fm U^i ® x^^ \ ^i <^i \ i) v^Cs { ^^, X -^ lil^ 'YOUNiG !" ffi AM iVKX) llXUSTHAnil\< \v CANNOT LEAVE THE LIBRARY. Chap -'--— r '^ COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. LIBRARY OF CONGRESS ^si^:^.!^' THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA YOUNG PEOPLE'S HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY EDWARD S. ELLIS, A.M. AUTHOR OK "THE PEOPLE'S STANDARD HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES," "A HISTORY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK," "COMMON ERRORS IN WRITING AND SPEAKINC;," ETC. BOSTON LEE AND SHEPARD PUBLISHERS 1898 Ens CorvRiGHT, 1898, BV Lee and Shei-ard All Rights Reserved Young Peoi-le's History of Our Country. Xortoooli Ii3rf5s J. S. Cushinj? S: Co. Berwick & Sii Norwood Mass. U.S.A. 1«tCOP 1896. INTRODUCTION T will be admitted that the history of no other country possesses so absorbing interest as our own. Although a New World, with no antiquity of government, science, or art, it presents the fruitage of the centuries of the Old World. Builded on the lessons and experiences of the ages, its fabric is one of marvellous strength, endurance, and wisdom. In its infancy it was hardened and made rugged by storm, by trial, by privation, and by suffering. The rigors of an unfriendly climate, the enmity of savages, the obstacle of vast primeval for- ests, and the choice between perishing from the earth or hewing the road to success, developed the highest form of mental and bodily vigor. Slavery in the Old World taught the blessings of liberty in the New, and our forefathers laid the foundations broad and deep and strong and sure. The Revolution brought the nation into existence and gave it a sisterhood among the peoples of the earth. The War of 1812 was necessary to gain and hold the respect of all countries, and the Civil War cemented and uni- fied the house once divided against itself. Beneath the furnace blast we underwent the "pangs of transformation," and came forth purified by fire. In this broad, appreciative spirit all children should study the history of our country. Its most impressive lesson will be lost on those who read it as a mere story, without an understanding of the meaning of historical movements and events. Why did the Pilgrims leave their native land to plant their homes in the dismal solitudes of New England? Why did the Cavaliers settle in Virginia? What caused our forefathers to sever their allegiance to Great Britain, and undergo poverty, hunger, VI INTRODUCTION cold, heat, storm, hardship, and suffering unto death? What led to the establishment of the Constitution, the most perfect form of government ever framed for man? What brought about the War of 1812, that with Mexico, and the tremendous struggle for the preservation of the Union ? Why are Americans the bravest men, and the most successful of inventors, explorers, authors, and scientists? In short, why is the United States the greatest nation of history ? To the intelligent teacher these questions convey their own answers, and the hints thus given suggest the true method of studying history. The subject naturally divides itself into periods, which should be mastered in all their details and in the full extent of their meaning. A list of topics is given at the close of each chapter, which the teacher should expand and supplement with others that will readily suggest themselves. The pupils should be required, upon reaching the close of each period, to construct a " skeleton history," on the plan of the model suggested, and finally to put together a complete skeleton history of the United States from the discovery of America to the present time. Every American must be interested in the men who had most to do with making our history, yet the rule has been to give very little and sometimes no information at all concerning them. What boy or girl does not desire to know more about Nathanael (ireene, the " Quaker General," " Old Put," the hero of so many stirring adventures, Baron Steuben, the grim veteran from Prussia, Marion, the " Swamp Fox," Franklin, the philosopher, Fulton, who intro- duced steamboat navigation, Morse, the inventor of the telegraph, Webster, the orator, and scores of other statesmen, warriors, and great men who helped to build our nation? We have, therefore, added at the close of each chapter — beginning with the Revolu- tionary period — brief biographical sketches of the men who figure most prominently in the incidents of the chapter itself. These contain information with which eacli i)ni)il should make himself familiar, and which cannot fail to incite him to delve deeper in tiie rich historical mines of his native land. CONTENTS Part I THE PERIOD OF DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION CHAPTER PAGE I. The Earliest Discoverers of America . . . . i II. The Birth of Columbus, and his Long Struggle to se- cure Aid in sailing on his Voyage of Discovery . 7 III. The Great Discovery 11 IV. Explorations in America 19 Part II THE PERIOD OF SETTLEMENT V. The Colonial History of Virginia 36 VI. The Colonial History of New York .... 53 VII. The Colonial History of New England .... 62 VIII. The Colonial History of New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware 84 IX. The Colonial History of Maryland, the Carolinas, AND Georgia 92 X. The French and Indian War ...... 100 XI. Home Life in the Colonies .115 Part III THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION XII. Opening of the Revolution 123 XIII. Events of 1776 141 XIV. Events of 1777 , . . . 155 XV. Events of 1778 .......... 167 vii Ill CONTENTS CHAPTER FACE XVI. Events ok 1779 176 XVII. Events of 1780 ........ 182 XVIII. Events of 1781 193 Part IV THE PERIOD OE EORMATION AND GROWTH XIX. Formation ok the Government .... XX. Washington's Administrations. — 1789-1797 XXI. John Adams's Administration. — 1797-1801 XXII. Jefferson's Administrations. — 1801-1809 . XXIII. Madison's Administrations. — 1809-1817 XXIV. Monroe's Administrations. — 1817-1825 XXV. John Quincy Adams's Administration. — 1825-1829 XXVI. Jackson's Administrations. — 1829-1837 XXVII. Van Buren's Administration. — 1837-1841 . XXVIII. Harrison and Tyler's Administrations.— 1841-184S XXIX. Polk's Administration. — 1845-1849 XXX. Taylor and Fillmore's Administrations. — 1849-1853 XXXI. Pierce's Administration. — 1853-1857 . XXXII. Buchanan's Administration. — 1857-1861 207 213 221 226 235 261 267 271 281 2S4 292 299 303 309 Part V THE PERIOD OE THE WAR EOR THE UNION XXXIII. Lincoln's Administration. — 1861-1S65. Events of 1861 317 XXXIV. Lincoln's Adminisiration. — 1861-1865 {conliniied). E\enis of 1862 329 XXXV. Lincoln's Administration. — 1861-1865 {fontiuned). Events ok 1863 344 XXXVI. Lincoln's Administration. — 1861-1865 (continued). Events ok 1864 358 XXXVII. Lincoln's Adminmstration. — 1861-1865 {concluded). Even IS of 1865 368 CONTENTS Part VI THE PERIOD OF REUNION AND PROGRESS CHAPTER PAGE XXXVIII. Johnson's Administration. — 1865-1869 . . . 387 XXXIX. Grant's Administrations. — 1S69-1877 . . . . 392 XL. Hayes's Administration. — 1877-1881 .... 403 XLI. Garfield and Arthur's Administrations. — 1881-1885 406 XLII. Cleveland's First Administration. — 1885-1889. . 411 XLIII. Harrison's Administration. — 1889-1893 . . . 413 XLIV. Cleveland's Second Administration. — 1893-1897 . 420 XLV. McKinley's Administration. — 1897- • . . . 432 Appendix 455 Chronological Summary of Events 474 Index ....„, 485 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY Part I THE PERIOD OF DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION CHAPTER I THE EARLIEST DISCOVERERS OF AMERICA IHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS, although honored as the discoverer of America, was not the first white man to visit the shores of the New World. Hundreds of years before he was born, the daring sailors of Norway and Sweden, who were called Norsemen, or Northmen, because their home was in the northern part of Europe, steered their vessels across the stormy Atlantic and caught sight of the American continent, and even landed, more than once. Naddod, one of those sea-rovers, was caught in a tempest in the year 860 and driven upon the coast of Iceland. He called it Snowland, and left as soon as he could. Four years afterward another Norseman visited the island and took away so pleasing an account that a settlement was made, but it did not last long. The colonists returned home dissatisfied with the country. Ten years later another settlement was planted, and lasted hundreds of years. 2 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY The Icelander known as Eric the Red quarrelled with some of the settlers and sailed to Gunnibiorn's Rocks, in Greenland, where he made his home. He called the cold, bleak country Green- land, and told such a glowing story about it that a good many Icelanders joined him on his return. So far as known, the sons of Eric the Red were the first white men that set foot on the mainlantl of America. The eldest of these sons was Lief, afterwards known as Lief the Lucky. In the year looo, he sailed southward, with a crew of OF THE NORSEME thirty-five men, from the Greenland colony. The first land they saw is believed to have been Newfoundland. There they went ashore, spent a short time in looking around, and then sailed, as is thought, to Nova Scotia. Still steering southward, they finally caught sight of New England. They were amazed and delighted by the quantities of luscious grapes which they found. Lief named the country Vinland, and, when he finally set out on his return, he carried a great deal of the fruit, and specimens of the fine timber to show to his friends. It is not known where Lief and his men THE EARLIEST DISCOVERERS OF AMERICA 3 landed, but is believed to have been in Rhode Island and probably on Narragansett Bay. Eric the Red had another son, named Thorvald. He was a brave sailor and was eager to see the new country. Lief helped him to get ready, and in 1003 he sailed with thirty men. He found the spot visited by his elder brother, and the company spent the winter in hunting and fishing. They left no record of having MEETING OF NORSEMEN AND INDIANS seen a single native in all that time. In the spring, a party ex- l)lored the coast of Rhode Island, Connecticut, and Long Island. It is thought that they entered the harbor of New York. How different the scene that greeted them from that of to-day, for not even the smoke of a wigwam, nor a living being besides themselves, was visible. In the spring of 1004, Thorvald, while sailing along the coast of 4 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY Cape Cod, was driven on the beach by a tempest. The ships were mended, and, liking the appearance of a certain spot on Massa- chusetts Bay, they dropped anchor and went ashore. There, for the first time, they saw some natives. Nine of them were lying on the ground, under a rude tent, with no fear of danger. Why should any one wish to harm them? Yet hardly had the Norsemen discovered the innocent people, than they stole upon them and killed all except one. He managed to elude their heavy swords and dashed off into the woods. But the visitors suffered for their wickedness. The native that escaped carried the news to his friends, who determined to slay the dreadful beings that had invaded their home. They rushed upon them from all sides and attacked them with such spirit that the Norsemen had to retreat to their vessel, fighting as they went. The weapons of the natives were so weak, compared with those of the white men, that only one of the latter was killed. He was Thorvald, whose breast was pierced so deeply by an arrow that he died. He was buried near the shore, and the survivors sailed to Vinland. The next spring, the colony returned to Greenland. An expedition left Greenland in the spring of 1007, including more than a hundred men and women. They spent the first winter, it is supposed, on the shores of Buzzard's Bay. They suffered for food, and many quarrels took place. A number of deserters were cast ashore at Iceland and punished by being re- duced to slavery. The others, after much hardship, sailed away in 10 10. A new expedition, however, was formed in the following spring, but that, too, was broken up by wrangles, and those that survived returned to Greenland. America lost to the Old World. — This ends the history of the Norsemen so far as it affects the New World. They had discovered and tried to colonize it but failed in every instance. The settle- ment in Greenland perished so utterly that hardly a trace remains. That vast body of land reaching from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and from the Arctic to the Antarctic Ocean, lay forsaken and un- THE EARLIEST DISCOVERERS OE AMERICA known to Europe for hundreds of years. The waves that rolled against its shores brought the sail of no vessel from the far-away lands. The dusky warrior peering out from the bleak woods of New England, or from the sandy wastes of the Carolinas, or the lowlands of Florida, or the curving coast of Brazil, saw no strange vessel bringing the palefaces to in- vade his hunting grounds. Nor, along the immense line to the west- ward of the Andes, nor up the Pacific coast of North America to the fogs of Alaska, could the keen eyes discern any- thing besides their own tiny canoes, darting in and out among the head- lands and inlets, as they scanned the surface of the mightiest ocean on the globe. Legends of Other Discoverers of the New "World. — Besides the discoveries of the Norsemen, there are legends of still earlier visits to the New World. A Mexican historian claims that a party of Buddhist monks from China discovered the country in the fifth century, and the official history of China gives credence to the account. Still other traditions speak of a visit by a party of Arabian sailors in the twelfth century, and also of the discovery of the country, many years later, by Madoc, a Welsh chieftain. AN INDIAN WARRIOR 6 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY All this, however, is so vague and shadowy, that we must give it little credit, until stronger proof appears. Time rolled on, and America, once discovered and lost again, lay wrapped in the gloom of loneliness and desolation. Silence brooded over the forests and rivers and mountains, and the surges beat against the shores while the centuries came and went, until, in the fulness of time, the man was born and the hour came for the true discovery of America. Topics.— The fust visitors to the New World; the Norsemen; Nad.lod; Eric the Red; Lief the Lucky; Thorvald; his death; the expedition of 1007; the last of the Norsemen in the New World; America lost to the Old World; the legends of earlier discoveries than those by the Norsemen. THE WORLD IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY CHAPTER II THE BIRTH OF COLUMBUS AND HIS LONG STRUGGLE TO SE- CURE AID IN SAILING ON HIS VOYAGE OF DISCOVERY liRTH of Columbus. — While there is a variation I of twenty years among the biographers of I Columbus, in the date of his birth, all agree that it took place at Genoa (jen'o-a), Italy. The majority make the year 1435 or 1436. His father was a wool- weaver. Columbus was the eldest of four sons, who, with the single daughter, were probably born under the same humble roof in (Jenoa. Boyhood of Columbus. — ^Ve have no reliable knowledge of the boyhood and early life of Columbus. His education was gained mostly in the local schools of Genoa. He was a good penman and possessed skill in drawing. There came a time, in after years, when he supported his family by drawing maps. It is claimed that he studied awhile and taught at the University of Pavia. A drawing said to have been made by Columbus is carefully pre- served at that institution. When about fourteen years old, Columbus went to sea. In those times the Mediterranean and Adriatic were filled with treasure ships from the Indies (in'diz). Jewels, gold, spices, and gums were brought overland through Africa to Venice (ven'iss) and Genoa, which were then in the height of their glory as conquerors of adjoining small states and masters of the seas. Pirates swarmed in the waters. The ships of one nation preyed upon those of an- other, while the Moors, who were sullenly withdrawing from Spain, 7 8 A I/IS TORY OF OUR COUNTRY assailed everything within reach. The Mediterranean, from dib- raltar to the Dardanelles (dar-da-nels'), was lit iij) at night by the flames of destruction. Columbus went to Portugal about 1473. For some years previous, the marine world was stirred by the efforts of Prince Henry of Portugal to find a southern route to the Indies, Columbus afterward married the daughter of one of the captains whom Prince Henry sent on voyages of discovery. In this way, no doubt, he gained a great deal of valuable knowledge. Although deeply interested in these attempts to find a westward route to the Indies, Columbus took no part in them. It was at this ])eriod that he supported himself and family by making and sclHng maps. His wife died shortly after, leaving one son, Diego (de-ah'go). Columbus in the Service of Portugal. — About 1477, Columbus entered the service of Portugal, and many suspect that he made a voyage to Iceland. If so, he must have heard the legends about the visit of the Norsemen to the New \Vorld centuries before. At any rate, when he went back to Portugal, his faith in a western route to the Indies was so strong that he begged King John to give him command of a fleet with which to make such a voyage. The king referred the matter to a royal council, and they reported against it ; but the treacherous king sent out a secret expedition of his own, which was driven back by a storm. Columbus was so indignant when he learned of the trick, that he left the country. Discouragements of Columbus. — Trudging wearily along, hold- ing the hand of his little boy Diego, he at last came to a Fran- ciscan convent, in the southern part of Spain, m-ar the little town of Palos (pa'los). The i)rior gave him kindly welcome, and Columbus remained for several days. The jirior was much im- pressed by the views of Columbus, and called in a number of his friends, who talked over the matter with him. I'he ])rior set out to obtain an interview with the king and tjueen for Columbus, but it was a long while before he succeeded. It may seem strange that Spain should ha\e a king and (pieen ruling the country at the same time, for such things are not THE BIRTH OF COLUMBUS COLUMBUS AND HIS SON AT THE CONVENT lO .1 in STORY OF OUR COUNTRY known in these days. It is hard to imagine two rulers with equal authority, but P'erdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile had joined by their marriage those two provinces, and sat upon sepa- rate thrones, although united by domestic ties. Their joint feat- ures were cast upon the coins of the country, but in matters of government the thrones were independent of each other. It was not until Columbus had waited for years, and had actu- ally started to leave the country, that Queen Isabella was won over to his views and promised to give him the help without which he could not make his voyage. The king would not con- sent, his excuse being that the treasury had been drained by war ; but Isabella offered to pledge her own crown of Castile and her jewels to raise the needed funds. This sacrifice, however, was not ni'.d'.as the receiver of revenues in Aragon advanced the money, which, after all, jtrobably came from the treasury of Ferdinand. Isabella signed articles of agreement with Columbus by the terms of which he was to be admiral over all the lands and con- tinents that he might discover, and have the right to name three candidates for the government of each island; he was to receive one-tenth of the gold, precious stones, and merchandise in what- ever manner found \ he was to bear one-eighth of the expense in fitting out the vessels, and to be given the same share of the profits. The money furnished by Columbus came from his friend Martin Pinzon, a wealthy navigator, who agreed to take part in the enterprise. Topics. — The l)irtli of Coliiml)us; his boyhood; when he went to sea; piracy; I'rince Henry of Portugal; tlie treachery of King John of Portugal; tlie discouragements of C'olumlius; King Ferdinand and (^ueen Isabella; the agreement between the queen and Columbus. CHAPTER III THE GREAT DISCOVERY [EFORE the Sailing of the Expedition. —The news of the intended expedition spread dismay and resentment in Palos. Ahiiost every one beHeved that the men who sailed upon the voyage would go to certain death. It looked for a time as if not a single sailor could be coaxed or driven to service on the ships. The government tried to press them to the task, and offered to pardon many for crimes on condition of their going. It was only when Martin Pinzon, the friend of Columbus, and his brothers Vicente and Francisco volunteered, that sufficient seamen were secured to man the three little ships. The Departure. — Columbus hoisted his flag on the Sa?ifa Maria ; Martin Pinzon was captain of the Pinta and his brother Francisco was pilot, while Vicente commanded the Nina. The total number of the crews was one hundred and twenty persons, among whom were several private adventurers, a physician and surgeon, servants, and ninety sailors. With gloom among the sailors, and deeper gloom among their friends on shore, the three ships sailed from Palos, on Friday, August 3, 1492. The Santa Maria, the largest of the three, was only sixty-three feet long, over all, fifty-one feet along the keel, twenty feet beam, and ten and one-half feet in depth. The Nina and Pinta were open caravels, decked only at the ends, where were quarters for "the officers and crews. The Santa Maria was what is called a carrack, since it was larger than the others and was used for carry- 12 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY ing cargoes of freight. It was also slower, a fact which afterward caused a dispute as to who first saw land. The Westward Voyage. — Sailing out on the vast unknown ocean, all went well for a time, though the sailors were ill at ease and anxious for something to occur that would cause Columbus to turn back. Little, however, did they understand the high cour- age and resolve of their commander. Nothing l)iit hca\en could change his purpose. But trouble was certain to come. The seamen were in an ugly mood and felt that every day took them that much further from home. P'or a time Columbus held them well under control. He ordered that if the vessels became separated by accident, they should continue sailing westward for seven hundred leagues ; but it is doubtful if either of the other vessels would have held to the course so long. He was so afraid that land would not be found at the distance named that he kept two reckonings — a true and a false one. The latter was shown to the crews and made the progress seem less than was the fact. A great surprise came to the discoverer on the night of Septem- ber 13, when some six hundred miles from the island of Ferro. Looking at the compass, he saw that, instead of pointing at the north star, as he had always seen it do, the needle turned several degrees to the northwest. The variation, too, increased with eac4i day. He could not understand it, nor even at this late day is the cause clearly understood ; but, afraid of the effect of the strange fact upon his men, he kept the secret as long as he could. By and by, however, the pilots discovered the truth and were terri- fied. But Columbus was ready with the theory that the needle pointed not toward the north star, but toward a fixed point near it, and the revolution of the star caused the seeming variation of the needle. The simple folk had so much respect for his learning tliat they accepted the explanation. Signs of Land. — After a while, so many signs of land a])peared that it is hard to understand why the sailors continued dissatisfied.' On the day after the variation of the compass had been noticed. THE GREAT DISCOVERY 13 a heron and a tropical bird hovered around the ships for some time, as if trying to find out who the strange beings were. Since those birds never go far from land, no stronger proof could have been given of the near success of the voyage. Then the ships THE VOYAGE OF COLUMBUS entered the mass of floating seaweed known as the Saragossa Sea, and the sailors had great sport netting crabs and other shellfish. Meanwhile, the trade- winds carried the ships smoothly forward. The signs of land became more marked ; but, as the days passed, and each morning the same limitless expanse of ocean bounded the horizon on every hand, the discontent of the sailors increased, until they were on the verge of mutiny. Despite all Columbus could do, their suUenness grew until in desperation he agreed that 14 A HISTORY OF OUR COUXTRY if land were not sighted at the end of three days, he would go back to Spain. While a reward was offered to the one who first saw land, a penalty was imposed for a false alarm. 'I'he clouds were mistaken so many times for the misty shore of some island, that every few hours a gun boomed on one of the vessels as a signal that the great discovery had been made. On the night of October ii, Columbus climbed upon the roof of the cabin, at the stern of the Saiifa Maria. 'Vhe twinkling stars overhead, the rippling of the water from the bow, the foamy wake stretching away in the night, the solemn stillness, the mur- mur of the voices of the crew, as they moved here and there or gathered in scowling groups, — all these were fit companions to the gloomy thoughts of the great navigator, who, on the eve of one of the grandest achievements of man, dreaded lest he should be forced to turn back with a disappointment more crushing than he could bear. A Light over the Waters. — Suddenly his heart gave a quick throb. With his longing eyes piercing the night, he saw a light moving along the horizon like a star. And yet it could not be a star, for it danced up and down, as if a person bore it in his hand, while running. Afraid to trust his own senses, Columbus called to one of his friends and asked him whether he observed the light. Yes, he saw it. Then the discoverer asked another to climb up beside him, but the light had vanished. It flickered to view, however, several times, but the signal gun was not fired, owing to the doubts of several. Land ! — .\t two o'clock in the morning, a cannon on the Piiiia ])oomed across the waters. One of the watchers had caught the dim but certain outlines of land several miles distant. vSail was shortened and daylight confirmed the glad news. Landing of Columbus. — With the breaking of day, the admiral and iiis crews saw before them a level island, green and beautiful with vegetation and swarming with men, who ran from the woods to the edge of the sea and stared in wondering amazement at the THE GREAT DISCOVERY I 5 visitors. In obedience to the signals of Columbus, anchors were dropped and the boats were manned and armed. The discoverer himself was in full armor and bore the royal standard, while the Pinzon brothers each carried the banner of the expedition, em- blazoned with a green cross, containing the initials of Ferdinand and Isabella. Leaping out of the boat as it touched shore, the admiral sank upon his knees, kissed the ground, and thanked God from an overflowing heart. The rest did the same, for their grati- tude was as deep as his. Then Columbus rose to his feet, drew his sword, displayed the royal standard, and with liis companions grouped about him took possession of the island in the name of the sovereigns of Castile and Aragon. The men next crowded around their commander and humbly craved his forgiveness, — a prayer which he gladly granted. The natives viewed the scene in silent wonder and awe. It has never been clearly established where the landing of Columbus was made. The weight of testimony is in favor of ^Vatling Island, one of the Bahamas. The island was called (iuanahani (gwah-na-hah'ne) by the natives and named San Salvador by Columbus. Believing that he had landed on one of the islands belonging to the coast of India, he called the natives Indians (in'di-ans), a name which has clung to them ever since. The voyage from Palos had been made in forty-three days. The Spaniards wandered over the island, eating the delicious fruits and feasting their eyes upon the beautiful scenery. They treated the natives kindly and won their good-will. Two days later the discoverers rowed to the northward in their boats and examined the rest of the island. Columbus gave numerous pres- ents to the Indians, such as glass beads, hawks' bills, and gaudy trinkets. For the first time the white men saw their canoes, hol- lowed from the trunks of large trees, and their hammocks swinging in the cool shade of the groves. Other Discoveries. — It is not worth while to follow Columbus through all his explorations, for his experiences were quite similar. He discovered a number of other islands, among which was San i6 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY Domingo. He saw everything through magnifying glasses, as may be said, and his letters to the Spanish sovereigns were filled with such extravagant language as to awaken distrust in their minds. Loss of the Santa Maria. — It was on December 6 that Colum- bus reached Haiti, landing on the western end of the island, to which he gave the name of St. Nicholas, known now as Mole St. Nicholas. Off Santo Domingo the careless pilot ran the Sanfd WRECK OF THE SANTA MARIA Maria on a sand bar. She was badly injured and could not be gotten off. She was therefore unloaded, and Columbus sailed in the A'l'/ia. The timbers of the Sanfa Maria were used in con- structing a fortification, which was named La Navidad. Forty- three Spaniards, by their own request, were placed in charge, and on January i6, 1493, Columbus hoisted sail for home. Return to Spain. — It was in the depth of winter, the sea was tempestuous, and the trade-winds delayed them; but Columbus THE GREAT DISCOVERY 1 7 and the Pinzons were skilful sailors, and they reached one of the Azores on February i8, without mishap. On March 4, the Nina, the ship of Columbus, anchored off Lisbon, and the discoverer was received with the highest honors by the king of Portugal. That ruler must have been filled with chagrin, when he reflected how he had thrown away the glory which might have fallen to his own country. Sailing again, Columbus came to anchor at Palos, on March 15, 1493. Never before had the city known such excitement. All busi- ness ceased, the bells were rung, and men, women, and chil- dren rushed to the shore to greet those whom they had never expected to see again. Columbus sent letters to the king and queen, who were at Seville, and soon followed them. No higher honors could have been paid to any hero than were showered upon the admiral by the grateful sovereigns; for what greater deed could mortal man accomplish than to discover a new world? Subsequent Voyages by Columbus. — It was natural that Colum- bus should wish to make another voyage across the Atlantic to the wonderful country which he had found, and the king and queen were as eager as he that it should be done. There was no trouble now in obtaining volunteers. His ships numbered seventeen, and twelve hundred people accompanied him. The expedition sailed in the September following his first return, and, calling at Haiti, found not a Spaniard alive. They had acted so brutally toward the natives, that the latter overwhelmed them and slew every white person on the island. This expedition accomplished little, and Columbus made a third one in 1498. On this voyage he discovered and named the island of Trinidad and saw the northern coast of South America. With no suspicion of the vast continent he had found, he supposed it to be a small island, which he named Zeta. He coasted hundreds of miles, believing each projecting point to be an island. When, however, he observed the vast volume of water poured into the ocean by the Orinoco, he was sure he had 1 8 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY reached the coast of Asia and the stre;ini was one of the great rivers flowing from the Garden of Eden. The enemies of Columbus caused his arrest on false charges, and he was sent home in irons. The sovereigns and the people were shocked, and he was quickly released and treated with honor. Although he had grown old and feeble, he sailed on his fourth and last voyage in the spring of 1502. He discovered Martinique (mar-te-neek') and other islands and saw the coast of Honduras. He returned to Spain in 1504. His good friend Queen Isabella died shortly after, and Columbus found himself deserted and in poverty. He tried in vain to secure his rights, but failed to do so, and died May 20, 1506, with never a sus- picion of the real grandeur of the discovery he had made. Topics. — -Sailing of Columbus; the three caravels; the westward voyage; the signs of laiul; the light seen by Columbus on the night of October II; the great discovery; the landing; where the landing was made; other dis- coveries of Columbus; loss of the Santa Maria ; what followed; the return to Spain; second voyage of Columbus; what was done on his third voyage; on his fourth; his death. CHAPTER IV EXPLORATIONS IN AMERICA English Explorations I HE Naming of the New World. — Americus Ves- puccius (a-nier'i-cus ves-poosh'e-us) was a comrade of Columbus, and like him a skilful sailor and a native of Italy. In May, 1499, he sailed on a voyage of discovery with another navigator. They sighted the coast of South America six hundred miles south of the Gulf of Para, and sailed as far south as the Cape de la Verda, thus gaining a sight of the continent of America. Two years later, while in the service of the king of Portugal, Vespuc- cius made a second voyage, visiting the coast of Brazil, though several other expeditions were ahead of him. Vespuccius had done important work, and when he came back to Lisbon he wrote an account of his explorations, which was published at Augsburg in 1504. In this narrative and in letters, he claimed to have made a voyage to the continent in 1497, which was before Columbus saw the mainland. This increased the admiration felt for Vespuccius in many quarters, and one writer proposed that the newly discovered country should be named America in honor of the Italian. The proposal was accepted, and gradually the whole continent became known as America instead of Columbia, though the latter name has been growing in favor of late years. The Discoverer of the American Continent. — But the honor of discovering the mainland of the American continent must be 20 A HISTORY OF OUR C OCX TRY given to an Englishman named Jolin Cabot (cab'ot), wlio sailed from Bristol, England, in 1497, and sighted the coast on June 24. The exact spot is not known, but is believed to have been Labra- dor. Cabot thus preceded Columbus to the continent itself by about a year. It is generally believed that in May, 1498, Sebastian Cabot, in charge of an expedition, coasted New Eng- land, New York, and as far south as Cape Hatteras. He, like so ,;; ^ many of the others, was searching for a shorter route to India, but of course was tlisappointcd. The Leading Maritime Nations of Europe. — At the time of the discovery of America, the leading maritime nations --.. „ ,- of Europe were Si)ain, Holland, France, and Eng- ,; land. Holland was more in quest of trade than terri- tory, and did little (if account in the way of explora- tion. It required a good many years for her to see the golden prizes that were slipping from her grasp. Even Eng- land, after the voyages of the Cabots, seemed to care little about the New World. Henry VIII, in response to urgent demands, sent out an exjjedition in 1527, and another in 1536, but little was done. In the spring of 1553 three other ships sailed for the New World. Two of them drifted into the Arctic regions, and their crews were frozen to death. The third reached Archangel in Russia and was the means of opening a new channel for trade. CABOT AMONG THE ICEBERGS EXPLORATIONS IN AMERICA 21 Frobisher's Voyages, — Martin Frobisher (frob'ish-er) sailed on his fust westward voyage in June, 1576, and made two subsequent ones. He entered the strait named for him, but his work has slight value. Sir Humphrey Gilbert's Expedition. — Sir Humphrey Gilbert, a half brother of Sir Walter Raleigh, who helped him to fit out the expedition, left England in June, 1583, in charge of five ships, but one of the largest put back to port, and mutinies, quarrels, and continuous bad weather brought the expedition to naught. Sir Humphrey was drowned by the foundering of his vessel while on his return to England. Sir Walter Raleigh's Expeditions. — Sir Walter Raleigh did not give up his scheme of colonization. He sent two other ships to America in April, 1584. They reached North Carolina, and brought back so encouraging a story that a larger and better equipped expedition set out for the New World in the following year. They attempted a settlement south of Cape Fear, but treated the Indians so badly that the red men became their bitter enemies. When on the verge of starvation. Sir Francis Drake carried them back to England. 'I'hey took with them some tobacco, which was thus introduced into Europe. \\\ 1587 Raleigh sent still another expedition, comprising one hundred and fifty men and women. They wrangled continually and led a wretched existence for a considerable time. While at Roanoke Island, the wife of Annanias Dare gave birth to a daughter, who was named Virginia. She was the first child of English parentage born within the present limits of the United States. Governor White, who was at the head of the colony, returned to England in quest of help. Threatened war with Spain kept SHIPS OF THE SIXTEE^^I CENTURY ./ in STORY OF OUR COV.YTRY him at home for three years. When he at last came back, he was unable to find a single member of the colony. He made long and repeated searches, for his own daughter was among the missing ones, but he was forced to sail away without seeing her or any of the others. The " Lost Colony." — Sir Walter Raleigh did all he could to learn the fate of the " lost colony," as it is termed in history, THE -LOST COLONY but was never able to gain any certain knowledge of the people. There were reports many years afterward that some of them were alive, but it is probable that when White visited the spot in 1590 all were dead. Gosnold's Expedition. — In March, 1602, Captain liartholomew Gosnold sailed from Falmouth with thirty-two persons, of whom twenty were intended to found a colony. It was he who named Cape Cod, the Elizabeth Islands, and Martha's Vineyard. They made a sturdy effort to gain a footing on New England soil, and held fast for a time; but they had neglected to bring provisions, and, to save themselves from starvation, were compelled to return to England. Gosnold, however, s|)read such bright accounts of EXPLORATIONS IN AMERICA 23 the fertility of the land and the beauty of the country that great interest was roused in colonization, and the grandest of conceiv- able results soon followed. Spanish Explorations The Spanish naturally sought the warmer portions of America. A navigator who was the first to reach any new land had the right to claim it for the government under whose flag he sailed. Thus Columbus, though an Italian, served under the Spanish Hag, and everything he discovered therefore belonged to Spnin. DISCOVERY OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN Discovery of the Pacific Ocean. — Vasco Nuiiez de Balboa left Spain on a vessel which was wrecked on the coast of Darien. He had been there before, and he now saved the crew from starvation by guiding them through many perils to an Indian village, where food was obtained. The grateful men placed him at their head, and they committed many cruelties upon the Indi- ans. Nearly all the Spaniards who came to America were so brutal and savage that they did much to delay successful colonization. H A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY While engaged on one of his forays, ]3alboa was told by an Indian that if he would go six days further to the westward, he would reach another immense sea, and beyond that a country where gold was as plentiful as the pebbles on the seashore. The prospect of finding the precious metal set the adventurers off in a hurry. They cared nothing for the fighting they had to do, for they were secure witliin ILLED BY THE INDIANS ut the tramp was a long and exhaust- ing one. Reach- ing the base of a high mountain, from the top of which the Indians said the great sea could be seen, lialboa made his men stay behind while he climbed to the top. This was in the month of September, 1 5 13, and he ,L,^Tzed out u]ton tlie I'acific, being tiie first white man to rest his eyes u])on the mighti- est ocean of the globe. Other vSpanish navigators pushed I'once de Leon (pon'tha da la- Ponce de Leon's Expedition, their explorations northward own'), having been deprived of the governorship of Porto Rico (port'o ree'ko), set out with three ships in March, 15 12, in search of a marvellous spring, which he had been told would bring back youth to an old person. He landed near where Fernandina now EXPLORATIONS IN AMERICA 25 stands, and coasting the beautiful shore he and his men drank from whatever spring they came upon, hoping it would prove the Fountain of Youth. The country was first seen on Easter Sunday (I'ascua Florida), and named in honor of the day. De Leon was made governor of the new country on condition that he col- onize it. He meant to do so, but was killed by an Indian arrow. De Ayllon's Expe- dition. — It is a re- markable fact that eighty-one years be- fore the settlement of Jamestown by the English, the Spanish planted a large and l)romising colony up- on the identical site of the first permanent I'vUglish settlement in the United States. The proof of this has been established by recent discoveries in the Royal Library at Simancas in Spain. In the month of June, 1526, Lucas Vasquez de Ayllon (il'yone), one of the auditors of the island of San Domingo, rich, famous, and ambitious, and who had made an exploring voyage six years previous along a portion of our southern coast, sailed from Puerto de la Plata with three large vessels, containing six hundred per- sons of both sexes, including missionaries and physicians, and one hundred horses. De Ayllon reached the coast at the mouth of SEARCH FOR THE FOUNTAIN OF YOUT^ 26 .4 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY a river, supposed to be the Wateree, which he named the Jordan. He lost one of his vessels and constructed a smaller one, which was the first ship built on this continent. Unfavorably impressed with the country, De Ayllon moved up the coast to the entrance of Chesapeake Bay. He was pleased with the view, and ascended James River to a peninsula on the northern bank of the stream, fifty miles from its mouth. There, on the subsequent site of Jamestown, he began a settlement, which he named San Miguel de Guandape. A few scattered Indian dwellings stood near, and the ground was low and malarial; but the Spaniards set to work in earnest, the heaviest labor being done by negro slaves, the first introduced into this country. Before the buildings could be completed, a winter of unusual severity set in. A number of men were frozen to death on the vessels lying in the river, previous to which many had succumbed to disease. De Ayllon himself was attacked with fever, and died October i8, 1526. The temporary command of the colony was given to Francis Gomez, until De Ayllon's nephew, John Ramirez, should arrive from. Porto Rico. A mutiny, however, broke out, and the gov- ernor and constituted authorities were seized and placed in con- finement. The mutineers after a time were overcome and their leader put to death. Then the fever-smitten and worn-out colo- nists abandoned the place. In the spring of 1527, the remnant of the expedition, now only one hundred and fifty in number, set sail from San Miguel, bearing the remains of De Ayllon in a tender, which was lost at sea in a storm. The survivors finally reached San Domingo, thus terminating the only Spanish attempt to found a settlement north of St. Augustine. De Narvaez's Expedition. — In 1528, Pamphilo de Narvaez (nar'va-eth), with four ships and a brigantine, landed near Tampa Bay and advanced into the interior. He treated the Indians as if they were wild beasts, and they harassed him until only four miserable beings out of the four hundred were left alive. These were held prisoners for years, but gradually worked their way EXPLORATIONS IN AMERICA 2 J « across the continent to California, where they received attention, and finally reached their homes in Spain. De Soto's Expedition. — In May, 1539, Hernando de Soto landed at Tampa Bay, at the head of a thousand men, and started on his famous expedition. Like De Narvaez the explorers were unspeak- ably cruel to the Indians, and like him they reaped the woful con- sequences. The expedition moved so slowly that it was not until DEATH OF DE SOTO 1541, that, passing diagonally across the northwest corner of the present State of Mississippi, they discovered the " Father of \\'aters." It is believed that the party penetrated as far as the site of Little Rock in Arkansas. During the three years of wandering, one-fourth of the men died and nearly all the property was lost. On the 2ist of May, 1542, De Soto, who was worn to tlie last stages of exhaustion, was placed beneath a tree and, surrounded by 28 A I/ISTOKY OF OUK COUNTRY his friends, breathed his last. Fearful that the Indians would be encouraged to attack them, if they learned of their leader's death, the mourners silently lowered the body of De Soto over the side of a boat at midnight, and, wrapped about with weighted blankets, it sank to the bottom of the river which he had discovered. The survivors fought their way to the Gulf and at last reached the colony of their countrymen at Panuco, where they received the care of which they stood in sore need. De Luna's Expedition. — Don Tristan de Luna, with a force of more than 1500 men, sailed in August, 1559, from Vera Cruz (va'- rah krooz'), Mexico, for the purpose of conquering Florida. All went well to Pensacola Bay, where a fierce storm destroyed the ships. A detachment of soldiers was sent to explore the interior, but their experience was similar to that of their predecessors, and, had not help been sent to them, none would have lived to return. French Explorations Verrazani's Expedition. — The first active interest shown by France in searching for a shorter route to the Indies was in 1523, when she sent out an expedition, consisting of four ships (soon reduced by disaster to one), mider command of Verrazani (ver'ra- za'ni), who, curious to say, was like Columbus a native of Italy. He left the Madeiras in January, 1524, and about two months later reached the American coast, along which he cruised for several weeks ; but the account which he left is so vngue, that some doubt whether he ever made such a voyage at all. Cartier's Ascent of the St. Lawrence. — In April, 1534, Cartier (car-te-a') left St. Malo with two ships and crews of sixty-one men each. Steering northward he passed the coast of Newfoundland and sailed through the straits of Belle Isle into the Gulf of vSt. Lawrence. The report which he made caused him to be sent on a second expedition in the following spring. This time he had three ships, and they dropped anchor in the month of the great river, August 10, 1535. Cartier was confident that he had found EXI'I.OR.ITIOMS IN AM ERICA 29 CAHTIEH ON THE ST. LAWRENCE 30 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY at last the right" passage to Cathay (China), but when the Indians told him the stream narrowed as he ascended it and the waters became fresh, he was compelled to change his mind. Sailing up the stream, he anchored off the site of the present city (jf Quebec and finally landed below the rapids of St. Mary. Tlie Indians flocked about the visitors, who were humane and wise enough to treat them kindly, but when, months later, the ships were about to sail, several natives were decoyed on board and carried to France. Cartier's next expedition consisted of five vessels, which left France in May, 1541. The Indians had not forgotten his treach- ery of the year before, and their manner was so threatening, that no attempt at settlement was made. A long time passed before there was a renewal of the efforts to colonize Canada. Baffled tJius in the north, France now gave her attention to the southern jiart of the country. The Huguenots were persecuted at that time in l''rance. Their leader,. Lord Admiral Coligny, in 1562, sent C'aptain John Ribaut (re-bo') with two ships to explore the Atlantic coast, south of the St. Lawrence. They sighted Florida on the last day of April and coasted northward until they reached the St. John, up which they sailed. The Ind- ians treated them well and they in turn were considerate toward the natives. Still sailing northward, they gave French names to the various rivers, and in the latter part of May anchored in the harbor of Port Royal. Ribaut was so well pleased with the place that he decided to begin a settlement. A strong fort was built on an island in what is now known as Archer's Creek, six miles from Beaufort, South Clarolina. Leaving all the ammunition and stores that he could spare, Ribaut bade his friends good-by and sailed for France. \Vhile the men left behind were wise enough to retain the good- will of the Indians, they were too lazy to work. They lived upon what the natives furnished, hoping that when that resource was gone, Ribaut would return with more supplies. The only thing EXPLORATIONS IN AMERICA 3 I they did resembling work was to hunt for gold, which they expected to find lying all about them. After a time they fell to quarrelling and became so homesick that they constructed a rickety boat and put to sea in it. After some of them had starved to death, the survivors were picked up by an English vessel, which took them to England as prisoners. The second expedition consisted of three ships under charge of Captain Rene de Laudonniere (lo-do'ne-er) and arrived in June, 1564. A fort was built and all might have gone well but for the greed of the men for gold. They became mutinous, hungry, and desperate. They formed several plans for killing Laudonniere, but he detected the criminals and punished them. Then a party stole two of the ships and started for the West Indies on a piratical expedition. Laudonniere built two large vessels and made ready to follow them, only to have both seized and turned into pirates as soon as finished. Still more, the men compelled him to sign a commission authorizing them to cruise among the Spanish colonies. Pedro Menendez. — When the men left behind were in the depths of despair, Ribaut arrived with supplies and was joyously welcomed. Some nights later, another fleet stole silently up the river. It was under the command of Pedro Menendez (ma-nen'- deth), one of the most vicious miscreants that ever sailed under the flag of Spain. He bore a commission from his king to burn and destroy the Lutheran French, wherever they were found in his dominions, and he now began his hideous work. Three of Ribaut's ships were up the river, and the four that were left were no match for the Spanish, who intended to make the attack in the morning. The French ships slipped their cables and put to sea, with the Spaniards in chase; but the former easily left them behind, and, turning about, watched the Spaniards as they entered the river a number of miles southward and landed men and arms. Ribaut made ready to attack them before they could fortify themselves, but the French vessels were scattered by a tempest. 32 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY Relieved of this danger, Menendez set out to overwhelm the weak party that had been left in charge of the fort. The Span- iards marched through mud, water, swamps, thickets, morasses, often to their armi)its, with the rain pouring in torrents, until they reached the fort. It was as dark as it could be, with the rain still falling. The French did not dream of danger. The sentinel was silently slain, and the others massacred without THE SENTINEL mercy, 'i'hose who attempted to lice were i)ursued, captured, and luingcd, the whole number thus put to death numbering one hundred and fifty. Laudonniere and a companion escaped by standing to their necks in water throughout the whole night. They managed to reach the two ships that Ribaut had left behind, and sailed for France. Menendez learned some time later that the Frenchmen who had set out to attack him were shipwrecked on Anastasia Island, a short distance to the south. He marched thither, received their surrender, and put nearly every one to death. Ribaut and EXPLORATIONS IN AMERICA 33 the remainder of the men reached the place the next day. Menendez cunningly made his force seem much larger than it was, and demanded their surrender. Two hundred refused and marched south, declaring that they preferred to trust the Indians before the plighted word of a Spaniard. Menendez then shot down the rest, Ribaut being among those slain. He captured most of those that had marched away, and presented them as prisoners to his king, who sent them to the galleys. When Menendez hanged the wretched fugitives, he caused to be nailed over their heads on the trunks of the trees the inscrip- tion : "I do this, not as to Frenchmen, but as to Lutherans." Strange to say, France allowed these outrages to pass without demanding the punishment of the savage officer. But among her subjects was one, a Catholic like Menendez, who determined to take the matter into his own hands. With the help of some friends, he landed a body of men north of the fort and marched 34 -4 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY secretly against it. He shrewdly enlisted the Indians in his ser- vice, for they hated the Spaniards as intensely as he, and attacked them with the utmost fury. When the fighting ceased, only a few Spanish were left. The Frenchman hanged these on the same trees, with the inscription : " I do not this as unto Span- iards, nor unto Maranes (Moors), but as unto traitors, robbers, and murderers." The First Permanent Settlement. — Some time previous to this, Menendez, believing that he had destroyed all the heretics within reach, went back to the mouth of the River of Dolphins, as it was called, and took formal possession of the country in the name of his king. He began a settlement in 1565, which he named St. Augustine, and the remarkable fact about it was that it was the first permanent European settlement within the present limits of the United States. Menendez built a fort, and the struggling town was attacked several times by the French, English, and Ind- ians. It subsequently came into the possession of the English by treaty (1763), was ceded to Spain (1783), and became a United States possession in 18 19. Topics. — The naming of the New World; the discoverer of the American continent; the leading maritime nations of Europe; the expedition sent out by Henry VIII; the second and third expeditions; Frobisher's voyages; Sir Humphrey Gilbert's expedition; the fate of Sir Humphrey; the next expedi- tion sent out by Raleigh; the history of the third expedition; the fourtji expe- dition; the first child of English parentage born within the present limits of the United States; the story of the "lost colony"; Gosnold's expedition. The portions of our country preferred by the Spaniards for settlement; the discovery of the Pacific Ocean; Ponce de Leon's expedition; the Fountain of Youth;" Ue Narvaez's expedition; De Soto's expedition; discovery of the Mississippi; De Luna's expedition. Verrazani's expedition; Cartier's ascent of the St. Lawrence; his second expedition; the history of his third and last expedition; efforts of the French in the south; the Huguenot expedition of 1562; the sad fate of those left be- hind; the second expedition; its wretched history; Pedro Menendez; his frightful cruelty; the retaliation visited upon the Spanish soldiers; the oldest town within the present limits of the United States; wlien it became an English possession; when Spanish again; when American. EXPLORATIONS IN AMERICA 35 SKELETON HISTORY OF PERIOD I Lesson Facts. — The Discovery of America; the Explorers of America. Discovery ok Amkkica. By the Northmei By Coluinhtis. By the Cabots. The Northmen were darinj^ sailors who lived in the north of Europe. No other people ventured on such long voyages. In the year looo, several of their navigators saw America, and partially explored the coast of New England ; but their settlements per- ished, and the New World was lost to the Old. { Columbus was born in Genoa, Italy, al)out 1435. ^tu'ly led him to believe that India I could be reached by sailing westward. After long years of trial and waiting, he secured 1 the help of Ferdinand and Isaliella of Spain I and sailed, with three small vessels, from j i'alos, August 3, 1492. On the 12th of Oc- I tober, he discovered what is believed to have been Watling Island. He made three other 1 voyages, and on the third voyage saw the continent of South America. He died in I 1506, ignorant of the great discovery he had i made. John Cabot, of England, saw the coast of Labrador, June 24, 1497, fourteen months ijefore Columbus discovered South America. In 1498, Sebastian saw the land his father had discovered and explored the region from \ Nova Scotia to Cape Hatteras. To THE Pun I ■Construct a skeleton history of the Explorers of America. Part II THE PERIOD OF SETTLEMENT CHAPTER V THE COLONIAL HISTORY OF VIRGINIA [NTERNAL Affairs of Europe in the Sixteenth and the Seventeenth Centuries. — With one ex- ception (Georgia), the thirteen original colo- nies were settled during the seventeenth century. That, therefore, was the century of coloniza- tion, and in order clearly to understand the planting of the settlements in this country, """ ' ' we must learn of the important events that took place in the Old World, for they had a great influence upon American history. Portugal at that time ranked as a. leading nation, but she took no part in the colonization of our country because of her agree- ment with Spain not to do so, provided Spain did not interfere with Portuguese enterprises in Africa. Holland was subject to Spain, but became independent in the latter part of the century and grew into a strong naval power. In England the government rested in the two houses compris- ing parliament and in the king. Parliament had the right to tax the people; but when James I of Scotland came to the throne in 1603, he tried to take this right wholly to himself. He laid taxes, but the people refused to pay them, and tlie king was forced to let parliament do the work. 36 THE COLONIAL HISTORY OF VLRGINIA 37 James I reigned until 1625, when his son, Charles I, became king. He took up the quarrel of his father, and pressed it so hard that in 1642 war broke out between him and parliament. The king was defeated, captured, and, in 1649, beheaded. Oliver Cromwell, the leader of the parliamentary party, became ruler of England, and held supreme power until his death in 1658. His rule is known in English history as the Common- wealth. His friends were often called Puritans or Roundlieads, because they discarded wigs and wore their hair short, while the supporters of the king were known as Cavaliers. There was no man great enough to succeed Cromwell, and the people had grown tired of the Commonwealth. So in r66() they called back the son of the beheaded king from exile and placed him upon the throne. This is known as the Restoration, and the new king, Charles H, reigned until his death in 16S5, when his brother (the Duke of York) succeeded him as James H. He was foolish enough to try to rule by his own will, as his father, Charles I, had sought to do. His subjects, in 1688, rebelled, drove him and his son to France, and made his son-in-law and daughter, William of Orange and Mary, the king and queen. James I and Charles I paid little attention to the American colonies, and Cromwell did not fret them. Charles H and James II, however, were continually interfering and annoying them, while the troublous times in England kept a procession of vessels sailing across the Atlantic for settlement in America. During the seventeenth century our population, beginning at nothing, increased to nearly a quarter of a million. In France, Louis XIII, in 1614, wiped out the body which made the laws, and he and his successors ruled by "divine right" until 1789, when their grinding tyranny drove the people to re- volt, and the French Revolution, the most appalling period in the world's modern history, swept over France and crimsoned its land with blood. A hundred years previous to that (1685) a vicious religious persecution in France drove swarms of Protes- tants, commonly known as Huguenots, to join the stream of 38 A ins TORY OF OUR COUNTRY emigrant vessels across the ocean to find homes in the New World. Spain, as. we have learned, gave her attention to the southern part of the continent, conquering Mexico and many portions of South America. Her aggressions were stained by heartless cruelty, and her work was accursed from the first, with the baleful shadow of her brutality still resting upon the Antilles. Fortunately, Spain was slightly identified with our early settlements. If the facts thus pointed out are borne in mind, we shall understand the birth and infancy of the colonies as affected by the troublous condi- tions across the ocean. Founding of Jamestown, Virginia. — ^ In the year 1606, two great companies were formed in England for colonization in America. The one formed in London took that name, and the one in Plym- outh was the Plymouth Company. King James I granted to the London Company the North American coast from latitude 34° to latitude 38°, and to the Plymouth Company the coast from latitude 41° to 45°. The coast lying between was granted to both companies, but each company was forbidden to place a colony within a hundred miles of any settlement already made by the other. The western boundaries of all these lands was fixed as the South Sea or the Pacific Ocean. King James did not mean that the colonies should have much to say about their own government. He retained the right to name a resident council for each, who were allowed to. select their own presiding officer, provided he was not a clergyman. The king or Council could change, as they saw fit, the laws made in America, and it was provided that for five years all property should be held in common. The Plymouth Company sent out two ships in 1606, but one was captured by the Spaniards. The other coasted the shore of Maine and took home a favorable report. The following year a colony went thither, but after a year's stay gave up and returned to England. This was known as the Popham colony. The efforts of the Plymouth Company, therefore, resulted in failure. THE COLONIAL HISTORY OF VIRGINIA ^ ^""^^^^^^^ _v,l 1** f \ THE POPHAM COLONY The London Company sent out three vessels from JUackwall, England, on December 19, 1606. These vessels contained one hundred and five men, but no women. The majority belonged to the "gentleman" class, who, like so many before them, ex- pected to gather plenty of gold with little labor on their part. Probably one-fifth were thrifty mechanics and men who were glad to work. The three ships were the Sarah Constant, of one him- dred tons' burden, the Godspeed, of forty, and the Discovery, a pinnace of forty tons. The commander of the expedition was Captain Christopher Newport. The intention was to settle near Roanoke- Island, where the "lost colony" had made their home twenty years before. While cruising along the coast looking for a harbor, they entered Chesapeake Bay, where they were charmed by the beau- tiful scenery. It was the month of May, the most delightful season of the year, and the banks were brilliant with wiidtlowers, whose perfume was wafted across the smooth^waters to the sea- 40 A HISTORY OF OUK CO UN THY men, wearied with their niontlis of battling with the stormy Atlantic. The Indians were seen peeping timidly from the woods, and the prospect was so pleasing that all were eager to land and begin a settlement. They selected a spot on a penin- sula some fifty miles from the mouth of the river, which they named James in honor of the king. The settlement was called Jamestown, and was founded on the 13th of May, 1607, on the same site chosen by De Ayllon in 1526. Captain John Smith. — John Smith, one of the members of the council, was a remarkable man. He was energetic, a great boaster, who told marvellous stories about his exploits, and who did not think any task too hard for him to undertake. Despite his brusk ways. Smith was the most useful person in the colony. He was brave, not afraid to work, and ready to take any chances that promised good to the rest. His fame will long outlive that of any of his associates. The belief was still general in Europe that if the streams enter- ing the Atlantic were ascended, they would be found to connect with the South Sea or Pacific Ocean, and the council had been ordered to hunt for such a channel. Captain Smith spent a week looking for it. On his return to Jamestown, he found it had been attacked by the Indians during his absence, and they had killed one and wounded several of the settlers. The i^lace was put in a condition for defence, and Newport sailed for England, June 21 . Sufferings of the Colonists. — Newj^ort could not have left mat- ters in a worse condition. The sujiply of food was scant, and the Indians showed so much hostility that no help was to be expected from them. The weather became suffocatingly hot, and the men drank so heavily of the unwholesome water that nearly all fell ill. Every man would have perished had not the natives been moved with pity. They dropped their bows and arrows and gave the starving settlers food, thus saving the settle- ment from passing out of existence. Homesick and discouraged, the men (]uarrelled among them- THE COLONIAL HISTORY OF VIRGIXIA 41 selves. When everything seemed to be going to ruin, Smith was placed at the head of affairs, and straightway they improved. He was not only wise and energetic, but unselfish. He knew, too, how to be stern. He gave all the well men to understand that every one who refused to work should not be allowed to eat, and he set the good example himself. He treated the Indians justly, and, as is always the case, they grew to respect him. '-■ '-'^M,,^^-- i^giissi^^a; ' .^ ,--^.-'^^m^^^'^'M]^Bk Jk ^ >■ *^' ^ lE-'-*'^^ "" '^m >:^^^l^\" - W^,''K: ^S"^ |M^ ^^ J. |jByi^jMK%ypH|^^^M .^^B^^^^ . ^^^^w ^^F "/- •me^ CAPTURE OF JOHN SMITH Smith and Pocahontas. — At th.e beginning of winter Captain Smith set out on another search for a passage to the South Sea. He started up the Chickahominy with several craft, trading with the Indians on the way. When the water became too shallow for the boats. Smith entered a canoe with two of his men and two friendly Indians. He ordered those who stayed behind to keep in their boats and not to go to shore until he returned. They 42 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY disobeyed his orders, got into a fight with the natives, who killed two and then set out on the trail of Smith and the others. They soon overtook the white men and attacked them. Although there were a large number of Indians, Smith would have beaten them off, had his companions stayed by him, but they ran off in the woods, and he was left to confront his enemies alone. Walking backward, he fired at them as fast as he could load and aim his cumbrous gun. He stretched two lifeless, and H^B HUH^ ■ m^ W^^JBmt ^^^^HHUBiyii^dHH! ^ aJsS 1 B ^^■n > ^'/Ijsti^im^wl^^^ 1 ' ^^^k UK wTv 'iktmWmL ^ .A jBBb ^g ■ II'IIMW!*' fc-^ 7l» ' POCAHONTAS SAVING THE LIFE OF JOF was still holding them off, when he sank to his knees in a bog. Before he could free himself, the Indians were upon him and made him prisoner. He saved his life for the time by exciting their wonder with a small mariner's compass. They admired his bravery, too, and instead of putting him to death led him before their chief, Powhatan (pow-atan'). After a consultation, the chief decided that the white man should die. Accordingly his hands were tied, and he was laid on his back, with his head resting on a large stone. Two Indians stepped forward, each with a huge club with which to dash out his brains. THE COLONIAL HISTORY OF VIRGINIA 43 At this fearful moment, Pocahontas, the young and loved daugh- ter of Powhatan, rushed forward, threw herself on her knees before her father, and begged that the life of the prisoner might be spared. The heart of the stern old warrior was touched, and he declared that no one should harm the white man. Smith was set free, and then the Indians wished to adopt him. He refused, and finally was allowed to return to Jamestown. This is the story as told by Smith years afterward. No history of Virginia would be complete without it, and yet it must be said that there are grave reasons for doubting its truth. It is a ques- tion whether such an incident ever took place. Smith's Further Services. — Smith had been away from James- town for six weeks. Shortly after his return, when the colonists had been reduced to forty in number, Captain Newport arrived from England with over a hundred persons and a supply of pro- visions, farming utensils, and seeds. Smith spent a great part of the following summer in exploring the waters of Chesapeake Bay. When he returned, he was formally made president of the company, and governed with the same vigor and wisdom he had shown from the first. A Second Charter. — The London Council became convinced that a radical change was needed in the organization of the colony. A charter, giving the colonists enlarged powers, was granted by King James, May 23, 1609, and a fleet of nine vessels, carrying five hundred people, left E^ngland in the same month. Lord De la War was appointed captain-general and governor for life, but not being ready to leave home. Sir Thomas Gates was directed lo assume control upon reaching Jamestown. The fleet was scat- tered by a tempest, and seven of the ships did not reach the Chesapeake until August. Upon one of the missing ships were Captain Newport, Admiral George Somers, and Sir Thomas Gates. Since it looked as if they had been lost at sea, Captain Smith rema^ined at the head of affairs. Some time later he was fright- fully injured by an explosion of gunpowder and was obliged to go to England for treatment. This ended his career in the New 44 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY World, and nothing can attest more strongly the value of his ser- vices than what befell Jamestown after his departure. The " Starving Time." — Left to themselves, the settlers went from bad to worse. The men stopped work, killed and ate their domestic animals, and thus soon deprived themselves of all sup- plies. The winter of 1 609- 1 o was the severest known in the history of the colony. Strong men lay down and starved to death, until the dead outnumbered the living. Of the five hundred left by Smith, four hundred and forty perished with- in the following six months. Well has that awful period been named the "starving time " in the early his- tory of Virginia. In May some of the party that had been wrecked in the Bermu- das arrived in James- town. They were hor- rified at what they saw. The few men still alive tottered about, wan, gaunt, and suffering the pangs of starvation. The new arrivals, never dreaming of anything of the kind, brought only a meagre supply of provisions. In this desperate ])light, Cates decided to take the wretched sufferers to Newfoundland. Accordingly, l\ J POWHATAN'S COUNTRY THE COLONIAL ILLSTORY OF VIRGINIA 45 they were helped on board of the two pinnaces and the boats brought from the Bermudas, and the hopeless voyage was begun. This was on the 7th of June, 16 10, on which day, therefore, it may be said no English colony was in existence in America. But lo ! at the mouth of the James they were boarded by a boat sent by Lord De la War, who had reached Point Comfort with an abundant supply of provisions. The same tide that bore the starving settlers out to sea helped to carry them back to James- town, where, two days later. Lord De la War anchored his three ships and was rowed a-shore. He ruled sternly though justly, but was compelled soon to return to England because of feeble health. Other settlers arrived, and several new settlements were started. Prosperity. — Prosperity seemed to have come to the colony. The London Council rewarded faithful services by granting lands . to individuals. Tobacco had become so popular in England that the colonists made a good deal of money by raising it. In- deed they gave so much attention to its culture, thereby neglect- ing corn and other necessaries, that the government had to limit its production by strict regulations. A Third Charter. — A third charter was granted in 1611-12, by which the Bermuda Islands were added to the territory of the company. A lottery was established, which added thirty thou- sand pounds to the treasury of the council. At the end of three years, however, the lottery was abolished on the good ground that it was an injury to public morals. Pocahontas. — Pocahontas, the daughter of Powhatan, became a warm friend of the whites and was a frequent visitor to James- town. Several times she warned the people of danger from the Indians, and she was beloved by all. John Rolfe, an English- man, fell in love with the dusky maiden, and she became fond of him. The grim chief gave his consent to their marriage, and in the little structure at Jamestown, hewn from the rough timber of the woods, whose font was hollowed from the trunk of a tree, she uttered in broken English the responses as required by the rites of the Church of England. She was baptized under the 46 A ins TORY OF OUR COUNTRY MARRIAGE OF POCAHONTAS THE COLONIAL HISTORY OF VIRGINIA 47 name of Rebecca, and in April, 1613, was married to Rolfe. As a result of this romantic union, Powhatan remained a firm friend of the white men throughout his life. Some time later, Pocahontas and her husband visited England. She was treated with kindness and won the hearts of all by her modest deportment. She was received at court, and met her old friend, Captain John Smith. The meeting between them was affectionate. She stayed about a year, and while waiting to sail fell ill and died. She left an infant son, and from him many of the foremost citizens of Virginia to-day are proud to claim descent. Introduction of African Slavery. — In 1619, a Dutch vessel arrived at James'town with twenty negroes that had been kid- napped on the Guinea coast of Africa. The settlers were in need of all the help they could get in raising tobacco, and they paid a good sum for the negroes. Thus the system of African slavery was introduced into our country. The First Legislative Body in the New "World. — Other impor- tant events took place in that year. The London Company sent over one hundred excellent young women, who made the best of wives and proved true helpmates to their husbands. In accord- ance with the provisions of "The Great Charter," granted to Virginia the previous year, a local council was ordered, whose members were to be elected by the colonists. Eleven communi- ties chose members of the body, which assembled at Jamestown, July 30, 1619. This was the first legislative assemblage that met in America. With the governor and council, it numbered twenty- two representatives, and was called the House of Burgesses. The laws which they made were not valid unless accepted by the com- pany in London, while the rules of the company were not binding until accepted by the colonial assembly. These provisions were placed in a written constitution in 1621, and gradually copied by tlie other colonies. It looked as if lasting prosperity had come to Virginia. Both sides of the James were lined with settlements for a distance of 48 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY a hundred miles. Every freeman had the right to vote. Reli- gious toleration prevailed, and all the conditions were of the most favorable character. Massacres by the Indians. — Powhatan, the friend of the settlers, died in 1618, and the chief who succeeded him spent years in plot- ting the destruction of all the white peo- ple in the country. On March 22, 1622, he and his warriors attacked the settle- ments so furiously that within a few hours four hundred colonists, including their wives and chil- dren, were killed. The eighty planta- tions were reduced to eight. All would have perished had not a converted Ind- ian given Jamestown warning of what was coming. This was on the night before the attack, but it saved Jamestown and the nearest settlements. The settlers turned upon the savages and for years hunted them down without mercy, until they were glad to make peace. During that time, and including the massacre itself, two thousand white people had been killed, and a greater number of Indians were slain. The Second Massacre. — On April 18, 1644, the Indians made another massacre, in which between three and four hundred THE COLONIAL IH STORY OF VIRGINIA 49 of the colonists perished. The Virginians renewed the war of extermination, until again the red men sued for peace, ceded a large tract of land to their conquerors, and withdrew further into the wilderness. Virginia made a Royal Province. — Previous to the last massa- cre, King James had become displeased with the way matters were going in America. He did not like the freedom of debate nor the bold manner in which his subjects expressed their senti- ments. He therefore recalled his former charter, and in October, 1623, issued a much less liberal one. In July, 1624, the com- pany was dissolved. It must be admitted, however, that the king made wise use of his power. He retained in office those who had been opposed to him, but while engaged in a number of excellent reforms the monarch died, March 27, 1625. The new king, Charles, carried out the wishes of his father and won the good-will of the colonists by his liberality. Virginia continued to prosper, so that in 1648 she had ten ships trading with London, two with Bristol, twelve with Holland, and seven with New England, while her population had increased to thirty thcnisand. During the civil war in England a great many of the Cavaliers emigrated to Virginia. Sir William Berkeley proved to be bigoted, and thanked God that there were no free schools or printing in the province. He became very tyrannous, and from 1660 to 1676 the assembly of Virginia prevented the election of any new mem- bers, the taxes grew to enormous proportions, trade fell into the hands of a few monopolists, and industry ceased. Bacon's Rebellion. — The danger from the Indians became so threatening that the forts were put in a condition of defence, and in the spring of 1675 the settlers gathered a force to march against them. When they were about to start, Governor Berkeley dis- banded them. The angered settlers accused the governor of favoring the Indians, that he might reserve the monopoly in the fur trade, and declared that if he would not protect them, they would protect themselves. 