NOTES HYDROLOGY And the Application of its Laws to the Problems of Hydraulic Engineering DANIEL W. MEAD, Mem. Am. Soc. C. E. CONSULTING ENGINEER Professor of Hydraulic and Sanitary Engineering, University of Wisconsin. 1904 LiBRasfV * GOWSRFSS TWd Oooies Sweived OCT 10 1904 . Oooyrfeht Entry GLASS CL XXo. Na COPY B ?L Copyrighted 1904 BY Daniel W. Mead Press of SHEA SMITH & CO. Chicago PREFACE. These notes are intended to form the basis for an intro- ductory study of the fundamental phenomena of Hydrology, on which the applied science of Hydraulic Engineering should be based. The volume of literature covering many of the various branches of this subject is very great. Unfortunately, how- ever, there is no single treatise which discusses the entire subject, and which can be utilized as a text-book or reference book, to which the student may turn when investigating the various branches of this science. The lack of such a work is the reason for the preparation of these notes, which are intended to be used in connection with various publications to which references are given. From the nature of this subject, it is almost needless to state that very little new or original matter is included in these notes. The principles and laws of Hydrology must, of necessity, be based almost entirely on extended and long- continued observations, consequently the writer has utilized the observations available from a great many sources, and for long periods of time. As far as possible, the sources of the various data, cuts, formula, etc., have been acknowledged, some of the tables have been photographed from other pub- lications, in order to facilitate the publication of these notes (which have been prepared between June and September), hence the typographical work and illustrations are not en- tirely homogeneous, 'but the desirable data rather than the typographical method of its presentation has been the main object of this edition. Daniel W. Mead. Chicago, 111., September, 1904. in CONTENTS Preface Ill CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION. PAGE 1. Hydrology 1 2. Necessity for General Knowledge of Hydrology 2 3. Failures due to Lack of Hydrological Knowledge 2 4. Variations in Hydrological Phenomena 3 5. Factor of Safety in Engineering Work . . 4 6. Fundamental Laws Fixed . 4 7. Complexity of Factors 5 8. Purpose of Study 5 Literature 6 CHAPTER II. WATER. 9. Water ." 7 10. Density of Water 7 11. Expansion of Water 9 12. Weight of Water 11 13. Units of Measurement 12 14. Specific Gravity of Waters . 14 15. Relation of Mineral Matter to Specific Gravity of Water 14 16. Weight of Natural Water 15 17. Solution 15 18. Solution of Gases 17 19. Condition of Mixed Solutions 19 20. Effect of Solutions on Boiling Point 20 21. Suspension 21 22. Relation of River Flow to Sediment 23 23. Density and Pressure 24 24. Ice 24 25. Aqueous Vapor 26 26. Latent Heat of Water 29 27. Relation of Water and Energy 30 28. Water Pressure 30 29. Effects of Atmospheric Pressure 30 30. Physiological Relations of Water 33 31. Agricultural Relations of Water 33 32. Commercial Relations of Water 35 33. Sanitary Relations of Water 35 Literature 35 CONTENTS— Continued . CHAPTER III. GENERAL HYDROGRAPHY AND PHYSIOGRAPHY. PAGE 34. Circulation of Water on the Earth 37 35. The General Relations of Land and Water 38 36. Physiographical Features of the Earth 39 Literature 39 CHAPTER IV. HYDRO-METEOROLOGY. 37. Meteorology 40 38. Atmosphere 40 39. Atmospheric Temperatures 40 40. Atmospheric Pressure 41 41. Atmospheric Circulation 41 42. Atmospheric Moisture 42 43. Rainfall , 43 Literature 43 CHAPTER V. HYDRO-GEOLOGY. 44. Influence of Geological Structure 44 45. General Classification of Rock Masses 44 46. Chronological Order and Occurrence of Strata 45 47. Local Study Desirable 45 48. The Upper Mississippi Valley 49 49. Archean Land 52 50. The Potsdam Formation 52 51. The Lower Magnesian or Oneota Limestone 57 52. The St. Peter Sandstone 59 53. The Trenton Age 59 54. The Cincinnati or Hudson River Formation 61 55. The Niagara Formation 61 56. The Devonian Formation 61 57. The Carboniferous Age . 61 58. General Characteristics of the Strata 63 59. Original Extent of Strata \ 63 60. Deformation 66 61 . Slope 66 62. Waters of the Strata 69 63. Upheaval 69 64. Pre-Glacial Drainage 69 65. The Glacial Period 70 66. Work of Glaciers 72 67. Glacial Recession 74 68. Glacial Drainage 76 69. Post-Glacial Drainage 77 70. Hydrological Conditions 80 71. General Geological Conditions 86 Literature 87 CHAPTER VI. PHYSIOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES. 72. Bearing of Physiography 89 73. Climatic Subdivisions 92 Literature 92 VI CONTENTS— Continued. CHAPTER VII. RAINFALL OF THE UNITED STATES. PAGE 74. Influence of Rainfall 93 75. Quantity and Distribution of Rainfall 93 76. Variations in Annual Rainfall 96 77. Periodical Variations in Rainfall 98 78. Relative Importance of Rainfall Data 98 79. Intensity of Rainfall 102 Literature 1 10 CHAPTER VIII. THE DISPOSAL OF THE RAINFALL. 80. Manner of Disposal in 81. Percolation ■ ill 82. Evaporation 114 83. Water used by Growing Crops 114 84. Run-Off 115 Literature 117 CHAPTER IX. STREAM FLOW. 85. Laws of Stream Flow 120 86. Daily Variation in Flow 120 87. Extreme Variations 123 88. Monthly Average Flow 124 89. Depth of Rainfall and Run-Off , 138 90. The Water Year 139 91. The Stream Losses from Percolation 143 92. Seepage from Artificial Channels 147 93. Basis of Estimates of Stream Flow 147 Literature 149 CHAPTER X. GROUND WATER. 94. General Principles l5l 95. Occurrence of Ground Water l5l 96. Laws of Flow 152 97. Artesian Waters 1 52 Literature 156 CHAPTER XL HYDROGRAPHY OF SURFACE WATERS. 98. Growth of Rivers 159 99. Growth of Lakes 159 100. Hydrography of the Great Lakes 162 101. The Ocean 162 Literature 168 CHAPTER XII. HYDROMETRY. 102. Flowing Water 170 103. Vertical Velocity Curves 170 104. Vertical Surface 'Fluctuations 173 105. Physical Data of the St. Clair River 173 106. Propagation of Waves 1 78 107. Fluctuation in Current Velocity 179 Literature 183 VII CONTENTS— Continued. CHAPTER XIII. ICE INFLUENCES. PAGE 108. Formation of Ice 186 109. Effects of Ice 186 110. Anchor Ice 186 111. Effects on River Flow 187 Literature 187 CHAPTER XIV. CHEMISTRY OF NATURAL WATERS. 112. General Relation 190 113. Analyses of Rocks and Rock Waters 190 114. Seasonal Variations 196 115. Deep Water 196 116. Organic Matter 196 Literature 197 CHAPTER XV. APPLIED HYDROLOGY. 117. Application 199 118. Water Supply 199 119. Water Power 200 120. Irrigation 200 121. Agricultural Drainage 201 122. Flood Protection 201 123. Municipal Sewerage and Drainage 201 124. Transportation and Navigation 201 Literature 202 TABLES. TABLE PAGE 1. Density, Expansion and Weight of Pure Water 8 2. Expansion of Water, as Determined by Various Observers 10 3. Weight of Pure Water, according to Various Observers 12 4. Equivalent Measures and Weights of Water 12 5. Specific Gravities and Weights of Natural Waters 13 6. Gases Carried in Solution by Various Springs and Artesian Wells 18 7. Coefficients of the Solution of Gases 19 8. Solution of Salts in Pure Water under Various Conditions 20 9. Boiling Point of Water with Various proportions of Sodium Chloride. 20 10. Boiling Point of Saturated Saline in Solution 21 11. Effect of Altitude and Pressure on the Boiling Point of Water 21 12. Subsidence of Suspended Matter in Quiescent Waters 22 13. Discharge and Sediment of Large Rivers. 23 14. Average Amount of Sediment in Various River Waters 23 15. Amount of Suspended Matter in the Rio Grande River 24 16. Reduction in Volume of Water Under Pressure 24 17. Weight of Saturated Aqueous Vapor and Air, and Mixture of Air and Vapor 27 18. Equivalent Units of Various Forms of Energy 30 19. Mechanical Equivalents of the Heat Energy of Steam 31 20. Pressure Equivalents 31 VIII CONTENTS— Continued . TABLES TABLE PAGE 21. Observed and Calculated Barometrical Heights 34 22. Relation of the Elevations above Sea Level to Atmospheric Pressure. 34 23. Geological Formations 48 24. Porosity of Rocks 81 25. Geological Sections of Artesian and Deep Wells in the Upper Mississ- ippi Valley 84 26. Heaviest Recorded Rainfalls at Selected Stations in the United States. . 108 27. Annual and Seasonal Averages of Rainfall for each State 109 28. Amount of Water Required to Produce a Pound of Dry Vegetable Matter 115 29. Measurement of Precipitation, Evaporation, and Duty of Water in Irrigation 116 30. Relation of Mean Annual Rainfall to Maximum and Minimum Dis- charge of Various Rivers 1 30 31. Average Discharge in Cubic Feet Per Second Per Square Mile of Drain- age Area of Various Rivers of the United States 136 32. Average Monthly Discharges of Various Rivers arranged in order of Minimum Flow 137 33. Relation of Rainfall, Run-Off, and Evaporation for various Periods on the Connecticut River 144 34. Relation of Rainfall, Run-Off, and Evaporation for Various Periods on the Hudson River 145 35. Relation of Rainfall, Run-Off, and Evaporation for Various Periods on the Genessee River 146 36. Relation of Rainfall, Run-Off, and Evaporation for Various Periods on the Muskingum River 146 37. Measurement of Seepage Waters in the South Platte River 148 38. Physical Data of the Great Lakes 167 39. Analysis of Geological Deposits of the Upper Mississippi Valley 191 40. Analysis of Mineral Residue of Surface and Drift Waters 192 41. Analysis of Mineral Residue of Water from the Potsdam Strata 193 42. Analysis of Mineral Residue of Waters from the St. Peter Sandstone. . 194 43. Analysis of Mineral Residue of Artesian and Other Well Waters of the Upper Mississippi Valley 195 IX CONTENTS— Continued . ILLUSTRATIONS DIAGRAM PAGE 1. Curve of Expansion of Pure Water 11 2. Curve of Specific Gravity of Solutions of various Salts in Water 14 3. The relation of Solubility and Temperature of various Salts 16 4. Relations of Temperature in Substances of Lower Solubility 17 5. Amount of Sediment Carried by the Mississippi River Water at New Orleans .' 25 6. Relations of Weight and Temperatures of Air and Saturated Aqueous Vapor 26 7. Mechanical properties of Steam 28 8. Relations of Quantity of Heat, Temperature, and Physical Condition of Water 29 9. Geological Sections across Illinois 67 10. Variations in Annual Rainfall at Selected Stations 97 11. Typical Annual Fluctuations in Rainfall— Eastern States 99 12. Typical Annual Fluctuations in Rainfall — Western States 100 13. Types of Monthly Distribution of Precipitation in the United States. . 101 14. Rates of Maximum Rainfall, New England and Northern Atlantic States 103 15. Rates of Maximum Rainfall, North Central States 104 16 Rates of Maximum Rainfall, South Atlantic States 105 17. Rates of Maximum Rainfall, Gulf States 106 18. Curves of Probable Maximum Intensity of Rainfall 107 19. Diagram of Stream Flow of the Hudson River 121 20. Diagram of Stream Flow of the Susquehanna River 122 21. Diagram of Stream Flow of the North River. . 