners) scores on the opponent's failure to return the ball, one point for each such failure. Either side may score, irrespective of which is serving. The first point or stroke scored in each game is called 15, the second 30, the third 40 and the first to score four points wins the game. But scoring is not so simple as this might appear. If both opponents have scored one point, the score stands 15 all; or if both have tallied two points, 30 all ; but if both have made three points, it is called deuce . When the game has gone to deuce , neither one can win the game by making one additional point. Two consecutive points must be made to win the game. If, after deuce, one player makes an additional point, his score is called advantage. If he makes the next point, he wins the game ; if he loses it, the score goes Score 395 back to deuce and so on, until one or the other makes two consecutive points. When the server wins the first point after deuce, it is called vantage-in ; when the striker-out wins the first point after deuce it is called vantage-out . The player who first wins six games wins a set unless both players have won five games, when the score is games all. Then, as the case of deuce in a single game, one or the other must win two consecu- tive games to win the set. If a player wins the game after games all, his is the advantage game and he needs must win the next game to win the set. If he loses, the games again stand at games all, as before. Love is a term in tennis that signifies naught when applied to the server. Love all means that neither side has served a point. Love fifteen is the score when the server has made no point and the opponent one. Love thirty is the score when the server has made no points and the opponent two. Love forty is the score when the server has made no point and the opponent three. Love set is the score when either one of the players has not won a game, while the other has won six games. The server's score is always mentioned first. In' the case given above, the server's score is " Love." In the three- and four-handed games, partners score as one person. The Referee of a tennis match, in order to make no mistake, usually uses a score card. There are many 396 Lawn Tennis forms, one of the simplest of which is that which follows. In the first column is placed the names of opposing players or clubs. Then follow columns labeled 15, 30, 40, Deuce, and two la- beled Game. If, for ex- ample, A. Burroughs were competing against B. Trowbridge, the check next to Burroughs' name signified that Burroughs is '' serving." When Bur- roughs earned his first point, a check was placed in column ^^ 15.'' Trow- bridge then tallied and a check was placed in the corresponding column next to Trowbridge's name. Burroughs then made three successive points, the last of which w^ere placed in the first of the two columns labeled " Game," to signify that he won the game. The second game went to " Deuce " and then Trowbridge taUied the two winning points that led to the placing of a check in the second of the two columns labeled '^ Game " to signify that Trowbridge earned one. PUYERS 15 30 40 DEUCE GA ^E + A. Burroughs 1/ / v v B. Trowbridge • A. Burroughs v^ v/ V + B. Trowbridge y V v^ v' v' / + 4- + + + + + 4- + + + + + + SET. SCORE CARD FOR LAWN TENNIS Match Games: Handicaps 397 Each game is thus scored, until the set is won or lost as the case may be. MATCH GAMES. — For a tournament, sanction must be given by the governing body of the county, in which it is held, especially if any championship titles are being decided. A printed circular should give all details, including time and place of play, amount of entry fee, prizes, names of officials, and should tell when and where the draw is to be made.' By the latter is meant, the placing of all names on slips of paper, and the drawing of those names, so that the pairing off shall be a matter of luck at the time of drawing. In a contest there may be no intermissions in the play, except a seven-minute rest after the third set if desired. For unavoidable accidents a tw^o-minute interval only is allowed. The Referee may postpone a match on account of darkness ; when resumed, the previous score stands, and (after any interval of more than an hour) the player has choice of court who finished playing in the court that was first chosen. HANDICAPS. — Very often players in a tournament receive handicaps, which are assigned by the Referee. These handicaps are termed odds. These odds are given for each group of six games. A player who receives a handicap of one stroke is given that point or 15 at the beginning of the first even game, i.e., at the beginning of the second game. A player who receives two points is given one of them at the begin- ning of the second and the other at the beginning of the fourth, or second even game. When there are no more even games, — that is, after the third of, say, 398 Lawn Tennis a five-point handicap (called y^) has been given out, — then the fourth point is given at the beginning of the first game and the fifth at the beginning of the second odd game, and so on. Sometimes one, two, or three strokes are owed by a stronger player at the beginning of every set ; that is, before he is credited with 15, he must have previously made one, two, or three points or strokes. OFFICIALS. — It is not usual to have ofificials serve in any capacity for lawn tennis for any except tournament games. For tournaments a Referee, Umpire, and seven Linesmen are appointed. REFEREE. — The Referee is appointed by the Com- mittee of Arrangements in charge of a tournament. The Referee's duties are to appoint the Umpire and Linesmen for each match, make up the program for the day, and assign the courts. Any question of law (not of fact) is decided by the Referee ; for example, whether or not the ball touched the net and bounded into a certain place inside the court is not for the Referee to decide ; but if a ques- tion of rules is raised, it is the duty of the Referee to decide what the law is covering those particular circumstances, so that the point may be awarded to one team or the other. He also keeps all final records of the tournament. UMPIRE. — There is one Umpire ; he is appointed by the Referee. His duties are to (i) Announce handicaps before the game begins. (2) Judge of, and make decisions on, the facts of all plays, except as to whether or not a ball touched within or without the Hues. The facts he will judge 400 Lawn Tennis are, for instance, such as whether the ball was hit before or after it took a second bound; whether the ball went over, under, or touched the net (final decision on this point, however, is left to the Lines- men). (3) Announce each point directly after it is made, and the score after each game. (4) Announce when players should change sides and when the time for a rest between sets has ex- pired. LINESMEN. — There are usually seven Linesmen appointed for all important match games, one official for each line. A Linesman decides whether or not a close ball struck upon, within, or without the line to which he is assigned, and he it is who must announce the fact. It is also the duty of the man at the base line AD or HE to announce whenever a server at the beginning of the game steps over either line while striking the ball. OUTFIT. — The ball used is made of rubber filled with air under pressure. The rubber is covered with white cloth. The official ball is 2^ inches in diameter and weighs 2 ounces. These can be purchased for from $3 to $6 per dozen. The racket is an oval-shaped frame of wood, at- tached to a handle about 18 inches long. Across the oval frame are interlaced catgut strings. A man uses a racket weighing from 14 to 14 J ounces ; a woman, a racket weighing 13 or 13! ounces. A good racket can be purchased for $5 ; the price ranges from $2 to $10 each. Racket presses in which to keep rackets and pre- Outfit 401 vent warping incident to a change in weather condi- tions, cost from 75 cents to $2.50 each. Markers and tapes. — Roller markers, for lining the court with either wet or dry lines, cost from $1, to $5 each. White linen tape, with wooden staples and pins for fastening to the ground, saves remarking after rain. A set complete for a full-sized tennis court (for '' doubles '0, $3 to $6 per set. The net should be 3 feet high at the center and 3 feet 6 inches at the posts. A band of white canvas, 2 to 3 inches wide, on a rope, should run along the top. Tarred nets withstand the action of wind and rain better than ordinary netting. Nets cost from $1 to $8. Posts, held upright against the pull of the net by means of guy ropes, are often used ; or, better still, •posts are firmly sunk in the ground. By means of ratchets on the posts, the middle of the net can be pre- vented from sagging lower than 3 feet. Posts so furnished can be purchased for from $7.50 to $20 per pair. Backstop . — Nets of twine for backstops, 50 feet long and 7 or 8 feet high, may be had for from $2.50 to $4.50 each. Wooden posts for these, with guy ropes and pegs, cost about $3.50 per pair. The dress of a player should be loosely fitting and of such a character that the movement of the hmbs is not impeded. Many players always wear sleeves that are short and loose. The shoes should be rubber- soled and fit snugly. No heels should be worn on a tennis court. If the sun interferes, a peaked cap is 402 Lawn Tennis useful. Some players wear a band around the head, covering the forehead to prevent perspiration from dropping into the eyes. HISTORY. — Lawn tennis is said to be an adapta- tion of the indoor court tennis. Some authorities maintain that it is a descendant of an old outdoor French game, played with a cork ball and batted by hand over a mound of dirt two feet high. In 1874 Major Walter C. Wingfield of the British Army patented the game. At that time the court was shaped like an hourglass and the net at its center more than a foot higher than our nets at the present time. The United States Lawn Tennis Association is the governing body in the United States, and the English Lawn Tennis Association is now the national governing body in England. BIBLIOGRAPHY Official Handbook Spalding^ s Official Lawn Tennis Annual. Spalding's Athletic Library. (New York, American Sports Publishing Com- pany.) The Game Uow to Play Lawn Tennis. By Frederick B. Alexander. Spalding's Athletic Library. (New York, American Sports Publishing Company.) Illustrated from moving pictures of the author. Great Lawn Tennis Players; Their Methods Illustrated. By George W. Beldam and P. A. Vaile. (London, Macmil- lan & Company, Limited.) Illustrated by 229 action- photographs in moving pictures. Glossary 403 The Science of Lawn Tennis, By Edward Bury Dewhurst. (Philadelphia, Innes & Sons.) Detailed instruction and advice; well illustrated. Lawn Tennis. By Reginald Frank and H. L. Doherty. (New York, The Baker & Taylor Company.) An excellent working manual of the game; detailed instructions on strokes ; courts ; etc. Tennis for Girls. By Miriam Hall. (San Francisco, A. M. Robertson.) Tennis Tactics. By Raymond Demorest Little. (New York, Outing Publishing Company.) Racquets, Tennis, Squash. By E. H. Miles. (New York, D. Appleton and Co., 1903.) The Complete Lawn Tennis Player. By A. Wallis Myers. (Philadelphia, G. W. Jacobs & Company.) With ninety illustrations, including many special action-photographs. Lawn Tennis, Its Past, Present and Future. By J. Parmly Paret. (New York, London, The Macmillan Company.) To which is added a chapter on Lacrosse by William Harvey Maddren. The Woman's Book of Sport. By J. Parmly Paret. (New York, D. Appleton and Co.) The Strokes and Science of Lawn Tennis. By P. A. Vaile. Spalding's Athletic Library. (New York, American Sports Publishing Company.) Modern Lawn Tennis. By P. A. Vaile. (New York and London, Funk & Wagnalls Company, 191 5.) Illustrated by explanatory diagrams and action-photographs. On the Court and Of. By Anthony F. Wilding. (New York, Doubleday Page Company.) With fifty-eight illustrations. Lawn Tennis; Revised Hints to Beginners. By George Wright. (Boston, Mass., Wright and Ditson.) GLOSSARY Alley. The space between the side-service Hnes, which bound singles, and doubles court. Backhand. Stroke taken by reaching across the body to the left side, with the racket in the right hand. 404 Lawn Tennis Backstop. The netting around a court that prevents the balls rolling far. Base line. The boundary line at the end of a court, behind which the server stands when serving the ball. Court. The ground inclosed within the base and side lines, upon which the game is played. Also usually includes the ground immediately surrounding the lines. Cut. The act of drawing the racket across the ball at the time of contact, resulting in a twist or spin. Deuce. The score when both players, or both pairs of players, have earned three points. Doubles. A game in which two players are pitted against an opposing pair. Fault. Failure to properly serve a ball. Foot fault. Violation of service rule covering position of feet, at time of service. Gallery. The onlookers. Games all. The score when both players have won five games each. Gut. The stringing on the racket. Half-court line. The line dividing the right from the left service court. In play. When neither player has earned the point being played for and the ball is still in motion. Lawford lob or stroke. In this country a stroke directed at a ball near the ground, that lifts the ball over the net and at the same time gives it an unnatural downward curve. Let. a stroke that does not count in any way. Linesman. An official, who judges whether or not the ball struck within, without, or upon, a certain line. Love. A term that signifies naught, when applied to the score. Love set. The score when one of the players has not won a game, while the other has won six. Mixed doubles. A term used when a man and woman play against a man and woman. Out. The ball is out when it has struck without the proper boundary lines. Glossary 405 Racket. The bat, with which the ball is struck. Side line. One of the two lines that inclose the sides of the doubles court. Service. The act of striking the first ball over the net into the service court. The method of putting the ball in play. Service court. The inner court, inclosed by the service, side-service and half -court lines, and the net. Any served ball must fall within the service court diagonally opposite to the server. Service line. The line across the court, twenty-one feet from the net. A served ball must fall within this line. Singles. A tennis game in which one player is pitted against a single opponent. Stop-volley. A stroke that stops the progress of the ball and makes but feeble attempt to return it, so that the ball will barely drop over the net. Striker-out. The player who receives the service and returns it. Take. To take a serve or a fault is to make a return play on the ball after such serve or fault. Tape. The canvas across the top of the net. POLO (EQUESTRIAN) POLO (EQUESTRIAN) GENERAL DESCRIPTION. — Equestrian Polo is the most picturesque and beautiful of the major ball games. It is played by two mounted teams of two, three, or four players each, — usually four. The ball is played entirely with long, wooden sticks, or mallets, with which the players attempt to drive it through the opponent's goal. The action is very rapid. To the interest of other ball games, this adds the skill of horsemanship and the remarkable maneuver- ing of the ponies, which are usually so highly trained as to seem almost human in their understanding of what is expected of them. The following description of the game is based on the official rules of the Polo Association. They are for the outdoor game, with the few differences for the indoor game noted in italics. FIELD, —DIMENSIONS AND LINES. — A regula- tion field should be about 300 yards long and 150 yards wide. The end or goal lines are marked with lime, and the sides are inclosed by boards, called guards, that project 10 inches above the level of the field. GOAL. — A goal at each end of the field is marked by two goal posts, made of papier-mache, canvas, or other . 409 410 Polo (Equestrian) light material that will easily break in collision, and so avoid accident. These are placed on the end or goal lines, one post 1 2 feet on each side of the center ; the posts are thus 24 feet apart. Each post is sur- mounted by a flag. Only the players and the Referee may be on the field during a game. TEAMS. — There are two teams of 2, 3, or 4 players each; 4 is the usual number for outdoor games. {Indoor games, j players only.) Each team elects one of its number as Field Captain. SUBSTITUTES. — Each team is allowed one sub- stitute who may take the place of an injured or dis- qualified player. {Indoor games, one or more sub- stitutes allowed,) A player who leaves the game may not return to it, except to take the place of a disabled player, or one disqualified for infringement of rules. In estimating handicaps for a substitute, the higher number is counted, whether it belonged to the sub- stitute or the player he replaces. FORMATION OF PLAYERS. — When the ball is thrown in, the two teams face each other in opposing lines, each on its own side of tKe field, looking toward the opponent's goal, as shown in the diagram, with the exception of one player of each team who takes a position nearer his own goal. After the ball is in play the positions change rapidly, and while any player may go anywhere on the field, each assumes a partic- ular responsibility in the game. When four players are on a team, one takes a place far back on the field near his own goal ; he is called the Formation of Players 411 Back. In consecutive order in front of him come Number 3, Number 2, and, finally, nearest the op- ponent's goal, Number i. Goal Judge r- Scorer • Timer • End Line End Line -450 Ft. -^ - 3 O 3 24 Ft. • Back 2 O 2 1 # o 1 OBack 4-^ A ® Referee # Goal Judge POLO FIELD AND POSITION OF PLAYERS AT START OF GAME It is the duty of No. i (a) to keep the opposing Back covered; that is, to prevent his playing the 412 Polo (Equestrian) ball ; and (b) to be prepared to ride back and take the position of No. 2, as needed. Nos. i and 2 should be accustomed to receive the ball from No. 3 for a quick dash or shot toward the opponent's goal. No. 3 and Back should also work together and be prepared to exchange positions when occasion arises. No. 3 should be able accurately to drive the ball to either side of No. 2, and be prepared to ride into the Back's position when the latter rides toward his own goal. A Back should but rarely leave his position as goal guard to attempt brilliant individual runs. Any player must be able to strike the ball ac- curately while traveling at top speed. Years of practice are required for proficiency. ELIGIBILITY. — The official rules as to eligibility are strict. No member of a club that is afiiliated with the Polo Association of America may play with or against a club that is not a member. No player may play with any other team except that represent- ing his own club, unless he have received the written consent of the Committee of the Polo Association, and of the Captains of the teams entered in the tournament. A player may be handicapped at one time with only one organization, and he may not play on more than one team for the same prize. THE GAME. — choice of ends. — The Field Captains toss a coin to determine which shall choose the end of the field in which his team will begin the game. Thereafter the teams change ends after every goal scored. PUTTING BALL IN PLAY. — Before the game begins, Nos. 1,2, and 3 line up, facing each