50 A HISTORY OF OVR COUNTRY Outrages soon followed, and the governor still refused to take any action. Nathaniel Bacon, a brave and popular young planter, after his own plantation was attacked and two of his employees killed, called out the militia for the purpose of chastising the savages. Before moving, he sent to the governor a request for a commission, which was refused. Bacon then marched with his men, but was overtaken by a messenger with peremptory orders from Berkeley for him to disband his force. Bacon told his men tliat those who chose to obey the order could do so. So many left that he found himself with only fifty-seven soldiers. The governor was in a fury, and calling together a troop of horse, started in pursuit of Bacon and his company. Before he could reach them, an insurrection broke out among the settlers to the south, and the alarmed governor galloped back to straighten out matters. Reaching Jamestown, the governor found everything topsy- turvy. The citizens demanded a new election and a reduction of taxes, and Berkeley had to grant both. Meanwhile, IJacon delivered a crushing blow against the hostile Indians, and tlien disbanding his force went to his home. Bacon was elected as a member of the new assembly. He made formal acknowledgment of his error in taking up arms, and the assembly punished him by electing him commander-in- chief. The governor refused to sign the commission. Bacon insisted, and presented himself at Jamestown, at the head of his soldiers, with a demand for permission to protect themselves against the Indians, who were again committing atrocities. Berke- ley thumped his breast and again refused. Crossing the Chesa- peake, he gathered a large number of followers among the many slaves, to whom he promised plenty of plunder as well as their freedom in repayment for their services. Bacon and his men decided to accept the governor's flight from Jamestown as an abandonment of his office, and writs were issued for the election of an assembly to provide for a new government. Sir William, on the other side of the bay, was agreeably surprised THE COLONIAL HISTORY OF VIRGINIA 51 about this time by the arrival of some Enghsh ships. Reinforced by them, he set out again for Jamestown, to which place Bacon had just returned from a successful campaign against the Indians. To prevent the town being used by the governor for shelter, the torch was applied and the jjlace re- duced to ruins. Among Bacon's friends were sev- eral who owned fine residences, and they set the example by apply- ing the torch with their own hands. Bacon was on the eve of tri- umph, when he was stricken by fever and died, October i, 1676. No one competent to succeed him re- mained and his forces dispersed, (lovernor Berke- ley hunted them down without mercy. He hanged twenty-two, three died in prison, while five sentenced to be executed escaped. In the fol- lowing January, Berkeley was recalled. Even King Charles de- tested him for his cruelty, and he was so crushed by his disgrace that he lived but a short time. BURNING OF JAMESTOWN 52 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY Subsequent Colonial History of Virginia. — Virginia suffered at the liancls of batl rulers, though a number were wise and excellent men, but her prosperity continued. In 1732, a colony from Pennsylvania settled near the present site of Winchester. Others followed and pushed beyond the mountains, some making their homes in the valley of the Monongahela. The population more than quadrupled during the first half of the eighteenth century. William Parks set up a printing press at Williamsburg, the capital, in 173S, and published a weekly newspaper. William Byrd, a wealthy citizen, laid out the towns of Richmond and Petersburg. Norfolk, Fredericksburg, and Falmouth were incorporated and new counties formed, the prosperity of the province never again receiving any serious check. Topics. — riic settlement of the thirteen original colonies; why Portugal took no part; the situation of Holland; the leading events in England during the seventeenth century; in France; the colonizing work of Spain; the Lon- don and Plymouth companies; their respective grants; the efforts made by the Plymouth Company; by the London Company; the founding of James- town; Captain John Smith; the search for a passage to the South Sea; suffer- ings of the colonists; the services of Smith; the story of Smith and Poca- hontas; his further services. The second charter for the colony; Lord De la War; the experience of his fleet; the accident to John Smith; the "starving time"; what saved the colony from destruction; prosperity of the colony; the third charter; the lot- tery; the marriage of Pocahontas; her visit to England and her death; in- troduction of African slavery; the first legislative body in the New World; the first massacre by the Indians; retaliation; the second massacre; how the Indians were punished ; Virginia as a royal province; the Cavaliers; cause of Bacon's rebellion; its history; good and bad rulers of Virginia; settlement of Winchester; increase of population; first printing press at Williamsburg; other towns laid out; those that were incorporated; the continuous prosperity. CHAPTER VI THE COLONIAL HISTORY OF NEW YORK |N Search of a Shorter Route; Explorations by- Henry Hudson. — -'Hie Dutch East India Company was formed, and employed Henry Hudson, an Englishman, to make search for a W^L^i^yj*-M shorter route to India. In chafge of the I/cr// ™^™^^'^"' Aloon, and with a crew of only twenty men, he sailed from Amsterdam, April 4, 1609. When he reached Nova Zembla, the vast quantities of floating ice compelled him to turn back, and he headed to the southward. Touching at several points on the way, he sighted Cape Cod. Not knowing that it had already been named, both by Champlain and Gosnold, he called it New Holland. He con- tinued southward to Chesapeake Bay, where, finding the English were ahead of him, he turned northward again, and dropped anchor, September 3, at Sandy Hook. There he stayed for one week, during which the crew made many visits to the neighbor- ing land, shooting game and trading with the natives. Then he hoisted anchor and began a voyage up the Hudson. It was repeating in a small way the experience of Columbus more than a century before. The Hudson is sometimes called the Rhine of America, because of its romantic and beautiful scenery. The voyage was a continual delight to the navigators, while the Indians peeped out from among the trees along the banks in wonder and awe. The Half Moon sailed so slowly, that at the end of ten days it had ascended the noble stream only a hundred miles. Hudson kept on until he reached the present 53 54 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY >:) ' ' ' HISTORIC WATERWAYS son, and eight otliers, four of w boat. None was ever heard of site of Albany, his smaller boats going some distance further. The men landed at different points and were treated well by the natives, to whom they showed kindness in return. The narrow- ing width of the river told Hud- son, however, that he never could find the short route to Asia by following that course. Having finished his task, Hud- son returned to Dartmouth, Eng- land, whence he sent an account of what he had done to his em- ])loyers at Amsterdam. The Dutch lost no time in setting up their claim to the new territory, for which they had a good title. The voyage so added to the fame of Hudson, that he was now sent out by England to make one more effort to discover the northwest passage, as it was called. He took with him a crew of twenty- three men, among whom was his son. This was in 1610. On this voyage Hudson dis- covered the bay and strait which bear his name. Dreadful suffer- ings came to all who were com- pelled to spend the winter in that arctic country. His desperate <-re\v mutinied and set him, his horn were si( k, ailrift in an OT)en DISCOVERY OF THE HUDSON 55 56 A HISTORY OF OUR COUXTRY Dutch Settlement and Rule in New Netherland. — Holland, as we have learned, was more eager for trade than for territory. During the three years following Hndson's exploration of the stream, the Dutch ships sailed up and down the river, bartering with the natives. A profitable fur trade was thus built up. The headquarters were on Manhattan Island, where, in i6i_^, stood a fort and several cabins. This was the foundation of the present metropolis of America. The Dutch did not neglect to explore the surrounding country. They sailed over Long Island Sound, Narragansett Bay, and some of the waters of New Jersey. The States Cieneral of Holland, in 16x5, granted a charter to a company of New Amsterdam mer- chants, by which they were given a monopoly for three years of the trade of New Netherland, which was the name of the territory between Virginia and Canada (then called New France), or from the fortieth to the forty-fifth degree of latitude. This included all New England. A settlement was planted the same year on a small island just below where Albany now stands. The West India Company, a corporation with vast powers, as- sumed charge of New Netherland. In March, 1623, it sent out the Neiv Netherland, on which were several officers of the com pany, besides a number of settlers who were known as Walloons, and who had been driven from their homes by religious persecu- tion. The first director of the company, Captain Cornelius Jacob- sen May, had charge of the ship and landed them near the fort on Castle Island. The thrifty people set to work at once. The Walloons built Fort Orange, on a part of the present site of Albany, and some of the company settled there. The colony was governed by Captain May until the close of 1624, then by William Verhult, and Peter Minuit took charge in 1626. Minuit may be considered the first real governor. He made Manhattan the chief place of New Netherland and brought all the settlements under one government. He bought Manhattan Island from the Indians for trinkets worth about twenly-four dollars. Manhattan grew so slowly that in 162.S there were less than THE COLONIAL HISTORY OF NEW YORK 57 three hundred persons on the whole island. The frugal people drove a profitable trade with the Indians, but in 1629 the West India Company took a step that caused a great deal of trouble in WOUTER VAN TWILLER later years. They decreed that every person who planted in New Netherland a colony of fifty persons over fifteen years of age, should become a patroon of the tract of which he took possession. By patroon was meant the sole owner of the land, and ruler of the people who settled upon it. The patroon could be a tyrant if he 58 ./ ///STONY OF OrK COr.VTA'V chose, wliile the colonists on his kinds were no better off than slaves. These rights were to continue to him and his heirs forever. The greedy patroons snatched up large tracts, not only in New York, but in the present States of Delaware and New Jersey. The (juarrels which soon followed resulted in the recall of Minuit, the governor, on the charge that he had favored the patroons. Two years later, Wouter Van Twiller arrived. This man was a num- skull and the part he played was that of bur- lescpie. He would sit for hours smoking his long- stemmed pipe, drinking from his big mug of beer, while the thoughts that took shape in his sodden brain were as to how he could make money for himself or find means to gratify his gross taste for pleasure. William Kieft (keeft), his successor, was a man of strong sense and iron will, but was cruel to the Mo- hawk Indians, who, in re- venge, ravaged the frontier of New Netherland. Peter Stuyvesant (stive'sant) became governor in 1646 and was the ablest of all the Dutch rulers. He re-established friendly relations with the Indians, broke up the monopoly that had existed in trade, and took active measures to expel the English, who were entering his territory. Stuyvesant was called " Old Silver Teg," iTUYVESANT'3 APPEAL rilE COLONIAL II I SI' OR Y OF NEW YORK 59 because of the silver rings about his wooden leg. He was hot- tempered and berated the enemies of his country and those who did not agree with his views. He was honest and brave, though often harsh to the verge of tyranny. Capture of New Amsterdam by the English. — Charles II claimed the whole country between the jjarallels of 35° and 45° north latitude on the ground that it was granted to the London and riymouth companies three years before Hudson saw the river named for him. The king sent a fleet across the Atlantic, which a])peared off New Amsterdam and demanded the surrender of the town. Stuyvesant stormed and brandished his cane and called upon the citizens to rally and drive out the rogues, but the peojjle had grown tired of Stuyvesant's rule and were quite willing to live under the English. So the surrender was made August 29, 1664, and the name of the town was changed to New York. Recapture of New York by the Dutch. — At the time of the sur- render, the place contained about fifteen hundred inhabitants. The Dutch welcomed their new rulers, who treated them liberally, and the jjrosperity of the town continued. I>y and by, France and England declared war against The Netherlands and unexpectedly a Dutch fleet of twenty-three ships, carrying sixteen hundred men, anchored in the outer bay of New York and demanded its surren- der. The town was in a poor condition to defend itself, and, though the small force did its best, it was obliged to submit. New York came into the possession of the Dutch again in August, 1672. Cession of New Netherland to England. — The war between England and The Netherlands ended in 1674. By the terms of the treaty, the Dutch were obliged to cede to England all their possessions in America. New Netherland, therefore, changed hands again and remained an English colony until the Revolu- tion. Edmund Andros was the first governor, and, although somewhat of a tyrant, the colony prospered during the eight years that he remained at the head of affairs. Being aj^pointed governor of New England also, he left Francis Nicholson, a lieu- tenant of the army, to act as governor of New York. 6o A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY News reached New York on the 26th of April, 1689, of the arrest of Andros in Boston. In perplexity as to what he should do, Nicholson called the council together. It was decided to fortify the place against the French, with whom England was at war. An energetic man was needed to take the lead, and Jacob Leisler, one of the militia captains, was selected. At his request, SIGNING LEISLERS DEATH a large number of the soldiers signed a pledge to support whom- soever the Prince of Orange should appoint as governor. \\ox<\ was soon received from William and Mary confirming for the time all Protestants holding office in the colonies. Nicholson was so distrusted by the colonists that he went back to England, with- out attempting to resume office, and Leisler, against the wishes of the council, continued to act as governor. Colonel Sloughter, a favorite of Kin,^ W'illiaui, was appointed THE COLONIAL HISTORY OF NEW YORK 6 1 governor of New York, and arrived March 19, 1691. Leisler was brought to trial for murder and treason. He was found guilty, but Governor Sloughter refused to sign his death warrant until the commands of the king should become known. The enemies of Leisler, however, succeeded in getting the governor intoxicated at a dinner in his honor, and he was persuaded to sign the fatal paper. Poor Leisler was hanged on the i6th of May, 1691, the act, as was afterward declared, being without the slightest justifi- cation. The subsequent history of New York down to the Revolution, was uneventful. She took an active part in the colonial wars, the particulars of which we shall learn in another place. Topics. — The explorations by Henry Hudson ; his death ; what Holland sought in the New World ; the first settlements on Manhattan Island ; other parts visited by the Dutch ; the charter granted by the States General of Holland ; the settlement below Albany ; the West India Company ; the A^nu N^etherland ; the Walloons ; the first director of the company ; Fort Orange ; William Verhult ; Peter Minuit ; the patroon system ; Wouter Van Twiller ; Peter Stuyvesant ; capture of New Amsterdam by the English ; its recapture by the Dutch : cession of New Netherland to England ; Governor Andros ; Francis Nicholson ; Jacob Leisler ; Colonel Slought«er ; the temperance lesson ; subsequent history of New York. CHAPTER VII THE COLONIAL HISTORY OF NEW ENGLAND IHE First Settlements in Canada. — The French, during the early years of the seventeenth cen- tury, explored the coasts of Maine, Nova Scotia, and the shores of the St. Lawrence, making a few feeble attempts at settlement, but mostly without success. They claimed the whole region and named it New France. One of the French v.u... cu,.,.u«>.!' explorers was Samuel de Champlain (sham- plain), who penetrated to the lake that bears his name. He cruised along the New England coast, and with De Monts (m5n) made a settlement at Port Royal, Nova Scotia, in 1605, which was the first permanent French setdement in America. The colony placed by Champlain at Quebec in 160S, was the first permanent French settlement in Canada. Early English Explorations in New England. — Among the early visitors to New England was our old friend Captain John Smith. He came out with two ships in 1614, made careful obser- vations of the coast, drew a good map, and named the section New England, by which it will always be known. He nameil also the Charles River, between IJoston and Charlestown ; a place near the present site of Boston he called Boston, and first applied the name of Plymouth to the spot where the Pilgrims afterward landed. Thus the fame of that remarkable man is not confined to Virginia, the scene of his principal labors. King James I granted a patent to the Plymouth Company in 1620, comprehending all the land between the Pacific and the Adantic, lying between the fortieth and forty-eighth parallels of 62 THE COLONIAL HL STORY OF NEW ENGLAND 63 north latitude. This to-day indudes British America, New Eng- land, New York, the upper half of New Jersey, most of Pennsyl- vania, and all the States to the westward of them. Surely here was plenty of room to grow up with the country. The Puritans. — Bitter religious persecution prevailed in Eng- land at that time. Many thought the Church of England so cor- rupt that they withdrew from it. They were called Separatists or Independents, while those who aimed at reform within the church SIGNING THE COMPACT were called Puritans. To escape persecution many Independents removed to Holland ; but, though they were well treated, they did ]iot feel at home among those who were not their countrymen, who spoke another language and followed different customs. It was natural, therefore, that they should turn their thoughts to the New World. They opened negotiations with the London Com- pany and completed them in 1619. Two vessels, the Mayflower of one hundred and eighty tons, and the Speedwell of sixty tons burden, were provided for those who wished to make the voyage across the Atlantic. 64 .4 N/S/OA'V OF or A' COr.VTKV The S/'(yJ7{W/ jMovoil so unso.iwoithv th.it at Southampton the passengers were changed to the .Uiirr/t'u'c-r, which sailed from I'lymouth on the 0th of September. i6^o. Resides her own crew, she carried one hundred and two persons with wliich to begin the settlement in the New World. On the passage there were one birth anil one death, so that the original number remaineil. Landing of the Pilgrims. I'iie voyage was a rough one. but on the 9th of November the emigrants, who ate known as Til grims, because of their wanderings, sighted the bleak lands of Cape (.od. Two days later they droj^ped anchor in Cape Cod harbor, now Trovincetown. Before kuuling, the torty-one adult male emigr.mts signeil a compact by which they pledged them- selves to enact good laws and to submit to and obey them : thus furnishing the germ of American liberty. They also chose John Carver governor for one year. In doubt whether they had fixed upon the right spot, Captain Myles Standish and sixteen nun landed to look around. It was decided to search further, and a 7///- (OI.ONfAI. //nriOh'Y ()!■ N/'AV /■.jVG/.AjV/j Cy. riioiitli w.'is s[>cnt in cruising along the coast. On Monday, iJc- cciiibcr 1 1 (Old Style, or December 21, New Style), Myles Standish and :>: jj.iriy of rncn were sent ashore again to examine the neigh- liorliood. Although those on the Mayflower did not follow until a coufjle of weeks later, the date named is the true anniversary of the land- ing of the Pilgrims. The erection of a storehouse for goods and a sui.'ill numlx.-r of wooden huts was begun on Christmas Day. High, strong palisades were set around these to keep off wild beasts and wiUl men. The ground was partitioned, and the com- pany divided into nineteen families; laws for civil and military government were aflopted, anrl thus was laid the foundation of the first permanent settlement in New Kngland. Life at Plymouth. — These pioneers were hardy, Oorl fearing men, and those qualities were needed in the severe task they had taken upon themselves. It was not until .March 21 that sufificient V 66 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY accommodations were provided on shore for all, and in the mean- time one-half the people had died. (Governor Carver passed away in April, and his widow did not long survive him. William Bradford was chosen governor, and held the office for many years. To his ability and vigor was due in a great measure the success of the colony. 'WELCOME, ENGLISHMEr The people were astonished one day in March, when an Indian walked out of the woods and called to them : "Welcome, Englishmen! welcome. Englishmen!" He was treated kindly. His name was Samoset, and he be- longed to the Wnmpanoag tribe of Indians. He had picked up a few words of I^higlish from some fishermen whom he saw years before on the coast of Maine. A few days later he came back with Massasoit, chief of his tribe. He in turn was won by the THE COLONIAL HISTORY OF NEW ENGIAND 07 kindness of the English, — so much so, indeed, that he made a treaty with them, by which both parties agreed to avoid mutual harm and to help each other against all enemies. This treaty was not broken for fifty years and caused nine other sachems to submit to the English king. As spring advanced, the health of the colonists improved and their prospects brightened. The Indians taught them how to culti- vate maize, and they planted a great deal of it. The Mayflower returned to England, and in the following November the ship /<;//- line arrived with thirty-five colo- nists, who, like the others, were of the right sort to make the best of pioneers. There were some Indians who were not friendly. The Narra- gansetts, who, it is said, were l)owerful enough to put five thou- sand warriors in the field, looked upon the white men as invaders of their hunting grounds. They not only refused to sign a treaty of peace, but sent a bundle of arrows, wrapped around with a rattlesnake skin, to Governor Bradford. Accepting this for what it was intended, — a declaration of war, — the doughty governor stuffed the rattlesnake skin full of powder and balls and returned it. The Narragansetts knew what that meant, and decided to defer a declaration of war. Captain Myles Standish reminds us of Captain John Smith. He was equally brave, and never hesitated to expose his life for the sake pf those around him. He was at the head of military affairs, and no better selection could have been made. He was small of stature, yellow-bearded, fiery-tempered, and ready at all GOV. BRADFORD'S MONUMENT 68 A HISTORY OF OUR COUXTRY times for a fight. He was not a member of the Puritan church, but he liked the people for their honest ways and their moral, upright lives. Friends continued to arrive at intervals from across the sea, and the colony prospered. No doubt other small settlements were made along the coast, though there is little trustworthy information about them. Massachusetts Bay Colony. — The Massachusetts Bay Colony was formed of Puritans, some of them wealthy, and all of high character. They made a settlement in 1628 near Salem. Boston was founded two years later by Governor Vv^inthrop, and between the years 1630 and 1640 twenty thousand people settled in Massa- chusetts. The various colonies scattered throughout the province all seemed to be on the road to prosperity. Religious Persecution in New England. — It would be thought tliat after the Puritans had suffered so much from persecution because of their relig- ious belief, they would be charitable toward those who held differ- ent views. But such was not the fact. Among the passengers who arrived in 1631 were Roger Williams and his wife. They landed at Boston and settled in Salem. Will- iams was a preacher of ability, but was too advanced in his views for those around him. The offended people decided to arrest and send him back to England, but he escaped by fleeing to the Narragansett Indians, where he was made welcome. They gave him some land, and in the spring he began building a house. He was joined by several friends, but SETTLEMENT OF RHODE ISLAND 70 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY as they were within the limits of the I'lyniouth grant, they moved further west and began a settlement which in time became the great city of Providence. The rock on which he stepped is still known as Roger Williams's Rock. Settlement of Connecticut. — Just before this date (1636) there was a large emigration from Massachusetts to tiie Connecticut valley. The real settlement was begun in tiie autumn of 1 6^:55, by tlie son of Governor Winthrop, known in liistory as |ohn W'inthrop the younger. He arrived with a commission as gov- ernor of Connecticut, under the patent of Lord Say, Lord Brooke, John Hampden, John Pym, and others. He built a strong fort at Saybrook, and held it against the threats of the Dutch. That year three thousand emigrants arrived from Massachusetts, and Hartford was founded. Windsor and Wethersfield were started soon afterward, and Springfield was planted further up the river. Destruction of the Pequot Indians. — The Pequot Indians began committing outrages upon the settlers. A partial punishment only emboldened them, and they plotted to destroy all the white people in the colony. They sent messengers to the neighboring tribes and urged them to unite in the terrible campaign. Roger Williams learned from his friends the Narragansetts of the peril, and sent a warning to Governor Winthrop. The governor begged him to do what he could to thwart the work of the emissaries. Williams made haste to comply, and by pleading with Canonicus, who seemed on the point of yielding, kept the Narragansetts out of the plot. The Pequots were incensed by their failure, but determined to undertake the work without help from others. Accordingly they attacked the exposed settlers. Connecticut begged Massachusetts and Plymouth to help her, and a strong force under Captain Mason assailed the Pequot stronghold on the evening of May 25, 1636. The fort stood on high ground, on the bank of the Mystic River, and was very strong. The cir- cular enclosure was more than an acre in extent and was sur- rounded by palisades a dozen feet high. The attack was made two hours before sunrise. When it ended, the wigwams within THE COLONIAL ILISTORY OF NL'.W l-.XCI.AXn Jl DESTRUCTION OF THE PEQUOTS had been burned to the ground and fully one thousand Pequots slain. The campaign was pressed without mercy in all directions, and at its conclusion the Pequots as a tribe no longer existed. Founding of Harvard College and setting up of the First Printing- press in America. — The order of time requires mention of a matter in pleasing contrast to that which has just been told. While the Pequot war was raging, in October, 1636, the general court at Boston gave by vote four hundred pounds toward estab- lishing a place for superior education. The Rev. John Harvard left his estate, worth about double the sum named, for the erec- tion of a building at Cambridge, — then Newtown, — three miles from Boston. He died shortly afterward, and the college was named in his honor. It was opened in 1638 and incorporated in 1650. A printing-press was attached to the college in 1639, and for a number of years was the only one in America. The first book printed was a collection of sermons. 72 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY Settlement of New Hampshire and Maine. — Although the region now partly composing the States of New Hampshire and Maine was the earliest known in New England, it was settled more slowly than the other portions. In 1623 the Plymouth Company granted to Sir Ferdinando Gorges and Captain John Mason all the territory between the Merrimac and Kennebec rivers, limit- ing it at the north by the St. Lawrence and westward by the Great Lakes. The gentlemen named their grant Laconia, and divided it in 163 1, Mason taking the western part and calling it New Hampshire, and Gorges the system part, which after a time became known as Maine, The majority preferred the govern- ment of Massachusetts, and in 1641 New Hampshire came under the jurisdiction of that province. Mason opposed this, and applied to the courts. The decisions were in his favor, but the people would not submit. So, to end the strife, Charles H made New Hampshire a royal province in 1679. Mason bequeathed his land title to his two sons, and they sold it to Samuel Allen of London, who had received a commission to govern the province. Litigation continued among the heirs until 1 7 15, when it ended because of the death of the princi])al litigant, and was never renewed. Formation of the United Colonies of New England. — In Afay, 1643, a general court was held in Boston, at which two commis- sioners each from Plymouth, Connecticut, and New Haven were present, while Massachusetts, because of its prominence, was represented by the governor, two magistrates, and three deputies. The deliberations of the body resulted in the formation of the United Colonies of New England. They formed a league for defence and offence and mutual aid and advice upon all ])roper occasions. The present State of Maine was added to Massachu- setts in 1652-1653, and the league, confined to the four colonies named, lasted until 1684. The Providence Plantations. — Roger Williams visited England in 1644 and secured a charter which united the towns of Provi- dence, Portsmouth, and Newjx^rt into a single coninninity, by SETTLEMENTS IN THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 73 74 ^ HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY the name of the "Incorporation of Providence Plantations, in the Narragansett Bay, in New England." It was not until 1663, however, that a charter was obtained, extinguishing all those that preceded it, and the province was established under the name of "Rhode Island and Providence Plantations." Persecution of the Quakers. — In July, 1656, a vessel arrived at Boston from the Barbadoes, bringing among the passengers two Quaker women. The colonists, who heartily disliked the sect, drove the two away, but some weeks later another vessel came into the same port with five male and four female Quakers. They were hardly given time to set foot on shore, when they were shipped to England. Convinced that these people would continue coming, Massachusetts persuaded the general courts of the United Colonies to pass cruel laws against them. The per- secutions continued, until four Quakers had suffered death be- cause of their faith. After this the laws were made less rigorous, and finally the persecution ceased. King Philip's War. — Massasoit, the Wampanoag chieftain, remained a stanch friend of the English until his death in 1660. The oldest son of Massasoit dying, the other, named Pometacom, or Philip, succeeded him as chief. He was one of the famous Indians of history, a remarkable man, and as bitter an enemy of the white people as ever lived. The real causes of King Philip's war are not clearly known. No doubt he was treated harshly by the whites, but it is probable that his soul was fired by the wild dream of driving the invaders from the hunting grounds of his race. He grew angered at the continuous distrust shown toward him, and let it become known that he meant to take the war-path. The alarm became so general, that the 24th of June, 1675, was appointed as a day of fasting and prayer that the terrors of the threatened war might be averted. At Swansea, while the people were returning from church, they were fired upon by the Indians, and one was killed and several wounded. Two of the neighbors started to run for a surgeon, but both were shot down and six THE COLONIAL HISTORY OF NEW ENGLAND 75 others were slain. Several houses and barns were burned, when the Indians fled before they could be punished. The New England settlements were so scattered that they were exposed to similar attacks. Philip struck quick and terrible blows, and some of the occurrences were of the most thrilling character. Those were the days when the New Englanders car- 1 1 f^ ^^1^ wA ' ±£ 1:1 \ hUS^^uT IjE > '-^-. '^- ■ ATTACK ON SWANSEA ried their guns with them to church and stacked them outside, while a sentinel paced back and forth during service. Perhaps the zealous preacher, at the end of an hour or more, and just when he was becoming fairly warmed with his sermon, was inter- rupted by the crack of the sentinel's musket. Instantly the Bible was closed, down rushed the minister from the pulpit, and he was among the first of the throng hurrying outside to catch up his gim and prove that he was a loyal member of the church "militant." 76 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY A Strange incident took place at Hadley, Connecticut, on the ist of September, which was fast day. The attack of the Indians was so furious that the settlers were driven into the meeting- house, where the women and children had taken refuge. When all seemed lost, a tall, military man, with long, grizzled beard, suddenly appeared among the panic-stricken people, sword in hand. He wielded the weapon with marked effect, placed him- self at the head of the men, called upon them to follow, and. JLONEL GOFFE TO THE RESCUE charging the Indians, scattered them in every direction. Then the stranger vanished as unaccountably as he had appeared. This friend in need, it is said, was Colonel (ioffe, the regicide, who, having escaped from England, was living in hiding at the house of Mr. Russell near Hadley. Nothing could have been more natural than that he should rush to the help of the settlers when he saw their great peril. The people became convinced that the war could never be brought to a close except by a crushing campaign. Steps were taken to that end, and on December 19, 1675, the Narragansett stronghold at South Kingston, Rhode Island, was attacked by a THE COLONIAL HISTORY OF NEW ENGLAND JJ DEATH OF KING PHILIP 78 A IllSTORV OF OCR COUXJ-NV strong force. This defence, one of the strongest ever known among the Indians, contained between three and four thousand warriors and their families. It was captured and burned, more than seven hundred savages being killed, while the assailants lost about a hundred. The settlers steadily gained ground, and finally Phili]) was run down in a swamp near the foot of Mount Hope. It was sur- rounded, and a party entered to drive out the chief and his war- riors. Philip bounded to his feet on the approach of the soldiers and dashed toward a spot where a white man and a friendly Indian were on guard. The white man's gun missed fire, but the warrior sent a bullet through the heart of Philip, who, with a shriek, leaped in the air, fell headlong into a pool of water, and never stirred afterward. Hostilities did not fully cease for six months. From the beginning to the close of King Philip's war six hundred white men were killed and many more wounded; thirteen towns were destroyed and five hundred buildings burned, but the power of the Indians in southern New England was broken forever. Massachusetts made a Royal Province. — Massachusetts dis- puted with England for a long time over the right to govern her- self, with the result that in 1684 she lost her charter. Charles II died in 1685, and James II, his successor, sent Sir Edmund An- dros out the following year as governor-general of all the New England provinces, which were united in a single royal province. We have learned that Andros had already served as governor of New York and New Jersey and was not liked. One source of dispute between the colonies and England was the Navigation Act. This compelled the settlers to carry on their commerce in English vessels and required Virginia to send all her tobacco to England. It bore hard upon New England also, and she violated its provisions continually. The Charter Oak. — Andros, as was expected, carried matters witli a high hand. He crushed opposition and brought Rhode Island to terms. Connecticut, however, was defiant. His mes- THE COLONIAL HLSTORY OL' NEIV ENGLAND 79 sage to the governor demanding the surrender of the charter was not obeyed. The angry Andros appeared at Hartford in October, 1687, at the head of sixty soldiers, resolved to take the document by force. Assured of success, he was willing to let the members of the court talk awhile, though they could have had no hope of shaking his resolution. He sat at the head of the table and listened to their arguments until the afternoon drew to a close. Then, when it was dark, the candles were brought in. During all this time the precious charter lay in a box on the table, in sight of every one. At last Andros grew tired and ordered the charter to be handed to him. At that instant, in obedience to a signal, all the candles were blown out. A few minutes later they were relighted, but when the governor looked around, nothing was to be seen of the document. A brief search made it clear it was not in the room. During the temporary darkness, Captain Wadsworth slipped out of doors with the box and (juietly thrust it into the hollow of an oak growing near. There it lay undisturbed for several years. The tree became famous as the ''Charter Oak," and was preserved with great care until 1856, when a violent storm shattered it to fragments. The hiding of the charter did Connecticut no good, for she was obliged to submit to the rule of Andros, which happily did not last long. In April, 1689, news reached Boston that James H had been dethroned, and with the news came that of the procla- mation of William, Prince of Orange, when he landed in Eng- land as king. The news caused great excitement. Andros was promptly deprived of power and recalled to England, though, as told elsewhere, he turned up again on this side of the Atlantic some years later. King William's War. — War broke out between France and England in 1689 and lasted until 1697. It naturally involved the colonies in this country, for it will be remembered that the French had settled Canada. They were wise enough to cultivate the friendship of the Indians, who helped them to desolate our 8o ^ HISTOKY OF OCR COiWTKY frontiers. It was determined in retaliation to invade Canada. Sir William l'hip})s set out with a large tloet, but returned with- out achieving much success, while the land force did nothing at all. The war continued in a desultory way, when, as we have learned, a treaty of peace was signed in 1697. The Salem Witchcraft Delusion. — Two hundred years ago nearly everybody believed in witchcraft. We can afford to smile in these days at the superstition of our ancestors, but if we had 11 veil in Salem, Mas- sachusetts, in 1692, we should have felt like anything but smiling. Cotton Ma- ^ — ^^■R-tiN -<^H- ^^^tx, the most famous V'l ^^^i!^ fc^ preacher of colonial ^Ks* "^isSi^K^ ^S times, had more to do MBf k . '^^^B^^ l\y<^n any one else in **■ spreading the hideous delusion. Ihe craze began in 1O88, when some lit- tle girls were scared into convulsions by an Irish woman, who was accused of witch- iraft and hanged. Then it seemed as if everybody took leave of his senses. Some of the cases were most pitiful. Christian mothers were torn from their families and suffered disgraceful death; children were left helpless, scorned, and heartbroken; gentle, meek ministers were executed, and sorrow and woe were everywhere. Twenty- eight persons in all were sentenced to death, of whom nineteen were hanged and one had his life crushed out of him. A good many saved themselves by confessing they were wizards or witches. WITCHCRAFT DELUSIO^ THE COLONIAL HISTORY OF NEW ENGLAND 8 1 By the close of September, 1692, besides those put to death, fifty-five had been tortured or frightened into making confessions, a hundred and fifty were in prison, and two hundred were under accusation. When the delusion reached the point that no one was safe, the people came to their senses. Reaction set in, and most of the leaders in the persecutions were at a loss to under- stand how they ever came to act as they did. Judge Sewall, one of those that had condemned the victims to death, rose trembling to his feet in church and read a recantation. Once every year afterward, to the close of his life, he shut himself in his room and spent the day in fasting and prayer, as a penance for the awful mistake of his life. The Salem jurors of 1692 published an abject confession and humbly asked the forgiveness of God and the surviving sufferers. The witchcraft delusion will always remain one of the darkest blots in the early history of New Ilngland. Queen Anne's War. — Queen Anne's war was brought about by war between France and Spain on one hand and England on the other. It began in 1702 and ended in 17 13. The powerful confederation of Indians in New York, known as the Iroquois or Six Nations, because of their treaty with France took no part in the hostilities. As a consequence," the New England frontier suffered the most. At Ueerfield, Massachusetts, the Indians hacked a hole with their tomahawks in the door of the principal house, where a number of the people had taken refuge, and one of the warriors thrust his musket through and shot a woman who was in the act of rising from bed. A formidable invasion by sea and land was planned in the summer of 17 11. A fourth of the vessels were wrecked when a short way up the St. Lawrence. As a consequence, the land forces retreated, and the invasion came to naught. The only thing done by the colonists was during the preceding year, when they captured Port Royal and changed its name to Annapolis. The treaty of peace between the contending nations ceded Acadia (now Nova Scotia; to P>ngland. A I/f STORY OF OUR COUNTRY ATTACK ON DEERFIELD The First Newspapers in America. —The first issue of anytliing resembling a newspaper in this country was Ptiblick Occurrences, both Foreign and Domestic. Benjamin Harris brought it out in Boston, in September, 1690, but never issued a second number, l)ecause the royal authorities would not license it. The pioneer paper is generally conceded to be the Boston News Letter, pub- lished by John Campbell in 1704. 'I'he next was the The Gazette, published in Boston by William Brooker, in December, 17 19. On the next day Andrew Bradford issued the American Weekly Mercury in Philadelphia. James Franklin brought out the Ne7V England Courant in August, 1721. It was in this ofifice that his famous brother Benjamin learned to set type. The first paper published in New York city was the Netv York Gazette, put to press by William Bradford, October 23, 1725. The first daily was the Daily Advertiser, which appeared in Philadelphia in 1785. THE COLONIAL HISTORY OF NEW ENGLAND ^^ King George's War. — War began between England and France in 1744. The French colonies in America learned of it first, and, moving rapidly, captured the island of Canso, off the eastern coast of Nova Scotia, burned the fort, and made the garrison prisoners. They attacked, but failed to capture Placentia in Newfoundland and Annapolis in Nova Scotia. The fortress of Louisburg was one of the strongest in the world. France spent ten million dollars and labored for twenty-five years to build it, but, impregnable as it seemed, the New England colonies determined to capture it. The land forces were helped by a powerful fleet, and the siege lasted from May 11, 1745, to the 17th of June following, when the fortress surrendered. In the provinces the bells were set ringing and rejoicing was every- where. Even England was illuminated with bonfires, and France could hardly credit the astounding news; but when peace was made in April, 1748, Louisburg was given back to France. Topics. — The first permanent French settlement in America; in Canada; the early English explorations in New England; what was done by Captain John Smith; the grant to the Plymouth Company; the Puritans; their emi- gration to America; landing of the Pilgrims; life at Plymouth; the first and second governors; the visit of Samoset; prosperity of the colony; the Narra- gansetts; Captain Myles Standish; other settlements. Massachusetts Bay Colony; its prosperity; religious persecution; Roger Williams; settlement of Connecticut; the founding of Hartford and other towns; the plot of the Pequots; the services of Roger Williams; the destruc- tion of the Pequots; founding of Harvard College; the first printing-press in America; New Hampshire and Maine; the grants to Gorges and Mason; sub- sequent history of New Hampshire; of Maine; formation of the United Colo- nies of New England; the Providence Plantations; persecution of the Quakers; King Philip; the causes of his war; the attack at Swansea; church services in those times; the strange incident at Hadley; crushing defeat of the Narra- gansetts; death of Philip; the deaths and destruction caused by the war; Massachusetts as a royal province; the incident of the Charter Oak; the end of Andros's rule; King Williams's war; the Salem witchcraft delusion; ex- tent of the craze; Queen Anne's war; the attempt to invade Canada; the first newspaper in America; the pioneer paper; the next one issued; others; the first daily; King George's war; the capture of Louisburg; the treaty of 1748. CHAPTER VIII THK COLONIAL HISTORY OF NEW JERSEY, PENNSYLVANL^, AND DELAWARE IMMIGRANTS to New Jersey. — Several of the colonies were settled, not by immigrants from across the ocean, but from other colonies. In this way their history became interwoven. Thus, about the year 1660, while New York was under Dutch rule, a number of its set- tlers passed over into what is now known as New Jersey, and made their homes there. The precise date of such settlement is not known. The terri- tory formed a part of New Netherland, and that portion lying between the Hudson and the Delaware, extending north of the latter river to 41° 40', was given by the Duke of York to Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret, proprietors of Carolina. To this new province was assigned the name of New C?esarea, or New Jersey, in honor of Carteret's defence of the island of Jersey, in 1649, against Cromwell. Several Swedish and Dutch families had settled in New Jersey in 1664, but little has been learned of them. Governor Nichols, of New York, knew nothing of the grant until June, 1665, when Captain PhiUp Carteret arrived as the new governor of the prov- ince. Carteret anchored in the Kill von Kull, in July, opposite Elizabethport, and landed with thirty emigrants. Resting a hoe on his shoulder, he led the way inland and selected a place for settlement. He named it Elizabeth, in honor of the wife of Sir George Carteret. This settlement is generally regarded as the first made in New Jersey. 84 THE COLONIAL LIISTORY OF NEW JERSEY 85 The site of the present city of Newark was bought from the Indians, in 1666, by a party from Mihbrd, Connecticut. It re- ceived its name in compliment to Rev. Abraham Pierson, the first minister, whose home in England was Newark. The soil was fertile, the government liberal, and New Jersey prospered until 1670, when trouble came. In that year the proprietors demanded the quit rents, which were due. The settlers refused to pay them, and soon everything was in a tangle. AVhen the ARRIVAL OF GOVERNOR CARTERET people were on the verge of revolt, James Carteret, the second son of Sir George, appeared on the scene as the new governor. This man was a vagabond, but in 1672 the assembly at Eliza- bethport deposed Philip Carteret and elected James in his place. The indignant Philip sailed to F^irope for redress. James quickly proved his unfitness and was set adrift in May, 1673, when Cap- tain Berry, Philip Carteret's deputy, arrived and took charge. James left for Virginia. He turned up in New York a few years later and wandered about the country, sleeping in barns and begging food, like many tramps of the present day. Philip Carteret became governor again and was well liked. He 86 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY postponed the collection of quit rents ; guaranteed liberty of conscience, and encouraged representative institutions. All went well for a while, but another snarl of titles came, involving the claims of Berkeley, the old partner of Carteret, and parties to wb.om he had sold his rights. East and West Jersey. — The difficulties were finally settled by the division of tiie province into two parts. East Jersey belonged to Carteret, and West Jersey was bought by William Penn and his associates. The dividing line ran from Little Egg harbor on the coast to latitude 41° 40' on the ujjper Delaware River. This was on July I, 1676, and the distinction prevails to some extent to the present day. Upon the invitation of Penn, a large colony of Friends arrived from Europe, in 1677, and settled at Burlington, which, therefore, is the oldest town on the Delaware above Philadelpiiia. The dis- pute between the original proprietors of the province continued until 1680, when the commissioners, to whom the quarrel was re- ferred for final settlement, decided against the Duke of York's claim to West Jersey. Thereupon he gave a deed of East Jersey to George Carteret, grandson of James. Two years later, Penn and a number of his associates bought East Jersey of its new pro- prietor, and thus the entire province came into the possession of the Friends. Large numbers of Quakers flocked to New Jersey from Scotland, England, and New England, and on July 27 Penn appointed Robert Barclay, an eminent Quaker preacher, governor for life. When King James ascended the throne of England, the Jerseys were obliged to surrender their charter, and they had no nominal government for several years. In April, 1702, the settlers waived their proprietary rights and the Jerseys became a royal province, which was attached to the government of New York, each prov- ince, however, retaining its own assembly and separate territorial organization. Mainly through the efforts of Lewis Morris, New Jersey again became independent in 173S, and Morris was com- missioned the first royal governor of the i)rovinre. Its location THE COLONIAL HISTORY OF NEW JERSEY 87 preserved it from the subsequent Indian wars, a.nd no important events followed until the breaking out of the Revolution. William Penn. — The name of William Penn will always be honored in the history of our country. He was the son of Admiral Penn, and was held in high respect by the sovereigns of England and those in authority. He inherited wealth from FROZEN IN ON THE DELAWARE his father, among which was a debt of eighty thousand dollars due the admiral for services to his country. The son offered to accept in payment a grant of land in America, and the king was glad to make the bargain. He signed, March 4, 1681, a grant of forty thousand square miles, comprising the present State of Pennsylvania. Penn wished to name the province New Wales, but the king would not consent, and gave it its appropriate name. Such a man as Penn was certain to establish a wise system of 88 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY government. The foundation was perfect freedom of conscience, and all his efforts were turned to winning instead of forcing men into the right path. He guided his own life by the Golden Rule, and strove to persuade others to do right because it was right. Settlement of Pennsylvania. — Penn decided that land should be sold at forty shiUings per hundred acres, and servants were allowed to hold fifty acres in fee simple. The confidence in Penn was so universal that a large immigration began at once, the people, as a rule, being of the thrifty and industrious sort. Three vessels were sent out in 1681, but one was frozen fast in the Delaware at Chester. Penn himself sailed with a hundred passengers in the ship Welcome, landing at Newcastle, October 27, 1682. The Dutch and Swedes gave him welcome, and he won their good-will by his fair-minded address. They asked to be taken in as a part of the province of Pennsylvania, and this was afterward done. The first general assembly was held in the Friends' meeting- house at Chester, the Delaware settlers taking part in the proceed- ings. Under the branches of a spreading elm, at Shackamaxon, November 30, 1682, Penn met the leading warriors, chieftains, and sachems of the Lenni-Lenape, or Delaware Indians. His kind words and manner gained their confidence, and he paid them the price agreed upon for their lands. Besides this, he made numer- ous presents and signed a treaty of peace, which was not broken for sixty years. Philadelphia laid out. — Philadelphia, meaning "Tlie City of Brotherly Love," was laid out in 1681, and prospered from the first. Two years later it had six hundred houses, and during the Revolution was a larger city than New York. In a single year seven thousand immigrants arrived and settled in the province. The first legislative assembly met in March, 1683, and the town was soon provided with schools, chapels, and a printing-ofifice. Penn sailed for England in August, 1684, led to do so by the previous visit of Lord Baltimore, who was trying to procure a THE COLONIAL HISTORY OF PENXSYLVANIA 89 90 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY confirmation of his claim to the country along the west side of the Delaware from Philadelphia to Cape Henlopen. After a long trial, the dispute was decided in favor of Penn. The difficulties in which he was involved kept Penn in Europe for fifteen years. When he came back, he found Philadelphia with two thousand houses, while the province contained twenty thousand inhabitants. Such streets as Chestnut, Vine, Spruce, and others were already in existence. Prosperity prevailed, but the province had grown away from Penn's authority. Formation of Delaware. — Penn sailed a second time for Eng- land in October, 1701. Before going, he reluctantly signed the new constitution, which allowed the three lower counties — now the State of Delaware — the right to a separate government. A jieriod of misrule followed in Pennsylvania, and the steward, to whom Penn entrusted his affairs, robbed him of everything. He was so involved, indeed, that he spent nine months in prison for debt. While negotiating a sale of the province to the crown, he was stricken with paralysis, and died in 17 18. The will of Penn left his property in England and Ireland to his eldest son William, who was a scapegrace. The proprietorship in his American colony went to his widow and her three sons, and after them to their heirs, and thus it remained until the Revolu- tion. In 1779, the State bought the claim of the heirs for half a million dollars. Settlement of Delaware. — In 1638, a small number of Swedes and Finns were guided to Delaware Bay by Peter Minuit, the first governor of New Amsterdam. He was resentful toward the Dutch because of their treatment of him, and, buying the land of the Indians, he erected a fort, which was named Christina, in honor of the infant queen of his country. Governor Kieft of New York warned the settlers that they were intruders and ordered them to leave. They did not obey, and he was afraid to expel them. In the course of a few years, fully a hundred families were settled a few miles below the present city of Phila- delphia. THE COLONIAL HISTORY OF DELAWARE 91 Governor Stuyvesant, however, gave unpleasant attention to New Sweden, as the whole country was called on both sides of the Delaware, which was occupied by the Swedes. The Swedish governor was named Printz. He was of gigantic frame and as fiery tempered as Stuyvesant. He allowed the few Dutch in the province to stay, because their petty military post, Fort Nassau, was too far up the river to interfere with his people or their trade. Stuyvesant put up Fort Casimir on the present site of Newcastle. Printz furiously protested, but he and Stuyvesant were more afraid of English intrusion than of each other, and both refrained from violence. The first thing done by the new Swedish governor was to capture Fort Casimir. Then Stuyvesant stormed, and finally, in the spring of 1655, sent out a force which captured Forts Casimir and Christina. That was the end of Swedish rule in America. The Swedes who remained became Dutch, the province being called New Amstel. We have already learned how it came under the rule of Penn, who finally conceded a separate government to it, which it has retained ever since. Topics. — How some of the colonies were settled; the first settlements in New Jersey; who first owned it; how it was divided; origin of the name; Captain Philip Carteret; the settlement of Elizabeth; the trouble in 1670; James Carteret; Captain Berry; Philip Carteret's second rule; East and West Jersey; the settlement of Burlington; how the province came into the possession of the Friends. Robert Barclay; the Jerseys as a royal province; New Jersey's inde- pendence ; from what it was saved by its location ; William Penn ; the grant obtained from the king; Penn's system of government ; how the land was sold; the first vessels sent out ; Penn's arrival; the Dutch and Swedes ; the first general assembly ; the treaty at Shackamaxon ; founding of the city of Philadelphia ; its prosperity ; the first legislative assembly ; Penn's visit to England ; what he found on his return to Pennsylvania ; the formation of Delaware; Penn's death; his will; the proprietorship of Pennsylvania; settlement of Delaware ; course of Governor Stuyvesant ; of the Swedish governor ; Stuyvesant's action in 1655 ; the result. CHAPTER IX THE COLONIAL HISTORY OF I\L\KVLAND, THE CAROLINAS, AND GEORGIA ■5^|ETTLEMENT of Maryland. — At the time of Bfe^^ the settlement of Jamestown, the Roman Catho- Ucs suffered persecution in England. Sir George Calvert, or Lord Baltimore, a noble- man of that faith, applied to King James for a grant of land in America, his wish being to ^;r offer an asylum for his people. He died in ' -' 1632, and the ])atent was issued to his son, Cecil Calvert, in June of that year. He named the new territory Maryland, in honor of Queen Maria, and, in addition to the State now known by that name, the territory included Delaware and a part of New Jersey and Pennsylvania. Leonard Calvert, a younger brother of Cecil, sighted Point Comfort, February 24, 1634. He came in the Ark, accom- panied by a pinnace the Dove, the two containing three hundred emigrants. The colonists landed at or near Chancellor's Point and began the settlement of St. Mary's. They gave the same kind treatment to the Indians that was shown by Penn and his associates and thus gained their friendship. Trouble with Virginia. — The Virginians were angered at what they considered the intrusion of the Catholics upon their domain. The foct that Lord Baltimore's title was unquestionable made no difference. The most indignant member of the Virginia council was William Clayborne, who drove a good trade within the ter- ritory covered by the patent of Lord Baltimore. Early in the spring of 1635, Clayborne sent his small vessel on its regular 92 THE COLOXIAL HISTORY OF MARYLAND 93 trading voyage, but it was captured by the Marylanders. Learn- ing of this, Clayborne despatched an armed boat to recapture her or to seize any Maryland boat within reach. A fight followed, in which the captain of Clayborne's boat and two of his men were killed and one also of the Marylanders. The news threw Virginia into a tumult, which was intensified when Lord Baltimore demanded the surrender of Clayborne. Instead of complying, the Virginia governor insisted that Clay- borne should go to England to meet the charges. The governor showed so friendly a spirit to Lord Baltimore that he was turned out of office and sent to England. Clayborne accompanied him. The king sent back the governor and sharply reproved the Vir- ginia assembly for their unlawful course. Civil "War. — Lord Baltimore and the Catholics were so liberal toward those of other faiths that many dissatisfied people in Vir- ginia settled in Maryland. Governor Calvert sent an invitation to those who were persecuted for conscience' sake in ALissachusetts to make their homes under his jurisdiction and many did so. Among the members of the assembly and council were a number of Protestants. Matters became so threatening in England, that Lord Baltimore sailed thither in 1643 to consult with his brother. When he returned the following year he found Maryland in a state of anarchy. Clayborne had reoccupied his old quarters on Kent Island, and stirred up a faction against the administration of the governor. This was so strong that Calvert was driven out of the colony and a Virginian was elected as his successor. Across the line in Virginia, Calvert gathered a number of adher- ents, recrossed to Maryland, captured St. Mary's, and resumed government in August, 1646. Then it was Clayborne's turn to run and he promptly did so. Religious Troubles. — From this point, it may be said the his- tory of Maryland is partly merged into that of Virginia. There was much strife between the Catholics and Protestants, with varying success to each side. The Catholics had been liberal, 94 --i HISTORY OF OUR COCNTRY as we have learned, toward those of other faiths, but when the Protestants came into power, they persecuted the Cathohcs. The agents of the rival governments were continually begging England to fix matters to suit their tastes. Finally in November, 1657, an agreement was reached which was confirmed in the following March by Virginia and Maryland. Amnesty was granted for all past offences; liberty of conscience was guaranteed ; the Puritans then living in Maryland were required simply to submit to the authority of Lord Baltimore, without taking the oath of allegiance, and the action of past assemblies was held to be legal, regardless of the political disturbances that had taken place. Lord Baltimore was stripped of his rights as proprietor in 1691 and Maryland was a royal province, remaining such for a (juar- ter of a century. The proprietary rights were returned to the grandson, the fourth Lord Baltimore, and were continued until the Revolution. Settlement of the Carolinas, — In 1663, the king of England granted to Lord Clarendon and a number of other noblemen, a tract of country south of Virginia, extending from about the thirtieth to the thirty-sixth parallels of latitude ; or, in other words, between the southern boundary of Virginia and the St. John's River in Florida. The western boundary was the Pacific Ocean, though no person knew precisely where that was. Two years afterward the grant was expanded half a degree north and a degree southward. In 1663, a party from Barbadoes, who were searching .for a suit- able place upon which to settle, bought a tract of land at the mouth of Cape Fear River from the Indians, and located thereon. The tract was thirty-two miles square. In the following spring the colony was joined by Sir John Yeamans and several hundred immigrants. The older colony asked the proprietors to confirm their purchase from the Indians. The request was denied, but satisfactory terms were granted. The province over which Yea- mans was made governor extended from Cape Fear to the St. John's River in Florida, and was named Clarendon. THE COLONIAL HL STORY OF GEORGLA 95 In addition to the colonists named, immigrants from New Eng- land, from Virginia, and from Bermuda were distributed along the northern shore of Albemarle Sound. In 1670, two ships loaded with immigrants and supplies sailed up the present harbor of Charleston to a point three miles above the mouth of the Ashley River, where they began a settlement called Charles-town. The site proved unhealthful, and in 1680 a change was made to the present city of Charleston. There was continual friction between the Carolinas and the proprietors. Some of the governors were rogues, or incompe- tents, and much misrule prevailed, varied now and then by a wise administration, like that of John Archdale the Quaker. Finally the proprietors became discouraged, and in 1729 surrendered the right of government and seven-eighths of the land to the crown. The colonies were separated and remained royal provinces to the Revolution. Settlement of Georgia. — In 1732, General James Edward Oglethorpe obtained a grant of land from King George II which, in honor of the sovereign, he named Georgia. Oglethorpe was a skilful general, wealthy, charitable, and philanthropic, and he in- terested the king, parliament, the Bank of England, and a num- ber of rich persons in his enterprise. The most horrible sufferings prevailed at that time in England among those who were thrown into prison because they could not pay their debts. Their misfortune might be due to illness, but hundreds of people were kept starving in wretched cells until they died for no other crime than that of being poor. While the fathers and husbands were thus suffering death, it might be that their fiirailies were also perishing for the sake of food. The project of Oglethorpe, and his own admirable character, secured all the friends and help it could need. Indeed it looked after a while as if it would have been better had the friends been fewer, for they threatened to dwarf if not to kill the grand scheme by their overwhelming kindness. The province secured by Oglethorpe extended from Savannah 96 A HISTORY OF OUR COUXTRY on the north to the Altamaha on the south, and, from the sources of those rivers westward to the Pacific, with a very hazy idea on the part of all as to where the Pacific lay. The highest hopes were entertained of the prosperity and success of the new colony, for the natural advantages of Georgia are so great that it has long been known as the Empire State of the South. The Annie, with one hundred and twenty emigrants, sailed from Gravesend in November, 1732, and, after a tedious voyage GOVERNOR OGLETHORPE AND THE INDIANS of fifty-seven days, reached Charleston, where a warm welcome awaited the pioneers. The assembly voted the company a large number of breeding cattle and other supplies and escorted them away as they sailed for Port Royal. Landing at Beaufort, Ogle- thorpe ascended the river and selected the present site of Savan- nah. He followed the example of William Penn, bought the consent of the Indians, and by his wise course retained their friendship. Leaving everything in the most promising shape, he sailed for England, after a little more than a year. On his return THE COLONIAL HISTORY OF GEORGIA 97 to Georgia in the winter of 1 735-1 73G, he brought back a company of men, among whom were the revered leaders of Methodism, John and Charles Wesley. Charles was the governor's secretary, while John was sent by the trustees as a missionary to the Indians. The Wesleys became dissatisfied with the country and soon returned to England. George Whitefield, one of the most famous preachers of the eighteenth century, came over to take their place. He did a most beneficent work in America. "War with the Spaniards. — The Spanish in Florida were in- censed at what they looked upon as an intrusion of their territory. They insisted that the English should withdraw from the entire country south of St. Helena Sound, and threatened. dire things in case of refusal. As this was a demand to give up all Georgia, and a part of South Carolina, Oglethorpe politely, but firmly, declined. Knowing the revengeful nature of the Spaniards, Ogle- thorpe decided to move first. He invaded Florida without wait- ing for the help of South Carolina. His force consisted of four hundred soldiers and a strong party of Indians. He dressed like a common soldier, shared the hardships of his men, and was be- loved by all. Fort Diego was invested and captured, and, leaving a garrison of sixty men, Oglethorpe pushed forward to Fort Moosa, the more important post, and within a couple of miles of St. Augustine. He found the fort had been abandoned and the defenders were concentrated at the town. Oglethorpe was too weak to attack this and went to Charleston to hurry forward the men promised by that province. He brought back enough Virginians, and North and South Carolinians, to swell his attacking force to two thousand, including the Indians. But the fort was very strong, the Indian allies deserted, many men fell sick, and finally Oglethorpe himself became ill of a fever. All this compelled him to raise the siege. The Spaniards in retaliation invaded Georgia in May, 1744. They numbered from three to five thousand men, opposed to whom, Oglethorpe could muster only about eight hundred, but these were handled with such masterly skill, that he inflicted a H 98 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY crushing defeat upon the invaders. The brilliant manner in which he conducted this unequal campaign to a triumphant conclusion added greatly to his military fame, and brought disgrace to the Spaniards. On his return to England, he was raised to the grade of major general, and afterward to that of lieutenant general. He lived to be nearly one hundred years old and was said to be the handsomest old man in all England. People stopped on the streets of London to admire him. His character was as admirable as his person. He would have been given command of the British armies in America at tiie breaking out of the Revolution, but for his well-known chivalrous disposition. It was feared that he would not be harsh enough with the rebels, for Oglethorpe was always fond of them, and was not only a wonderfully skilful soldier but a Christian one. Georgia a Royal Province. — Many of the laws governing Georgia were impracticable. Prosperity languished, so that in 1752 the province contained only three small villages, and the white popu- lation numbered less than two thousand. The exports were about three thousand dollars annually. Industry had ceased and the trustees became discouraged. Too much indulgence and mis- taken kindness had been shown to the colony. So in June, 1752, just twenty years after the granting of the charter, the patent was surrendered to the crown. The colony took a new start on the road to prosperity, and, as we have learned, forged ahead, until in the fulness of time Georgia won the proud name of the Empire State of the South. Topics. — Persecution of the Roman Catholics in Enf^land ; what was done by Sir deorge Calvert; Maryland; the first settlement made; cause of the trouble with Virginia; William Clayborne; his conflict with the Marylanders; what followed; the liberal course of the Catholics; history of the civil war in Maryland; the religious troubles; the final settlement of the disputes; subse- quent history of Maryland; the grant made by the king of England in 1663; the Carolina settlement made in that year; Sir John Yeamans; the Clarendon colony; the other immigrants; founding of Charleston; separation of the two provinces. THE COLONIAL HISTORY OF GEORGIA 99 James Edward Oglethorpe; sufferings in England because of imprisonment for debt; the project of Oglethorpe; its success; extent of the province; its natural advantages; the Annie ; assistance given by Charleston; wise course of Oglethorpe; the Wesley brothers; Rev. George Whitefield; anger of the Spaniards; how Oglethorpe anticipated their action; his success; his failure; jiis fmal triumph; the admirable qualities of Oglethorpe; cause of the stagna- tion in the progress of Georgia; its condition in 1752; the step that was taken in that year. Tu THE FuriL. — Complete the following skeleton history, from what you have studied, so as to include all the thirteen colonies, in the order in which they were settled : SKELETON HISTORY OF PERIOD II Name When Settled Where Settled By Whom Settled 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 13 Virginia 1607 Jamestown English CHAPTER X THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR {l'.>ihi;i9lon ut lUt U'tliftroCfS. -Jt^ |ARRING Interests of England and France in the New World. — As events moved onward, Knglantl and France became the great rivals of each other in the New World. 'I'hey had grown in power and importance at home and each pushed its explorations and settlements on this side of the Atlantic. It was inevitable that the time would come when a tremendous and final struggle should take place between them in North America. Spain discovered the country and made the first permanent settlement at St. Augustine in 1565 ; but England and France increased much faster than she tlid. Spain founded missions among the Indians and held fast to many of her possessions, but a hundred years after the founding of St. Augustine the Spanish population in Florida was less than at first. She continually lost ground and the time at last came when she owned not a foot of soil on the continent. Regarding England and France, matters stood thus at the mid- dle of the eighteenth century : The settlements of England were strung along the Atlantic coast from Maine to Florida. On the ground that the Cabots had discovered America, England claimed all the country westward to the Pacific Ocean, a claim which it will be noted embraced about all there is of our country to-day. France first colonized the valley of the St. Lawrence. One of her oldest towns, Montreal, is five hundred miles from the sea. THE FRENCH AND INDL4N IVAK lOI She kept pushing westward and southward. Planting her colonies on the shores of the Great Lakes, she extended them to the sources of the Wabash, the Illinois, the Wisconsin, the St. Croix (croy), and thence down those streams to the Mississippi. Then she aimed for the Gulf of Mexico. While the English colonies occupied the thousand miles of seacoast named, the French ter- ritory reached from Canada down the Father of Waters to New Orleans. This long line was guarded by more than sixty military posts. A vast area of country lay between the English and French set- tlements. Both nations claimed it, and both began colonizing it, and it was there that the clash must inevitably come. The Ohio valley was destined by nature to be the scene of the opening battle between England and France for the possession of North America. No thought was given to the rights of the Indians in the matter. They having been unwise enough to place themselves between the upper and nether millstone had no choice but to be ground to powder. The trade with the Indians in furs and peltries had long been profitable. For many years, traders from Virginia and Pennsyl- vania made tours to the Indian towns on the upper tributaries of the Ohio. In i 749, these men met other traders from Canada engaged upon the same business. They scowled at each other, and the iLnglishmen made up their minds to stop the trade of the others within their territory. Virginia, through her old charter, claimed all the country be- tween her western borders and Lake Erie, including all the terri- tory northwest of the Ohio River and east of the Mississippi. To exclude the intruders, the Ohio Company was formed and received a land grant from George II, covering half a million acres, to be located either between the Kanawha and the Monongahela, or on the northern bank of the Ohio. In granting the land, the king ordered its selection at once and required the location of one hun- dred families upon it within seven years. This was prompt work on the part of Virginia, but the French I02 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY were more prompt. Before the Ohio Company could colonize the land, Bienville, by order of the governor of Canada, appeared on the scene with three hundred men. He began exploring the Ohio valley, burying leaden plates at different points along the river, as proof that the territory had been pre-empted by France. His men went as far west as the Miami (me-am'e) towns, drove out the English traders, and forwarded a letter to the governor of Pennsylvania, warning him to keep off the lands that belonged to "the king of France. The Ohio Company sent an exploring party to the Ohio oppo- site the mouth of Beaver Creek, Crossing to the northern bank, they advanced to the Great Miami and thence to within a few miles of the falls opposite Louisville. The rival parties approached closer to each other, collisions took place, and the ill feeling deep- ened, until the situation was so strained that the ilifferent tribes of Indians became interested. In the spring of 1753, Du Quesne (kane), the French governor of Canada, sent twelve hundred men down the Allegheny to colo- nize that section. This angered the Indian tribes and they pro- tested. The French coolly replied that the land belonged to them and they meant to take it. This reply did not tend to soothe the red men. The Virginians were greatly roused, but before flying to arms Governor Dinwiddie decided to make one more remonstrance. He drew up a paper setting forth upon what grounds the English claimed the territory, using courteous language, for he was hope- ful of convincing the French of the injustice of their course. St. Pierre (san-peer' or pe-air'), commander of the French forces in the West, was five hundred miles off at Erie, as it is now known, in the northwestern corner of the present State of Pennsyl- vania. The route thither was through an unbroken wilderness. The journey, therefore, would be a thousand miles in length, through a hostile country, and attended by hardships and dangers which no ordinary man could overcome. But Governor Dinwiddie knew who was the right person for the THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR 103 delicate and difficult task. He sent for him and the young man promptly appeared. Tiiere was a great contrast between the two, for the governor was a short, fat man, partly bald, and in middle life, while the handsome athletic youth who stood before him was more than six feet tall and the picture of manly youth and strength. He was Georgp: Washingion. George Washington. — \Vashington will al- ways be regarded as the greatest American that ever lived. No one ever can hold his place in the reverence and affectionate grati- tude of his country- men. It is proper, therefore, that we should learn a few facts about him. George Washington was born in Westmore- land county, Virginia, February 22, 1732. His father died when the son was eleven years old, and his edu- cation was left to his excellent mother. He was a truthful boy, w^ho had no superior in running, throwing, leaping, swimming, horsemanship, and all athletic sports. When only sixteen years old, he was employed to survey the valleys of the Allegheny Mountains, and he acquitted himself well at the task. At nineteen, he was appointed adjutant WASHINGTON AND GOVERNOR DINWIDDI I04 -^ ///SyOA'V OF OUK COL'N'J-KY general over one of the districts of Virginia, his rank being that of major. He studied tactics under his brother and other officers and developed exceptional military skill. As a result, when the districts of Virginia were reduced to four, he was left in command of one. We shall see as we study his career, that he was the grandest character in American history. On the same day that Washington received his letter and his instructions, he set out on his toilsome and dangerous journey through the wilderness. He had five companions, all mounted on horseback, one being a famous guide of the Ohio Comi)any, Christopher Gist by name. The start was made on the last day of October, when the woods were brilliant with the varied hues of autumn and the season delightful. Before long tlie wind as it moaned among the leafless branches brought flurries of snow, which at times almost blinded them. Then the fine rain, driven by the gale almost horizontally between the trees, turned to sleet and cut their f;\ces like bird shot. The camp-fires kindled against rocks or the huge trunks were not sufficient to warm their bodies, but all were rugged and strong and cared nothing for trials of that kind. When their food gave out, they knew how to bring down some of the game that was all around them, and they were pleased to find most of the Indians whom they met friemlly and willing to guide tliem for a portion at least of the journey. Washington expected to keep on to Presque Isle (presk-eel) before meeting the French commander, but on arriving at Le Bujuf (leh-buf), fourteen miles south, he found him superintend- ing the building of fortifications. The officer received his visitors courteously and read the letter from Governor Dinwiddie. St. Pierre being a soldier repHed that he was there by orders of his superior officers and could not discuss the question. Further- more, it was his purpose to expel every Englishman from the valley of the Ohio. The return of the party was attended by dangers and hardships tenfold worse than accompanied them in going. It was now the THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR IO5 depth of winter, the weather was bitterly cold, and the streams were filled with floating ice. Often when the men lay down to sleep, their clothing was frozen to their limbs ; they struggled through the icy creeks and rivers until the packhorses gave out, when Washington and Gist gave up their animals and trudged forward on foot. In crossing one of the rivers on a raft, the pole in Washington's hand was wrenched from his grasp by the masses of grinding ice and he was flung into the water, but his skill in swimming saved him. One day an Indian, who was acting as their guide, levelled his gun when barely twenty yards away and fired point blank at \V'ashington. Before he could reload or flee Gist seized him by tlie throat. He wanted to kill him for his treachery, but Wash- ington would not permit. The Indian was kept a prisoner until night and then allowed to go. Finally, on the i6th of January, 1754, Washington and Gist arrived at Williamsburg, and the reply of St. Pierre was placed in the hands of Governor Dinwiddle. The Breaking out of War. — The reply meant war and Virginia acted promptly. The assembly voted ten thousand pounds for fitting out an expedition, one of whose duties was to build a fort at the junction of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers, so as to pro- tect the Ohio Company in its operations. But the French antici- jjated this action and erected Fort Du Quesne on the present site of Pittsburg. Washington moved forward to reconnoitre, leading the way, musket in hand. The French commander, Jumonville (zhoo- mon-veel), was hiding with his men among the rocks and trees awaiting him, but was himself surprised and defeated. Colonel Frye soon dying, Washington assumed command and built a stock- ade, well named Fort Necessity. Attacked by a large force of French and Indians, Washington was obliged to surrender, but he and his men were released on their promise to leave the country. Convention of the Colonies. — A convention of all the colonies was held at Albany, New York, June 19, 1754. Twenty-five delegates io6 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY were present, representing every colony north of the Potomac. One result was the signing of a treaty with the Iroquois, by which they agreed to remain neutral during the hostilities. Benjamin Franklin brought forward a plan for the more perfect union of the colonies, but it was rejected by the king, who was alarmed at the growing tendency to a closer union by his subjects in America. Even then the stubborn monarch may have had a glimmering of what followed in the course of a few years. WASHINGTON'S FIRST VICTORY Braddock's Massacre. — General Braddock led an expedition the following spring against Fort Du Quesne, Washington acting as his aide-de-camp (kong). Braddock was a brave officer, but puffed up with conceit. Washington warned him that the Indians did not fight like white men, but the general took offence and gave the young Virginian to understand that he wished no instruction from him. When within ten miles of the fort, and while ascend- ing a slope with thick underbrush on every hand, the stillness was broken by the fearful war-whoop, and the concealed Indians poured a destructive fire among the troops. The regulars, recov- THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR 107 ering from their panic, fired by platoons at the invisible enemy, while Washington and his men leaped among the trees and fought in the style of the savages themselves. He begged Braddock to do the same, but he was too proud, and continued the unequal fight. No one could have acted more bravely than the British com- mander. He had five horses shot under him, and exposed him- self to every danger. Finally a bullet jKTSsed through his lungs and brought him to the ground. Washington ran to his help. "What can be done?" feebly asked the officer. " We must retreat at once," re- plied Washington. The ofticer was reluctant to do so, and rallying slightly continued to give orders while reclining on the ground. By and by the retreat had to be made, and Washington brought off the remnant of the once proud army. Out of eighty-two officers, twenty-six were killed and thirty- seven wounded. Of the force of two thousand men, one-half were killed or disabled, while of the French only three officers and tliirty men were slain and about the same number wounded. The only officer of Braddock's staff unhurt was Washington. His escape was remarkable. He was so prominent in the fight, that he was singled out as a special target and fired at again and again. Four bullets passed through his coat and two horses were killed under him, but he was not touched. Heaven must have preserved him for the great work he was to perform, for never throughout his wonderful career did he receive the slightest wound. Cr.NLHAL BHADDOCi: io8 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY Expulsion of the Acadians. — The disaster was so shocking that it spread a gloom not only through the colonies but in Eng- land. The next step taken by England under the plea of military necessity was a cruel act. The simple folk living in Acadia (Nova Scotia) were French in their feelings and sympathies. They EXPULSION OF THE ACADIANS wished to remain neutral in the war, but refused to take the oath of allegiance to King George. Because of this, their dwellings were burned, and they were driven aboard a number of waiting vessels at the point of the bayonet. Families were broken uj) in the confusion and never reunited. Seven thousand of the poor people were distributed among the colonies, and untold suffering was inflicted. THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR 109 Success of the French. — Sir William Johnson captured Crown Point for the English. General Dieskau (dees'cow ) was badly- wounded and was sitting on a stump giving orders, when he was approached by a Frenchman fighting with the Americans. Dies- kau began feeling for his watch to give to his captor, when the latter, supposing he was about to draw his pistol, fired and mortally wounded him. The victory was of little moment for the English, and for two years the French were almost uniformly suc- cessful. It seemed indeed as if England would be forced to give up all her possessions in America. At the close of 1757, France held twenty times as much territory as at first, and was still gaining ground. In the summer of the year named. Fort William Henry was compelled to surrender. The English were guaranteed a safe escort to Fort Edward, fourteen miles away, but had hardly started when the Indians attacked them. Montcalm and his officers strove des- perately to restrain the savages, the distressed commander calling upon them to kill him but to spare the captives, whom he had promised to protect. Thirty of the English were tomahawked and others dragged off to captivity. England's Triumph. — Brighter days came with 1758. Wil- liam Pitt had become prime minister of England and was a firm friend of the colonies. An army of twenty-two thousand British regulars and twenty-eight thousand colonial troops was raised for the prosecution of the war. Fort Du Quesne was evacuated by SHOOTING OF DIESKAU no A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY the iMench, and when occupied by the provincials was named Pittsburg in honor of England's prime minister. To Washington was due the chief glory of expelling the French from Fort Du Quesne. He himself planted the English flag on the ramparts. On his return to Virginia, he was elected to the house of burgesses. He had just sat down, when the speaker, in the name of Virginia, returned thanks to him for his services EVACUATION OF FORT DU QUESNE to his country. NVashington had no thought of anything of the kind, and blushed like a school-boy. He rose to his feet to reply and became more embarrassed and confused. "Sit down, Mr. Washington," said the speaker, kindly, "your modesty equals your valor, and that surpasses the power of language to express." It will be remembered that the immense fortress of Louisburg had been returned to the French on the conclusion of King George's war in 1748. It was recaptured during the campaign THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR fe^SS&L^^-.