123 22. Diagram of Stream Flow of the Ocmulgee River 124 23. Diagram of Stream Flow of the Bear River 125 24. Diagram of Stream Flow of the Rio Grande River 126 25. Daily Flow of the Passaic River 127 26. Discharge Curves of St. Marys, St. Clair, Niagara and St. Lawrence Rivers 129 27. Diagram showing the rate of Maximum Flood Discharge of certain American and European Rivers 135 28. Relations between Depth of Rainfall and Run-Off for each month. . . 141 29. Diagram showing Relation of Mean Monthly Stream Flow and Mean Monthly Rainfall on Rock River Watershed 142 30. Run-Off Diagram of Hudson and Genessee Rivers 144 31. Run-Off Diagram of Muskingum River 145 32. Run-Off Diagram of Passaic River 147 33. Mean Annual Variation in the Water Levels of the Great Lakes 163 34. Variation of Annual Means in the Water Levels of the Great Lakes. . 166 35. Monthly Mean Water Levels of the Great Lakes 165 CONTENTS— Continued. ILLUSTRATIONS. DIAGRAM PAGE 36 and 37. Comparison of Mean Vertical Velocity Curves 171 38. Reproduction of Record of U. S. L. S., p. No. 5; head of St. Clair River 173 39. Characteristics of St. Clair River from Ft. Gratiot Lt. -house to dis- charge section 176 40. Cross-section and Curves of equal Velocity at Section Dry Dock 177 41. Reproduction of Records of Self-Registering Gauges on St. Clair River 178 42. Current Velocities at Section Dry Dock 179 43. Pulsations of Current at Section Dry Dock, across Stream 180 44. Pulsations of Current at Section Dry Dock, parallel current 181 45. The Ice Season, Basin of the Great Lakes and surrounding territory. . 185 46. Local variations in the ice season 189 MAPS. MAP NO. PAGE 1. General Geological Map of the United States 47 2. Archean Land of North America 50 3. Cambrian Age in the Upper Mississippi Valley 5l 4. Silurian Age in the Upper Mississippi Valley 58 5. Niagara Period in the Upper Mississippi Valley 60 6. Carboniferous Period in the Upper Mississippi Valley 62 7. General Geological Map of the Upper Mississippi Valley 65 8. Mean axes of formation and dip of strata in the Upper Mississippi Valley 68 9. First Glacial Epoch in the Upper Mississippi Valley 71 10. Second Glacial Epoch in the Upper Mississippi Valley 73 11. Recession of the Glaciers •. 75 12. Pleistocene Map of the United States 83 13. Hypsometric Map of the United States 91 14. Map showing the Annual Distribution of Rainfall 95 15. Map of Annual Distribution of Evaporation in the United States 113 16. Map of Annual Distribution of Run-Off in the United States 119 17. Approximate Map of Artesian Areas of the United States 155 18. River Systems of the United States 161 19. Hydrographic Map of the St. Clair River 175 XI HYDROLOGY. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION. i. Hydrology. — The fundamental basis of all hydraulic engineering problems is Hydrology — the science of water. Hydrology in its broadest extent treats of the properties, laws and phenomena of water, of its physical, chemical and physi- ological relations, of its distribution and occurrence over the earth's surface and within the geological strata, and of its sanitary, agricultural and commercial relations. The subject may be considered under several heads : First. Descriptive Hydrography, treats of the oceans, lakes, rivers, and other waters, with special reference to their relations to sanitation and their use for agriculture, naviga- tion and commerce. Second. Hydrogeology, treats of the geology of water, and includes that part of geological science which has to do with the relation of water occurring on or within the structure of the earth, and its relations to the earth's structure. Third. Hydrometeorology, treats of the science of me- teorology, with special relation to the water in the atmos- phere, its precipitation and evaporation, and the relations of these factors to the structural condition of the earth's surface. Fourth. Hydrometry, treats of the measurement of waters. Fifth. Hydromechanics, is that branch of mechanics which treats of the laws of equilibrium and motion of water or other fluids. Sixth. Hydraulic Engineering, includes those branches of engineering practice which have to do with the design and construction of structures and works for the utilization and control of water for the use and benefit of mankind. 2 Introduction 2. Necessity for General Knowledge of Hydrology. — At least a limited understanding of hydrological principles is prerequisite to the successful solution of the simplest prob- lems in hydraulic engineering. For the purpose of investi- gating the more complicated problems a more detailed knowl- edge of this science is essential, and the more extended the knowledge of this subject, the greater the assurance of the successful solution of all such problems. A knowledge of construction, which, for hydraulic en- gineering purposes, must include a knowledge of hydrome- chanics, has been sometimes considered all that is essential for the success of hydraulic works. Hydrography, hydrogeology, and hydrometeorology have been frequently neglected, and the result has often been sta- ble construction but practical failure in the ultimate object which it was intended to achieve. Each essential feature in the design of any engineering work must be understood, and the importance of each feature must be carefully considered and thoroughly appreciated in order to achieve the greatest measure of success. 3. Failures Due to Lack of Hydrological Knowledge. — Failures more or less serious have resulted, from the neglect to investigate the primary hydrological conditions, and to ap- preciate the importance of fundamental hydrological knowl- edge, in almost every branch of hydraulic engineering. Water power installations have been built without sufficient knowl- edge of the regime of the stream on which their success de- pended, with resulting failures more or less serious. Public water supply systems have been designed and constructed to utilize supplies of water which have later been found much too limited for the purpose for which they were intended to be utilized, and expensive changes in the works have thus been made necessary; or such works have been constructed in locations where the supplies have afterwards been found to be polluted and undesirable, with similar ex- pensive results. Cities have been founded in needlessly exposed positions, and left unprotected, or so poorly protected as to be subject to Variation in Hydrological Phenomena 3 great financial damage and loss of life from floods.* Exten- sive damages have also been caused to farm and agricultural communities from similar causes. Great losses have been sustained, property ruined, and unsanitary conditions created by the overflow of storm water from sewers and drains of improper design. Dams and reser- voirs have washed out because of the insufficient provision of spillways, or insufficient knowledge of the underlying geo- logical strata and of its improper protection.** Bridges have been destroyed, and adjacent property flooded and damaged because of the provision of insufficient waterways. Large and needless expenditures have been made for irrigation pro- jects, where insufficient supplies of water were obtainable. Many of these unfortunate results have been due to the lack of investigation, and of a thorough understanding of the fun- damental knowledge, which it is the province of hydrology to discuss. 4. Variations in Hydrological Phenomena. — Much of the fundamental data which must be considered in these problems is exceedingly variable, much more so, in fact, than the ordi- nary observer would suspect. It is a common idea that taking the season through, the average rainfall is practically the same for each year, and the cursory observer is apt to draw similar conclusions in regard to the annual flow of streams. Ex- tended observations will show that such is not the case, and that these phenomena vary almost as widely as many of the meteoric phenomena, on which to a considerable extent, they depend. The uncertainty of many meteoric phenomena is pro- verbial. The great variation in the character of the season throughout a period of years is very marked. The irregularity in the occurrence of rain and snow, of storms and sunshine, is * Report on the Protection of the City of Elmira, N. Y., against Floods. By F. Collingwood. Report Feb. 12th, 1890. Prevention of Floods in Stoney Brook. Boston City Document, No. 159, p. 89. The Lesson of Galveston. W. J. McGee. Nat. Geo. Mag., Oct., 1900. Destructive Flood in the U. S. in 1903. E. C. Murphy. Water Supply Paper No. 96. ** Johnstown Flood. See Eng. News, June 1st, 8th, 15th and 22nd, July 13th and August 17th, 1889. The Austin Dam. Prof. T. U. Taylor. Water Supply Paper No. 40. 4 Introduction a matter of common observation. The observer is therefore naturally led to expect that other phenomena, dependent largely or partially on meteoric conditions will be subject to a similar variation, and be equally uncertain. A few casual observations, in which these great varia- tions are seen, might lead to the belief that meteoric phenom- ena follow no law, or at least follow laws so complicated and involved as to be hopelessly obscure. They might also lead the observer to the conclusion that no ascertainable relation existed between the rainfall and stream flow, or between other inter-dependent hydrological phenomena. Accurate and continuous observations, however, show that while great variations exist, they are limited in character and extent, and that the mutual relations between the various factors of hydrology and meteorology, while complicated, are nevertheless fixed, and by extended observation can be ren- dered sufficiently determinate to enable valuable deductions to be based on them. 5. Factors of Safety in Engineering Work. — In all en- gineering work the lack of exact information, as to the actual conditions which will prevail, and which will influence the character and usefulness of a structure during its life, requires that, in order to provide for unforeseen contingencies, a factor of safety shall be used, and the structure is made much stronger than the average condition would apparently make necessary. If in many hydraulic problems a similar factor were considered, it would be seen that the probable inaccura- cies are much less than in many other engineering works, and although there is much chance for improved designs, and much need of extended observations and research, yet the applied science of hydraulic engineering is, in exactness, fully abreast with most other branches of engineering. 