other from oppo- Knock-In 413 site sides of the center of the field. Each Back stands behind his own team. Each four faces the opponent's goal. The Referee stands at the side line prepared to put the ball in play by throwing it between the two lines. On the Referee's whistle, the Timer strikes a gong as a signal for the game to begin, and the Referee tosses the ball in toward the center of the field. The ball is put in play similarly at the center of the field after every goal made and at the beginning of every period. After going out of bounds the ball is also put in play in the same manner, but at the part of the field where it went out. Should the Referee stop the game for a foul or acci- dent, he again puts the ball in play by a throw-in toward the center of the field, from the place where the accident or foul occurred. For this, the players line up as for all throw-ins. START. — Instantly when the ball is thrown in, the ponies dash toward the ball, in such a position that their riders will be enabled to try a shot for or toward the opponent's goal. The ball travels back and forth, until one side or the other succeeds in sending it, rolling, bounding, or flying, between or over the opponent's goal posts. It must be entirely over the goal line and not touch- ing it, to score a goal. KNOCK-IN. — When the ball goes over the end line outside of the goal (that is, between a goal post and side line) , the defending side has the privilege of a knock-in. By that term is meant that a defender of the end that was crossed may place the ball on the end line at the point where it went out, but not nearer 414 Polo (Equestrian) than lo feet to the goal posts or side guards, and knock it into the field of play. No opposing player may be nearer to the ball than 50 feet until it is hit. Should the player who takes the knock-in delay his play, the Referee may put the ball in play by throw- ing it in. SAFETY. — If the defender of a goal send the ball over his own goal line, either accidentally or purposely, it is called a safety, provided that after leaving his mallet it was not hit nor deflected by anything else except the ground. For making a safety, a team's score is reduced by j point. OUT OF BOUNDS. — A ball sent over the side lines is out of bounds. Such a ball is again put in play with a throw-in by the Referee, as at the opening of the game. The line-up of the teams, however, instead of being at the center of the field, is opposite the point where the ball went out, and at that point the Referee stands outside the side boards, to throw it in. TIME. — The game is played in periods of 7I minutes each. The number of these periods varies with the number of players on the teams. For 4 players on a team, the game is played in 8 periods of 7^ minutes each, with a 3-minute rest between all but the fourth and fifth periods, when a 7-minute intermission is allowed, in which the ponies are unsaddled. A warning signal for saddling horses is given 3 minutes before the 7-minute 'intermission is over. When 3 players only are on a team, the game is played in 6 periods of 7^ minutes each, with 3-minute rest periods between. Method of Playing the Ball 415 When two players only are on a team, the game is played in 4 periods of 7^ minutes each, with 3-minute rest periods between. {Indoor game, unless otherwise agreed, 2 periods of 10 minutes each, with interval of j minutes between.) At the end of each y^-minute period, despite the fact that the gong has sounded, play goes on until the ball. has gone out of bounds, or has struck the side boards. This extra time is taken from the next period. This rule does not apply to the last period, when play stops at the stroke of the gong. In case of a tie, the teams go on playing 7^ -minute periods until a goal, safety, or foul is made, which determines the game. (For ties and unfinished game, see ^^ Score.'') • METHOD OF PLAYING THE BALL. — The ball is played entirely by hitting with a. mallet while the player is mounted. It may be dribbled (carried along with a series of light strokes) or driven with hard strokes ; but it may not be played with the hand, or held or struck with any part of the person. Interference may be by blocking the ball with one's person or pony, except that the ball may not be held in the hand, lap, or arm ; or, within certain restrictions, interference may be by crooking the opponent's mallet (i.e., hooking it with one's own mallet). Crooking may be done only when the opponent is striking at the ball, and when the player crooking is on the same side of the opponent's pony as the ball, or else in a direct line behind his pony. A player may reach in front of or behind an opponent's pony to hit the ball (not allowed in indoor game), but not to crook his mallet, and must not, in so doing, hit the opponent 41 6 Polo (Equestrian) or his pony with the hand or mallet. Indeed, to so hit them is illegal throughout the game. As to riding, a player wishing to play on a ball in motion should follow the line of direction of the ball before attempting such play, as the rules give right of way to such a player in preference to one riding in on this line at an angle. This applies both to team mates and opponents of the player who last hit the ball. This player (who last hit the ball) always has right of way , unless another player can enter on the line of the ball's direction at a safe distance in ad- vance of the obstructed pony. Opponents trying to gain possession of a ball in motion may do so as indicated above. Should several players be trying at once for such a ball, the right of way belongs to the one who is most nearly following the line taken by the ball. All of these rules prevent dangerous crossing in front of a player riding rapidly. It is permissible to cross the line of a player who has right of way, but this must be at a perfectly safe dis- tance. One may pull up in front of (facing toward or away from) such a player, at a distance that will enable him to pull up also, but one may not pull up across his path at any distance. When two players are riding toward each other, they must pass the ball on the right (off) side. The rules forbid any personal attack on an opponent, such as seizing him with the hands, or pushing, except to push him with the shoulder, the elbows being held closely at the sides. Danger in riding is carefully guarded by allowing Summary of Fouls 417 crossing in front of another pony, or pulling up in front of him, only when at a safe distance. Dan- gerous or reckless riding is forbidden. Ponies are protected by the forbidding of cruel use of spurs and hitting with the mallet. FOULS AND THEIR PENALTIES. — Fouls are pe- nalized by deducting from the score of the offending team a half goal (half point). The Referee, at his discretion, may, in addition to this score penalty, disqualify a player for that game, excluding him therefrom. Should a player be injured by the foul of an oppo- nent, so that he has to leave the game, the offended team may choose between putting in a substitute, or requiring that a player of the offending team also leave the game. The latter method is usual only when no substitute is available. For this purpose, a player is selected who is a somewhat better player than the one injured ; that is, one whose handicap is next higher than that of the injured player. The Referee may stop the game or not at his dis- cretion when a foul is committed, the time of such suspension not being included in the estimate of play- ing time. The Referee announces to a player, and to the Ofl&cial Scorer, whenever a foul is to be scored. He may do this for fouls reported to him as well as for those that he sees personally, and whether or not a claim is made by the offended player or team. SUMMARY OF FOULS. — Riding. — Dangerous, reckless, or careless riding. The following examples of forbidden riding are offi- 2E 4i8 Polo (Equestrian) dally specified : " Bumping at an angle dangerous to a player or to his pony. Zigzagging in front of another player riding at a gallop." To cross a player who has right of way at any but a very safe distance. To pull up at any distance across a player having right of way, or to pull up in front of him, except at such a distance that the other player will have un- doubted time to pull up also. To fail to leave the ball on the off (right) side when two opposing players are riding toward each other. Ponies . — To strike one's own pony with the mallet intentionally. To strike an opponent's pony with hand or mallet. To touch an opponent's pony with the mallet, while reaching across, in front of, or behind such pony to play the ball. To endanger opponent's pony by crooking mallets in front of or behind, over or under him while playing the ball. To make cruel use of spurs. To use blinkers, or spurs with rowels, except by permission of Committee. Players. — To seize, strike, or push an opponent with any part of the body except the shoulder, and then the elbow must be held close to the side. To strike an opponent with the hand or mallet. For dismounted player to strike the ball. To secure a mallet or pony, except by riding to end of .field for it. To be assisted in any way by any person coming on the field for that purpose. Score 419 Playing the ball. — To hold, strike, or hit the ball with any part of one's person, except that one may block the ball with person or pony. To strike the ball if dismounted. To crook (hook with one's own mallet) an opponent's mallet when the latter is not striking the ball. To crook the opponent's mallet unless on the same side of the opponent's pony as the ball, or in a direct line behind ; the mallet must not then be under or over the opponent's pony. To crook an opponent's mallet while reaching across, in front of, or behind his pony. ACCIDENTS. — The play may be stopped for any of the following-named accidents : Accident to player. Accident to pony. Accident to pony's gear, if the latter is dangerous to a player. Broken stirrup leather, curb chain or martingale are not considered dangerous unless liable to trip a pony. Broken ball. Ball trodden in ground so as to be rendered un- serviceable. Ball striking Referee or his pony so as to make a serious difference in the result of the game. For any accident, the Referee may stop the game and throw in another ball from the point where the accident happened toward the middle of the field, the players being Kned-up as for the opening throw-in. SCORE. — Goals . — One point is scored for every goal. A goal is made whenever the ball is driven entirely across the opponent's goal line between the 420 Polo (Equestrian) goal posts ; also if it goes over the inner half of a goal post. A goal made on a foul play (directly or indirectly) does not score. Fouls. — A half point (half goal) is deducted from a team's score for each foul committed by one of its members (called minus one half). Safety . — One quarter point is deducted from a team's score for a safety (minus one quarter). The team wins whose score is the higher at the end of the last period, after all penalties for safeties and fouls have been deducted. Ties . — If the score is tied at the close of the last period, the game is continued in y^-minute periods, with 3 -minute intermissions, until the score is decided by a goal, safety, or foul. For such continuation of play, the .ball is thrown in at the center of the field as for the beginning of all other periods. {Indoor game, continued, after a tie, in 5-minute periods, and 5- minute intervals.) Game interrupted . — A game stopped by storm, darkness, or other cause, so that it cannot be concluded on the same day, may be resumed on another day, with the ball placed where it was when play stopped. Or, the score may be decided by agreement between the Captains, or entirely by the Referee. OFFICIALS. — These consist of a Referee, one Timer and one Scorer, two Goal Judges, and a Field Captain for each team. {Indoor game, two Referees and no Goal Judges. One Referee is selected by each Captain. The one selected by the home Captain is in charge of the game, judges all play on the field, goals, Officials 421 fouls, score; his decision is final. The visiting Referee judges of play and fouls on the side lines, and reports to the Field Referee all of these, and all other fouls the other may not have observed. This report is made at the end of periods, or when play has been otherwise stopped.) REFEREE. — In the outdoor game this official is agreed upon by the two Field Captains. The Referee presides at a game and is its head or chief official. He starts the game by throwing in the ball from the middle of one of the side lines towards the middle of the field between the two lines of players. He similarly puts the ball in play after it has been out of bounds, by throwing it in from the point where it went out. The Referee's whistle is the signal for the Timer to sound the gong for play to begin, and his whistle is the signal for play to stop after fouls or accidents, though stopping the game for these causes is at his discretion. The Referee's judgment is final as to all facts of play during the game ; he is not the final authority on eligibility of players, or ponies and handicaps. The Referee awards a half-point penalty to the side offended, when a foul is committed, and, at his discretion, may suspend a player. When a foul is committed, he may stop the game and penalize, or allow play to go on and notify the Scorer of the penalty imposed at the end of the period. He must exclude a dangerous or vicious pony. He may stop a game in case of, or danger of, ac- cident. 422 Polo (Equestrian) If a ball is broken, or otherwise rendered unservice- able, or if it strikes his pony, the Referee may stop the game and throw in another ball toward the middle of the field at the point where the ball was when he blew his whistle to notify the players to cease play. The Referee may impose a fine on a team, or any member of it, for being late, or for violation of rules or misconduct. TIMER. — This official is agreed upon by the Field Captains. He is subject to the direction of the Referee, who is his superior officer. The Timer rings a gong at the Referee's whistle as a signal for the game to begin. If four players make up each team, the Timer rings the gong at the end and beginning of each of 8 seven-and-a-half-minute periods. Between each two periods, he allows a three-minute rest, with one exception : between the fourth and fifth periods, a seven-minute rest is allowed. Three minutes before the seven are up, he should give a signal to saddle. If three players make up a team, the Timer rings a gong at the beginning of each 6 seven-and-a-half- minute periods and allows a three-minute rest. When two players constitute a team, he rings the gong at the beginning and end of each of 4 seven-and- a-half-minute periods, with a three-minute inter- mission between each. Time lost through suspension of the game for fouls or accidents is not counted in estimating periods. The Referee's whistle indicates when play is to stop, but time is estimated from when the event occurred. Ponies 423 The Timekeeper's gong is the signal on which play is estimated to begin. THE SCORER is agreed upon by the two Captains. He keeps tally upon a large board, visible to the on- lookers. All decisions as to the score are made by the Referee. The Scorer will learn from the Referee, usually at the end of a period or game, any score for fouls. GOAL JUDGES. — These are appointed by the home Captain, but must be approved by the visiting Cap- tain. They are stationed each in line with a goal, to give information to the Referee as to goals made or play near the goal. FIELD CAPTAINS. — One player of each team is selected for Field Captain, usually, but not invariably, the Back. He assigns the positions to be taken by the players of his team, and directs their play. He alone may make protests to, or discuss questions with, the Referee. PONIES. — All American ponies must be registered with the Polo Association of America. Any member of the Committee of the Association may measure any pony and issue a certificate of registry or appoint a measurer to act for it. Any pony, five years old or over, may be measured and registered for life ; or under that age for one season. Whenever a pony is protested by a Field Captain, a certificate must be shown or the pony measured. These hardy, well-trained little ponies, none of which may be over 14-2 hands high, seem to enjoy and know the game, for even without the rider's guiding hand, they follow the white ball. 424 Polo (Equestrian) OUTFIT. — Balls . — For outdoor games the ball is of wood, painted white. Size, 3I inches in diameter. Weight, not exceeding 5 ounces. Cost $2 per dozen or 20 dozen for $30. {For indoor games the hall is a laced leather ball of cowhide^ containing an inflated rubber bladder. Size 5 inches in diameter^ $3-50 edch.) Mallets ( sticks ) . — These are made with a rattan handle and a wooden head, barrel-shaped, cigar- shaped, or bow-shaped. There are no official speci- fications for length or other dimensions. They cost from $2 to $3.50 each. Goal posts . — These are usually made of papier- mache or canvas, and cost $30 per set of 4. Dress . — Players are required, in tournament games, to wear club dress with its distinguishing colors. In all games, a safety helmet, or polo cap, strong enough to protect a player against injury from a stroke of the mallet, is required. HISTORY. — Before the Christian era, a game similar to polo was played by the Persians with seven men on a side. From there the game spread to India and there was taken up in modern times by English army officers. In 1869 officers of a regiment stationed at Aldershot read of the game, and with hockey sticks and a billiard ball introduced it into England. From there it has spread to all parts of the world. The game was introduced in America in 1876 by Mr. James Gorden Bennett, and in the same year the first American Polo Club, the Westchester Club, was formed. Glossary 425 BIBLIOGRAPHY Official Handbook International Polo Guide. Edited by Basil Grant. Spalding's Athletic Library. (New York, American Sports Pub- lishing Company.) The Game Encyclopedia of Sport. Edited by the Earl of Suffolk and Berkshire. (J. B. Lippincott Company, Publishers.) Modern Polo. By Captain E. D. Miller. Edited by M. H. Hayes. (London, Hurst and Blackett, Publishers.) Equestrian Polo. By H. L. Fitzpatrick. Spalding's Athletic Library. (New York, American Sports Publishing Co.) GLOSSARY Back. The player who defends the goal. Crook. To hook an opponent's mallet with one's own. End line. The boundary or goal lines at end of field. Goal posts. Two ten-foot posts placed 8 yards apart at the center of each end line. Guards. The ten-inch boards that form the side lines. "Knock-in." Act of knocking the ball into the field of play after it has crossed the end line (gone out of bounds at the end) without making a goal. Mallet. The stick with which the ball is driven. Offside. Rider's right-hand side. Period. Time between intermissions, during which play is going on. Safety. A ball sent over one's own goal line. Side line. Boundary line on each side of the field ; marked by raised boards called guards. Stick. Mallet, with which the ball is played. SOCCER FOOTBALL (ENGLISH ASSOCIATION FOOTBALL) SOCCER FOOTBALL (ENGLISH ASSOCIATION FOOTBALL) GENERAL EXPLANATION. — Soccer football, as it is called in America, is the English Association Football, differing considerably from the other forms of English football (Rugby and Gaelic) and very markedly from the American Intercollegiate game. The principal difference between the latter two is in the rules governing the way in which the ball is played. Soccer football is entirely a game of kicking, it being a foul to handle or carry the ball as in the Intercollegiate game. This greatly simplifies the rules, and penalties for infringement thereof. It also prevents the dan- gerous mass play of the Intercollegiate game, and makes a more open game. In its essential form the game is almost identical with Field Hockey, although the ball, and the manner of playing it, are radically different. FIELD. — DIMENSIONS AND LINES. — The official field for Soccer football is from loo to 130 yards in length by 50 to 100 yards in width. For international matches the dimensions are from no to 120 yards in length and from 70 to 80 yards in width. The usual dimensions are 115 by 75 yards. The quadrangle must be plainly outHned. This is usually done with whitewash. It is illegal to mark the field with lines made by a V-shaped rut. A halfway fine is drawn 429 430 Soccer Football across the field separating it into two even fields. In the exact center of the field, so that it is bisected by this line, a circle is drawn, having a lo-yard radius (20 yards in diameter). The center of this circle should be the exact center of the field and should be plainly marked. The side lines are called the touch lines; the end Hues are called the goal lines. FLAGS should be placed at each corner of the field, preferably of Hght color. These should be on staffs, not less than 5 feet high. The tops of these staffs must not be pointed. These flags may not be removed during the game for any cause whatever. GOALS. — In the center of each goal line — that is, at each end of the field — are placed two goal posts, 8 yards apart. These are crossed with a bar 8 feet from the ground ; the maximum width of posts and depth of bar is 5 inches. It is an aid to players to have the surface of these posts and bar that are next the field painted white. NET. — While not required by the rules, a goal net to catch the ball aids much in determining when a goal is made. GOAL AREA. — A goal area is marked in front of each goal by drawing Hues from the goal line, 6 yards into the field, and there connecting them by a line 20 yards long, parallel with the goal line. The ends of this goal area start 6 yards outward from the goal posts (toward the side Unes). PENALTY AREA. — Inclosing the goal area is a larger quadrangle called the penalty area. The side Unes for this are started on the goal fine 18 yards from each goal post, and drawn forward into the field of play Goal Line Goal Corner Flag, 7" Goal Post Sin. wide, 8 Ft. high Goal Area v; A crt *_ « nn v j_ • Penalty Area ? / y*^' \ o J 1 1^^ CO JC 1 ! 