-^- of 1758 by Generals Amherst and Wolfe, after a severe struggle. But the incompetent Abercrombie was driven from before Fort Ticonderoga, though he had the larger army, numbering fifteen thousand men. The year brought the final and decisive campaign. Forts Niagara, Crown Point, and Ticonderoga soon fell. France was feebly supporting her armies in America, while England gathered all her mighty energies for their _^ overthrow. General Wolfe, with eight thousand men and a powerful fleet, laid siege to Quebec. Canada was impov- erished, food was scarce, and Montcalm had received no reinforcements from home. The task undertaken by Wolfe looked impossible. Quebec, standing on a high promontory at the junction of the St. Lawrence and the St. Charles, seemed safe against any assault. The citadel is three hundred and forty-five feet above the river, and the fortifications, extending al- most across the peninsula, en- close a circuit of three miles. Week after week Wolfe searched in vain for some path by which to climb to the Heights of Abraham, as the plain is called. Montcalm was on the alert. He slept only a few minutes at a time, and when he could keep awake no longer. He did not wholly remove his clothing for several days, and kept his horses continually saddled, ready to dash at any moment to the spot where needed. Finally Wolfe discovered the narrow path for which he had WOLFE S COVE. QUEBEC A ff IS TORY OF OUR COUNTRY been searching so long. In the darkness of night his army silently climbed to the Heights of Abraham, and when the sun rose, the astounded Montcalm and his olificers saw the sunlight reflected from the thousands of gleaming bayonets where the English army were drawn up in battle array. The opposing forces were about equal in number. The im- petuous Montcalm assailed the English with his usual bravery, and for a time the issue was doubtful. At the critical moment, Wolfe led a bayonet charge. He was twice wounded, but cheered his men on until mortally hurt by a third bullet. Leaning on a brother officer, he was painfully moving to the rear, when one of his men exclaimed : " They run ! they run ! " " Who run?" asked Wolfe, in a faint voice. "'l"he French," was the reply. " God be praised ! now I can die happy," he murmured with a smile, and soon afterward ex- pired. Strange to say, Mont- calm was mortally wounded almost at the same moment that Wolfe was stricken down. He received two bad injuries, and was told by the surgeon that he had but a short time to live. "So much the better," he replied; "T shall not see the surrender of Quebec." He passed away a short time before daylight of the T4th. Quebec surrendered on the iSth of September, and Montreal was captured about a year later. In February, 1763, England and France signed a treaty of peace at Paris, by which France gave to England all her possessions east of the Missis- sippi, except two small islands south of Newfoundland. She ceded New Orleans and all her territory west of the Mississippi QUEBEC DUriING THE SIEGE THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR 113 to Spain, thus leaving her successful rivnl virtual master in the New World. It was a bitter humiliation for France, but her course was a wise one. She saw that the colonies were growing fast in strength and self-confidence and before many years would demand their §k independence. Not only that, but **** they would be quite certain to gain ^^^ it at the cost of immense treasure and loss of life to the nation claim- ing them as her subjects. 1 The Conspiracy of Pontiac. — Pontiac, chief of the Ottawas, was one of the great Indians of history. He hated the English, and when they took possession of the surren- dered posts in the West, he formed a conspiracy for the massacre of all the garrisons. He conducted the campaign with much skill, and several of the forts were captured. He besieged Detroit for a number of months, and more than once it was in great danger; but finally the confederacy of Indians was broken and peace firmly established. Pontiac was assassinated on the spot where East St. Louis now stands, in 1769, by a Kas- kaskia Indian, bribed thereto by an English trader. Thus, like King Philip, he fell by the hand of one of his own race. WOLFE S lVIO^ Topics. — England and France as rivals in the New World; the decline of Spain; the situation as regarded England and France; the system of colo- nization followed by France; by England; the disputed territory; the rights of the Indians; the fur trade; the claim of Virginia; the Ohio Company; how the French anticipated the work of Virginia; the exploring party sent by the Ohio Company; the action of Governor Du Quesne; the decision of Governor Dinwiddie. I 114 A ///sro/^y of ota' cor.v/'A'y Cieorge Washington; the facts regarding liis hirth and his character; the story of his journey through the wilderness to Fort Le Bivuf; the return jour- ney; breaking out of the French and Indian war; Washington's first battle; the aflair at Fort Necessity; convention of the colonics at Albany, New York; Franklin's plan for a more perfect union; General Braddock; the account of his massacre ; the service performed by Washington; expulsion of the Cana- dians; success of the French; death of Dieskau; the situation at the close of 1757; Fort William Henry; massacre of the prisoners; William Pitt; Washington's part in expelling the French from Fort Du Quesne; his election to the house of burgesses; anecdote relating thereto; the campaign of 1751); the task of General Wolfe; how Quebec was captured; death of Wolfe; of Montcalm; the treaty of 1763; its terms; why the course of France was a wise one; the conspiracy of Pontiac. CHAPTIU< XI HOME LIFK JN TilE COLONIES |HE Households of the Olden Times. — There was much that was interesting in the home life of our forefathers. Having learned what they did in the way of making history, from the first settlement down to the eve of the Revolution, let us see how it was with the boys and girls and their parents when within their homes. In the first place, the houses in which the people lived were very different from those of to-day. In the earliest times they were made of logs, dovetailed at the corners, the chinks filled with clay, and put together as strongly as possible, because often they had to serve as forts against the Indians. The windows were small and narrow, so as to allow them to be used as portholes and to prevent an enemy from climbing through. Glass was so hard to obtain that oiled paper generally answered for panes. The interior rarely contained more than two or three rooms. The upper one, which was usually open and occupied only a part of the second story, was reached by a ladder which served for stairs. The fireplace was wide, and the roaring flames burnerl a huge quantity of knots and logs of wood. This created a good deal of heat, but most of it passed up the chimney. In wintry weather the room would be chilly within a few feet of the fire. Accord- ingly, seats were fixed in the firej^lace and something like comfort secured. Carpets were not used at first. The bare floor was strewn with "5 ii6 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY white sand, which the thrifty housewife wrought into pretty designs with her broom. Sometimes the floor was only the hard, smooth earth. A few benches, a table, and stools made up the furniture. The big wooden latch of the door was lifted by means of a string shoved through a hole and left hanging outside. At night the door was locked by drawing in the string. For a long time no forks were used. The food was cut with a knife and handled with the fingers, after being placed on blocks of wood. Iiy and by, however, pewter ])lates came into use, and were kept polished and bright as a mir- ror. From the iron crane in the fire- place were hung the pots and kettles, and thecookingwas done on a skillet or a griddle stand- ing on legs, under which the glowing coals were raked. Coffee and tea were luxuries denied at the beginning. Most families brewed their own beer. The well-to-do, who had brought their massive furniture and silverware across the sea, imported Madeira wine, but hard cider and rum were the most common drinks. The only condition required by the church was that none of its members should drink to excess. The Money used. — Money was scarce. Busiiiess was done almost wholly by barter. Eggs, chickens, or produce were ex- changed for whatever might be wanted at the store. In 1635, bullets were used for farthings. Massachusetts set up a mint in 1652 and was the only colony that coined money. The coins were known as the pine-tree shillings, sixpences, etc., because a pine tree formed the design upon them. For thirty years all the coins bore the same date. A NEW ENGLAND KITCHEN HOME LIFE IN THE COLONIES II7 The Dress. — The trousers of our great-grandfathers, even after the Revolution, ended at the knee, below which were the stock- ings and shoes. The trousers of the poor folks were made of coarse cloth, and sometimes of deerskin or leather. The wealthy used fine silk or velvet caps, gold and silver shoe and knee buckles, lace ruffles, and elaborate embroidery. The coat reached to the knees and was fastened in front with buttons, clasps, or hooks and eyes and decorated with gold lace. Then with a pleated stock of fine cambric around the throat, with a large silver buckle at the back of the neck, a broad-brimmed, sugar-loaf hat, from beneath which rippled the curls of the bleached or powdered wig, and with a brilliant red cloak the New Englander made a genteel appearance. The women dressed much as they do to-day; that is to say, the fashions often changed. Certain styles would be in vogue for a time and then give place to others, which in turn were sup- planted by still others. It may be said that fashions travel in circles. The costumes of the boys and girls resembled those of their parents, some of the present ones being close copies of what was common many years ago. Methods of Travel. — The common mode of travel was by foot or on horseback. The roads were poor, and most of the streams had to be crossed by fording or by ferry. Chaises were seen, and the gigs, with their big wheels and bodies hung low on wooden springs, occasionally bobbed around the country. Those living near the coast generally journeyed on sloops. The voyage from New York to Philadelphia could be made, with favoring winds, in two or three days; now it is done in two hours. In New England. — The early New Englanders were very strict as to their religious opinions and attendance at church, and their morals were looked after by church and State. The rule of the minister was almost absolute. A church reproof was the deepest disgrace that could befall a person. The profane man was stood in a public place, with his tongue squeezed in a cleft stick, and left to meditate upon his wickedness. The head of a household ii8 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY who broke up some sticks to rekindle his fire one Sunday was called to stern account for violating the sanctity of the day. If a man's profanity was too shocking, he was set in the stocks, fined, or imprisoned. Scolding women were gagged and placed in front of their own doors for all to scoff at. If that failed to \vi 1 ., % 'Mt'-d L^. W^ m^ ^^mlB^i^n% 1^ |,^ 1 oTt-Eawcra. 132 .4 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY his account "short," he balanced it by taking the deficiency from his own funds. So it is safe to say that he not only secured our independence, but paid for the privilege of doing so. Congress also appointed a number of major generals, brigadier generals, and made Horatio Gates adjutant general. He and Washington set out for Cambridge to take charge of the army there. Upon reaching New York, they heard for the first time the news of the battle of Bunker Hill. The Battle of Bunker Hill. — It was on the 25th of May that General Gage was joined in Boston by Generals Howe, Clinton, and Hurgoyne, who brought reinforcements -to the force, which was already considerable. The British decided to fortify Dor- chester Heights and l>unker Hill, which overlooked the city. Learning of this, the Americans determined to anticipate them. General Arlemas Ward, in command of the patriot camp, ordered Colonel Prescott, with one thousand men, to occupy Bunker Hill. The start was made on the evening of June 16. The men first assembled at Cambridge, where President Langdon of Harvard College offered a prayer for the success of the expedition. Inas- much as Breed'^ Hill was a half-mile nearer the city than Bunker Hill, it was decided that it was the better location. The men wrought so quietly that no alarm was given. At daylight, when the British saw what had been done, they opened fire on the earthworks, but the Americans did not cease work until the intrenchments were completed. General Gage saw that unless these works were captured, he would have to abandon the city, for he would be at the mercy of the patriots. The intrenchments were defended by fifteen hun- dred undisciplined troops under a brave leader with little skill, while the forces sent against them were double that number, and. with their veteran leaders, had helped to \\m more than one famous victory in Europe. On the other hand, the earthworks gave the Americans the advantage of a strong position. It was between two and three o'clock on the afternoon of June 17, 1775, that the British advanced to the assault. They OPENING OF THE REVOLUTION 133 kept step to their stirring music, except when some slight con- fusion was caused by a brief pause to clear away the fences and obstructions. They advanced in two lines, their brilliant uni- forms and beautiful, even marching making the sight a thrilling one. The housetops and steeples in Boston were black with people anxiously watching the scene. The enemy moved slowly, so as to give the artillery opportunity to bombard the works. From the ships this was continuous, as well as from the floating batteries in [ the harbor. As the \ 91 BUNKER HILL MONUMENT troops drew near the re- doubts, they began firing by platoons, but the patriots waited. "Don't fire till you see the whites of their eyes!" was the order of Prescott, who held his men mute until the enemy was within fifty yards. Then, circling his sword over his head, he shouted, ^^ Fire .'" The outblast of flame mowed down the ranks, and the troops broke and fled in disorder to the bottom of the hill. There they were rallied, only to be driven back a second time by the wither- ing fire. Once again, but with difficulty, they were rallied, and came up the slope on the double quick with fixed bayonets. By 134 A HISTORY OF OUR COU^VTRY this time the rapid fire of the patriots had exhausted their ammu- nition. Chibbing their muskets, they fought with desperation, but were driven out of their intrenchments. ^I'he battle of liunker Hill was over and was a defeat for the Americans. The loss of the patriots was one hundred and fifty killed, two hundred and seventy wounded, and thirty taken prisoners. 'I'he I'.ritish loss, as stated l)y Cieneral (iage, was two hundred and WASHINGTON ASSUMES COMMAND twenty-four killed and eight hundred and ihirtv wounded. Among the British who fell was Major Pitcairn, and among the Americans, Joseph Warren, who, although he bore a major general's commission in his pocket, served as a volunteer in the redoubt. Effect of the Defeat. — The moral effect of the battle of Bunker Hill upon the Americans was better than a victory. It saved them from the peril of overconfidence, while it served to draw all closer to one another and to make them more resolute in their OPENING OF THE REVOLUTION 135 struggle for liberty. They knew the cost and were willing to pay it. They had learned, too, not to be afraid of the British regulars. Washington assumes Command. —Washington reached Cam- bridge on Sunday, July 3, and the following day, under the his- toric elm, assumed command of the army. He was sorely needed. EXPEDITION INTO CANADA The thousands of men were without discipline, but most of them were eager to serve their country. They were of the right sort, but required moulding into effective form, and \Vashington set to work to train the patriots for duty. Montgomery's Expedition into Canada. — While the siege of Boston was pressed, an expedition was organized for the invasion of Canada, under General Philip Schuyler. He falling ill, the command devolved upon Richard Montgomery, a brave Irish- 136 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY man, who had had military experience. He captured St. John, at the foot of Lake Champlain, then pushed on and took Mon- treal, and in the depth of winter forced his way through snow and ice to the front of Quebec. Meanwhile, Benedict Arnold had ascended the Kennebec with a small force and was fighting his way, amid almost incredible suffering and hardship, through the wilderness, daunt, ragged, and half-starving, they reached the bank of the St. Lawrence opposite Quebec, November 10. Arnold led his men up the same path that Wolfe and his troops had climbed sixteen years before to the Heights of Abraham, Notwithstanding the fact that the force behind the walls had two hundred cannon, and were more than three times as numerous as the Americans, Arnold summoned General Carleton, the commander, to surrender. Montgomery soon arrived and took command. The siege was pressed without the slightest promise of success, and on the last day of the year everything was risked upon an assault. Mont- gomery was killed, Arnold badly wounded, and most of the at- tacking force were compelled to surrender. Those who escaped kept up the siege until May, when the British forces scattered them right and left. Carleton was filled with pity for their suffer- ings, and, gathering up all that could be found, placed them in the hospitals, where they received the best of care, and when able to travel were allowed to return to their homes. The invasion of Canada was a complete failure. Topics. — strength of the colonies; the unwise course of England; Benja- min Franklin's estimate; the principal educational institutions; New York, Boston, and Philadelphia; the Navigation Act; the Importation Act; Writs of Assistance; taxation without representation; history of tlie Stamp Act; the first colonial congress. The Boston Massacre; the tax on tea; fate of the different cargoes of tea sent to this country; the Boston Tea Party; the retaliatory acts by England; sympathy of other colonies for Massachusetts; General (lage; the second continental congress; its leading members; the stt)ry of the battle of Lexing- ton; the losses on each side; Ticonderoga and Crown Point; reassembling DEATH OF MONTGOMERY 138 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY of the second continental congress; its important action; one fact about Washington; what caused the battle of Bunker Hill; the story of the battle; its effect upon the Americans; assumption of command by Washington; the force under him; Montgomery's expedition into Canada; Benedict Arnold's part; result of the in i'asion. Biographical Notes. — Benjamin Franklin, one of the greatest of American statesmen, philosophers, and writers, was born in Boston in 1706, and was the son of a tallow chandler and soap boiler, being the youngest of seventeen children. He was apprenticed to his brother who was a printer, but ran away to Philadelphia, where he established a paper in 1729. His ability brought him wealth, while his talents as a writer and his scientific discoveries made him famous on both sides of the Atlantic. In 1753, he was appointed deputy postmaster general of the British colonies. From 1757 to 1762, and again from 1764 to the Revolution, he was the agent of Pennsylvania in Eng- land, and for a part of the time agent also for Massachusetts, New Jersey, and (jeorgia. He was among the foremost in advocating American inde- pendence, and rendered invaluable service to his country. The leading events in his career will be learned as we advance in the stuily of our history. He died in Philadelphia in 1790, with a fame second only to that of Wash- ington. General Thomas Gage, bom in 1721, commanded a regiment at Braddock's massacre. He was made governor of Montreal in 1760, and from 1763 to 1772 was British commander-in-chief in America. He resigned his ccnnmission soon after the battle of Bunker Hill and died in 1787. Samuel Adams was liorn in Boston in 1722 and was a cousin of John Adams second President of the United States. No one did more with voice and pen to bring about the Revolution than he. As early as 1764, he drew up the protest of Boston against Grenville's system of taxation. From 1765 to 1774, Samuel Adams represented Boston in the Massachusetts house of representa- tives. He was a meml^er of the continental congress from 1774 to 1781, and a signer of the Declaration of Indejiendence. From 1789 to 1794 he was lieutenant governor of Massachusetts, and from 1794 to 1797 was governor. He died in 1803. Patrick Henry was born in Virginia in 1736. He liecame a lawyer and was soon noted for his eloquence. He entered the house of burgesses in 1765, where he denounced the Stamp Act. He was a delegate to the first continen- tal congress, and in 1775 made his famous " give me liberty or give me death " speech. He led in the formation of the State government of Virginia, and was its first governor, being elected in 1776, 1777, and 1778, and in 1784 and 1785. He was United States senator for a brief time (i 794-1 795), and was for many years in the Virginia legislature. He died in 1799. OPENING OF THE REVOLUTION 139 Richard Henry Lee was horn in Virginia in 1732, ami from 1761 to 178S was a leader in the Virginia house of burgesses and in the legislature, lie was a prominent patriot and a delegate to the first continental congress, was on the committee to draft the address, and in the second continental congress he drew up the address to the people of Great Britain. On June 7, 1776, he moved the resolution of independence. He was president of congress, and a United -States senator from 1789 to 1792, and died in 1794. PATRICK HE FAMOUS SPEECH Paul Revere, born in 1 735, was a copper-plate engraver in Boston and made many caricatures of the exciting events immediately preceding the Revolution. Revere was one of the very few men who is known of a certainty to have been a leader at the famous Boston Tea Party. His ride on the night of April 18 to 19, 1775, when he warned the citizens of Lexington and Concord of the approach of the British troops, has been celebrated by Longfellow in his poem " Paul Revere's Ride." He printed the provincial paper money of Massachusetts in 1775, and put up a mill for the manufacture of gunpowder. He died in 1818. Joseph Warren, born in 1741, was a graduate of Harvard and a physician in Boston. He was an ardent patriot and a leader in the events which ushered 140 ./ HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY in the Revolution. He was a gifted orator, a member of the committees on cor- respondence, president of the provincial congress of 1774, and chairman of the committee of public safety. He aided in organizing volunteers in the spring of 1775, and was made a major general by the Massachusetts provincial con- gress, but as has been stated, served as a volunteer private at the battle of Bunker Hill. He was recognized while fighting in the intrenchments by a British officer, who snatched a musket from a private soldier and shot him dead. Artemus Ward, bom in 1 727, became a major in 1 755, and served with Abcr- crombie against the French and Indians. He was made commander-in-chief of the Massachusetts forces in 1775, but though in nominal command at Bunker Hill was not in the battle. He conducted the siege of Boston until the arrival of Washington, when he became second in command. He was not successful as a military leader, and represented Massachusetts in congress from 1 79 1 to 1795. He died in 1 800. William Prescott, bom in 1726, was a provincial captain in the Nova Scotia expedition of 1755. He commanded a regiment of ininute-men in 1774, and was among the last to leave the intrenchments at Bunker Hill, when the Americans were driven out by the British. He rendered good service under Gates in the Burgoyne campaign, and was a member for several years of the Massachusetts legislature. He died in 1795. Sir Guy Carleton, liorn in England in 1724, won honor at the siege of Louis- burg and Quebec. He was governor of Quebec from 1766 to 1770 and from 1775 to 1778. He commanded the army that invaded New York in 1776, and fought a hotly contested battle with Benedict Arnold on Lake Champlain. He was made a lieutenant general in 1777. In 1782 he superseded Sir Henry Clinton as commander-in-chief of the British forces in America. He was gov- ernor, as Lord Dorchester, of Canada from 1786 to 1796, and died in 180S. CHAPTER XIII EVENTS OF 1776 P"55|ENERAL Howe's Evacuation of Boston. — ■^^H Washington faced every possible discourage- IJ^^J ment in pressing the siege of Boston. Two ^^^^ thousand of his men had no muskets; for ; - : !;">' '^; six months he had not enough powder to ,J^^^^||M;4p^V risk a battle; the expiration of the terms "^^j^P"^? '■^i of enlistment kept men continually going WV-'' and coming; the Connecticut troops left in a body, despite his appeals to their patriotism, and the country was impatient with the commander's inactivity. But by his genius and ability he gradually brought a well-disciplined army out of the chaos. In the dusk of early evening, on the 4th of March, he opened fire on the city from all the batteries, and in the confusion occupied and fortified Dorchester Heights. General Howe, who was now in command, soon found no choice left to him, and on the 17th of March he evacuated the city. Taking with him a number of tories, who dared not remain to meet their indignant neighbors, he sailed for Halifax, Nova Scotia. Washington occupied the place amid great rejoic- ing. Both branches of the Massachusetts legislature voted thanks to him, and congress ordered a commemorative medal to be struck. This was in gold and bronze, and is now in the posses- sion of the Massachusetts Historical Society. The new American flag contained thirteen alternate red and white stripes, but the blue ground in the corner displayed the united crosses of St. Andrew and St, George. 141 142 .4 HISIOKV OF OUR COUXTRY '1^^ - ,.M It WAP SHOWING THE AMERICAN LINES, 1775 British Repulse at Charleston. — The next blow of the enemy was struck in the South. I'.arly in June, Admiral Parker, with twenty-five hundred troops, ai^peared off Charleston, which, hav- EVENTS OE 1776 143 ing been warned oi his coming, was prei)are(l. The boniltanl- nient opened on the morning of June 28, Fort Moultrie replied with such precision that every shot was effective, and in a short time the ships were riddled. The fleet consisted of ten men-of- EXPLOIT OF SERGEANT JASPER war, carrying two hundred and fifty-four guns. In the early part of the action the flag of South Carolina, blue in color, with a silver crescent and the single word "Liberty," was carried away by a shot from one of the ships. Sergeant William Jasper sprang through one of the embrasures, seized the fallen ensign, climbed 144 A in STORY OF OUR COUNTRY the wall amid a hot fire, coolly fixed it in place, and dropped down among his comrades. Finding it impossible to reduce the forts, the enemy withdrew, leaving the Americans triumphant. The Declaration of Independence. — With every collision be- tween the royalists and the patriots, the chasm separating England and the colonies widened. Washington affirmed that nothing but independence could save the nation. On the yth of June, AMERICAN FLAG as we have learned, Richard Henry Lee offered 'in congress a resolution that "these United C'olonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States." Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, 13enjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, and Robert R. Livingston were appointed as a committee to prepare and submit a suitable declaration. Jefferson was selected to draft it. On July 2 Lee's resolution was formally passed by twelve of the colo- nies. New York not voting. On the 4th of July, after discussion EVENTS OF 1776 145 and a few trifling amendments, the Declaration of Independence was adopted. The bell-ringer waited at his post for hours before the news reached him that the Declaration had been passed. Grasping the rope, he swung it with frenzied joy. As the tones rang over the city, the crowds on the street shouted, hurrahed, and became frantic with excite- ment. Bonfires were kindled at night, and as the news spread, the same rejoicing and enthusiasm attended it in the army and in the remotest corner of the colonies. The 4th of July will always be the most ardently cele- brated holiday of our country. British Success on Long Island. — At the time the British were bombarding Charles- ton, a part of the Eng- lish fleet arrived from Nova Scotia, their pur- pose being the capture of New York. Washington, in anticipation of this movement, had done his utmost to strengthen the defences after the de- parture of General Lee for the South. He succeeded in gather- ing an army of twenty-seven thousand men, of whom perhaps one-half were fit for duty. The British forces numbered thirty- two thousand, all of whom were well disciplined and well armed. SIGNING THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 146 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY A fourth of ihem were Hessians, so called because they were hired by the king of England from the ruler of Hesse-Cassel in Germany. In the latter part of August, Clinton crossed over the Narrows to Long Island. The fortifications at Brooklyn extended from (lowanus Bay to Wallabout, where nine thousand men were sta- tioned, under (jenerals Sullivan and Lord Stirling. General (ireene was ill, and General Putnam was sent over to take charge of the defence. Between two and three miles to the south were three roads, over any one of which the British commander could advance. By a fatal oversight one of these roads was left un- guarded, and the enemy quickly took advantage of it. The conse- quence was the rout of the Americans. They were caught between the different detachments of the British army and driven pell-mell out of their intrenchments. Had Howe pushed his advantage, he might have captured the whole patriot army, including Wash- ington and his officers. But confident that he was certain soon to do so, he wished to spare the lives of his men. The British lost about four hundred and the Americans two thousand, of whom a thousand were prisoners. Among the latter were Gen- erals Sullivan and Stirling. The leading officers were soon ex- changed, but the privates suffered frightfully in the sugar-house and old hulks at Wallabout, where it is said eleven thousand died miserable deaths before the close of the war. A singular providence saved the American army from capture. An adverse wind delayed the operations of the fleet, and then a dense fog enveloped Brooklyn, while New York had a clear atmos- phere. Under cover of this screen the Americans withdrew unnoticed from Ikooklyn, and were in New York before the Ijritish learned of their departure. Nathan Hale, the Martyr. — It was of the highest importance that Washington should learn something of the intentions of the enemy, as well as the distribution of his forces. Captain Nathan Hale volunteered to enter the British camp as a spy and attemjit to gain the information. He disguised himself as a country EVENTS OE 1776 147 school-teacher, but after completing his work was discovered, arrested, and hanged as a spy. When he stood on the scaffold, with the fatal noose about to be placed about his neck, he said : "My only regret is that I have but one life to give to my country." It being impossible to hold New York, Washington strongly fortified Harlem Heights, but the condition of his army was distressful. Desertions and the expirations of the terms of en- listments threatened to dissolve it. On the 12th of October, Howe's advance passed through Hell Oate in Hat boats, landing at Frog's Point, on the main- land of New York. ^^'aiting several days for reinforcements and supplies, he moved up to Pell's Point, between East Chester and New Rochelle. He was soon joined by a large number of Hessians. American Defeat at White Plains. — A council of war decided that Harlem Heights could not be held, and all the forces were withdrawn except the garrison at Fort Washing- ton. The position at White Plains was attacked by Howe and Clinton on the 28th of Octo- ber. The patriots fought bravely, but were forced back, Wash- ington withdrawing to Northcastle Heights, while Howe turned NATHAN HALE AS A SPY 148 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY about, and by an overwhelming attack on the T6th of November compelled Fort Washington to surrender. The Retreat through New Jersey. — Washington's dread now was of a British campaign against Philadelphia, the most impor- tant city of the colonies, where congress was in session. He hnd crossed to the west bank of the Hudson and stationed him- THE RETREAT THROUGH NEW JERSEY self with (General Greene at Fort Lee. Cornwallis, the most skilful of all the British leaders, landed at a point opposite Yonkers with six thousand troops two days after the surrender of Fort Washington. Fort Lee covdd not hold out against so strong a force, and the American army withdrew to the other side of the Hackensack. Then Washington began his retreat through New Jerse\', with Cornwallis in pursuit. Through Newark and Brunswick (now New Brunswick)' the EVENTS OF 1776 149 patriot army tramped to Trenton, on the Delaware. Cornwallis followed by way of Elizabethtown (now a part of Elizabeth), Uniontown, and Woodbridge, gathering horses, cattle, and all the plunder within reach, the two armies so near each other that they continually exchanged shots. The patriots were in rags, many barefooted, and the route was marked at times by their bloody footprints. General Charles Lee followed the army at so laggard a pace that a scouting party of the British captured him at Baskingridge, in New Jersey. Stirling succeeded to his command and joined Washington at Trenton. The force, barely five thousand strong, crossed the Delaware at the same hour that Cornwallis, with a much larger army, entered the upper part of the town. With his body of shivering, half-starved patriots, and with congress fleeing in a panic from Philadelphia, Washington deter- mined to strike a blow that should revive the drooping hopes of his countrymen. His plan was to recross the river in three divi- sions and fall upon the Hessians at Trenton, when they did not dream of anything of the kind. One division was to force the passage at Bristol, ten miles below Trenton; a second opposite the town; while Washington was to make the passage at the present village of Taylorsville, Pennsylvania, eight miles above. Neither of his aids could effect a crossing, because of the immense quantities of floating ice in the river. The whole task, therefore, fell upon Washington him- self. He had seized all the boats along the Delaware for many miles up and down stream, and Cornwallis therefore could not continue the pursuit into Pennsylvania. Battle of Trenton. — Amid a storm of sleet and snow, with the weather bitterly cold, Washington gathered his twenty-four hun- dred men, the best of the army, on the shore. With him were Generals Greene, Stirling, Sullivan, Stephen, Stark, Mercer, St. Clair, Knox, and other fine officers. It was Christmas night, that time having been chosen because the Hessians at Trenton were sure to be spending it in festivity and merriment. I50 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY The flat boats were pushed through the grinding blocks of ice, and the entire force landed on the New Jersey side before the bleak, wintry morning dawned. It was still snowing, with the wind blowing hard. The patriot army marched inland to the ])resent village of Birmingham, four miles from the river. There the force divided, Greene taking what is known as the "Scotch road," which leads into the upper part of the town, over the present Pennington turnpike. Sullivan followed the river road. VICTORy AT TRENTON entering the lower part of the town. The distance is about the same by the two routes, and it was intended tlint the divisions should arrive at the same time. Washington accomi)anied Greene. In the gray light of the early morning, Washington cfrove in the pickets and entered the "head" of the town. While doing so, the sound of musketry firing showed that Sullivan had also arrived and was pressing the attack from the river side at the lower end of 'J'renton. Colonel Rail, the Hessian commander, was a brave man, and. EVENTS OF 1776 151 though surprised, made a gallant effort to rally his men. Several pieces of artillery were brought up, but the Americans captured them before they could be brought into use. In this exploit, Lieutenant Monroe, afterward President of the United States, was the leader. Colonel Rail, while striving to form his men for a charge, was mortally wounded. This threw the Hessians into a panic. Most of them started on a run toward Princeton, but were headed off by Hand's riflemen and surrendered. A few of the British troops and yagers dashed over the Assunpink bridge and escaped in the direction of Bordentown. Colonel Rail, sup- ported on either side by a sergeant, and suffering intensely, walked slowly up to where Washington was seated on his horse, and handed him his sword, begging that he would be merciful to his captured men. Washington gave the promise, and expressed his sympathy with the stricken officer, upon whom he called after he was carried to a house and laid upon a bed, and spent some time in striving to cheer his last moments. Effects of the Victory. — By this brilliant victory the Americans secured nine hundred and fifty prisoners, six guns, and a large number of small arms, besides killing about twenty men and wounding four times as many. Four of the patriots were wounded and two killed, the latter probably from exposure, rather than the .bullets of the enemy. Compared with many battles since then, that of Trenton was only a skirmish, and yet its importance can hardly be overestimated. It did what Washington intended — electrified the despairing patriots, gave an impetus to enlistments, and inspired hope through the country. Trenton was the turning- point of the Revolution. But the skilful Cornwallis with his powerful army was a few miles away, and Washington dared not linger. Before night he had crossed with his army and prisoners to the Pennsylvania side. Cornwallis' s scouts reporting this to him, he fell back to Prince- ton. The British at Burlington, learning what had been done, abandoned South Jersey. Washington remained three days on the Pennsylvania shore. 152 A- HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY when he crossed once more to Trenton, where he received rein- forcements which increased his army to six thousand men. Robert Morris, the wealthy Philadelphian, who did noble work in raising funds for carrying on the war for independence, sent fitly tliousand dollars in specie to Washington, with which to pay his suffering patriots. Topics. — The discouragements of Washington; what he accomj)lisliecl; the evacuation of Boston; the British repulse at Charleston; exploit of Ser- geant Jasper; history of the Declaration of Independence; how it was cele- brated; the work of Washington for the defence of New York; the American defeat on Long Island; the providence which saved the American army. Nathan Hale the martyr; Washington's withdrawal from New \'ork; the defeat at White Plains; other disasters; Washington's retreat through New Jersey; capture of General Charles Lee; Washington's plan for striking a blow at Trenton; why he had no assistance; Washington's crossing of the. Delaware; the battle of Trenton; the prisoners and spoils secured by Wash- ington; the losses on each side; the effect of the victory; movements of Cornwall is; of Washington; the timely help given by Robert Morris. Biographical Notes. — Richard, Earl Howe, was a British rear-admiral when appointed, in 1776, commander-in-chief of the naval forces in North America. After taking possession of Long Island and New York, he occu- pied Philadelphia as we shall learn in the next chapter, in 1777. In 1778, he resigned his charge to Admiral Byron and returned to England, where he became an admiral, won a great victory over the French in June, 1794, and died in 1799. Sir William Howe, brother of the above, was four years his junior and served under Ceneral Wolfe at Queliec in 1759. He was commander of the Briti-h troops at Bunker Hill, and, as we have learned, was successful on Long Island, at White Plains, and at Forts Washington and Lee. He defeated Washington at Brandywine, in 1777, and occupied Philadelphia. He was superseded in 1778 by Sir Henry Clinton. He was an indolent man, well educated, and popular with his- officers, but never seemed to put his heart in any duty he undertook. He died in 1814. Roger Sherman, bom in 1721, was a shoemaker, and became in turn a surveyor, a lawyer, judge of the superior court of Connecticut, and a member of its legislature. He was a delegate to the first and second continental congresses, was one of the five who drafted the Declaration of Indepen- dence, of which he was a signer, a member of the Connecticut committee of safety, and a delegate to the Federal constitutional convention of 1787. EVENTS OF 1776 153 He served in the national house of representatives, 1789-1791, and as United States senator, 1791-1793- Once when addressing the senate, he was inter- rupted by the cynical John Randolph of Roanoke (who claimed descent from Pocahontas), with the sarcastic inquiry: "I would like to ask the gentleman what he did with his leather apron when he came to congress?" "I cut it up to make moccasins for the descendants of Pocahontas," was the instant re- ply. Sherman died in 1793, leaving a record for honorable usefulness, which has been equalled by few public men. Robert R. Livingston, born in 1746, was a graduate of King's (Columbia) College, a lawyer, member of the New York assembly, and delegate to the continental congress, where he was one of the five who drafted the Declara- tion of Independence. He was secretary for foreign affairs in 1 781-1783, and from 1777 to 1801 chancellor of the State of New York, and as such admin- istered the oath of office to Washington in 1789. While minister to France, 1801-1805, he helped negotiate the Louisiana purchase, and gave great aid to Robert Fulton in developing steamboat navigation. He died in 1813. Sir Henry Clinton, bom in 1738, was a major general when he came to Boston, in 1775, with Howe and Burgoyne. In 1778, he became commander- in-chief of the British forces in this country. In May, 1778, he captured Charleston and the whole army of Lincoln, and in the following month fought the battle of Monmouth. He planned with Benedict Arnold, the traitor, the surrender of West Point, but failed to relieve Cornwallis in 1781, and return- ing to England in 1782, died in 1795. Israel Putnam, born in Massachusetts in 1718, settled in Connecticut as a farmer. He served in the French and Indian war, and was the hero of many romantic and stirring adventures. He commanded a regiment in the Cana- dian campaign of 1 760, and was a leader among the " Sons of Liberty " before the Revolution. He left his plough in the furrow upon hearing the news of the battle of Lexington, and rode a hundred miles almost without drawing rein to Boston. He was made brigadier general, and was in joint command with Prescott at Bunker Hill. He soon became a major general and commanded the centre at the siege at Boston. He was actively engaged throughout the Revolution and died in 1790. William Alexander was born of English parentage in New York city in 1 726. He inherited the title of earl from his father, and, in 1757, laid claim to the same before the house of lords, but it was refused to him. Since he was en- titled to the honor, however, he figures in history as Lord Stirling. He was a colonel in 1775, a brigadier general in 1776, and a major general in 1777. He was exchanged after his capture at Long Island, and rendered good ser- vice at Trenton, Brandywine, Germantown, and Monmouth. He died in 1783. Nathan Hale was one of the most admirable characters developed by our 154 ^ HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY Revolutionary period. He was noted as the finest athlete and foremost stu- dent at Yale College, where for many years the marks were carefully preserved which showed a prodigious leap made by him in a contest with his young friends. He was only twenty years old at the outbreak of the Revolution, but immediately enlisted and persuaded others to join with him. He was made captain in 1776, and his company was the best disciplined in the whole army. After entering the British lines in the garb of a school-teacher, he remained two weeks, during which he gathered invaluable information for Washington, though it is not known where he spent all the time, nor precisely where he went. While sitting in a tavern, on Long Island Sound, waiting for a boat, he was recognized by a tory relative, who betrayed him to an English vessel lying near. Hale walked several paces into the edge of the water to meet his sup- posed friends, when several guns were levelled at him, and he was ordered to surrender. He ran a few steps, when, looking back over his shoulder and see- ing no escape, he submitted. He did not deny his character, and met his fate with the loftiest heroism. It is not known where the body of the patriot mar- tyr was buried. Johann G. Rail (sometimes erroneously spelled Rahl), born about 1725, was the Hessian commander at Trenton. He had previously fought at White Plains, and helped to capture Fort Washington. In Trenton he made his headquarters with Abraham Hunt, the principal merchant of the place. He was fond of his pipe, whiskey toddy, and cards. He and Hunt were playing cards on Christmas night, 1776, when a note was sent in for Rail, who thrust it into his pocket intending to read it after finishing the game, but he forgot the matter until he was carried, mortally wounded, into the old tavern in Queen (now Warren) Street. Then, when the letter was examined, it was found to be a warning of the approach of Washington, and had been writ- ten by a tory who brought it in haste to the door of Hunt's house. But for that game of cards, the history of the Revolution would have been changed. The remains of the Hessian commander rest in the burying-ground of the First Presbyterian Church of Trenton. CHAPTER XIV EVENTS OF 1777 lUhtc Uu U„l .D GLORY." — The Stars and Stripes were created by resolution of congress on the 14th of June, 1777. Washington, assisted by a committee, had much to do in preparing the design. They called upon Mrs. Elizabeth Ross, in Philadelphia, and requested her to make a flag from a rough draft prepared by Washington. It was at the suggestion of Mrs. Ross that Washington's six-pointed star was changed to a five- pointed one. She completed the flag the next day and it was greatly admired. Mrs. Ross manufactured the flags for many years for the government, and her children succeeded to the business. The house in which "Old Glory" was first made is still standing at 239 Arch Street. The Struggle at the Assunpink Bridge. — • Returning to the mili- tary events at the beginning of the year, it should be said that as soon as Cornwallis learned that Washington had appeared again in Trenton, he prepared to crush him. He advanced upon the town, January 2. The Assunpink Creek, running through the middle of Trenton, was spanned by a wooden bridge built nearly a hundred years before. Washington drew up his army on the eastern side of the structure and checked the advance of Corn- wallis. His cannonade killed a number of the enemy (precisely how many is not known), and the engagement, omitted by most historians, has come to be known as the battle of the Assunpink. The Victory at Princeton. — The opposing forces encamped on opposite sides of the Assunpink. The situation of Washington 155 156 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY was critical. The Delaware behind himliad become impassable, while in front the powerful British were waiting for daylight, so as to overwhelm him. The bivouac fires were kept burning bright, and the men were seen digging the intrenchments through- out the night. The foe was completely deceived, for Washington stealthily withdrew from the town, and taking a circuitous course reached Princeton, ten miles away, at dawn. There he fell upon the astonished enemy, attacking them with such vigor that they were driven pell-mell out of the town. In this battle of Prince- ton, fought on the 3d of January, Washington exposed himself to great personal danger, and in- fused courage among his troops by his heroic example. The loss was considerable on both sides. General Mercer being among the patriots who fell. Cornwallis at Trenton heard the boom of the cannon to the northward and knew what it meant. He started in all haste for Princeton, ])ut when he reached the town the patriots were gone. Cornwallis pressed on to Brunswick to protect the valuable stores there, while Washington withdrew to Morristown, where he went into winter quarters and remained until the fol- lowing May. Burgoyne's Campaign, — A formidable campaign was planned by the enemy for 1777. Lieutenant General Burgoyne, with an army of seven thousand British and Hessians, besides a corps of artillery and a large number of Indians, was to invade New York from Canada, by way of Lake Champlain and Albany. The aim was to cut off New England from the other States. If successful, the country would be so weakened that its conquest was inevitable. GENERAL BURGOYNE EVEXTS OF 1777 157 Another body of troops, under St. Leger, with more Indians and tories, was to ascend the St. Lawrence to Lake Ontario, and make its way to Albany along the Mohawk, while Clinton expected to send a strong force up the Hudson from New York. LTpon the approach of the enemy, the Americans abandoned Ticonderoga, which was occupied by the British. Burgoyne reached Fort Edward on the 30th of July, and General Schuyler took position at Saratoga. Relief of Fort Schuyler. — Ascending the St. Lawrence to Lake Ontario, St. Leger invested Fort Schuyler with a force of eighteen hundred men. The garrison was one-third as large. General Nicholas Herkimer, a brave militia offi,cer, gathered the militia in the vicinity and set out to relieve the garrison. He fell into an ambuscade of regulars and Indians and was among the mortally wounded. The grim old hero, however, lit his pipe, propped himself against the saddle of his horse on the ground, and con- tinued to give orders as coolly as if directing a parade. A force from the garrison drove away the British and Indians. St. Leger pressed the siege, and Benedict Arnold was sent against him. His force was too weak to attack, but he released a prisoner who had agreed to rush into the British camp, pre- tending to be a deserter, and bearing a terrifying story of the strength of the Americans. He did his work so well that St. Leger hastily retreated. Victory at Bennington. — Burgoyne began to suffer for food. He sent six hundred Hessian troops, soon followed by five hun- dred more, to Bennington, Vermont, to seize a lot of provisions. General Stark, who was on his way with sixteen hundred recruits to join General Gates (who had superseded Schuyler), met these detachments on the i6th of August, and routed them with heavy loss. Every day improved the situation of Gates, for recruits were continually arriving, while Burgoyne's dilemma grew steadily worse. His Indians deserted, and his supply of provisions was not only running low, but there was no way of getting more. 158 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY The danger of starvation became imminent, nor did anything appear of the promised diversion of Clinton from New York. Burgoyne therefore decided to drive aside the Americans on his left and retreat to the lakes. Surrender of Burgoyne. — He attempted to carry out this plan, but was defeated, with the loss of several hundred men, among whom were some of his best officers. General Gates neglected no possible advantage. He posted fifteen hundred men on Bemis Heights, opposite the ford at Saratoga, two thousand in the rear, and fifteen hundred at a post higher up. Then Burgoyne was almost surrounded, with his supplies running short and his army rapidly losing strength through desertions, while that of the Americans wms as rapidly increasing. The situation soon became hopeless. General Burgoyne surrendered on the forenoon of October 17. The army which thus became prisoners of war included five thou- sand seven hundred and sixty-three ofificers and men, among whom were six members of the British parliament, who had joined the lieutenant general, that they might be entertained by witness- ing the overthrow of the American rebels. Some of the trophies were a fine train of brass artillery, consisting of forty-two pieces, EVENTS OF 1777 159 five thousand muskets, and an enormous quantity of ammuni- tion. The Americans treated the prisoners with kindness, sharing their food with the troops, and showing them every consideration. The capture of Burgoyne and his army was the most substantial triumph that the Americans had thus far gained during the war. It spread dismay in England and caused unbounded rejoicing on this side of the Atlantic. The Campaign in Pennsylvania. — Having followed the cam- paign in the North to its tri- umphant conclusion, we must return to Washington and learn of his movements. The skilful manner in which he baffled Cornwallis won the praise not only of his countrymen, but ex- cited the admiration of Europe. Frederick the Great pronounced his achievements among the most brilliant in history. Washington left his winter quarters at Morristown in the latter part of May. His army numbered less than eight thou- sand, while that of Howe was fully twice as strong. The latter was still at Brunswick, and Washington, from behind the iini, TiTTtr?: BENNINGTON MONUMENT l60 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY Raritan at Middlebrook, closely watched his movements. Howe marched to Staten Island, embarked his army on his brother's fleet, and some days later entered Chesapeake Bay. Washing- ton had moved to Germantown, in anticipation of events, and when he learned what had taken place, saw that the enemy's ultimate destination was Philadelphia. Howe reached the head of Elk River, in Maryland, on the 24th of August, and defeated the American army, September 11, on the Brandywine, inflicting considerable loss. Washington entered Philadelphia the next day, and on the 19th crossed the Schuylkill and took station on the eastern bank of the river, with detach- ments at the different fords where the enemy was likely to cross. The Paoli Massacre. — General Anthony Wayne hid himself in the woods with fifteen hundred men, intending to assail the enemy in the rear. His presence,. however, was revealed to the British, who, on the night of September 20, fell upon him with great fury and killed about three hundred troops. This event is known as the Paoli Massacre. Fall of Philadelphia. — Howe had now secured command of the Schuylkill and crossed with his whole army. Meeting with no opposition at Germantown, he took possession of Philadelphia. The Americans, reinforced by eleven thousand men, stationed themselves on the east side of the Schuylkill, about eighteen miles from Germantown, where the main body of the British army was posted. American Defeat at Germantown. — Howe set out to reduce the forts below Philadelphia, so as to o]:)en the way for the fleet. While he was thus engaged, Washington attempted to surprise the enemy at Germantown. Everything was going well, when a stubborn resistance was encountered at the " Chew-House." This structure was built of stone and could not be fired, while it suc- cessfully resisted the cannon brought to bear upon it. A dense fog hid the troops from each other, and a number of companies were fired into by their own friends. The confusion became so great that the enemy was given time to rally, and since everything EVENTS OF 1777 i6i 1 62 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY was going wrong, Washington was obliged to order a retreat. This was accompHshed without abandoning a gun, but with a loss of one thousand men, that of the British being six hundred. It was afterward learned that had the fight continued a few min- utes longer, Howe would have retreated. Congress had fled from the city and was in session in the little town of York. Washington withdrew to v-'i FRANKLIN AT THE COURT OF FRANCE Valley Forge, and the invaders settled in Philadelphia for the winter, where, having plenty of gold, they were enabled to live upon the fat of the land. The Articles of Confederation. — On the 15th of November, congress adopted the Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union. The States, although urged to ratify them, were so EVENTS OF 1777 163 deliberate that it was not until 1781 that New Hampshire, which was the last, complied. Foreign Assistance. — From the opening of the war, congress had been striving to secure foreign assistance. The French showed a friendly interest in the colonies, and as early as 1776 Silas Deane was sent as a commissioner to France. He did little, and Benjamin Franklin and Arthur Fee took his place. Franklin's wit, good sense, and quaint dress and ways captured the volatile people. The government, however, was not yet ready to recognize the struggling patriots, but Franklin secured valuable aid. More than twenty thousand stands of arms and a thou- sand barrels of gunpowder reached this country from France in 1778. Valley Forge. — The winter of 17 77-1 778 was unusually severe. Hundreds of our soldiers were without shoes and stockings, their clothing was in tatters, and gnawing hunger tormented them con- tinually. The continental army was much weaker than the British, who held high revel in Philadelphia, twenty miles away. At Valley Forge the camp was laid out in streets of log-cabins, and the position was a strong one. Every precaution was taken against surprise. In the huts, each fourteen by sixteen feet, twelve privates made their home. Only a few had anything resembling bedding, and many could not secure even straw. When the snow sifted through the crevices, and the tiny fire gave out scarcely any heat, the men huddled together, and by keeping close saved themselves from freezing to death. Those were the times that tried men's souls. Washington's patriotism inspired all around him. Isaac Potts, at whose house he was quartered, was walking through the woods one day near his dwelling, when he heard the voice of some one in prayer. Peeping among the trees, he saw Washington on his knees, peti- tioning heaven to save his beloved country. In relating the incident to his wife, Mr. Potts added: "If there is any one to whom the Lord will listen, it is George Washington, and with him as leader our independence is certain." 164 A HISTORY OF OUK COUNTRY Topics. — The struggle at the Assunpink bridge; Washington's strategy; the liattle of Princeton; the formidable campaign planned by the enemy for 1777; the siege of P'ort Schuyler; Nicholas Herkimer; how the fort was re- lieved; Stark's victory at Bennington; the desperate situation of Burgoyne; his surrender; the spoils of the victory; the admiration caused by Washing- ton's skill; his departure from Morristown; the movement of Howe against Philadelphia; Washington's movements; the Paoli Massacre; fall of Phila- delphia; American defeat at Germantown; congress; the Articles of Confed- eration; assistance given by P'rance; Franklin's tactful course; the patriots at Valley Forge; anecdote of Mr. Potts. Biographical Notes. — Charles, Earl and later Marquis, Cornwallis, born in 1737, was an officer in the Seven Years' war. He was a member of parliament and friendly disposed toward the Americans when trouble first appeared. His prominent part in the Revolution is set forth in the chapters that follow. He was the ablest of the British commanders, and was impatient with Clinton, who, though his superior in rank, was his inferior in skill. He was governor general of India in 1786- 1793 and in 1805, where his ser- vices were of a high character. 1 fe was lord lieutenant of Ireland, 1798-1 801, and died in 1805. Horatio Gates was an English- man, born in 1728. He served as captain in Braddock's expedition and was made adjutant of the con- tinental army in 1776. His success over Burgoyne was mainly due to good fortune and the skill of his officers, but he was so puffed up that he plotted to obtain Washington's place as commander-in-chief; but fortunately for his country, he and the cabal which favored the scheme were unsuccessful. He failed so ignobly in the South that he was removed from command, though in 1782 a court-martial acquitted him of l)lame. He died in 1806. Hugh Mercer, born in Scotland about 1720, served in the French and Indian war and was made a brigadier general in 1776. He commanded a column at Trenton and led the advance at Princeton. He was surrounded, and although repeatedly ordered to surrender, refused to do so and died des- HORATIO GATES EVENTS OF 1777 165 perately fighting. Mercer county, in which Princeton and Trenton are located, was named in hjp honor. Barry St. Leger, born in 1737, took part in the capture of Louisburg and of Quebec. After his repulse from before Fort Stanwix, he made his headquarters at Montreal and carried on a guerilla warfare. He died in 1789. John Burgoyne, born in 1723, was a member of parliament and an officer who was soon made lieutenant general. He was in disfavor in England for a long time because of his surrender, but justice was finally done him. Bur- goyne was a writer of considerable merit, and published a number of poems and comedies. He died in 1792. John Stark was born in New Hampshire in 172S. He was a valiant soldier in the wars of the border and in the French and Indian war, serving also in Canada and at Trenton and Princeton. Feeling aggrieved at his treatment by Congress, he resigned in 1777. When the New Hampshire militia were called out by the danger from Burgoyne's invasion, they demanded Stark as their leader. We have learned of the decisive defeat he administered to the Hessian detachment. When the battle was about to open, Stark addressed his men: "There they are, boys ; we must beat them to-day, or this night Molly Stark's a widow." The loss of the Americans was fifty-four, and that of the Hessians some eight hundred. This brilliant exploit brought Stark for- ward again. He was made a brigadier general and did valiant service to the close of the war. General .Stark was in his ninety-fifth year at the time of his death. Anthony Wayne was born in Pennsylvania in 1745. He was a surveyor and afterward a member of the legislature and of the committee of public safety. He had charge of a regiment in the Canadian invasion of 1775, ^^^ later of the Ticonderoga forts. He was commissioned as a brigadier general and displayed great bravery and skill at Brandywine, where he commanded a division. His further services will be learned in the course of our study of the following pages. His impetuous bravery caused him to be known as " Mad Anthony," but never was there more method in a man's madness, for he was careful and weighed all the chances before plunging into battle. One of the most striking examples of his caution, followed by overwhelming success.was given in 1794 at the battle of the Fallen Timbers. He died in 1796. Arthur Lee, born in 1740, was a brother of Richard Henry and Francis Lightfoot Lee, all prominent in early Virginia and in national matters. He was appointed with Deane and Franklin in 1776 to secure a treaty of alliance with France, and was afterward commissioner to Spain and Prussia and a member of congress. He possessed brilliant parts, but often repelled by his arrogance and displeasing ways. 1 66 A nisroKY of ouk countky Silas Deane, the associate of Franklin and Lee in 1776, was born in Con- necticut in 1737, which State he represented in the continental congress. Lee accused him of extravagance and dishonesty in France and secured his recall in 1778. Congress demanded a full statement from Deane and he returned to France to obtain the necessary papers. He found himself so unwelcome in that country that he was obliged to withdraw to Holland. He died in 17S9, when on the eve of sailing from England for home. CHAPTER XV EVENTS OF 1778 IMPORTANT Allies. — One day in February, 1778, there came to Valley Forge a veteran of the Seven Years' war under Frederick the (jreat. He was two years older than Washing- ton and had been a soldier from the age of fourteen. He was Baron Frederick William von Steuben, and was undoubtedly the most valuable ally that joined the patriot army during the Revolution. His thorough mili- tary education, his iron frame, and his devotion to our cause soon produced the best results. Washington read his character at once and gave him his fullest confidence. He was made inspector-general and threw his whole energies into the arduous work. Previous to this there had been other allies from across the ocean, who were moved by their love of liberty and their ardent sympathy with the Americans struggling for independence. The most prominent were Kosciusko and Pulaski, both Poles, and the Marquis de Lafayette of France. These men sealed with their blood their devotion to the sacred cause which inspired our forefathers to all manner of hardships, sufferings, and sacrifices that our country might be free. Aid from France. — We have learned of the friendship of France for the patriots. All she was waiting for was a good pretext for openly helping them. That pretext was furnished by the sur- render of Burgoyne. The king of France concluded a treaty February 6, 1778, acknowledging our independence, forming 167 i68 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY WASHINGTON AND LAFAYETTE EVENTS OF 177S 169 reciprocal relations with us, and agreeing that neither should treat with Great Britain without the consent of the other. This first treaty between the United States and a foreign nation was drafted by Benjamin Franklin. Congress ratified the treaty on the 2d of May. England was alarmed and offered to treat with the colonies, but the only terms which the Americans would listen to were independence, which England, of course, would not. grant. Evacuation of Philadelphia. — The British army occupied Phila- delphia from September 26, 1777, to June 17, 1778. The pros- pect of a war with France led Great Britain to prepare for a descent upon some of the French West India Islands. It was ordered, therefore, that five thousand troops should be detached from the main army, three thousand to be forwarded to Florida, and the rest to New York. The transports were too few to carry them all to New York, and Clinton set out with the rest overland. Battle of Monmouth Court House. — Washington was so close that his vanguard entered the city while the British rear-guard was marching out. The main army started in pursuit of the British and overtook them at Monmouth Court House, now Freehold, the county seat of Monmouth county, New Jersey. Lafayette was sent forward with a strong force to attack as opportunity offered. General Lee also followed with another body of troops. The weather was suffocatingly hot, and many men of both armies dropped exhausted by the wayside. At early light Wash- ington, learning that Clinton had set out for New York, ordered Lee to advance at once and attack. At the same time the com- mander-in-chief hurried forward to support him. Lafayette, being younger than Lee, yielded the command of the advance to him. This was on June 28. The battle soon opened, and all was going well for the Ameri- cans, when confusion came, and General Lee started for the rear with most of the troops. A decisive defeat was impending,, when Washington galloped up and came face to face with Lee. The I/O A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY great man was aflame with anger and thundered out a demand for the meaning of the movement. Lee stammered a reply and offered to lead the troops back into action, but Washington ordered him to the rear, and the real battle immediately opened. The fighting was determined and made more trying by the intense heat, which caused the death of many on both sides. The British fought well, and for a time the advantage was with them, but at five o'clock in the after- noon they retreated, and the advantage went to the Americans. Washington impatiently waited for day- light to complete his vic- tory, but Clinton slipped off in the night, and, making his way to Sandy Hook, was taken on board of Admiral Howe's fleet. The British landed in New York July 5, and Washing- ton, crossing the Hudson at I-Cing's Ferry, took posi- tion near his old camp at White Plains. Molly Pitcher. — The account of the battle of Monmouth would not be complete without the story of Molly Pitcher. While carrying water for the thirsty soldiers, she saw her husband shot down at the cannon he was serving. Molly dropped the pail and ran to his side, but he was dead when she reached him. The commander ordered the piece to be with- drawn, because he had not the right man to take the place of the cannoneer. Molly asked that she might handle the gun, and she was allowed to do so. She loaded and fired it all through the battle, and with a skill and bravery that no one MOLLY PITCHER EVENTS OF 177S 171 could have excelled. She was presented to Washington after- ward, and he was so impressed by what she had done that he conferred upon her the rank of lieutenant, and congress granted her half-pay for life (see biographical note). The "Wyoming Massacre. — Early in July, Colonel John Butler led a band of Indians and tories into the lovely valley of Wyoming, Pennsylvania, where his cousin, John Butler, was in command. Most of the able-bodied men were absent, fighting the battles of their country, but the patriot Butler gathered between three and four hundred old men and boys, who made the best defence possible; sad to say, they were defeated, and a terrifying massacre followed, including many men, women, and children. Retreat of General Sullivan. — The hope of aid from France was followed for a time by disappointment. The French fleet reached the Delaware too late to intercept the English, who had gone to New York. Count D'Estaing (des-tang') moored off Sandy Hook, but was afraid to attack, and sailed for Newport, Rhode Island, where there were six thousand British troops, while Sullivan, Greene, and Lafayette were present with a larger force. Before the plans of capturing the enemy could be carried out, Howe appeared with his fleet in the offing, and D'Estaing began manoeuvring for battle. Before a gun was fired, the ships were scattered by a tempest. Finally Howe returned to New York, and D'Estaing went to Newport, taking all his troops with him. When Sullivan was about to attack the British force at Newport, he received warning from Washington that Clinton was advancing against him with five thousand men, Sullivan retreated in time to escape an overwhelming defeat. The Americans were much incensed against the French, who gave no help whatever. D'Estaing sailed for the West Indies without striking a blow, and until the closing year of the war, it was the rule with the Frenchmen to find it necessary to go to the West Indies when- ever a chance presented itself for aiding the Americans. Major Clarke's Expedition. — So many outrages were committed by the tories and Indians, that the Americans determined to 1/2 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY strike back. The most important of these expeditions was that of Major George Rogers Clarke. Under the commission of Governor Patrick Henry, of Virginia, Clarke descended the Ohio, in the month of May, with one hundred and fifty men, their destination being the Indian villages west of the Alleghenies. He advanced with such \igor-that with little difficulty he capt- ured Kaskaskia, Cahokia, and X'incennes, after which he struck the savages a decisive blow. 