6. Fundamental Laws Fixed. — While the fundamental laws of hydrology are unchanging, the factors which control its phenomena are so numerous that they result in wide varia- tions in the relation of similar phenomena in different locali- ties. As with all physical phenomena, similar causes, when acting under similar conditions, produce similar results, but Purpose of Study 5 the causes, and the varying conditions under which they act, must be carefully investigated and thoroughly understood, in order that the result may be rightly anticipated. With the great variation in the circumstance of occurrence, it is there- fore unsafe to apply data obtained from one locality, under one set of conditions, without modifications, to an entirely different locality -with radically different conditions, and ex- pect similar results. 7. Complexity of Factors. — The geological, topograph- ical and meteorological conditions often vary, to a consider- able extent, with every degree of latitude or longitude, or even with less extended differences in locality, and each loca- tion has, therefore, to a limited extent, laws unto itself, which must be investigated and determined before correct conclu- sions can be drawn. There are, however, geographical limits, where similar physiographical and climatic conditions prevail, and where hydrological conditions are so similar that conclu- sions based on the data of one locality, can be applied, with only slight modifications, to other localities within such lim- its. If this were not the case, a science of hydrology would be impossible. 8. Purpose of Study. — It is particularly to the study of these geographical limits, as well as to the study of the laws and relations of hydrological phenomena, that attention should be given. For this reason it is the purpose of these notes to outline, First. The study of general physiographic features of the earth, and their general hydrographic relations. Second. The study, in a more specific way, of the physio- graphical and hydrological conditions of the United States. And, Third. The study, in greater detail, of the hydrology of certain localities, where certain important laws are perhaps best exemplified. It is the further purpose of these notes to emphasize more particularly the most desirable lines for hydrological study, and the necessary or desirable direction and extent of hydro- logical investigations, and to give such references as shall in- 6 Introduction dicate the work which has been already done in this field, and the sources from which available information and detailed data may be obtained. LITERATURE. The most important literature relating to Hydrology will be found in the publications of the United States Geological Survey. It is contained in the Annual Reports, Bulletins, Professional Papers and Water Supply and Irriga- tion Papers; also in the Annual Reports of the Reclamation Service. The Bulletins and Monthly Weather Review of the United States Weather Bureau also contain much of value on this subject. Much special information is also contained in the Annual Reports of the Chief Engineer of the U. S. Army, The Annual Reports of the Mississippi River Commission, and in numerous special Reports to Congress. Detailed reference to the principal publications will be found under the special chapter to which the subject matter of these publications more espe- cially refer. CHAPTER II. WATER. 9. Water. — Water was considered to be an element or primary form of matter until about 1783, when the fact of its composition was determined by the experiments of Watt, Cavendish and Lavoisier.* Water occurs in nature in solid, liquid and gaseous form, within a range of ordinarily observed temperatures. There are four critical temperatures for water, viz.: 32 F., or o° C, at which pure water freezes or solidifies under one atmosphere pressure. 39.2 F., or 4 C, which is the approximate point of maxi- mum density of pure water. 62 F., or 16.67° C., which is the British Standard temper- ature. 212 F., or ioo° C, which is the boiling point of pure water under one atmosphere pressure. 62° F. is the temperature of water used as a basis in cal- culating the specific gravity of bodies in England and Amer- ica. Water is never found in nature in a chemically pure state on account of its high solving and transporting properties, but always contains other forms of matter, to a greater or less de- gree, either in a state of solution or suspension. 10. Density of Water. — The density of water, or its rela- tive weight and volume, depends on its purity and tempera- ture. The relative density, expansion and weight of water at various temperatures is shown in Table 1. * See James Watt and the Discovery of the Composition of Water, by Prof. T. E. Thorpe. Sci. Am. Sup. No. 1179, Aug. 6th, 1898. Water TABLE 1. TABLE OF DENSITY, EXPANSION AND WEIGHT OF PURE WATER AT VARIOUS TEMPERATURES. TEMPERATURE RELATIVE WEIGHT IN POUNDS c F. VOLUME DENSITY PER CUBIC FOOT PER U. S. GALLON 10 14.0 1.00185 .998146 62.279 ^.8.3357 ■* 8.3275 9 15.8 1.00163 .998371 62.293 < 8 17.6 1.00137 .998628 62.310 8.3297 7 19.4 1.00114 .998865 62.324 8.3316 6 21.2 1.00092 .999082 62.338 8.3333 5 23.0 1.00070 .999302 62.352 8.3353 4 24.8 1.00056 .999437 62.360 8.3364 3 26.6 1.00042 .999577 62.369 8.3375 2 28.4 1.00031 .999692 62.376 8.3385 1 30.2 1.00021 .999786 62.382 8.3394 32. 1.00012 .999877 62.389 8.3401 1 33.8 1.00007 .999930 62.392 8.3405 2 35.6 1.00003 .999969 62.394 8.3407 3 37.4 1.00001 .999992 62.395 8.3409 4 39.2 1.00000 1.000000 62.396 8.3411 5 41. 1.00001 .999994 62.397 8.3409 6 42.8 1.00003 .999973 62.394 8.3407 7 44.6 1.00006 .999939 62.393 8.3406 8 46.4 1.00011 .999890 62.389 8.3402 9 48.2 1.00017 .999829 62.384 8.3399 10 50. 1.00025 .999753 62.380 8.3390 11 51.8 1.00034 .999664 62.375 8.3383 12 53.6 1.00044 .999562 62.368 8.3374 13 55.4 1.00055 .999449 62.362 8.3365 14 57.2 1.00068 .999322 62.354 8.3354 15 59. 1.00082 .999183 62.345 8.3342 16 60.8 1.00097 .999032 62.336 8.3330 16.67 62. 1.001078 .9989232 62.329 8.3322 17 62.6 1.00113 .998869 62.326 8.3317 18 64.4 1.00131 .998695 62.315 8.3302 19 66.2 1.00149 .998509 62.304 8.3287 20 68. 1.00169 .998312 62.291 8.3270 21 69.8 1.00190 .998104 62.278 8.3253 22 71.6 , 1.00212 .997886 62.265 8.3234 23 73.4 1.00235 .997657 62.250 8.3215 24 75.2 1.00259 .997419 62.235 8.3196 25 77. 1.00284 .997170 62.220 8.3174 26 78.8 1.00310 .996912 62.204 8.3153 27 80.6 1.00337 .996664 62.186 8.3130 28 82.4 1.00365 .996367 62.169 8.3107 29 84.2 1.00393 .996082 62.151 8.3083 30 86. 1.00423 .995786 62.132 8.3058 35 95. 1.00583 .994170 62.032 8.2933 40 104. 1.00765 .99235 61.919 8.2773 45 113. 1.00967 .99034 61.792 8.2605 50 122. 1.01189 .98811 61.654 8.2419 55 131. 1.01423 .98578 61.508 8.2224 60 140. 1.01671 .98329 61.353 8.2017 65 149. 1.01943 .98057 61.183 8.1790 70 158. 1.02237 .97763 61.000 8.1544. 75 167. 1.02547 .97453 60.807 8.1287 80 176. 1.02871 .97129 60.605 8.1016 85 185. 1.03202 .96798 60.398 8.0740 90 194. 1.03552 .96448 60.180 8.0448 95 203. 1.03922 .96078 59.949 8.0141 100 212. 1.04311 .95689 59.705 7.8981 120 248. 1.05992 .94008 58.657 7.8412 140 284. 1.07949 .92051 57.436 7.6781 160 320. 1.10149 .89851 56.063 7.4i>46 180 356. 1.12678 .87322 54.485 7.8838 200 392. 1.15899 .84101 52.476 7.0149 Expansion of Water 9 This table is partially derived from Kopp's Table, with interpolations by Oldberg.* The figures for density and ex- pansion below zero ° C. are from determinations by M. Des- pretz, and those at temperatures above the boiling point are from experiments by Hirn. 11. Expansion of Water. — The determinations of the ex- pansion of water at various temperatures by various observers is given in Table 2, which is taken from a paper by Alex Mor- ton.** The differences in these observations are due to the per- sonal errors to which all such observations are subject. Morton offers a formula, based on the mean value of these various determinations (See Column eleven, Table 2), from which formula Column twelve in this table is calculated. This formula, arranged for Fah. degrees, is as follows: a t + b t 2 + c t 4 V= T=the absolute temperature measured from 461.2° F. below o° F. t=the temperature measured from that of maximum density 39.2 F. V=the volume of water — the volume at maximum den- sity being equal to 1.0000. Constants. a=o.2863 b— °-57 2 6 c=o.ooooo269i3 The expansion of water, and the relative weights of one cubic foot at various temperatures, based on this formula, are shown graphically in Diagram I. * See Weights and Measures, Oldberg, page 163 ; also the Density of Water at different temperatures, A. F. Nagle; Vol. 13, Trans. Am. Soc. M. E., page 396. ** On the Expansion of Water, Alex. Morton. Van Nostrand's Eng. Mag., p. 436, Vol. 7. 10 «-5 Water SH«^«2©©©w^fri©©^©^cocooo'rrt>:r-cs wo OOOOOOOOOO' ©© ©© COiC5©0O»-i©COi~< C! CI i(5 * (N o « m iHN(N(NMCOCO'*l ooooo-oco ^ 2 £2 3»ON(N«O00O»»-r;ococo<>j©t^© »2;£©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©T-lr-ii-l -• CO^d «T l>. Ot-< 22222S©©©©°©©©©oo©©©©o©©©©i-< OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO^OOOOOOO uO©©»ftx*<©(NiOt>.© i-HeciONCi-ir»oeo © C0C5Oi0C000 c HI 3 09 o < cd — C5 CO I- © © CO I— © ■" co vji to i~© -h _ © © © © © 1-H ©©©©©©©©©©©©©©OS©©©©.© '«IMHOOOOOOCH« '©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©i-lT-t '©©©©©©©©©©©©- r~- t- ■n © io © i-H sj co © COOlNriCOHOSH -* •* « O W iC OCi (5 CJ5 C l» O C t-I "»< ■ *-©o©©©©©rtCM-*r-cieot^©t^oCT-iot>-oo ■COCOOOOOOOOOOi-(H'MC0'*tDN»H 'OOCOOOOOOOOCOOCOOOOOOrt ©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©© O5C0CaC.HCl!N-*J'NCiWl>il-"O CO o t- a r» o « » •» H ■OOCOOOOOHr-HINMTiOi.OH 1"»«(MiOOOiM^OC<5 ■©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©i-l nT-HOMNCOCOCOrti ©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©© ©©o©©©©©©© t^©©©i-t©"*:N»jo©- •JJOCMCOHCUI^S-UC'JOOWfNi . •HOCOOOOCrtM-iHl--OC(;L»05C*iMt>NC» •OOOCOOOOOOOOrtH' " l>N35 1(Ot»C>H ©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©' _ .coceotoooo •«1.C5OQCi- 00 CO CO © GO rH -H (M CO - as cn i^. co © OOOOOHnnNM'JKCN ©-.©co©©CM«©eo HHfN(N'M'NCO«'H-< ©©©©©©©©©© CO©THCO©©©i-<©t>.l>-©©t^©©©©CN-CO©©©'M©©Tj.eO©<3i ■ > -t©©©©©©©r-fC4-'*©©co©*o©GO?-i©«x>co ■©©©©©CO©©©©©© iH t-< CM CO t* CD t>- © »H •©©©©©©©©©©©©©©©■©©©©©©iH ©©©©©©O© ©■© ©©©©©©©©©©©© .»^iOC0'M'M<»tH»OC^»O ffJiHNNNOINMWH _ CII-»1i«»NOm(Nii CO ■*tCOJ(NiOOONiOOC3 © rtHrtlNJNNMCOCO^ ©©©©©©©©©© ° H O©C^C0'«f©C0©'*'M©00©'<*'©©eNC0rf»©C^^©C0 l©©COt-©iO'*COCe© towcr»i»«x«C5a50 Weight of Water n DIAGRAM I. EXPANSION CURVE Or PURE WATER 62. 3 62. 1 WEIGHT OF 61. 60. .i.i. A i 53. 1 3UB IC FOOT OF PURE. WATER. IN POUNDS. TO. 57. 56. 55. 54. 59. 1,1.1.1.1.1. Vt£- EMPE UATU IOO# iE OF 3TE> URE. kM — - — "^P --TB MPER S< *TUR :or s ITCA £. 