2 t2 \ -i2 / 8 \ o / \ oj y I* — : 44Yds. *| r 1 Penalty Kickmark t^ ' :i^ K- 20Yds.f-. H 00 . 1 r 1 1 T CN4 ^6 Yds.-p -8 Yds. - -*|^ —18 Yds. > -j: -I Cross Bar 8 Ft. high DIAGRAM OF SOCCER FOOTBALL FIELD 431 432 Soccer Football for 1 8 yards. There they are connected with a transverse Hne parallel to the goal line. PENALTY KICK MARK. — Within each penalty area is a penalty kick mark, made opposite the center of the goal and 12 yards inward from the goal line. CORNER KICK AREA. — At each corner should be marked the quadrant of a circle having a radius of one yard, thus extending one yard on the goal Hne and side line from the point where these lines intersect. From within this area all corner kicks must be made. THE GAME. — TEAMS. — The game is played by two teams of 11 men each. They are the goal keeper, two full backs (right and left) , three half backs (right, left, and center), and, on the forward line, an inside and outside right, inside and outside left, and a center. The goal keeper never should range farther than 18 yards from his goal ; the full backs seldom run farther up the field than the center line ; outside and inside right, center, and inside and outside left are the for- wards who are depended on to do the scoring. CHOICE OF SIDES. — The two teams toss a coin for choice of kick-off or goals ; that is, a choice of either putting the ball first in play, or of the end of the field in which they will play the first half of the game. The choice of goal is usually determined by un- favorable winds or sun, or both. A Captain will usually elect the goal from behind which the wind is blowing, or the sun is shining, or both. His players will then be kicking with the wind or not be compelled to look into the sun. The kick-oft^ being made toward the opponent's goal, to choose the kick-off may be an advantage to the kicking side in helping them toward start: Kick-Off 433 that goal ; but on the other hand it usually places the kicking side at once on the defensive, as it generally gives the opponents possession of the ball. This fact of possession, however, is neutraUzed by the distance which the ball may be advanced toward the oppo- nents' goal with the first kick. START: KICK-OFF. — The ball is put in play at the Referee's whistle by a place kick from the exact center of the field of play, by the side determined by the toss, the kick being in the direction of the oppo- nents' goal line. Unless the ball moves more than its own circumference (27 inches), it is not in play and must be kicked off again. The kicker must be a member of one of the teams (except in charity matches) and he may not play the ball again until it has been played by another player of his own or the opposite side. For this first kick-off, and also the kick-off at the beginning of the second half, the oppo- nents may not approach within 10 yards of the ball until it is kicked off. No player of either side may pass the center line toward the opponents' goal until the ball is kicked off. It is not the Referee's whistle, but the kick, that releases the other players. After the kick-off the ball may be kicked in any direction. > There are several other occasions during a game when the ball has to be put in play. After a goal is scored, the ball is put in play by a kick-off from the center of the field by a player of the losing side. The ball is dead after going over the goal line outside the goal and is put in play thereafter by a goal kick ; i.e., a free kick toward the opposite goal, by a player 2F 434 Soccer Football defending the goal line that was crossed, made from within that half of the goal area nearest the point where the ball left the field of play. At the beginning of the second half of the game, the ball is put in play by a kick-off from the center of the field by the opposite team to that which originally started the game. ADVANCING THE BALL. — The ball is advanced during the game entirely by kicking. It is a foul for any player, except the goal keeper, to use his hands on the ball. Within his own penalty area, the goal keeper may use his hands on the ball, but he may not carry it more than two steps or dribble it. MAKING A GOAL. — A goal is made by a team when a kicked ball passes completely over the goal Kne, between the goal posts, and under the bar of the oppo- nents' goal. The ball may not be thrown, knocked on (batted), nor carried by a player of either side. Should the cross bar of the goal be displaced, the Referee may award the goal if he thinks the ball would have passed under the bar if not displaced. The ball is considered to have made a goal if it hits a goal keeper and then crosses under the bar. A goal is not made, and the ball is still in play, if the ball does not go entirely over the goal line, or if it hits a goal post, cross bar, or corner flagstaff and rebounds into the field of play. The ball is out of play whenever it crosses the goal line whether in the air or on the ground. A goal may be scored if made from a free kick awarded to a side when its opponents commit a foul The Game 435 in their manner of play ; that is, when they trip, kick, or jump at a player, use hands or arms on either a player or the ball (except that the goal keeper may use his hands within the goal area), or charge a player from behind. A goal may not be made from either a throw-in, kick-off, corner kick, goal kick, or any other penalty kick, except for illegal play, as just described. GOAL KICK. — After the ball passes -the goal line, propelled by the attacking team, it is put in play by what is called a goal kick ; that is, it is kicked off from within that half of the goal area nearest the point where the ball left the field of play, by any player of the defending side, — that is, of the team whose goal has been crossed. During a goal kick no opponent may come within 10 yards of the ball until it is kicked off. The goal kick is thus a free kick. The ball is in play as soon as kicked. CORNER KICK. — If a team sends the ball across its own goal line, the ball is put in play by what is called a corner kick ; that is, the ball is kicked farther into the field of play from within one yard of the corner flag staff nearest where it crossed the goal. The flag- staff may not be removed. This kick may be made by any player of the attacking side. No opponents may be within 10 yards of the ball until it is kicked. The corner kick is thus a free kick. The ball is in play as soon as kicked. TIME. — The duration of the regular game is 90 minutes unless otherwise mutually agreed upon. 436 Soccer Football This time is divided into two equal halves, with a resting interval between of 5 minutes. By consent of the Referee, on request of both Captains, this intermission between halves may be lengthened, or the halves shortened. For players of elementary school age (rules of New York Public Schools Athletic League) the game is played in 20-minute halves with an intermission of 10 minutes ; for high school players, the game is in 30-minute halves with a lo-minute intermission. In estimating time, there should be taken out (not counted) time wasted or lost, as through accident. The Referee should inform the Captains of such time allowance as it occurs. The sides change ends at the beginning of the second half, but at no other time. At the beginning of the second half the kick-off is made by the team opposed to the one that originally started the game. SCORE. — There is only one way of scoring ; that is, by kicking a goal, which counts one point. The ball must pass under the cross bar and between the uprights of the opponents' goal. The team having the greater number of points or goals at the end of two thirty-minute halves — plus a ten-minute inter- mission between halves — is awarded the match. (See time Hmits for junior players.) In case of a tie, the Captains usually decide whether another game is to be played or whether an extra period shall decide the match. At the end of the first half, the teams change goals ; that is, the defenders of one goal trot to the other end Methods of Playing the Ball 437 of the field at the beginning of the second half and defend the goal that they had attacked during the first half. METHODS OF PLAYING THE BALL. — In Soccer the ball is played entirely by kicking. No catching, handling, or carrying of the ball is allowable, except by the goal keeper within the penalty area. An exception is the throw-in to put the ball again in play after in touch (i.e., after it has gone out of bounds over the side lines). The goal keeper may use his hands on the ball within his own penalty area, but not outside of that. Within the area he may not carry the ball, nor bounce it on the hands, for more than two steps. The ball is put in play under different conditions throughout the game, in several different ways; namely, by a place kick, a throw-in, or a kick after being dropped by the Referee. PLACE KICK. — This is a kick made on a signal from the Referee's whistle, after the ball has been placed on the ground on a given spot. The ball is not held by a team-mate, as for the place kick of the Rugby or Intercollegiate game. Free kicks, awarded for some infringement of rules, or for putting the ball in play after a goal, are prac- tically place kicks also, though made from other parts of the field. THROW IN. — This is used to return the ball to play after it has gone over the side lines. The throw- in is made by any player of the opposite side to that which played the ball out. He must do this by throw- ing the ball in from the point on the touch line where it 438 Soccer Football left the field of play, as indicated by the Linesman. For the throw-in a player must stand on the touch line facing the field of play with any part of both feet on the line, and throw the ball in over his own head with both hands, aiming it in any direction that he chooses. These rules are intended to insure an equal impetus from both hands. Any other kind of throw is a foul. After a throw-in the ball is in play as soon as thrown. A goal may not be scored from a throw-in. The thrower may not again play the ball until another player of either side has played it. For any breach of rules in a throw-in, the opponents may be awarded a free kick by the Referee. BALL DROPPED BY REFEREE. — After any tempo- rary suspension of play , the Referee throws the ball up at the point where it was when play was suspended ; the ball is in play when it touches the ground. No player of either side may play the ball when the Referee is thus putting it in play until it has touched the ground. Penalty. — For playing the ball before it has touched the ground after the Referee has thrown it up, following a tempo- rary suspension of play, the offended side is awarded a free kick from the point where the offense occurred. The ball is in play if it touches the Referee or a Linesman when in the field of play; also when it rebounds into the field of play from a goal post, cross bar, or corner flag-staff. METHODS AND RULES FOR PLAYERS, — The hands may not be used on any opponent by any player. No tripping, kicking, pushing with the knee, Methods and Rules for Players 439 or jumping at a player is permissible, nor may an opponent be held or pushed with the hands. To charge a player from behind is unlawful unless he is intentionally impeding an opponent. Charging under other circumstances is permissible if not of a char- acter to be classed as rough play. The goal keeper may not be charged within the goal area, unless he is holding the ball or obstructing an opponent. He may, however, be charged outside the goal area. Penalty . — For infringement of the rules governing the method of play between players, the penalty varies according to whether the foul occurred within or without the penalty area, the purpose of this dif- ference being especially to safeguard an attacking side from unjust play when near the opponents' goal. At such times the excitement of a game is at its highest point, and fouls are especially liable to occur. Should a foul in the methods between players occur outside the penalty area, or by the attacking side within the penalty area, the opponents are awarded a free kick from the place where the foul occurred. Any infringement of the rules governing the methods of play between players (kicking, tripping, jumping, use of hands, charging, etc.) by the defending side within the penalty area, is penalized with a special severity. Under such circumstances the opponents are awarded a penalty kick ; that is, a free kick from the penalty kick mark. This mark is but twelve yards from the opponents' goal, and a goal may be 440 Soccer Football scored from it, even should the ball hit the goal keeper before passing between the posts. The position of all players of both sides at the moment of such a kick must be outside the penalty area, except for the kicker and the opponents' goal keeper. This goal keeper must be within the goal area. The ball must be kicked forward on such a kick. The ball is in play as soon as kicked and any player of either team may then press forward; but the kicker may not again play the ball until some other player has played it. The time of play may be extended to allow such a penalty kick if that be necessary. For any infringement of the rules governing the players of the attacking side during such a penalty kick, a free kick may be awarded to the opposite team. The enforcement of these penalties is at the discretion of the Referee, if he thinks it would give an advantage to the offending side to enforce them. OFFSIDE AND ONSIDE PLAY. — The rules governing the conditions under which a player may or may not play the ball are designed to equalize the competition by not giving a team too great a chance to advance the ball through getting between it and the opponents' goal unless such goal be guarded by at least three players who are in advance of the attacking player. When the ball is put in play in any way (except from a corner kick, or a goal kick after the goal has been crossed) , any player of the side starting the ball, who is, at the moment of starting it, between the opponents' goal line and the ball, is out of play (off- side) unless at that same moment three of the de- Offside and Onside Play 441 fending team are between the attacking player and their own goal line. This applies both to a kick and a throw-in made by the player's own side in the oppo- nents' half of the field, but not in his own half. It does not apply when one of the opponents plays the ball or throws it in after it has been in touch (over the side lines), as the object of such an opponent is not to advance the ball to his own goal, and any rules designed to equalize competition for that goal are obviously not needed. A player who is out of play (offside), as above de- scribed, may not touch the ball himself, nor interfere with any opponent, nor with the play, until the ball has been played by another player of his own or the defending side. The following explanations about offside play are quoted from the official rules, edited by Mr. Thomas W. CahiU. " A player who is in his own half of the field of play at the moment the ball is last played cannot be offside. The point to notice is not where a player is when he plays the ball, but where he is at the moment it is played by a player of the same side. In the rush of a game a Referee is apt to lose sight of the positions of the field at every kick, yet he ought to educate himself to intuitively fix each change on his mind. If a player is in line with or behind the ball when it is played, he cannot possibly be offside ; but if he is in front of it, he is liable to be so. Though a player cannot be offside when an opponent last plays the ball, or when a corner kick, or a goal kick is taken, this protection ceases the moment a second player plays the ball, so that a player not offside when a comer kick is taken, may, without having moved, be offside as soon as the ball has been played. A player following up another of his own side who has the ball cannot be offside. Players may be offside 44^ Soccer Football when a free kick or penalty kick is taken, and when the ball is thrown in from touch. An opponent playing the ball puts a player onside at once, but while standing offside a player must not interfere in any way with an opponent or with the play. If a player is standing offside, he is offside until the ball is next played, even though sufficient opponents fall back to make three between him and their goal line. " The International Board have made it plain that a player who is in an offside position is bound to keep out of the way of the play, and that he is liable to be penalized if in any manner his presence causes any interference with the play. " When the ball is kicked off from either goal no player is offside. ^^ Instructions to Players. — ^ A player who is in his own half of the field of play at the moment the ball is last played cannot be offside. ^' A player once offside cannot put himself onside. This can only be done for him in three ways: (i) If an opponent next plays the ball ; (2) if he is behind the ball when it is next played by one of his own side; (3) if he has three opponents between him and their goal line when the ball is played by one of his own side further from his opponents' goal than himself. ^' The ball hitting the goal post or bar and rebounding does not put a player onside who was ' offside ' when the ball was last played. " Take care that when the ball is played by one of your own side you have three opponents between you and their goal line or that you are in a line with or behind the ball. Can anything be simpler ? If your opponent plays the ball, or the ball touches him in any way, you are onside no matter where you stand, but when standing offside you have no right to interfere with an op- ponent nor to station yourself so near the goal keeper, or any other opponent, as to hamper his movements, or obstruct his sight of the ball.'' Penalty . — Any infringement of the rules that place a player offside or onside is penalized by awarding to the opposite side a free kick from the place where the infringement occurred. A goal may not be scored directly from this free kick. Summary of Fouls and Penalties 443 SUMMARY OF FOULS AND PENALTIES Fouls Penalties (a) Wrong method of play- ing the ball (as handling or carrying) . (b) Wrong methods between players (as tackling, tripping, etc.). For fouls (a) or (b). By either team, outside penalty area, free kick awarded to opponents from spot where breach occurred. By attacking side, within penalty area, same as above. By defending side in penalty area, opponents awarded a penalty kick from penalty kick mark. (c) Offside play. (d) Infringement of rules when ball is put in play, whether by Referee's drop- ping it, or by place kick, free kick (including goal kick, kick, penalty kick), or throw- in. (e) Charging goal keeper in penalty area. (He may be charged when holding ball or obstructing opponent or when outside goal area.) Changing goal keeper with- out notifying Referee. (/) Players sent from field for ungentlemanly behavior. Free kick for opponents at spot where offense oc- curred. 