'I'he indignant British governor at Detroit recaptured Vin- cennes. Clarke returned later in the year, his men marching through icy marshes and swamps with the water to their waists, and not only retook Vincennes, but captured the governor, who was sent as a prisoner to Virginia, where he was kept for a time in irons, because of his many violations of the laws of ci\ ilized warfare. The results of Major Clarke's expedition were more important than would be supposed. Competent authorities declare that, but for what he did, the western boundary of the United States at the close of the Revolution would have been the Allegheny Mountains instead of the Mississippi River. All the territory north of the Ohio was organized into the "County of Illinois," and Major Clarke and his men were publicly thanked by Virginia for their services, while to each man was voted two hundred acres of land. Fall of Savannah. — The British had met with so little success in the Northern and Middle States that they concentrated their operations against the South. On December 23, three thousand men, under Lieutenant Colonel Campbell, appeared off 'lybee Island, in ships sent from New York. Passing the bar, the troops landed near Five Fathom Hole. General Howe's force was only one-third of the enemy's, but he made a brave defence, only to suffer a disastrous defeat. Thus Savannah, the capital of Georgia, with its extensive stores, fell into the hands of the invaders, December 29. EP'ENTS OF J77S 173 Topics. — Baron Steuben; other valuable allies from across the ocean; aid from France; the treaty made with her; the alarm of England; evacuation of Philadelphia; the preparations made by Great Britain for a war willi France; pursuit of Clinton by Washington; the battle of Monmouth; the course of General Lee; indignation of Washington; the real battle; the re- sult; the story of Molly Pitcher; the Wyoming Massacre; disappointment caused by the course of France; the retreat of General Sullivan; Major Clarke's expedition; what it accomplished; its important consequences; fall of Savannah. Biographical Notes. — Baron Steuben held a lucrative office under Frederick the Great, which he resigned to come to America and assist the patriots in their struggle for independence. He was a fiery-tempered sol- dier, and, when his imperfect knowledge of English would not permit him to berate the troops whom he was drilling to the extent he felt they deserved, he would turn to some officer and beg him to scold the "awkward rascals." He commanded the left wing at Monmouth, was a member of the board which condemned Andre, and helped at the siege of Vorktown. At the close of the war he settled in New York and received a grant of land from congress. He died in 1794. Thaddeus Kosciusko came to this country in 1775, when about thirty years old, and served as a colonel under General Gates. He was remarkably skilful as an engineer, his most important work being the fortifications at W'est Point. He was made a brigadier general in 1783, and, returning to his native land, was an active participant in the defence of Poland in 1794. He died in 1817. Casimir Pulaski, born in Poland in 1748, came to America in 1777. He served on Washington's staff, and was in the battles of Brandywine and Ger- mantown. He was a brigadier general under Wayne from 1777 to 1778, and was then placed in command of the famous " Pulaski's Legion," composed of deserters, prisoners of war, and foreigners. He fought furiously in the siege of Savannah, in 1779, when he commanded the French and American cavalry and was mortally wounded. Marquis de Lafayette was born of a noble family in France in 1746. His sympatliy for the struggling Americans led him to fit out a ship at his own expense, in wliich he sailed from Bordeaux in 1777. Landing at Charleston, he made his way northward to Washington's headquarters and offered his ser- vices without pay. He was commissioned as a major general and became an intimate friend of Washington. He was wounded at Brandywine, and again in the Rhode Island campaign. He returned to France in 1779 and spurred his government to more effective aid for the Americans. He was in this coun- try again in time to sit on the board which tried Major Andre. He was in command in Virginia against Arnold, and afterward Cornwallis, and displayed 174 ^ HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY considerable military ability. He was a leader for a time in France in the terrible revolution at the close of the eighteenth century. He visited the United States in 1 824-1 825, and made a tour of the country. He was re- ceived with unbounded enthusiasm everywhere, congress granted him a valu- able tract of land, a large sum of money, and then sent him home in a vessel named the Braitdywine, in honor of the battle in which he was wounded. He commanded the National Guard in Paris during the revolutionary day of 1830, and died in 1834. Charles Lee was born in England in 1731, and served as an officer at Brad- dock's defeat and through the French and Indian war. He came to America in 1773, and so impressed the authorities that he was appointed second in rank of the major generals. He took part in the siege of Boston, made vigor- ous preparations in New York against attack, and, having been sent south, commanded at the defence of Charleston in 1776. He was captured in the autumn of that year, because of his disobedience of Washington's orders. It is not unlikely that Lee lagged behind on purpose that he might fall into the hands of the enemy, for a few years since Dr. George H. Moore, of New York city, brought documents to light, which proved beyond question that Lee offered to betray the American cause to the Howes at the time he was a prisoner. The Howes did not buy him, probably because Lee held him- self at his own valuation. After his disgraceful behavior at Monmouth, he was suspended for disobedience, misbehavior, and disrespect, and was finally dismissed from the army. He died in obscurity in Philadelphia in 1782. Molly Pitcher's right name was Mary McCauley. She has been de- scribed as a "red-haired, freckle-faced young woman," and the scene of her loading and firing the cannon at the battle of Monmouth is depicted in bronze relief on the battle monument at Freehold. There has been an impression for years, in many quarters, that proper honor was not done this remarkable woman for her action in the famous engagement, but this is an error. She died in Carlisle, Pennsylvania, in January, 1833, at the age of seventy-nine years, her days having been spent in comparative comfort. On the 4th of July, 1876, the citizens of Cumberland county, Pennsylvania, erected a monu- ment to the heroine of Monmouth, and it now stands over her remains in the public graveyard at Carlisle. John Sullivan, born in Maine in 1740, was a New Hampshire delegate to the first continental congress, and became a brigadier general in 1775, and major general in the following year. He was at the siege of Boston, and to him was due a part of the discredit for the disastrous defeat on Long Island. He fought well at Trenton and Princeton, and commanded the right wing at Brandywine and Germantown. In 1779, as will be shown, he conducted the EVENTS OF 1778 175 crushing campaign against the Six Nations of Indians. He was a member of congress after the war and died in 1795. George Rogers Clarke was born in 1752, and became famous through his important expedition into the Northwest against the British and Indians, which secured to us that section to our country. As stated, Virginia not only publicly thanked Clarke and his men for their valuable services, l^ut voted a tract of land to each of them. It is our unpleasant duty to add, however, that neither Clarke nor any of his men ever received a single acre of the grant. CHAPTER XVI EVENTS OF 1779 [HE Conquest of Georgia. — The cause of Ameri- can independence made little progress in 1779. The British pushed their success in the South. General Benjamin Lincoln, of Massachusetts, superseded Howe, who had suffered a disastrous repulse. He found the situation discouraging, and, though he did all that was possible under the circum- btanccs, Georgia was so overrun and conquered that the royal governor was reinstated, and Great Britain could boast that one at least of the revolted colonies had been restored to the crown. The hot weather deferred the attempt to recapture Savannah until September, when the Americans and French laid siege to it. A desperate assault was made on the 9th of October, in which D'Estaing and his men redeemed themselves, and fought with a bravery that could not be surpassed. Sergeant Jasper, the hero of the exploit at Fort Moultrie, and Count Pulaski were among the thousand killed, while the loss of the enemy was less than fifty. The siege was abandoned, and recrossing the Savannah, the Americans returned to Charleston, while the French fleet again sailed for the West Indies. The Campaign in the North. — It will be remembered that Washington, after i)ursuing Clinton and winning the victory at Monmouth Court-House, returned to his old cJlmp near White Plains. He passed the winter in a line of positions reaching from the Highlands to the Delaware. No important military 176 EVENTS OF i77g 1 77 movements followed, but numbers of raids and predatory excur- sions were made by both sides. Capture of Stony Point. — Stony Point having fallen into the hands of the enemy, Washington asked Wayne whether he would undertake to recapture it. " I will undertake to capture the lower regions, if you will give me the plan," replied "Mad Anthony." Washington remarked that the second enterprise would be de- ferred, but he was anxious that Wayne should lose no time in carrying out the first. On the hot evening of July 15, Wayne, with four regiments, marched twelve miles and halted within a mile of the fort. The men threw aside all superfluous clothing, and having obtained the countersign from a negro who sold berries at the fort, Wayne divided his force into two columns, which at midnight attacked from opposite sides. The men charged impetuously, and the fight, though brief, was fierce. Wayne, at the head of his troops, was struck in the forehead by a bullet and fell to the ground. Believing he was about to die, he ordered his aids to carry him forward, that he might pass his last moments within the fort. Before they could do so, he rallied, and, leaping to his feet, decided that he would postpone his death to some other occasion. Sixty-three of the garrison were killed before they surrendered, and five hundred and forty-three made prisoners. The Ameri- cans lost only fifteen, while eighty-three were wounded. Valuable ordnance and stores were secured, the fort destroyed, and the patriots withdrew. Sullivan's Campaign against the Indians. — The atrocities of the Indians and tories in the Wyoming and Mohawk valleys threatened the destruction of the settlements. The Iroquois, or Six Nations, were so aggressive that Washington felt they must be sternly punished. Accordingly, he organized, a powerful expedition, which was placed under the command of Cleneral Sullivan, which late in August advanced northward from Wyoming and burned forty villages of those fierce warriors, w^ho never fully recovered from the blow. 178 yi HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY The War on the Ocean. — Our little navy proved a thorn in the side of Great Britain. As early as 1775, Washington sent out several privateers to cruise along the New England coast, and in the same year congress established a naval department. Two battalions of seamen were enlisted, and thirteen ships were ordered to be fitted out. The number increased so that in three years they captured five hundred ships of the enemy. The daring Yankee privateers even entered the waters among the British Isles and burned ships at their wharves. Great Victory of Paul Jones. — John Paul Jones was one of the bravest men that ever trod the quarter-deck. His remarkable success caused him to be made a captain. One night, while cruising off Solway Firth, near his birthplace, he rowed ashore on the coast of Cumberland, with thirty-one volunteers, and in the harbor of Whitehaven burned three vessels and spiked a number of cannon in the guard-room of the fort. All England was startled by this exploit. When, in 1779, he put to sea in command of the Bon Hovwie Richard (bo-nom're-shar'), and accompanied by two consorts, the Alliance and the Pallas, every- body wondered what was coming next. That which did follow was one of the most terrific sea-fights known in history. The Bon Homme Ric/ianl was an old Indiaman given to Jones by the king of France. W^hen off Scarborough, he sighted the homeward-bound Baltic fleet of merchantmen, under the escort of the frigates Countess of Scarborough and the Serapis (se-ra'pis). The former carried twenty-two guns and the latter fifty. Jones had forty-four guns and three hundred and seventy-five men. Although two-thirds of those with him were prisoners of war, and he had weakened his regular crews in order to take charge of his many prizes, he at once signalled to his consorts to join him in pursuit of the enemy. It was the month of September, the sun had set, and the full moon was shining, when the captain of the Serapis hailed Jones, who replied by opening fire. The enemy promptly responded, and the famous battle began. It had hardly opened, when two EVENTS OF lyyg 179 of the guns on the lower deck of the Bon Homtne Richard burst, killing several men. The rest scrambled up to the main-deck, the guns left behind not being worked again during the fight. Jones manoeuvred to close in with the Serapis, but finding he could not bring his guns to bear, he let his ship fall off again. "Have you struck?" shouted Captain Pear- son of the Serapis. " Struck! " replied Jones, "I haven't be- gun to fight! " While the Serapis was swinging round, her jib-boom caught in the mizzen rigging of the Richard. Jones sprang forward and lashed the boom to the mast, but the hold was broken by the lurching of the vessels. One of the enemy's anchors caught the quarter of the Richard, however, and held fast. Upon attempting to fire from the starboard side, the Serapis could not open her ports, because the Richard lay so close to her. She therefore fired with her ports closed, blowing away her own port-lids; but there were no Americans on the lower deck, and the main deck of the Richard was so high that the broadsides of the Serapis did not hurt any one, though they did great injury to the ship. THE SERAPIS AND THE BON HOMME RICHARD I So A HISTORY OF OCR COCXTRY For two hours the crews fought hand to hand with musket, pike, and cutlass. The muzzles of the guns continually scraped each other, and the gunners, in working their pieces, repeatedly thrust their ramrods into the portholes of the opposing ship. The cannon were discharged as fast as they could be loaded. The Richard was a rotten old hulk and soon became unmanageable. Water poured into the hold, and only three of the guns could be worked. Both vessels caught fire again and again. In this crisis, Jones discovered that his ally. Captain Landais, commanding the Alliance, was firing first a broadside into the Scarborough and then into the Bon Homme Richard. But leaving Landais to be settled with afterward, Jones kept up his awful struggle with the Sera/is, whose men fought as bravely as his own. One of the sailors perched in the rigging of the Bon Homme Richard, and engaged in throwing hand-grenades upon the deck of the Serapis, crept out to the end of the main-yard, carrying a bucket of the fearful missiles. Coolly lighting these, he dropped them, one after the other, down the hatchway of the Serapis. The powder boys had left a row of eighteen-pound cartridges stretched along the whole length of the ship, into which the American aloft dropped one of his hissing grenades. The explosion which fol- lowed killed a score of sailors and severely wounded forty others. Captain Pearson again called to Jones to know whether he had struck, but Jones, at the other end of the ship, did not hear him. Then the British commander, at the head of his boarders, made a rush for the deck of the Richard. Jones seized a pike and, leading his own men, drove the enemy back. The Serapis caught fire repeatedly, but the explosion caused by the hand-grenade decided the battle. The main battery, which was Captain Pear- son's chief reliance, was silenced, and he struck his colors. Even then, in the smoke, uproar, fire, and tumult, half the men on the Serapis believed it was the Richard that had surrendered; but Captain Pearson himself hauled down his own flag. At dawn of day the Richard was a wallowing wreck, still on • fire, riddled like a sieve, and fast sinking. Jones had barely EVENTS OF I77Q l8l time to remove his crew to the Serapis, when his own ship went to the bottom. Four-fifths of his men were killed or wounded in this most memorable battle of the infant American navy. Landais's amazing conduct in firing into Jones during the fight was probably due to insanity, though many believed it was because of his intense envy of the American commander. At any rate, he was deprived of his command on the ground of insanity. Jones's battle with the Serapis was the last one in which he engaged for the Americans. Topics. — Conquest of Georgia; the American attempt to recapture Savan- nah; the campaign in the North; capture of Stony Point by Wayne; Sulli- van's crushing chastisement of the Six Nations; the first American privateers; their work in three years; John Paul Jones; his exploit at Whitehaven; his terrific battle with the Serapis; what decided the battle; the victory; the conduct of Landais. Biographical notes. — Benjamin Lincoln, born in 1733, was major gen- eral of the Massachusetts militia from 1774 to 1775, and was their commander at the battle of White Plains. In the Burgoyne campaign, he was second in command under Gates. He was transferred to the South, as we have learned, in 1778, and two years later he was obliged to surrender Charleston to the British. Washington designated him to receive the sword of Cornwallis at Yorktown in 1781. Lincoln was secretary of war 1781-1784, and died in iSlO. John Paul Jones was born in Scotland in 1747, engaged in the merchant marine, and settled in Virginia shortly before the Revolution. lie was among the first to volunteer, and was commissioned as a lieutenant in the infant American navy. He made a number of successful cruises, and proved his skill and daring, while he threw all England into terror by his amazing exploits. For his great victory over the Serapis, Jones received the thanks of congress and a gold sword from the king of France. After the close of the war he became a rear admiral in the Russian navy, and died in Paris in 1792. CHAPTER XVII EVENTS OF 1780 ILOOMY Outlook for the Patriots.— The winter oi 1 779-1 7S0 was the severest of the eigh- teenth century. There was widespread suffer- ing, and for months all military operations were at a standstill. The colonies were upon the verge of exhaustion from the years of fighting, of poverty, of suffering, and because of the overwhelming reverses. The city of New York was in the hands of the enemy, Savannah had been taken, and the British were preparing to attack Charleston. The gloomy condition of affairs cannot be more strongly shown than by the words of Washington himself. Hitherto his faith had been unshaken by disaster, but now he said : " I have almost ceased to hope. Friends and foes seem to be combining to pull down the fabric raised at so much expense of time, blood, and treasure." The best men did not appear in congress; for, day after day, only about a dozen members were present to transact the most important business. Little heed was given to their counsels, and often their orders were openly disregarded. The national currency rapidly approached the point of worthlessness, and the authority delegated to congress by the thirteen States dwintUed until it was no more than a name. Fall of Charleston. — The cup of suffering for the patriots was not yet full. Early in the year, Clinton gathered all his avail- able forces at New York, and leaving enough to defend it against Washington, who was closely watching him, sailed with the rest for Charleston. There he was joined by the British in Georgia, 182 EVENTS OE 1780 183 and the fleet fought its way through the harbor to the city. The attack was made in May, and Lincoln, after the bravest possible defence, was obliged to surrender with his army of six thousand men. Clinton vigorously followed up his success. Armed expedi- tions were sent out to overrun the country. Colonel 'i'arleton, his ablest officer, overtook a regiment of Virginians on the 29th of May at Waxhaw, and almost cut them to pieces. The cam- paign, indeed, was pressed so remorse- lessly that all organized resistance in the South seemed for the time to be at an end. Civil war reigned in the Caro- linas- merciless tories, with commis- sions from the British authorities, galloped back and forth over the coun- try, burning the houses of former friends and neighbors, shooting down peaceful men, women, and children, after de- spoiling them of their possessions, and slaying those who refused to take up arms against their country. But the patriots were not the ones to submit meekly to these savage outrages. The women melted their pewter dishes and ran them into bullets, and the blacksmiths forged rude weap- ons at their anvils. The deep woods, the numerous small streams, the swamps and almost impenetrable recesses, offered the best facilities for the partisan warfare which set the South, particu- larly South Carolina, aflame. Typical heroes came to the front on each side.' On that of the British were the swift, terrible Tarleton and his dragoons, and Ferguson with his riflemen; on the American were Sumter, the "Carolina (iame-cock," Marion, the "Swamp Fox," Pickens, Horry, and others. Francis Marion was the best type of the patriot partisan. It was said of him that "his simplicity of conduct, preserved under F TnE CAhOl 1 84 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY EVENTS OF 17S0 185 all circumstances, was above praise; the cheerfulness with which he endured privation surpassed encomium." We recall the story of the British officer, who, having met Marion upon some busi- ness, was invited to stay to dinner. The visitor was so charmed with his host that he accepted the invitation. When the meal was ready, it consisted of a few roast potatoes served upon pieces of bark. The British officer politely asked whether this meagre tliet was usual, to which Marion replied that it was, but because of the honor of the visitor's presence the allowance for that occasion was increased. The story is that the officer was so Struck by this incident, as well as by the discovery that Marion served his country without pay, that he resigned his commission, declaring it idle to fight against such devoted patriots. Clinton learned that a French fleet with a strong force was expected off the coast. This caused him to sail from Charleston, with most of his army, June 5. He left Cornwallis, with four thousand men, to effect the complete subjugation of the South. The weather, however, became so hot that Cornwallis decided to wait for its improvement. The desperate condition of the section caused Washington much anxiety. As early as the close of March he sent rein- forcements thither. They were so pushed for food that they had to break up into small parties to escape starving. Among the flaming sand barrens, in July, they devoured green corn and unripe fruit so ravenously that many fell ill. Those who were able, however, trudged forward, and were joined by several hun- dred refugees that were hiding among the mountains. But they had few and poor weapons, little food, and lacked discipline. The brave Baron de Kalb, who had charge, could speak only a few words of English, and General Gates was appointed to the command of the troops, who numbered about two thousand. These were reinforced by another thousand, and Gates was con- fident of "Burgoyning Cornwallis," as he expressed it. Defeat of Gates. — By a curious coincidence Cornwallis and Gates fixed upon the same hour for surprising each other. Mov- 1 86 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY ing with that purpose their advanced guards collided, about two o'clock of the morning of August 16, in the woods near Camden. A skirmish followed, and the Americans fell back, both forces waiting for daylight. At dawn, Cornwallis, who knew of the raw and untried condition of the patriots, launched his finest soldiers under his best ofificers against them. They struck the Virginia militia, who fired one volley and retreated. The North Carolina militia did the same, without halting long enough to shoot. Gates and his ofificers did their utmost to rally them, but it was impossible. Thus two-thirds of the army vanished. But the regulars, composed of a regiment of North Caro- linians and the Maryland and Delaware men under De Kalb, fought like heroes, the valiant De Kalb himself setting a thrill- ing example. The Polish veteran led a terrific bayonet charge, broke the Brit- ish line at one point, and it was not until Cornwallis, with his whole force, flung himself against the Americans, that the latter gave way. De Kalb sank to the ground with eleven wounds, and died the next day. Battle of King's Mountain. — On the 7th of October the Americans attacked the enemy under Colonel Ferguson at King's Mountain, on the border line between North and South Carolina. The patriots were led by Colonels Cleveland, Shelby, and Camp- bell. The British fought bravely, repelling the Americans several times, but at the end of an hour Ferguson fell, mortally wounded, and the British surrendered. General Greene in the South. — By great labor General Gates managed to get together about fourteen hundred men, with which he meant to dispute Cornwallis; but on the 2d of December Nathanael Greene, the "Quaker general," arrived and superseded him. Gates was much chagrined, but declared his willingness to serve his superior in any way possible. Greene kindly ex- pressed the belief that the censure of his predecessor had been founded on an imperfect knowledge of the facts. He said the same to the officers and men, and won the best opinion of all. EVENTS OF 1780 187 The Treason of Benedict Arnold. — The spirits of Washington were cheered in April by the return of Marquis de Lafayette with news that the French government had fitted out an armament of naval and land forces, which would soon be sent to the United States. It was good news, indeed, for nothing was clearer by this time than the truth that without some such aid America could not win her independence. The saddest event of the Revolution was the treason of Bene- dict Arnold. He was one of the bravest of men, his exploits even in boyhood exciting the wonder of his playmates. But he was coarse-minded, extravagant, dishonest, and revengeful. He was angered because he was not among the first five major gen- erals appointed. Washington urged his appointment, which was made after Arnold's brilliant services at Saratoga. He was stationed at Philadel- phia while recovering from the wound received at Saratoga. He married a tory lady, and began living in a style beyond his means. He resorted to specula- tion and dishonest methods to increase his funds. His odious manners and sordid disposition made him very unpopular one occasion he was mobbed in the streets of Philadelphia, council of the city finally preferred charges of misconduct against him. These were proven, and he was sentenced to be repri- manded by Washington. The commander-in-chief performed the unpleasant duty with the utmost delicacy, but the reproof, together with the disallowance by congress of his claims for expenses incurred in the Canadian expedition, filled him Avith resentment. These causes, together with the strong tory senti- MAJOR JOHN ANDRE On The A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY ments of his wife, doubtless determined him to take the step which has cast odium forever upon his name. Arnold opened a secret correspondence with Sir Henry Clin- ton, and arranged to turn over to him the fortress at West Point, the most im])ortant post in the country and the main depot of supplies. On the plea that his wound would not permit active service, he secured from Wash- ington the command of West Point. Being now in a position to carry out his shameful act, he asked Clinton to send a person fully authorized to arrange the details. The British commander intrusted Major John Andre with the task, and, knowing its ex- treme ])eril, warned him not to pass within tlie American lines, under no cir- cumstances to assume a disguise (which would have made him a spy and insured his death in case of capture), and to accept no papers. Had Andr^ followed these instructions, he would have escaped the fate that afterward overtook him. Andr^ went up the Hudson and boarded the British sloop-of- war Vulture, lying at anchor in the river. Just before daylight, September 22, he landed at the foot of T.ong Clove Mountain, CAPTURE OF ANDRE EVENTS OF 1780 189 six miles below Stony Point, where Arnold was waiting in the bushes to receive him. The interview lasted until after daylight, when for safety they repaired to the house of a Mr. Smith, who lived within the American lines. There the plan of the betrayal was completed. Clinton was to send a strong force to attack the works at West Point, while Arnold agreed to scatter the garrison of three thousand so as to prevent effective defence. When Andre started to return to the Vulture, it was found she had dropped down stream, because fire was opened upon her by a small battery on Teller's Point. This compelled Andre to make his way to New York by land. Arnold furnished him with a pass and a citizen's dress. He was conducted by Smith to a point where he was told he would meet only British raiders, or "Cow Boys," as they were called. Smith then bade him good-by and came back. All went well with Andr6 until he was near Tarrytown. A half-mile above that town, Isaac Van Wart, John Paulding, and David Williams were on the lookout for British marauders. Hearing the sound of a horse's hoofs, they halted Andre, with a demand to know his business. Had the horseman kept his self- possession, he would have been safe. If the three men were Americans, the pass of Arnold would have been respected, and had they been British, of course they were his friends. He had only to answer their demands by displaying the pass of the American commander. But one of the three had on a British coat, which he had exchanged for one of his own when a prisoner a short time before. Andre was so certain that they were his friends that he said: "I hope, gentlemen, you belong to our party." "Which party is that?" asked Paulding. . "The lower party," replied Andre, meaning the British. "Yes, we belong to that party," said Paulding. Andre, completely deceived, added: " I am a British officer out on particular business, and I hope you will not detain me." 190 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY The three captors saw they had secured a prize and ordered him to dismount and submit to be searched. The alarmed Andr^, seeing his fatal mistake, now showed the pass of General Arnold. But it was too late. When his boots and stockings were removed, the important papers were found, among them being a complete plan, in Arnold's handwriting, of the fortifica- tions at West Point. Seeing he was discovered, Andre offered his horse, watch, and everything with him, besides pledging to send them a large sum of money, if they would permit him to go on. They refused, and conducting him to North Castle, left him in charge of Lieutenant Colonel Jameson, the officer stationed there. Jameson's stupidity was the cause of Arnold's escaping the fate he richly merited. Although the papers told him the all-important truth, he sent a note to General Arnold, inform- ing him of the arrest. The traitor was at breakfast when the note was placed in his hands. He called his wife aside, told her of his peril, kissed his sleeping boy in the cradle, dashed out of the house, mounted his horse, galloped to the river, sprang into a boat, and was rowed out to the Vulture. He protected himself from being fired upon by swinging his white handkerchief over his head. Andre was tried by court-martial and convicted and condemned as a spy. He accepted his verdict bravely, only asking that he might be shot instead of hanged. It was hard to refuse the request, but General Greene maintained that any mitigation of the sentence would imply a doubt of its justice. He was hanged October 2, 1780. Much sympathy was felt for the unfortunate young officer. His remains were removed to England in 1821 and now rest in Westminster Abbey. George HI caused a mural tablet to be erected to his memory, on which is an inscription referring to him as "one who fell a sacrifice to his zeal for his king and country." A pension was conferred upon his mother, and his brother was created a baronet. The punishment of Andre, however, was just. He was a sjiy EVENTS OF 1780 191 under the laws of war, and, had he succeeded in reaching New York with the papers, in all probability he would have struck a fatal blow at American independence. Strange it is that so much sympathy should be expressed for him, while poor Nathan Hale, as young, as intelligent, and as brave, who simply sought informa- tion within the enemy's lines, was treated with brutal indignity and hanged without a trial. Arnold was paid six thousand three hundred and fifteen pounds sterling, as a reimbursement for the "losses" he"claimed to have suffered while fighting for his native land. He took his family to England after the war. His sons received commissions in the British army, did creditable service, and it is pleasure to record that his descendants to-day are among the worthiest members of the community in which they live. As for the arch traitor him- self, he was despised by those whom he served, was hooted at on the streets of London, and died in 1801, execrated by all. His wife survived him about three years. Topics. — The gloomy outlook for the patriots; the discouragement of Washington ; congress ; the currency ; the fall of Charleston ; the devasta- tion in the South ; devotion of the women ; the partisan leaders ; the sad condition of the patriot troops in the South ; defeat of Gates at Camden ; death of De Kalb ; battle of King's Mountain ; General Greene in the South; the good news from France ; Benedict Arnold ; his character; his causes of re- sentment; Washington ahd Arnold; treasonable correspondence of Arnold with Sir Henry Clinton ; the part taken by Major Andre ; the capture of Andre ; the escape of Arnold ; fate of Andre ; justice of his punishment ; Nathan Hale ; the price paid to Arnold for his treason ; his descendants ; his death. Biographical Notes. — Sir Bannastre Tarleton was born in England in 1754, and came, as a colonel, to America with Lord Cornwallis in 1776. He took part in the raid which resulted in the capture of General Charles Lee, at Baskingridge in the same year. He organized the " Tarleton Legion " in South Carolina in 1779, and conducted a savage warfare. He helped to win the battle at Camden, was defeated by General Sumter at Blackstock Hill, and, at the Covvpens, General Morgan cut his command to pieces. He sur- rendered with Cornwallis at Yorktown, and died in 1833. Thomas Sumter was born in 1734, and won a reputation as one of the most brilliant of partisan leaders in the South during the Revolution. He was 192 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY very active, defeating the British at Hanging Rock, where Andrew Jackson, a boy of fourteen, fought bravely, was defeated at Fishing Creek by Colonel Tarleton, who in turn was defeated by Sumter at Blackstock Hill. He cut the communications of Cornwallis and captured his supply train. He was a con- gressman from South Carolina, 1789-1793, and 1797-1801, and was United States senator, 1801-1809, in which year he was appointed minister to Brazil, where he remained for two years. He died in 1832, in his ninety-ninth year, having attained the greatest age of any officer of the Revolution. Francis Marion was born in South Carolina in 1732, and was of Huguenot descent. He was an officer in the Cherokee war and a member of the pro- vincial congress. He enlisted at the beginning of the Revolution, and took part in the repulse of the British from Charleston in r776, and in the disas- trous Savannah expedition of 1779. He organized his partisan corps in 1780 and struck quick and effective blows against the enemy. His principal field of operations was along the Pedee River and the neighborhood. His celerity of movement well earned for him the name of " Swamp Fox." He commanded the right wing at Eutaw Springs, and continued fighting in the South until the actual close of hostilities in that section, which was the beginning of 1783. Marion was a member, for a time, of the State senate, and died in 1795. Andrew Pickens was another of the famous partisan leaders of the South. He was born in 1739, and served in the war against the Cherokees when a young man. He defeated a strong British force at Kettle Creek in 1779, and was in command of the militia at the Cowpens and at Eutaw Springs, liesides being engaged in a large number of skirmishes and battles of less moment. He was a member of the South Carolina legislature from 1793 to 1794, and from 1801 to 1812, serving in congress from 1793 to 1795. He died in 1817. Nathanael Greene was born in Rhode Island in 1 742, being a member of a Quaker family. He served in the State assembly in 1770. He possessed excellent c[ualities and gave much attention to the study of military matters, for which he was gifted with a special aptitude. He was made brigadier gen- eral in 1775 and took part in the battle at Dorchester Heights. In the fol- lowing year he became major general, and, as we have learned, was actively engaged at Trenton and Princeton. It was Greene's skill which saved the American army from decisive defea't at Brandywine. At Germantown, he commanded the left wing, where he again displayed remarkable ability in covering the retreat of the army. He was president of the court-martial which condemned Andre to death. His career in the South stamped him as second only to Washington in military ability. He captured post after post, won a decisive victory at Eutaw Springs, and repeatedly baffled Cornwallis with his superior army. General Greene was universally esteemed and re- spected. He died in 1786 from the effects of a sunstroke. CHAPTER XVIII EVENTS OF I 78 I. — ^ TRIUMPH OF INDEPENDENCE |HE Campaign in the South. — It was one of the wisest of steps to appoint General Greene to the chief command in the South. Washing- ton sent " Light Horse Harry " Lee thither, with his legion of three hundred and fifty, to help in staying the advance of the enemy. Washington could ill spare his valuable ally, ex.,on Ship,' but the war, opening in New England, was steadily gravitating southward, where the de- cisive and final struggle was to take place. Greene understood the folly of meeting Cornwallis in open battle, when his own force was so much the weaker. It was Gates's blindness in this respect that brought about his failure. Greene decided, while forming and disciplining his army, to harass his stronger enemy in every way possible. He formed his troops into two divisions. With the main body he took position on the eastern bank of the Pedee, opposite the Cheraw Hills, about seventy miles from Wyn- nesborough, where Cornwallis was stationed. General Morgan, with a body of infantry and cavalry, was sent south of the Catawba. Meanwhile, Marion, Sumter, Pickens, and other par- tisans were riding back and forth through the swamps and forests of Georgia and the Carolinas, harrying the enemy whenever and wherever the chance presented. Thoroughly familiar with every acre of the country, they were able to strike their telling blows and make off again before the British could gather to strike back. Battle of the Cowpens. — Believing the British post at Ninety- Six in danger, Cornwallis sent Tarleton, with eleven hundred o 193 194 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY men, including cavalry, artillery, and infantry, against Morgan, while Cornwallis himself marched to the Northwest to catch him in the event of his eluding Tarleton. His object was also to frighten Greene by getting between him and Virginia. Morgan fell back to the Cowpens, where he was furiously attacked by Tarleton on the morning of January 17. The Americans at first gave way, but quickly rallied and pursued the enemy to the bottom of the hill, where most of them threw down their arms and surrendered. This was an inspiriting victory, Tarleton hav- ing lost a hundred privates, ten commissioned officers, more than a hundred wounded, and six hundred prisoners, beside two guns, eight hundred muskets, his colors, a hundred horses, and nearly all his baggage train. The loss of the Americans was about a dozen killed and sixty wounded. Cornwallis baffled. — Cornwallis now devoted every energy to preventing the junction of Morgan and Greene, but he was com- pletely baffled at every step. The Americans not only united, but eluded Cornwallis again and again. It is said that for four days Greene did not average more than an hour's sleep out of twenty-four. Cornwallis finally gave up in disgust and returned to Hillsborough February 20. By the middle of the following month, Greene found himself strong enough to assume the aggres- sive, though three-fourths of his men were raw recruits, upon whom little dependence could be placed. The Americans were attacked at Guilford Court House March 15. The regulars fought bravely, but the militia gave way, and Greene deemed it v/ise to withdraw. The enemy was too exhausted to pursue. Guilford Court House was a victory for the British, but their loss was greater than that of the Americans. Colonel Webster, the best officer under Cornwallis, was killed, and when the news reached England, Fox declared in the house of commons that a second victory of that kind would ruin the army. Cornwallis felt such a wholesome respect for Greene that he retreated to Wilmington, North Carolina, where he arrived on the 7th of April. After resting his army, he decided to withdraw EVENTS OF 1781 195 into Virginia and join the British forces already there. Instead of following him, Greene set about reconquering South Carolina. The Americans captured a number of posts, and on the ist of June the only ones in South Carolina and Georgia in the hands of the invaders were Ninety-Six and Augusta. Pickens and Lee took Augusta five days later, and though Greene's attack upon Ninety-Six on the i8th was repuJsed, the garrison saw that it could not be held, and evacuated it. The Battle of Eutaw Springs. — Colonel Stuart, now command- ing the British, posted himself at Eutaw Springs, where Greene attacked him September 8. The battle lasted four hours and was bitterly contested on both sides, as was proved by the losses each sustained. That of the British, in killed, wounded, and prisoners, was seven hundred, and that of the Americans about the same. Each side claimed the victory, and though the Ameri- cans retreated, the advantage remained with them. Stuart began falling back the next day, and Greene pursued him nearly to Charleston. In the battle, Colonel Washington was wounded and taken prisoner. A Daring Exploit. — During the retreat, Manning, of Lee's legion, suddenly found himself surrounded by the enemy, with not an American within several hundred rods. Dashing up to an officer, he wrenched his sword from his grasp, seized him by the collar, and held his body as a shield while he backed away, under a hot fire, from his dangerous position. The struggling officer in affright called out: "I am Sir Henry Barry, deputy adjutant general, captain in the fifty-second regiment, and — " "That will do," interrupted his captor, "you're the man I was looking for," and he safely rejoined his friends with his distin- guished prisoner. This may be said to have ended the war in that section. Partisan fighting and skirmishing continued, but nothing of moment took place. The South Carolina legislature was con- vened within thirty-five miles of Charleston, and, with slight exceptions, the only British soldiers in the South were at Charles- 196 A HISTORY Of OUR COUNTRY ton, Savannah, and Wilmington. The plan of conquering the States in detail had failed, and failed forever. The Campaign in the North ; Revolt of the Pennsylvania Line. ■ — The year 1781 opened gloomily in the North. At the begin- ning of the year, con- 41 gress called for a regular army of thirty- seven thousand men, but the response was ■^J^ ^ ^ only partial, and the supplies, being left m^ , \ ■""•^ to the respective nb \ ^SvIkUH^^Ev ^^MM States, amounted to nothing. While mat- ^^^^''l ^^ ters were in this dis- m^^K'^ISmN piriting condition. '^^^MJt 7\ JH^^^ the whole Pennsyl- •J I'^'^^El^^T-' vania line, in camp ij^t'lf f; at Morristown, num- bering nearly two jSSflpSMiKI^ '■" \ *^^tt^ ^'f * - thousand, revolted. They had repeatedly fl / complained that they Jdf ^ had no pay, clothing, - or food, and that their .^.^ ^2u terms of enlistment y^f^. had expired. They determined to march REVOLT OF THE FE NNSYLVANIA LINE to Philadelphia and either obtain redress or go to their hoi lies. In the attempt to check the mutineers. several of them vver( skilled. General Wayne drew his pistols, but several bayonets were thrust against his breast, the desperate men declaring that, while they respected him, they would run him through at the first discharge of his weapons. EVENTS OF 178 1 197 They elected their own officers and, thirteen hundred strong and with six field pieces, set out from Morristown for Philadel- phia. Congress was alarmed on hearing the news and despatched a committee to meet and calm them. Clinton sent agents among the patriots, offering them big pay and rewards if they would enter his lines and join him. The soldiers seized the agents, turned them over to Wayne, and advised him to hang them off- hand. Although goaded to resistance against their own authori- ties, they would never give aid to the public enemy. The committee from congress met the mutineers at Trenton on the 9th of January. Three days were spent in conference, and the difficulty settled. It was agreed that all arrears should be paid at the earliest possible moment, and those whose terms of enlistment had expired should be discharged. As a conse- quence, about half the Pennsylvania troops were allowed to go to their homes. The occurrence spurred congress to its duty. An agent was sent to France to secure another loan of money. Robert Morris was made secretary of finance, and the Bank of North America was organized, Morris and a number of his wealthy friends pledging their private fortunes to sustain the credit of the government. Arnold's Raiding Expedition, — Benedict Arnold, the traitor, was now a brigadier general in the British army. In command of a fleet and a land force of sixteen hundred men, he sailed for the coast of Virginia in December, 1780, and destroyed a large amount of public and private property. Lafayette was too weak to check him, but Cornwallis, arriving in May, displaced Arnold, who was sent northward to New York, from which point he led a plundering expedition to New London, Connecticut, his old home. The town was pillaged and burned, and it is said that Arnold gleefully watched the destruction from a church steeple. During the plundering, a woman recognized Arnold and aimed a musket at him and pulled the trigger. Unfortunately, however, it missed fire, and thus the traitor had another hair's-breadth escape from death. 198 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY The Last Campaign. — In the month of May Washington and Rochambeau (ro-shong-bo'), commander of the French allies, held a conference at Weathersfield, Connecticut, over the plan of capturing New York, with the aid of the French fleet at New- port and that of Count de Grasse (grass) from the West Indies. No definite decision was reached, but Clinton in New York was convinced that a campaign was to be made against him. Meanwhile Cornwallis was doing his best, with his superior force, to catch Lafayette and his few troops. The agile French- man, however, eluded him, and finally the British general received orders, in the latter part of June, to send reinforcements to Clin- ton in New York to repel the expected attack by Washington. Unable to hold Williamsburg with his weakened army, Cornwallis notified his superior officer that he intended to pass the James and withdraw to Portsmouth. Reinforcements from England having reached Clinton, he countermanded his order, and directed Cornwallis to establish an intrenched camp as a nucleus for future operations. Cornwallis fixed upon Yorktown and Gloucester, after making a number of surveys. Portsmouth, therefore, was evacuated, and by the latter part of August the positions named were occupied by the British army in Virginia. Washington, with the eye of a general, made his far-reaching plans, seeing clearly the inevitable end. Early in June Rocham- beau set his troops in motion. They numbered four thousand and marched through Connecticut in superb order. On the 6th of July they, with Washington's army, were encamped in a line from Dobbs Ferry on the Hudson to the Bronx River. They made so many threatening demonstrations against the city of New York that Clinton thought (as the patriots meant he should think) that their intention was to attack the city at once. Lafayette had been ordered to hold Cornwallis where he was and prevent his escape into North Carolina. Notice reached Washington that De Grasse would arrive at the mouth of the Chesapeake by the end of August. On the 19th of that month the allied troops were ordered under arms, facing New York. EVENTS OF 178 1 199 Then, instead of marching against the city, they wheeled and started for Virginia. Feints were still maintained against the city, so that it was not until the 2d of September that Clinton awoke to the astounding fact that he was outwitted, and he and his troops were not in the least danger of molestation. To the booming of cannon, the ringing of bells, and the cheers of the excited populace, the armed hosts tramped through the streets of Philadelphia. They and every one knew that momen- tous events were at hand, and an epoch in the history of the nation was about to open. Morris had exhausted his last penny in rais- ing money for the troops, but he borrowed twenty thousand dol- lars from Rochambeau, which was distributed among the needy patriots. Washington rode ahead at the rate of sixty miles a day, and thus secured time to make a brief visit to Mount Vernon, which he had not seen for more than six years. On the 30th of August, Count de Grasse dropped anchor within the capes of the Chesapeake. The English fleet appeared on the 5th of the following month. The French attacked and inflicted so much damage that the British vessels returned to New York. This gave De Barras a chance to run in with the French transports from Newport, containing the artillery for the siege. On the 28th the allied troops, twelve thousand strong, drove in the outposts and took position before the Yorktown intrenchments. That night Washington slept on the ground in the open air, the root of a mulberry tree serving him as a pillow. The next day the allied armies were posted, the Americans on the right and the French on the left, or west side. On October 5, trenches were opened within six hundred yards of the enemy's line. The bombardment began and continued without cessation for four days and nights. Governor Nelson, being asked to direct the bombardment, picked out a fine mansion which he believed to be the headquarters of Cornwallis, and ordered the gunners to knock it to fragments. It was his own home. The vessels in the harbor fired red-hot shot, the English reply- 200 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY ing with great vigor. Their cavalry was so short of forage that many of the horses were killed and rolled into the river. An epidemic broke out in the town, and more than a fourth of Corn- wallis's army were forced into the hospital. The second parallel was begun by Baron Steuben's division, and on the night of October 1 1 it was within three hundred yards of the British, who kept up a hot fire on the besiegers. The latter, were so annoyed by the flanking fire from two redoubts, that an assault was ordered on the evening of the 14th. So impetuous was the attack that both were captured within a few minutes — one by the French and the other by the Americans, the allies working in harmony and with generous rivalry. Surrender of Cornwallis. — As the days and nights passed, Cornwallis grew weaker and Washington stronger. The longing eyes of the British commander saw no sail bringing the expected relief from Clinton. The hour came when all the guns along his front were dismounted and his shells expended. In his despera- tion he saw but one hope : that was to abandon everything, cross the river at night to Gloucester, overcome the French stationed there, and flee through Pennsylvania and New Jersey to New York. In the attempt, he got a portion of his army over, but a storm drove the boats down stream, and they could not be recov- ered before daylight. Then they were used to bring back the troops that had been taken across. All hope was now gone, and Cornwallis opened negotiations for surrender. The terms were fixed, and the surrender took place on the 19th of October, 1781. The scene will always remain one of the most impressive in the history of our country. At two o'clock in the afternoon the British army marched out of Yorktown, with slqw step, shouldered arms, and cased colors. The allied troops were drawn up on opposite sides of the road for more than a mile, the Americans on the right, the French on the left. \Vashington and Rocham- beau, each with his staff, sat on their horses at the head of the army. All mere spectators had been ordered to keep away by Washington, who repressed every sign of exultation. SURRENDER OF CORNWALLIS 202 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY General O'Hara was at the head of the defeated men. When he came opposite Washington, he lifted his hat and a])ologized for the absence of Cornwallis, because of illness. Washington in reply said that to General Lincoln had been assigned the duty of receiving the submission of the troops. This was a pleasant duty to Lincoln, who had been obliged to hand his own sword to Clinton the previous year on the surrender of Charleston. Lincoln conducted the troops to an open field, and the order to "ground arms " was given. Some of the soldiers, in their anger, flung down their guns so violently as to break them. A sharp command from Lincoln stopped the irregularity. The prisoners were then conducted back to Yorktown, to remain under guard until taken elsewhere. The British army surrendered included seven thousand two hundred and forty-seven English and Hessian soldiers and eight hundred and forty sailors. Seventy-five brass and thirty-one iron guns and the accoutrements of the army fell into our hands. The victory was the knell of the British conquest of America. The News in Philadelphia. — A courier mounted a swift horse and started for Philadelphia with the news. "Past two o'clock and Cornwallis is taken ! " was the thrilling cry that rang through the streets of that city and brought nearly every one from his house, breathless with excitement. Soon all the bells in the city were ringing; people went mad with joy, kissing one another, flinging their hats in air, and shouting through what remained of the night and into the next day. Early in the morning con- gress met, and in the afternoon marched in solemn procession to the Dutch Lutheran Church, where thanks were given to Almighty God for his deliverance of the nation. The aged door- keeper of congress was so overcome with joy that he dropped dead. Washington ordered divine service to be held at the heads of the regiments, because of the "particular interposition of Providence in their behalf." The News in England. — In England the news produced a pro- found impression. Lord North paced his room, flinging his EVENTS OF 178 1 203 arms in agony, and exclaiming: "My God! it is all over!" The people demanded that the attempts to subdue the colonies should cease at once, and called for the removal of the ministers who advocated otherwise. The house of commons declared by vote that whoever advised the king to continue hostilities should be looked upon as a public enemy. At the beginning of May, 1782, Sir Guy Carleton arrived in New York for propositions for reconciliation between the two countries. While the surrender at Yorktown virtually ended the war and secured the independence of the United States, the patriot armies still kept the field and considerable fighting took place. Greene held the British in Charleston, and Wayne guarded the garrisons in Augusta. It is said that the last blood shed in the Revolution was that of Captain Wilmot, in September, 1782, in a skirmish at Stono Ferry. Peace. — The preliminary articles of peace were signed at Versailles (ver-salz) November 30, 1782, but the final treaty was not executed until the 3d of September of the following year. Previous to this, April 19, on the eighth anniversary of the battle of Lexington, W\ashington, at the headquarters of the army, offi- cially declared the war at an end. Charleston was evacuated December 14, 1782, and Savannah July II, 1783. The English forces gathered in New York, and the present metropolis of America was evacuated November 25, 1783. The troops embarked in boats for Staten and Long islands, preparatory to taking ship for home. On the same morning General Knox, who had come down from West Point, entered the city with some troops from the Bowery. He took possession of Fort George, upon the Battery, amid the firing of guns and the cheering of the assembled multitude. Washington and his staff and Governor Clinton and suite made formal entry soon after. The commander-in-chief took up his headquarters at Fraunces Tavern, on the corner of Pearl and Broad streets, where, on December 4, he bade farewell to his principal officers. He then set out for Annapolis, and there surrendered his com- 204 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY mission to congress and became an ordinary citizen of the republic whose independence he had done so much to secure. Topics. — The wisdom of General Greene's appointment to command in the South; his course of action; General Morgan and other officers; battle of the Cowpens; fruits of the victory; the aim of Cornwallis; how he was baffled; the engagement at Guilford Court-IIouse; the next step of Corn- wallis; the successes of the Americans; battle of Eutaw Springs; the exploit of Manning of Lee's legion; action of congress at tlie beginning of the year; the revolt of the Pennsylvania line. The action to which congress was spurred; Arnold's raiding expedition into Virginia; his expedition to New London, Connecticut; his narrow es- cape; the conference between Washington and Rochambeau; Washington's plan of campaign; the march southward; the patriotism of Robert Morris; Count de Grasse; progress of the siege of Yorktown; hopeless situation of Cornwallis; his surrender; number that surrendered; how the news was re- ceived in Philadelphia; action of congress; the news in England; Lord North; the further lighting that was done; preliminary articles of peace; the final treaty; evacuation of Charleston; of New York; occupation of the city by the American troops; Washington's farewell to the army; his surrender of his commission. Biographical Notes. — Henry Lee was born in Virginia in 1756 and was a graduate of Princeton College. He was a valued friend of Washington and enlisted in the Revolution before he had attained his majority. He was a dashing officer who, in the latter half of the war, was in command of " Lee's Legion," which fact and his numerous brilliant exploits caased him to be known as " Light Horse Harry." He received a gold medal from congress for his daring capture of Paulus Hook (now Jersey City) in 1779. He effect lively covered Greene's retreat in 1781 and was one of the most prominent officers in the principal operations in Georgia and the Carolinas. He was elected to the continental congress and was governor of Virginia in 1792- 1795. General Lee suppressed the Whiskey Rebellion in 1794. He was author of the oft-quoted expression, "First in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen," which was used by John Marshall in his eulogy upon Wash- ington. General Lee was a congressman 1 799-1801, and while engaged in suppressing a fierce mob in Baltimore, in 1814, he received injuries wliich resulted four years later in his death. He was the father of General Robert E. Lee, the distinguished leader of the Confederacy. Robert Morris, the financier of the Revolution, was born in England in 1734, and removing to Philadelphia, became wealthy. He was an ardent lover of his adopted country, and one of the signers of the Declaration of EVENTS OF 1781 205 Independence. He was an active member of congress and organized the Bank of Nortii America in 1781. He was member of the constitutional con- vention of 1787 and United States senator 1789-1795. His repeated and successful efforts to furnish the patriot armies with funds undoubtedly saved the cause of independence several times from collapse. It is a sad fact, how- ever, that in the later years of his life, when unfortunate in business, this noble patriot spent a number of months in prison for debt. He died in 1 806. Comte de Rochambeau was born in France in 1725 and served his country in several wars before coming to the United States, in 1780, in command of the French force which gave so invaluable aid in the closing campaign of the war. He returned to France in 1783, became a field marshal, and died in 1807. Count de Grasse, born in France in 1723, commanded the French fleet of twenty-nine vessels and three thousand men which helped Washington and Rochambeau at the siege of Yorktown. Returning to his native land, he died in 1788. Frederick North, Earl of Guilford, was born in England in 1733. He is best known as Lord North. He favored the most drastic measures against the American colonies, and we have learned of his shock upon hearing of the surrender of Cornwallis. He was lord of the treasury in 1763 and chancellor of the exchequer and leader of the house of commons in 1767. He became first lord of the treasury and prime minister of England in 1770, holding the office until 1782, when he resigned, dying ten years later. Henry Knox was a native of Boston, where he was born in 1750. He had charge of a bookstore, which he left in order to take part in the battle of Bunker Hill. He was made a brigadier general of artillery, and rendered good service at Trenton, Brandywine, Monmouth, and Yorktown, winning promotion to major generalship. He was made secretary of war in 1785, and was reappointed by Washington, under whom he served until 1795. In 1806, he met his death from the lodgment of a chicken bone in his throat while at the dinner table. Daniel Morgan, one of the hardest fighters of the Revolution, was born in New Jersey in 1736. He fought through the French and Indian war and against Pontiac, after which he became a farmer in Virginia. Twelve years later, he led a company of Virginia riflemen to Boston to aid Washington in the siege of the city. He was specially active in Montgomery's expedition against Quebec, and was captured in the assault on the city. He was released by Sir Guy Carleton and was soon again striking telling blows for his country. He was with Gates in the Burgoyne campaign and rendered great aid to the patriot army. In 1780, he was made brigadier general and won the battle of the Cowpens, effecting a junction with Greene, as we have learned, despite the 2o6 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY determined efforts of Cornvvallis to prevent it. He was a congressman from Virginia in 1797 and died in 1802. Thomas Nelson, who, as related, directed the fire of the patriot artillery against his own house, where Cornwallis made his headquarters at Yorktown, was born in Virginia in 1738, and represented the State in the continental congress in 1776, 1777, and 1779. He was a signer of the Declaration of Independence and governor of Virginia in 1781. The most creditable fact in his career is that, although he was enormously wealthy, he spent all that he possessed in aiding his country in its struggle for independence. To THE Pui'iL. — Complete the following skeleton history of battles, in their regular order, from the opening of the Revolution to the surrender at Yorktown. SKELETON HISTORY OF PERIOD III Name of Battle Where Fought Lexington Lexington, Mass. April 19, 1775 Part IV THE PERIOD OF EORMATION AND GROWTH CHAPTER XIX FORMATION OF THE GOVERNMENT I HE end of a great war is always followed by depression, and it requires many years for a nation to recover from its exhaustion. War is a great calamity and never to be resorted to except for self-preservation. Let us all pray that the day may soon come when arbi- tration shall be the only method of settling disputes between nations, as well as between individuals. It will be the grandest step forward ever taken in the world's civilization. Poverty and Unrest of the Nation. — At the close of the Revo- lution the United States was as poor as it could be. There was no commerce, trade was destroyed, and the currency that had been issued possessed no value at all. The great source of trouble was the powerlessness of congress over the different States. All that that body could do was to recommend certain measures, and the States accepted or rejected the advice as they felt dis- posed. Washington and the leading statesmen saw how impossible it was to thrive without a strong central government, with clearly defined powers and the authority to enforce its laws. The Articles of Confederation, adopted in 1777, had no substance. Nothing 207 •Utu. \o<-W City X Tif 208 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY gave them force except a common danger, or the willingness of all concerned. It was not until March, 1781, that Maryland, the last State, subscribed to them. Congress had no power over domestic or foreign commerce. Each State made its own regu- lations, and the friction at times threatened civil war. This extreme poverty and weakness of the government endan- gered its existence before the army was disbanded. The condi- tion of the soldiers was l)itiful. They had no money, and their fami- lies were reduced to rags and starvation. While Washington was at his headquarters in Newburg, in March, 1783, an anonymous address was distributed among the troops, urg- ing them to overthrow the civil authorities and obtain their rights by force. Washington was asked to become king, but the great man spurned the offer. He deeply sympathized with the distressed patriots, and finally secured a grant of five years' full pay for the officers. Thus that peril was averted. In 1783 the Northern and Middle States contained about a million and a half of people, and the Southern a million. Vir- ginia was the most populous, with four hundred thousand inhabi- tants, and Pennsylvania and Massachusetts came next, with three hundred and fifty thousand apiece. The population of Phila- delphia was forty thousand, of Boston twenty thousand, while .TON S PATRIOTISM FORMATION OF THE GOVERNMENT 209 New York had barely fourteen thousand. The estimated debt of the country in the spring of 1783 was forty-two million dollars, and that of the different States twenty million dollars. The States dragged on for two years, growing poorer, if that were possible, and steadily diverging from one another in feeling and interest, until everything seemed to be going to ruin. The germs of good government, however, did not die and were soon INSURRECTION to spring into new life. The preliminary steps toward forming a new Constitution were taken by the commissioners of Mary- land and Virginia in 1785. Delegates from five States met at Annapolis in September, 1786, and formulated a report, advising congress to call a general convention for a more effective revision of the Articles of Confederation. Shays's Insurrection. — Among the events which helped the movement for a strong central government was the action of 2IO A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY Captain Daniel Shays of Massachusetts. He headed a mob of two thousand men, who dispersed the supreme court sitting at Springfield, and demanded the abolishment of taxes and the issue of paper money for general use. Congress sent General Lincoln, with four thousand troops, to disperse the rioters. Lincoln replaced the judges in their seats, and fired upon the mob when they were about to attack the arsenal. They scattered, and the little rebellion ended. The Constitutional Convention. — This body assembled in Phila- delphia in May, 1787, every State except Rhode Island being represented. They met in the same room, in Independence Hall, where the Declaration of Independence was signed. Washington was elected president of the convention, and some of the ablest men of the nation took part in the proceedings. Discussion soon proved that a mere revision of the Articles of Confederation would not do; it was necessary to form a wholly new system of government. At last, after full discussion and with extreme care, the Constitution was completed and signed, September 17, 1787, by all the delegates except Gerry of Massa- chusetts and Randolph and Mason of Virginia. It was to go into effect March 4, 1789, if adopted by nine States. Pennsylvania, Delaware, and New Jersey ratified it in 1787, and the other States followed, with the exception of North Carolina and Rhode Island, which adopted it in 1789 and 1790, respectively. Presidential elections were held in the States that had ratified the Constitution, except New York, where the legislature omitted to pass a law providing a mode of choosing electors. Ten States, therefore, voted. They gave every one of their electoral votes — sixty-nine in number — to George Washington for President. John Adams received thirty-four and became Vice President. The rule prevailed that the one receiving the largest number of votes was elected President, and the next highest Vice President. A majority of the whole number was necessary to the choice of a President, but not of a Vice President. Thus the two might belong to different political parties. FORMATION OF THE GOVERNMENT 211 The Northwestern Territory. — The territory of the United States, at the close of the Revolution, comprised that enormous region between the Atlantic Ocean and the Mississippi and from the St. Lawrence and Great Lakes on the north to the thirty- first parallel south. Northwest of the Ohio was a vast tract claimed by several States, because it was included in their original charter limits. The State boundaries were a source of trouble for years. Li the original grants, the western boundaries of New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Pennsylvania, Delaware, New Jersey, and Mary- land were defined. New York claimed that she had no western boundary, but was satisfied to have it remain as it is now. The other six States were supposed to extend westward to the Pacific, but when Louisiana was transferred to Spain, in 1763, the Mis- sissippi River became the extreme western limit. The most remarkable claim was that of Virginia. It will be noted that with most of the other States claiming to extend to the Mississippi, the northern and southern boundaries are parallel; but the claim of Virginia was that her northern boundary took a northwest course, so that her territory widened out like a fan and included the present States of Kentucky, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin, while the claims of Massachusetts and Connecticut invaded those of Virginia. The other States insisted that since the thirteen won this territory from Great Britain, all should share in its apportionment. There was but one way of settling the wrangle, and New York set the example in 1780, by ceding all her western claims to the United States. Virginia did the same in 1784, Massachusetts in 1785, Connecticut in 1786, South Carolina in 1787, North Carolina in 1790, and Georgia in 1802. By this sensible course, the western boundaries of the States named were fixed as they are to-day. The Western Reserve along Lake Erie in northeastern Ohio is so called because Connecticut retained and sold it. Congress, in session in New York, before, during, and after the constitutional convention in Philadelphia, passed a memora- ble ordinance in 1787. It provided for the government of the 212 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY Northwestern territory, until certain portions should contain sixty thousand inhabitants, when they were to be admitted as States. It prohibited forever "slavery or involuntary servitude, except for crime," therein. A tide of emigration set westward, for the lands were fertile, and the Indian titles to seventeen million acres had been extin- guished. In 1788 the settlement of Marietta was begun at the mouth of the Muskingum, and during the same year more than twenty thousand people built their cabins in the Northwestern Territory, which afterward formed the populous States of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin. TOPICS. — The depression that follows the end of a great war; arbitration; the poverty of the United States; commerce, trade, and the currency; the main souice of trouble; what was needed; the Articles of Confederation; the condition of the soldiers; what occurred at Newburg; the relief extended by congress; the population of the States in 1783; of Philadelphia, Boston, and New York; the national and State debts; the preliminary steps toward the formation of a strong central government; Shays's insurrection; the con- stitutional convention; when it was signed; when adopted by the different States; the presidential elections that followed; the results of the election; extent of the United States territory at the close of the Revolution; the State boundaries; the claims made by the original grants; the remarkable claim of Virginia; how the dispute was settled; the erection of the Northwestern Ter- ritory; what the ordinance provided; the emigration westward; settlement of Marietta; number of settlers for that year in the Northwest; the States afterward formed from the Northwestern Territory. CHAPTER XX Washington's administrations. — 1 789-1 797 ASHINGTON'S Patriotism.— Washington would «vfivi '■'^^i^M '^^^^ preferred to spend the remainder of $.1:' ■'"'c'^^A^ his life in his tranquil home at Mount Ver- ■f'^c- .^^ S^^ ^^^^^' t)^^ h^^ patriotism would not allow him to disregard the call of his country. He had so little money at the time, that his home W^^^^^^^^m^ was threatened by the sheriff, and he had to *u^.e a^..,vu.3i.rt. mrth-ftact borrow funds with which to pay his most pressing debts. Washington's Inauguration. — The President elect left Mount Vernon on April 16, and the entire journey to New York was a continual ovation. He received honors at almost every step of the way, and was welcomed to the nation's capital by the joyous thousands who felt that no reward could be too great for the illustrious patriot that had enshrined himself forever in the hearts of his loving countrymen. The inauguration ceremonies took place April,3o, in Federal Hall, on the present site of the sub- treasury building. Chancellor Robert R. Livingston of New York administered the oath, in a balcony of the senate chamber, in full view of the vast concourse on the outside, who cheered the great man to the echo. Other ceremonies followed, Wash- ington showing deep emotion at the manifestations of love and loyalty on the part of all. The First Constitutional Congress. — The first session of the first constitutional congress was chiefly occupied in setting the government machinery in motion. The following nominations 213 214 A HISTORY or OUR COUNTRY for the first cabinet were made by Washington and confirmed by the senate: Thomas Jefferson, secretary of foreign affairs, after- ward known as secretary of state; Alexander Hamilton, secretary of the treasury; Henry Knox, secretary of war; and Edmund Randolph, attorney general. John Jay was appointed chief justice of the supreme court, with John Rutledge, James Wilson, WASHINGTON'S INAUGURATION William Cushing, Robert H. Harrison, and John Blair associates. (The senate refused to confirm the nomination of Rutledge.) Federalists and Republicans, — The most urgent question was that of finance. Hamilton handled it with great skill. The debt of the confederation and States was almost eighty million dollars. Hamilton's plan, as submitted to congress, called for the payment by the United States of every dollar due to Ameri- can citizens, and also the war debt of the country. There was WASHING TON'S ADM INI S TRA TIONS 2 I 5 Strong opposition to the scheme, but it prevailed. The discus- sions in congress brought out the lines between the Federalists and the Republicans, or, as they were afterward called. Demo- crats. The Federalists favored the enlargement of the powers of the general government, while the Re- publicans insisted upon holding the government to the exact letter of the Constitution, and giving to the indi- vidual States all rights not expressly pro- hibited by the Constitution. BP?' ■ '-wfl^^AL."^ -^ The Seat of Government. — • North Caro- lina did not adopt the Constitution until November 13, 1789. Little Rhode Island sulked until Massachusetts and Connecti- cut proposed to parcel her between them, 1 , , 1 ,, GEORGE WASHINGTON when she came to terms and adopted the Constitution, May 29, 1790. It was decided to transfer the seat of government to Philadelphia until 1800, when it was to be permanently fixed upon the eastern bank of the Potomac. The third session of the first congress, therefore, was held in Phila- delphia, on the first Monday in December, 1790. Through the efforts of Hamilton, the United States Bank and a national mint were established in that city, and did much to advance the prosperity of the country. A Protective Tariff. — In 1791, Hamilton made a memorable report to congress. In it he favored a protective tariff, recom- mending that the materials from which goods are manufactured should not be taxed, and advising that articles which competed with those made in this country should be prohibited. These and other important features were embodied in a bill, which was passed February 9, 1792. Trouble with the Indians. — Trouble occurred with the Indians in the Northwestern Territory and in the South. Georgia was dissatisfied with the treaty, by which a considerable part of the State was relinquished to the Indians. The difficulty in the 2l6 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY Northwest was much more serious. General Harmar was sent to punish the red men for their many outrages, but was twice defeated. Then General St. Clair took his place. Before he set out, Washington impressively warned him against being surprised; but he, too, was beaten and his army routed with great slaughter. "Mad Anthony" Wayne now took up the task, with nearly three thousand men, and completed it thoroughly. At Fallen Timbers, August 20, 1794, he met the combined tribes and BATTLE OF FALLEN TIMBERS delivered a crushing defeat, from which the Indians did not recover for years. One year later, eleven hundred chiefs and warriors met the United States commissioners at Fort Greenville and signed a treaty of peace, relinquishing at the same time a vast tract of land lying in the present States of Indiana and Michigan. The Whiskey Rebellion. — -Among the important laws passed by congress was one imposing a duty on distilled spirits. This roused great opposition in western Pennsylvania, where whiskey was the principal article of manufacture and trade. The revolt IVASHING TON'S ADMINISTRATIONS 21/ there assumed such formidable proportions that it became known as the "Whiskey Rebellion," and the President was compelled to call out the militia, fifteen thousand strong, to suppress it. "Washington's Second Term. — Washington did not desire a second term, but his countrymen would not permit him to decline. He again received all the electoral votes cast, while the next highest number went to John Adams. Strong party spirit was shown, Hamilton being the leader of the Federalists and Jefferson the foremost Republican. "Citizen Genet." — During >Vashington's administrations, France was plunged into the bloodiest revolution known in his- tory. Her representative in this country was Edmond Charles Genet (zheh-na), better known as "Citizen Genet." Landing at Charleston, South Carolina, in April, 1793, he did not wait to present his credentials to the government, but began enlisting soldiers and fitting out privateers for the French service. Many thoughtless citizens encouraged him, but the wise Washington, finding that Genet defied him, ended the business by compelling his country to recall him. Jay's Treaty. — There was much trouble also with Great Britain, but a treaty was finally arranged with her by our special envoy, John Jay. One of its provisions guaranteed payment to British citizens of debts due them before the war. This caused much opposition, but the time came when it was admitted that Jay's treaty was one of the best made by our government. Retirement of Washington. —Washington was strongly urged to be a candidate a third time for the presidency, but refused. He was growing old; he had given the best years of his life to the service of his country and yearned for the quiet, restful life at Mount Vernon. Nothing could dissuade him from his pur- pose, and in his farewell address to the people of the United States, September 17, 1796, he made known his decision. Presidential Election of 1796. — The presidential election of 1 796 was warmly contested. Of the one hundred and thirty-eight electoral votes cast, John Adams, Federalist, received seventy- 2l8 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY one, and Thomas Jefferson, Republican, sixty-eight. Thus the President and Vice President were politically opposed to each other. New States. — Three new States were formed during Washing- ton's administrations. The first was Vermont, which came in March 4, 1791. The section was discovered by Champlain in 1609, its name in French meaning "green mountain." A settle- ment was made within its present limits at Fort Dummer by pioneers from Massachusetts. After the French and Indian war, emigrants came west of the Connecticut River in large numbers. New Hampshire claimed the territory. New York did the same, and, appealing to the king, he decided in favor of New York. The settlers of the "New Hampshire Grants" applied to the continental congress in 1776 for admission, but, as New York opposed, withdrew the application. The inhabitants took an active part in the Revolution. Kentucky was admitted June i, 1792. Its name does not mean "dark and bloody ground," as is generally supposed, but is derived from the Indian word, "Kain-tuk-ae," signifying "Land at the head of the river." At first it was a part of Vir- ginia and was settled by Daniel Boone in 1769, and organized into a Territory in 1790. The numerous conflicts with Indians on its soil have well earned for it the suggestive title named. Tennessee was admitted June i, 1796. Its name, according to some writers, is from "Tenasea," an Indian chief, while others believe that it means "river of the big bend." It was colonized in 1754, organized as the State of Frankland or P>anklin in 1785, merged in the "Territory south of the Ohio" in 1789, and be- came a separate Territory in 1794. Topics. — Washington's preference; his journey to New York ; his inaugu- ration; the first session of the first constitutional congress; Washington's first cabinet; the Federalists and Repubhcans; adoption of the Constitution; the changes made in the national seat of government; the United States Bank and the mint; the first protective tariff; the troubles with the Indians; Wayne's victory at Fallen Timliers; the treaty which followed; the Whiskey Rebellion; WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATIONS 219 Washington's second election; the doings of " Citizen Genet"; Jay's treaty with England; the retirement of Washington; the presidential election of 1796; the admission of Vermont; its early history; the admission of Ken- tucky; its early history; the admission of Tennessee; its early history. Biographical Notes.