1 h HJ £6 * 1 U to* a. fc3 5 tit' < »H y | 22 i UJ KM* -TB MPE IATU RE < F CO NDCF issr WAT =R so- — f I EAT TC MPEI JATCI RE 62* 1 =AR. - PO NT i >F M *XIN IUM DEN S1TY 33. >ta ^. I -FR EEZ NO poir T' o- 190* \60" 170* 160* 150* «40' 150" 90' 60° 70* 0) u y 60* a 50° y 40» ^° 20' 10° io: ° 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 105 109 110 III 112 115 114 115 116 PERCENTAGE OF EXPANSION. 12. Weight of Water.— The determination of the weight of water is also subject to similar errors of observation. Determination of the weight of pure water by various observers are shown in Table 3. The maximum variation in these weights is inconsider- able, and usually of little practical importance, being only about .05 of one per cent. 12 Water For ordinary hydraulic computations the small impor- tance of such difrerences becomes more obvious when we consider the great variation in the weight of water, as ordi- narily encountered by the engineer, and which is caused by matter in solution and suspension. These factors are often unknown and usually neglected in actual practice. Variations of one or two per cent, are usually of little importance in practical work, but may become so under some conditions. TABLE 3. WEIGHTS OF WATER, ACCORDING TO VARIOUS OBSERVERS. Authority Weight of a cubic inch at 62° Fah. in grains Weight per cubic ft. at 62° Fah. Weight per cubic ft. at 39°. 2 Fah. W. J. M. Rankin 252.595 62.355 62.425 Act of Parliament 225.458 62.322 62.388 H. J. Cheney 252.286 62.279 62.440 English Board of Trade 62.2786 62.348 F. A. P. Barnard * 252.488 62.329 62.396 13. Units of - Measurement. — Water may be measured in many units. The equivalents of the principal ones which are liable to be encountered or used in the practice of the en- gineer, are given in Table 4. EQUIVALENT MEASURES AND WEIGHTS OF WATER AT 4° CENTIGRADE— 39.2° FAHRENHEIT. u. s. Gallons Imperial Gallons Liters Cubic Meters Pounds Cubic Feet Cubic Inches Circular Inch 1 Foot Long 1 .83321 3.7853 .0037853 8.34112 .13368 231 24.5096 1.20017 1 4.54303 .004543 10.0108 .160439 277.274 29.4116 .264179 .22012 1 .001 2.20355 .035316 61.0254 6.4754 264.179 220.117 1000 1 2203.55 35.31563 61025.4 6475.44 .119888 .099892 .453813 .0004538 1 .0160266 27.694 2.9411 7.48055 6.23287 28.3161 .0283161 62.3961 1 1728 183.346 .00435i9 .003607 .0163866 .0000164 .0361089 .0006787 1 .10613 .0408 .034 .1544306 .0001544 .340008 .005454 9.4224 1 * F. A. P. Barnard, "The Metric System," Boston, 1879, p. 174. Specific Gravity of Natural Waters *3 m GO < c»0 fl co.£ eo is £3 w: : : : : : >> m © r-J >> >> ^ >>£ o >=® ® r? ©ft > g| |=l gs 6 .00. 02 ° dt3 ©...-.. oq . .: +j •« s b -P „«*& ® PS •g ^ra © * ©73 P © n3 d £ j*ta ceEeoto- 3 3 *^ g rt^ ^®J3^ ,*•£] J3S .S3 mm © £2 ©. rd 2rV «©2.g OOrrj c3 ^3 +s a be©: E^CiE^OiCOt^LO-^COaO CM I> 1-1 tH CJ HN CO t> ift i-H 01 00 l>- CO ira CO CO CO CO NNNNN^Com in 13 co iAC35cocoo5-*coioco co-*-*ot~cocoeQ'-raeo cncococococococo^tico co ■«* co eo eo eo -*f eo 00 eo no 10 1> t- i-s !> co co 00 co eo co co co co co co co co co 06 000606000006060000 06 00 os 00 ci o 06 00 06 06 00000600000000000000 8 3£&&S£388 Q o!33>o; co Y-ieoc->eo ooscsntooi >co>ft 00 1 i-H CO -# ©J 00 00 GC £- N cocoeococococo-itico CO CO CO co cId CO CO CO CO co CO CO fc- CO CO J>- cId CD CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO S2 -* OOHOHHC Sill; bl© 1 ft ftHHH <]} • «© © © ©>. £ a •* „J3 cc t» w fl a ,- ta 73^5 © h fn n * Sm ' © e9 co c3 o 43 ft © co g be ® s ^ P O eo CO © © go (« £ fl o £ Cj) CO a p 2 2 *P3 ^ P„cio : St!*©, -S® : d5S-S§.^o 'o-3a©?« w ^-gcofi^^© 2o,a'S«o.J3 : « © © 14 Water 14. Specific Gravity of Waters. — As water takes into solution various substances with which it comes in contact, or when it carries in suspension large quantities of foreign mat- ter, its relative weight is materially increased. In Table 5 are given the relative specific gravities and weights of various natural waters. 15. Relation of Mineral Matter to Specific Gravity of Water. — The effect of varying amounts of mineral matter on the specific gravity of water is graphically shown in Diagram 2/ SPECIFIC GRAVITY Or SOLUTIONS. 180 10 eo 30 40 50 60 PERCENTAGE OF SALT IN SOLUTION * R. K. Mead, Chemists' Pocket Manual. Solution 1 5 These curves are each drawn for a particular tempera- ture, but the temperature is not uniform for all curves. The temperature for which each curve is drawn is as follows : Calcium nitrate 17.5 C. Calcium chloride 18.3 C. Chrome alum I 7-5° C. Ferrous sulphate 15. C. Magnesium chloride 24. C. Potassium carbonate 15. C. Sodium carbonate 23. C. Sodium chloride 15. C. Sodium nitrate 25.2 C. 16. Weight of Natural Water. — From Table 5, it will be noted that, under ordinary conditions, the waters of springs and rivers will weigh between 62.3 and 62.5 lbs. per cubic foot, depending upon the amount of impurities and on the temperature of the water. The waters of some mineral springs are found to weigh as high as 63.3 lbs. per cubic foot, sea water reaches 64 lbs. per cubic foot, and the water of the Dead Sea reaches 73 lbs. per cubic foot. For ordinary com- putations, therefore, 62.4 or 62.5 lbs. per cubic foot may be used. 62.5 is sometimes a convenient number for a compu- tation as it equals 1000 ounces avoirdupois. 17. Solution. — All natural waters however free from visible impurities, contain in solution more or less of the vari- ous substances which they have encountered in their natural history, and which, under ordinary circumstances, may be solid, liquid, or gaseous.* The laws governing the solution of solids are as follows : First, the quantity of a solid which may be dis- solved by a liquid is fixed and limited, and is always the same at the same temperature. Second, a liquid saturated by the solution of one solid is capable of dissolving another. Third, the solubility of a solid increases with the temperature. * See Water Supply. William Ripley Nichols. Introductory Chapter, p. 16. i6 Water There are, however, some exceptions to the third law, as will be noted by reference to Diagram 4. Diagram 3 and Diagram 4 are graphical representation of the relative solubility of various salts at different temperatures. DIAGRAM 3. CURVES Or SOLUBILITY DEGREES FAHRENHEIT 50° 66° 66° »04* \ZT 140 176' 194* Z 12° 10° £0° 50 40* 50* €0* 7a* 60* 30* »00* DEGREES CENTIGRADE. Solution of Gases DIAGRAM 4. CURVES OP SOLUBILITY OP SLIGHTLY SOLUBLE SALTS. 17 DEGPEE5 6d* 36* 104 FAHRENHEIT. 122° 140° 153* 176* 212 1 I0O" DEGREES CENTIGRADE. 18. Solution of Gases. — The solution of gases, where no chemical reaction takes place, is subject to the following laws : First, at a given temperature and pressure a liquid will always dissolve the same quantity of gas. Second, the volume of gas dissolved is in propor- tion to the atmospheric pressure. Third, Mixed gases are dissolved as though each gas were separate. 18 Water Rain water always contains in solution a certain amount of the natural gases of the atmosphere, which are, however, dissolved, not in proportion to their occurrence in the atmos- phere, but more nearly to the solubilities of the gases. In artesian water oxygen is seldom present. Spring and ground waters are usually deficient in oxygen. Deep waters and waters of springs which have been under pressure carry in solution larger percentages of carbonic acid gas than normal waters. TABLE 6. GASES CARRIED IN SOLUTIOIv BY VARIOUS SPRING AND ARTESIAN WATERS, CUBIC INCHES PER GALLON. t a bo >> 8 P o *< ■gSg Authority O fc o >> Albany, N. Y. (Artesian Well) 184.00 Wm. Mead Balston, N. Y. (Lithia Spring) 426.11 F. Chandler Avon, N. Y. (Sulphur Spring) .97 3.88 22.04 27.63 H. M. Baker Saratoga,N.Y.(ColumbiaSpg.) 272.06 John H. Steele Bedford, Va. (Spring) 1.32 3.33 6.98 Wm. Gilham Salt Sulphur Spring, W. Va. 34.56 19.12 D. Stuart Athens, Ga. (Helicon Spring) 3.12 10.98 5.97 H. C. White Talladega Spring, Alabama 82.00 W. C. Stubbs Blue Lick Spring, Ky. 60.11 10.24 J.F.Judge&A.Fennel Versailles, 111. (Magnetic Spg.) 24.00 G. A. Mariner Alpena, Mich. ( M Well) .24 8.40 35.36 S. P. Driffield Lansing, Mich. " " 235.55 Dr. Jennings Ems. Germany, (Springs) 117.81 Carlsbad, Bohemia (Springs) 134.98 The quantity of dissolved gases in a water affords, to some extent, a measure of its natural history, and also of its sanitary condition. The following is the analysis of the Thames River, England, by Professor Miller, and shows the cubic centimeters of dissolved gases per litre.* Location Carbonic Acid Gas Oxygen Nitrogen Kingston 30.3 45.2 55.6 48.3 7.4 4.1 1.5 .25 .25 15 15.1 16.2 15.4 14.5 Hammersmith .... Somerset House Greenwich Woolwich ♦See Parkes Manual of Practical Hygiene. Vol. 1, P. 7*. Solution of Gases 19 The above shows how the dissolved gases vary as the waters become contam- inated, the carbonic acid gas increasing, the oxygen diminishing, the nitrogen remaining stationary. The same result is seen in the following analysis of the dissolved oxygen of the Seine above and below Paris, given in cubic centimeters per litre.* Corbeil (above Paris) 9. 32 Antenil (below the city, but above the sewer outlets) 5.99 Epinay, (below all sewers) 1 .05 Point de Passy, (47 kilometers from last place named)... . 6. 12 Mantes (31 kilometers from above) 8.96 Verccon, (41 kilometers from above) 10.40 The percentages of solution of various gases at various temperatures, as determined by Bunsen and Carius, is shown in Table 7. TABLE 7. Tempera- ture. Oxygen. Nitrogen, Air. Carbonic Acid. Hydrogen. Ammonia. 0*04114 0-02035 0*02471 17967 0*01930 1049*6 J 0*04007 0-01981 0-02406 1-7207 IO208 2 0*03907 0*01932 0-02345 1*6481 993*3 3 0*03810 0*01884 0*02287 1*5787 967-0 4 0*03717 0*01838 O-O2237 I-5I26 941-9 5 0-03628 0*01794 0*02I79 1 '4497 9179 6 0*03544 0*01752 0-02I28 i'390l 895-0 7 0*03465 0-01713 0*02o8o i'3339 873*1 8 0*03389 0-01675 0*02034 1-2809 852-1 9 0-033I7 0-01640 COI992 1-2311 832-0 10 0*03250 0*01607 0*01953 1-1847 812-8 11 0*03189 0*01577 o*oigi6 1-1416 794"3 12 0*03133 0*01549 0*01882 i*ioi8 7763 13 0*03082 0*01523 0-01851 ! -0653 7596 M 0-03034 0*OI500 0-01822 1-0321 743' 1 15 0*02989 0*01478 0*01795 I -0020 »» 727-2 16 0*02949 0*01458 0-01771 1-9753 711*8 17 0*02914 0*01441 0*01750 0*9519 »» 696-9 18 0*02884 5*01426 001732 0-9319 682*3 19 0-02858 0*01413 0*01717 0*9150 »» 668 -o 20 0*02838 COI403 0*01704 0*9014 •» 654*0 19. Condition of Mixed Solutions. — The presence of cer- tain substances in solution sometimes modify the solving qual- ities of a liquid in regard to other substances. Carbonic acid gas has a marked action in increasing the solubility of certain salts, as shown by Table 8. ♦See Nichols' Water Supply, P. 61. 