444 Soccer Football OFFICIALS. — For Soccer or Association football, three officials only are prescribed, — one Referee and two Linesmen. REFEREE. — The Referee is the responsible head official for the game. It is his duty, before the game begins, to see that the ground is properly marked, goal and ball according to specifications, and players not wearing projecting metal or hard gutta percha parts on shoes or shin guards. To note particularly who is the goal keeper, that he may know if a change in goal keepers be made in the course of the game without notifying the Referee according to rules. To signal with a whistle for play to start, at the opening of the game, or after any stoppage; and similarly to stop play at the close of halves, or for fouls, goals, or accidents. He may not continue the game after the exact time limit of halves, except for the finish of a penalty kick. To put the ball in play, by dropping it for a kick at the spot where it was when play ceased, after all temporary stoppages of play, except those from which it is put in play by prescribed kicks, as a goal kick, cor- ner kick, or free kick. When the Referee so drops the ball, no player may play on it until it touches the ground. Should a player infringe this rule, a free kick is awarded the opponents from the spot where the breach occurred. To act as Timekeeper and Scorer, making allowance, in estimating halves, for any time wasted (as in re- turning to play after a goal) , or time lost, from accident or other cause. The Referee should inform the two Officials 445 Captains whenever he makes any such time allowance. He may terminate a game for exceptional reasons, such as darkness, storm, or interference by spectators. To blow his whistle for play to stop and start. It is a foul for any player to start his play before the whistle, or, in the case of putting the ball in play, before the ball is kicked, or (if dropped) before it has touched the ground. To enforce all laws of the game, decide all disputed points, and award all penalties. He may award a free kick to the offended side in case of any dangerous play not specified in the rules. He should be familiar with all fouls. The Linesmen should inform the Referee of fouls observed by them, and in many cases the Referee will depend on their knowledge of the facts, though his own decisions are final. He may exclude any player from the game for un- gentlemanly behavior, having first cautioned him, or, in case of violent misbehavior, without such caution. The authority of the Referee is final in all matters of fact connected with the game, and applies during a game or during any temporary suspension of it, or when the ball is out of play. The Referee should move up and down the field with the game, trying always to look at the ball from the sides when it is liable to go over the goal line. LINESMEN. — The two Linesmen serve chiefly as assistants to the Referee. They should stand beyond the touch lines, one on each side, as much as possible outside the field of 446 Soccer Football play, moving up and down the field as the position of the ball changes. A Linesman should carry a light-colored flag with which to signal to the Referee when fouls are observed, or the ball is in touch. When the ball goes over the side lines, the Linesman should indicate with his flag to the Referee the exact spot where it crossed the line, and also indicate which player threw it out. The Linesmen should help determine which team is entitled to a corner kick, a goal kick, or a throw-in. In short, the Linesmen should be particularly watch- ful of the ball, and the players and rules concerning it, when it crosses either the side lines or the goal line. The Linesmen's decisions are subject to the Ref- eree's final judgment, and the. latter may exclude Linesmen from the field in case of misbehavior. OUTFIT. — BALL. — Soccer football is played with a round, laced ball. The official dimensions call for a ball not less than 27 inches nor more than 28 inches in circumference. For international matches the weight of the ball at the opening of a game must be not less than 13 ounces nor more than 15 ounces. This is called the Association football. A good ball costs $5. GOAL NET. — Heavy, tarred nets, with all fixtures, cost $18 a pair. FLAGS and staffs may be had for fifty cents each. DRESS. — This is similar to that worn in intercol- legiate football. No . projecting nails, buckles, or other hard sub- stance is allowable on shoes or shin guards. Glossary 447 BIBLIOGRAPHY Official College Soccer Football Guide. Edited by G. W. Or ton. Spalding's Athletic Library. (New York, American Sports Publishing Company.) Published under the auspices of the National Collegiate Athletic Association. Official Association Soccer Football Guide. Spalding's Athletic Library. (New York, American Sports Publishing Com- pany.) How to Play Soccer. By S. Bloomer, J. T. Robertson, J. Kir- wan, J. Ashcroft, W. Bull, A. Common, A. McCombie, J. Cameron and ''McW." Edited by J. A. McWeeney. Spalding's Athletic Library. (New York, American Sports PubHshing Company.) Football, How to Flay the Game; Rugby and Association Games Described. By William H. Bannard. Soccer Football in Three Grades of Difficulty; as Played in the Public Schools of Philadelphia. (Pamphlet.) (Milwau- kee, Mind and Body.) GLOSSARY See Glossary for Intercollegiate Football, SQUASH TENNIS SQUASH TENNIS GENERAL DESCRIPTION. — Squash is a game that strongly resembles the English game of rackets. It combines elements of both handball and lawn tennis, more nearly resembling the former. It is pla3^ed in an inctosed room, and consists in hitting a small ball with a racket so that it will re- bound against one or more of the five playing surfaces, — front, back, and side walls, or floor. Ofiicial matches are played by two players, though doubles (four-hand games) are sometimes played. The ball is put in play by a serve, as in the games previously mentioned. The server is the only one to score, — an ace, or point, being given him on each failure of the opponent. He continues to serve until he makes two faults (fails in his service, or infringes a rule) when the serve and opportunity to score pass to the opponent. The server is called hand-in; the receiver, or opponent, hand-out. Peculiarities of the game are (i) that players face the side walls, instead of the front wall, as in hand- ball ; (2) that when the score is even, at one or two points below the maximum, instead of deciding the game by the next one or two strokes, the hand-out '^ sets the game '' ; that is, he states whether it shall be determined by the player first scoring three or five 451 452 Squash Tennis additional points ; and (3) the ball, racket, and court measurements and construction differ from those used in other games. The following directions are based on the official rules of the National Squash Tennis Association. THE COURT, IN GENERAL, is an inclosed room having smooth playing surfaces on the front, back, and side walls, and the floor. Unlike the stone or concrete courts used for rackets, hard wood (3 inches thick on front, back, and floor, and 2 inches thick on sides) is recommended for the interior of a squash court. This is finished (according to officially approved directions) in a dull varnish (not wax) of mahogany red on all playing surfaces, with white for the ceiling and walls above. Entrance is through a door made flush with the back or side walk A gallery for specta- tors, protected by heavy glass or net, may be pro- vided at the back or sides, above the playing surfaces. Light may be introduced in the roof through thick glass, or electric lights may be used, in which the direct light is shielded from the eyes of the players. Good ventilation (outside air) and no heat, are im- portant considerations. Largely because of better light and ventilation, the roof or upper floors are recommended for the location of squash courts in city homes. DETAIL MEASUREMENTS. — The court should meas- ure 17 feet wide by 32^ feet long. The playing sur- faces of the walls are, front wall, 14 -feet high; back wall at least 9 feet high, and side walls 12 feet. (To allow for a gallery it is permissible to make the play- The Court 453 ing surface of the side walls only 9 feet high for a distance of 10 feet from the back wall.) On the front wall are a service line, above which a served ball must strike, and, lower down, a telltale (metal strip) above which a returned ball must strike. On the back wall is a line below which a ball must strike, and service and court lines are on the floor. All lines must be painted in black and be one inch wide. Telltale . — This is a sheet metal strip, placed across the front wall from side to side, the upper edge 2 feet from the floor. The metal may extend entirely to the floor, or it mxay be 15 inches wide, leaving below a strip of the wooden wall, 9 inches wide, against which rolling or low balls may rebound to the players, and so assist in their own recovery. The object of the metal strip is to indicate by sound a returned ball that hits the wall below the prescribed height of 2 feet, the rapidity of the game making such an indication highly desirable. The metal strip should not be in contact with the wooden sheathing of the wall, as it might then resound from vibration when not directly hit ; it should be supported independently and directly from the inner wall itself. The tell- tale should be painted black Uke the lines. Wall service Une . — On the front wall, 6| feet above the floor, or 4I feet above the upper edge of the tell- tale, and parallel with it, a one-inch line is drawn in black across the front wall. This is the service line, above which a served ball must strike for a good service. Back wall line. — On the back wall, 4 J feet from the 454 Squash Tennis floor, a black line is drawn, below which a ball must strike in any effort to reach the front wall on a re- bound from the back wall. Center line. — From the front to the back wall a line is drawn on the floor which divides the two service courts. Floor service line. — Another line is drawn across the floor from side to side, lo feet from the back wall, and parallel with it, from behind which a served ball must be delivered. The rear inclosures are called service boxes, right and left respectively, as one faces the front wall. The two forward inclosures are called the right and left service courts. THE GAME is played by two players. It is possi- ble to play doubles as in handball, but official matches are singles (two players). CHOICE OF SERVE. — This is determined by a spin of the racket before the game opens. While one player spins the racket, the opponent calls '' Rough '' or ^^ Smooth." If the side of the racket so named falls uppermost, the one calling it may choose either to serve or receive on the first play. SERVICE : HAND-IN. — The ball is put in play by a serve similar to that used for lawn tennis ; it is tossed or released from one hand and batted or hit with the racket held in the other. Each player in serving must serve first from the right-hand box, next from the left-hand box, and there- after alternately from the two. He must stand entirely back of the ten-foot service line, must stand on both feet while serving, and neither foot must touch any line. Service 455 The served ball must hit the front wall (and not touch anything else first) above the service Hne, and rebound in the service court diagonally opposite to the box from which it was served. That is, if served from the right-hand box, the ball, after hitting the front wall above the service line, must bound in the left service court. A ball hitting a line is out of a given court, not in it. The receiver, or hand-out, then returns the ball after its first bound off the floor, the server returns this ball, and so on, alternately, until one or the other fails to return the ball. Should this failure be on the part of the server, he becomes hand-out and nothing is scored. Should the hand-out fail to legally re- turn the ball, the hand-in scores an ace (point) and serves again. Failure to correctly serve is called a fault. The following are faults in service : (i) Ball hitting the front wall below the wall service line. (2) Ball hitting a floor line on the first bound. (3) Ball bounding in wrong service court instead of in that diagonally opposite to the service box used. (4) Ball hitting anything before it strikes the front wall (unless the ball hit a player. In that case the presiding ofl&cial will decide whether or not it is a let — ix., a fault that does not count). (5) Server serving from wrong box, or standing on one foot, or with either foot touching a line. A server loses his serve (becomes hand-out) on a second fault (also on failure to return the ball) . The 456 Squash Tennis opponent then serves from the right-hand box and begins to score. A service fault (incorrect serve) must not be played — i.e., returned by the opponent. RETURNING THE BALL, OR HAND-OUT. — The player who is hand-out may stand in any part of the court, though he will naturally be so placed as to return the ball readily as it bounds in the service court diagonally opposite the server. He must hit the ball after it bounds once. A served ball may not be volleyed (hit on the fly before it bounds), and must be hit before a second bound. The receiver may strike the ball directly to the front wall, or so it will first strike the back or side walls and then rebound to the front wall ; but however played, it must eventually strike the front wall above the telltale. The server, or hand-in, tries similarly ta return this ball. The hand-out then tries to return it a second time, and so on until one or the other fails. A faulty serve (service fault) must not be returned or played. GENERAL RULES AND POINTS OF PLAY. — PLAYING THE BALL. — Players should face a side wall, not the front wall. The ball must be hit before a second bound on the floor. Volleying (hitting a ball on the fly before it bounds on the floor) is permissible for any but a served ball. The latter must bound once before it is played. A served ball must hit the front wall above the service line. Score 457 A returned ball must hit the front wall above the telltale. A ball played to the back wall to bound from there to the front wall must hit the back wall below the 4i-foot line. A fly ball (from the racket) hitting on or above the boundary hnes on front, back, or side walls, is dead. A bounding ball may hit on or above such lines and be fair. A player may hit the ball only once in one stroke, and may not play it again until the adversary has played it. LET. — Failure to properly serve or return the ball does not count (i.e., is considered a let) if a player be interfered with by his opponent, or if he be hit by his opponent's ball on its way to the front wall. In other words, personal interference of any kind is not a feature of the game and does not count, unless a player is hit by a ball after it has struck the front wall. That is inexcusable interference, whether intentional or not, and for it a player loses the point (the opponent scores an ace, if serving) . To prevent an opponent's seeing the ball, is not considered a let, but to interfere with his stroke is a let. A stroke faihng because the ball breaks is a let. A let must be claimed before making a stroke. The Referee only may decide a let. SCORE. — The server, or hand-in, is the only player to score. The opportunity to serve passes from one player to another with the service. The server scores one point (called an ace) whenever the hand-out fails legitimately to return the ball. 458 Squash Tennis The player first scoring 15 aces wins the game, except where a tie occurs at a score of 13 or 14 (called 13 all, or 14 all). When the score is 13 all, the out hand sets the game at 3 or 5. That is, he decides whether the game shall be won by the player who first makes 3 additional points, or 5 additional points. When the score is 14 all, the hand-out must set the game at 3 (the player wins who first makes 3 addi- tional points). OFFICIALS. — A Referee decides the score, and all lets or other points of play. His decision is final. OUTFIT. — BALLS are in size between handballs and lawn tennis balls, being somewhat smaller than the latter. They are made of rubber, with an overspun or knitted covering. Cost, $6 per dozen. At any time between plays either player may call for a new ball. RACKETS. — These resemble lawn tennis rackets, being made of a wooden frame and handle, the former strung with gut. They are smaller than lawn tennis rackets, and sometimes different in shape. Cost, $3.50 to $5 each. DRESS. — A low shoe of buck or other soft leather, vnth a rubber sole, is usually worn. Loose tennis dress constitutes the rest of the costume. HISTORY. — Squash tennis is a close relative of the English game of rackets, which claims a very ancient lineage in England and France. In its present official form the game is claimed to be largely an American development. Its popularity among Bibliography 459 amateurs is rapidly increasing, so that squash courts are found in most of the larger clubs and universities and on many private estates. BIBLIOGRAPHY Official Handbook Official Handbook. National Squash Tennis Association. Spalding's Athletic Library. (New York, Americaii oports Publishing Company.) The Game The Game of Squash. By E. H. Miles. (New York, J. F. Taylor, 1901.) Racquets, Tennis, Squash. By E. H. Miles. (New York, D. Appleton and Co., 1903.) The Encyclopedia of Sport. Edited by the Earl of Suffolk and Berkshire. (Philadelphia, J. B. Lippincott Company, London, Heinemann.) Court Tennis, with Notes on Racquets and Squash Racquets. By Frank C. Tompkins. (New York, Lippincott, 1909.) Court Games. Edited by Frederick R. Toombs. Spalding's Athletic Library. (New York, American Sports Pub- lishing Company.) GLOSSARY See Handball, VOLLEY BALL VOLLEY BALL: DIAGRAM SHOWING POSITION AND ROTATION OF PLAYERS FOR TEAMS OF SIX AND ELEVEN. COMPETING TEAMS SHOULD HAVE AN EQUAL NUMBER OF PLAYERS 462 VOLLEY BALL! GENERAL DESCRIPTION. — This is one of the most popular team games for the gymnasium and is also played out of doors. It is played by two teams of players, who stand one on each side of a high net. The object of the game for each team is to keep a large ball in lively play over the net toward its oppo- nents' court, as each team scores only on its oppo- nents' failures to return the ball or to keep it in the air ; it must not touch the floor. The ball is played entirely by batting with the open hand (one or both) and may not be hit with the fist, caught, held, or dribbled. The necessity for keeping the ball from the floor leads to a very rapid game, with much agility and skill on the part of the players. The ball is put in play by being served by the party which is to score. The service of the ball, and with it the privilege of scoring, pass to the opponents according to the rules described hereinafter. COURT. — BOUNDARY LINES. — The court for volley ball must be outlined by distinct lines at least two inches wide. The maximum dimensions are 60 feet long by 30 feet wide. A smaller court is permis- 1 For rules for a less formal game of Volley Ball, for large num- bers, see Bancroft's " Games for the Playground, Home, School and Gymnasium." 