— Alexander Hamilton was bom in the West Indies in 1757. As a child his precocity was remarkable. When fifteen years old he was sent to New York city, and soon after entered Columliia (then King's) College. At the age of seventeen a patriotic speech made by him held his hearers spellbound. He organized a company of cavalry at the be- ginning of the war, before he was twenty years of age, and performed active service on Long Island and at White Plains. He was one of the most valua- ble members of Washington's staff, serving until the close of the last campaign at Yorktown, He was in the continental congress in 1 782-1 783, and was the ablest friend of the new Constitution which he helped to frame. In the con- vention held in New Y'ork to ratify the Constitution, three-fourths of the members were strongly opposed to its adoption. By the power of his logic and eloquence Hamilton won them over and secured the vote of the Empire State. His services as a member of Washington's cabinet stamped him as one of the greatest statesmen of his time. He was the foremost Federalist as Jefferson was the foremost Republican, and even the genius of Washington could not keep them on good terms, as a consequence of which Hamilton resigned in 1795. In 1798, he was appointed inspector general at the request of Washington, when war with France was imminent. He read the vicious nature of Aaron Burr, and was so persistent an enemy of his schemes, that Burr challenged him to a duel, which was fought at Wehawken, New Jersey, July II, 1804. Hamilton did not fire at Burr, but the latter took deliberate aim at Hamilton, who was mortally wounded. His death shocked the whole country. Edmund J. Randolph was a noted Virginian, born in 1753, who became an active patriotic leader soon after his graduation from William and Mary College. He was attorney general of Virginia, a member of the continental congress, and of the constitutional convention of 1786. He was governor of Virginia 1 786-1 788, and although he refused to sign the Constitution, he advocated its adoption by Virginia. He served as attorney general for Wash- ington 1 789-1 794, when he became secretary of state, but resigned in the fol- lowing year. He died in 181 3. John Jay, born in 1745, was graduated from King's (now Columbia) Col- lege and became an active member of the committee of correspondence. He was a delegate to the first continental congress and wrote the " Address to the People of Great Britain." He was also in the second congress and helped to form the State constitution of New York, becoming chief justice of the 220 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY State in 1777. In 1780, he was made minister to Spain, and helped Adams and Franklin to negotiate peace. He served as secretary of foreign affairs in 1784-1789, and was governor of New York 1795-1801, dying in 1829. Josiah Harmar was born in 1753 and served through the Revolution, attaining the rank of lieutenant colonel. From 17S9 to 1792 he was com- mander-in-chief of the United States army. He dieil in 1813. Arthur St. Clair was an English soldier, horn in 1734, who won laurels at the siege of (Quebec. He was with General Sullivan in the Canadian expedi- tion of 1776, and commanded a brigade at Trenton and Princeton. He was a major general when he surrendered Ticonderoga in 1777, and was present at the surrender of Cornwallis in 1781. After serving in the continental con- gress from 1785 to 1787, from Pennsylvania, he became governor of the North- west Territory, holding the office from 1789 to 1802. He died in 1818. Edmond C. Genet was born in France in 1765. When Genet, at the de- mand of Washington, was recalled in 1794, he was too wise to return to France, where he would have been guillotined, but, remaining in this country, became naturalized, married an excellent lady, lived happily, and died in 1834. John Adams, second President of the United States, was born at Braintree, Massachusetts, October 19, 1735. He was graduated from Harvard College and became a lawyer. He was an industrious and influential member of the first and second continental congresses, where he was chairman of twenty-five committees and a member of more than sixty others. No man did as much as he to strengthen the sentiment for American independence. To him was mainly due the adoption by congress of the Declaration of Independence, and it was at his suggestion that Washington was appointed commander-in-chief of the American armies. He was of medium stature, rotund person, bald on the top of his head, deliberate of speech and utterance, a (irm believer in Christianity and of spotless character. He was troubled with a quick temper, however, and at the inauguration of Jefferson, as his successor, showed his resentment by leaving Washington early in the morning, so as not to be pres- ent at the ceremonies. He and Jefferson became reconciled afterward and corresponded to the close of their lives. One of the strangest facts in our his- tory is that Jefferson, the author of the Declaration of Independence, and John Adams, who secured its adoption, both died on the same day, July 4, 1826, exactly fifty years after the signing of the immortal document. When Adams took the oath of office, March 4, 1797, Washington was among those who were present. CHAPTER XXI JOHN ADAMS's ADMINISTRATION. — I797-180I IHREATENED War with France. — Charles C. Pinckney, our minister to France, was dismissed, with notice that no other repre- sentative from this country would be received until we had complied with the demands of the new French republic. Furthermore, the French marine were ordered to prey upon American commerce. The President called an extra session of congress, and Elbridge Gerry and John Marshall were appointed to accompany Minister Pinckney back to France, in the effort to effect a reconcili- ation. Their reception was insulting. M. Tal- leyrand informed them that they could not be received by the directory (the rul- ing body then in France), and that as a preliminary to all business a loan should be made to France, and each member of the directory must be presented with a bribe of two hundred and forty thousand dollars. Pinckney replied with the his- torical words : " Millions for defence, but not one cent for tribute ! " President Adams now began preparations for war. All com- mercial intercourse with France was suspended; the President was authorized to detach eighty thousand men from the militia JOHN ADAMS A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY of the United States, and a navy department was organized. Twenty-four vessels were to be prepared, and our merchants were authorized to arm themselves against the French vessels of war. General Washington was once more placed at the head of the army, and he selected Alexander Hamilton as the active com- mander. Although an old man, Washington declared, when his commission was handed to him in the field near his home, that he was ready for any service his country might ask. Hostilities occurred on the ocean. Com- modore Truxtun, in command of the frigate Coiistcllatiou, ca ptured the French war vessels IJ Insurgent and La Vengeance. But that marvellous military genius, Napoleon Bo- naparte, had fought his way through blood to the throne of France, and he brought the mad people to their senses sufficiently for them to see the folly of a war with the United States. A satisfactory treaty was made between the two countries in 1800. The Alien and Sedition Laws. — The violent denunciations of our government by the friends of France led to the passage, in the summer of 1798, of what was known as the "alien and sedi- tion laws," The first gave the President the power to send out WASHINGTON RECEIVES HIS COMMISSION JOHN ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION 223 of the country any foreigner whom he believed to be dangerous to the peace, and extended the period of naturalization to four- teen years. The sedition law declared it a crime to "write, print, utter, or publish any false, scandalous, or malicious state- ment against either congress or the President. These laws awak- ened bitter opposition. Kentucky and Virginia declared that when congress passed acts unauthorized by the Constitution, as she had done in this instance, the States were not bound to obey them. These resolutions were dictated by Vice President Jeffer- son and were sent to the legislatures of other States. They became an all-absorbing theme of discussion for years. Within them was embodied the momentous question of "State rights," or, more properly, "State sovereignty," which bore its fruitage a half-century later Death of "Washington. — On the 14th of December, 1799, General Washington died at Mount Vernon. Exposure to a driving rain and snowstorm brought on pneumonia. Of no one can it be said so truly that a nation mourned his loss. He will always remain one of the grandest, most illustrious, and heroic figures in history; one whose lofty character, wonderful gifts, and consecration to the highest good of his country have never been surpassed by any man, ancient or modern. He was buried with fitting honors, the remains being placed in the present receptacle in Mount Vernon in 1837. The resolutions offered in congress contained the immortal eulogy: "First in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen." The distinguished jurist, John Marshall, de- livered the eulogy containing this expression, but, as we have learned, the author of the words was Washington's former com- rade in arms and intimate friend. General Richard Henry Lee, or "Light Horse Harry," as he was familiarly known. Removal of the National Capital to Washington, D.C. — The District of Columbia was ceded to the United States by Maryland and Virginia in 1790, for the purpose of making it the capital of our country. The city of Washington was laid out in 1781, and 224 'l IIISrOKY OF OUR COUNTRY President ^Vashington laid the cornerstone of the north wing of the capitol April i8, 179.^ The Federal government was re- moved to Washington in the summer of 1800. Presidential Election of 1800. — Party lines were sharply drawn in the presidential election of 1800. The Federal party put for- ward as their candidate for President John Adams, and for Vice President Charles C. Pinckney. The candidates of the Republi- cans were Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr. Adams's course during the troubles with France strengthened him, but the alien and sedition laws lost him the vote of New York, and conse- quently the election. He received sixty-five electoral votes, Pinckney sixty-four, and Jefferson and Burr each seventy-three. The latter being a tie, the contest was thrown into the house of representatives, where, on the thirty-sixth ballot, Jefferson was elected President and Burr Vice President. Topics. — The insulting course of P'rance; the action of the President; the reception of our three representatives by M. Talleyrand; the reply of Pinckney; the preparations for war by the President; (jeneral Washington; the hostilities on the ocean; Napoleon Bonaparte; the treaty of 1800; the alien and sedition laws; what was done by the first; by the second; the bitter opposition to them; the death of Washington; removal of the national capital to Washington; the presidential election of 1800. Biographical Notes. — Charles Cotesworth Pinckney was bom in South Carolina in 1746. He was attorney general of the colony and a member of the provincial congress. He did good service in the war until 1780, when he was among those who surrendered at Charleston. He assisted in framing the Constitution in 1787, and, after his repulse by Talleyrand and return home, was made major general in view of the expected war with France. Pinckney was a leading Federalist, and as such was defeated for the Vice Presidency in 1800, and for President in 1804 and 1 808. He died in 1825. Elbridge Gerry, born in Massachusetts in 1744, was a member of the colo- nial assembly from 1772 to 1775, and of the continental congress from 1776 to 17S0 and from 1783 to 1785. Massachusetts sent him to the lirst United States congress in 1789 and he remained until 1793. He was elected Vice President as a Democrat in 1812 and died in office in 1814. In 181 1 the Republicans of Massachusetts carried out a redistricting scheme while Gerry was governor (i8io-i8ii). This unfair method of one political party taking advantage, when in power, of another has been followed to a greater or less JOHN ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION 225 extent ever since, and derives its name, " gerrymander," from the fact that Gerry was governor at the time the triclc was originated. John Marshall was born in Virginia in 1755, and was, therefore, but a youth when the Revolutionary war began. He enhsted, however, as a regimental officer and did good service throughout the struggle. He studied law after the close of hostilities, and as a member of the Virginia convention for ratify- ing the Constitution in 1788 he overcame all opposition. He was congress- man 1799-1800, and secretary of state 1800-1801, when President Adams appointed him chief justice of the supreme court, which office he retained until his death in 1S35. His great reputation was made as an "interpreter" of the national Constitution, and he was foremost of all American jurists. Thomas Truxtun, who taught the French cruisers their much-needed lesson, was born in 1755, and served as lieutenant of the privateer Congress when twenty-one years old. The following year he was captain of the Inde- pendence, and captured several prizes. He died in 1S22. Aaron Burr was born in New Jersey in 1756, and was graduated from Princeton at the age of sixteen, with a " perfect " record of scholarship. He attained the rank of colonel in the Revolution, and afterward he became the attorney general of New York. He was devoid of moral principle, but by his captivating manners and political adroitness he was elected to the United States senate and to the vice presidency of the country. He tied the vote with Jeffer- son for the presidency in i8cx) for more than thirty ballots. We have learned of the death of Hamilton at his hands. After that terrilile deed, Burr engaged in what is believed to have been a treasonable scheme against the United States, which involved the erection of an independent State in the Southwest. He w^as tried upon the charge of treason, in Richmond, in 1806, Chief Justice Marshall presiding. He was acquitted and spent some years in Europe. Re- turning to New York, he died in obscurity on Staten Island in 1836. Thomas Jefferson, the "apostle of democracy," was born at Shadwell, Albemarle county, Virginia, April 2, 1743. He was graduated from \Villiam and Mary College, and, studying for the bar, received three thousand dollars — a large sum in those days — during the first year of his practice. He was a man of great ability, original ideas, and marked force of character. He was the author of the Declaration of Independence, as he was of our decimal system of coinage. He adopted the practice of sending his message to con- gress, a practice which has been maintained ever since. In person, Jefferson was six feet, two inches in height, erect but thin, with fair complexion, red- dish hair, light blue eyes, large nose, broad forehead, and a countenance of great intellectuality. He was among the most learned of our Presidents, speaking several languages fluently, was a fine musician, and assumed office with the full confidence of the whole country. CHAPTER XXII Jefferson's administrations. — 1801-1S09 |HE Principles of the Original Republicans, or Democrats. — The vital princi[)le of the original Republicans, or Democrats, as they were afterward known, was the diffusion of power among the people. In them, it was maintained, resided the original and inher- ent sovereignty. For clearly specified pur- poses this power had been delegated in two directions — to the general government, as a bond of union between all the States, and to the counties, towns, cities, villages, and corporations within their limits for special objects. The legislation of the central government was to be of a general character, while the local authorities attended to all home legislation. Important Legislation. — The Sedition Act was speedily re- pealed and all those undergoing its penalties were set free. The alien law was also modified by reducing the term of naturaliza- tion to five years. The military academy at West Point, which had been recommended by Washington, was established, and by the twelfth amendment to the Constitution it was made the duty of the electors to designate which persons were voted for as Presi- dent and Vice President. This amendment was passed in 1804, and rendered it inevitable that both officers should always belong to the same political party. Acquisition of New Territory. — The most important work of Jefferson's administrations was the addition of an immense area 226 JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATIONS 22/ to our territory by the purchase, April 30, 1803, of Louisiana. The price paid was fifteen million dollars. Ohio, the first State carved from the Northwestern Territory, was admitted to the Union February 19, 1803. It was first settled at Marietta in 1788. Lewis and Clarke's Expedition. — This transaction added more than a million square miles to our territory. While the West was delighted, there was fear in the East that the attractions of the new country would drain the older portions. Upon the recommendation of the President, an exploring expedition was sent into the unknown region. Com- posed of thirty men, it left the Missis- sippi, May 14, 1804, under the command of Captains Meriwether Lewis and Wil- liam Clarke, the latter a younger brother of Major George Rogers Clarke. They embarked in a flotilla and ascended the Missouri for two thousand six hundred miles. To the three streams, forming that river, they gave the respective names of Jefferson, Madison, and Gallatin. ^, , . , . THOMAS JEFFERSON rushing their way on horseback across the mountains, they discovered the rivers named for themselves and traced the Columbia to the Pacific. They were the first party of white men to cross the continent north of Mexico. They were gone more than two years, and brought back valuable information of the hitherto unknown half of our country. War with Tripoli. — For twenty years the United States, like other Christian nations, had regularly paid tribute to the Barbary States in northern Africa, on condition that their pirates would let our vessels alone when they ventured into that part of the world. It sometimes happened that our tribute was late in reach- ing the despots, who, thereupon, added a round sum as a penalty, which was handed over without protest. Furthermore, the inso- lent rulers now and then liked to have the payment made in naval 228 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY Stores. In such cases, they insisted upon fixing the valuation themselves. We let them do it, even when they undervalued the property one-half. Captain William Bainbridge could hardly contain his disgust and anger when, in 1800, he carried, as our representative, the tribute to Algiers. Presenting himself before the dey, he was ordered to take it to the sultan of Constantinople, to haul down his flag and run up that of Algiers. The naval officer refused. " \'ou are my slaves," said the des- pot ; " for if you were not, you would not pay me tribute. I command, and you must obey." Fine language that to be addressed to an officer of the United States! But Bainbridge had to do as told, for he was at the mercy of the castle guns in the harbor, and the American consul urged him to obey. "I will do so, because there is no choice," remarked Bain- bridge; "but I hope to deliver the next tribute from the mouths of my cannon." The following year the dey of Tripoli became angry because he did not receive as much money as he wanted from the United States. So he declared war against us. Nothing could have pleased our young navy better, for of course the war had to be waged for us by the navy, and the officers were yearning for a chance at the insolent barbarians. In August, 1 80 1, Lieutenant Sterrett, of the Enterprise, with Wu -i^ f:jmm^ ^i WtKS^ii^i J^y'i' ^iMi^Mi grif^ s WM pk 'T^jffip ■ V .>^'- . IDGt BtF ALGIERS JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATIONS 229 twelve guns attacked a Tripolitan vessel of fourteen guns off Malta. At the end of two hours the Tripolitans hauled down their flag. The Americans stopped firing and broke *nto cheers, in the midst of which the enemy discharged a broadside. The fighting began again, and the Tripolitans strove desperately to board the Enterprise, but were repulsed. By and by they hauled down their flag again, but a second time fired into the Americans. By this time, as we may well suppose, Li-eutenant Slerr&tt was out of patience. He raked the enemy from stem to stern, shot away the mizzenmast, made a sieve of the hull, and killed and wounded fifty men. Through the smoke the captain was seen leaping about the deck, wildly flinging his arms and shrieking that he had surrendered. To prove that he was in earnest, he • flung his colors into the sea. Lieutenant Sterrett ordered him to throw his ammunition and arms overboard, cut away-the rest of the masts, and dismantle his ship. This was done. Then he was allowed to rig a jury mast and hoist a single sail. *' Now go home," said the American lieutenant, "and give my compliments to your dey." To prove the insignificance of those pirates when compared with our own sailors, it may be said that in this spirited engage- ment, treacherously renewed twice, not a single man was killed on board the Enterprise. Had the pirates succeeded in boarding, they would have inflicted considerable loss of life, for they fought viciously at close quarters. In July, 1802, the Constellation, under Captain Murray, fought nine Tripolitan gunboats and drove five ashore, the rest saving themselves by running into the harbor. The Philadelphia, while chasing a blockade-runner, ran upon a reef in the harbor of Tripoli. She was attacked by a fle'et of gunboats, and Captain Bainbridge, being helpless, was obliged to surrender with all his men. The barbarians floated off the Phila- delphia, when the tide rose, refitted her, and thus secured a most valuable prize. One night, however, Lieutenant Stephen Decatur, in a small vessel, the Intrepid, sailed in and made fast to the Philadelphia. 230 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY He pretended his vessel was a merchantman that had lost her anchors. The Tripolitans suspected nothing until the Americans swarmed over the gunwales and through the portholes. The enemy scattered, and setting fire to the PkiladelpJiia, Decatur withdrew. The vessel was burned to the water's edge. In November, 1804, Commodore Samuel Barron arrived with the President and Constellation and superseded Commodore Preble. The American squadron now numbered ten vessels, carrying two hundred and sixty-four guns. In April, 1805, Derne, one of the seaports of Tripoli, was bombarded and the town stormed and cai)tured. For the first time in history the Stars and Stripes were hoisted over a fortifi- cation on the eastern side of the Atlantic. The enemy were de- feated again the following month, and the Americans began their march toward Tripoli. By this time the bashaw was terrified. He gladly signed a treaty of peace on the 3d of June. He received sixty thousand dollars for the captives in his hands, but the paying of tribute ceased and a full exchange of prisoners was effected. Re-election of Jefferson. — • In the presidential campaign of 1804, Jefferson was re-elected on the Republican ticket, while (ieorge Clinton of New York took the place of Burr. The nomi- nees of the Federal party were Charles Cotesworth Pinckney of South Carolina and Rufus King of New York, who carried but two States out of the seventeen. THE CLERMONT The First Steamboat on the Hudson. — One of the most inter- esting events of Jefferson's administration was the first steam- JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATIONS 231 boat voyage on the Hudson. Fitch, in 1790, constructed an awkward affair which ran by steam on the Delaware, but it was soon given up, the results being unsatisfactory. The Clermont was launched at New York, and started up the Hudson August i, 1807. She was the invention of Robert Fulton, and was about one hundred feet in length and not quite twenty feet wide, with paddle wheels and a sheet-iron boiler that had been brought from England. It took her thirty-two hours to ascend one hundred and fifty miles against the current. Trouble with England. — England and France were engaged in another of their never-ending wars. England, by its " Orders in Council," declared all vessels engaged in conveying West India products from the United States to Europe legal prizes, and a number of ports under control of France were proclaimed in a state of blockade. Napoleon, in retaliation, issued the "Berlin Decree," which forbade the introduction of English goods into any port of Europe, even by neutral powers. Then England declared the whole coast of Europe under blockade, and Napoleon followed with another decree, confiscating all vessels and cargoes violating the "Berlin Decree." All this was interesting, but the Americans were the ones who suffered most. They protested in vain. Napoleon informed us that the shortest and only way of relief was by helping him to bring England to reason, and England replied by telling us to join her in putting down the disturber of the world. On the 2 2d of June, 1807, the British ship Leopard fired into the American vessel Chesapeake off the coast of Virginia. The American frigate being unprepared for action, struck her colors. Three of her men were killed and eighteen wounded. The Leopard \va.?> looking for deserters and took four from the Chesa- peake, three of whom were negroes. The fourth, a white man, was taken to Nova Scotia and hanged. The negroes were desert- ers, though they claimed to have been impressed from American service. This outrage would have produced war, had not England dis- 232 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY avowed the act and promised reparation, which, however, was never made. She would not yield the right of search, however, which was the cause of all the trouble. The Embargo Act. — On the 21st of December, congress, after a heated discussion, passed the famous Embargo Act, which for- bade all American vessels to leave the ports of the United States. l"he Federalists violently opposed the bill, which was very un- popular in the States engaged in commerce. It was hoped that by suspending commercial intercourse with Great Britain and France, they would be forced to recognize the rights of American neutrality. All the States were soon injuriously affected by it. The act was ridiculed by spelling the name backward, by which it became the O grab me Act. John Quincy Adams had favored the measure, for which he was condemned by the legislature of his State. Thereupon he resigned his seat in the senate and told Jefferson that, if the measure was persisted in, New England would withdraw from the Union. Jefferson recommended that congress should repeal the Embargo Act. This was done, so far as it related to all other nations, except Great Britain and France. Presidential Election of 1808. — Several legislatures asked Jef- ferson to become the presidential candidate for a third term, but he wisely decided to follow the precedent established by Wash- ington. James Madison of Virginia and George Clinton of New \'ork were the nominees of the Democrats for the respective offices of President and Vice President, and Charles Cotesworth Pinckney of South Carolina and Rufus King of New York were the candidates of the Federal party. Madison was elected, Clin- ton continuing the Vice Presidency, which he had held since 1 805. Topics. — The original Republicans, or Democrats; the alien and sedition laws; the military academy at West Point; the twelfth amendment to the Con- stitution; thfe purchase of Louisiana; the admission of C)liio; Lewis and Clarke's expedition; the practice of paying tribute by Christian nations to the Barbary States; insolence of the despots; the experience of Captain William Bain- bridge; theactof the dey of Tripoli; exploit of Lieutenant Sterrett; of Captain JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATIONS 233 Murray; the disaster to the Philadelphia ; the daring act of Lieutenant Decatur; Commodore Samuel Barron; the bombardment of Derne; peace; re-election of Jefferson; the fust steamboat on the Hudson; cause of the trouble with Eng- land; the "Orders in Council" and the "Berlin Decree"; the leopard z.r\d the Chesapeake; the Embargo Act; its repeal; the presidential election of 1808. Biographical notes. — Stephen Decatur was the most distinguished member of the infant American navy. He was born in Maryland in 1779. His father was active during the Revolution, and his brother lost his life in the war with Tripoli. Stephen entered the naval service in 1798 and in 1803 commanded the Argus and afterward the Enterprise. In 1812, in command of the United States, he captured the British frigate Macedonian, but was blockaded in New London by a British squadron and kept there idle for a long time. He was caught at such disadvantage, while commanding the almost worthless President, that he was compelled, in 1814, to surrender. He conquered the Barbary powers in 1815. His criticisms upon Commodore Barron, who, while in command of the Chesapeake, struck his colors to the Leopard, caused a duel between the two in 1820, in which Decatur was killed. Edward Preble, born in 1761, served on a privateer when only sixteen years old, and was engaged in several spirited battles. He was made a lieutenant in 1 79S, and a year later was given command of the Essex. We have learned of his services in the war with Tripoli. He died in 1 807. William Bainbridge was another of our naval heroes who was appointed to service in the navy in 1798. He was born in 1774 and went to sea when fif- teen years old. After his capture by the Tripolitans, he was held in captivity for more than a year. His most famous exploit was in the war of 1812, when, as commander of the noted Constitution, he captured the Java. After the close of the war, he saw service in the Mediterranean ports and as naval com- missioner. He died in 1833. John Fitch, born in Connecticut in 1743, was by trade a watchmaker. He was engaged in making and repairing guns for the American soldiers at Tren- ton, when his property was confiscated by the enemy. He enlisted under Washington and spent the winter of 1780 at Valley Forge. He was made surveyor of Virginia and met with a number of remarkable experiences with the Indians. Fitch's fame rests upon what he did in 1785. With a boat pro- pelled by steam, he made a number of trips between Philadelphia and Burling- ton, twenty miles above, and by some it is said he ascended to Trenton, at the head of navigation. Fitch always maintained that Fulton had access to his drawings and papers and got his ideas from him. In 181 7, the courts declared that such was the fact and that the inventions of the two were substantially the same. He died in 1798. 234 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY Robert Fulton, who is conceded to have been the practical inventor of the steamboat, was born in Pennsylvania in 1765. He went to England, in 1786, to study portrait painting, but he was chiefly interested in inventions and engi- neering, lie was in France from 1797 to 1804 and received encouragement from R. R. Livingston, who was minister to that country, and from Joel Bar- low. Fulton invented the torpedo, but could not persuade Bonaparte or the British ministry to adopt it. He returned to America in 1806, and his Cler- viont made its successful trip to Albany in the following year. Fulton de- signed also the steam ferry-boats and movable docks, substantially as they are to-day. Ho was engaged in constructing a war vessel for the government, when he overwrought liimself and died in 1815. James Madison, fourth President of the United States, was born in King George county, Virginia, March 16, 175 1. He was graduated from Princeton College and prepared for the bar, but the opening of the Revolution drew him aside from the practice of his profession. He was elected a member of the Virginia convention in 1776, and upon Jefferson's return from France was offered that mission, but declined it. In 1780 he took his seat in the conti- nental congress. At first he was a Federalist, but became an ardent Demo- crat. He held the office of secretary of state throughout both of Jefferson's terms. He was so esteemed in his own State that the law was changed so as to permit him to take a seat in congress for the fourth time. Madison was below medium height, grave of speech, with clear blue eyes and a quiet, stu- dent-like manner. His private character was stainless. He was fond of society and revived the levees held by Washington. The beauty and graces of " Dolly Madison," his wife, charmed visitors, and many delightful legends have come down to us concerning those days of long ago. He died June 28, 1836. A LONG TOM BailU oS l,»hs"&vii; CHAPTER XXIII Madison's administrations. — 1809-18 17 IPPROACH of War with England. — The theory of our government is that a foreigner can become an American citizen through natural- ization. England maintained, on the other hand, "Once an Englishman, always an Englishman." She therefore insisted upon stopping our vessels on the high seas, search- ing for seamen of English birth, and forcing them into her service. Mistakes were in- evitable, and the so-called "right of search" was pressed to an exasperating point. British men-of-war were stationed outside our harbors, and they searched every ship coming and going. Nearly a thousand vessels were overhauled in the course of eight years, and the books of the State department at one time con- tained more than six thousand names of sailors that had been driven into the British navy. The " Little Belt " and the " President." —The British sloop Little Belt, while engaged in stopping merchant vessels near our coast, hailed, off the shores of Virginia, in May, 181 1, the American frigate President. Not liking the answer of the Ameri- can, the Little Belt fired into her. The President instantly responded with a broadside, followed by others, which badly crippled the enemy, killing eleven and wounding twenty-one. Since each government approved the action of its officer, the anger between the countries became more intense than before. Trouble with the Indians. — The enmity toward Great Britain was deepened by the belief that her agents were engaged in stir- 235 236 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY ring the Indians on our Northwestern border to hostilities against the settlers. The outrages became so numerous through the Wabash valley that Governor William Henry Harrison ascended the river to Terre Haute, where he built a fort. He then advanced toward an Indian town at the mouth of the Tippecanoe. The Indians, after professing friendship, furiously at- tacked him on the early morning of No- vember 7, 181 1, but were defeated with great slaughter. Harrison then marched to the principal town and laid it in ashes. Admission of Louisiana. — Louisiana, named in honor of Louis XIV, was admit- ted to the Union April 30, 181 2. The first permanent settlement within its present JAMES MADISON , , . . tvt / ^ i • o boundaries was at New Orleans, in 17 18. We have learned of its purchase from the French. The first Amer- ican flag was unfurled in New Orleans on December 20, 1803. Declaration of War against Great Britain. —Although there was much opposition to the step, the American congress, on the 19th of June, 181 2, declared war against Great Britain. The legis- latures of Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New Jersey protested against it, but New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore passed resolutions approving the action of the government. It was in Baltimore that "Light Horse Harry" Lee, while engaged in sup- pressing a mob, received injuries which resulted in his death four years later. New England especially opposed the war, and some of the shipping in Boston harbor hung their flags at half- mast upon receiving the news. .'Mthough we had no navy, and were ill prepared for a struggle with Great Britain, the country began immediate preparations, and Henry Dearborn of Massachusetts was appointed the first major general and commander-in-chief of the army. Hull's Surrender. — The war opened disgracefully to the American arms. An invasion of Canada was made at three MADISON \S A DMLVIS TRA TIONS •37 238 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY points — Detroit, Niagara, and on the St. Lawrence. Dearborn commanded the eastern end, General Stephen Van Rensselaer the Centre, and (ieneral William Hull the troops of the West. All were to co-operate, with Montreal as the objective point. Hull, the governor of Michigan Territory, crossed from Detroit to Sandwich, with sev- eral hundred regulars and three regiments of volunteers. He frit- tered away his time, until the British ral- lied and captured Mackinaw, when he retreated to Detroit. On the 1 6th of August, Brock, the governor of Upper Canada, ad- vanced against the post. The defenders had a strong position, and the gunners stood with lighted matches, awaiting the order to fire. To the astonish- ment of the enemy and the consternation of the Americans, the when Hull ran up the SURRENDER OF DETROIT British were within five hundred yard white flag in token of surrender. After a brief parley, Hull gave up not only the post, but every soldier under his command in Canada, together with the whole of Michigan Territory, to the British. The American officers were so incensed that they broke their swords, tore off their epaulets MADISON'S ADMINISTRATIONS 239 and stamped them on the ground. Captain Brush, commanding at Raisin, refused to be bound by Hull's agreement, and, when ordered to surrender, broke camp and withdrew toward the Ohio. Thirty prisoners were given in exchange for Hull, who was brought before a court-martial, charged with treason, cowardice, and conduct unbecoming an officer. He was convicted on the last two charges and sentenced to be shot. President Madison pitied the old man, and, because of his services in the Revolu- tion, pardoned him. The truth was that his age and misgivings robbed him of all the courage he once possessed. His daughter was in Detroit, and he dreaded unspeakably her falling into the hands of the Indians. Hull never regained the respect of his countrymen and died in 1825. Massacre at Fort Dearborn. — Captain Nathan Heald and fifty regulars occupied Fort Dearborn, standing on the present site of Cliicago. Having received orders from General Hull to evacuate the fort and join him at Detroit, Captain Heald attempted to do so, though warned by friendly Indians and scouts that the attempt would be fatal. He set out with the regulars, a number of militia, and several families. They were assailed by Indians, more than half of the regulars killed, and all the militia, women, and chil- dren. This took place on the day before the surrender of Detroit. Battle of Queenstown Heights. — General Van Rensselaer, with the army of the Centre, attempted his part of the invasion of Canada late in the summer of 1S13. He crossed the Niagara at Lewiston, October 13, to attack the enemy on Queenstown Heights. The landing was fiercely contested, but the Americans captured the fortress. General Brock, reinforced by six hundred men, attacked the Americans, but was repulsed and Brock mor- tally wounded. The three officers who succeeded him were either killed or badly injured. The Americans began to intrench and sent for the twelve hun- dred militia on the other side of the river, but they were so scared that they refused to go to their help. Lieutenant Colonel 240 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY Winfield Scott had crossed and taken command of the brigade. While intrenching, he was attacked by a strong force of British and Indians. He repelled them twice with the bayonet, but the enemy being again reinforced, he was driven back to the river. No boats were there, however, to take his men across, and he was obliged to surrender. The loss in killed and wounded of the Americans was one thousand. During the progress of this disaster, the twelve hundred New York militia looked on without firing a shot to help their imper- illed friends. General Van Rensselaer was so disgusted with their cowardice that he resigned his command, and was suc- ceeded by General Alexander Smyth of Virginia. This man was almost a fool. He issued a bombastic proclamation which made him the laughing stock of the army; attempted several times to enter Canada, but failed; was mobbed by*the militia, posted as a coward, and finally deprived of his command. Failure of the Americans. — The army of the Centre and the army of the West having made their record, it now remained for the commander-in-chief, with the army of the East, to show what he could do. In the latter part of November he crossed into Canada, but everything went wrong. His men fired into each other, ran away, leaving their dead and wounded behind, while many of the officers were grossly incompetent. Having added nothing but discredit to the American arms, they went into winter quarters. The War on the Ocean. — It is a relief to turn from the land to the ocean, where our little navy covered itself with glory. Three days after the surrender of Detroit, the Constitution, a forty-four- gun ship, under command of Captain Isaac Hull, nephew of General Hull, engaged the Giienicrc (gare-e-are), a thirty-eight- gun ship, under Captain Dacres, off the coast of Massachusetts. In the furious engagement which followed, the Guerriere lost seventy-nine killed and wounded, while the Constitution lost only seven killed and seven wounded. The British ship be- came an unmanageable wreck before her captain surrendered, 242 A HISTOKY OF OCA' COUiYTRY and was blown up by Captain Hull, who sailed to Boston with his prisoners. This victory spread rejoicing through the country. Congress gave Hull a gold medal and divided fifty thousand dollars among his crew. Twelve days after his victory, Commodore Stephen Decatur, while cruising with his frigate United States, of forty- four guns, captured the Macedoniati, of forty-nine guns. The engagement lasted two hours, Decatur losing only twelve men, while that of the enemy was more than a hundred. Decatur reached New York on New Year's day, 1813. He was received as enthusiastically as Hull. Our navy had more officers than ships. Captain Hull, in order to give his comrades a chance to share in his glory, chivalrously turned over the command of the Constitution to Commodore Bainbridge. In the latter part of December, off the coast of Brazil, Bainbridge fell in with the British frigate yri'-?' posed of those of the same political faith. '^'^^^^^ "^y^M^ William L. Marcy of New York, a Demo- 2u«art ciieso lu 1856 cratic senator, was the first man to proclaim the doctrine "to the victors belong the spoils," and President Jackson was an enthusiastic champion of the same, as he speed- ily proved by his action. The total number of removals from office by all his predeces- sors was seventy-four, and out of that number five were defaulters. Within one year after inauguration, President Jackson removed two thousand office holders. There were no blows too hard for him to strike against his enemies, and no man would do more to help a friend, provided that friend showed himself worthy. The first taint of dishonesty, of disloyalty, or any attempt to defeat the purpose of the President changed him on the instant into an unrelenting enemy. President Jackson and the United States Bank. — It was not long before President Jackson developed an intense hostility to the great moneyed corporation known as the United States Bank. He believed it to be an unhealthy stimulus to business, a pro- moter of speculation, extravagance, and corruption, and did not hesitate to declare his doubts of its solvency. He advised the 2/2 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY removal of the deposits of public money. Such removal required the order of the secretary of the treasury. He refused, and Jack- son removed hitn. Roger B. Taney, afterward chief justice of the United States, succeeded to the secretaryship of the treasury and made the removal. The new charter, granted in 1S32, was vetoed by the President, and congress sustained his action. Jackson's course increased his popularity, and, in the presiden- tial election of 1832, he received two hundred and nineteen electoral votes out of a total of two hundred and eighty-six. Whigs and Democrats. — During Jackson's first term, the po- litical factions of the country crystallized into the Whig and Democratic parties, the leaders of the for- mer being Daniel Webster and Henry Clay. Nullification in South Carolina. — There was great opi)osition in South Carolina to the tariff measures of congress. An act was passed in the spring of 1832, imposing additional duties on imported goods. It set South Carolina aflame. The governor presided over a convention in that State in November, which declared the tariff acts unconstitutional, and therefore null and ANDREW JACKSON • i , , i , , . void; that the duty should not be paid, and that any attempt on the part of the government to collect it would be resisted by arms, and cause the secession of South Carolina from the Union and its erection into an inde]iendent government. The State legislature endorsed these resolutions, and the South Carolinians prepared for war. President Jackson was not scared. He declared that the Union should be maintained at all hazards, and threatened to hang Calhoun. Calhoun resigned and became a United States senator. Jackson believed in State sovereignty, but nothing could shake his devotion to the Union. He issued a proclama- tion on December loth, in which he denied the right of any State to nullify an act of congress, and warned South Carolina that, if JACKSON'S ADMINISTRATIONS 2/3 necessary, the military power would enforce the laws. At the same time-he exhorted his countrymen not to take the mad step to which their leaders were urging them. His appeal produced no effect. The war preparations con- tinued. General Scott was summoned to Washington, and it was decided to throw a strong garrison into Fort Moultrie, Castle Pinckney, and the arsenal at x\ugusta, Georgia. The sloop-of- war Natchez and several revenue cutters were ordered to Charles- ton harbor. General Scott, with great tact and discretion, kept up the most friendly relations with the citizens. Meanwhile other States condemned the course of South Carolina. Among her people, too, sprang up a goodly number of supi)orters of the President's proclamation. Henry Clay brought tranquillity by the preparation of a com- promise which Senator Calhoun supported. It provided for a gradual reduction of duties until June 30, 1843, when they were to sink to a general level of twenty per cent. This gave the manufacturers time to prepare for the change, with the certainty of relief at no distant day for the non-manufacturing States. Trouble with France. — France owed our country five million dollars for injuries inflicted upon our commerce during Napo- leon's wars. She put off payment until President Jackson lost his little stock of patience. He ordered our minister to with- draw from the French court, and recommended the congress of 1834-1835 to authorize reprisals. France resented this vigorous action, but paid the money. Other similar bills against Spain, Denmark, Portugal, and Naples were also soon settled. The Second Seminole War. — War broke out with the Seminoles of Florida. A treaty had been made with them, by which they agreed to move to the west of the Mississippi, but the majority insisted that the chiefs who signed the treaty were not authorized to do so and refused to go. Osceola, of mixed breed, was the leader of the malcontents, and at a conference with the military ofificers he showed his anger by striking the treaty with such vio- lence that he drove his knife through the paper and the top of 74 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY the table on which it was resting. In 1835, a series of attacks was begun on the settlers. General Wiley Thompson was sent thither to enfore their removal. Osceola was so defiant that he was put in irons. He pretended submission and promised to sign the treaty. Upon being released he did so, but he deceived the ofificer. He was filled with fury, and his warriors spread OSCEOLA'S DEriANCE death and desolation among the settlements. On December 28, 1835, while General Thompson was dining with a lot of friends, Osceola and a party fired a volley through the windows, which killed Thompson and four of his officers. The Indians escaped unharmed, although within two hundred yards of Fort King. On the same day. Major Dade was ambushed with one hundred men near Wahoo Swamp, while marching to the relief of the fort. Every one of the command was killed excepting two, and they JACKSON'S ADMIXISTRATIOXS 275 afterward died of their wounds. The war broke out and raged with greater fierceness for years. The vast swamps of the Flori- das offered secure hiding-places for the mongrel hostiles, who concealed their families with such astonishing skill that the most experienced hunters and scouts found it impossible to trace them. General Scott, in 1836, pushed operations vigorously, but without success. General Zachary Taylor succeeded to the com- mand in May, 1837, and tried to use bloodhounds in tracing the Indians; but the dogs had been trained to hunt negroes in Cuba and refused to follow the trail of a red man. On the 21st of October, Osceola was made prisoner, contrary to the laws of nations, under a flag of truce, sent to Charleston, and confined in Fort Moultrie, where he died in 1838. The war dragged along until 1842, when General William J. Worth succeeded in bringing it to a close. Admission of New States. — Arkansas (ark'an-saw) was admitted to the Union June 15, 1836. Several interpretations have been given to the word "Arkansas." The best is that it signifies "smoky waters," the French prefix "ark" meaning bow. It was settled by the French as early as 1685, and remained French territory until 1803, when Louisiana, of which it was a portion, was purchased by the United States. In 1812, it became a part of Missouri Territory, and in 181 9 was erected into Arkansas Territory, then including what is now Indian Territory. Michigan was admitted January 26, 1837. The name is from an Indian word meaning "great lake." The first settlement was made in 1668, at St. Mary's Falls, in the upper peninsula. Detroit was founded in 1701. Michigan formed apart of the Northwestern Territory, and afterward of the Territory of Indi- ana, but was set off by itself in 1805. Great Prosperity and Many Changes. — A wonderful prosperity attended both terms of President Jackson. When we speak of the "old times" and the "new times," we naturally think of the change as gradual, but it took place almost wholly during his ad- 276 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY ministrations. It was due mainly to the introduction of the loco- motive, which made travelling easy, so that the people mingled with one another, and thought and action were stirred into new life. When President Jackson was inaugurated, the old times prevailed; when he went out of office, the new or modern times had come. The railway system began after the election of Jackson. Before he retired, there were fifteen hundred miles in operation, and in a short time all the Jeading cities were connected by railroad. It opened up new sections, made the transfer of crops easy, and changed the whole life of the people. Anthracite coal was tested in 1856 and found to answer per- fectly on steamboats and railroads. In the same year the screw propeller took the place of the side-wheel ocean steamer. Al- though the first steamer crossed the Atlantic in 18 19, ocean navi- gation was not successful until 1838. The revolving pistol was patented in 1835. Soon afterward, reaping machines came into use. It was about this time that the clumsy flint and steel gave way to the friction match. The Western States were fairly started on their amazing growth. Steamboats ploughed the Mississippi and its tributaries, as well as the Great Lakes, and new towns and cities sprang into life, where until then was only the untrodden wilderness. In 1833, the first steamboat appeared at Fort Dearborn, the present site of the imperial city of Chicago. The East was as prosperous as the West. In 1835, New York was desolated by a twenty million dollar fire, but quickly recov- ered, and in the same year the construction of the Croton Aque- duct was begun. The population of the country in 1830 was four times as great as in 1790, and the seventy-five post-ofifices had increased to 8450. The receipts of the government from the sales of Western lands rose from one million dollars to twenty- five million dollars annually. In 1835 the entire national debt was paid. The government found itself in the possession of a surplus which was divided /ACk'SOiV'S ADMIXISTRA TIONS \ND STEEL among the States. But they, too, were prosperous and borrowed and spent money lavishly, thereby encouraging immigration and settlement. Crops were abundant, manufactures increasing, and banks expanding. It looked indeed as if the financial millen- nium had come, when all were to be rich, prosperous, and happy. Presidential Election of 1836. — The presidential election was in the nature of an endorsement of Jackson's policy. Martin Van Buren, his candidate, was chosen as his successor by a vote of one hundred and seventy out of a total of two hundred and ninety-four. The Whigs, unable to combine, put forward four candidates, of whom William Henry Harrison received the largest number of votes — seventy-three. No candidate for the Vice Presidency having been given a majority in the electoral college, the senate elected Colonel Richard M. Johnson of Ken- tucky to that office. 2/8 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY Topics. — The meaning of the expression "To the victors belong the spoils"; what President Jackson did to prove his belief in the policy; why he opposed the United States Bank; his action with respect to it; his re-election; Whigs and Democrats; cause of the nullification movement in South Carolina; Jackson's patriotic course; the war preparations at Charleston; the end of the trouble; the difficulty with France; cause of the second Seminole war; Os- ceola; his retaliation upon General Thompson; massacre of Major Dade and his command; tlie Seminoles in the swamps of Florida; the unlawful capture of Osceola; how the war was finally ended; the admission of Arkansas; its early history; the admission of Michigan; its early history; the wonderful prosperity during Jackson's two terms; the " old times " and the " new times " ; growth of the railway system; the introduction of anthracite coal; the screw propeller; ocean navigation; the revolving pistol; the reaping machine; friction matches; the growth of the Western States; the first steamboat at Fort Dearborn; prosperity in the East; the great New York fire of 1835; the Croton Aqueduct; increase of post-offices; the receipts from the sale of Western lands; the national debt; what was done with the surplus; the pros- perity of the States; the apparent financial millennium; the presidential elec- tion of 1836. Biographical notes. — Roger B. Taney, l)orn in 1777, was graduated at Dickinson College, and made his home in Baltimore. In 1804, a man refused to give him a case because he did not believe, from Taney's appearance, that he would live out the year. lie died just sixty years later. He was an able lawyer and politician. He was a fervent Jackson Democrat, and in 1835 the President nominated him as chief justice of the supreme court, his confirma- tion following in 1836. He rendered many important decisions, the most noted of which was that relating to Dred Scott, of which we shall learn later on. John C. Calhoun, the intense South Carolinian, was born in 1782, near .Abbeville in that State. He was a graduate of Vale College and became an unusually able lawyer. He was elected to congress in 181 1, and strongly ad- vocated the war with Great Britain. He became secretary of war in 1817, and served through both terms of Monroe. In 1824, he was elected Vice President, serving with John Quincy Adams, and was chosen again, in 1828, with Jackson. He resigned, as we have learned, in 1832, and was immedi- ately elected to the United States senate, where he was the foremost cham- pion of state sovereignty or " State rights," as it is generally termed. In 1 844- 1 845 he was secretary of state under Tyler, and concluded a treaty of annexation with Texas. He re-entered the senate in 1845, ^"^^ ^^'^^ '''^ acknowledged leader of the southern Democrats. He died in 1850. Calhoun ranks with Clay and Webster as among the greatest statesmen of the fust hall of the nineteenth century. J A CKSON 'S ADMLWIS 1 RA TIONS 2 79 Henry Clay was born in the "slashes" of Virginia in 1777. Having studied law, he removed to Kentucky when twi-nty years old. He served in the legis- lature of that State and in the United States senate from 1806 to 1807. He soon became the father and champion of the " American system " of internal improvements and tariff protection. His remarkable eloquence and ability brought him many political honors. He served in the United States senate again 1809-1811. He entered the house in 1811, and was chosen speaker until his resignation in 1814, upon his appointment as one of the envoys to negotiate the treaty of Ghent. He came back to the house in 1815 and was elected speaker continuously until 1821. Clay was an ardent advocate of the war of 1812, and Urought about, in 1S21, the recognition of the South Ameri- can republics in their struggles against foreign domination. He was again speaker of the house 1823-1825. In 1824, he was a candidate for the presi- dency, but Adams was finally chosen as President and he appointed Clay his secretary of state. In 1831, he re-entered the senate from Kentucky, and be- came the leader of the Whig party. He was nominated for the presidency in 1831, but was beaten by Jackson. He retired from the senate in 1843, ^"d for the third time was nominated for the presidency in 1844, and for the third time defeated. He re-entered the senate in 1849 and brought about the great compromise of 1850. He was a brilliant orator, an able debater, an honest man, and a profound statesman. He died in 1852. Daniel Webster, the greatest of all American orators, was born in New Hampshire in 1782. He received his education at Phillips (Exeter) Academy and at Dartmouth, from which he was graduated in iSoi. He taught school for a time and was admitted to the bar in 1805, removing in 1807 to Ports- mouth. His brilliant ability soon made him a leader at the bar and he was elected to congress in 1813, serving until 1S17. He then settled in Boston, where he speedily became the foremost lawyer of the Commonwealth. From 1823 to 1827, he represented Massachusetts in Congress, where his fame increased as one of the very greatest of orators. At the laying of the corner- stone of Bunker Hill monument, in 1825, his oration was one of the most eloquent that ever fell from human lips. The enthralled crowd threatened to carry away the platform on which Webster and the other speakers were sitting. They asked him to appeal to the crowd to stand back. Webster paused in his speech to do so. Those immediately in his front made the effort to comply, but the pressure behind them was too great. " It is impossible, Mr. Webster," they called to him. "Impossible!" he thundered; "you are on Bunker Hill where NOTHING is impossible!" And the vast swarm reeled backward, like the surge of the ocean from the rocks on the seashore. In 1827, Webster entered the United States senate and became one of the giants of that body. In 1830, in his reply to Hayne, he won the title of the " E.\pounder of 28o A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY the Constitution." Like Clay, he was disappointed in his greatest ambition — that of becoming President of his country. He came quite near, but never re- ceived the nomination. He was secretary of state under Harrison and Tyler, resigning in 1843 ^'^'^ re-entering the senate two years later. He rendered his election to the presidency impossible by his advocacy of Clay's compromise of 1850. Once more he was secretary of state in 1S50-1S52, and died in the latter year. Martin Van Buren, eighth President, was born in Kinderhook, New York, December 5, 1782, being the first President not born a subject of Great Britain. He became eminent in his native State as a lawyer and adroit politician, so much so, in fact, that he was often referred to as the " Little Magician." He served as United States senator 1821-1828, and governor of New York 1828- 1829, when he resigned to become secretary of state under Jackson, whom he thus served until 1 831, when Jackson nominated him as United States minis- ter to England, but the senate refused to confirm the nomination. He was elected Vice President with Jackson in 1832, and as we have learned became his heir to the presidency. In 1848, he was the Free Soil candidate for the presidency, as a result of which General Taylor secured the election. He died July 24, 1862. CHAPTER XXVII VAN buren's administration. — 1 837-1 841 > 7 (Ihs a |ONETARY Panics. — President Jackson sowed the wind, and President Van Buren reaped the whirlwind. While the former was en- gaged in his fight with the United States Bank, many new banks were formed in the ^^'J^ ' different States. Most of them had little / > capital with which to redeem the notes they dhs 'daroun. issued. I'hey bought several bushels of cheaply printed bills and sent them broadcast. With this stuff public lands in Western States and Territories were bought at a higher price than others could afford to pay in gold or silver. The lands were sold for good money, and when the bills came back to the banks for redemption, the banks "failed," and, moving to other sections, repeated their swindling operations, which were termed "wild-cat" banking. On the nth of July, 1836, President Jackson sent out his "specie circular," which compelled the collectors of public revenues to receive only gold and silver in payment. This proved to be an almost mortal injury to business. Wild-cat bank-notes were now worthless in the West, and they poured into the banks for redemption. The banks toppled over like so many tenpins, and when the few honest bankers tried to raise money by selling their lands, nobody wished to buy. Foreseeing the storm that was about to break, congress, early in 1837, passed a repeal of the specie circular. Jackson could never admit that any man or body of men were right, so long as 281 282 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY their views differed with his. He held back the bill so long that it failed to become a law, and the greatest affliction of "hard times " ever known burst upon the country soon after the inaugu- ration of Van Buren. During the months of March and April, 1837, the failures in New York and New Orleans amounted to one hundred and fifty million dollars. Within the first three weeks of April, two hun- dred and fifty houses in New York stopped payment. Eight of the States failed wholly or in part, and the time came when the United States government could not pay its debts. Business confidence seemed to have been destroyed, and industry was at ©a standstill. It was a long time before matters righted themselves, but the coun- try was really wealthy, and, assisted by legislation, trade revived, most of the banks resumed specie payments ifi 1838, and by and by commercial prosperity was restored. The Patriot War. — A rebellion broke out in Canada in 1837. We sympathized with what was called the "patriot war," since the people were striving for the MARTIN VAN BUREN ... .... same thing that was our aim during the Revolution. This was well enough, but our citizens had no right to give the patriots active assistance, 'ihe President issued a proclamation, forbidding their taking any part in the rebellion, and warned them that, if they did so, they would forfeit the pro- tection of their own government. Nevertheless, a body of American sym]iathizers took posses- sion of Navy Island in Niagara River, and hired a steamer called the Caroline to carry provisions and war material to the insur- gents. An attempt was made by a party of British troops to seize the Caroline at her moorings at Schlosser. A fight followed, in which twelve of the defenders were killed; but the steamer was set on fire and allowed to drift over the falls. General Wool P\4N BUREN'S ADMINISTRATION 283 was sent to the frontier with a strong force and soon established order. Presidential Election of 1840. — The administration of Van Buren was one of the least satisfactory of our history. It was blamed for the hard times, high prices, and general bankruptcy. In the presidential election of 1840, Van Buren had only sixty votes, while William Henry Harrison and John Tyler, the Whig candidates, received two hundred and thirty-four. It amounted almost to a political revolution. Topics. — The cause of the hard times during the administration of Presi- dent Van Buren; the "specie circular"; how President Jackson defeated its purpose; the failures in New York and New Orleans; the general poverty; cause of the patriot war in Canada; the part taken by volunteers from the United States; the Carolina; the presidential election of 1840. Biographical Note. — William Henry Harrison, ninth President, was born February 9, 1773, at Berlceley, Virginia. Losing his father at an early age, Robert Morris, the financier of the Revolution, became his guardian. He was the son of Benjamin Harrison, governor of Virginia and a signer of the Declaration of Independence. He was a graduate of Hampden-Sidney Col- lege, and took up the study of medicine, but, attracted by military life, he applied for a commission to Washington, who was a friend of his father. He was made a captain in 1795 and was placed in charge of Fort Washington, on the present site of Cincinnati. His bravery and skill led to his rapid pro- motion. He was made secretary of the Northwestern Territory in 1797 and sent as its first delegate to congress in 1799. He was afterward appointed governor of Indiana Territory. We have learned of his valuable services in the war of 1812. He was a United .States senator from 1825 to 1828, being appointed in the latter year minister to the republic of Colombia, in South America. CHAPTER XXVIII HARRISON AND TVLEK S ADMINISTRATIONS. 184I-1845 hat or Such earlier |HIG Ascendency — Death of President Harrison. — ^The ^Vhigs had come into power, and President Harrison was inaugurated on the 4th of March, 1841, in the presence of an immense multitude. He was mounted on a white charger and surrounded by officers and soldiers who had served under him in the war of 181 2. He stood without a overcoat while delivering his inaugural an exposure probably would not have harmed him in years, but he was now an old man, with diminished vigor. The weather was cold, with snow falling. Then, too, he was driven to distraction by office-seekers, who shook his hand thousands of times, and pestered him without intermission. All this was more than his enfeebled frame could stand. He contracted pneumonia, which was aggravated by his surroundings, and died April 4, just one month after his inauguration, being the first President to die in office. Vice President Tyler, as pro- vided by the Constitution, was sworn in as his successor, taking the oath the second day after Harrison's death. The Tenth President. — John Tyler, like five of his predeces- sors, was a native of Virginia, where he was born in March 29, 284 WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON HARRISON AND TYLER'S ADMINISTRATIONS 285 1790. He was graduated at William and Mary College and pre- pared for the bar. His ability was shown by the fact that he was practising law at the age of nineteen, was a member of the Vir- ginia legislature at twenty-one, governor of the State at thirty- five, United States senator from 1827 to 1836, and President of the United States at the age of fifty-one. He died January 18, .1862. President Tyler's Unpopularity. — It took President Tyler but a brief time to make himself the most unpopular man in the country. The bill reviving the United States Bank having been vetoed, congress passed another framed in accordance with the suggestions of the executive. To the indignation of the bank's friends, he vetoed this bill. Every member of his cabinet, except Daniel Webster, resigned, he remaining to complete some negotia- tions upon which he was engaged. In September, 1841, the President made up his new cabinet. T ,. . , . ,- • , JOHN TYLER In alienating his own political party, the President failed to gain the good-will of his political oppo- nents. He was too aristocratic in his tastes to suit the people. He was charged with treachery to his supporters, and altogether his unpopularity could not well have been greater. Nevertheless, his administration was marked by stirring and important events. Settlement of the Maine Boundary. — There had been continu- ous discussion with Great Britain over our territorial limits in the Northeast. It was finally settled, in 1842, by Lord Ashburton and Daniel Webster, the boundaries as they exist to-day being agreed upon. The Ashburton Treaty reflected great credit upon Secretary of State Webster. Dorr's Rebellion in Rhode Island. — The charter which Charles II granted to Rhode Island in 1663 remained in force until 1842. It denied the right of suffrage to all who did not own a certain 286 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY amount of property. The dissatisfaction over this provision increased, until the little State was sharply divided into the friends and opponents of the measure. Thomas Wilson Dorr called a convention, which formed a new constitution, that was ratified by fourteen thousand votes. A new assembly was elected and Dorr chosen governor. His attempt to take possession of the capital by force was resisted by Governor Samuel W. King, the " regular " or charter executive. It is said that Dorr drew up his puny army, and pointing to the State troops, who weje advancing, called upon his supporters to stand to the last, but, if compelled to retreat, to do so with their faces to the foe. It is claimed that he added: "As I am somewhat lame, I will start now," and did so. Three days later the flurry ended without bloodshed. Dorr fled to Connecticut, and upon his return to Rhode Island was arrested on the charge of treason, convicted, and sentenced to imprisonment for life. This was in June, 1844. A year later he was unconditionally released and afterward restored to citizenship. Rhode Island adopted a new and more liberal constitution, which went into effect in May, 1843. Anti-rent Troubles in New York. — It will be remembered that during the early settlement of the State of New York the Dutch proprietors took possession of immense tracts of land, claiming and receiving privileges like those of the feudal lords in England hundreds of years before. These privileges descended from father to son, emerging from the Revolution without change. The most powerful of these patroons, as they were called, were the Van Rensselaers, two of whom fought on the side of England in the war of 181 2. The family estates included most of Albany and Rensselaer counties. The rent was nominal, being a chicken or a handful of wheat per acre, and in some instances nothing at all. Old Stephen Van Rensselaer let matters drift, caring little whether his dues were collected or not. So it came about that when he died, in 1840, there were back rents due amounting to two hundred thousand dollars. His heirs determined to collect this amount, and then trouble came, HARRISON AND TYLER'S ADMINISTRATIONS 287 The people resisted the demands; fierce fights followed; the military were called out; in 1844, a large po'rtion of the dis- affected counties was in a state of civil war. Armed men, dis- guised as Indians, paraded through the section and compelled neutrals to adopt their principles. Obnoxious persons were tarred and feathered by the anti-renters, and a deputy sheriff was murdered in Delaware county. Order was not restored until 1846, when the State constitution was amended so as to abolish all feudal tenures, and the leasing of agricultural lands for a period exceeding twelve years was forbidden. A Sad Accident. — On the 28th of February, 1844, Commodore Stockton, commanding the steamship Princeton, took a distin- guished party on an excursion down the Potomac. For the entertainment of his guests, he caused the firing of an immense cannon, called the Peacemaker. The gun exploded, killing Mr. Gilmer, secretary of the navy, Mr. Upshur, secretary of state. Commander Kennon, Virgil Maxey, late minister of The Hague, and others, besides injuring a number of sailors so seriously that several of them died. The whole country was thrown into gloom by the sad occurrence. The Mormons. — About this time the Mormons began to attract notice. Joseph Smith was the founder of the sect. Cathering a number of followers, they made a settlement at Jackson, Missouri, where they rapidly increased in numbers, but their atrocious practices caused the people to drive them from the State. They crossed the Mississippi in the spring of 1839, and laid out the city of Nauvoo, in Illinois. There they grew to a membership of ten thousand; but, after a time, the people again rose against them, and in the rioting Joseph and his brother Hyrumwere killed. The legislature annulled their charter, and, gathering their goods, the Mormons started for the West. After two years' wandering, they located themselves, in 1846, near the Great Salt Lake of Utah. They founded Salt Lake City, with Brigham Young as their president, and built one of the most beautiful and prosperous cities in the whole country. 288 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY Their remoteness removed them from the public eye for several years. When, however, the westward emigration across the plains began, the Mormons helped the Indians to rob and murder peace- ful men and women. It was proved that in the Mountain Meadow massacre, the Mormons were the leaders, and a number of them took part, disguised as savages. Many years afterward, the most guilty were brought to trial and punished. The Texan War of Independence. — The Texan question, as it was called, had become the burning one of the hour. That vast territory was claimed by Mexico. Among its settlers were many reputable men and some evil ones. Finally, in 1836, Texas declared its independence of Mexico, which sent the unprinci- pled adventurer, Santa Anna, with an army, to bring it into sub- jection. At the Alamo, in San Antonio, this commander, after besieging the mission house for nearly two weeks, with an over- whelming force, secured the surrender of the half-dozen survivors by a pledge to treat them honorably. When they had given up their arms, he massacred them all. Shortly after, the Mexican army was almost destroyed by Sam Houston and his few hundred Texans at San Jacinto. The United States acknowledged the independence of Texas in 1837. It remained a republic for several years, and then applied for admission to the American Union. \Ve can readily understand the bitter feeling caused by this request. If the vast area joined us, it would have to be as a slave State. The South naturally favored its admission, while most of the North was violently opposed. After the death of Mr. Upshur, by the explosion on the Princeton, John C. Calhoun became secretary of state in March, 1844. He insisted upon the admission of the Lone Star State. Henry Clay, who was the Whig candidate for the presidency, opposed its admission. This was a fatal blow to his ambition. It alienated the South, while there was just enough distrust of him in the North to secure his defeat. James K. Polk was" elected President, and George M. Dallas of Pennsylvania became Vice President. HARRISON AND TYLER'S ADMINISTRATIONS 289 The First Public Telegram. — The convention which nominated Polk was held in Baltimore. His nomination was made on May 29, 1844. Those who immediately took the train to carry the news to Washington were astounded to find, on their arrival, that the news was ahead of them. It had been sent to the national capital by magnetic telegraph, that being the first public telegram that ever passed over a wire. Professor S. F. B. Morse was the inventor of this wonderful meajis of communication. Admission of Texas. — On the ist of March, 1844, a joint reso- lution admitting Texas passed both houses of congress. The President immediately signed the bill. Texas, however, was not formally admitted to the Union until December 29, 1845. Florida became a State March 3 of that year, while Iowa entered the Union, December 28, 1846. The New States. — The Spanish missionaries in 1524 called the country of Texas "Mixtecapah," and the people "Mixtecas." Probably from the last word that of Texas was derived. Florida received its name from Canunas de Flores, or " Feast of the Flowers." It was visited, as we have learned, by Ponce de Leon in 15 1 2, and again in 15 16. De Soto explored it in 1539, and the Spanish claimed the territory. The first permanent settle- ment was made at St. Augustine in 1565, that city, as already stated, being the oldest within the present limits of the United States. Other settlements followed and prospered. Spain ceded Florida to England in 1763, but it was ceded back twenty years later. The portion west of Perdido River was secured by the United States from France, by treaty, in 1803. In 1819, Spain sold the country to us for the sum of five million dollars. Iowa is named from an Indian tribe, the Kiowas, so called by the Illinois Indians because they were "across the river." In 1788, a French Canadian, named Julian Dubuque, secured a large tract of land and engaged in fur trading. The region was not thrown open to settlement until after the Black Hawk war. Emigrants from Illinois made the first permanent settlement at Burlington in 1833. Dubuque was founded the same year, u 290 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY Presidential Election of 1844. — The Whig candidates against Polk and Dalhis were Henry Clay and Theodore Frelinghuysen. The Democratic ticket was successful by the electoral vote of one hundred and seventy to one hundred and five. Topics. — The death of President Harrison; his successor; facts regarding him; cause of President Tyler's unpopularity; settlement of the Maine boun- dary; history of Dorr's rebellion in Rhode Island; the anti-rent troubles in New York; violent acts of the people; liow the difficulty was ended; the sad accident on the Potomac in February, 1844; the Mormons; their city in Utah; the Texan war for independence; what folLjwed; what caused the failure of Henry Clay's candidacy for the presidency; the first public telegram ; the admission of Texas; the admission of P^lorida and Iowa; early history of Texas; of Florida; of Iowa; the presidential election of 1844. Biographical Notes. — Brigham Young, the most prominent of the later Mormons, was born in Vermont in i8oi. He embraced the Mormon doc- trines in 1 83 1, began preaching the following year, ami was made an "apostle " in 1835. He attached himself closely to Joseph Smith, and upon his death was elected his successor. After fully " viewing the land," he began the settle- ment of Salt Lake City in 1848. He became governor of Deseret in 1849, and was appointed governor of the Territory of Utah in 185 1. Polygamy was not originally a dogma of the Mormon faith, but Young proclaimed it in 1852. He defied the United States government for years and was treated with a leniency that seemed almost criminal. In 1857, he was persuaded to sulimit to the expedition sent out under General Albert Sidney Johnston. He re- mained president of the Mormon church until his death in 1877. Joseph Smith was also a native of Vermont, where he was born in 1805. He claimed to have discovered, in 181 9, some plates buried in Mormon Hill, Ontario county, New York, with characters divinely engraved upon them, from which he constructed the Book of Mormon. He founded the sect, which held its first conference at Fayette, in the State of New York in 1830. The cardinal belief of the people was materialism and the remission of sins, the present distinguishing feature, as has been stated, not being added until 1852. The real author of the Mormon Bible was the Rev. Solomon Spaulding, who died in 1827. Sam Houston fas he always called himself) was a unique figure in .Vmeri- can history. He was born in Virginia, in 1793, and went to Tennessee in early childhood. He enlisted in the army and was made a lieutenant because of his bravery in fighting the Creeks. He was a Democratic congressman from Tennessee from 1823 to 1827 and governor of the State from 1827 to 1829. Abandoning civilization, he lived for several years among the Creeks, HARRISON AND TYLER'S ADMINISTRATIONS 29 1 where he became a chief. He then appeared in Texas and was a member of the constitutional convention of 1833, and was elected commander-in- chief of the Texan army of independence. Texas having declared herself independent, he was elected its first President from 1836 to 1838 and from 1841 to 1844. He won the decisive battle of San Jacinto, where the Mexican army was routed and Santa Anna taken prisoner, an exploit which gave Hous- ton the title of the " Hero of San Jacinto." He represented Texas in con- gress from 1845 ^'^ 1859, when he was again elected governor. He refused to join in the secession of the State, was deposed from office, and died in 1S63. Samuel F. B. Morse, the inventor of the magnetic telegraph, was born in Massachusetts in 1791, and spent the early years of his life in studying paint- ing, in which he acquired considerable skill. He conceived the idea of the electromagnetic telegraph in 1832, and labored for a number of years in bring- ing it into practical use. He underwent poverty, discouragements, and re- peated failures before he attained success. Finally congress appropriated thirty thousand dollars for the erection of an experimental line between Wash- ington and Baltimore. The necessary preliminary funds were furnished by Alfred Vail, who advanced two thousand dollars, for which he was to receive one-fourth interest in the invention. He also greatly assisted in bringing the invention to perfection. Tlie lirst message over the wire was dictated by Annie Ellsworth to Professor Morse in Washington and received by Alfred Vail, forty miles away at Baltimore. It was sent on May 23, 1844, and con- sisted of the words, " What hath God wrought." This telegram is now in the possession of the Connecticut Historical Society. The public message, an- nouncing Polk's nomination, was sent to Washington, as will be remembered, on the day following. James K. Polk, the eleventh President, was born in Mecklenburg county, North Carolina, November 2, 1795. He removed early in life to Tennes- see, which State he represented in congress for fourteen years, being elected speaker twice. He became governor in 1839 and defeated Van Buren for the presidential nomination, because he favored the annexation of Texas, while Van Buren opposed it. He died June 15, 1849. CHAPTER XXIX folk's administration. — 1845-1849 HE "War with Mexico. — Just as every one ex- pected, the admission of Texas caused a war with Mexico. When, therefore, the Texan legislature, on the 4th of July, 1845, ratified the act of annexation to the United States, the authorities asked our government to send an army for their protection. In January, 1846, (General Zachary Taylor was ordered to advance from his camp in western Loui- siana and occupy Texas. The First Conflict. — He first established a depot of provisions at Toint Isabel on the Gulf, and then marched to the Rio Grande (gran-dy), halting opposite the Mexican town of Matamoras, where he hastily built Fort Brown. In the month of April, Gen- eral Arista (a-reest'ah), commanding the Mexican forces, notified Taylor that hostil- ities had begun. On the 26th of the same month, Captain Thornton, with a com- pany of American dragoons, was attacked by a much superior force and, after a gal- lant resistance, compelled to surrender. In the Mexican war, therefore, the first JAMES K. POLK bloodshed took place on the soil of Texas. Victories at Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma. — Leaving a gar- rison of three hundred men at Fort Brown, General Taylor hurried 292 POLK'S ADMINISTRATION 293 DEFEAT OF CAPTAIN THORNTON off to save Point Isabel. On his way back, he met, May 8, a Mexican force more than double his own, at Palo Alto (pah'lo ahl'to), where, in a desperate battle, the Mexicans were routed. The following day another large force was encountered at Resaca de la Palma (ra-sah'cah da la pahl'mah), within three miles of Fort Brown. The issue of this battle was doubtful for a time, but at the critical moment Captain May, with his dragoons, charged through the grape-shot, sabred the Mexican gunners, and captured La Vega (Iha va'gah), the command- ing officer. This disaster threw the Mexicans into a panic, and they fled to the other side of the Rio Grande. The American Plan of Campaign. — General Scott now organ- ized the American forces in three divisions. The army of the West, under General Kearny (Car'ny), was to cross the Rocky Mountains and conquer the northern Mexican provinces; the army of Occupation, under General Taylor, was to seize and hold the districts of the Rio Grande; the army of the Centre, under General Scott, the commander-in-chief, was to march from the Gulf into the heart of the country, while General Wool was to attend to the mustering in of the troops. Capture of Matamoras and Monterey. — "Rough and Ready," as General Taylor was popularly known, crossed the Rio Grande opposite Fort Brown, ten days after his victory at Resaca de la Palma, and captured Matamoras with little trouble. Reinforce- ments having increased the number of his men to sixty-six hun- dred, he advanced upon Monterey (mon-ta-ra'), which was defended by ten thousand troops. The city was invested on 294 .