20 Water TABLE 8. PER CENT. OF SOLUBILITY OF SALTS IN WATERS UNDER VARIOUS CONDITIONS. Pure Water, at 32° P. Carbonated Water Pure Water, at 212° P. Insoluble at Carbonate of Lime Sulphate of Lime Carbonate of Magnesia Phosphate of Lime Oxide of Iron .0016 .2 .0182 .67 •67 .075 .0016 .22 .0104 302° F. 302° F. 212° F. 212° F. 20. Effects of Solution on Boiling Point. — The solution of a salt affects the boiling point of the water in which it is con- tained. This increases with the degree of saturation. The freezing temperature, and temperature of maximum density also change with the degree of saturation. TABLE 9. BOILING POINT OF WATER WITH VARIOUS PROPORTIONS OF SODIUM CHLORIDE IN SOLUTION. Degrees F. Degrees C. Pure Water, 212 100 with 5 per cent. Na. CI. 214.7 101.5 10 ■■ " 217.4 103. IS 220.3 104.6 20 •■ " 223.3 106.3 25 " " 226.2 107.9 The boiling point of various saturated solutions as de- termined by M. LeGrand, is shown in Table io. Boiling Point 21 TABLE IO. Boiling Point of Saturated Saline Solutions Name of salt Weight of salt per 100 of water. Boiling-point. Degrees C. Sodium chloride Potassium chloride Calcium chloride ........ Ammonium chloride Barium chloride Strontium chloride Sodium nitrate . Ammonium nitrate Calcium nitrate ........ Sodium carbonate Potassium carbonate . Sodium phosphate Potassium chlorate 4 l-2 59*4 325-0 88-g 6o*i "7*5 224*8 2-0 362-0 48*5 205-0 II2-6 61-5 108*4 108-3 179-5 114-2 104-4 117-8 I2I-0 180-0 151-0 104-6 1350 106-6 104-2 The boiling point of water, as well as the other critical temperatures, varies with the barometric pressure, increasing as the pressure increases, and decreasing as the pressure de- creases. Table 11 shows the boiling point of pure water corre- sponding to barometric pressure and altitude above sea level. TABLE I I. BOILING-POINT OF WATER CORRESPONDING TO BAROMETRIC PRESSURE AND ALTITUDE ABOVE THE SEA-LEVEL. Boiling-point Barometer Altitude Feet Boiling-point Barometer Altitude Feet F\ c°. Inches mm. F°. C°. Inches mm. 184 84.4 16.79 426.5 15221 200 93.3 23.59 599.2 6304 185 85.0 17.16 436.0 14649 201 93.8 24.08 611.6 5764 186 85.5 17.54 445.5 14075 202 94.4 24.58 624.3 5225 187 86 1 17.93 455.4 13498 203 95.0 25.08 637.0 4697 188 86.6 18.32 465.3 12934 204 95.5 25.59 650.0 4169 189 87.2 18.72 475.6 12367 205 96.1 26.11 663.2 3642 190 87.7 19.13 486.0 11799 206 96.6 26.64 676.7 3115 191 88.3 19.54 496.3 11243 207 97.2 27.18 690.4 2589 192 88.8 19.96 507.0 10685 208 97.7 27.73 704.3 2063 193 89.4 20.39 517.9 10127 209 98.3 28.29 718.6 1539 194 90.0 20.82 528.8 9579 210 98.8 28.85 752.8 1025 195 90.5 21.26 540.0 9031 211 99.4 29.42 747.3 512 196 91.1 21.71 551.3 8481 212 100.0 30.0 762.0 sea 197 91.6 22.17 563.1 7932 below sea level level 198 92.2 22.64 575.0 7381 213 100.5 30.59 777.0 -512 199 92.7 23 . 1 1 587.0 6843 22 Water 21. Suspension. — Suspension differs materially from solu- tion. In suspension, the substance still retains its physical identity, although it may be held in an exceedingly finely divided state, and thus be carried in suspension for indefinite periods. Water at rest soon deposits the heavier particles carried in suspension, but when in motion, is capable of transporting large amounts of material. This fact is well shown by Table 12, which is from experiments on different types of Ohio River water at Cincinnati.* TABLE 12. Subsidence of Suspended Matter in Quiescent Waters Periods of Subsidence— Hours. Suspended Matter in Parts Per Million. Type I. Type II. Per Cent Removed. Type I. Type II. 1 3 6 12 24 48 72 2333 932 653 396 350 300 259 210 186 205 81 80 79 73 61 44 36 31 60 72 83 85 87 89 91 *92 55 56 56 58 63 67 70 72 In this table Type I is said to be characteristic of the Ohio River water during the earlier stages of a heavy freshet, when the water carries in suspension large quantities of silt and fairly coarse clay. Type 2 is characteristic of the water during the latter stages of the rise, when the matter in suspension is finer. The average amount of sediment carried in suspension by large rivers is shown in Table 13.** * Report on Water Purification, Cincinnati, 1899, page 107. **C. C. Babb, Science, 1893, Vol. XXI, p. 343; also Eng. News, 1893, p. 109. Suspension TABLE 13. 23 DISCHARGE AND SEDIMENT OF LARGE RIVERS. River Drainage area, square miles Mean annual discharge, second feet SEDIMENT Total annual tons Ratio by weight Depth over drainage area, in. Potomac 11,043 1,214,000 30,000 150,000 34,800 27,100 320,300 1,100,000 125,000 20,160 610,000 1,700 150,000 65,850 62,200 315,200 113,000 475,000 5,557,250 406,250,000 3,830,000 14,782,500 36,000,000 67,000,000 108,000,000 54,000,000 291,430,000 1:3575 1:1500 1:291 1:10,000 1:1775 1:900 1 :2880 1 :2050 1:1610 .00433 .002S3 .00110 .00085 .01071 .01139 .00354 .00042 .02005 Mississippi Fio Grande Uruguay Rhone Po Danube Nile Irrawaddy Table 14 gives the average amount of matter carried in solution by various rivers in the United States.* TABLE 14. AVERAGE AMOUNTS OF MATTER CARRIED IN SUS- PENSION BY VARIOUS RIVER WATERS. Parts per million. Merrimac River at Lawrence.... 10 Hudson River at Albany 15 Allegheny River at Pittsburg 50 Potomac River at Washington .... 80 Ohio River at Cincinnati 230 Ohio River at Louisville 350 Mississippi River at St. Louis Water Works intake 1200 Mississippi River at New Orleans. 650 22. Relation of River Flow to Sediment. — Table 15 shows the amount of silt in suspension in the Rio Grande * See Report of. the Water Supply of the City of St. Louis, 1902, p. 21. 24 Water River at El Paso in 1889-90, and its relation to the volume of flow, as determined by the U. S. Geo. Survey.*' TABLE 15. Silt in the Rio Grande at El Paso. [Estimates by months.] Month. June July December . . 1890. January ... February . . . March April May June July August • . Sediment ratios. •00468 •00201 •00813 •00613 •00585 •00347 •00196 •00131 •00710 Average discharge. Sec. feet. 2,638 237 71 196 290 424 2,190 5,771 4,404 854 734 Weight of water. Pounds. 165,000 14,810 4,440 12,250 18, 130 26.500 136,900 360,680 275,250 53,375 45,875 Sediment per second. Pounds. 772 2 36-2 65*5 162 6 794-6 ,248-5 539-5 70 325*7 Sediment per month. Tons. ,000,570 39,800 48,380 48,500 79,200 217,700 ,029,800 ,671,700 699,200 93,730 436,100 The relation of river height to the quantity of sediment carried by the Mississippi River at New Orleans is shown on Diagram 5.** 23. Density and Pressure. — Water is found to be reduced in volume about .00005 parts by an increase of a pressure of one atmosphere.* ** The amount of this reduction is shown in the following table : TABLE 16. REDUCTION IN VOLUME OF WATER UNDER PRESSURE. 500 lbs. per sq. in. .00144= 2.488 cubic inches per cubic ft. 750 lbs. per sq. in. .00216= 3.732 cubic inches per cubic ft. 1000 lbs. per sq. in. .00288= 5.565 cubic inches per cubic ft. 1500 lbs. per sq. in. .005 = 7.464 cubic inches per cubic ft. 2000 lbs. per sq. in. .00644=11.128 cubic inches per cubic ft. 4000 lbs. per sq. in. .01288=22.256 cubic inches per cubic ft. 6000 lbs. per sq. in. .01932=33.386 cubic inches per cubic ft. 24. Ice. — Critical temperature 32° Fah., weight of ice about 57J/2 lbs. per cubic foot. Submergence of floating ice 11/12 of its mass in pure water, and in sea water above 8/9. "* Eleventh Annual Report U. S. Geo. Survey, Part 2, Irrigation, p. 57. ** Report of Water Purification and Investigation, New Orleans, 1903, P- 34- *** Bulletin U. S. G. S. No. 92. The Compressibility of Liquids, p. 78. Suspension 25 DIAGRAM 5. RELATIVE GAUGE HEIGHT AND MATTER IN SUSPENSION IN MISSISSIPPI RIVER AT NEW ORLEANS. LA. 26 Water 25. Aqueous Vapor. — Vaporization takes place from water surfaces at all temperatures, and is independent of the presence of air except as the air and its circulation retards or assists vaporization. The laws of the mixture of gases and vapors are as follows: First, the weight of vapor that will enter a given space is the same whether the space be empty or filled with gas. Second, when a space filled with gas is saturated with vapor, the tension or weight of the mixture is the sum of the tension or weight of the gas and vapor separately at the tem- perature of the mixture. DIAGRAM 6. WEIGHT Or AIR AND SATURATED AQUEOUS VAPOR GRAINS PER CUBIC FOOT 210 2flO 3S0 420 560 05 M £>S ,06 POUNDS PER CUBIC FOOT. Aqueous Vapor 27 Table 17 shows the tension or weight of saturated aqueous vapor, air, and a mixture of the two at different temperatures. The same relations are also shown graphically on Diagram 6. TABLE 17. WEIGHTS OF AIR, AQUEOUS VAPOR, And Saturated Mixtures of Air and Vapor at Different Temperatures, Under the Ordinary Atmospheric Pressure of 29.921 Inches of Mercury. Tempera- ture Degrees Fahr. Weight of cubic ft. of Dry Air at Differ- ent Tem- Elastic Force of Vapor Inches of MIXTURES OF AIR SATURATED WITH VAPOR. Elastic Force of the Air in Mixture of Air and Vapor Weight of Cubic Foot of the Mixture of Air and Vapor "Weight Weight Total Weight of Mixture, Lbs. peratures, Lbs. Mercury Inches of Mercury of the Air, Lbs. of the Vapor, Lbs. .0864 .044 29.877 .0863 .000079 .086379 12 .0842 .074 29.849 .0840 .000130 .084130 22 .0824 .118 29.803 .0821 .000202 .082302 32 .0807 .181 29.740 .0802 .000304 .080504 42 .0791 .267 29.654 .0784 .000440 .078840 52 .0776 .388 29.533 .0766 .000627 .077227 62 .0761 .556 29.365 .0747 .000881 .075581 72 .0747 .785 29.136 .0727 .001221 .073921 82 .0733 1,092 28.829 .0706 .001667 .072267 92 .0720 1,501 28.420 .0684 002250 .070717 102 .0707 2,036 27.885 .0659 .002997 .068897 112 .0694 2,731 27 . 190 .0631 .003946 .067046 122 .0682 3,621 26.300 .0599 .005142 .065042 132 .0671 4,752 25.169 .0564 .006639 .063039 142 .0660 6,165 23.756 .0524 .008473 .060873 152 .0649 7,930 21.991 .0477 .010716 .058416 162 .0638 10,099 19.822 .0423 .013415 .055715 172 .0628 12,758 17.163 .0360 .016682 .052682 182 .0618 15,960 13.961 .0288 .020536 .049336 192 .0609 19,828 10.093 .0205 .025142 .045642 202 .0600 24,450 5.471 .0109 .030545 .041445 212 .0591 29,921 0.000 .0000 .036820 .036820 28 Water The relation of pressure, temperature and volume of a pound of confined steam is shown in Diagram 7. DIAGRAM 7. 150 ORY SA1 rURATED STEAM VOLUME AND 'RESSURES OF STEAM. 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Latent Heat of Water. — To transform ice, water and vapor or steam from one state to the other, it is only necessary to extract or supply a certain quantity of heat energy -460° Fah. is the absolute zero of temperature. A graphical diagram showing the quantity of heat and the resulting temperatures as water changes from solid to liquid, and from liquid to vapor, is shown on Diagram No. 8.* DIAGRAM 8. RELATIONS OF HEAT ENERGY IN WATER. M r d if 1E LTT S / 111 4 lu Ml ELT & / Id * b < / r^ 3 / i 1 f - WW ^ (0 UJ ■ 1540° T" 4 ^ 2 % / • 1340- W z / r ^ 1340 ^ ieoo- / .5 £ ,e °° r/j 4 r c II ^1 / t > f Jf b J H i / 4 f i *i / y / SI ft - 74Q« fft I 4 / 7 y y^ « A f z / > h w .H IlJ ,00 °" / i *// f If / m . hJ ir 4 / r / ty v " °^° Q Ux > /< • 2ia° \J) OOO" Id I ^ -OZERO Ly lli goo- *8r .