463 464 Volley Ball sible, and for young players or limited conditions may be desirable. Both the side and end lines must be at least 3 feet from walls, fences, pillars, or other obstructions. NET. — Across the center, from side line to side line, is stretched a tennis net, or a similar net at least 3 feet wide. This must be stretched taut by all four corners. The upper edge of the net must be 7I feet from the floor, and must not sag, but be level, or of even height throughout. Special fixtures for holding the net are obtainable. TEAMS. — Match games played under official rules have 6 players on a team. Each team elects a Captain. (The game may be played with an indefinite number of players and is usually so played or wherever large numbers have to be accommodated.) PLACES : ROTATION. — The six players on a team are placed, at the opening of the game and for each subsequent serve, in general as shown on the accom- panying diagram, though they may move to any part of their own court; they rotate toward the left each time their team is retired from serving. This retire- ment and rotation occur on the Referee's call of " Side out ! " which is given when a serving team fails to re- turn the opponent's ball, or when the serving team plays the ball illegally. By this rotation, each player in turn serves for his side. A Hst of the players of each team, written in the order in which they will serve, must be given by the Captain of each team before the game, to the Lines- Service 465 men, who check the sendng order throughout the game. SUBSTITUTES are allowed to take the place of dis- abled or disqualified players. The original player may not again enter the game. A substitute may enter the game only when the ball is dead and play is sus- pended, the Referee's whistle having so signaled. PLAYERS ON TIME. — Each team must be on the floor ready to play within one minute after the Referee's call of '"Play!" for a game to begin. For delay beyond this time the deHnquent team forfeits the game, the opponents scoring i to o. THE GAME. — choice of courts or service. Before the game opens the Captains toss a coin to decide which team shall have the first service, and which court each team shall occupy. The winners of the toss may choose either service or court, but not both. SERVICE. — The ball is served, or put in play at the opening of the game on the Referee's call of '' Play! '' by the first player in the team's " serving order." It is similarly put in play after every point scored, or any violation of rules, or when, for any other reason, the ball is dead — all of which events are signaled by the Referee's whistle. The server must stand either entirely behind the end Hne of his own court, or with one or both feet on the end Hne. He may stand anywhere on this line that he chooses ; that is, in the center or on either side of the center. The ball is served by the server's tossing it and then batting it with the open hand toward any part of the 2H 466 Volley Ball opponent's court. The ball may be batted with one or both handSj but may not be struck with the closed fist. It is not necessary that the ball should go over the net from the server's hands, to be a successful serve, as any number of players on a team may bat the ball before it goes over. A served ball hitting the net, or any other object, or going under the net or out of bounds, is a failure ; so is a served ball that does not go over the net batted legally by either the server or some other player on the same team. For such failure the Referee calls' '' Side out ! " and the serve passes to the opposing team. The ball is served by the same server until he or his team fails (i) to properly serve the ball; (2) to return the opponent's ball ; or (3) to observe all rules for legal play. When such failure occurs, the Referee blows his whistle and calls ^^ Side out ! " when the service is taken over by the opponents. The retiring team immediately rotates positions one place toward the left and prepares to receive the ball. The next time the serve comes to them, the second player in the serving order acts as server, and so on, after each subsequent '' side out," until all have served, when the order begins over again. RETURNING THE BALL. — The object of the re- ceiving team is to return the ball over the net with- out allowing it to touch the floor on their side of the net. The opponents score on such failure. The object of the receiving team is to return the ball over the net without allowing it to touch the Rules 467 floor on their side of the net. The opponents score on such failures. RULES. — The ball is played entirely by batting with the open hand (one or both), but never with the fist. The ball must be kept in the air, as it counts as a failure to return, if it touches the floor, except if it touches a boundary line . The latter is a good ball and still in play. Catching or holding the ball is not allowed. Dribbling is not allowed. For one player to touch the ball twice in succession in any manner is dribbling. To touch the ball in any manner while it is in play (not dead) is considered playing it. Any number of players on a team may hit the ball before it goes over the net, but may not unnecessarily delay the game by so doing. Any but a served ball may be recovered from the net. A served ball touching the net is dead, even though it go over. A returned ball touching the net (from either team) is good and in play if it goes over or is recovered by another player than the one who hit it into the net. The ball is dead when it hits any object outside the court, touches the floor inside or outside the court (but not if it touches the boundary Hues), or when play is suspended by the Referee's whistle. A player may not touch the net , nor reach over it to strike the ball. A player may not be supported by any other player or object while striking the ball. 468 Volley Ball Players must remain in their own court , and may not go into the opponents' court. No players but the Captains may address officials. Ungentlemanly remarks or behavior of an ungentle- manly kind are prohibited. PENALTIES. — The serving side loses its serve {'' side out ") for any illegal play of the ball, or other infringement of rules. In addition, the Referee may, for ungentlemanly conduct or addressing officials (by other than Captains), award a point to the oppo- nents for a first offense, and must award such a point for the second offense. The receiving side is penalized for any infringement of rules by the addition of a point to the opponents* score. For ungentlemanly conduct or addressing officials (except by Captains) by either team, the Referee may^ at his discretion, disqualify a player (exclude him from the game). SCORE. — Only the serving side scores^ with the exception of points awarded opponents for fouls. One point is scored every time the receiving team fails to return the ball over the net into the court of the serving team ; that is, allows it to touch the floor, or go out of bounds, or plays it contrary to rules. The team wins which first, in any way, scores 21 points. OFFICIALS. — The officials consist of a Referee and two Linesmen. REFEREE. — The Referee is in charge of the game. His duties are as follows : (a) To start the game by calling ^^ Play ! " Officials: Outfit 469 (b) To award the game to opponents if a team fails to appear one minute after play is called. (c) To blow his whistle for play to stop when either team plays the ball illegally or fails to properly return the ball. If this is done by the serving team, he calls ^' Side out ! " and the serve passes to the opponents. If it is done by the receiving team, he calls '' Point ! " which means one point added to the score of the serving team. (d) He keeps the score. (e) He enforces the rules about gentlemanly behav- ior and not addressing officials. He may disqualify players for persistent breaking of these rules. (/) He notes that substitutes may enter the game only when the ball is dead, and that any player dis- placed by a substitute may not return to the game. (g) His decision on the score^ rules, fouls, and penalties is final. LINESMEN. — The main duty of these officials is to observe the ball as to in or out of bounds, '' good," or ^^ dead," as related to one end and side line. They stand at diagonally opposite corners of the court, each being responsible for reporting play on one end and one side line. The Referee may, if he desires, consult the Linesmen for information on other points of the play. Each Linesman is responsible for checking the proper serving order of one team, the list of players in this order being given him by the Captain before the game opens. OUTFIT. — THE BALL is a round, laced ball, usually made of pigskin, but sometimes of kid. It is 470 Volley Ball somewhat smaller than a basketball, the official dimensions being not less than 26 nor more than 27 inches in circumference. The weight must be not more than 9 nor less than 7 ounces. Volley balls cost from $2.50 to $4 each. THE NET is made of meshed twine similar to a tennis net. It must be at least 3 feet wide and 35 feet long. Nets cost from 35 to 50 cents each. MOVABLE STANDARDS for holding the net taut, level, and at proper height, cost, with net, $8.50. BIBLIOGRAPHY Official Handbook of the Young Men^s Christian Association Athletic League. Spalding's Athletic Library. (New York, American Sports Publishing Company.) Official Rules adopted by the Physical Director's Society. Games for the Playground^ Home, School and Gymnasium. By Jessie H. Bancroft. (New York, The Macmillan Company.) A form of the game for large numbers and somewhat less formal than the preceding. The forma] game is followed in the description in this book. PART II ^ TRACK AND FIELD GAMES AND ROWING RACES (a) General Procedure (b) Running and Walking Races (c) Jumping and Pole Vaulting (d) Weight Throwing (e) Rowing Races LIST OF EVENTS. — The so-called track and field games are essentially individual contests of strength, skill, speed, and endurance. In this they differ from the highly organized team play of most ball games, as the latter are played to-day. The track and field games officially provided for by the various authoritative organizations are hsted, with other games and sports, in the opening section of this book entitled '' Organized Athletics." The games described in the present section are : RUNNING AND WALKING RACES. — Sprints, Middle Distance, and Distance Track Races ; Relay Races ; Hurdle Races ; Cross-country Run ; Marathon Race ; Walking Race. JUMPING AND VAULTING. — Running Broad ; Run- ning High ; Standing Broad ; Three Standing Broad ; Standing High ; Running Hop, Step, and Jump ; Pole Vaulting. 473 474 Track and Field Games WEIGHT THROWING. — Shot Put ; Throwing the Discus; Throwing the JaveHn; Throwing the 56-lb. Weight ; Baseball Distance Throw ; Basket Ball Distance Throw. A contestant in track and field games should ob- serve carefully all points on the distinction between amateur and professional players, registration require- ments, etc., as explained in the opening section of this book. In addition he should be familiar with the following : CLASSIFICATION OF ATHLETES. — A NOV- ICE in any game or event is an athlete who has never won a prize, either first, second, third, or fourth, in a game or event in that particular class, in competition that was open to more than one organization, though he may have won such prizes in other classes of events. Thus he may be a novice in pole vaulting, but not in the running high jump. It is permissible for an athlete to enter as a novice for two or more events of the same class (for example, running) in the same meet, as a fifty-yard dash and a half-mile run ; but if he should win a prize in whichever of these events comes first on the program, he must withdraw from the second one, as he is no longer a novice in that class. A JUNIOR athlete is a registered, amateur athlete who has never won a first prize at any track or field championship meeting, though he may have won second, third, or fourth prizes. Having once won a junior championship, he may not again compete in any events as a junior, but must enter always thereafter as a senior. A junior may compete in the senior class, but a senior may not compete in the junior class. Classification of Athletes 475 A SENIOR athlete is a registered, amateur athlete who has won a first prize in a junior competition in track and field games. A CHAMPION is an athlete who has won first place in a championship contest. This contest may be in his own club, or in open games {i.e., competition open to two or more organizations) ; or it may be in a par- ticular class, as for athletes of a certain weight, or for a particular class of institutions, as preparatory schools, or colleges ; or he may be a world champion. A champion is not necessarily one who has made the best record ever made in the event in which he competes ; he is only the one who comes out ahead in the particular meet or series of meets or games under consideration. For instance, an Intercollegiate cham- pion in the 100-yard dash in 1909 may have made a lower record (i.e., have run more slowly) than the Intercollegiate champion in that event in the previous year; but if he defeated in 1909 all competitors who entered for that event in that year, he was the 1909 champion in the 100-yard dash. In the New York City PubHc Schools Athletic League, an athlete in the ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS is a NOVICE until he has won a medal in any event sanc- tioned by the League open to all elementary schools of the city. In the HIGH SCHOOLS an athlete is a NOVICE until he has won a prize in a competition open to two or more secondary school organizations. There are two classes of novices for high schools : i.e., novices in track events, and novices in field events, and the loss of noviceship in one class does not debar an athlete from competing as a novice in the other class. Players 476 Track and Field Games entering high schools from elementary schools are considered novices in high school events. A player does not lose his noviceship if a member of a winning track team ; only on the winning of a personal prize. A JUNIOR ATHLETE IN HIGH SCHOOLS is one under 1 6 years of age; a SENIOR ATHLETE IN HIGH SCHOOLS is one under 21 and over 16 years of age, the age being counted on the day of the competition. WEIGHT-CLASSIFICATION. — In events where clas- sification of athletes is made by weight, the following applies : Midget . . . Light weight . Middle weight Unlimited weight Elementary Schools 80 pounds 95 pounds 115 pounds Athletes of any weight High Schools 100 pounds 120 pounds Athletes of any weight ROUTINE FOR THE COMPETITOR —An ama- teur athlete, to compete in open games (i.e. compe- tition open to two or more organizations), must ob- serve the following procedure. 1. REGISTRATION. — He must be duly registered as an amateur athlete and be in good standing as such. He will be assigned a number which he must wear in all games. 2. ENTRY. — He must have made formal entry on the prescribed blank for the particular games and events contemplated. To fail to compete after such a formal entry is a breach of good faith for which a Routine for Competitor 477 satisfactory excuse must be made to the Registration Committee. Should the Committee find that his failure to play was due to fear to compete with other entrants for the event, or any other reason not good and sufficient, the athlete may be suspended. RECEIVE HANDICAP. — If a player enters for handi- cap races^ an official handicapper will assign him his handicap according to his record, which is included in his apphcation for recognition as an amateur athlete ; or, at request, when he enters for the par- ticular games in question. 3. REPORT TO CLERK OF COURSE. — An athlete must report to the Clerk of the Course as soon as he arrives at the place of the meet; and is immediately responsible to this official from then until the Starter's signal is given for the race, or, if not racing, until the Field Judges call his event. RECEIVE NUMBER. — The Clerk of the Course or an assistant will give him his number in appropriate form to wear conspicuously during the games. This is usually pinned on his back across the shoulders. The competitor is not allowed to start without this, unless by special permission from the Referee. 4. COSTUME. — The athlete's dress must be proper for appearance before spectators^ and is subject to criticism from the Clerk of the Course, who is re- sponsible for the appearance on the track of any com- petitor dressed in an unseemly manner. No dressing or undressing is allowable within the '' inner circle," i.e. J within the running track. 5. WEIGHING IN. — If the competition be one in which contestants are grouped according to weight, 478 Track and Field Games the athlete reports, after dressing, to the official in charge of the scales and is " weighed in.'' His weight is written on a blank, which he then takes to the Clerk of the Course. 