-/ HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY September 19, the fortified works in the rear of the town being captured two days later by General Worth. On the 23d the city was carried in front and a general assault followed. The Mexicans fought with unusual bravery, but nothing could check the Americans, who pushed through the streets and over house- tops. Ampudia, the commander, surren- dered and, receiving the honors of war, re- treated in the direction of the ( ity of Mexico. Victory at Buena Vista. — \' i c t o r y crowned the Ameri- can arms everywhere, though to this day Mexico celebrates all her defeats as so many \ictories. (ieneral Scott, liaving decided to march against the capital, ordered most of the army of Occu- l)ation to join him on the Gulf. Santa Anna advanced with twenty thousand men to crush Taylor, who took posi- tion at Buena Vista (bwa'nah vees'tah). There, February 23, 1847, h^ was attacked by the Mexicans who had a force four times as great as that of the Americans. The battle continued all day, ending in the de- feat of the Mexicans, who retreated in the night. Conquest of New Mexico and California. — Leaving Fort Leaven- worth in June, 1846, General Kearny captured and garrisoned BATTLE OF RESACA DE LA PALMA POLK'S ADMINISTRATION 295 Santa F^ on the i8th of the following August. The New Mexi- can provinces were not eager for war and readily submitted. While pushing for the Pacific coast, Kearny learned that Fre- mont had conquered California. With the aid of Commodores Stockton and Sloat and General Kearny, the entire country was brought into subjection before the close of the year. The Advance on the Capital. — With a force of twelve thousand men, General Scott, in March, 1847, completed the investment of Vera Cruz (va'rah crooz). Aided by Commodore Conner, a bombardment was kept up for several days, when the city surren- dered on the 29th of March. This opened the road to the city of Mexico, and Scott entered upon his final campaign. The Mexicans were encountered at the mountain pass of Cerro Gordo and defeated. Santa Anna fled in so great a hurry that he left his wooden leg behind him. The following day the army entered Jalapa (hah-lah'pah). The castle of Perote surrendered without resistance, and large supplies were thus secured by the Americans. There was no resistance at the city of Pueblo (poo-a'blah), and on the loth of August the American army gained its first sight of the beautiful city of Mexico. Fifteen miles from the capital at Ayotla, the fortifications were found so strong that General Scott moved to the south around Lake Chalcos, thence eastward to San Augustin, which brought him within ten miles of the city. Con- treras (con-tra'ras) was stormed on the morning of August 20, and in less than half an hour the six thousand Mexicans were driven headlong out of the fortifications. Then the garrison of San Antonia was routed. The heights of Churubusco (choo-roo- boos'ko) were next stormed. A powerful force of the enemy was gathered there, but a number of batteries were captured. Santa Anna set out to help the garrison, but was driven back. At this juncture proposals were received from Santa Anna to negotiate, but his terms were those of a conqueror, and it was apparent that he was only seeking to gain time. Hostilities were, therefore, resumed on September 7, the western defences being captured the next day. Cha])ultepec (cha-pool'te-pec) fell and, 296 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY when the sun went down, it saw the invaders within the suburbs of the city of Mexico. Capture of the City of Mexico and the Treaty of Peace. — On the night of September 13, after the Americans had entered the suburbs of the city, Santa Anna set two thousand convicts loose to fight pur soldiers, while he and the city ofificers ran off in the darkness. About sunrise the capital surrendered, and Mexico was conquered. A treaty of peace was concluded at Guada- lupe Hidalgo, P'ebru- ary 2,. 1848, by which we gained Texas, New Mexico, Califor- nia, and Arizona. For these valuable prov- inces, our government pledged itself to pay Mexico fifteen million dollars, and to assume all debts due from the Mexican government to American citizens to the extent of .^3,500,000. Settlement of the Oregon Boundary. — Oregon had been jointly occupied by Great Britain and the United States for more than twenty years. There was a good deal of friction between the two countries, with now and then sharp talk of war. Finally, the present boundary was agreed upon and the troublesome question settled. Discovery of Gold in California. — James W. Marshall, while digging out a mill race in the Sacramento valley, in the month of February, 1848, picked up a yellow pebble, whose nature he CAPTURE OF THE CITY OF MEXICO POLK'S ADMINISTRATION 297 half suspected. Investigation proved not only that it was pure gold, but that the soil for miles around contained millions of dollars worth of the precious metal. The news spread like wild- fire, and, in the course of a few months, thousands were flocking from the four quarters of the globe to the new El Dorado. The yield of the mines of the State since then has been nearly a bill- ion of dollars, with still an immense output annually. Admission of "Wisconsin. — Wisconsin was admitted to the Union on May 29, 1848. Its name is an Indian word signifying "Wild, rushing waters." The country west of Lake Michigan was explored in 1639 by the French missionaries, trappers, and traders. The first settlement was at Prairie du Chien (pra're du sheen'). The region remained under French rule until 1763, when it was ceded to England. It reverted to the United States by treaty in 1796. It was a part of the Illinois Territory from 1809 to 1818, when it became attached to Michigan. It was separately organized in 1836. Presidential Election of 1848. — The most popular hero in this country is the military one. The Whigs had tried three times to elect Henry Clay and failed, and were afraid to try even so great a statesman as Daniel Webster. Eight years before, they carried the country with General Harrison. They now repeated the ex- periment by putting forward "Rough and Ready," as General Zachary Taylor was popularly called. They were wise in doing so, for he was elected by a substantial majority, Millard Fillmore being the nominee for Vice President. Topics. — What every one knew; the request of the Texan legislature; the action of General Taylor; the first conflict; the victory at Palo Alto; at Resaca de la Palma; the American plan of campaign; the capture of Mata- moras and Monterey; the victory at Buena Vista; the concjuest of New Mex- ico and California; the advance against the capital of Mexico; the different engagements; fall of the city of Mexico; the treaty of peace; its terms; the settlement of the Oregon boundary; the discovery of gold in California; the rush thither anil the great yield; the admission of Wisconsin; its early his- tory; the presidential election of 1848. 298 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY Biographical Notes. — Stephen W. Kearny (this name is generally misspcUcil Kearney) was born in 1794 and did good service in tiie war of 1812. He was made brigadier general in 1846, and during the Mexican war estab- lished a provisional government at Santa Ke. His victory at San Pasqual caused him to be promoted to a major generalship. In 1847, ^^ ^^'^^ made governor of California, and died in 1848. John E. Wool, born in 1784, won great credit at Quecnstown Heights in 1812 and at Plattsburg in 1814. From 1816 to 1841 he was inspector gen- eral of the army. He was next in command to (leneral Taylor at Buena Vista. From 1857 to i860 he' commanded the Eastern department; from 1S61 to 1862, Port Monroe; from 1862 to 1863, the middle military department; and in 1863, the department of the East. He died in 1869. William J. Worth was born in 1794 and entered the military service on the breaking out of the war of 181 2, fighting bravely at Chippewa and Niagara. He assumed command of the department of P'lorida in 1841, and, as we have learned, succeeded in bringing the long Seminole war to a close. He was next in command to General Taylor when the Mexican war broke out, participat- ing in the assault on Monterey and in the battles of Vera Cruz and the various engagements ending in the capture of the city of Mexico. He died in 1849. Robert F. Stockton was born in 1795, being the grandson of Richard Stockton, a signer of the Declaration of Independence. He entered the navy in 1812 and distinguished himself in the war with Algiers. He was a man of dauntless personal bravery, as he proved in many instances. While engaged in the establishment of the African republic of Liberia, he was once surrounded by a party of natives, who were determined to take his life. Stockton seized the chief by the throat and, holding his pistol at his head, let it be known that on the first demonstration, he would kill their leader. The natives were so terrified that they were glad to see him depart in peace. He commanded a squadron on the California coast in the Mexican war and co- operated with Fremont in the conquest of that province. He resigned from the navy in 1850 and was United States senator from New Jersey in 1S51 to 1853. He died in 1866. Zachary Taylor, twelfth President, was born at Orange Court House, Vir- ginia, September 24, 1784, but his parents removed to Kentucky while he was an infant. He received a meagre education, but was an excellent soldier. For his gallant defence of Fort Harrison, on the Wabash, in the war of 1812, against a superior force. President Madison appointed him major by brevet, that being the first time such an honor was conferred in tiie American army. We have learned of his fine service in the war with Mexico, which led to his nomination for the presidency, though he was so little interested in politics, that he had not cast a vote for forty years. CHAPTER XXX TAYLOR AND FILLMORE's ADMINISTRATIONS. — 1849-1853 [MPENDING Civil War — The Slavery Question. — Slavery had become the all-absorbing ques- tion of the hour. The congress of 1850 con- tained those intellectual giants, — Clay, Cal- houn, Webster, Seward, and Benton, — and the debates stirred the nation. California was clamoring for admission to the Union. ^^ _^ ^ Should she enter as a free or slave State? The quarrel intensified, and civil war seemed imminent. Then it was that Henry Clay, the "Great Pacifica- tor," forgetting his years and his physical weakness, in his burn- ing patriotism, stepped forward once more and for the last time with his panacea for the "five bleeding wounds," as he termed them. Reinforced by the eloquence of Webster, the "Omnibus Bill" was carried through both houses of congress and, be- coming the law of the land, averted civil war, — but only for a time. This bill provided for the admission of California as a free State; the formation of territorial governments for Utah and New Mexico, .,, , . . . , ZACHARY TAYLOR Without any provision concerning slavery; the payment of ten million dollars to Texas to yield its claim to the territory of New Mexico; the prohibition of the slave trade in the District of Columbia; and a fugitive slave law declaring 299 300 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY that slaves escaping to a free State should be returned to their owners. Death of President Taylor — The Thirteenth President. — In the midst of the exciting discussion, President Taylor died from an attack of bilious fever July 9, 1850. \'ice President Fillmore took the oath of ofifice the next day. He was born at Summer-Hill, New York, Feb- ruary 7, 1800. He learned the fuller's trade, taught school for a few years, studied law, and, taking up its practice in Buffalo, met with great success. He served as state comptroller one term and as con- gressman four terms. He was a believer in the compromise measure of Clay, and, though an able man, was by no means the equal of many around him. He died in MILLARD FILLMORE t, /v i ht u o Buffalo, March 7, 1874. Admission of California. — California was admitted under the provisions specified September 9, 1850. The origin of the name of the State is a matter of dispute, but is generally believed to have been derived from a name in a Spanish romance published in 1530. The section was visited by a Spanish navigator, named Cabrillo (ca-breel'yo), in 1542. The first settlements were made by the Spaniards about 1768. A number of Franciscan friars founded presidios or religious establishments for the conversion of the Indians. These friars acquired great wealth and virtually enslaved the natives. In 1822, upon the overthrow of the Span- ish power in California, the fathers were stripped of their riches and authority. By and by, an emigration thither began from the United States, but it was slow until the discovery of gold, as described elsewhere, when it assumed prodigious proportions. The Fugitive Slave Law. — The passage of the Fugitive Slave Law, though a part of Clay's famous "Omnibus Bill," soon added fuel to the flames it was intended to quench. The ma- jority of the supreme court, the highest tribunal in the land in TAYLOR AND FILLMORE'S ADMINISTRATIONS 30I rendering what is known as the Dred Scott decision, declared the law constitutional. It was defied and resisted in the North. The slaves, who were continually fleeing from their masters, were helped on to Canada, where only they were absolutely safe, or were hidden by friends in the free States. Frequent collisions took place, and people were killed. Ky and by, some of the THE SLAVERY QUESTION IN CONGRESS States passed "personal liberty" bills, by which such fugitives were granted a trial by jury in the face of the decision of the supreme court. The breach between the North and South grew wider every day and almost every hour. Presidential Election of 1852. — ^The Democratic convention for the nomination of candidates for the presidency and vice presidency was held in Baltimore in the month of June, 1852. A curious fact about it was that thirty-five ballots were taken 302 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY before the name of Franklin Pierce was presented. The contest was so determined among the leaders that Virginia, on the thirty-sixth ballot, placed Pierce in nomination. On the forty- ninth ballot he swept everything from his path and was declared the nominee. More than one-half the people in the country had never heard of him, but in the autumn canvass he overwhelm- ingly defeated General Winfield Scott, the Whig candidate, William R. King of Alabama being chosen Vice President. Topics. — The slavery question; the intellectual giants in the congress of 1850; the question as to the admission of California; the last work of Henry Clay; the provisions of the "Omnibus Bill," which calmed the storm for the time; the death of President Taylor; Millard Fillmore; admission of Cali- fornia; early history of the State; eftects of the passage of the Fugitive Slave Law; "personal lilaerty " bills; the presidential election of 1852. Biographical notes.— Winfield Scott was bom in Virginia in 1786, educated at William and Mary College, and commissioned as lieutenant in the army in 1808. He was taken prisoner at the battle of Queenstown Heights in 1812, and, upon his exchange, distinguished himself and was so badly wounded at Lundy's Lane, of which he was the hero, that he was una- ble to take further part in the war. He was made a major general, fought against the Seminoles and Creeks, and became commander-in-chief of the army in 1841. He was the conqueror of Mexico, and the foremost general at that time in the country. His crushing defeat by one of his subordinate officers, in the presidential campaign of 1852, astonished the country, since he received only forty-two electoral votes to two hundred and fifty-four cast for Pierce. General ScotLwas a martinet, pompous of manner and always conscious of the dignity of his office. He was a man of prodigious size, being fully six feet four inches tall and massive in proportion. He was in command of the army at the outbreak of the civil war, but resigned in October, 1861. He died five years later, and was buried in the national burying ground at West Point. Franklin Pierce, the fourteenth President, was born at Hillsborough, New Hampshire, November 23, 1804. He was a classmate of Longfellow and Haw- thorne at Bowdoin College, and, upon his graduation, became a successful law- yer. He served in his .State legislature and was a member of congress from 1833 to 1837. His ability attracted attention, and, entering the United States senate in 1839, he remained until 1842, afterward declining a cabinet appointment from President Polk. Upon the breaking out of the Mexican war, Mr. Pierce volunteered his services. Although he held no command above that of a brig- ade, he displayed great gallantry in several battles. He died October 8, 1869. CHAPTER XXXI pierce's administration. — 1853-1857 |E must record a noteworthy fact (because it was never known before and down to the present has not been repeated) which is, that through- out the four years of President Pierce's ad- ministration there was not a single change in his cabinet. Repeal of the Missouri Compromise. — ■ The most important event of Pierce's administra- tion was the repeal of the Missouri Compromise. Senator Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois introduced a bill for the organ- ization of the Territories of Kansas and Nebraska, with the provision that they should decide for themselves the question of slavery. After a heated discussion, the bill became a law May 31, 1854. "Bleeding Kansas." — Nebraska lay too far north to be disturbed by the slavery quarrel, and had no trouble, but Kansas quickly became the scene of violence and bloodshed. The pro-slavery men hurried emigrants thither, so as to gain control of the elections, while New England was equally active in providing parties of settlers with all they needed, especially Bibles and rifles. The men on both sides were desper- ately in earnest and committed many crimes. A pro-slavery government was organized at Lecompton and an anti-slavery one at Topeka. Each attempted to enforce its laws and civil war 303 FRANKLIN PIERC£ 304 A ins TORY OF OUR COUNTRY followed. At night the skies were lit up with the glare of burn- ing homes, and the crack of the deadly rifle was hardly ever silent by day or night. Within the space of five years, six differ- ent governors were sent into Kansas to restore order, and every one failed and gave up in disgust. The War in Congress. — Congress, in a smaller way, became a miniature Kansas. The members went to the chambers armed ASSAULT ON CHARLES bUMNLh with knives and pistols, and there were several personal en- counters, with constant threats of appealing to the "code." (lenerally the Republicans controlled the house of representa- tives, while the Democrats were in a majority in the senate, Kansas at last formed a state government forbidding slavery, and asked to be admitted to the Union. The house was willing, but the senate refused. Senator Sumner of Massachusetts was among PIERCE'S ADMINISTRATION 305 the foremost opponents of slavery and made many powerful speeches against it. One of his speeches angered Senator Butler of South Carolina, who, however, contented himself with a sav- age reply. His nephew, Preston S. Brooks, a congressman from the same State, strode into the senate chamber, where Sumner was writing at his desk, and, without warning, furiously assaulted him with a heavy cane. Before he could be checked, he had beaten the helpless senator into insensibility and injured him so grievously that his life was despaired of. He was obliged to make a voyage to Europe, undergo one of the severest of surgical operations, and did not recover for several years. Brooks was lionized by his people for his shocking crime, and the resolution to expel him from the house was not carried. He died the following year, and the shameful incident added fuel to the flames of hatred that were already burning unquenchably between the North and South. Presidential Election of 1856. —The Republican party was fully organized during Pierce's administration. As a result of the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act, in 1854, the northern Free Soilers, Whigs, Democrats, Know Nothings, and Abolitionists fused into one compact organization, whose" fundamental prin- ciple was opposition to the extension of slavery. The party in- creased rapidly, and, at Philadelphia, in June, 1856, nominated John C. Fremont of California and William L. Dayton of New Jersey as its candidates for the presidency and vice presidency. There were other tickets in the field beside the Democratic, which elected James Buchanan, who received one hundred and seventy-four electoral votes out of a total of two hundred and ninety-six, while one hundred and fourteen went to Fremont. This large vote by the new party opposed to slavery startled the South. They understood for the first time the magnitude of the opposition to its "peculiar institution," and though they were not then ready to secede, they began preparing for the step if, as seemed likely, the Republicans should, at the next national election, carry all the free States and elect their candidates. 3o6 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY Topics. — a noteworthy fact regarding Pierce's administration; the repeal of the Missouri Compromise; " bleeding Kansas; the reign of civil war in the Territory; the attempts of the friends and enemies of slavery ; the scenes in congress; the assault upon Senator Sumner; intensifying of the quarrel be- tween the North and South; organization of the Republican party; its first national nominees; result of the election of 1856; effect upon the Soutli. BIOGRAPHICAL NOTES. — Stephen A. Douglas was born in Vermont in 1S13. He was a farmer, a teacher, and, while still a young man, began the prac- tice of law ill Illinois. He was bright, aggressive, and a popular stump speaker. He was elected to the state legislature, was attorney general, was elected sec- retary of state of Illinois in 1840, and in the year following received the appointment of judge of the supreme court of that State. He was elected to the house of representatives in 1843 and served until 1847, when he entered the senate and remained until 1861. During this period he forged to the front, among the foremost of Democrats. He had a large head, but was short of stature, and his many admirers named him " Little Giant." Douglas was the author of the doctrine of " popular sovereignty," of which so much was heard after the close of the Mexican war. It meant that the people of all the Territories should be left free to settle the question of slavery for themselves. The Kansas-Nebraska bill, therefore, was an expression of this principle. He had a large following, which presented his name to the national convention of 1852 and of 1856. In i860, the northern wing nominated him. His great debate with Abraham Lincoln in 1858, when the two were candidates for the United States senate, first brought Lincoln into national prominence. He was an ardent Union man throughout the civil war and a strong supporter of Presi- dent Lincoln, with whom he had been on friendly terms for years. He died in June, 1861. Charles Sumner was born in Boston in 181 1, was graduated at Harvard in 1830, and after studying law made an extensive European tour. He was an accomplished scholar and an eloquent orator. He became deeply interested in the slavery question, and, although not actively participating in politics, his addresses were marked by the highest culture and the profoundest depth. He was a Whig in politics, but helped to reorganize the Free Soil party in 1848, and was its successful candidate for congress. After a fight of several months in the Massachusetts legislature, in 1851, a combination of Free Soil- ers and Democrats elected him to the United States senate, his re-election regularly following until his death. In that august body he became the leader of the anti-slavery sentiment. It was his speech on the "Crime against Kan- sas," in May, 1856, which provoked the frightful assault upon him by Preston S. Brooks, and which prevented Sumner from resuming his seat until 1859. He was the chief supporter of President Lincoln, whose tactful wisdom enabled PIER CE 'S ADMINIS TRA TION 307 him to control the dogmatic side of this great senator, where any other man would have failed. He opposed President Johnson, and by his defeat of the San Domingo treaty, which was a favorite measure of President Grant, alien- ated the leading Republicans. He was a supporter of Horace Greeley's can- didacy in 1872, and always a true friend to the colored man, whose rights he championed to the close of his life, which came in March, 1874. John C. Fremont was born in Virginia in 1813 and received his education in Charleston. He first entered the United States navy, but soon joined the corps of topographical engineers and married Jesse Benton, the daugh- ter of United States Sena- tor Benton. In 1842, he entered upon his career as a western explorer, pene- trating the Rocky Moun- tain region to the peak which was named in his honor. In 1843 ^"d 1844, he conducted a more ex- tensive exploration of the comparatively unknown Far West, which carried him into the Utah Basin and through the passes of the Sierra Nevada. He was engaged on another expedition which found him in California at the breaking out of the Mexican war of 1846, whither he had gone, having received secret information from the government of the probable war between the countries. He helped Commodore Stockton to conquer California, but was court-martialled for accepting orders from Stockton instead of General Kearny. Feeling aggrieved, he resigned his commission in the United States army. Hitherto, Fremont had conducted his explora- tions for the government, but he now carried through two on his own account. FREMONT CROSSING THE ROCKIES 308 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY The lirst, 1 853-1854, was attended by almost incredible hardships and suffer- ings, in which many of his men were frozen to death, and all the animals perished. lie was sent as senator from California for the short term, and, as we have learned, was defeated for the presidency in 1856. lie was given an important command at the opening of the civil war, but achieved no sj^ecial success as a military leader, lie died in 1890. James Buchanan, tifteenth President, was born in Mercersburg, Pennsyl- vania, April 23, 1 79 1. He was graduated from Dickinson College in 1809, and, having become a lawyer, was elected to the state legislature, followed by his election to congress in 1821. He was appointed minister to Russia by President Jackson in 1832, but soon returned home and was elected to the United States senate in 1834. Through his long life he was almost continu- ously in public office. When he left the senate, in 1845, it was to enter Presi- dent Polk's cabinet as his secretary of state. He had already become a prominent candidate for the presidency. In 1853, he was appointed minister to England, where he remained until 1856, when he was elected to the presi- dency. His term w as a most trying one, its conclusion overlapping the edge of the great civil war. He was accused of timidity, and perhaps the charge was justifiable. It must have given him infinite relief, when at last he handed over the government to his successor. He returned to his home at Lancaster, where he died June i, 1868. l\Ir. Buchanan was the only bachelor who had thus far been President of the United States. CHAPTER XXXII Buchanan's administration. — 1 8 5 7- 1 86 1 Airlic Explortxs' |OINING Issue with the Supreme Court — The Dred Scott Decision. — The Died Scott de- cision has been referred to as one of the causes which intensified the anger between the two sections of the Union. Dred Scott was a slave, whose owner was a surgeon in the army, and who took him to Fort SneUing, Minnesota, afterward returning to Missouri. Scott brought suit for his freedom, because he had been taken into territory where slavery was prohibited. The decision, sometimes one way and sometimes another, was carried up from court to court, until it reached the United States supreme court, the highest tribunal in the land. There the decision was read by Chief Justice Taney in 1857. His decision was in conformity with the Southern view of the slavery question. It was assented to by six members of the court, all of whom were slave holders, the other two dissenting. It was in effect that slaves are property, and not regarded by the Constitution d& persons. Consequently a slave owner had a right to take his slaves anywhere he chose within the Union, without losing ownership in th.em. The expres- sion, " Negroes have no rights which the white man is bound to 309 JAMES BUCHANAN 3IO A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY respect," was repeated numberless times, and added to the resent- ment of the North, where, as we have learned, some of the States joined issue with the supreme court, and passed " personal liberty " bills. Frequent collisions occurred between slave owners and those befriending the runaways. John Brown's Raid. — John Brown, a fanatical Abolitionist, who had been active with his sons in the Kansas troubles, came to look upon himself as the chosen instrument of the Lord to free the land from slavery. He formed a plan to invade Virginia with a small force, and to start an insurrection among the slaves which would sweep through the entire South. With twenty fol- lowers he stationed himself in the month of October, 1859, on the Maryland shore opposite Harper's Ferry. On Sunday night, the 1 6th, the band crossed the railway bridge over the Potomac, took possession of the Federal armory, captured several citizens, stopped railway trains, and held the town for twenty-four hours. His intention was to launch the " revolution " before the authori- ties could stop him, and he cut the telegraph wires to prevent the news reaching the state or national government. Meanwhile, Brown having killed a number of the citizens, re- treated to a small engine house, with several of his men. There they kept the mob at bay throughout Monday and the night fol- lowing. The startling news had reached Washington, and on Tuesday morning Colonel Robert E. Lee arrived with a force of marines and land troops. The local militia had been called out, and there was no escape for Brown. But he would not surrender. Colonel Lee battered in the door of the engine house, one of his men being shot down, and Brown was overpowered, after his two sons had been killed and himself wounded several times. He was tried by the authorities of Virginia, and with six companions hanged on the 2d of December. The South naturally charged the North with the crime, though it was wholly the work of Brown. The raid was another step forward toward the war for the Union. The First Atlantic Cable. — The Atlantic is now spanned by several cables, which stretching along the ocean bottom through BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION 3II valleys miles deep, over submarine mountains and across hun- dreds of miles of plateau, keep the Old and New World in con- stant touch. The first telegraphic cable was completed August 5, 1858. The credit for the success of the enterprise was mainly due to Cyrus W. Field, a wealthy merchant of Ncav York. Several messages passed back and forth, among them one from Queen Victoria to President Buchanan. The event was celebrated on both continents with great rejoicing, but something was wrong with the insulation. The trouble grew worse, until on the 4th of September it was impossible to transmit a word through the wire. The mute tongue could not be roused into speech. A new com- pany was formed and repeated attempts made to reopen com- munication and to lay a new cable, but success was not reached until 1866. Admission of Minnesota, Oregon, and Kansas. — Minnesota, so named from its principal river, which means "sky-tinted water," was admitted to the Union May 11, 1858. It was in 1680, that Hennepin, a Franciscan priest, with a party of fur traders, paddled down the Illinois, and then ascended the upper Mississippi to the great falls which he named St. Anthony. The territory belonged to the Louisiana purchase, and followed its changes and transfers. Fort Snelling was built in 1819, and lumbering began on the St. Croix (croy) in 1837. The first building in St. Paul was put up in 1838, and the territory was organized in 1849. The Sioux (soo) Indians ceded a vast tract to the United States in 1851, when a rapid immigration began, and the settlement and develop- ment of the country continued. Oregon was admitted February 14, 1859. Its name is a Spanish word signifying " vales of wild thyme." In 1792, Captain Robert Gray sailed up the fine stream which still bears the name of one of his vessels, the Columbia. The expedition of Lewis and Clark, in 1804, brought back the first reliable information of the Pacific coast. Astoria was founded in 181 1 by the American Fur Com- pany, of which John Jacob Astor was president. The name Ore- gon was originally applied to all the country on the Pacific between 312 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY 42° and 54° 40' north latitude. The treaty with England in 1846 cut down the northern boundary to the forty-ninth degree. Emi- gration was slow until 1839, when legislation favoring it was made, and afterward added to, by which the new territory was rapidly settled. That portion of Kansas lying east of the one hundredth merid- ian formed a part of the Louisiana purchase of 1803. After the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska bill in 1854, emigrants began flocking into the territory, and the strife between the anti-slavery and pro-slavery men began and was continued for years. The name of the State is believed to have the same derivation as '• Arkansas." Election of Abraham Lincoln. — ■ The presidential election of i860 was held amid an excitement such as was never before known. The Democratic convention met in Charleston in April, i860, and stayed until May i, when fifty-seven ballots had been taken without selecting a nominee. A number of the dissatisfied members organized anew and agreed to meet in Richmond on the nth of June. At this meeting they nominated John C. Brecken- ridge of Kentucky for the presidency and Joseph Lane of Oregon for the vice presidency. The rest of the Charleston convention adjourned to Baltimore, where on the i8th of June they nomi- nated Stephen A. IJouglas of Illinois for the presidency and Herschel V. Johnson of Georgia for the vice presidency. Meanwhile, the Republican convention met at Chicago, May 16, and placed in nomination Abraham Lincoln of Illinois, with Hannibal Hamlin of Maine the nominee for Vice President. I'he week previous, the " Constitutional Union " party at Baltimore nominated John Bell of Tennessee for President and Edward Everett of Massachusetts for Vice President. The election re- sulted in the choice of the Republican nominees. Secession of South Carolina. — South Carolina lost no time in proving the deadly earnestness of her threat to withdraw from the Lfnion upon the election of the Republican candidates. On the 2oth of December, i860, the convention in Charleston passed B UCHANAN' S ADMINIS TEA TION 313 the ordinance of secession. Too impatient to wait for her sister States, she organized as a new nation, and arranged to send ambassadors, ministers, and consuls abroad. Governor Pickens formed a cabinet, with the usual departments ; provisions were made for military op- erations ; the state banks were author- ized to suspend spe- cie payments, and a loan of four hundred thousand dollars was promptly taken up ; a call for volunteers was made, and it was decided if necessary to order a draft. Having taken the momentous step. South Carolina pre- pared to parry the blow that she knew would soon be struck against her. Charles- ton harbor was de- fended by Castle Pinckney and Forts Moultrie, Sumter, and Johnson. Fort Sum- ter was the most for- midable. Major Robert Anderson, commanding the United States forces in Fort Moultrie, seeing the weakness of the Federal posi- tion, strengthened Castle Pinckney and Moultrie, but the superior officers to whom he was obliged to report in Washington were secessionists and his situation became most trying. On the night of December 26, he concentrated all his forces at Fort Sumter. HE STAR OF THE 314 ^ HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY The South Carolinians were angered and pronounced the act a hostile one. They occupied Fort Moultrie and Castle Pinckney the following day. The custom house and post-office were seized, and then the government arsenal was taken possession of by the militia. On the morning of January 9, the Star of the West approached Fort Sumter to deliver supplies, but was fired upon and compelled to return to New York. Formation of the Southern Confederacy. — On the 4th of Feb- ruary, delegates from South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Missis- sippi, Louisiana, and Florida met at Montgomery, Alabama. By a unanimous vote Jefferson Davis of Mississippi was provisionally elected President and Alexander H. Stephens of Georgia Vice President of the Confederate States of America. The flag was first unfurled on the 4th of March over the State House at Mont- gomery. Davis and Stephens were inaugurated on the iSth of February. Mississippi seceded January 9 ; Florida and Alabama on the nth; Georgia, the 19th; Louisiana, the 26th; and Texas on the I St of February. Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas joined the Confederacy later. The Sixteenth President. — Abraham Lincoln was born in Hardin — now Larue — county, Kentucky, February 12, 1809. When he was seven years old, his parents removed to Lidiana, settling near the present village of Gentryville. He helped his father on the farm and had but a year's schooling. He was a diligent student, however, and an insatiate reader of instructive books. ^Vhen sixteen years old, he was earning six dollars a month by managing a ferry across the Ohio. In 1830, the family removed to Illinois and put up a log house on the north fork of the Sangamon. Young Lincoln split rails and helped to clear the fifteen acres of land. With the help of some friends, he built a flat boat the following year, and took a load of goods to New Orleans. He served as a captain during the Black Hawk war, Jefferson Davis being also an officer. At the age of twenty-five, Lincoln was elected to the legis- lature, where he stayed for four terms. Having been admitted to BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION 315 the bar, he was sent to congress in 1846; In the course of the following few years he became the acknowledged leader of the Republican party. In 1858 he contested the canvass of Stephen A. Douglas as United States senator, and they stumped the State together. The wit, ability, and power shown by Lincoln in this memorable debate attracted the attention of the country; and, though he was defeated in a State strongly democratic at that time, he acquired a national reputation, and as a result became the candidate of the Republican party for the presidency two years later. Lincoln was six feet four inches tall, very powerful, a famous wrestler, awkward and homely of countenance, sometimes coarse of speech, but with genuine humor and great kindness of heart. He was as true a patriot as Washington, clean in his morals, and with an integrity that was never questioned. No other man since the birth of our republic has ever held so crucial a position as he, and no one could have acquitted himself more perfectly. In these days of peace and security, it is hard to comprehend the fiery trials through which he had to pass. Yet his patience, his self-possession, his resources, his infinite tact, never failed him. The most striking attribute of this remarkable man was his intuitive perception of the right hour to do a thing. His friends grew impatient and found fault, his enemies jeered, and his closest adherents doubted, but he could neither be hurried, delayed, nor swerved from the course he had laid out for him- self. When the moment came to smite, he smote with the power of the avalanche : a day sooner or later would have been a day too soon or too late. Abraham Lincoln will always rank as one of the greatest Ameri- cans and Presidents, and, as the years roll on, his place in the affection and reverence of his countrymen becomes more fixed and more secure. Topics. — The Dred Scott decision; upon what it was based; what it was; how it was accepted by the North; John Brown; his fanatical scheme; his raid at Harper's Ferry; how it all ended; history of the Atlantic cable; 3i6 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY admission of Minnesota; its early history; admission of Oregon; its early history; admission of Kansas; the presidential election of i860; the secession of South Carolina; her steps toward securing her independence; Major Rob- bert Anderson; his action on the night of December 26, i860; the action of the secessionists; the tiring on the Slar of the West ; the formation of the Southern Confederacy; the President and Vice President; Abraham Lincoln; his birth and childhood; his later career; his personal appearance; his char- acter; the great task imposed upon him; his must striking attrilnite; his place in American history. To THE Pupil. — Complete the following skeleton history, with the most important events from the signing of the Constitution to the formation of the Southern Confederacy. SKELETON HLSTORY OF PERIOD IV Name of Event Where it Took Place Signing of the Constitution Formation of the Northwestern Territory Election nf Washington as first President Philadelphia, Pa. Congress, N. ^'. In ten of the States September 17, 1787 1787 1788 Part V THE PERIOD OF THE WAR TOR THE UNION CHAPTER XXXIII Lincoln's administration. — 1861-1865 Events of 1861 IHE Cause of the Civil War. — Ihe cause of the Civil War may be given in a single word — slavery. There have been many ingenious and fine-spun theories to account for the ter- rific struggle between the two sections, but without African slavery there never would have been a battle. A compact country like ours, where the people are one, must either have slavery in every State or in none. It should be remembered that slavery, at one period in our history, was permitted everywhere. It was not abolished in New York until 1827, and prevailed throughout New England; but as time passed, it grew unprofitable in the North and gradually passed out of existence. In the South, however, where the chief industry was planting and the climate was softer, it flourished, especially after the invention of the cotton gin by Whitney, in 1792, when the raising of cotton became enormously profitable. The Southerners clung to the institution, but the constitutional right of the slave owners to take their negroes into any State without losing ownership, and the authority to pursue the fugi- 317 3l8 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY tives and force them back to bondage, became unbearable to the North. The South strove to add slave territory to the Union, and the North fought against it. I'he feeling grew more intense, until all saw that slavery must be protected throughout the United States or cease altogether. Furthermore, the South believed in state sovereignty, or as it is popularly termed "State rights." By that expression is meant that a citizen's first allegiance is due to his State. The South- erners looked upon the Union as simply a league between the States, from which any one had the constitutional right to with- draw whenever the majority of the citizens of such State desired to do so. It followed, therefore, that when South Carolina seceded, her people had to go whither she chose to lead them. There were many people in the South who were devotedly attached to the Union, and they were deeply grieved when their States attempted to withdraw. Even Jefferson Davis strove to avert the terrible conflict by trying to persuade the three presi- dential candidates to unite upon one man. Had that been done, Lincoln would have been defeated and the war postponed j but, sooner or later, it had to come. The fateful hour, when the question of slavery or disunion should be settled for all time, was as sure to arrive as do the rising and setting of the sun. f'"^ ^%^ Inauguration of President Lincoln. — V 1 'resident IJncoln left his home in Spring- "' '^ '^~'-- Ikld, Illinois, February ii, 1861. He ''^■' -;• was weighed down by the tremendous re- sponsibility that, in a greater or less de- gree, oppressed every thoughtful person in the country. He stopped in Philadel- ])hia on Washington's birthday to assist in the raising of a flag over Independence ABRAHAM LINCOLN ° ° Hall. Before he had reached the city, his friends learned of a plot in Baltimore to kill him. To avert the tragedy, he took an earlier train from Philadelphia LINCOLN 'S ADMIN IS TRA TION 319 GENERAL WINFIELD SCOTT than was expected, and reached Washington on the morning of the 23d. There was fear that trouble would occur at the inauguration ceremonies on the 4th of March, but General Scott made so effective military preparations that noth- ing of that nature took place. Between one and two o'clock, Mr. Lincoln and Mr. Buchanan entered the senate chamber arm in arm. The inaugural was delivered in the presence of the supreme court, the senate and house of representatives, the foreign ministers, and many prominent citizens of the country. The new Presi- dent declared that the United States is not a league but a union; he denied the right of secession, and announced that he intended to occupy all the places belonging to the government and to collect the duties and the imposts. Capture of Fort Sumter. — After some hesitation, the govern- ment decided to send a fleet to Charleston harbor with provisions and supplies for Fort Sumter. Washington was overrun with spies and secession sympathizers, and the news was immediately telegraphed to Montgomery, Alabama, the seat of the Confederate government. That body telegraphed to General P. G. T. Beaure- gard (bo're-gard), commanding at Charleston, to demand the surrender of Major Anderson. This demand being made and refused, fire was opened upon the fort. The first gun of the war was discharged at half-past four o'clock on Friday morning, April 12, from Fort Johnson. Edmund Rufifin, a white-haired old man, and a former friend of Calhoun, had come all the way from Vir- ginia to beg the privilege and is generally credited with firing the first gun. Some years later, when he saw the Union about to be restored, he committed suicide. General Beauregard, how- ever, asserted after the war that Captain George S. James fired the historical shot, after the privilege was offered to Roger A. 320 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY Pryor, who declined, because his State — Virginia — had not seceded. At seven o'clock, the first shot in defence of the Union was fired by Captain Abner Doubleday from Fort Sumter. The bombardment lasted thirty-four hours, during which the walls of the fort were badly injured and the main gates destroyed. The barracks caught fire, and to prevent the explosion of the maga- zine, most of the powder was thrown into the sea. Suffocating from the dense smoke, the ammunition exhausted, with no food except salt pork, and under the converging fire of forty-seven guns and mortars. Major Anderson was finally compelled to sur- render. The garrison, one hundred and twenty-nine in number, including laborers, were permitted to march out, after firing a salute of fifty guns to the flag before hauling it down. During this ceremony a llnion soldier was accidentally killed, and his was the only death on either side from the opening of the bom- bardment to the surrender. Eifect of the Fall of Fort Sumter. —The effect of this startling event was to fire the hearts of the North and South. The bells in Charleston were set ringing, when the surrender took place, and horsemen galloped furiously through the streets, shouting the "glorious news." Men, women, and children partook of the frantic excitement, all looking upon the incident as the dawn of independence and the omen of the grandest career conceivable in the history of the Palmetto State. Ah, if something in the nature of the Roentgen ray could have penetrated the coming four years ! The demand of the hot-headed Carolinians was now to be led against the Northern men who dared to think of conquering them. Hundreds, who had held Union sentiments up to that hour, seemed to be bitten by the madness that was raging everywhere, and became the most clamorous of secessionists. General Imboden in Virginia did not wait for his State to secede, but raised a company of ardent cavalrymen and offered them for ser- vice, before anybody had asked for help. It was the same in LINCOLN'S ADAHNISTRATION 32 1 many other sections, and Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas made haste to join the States that had already seceded. The South had many sympathizers in the North, where the profound devotion to the Union led the people to go to the utmost length in the way of compromise and concession, in the hope of preventing secession. Hundreds of men who after- ward became prominent in the armies of the Union went so far that they were accused of truckling and timidity by those who, when the conflict did come, took care to keep away from danger. A leading Southerner summed up the situation in his reply to a proffer from the North : " If you should offer us a sheet of white paper upon which to write our terms for remaining in the Union, we would reject it, for we are determined to secede at all hazards." The boom of Sumter's cannon crystallized the Union sentiment in the North and dissipated all idea of compromise. Every one was now as eager to fight for his country as were the multitudes in the South to fight against it. President Lincoln called for seventy-five thousand volunteers to put down the rebellion, and three hundred thousand rushed forward with a demand for a place in the ranks. Congress was summoned to meet on the 4th of Virginia the Great Battle-field of the War. — It was evident that Virginia was to be the great battle-field in the coming struggle. Richmond was made the capital of the Confederacy, and in the course of a few weeks the South had fifty thousand men under arms in the Old Dominion. The Confederates seized the armory at Harper's Ferry and the Norfolk navy yard, and preparations for war were active in every quarter. Attack on Union Troops in Baltimore. — Washington, the capital of the country, was in imminent peril of capture, and Northern troops were hurried to its defence. The 6th Massachusetts regi- ment, while passing through Baltimore, was attacked by a mob, and three were killed. Then the soldiers opened fire, shot down 322 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY nine, and wounded many others. It was a noteworthy fact that this affray took place on the 19th of April, the anniversary of the ?P^MF-p ATTACK ON THE UNION TROOPS IN BALTIMORE battle of Lexington. Enough troops soon reached Washington to remove all danger. ■ Preliminary Conflicts. — Arlington Heights and Alexandria were seized by Union troops on May 24. Colonel Ellsworth, of LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION 323 Ellsworth's Zouaves, clambered to the roof of a hotel where he saw a secession flag flying, and tore it down. The landlord shot him dead as he was descending, and he in turn was killed by one of the Zouaves. Fort Monroe had been garrisoned by General B. F. Butler, who sent an expedition against Big Bethel, but it was grossly mismanaged. The Union troops fired into each other, and ten were killed before the mistake was discovered. Then they attacked the Confederates, and were repulsed with severe loss. Union Disaster at Manassas, or Bull Run. — The North became impatient at the delay in marching against Richmond, where the Confederate congress had been summoned to meet on the 4th of July. The days and weeks were passing and nothing was done. The cry, " On to Richmond ! " was raised and repeated times without number. Since the term of the three months' men was nearly ended, it was decided to make an advance upon the Con- federate capital. General Irvin McDowell, with about thirty thousand troops, set out to attack the main Confederate army, under General Beauregard, at Bull Run, near Manassas Junction. The forces were nearly equal. The two armies met on Sunday, July 21. The issue of the battle for a long time was doubtful. It was gradually trending toward a Union victory, when, at the critical moment, Kirby Smith arrived with reinforcements. He was a subordinate of General J. E. Johnston, who was on the ground helping Beauregard direct the battle. The report that reinforce- ments had arrived threw the Union troops into a panic, and they fled in confusion to Washington. The expectation was general that the Confederates would pursue them and capture the city, but they were in no condition to do so. They had come so perilously near defeat that they were quite content to stay where they were. The Confederate victory at Manassas, however, was a misfort- une to the Southern Confederacy and the best thing that could have happened for the cause of the Union. It gave to the South 324 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY a fatal self-confidence. Scores of soldiers, confident that their independence was already secured, left for home. Even those that had doubted the issue were sure that the North, after so fearful a check, would abandon the effort to subjugate the South. The confidence in the North, previous to the first shock of arms, was as baseless as in the South. The boast was frequent that one well-equipped regiment could march from Washington to the Gulf of Mexico, that the South would run at the first smell of powder, and the whole flurry would be over within ninety days. It was strange that nearly every one believed the struggle was to be brief and almost bloodless. I'^ven the leaders. North and South, thought so. A small number here and there compre- hended the gigantic nature of the struggle that had opened, but they were so few that they were unnoticed in the multitude. The mistake was mutual. People forgot that this was to be a war between Americans, a meeting of "Greek with Greek "; that the most skilful generals and the bravest soldiers were arrayed against one another, and the world was >*" — ''^ ^^ to witness battles such as have rarely / 0r^^ been seen in history. vSo it was that the / ^ ^ first shock of arms at Manassas opened g:' . . the eyes of the North to the i)rodigious f» ^^ task before it. ->/ Hard fighting, much trial and loss, '^ , ,. with more than one repulse, were to be ^1^^^ the cost of the triumjih of the Union. ^^^T Instead of shrinking from the vast sacri- '^^^ fice, the resolution became set to strain GENERAL McCLELLAN ^-1 ,, • , every nerve until the victory was accom- plished. Congress voted half a billion dollars and half a million men to put down the rebellion. General George B. McClellan, who had done brilliant work in West Virginia, and who was a fine organizer of troops, was appointed to the command of the Army of the Potomac. He was very popular and was called by many the "Young Napoleon," who was to lead the armies of the \ LINCOLN'S ADAHNISTRATION 325 Union to victory. He set to work to drill and prepare the troops for an advance. Disaster at Ball's Bluff. — On the 21st of October, a Federal reconnoitring detachment at Ball's Bluff was surprised and overwhelmed by a force of Confederates, who drove them into the river, where many were drowned, and others, who did not surrender, were bayoneted. The Union loss amounted to fully a thousand, among whom was Colonel E. D. Baker, senator from Oregon. The War in the West. — The fighting was not confined to Vir- ginia. There was much of it in the \Vest, where the results were favorable to the Confederates. On the loth of August, General Lyon attacked a strong Confederate force at Wilson's Creek, Missouri. His men were defeated and he was killed. Colonel Mulligan made a desperate defence against General Sterling Price at Lexington, in the same State, but was obliged to sur- render. Price was driven into Springfield by Fremont, who issued a proclamation freeing the slaves. For this presumption he was superseded by General Hunter, who withdrew with the army to St. Louis. Then (General Halleck superseded Hunter and forced Price into Arkansas. The War on the Coast. — In the latter part of August, a joint naval and military expedition captured the forts at Hatteras Inlet, North Carolina. In November, another expedition secured the forts at Port Royal entrance. South Carolina. The Con- federate government had issued letters of marque and reprisal, authorizing ships upon the high seas to prey upon Northern shipping. A number of these succeeded in running the block- ade that President Lincoln had proclaimed, and did much damage to national commerce. The "Trent" Affair. — England and France were pleased at the prospect of the disruption of the Union. They declared their neutrality, but acknowledged the Confederates as belliger- ents, while our government wished them to be looked upon as insurgents. The South was sure, after the battle of Manassas, 326 A II I STORY OF OUR COUNTRY A BLOCKADE RUNNER that England would recognize the Confederacy, especially as she was suffering because her supply of cotton was largely cut off. Messrs. Mason and Slidell were appointed as commissioners to England and France, respectively. They succeeded in running the blockade, and at Havana took passage on the British mail steamer Trent. The next day, November 8, Captain Charles 328 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY Wilkes, of the United States steamer San Jacinto, stopped the Trent, and took Mason and Slidell back to the United States. England began preparing for war, since the proceeding was a clear violation of her rights. Our government saw its error, dis- avowed the act, returned the prisoners, and war was averted. Topics. — The cause of the war for the Union; why such shouKl Ijc the fact; why slavery disappeared from the North, but was retained in the South; state sovereignty or " State rights " ; what would have prevented the election of Abraham Lincoln; his journey from his home; the incident in Philadelphia; his inauguration; his inaugural; the decision of the government regarding Fort Sumter; secession spies in Washington; the bombardment of P^ort Sumter; effect of the capture of Fort Sumter; the excitement in Charleston; effect elsewhere through the South; the secession of other States; their de- termination to withdraw from the Union; the effect of the fall of Sumter upon the North; President Lincoln's call for volunteers; the great battle-field of the war; action of the Confederates; the attack on the Union troops in Bal- timore; the affair at Arlington Heights; Colonel Ellsworth; the disaster at Big Bethel; the cry of "On to Richmond"; the Union advance under Gen- eral McDowell; the Union defeat; the effect of the battle upon the South; the confidence in the North previous to the war; the great mistake that was made on both sides; the lesson of Manassas to the North; action of congress; General McClellan; Union disaster at Ball's Bluff; fighting in the West; bat- tle of Wilson's Creek, Missouri; at Lexington in the same State; Fremont's emancipation proclamation; the naval and military expedition against the forts at Hatteras Inlet; the Confederate privateers; the 'Trent affair. CHAPTER XXXIV Lincoln's adminlstration. — 1861-1865 {continued) Events of 1862 |HE Work to be done. — Thus far the war had been conducted in a disjointed way. The result gave the Confederates great confi- dence. In order to bring them back to the Union, several steps were necessary. One was the overthrow of the defiant army in Virginia and the capture of Richmond, the capital x)i the Confederacy. Another was the opening of the Mississippi, and a third the maintenance of an effective blockade. Could all be accomplished, the South would be forced to succumb. Keeping these facts in mind, we shall better understand the prodigious struggle as it progressed. The War in the Southwest. — The Confederates were more suc- cessful than the Unionists at the beginning of the war. In the Southwest they held a powerfully fortified line from Columbus to Cumberland Gap. If the centre could be broken, they would have to evacuate Columbus and leave the road open to Nashville. Commodore Foote, with a fleet of gunboats, and General Grant, with a strong land force, moved from Cairo (ca'ro) against Fort Henry on the Tennessee. The bombardment was opened Feb- ruary 6, and the fort soon surrendered. Before the garrison could be cut off, they escaped by land to Fort Donelson, twelve miles distant, on the Cumberland. The fleet now returned to the Ohio and ascended the Cumberland, while Grant went across by land to help in the attack on Fort Donelson. The weather 329 330 A HISTORY OF Ol'R COUNTRY ATTACK ON FORT DONELSON was attac yhtfully cold, and many of the men froze to death. The was kept up for three days, when the severe fire repulsed the Union fleet, Commodore Foote receiving a severe wound. The C'onfederates tried to cut their way out, but after a fierce fight were defeated. (Irant was reinforced, and was preparing for the final assault when, on February i6, the fort surrendered with fifteen thou- sand men. The victory caused wide rejoicing in the North, and was the beginning of Grant's great popularity. The Confederates were now compelled to establish a new line of defence for the Southwestern States. Beauregard, at Jackson, Tennessee, formed the centre, LINCOLN'S ADMINISTKA LION 331 Polk, at New Madrid, the left, and Albert Sidney Johnston, at Murfreesboro', the right. This new formation was an abandon- ment of Kentucky, and left the upper portion of Tennessee open to the Unionists. Early in March, General Curtis defeated the Confederate general. Van Dorn, at Pea Ridge, Arkansas. The Battle of Shiloh, or Pittsburg Landing. — The Federals ascended the Tennessee to Shiloh, or Pittsburg Landing. Gen- eral Grant assumed command, and General Buell at Nashville was ordered to reinforce him. Before he could do so, the Confederates attacked Grant in large numbers and with great impetuosity. Albert Sidney Johnston, one of the ablest of mili- tary leaders, strove with tremendous vigor to drive him and his soldiers into the river. The attack, which was made on Sunday, April 6, was a surprise to Grant, and came peril- ously near overwhelm- ing him. On the edge of the river, he gath- ered his shattered regiments for the last stand. He held his enemy at bay until Buell arrived. During the night the Union- ists were re-formed, and the fighting was renewed the next day. It ended with the retreat of the Confederates. The battle of Shiloh was the second great battle of the war. The Union loss was 1735 killed, 7882 wounded, and 4044 miss- ing. The Confederate loss was 1728 killed, 8012 wounded, and 959 missing. During the battle General Johnston had his leg shattered, and died almost immediately. Capture of Island No. 10 and Federal Occupation of Corinth. — The Confederates, on retreating from Columbus, took position DEATH OF ALBERT SIDNEY JOHNSTON 332 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY at Island No. lo. Commodore Foote bombarded them for sev- eral weeks, but without effect. General Pope captured the bat- teries opposite, and made ready to attack the fortifications in the rear, whereupon they surrendered April 7. Beauregard fell back to Corinth, followed by General Halleck, who was now in com- mand of the Union forces. The Confederates evacuated Corinth, which was occupied by General Halleck May 30. Occupation of Kentucky and Tennessee by the Federals. — Previ- ous to the occupation of Corinth by Halleck, the Union gunboats, May 10, attacked and defeated the Confederate ironclads in front of Memphis. The city surrendered, and the Memphis and Charleston Railway was secured. This gained Kentucky and western Tennessee for the Federals, who now held a strong line reaching from Memphis nearly to Chattanooga, which was the objective point of (General Buell. The Battle of Perryville. — The Confederate commander, General Bragg, at Chattanooga, moved swiftly toward Louisville, with the purpose of breaking this investment. General Buell had fallen back to Nashville, and he started on a race with Bragg for the Ohio River. Buell outran his antagonist, and arriving a day ahead, and receiving large reinforcements, marched against Bragg. They encountered at Perryville, October 8, and a terrific battle was fought. Bragg retreated in the night, taking with him his immense wagon train. This action practically cleared Ken- tucky of Confederate troops. Buell was superseded by Rosecrans on the 30th of October. Confederate Repulse at Corinth. — The reinforcements received by Buell had been sent by (irant. Generals Van Dorn and Price advanced against Corinth, whereupon Grant, hoping to capture Price and then get back to Corinth ahead of Van Dorn, ordered Rosecrans to attack luka. A sharp engagement took place Sep- tember 19, but Price eluded Rosecrans and joined Van Dorn. Then the two united their forces and attacked Rosecrans, now in his intrenchments at Corinth. The assault was a brave one, but was repulsed. LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATLON 333 Battle of Murfreesboro'. — No fighting of account took place in this section until near the close of the year. Rosecrans gathered his forces at Nashville, from which point he advanced to meet Bragg, who was marching northward with a strong column. The two armies met at Murfreesboro', where a terrific battle opened on the last day of the year. At the close of the first day, the Confederates had the advantage. But for the magnificent ability of General George H. Thomas, the Union army would have been destroyed. The soldiers were so exhausted that little fighting took place on the second day, but it was renewed with tremendous fury on the third. A part of the left wing of the Union army was driven back, but the Confederates in turn were forced to give way. In the end Bragg retreated, and Rosecrans occupied Murfreesboro'. This engagement was the bloodiest that had yet been fought, the killed and wounded on each side numbering about nine thousand. Siege of Vicksburg. — While these stirring events were going on, Grant was hammering at Vicksburg, whose fall was necessary before the Father of Waters could be opened to commerce. Grant's purpose was to advance along the Mississippi Central Railway, while Sherman descended the river from Memphis with Commodore Porter's gunboats. The campaign was spoiled by Van Dorn, who destroyed Grant's depot of supplies at Holly Springs. Not knowing of this disaster, Sherman advanced to the mouth of the Yazoo and made his attack north of Vicksburg, but was repulsed. The "Monitor" and the "Merrimac." — At the beginning of hostilities, in i86r, the Unionists burned the Norfolk navy yard to prevent its falling into the hands of the secessionists. The steam frigate Merrimac, then the finest in the service, was scut- tled and sunk. Some months later the Confederates raised her, razeed her deck, fitted her with an iron prow, and erected a roof of railway iron, which sloped at an angle of forty-five degrees. They renamed her the Virginia, though she will always be known as the Merritnac. 334 --i HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY On the 8th of March, at about noon, this monster, her iron ribs daubed with tallow, steamed slowly out from Hampton Roads, under convoy of several gunboats. She headed toward the sloop of-war Cumberland, which opened upon her with her heaviest broadsides. Then took place what was never before seen in naval warfare. The enormous cannon-balls, striking the mas- sive greased metal, spun hundreds of feet up in the air and splashed harmlessly back into the water. The great " sea-hog " shed the terrible missiles as if they were so many paper wads. The iron snout of the hideous monster rooted a hole under the bow of the Cumberland, through which the water poured like a raceway. The heroic crew continued working the useless guns, with the red flag, meaning "no surrender," fluttering defiantly LINCOLN'S ADMLMISTRA TION 335 aloft, but the Cumberland was fast sinking, and soon went down. With her mangled hull resting on the bottom, and the dead within and about her, the Stars and Stripes still waved from her masthead above the surface. . The captain of the frigate Congress, seeing the fate of the Cumberland, ran his vessel ashore, but the ironclad, taking posi- EXCITED CABINET MEETING tion astern, raked her until the helpless crew were forced to sur- render. The steamship Mvmesota, hastening to the relief of her consorts, ran aground and received several shots from the Mer- rimac, without a chance of striking back. Having wrought so much destruction, the Merrimac steamed to Norfolk, intending to return on the morrow and complete her awful work. The news caused rejoicing in Richmond and consternation in Washington and throughout the North. Many believed that, 336 ./ HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY after destroying the vessels at Fortress Monroe, the Merrimac would capture Washington, and perhaps lay Philadelphia and New York under tribute. President Lincoln called a cabinet meeting upon receiving the news, and Secretary Stanton expressed his fears of the worst. Meanwhile, another ironclad, only an infant as compared with the Merrimac, was steaming down the coast from New York. The crew were nearly suffocated with gas, the boat leaked badly, and more than once it looked as if the Monitor would go down with all on board. But she struggled forward and entered Hamp- ton Roads on the night after the visit of the Merrimac, and took position for the fight of the morrow. The Merrimac carried ten guns, eight at the sides, one at the bow, and one at the stern, and fired shells. The Monitor, which was the work of the Swedish inventor, John Ericsson, was an ironclad, with a single turret and two eleven-inch Dahlgrcn guns, firing solid shot. She was only one-fifth the size of the Merrimac, and has been well compared in appearance to a cheese-box on a raft. At daylight the following morning, the Merrimac appeared, accompanied by two of the gunboats. Before she could reach any of the helpless vessels, the Monitor darted out from behind the Minnesota and headed for the formidable monster, ^^■hen within a hundred yards, the Monitor fired. The Merrimac replied, and the firing became quite rapid for a time, the space between the combatants varying from fifty to two hundred yards. Most of the Merrimac' s shot glanced over the low deck of the Monitor, but a number struck the turret and pilot-house. The noise was so overwhelming that the gunners were almost deafened. The Merrimac made five attempts to run down her agile antago- nist, who dodged her every time. Lieutenant Worden, com- manding the Monitor, was blinded by a shell, which, striking the sight-hole in the forward part of the pilot-house, lifted the iron plate in front of him. Lieutenant Green took command, but the Merrimac now steamed laboriously back to Norfolk. 338 '/ HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY The effect of this naval battle cannot be o\erestimated. Had not the Monitor providentially arrived as she did, there is no reason to doubt that the Menhnac would have placed Washington at its mercy, to say nothing of the Northern cities, and would have compelled a recognition of the independence of the Con- federacy The eni^a^emenl usliercd in the era of ironclads and BATTLE OF ROANOKE ISLAND ended that of wooden ships. The navies of all the nations in the world must henceforth be sheathed in armor. The Merriviac and Monitor, which figured so prominently in the history of naval warfare, perished long ago. Upon the evacuation of Norfolk some months after the fight, the Mcrrimac was blown up, and still later the Monitor foundered off Cape Hatteras. Exploits of the Navy. —The navy did effective service during the second year of the war. Roanoke Island was captured on LINCOLN' S A DMINIS TRA TION 339 4-" \U=- \ ' mm "1 '"» y ■ f ■'•>i /^ OPERATIONS IN THE GULF the 8th of February; Nevvbern, North Carolina, March 14; and Beaufort, April 25. Early in the year, a formidable expedition was fitted out against New Or- leans. Captain Farragut had command of a large fleet, carry- ing a strong land force under Gen- eral Butler. Sev- eral days' bom- bardment failing to reduce the forts below the city, Farragut, under a furious fire, ran his ships past them. He was compelled to meet fire-ships, an attack from the ironclad Manassas, and the cannonade of all the forts; but he overcame every obstacle, and, anchoring abreast of the city, received its surrender April 25. His next exploit was to pass the batteries at Vicksburg and join the fleet above the city. The Campaign against Richmond. — The most difficult of all the campaigns was that against Richmond. The North be- came impatient with McClellan's tardi- ness. No one doubted his ability, but, though a dashing leader in West Vir- ginia at the opening of the war, he grew over-cautious when he assumed command of the Army of the Potomac, and was weighed down by his responsibility. In the month of April, this grand host, one hundred thousand strong, started on its campaign against the capital of the Confederacy. Landing at Fort Monroe, it first marched toward Yorktown, where Gen- eral Magruder, with a Confederate division of five thousand ADMIRAL FARRAGUT 340 A HISTORY OF OUK COUNTRY iHI CAMPAIGN AGAINST RICHMOiN men, was defending a line a dozen miles in length. Instead of tramp- ling this insignificant force under foot, the Union commander halted his army in the pestilential swamps and began a siege. Miles of cor- duroy roads were built; heavy guns were brought from Washing- ton, and the open fields were filled with intrenchments. The delay gave General Johnston time to re- inforce the defenders. Finally McClellan was ready to open fire, whereupon Johnston withdrew to- ward Richmond. The strong guard left at the forts at Williamsburg to cover the withdrawal of the baggage train was attacked by Hooker. A furious battle followed, with severe loss on both sides. The Confederates evacuated Williamsburg at night, and McClellan pursued until within the city intrench- ments and only seven miles from Richmond, whose spires and tall buildings were in plain sight. The people were thrown into a panic, and the Confederate congress hastily adjourned. At this critical juncture, McClellan was startled to learn that his communication by rail with White House Landing, his base of supplies, was threatened by a Confederate force at Hanover Court House. Not only that, but General McDowell, on his way from Fredericksburg with thirty thousand reinforcements, was endangered. Hanover Court House was captured by General Fitz John Porter, and all seemed to be going well, when General Johnston created a terrifying diversion by sending Stonewall Jackson up the Shenandoah valley to threaten Washington. This deprived McClellan of the reinforcements upon which he relied. In obedience to orders, Jackson hurried off to the Shenandoah LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION 34I valley. Reinforced by Ewell, he marched against Banks at Strasburg and drove him across the Potomac. The government, alarmed for the safety of Washington, took military possession of the railways and called upon the governors of the Northern States for militia with which to defend the capital. McDowell at Fredericksburg, Banks at Harper's Ferry, and Fremont at Franklin, were ordered to capture the terrible Jackson. They did their best, but Fremont was defeated at Cross Keys, June 8. Shields was swept aside the next day at Port Republic, and, burning his bridges behind him, Jackson hurried back to help Johnston on the Peninsula. On the 31st of May and the ist of June, McClellan threw his left wing across the Chickahominy. A violent storm prevented the passage of the entire army, and John- ston hurled his forces against the left wing. General Sumner succeeded in holding the enemy in check and preventing the sepa- ration of the army. In this battle General Johnston was severely wounded by an ex- , ,. , ,, ^. , x^ , TT T GENERAL ROBERT E. LEE plodmg shell. General Robert E. Lee suc- ceeded him in command, and held it to the close of the war. The attack on the Union army was renewed the next day, but was repulsed. General Lee now assumed the aggressive. General J. E. B. Stuart made a cavalry raid around the Army of the Potomac and burned the supplies along the railway connecting with the White House. McClellan was still pressing on, when he received news that Stonewall Jackson was at Hanover Court House and the Federal communications with White House were in peril. McClellan decided to change his base of supplies from the York River to the James. He was attacked by Lee at Mechanicsville, June 26, and, repelling the assault, fell back to Gaines' Mill. Porter held the bridges over the Chickahominy until night, when he withdrew to the south bank and burned them. Lee attempted 342 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY on the same night to cut off McClellan's retreat. A severe battle was fought the following day at Savage Station, and the Federals continued their retreat. Another Confederate attack was made at Fraser's Parm, but the Union lines were not broken. The shattered Army of the Potomac turned at bay at Malvern Hill, where they had the help of the gunboats in repelling the repeated attacks of Lee. He made a number of desperate assaults, but was repulsed with great loss. McClellan withdrew undisturbed to Harrison's Landing. Thus the campaign against Richmond ended again with failure. It was a severe discouragement to the North, but President Lin- coln issued a call for three hundred thousand more men and made preparations to push the war with greater vigor than ever. Lee's Invasion of the North. — General Lee now marched against Washington. The dissatisfaction with McClellan was so deep that he was ordered to transfer his army to Acquia Creek and place it under the command of General Pope, who was on the Rapidan and in charge of the defences of Washington. Lee decided to crush Pope before McClellan could reach him. Hold- ing him in his front, therefore, he sent Stonewall Jackson around the right ilank of the Union army. Pope turned upon Jackson, confident of overwhelming him, but he was assailed by the whole Confederate army, routed, and driven turbulently beliind the fortifications of Washington. In the general consternation, McClellan was recalled to the command. He started in pursuit of Lee, who had crossed the Potomac and entered Maryland. The rear of the Confederate army was overtaken at South Mountain, and the Federals entered the valley beyond. Lee drew in his scattered forces, a portion of which had captured Harper's Ferry, with eleven thousand Union prisoners, and met McClellan in battle at Antietam Creek, near Sharpsburg, SeJDtember i6 and 17. The engagement, which was a drawn battle, was one of the bloodiest of the war. On the night of the 17th, Lee recrossed the Potomac without molestation, the Army of the Potomac re-entering Virginia *few weeks later. LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION 343 Burnside's Disastrous Leadership. — McClellan was now super- seded by (ieneral Burnside. He crossed the Rappahannock at Fredericksburg and attacked the Confederate works (December 13). He hurled his brave men against the fortifications until the loss amounted to twelve hundred dead, ten thousand wounded, and three thousand missing. Then the hopeless attempt was abandoned, and the Union army recrossed the Rappahannock. Indian Troubles in Minnesota. — During the summer of 1862, the Sioux Indians in Minnesota committed many shocking mas- sacres. Colonel H. H. Sibley was sent against the savages with a sufficient force to defeat them and take many prisoners. The ring-leaders were tried, and thirty-nine of them, having been found guilty of horrible atrocities, were hanged at Mankato. Topics. —The war as heretofore conducted; the work to be done; the position in the Southwest; capture of Fort Henry; of Fort Donelson; new Confederate hne of defence; what the new formation was; battle of Shiloh or Pittsburg Landing; the losses on both sides; capture of Island No. lO; occupation and evacuation of Corinth by the Confederates; occupation of Kentucky and Tennessee by the Federals; the race for Louisville; battle of Perryville; Confederate repulse at Corinth ; battle of Murfreesboro' ; hero- ism of General Thomas. Siege of Vicksburg; Grant's plan of campaign; progress of the siege; building of the Merriinac ; her work on the 8th of March; the news in Richmond and in Washington; the coming of the Monitor ; her armament; John Ericsson; return of the Merrimac ; the great battle between the Merri- inac and the Monitor ; what became of each of them; capture of Roanoke Island; of Newbern and Beaufort; Farragut's capture of New Orleans; the campaign against Richmond; McClellan's tardiness; siege of Yorktown; bat- tle of Williamsburg; near approach to Richmond; Stonewall Jackson; his work in the Shenandoah valley; the fighting on the Chickahominy; wound- ing of General Johnston; assumption of the aggressive by General Lee; raid by General Stuart; McClellan's change of base; the fighting which fol- lowed; the final stand at Malvern Hill; McClellan's withdrawal to Harri- son's Landing; failure of the campaign; Lee's invasion of the North; the crushing of Pope; recall of General McClellan to the command; the battle at Antietam Creek, near Sharpsburg; retreat of Lee; the successor of Gen- eral McClellan; the disaster at Fredericksburg; the Indian troubles in Min- nesota. CHAPTER XXXV f.incoln's administration. — 1861-1865 {continued) Events of 1863 [TRIKING off the Chains of Slavery. — For months President Lincoln was harried by persons of opposite views. Some of his most devoted supporters insisted that he should issue, without delay, a proclamation declar- ing slavery at an end throughout the country. Others, equally patriotic, feared that the step would be premature and ruinous. With that faculty of knowing the right hour to do a thing, which in President Lincoln was an attribute of genius, he issued his emancipation proclamation in September, directly after the battle of Antietam, with the provision that it was to go into effect on the ist of the following January. Thus by a stroke of the pen, as may be said, four million human beings were set free, and the foul blot of slavery on the American continent was wiped out forever. The Campaign in the Southwest. — As before, we shall first study the military movements in the Southwest. The great battle of Murfreesboro' was raging when 1862 went out, and it ended, on the second day of the new year, with the retreat of General Bragg and the occupation of Murfreesboro' by Rosecrans. That ofificer did little until June, when he marched with his army against Bragg. In order to save his communications, Bragg evacuated Chattanooga early in September. Rosecrans was fol- lowing at a leisurely pace when Bragg, who had received heavy 344 LIXCOLN'S ADMIXISTRATION 345 reinforcements, wheeled about and unexpectedly attacked Rose- crans. The Union commander saved his army, which was strung out for a distance of forty miles, and the real struggle took place at Chickamauga, just across the line in Georgia. The Battle of Chickamauga. — This battle opened on.the 19th of September. General Longstreet had been sent to the South- west by General Lee, who saw the need of his help in the direc- tion of military movements. At the close of the first day, neither army had gained an advantage. On the second, at about noon, a movement to aid the left wing of the Union army broke the general line. Quick to take advantage of the opening. Long- street threw a division into the gap and forced the Union right and centre from the field. It was the crisis for the Union army. If the left wing yielded, Chickamauga would be an overwhelming disaster. If it held its ground, the army would be saved. Fortunately, the dauntless Thomas commanded there and his soldiers were as brave as he. Longstreet understood the stake at issue, and drove the whole Confederate army, with mighty energy, against the iron wall. It was done again and again, but Thomas and his heroes never flinched. All through the fearful afternoon, they beat back the charging hosts until, at nightfall, the attempt was abandoned. Thus Thomas well earned the title of the "Rock of Chicka- mauga " by his unsurpassed valor. At night, having gathered several hundred prisoners, he fell back to Chattanooga. The Battle above the Clouds. — Grant was so alarmed by the situation that he hastened to Chattanooga, where Thomas, having succeeded Rosecrans, was holding fast, though the city was so invested by the Confederates that his army was in danger of star- vation. Hooker was brought from the Army of the Potomac with two corps, and Sherman hurried forward with a strong body of troops from luka. With the help of these reinforcements the communications of Thomas were re-established. He seized Orchard Knob on the 23d of November, The next day Hooker ordered his men to attack the fortifications on Lookout Moun- 346 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY •THE ROCK OF CHIC.KAMAUGA ' LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRA TION 347 tain, but they were directed to stop upon reaching the elevated plateau. When this was attained, however, the enthusiastic sol- diers could not be held back. They kept right on and swept the Confederates before them. At so lofty a height was this engage- ment fought that it is known as the "battle above the clouds." The following morning, when the fighting was renewed, Grant watched every movement. Sherman attacked the northern flank, and Hooker charged Missionary Ridge on the south. The Con- CHATTANOOGA federate line was necessarily weakened in front of Orchard Knob, in order to repel these assaults. Grant directed Thomas to charge the centre, and after capturing the rifle pits at the foot of Missionary Ridge to halt and re-form. The veterans overran the pits and then, forgetting the orders to halt, dashed up the moun- tain side with irrestrainable enthusiasm. • Grant was so thrilled by the sight that he ordered a charge along the whole line. It was executed with the same ardor as before. The Federals vied with one another in reaching the crest, which they attained with- out firing a shot. The guns were captured in a twinkling and turned on the flying enemy. 