— 260* Q -— 480* O EOO 4< HEAT IN K> 600 OOO >>■ 2 ESSS! NEOCENE 8 §~e3eocenb 4 r.'.\'.'.1 CBETACB»US 5 E^ JUBA-TRIASSIC 1 6 ES3 carboniferous' 7 E3223 DEVONIAN 8 g— SILURIAN >. 9 K-: :-:«h cambrian 10 CSZ3ALGONKIAN 1 1 LW.VJ AHCHEAN 18 ESS IGNEOUS Map No. I 05° 93° 91* 4 8 Hydro- Geology TABLE 23. Table of Geological Formations of the United States, together with .those represented in the upper mississippi v alley. The numbers are those used in Macfarlane's American Geological Railway Guide. Age. Group U. S. Formations. Upper Mississippi Valley Formations. Approxi- mate: Thickness. Onozoic. [20] Quaternary. 20 Recent. pod] Alluvium. 2oc] Loess. '2ob] Clay and sandy. [2 oaj Boulder clay. Feet. to 400 [19] Tertiary. 19c Pliocene. 19b Miocene. 19a Eocene. No representative. 1 [18] Cretacious. l«c Upper Cretacious. 18b Middle 18a Lower " No representative. [17] Jurassic. 17 Jurassic. No representative. [16] Triassic. 16 Triassic. No representative. Paleozoic. [13-15] Carboniferous. 15 Permo-Carboniferous. No representative. MB Upper Coal Measures. Upper Coal Measures. 600 to 1,200 14A Lower Coal Meas'res. 14Ab Lower Coal Meas'rs. 14Aa Millstone Grit. 13 Sub-Carboniferous. 13e Chester Group. 13d St. Louis " 13c Keokuk '.' 13b Burlington limestone 13a Kinderbook Group. 500 to 800 50 " 200 100 " 150 25 " 200 100 " 150 [8-12] Devonian. 12 Catskill. 11 Chemung. No representative. i0 Hamilton. 10 Black Slate lOt 70 9 Coroiferous. 9 Devonian limestone. 10 to 120 8 Oriskany. 8b Oriskany sandstone. Clear Creek limestone. 40 to 60 300 " 500 [3-7] Silurian. 5-7 Upper Silurian. 7 Lower Hclderberg. 5 Niagara limestone. CO 50 to 300 3-4 Lower Silurian. 4b Cincinnati or Hudson River Group. 4a Trenton Group. 3b St. Peter sandstone. 100 to 250 200 " 4'Hl 50 " 250 [2] Cambrian. 2c Calciferous. 2c Lower Maguesian or Oneta limestone. SJ to 825 2b Potsdam. 2b Potsdam of St. Croix. 100 to 1,800 A zoic. [l] Archean. 2a Keweenian. 2a Keweeuian. to 45,000 lb Huron ian. lb Huronian or Algon- cian. to 13,000 la Laurentinn, la Laurentinn. (!) ; The Upper Mississippi Valley 49 particular locality should be made. This will enable the gen- eral features of geological structure to be more clearly under- stood than would be possible with the discussion of the larger area of the United States, where, with the multitude of details, the general principles are likely to be obscured. For this purpose, the Valley of the Upper Mississippi River has been selected, and in the investigation of the geo- logical history of this territory it should be understood that it is but a representative of conditions, largely similar, which have occurred in all portions of this country and of other lands, all of which have had a corresponding geological history, more or less varied, but in a general way controlled by similar laws, and which have resulted in similar general conditions, more or less modified in detail as the controlling factors have dif- fered in their nature and extent. At the beginning of the formation of the sedimentary strata, the archean land was probably quite limited in extent in comparison with the present exposed continental areas. Its approximate boundaries, as far as known, and within the pres- ent area of North America, are shown in Map No. 2. On this map is also shown the limits of the area of the Upper Missis- sippi Valley now under discussion. 48. The Upper Mississippi Valley. — The Upper Mis- sissippi Valley, together with much adjoining territory, con- sisting of the Lake Michigan and Lake Superior basins and the valley of the Red River of the north, had a common geo- logical origin and history, and, at a comparatively recent geological period, a common drainage system, all their waters emptying through various channels into the Mississippi River and thence into the Gulf of Mexico, until subsequent geological changes so modified the topography as to produce the present drainage systems. The territory here considered comprises the greater por- tion of Illinois, Iowa, Wisconsin and Minnesota, and a small portion of North-eastern Missouri and North-western Indiana, and embraces within its area much of the richest farming country of the United States — a country largely settled, and having numerous thriving and growing communities. In the 5o Hydro-Geology MAP No. 2. APPROXIMATE MAP OF KNOWN ARCHEAN LAND IN NORTH AMERICA Archean Land MAP No. 3. 5i Section along the line A B Potsdam forming Potsdam forming CAMBRIAN AGE — Potsdam Deposits forming in Cambrian and Superior Seas. 52 Hydro-Geology north are forests of pine, and rich mines of iron and copper, while in the south are valuable deposits of bituminous coal and fire clay. Deposits of valuable building stone are found throughout its extent. It contains all the resources necessary for a rich and populous manufacturing and agricultural de- velopment. 49. Archean Land. — This territory is shown, on a larger scale, on Map No. 3. On this map is also shown the approxi- mate exposure of the archean deposits during the earlier part of the Cambrian period. This entire region is supposed to be underlain by archean rocks of unknown thickness, which, as far as our knowledge goes, may be regarded as the base rock or foundation on which rests the later sedimentary deposits. The archean rocks of this area may be divided into periods defined by indications of a certain sequence in their origin and method of deposition. The earliest are the Laurentian rocks, consisting of granites, syenites, and allied rocks. Of a later origin are the Huronian or Algonkian deposits, which consist of crystalline magnesium limestone, quartzite, slates and schists, and contain also the iron ores of Minnesota, Wis- consin and Michigan. Next in order came the rocks of the Keweenawan period, consisting of sedimentary rocks, sand- stones, conglomerates, and shales, with eruptive rocks con- taining the copper deposits of the Lake Superior region. Many of these rocks are flexed, folded, tilted and meta- morphosed, showing evidence of upheaval and depression of the earth's crust of great magnitude and extent. With the exception of the eruptive rocks, most of the above show evi- dence of sedimentary origin, indicating their derivation from a still more remote source, and that they are not themselves a portion of the original crust of the earth. 50. The Potsdam Formation. — Since the beginning of geological history, the same agencies that are now wearing away the land surface and filling up the sea, have been at work, aided or hindered by the variations in climate which have marked the passage of time. The rains, with their dis- solved gases, soften and wear the surface of the rocks. Taking up the soluble portions, they decompose and disintegrate the The Potsdam Formation 53 most lasting rocks. The sea, working at the coast line, tum- bles the rocks into the surf, there to grind them into sand and pebbles, which again aid in the degradation of the adjacent land. Although the amount of this wear from day to day- seems small, yet the accumulated work of these agencies, operating through the ages, has sufficed to pull down conti- nents and to build up deposits, which, being elevated by up- heavals of the crust, have formed new stretches of land sur- face, and these in their turn have been disintegrated and destroyed to form new and later deposits. By these agencies the Archean deposits which reared their heads above the Cam- brian Sea were worn and disintegrated, and being carried by torrential floods into the sea, formed the vast beds of Potsdam sandstone which underlie all of this area expect that small portion where the Archean rocks still show their outcrop above the surrounding deposits. During this age the principal part of the area was under the sea, which throughout Wisconsin was comparatively shal- low and contained many quartzite islands of the Huronian formation, which yet rear their heads above the Potsdam outcrop. This Potsdam deposit consists mostly of sandstone derived from the broken quartz grains of the decomposed granites and allied rocks. These deposits, close to the Archean land, consist of coarse quartzose sand rock, very open and porous in its nature, and free from the iron, lime and clay, which, in the higher strata, are found associated with it. The Cambrian Sea held in its depths some of the earliest forms of animal life. Myriads of small shellfish, the remains of which may be seen in many of the Potsdam outcrops, inhabited its waters. Although commonly spoken of as a single geological stratum, the Potsdam is by no means homogeneous in texture throughout. During its formation a vast period of time elapsed, very many disturbances occurred, and the circum- stances of deposition of the different portions of the stratum varied greatly. These variations were almost or quite as great as those that marked the changes to subsequent geological ages. 54 Hydro-Geology The evidence of this, in portions of Wisconsin, is so marked that Prof. T. C. Chamberlain has classed the Potsdam strata of Central and Eastern Wisconsin in the following sub- divisions : SUB-DIVISIONS OF POTSDAM DEPOSIT. Feet. Sandstone (Madison) 35 Limestone shale and sandstone (Mendota) 60 Sandstone, calcareous 155 Bluish shale, calcareous 80 Sandstone, slightly calcareous 160 Very coarse sandstone, non-calcareous 280 Total 770 The thicknesses given are subject to wide variation. As a rule they thin out quite rapidly in Wisconsin northward from Madison, and increase in thickness to the southward into Illinois. Prof. W. H. Winchell notes a somewhat similar classifi- cation in Minnesota. In a deep well drilled in East Minneap- olis he found the following series of Potsdam rocks. (See Geology of Minnesota, Vol. II, p. 279.) SECTION OF ARTESIAN WELL, EAST MINNE- APOLIS. _ . Feet. Sand (Drift) 42 Blue limestone, Trenton 28 White sandstone, St. Peter's 164 Red limestone, lower magnesian 102 Gray limestone, lower magnesian 16 Potsdam : White limestone, Jordan 116 Blue shale, St. Lawrence limestone 128 White sandstone, Desbach 82 Blue shale 170 Sandy limestone 9 White sandstone 130 Sandy marl, Hinkley 8 The Potsdam Formation 55 White sandstone 79 Red marl 57 Red sandstone 290 1069 1421 Although the classification into these sub-divisions is warranted by well-defined beds around Madison, Wis., in east- ern Wisconsin and in Minnesota, yet, owing to the thinning out or disappearance of these strata or by the multiplication of sub-divisions, the local variations are so great that in many places it is impossible to classify the strata found, under any general classification except the general name, Potsdam; for the limits of this formation, as a whole, are well and clearly defined. Further examples of the Potsdam stratification will show more clearly its variations. The following section of the Potsdam strata at Hudson, Wis., given by Prof. Chamber- lain illustrates this variation. (See Geology of Wisconsin, Vol. IV, p. 113.) Section of Potsdam Strata at Hudson, Wis. 20 feet coarse, incoherent, red or white quartzose sand. 3 " buff calcareous layer with shaly layer of green sand. 2 " compact brown calcareous sandstone. 