6. ON TIME FOR EACH EVENT. — The player must learn from the Clerk of the Course at what time his events are to be called, and must be promptly on hand at the place of starting each competition for which he is entered. He may be excused by the Field Judges from field events to take his place in heats or trials in events previously started, but must return promptly when such heat or trial is over. RUNNING RACES. — The player will be as- signed by the Clerk of the Course to his lane in a sprint race, or, in other races, to his place or station on the mark or line from which the race is to start ; that is, whether he is to be on the inside, or second or third from it, etc. Sometimes these positions are decided by lot, as by tossing a coin. Another way to decide the place of players* or teams is with marbles, shaken in a leather bottle. Each marble is numbered, the numbers ranging from one up to the number of entrants. The Clerk of the Course then shakes the bottle and pours into each competitor's hand one marble. The number on this marble will be the position that the competitor will take, counting from the inside of the track; in other words, the runner who is fortunate enough to secure marble No. i is placed on the inside position ; No. 2 is placed next to No. i, and so on. Where there are so many competitors that all can- not run at once, and several heats have to be run, the Running Races 479 player must run in the order assigned him by the Clerk of thp Course, which is presumably the order in which his number occurs on the program. THE START. — If too many are on scratch, in a race of over 220 yards, several lines are drawn, and some runners line up abreast of each other on these lines. Sometimes, when the distance to be covered (run) is a long one, the start is given by the Time- keeper's ^^ Go,'' instead of the Starter's pistol shot, a separate signal being given for each line, the Time- keepers noting the time at which each line starts. There are no trial heats in races over a half mile in length, and but one trial heat and a final in the middle distance races, up to and including, the half mile. If the race be a handicap race, the distance a player is to be handicapped will have been decided in advance from his previous record by an official handicapper, the athlete being required to fill out a special blank for this when he enters for the games. The Clerk of the Course will have these handicap figures and will assign him accordingly his mark from which to start. (See '' Clerk of the Course.") THE FORM in which a runner starts will vary accord- ing to the race. In sprints the crouching start is customary, but not compulsory ; this is also used in middle distance races up to the one quarter mile (440 yards) race ; and it is used by the first runner in relay races ; also in hurdle races. In middle distance and distance races the standing start is usual. CROUCHING START. — This position has various names, and is sometimes known as the '^ kneeling," ^^ handspring," or '' kangaroo" start. In this position 480 Track and Field Games the hands are on the ground and each foot in a small hole dug for it back of the starting line (if oij an outdoor track) the object being to get a spring or push forward from the feet. This strong impetus overcomes all inertia at the start and enables the runner to take his most rapid pace at once instead of working up to it. The body should assume the upright position grad- ually — that is, during the first three or four strides — not at once. In detail the position for the crouching start is as follows : The fingers and thumb are placed on, or just behind, the starting line (^^ the scratch ")? the thumb stretched apart from the fingers. No part of the hands or any other part of the body must touch the ground over the line, or it counts as a false start. The hands should be just about shoulder width apart — not a wide stretch. The runner then crouches, kneeling on the right knee. The left foot should be from four to eight inches behind the starting line, and the right knee in line with the left instep. These distances may vary somewhat with the build of the runner. If running on a soft track, the player digs a small hole for the toes of each foot, the rear of the hole being perpendicular to form a solid resistance against which he may push in getting his start. In this position the body should be well over the mark, but it is considered a false start, for which the player is penalized (moved back- ward), if any part of the body touches the ground in front of the mark before the signal for starting. STANDING START. — The runner toes the Kne with his left foot; usually the forward (left) knee is bent Running Races 481 and the weight thrown over it. The toe may be on the line, but not over it. SIGNALS. — For either the crouching or standing start three signals are given by the Starter : (i) ^^ On your mark ! '^ The player assumes posi- tion on the starting line, relaxed, without tension in the muscles ; if for the crouching start, he crouches, with the right knee resting on the ground. (2) " Get set ! '' This means to stiffen the muscles, lifting the rear knee, bending the body forward, intently listening for the pistol shot, ready for the spring forward on the third and final signal. (3) A pistol shot is the official signal for the start except in time handicap races, in which some com- petitors are to start on a given time after others or sometimes when there are too many contestants to start on the same line, as explained in first paragraph of '' The Start.'' Then the word " Go ! '' is given as a starting signal by the Timekeepers. For any part of the body to touch the ground beyond the line before the signal for starting is a foul. PENALTIES FOR FALSE STARTS. — If a player starts over the line before the pistol is heard, it is called a false start, and a penalty is inflicted by the Starter, who will move the offender back for his start. This penalty distance varies under the rulings of different organizations. The rules of some of the leading ones are as follows : In the Intercollegiate Association the penalty for false starts is the same for races of all distances ; that is, one yard for the first offense, another yard for a second offense, and disquali- fication for the third offense. These are counted for each heat 21 482 Track and Field Games separately — that is, a contestant having made two false starts on a trial heat, would not be disqualified for one false start on a succeeding heat. In other words, second and succeeding heats begin the count over again. In the A.A.U., Y.M.C.A., and P.S.A.L. Rules, the penalties vary with the distance of the race, the ruling being uniform for all of these Associations, as follows : 1ST Offense 2D Offense 3D Offense For races up to and including DisquaH- 125 yards I yd. I more yd. fication For races over 125 yards and Disquali- including 300 yards 2 yd. 2 more yd. fication For races over 300 yards and Disquali- including 600 yards 3 yd. 3 more yd. fication For races over 600 yards and Disquali- including iooo yards 4 yd. 4 more yd. fication For races over 1000 yards and Disquali- including i mile 5 yd. 5 more yd. fication All distances over i mile 10 yd. 10 more yd. Disquali- fication The Starter should rule out of an event any competi- tor who tries to advance his starting position beyond that assigned him by the Clerk of the Course, whether that position be at scratch (the regular starting line), or (in the case of handicapped players) at a point in front of that line. THE RACE : FOULS. — The rules must be strictly observed by all runners in a track race. Throughout the running of a race, a runner is under the surveillance of the Referee, and official Inspectors, whom the Referee stations at different points to see that rules are obeyed. Running Races: Fouls 483 The following are fouls : (a) To run without wearing a number, unless with the consent of the Referee. (b) To make a false start; i.e., to allow any part of the body to touch the ground beyond the starting Hne, before the signal for starting is given. The player is placed back for the first two such false starts as explained under '' Start.'' (c) To be coached or assisted in any way during the race. (d) To hinder or impede another competitor in any way. (e) To grasp the tape at finish with the hands. (/) To dispute the decision of the officials or to be. guilty of any unfair or ungentlemanly conduct before, during, or after the race. (g) To change his course, or cross to the inside of track in less than six feet in advance of nearest com- petitor. (Intercollegiate Assn., 2 paces.) (h) To change his course, or cross in front of a competitor under any circumstances, after making last turn before finish. A runner guilty of fouls is disqualified, i.e., loses the race, even though he should finish first. Should a foul occur in a trial heat, the offender will not be allowed to compete in succeeding heats. Such transgression of rules (fouls) counts whether committed intentionally^ or through carelessness or ignorance. It is the business of an athlete to know thoroughly the rules of the game, and it is as impor- tant to train himself in self-control to observe the rules, as to acquire speed and strength. 484 Track and Field Games The Referee decides all of these points, assisted by the reports of his Inspectors, and it is a weak and unmanly athlete who would argue with a Referee, or grumble or dispute over his decision. Having placed himself under the officials in charge of a compe- tition, it is unsportsmanlike and unmanly to dispute their decisions. For such conduct a Referee has the power to exclude an athlete from further competition at the meet, and may even report the case afterward to the proper Registration Committee, which may result in a serious effect on the player's standing as an athlete, for all future time. Should a player be interfered with or hindered during a race by a competitor, or should he think a competitor has played unfairly in any way, or has not met the qualifications for entry, he may make a verbal protest at once, or afterward in writing, to the Referee. If made at the time, and the Referee should concede the complainant's claim of interference, the Referee may allow him to run in another heat ; at his discre- tion, this may be the successive heat, as though the runner had won a place for it in the preceding heat in which he was interfered with ; or if the interfer- ence occur in a final heat, the Referee may, at his discretion, have the heat run over again by the winners and the hindered athlete, or by any of the other competitors whom he thinks entitled to the privilege. THE FINISH of a race is a line drawn on the ground across the track. Usually (and always in official games) a '' tape '' (generally a length of soft worsted that will not cut the flesh) is drawn across the Running Races: Heats 485 track immediately above this finish Hne, fastened to posts. The prescribed height of this tape for adults is 4 feet from the ground. First place in a race is won (if there be no fouls) by the player who first entirely crosses the line (A.A.U. and Y.M.C.A. rules) or who first gets any part of the body (trunk, not feet, legs, head, or arms) over the finish line. (Intercollegiate rules.) In other words, while all organizations recog- nize the line on the ground as the finish line, and not the tape stretched above it, all except the Intercol- legiate require that the runner shall be judged other- wise than by his breasting the tape. The first runner over the line touches the tape with his breast, carrying it away with him as he runs beyond. To grasp the tape with the hands is not permissible. To avoid this, a runner often throws his arms either upward vertically, or downward behind him as he approaches the tape. The second and sub- sequent runners to cross the line are necessarily judged solely by the Une on the ground. HEATS. — When there are too many entrants for a given race for all to start at once, the race is run in heats. That is, a few of the contestants run first, their winner being noted for later trials ; then others are called for a second heat, and so on until all have run. These are trial heats. The winners in these different heats then compete against each other, in semi-finals, and the winners from these semi-final heats then run in the finals, the winner of the finals being the winner of the entire race. The order in which players will run in trial heats is printed on the program for all formal races, and that 486 Track and Field Games order may not be departed from, except in case of fouls, or on permission of the Referee. The latter official may also add to the published number of heats should that prove necessary. No contestant may run in a final heat who has not run in trial heats. OFFICIALS. — QUALIFICATIONS. — Fair, honor- able competition in all athletic games, but especially in track and field meets, rests fully as much with the officials in charge as with the competitors. Laxity in enforcing rules, calling fouls, and inflicting pre- scribed penalties, is one of the prime causes of cheating and unfair play. Not only does this govern the tone of clean sport, but it works a moral harm to the com- petitor, especially to young men and boys, that cannot be too strongly condemned. No one should be asked to officiate actively at games simply because he happens to be a prominent person whom it is wished to honor. Such a person may be made an Honorary Referee or other official, but should not be given responsible duties unless he is known to have the power to perform them effec- tively. A competent official is one who knows thoroughly the rules and procedure, who is experienced in observa- tion of the sport, who is quick of perception, clear in judgment, and possessed of the decision and will power to enforce all regulations promptly and effec- tively. Easy-going individuals who will ^^ wait until the boys are a little older '' before enforcing rules, or who are '' sure it was not intentional and will overlook it just this once," or who " don't think those Officials: Referee 489 He does not make decisions as to winners, but he has surveillance of the entire field, and all officials and competitors on it. His duties include all matters pertaining to the order of the program. That is, he gives the signal for the meet to begin, when all is ready ; and he may, where there are strong reasons for it, change the order of the published program. For races, he may add to the number of heats to be run, should that prove necessary, or alter the announced arrangement of heats ; but he may not transfer a contestant from one heat to another as printed in the program. The conduct of players is one of the important as- pects of a meet to be judged by the Referee. He may disquahfy for participation in the meet, and exclude from the grounds, any competitor who behaves in an ungentlemanly manner, to other competitors, or to the officials or spectators. Dispute as to the decision of judges is one such cause for disquahfication. This jurisdiction over the conduct of players ex- tends to fouls committed in a race. The Inspectors of a race are merely assistants to the Referee and re- port all fouls to him. They make no decision on these, such decisions resting wholly with the Referee. The latter may disqualify (exclude from the meet) a com- petitor whom he is convinced has intentionally interfered with another runner, or committed any other foul during the race. This extreme penalty is inflicted only for intentional fouls or those due to culpable carelessness. The Referee may allow the offended (hindered) competitor who has suffered from the foul, to have a new trial in the next round of heats 490 Track and Field Games (if this occur in any but the last heat), or if such a foul occur in the final heat of a race, the Referee may, at his discretion, allow the remaining competitors to run a new race. THE CLERK OF THE COURSE is chiefly responsible for the executive management of running off a pro- gram at the time of an athletic meet. It is for him to see that contestants are on hand at the proper time for each event, properly attired and numbered, and that the events occur as given on the official pro- gram, except where the Referee sanctions or directs a change. A Clerk of the Course will provide him- self before an athletic meet with an official program containing the names and numbers of the contestants and the time at which each event will be called. He will also have in hand the distance, or time handi- caps, allowed in advance by the official handicapper who is employed by the Games Committee, which handicaps will have been determined from the previous records of the contestants. The first duty of the Clerk of the Course, on the occasion of an athletic meet, is to check off the contest- ants, who should report to him on their arrival at the ground and before going to the dressing room, l^he contestant will then learn from the Clerk of the Course at what time the events for which he has entered will be called. It is usual when athletes first report for the Clerk of the Course to give to each con- testant a placard printed with the number which ap- pears opposite his name on the program. This placard is to be worn conspicuously by the athlete and is usually pinned across the back on the shoulders. Officials: Clerk of the Course 491 Certain preliminary duties belong to the Marshal and his Assistants before the Clerk of the Course calls contestants for the events. They see that no con- testants appear in the inner circle before being called for their events, and that at no time trainers or attendants are with them ; also that they leave the grounds promptly after an event ; but it is the duty of the Clerk of the Course to see that contestants are on hand at the point where the event is to begin or take place five minutes before the time for it is called. This he does by having one of his assistants (he is usually assigned two or more) call the event in the dressing rooms at least five minutes before the time for it to begin. The contestants should not wait for this call, but are supposed on their own responsibility to be at the appointed place in time ; but it is never- theless the duty of the Clerk of the Course to make this announcement, or have it made by one of his assistants. The contestants are to be checked off again on the program at the point where the event is to take place or begin, just before the time announced for it. In other words, it is the business of the Clerk of the Course to make sure that the contestants entered for the event are on hand before he signals to the Starter or other official, whose duties coordinate with his own, that everything is ready. Should any con- testant fail to appear, the Clerk of the Course will not delay the starting of the event, if he has discharged his own responsibility by having the event properly called in the dressing rooms. At races , the further duties of the Clerk of the Course are of great importance. 492 Track and Field Games Having assured himself that all entrants for a race are present, it is his duty to assign them to their places, — that is, as to whether they shall run first, second, or third from the inner edge of the track. Detail methods for determining these places are ex- plained in ''GENERAL PROCEDURE." Having determined these places, the Clerk of the Course has no further duty connected with the races — except to get ready the men for the next heat. In handicap events, however, the Clerk of the Course places each competitor behind the mark from which he is to start, if the handicap be one of distance. If it be a time allowance, the Clerk of the Course gives to the Starter the number of each competitor so handi- capped, and the time allowance for each. The starting point for runners given an allowance is marked in advance of the meet with a white- wash line on the track; but sometimes the distance of each runner is indicated by a paper containing his number, fastened to the side of the track at the pre- scribed distance from the scratch line. It is usual to place at '^ scratch " the runner giving the greatest allowance {i.e., most heavily handicapped, called the scratch man) , and all others in advance of that line. Should any competitor try to '' steal " {i.e., advance himself beyond the mark assigned him) the Clerk of the Course must promptly notify the Starter of this fact. STARTER. — The Starter is the official who gives the signal on which the runners start in all races except time-handicap events. For all '' scratch " races (sprints, dashes, distance, middle-distance, relay and Officials: Starter 493 hurdle races), the Starter is in charge of this part of the race, and his part is very important, as on the start the winning of a race largely depends. The Starter has nothing to do with seeing that all the contestants entered are present and wearing their respective numbers, or that places are drawn for or allotted (as first, second, or third, from the inner edge of the track) ; or that handicap marks are determined and the runners placed behind them. These pre- liminaries are all attended to by the Clerk of the Course and the management is taken up at this point by the Starter. This official should be provided with a blank-car- tridge pistol with which to signal the start of all races except time-handicaps. 