348 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY The victory was complete. Bragg' s army was routed and the Union occupation of Chattanooga secured. Not only that but East Tennessee, where the Union sentiment was strong, was liberated and the path opened to the heart of the Confederacy. The Siege of Knoxville raised. — Burnside did so effective work in Tennessee that Longstreet went thither to check him. lie succeeded in shutting up Burnside in Knoxville, where it would have gone ill with him if Grant had not sent Sherman to his relief. Before he arrived, Long- street attacked Burnside, Novem- ber 29, but was repulsed. A few days later he withdrew upon the approach of Sherman. The Campaign in the West — Fall of Vicksburg. — The Mississippi could never be opened until the formidable batteries at Vicksburg were silenced. Grant set himself to do this, and had been at it for months. The Confederate bat- teries extended for miles along the river, and convinced that the place could not be taken from the north. Grant moved his army down the west side of the river, while his gimboats ran past the works. It was a fearful gauntlet, but it was accomplished successfully, and the army was then taken across. While Pemberton was advancing to the aid of Vicksburg, he was attacked and defeated at Port Gibson, May i, by Grant, l^earning that General Johnston was marching to the assistance of Pemberton, Grant pushed his army between the two forces. Thus he shut in Pemberton beyond the reach of help and forced back Johnston by defeating him at Jackson, May 14. By this time, it was clear that Vicksburg could be taken only THE CAMPAIGN IN THE WEST 350 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY by siege. Grant, therefore, besieged it. The garrison held out with great bravery and underwent much suffering, but their situa- tion daily grew worse until the hour came when it was a choice between submission and starvation. The former alternative was chosen, and, on the 4th of July, General Pemberton surren- dered his garrison of more than twenty thousand men, with a vast amount of arms and ammunition. The fall of Vicksburg compelled the surrender of Port Hudson. This opened the Mis- sissippi from its source to the Gulf. One of the great tasks necessary to a restoration of the Union had been accomplished. The fall of Vicksburg, it will be remembered, took place before most of the events already told in this chapter. The War on the Water. — An attempt was made to reduce Charleston in the month of April. Admiral Dupont directed the naval attack, from which much was exjDected. The Confederate preparations, however, were too complete and the ironclads were driven off (April 7). A landing was afterward made upon Morris Island by General Gillmore, who, in time, battered down Fort Sumter and captured Fort Wagner. . Meanwhile, the Confederate privateers were playing havoc with the Northern commerce. Many swift-sailing vessels suc- ceeded in running the blockade, carrying out cotton and bringing back much-needed supplies. With a sea coast of three thousand miles, it was beyond the power of all the navies in the world to close every avenue of ingress and egress. The most famous of the Confederate privateers was the Alabama, under the com- mand of Captain Semmes. England lent her aid in the building of these boats, for, as we have learned, she would have been pleased to see the Union destroyed. The Alabama sailed from Birkenhead, July 28, 1862, and for two years inflicted damage beyond estimate upon the commerce of the United States. On the first day of the year, the Confederates recaptured Gal- veston. The steamer Harriet Laue was attacked by several gun- boats, her commander killed, and several of the crew slain. The Union troops in the town were without artillery and surrendered. LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRA TION 351 This enabled the Confederates to raise the blockade in that sec- tion, and they held Galveston until the close of the war. The Campaign of the East — the Advance against Richmond. — The next Union general to try his skill against Lee was Hooker, who succeeded Burnside, January 26. When Longstreet went to the Southwest with his reinforcements, he left Lee with about sixty thousand men. Hooker, having more troops, advanced against the Army of Northern Virginia. DEATH OF STONEWALL JACKSON With the main body he crossed the Rappahannock several miles above Fredericksburg, while Sedgwick stayed behind to secure the town. Despite his smallness of numbers, Lee divided his army, and Jackson by one of his swift, secret marches passed around Hooker with his division of twenty thousand men, and hurling it against the Union right, routed it. This compelled Hooker to make a change in the advantageous position he was holding, but the following day (May 2) he was driven from his line of battle. Meanwhile, Sedgwick had captured Fredericksburg and was 352 A ins TORY OF OUR COUNTRY marching to attack Lee in the rear. Lee turned, and meeting him drove him across the river. Then he confronted Hooker, who had hastened to his old position opposite Fredericksburg. Thus Lee had once more defeated the Army of the Potomac, and the campaign against Richmond terminated in another dis- astrous failure. The success of the Confederate leader, however, was won at the cost of his most valuable officer. Stonewall Jackson, while reconnoitring in front of his position at Chan- cellorsville, was fired upon by his own men, who, in the gloom of the night, mistook him for a Union officer. He was so badly wounded that he died on the following Sunday, May lo. Lee's Second Invasion of the North. — So great had been the success of Lee that the Confederate authorities determined to carry the war for a second time into the North. Marching rapidly down the Shenandoah, therefore, Lee crossed the Potomac and advanced to Chambersburg, Pennsylvania. General George C. Meade, now in command of the Army of the Potomac, followed along the eastern side of the Blue Ridge and the South Mountain. Baltimore was alarmed by a demonstra- tion in that direction, but it proved to be only a diversion on the part of Lee, who was seeking to preserve his communications with Richmond. Gettysburg — the First Day. — The vanguards of the two great armies met near the little town of Gettysburg on the ist of July, where took place the decisive conflict of the War for the Union and one of the most fearful battles of modern times. In the first shock of arms, the Confederates gained the advantage and the LTnion advance was driven back. But every LTnion soldier was a hero, and they were under the leadership of skilful and brave officers, who comprehended the vast interests at stake. They were ready to peril life, as they had done many a time before, that their beloved country might live. All through the warm summer night reinforcements continued to arrive, and in the bright moonlight were assigned to position, ready for the death grapple on the morrow. General Meade LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRA TION 53 \ ) 354 '4 HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY held a consultation with his officers over the question of a change of base, but the Union leader decided to hold his ground and gather his energies for the mighty struggle close at hand. The Second Day. — The fighting on the second day was terrific. The experience of the soldiers on both sides had made them veterans. No braver troops trod the earth, and none was ever commanded by better officers. The Confederates were flushed by their past successes and the Unionists were nerved by the knowledge that the supreme grapple was before them. The assailants carried works at both ends of the Union lines, and Lee determined to continue the battle. Longstreet, however, after fighting his way to Cemetery Ridge received a bloody repulse from Hancock. But Ewell was so successful on the Federal right that fears were felt for the safety of the Union army on the morrow. The Third Day. — Ewell was driven out of his works early on the morning of the third day. Then followed a lull, used by Lee to prepare for the decisive assault. About one o'clock, one hundred and forty-five cannon on Seminary Ridge, opposite Meade's centre, opened on the Union lines. Meade replied with his eighty pieces of artillery on the crest of Cemetery Ridge. For two hours the awful bombardment continued. The moun- tains and valleys shook under the most prodigious outburst that this continent has ever known. Then the uproar ceased, the mass of sulphurous vapor slowly lifted, and a double column of gray, numbering fifteen thousand men, — the flower of the Confed- erate army, — with the battle line more than a mile in length, pre- ceded by a swarm of skirmishers, and with its wings guarded, emerged from the woods and advanced toward Cemetery Ridge. The gleam of the muskets in the summer sun, the flutter of the red battle-flags, the precision of step, and the perfect discipline caused a murmur of admiration to run through the Union army at the thrilling picture. Nothing like it was ever before seen. The advancing column had to march a mile to reach the Union lines, and they did it as if on parade. r.r.y COIN'S administra tio.v 355 b FILiHTING AT GETTYSBURG 356 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY ^Vhen within a quarter of a mile, a hundred guns opened. Ragged gaps were torn in the gray line, but, without faltering, the others closed up and came on with an increasing pace. The gait changed to "double quick," and then the Union infantry poured their murderous volleys into the ranks of the enemy. The supports were scattered, but a minute later Pickett and his men planted their battle-flags on the breastworks and bayoneted the cannoneers at their guns. Then they swept toward the sec- ond and stronger Union line on the crest of the hill, but a vol- cano of flame burst upon them from the front, right, and left. Pickett saw that a few minutes more in the focus of such a ter- rible fire would not leave a man alive, and he gave the order to fall back. Back they went " all that was left of them. " Some surrendered, while out of the division were lost three-fourths of the men, fourteen field ofificers, and three generals. No exploit in history surpassed Pickett's charge at Gettysburg. The killed, wounded, and captured in this great battle amounted to nearly fifty thou- sand. The Federal army was too worn to take the aggressive and Lee, after a day's rest, recrossed the Potomac and assumed posi- tion back of the Rapidan. Gettysburg, as has been stated, was the turning-point of the war. The charge of Pickett marked the highest wave of success. The repulse of Lee was a mortal blow to the Southern cause, whose doom was settled on the 3d of July, 1863. From that day forward, the leaders simply fought for terms. The downfall of the Southern Confederacy was inevitable. Topics. — The emancipation proclamation; when issued and what it ac- complished; the battle of Murfreesboro'; movements of Rosecrans; the assault by Bragg; the battle of Chickamauga; close of the first day; the second day; the threatened disaster to the Union army; how General Thomas saved the army from destruction; the " Rock of Chickamauga"; investment of Chattanooga; how Thomas's communications were re-established ; the "battle above the clouds"; the brilliant victory at Missionary Ridge; East Tennessee; raising of the siege of Knoxville; the defences at Vicksburg; LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION 357 exploit by the gunboats; splendid generalship of Grant; pressing of the siege; surrender of Viclcsburg; what it meant. Admiral Dupont's attack upon Charleston; work of General Gillmore; the Confederate privateers; \.\\q Alabama ; the aid given to the Confederacy by England; recapture of Galveston by the Confederates; advance of General Hooker against Richmond; his defeat by Lee; death of Stonewall Jackson; Lee's second invasion of the North ; his march down the Shenandoah ; move- ments of General Meade; the first day's battle at Gettysburg; the night which followed; the fighting on the second day; repulse of Longstreet by Hancock; success of Ewell; the fighting on the third day; preparation for the grand assault by the Confederates; the impressive charge of General Pickett; its crushing repulse; losses on both sides; Lee's retreat; the turning-point of the war; the inevitable end. CHAPTER XXXVI Lincoln's administration. — -1861-1865 {continued) Events of 1864 HEAD to all the Union Armies — General Grant made Lieutenant General. — dreat progress had been made in the War for the Union. The Mississippi was opened and the Con- federacy cut in twain. The South was suf- fering not only from the stringency of the blockade, but from the exhausting drain upon her resources, which were much less than those of the North. She could not, like her antagonist, replace the losses suffered in battle. But she still had the terrible Army of Northern Virginia wielded by the genius of R. E. Lee. Until that was con- quered, the struggle must continue. Gen- eral Grant, through his successes in the West and Southwest, had convinced the government that he was the right man to hold supreme charge of all the military forces of the Union. Accordingly, early in the year 1864, he was ma^e lieutenant general. The Campaign in the South. — Next to Lee's army, the strongest one of the Con federacy was that of General Johnston, whose military ability was hardly second to that of the commander-in-chief. Johnston had succeeded Bragg and was at Dalton, Georgia, with fifty thousand men. 358 GENERAL U. S. GRANT LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION 359 Sherman, with a force larger in numbers, advanced against him. Johnston fell back steadily, fighting and manoeuvring for a hun- dred miles. He checked the Union army at Kenesaw Mountain, and, on the loth of August, withdrew behind the intrenchments of Atlanta. Jefferson Davis, who had long been unfriendly to Johnston, now removed him from command and placed Hood in charge of the Confederate operations in the Southwest. Hood was a brave but reckless fighter. He attacked the Union army repeatedly, but was repulsed in every instance. His losses in a few days exceeded those of Johnston during his whole cam- paign and brought him no advantage. In the end, he was driven out of Atlanta, which was occupied by Sherman, September 2. Thereupon Hood marched into Tennessee, expecting Sherman to follow him, and thus save Georgia from threatened invasion. Sherman, however, paid no attention to him. He had other plans in view and knew there was a man in Tennessee who would attend to Hood. Destruction of Hood's Army by General Thomas. — That man was General George H. Thomas. Hood strove to strike him before he could gather his forces. Schofield was driven into Nashville and shut up with Thomas behind the fortifications. Thomas set to work to make his preparations. The government became impatient at his delay, and even Grant reproved him. But Thomas bided his time. When fully ready he marched out, December 15, with his army and attacked Hood. Thomas's management of this movement has been pronounced the most perfect of any that occurred during the war. To the minutest detail the campaign was flawless, and when he struck Hood the blow was fatal. The Confederate army was splintered to frag- ments. It ceased to exist as an army and the worn-out Confed- eracy was never able to replace it. Sherman's March to the Sea. — Sherman, with his army sixty thousand strong, now faced toward the Atlantic coast, three hun- dred miles distant, and swung off on his memorable march to the sea. His course led straight through the granary of the Confed- 36o A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY eracy. The opening of the Mississippi had cut the country in two, and he proposed to split the main section apart. The bold movement forced him to cut loose from his base of supplies and to live off the country. The march was a colossal picnic. The J ^ Confederates had no force strong enough I -. ,i^. i to check him, and he found an abun- I ^^ dance of supplies throughout the region j Kfc .^* "n, which, as yet, had not been visited by a 1 ^7 , ^ hostile force. Railways were destroyed, j ^■*tr" buildings and bridges burned, slaves ■4|fc|||^^^ freed, and havoc inflicted right and left. I^^^^S^Hjj^ Five weeks after starting, during which I^^V^^mB^^H the North was filled with misgiving for ^^H ' 'i^H^^H ^^ army, it emerged upon the Atlantic ^^^^—^^^^^^^ coast at Savannah. The Confederates fled GENERAL w. T. SHERMAN ^^^ Sherman occupied the city, on the 2oth of December, obtaining enormous supplies and spoils. He telegraphed the fact to President Lincoln as a Christmas greet- ing. The march to the sea was a triumph. The Confederacy had been cut through the core a sec- ond time, had suffered vast loss, and was weaker than ever. The Final Cam- paign against Richmond. — Early in May, Grant, with Meade in imme- diate command of the Army of the Potomac, started on the final campaign against Richmond. The Union army was far more powerful than the Confederate, while the latter, as has been said, could no longer replace its losses. The armies encountered in FROM ATLANTA TO THE SEA LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION 36 1 the Wilderness, where for two weeks the fighting was of the most furious nature, and the losses on both sides appalling. General Longstreet was badly injured under circumstances similar to the fatal wounding of Stonewall Jackson, and General J. E. B. Stuart, the most brilliant of the cavalry leaders of the Confederacy, was mortally hurt, and died the following day in Richmond. Grant would not be denjed. It was said of him by his oppo- nents that he never knew when he was whipped. Repelled repeatedly, he charged again and held fast with a tenacity that could not be shaken off. He continually flanked Lee, who was as often forced backward, so as to interpose between him and Richmond, and prevent the cutting off of his supplies. At Cold Harbor an impetuous attack by the Union commander was re- pulsed with great loss. Grant's Change of Plan. — The serious check at Cold Harbor caused a change of plan on the part of Grant. Crossing the James, he advanced to Petersburg, south of Richmond. The capture of this city would have been fatal to Lee, forcing him to choose between evacuating Richmond or allowing his men to starve. Petersburg was attacked June 16, but the Federals were repulsed. The next morning the Army of Northern Virginia arrived, and again flung itself across the advance to the Confederate capital. Siege of Petersburg. — Petersburg could be captured only by siege. Accordingly, Grant began the investment. A mine was exploded under an angle of the Confederate works, July 30, but the attack which followed was so mismanaged that the Union- ists suffered a frightful loss of life without gaining any advantage. The year ended with the siege of Petersburg still in progress. Defeat of Butler. — General Butler ascended the James River, early in May, with a strong force and landed at Bermuda Hun- dred. Beauregard surprised and drove him back into his in- trenchments. Then Beauregard threw intrenchments across the neck which joins Bermuda Hundred with the main land, and thus, in the language of Grant, "bottled up" Butler, so as to prevent his giving any help to his superior officer. 362 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY Operations in the Shenandoah Valley. — While Grant was press- ing Lee, he i)lanned other movements, so as to divide the Con- federate forces. Sigel was sent up the Shenandoah valley to threaten the railway communications with Richmond. He suf- fered a defeat, May 15, at Newmarket. His successor. General Hunter, won a victory at Piedmont, June 5, but found the enemy so strong at Lynchburg that he passed into West Virginia. This lifted Hunter out of the Shenandoah valley and placed him to the west of the Allegheny Mountains. Hunter being away, Jubal Early moved against ^^'ashington. Wallace was defeated at Monocacy, July 9, and, four days later. Early appeared before the defences of the capital. Reinforcements were received from Grant in time to repel any attack by l{;arly, who retreated across the Potomac with a large amount of plunder. His cav- alry partly burned Chambersburg, Pennsyl- \ania, because of its failure to pay the heavy tribute of half a million dollars de- manded. Sheridan now assumed charge of the Union operations in the Shenandoah val- GENERAL P. H. sHER.DAN ^^^, ^^ attackcd aud dcfcatcd Early at Winchester, September 19. Early's forces had been weakened by reinforcements sent to Lee. Three days after, Early was driven out of his trenches at Fisher's Hill, and still further up the valley. Sheridan so devastated the section that he declared a crow could not find subsistence there. While he was absent, Early defeated the Federals at Cedar Creek, October 19. Sheridan was at Winchester, "twenty miles away," when he heard the sound of firing. Leaping into the saddle he thundered up the valley, rallied his panic-stricken soldiers, attacked the Confed- erates, who were plundering the Union camp, and routed them with great loss. LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION 363 The Red River Expedition. — General Banks, who was in com- mand at New Orleans, was ordered, early in the spring, to con- duct an expedition into the interior of Louisiana. His purpose was to secure some of the immensely valuable stores of cotton. Commodore Porter at the same time set out with a large fleet of gunboats to force his way up Red River. Little opposition was met, and Banks pushed on to Shreveport. At Sabine Cross RED RIVER EXPEDITION Roads, he was attacked by General Dick Taylor, April 8, and defeated. Retreating to Pleasant Hill, he received enough rein- forcements to repulse the enemy, but continued retreating until he reached New Orleans, where he was relieved of his command. Meanwhile, Commodore Porter had a narrow escape with his gunboats. While trying to keep up with Banks's retreat, the river fell so rapidly that his fleet was brought to a standstill. It looked as if he would have to blow up the boats to save them from falling into the hands of the Confederates, Colonel Bailey, 364 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY however, was ingenious enough to build a number of wing dams, by which the current was raised and the boats floated into deeper water. The Red River expedition was a failure from beginning to end. The War on the Water. — With all the stringency of the block- ade, a good many Confederate cruisers succeeded in slipping in and out of Wilmington, Mobile, and other ports. In Mobile especially the Confederates were defiant. They built a number of ironclads and armed vessels, and boasted that they would raise the blockade. Admiral Farragut at- tacked the defences, August 5, and, after a severe engagement, reduced the forts and effectually closed the port against any further blockade running. Wilmington was a point where the blockade runners were very daring and successful. Com- modore Porter bombarded the forts while General Butler led the land forces. The attack continued through December 24 and 25, when Butler went back to Fort Monroe, convinced that the fort could not be taken by assault. Commodore Porter thought differently and asked to be allowed to try it again, aided the second time by General Terry. After a brave defence, the garrison surrendered January 15, 1865. Destruction of the "Alabama" and other Confederate Privateers. — \\'hile the famous Confederate ])rivateer Alabama was at Cherbourg, France, Captain Semmes challenged Captain Winslow, of the United States steamer Kearsarge, to come out and fight him. Winslow accepted the challenge, and, putting his vessel in the best trim possible, sailed out to the proper limit from shore. ADMIRAL FARRAGUT AT MOBILE LINCOLN'S ADMLNISTRA TLON 365 1N:<;NG of the ALABA^■A Ten thousand spectators lined the beach during the battle, which took place Sunday, June 19. The two vessels steamed round a common centre, from a quar- ter to a half mile apart, firing into each other. The aim of the Kearsarge was the more accurate and inflicted so much damage that at the end of little more than an hour, when Captain Semmes was beginning his eighth circuit, he saw his vessel was sinking. He headed for French waters, but receiving several more shots, hoisted a signal of distress. Semmes threw his sword into the water and leaped overboard just before the Alabama sank. An English yacht, the Deerhound, cruising near, picked him up, together with thirteen officers and twenty-six men, while the boats of the Kearsarge rescued the rest.^ The Georgia, another Confederate privateer, was seized off the coast of Portugal; \\\t Florida, at Bahia, Brazil; and the Albe- 1 The Kearsarge was wrecked on the night of February 2, 1894, off Roncador Reef, while on a voyage from Port-au-Prince, Haiti, to Bluefields, Nicaragua, and proved a total loss. ^66 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY marie (a huge ironclad, held in great dread by the Federals) was sunk at the mouth of the Roanoke by the daring exploit of Lieu- tenant Gushing. The Shenandoah continued her career of destruction for months after the war had closed, she being in waters so distant that her captain did not learn for a long time of the cessation of hostilities. Admission of West Virginia and Nevada. — That part of the Old Dominion now known as West Virginia was Union in its senti- BLOWING UP OF THE ALBEMARLE ments from the first. The necessary steps were taken for the erection of a new State, which was admitted to the Union June 19, 1863. Nevada (whose name is a Spanish word signifying "snow-covered mountain") became a State October 31, 1864. It formed a part of the territory acquired from Mexico by the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, being the third State carved from that cession. At first it was a part of California Territory, and later a portion of Utah. Upon its erection into a Territory, March 2, 1861, its area was somewhat less than at present. LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION 367 The Presidential Election of 1864. — The Democrats placed General McClellan in nomination for the presidency. His patriotism would not permit any misunderstanding of his senti- ments regarding the war. He insisted upon its vigorous prose- cution and differed with the administration only as to the right policy to be followed. President Lincoln was renominated, with Andrew Johnson of Tennessee as the candidate for the vice presi- dency. Their election was by so decisive a majority that it was apparent to all that the people of the North insisted upon pressing the war until the Union was fully restored. Topics. — The progress made in the War for the Union; the exhaustion of the South; what she still had; the promotion of General Grant; the Con- federate army in the Southwest; the advance of General Sherman against General Johnston; supersedure of Johnston by Hood; characteristics of the latter; his course; the result; the course of Sherman; destruction of Hood's army by Thomas; Sherman's march to the sea; his course; his march through the core of the Confederacy; his arrival at Savannah; Sherman's Christmas greeting to President Lincoln; Sherman's triumph. Grant's final campaign against Richmond; the two hostile armies; the fighting in the Wilderness; wounding of General Longstreet; death of Gen- eral Stuart; Grant's persistency; his change of plan; his check at Cold Har- bor; repulse of the Union attack upon Petersburg; siege of Petersburg; close of the year; defeat of General Butler; the operations in Shenandoah valley; advance of Jubal Early against Washington; the battle of Monocacy; retreat of Early; partial burning of Chambersburg; Sheridan in the valley; his de- feat of Early at Winchester; at Fisher's Hill; devastation of the section; defeat of the Federals at Cedar Creek; Sheridan's memorable victory; the Red River expedition; the battle at Sabine Cross Roads; at Pleasant Hill; the danger of Commodore Porter and his fleet; how it was saved from destruc- tion; Admiral Farragut's victory at Mobile; failure to capture the forts at Wilmington, North Carolina; success of General Terry; destruction of the Alabama by the Kearsarge ; seizure of the Georgia; iht Flo7-i da ; Lieutenant Cushing's sinking of the Albemarle ; career of the Shenandoah ; erection of West Virginia into a separate State; admission of Nevada; its early history; the presidential election of 1864. CHAPTER XXXVII Lincoln's administration. — 1861-1865 {conclitdcd) Events of i86j |ANING Fortunes of the Confederacy — Sher- man's Northward March. —The opening of this year saw the end of the war at hand. The Confederate congress, on February 5, made General Lee commander-in-chief of all the forces arrayed against the Union. One of his first acts was to restore General Johnston to the command of the army still disputing Sherman. It included all the troops in Georgia, South Carolina, and Florida. When Sherman was ready to leave Savannah, of which he took possession at the close of the previous year, he had an army of seventy thousand men. Leaving a strong force at the city, he started northward, on the ist of February. Columbia surrendered on the 17th and was burned the following night, though by whom has never been clearly proven. Charleston was fired and evacuated the next day. Johnston made the best fight he could. He gave Sherman a hard struggle at Averysboro' and Bentonville, but could not beat back the superior force. At (ioldsboro' Sherman joined Scho- field, who had marched thither from Wilmington, and Terry, who had come from Newbern. This increased the army to one hun- dred thousand men. Feeling safe, Sherman placed Schofileld in charge and met Grant at City Point on the 27th of March. They 368 LINCOLN'S ADMLVISTKA TION 369 SHERMAN'S MARCH NORTH held a consultation and arrived at an understanding as to the closing operations. Grant's Final Campaign. — Grant never loosened his grip upon Lee. An attempt to turn the Confederate right, on February 5, was repulsed, though the Federals gained several additional miles of territory. Lee's army, numbering only thirty-five thousand men, was forced to cover a line forty miles in length. It was inevitably weak at many points. The situation was becoming des- perate. Lee's plan was to fall back and unite with Johnston. Grant set to work to prevent the junction. To hide his purpose, Lee furiously assailed Grant's right at Fort Steadman. The assault was a failure and the Confederates lost three thousand men. Sheridan now joined Grant, who determined to force Lee to the wall. He fixed on the 29th of March for an attack at all points. The movement began that day, but the rain descended in torrents on the 30th and nothing could be done. On the 31st Lee attacked the Fed- erals and gained some advantage. Lee's next attack was upon Sheridan at Five Forks. He drove him back, but the Federals rallied, flanked the Confederates, and recovered the ground they had lost. Warren's corps united with Sheridan, who renewed his attack upon the Confederates and drove them toward Petersburg. Grant opened a cannonade along his entire front, April i, and an advance the following day broke the Confederate line at several points. Before the sun rose, April 2, the whole Con- federate front was assailed by the Union army. The lines were broken again and Lee, with his small army, fled southward. The 2 B 370 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY Confederates, however, never lost their wonderful courage. They plucked the buds of the branches and fell asleep with the smok- ing muskets in their hands. Their officers prodded them with their swords and they roused and went to fighting again. Many of them seemed to be fighting in their sleep. No men ever fought more bravely, and, though outnumbered, they showed no signs of wavering or surrender. Lee reached Amelia Court House, thirty-eight miles west of Petersburg, on the 4th of April, There he expected to receive food for his famishing men. An immense railway train, loaded with provisions, soon came in sight from the direction of Rich- mond, but to the dismay of the soldiers it sped past without slackening speed. The distressed commander sent out de- tachments to scour the country for food. They came back with none, for none existed. Evacuation of Richmond. — On Sunday, April 2, while Jefferson Davis was sitting in his pew at church, a messenger hurriedly entered and handed him a telegram. It was from Lee, telling him that his outer lines had been forced and he could hold Petersburg but a few hours longer. This meant the fall of Rich- mond. The inhabitants, upon learning the news, were thrown into a panic. Scenes of indescribable confusion followed, and continued through that night and the following day. Warehouses were burned, stores broken open, and the convicts in the peni- tentiary, having escaped because of the flight of their guards, joined the frantic throng and plundered right and left. The flames spread, and thirty squares were laid in ashes. Amid the explosion of shells, the roar of the conflagration, the strangling smoke and cinders, the hoarse shouts of men, and the cries of women and children the Union army arrived. Order was soon restored. The plundering was stopped, the fire checked, and something like cpiiet came to the once proud" city, now prostrate in sackcloth and ashes. The Surrender at Appomattox. — Despite the woful disappoint- ment at Amelia Court House, Lee and his soldiers kept up their LINCOLN 'S ADMINISTRA TION 37^ EVACUATION OF RICHMOND 372 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY retreat, crossing the Appomattox, on the 6th of April, at High Bridge. There the commander called a council of war, at which the majority agreed that the time had come to surrender, but Lee would not yet consent. The retreat continued. No pen can fitly describe the events of those few days. It was fighting continually. The roads were choked with blazing wagons to prevent their capture; ammunition trains were blown up and the air was full of bursting shells and exploding powder. At Paine's Cross Roads, the Union cavalry burned one hundred and eighty wagons and captured five guns. At another place, Custer destroyed four hundred wagons and took sixteen guns. Ewell's brigade was cut off, surrounded, and compelled to sur- render. This was a loss of six thousand men to Lee's army. Lee pushed on, and, finding it impossible to join Johnston, made for the mountains. But Grant was on the alert, and closed in from every direction. He sent a proposal to Lee to surrender, offering generous terms and striving to impress upon him the uselessness of further shedding blood. The correspondence con- tinued for a couple of days. Finally, at Appomattox Court House, Lee saw that the end had come. He met General Grant on the afternoon of April 9, and surrendered what was left of the Army of Northern Virginia. The soldiers were paroled and allowed to go home, the boys in blue gladly sharing the contents of their haversacks with their starving brethren in gray, who had fought them so long and so well. Assassination of President Lincoln. — The month of April, 1865, was a fateful one in the history of our country. The news of the fall of Richmond and the surrender of Lee filled the North with rejoicing, and the event was celebrated everywhere. It is safe to say that many of those who had fought the most bravely in the South drew a sigh of thankfulness when the blessed end at last came. On the evening of April 14, President Lincoln was seated, with his wife and some friends, in a box at Ford's Theatre in Washington. A little past ten o'clock, John Wilkes Booth, an LINCOLN ' S ADMINIS TRA TION 373 LEE'S SURRENDER AT APPOMATTOX 374 -^ HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY actor whose overweening conceit almost approached insanity, stealthily entered the box from the rear and mortally wounded the President with a pistol shot, leaping upon the stage and making his escape before he could be arrested. The wounded President was unconscious, and being carried across the street to a house, died at twenty-two minutes past seven the next morning. The assassin rode thirty miles into Maryland before he dared stop to have his sprained ankle dressed. He crossed the Poto- mac and was overtaken by his pursuers near Bowling Green. He turned at bay in a barn, and, refusing to surrender, the building was fired. Revealed by the light of the flames, one of the soldiers shot and fatally wounded him through a crevice, the wretched fugitive dying shortly afterward. No man since Washington was more sincerely mourned than President Lincoln. Those who had been his strongest political opponents now united in praise of one of the greatest Americans and purest patriots that ever lived. Even in the South his death was deplored, for instinctively that desolated section appreciated the broad charitable humanity of the man who pitied them in their defeat and would have been more kindly in his treatment of them than any other man or body of men would have dared to be. Among the blows struck against the South, the killing of Abraham Lincoln was one of the severest. Collapse of the Southern Confederacy. — General Johnston sur- rendered his army to General Sherman, April 26, receiving the same generous terms that were given to Lee and his men. Dick Taylor, commanding the rest of the Confederate forces east of the Mississippi, submitted early in May, as did all the naval forces of the Confederacy then blockaded in the Tombigbee River. The scattered troops remaining had all surrendered before the close of the month. Capture and Release of Jefferson Davis. — When Jefferson Davis received the startling telegram from General Lee, April 2, he and the leading Confederate officials hastened from the city and LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION 375 fled southward. Their purpose was to escape beyond the limits of the United States. But on the loth of May, when near Irvvins- ville, Georgia, Davis and his companions were captured by a squad of Union cavalry. He was imprisoned in Fort Monroe to await his trial on charge of treason. The trial was postponed from time to time until, as passion cooled, the prisoner was re- leased on May 13, 1867, and the prosecution was dropped in February, 1869. Topics. — Action of the Congress; restoration of General Johnston to command; Sherman's northward march; his meeting with Grant; desperate situation of Lee; the iron grip of Grant; his activity; the assault April 2; the wonderful courage of the Confederates; Lee at Amelia Court House; the momentous telegram received by Jefferson Davis while in church April 2; scenes attending the evacuation of Richmond; the continued retreat of Lee; the incessant attacks of the Union troops; the final surrender at Appomattox Court House; assassination of President Lincoln; death of the assassin; gen- eral mourning over the death of the President; collapse of the Southern Con- federacy; capture and release of Jefferson Davis. Biographical notes. f/«/cj;/. — Robert Anderson was bom in Ken- tucky in 1805, was graduated from West Point, and served in the Black Hawk, Florida, and Mexican wars. He was placed in command of the Union troops in the Charleston forts in November, .i860. After his return north, following the surrender of Fort Sumter, he was made a brigadier general and assigned to a command in Kentucky. His health had been delicate for several years, and he took no further important part in the war. He died in 1871. Joseph Bailey, who saved Commodore Porter's fleet from destruction during the Red River expedition of 1864, was a Wisconsin military engineer born in 1827. His plan for the rescue of the fleet was ridiculed by the other engi- neers, but its success brought him the thanks of congress and the brevet rank of brigadier general. He died in 1867. Nathaniel P. Banks was born in Massachusetts in 1816. He learned the trade of a machinist, but his ability caused his election to congress, where he remained from 1853 to 1857. In 1855 he was chosen speaker on the one hundred and thirty-third ballot, after a contest lasting nearly three months. He was governor of Massachusetts in 1858, 1859, and i860. The national government, like the Confederacy, made the mistake, at the beginning of the war, of appointing politicians and public men to command, when they were lacking in military experience and ability. General Banks was made a major general, and was never able as such to render any important service to his 376 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY country. He was a congressman from 1865 to 1873, from 1877 to 1879, and from 1889 to 1 89 1. He died in September, 1894. Don Carlos Buell was born ini8i8, was graduated at West Point, and served in the Mexican war. We have learned of his important services in the civil war. He was an able leader, who suffered at times from harsh criticism. Probably no graver and more serious man than Buell was in either army. It was said by officers who had been associated with him for years that they never saw him smile under any circumstances. Ambrose E. Burnside was born in 1824, and was graduated from West Point at the age of twenty-three. Having invented a breech-loading rifle, he resigned from the army and entered into business. He commanded a brigade at the battle of Manassas, or first Bull Run, and was a corps com- mander of the Army of the Potomac at the close of the war. He was gov- ernor of Rhode Island 1866-1868, and United States senator 1875-1881, dying in the last-named year. Benjamin F. Butler was born in 1818, and was graduated from Waterville College, Maine, in 1830. His marked ability brought him much success as a lawyer at Lowell, Massachusetts, where he made his home. He served in the state legislature, and always manifested an interest in military matters. He entered the national service, at the opening of the war, as brigadier gen- eral and was soon made a major general. He showed no special skill as a military leader, furnishing another proof that the successful soldier, as a rule, must be trained to his profession. After his disaster at Big Bethel, a number of slaves took refuge within his lines. In answer to the demand of their owners, Butler replied that slaves were " contraband of war." The expres- sion was a happy one, which helped to make him famous. His stern rule in New Orleans kept out the yellow fever and earned the undying hatred of the secessionists. He was a congressman from Massachusetts 1867-1875 and 1877-1879, and prominent in the proceedings which brought about the im- peachment of Andrew Johnson. He was a member at different times of all the leading political parties, and in 1882 was Democratic governor of Massa- chusetts. In 1884, he was presidential candidate on the Greenback and Anti- Monopoly ticket, but received only an insignificant vote. His greatest success was achieved as a lawyer. He died in 1893. Samuel R. Curtis, who won the Union victory at Pea Ridge, Arkansas, was born in 1807, and was an Ohio lawyer, with a taste for military matters which made him adjutant general of militia in 1846, when he began his service in the Mexican war. He was a congressman in 1861 at the time of his appointment as brigadier general, and, after Pea Ridge, was in command at Fort Leaven- worth, served as a United States commissioner to negotiate treaties with vari- ous Indian tribes, and died in 1866. LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION 377 William B. Gushing, born in 1842, made a striking record during the civil war. He captured the first prize, and, by one of the most daring of exploits, sunk the formidable ram Albemarle, whose presence in the Roanoke River was a menace to General Grant's operations south of Richmond. Gushing distin- guished himself again at Fort Fisher, and but for a mental affection which seized him, must have attained the highest honors in the navy. He died in 1874. George A. Custer, born in 1839, was graduated from West Point, and imme- diately entering the army distinguished himself by his dashing bravery and fear- lessness, as well as his fine military ability. He became a brevet brigadier general in the regular army, but in a headlong attack upon the Sioux Indians, at the Little Big Horn River, in June, 1876, he and all his command were slain. Abner Doubleday, born in New York in 1819, and educated at West Point, as we have learned, fired the first gun from Fort Sumter, in reply to the attack by Beauregard. He distinguished himself at Antietam, Fredericksburg, Chan- cellorsville, and Gettysburg, winning a promotion to a generalship. He re- signed his commission in 1873 and died twenty years later. John Ericsson, born in Sweden in 1803, early gave indications of his mar- vellous inventive powers. He came to this country in 1839, and soon attracted attention by his remarkable inventions, most of which were connected with engines and naval equipments. His construction of the Monitor, which beat off the terrible Merrimac, was of incalculable service to the cause of the Union. He was active in making new inventions up to his death, which took place in his eighty-seventh year. David G. Farragut, bom in 1801, entered the naval service when but nine years old. Only a boy in the war of 1812, he safely performed several impor- tant missions intrusted to him. He was a Southerner by birth, but threw all his energies into the cause of the Union, in which he won a distinction that made him the foremost of modern naval heroes. As a reward for his great services, the office of vice admiral was created for him in December, 1864, and that of admiral in 1866. He died in 1870. Andrew H. Foote, born in 1806, entered the navy at the age of sixteen. His principal service, previous to the civil war, was in suppressing the African slave trade. He was a devout Christian, and one of the bravest of men. His fine service brought his appointment as rear admiral in 1863, but he died in that year from a severe wound in the foot, received while fighting for his country. Quincy A. Gillmore, born in Ohio in 1825, was a graduate from West Point, and began his services in the war for the Union as chief of engineers in the Port Royal expedition in 1861. His excellent work at Charleston made him a major general. He died in 1888. Ulysses S. Grant, the foremost general in the war for the Union, was born at Point Pleasant, Ohio, April 27, 1822. He was graduated from West Point 378 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY in 1843, with a standing that was only fair. His services in the war with Mexico caused him to be brevetted captain, but he resigned his commission in 1854 and engaged in business with moderate success. lie was among the first to volunteer, and, by his great ability, won the highest military honors and the gratitude of his country. He did what no other Union general was able to tjo, — conquered Lee and brought the gigantic struggle to a triumphant con- clusion. As we shall note further on, he received the unanimous Republican nomination for the presidency in 1868 and served for two terms. After long- continued and intense suffering from a cancer at the root of his tongue, he died at Mount Gregor, New York, July 23, 1885. Henry W. Halleck, born in New York in 1815, was graduated from West Point, and was identified with the early political and military movements in California. At the outbreak of the civil war he was appointed a major general, with command of the department of Missouri. When hostilities ceased, he was placed in charge of the Pacific division, which he retained until 1869, when he was transferred to the division of the south, where he remained until his death in 1872. Joseph Hooker, born in ^Massachusetts in 1814, was graduated from West Point and won distinction in Mexico. Although he failed when pitted against Lee, he had few if any superiors as a commander of a division or corps, his energetic valor winning for him the name of " Fighting Joe." His principal services have been already described. He received the brevet of major gen- eral in the regular army in 1865, and retired three years later, dying in 1879. Andrew Johnson, seventeenth President, was born at Raleigh, North Carolina, December 29, 1808. His parents were extremely poor, and until well grown he did not know his alphabet. He was apprenticed to a tailor and when a young man removed to Tennessee, where he was married before he reached the age of twenty. His wife was one of the noblest of women and assisted him in his studies. His own energy and ability soon brought him for- ward. He filled several local offices, was elected to the state legislature and served in congress in 1 843-1 853. In the last-named year he became governor of Tennessee, and remained until 1857, when he was chosen United States senator. He was a pronounced Democrat, but an uncompromising Unionist, because of which President Lincoln appointed him military governor of Tennessee during the stormy days of 1862. It was as a reward for his deter- mined stand for the Union, that he was placed on the presidential ticket with Lincoln in 1864. We shall learn of his administration in the following pages. After the close of his term he lived in retirement most of the time, and died July 31, 1875. George B. McClellan was born in Philadelphia in December, 1826, and was graduated with distinction from West Point in 1846, He served in the LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION 2)79 Mexican war, and was afterward instructor at West Point. He then became prominent as a railway engineer and president. At the beginning of the civil war, he was looked upon as the greatest of all the commanders. With his unquestioned skill, his excess of caution l^rought his most promising campaigns to naught. In West Virginia he was a dashing, headlong fighter; at the head of the Army of the Potomac, he was hesitating, and shrank from " taking chances." The bluff Secretary Stanton said of him: "If I should give him one million men, he would declare that the rebels had two million, and then sit down in the mud and refuse to move until he had three million." After Antietam he was placed on waiting orders. He resigned in 1864, and, as we have learned, was a candidate against President Lincoln in that year. He was Democratic governor of New Jersey 1878-1881, and died in 1S85. Irvin McDowell was born in 181 8, was graduated from West Point, and served in the Mexican war. The failure at Bull Run reacted upon his reputa- tion, though he commanded a corps in Virginia, in 1862, and took part in a number of leading battles. He was promoted to major general in 1872, retired in 1882, and died in 1885. George G. Meade was born in Spain in 181 5, but, since his father was the American minister at the time, the son was as much an American as if born on Bunker Hill. He was educated at West Point, and took part in the frontier wars and in Mexico. After the great battle of Gettysburg he was made brigadier general and then major general. He commanded several departments, and died in 1872. John Pope, born in 1823, was graduated from West Point and took part in the principal battles south of the Rio Grande in the war with Mexico. His suc- cess in the Southwest led to his appointment to the command of the Army of the Potomac, where he suffered disastrous reverses. He was glad to be relieved of the responsibility and to undertake the task of quieting the Minnesota Indians. Pie commanded a department after the war, retired in 1886, and died in 1892. David Dixon Porter, born in 1813, was the son of David Porter, the naval hero of the war of 1812. The son accompanied his father on many of his voyages, and became a midshipman in 1829. He served against Mexico, and was active in the war for the Union. He was promoted to vice admiral in 1866 and to admiral in 1870, being at that time superintendent of the naval academy at Annapolis. He wrote a number of naval works and several novels. He died in 1891. Fitz-John Porter was born in 1822, and educated at West Point, from which he went almost directly into the Mexican war. He served well, but in the civil war was cashiered for his failure properly to support Pope in his second Bull Run campaign. By an act of congress, in 1886, the decision was reversed and he was restored to his rank as colonel in the army. 380 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY William S. Rosecrans was bom in 1819, and also educated at West Point. Before tlie hreakinj^ out of the civil war he was a professor at the military academy, and entered the service as colonel of Ohio volunteers. lie won the battle of Rich Mountain in West Virginia, in 1861, and, as successor of McClelian, gained a victory at Carnifex Ferry in the autumn of the same year. After his defeat at Chickamauga, he was placed on waiting orders and resigned in 1867. He was appointed minister to Mexico in 1868, and represented California in congress 1881-1885, afterward serving as register of the United States treasury from 1885 to 1893. He died in 1898. William T. Sherman, born in 1820, was graduated twenty years later from West Point. He took part in the Seminole war and in the war with Mexico. He left the army in 1853, and was engaged in business for several years. He was superintendent of a military academy in Louisiana at the outbreak of the war, and immediately resigned upon the secession of the State. He was one of the few who comprehended the character of the great struggle which impended, and for a time refused to offer his services until the government would call out a half million men or more. He was a colonel and com- manded a brigade at the first battle of Bull Run. His ability and service caused his rapid promotion, and he took a leading part in suppressing the rebellion. He was made lieutenant general in 1866, and succeeded Grant as general in 1869. He retired because of age in 1883. He was a fine soldier, popular everywhere, outspoken, honest, and of stainless character. He died on February 14, 1891, one day after the death of Admiral Porter. Philip H. Sheridan, one of the three greatest generals of the war, was born at Albany (though it has been claimed that his birthplace was in Ohio) in 1 83 1, and was graduated in 1853 from West Point. He came from tlie Pacific coast in 1861 with the avowed determination to win a captaincy, if the war would only last long enough. He won all the military honors that came to Grant and Sherman, for he proved himself a born soldier, of dauntless personal courage, with the highest ability. He died August 5, 1888. John M. Schofield was born in 1831, and was graduated from West Point in the class with Sheridan. At the close of the war he was sent on a special mission to France. He was secretary of war in 186S-1869. President Grant had great respect for his scholarship, and made him superintendent of West Point in 1876. He held the office for the usual term of five years. At the death of Sheridan in 1888, Schofield succeeded him as commander-in-chief of the army, retiring in 1895. John Sedgwick was born in 1813, and, after his graduation from West Point, served in the .Seminole and Mexican wars. He commanded a brigade at the beginning of the war and a division at Fair Oaks, on the Peninsula, and at Antietam. He had charge of a corps at Chancellorsville and the LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION 38 1 left wing at Gettysburg. In the furious fighting in the Wilderness, he was shot and instantly killed by a sharp-shooter. Franz Sigel was born in Germany in 1824, and was a leader in the rebel- Hon in Baden in 1848. He came to this country in 1852, and was among the first to enlist in the cause of the Union. He fought well in Missouri and Arkansas, and commanded a corps at the second battle of Bull Run. He was wonderfully skilful in retreating, but hardly met the high hopes enter- tained of his ability as a military leader. Alfred H. Terry was one of the few successful military leaders appointed from civil life. He was born in 1827, and became a lawyer, but always felt an interest in military matters. His successful storming of Fort Fisher in Janu- ary, 1865, made him a brigadier general in the regular army. His next exploit was the capture of Wilmington. He was made a major general in 1886, and retired in 1888. George H. Thomas was born in Virginia in 1816, and was educated at West Point. He began fighting for his country against the Seminoles, and distinguished himself in the Mexican war. His matchless services in the civil war have been narrated. To this splendid hero congress gave its thanks, and he was made major general in the regular army. After serving as de- partmental commander, he died in 1870. Charles Wilkes was born in 1798. As lieutenant and commander of the squadron, he sailed on an exploring expedition through the Pacific and in the Antarctic regions, being absent from 1838 to 1842. He was made captain in 1855, and became the hero of the hour in 1861 by his capture of Mason and Slidell, the Confederate commissioners, though the government was com- pelled to disavow the act. He became a commodore in 1862, and, retiring two years later, was made rear admiral on the retired list. John A. Winslow was born in Massachusetts in 181 1, and entered the navy at the age of sixteen. He did good service in the Mexican war, and became famous through his sinking of the Alabama, the particulars of which we have learned. He died in 1873. John L. Worden, commander of the Monitor in its famous battle with the Merrimac, was born in 181 8. For his services in the important battle named he was thanked by congress and made a commander. He was afterward en- gaged in enforcing the blockade, and helped in the attack on Charleston in 1863. He was promoted to commodore in 1868, rear admiral in 1872, and was superintendent of the Naval Academy from 1870 to 1874, being retired in 1886. He died in 1897. Confederate. —P. Gustave T. Beauregard was born in Louisiana in 1818, and was graduated from West Point in 1838. He served in the engineers, and was superintendent of the Military Academy in 1S61, when he resigned to 382 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY enter the service of the Confederacy. We have learned of the part he played in (ighting against the Union. He surrendered with Johnston in April, 1865, became one of the managers of the Louisiana state lottery, and died in 1893. Braxton Bragg, born in 181 7, was graduated at the age of twenty from West Point. He did good service in Mexico, and joined the Confederacy early in 1861. His decisive defeat by Grant in the battles around Chatta- nooga led to his removal from command, but he was in the field again toward the close of the war. He died in 1876. Jefferson Davis, the president of the Southern Confederacy, was Ijorn in Kentucky in 1808. He was graduated from West Point in 182S, and served in the IJIack Hawk war, but left the army and became a cotton planter in Mississippi, from which State he was elected to congress in 1845. ^^ ""S" signed the following year to act as colonel in the Mexican war. He achieved his greatest fame in Mexico in the battle of Buena Vista. At a critical point in the battle he formed his regiment in the shape of a V, and, receiving the charge of the enemy, closed in upon them and captured the whole body. This exploit was made so much of that a Richmond paper, in criticising the course of the president in military matters, said : " When the Confederacy passes away, its motto will be 'Died of the letter V.'" He represented Mis- sissippi in the United States senate 1847-1851 and 1857-1861, and was secre- tary of war through Pierce's administration. Upon the secession of his State in 1861, he resigned his seat in the senate, and, as stated elsewhere, became provisional president of the Confederacy in February, 1861, and was elected president and inaugurated February 22, 1862. When the proceed- ings against him were dropped in 1867, he removed to Memphis, and later to an estate in Mississippi. He died in New Orleans, December 6, 1889. Jubal A. Early was born in Virginia in 1815, was a graduate of West Point, and adopted law as a profession, but entered the army as major in 1847, serv- ing to the close of the Mexican war. He was a strong secessionist, and fought as a colonel at the first battle of Bull Run and Williamsburg. He was a briga- dier general at Fredericksburg and Gettysburg, and was removed liy Lee because of his defeats in the Shenandoah valley by Sheridan. Early was one of the few who refused to acknowledge the results of the war. He would not accept " reconstruction," and mourned the failure of the struggle for Southern independence. He was associated with Beauregard in the management of the Li)uisiana state lottery, and died in 1894. Richard S. Ewell was born in 1817, and, after his graduation from West Point, served in the Mexican war. He was a brigadier general at Bull Run, and became a major general in the Shenandoah campaign. He succeeded to the command of Jackson's corps, upon the death of that leader, and surrendered at the close of the war, when further resistance was hopeless. He died in 1872. LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATLON 383 Thomas J. Jackson was born in Virginia in 1824, was graduated from West Point, and saw service in the Mexican war. He became a professor in the Virginia Mihtary Institute, where his strict puritanical manners and severe methods were anything but acceptable to the cadets under his charge. He became one of the most striking figures of the civil war. He commanded a brigade at the battle of Bull Run. When the Union troops were forcing back the Confederates, General Bee rushed up to Jackson with the news. " Then," coolly replied Jackson, "we will give them the bayonet." Turning to his men. Bee remarked: "There's Jackson standing like a stone wall," and from that incident he received the name by which he will always be best remem- bered. Jackson was a veritable thunderbolt of war. He was impetuous, dashing, and shrank from no obstacle or risk when a duty was assigned to him. It may be said of him that he was the right arm of General Lee. He was devoutly religious, and his death, when shot through mistake by his own men, was the severest blow the Confederacy had received up to that time. Joseph E. Johnston was born in Virginia in 1807, and was graduated from West Point in 1829. Thus he saw many years of service before entering the Confederacy as senior major general. It seemed to be his fate to be wounded in almost every battle in which he took part, for he was injured ten different times, his severe wounding at Williamsburg, when the fragment of a shell broke several ribs and hurled him from his horse, giving the command to General iee. The dislike of Jefferson Davis for Johnston dated from before the civil war, and the Confederate president was severely criticised for his treatment of one of his ablest officers. Johnston and Sherman became inti- mate friends after the surrender of the former to the latter. Johnston repre- sented Virginia in congress, and died in 189 1. Robert E. Lee, the foremost general of the Confederacy, was born in Vir- ginia in 1807, and was the son of "Light Horse Harry," the intimate friend of Washington. It was said that Cadet Lee passed through West Point with- out a demerit, and he was graduated second in his class. He distinguished him- self in Mexico, and was held in especial esteem by General Scott, who looked upon him as his successor in command of the army of the United .States. He was commandant at West Point from 1852 to 1855, and in 1859 captured John Brown at Harper's Ferry, after his wild raid. As the war progressed he be- came the mainstay of the Confederacy, and when forced to surrender the sun of Southern independence set never to rise again. General Lee was a man of admirable character, with military ability of the highest order, and he set a good example by the sincerity and honesty with which he accepted the result of the war. He became president of the Washington and Lee University in Lexington, Virginia, and died October 12, 1870. 384 '-^ HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY James Longstreet, bom in South Carolina in 1821, was giaduated from West Point in 1842. Like so many others, he served in the Mexican war, and, entering the service of the Confederacy, Ijecame one of its hardest light- ers and most skilful leaders. lie fouglit gallantly from the opening to the close at Appomattox. He offended many of his friends by the promptness with which he accepted the new order of things. lie was rewarded by being made postmaster at his home in Georgia, United States marshal, minister to Turkey in his old age, and finally government railroad commissioner. He has further aroused criticism among his former associates by his strictures upon the man- ner in which Lee conducted the battle of Ciettysburg. John B. Magruder, who commanded the Confederate forces which first con- fronted IMcClellan on the Peninsula, was born in 18 10. After the close of the war he served with Maximilian in Mexico, and died in 1871. James M. Mason, who was captured by Captain Wilkes, was born in Vir- ginia in 1798, represented his State in congress from 1837 ^o 1839, and as United States senator from 1847 to 1861. Although released by the national gov- ernment, he was able to do the Confederacy no service abroad and died in 1871. John C. Pemberton, who surrendered Vicksburg to General Grant, was born in 1814, and, after his graduation from West Point, served in the Seminole war and the war with Mexico. He died in 1881. George E. Pickett, who led the famous charge at Gettysljurg, was born in 1825, and did excellent service in the war with Mexico. He suffered defeat at Five Forks, and was among those who surrendered with General Lee at Appo- mattox. He died in 1875. Leonidas Polk was born in 1806, and was Episcopal bishop of Louisiana at the breaking out of the civil war. He was a graduate of West Point, and offered his services to the Confederacy. He was made a major general, and commanded a corps at Shiloh and Corinth. He offended his superiors by his conduct at the battle of Chickamauga, where it is said he disobeyed orders. He accompanied General Johnston in his campaign against Sherman, and near Kenesaw Mountain his head was carried away by a cannon-ball. Sterling Price was born in 1809, and represented Missouri in congress in 1845-1846. As colonel of a regiment, he gained considerable success in the war with Mexico. He was elected governor of Missouri in 1853, serving for four years. He displayed no marked ability in the service of the Confederacy, and died in 1867. Raphael Semmes was born in 1809, and entered the naval service at an early age. After his escape from the Kearsarge when the Alabama went down, he was taken to England and succeeded in reaching the South, where he was made rear admiral. He was arrested at the close of the war, but released, and died in 1877. LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION 385 John Slidell, who was captured with Mason by Captain Wilkes, was born in 1794, and represented Louisiana in congress in 1843-1845, and from 1853 to 1861 was United States senator from that State. He made his way to France after his release by our government, but did as little good for the Confederacy as did his associate in England. He died in 1871. Edmund Kirby Smith was born in 1824, and was educated at West Point. As has been shown, he rendered the Confederate army important services at Bull Run. He was appointed to the command of the Trans-Mississippi Department in 1863 and thoroughly organized it. His troops were the last to surrender in the civil war. He was engaged as a teacher at his death in 1893. Alexander H. Stephens was born in Georgia in 1812. He was graduated at Franlclin College, became a lawyer, was elected to the state legislature, and from 1843 to 1859 was a member of congress from his native State. He was an ardent Union man, and did his utmost to combat secession, but when Georgia seceded he " went with his State," and was rewarded by being chosen vice president. At the close of the war he was elected to the United States senate, but was not allowed to take his seat. He was admitted in 1875 as congressman, and served until 1882, when he was elected governor of his .State, but died in the following year. Stephens was universally respected for his fine personal qualities, aside from his remarkable ability. He was a small, pinched, withered-looking man, so weak that he was wheeled about for years in a carriage prepared for him, and to and from which he was carried by a power- ful negro. He was very generous and charitable, and helped to educate a great many poor young men. " Liberty Hall," his home, was always open to any one who chose to come, and any stranger was welcome to stay as long as he pleased. James E. B. Stuart, generally called " Jeb " Stuart, because of his initials, was born in 1833, and was educated at West Point. He was the foremost cavalry leader of the Confederacy, and was mortally wounded at Yellow Tavern, while opposing Sheridan near the close of the war. Richard (" Dick ") Taylor was born in 1826, and was the son of President Zachary Taylor. He helped to carry Louisiana out of the Union, and fought hard against it until the last gun was fired. He died in 1879. Earl Van Dorn was born in 1820, and won many laurels in Mexico, being promoted for his gallant services. He succeeded Jefferson Davis as major general of the Mississippi troops, and in the following year had command of the Trans- Mississippi Department. He died in 1863. ;86 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY To THE Pupil. — Complete the following skeleton history of the leading battles in the War for the Union, down to the last surrender : Name of Battle Where Fought Fort Sumter Charleston Harbor, S.C. April 12, 13, 1 861 Confederates Part VI THE PERIOD OF REUNION AND PROGRESS CHAPTER XXXVIII JOHNSON S ADMINISTRATION. 1 865-1 869 '^\a^M jT Peace. — At the close of the War for the Union, the armed hosts dissolved into orderly citizens of the great American republic. Few countries could have borne the disintegration of so immense an array of the best soldiers in the world. It would have brought anarchy and destruction, but nothing of the kind took place in the reunited States. Those who had been enemies were now friends. The beauti- ful Memorial Day, which originated in the South, when mourn- ing relatives strewed the graves of the Confederate dead with flowers, was accompanied by a similar touching tribute to the Union heroes. "The war drums throbbed no longer and the battle flags were furled." Cost of the Civil War. — A careful estimate of the total number of soldiers furnished to the Union armies during the war is 2,859,132. Of these 61,362 were killed in battle, 34,727 died of wounds, 183,287 of disease, making the total deaths 279,376, excluding 199,105 who deserted. On the Confederate side, the deaths from wounds and disease (partial statement) were 133,821, 387 388 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY deserted (partial statement) 104,428. It is further estimated that the number in both armies, crippled or disabled by disease, was about 400,000. It may be said, therefore, that the War for the Union cost 1,000,000 able-bodied men. The Confederate war debt was repudiated, while that of the United States, on the 31st of October, 1865, was $2,804,549,437.50, an amount too vast for any one to comprehend. What was settled Forever. — Two great questions, however, can vex the nation no more, for they were settled forever. They are secession and human slavery. The arbitrament of the sword closed the former, and the thirteenth amendment to the Constitu- tion, abolishing slavery, was ratified by the States, December 8, 1865, and became the supreme law of the land. Reconstruction. — Andrew Johnson, Vice President, was sworn into office as President immediately after the death of President Lincoln. In the excited state of public feeling, there was a misgiving that he would be violent in his treatment of those that had lately been arrayed against the Union. He was a passionate man, whose usage by ANDREW JOHNSON ,,..., , the disunionists, who once attempted to take him from a railway train and lynch him, made him feel bitter and resentful. His expressions at first showed there was ground for this fear, but before long his anger was turned, not toward the former secessionists, but against those who thwarted his policy for bringing back the late rebelling States to the Union. There was much discussion as to the right method of solving this problem. Since the North had insisted that no State had the right to secede, it followed that they had never really been out of the Union, but were simply in insurrection; and, resistance having ceased, they were back again, the same as before. But the danger of such a settlement was that the situation would be substantially as in 1861, and with no guarantee that at some time JOHNSON'S ADMINISTRATION 389 the war would not be fought over again. Every lover of his country felt that the multitude of lives and vast treasure given that the Union might live should not be in vain. President Johnson recognized the state governments of Vir- ginia, Tennessee, Arkansas, and Louisiana, they having been organized under the protection of Union troops. Provisional governments were appointed in the other States, and arrange- ments made for the calling of conventions to form loyal govern- ments. The States accepted the opportunity thus offered them. They repealed the ordinances of secession, repudiated the Con- federate war debt, and ratified the constitutional amendment abolishing slavery. The President issued a proclamation of par- don to all who had taken part in secession, except several of the most prominent leaders, on the condition of their taking the oath of allegiance to the United States. Universal amnesty was declared on Christmas Day, 1868. Impeachment of President Johnson. — President Johnson of- fended congress by his method of reconstruction. That body claimed the right to fix the conditions on which the seceded States should re-enter the Union, and insisted, among other things, that each State should give the negroes the right to vote before their representatives should be allowed to take their seats. The President was obstinate and would not recede. He made a tour of the country, and during his " swinging around the circle," as he termed it, violently denounced his opponents. Congress then passed laws limiting his power to remove officers. He re- fused to obey the law, for which congress impeached him, — that is, charged him with "high crimes and misdemeanors." The trial opened March 23, 1868, the senate being organized as a court, with Chief Justice Chase presiding. A decision was taken May 26, when thirty-five senators answered "guilty," and nineteen, "not guilty." Since a two-thirds vote was required, the President escaped conviction by a single vote. Fenian Troubles. — The Fenians are a society whose avowed object is the freeing of Ireland from English rule. Large 390 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY .amounts of money were subscribed and military preparations perfected in this country. On June i, 1866, fifteen hundred Fenians crossed the frontier from Buffalo, but the authorities speedily drove them back. The invasion was a violation of law, and a United States gunboat captured seven hundred of them. The privates were paroled, and the ofificers released on bail. Somewhat later the " Fenian army " advanced from St. Albans, Vermont, and after skirmishing with the British troops retreated. YUKON RIVER, ALASKA (General Meade, who had been ordered to the frontier, sent the men home at government expense, held the ofificers to bail, and the flurry ended. Purchase of Alaska. — In 1867, our government bought Alaska (previously known as Russian America) from Russia for the sum of $7,200,000. Including the islands, the area of Alaska is 577j39o square miles. There was some good-natured criticism of the purchase, which was described as a land of fogs, snow, and desolation. The enormous trade in fisheries and seals which JOHNSON'S ADMINISTRATION 39 1 has since' developed, however, has proven that the bargain was one of the best ever made by the United States. Execution of Maximilian. — Napoleon III was an unscrupulous adventurer and a bitter foe of the Union. He persuaded Maxi- milian, an archduke of Austria, that the Mexican people wanted him for their emperor, and his dupe went thither to serve our Southern neighbors as their ruler. The AVar for the Union being over, notice was served on Napoleon that he must leave. True to his nature, he promptly deserted Maximilian, withdrawing all the French troops from the country. Maximilian strove hard to establish a footing, but Juarez pressed him, and he was obliged to surrender May 15, 1867. He and his two generals, Miramon and Mejia (me-hu'a), were shot June 19. Successful Laying of the Atlantic Telegraph Cable. — It will be remembered that the Atlantic cable which was laid in 1858 soon ceased to work. A successful attempt was made in July, 1866. Since then others have been laid, so that* for a long time we have had telegraphic communication around the world. Presidential Election of 1868. — In the autumn of 1868, General Grant and Schuyler Colfax were the Republican nominees for the presidency and vice presidency, while the Democratic candi- dates were Horatio Seymour and Frank P. Blair. The Republi- cans were successful by an electoral vote of two hundred and seventeen to seventy-seven. Virginia, Mississippi, and Texas took no part in the election. Topics. — Peace; the impressive example shown by the United States; the total number of soldiers furnished to the Union armies; about the total num- ber of deaths; the deaths on the Confederate side; what the war for the Union cost in human lives ; the Confederate war debt ; that of the United States ; the two great questions settled by the war ; the misgivings regarding President Johnson ; his course ; the problem of reconstruction; the States recognized by the President ; what was done in the other States ; universal amnesty ; the President's impeachment; the decision ; the Fenian troubles ; the purchase of Alaska; the execution of Maximilian ; successful laying of the Atlantic Telegraph Cable ; the presidential election of 1868. CHAPTER XXXIX grant's administrations. — 1 869- 1 877 COMPLETION of the Union Pacific Railway. — General Grant's administration saw the com- pletion of a railway across the continent which was begun in 1863, though little work was done for two years. The first division of the road is from Omaha, Nebraska, to Ogden, Utah, a distance of one thousand and thirty- -^^- •'"'"^' ^"^ two miles. The western division, known as the Central Pacific, connects Ogden with San Francisco, a dis- tance of eight hundred and sixty-two miles. On the loth of May, 1869, the last tie, of polished laurel wood, bound with silver bands, connecting the line from the east with that from the west, was laid at Ogden. The tie was fastened in place by three spikes, one of gold, presented by California, one of silver, presented by Ne- vada, and one of gold, silver, and iron, presented by Arizona. The hammer strokes were telegraphed over the Union, and the locomotives, with their noses almost touch- ing, saluted each other. There was much speechmaking and rejoicing, for surely the event was a noteworthy one. Reconstruction Finished. — The first three months of 1870 saw the completion of the work of reconstruction. The senators and representatives of Virginia were admitted to their seats in con- 392 ULYSSES S. GRANT GRANT'S ADMINISTRATIONS 393 gress January 24; those of Mississippi February 23; and those of Texas on the 30th of March. On the last-mentioned date, the secretary of state issued a proclamation announcing the ratifica- tion of the fifteenth amendment to the Constitution. This amendment provides for negro suffrage. The blight of "carpet- bag " rule, as it was termed, did 'not terminate, however, for a number of years. SAN FRANCISCO AND THE GOLDEN GATE Great Fire in Chicago. — On the evening of October 8, 187 1, while an Irish woman was milking her cow in Chicago, the ani- mal kicked over the lamp and set fire to the stable. The flames spread on De Koven Street, and, fanned by a high wind, soon reached the lumber yards and frame houses in the vicinity. They next leaped across the south branch of the Chicago River and attacked the business portion of the city, expanding with fearful rapidity. When the conflagration had spent itself, the whole district between the north branch and the lake and as far north as Lincoln Park, nearly five miles in extent, was one mass of embers and ashes. Fully twenty thousand buildings were destroyed, probably two hundred and fifty lives lost, ninety-eight thousand five hundred people rendered homeless, and two hundred million dollars' worth of property consumed. The Union responded nobly to the help of the stricken city, and the citizens went to work with a vigor that rebuilt the city almost within a year. 394 .