2 " brownish-white sandstone. 8 '■ incompact while sandstone. 2 " brownish-white sandstone. 8 " incompact white sandstone. 12£ " white to buff sandstone. 8 " white to buff sandstone, stained with iron. 12£ " yellowish-brown sandstone, in mottled layers. 3 h " buff friable sandstone, effervesces slightly. It) " incoherent sandstone. 27 " shaly sandstone, effervesces slightly. 9 " compact light buff sandstone, effervesces briskly. 5 " dark brown sandstone. 10 " dark brown rock, containing much calcareous material. 8 " shades into strata above and below. 17 " dark green shale. 10 " dark buff sandstone. 5 " buff calcareous sandstone. 5 " green shale. 5 " mottled shale. 13 " light brown to white sandstone. 2 " friable shale. 10 " white sandstone. 3 " green and white sandstone. 15 " friable light buff and yellowish sandstone. 10 " white sandstone. 245* 56 Hydro- Geology Other sections encountered in Illinois, are as follows : At Streatcr. Drift Coal measures Trenton limestone St. Peter sandstone Lower magnesian limestone . Potsdam : "White sandstone White limestone ..... White sandstone. Dark gray limestone . . . Fine reddish sandstone . . Dark gray limestone . . . White and brown sand . . Gray limestone White and brown sandstone Blue shale ...... Dark limestone Variegated sandstone . . . Soft limestone ..... Variegated shales ... Dark red sandstone . . . . Blue shale. • • Bluish drab and huff limest. Totat depth in Potsdam . . . Total depth . . . Feet . 30 . 211 203 . 225 . 90 133 211 37 50 15 13 1 18 168 100 73 187 60 158 80 50 383 1737 2496 At Rockford. Drift Trenton limestone .... St. Peter sandstone . . . . Lower magnesian limestone Potsdam: Green sandstone .... Red sandy shale .... Gray sandstonel . . Blue shale Gray sandstone Red sandstone White sandstone . . . Red shale White sandstone . . Red shale White sandstone . . . Red shale White sandstone .... Red shale White sandstone .... Gray sandstone Yellow sandstone .... Red shaly sandstone . . White sandstone .... Red shale White sandstone .... Feet . 125 . 30 . 225 . 105 5 .72 148 25 40 25 335 2 13 2 13 1 9 20 80 45 20 105 90 275 171 Total depth in Potsdam . Total depth . 1486 19S At Ottawa, 111. Feet Drift 35 St. Peter sandstone 130 Lower magnesian limestone 145 Potsdam : Sandstone no Free limestone 175 Sandstone 260 Blue shale 120 Hard sharp sandstone. . . . 100 Sandstone 115 Shale 360 Sandstone 290 Total depth in Potsdam 1530 Total depth 1840 At Joliet, 111. Feet Niagara limestone 230 Hudson River shale 68 Trenton limestone 334 St. Peter sandstone 217 Red shale 40 Lower magnesian limestone 450 Potsdam : Sharp sandstone 175 Blue shale 50 Sandy limestone 125 Shale 230 Sandstone 150 Total depth in Potsdam 730 Total depth 2066 The Lower Magnesious Limestone 57 As indicated in the foregoing tables, the Potsdam varies greatly in its character throughout its extent, not only from shale and limestone to sandstone, but also in the character of the sandstone, which is mostly fine-grained, but becomes coarse-grained in its lower strata, and passes into a conglom- erate near its margin, the shore of the ancient Archean land. As may be understood from its physical character, it readily transmits the water which it receives at its outcrop, either from rains or from the numerous streams which flow over its ex- posed surface, the extent of which may be judged from the maps. The outcrops of the Potsdam occupy about 14,000 square miles in central Wisconsin, extending in a cresent- shaped tract around the Archean outcrop. 51. The Lower Magnesian or Oneota Limestone. — While the variation in the circumstances attending its deposition caused considerable differences in the various strata of which the Potsdam deposits are composed, a more radical variation gave rise to a still more remarkable change in the formation, and the lower magnesian limestone resulted. This formation is a dolomitic limestone, coarse, irregular in stratification, often inter-stratified with shale or sandstone layers and lime- stone breccia, which last, occurring in clusters or heaps, often gives the upper surface a billowy appearance and causes it to vary greatly in thickness. The variation in thickness seems to be more marked in Wisconsin than elsewhere. Although undoubtedly cracked and fissured to some ex- tent, it seems to be in general free from these disturbances and to offer a quite uniform and homogeneous mass to prevent the upward passage of the waters contained in the Potsdam stratum below it. This stratum is found from 65 to 260 feet thick through Wisconsin and is from 105 feet to 170 feet thick in northern Illinois. It seems to thicken quite rapidly to the southward, and is found to be 490 feet thick at Joliet 500 feet thick at Streator and 811 feet thick at Rock Island. A flow of water, which may be derived from the underlying Potsdam sandstone, is sometimes found in the softer portions of this stratum. 58 Hydro- Geology MAP No. 4. Section along the line ABC B Silurian Sea £ Arehean ^ As Aw /V ^ •S ^ *> *S St. Peter forming Lower Magttetiatv St. Peter f owning Beginning of Silurian Age. St. Peter Sandstone forming in the Sea. The St. Peter Sandstone 59 52. The St. Peter Sandstone. — Above the lower magne- sian limestone lies a remarkably uniform quartzose sandstone. It is uniform in material and thickness, and quite covers all the irregularities in the surface of the underlying limestone, ex- cept at some points in Wisconsin where it is entirely pinched out; the Trenton limestone lying directly on the lower mag- nesian limestone. The average thickness of the St. Peter sand- stone throughout the territory under discussion is probably about 150 feet, although in Wisconsin Prof. T. C. Chamber- lain estimates its average thickness as only about 80 feet. This deposit is supposed to have been formed in a shallow sea by the decomposition of the Archean and Potsdam rocks. The hypothetical condition of the Upper Mississippi Valley during the formation of the deposit is shown in Map No. 4. No fossils have been found in this rock, and its formation marked an epoch probably unfavorable to the existence of life. This stratum has an outcrop of about 2,000 square miles in Wisconsin, and also crops out at several points in Illinois along a line of upheaval which passes southwesterly from Stephenson County to the vicinity of La Salle, bringing the St. Peter to the surface along the Rock River at Oregon and Grand Detour, and along the Illinois River from La. Salle to Ottawa. The lower magnesian limestone is also brought to the surface at Utica by this uplift. The St. Peter sandstone is an important water-bearing stratum, although its outcrop is so low that the pressure of its water is usually much less than the water of the Potsdam. 53. Trenton Age. — Although apparently no life existed during the formation of the St. Peter sandstone, yet conditions favorable to the existence of life again returned, accompanied by geographic changes in the relation between the sea and the land, and extensive beds of limestone were again deposited. These constituted the limestones of the Trenton group, which may be divided into various substrata more or less distinct in character. Of these the Galena limestone is, perhaps, the best known, but for the purpose of this paper the Trenton may be considered as a whole, inasmuch as its general character is ap- proximately uniform. 6o Hydro-Geology MAP No. 5 Niagara Period. Niagara Deposits forming in Interior Sea. The Carboniferous Age 61 54. The Cincinnati or Hudson River Formation. — Fur- ther change in the conditions of deposition gave rise to turbid floods of more or less intermittent and local occurrence. These again altered the character of the deposit, and the Cincinnati or Hudson River shale resulted. This consists of clay shale interbedded with more or less limestone. 55. The Niagara Formation. — The Cincinnati formation was followed by the limestone deposits of the Niagara period, which are divisible into strata of more or less local importance. This deposit occurs at surface outcrops at different points in the valley , and embraces the Joliet, Lemont, Naperville, Wau- kesha and Anamosa limestones. A general idea of the sup- posed extent of the land in the Upper Mississippi Valley during the formation of the Niagara limestone is shown in Map No. 5, which illustrates also the gradual elevation and extension of the land surface. 56. The Devonian Formation. — Over the Niagara forma- tion were deposited the rocks of the Devonian period, consist- ing of limestone rocks of no great interest in this discussion. At this time a large portion of the area under considera- tion had been elevated above the sea, and the last remaining series of indurated deposits which we shall here consider was in this area more limited in extent than any which preceded it. 57. The Carboniferous Age. — The carboniferous age which followed is illustrated by Map No. 6, which shows the further recession of the sea and the consequent limitation of the strata then under process of formation. This age ushered in an epoch of life very different from any which had preceded it. Its deposits were comparatively local in character, and although they have in a general way been correlated, yet there is a greater variation in these strata than in those of any preceding deposits. Especially is this true in those of the coal measures proper. These deposits seem to have been made in shallow seas, lakes or swamps of limited extent, rather than in a broad and deep sea such as those in which most of the preceding deposits had been formed. Hence, great local variations are observable and the strata have commonly a much more limited geographic extent. This 62 Hydro- Geology MAP No. 6. Section along the line A B lancer JUagnetion St. Peter Carboniferotia form i ng Carboniferous Period. Carboniferous Deposits forming in the Shallow Interior Sea. General Characteristics of the Strata 63 age witnessed the formation of extensive beds of limestone, sandstone, shales and coal. 58. General Characteristics of the Strata. — It should be understood that lines of exact demarkation seldom exist be- tween the various strata. One stratum usually passes gradu- ally into another. Changes in the controlling influence which modified the deposition were usually not radical and they only obtained gradually. Thus, in passing from sandstone to limestone, the upper strata of the sandstone will usually be found somewhat calcareous and the lower strata of the lime- stone somewhat silicious. A like condition applies