'This pistol he should fire directly upward, with arm extended vertically over- head, so that Timekeepers may see the flash, as it is on this, and not on the sound of the report, that they start their watches to time a race. The runners, how- ever, start on hearing the report. The Starter may penalize (i.e., place back of the starting line) any run- ner who tries to '' beat the pistol " ; i.e., to anticipate the pulling of the trigger, or start as it is pulled rather than as a reaction to the sound of the report. Runners should look ahead down the track while waiting on the starting line — not at the pistol. The Starter gives three signals for starting — ■ (i) " On your mark ! '' (2) '' Get set ! '' (3) Pistol shot. ^' On your mark!^' On this command each contest- ant takes the starting position on his mark in an easy, relaxed manner. The Starter must see that 494 Track and Field Games no part of the runner's body is beyond the starting line. This means the fingers must not be over the Kne for the crouching start, or the toes for the standing start. They may be on the Hne — though preferably back of it, but not in advance of it. ^^ Get set! " On this command the runners enervate the muscles, ready to spring forward on the sound of the pistol ; they should not be kept long in this posi- tion. A judicious Starter will see that all of the runners are steady and have a good ready. It is at this point that false starts are made. The Starter is the sole judge of these. Whenever a contestant starts over the line before the pistol shot, the Starter must handicap him by assign- ing him a new starting line at a specific distance back of the regular starting line or scratch, and then give his signal over again for all the runners to start to- gether. This penalty distance varies under the rulings of different organizations and is given in detail under " Penalties for False Starts.'' The Starter should rule out of an event any com- petitor who tries to advance his starting position beyond that assigned him by the Clerk of the Course, whether that position be at scratch (the regular start- ing line), or (in the case of handicapped players) at a point back of that Hne. The Starter must be very expert and judicious to know just when to fire his pistol. He should hold the contestants on their marks after his order tp ^' get set " long enough to see that all are steady, so that none will be taken at a disadvantage by the signal. They should not be held at this tension, however, until Officials: Starter 495 they are tired. x\t his judgment, the Starter may allow the contestants to relax and get in position again if they do not impress him as having a good ready. If the pistol should be discharged by mistake (not purposely) the Starter may call the contestants back for a fresh start. A snap of the cap without a report of the pistol is not considered a signal. A Starter may use any kind of pistol, but blank cartridges are customary. The rulings require that a Starter shall have at least two good cartridges in his pistol before starting a heat or race. The Starter usually stands near to the marks, but slightly in advance of them, and to one side — usually on the outside of the track, to give the Inspectors and Referee unobstructed opportunity to watch for fouls when the contestants leave their marks. When there are too many contestants to run in one heat, the heats follow each other' in rapid succession, the contestants in the several heats being called to the mark by the Clerk of the Course as soon as a previous heat is finished. The Starter should have no unnecessary delay between the finish of one heat and the start of another. In successive trial heats, — i.e., those in which the same runners run over again to decide which shall enter the final race, — most ath- letic organizations provide on their official programs for a rest for the runners between, by interposing other events. A Starter's official relations to a race end when the runners leave the mark in response to his pistol report. In time-handicap events the Starter goes through 496 Track and Field Games this same procedure up to the point of firing the pistol. In lieu of that he nods or signals to the first Time- keeper, who shouts ^' Go ! " for each contestant in turn to start. INSPECTORS. — These officials are needed for middle distance and long-distance races and for relays. They are seldom required for sprint races. The Inspectors in a race are Assistants to the Ref- eree. Their duty is to look for fouls during the course of the race and report these to the Referee. They have nothing to do with the start or finish of the race, or with the enforcement of penalties, nor does the final decision as to fouls rest with them. There are two or more Inspectors, — as many as are needed to watch the course. The Referee assigns them to their places. In relay races an Inspector is placed at each twenty-foot zone in which the touch- off must be made, to see that this occurs. In other races they are usually placed at the turns in the track, if the course be a curved one, or at intervals in a straightaway. The fouls for which Inspectors are to look are (j) Throwing the arms out side wise, or in any other way interfering with the progress of a competitor. (2) In races on a straight course, crossing into another competitor's lane. (3) In races having one or more turns in the course, crossing in front of a competitor at less than six feet distance in front of him. {The Intercollegiate Association, and Public Schools Athletic League allow crossing at two strides in front.) No such crossing may be done under any rules after the last turn is made. (4) Receiving assistance or coaching during a race. Officials: Judge of Walking 497 (5) In relay races the Inspector observes if the ''touch- off" has been made duly and within the twenty-yard zone, or, if a baton be handed from one relay to the next, if that occur, and in the proper zone. An Inspector should report promptly to the Referee any fouls which he observes^ and the number of the offender. Should any competitor claim that he has been fouled, the Inspector should report to the Referee what he has seen of the incident. In hurdle races it is the duty of an Inspector to note if hurdles are overturned, as a record cannot be accredited to a competitor who overturns any of the hurdles. JUDGE OF WALKING. — This official is the sole judge of a w^alking event. He may have assistants if needed, but his own judgment is final as to the fairness of the walk throughout the course. He has nothing to do with the start or finish of the race, which are in charge of the same ofiicials who are in charge of the start and finish of the running races — Clerk of Course, Timekeepers, Starter, and Judges of Finish. The Judge of Walking must decide whether a com- petitor be running or walking. The distinction is determined by whether or not both feet are off the ground at once. If they are, it is a foul. If such unfair walking occurs before the last 220 yards of a race, the Judge cautions the competitor. He may do this twice, but on a third offense must disqualify the walker and have him leave the course. If the unfair walking occur during the last 220 yards, it dis- quahfies the competitor whether it be his first, second, or third offense. 2 K 498 Track and Field Games JUDGES AT THE FINISH. — The sole duty of these oJBEicials is to decide which runners in a race '^ come in/' or cross the Kne, first, second, third (and fourth or fifth if those places be noted). There is one Judge for each of the three (or more) places — that is, three Judges if three places are to score ; four Judges if four places are to score, etc. Each Judge decides but for one place, and before the race starts the Judges determine between themselves which shall note the winner, which the second to finish, which the third, etc. The decision of a Judge is final, and may not be appealed. In case of disagreement, the judgment of the majority decides. A Judge should stand directly in line with the finish, so that he looks straight across its length. It is usual for a strand of soft worsted, called the '^ tape," to be stretched 4 feet above the line. In official meets this tape must be fastened to posts and may not be held in the hand. For adults this tape is four feet above the ground. The winner of a race ^^ breasts the tape," i.e., carries this away with him on his breast. He may not touch it first with his hands or arms. Succeeding runners are judged solely by their crossing with their feet the line on the ground. It should be clearly understood that the winner of a race is not necessarily he who first breasts the tape ; this is merely an aid to the Judges. A runner must be entirely across the whitewashed line on the ground, feet and all, to have finished. Should he fall over the line, he would be considered as having finished, if his Officials: Timekeepers 499 entire body were beyond it, but not if any part were on the line. {In Intercollegiate rules the crossing of the line by the torsOj as distinguished from feet, head, hands or arms, is the determining point.) TIMEKEEPERS. — For official records, three Time- keepers must note the time of the event, and three are therefore required for every official meet. A Timekeeper uses a stop watch that will record fractions of a second (fifths). He should hold the watch in either hand and start or stop the watch with his forefinger. He should stand in line with the finish, watch the starter's pistol, and start his watch, not by the sound of the report, but by the flash. For the finish he should watch the runners as they come down the stretch. As the first man's breast touches the tape, or his foot crosses the fine, the watch for first place should be stopped, and so for each runner, by his respective Timekeeper. If the hand stops between the second and a fifth mark thereafter, the time is if second; in other words, the runner is never given the benefit of the fraction of a fifth of a second but that fraction is added to his record. In time-handicap events a Timekeeper also gives the signal for contestants to start. In such events the Starter goes through all of his usual duties up to the point of firing the pistol. He then nods or signals to the first Timekeeper, who shouts ^^ Go ! " as a signal to each runner in turn, as his watch indicates that the time allowance has expired. The Scorer obtains the time from the Timekeepers and makes the official record of it. 500 Track and Field Games SCORER. — All official records in a meet are re- corded by this official. The information in each case he obtains from the other officials, who judge that particular point, or from his assistants. For races, he learns from the Judges at Finish and the Time- keepers the order and time in which competitors finish ; from Field Judges or the Scorer's assistants assigned to them, the records scored in field events. In races of more than one lap on a curved track, the Scorer tallies the laps made by each competitor. He rings a bell, or announces otherwise, when the leading runner enters the last lap. In all races it is desirable to have a Scorer at both the start and finish of the race. In field events, the Scorer (or his assistants when events are run off simultaneously) call the contest- ants as their first, second, or third trials are to be made. An accurate record must be made of each of the three trials of each competitor. General methods and rules for scoring are given in this section under the general title of '' Scoring," and are explained in detail for each event in the descrip- tion of that event. FIELD JUDGES. — These officers have general man- agement of the field events and are the sole judges of these events, which include all jumping, weight- throwing, and vaulting contests. There should not be less than three field judges, and, in large meets, where several events are '' run off " simultaneously, three Field Judges are assigned to each such event. The Field Judge in charge of any event should see that it starts promptly at the time scheduled in the Officials: Field Judges 501 program. That means that before the time so an- nounced he should (i) Inspect the field and equipment for his particular event, weighing and measuring all implements and distances for which there are ofiicial specifications. (2) Check off the competitors to see that all are present ; and (3) Have the running broad jump and pole vaulting con- testants mark in advance their paces for the approach to the take-ofi\ as explained for those events. (4) Have any trial practice done before the event is called and not afterward. It not infrequently happens that a competitor in a field event, who is also entered for races, is called to the track for a heat in running before finishing his trials in the field. Under such circumstances, it is customary to give precedence to the running, but the Field Judge must be sure that the contestant returns, and, after a reasonable rest, finishes his field event. The Field Judges measure all distances in jumping, throwing, or vaulting, and their decision on such matters is final. Should there be a disagreement among the Judges, the majority governs. These results are given to the official Scorer or his assistant. One of the Judges in each event should keep an ac- curate record for each contestant entered, and, where three trials are allowed, record all three, though the highest is taken as the contestant's record in the event. In case of a tie in a ''scratch'' contest (no handi- cap) each of the tied competitors is entitled to three more trials, and the one making the farthest record in these additional trials receives the award. This same procedure is followed for a second or succeeding ties. 502 Track and Field Games In handicap contests, ties are decided as follows : The award goes to the competitor who received the least allowance. When a tie occurs between competitors having the same handicap allowance, the same method is followed as in scratch events, described above. In high jumping and pole vaulting ties are decided as explained under the rules for those events. The enforcement of rules, and penalties for fouls, are entirely within the jurisdiction of the Field Judges. They should be inflexible on these, as only in this way can an entirely equal and fair competition be insured. Any dispute of the Judges' decision by a contestant is a misdemeanor within the jurisdiction of the Referee. Any flagrant or repeated case of this kind should be reported at once to the Referee, and, at his discretion, he may rule the offending competitor from the field. MARSHAL. — This official is essentially an assist- ant to the Referee in controlling individuals on the field. He must not allow any but competitors and officials on the infield, and must see that competitors leave the field promptly when the events are over for which they are entered. The Marshal should also enforce promptly and effectively the rule that forbids all coaching of contestants while on the field. He shall forbid any dressing or undressing on the infield (except the use of robes between events) . PRESS STEWARD. — This official is charged with gathering and giving correct information to the news- paper press. This includes the names of contestants, times, distances, and records of performances, and any other information relative to the meet. Scoring 503 ASSISTANTS to any official are under the direction of that official for the performance of any duties con- nected with the position. SCORING. — In individual competitions, such as races, jumping, etc., a certain number of points is awarded for first, second, third, and sometimes fourth and fifth places. First place counts 5 points. Second place counts 3 points. Third place counts i point. When four places score : First place counts 5 points. Second place counts 3 points. Third place counts 2 points. Fourth place counts i point. When fi.ve places score, they count as follows : First place counts 5 points. Second place counts 4 points. Third place counts 3 points. Fourth place counts 2 points. Fifth place counts i point. TIES. — In case of a tie, the points are divided between the tied contestants. Thus, if two players be tied for second place, which scores 3 points, they score 1.5 points. A tied race is sometimes run over at the discretion of the officials, and there are special methods for determining ties in events which involve the measurement of height or distance. These meth- ods are explained with those events. When the first place is a tie in which the score is divided, third place is given 2 points. 504 Track and Field Games Thus a club or college may win first place in two events, as the 220-yard dash (5 points) and the run- ning broad jump (5), second place in two other events (3-3), and third place in another (i), scoring in all 17 points. If this be a higher total than that scored by the competing groups, this team wins. As the players from one club or institution each con- tribute to the total result, though only one player may take part in each event, they thus form a team. In open sports (those in which more than one organiza- tion takes part) the number of entries (players or competitors) for each event (competition or game), is, if limited, stipulated in preliminary announcements and may include two or many contestants. SCORE CARDS OR PROGRAM. — (The blank spaces after ist, 2d, and 3d are to be filled in by the number of the contestant coming in first, second, or third in that heat. All competitors so entered run in the next heat.) 100-YARD DASH (TRIAL HEAT) (95 ENTRIES) ist heat won by 2d 3d Time 2d heat won by 2d 3d Time . 3d heat won by 2d 3d Time 4th heat won by 2d 3d Time '. 