■/ HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY Disastrous Fire in Boston. — I'he turn of Boston came in No- vember of the next year. The fire, which lasted twenty - four hours, consumed the heart of the wholesale trade of the city. The burnt area was sixty acres in extent, and the loss seventy-five million dollars. The Geneva Arbitra- tion. — The violation of the laws of nations by England in fitting out and helping the Confederate cruisers was so flagrant, that our country now called her to account. It took a great deal of skilful diplomacy and considerable time before matters were brought to a focus, but a joint high commission met in Washington, February 27, 1 87 1. It was composed of five British and five American states- men. They agreed upon a treaty, May 8, which was ratified on the 26th of that month, by which it was pledged to submit the dispute to arbitration at Geneva, Switzerland. The arbitration tribunal met in that city June 15, 1872. Their decision was, that England should pay the United States fifteen million five hundred thousand dollars, because of the depredations of the Alabama and other Confederate cruisers upon the commerce of the northern States, and the sum was paid. THE CHICAGO FIRE GRANT'S ADMINISTRATIONS 395 The San Juan Boundary. — The treaty of 1846 with England defined our northwestern boundary to be a line running westward along the forty-ninth parallel to the middle of the channel sepa- rating the continent from Vancouver's Island, and then southerly through the niidde of the channel and of Fuca's Strait to the Pacific Ocean. The trouble lay in the fact that there were several channels and each nation disputed as to which was meant. England's claim gave her the island of San Juan, while our claim gave it to us. It was agreed to refer the question to the arbitra- tion of the emperor of Germany, who decided in our favor. The Presidential Election of 1872. — It was a singular presiden- tial election that took place in the autumn of 1872. President Grant was re-nominated by the Republicans, Henry Wilson of Massachusetts taking the place of Schuyler Colfax. Horace Greeley, who all his life had bitterly fought the Democratic party, now became its nominee for the presidency, with B. Gratz Brown of Missouri the candidate for the vice presidency. They were first nominated by the "Liberal Republicans," and after- ward endorsed by the Democrats. Thousands of the latter re- fused to vote for the ticket, which was completely "snowed under," the Republicans carrying thirty-one of the States, with a majority of seven hundred and sixty thousand, the largest ever received at a national election. Mr. Greeley was crushed by his defeat, lost his reason, and died within a month after election. Admission of Colorado. — Colorado, the thirty-eighth State, was admitted to the Union August i, 1876, its constitution having been ratified by the people in July, 1876. The name is a Span- ish word, applied to that portion of the Rocky Mountains on account of its many colored peaks. It has more than thirty peaks nearly three miles in height. The country was explored in 1858 at two points, one near Pike's Peak by a company from Kansas, and in the southwest by parties from Georgia. Each found gold. The Clear Creek deposit*^ were discovered in 1859, and immigration began that year. The Territory was organized in 1 86 1. Gold was plenty but hard to extract. The principal 396 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY discoveries of silver were after 1870. It applied for admission to the Union in 1865-1867, but President Johnson vetoed the measure. Congress denied it again in 1873, and so it became the "centennial State," Soon after, vast discoveries of carbon- ates of lead and silver were made, and its population trebled in five years. The Indians. — The troubles with the Indians date from the first settlement of our country. There was a fatal lack of fairness and justice on the part of nearly all who sought homes in the New World, and behind almost every Indian war the cause has been found to be the dishonesty of white men. When General Grant became President, he wished to treat the red men fairly. The Quakers or Friends, who are men of peace, were allowed to try their gentle means and did well. But they were opposed by the "Indian Ring," one of the most corrupt of all bodies of politi- cians. Some of the best friends of the cause resigned, and in the end matters were as bad as before. The policy finally adopted was that of the United States setting aside certain tracts of lands, known as "reservations," for the exclusive use of the Indians. So long as they stayed upon them they were not to be disturbed, and the amount assigned to each warrior was some six hundred acres. There are at present about a hundred Indian reservations, their area varying from the size of Rhode Island to that of New Hampshire and ^"ermont taken together. The principal reservation is Indian Territory, which has a status in law different from all the others. It is the home of the Five Civilized Tribes, — the Greeks, Cherokees, Chickasaws, Choctaws, and Seminoles. Each of these tribes is a "nation," with a governor, a legislature, and judges selected by the Indians themselves, the whole modelled after our method of government. They have good schools, fine residences, banks, newspapers, lawyers, physicians, and, in fact, are fully civilized. The Modoc War. — The Indians, however, had been accus- tomed so long to wander at will to any distance they chose, that GRANT'S ADMINISTRATIONS 397 many of the wilder tribes looked with dislike upon the new order of things. They could not understand wl>y they should be con- fined to any space except that of the whole country. They had good cause of complaint, however, in the fact that many of the reservations were barren and almost worthless. The Modocs, numbering only a few hundred, were removed from their fertile lands south of Oregon to a reservation so arid that they refused to stay. Returning to their former homes, they defied the gov- ernment to remove them, lliey took refuge among some lava beds, just over the line in northern California, where the region GENERAL CUSTER'S HEADQUARTERS was so rough and broken that it was almost impossible for sol- diers to reach them. They were surrounded, and, on the nth of April, 1873, a conference was held with them by six members of the Peace Commission. The meeting was under a flag of truce. While in progress the Indians suddenly attacked the white men. General Edward R. S. Canby, the head of the Com- mission, and Dr. Thomas were killed and General Meachem was shot and stabbed, but by rapid flight he escaped with his life. The outrage ended all talk of peace with the Modocs. After persistent and hard work, the handful of warriors were cornered and compelled to surrender. Captain Jack and two chiefs, the 398 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY most guilty, were hanged on the 3d of the following October. The rest were removed to a reservation in Dakota and have not given any trouble since. THE CUSTER MONUMENT The Sioux Indian War. — The discovery of gold among the IJlack Hills attracted thousands of white men thither. Some of tiiese were lawless and of an evil character. The region belonged GRANT'S ADMINIS TRA TIONS 599 to the Sioux Indians, one of the most turbulent tribes in the country. The invasion gave the warriors an excuse for leaving their reservation and committing many outrages among the settlers in Wyoming and Montana, Generals Terry and Crook with a large force of regulars marched into the Upper Yellowstone country and drove Sitting Bull and several thousand warriors toward the Big Horn Mountains and River. COMANCHE, CAPTA:N KEOGH S HOR3E Generals Custer and Reno, advancing with the Seventh Cav- alry, found the Indians encamped for nearly three miles along the left bank of the Little Big Horn River. Without waiting for reinforcements, Custer charged upon them. It was a reckless act, and a fearful penalty was paid, for the warriors, quickly rallying, overwhelmed the whole attacking force. Custer and his men fought with desperate bravery, but the only living creature belonging to his command that came out of the awful fray was 400 .'/ HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY the horse of Captain Keogh. He was.so badly wounded that the Indians turned him loose to die. He was afterward found and tenderly cared for, until he died of old age. General Reno, who was fighting the Sioux at the lower end of the encampment, held his ground until the arrival of reinforcements under Gen- eral Gibbon. The Seventh Cavalry, in this massacre of the 25th of June, 1876, lost two hundred and sixty-one killed and fifty-two wounded. The Sioux received several defeats later, and, after considerable negotiation, returned to their reservation in Dakota. The Centennial. — The one hundredth anniversary of American independence was celebrated by a grand exhibition at Fairmount Park, Philadelphia. The following nations took part: The Ar- gentine Confederation, Austria, Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, China, Denmark, Ecuador, Egypt, France (including Algeria), German Empire, Great Britain and her colonies, Greece, Guate- mala, Hawaii, Hayti, Honduras, Italy, Japan, Liberia, Mexico, Netherlands, Nicaragua, Norway, Orange Free State, Persia, Peru, Portugal, Russia, Siam, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Tunis, Turkey, United States of Colombia, and Venezuela. To provide for the display of the various articles from the dif- ferent nations, five principal buildings were erected. These were: the Main Building, eighteen hundred and seventy-six feet long and four hundred and sixty-four feet wide; the Art Gallery or Memorial Hall, the Machinery Hall, the Agricultural Hall, and the Horticultural Hall. President Grant formally opened the Exposition May 10, and closed it six months later. During the period that it remained open, the daily attendance rose from five thousand to two hundred and seventy-five thousand. The whole number of visitors was a little less than ten millions, and the total receipts were ^3,761,598. Presidential Election of 1876. — The presidential contest of this year threatened grave trouble to the country. The Repub- lican nominees were Rutherford B. Hayes and William A. Wheeler, and the Democratic, Samuel J. Tilden and Thomas A. GRANT'S ADMINISTRATIONS 4OI Hendricks. Each party claimed the election and charged the other with fraud. The situation became so threatening that con- gress passed a bill creating an electoral commission to decide the dispute. This commission consisted of five senators, ap- pointed by the Vice President (three Republicans and two Demo- crats), five representatives, appointed by the speaker (three Democrats and two Republicans), and five judges of the supreme court (three Republicans and two Democrats). This gave the Republicans eight members and the Democrats seven, and by that vote the commission, on the 2d of March, 1877, declared the Republican candidates elected. Topics. — The completion of the Union Pacific Railway ; completion of the work of reconstruction ; account of the great fire in Chicago ; in Boston ; work of the Geneva arbitration ; settlement of the San Juan boundary ; the presidential election of 1872 ; admission of Colorado ; its early history ; causes of all the troubles with the Indians ; the policy finally adopted by our government; the principal reservation ; the Five Civilized Tribes ; why many of the Indians opposed the reservation policy ; causes of complaint on the part of the Modocs ; their attack upon the peace commissioners ; the conse- quences ; cause of the Sioux war ; the Custer massacre ; the Centennial at Fairmount Park ; number of visitors and total receipts ; the presidential election of 1876 ; how the grave dispute was settled. Biographical Notes. — Horace Greeley was bom in 181 1 in New Hamp- shire. When a young man he edited the Evening Post, the first daily penny paper ever published, and in 1834 founded the Nezu Yorker. He was con- nected with other papers, and in 1841 issued the first number of the N'e-w York Tribune, which speedily became the most influential journal in America. It was Whig, and then anti-slavery Whig, and employed the ablest writers in the country on its staff. Mr. Greeley himself had no superior in wielding a vigorous and trenchant pen. In 1848-1849 he was in congress, and during the civil war his paper made many powerful appeals to the President, who was not always radical enough to please the impetuous editor. With peace Mr. Greeley became an advocate of universal amnesty. He was one of the bonds- men of Jefferson Davis in 1867. He was eccentric in dress and manner, honest, frank, and outspoken. He made many admirable speeches during his strange presidential campaign of 1872, which was the fatal mistake of his life. Edward R. S. Canby was born in Kentucky in 1819, and served in the Seminole and the Mexican wars. In conjunction with Farragut's fleet he 2 D 402 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY captured the city of Mobile in 1865. We have learned of his death at the hands of the Modoc Indians. Rutherford B. Hayes, nineteenth president, was born at Delaware, Ohio, October 4, 1822. He was graduated from Kenyon College at the age of twenty, and became a lawyer in Cincinnati. He volunteered at the outbreak of the civil war, entering the service as major and rising to the rank of brevet major general. His services were gallant and valuable. He represented Ohio in congress in 1865, and was governor of the State from 1868 to 1872, and again in 1875. The last political victory was won on the " honest money " issue as it was called. It attracted national attention, and caused his nomina- tion for the presidency in 1876. It is unfortunate that his title to the presi- dency was tainted with suspicion. After the close of his term he lived in retirement at his home in Fremont, Ohio, where he died January 17, 1893. 'UlisSiSsippil Engineers, CHAPTER XL HAYES's ADMINISTRATION. 1877-1881 LiLWAY Strike. — Rutherford Burchard Hayes's administration was uneventful as a whole, but accompanied by several stirring events, the most disturbing being a great railway strike. This began on the Baltimore and Ohio on the 14th of July, 1877, and was caused by a reduction of wages of its employees. The Brotherhood of Locomotive the most conservative of alf the labor organizations, gave their sympathy, and at one time one hundred thousand men were idle and six thousand miles of railway blocked. The militia, as a rule, sympathized with the strikers, and proved so ineffective that an appeal was made to the United States government. Rioting occurred in many quarters, and the scenes of violence were widespread. At Pitts- burg, millions of dollars' worth of prop- erty were destroyed and many lives lost. Several weeks passed before order was fully restored. Resumption of Specie Payments. — ^ In accordance with the law passed in 1S75, the resumption of specie payments by our government was effected January i, 1879. At that time the treasury contained one hundred and thirty-eight million dollars in gold, which was forty per cent of the out- 403 RUTHERFORD 404 A HISIORY OF OUR COUNTRY Standing " greenbacks," as the treasury notes that were redeemed in gold were termed. The pubhc oredit was so improved by that step, that on January i, only eleven million dollars of these notes were offered for redemption. The dreaded problem of the re- sumption of specie payments proved to be no problem at all. Fishery Dispute with Great Britain. — The disjjute over the fishery question be- came so involved that Great Britain and the United States agreed to refer its final settlement to an arbitration commis- sion, one member to 1)0 appointed by (^ueen Victoria, one by President Hayes, and a third by the Austrian ambassador to the Court of St. James. This com- mission, in Novem- ber, 1877, decided that the United States should pay to Eng- land the sum of five million dollars. It was an unjust verdict, and more favorable to England than she expected, but our gov- ernment decided to pay it, and did so in the autumn of 1878. Presidential Election of 1880. — A strong effort was made, but failed, to renominate General Grant for a third term. The Republican candidates were James A. Garfield and Chester A. Arthur, and the Democratic, General \\'infield S. Hancock and RIOT AT PITTSBURG HAYES'S ADMINISTRATION 405 William H. English. The Republicans were successful by an electoral vote of 214 to 155. Topics. — The great railway strike of 1877 ; the resumption of specie pay- ments ; settlement of the fishery dispute with Great Britain ; the presidential election of 18S0. Biographical Notes. — Winfield S. Hancock was born in Pennsylvania in 1824, and was graduated twenty years later from the military academy at West Point. His gallantry in the Mexican war won him the brevet of first lieutenant, and he entered the civil war a brigadier general of volunteers. Joining the Army of the Potomac, he served under McClellan on the Peninsula and was prominent in all the leading battles in Virginia. To him, as much as to any one man, was due the great victory at Gettysburg. His services were of the most brilliant nature and caused him to be made major general in the regular army at the close of the war. He was a courteous gentleman, held in high esteem by the whole country, and his death, in 1886, was universally regretted. James A. Garfield, twentieth President, was born at Orange, Cuyahoga county, Ohio, November 19, 1 83 1. He spent his boyhood in the backwoods and gained rugged health and strength. When a large boy he served as driver for a canal boat. At the age of sixteen he attended the high school at Chester and was a proficient student. He entered Hiram College in 1851, remained three years, and then entered Williams College, where he was graduated in 1856. He later became instructor at Hiram, and then presi- dent. He was elected to the State senate, and at the breaking out of the civil war he entered the military service and made a tine record. He was chief of staff to General Rosecrans, and took a prominent part in the great battle of Chickamauga. He attained the rank of major general, and while serving in the field was elected to congress. He would have preferred to remain a soldier, but accepted political office at the earnest request of President Lincoln. He served for seventeen years, and was then elected to the senate, but did not take his seat because of his nomination for the presidency, which quickly followed. Chester A. Arthur, twenty-first President, was born in Franklin county, Vermont, October 5, 1830, and was graduated from Union College in 1849. After teaching school for a time in his native State, he removed to the city of New York and studied law, in which profession he achieved much suc- cess. During the civil war he was quartermaster general of the State, and was appointed collector of the port, serving until July 12, 1878. He died November 18, 1886. 'fit".. CHAPTER XLI GARFIELD AND ARTHUR'S ADMINISTRATIONS. 1881-1885 ^^«SSASSINATION of President Garfield. ~ James ,< V^^L^B A. Garfield, the new President, like the great '•■' 'W^m^ Lincoln, was called upon to die the death '■■'■"' 'Mr^ff^ of a martyr before the completion of his ^i, ■; '■ ' r * '^"^ work. On the 2d of July, 1881, accompanied i? by Secretary Blaine and several friends, he 1-. ."i^ rode to the Baltimore railway station with the '-^-t/iT^'i " intention of joining his invalid wife at the seashore. While talking with Mr. Blaine, a miscreant named Guiteau shot him in the back with a pistol. The wounded President was carried to the executive mansion and the assassin was hurried off to prison. Although painfully wounded, the belief was general that the President would re- cover. He received the best of medical care, and, on the 6th of September, was removed to Elberon, New Jersey, where it was hoped that the cool sea breezes would bring back health and strength to his wasted frame; but on the 19th of the month he quietly breathed his last. His assassin was hanged on the 30th of the following June. Anti-Mormon Legislation. — We have learned about the sect known as Mormons, outrages, defied the government, and continued to vex it in many ways. The severest blow against them was the passage of 406 / JAMES A. GARFIELD Thev committed GARFIELD AND ARTHUR'S ADMINISTRATIONS 407 a law, in 1882, which disfranchised and made ineligible to office all polygamists. They were incensed at first, but soon accepted what they could not help. Ten years later. President Harrison issued a proclamation of amnesty, the Mormons having given satisfactory evidence of compliance with the law. Polygamy seems to have been effectually suppressed, as it might have been long before. Anti-Chinese Legislation. — The influx of Chinese into California, and their readiness to work for wages which will not support an American, caused great opposition to them. During the Hayes administration, in 1879, a bill passed congress forbidding the immigration of ^,, . , , i iU- . J CHESTER A. ARTHUR Chinese laborers to this country, and compelling those here to take out certificates upon their leaving the United States, so that their identity might be proved if they sought to come back. The President vetoed the bill, but it became a law three years later. The Yorktown Centennial. — When the centennial celebrations began, with the anniversary of the battle of Lexington, they con- tinued eight years and more. The most notable of these cele- brations was that at Yorktown, Virginia, which opened October 18, 1 88 1. Among those who took part were President Arthur and his cabinet, visitors from Germany and France (among the latter being the Marquis of Rochambeau, a descendant of our ally in the Revolution), numerous governors, distinguished citi- zens, and an imposing military and naval display. Lieutenant Greely's Expedition. — In 1880, an international polar commission proposed that different countries should unite in establishing meteorological stations in the polar regions. Congress made an appropriation for two such stations. Point Barrow, in Alaska, and Lady Franklin Bay, in Grinnell Land. The party for Lady Franklin Bay consisted of First Lieutenant 4o8 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY Adolplius W. Greely, U.S.A., commander; Lieutenants F. S. Kislingbury and James B. Lockwood, U.S.A., as assistants; and Dr. O. Pavy as surgeon and naturalist. In addition, there were twenty-two sergeants, corporals, and privates, and two Eskimos. A relief expedition in 1883 failed to reach Lady Franklin Bay, and Greely and his party were thus left in great ])eril. They suffered in- credible hardships, not only from tlie fearful cold, but for lack of provisions, which they had ex- pected to obtain from the relief expedition. On the 13th of May, 1882, Lieutenant 1 ,ockwood. Sergeant Brainard, and one of the Eskimos attained a point whose lati- tude was 83° 24' 30" north, and whose longitude was 40° 46' 30" west of Green- wich. This is the most northern latitude which had until then been reached by man. On the 7th of April, 1895, however, Dr. Fridtjof Nansen, the Norwegian explorer, penetrated northward to 86° 15', a point nearly two hundred miles nearer the North Pole than any pre- ceding explorer had reached, and within about two hundred and twenty-five miles of the Pole itself. ARCTIC REGIONS GARFIELD AND ARTHUR'S ADMINISTRATIONS 409 Lieutenant Lockwood did not live to return home, dying April 9, 1884, from starvation. Commander Schley sailed from the Brooklyn navy yard in May, 1884, with three ships, to search for Greely and his companions. They were found in the latter part of June, near Cape Sabine. Only seven were alive, and they were suffering the pangs of starvation. They were nursed with extreme care, but one of the men died at Disco Harbor. The relief expedition, with the others, arrived at St. John's July 17, and reached New York August 8. Important Legislation. — Among the important laws made during the administration of President Arthur was a civil service bill, in 1883, regulating by means of examinations the system of civil service appointments and promotions; the reduction of letter postage from three to two cents for each half-ounce (1883), which was made two cents an ounce in 1885; and the organiza- tion of Alaska, in 1884, into a civil and judicial district, with the temporary seat of government at Sitka. Presidential Election of 1884. — The Democratic candidates for President and Vice President in 1884 were Grover Cleveland and Thomas A. Hendricks; the Republi- can nominees were James G. Blaine and \ General John A. Logan. A slender ma- JT^'"'**' jority in New York gave Mr. Cleveland the vote of the State, and brought him two hundred and nineteen electoral votes to one hundred and eighty-two cast for Mr. Blaine. Topics. — The assassination of President Gar- field; anti-Mormon legislation; anti-Chinese legislation; the Yorktown Centennial; the inter- general john a. logan national polar commission; the stations provided for by congress; the party for Lady Franklin Bay; failure of the relief expe- dition; the most northernmost point attained; the subsequent achievement of Dr. Nansen; rescue of the Greely survivors; civil service legislation; re- ducing letter postage; organization of Alaska; presidential election of 1884. 41 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY Biographical Notes. —Adolphus W. Greely was bom in Maine in 1844, and, volunteering in the civil war, was brcvetted major for his services. He joined the signal service, and, after his return from his famous arctic expe- dition, was made chief of the signal service from 1887 to 1892, his promotion to a brigadier general having taken place in 1887. Grover Cleveland, twenty-second President, was born at Caldwell, \ew Jer- sey, March 18, 1837. He received his education in the j)ublic schools, and became a teacher in an institution for the blind, at Clinton, New York. Re- moving to Buffalo in 1855, he was admitted to the bar three years later. His success was decided. Entering political life in 1863, he filled in turn the offices of assistant district attorney, sheriff, and mayor. He was elected gov- ernor of New York State, in 1882, by the unprecedented majority of 192,854. This vote attracted national attention, and caused his nomination for the presi- dency before the end of his gubernatorial term. After the expiration of his second term, he made his home at Princeton, N. J. CHAPTER XLII CLEVELAND S FIRST ADMINISTRATION. 1885-I; jRAVE Dangers averted. — Grave dangers have been averted by the passage of the presi- dential succession law, in 1886, which pro- vides that, in the event of the death of the President and Vice President, the order of succession shall be the secretaries of state, of the treasury, of war, the attorney general, ttrr.u.,,.1 iuvruaorS^ ^^^^ postttiaster gcneral, and the secretaries of the navy, of the interior, and of agriculture. Anarchist Troubles in Chicago. — A great deal of trouble was caused by numerous labor strikes. In Chicago, while the police, on May 4, 1886, were dispersing a mob of murderous anarchists, one of them hurled a dynamite bomb among the officers. Before any one could avoid the danger, the bomb ex- ploded, killing seven policemen, crip- pling eleven for life, and wounding a number of others. The most guilty of the anarchists were tried and hanged. Since then a reaction has set in, and the pestilent wretches give the country little trouble. Earthquake in Charleston. — The coun- try was startled, in the summer and early autumn of 1886, by a number of violent earthquake shocks which visited Charleston. The city was cut off from telegraphic com- 411 GROVER CLEVELAND 412 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY munication for several hours, and the dread was general that it had met the fate of Lisbon more than a century before. The earth-tremors were felt in other parts of the country, but in none so severely as at Charleston, where the damages were so great that two-thirds of the city had to be rebuilt. About one hun- dred people were killed, with a loss of property approaching ten million dollars. Subjection of the Apaches. — For years the comparatively small tribe of Apaches had spread terror in the Southwest. They were the most terrible red men on this continent. In endurance, treachery, daring, and cunning they have never been surpassed by any people. Our army, after incredible suffering and bravery, in the flaming climate of Arizona and the neighborhood, suc- ceeded in running down the pests and forced them to submit to the authority of the government, Geronimo (he-ron'i-mo), their most noted leader, with his brother chiefs and their families, were brought eastward, where, being beyond all danger of doing harm, they have ever since been ''good Indians." Presidential Election of 1888. — In the election of this year, the Republican candidates were Benjamin Harrison and Levi P. Morton. Those of the Democrats were Grover Cleveland and Allen G. Thurman. The election resulted in the success of tiie Republican ticket by the electoral vote of two hundred and thirty- three to one hundred and sixty-eight. Topics. — The presidential succession law; the anarchistic troubles in Chicago; the earthquake in Charleston; the Apaches of the Southwest; their conquest; Ceronimo; the presidential election of 1888. Biographical Notes. —Benjamin Harrison, twenty-third President, was born at North Bend, Ohio, August 20, 1S33. His father was a farmer; his grandfather, governor, general, and President; and his great-grandfather one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence. While yet a lad, Benjamin entered Miami University, where he was graduated in 1852. Upon his admis- sion to the bar, he established himself in Indianapolis, which has since been his home. He volunteered shortly after the breaking out of the war, and remained to its close, winning the brevet of brigadier general for ability, energy, and gallantry. He was elected to the United States senate in 1881. CHAPTER XLIII Harrison's administration. — 1889-1893 o HE Johnstown Flood. — The Conemagh valley, some twenty miles in length, was desolated, on the 31st of May, 1889, by the most de- structive flood in the history of our country. ^"i '■ I 6 Johnstown is thirty-nine miles west-southwest -nl'^i^^^^^-' °^ Altoona, Pennsylvania, and seventy-eight :— ;^?^p^^^ miles east-by-south of Pittsburg. It con- u,^u.t^nJ.;«u« ..-^.. tained twenty-eight thousand inhabitants, and was the seat of the Cambria iron works, which gave employ- ment to six thousand men. At the head of the winding valley, eighteen miles away, stood Conemagh Lake, the most extensive reservoir of water in the world. It was two and a half miles long and one and a half miles wide at the greatest width. In many places the lake was a hundred feet in depth. The dam was about a fifth of a mile wide, one hundred and ten feet high, and ninety feet thick at the base. This enormous structure suddenly gave way before the incon- ceivable pressure, and sliding outward, released the prodigious mass of water, which plunged forward with a speed of more than two miles a minute ! Within seven minutes of the bursting of the dam, the water had reached a point eighteen miles down the valley. Houses, trees, wagons, and ponderous locomotives were tossed about like so many corks. The appalling flood was upon Johnstown before the people knew their peril. Nothing could stay the rush of waters for an instant, until, gorged with thou- sands of tons of debris, it struck the railway bridge below Johns- 413 414 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY town. That stood like a granite mountain. The wreckage w^as quickly piled to a width of an eighth of a mile. It became a solid mass of houses, logs, timber, machinery, iron in all forms, furniture, and household utensils, through which was interwoven hundreds of miles of barbed wire. Imprisoned in their houses by the wrenching of the structures were hundreds of persons. Before anything could be done to relieve them, fire broke out in numerous places, and many were burned to death. The loss of life can never be known. It was ofificially given as twenty-two hundred and eighty, of which seven hundred and forty-one bodies were unidentified. It has been claimed that the actual loss was five thousand, which is probably not far from the truth. The great calamity awoke sympathy through- out the Union, and prompt measures were taken for the relief of the survivors. The remains of some of those that were lost were not found until after two years. On the 14th of November, 1892, at the pay- ment of the annuity provided for the flood orphans, twenty thousand three hundred and twenty-five dollars were dis- tributed. Each orphan under sixteen years of age received seventy-five dollars, the beneficiaries being two hundred and seventy-one in number. Massacre of Italians at New Orleans. — On the 5th of October, 1890, David C. Hennessy, chief of police of New Orleans, was shot down at his own door and had barely time to say that the "Dagos" did it, when he died. He had been very active in unearthing many crimes among the Italians, and had incurred their enmity. The outrage convinced the citizens that they had among them many members of the " Mafia " organization, a soci- ety of oath-bound assassins. The whole city was thrown into intense excitement. On the 20th of November, the grand jury indicted eleven Italians for murder and eight others as accessories BEN.'AMIN HARRISON HAKR/SOX'S ADMINISTRA TION 4 1 5 before the fact. February 6, following, the district attorney arraigned six of the indicted persons and three of the accessories. The jury acquitted six, two of whom the presiding judge had directed them to declare innocent, and in the other three cases a mistrial was entered. The city was incensed by this miscarriage of justice, being satisfied that tlie jury had been bribed by a noted corruptionist, who fled in time to save himself. A mob broke into the jail, March 14, and lynched the eleven Sicilians confined there. Many prominent people took part, and all sympathized with the populace. Italy angrily demanded reparation. Secretary Blaine replied with dignity, promising to take every possible step to secure justice, but gave Italy to understand that it would be done in our own way, and that we would accept no dictation from her. The situation at one time was threatening, and there was much talk of war. Gradually, however, Italy saw her blundering and gracefully apologized. Our government voluntarily paid the families of the victims that were Italian citizens a generous sum of money, and in the end Italy and the United States became stronger friends than before. Threatened "War with Chile. — A more dangerous complication threatened our relations with Chile. On the i6th of October, 1 89 1, some forty men of the crew of the American war steamer Baltimore, lying in the harbor of Valparaiso, obtained leave to go ashore. All were in uniform and unarmed. One of the Americans became involved in a quarrel with a Chilean, and in a few minutes the whole party were set upon by an armed mob largely their superior in numbers. Charles W. Riggin, boat- swain's mate of the Baltimore, was killed, and many of the sailors were seriously wounded, one of them subsequently dying. Thirty-five of the Americans were arrested and hurried to prison, but were set free, as no criminal charge could lie against them. Captain W. S. Schley of the Baltimore (the rescuer of Greely and his party at Cape Sabine) was directed to make an investiga- tion of the origin and incidents of the tragedy and to comniuni- 4i6 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY cate with the United States government at Washington and the minister at Santiago (sahn-ti-ah'go). The result proved that Chile had committed an outrage against our flag. She was called upon to apologize and to pay an indemnity to the sufferers and to the families of those that had been killed in the assault. Chile, however, was defiant. She was sharply called to account, and, still dallying, preparations were made for war against her. Finally, she made the recpiired acknowledgment and sent to our government a liberal indemnity for those who had a just claim upon it. The Indian Uprising of 1890-1891. — For months during 1890 a strange craze raged among the Indians, until it involved the most warlike and dan- gerous tribes in the Northwest and West. The belief was gen- eral that the Indian Messiah was about to come and restore the hunting - grounds to the Indians and drive out the white men. " Ghost dances " were held and the faith preached with frantic eloquence by those engaged in spreading the new doctrine among the tribes, until thousands clamored to take the war-path. Sitting Bull, the great medicine man of the Sioux, and a dis- turber for years, took advantage of the general discontent to stir up resentment against the white people, whom he had always hated. He became so dangerous a factor in the trouble, that his arrest was determined upon. On the morning of December 15, 1890, the Indian police, under Bull Head and Shave Head, fol- lowed at a distance by United States cavalry, entered Sitting Bull's camp, forty miles northwest of Fort Yates, North Dakota. INDIAN GHOST DANCERS HARBISON'S ADMINISTRA TION 417 His companions resisted his arrest, and in the flurry Sitting Bull, his son Crowfoot, and six other warriors were killed. Four of the Ind- ian police, among them Bull Head, the leader, lost their lives. The rest Sitting; Bull's ba SIOUX BOYS ON ENTERING CARLISLE SCHOOL fled to the " Bad Lands " of Da- kota. Some of them, however, were persuaded to return to the Pine Ridge agency. While a large band was making a pretence of sur- rendering their arms to the Sev- enth Cavalry, near Wounded 41 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY Knee Creek, December 28, they suddenly opened fire on the soldiers, who, it may be said, were at their elbows. 'I'he fire was returned, and for a brief while the fiercest kind of a battle raged. Twenty-eight soldiers were killed and thirty wounded, while many of the Indians were shot down. A\'hen the survivors lied, it looked as if noth- ing could avert a frightful Indian war. Several skir- mishes took place and numbers were killed on both sides, but by rare tact and good judgment the for- midable band of hostiles were in- duced to move toward the agencv. It was very slow and manv times threatened to end in an outbreak, but finally, on the 15th of January, all the Indians came in, made their submission, and the danger was over. Admission of New States. — A number of new States were admitted to the Union during Harrison's administration. North and South Dakota came in November 3, 1889. The name Dakota means "league " or "allied tribes." The two Dakotas were a part of the Louisiana purchase of 1803. The capital was established at Yankton, where the first legislature convened. SIOUX GRAVES HARK/SON'S ADMINISTRATION 419 March 17, 1862. In 1883, the capital was removed to Bismarck. The separation into two States took place in 1889. Montana became a State November 8, 1889; Idaho, July 3; and Wyoming, July 10, 1890, making the full number forty-four. The name Montana is from a Spanish word referring to the moun- tains. Montana was a part of Idaho Territory until May 26, 1864, when it was organized into a separate Territory. The origin of the name Idaho has never been clearly established, but it is supposed to be an Indian word signifying "gem of the mountains." Until 1863, Idaho was a part of Oregon Territory, and when first organized was made up of portions of Oregon, Washington, Utah, and Nebraska. In 1864 its boundaries were changed and a part added to Montana. The name of Wyoming was carried westward by settlers from Wyoming valley, Pennsyl- vania, and in the Indian tongue it signifies "great plain." It assumed form as a Territory July 10, 1868. Presidential Election of 1892. — In the election of this year, the Republican candidates were President Harrison, with White- law Reid for Vice President. The Democratic nominees were ex-President Cleveland and Adlai Stevenson. The Democrats were successful by an electoral vote of two hundred and seventy- seven to one hundred and forty-five. Topics. — The extent of Conemagh valley, Pennsylvania; the location and size of the immense reservoir of water; the size of the dam; the yielding of the dam; velocity of the mass of water; the ruin it accomplished; the check at tlie railway bridge; the loss of life; the money distributed among the sur- vivors; the provision for the orphans; the shooting of Chief Hennessy in New Orleans; the miscarriage of justice; the lynching of the Italians; the demand of Italy; adjustment of the dispute; the attack upon American sailors at Val- paraiso; the investigation made by Captain Schley; settlement of the diffi- culty; the "ghost dances" among the Indians of the West; the course of Sitting Bull; his death at the hands of the Indian police; action of the Ind- ians; the battle of Wounded Knee; bringing in of the hostiles to the Pine Ridge agency; the admission of North and South Dakota; their early his- tory; the admission of Montana; of Idaho; of Wyoming; the early history of the States; the presidential election of 1892. CHAPTER XLIV Cleveland's second adminlstration. — 1893-1897 I HE Second Inauguration of President Cleveland. — The first President elected with an inter- val between his first and second .terms was Clrover Cleveland. The day of his second inauguration will always be memorable for its snow, sleet, cold, and storms. Never- theless, the capital was crowded with visitors from every part of the country, and at the imposing military parade in the afternoon nearly fifty thousand men were in line. The President delivered his inaugural bareheaded, in a bitterly cold wind, which hurled the snow among the shivering spectators on the stand and against the face of the President himself. His inaugural was a plain, well-conceived address, acceptable not only to the listeners, but to the country at large. Repeal of the Purchase Clause of the Sherman Bill. — A finan- cial stringency visited the country in the summer and autumn of 1893. A general lack of confidence caused widespread distress, and as the winter approached there was much suffering, especially in the large cities. But for the sympathy shown in practical form by the more favored ones, the lack of work and food would have been felt much more keenly than was the case. It was believed by many that the so-called Sherman Bill, which pro- vided for the monthly coinage of a large amount of silver, was one of the causes of the financial trouble. President Cleveland convened congress in extraordinary session, August 7, and recom- 420 CLEVELAND'S SECOND ADMLNLSTRATLON 421 mended the body to repeal the purchase clause of the Sherman act. A measure to that effect was promptly passed by the house, but was delayed a long time in the senate. The senators from States like Idaho and Nevada, where the silver industry is one of the chief sources of income, strongly opposed the passage of the measure. For a time it seemed doomed to fail. Tiresome speeches were spun out for hours and days, for no other purpose than to obstruct legislation. Finally, October 30, the bill passed, and was immediately signed by the President. BRIDGE IN CHICAGO The World's Columbian Exposition. — The year 1893 will always be a memorable one in the history of our country, since it wit- nessed the grandest of all celebrations of the discovery of America by Columbus. The four hundredth anniversary of course arrived in 1892, but the preparations to hold the exposition in Chicago (which city congress selected as the site of the exposition) were on so vast a scale that they could not be completed in time. The celebration, therefore, was deferred until the following year. The Columbian Naval Review. — Ihe part taken by the govern- ment in this great celebration was opened by a grand review of 42: A HISTORY OF OUR COUh'TRY the war-ships of the leading nations of the world. They came together at Hampton Roads, Virginia, converging from points on the globe thousands of miles apart. Then they steamed north- ward to New York, where the naval review took place, April 27. The war-ships numbered thirty-five, without the three Columbus caravels sent by Spain and presented to the United States. These ships were ranged in two lines in the Hudson, extending a distance of three miles. They represented the United States, Great Britain, Germany, France, Russia, Italy, Spain, Brazil, ISER CHARLE- Holland, and Argentina. Between these lines steamed the American steel clad yacht Do/phiii, bearing President Cleveland and his cabinet. As they came opposite each magnificent war- ship, it thundered an earth-quaking salute. Napoleon, Alex- ander, nor any of the monarchs or conquerors of the world, ever received so impressive a tribute as the President of the United States. The Exposition in Chicago. — Congress appropriated ten mill- ion dollars and the different States set apart large sums by which the success of the exposition was assured from the first. Jackson Park was selected as the site of the buildings devoted to the pur- CLEVELAND'S SECOND ADMLNLSTRATION 423 poses of the fair. This beautiful park is on the shore of Lake Michigan and includes five hundred and thirty-three acres, the Midway Plaisance eighty acres, and Washington Park, serving as an entrance to the exhibition, three hundred and seventy-one acres. Having a frontage of two miles on the lake, the site could not have been improved. The structures were dedicated on the 21st of October, 1892, in Manufacturers' Hall, which contained an audience of more than thirty thousand people. The platform was crowded with dignitaries, and the parades and displays surpassed anything of the nature ever seen before in any country. The exposition was open from the ist of May until the ist of November, during which period the paid admissions numbered 21,530,854. The daily expenses were $22,405, the average daily receipts $89,501, and the total receipts $33,290,065.58. The net profits were more than half a million dollars. Visitors came from almost every quarter of the globe, and the display was well worth travel- ling round the world to see, for it is not likely that another simi- lar gathering of wonders will be witnessed for a hundred years to come. The Great Railway Strike of 1894. — A general unrest pre- vailed in the labor world at the opening of the year 1894. A dispute between the Pullman Palace Car Company, of Pullman, Illinois, and their employees, over the question of wages, in which the company refused all suggestions of arbitration, resulted in a strike on June 26. The danger caused the calling out of State and Federal troops, despite which the turbulence increased. Hundreds of cars were burned and many miles of railway tracks torn up. Those who attempted to take the places of the strikers were either persuaded or compelled to quit work. Leniency toward a mob always encourages it to acts of violence, and the soldiers were ordered to fire upon any persons assaulting trainmen or attacking trains. A savage collision took place at Hammond, Indiana, in which several were killed and wounded, and similar scenes followed elsewhere. 424 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY ARBITRATION General Master Workman Sovereign, on July lo, called upon the Knights of Labor throughout the country to cease work and endeavor by peaceful means to force an amicable settlement of the quarrel. The order was disregarded in the East, but obeyed in Chicago and many points further west. Sympathetic strikes followed in North Dakota, Montana, Idaho, Washington, Wyo- ming, and New Mexico. The Pullman Palace Car ComjxTny runs cars over three-fourths of the mileage of the United States, and the employees of many roads refused to handle their cars. Presi- dent Cleveland, July ii, issued a proclamation ordering all per- sons engaged in the strike to disperse. The curse of all labor strikes is the violence which seems to be inevitable. The occasion is always seized by the vicious and criminal elements of society, who are eager for the chance to plunder, rob, and take human life. While the majority of strikers may be peaceably inclined, long-endured idleness and suffering rouse ugly passions, and shocking crimes are certain to follow. On July .17, luigene V. Debs and the head officers of the Rail- way Union were arrested and imprisoned for refusing to obey the CLE VELAND ' S SE COND ADMINIS TRA TION 425 injunctions of court, and indictments were found against many others associated with them in directing the strike. At this time, when so many railroads were tied up, business paralyzed, and the country alarmed, the decisive action of the United States gov- ernment restored order and averted grave peril. Governor Altgeld, of Illinois, who ^^H^^%C pardoned the imprisoned anarchists en- gaged in the bomb-throwing of May, 1886, angrily protested against the pres- ence of the United States troops in Chi- cago and was informed by President Cleveland that the troops were sent thither in strict conformity with the Con- stitution, since the mails were obstructed and the ordinary means were unable to execute the processes of the Federal courts. On December 14, 1894, Debs was sentenced to six months' imprisonment for contempt and the other leaders to three months GENERAL NELSON A. MILES GRAIN ELEVATOR, CHICAGO 426 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY each. This action was taken without trial by jury and was con- demned in many quarters as an invasion of the inalienable rights of every American citizen. The final judgment of the supreme court is that employees have the legal right to combine to quit work in a body, but all violence is subject to penalty. The Hawaiian Imbroglio. — In the year 1849, a treaty of com- merce and for the extradition of criminals was concluded be- tween the United States ancf Hawaii, and in 1875 a recii)rocity treaty. David Kalakaua was elected king in 1874, and on the same day British and American ships of war, at the request of the constitu- tional ruler, aided in quelling the Court-house riot. Kalakaua was an amiable and pleasure-loving monarch, but heartily devoted to the welfare of his people. Some American residents for their per- sonal gain conspired against the king and forced him to change the constitution. He died in 1891 at San Francisco, whither he had gone to recruit his failing health. His remains reached Honolulu January 29, 1891, and on the same day his sister Liliuokalani was proclaimed queen. She was firmly convinced that she understood her peo])le better than any foreigner could, and that she should reign for them rather than for foreigners ; but her hands were tied by the constitution and she was thwarted in her endeavors to grant a new one, which would withhold the right of suffrage from persons unnaturalized and restore to her the right to appoint her own cabinet officers. This attempt by the queen to change the constitution greatly incensed the American conspirators and they secretly formed a committee who applied to the United States minister for aid, and a body of marines from the United States man-of-war Boston was landed on the island. This precipitated the revolt ; the queen, knowing she could not contend with the United States troops, pro- tested without avail and was compelled to abdicate. Thus the republic was established by the aid of the United States minister and man-of-war. On February 14, 1893, an annexation treaty was formulated. CLEVELAND'S SECOND ADMLNLSTRATION 427 providing for the cession to the United States, on certain condi- tions, of all rights of sovereignty in the Hawaiian Islands. President Harrison favored the acquirement of Hawaii and was doing his utmost to bring it about, when he was succeeded by President Cleveland, who made a complete change of policy. He withdrew the treaty from the senate and sent Hon. James H. Blount to Hawaii as special commissioner. By his order the protectorate was terminated and 'the American garrison with- drawn. President Cleveland considered the existence of the new government as due to improper American influence and instituted a movement for the restoration of Queen Liliuokalani. It was necessary that he should have the consent of congress before using force, and, that being refused, he was powerless. There the matter rested until December, 1897, when the treaty was again brought up and discussed by the United States senate. The Venezuela Question. — A dispute had existed for a long time between Venezuela and Great Britain over their respective boundaries in the region of the Orinoco delta. Rich gold mines in the territory involved naturally made England strenuous in her claims, which were as strenuously opposed by Venezuela. The wrangle reached such a point in 1887, that diplomatic relations between the two countries were terminated. The United States viewed the quarrel with anxiety and made several suggestions of arbitration, which England stubbornly rejected. In 1840, Sir R. Schomburgk was commissioned by England to survey and define the limits of the colony. He traced the boundary known as the Schomburgk line, which has figured so prominently in the controversy since. Although Schomburgk's proposals were never formally carried into effect, the line which he established was used as the basis of negotiations, England declaring in 1886 that she would consider no Venezuelan claims east of the line, but would submit her claims west of the line to arbitration. On December 17, 1895, President Cleveland thrilled the coun- try by a special message to congress, in which he recommended the creation of a commission to determine and report upon " the 428 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY true divisional line between Venezuela and British Guiana," add- ing that when such report should be made, it would, in his opin- ion, be the duty of the United States " to resist by every means in its power, as a wilful aggression upon its rights and inter- ests, the appropriation by Great Britain of any lands, or the exercise of governmental jurisdiction over any territory which, after investigation, we have determined of right belongs to Venezuela." This bold declaration of the sacred Monroe doctrine "struck fire " in the American heart, and was enthusiastically supported by both houses of congress, which immediately provided for the commission, the members of which were announced January i, 1896, and were : David J. Brewer, associate justice of the supreme court of the United States, elected president; Richard A. Alvey, chief justice of the court of appeals of the District of Columbia; Frederick R. Coudert, who was one of the counsel of the United States in the Behring Sea arbitration; Daniel C. Gilman, presi- dent of Johns Hopkins University. The news of the appointment of this commission caused aston- ishment and indignation in England, where it was insisted that the Monroe doctrine was not involved, and the action was an unwarrantable interference by a third power, not primarily con- cerned in the dispute. By and by, however, passion cooled on both sides, and England showed a disposition to consider the question calmly and fairly. The possibility of a war between the two greatest of English- speaking nations caused a throb of horror among thoughtful men on both sides of the Atlantic, and they made their sentiments felt in such unmistakable terms, that it soon became clear that the most awful calamity that could befall civilization and Christianity can never again blight the hopes of the world. The dispute was finally settled in a friendly spirit by the nations concerned, in which the claims of Venezuela received full consideration and justice. A treaty submitting the question to arbitration was signed February 2, 1897, by the l>ritish ambassador and the CLEVELAND'S SECOND ADMINISTRATION 429 Venezuelan minister, in Washington, and the controversy, which had lasted nearly a century, was amicably closed. Admission of Utah, — ^Utah was admitted to the Union January 4, 1896. It formed a part of the Mexican cession of 1848. When the Mormons emigrated thither, they found the country inhabited by the Ute or Utah Indians, whence the name of the Territory. In 1849, admission to the Union was demanded under the name of the State of "Deseret," but was refused. A terri- torial government was organized in 1850, with Brigham Young as governor. In 1862, admission was again demanded and again refused, polygamy being the cause. Its final admission increased, July 4, 1896, the number of stars on our flag to forty-five, arranged as follows: * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Presidential Election of 1896. — The presidential election of this year was remarkable in many respects. There were eight tickets in the field, the order of nomination being as follows: Prohibitionist, at Pittsburg, May 27, Joshua Levering of Mary- land and Hale Johnson of Illinois; National party, at Pittsburg, May 28, offshoot of the regular Prohibitionists, Charles E. Bent- ley of Nebraska and James Haywood Southgate of North Carolina ; Republican, at St. Louis, June 18, William McKinley of Ohio and Garret A. Hobart of New Jersey; Socialist Labor, in New York, July 4, Charles H. Matchett of New York and Matthew Maguire of New Jersey; Democratic, in Chicago, July 10 and II, William Jennings Bryan of Nebraska and Arthur Sewall of 430 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY Maine; Silverites, in St. Louis, July 24 and 25, William Jen- nings Bryan of Nebraska and Thomas E. Watson of Georgia; National Democratic party, in Indianapolis, September 3, John McAuley Palmer of Illinois and Simon Bolivar Buckner of Kentucky. The real struggle was between the Republican party, on the one hand, of which Mr. McKinley was the nominee, and the Democratic and Silverite organizations on the other, with Mr. Bryan as their candidate. The distinctive issue was the coinage question, that of the tariff drifting into the background. The Republicans were committed to the maintenance of gold as tlie single standard of monetary value, while those who supported Mr. Bryan favored the unlimited coinage of silver. Even among the ranks of the old parties there was no unanimity of views on this question. The East and older sections of our country were uncompromising in their demand for gold as the single standard, but many of the Republicans from beyond the Mississippi insisted upon the free coinage of silver. The differences were so irrecon- cilable that the silver men bolted the Republican convention in St. Louis and supported the Bryan ticket. The cause of the single gold standard, or "sound money," steadily increased in strength, with the result that in November the Republican candidates were successful by an electoral vote of two hundred and seventy-one against one hundred and seventy- six for Mr. Bryan, with a popular majority of about six hundred thousand in a total of more than thirteen millions. Topics. — The second inauguration of President Cleveland; the financial stringency of 1893; extra session of congress; repeal of the purchase clause of the Sherman bill; the World's Columbian Exposition; the Columbian naval review; the Exposition in Chicago; Jackson Park; extent of the grounds; dedication of the structures; the Exposition itself; the admissions and receipts. The unrest in the labor world; the dispute between the Pullman Palace Car Company and its employees; the strike; scenes of violence; General Master Workman Sovereign; the curse oflabor strikes; the arrest of Eugene V. Debs; President Cleveland's action; arrest and punishment of Debs; the CLEVELAND'S SECOND ADMLNLSTRATLON 43 I final judgment of the supreme court regarding strikes; the treaty made with Hawaii in 1849 and later; King David Kalakaua; Queen Liliuokalani; the occurrences in January, 1893; the request made to the United States; the annexation treaty; the policy of President Cleveland; the dispute between Great Britain and Venezuela; its extent in 1887; the Schomburgk line; Presi- dent Cleveland's message of December 17, 1895; ^^ response of congress; the commission appointed and their duties; the feeling in England; the pos- sibility of war between that country and our own; the conclusion of the mat- ter; the admission of Utah; its early history; the numlier of stars in the American flag; the presidential election of 1896; the different nominations; the real question at issue; the political situation in August and September; the result of the election. Biographical Notes. — William McKinley, twenty-fifth President, was born at Niles, Trumbull county, Ohio, January 29, 1843. He entered Alle- gheny College at the age of sixteen, but was obliged to leave on account of ill health. When he recovered he supported himself by teaching school. He enlisted as a private soldier at the opening of the war, serving with great gallantry to the close, by which time he had attained the rank of major. When peace came he studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1867. He was elected to congress in 1876 and served for seven terms. During his last term (1890) the famous protective measure bearing his name became law. During the same year he was elected governor of Ohio. His administration was so excellent and his popularity so great that they attracted national atten- tion and led to his nomination for the presidency in 1896. In every station to which this able and patriotic American has been called he has justified the confidence of his countrymen. William Jennings Bryan was born at Salem, Marion county, Illinois, March 19, i860. He entered Illinois College in Jacksonville, and was gradu- ated with honors in 1881. He adopted the profession of law, and removed to Lincoln, Nebraska, in 1887. He early developed marked oratorical powers, and became a popular political speaker. He was elected to congress in 1890 on the Democratic ticket, and made his first great success on March 12, 1892, in his speech on free wool. Mr. Bryan was re-elected and became known as one of the al)lest champions of free silver. He refused a renomination in 1894 and strove to secure the United States senatorship, but the legislature was Republican and named his opponent. In the national canvass in the fall of 1896, Mr. McKinley remained at his home at Canton, Ohio, where he was continually called upon to address his almost innumerable visitors, while Mr. Bryan threw all his energies into the campaign, hurrying back and forth through the different States, displaying great ability, and doubtless making many thou- sand votes for his cause, though not enough to bring him victory. CHAPTER XLV Mckinley's administration. — 1897- INAUGURATION of President McKinley. — William McKinley was inaugurated as Presi- dent on Thursday, March 4, 1897, in the pres- ence of an immense assemblage, and with the best wishes of the whole country. In his inaugural, he showed the need of changes in the fiscal laws, pledged himself to do his utmost to secure international bimetallism, to preserve the credit of the government, to enforce economy in every branch, to provide for more revenue, and he declared that the voice of the people was unmistakably for protection. He advocated the reciprocity principle in tariff legislation, the proper checks to immigration, civil service re- form, the building up of the merchant marine, a firm and dignified foreign policy, and strongly urged arbitration as the true method of settling international differences. Extra Session of Congress. — President McKinley selected an able Cabinet and called an extra session of congress for March 15. The purpose of this session was to provide a tariff measure for meet- ing the running expenses of the govern- ment, and paying the deficiency that had been accruing annually for several years past. After earnest debate and careful considera- tion such a bill was framed and enacted ; the long continued busi- 432 WILLIAM McKINLEY MCKINLE Y'S ADMINISTRA TION 433 ness depression gradually passed away ; confidence was restored, and the great Republic resumed its career of prosperity, ad- vancement, and achievement which has made it the leading nation of the earth. STATUE OF LIBERTY, NEW YORK HARBOR "Greater New York." — The legislature of New York, in Feb- ruary, 1897, enacted a law by which "Greater New York," as it is popularly termed, was created. This law united under one government the former metropolis, Brooklyn, Long Island City, Jamaica, all Staten Island, the western end of Long Island, Coney Island, Rockaway, Valley Stream, Flushing, Whitestone, College 434 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY Point, Willets' Point, Fort Schuyler, Tlirogg's Neck. Westchester, Baychester, Pelhani Manor, Van Cort- landt, Riverdale, and Spuy- ten Duyvel. The extreme length of this great city, from the southern end of Staten k rtC'ffj Island to the northern limits at Vonkers, is thirty-two miles, and its greatest width, from the Hudson River to the boun- dary line across Long Island, beyond Creed- moor, is sixteen miles. The area of the city is nearly three hundred and twenty square miles, and its po])ulation, CITY HALL PARK, NEW YORK on January i, 1898, when it began its official existence, was almost three and a half millions. Judge Robert A. Van Wyck, in the autumn of 1897, was elected the first mayor of " Greater New York." The Gold Fields of the Upper Yukon. — Great excitement was caused in the stnnmer of 1S97, by the reports of the discovery of I\rcKIXT.F. Y'S ADMINISTRA TION 435 SS^SfJSft TRINITY CHURCH AND NEW YORK HARBOR enormously rich deposits of gold in British Columbia. The most valuable discoveries were along the Klondike River, one of the tributaries of the Upper Yukon, but Alaska undoubtedly contains equally rich deposits. The reports at first were so wild that they were not credited, 436 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY but before long they were confirmed. The regioji named no doubt contains the most valuable deposits of gold that have yet been discovered in any part of the world. Thousands of people flocked thither, some by ascending the Yukon, which is closed by ice during two-thirds of the year, and others across the mountainous country from the south by way of Chilkoot Pass, various lakes and rapids to Dawson, on the Upper Yukon. There was much suffering in the mining districts during the winter of 189 7-1 898, owing to the scarcity of food and the difficulty of transporting supplies thither. The rush, however, was renewed as soon as weather permitted, and included large numbers from the other side of the Atlantic. Many million dollars in gold have been taken from this region, and untold treasures still lie in the soil, waiting to be gathered. The facilities for travel will soon be greatly improved, and the yield of the precious metal promises to be so vast that its commercial value throughout the world may be affected. The War with Spain. — The history of the early Spanish explo- rations and settlements in our country shows that Spain was un- just and ferocious to the last degree toward the natives and her white neighbors. Although among the most powerful of nations at the time of the discovery of our continent, and afterward hold- ing numerous colonies in both North and South America, her tyranny became so intolerable that these colonies revolted one after the other, and wrenched their independence from her, until finally she was left with Cuba and Porto Rico as her sole depen- dencies in the Western Hemisphere The Spanish rule in Cuba was frightful in its barbarity, and time brought no improvement. There were repeated uprisings by the natives, but all were put down with merciless rigor. What is known as the Ten Years' War began in 1868 and was brought to an end by the pledge of the rulers to give the Cubans what they asked in the way of justice. After the insurgents had laid down their arms, however, the Spaniards shamelessly broke every promise, and the taxes and persecution became more unbearable than before. MCKINLEY'S ADMINISTRATION 437 Early in 1895, the Cuban leaders once more summoned the natives to rise against their oppressors. The war was pressed remorselessly on both sides. Spain sent many thousands of her best troops to Cuba, but they could not put down the rebellion. The insurgents resorted to guerilla tactics, and the flames of in- surrection spread almost throughout the entire island. The rebels were unable to conquer the seaport towns, because of the Spanish navy, but they captured many places in the interior, often defeated the veterans arrayed against them, and organized a government of their own. Much sympathy was felt in the United States for the struggling Cubans. A great many favored the recognition of the Cuban re- public and demanded armed intervention by our country, for in the attempts to crush the rebellion, the Spaniards resorted to cruelties that shocked the civilized world. Captain General Weyler, while ruler of Cuba, issued what was known as the " reconcentrado " order. The people who were friends of the insurgents, but took no part in the war, were driven from their homes and plantations and compelled to live in the cities. This was to prevent their helping the rebels by raising food for them. Soon there was nothing for the miserable people to eat, and they perished like beasts of the field. It is the awful truth that more than a hundred thousand men, women, and chil- dren died from the pangs of starvation. The United States could not shut its ears to the pitiful prayers of these victims. Our government sent food, medicine, and cloth- ing to them ; and aided by the kindness of the many charitable people in America, and the noble Red Cross Society, led by Clara Barton, thousands of lives were saved. Meanwhile, the demands by our citizens upon the government to drive Spain out of Cuba grew too deep to pass unheeded. The relations of the two nations were at a critical stage, when the whole country was startled by the blowing up of the batde- ship Maine. This took place on the night of February 15, 1898, while she lay peacefully at anchor in the harbor of Havana. The 438 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY magnificent war vessel was shattered, going clown in a few minutes and carrying two hundred and sixty-six officers and men to their death. The Americans gave a sublime proof of their self-restraint a^d desire for justice, by waiting until the committee of inquiry, ap- pointed by the United States government, should investigate the matter and learn whether the explosion was accidental or whether it was caused by a mine. The investigation was thorough and left no doubt that the great crime was the deliberate act of the ene- mies of the American people. It was a verdict that every one expected. War was so immi- nent that as early as March 8, Congress, without an opposing vote, placed |>5 0,000,000 at the disposal of the President as a defence fund. It was twenty days after this that the Board of Inquiry de- clared that the Maine was blown up by some external cause. On the 20th of April our government sent its ultimatum to Spain. This was a notice that she must withdraw her land and naval forces from Cuba, and her answer had to be given within three days. On the same day the Cortes, corresponding to our Congress, met in Madrid ; the Queen read a warlike speech, and the Spanish minister at Washington demanded and received his passports. Before our minister at Madrid could deliver the message sent from Washington, he was notified that diplomatic relations between the two countries had ceased, and his passports were sent to him. Such a proceeding is generally considered the .same as a declara- tion of war. Minister Woodford left Spain at once. On April 25, President McKinley called for one hundred and twenty-five thousand volunteers. On April 24, Spain declared war against this country. Congress answered by declaring that war began on April 21, by act of Spain. The preparations had been pushed night and day for weeks, and the utmost vigor was shown in every quarter. The response to the call for volunteers was so enthusiastic that there would have been no trouble in obtaining a million men. Since the wars of to-day must be waged mainly ui)on the water "~"'^ ' '"^H ' 1 '^'^^^^^H $, v^^H *'"^' . /■ JL .....JV-.. ' - i n*'fli| ^tL ■■^^■^ ,^.i# BHH — *"») ■I 440 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY and seaboard, our navy lost no time. A number of prizes were captured ; the first being made on April 22, by the Nashville and the New York. The first action of the war was the bombardment of the earthworks defending Matanzas, Cuba, April 27, by the New York, Puritan, and Cincinnati, of Admiral Sampson's squad- ron. The Philippines number about twelve hundred islands, less than one-half of which are inhabited, and lie southeast of Asia, extending north and south through fifteen degrees of latitude. Luzon, the most important, is about the size of the State of Ohio. The islands belonged to Spain, and, like all her dependencies, had suffered sorely from misrule. The most formidable uprising was quelled in 1897 by bribing the leaders. The Philippines are very rich and valuable, and, had they been properly governed, would have continued to yield an enormous revenue to Spain. On the I St of May, Commodore George Dewey, in command of our Asiatic squadron, consisting of four cruisers and two gunboats, steamed into the harbor of Manila and at- tacked the Spanish fleet. In a brief but terrible batUe, the whole eleven Spanish warships were destroyed, with a heavy loss of life, while not an American vessel was seriously injured nor a man killed. Six Americans received trifling wounds. The victory was one of the most decisive and wonderful in naval history. Commodore Dewey, wlio was rewarded, May 10, by being made rear admiral, did not capture the city of Manila, the capital of the Philippines, though he could easily have done so, because his force was not strong enough to occupy and hold it. He destroyed the fortifications at the head of Manila Bay, and took possession of the naval station of Cavite, near the city. General Wesley Merritt was ordered thither as military governor. Several expeditions were sent to the islands from San Francisco, General MCKINLE Y'S ADMINISTRA TION 441 Merritt sailing on the 29th of June, and reaching Manila July 25. By the close of that month he had a force under his command numbering more than ten thousand men. As early as April 22, the President declared the port of Havana in a state of blockade. The House passed a bill calling for a popular bond subscription, of which the entire amount of $200,- 000,000, at three per cent interest, was quickly taken by small subscriptions. The subscriptions were far in excess of the amount of bonds offered, showing the confidence of the public in the government and the popularity of the war. On the 1 2th of May, the gunboat ]Viliniji}^ioii, the torpedo boat ]Vi/is/o7a, and the auxiliary gunboat Hudson, while in Cardenas Bay, Cuba, were attacked by Spanish gunboats and batteries. Five of the JVins/cna's crew were killed, including the gallant Ensign Worth Bagley, who was the only naval officer killed in action. Much uneasiness was felt concerning the Spanish fleet under Admiral Cervera, which was continually reported in different and widely separated places. The splendid bat- tleship Oregon had left San Francisco on March 19, under orders to hurry around Cape Horn and join the naval forces at Key West, under command of Admiral Sampson. It was feared that the Spanish fleet was lying in wait, and would attack the Oregon off the eastern coast of South America ; but the noble warship made the entire voyage, equal to more than two-thirds of the distance round the world, in safety, and without a single mishap, arriving at Key West, May 26. No such record has ever been made. About the time of her arrival it was learned that Admiral Cervera's squadron had entered the harbor of Santiago, where • it was bottled up by the squadron of Commodore Schley. President McKinley was determined to press the war without halt, and on the 25 th of May he called for seventy-five thousand 442 A HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY more volunteers, the response being as ardent as before. One of the most daring exploits of the war was performed on the night of June 3, when Lieutenant Richmond Pearson Hobson and seven men ran the collier Merrijnac into the narrowest part of the chan- nel leading to Santiago harbor, and sank the craft, The purpose was to block the passage so as to prevent the escape of the Spanish fleet. The deed was accomphshed under a terrific fire from the enemy's batteries on the shores, and when it looked as if not a sin- gle man could escape. Providentially, however, they were un- harmed, though all were taken prisoners. Admiral Cervera treated them with great kindness, and exi)ressed his admiration of their bravery. Some weeks later the Americans were ex- changed. The first landing on Cuban soil was made June lo, when six hundred marines went ashore from the transport Panther, near the entrance to Guantanamo harbor. They were attacked the next day, and two officers and two privates were killed, but the enemy were repulsed. General William R. Shafter had charge of mili