5th heat won by 2d 3d Time loo-YARD DASH (SEMI-FINALS) ist heat won by 2d 3d Time 2d heat won by 2d 3d Time 100-YARD DASH (FINAL) ist heat won by 2d 3d 4th Time. History 505 HISTORY. — The beginning of the individual competitions now customarily grouped under the title of Track and Field Athletics, is prehistoric. Prob- ably such trials of skill have always been instinctive with all races. Our earliest known records of such events are found in Greek literature, notably in the ''Iliad" and ''Odyssey" of Homer, and in Pindar's "Odes of Victory." Greek sculptors found many of their best subjects in athletic games, notable examples being the Dis- cobolus, or Discus Thrower, and the Wrestlers. In Greece the games were played at four stated intervals, the Olympic games (played at Olympia in Elis every four years), and the Pythian, Nemeian, and Isthmian games. All of these were held in honor of some god. The importance of these games to the national life may be judged by the fact that the games were so associated with the highest culture of the time that the festivals drew together the greatest poets, philosophers, orators, and artists, whose achievements were also there displayed. The contestants were themselves examples of balanced culture, and the recipients of high honors. Athletic events in Homer's time consisted in chariot racing, boxing, wrestling, foot racing, and javeKn throwing. The Olympic contests, which belong to a later date, were probably, at first, foot races only. Other events were gradually added until the pen- tathlon was established about the i8th Olympiad. This consisted of leaping, spear throwing, discus pitching, running, and wrestling. Boxing and chariot racing were added in the 23d Olympiad. A com- 5o6 Track and Field Games peting athlete was obliged to enter all five contests in the pentathlon, thus showing his " all-round " training. The Greek and Roman games degenerated rapidly when so much prestige and indirect advantage accrued to a victor that, although the prizes themselves were mere symbols of honor (wreathes or palm branches), the contestants spent all of their time training for the games. Thus early came the distinction between amateur and professional standards. In the age of chivalry, individual contests in strength and skill were again popular, but their character was governed by the use of armor and the weapons then in vogue. The modern development of athletic contests dates from the middle of the last century. So far as known, the Olympic Club of San Francisco, founded in i860, is the oldest organization in this country devoted to amateur athletics; amateur athletic games were held in New Jersey in 1863 ; but the New York Athletic Club, founded in 1866, is credited with being the first organization to develop track and field games. One of its founders, Mr. William B. Curtis, is referred to as the father of American track and field athletics. In England, the first track and field games between Oxford and Cambridge were played in 1864. The amateur Athletic Union, one of the largest organiza- tions governing and fixing the standards for amateur sport in the United States, was organized in 1888, and later there was merged with it The National Associa- tion of Amateur Athletes of America. The name of Mr. James E. Sullivan is indissolubly connected with Bibliography 507 the Amateur Athletic Union, and with the entire move-" ment for organized amateur sport. The Intercol- legiate Association of Amateur Athletes of America was founded in 1891, and the Athletic League of the Young Men's Christian Association of North America in 1896. A revival of the Greek Olympic games, in the form of international contests, took place in 1896, and have since recurred at intervals of four years. BIBLIOGRAPHY Official Handbooks or Rule Books of the Amateur Athletic Union, Intercollegiate Association, Young Men^s Christian Asso- ciation, Public Schools Athletic League, GirW Branch of The Public Schools Athletic League. Spalding's Athletic Library. (New York, American Sports Publishing Company.) Athletic Almanac. Spalding's Athletic Library. An annual compilation of records in the different events. (New York, American Sports PubKshing Company.) Spalding's Athletic Library. For many handbooks on the different Track and Field events and coaching advice from experts; also for laying out of athletic fields and conduct of meets. Olympic Games. Spalding's Athletic Library. (New York, American Sports Publishing Company.) Practical Track and Field Athletics. By John Graham and EUery H. Clark. (New York, Fox, Duffield & Company.) Various styles of form described and illustrated. Track Athletics in Detail. (New York, Harper & Bros.) Excellently illustrated. Athletic Training for School Boys. By George W. Orton. Spalding's Athletic Library. (New York, American Sports Publishing Company.) Rowing and Track Athletics. By Arthur Ruhl and Samuel Crowther. (New York, The Macmillan Company.) 5o8 Track and Field Games 'The Athlete's Guide, By James E. Sullivan. Spalding's Athletic Library. (New York, American Sports Pub- lishing Company.) Olympian Field Events; Their History and Practice. By Frederick A. M. Webster. (London, G. Newnes, Pub. 1913.) The Book of Athletics. By Paul Withington. (Boston^ Lothrop, Lee and Shepard Company.) Illustrated from many photographs of athletes and athletic events. GLOSSARY Amateur. One who plays only for the pleasure of a game, or for its physical, mental, moral, or social benefits. One who has not competed or coached for money, nor played with nor against professionals. Balk. To run under the cross bar, or step over the restraining line, in a high jump ; or to over-run a broad-jump take-off. Breasting the tape. Act of winner in a running race, when carrying away on the breast the woolen thread stretched four feet above the finish line. Champion athlete. Winner of first place in a championship meet. Dash. Short running race ; sprint. Dead heat. A race in which two or more winners are tied for first place. Discus. The circular disc used in the revival of the classic Greek discus throw. Disqualify. To declare a player out of a competition, for infringement of some rule. Dual meet. A meet or contest between any two organiza- tions, as two clubs, or colleges, or a club and a college, as distinguished from open competition. Entry. Recording of a player's name with a proper official, to signify that the contestant will compete in an athletic meet. Form. The manner of performing. Foul. An act contrary to rules. Glossary 509 '^Get set." — Second order given in starting the competitors in a running race. ^^Go." Final order to start competitors in a running race, when pistol is not used. Handicap. An extra burden, as of added distance or weight, placed on a more proficient competitor, to equalize his competition with one less proficient. The less proficient player is said to be given, or allowed, the handicap. Heat. A preliminary race. Trial heats are preliminary races, to eliminate all but those who start in the "final" heat or race. Hurdle race. Running race over obstacles. Javelin. Long pointed pole, to be thrown for distance. Junior athlete. One, who has never won a first prize at any championship meet.' Lane. Roped aisle, in which competitors run. Lap. One round of a track or course, which must be traversed more than onoe to complete a given distance. Long distance race. One mile or more. Middle distance race. From 300 yards to one mile. Novice. A registered amateur athlete, who has never won a prize in the event in which he competes. "On your mark." PreHminary order to runners, equivalent to "Step to your starting line." Open competition, meet or games. Competitive events open to any organizations as distinguished from dual, or other limited meets. Pit. Ground dug up into which jumper falls after jump- ing. Pole. Pole used to carry body over cross-bar in "pole vault" event Professional. One who competes for a cash prize, or plays with or against professionals. "Quarter." Quarter mile. Register. To send in one's name, record and fee to governing body. Relay race. Race in which each runner covers only a por- tion of the course. Each runner is called a relay. 510 Track and Field Games Runway. Course, along which a jumper runs before he takes his jump. Score. Number of points won, or the written record of these. Scratch. Scratch hne , the mark from which a race is meas- ured. Scratch man , the competitor who starts on the scratch Hne. In a handicap race, the handicapped competitor (the one who gives allowances to others) , is placed back of the scratch line, the runner with the greatest allowance being placed on scratch. Scratch race , — all competitors ^^on scratch,'' i.e., no handicaps. Scrub. A scrub race or game is one for which the contestants have not trained in advance; impromptu; for amuse- ment only, and not for prizes or records. Senior athlete. Registered athlete, who has won first prize in a junior competition. Semi-finals. Trial heats, held just before the final heat. Shot. Round metal weight, to be thrust for distance. Shot-put. Field event in which shot is thrown. Sprint. To run at full speed; sometimes called a "dash.'' A running event in which one runs throughout at full speed. Straightaway. A race course without turns. Take-ofe. Board from which broad jumpers spring. Tape. Woolen thread stretched over the finish line in a race to help in determining the winner. Team. In track and field athletics, all competitors who are trying to win points for the same organization. Touch-off. Act of a relay runner when meeting a team-mate, who will run in his place ; they must touch hands within a given zone. Track. Cinder or dirt path, on which runners compete. Training. Getting into better, or keeping in good condition, for a particular event. Weigh in. To be weighed, before competing in an event limited to those of or below a certain weight. RUNNING AND WALKING RACES RUNNING RACES KINDS AND DISTANCES — Various running races are included in athletic games. Those especially designated by the leading organizations, are : SHORT-DISTANCE RACES (sprints, dashes — 50 to 300 yards) . MIDDLE-DISTANCE RACES (300 yards to I mile). LONG-DISTANCE RACES (10 to 26 miles). CROSS-COUNTRY RUNS. MARATHON . RELAY RACES, HURDLE RACES (l20 and 220 yards) . WALKING RACES (| to 2 miles); The sprints, relays, distance races, and hurdle races are called track events, as they are usually run on a specially prepared track. Those of the shorter dis- tances (up to 220 yards) are usually straightaway races — that is, they are run on straight tracks with- out turns. The longer races are usually run over curved tracks that have several laps or rounds to the mile. The cross-country runs, steeple chases, and hare and hounds are run across the open country, often, though not invariably, irrespective of prescribed paths. 2L S13 SPRINT RACES (DASHES) DEFINITION. — Sprint and dash are inter- changeable terms. They indicate a run for a distance short enough to admit of maximum speed throughout. Three hundred yards is regarded as the maximum sprinting distance, and anything less than that, of course, comes also within the classification. One hundred yards is the most popular sprinting distance for adults. THE COURSE. — Dashes or sprints are generally run over specially prepared tracks. Out of doors, these are usually the cinder path of the athletic field ; sometimes a grass path. Indoors, the usual armory or gymnasium floor is' most often used. The shorter dashes are usually straightaway races ; that is, they are run over a straight course that has no turns. While a straight course is a manifest ad- vantage in a run in which all effort is needed for con- centration on speed, such a course is not an invariable requirement, and the longer dashes, especially, are often run over curved courses. Official rules require that for all championship races under and including 300 yards, '^ each competitor shall have a separate course, properly roped, staked and measured, whether the race be run on a straight path or around one or more curves.". These individual courses, or lanes, generally measure from 3 J to 4I feet in width and are marked with rope run through low 514 The Race 515 stanchions, or, especially in indoor races, with a white marker on the ground. The material for lanes for sprint races, consisting of the stanchions of official height (18 inches) and rope to run through them, may be purchased at $15 per set for four 100-yard lanes. On curved tracks the length of the course is measured on a line 18 inches outward from the inner curbing of the track, except on incUned, padded running tracks indoors, when the distance is measured through the center of the padding. FORM is of the greatest importance in sprinting as in all other athletic events. A poor manner of starting, running, and finishing may lose the race even to a very speedy runner. There are differences of opinion, even among cham- pions, as to many points of form, and to some extent these may have to be decided for each individual by experimentation ; but every runner should know the best usage and is strongly urged to read, for both form and training, the books mentioned in the bibli- ography. Only the most salient points can be given here. START. — The method of starting in a sprint race is of the greatest importance, as in so short a distance every bit of impetus acquired, or inertia to be over- come before full speed is attained, shows strongly in the result. The so-called crouching start is almost universally used for sprint races or dashes, though there is no rule about this. For details of this, see section on ^^ general procedure. '^ THE RACE. — The position of feet and legs in run- ning should be straight ahead ; that is, the foot should 5i6 Sprint Races (Dashes) be in the straight-foot position, the toes pointing directly forward, neither inward nor outward. Each foot should strike the ground directly in front of its former position, carried there by a directly forward motion of the thigh and knee, with no sidewise curves in the motion of the knee in transition. Knees should be raised more than in distance running. For a sprint race the maximum speed is held through- out. The arms should touch easily. It is con- sidered bad form, and a disadvantage to the runners, for the arms to swing up across the body. This also places the runner at a disadvantage if the arms are ^' tied up " ; i,e,, with the forearms held up across the chest or unbent. The entire body should be in- clined slightly forward. To turn the head frequently to see other runners is a bad habit to be avoided. It places the runner doing it at a disadvantage by unnecessarily using energy and preventing con- centration of attention. THE FINISH should be made with the hands thrown upward, or downward and backward, to avoid grasp- ing the tape, as that is not permissible. The chest should be the part of the body to touch the tape. RULES. — Competitors should observe very care- fully all regulations given under ^^ General Pro- cedure." For convenience, the fouls are listed here also. FOULS in any running race are as follows : (a) To run without wearing a number unless with the consent of the Referee. (b) To make a false start ; i,e., to allow any part of the body to touch the ground beyond the starting line speed: Records 517 before the signal for starting be given. The player is placed back for the first two such false starts as ex- plained under ^' Start "in " General Procedure '' and disqualified for a third offense. (c) To be coached or assisted in any way during the race. (d) To hinder or impede another competitor in any way. (e) To cross into another lane. (/) To grasp the tape at finish with the hands. (g) To dispute the decision of the officials or be guilty of any unfair or ungentlemanly conduct before, during, or after the race. A runner guilty of fouls is disqualified, i.e., loses the race, even though he should come in first at the finish. PROTESTS. — If a runner has been hindered by the fouls of a competitor, he may at once make verbal protest to the Referee, and at the discretion of the latter may be allowed to run again. SPEED: RECORDS. — The sprinting speed of the fastest runners averages a fraction more than ten yards to each second. The following amateur records are not intended to give the latest records, but only figures that may serve for comparison. 5i8 Sprint Races (Dashes) ;2 O oi en LO ^ ^O A xA xA \xn Hlmcolu? H -^ M O N M CO A in H N 00 xfi "^ in Soo - H g 2 r 2 11 .S 8 lA kA 00 en t/3 . c/2* O ON O O On . lO rO Tt »0 to H tn CO e4|iOH|iO a-^« ass's a M lo H ro rf H CO s saas w 'tS'6'6'6'6 >>>»>»>>>» o o o o o .-X3 -i ^ se S ^ ^ «^ o o O < g) 0*X3 o o fc g, ■at 3 8 - ox) 111 o . o OO O O O O C/3 O CO a a CO (U 1 CO (U s5 a 2 CO S CO CO m'^ 8 § ^S ^ g O C o *s speed: Records 537 SPEED : RECORDS. — The preceding table gives the distances and number of runners to a team, cus- tomary for competitors of different ages, or officially provided for in the organizations mentioned. The object of this table is to furnish a standard of comparison, and not to give the latest records. HURDLE RACES DESCRIPTION. — A hurdle race is a combina- tion of running and jumping. It is a running race in which the contestants jump over hurdles ■ — which are obstacles generally of the nature of a gate or section of fence. In America these hurdles are made to swing or turn over easily so that they give if hit, and a jumper is not tripped by hitting one in his race. In England the hurdles are fastened securely. The swing- ing hurdles cost $3.50 each or $100 for a set of forty. DISTANCES AND HURDLES. — Hurdle races are run over a total distance of from 40 yards to 440 yards, with the number of hurdles varying from 3 for the shorter distance mentioned to 20 for the longer one. The standard distances for hurdle races are 120 yards, with 10 high hurdles (3 feet 6 inches in height) and 220 yards with 10 low hurdles (each 2 feet 6 inches high). These are distances provided for in the official programs for championship meets of the Amateur Athletic Union, Young Men's Christian Association, Intercollegiate Association, and the out- door games of the high schools in the PubHc Schools Athletic League of New York City. The indoor high school games are 100 yards with 8 hurdles, each 3 feet 6 inches high. There are no hurdle races officially 538 The Race 541 THE RACE. — Each contestant must be assigned his own lane, as in sprint races, and his own hurdles. A crouching start, such as that described for sprints, is used. Throughout a hurdle race a runner must observe all of the regulations explained for Running Races under ^^ General Procedure.'' By disregarding any of these he may lose the race, even though he should cross the finish line ahead of his competitors. In particular, he must not make a false start (ahead of the signal), must not cross into another lane, or in any way impede another runner. A hurdler may win a race, and yet overturn two hurdles in his flight, but for overturning a third hurdle he is disqualified. To make a record, however, a runner must finish without having overturned any hurdle; in other words, hurdles must all be standing in place, and un- disturbed, when he finishes his race. It is not permissible to trail a leg or foot along the end of a hurdle ; both feet must clear the top or the player is disqualified. FINISH. — The finish of a hurdle race is the same as for all races as described under '' General Procedure.'' FORM. — Hurdle racing is essentially a combina- tion of sprinting and high jumping. Speed should be got up at once, and the distance to the first hurdle in the 120 yards hurdle race should be cleared in seven strides. When taking the hurdles, the athlete must not jump too high, or begin his jump, or end it, too far away from the hurdle, as there should be no wasted effort. The hurdler should always have his body 542 Hurdle Races u < P P4 en o <: M o o en < Q ;z; en O < m P O > o o u o o S3 a ^ b .in ^ c3 en ^-» ^ en o r— 1 Cd 13 o ^ en e, ^-> en 0) Jh (1) >H O 0) en rr-J H < g O 4-> M "H CJ o HH ta a cn'^ XJ 2 pip ci; ci 1 :S en M u H o O cn ^ O cn T ^o Cfl 73 §1 'a. S e9|tOC4|iAC4|kA MliOC^US VO MD Tt- lO rt P^C/2 cd .3 W 4-) +J ^ +j +J WW > t+H t4H «4H t4H *4H MH W 2 CO C^ ^O CO C< % C) "3 w Pil S " w S t? w 2 2 pa 3 O O 00 O O -:f 1 M H M H C/3 s U cd il ^ S 88§ O O p Vh Cl^ M C< H ^'4 M C* o I? ^_^ >» & . '^ . 1:0 ■2^ ^1. 3 ^ o S ;S 2 . 12- 03 CJ , < ^ o-S O CJ << H-?^ o*? O o o 3 >, H c« Records 543 ^•anlift H|W»^»«N|»«N|«flN|»«N|»« Hjfl lO CO OS vo lO ^ OnOO vO i>* vC !>. lO lO M