to the character of a stratum as varying throughout its geographic extent. The conditions at one point may have been such as to favor the formation of limestone deposits, while those at a point more or less remote may, during the same period, have been favorable to the forma- tion of shale. We thus find widely different strata belonging to the same age. Hence a stratum may within a short distance merge from a sandstone into a limestone, from a limestone into a shale, or the reverse, or from a coarse-grained stone to a fine and more impervious one. Or a stratum may even have been entirely lost by reason of a local elevation which raised che sea bed at that point above the sea level, thus preventing deposits, or by the existence of local ocean currents which might accomplish the same result. The more widespread the conditions controlling deposition, the more uniform is the character of a stratum throughout its extent. The character of the rock deposit which we may encounter in drilling is often highly problematic, and it is only by an extended examination of facts as they have been found to exist, and by their careful correlation, that we may arrive at conclusions as to what we must expect in new and untried localities. The farther the point in question lies from those where the character of the sub-strata is known, the greater is the uncertainty respect- ing it. 59. Original Extent of Strata. — The original extent of the various strata of the district under consideration was much greater than the present geological map of the region would f».;i Mix* lj * i « !W * ! ' J i 5 5 - is h Jj -> ' n J 11110lllQillDIII 66 Hydro-Geology indicate. Hundreds of feet of strata have been disintegrated and eroded by drainage waters. The Hudson River shale, while now encircling Central Wisconsin and Central Northern Illinois as a narrow belt (See Map No. 7), undoubtedly once covered a much greater area, as did the strata of the Niagara group. The section through Elk Mound shows the present geological condition, while the prolongation of the limiting lines of the strata would show their probable original extent. 60. Deformation. — It must also be understood that the strata, although originally deposited as more or less uniform sheets, each overlying the strata below, do not exist in this uniform condition at present; for many disturbances, caused by upheavals and depressions in the crust, have opened cracks and fissures and have caused relative displacements of the strata, amounting in some cases to hundreds of feet. The principal axes of disturbance in this area are shown on Map No. 8. The extent of the cracks and fissures caused by these disturbances of the strata may be judged by a visit to any quarry. Their existence largely modifies the hydrological con- ditions of the various strata, frequently permitting the passage of the waters from one stratum to those below or above, and in the latter case, giving rise to springs. 61. Slope. — The underlying Archean rocks slope down- ward in all directions from their outcrop in the extreme north- ern portion of this valley, being about 2,000 feet above sea level at their highest outcrop, and perhaps fully as much below sea level at their lowest point. As a rule, the super-incumbent strata follow this general slope. The Potsdam strata, how- ever, thicken rapidly to the southward, as does the lower mag- nesian above it, so that the higher strata have not as great a rate of inclination as the dip of the Archean rocks would indicate. The north-and-south section accompanying Map No. 7, and the section shown on Diagram 9, illustrates these remarks, and shows, moreover, that the surface follows the general dip of the strata at present, as it has done through all past geo- logical ages; the outcrops of the older geological deposits being found at the higher elevations. In traveling from the Slope 6 7 ni. xanor vaofcdv Noeiovw aoviaod — Al« NI7N0SCW \ «iA» •apjqs ijBuapato jo iaAia'aospnH •bjbSbi^ •UBTaoAaa; •snoiaj -tuoqjBD-qng •sojusBara IBOD J3.tt01 •(.Cbjo paB 18.VBJ2 'puns 'raBOi) yrij pAa[B9S9AOqB I[9AV jo do} JO OOIJBA8I3 OOOO O O 1ft CftO mow a o -*< © oo ^"^-Tf-T-4" cm" cm" -** cm" >00 CMCM 00 i -if CO© CM i eo ao cm cm © o> CO $ 2 W »— i-l IC i-H H« 00 CO NH^N ;r "* § CM CO © o o © *S ■8 IO uN CO 1 O CO lO r« ,1 CM ICO © o ^ oo ao cm o 00 © i» co tH CM CM i Cft K5 00 O : r» t^- CO CO CM CM CO co « o t~ v- Cft S 8 t» t- © © IS 2? 5 ri J J »i a T3 a S3 c4 ^ OS .-. U 4) u S o>2 -is .«ss ©.2 Sac S fa I f 6 * Hydrological Conditions 85 © 3 C C o o I 10 d -i a < o W CZ2 M O as -J 55 CO CO p co © 1-3 CO « w H ft O 55 O ^ « Si w 3 - •qjdap i^jox •UBaqoiv" aaojspavg uiBpsjoj •aaojsamn aB JS -ouSeui j'aM.0T[ •guoispaus •aojuwx •eaapjo •apjqs Tjuuupato jo i9Aja nospnH •BJtfSl3l& •auiaoAOd •snoiaj -uioq-itjo-qng •S0JnSB9OT IU09 J9AV01 •(.Cup put; {3atm9 'pubs 'mco[) yua [9A9( t?9S OAOqB ip.wjo do; jo uonBAOjg eo o lOCMMO CN KJOMNOI ' QO O to CI to 00 tH O TT ■<* -3* I0T 99* 9 r >3 Map No. 13 St -*■' 69* ~ 87* 85* 83* 8f 79* IV 75° 73' 71° G9P 67° 6S »»•-— ^JBI* — 88° 87 83" ar 73" ?* c ~ i- 3 • ** 92 Physiography of the United States 73. Climatic Subdivisions. — Certain subdivisions of these physiographic regions correspond more or less closely with the climatic subdivisions of the United States, which have been adopted by the United States Weather Bureau, as fol- lows : New England States. Middle Atlantic States. South Atlantic States. Lower Lake Region. Upper Lake Region. Ohio Valley and Tennessee. Eastern Gulf. Western Gulf. Upper Mississippi Valley. Missouri Valley. Extreme North-west. Northern Slope. Middle Slope. Southern Slope. Southern Plateau. Middle Plateau. Northern Plateau. Northern Pacific. Middle Pacific. Southern Pacific. (Waldo, Meteorology, pp. 317-363 inclusive.) See Map No. 13, Showing General Elevation of the United States. LITERATURE. National Geographic Monographs. American Book Co. R. S. Tarr, Elementary Physical Geography. Maximillian & Co. W. M. Davis, Physical Geography. Ginn & Co., 1901. T. H. Huxley, Physiography. Maximillian & Co. J. W. Redway, Elementary Physical Geography. Chas. Scribner & Sons. C. R. Dreyer, Lessons in Physical Geography. American Book Co. I. C. Russell, North America. Appleton & Co. N. S. Shaler, Nature and Man in America. Scribner's Sons. J. D. Whitney, The United States, 2 Vols. Little, Brown & Co. United States Geological Survey, Annual Reports, Monographs and Bulletins. I. C. Russell, Rivers of North America. Putnam's Sons. G. K. Gilbert, Topographical Features of Lake Shores. 5th An. Report, U. S. G. S., p. 75- C. A. White, Geology and Physiography of a portion of Northwestern Colorado. 9th Am. Report, U. S. G. S., p. 683. C. W. Hayes, Phynography of the Chattanooga District in Tennessee. Georgia and Alabama. 17th An. Report. U. S. G. S., Part II, p. t. 93 CHAPTER VII. RAINFALL OF THE UNITED STATES. 74. Influence of Rainfall. — The quantity of water flow- ing in the streams or strata, and the amount available for navigation, water power, agriculture, water supply, or other uses, depends primarily on the rainfall. The important fac- tors in most cases are : First, the quantity of rainfall. Second, its distribution throughout the year, and Third, its disposal. 75. Quantity and Distribution of Rainfall. — The annual quantity of rainfall throughout the United States varies greatly at different points, as will be seen from Map No. 14, which shows the distribution of the average annual rainfall throughout the United States. From this map it will be noted that "from the great plains westward the lines of equal rain- fall are, approximately, north and south. In the Southern States, east of Texas, they are approximately parallel to the Gulf coast. In the Eastern States they are approximately parallel to the Atlantic coast. In the Lake region, while they approach parallelism to the parallels of latitude, yet there are some variations, evidently due to the effects of these great bodies of fresh water and their temperature at different sea- sons of the year. In the vicinity of Cape Hatteras and on the Peninsula of Florida other influences come into play, modify- ing the direction of the lines of equal rainfall. Cape Hatteras is the point of highest rainfall along the Atlantic coast, due, undoubtedly, to the seasonal winds which pass at sea and reach, more or less, this prominent point. On the Peninsula of Florida we approach the tropical region and approximate the laws of tropical rainfall. East of the ninety-fifth meridian the rainfall decreases as the latitude increases. West of that the general topography of the continent causes the lines to run north and south. 129* 127* 125° iar 119* 117' IM* 113° HI* 109* 107* 105* 103' 10P 99' io»* ioi* io? tor tor I Map No. 14 05' 93* 9V 89° 8V 83' 81* 79* 77* 75* 73* 71° C9" 67° 65° OS.' 93" 9V 88* 87* W 63 96 Rainfall of the United States "In general the rainfall decreases also with the elevation above sea level. This is very noticeable in passing along, for instance, the parallel of latitude 40°. The annual rainfall on the coast in New Jersey ranges from 40 to 50 inches. As we pass westward we come to the area where the rainfall is about 40 inches. This rainfall continues along the parallel until the vicinity of the Mississippi River is reached, when it decreases with the comparatively rapid ascent of the slope to the great plains. By the time Kansas is reached the annual rainfall has fallen to 30 inches ; in western Kansas it is only 20 inches, and in passing the boundary of western Kansas we pass the an- nual rainfall line of 15 inches. On the Pacific slope the phe- nomena are more complex, because of the prevailing winds and the more rapid ascent from sea level in the region of the Sierra Nevadas."* Beside the general distribution of rainfall shown on the map, it is important to note the effects of mountain ranges on the rainfall. This is best seen on the Pacific coast, where it will be noted that the western winds, laden with moisture from the Pacific, are cooled by contact with the mountains. which cause a heavy rainfall on the windward side of the range, while the rainfall on the leeward side is much below the average. 76. Variations in Annual Rainfall. — Great variations take place in the annual rainfall of every locality. Sometimes the rainfall of a locality will average considerably below the mean for a term of years, and then will average considerably above the mean for possibly a somewhat similar term. As a general rule, however, there is no great regularity or uni- formity in the annual variations, but the rainfall exceeds or falls below the mean in a seemingly lawless manner. The variation in annual rainfall at various selected sta- tions in the United States is shown on diagram No. 10, on which is also indicated the mean for each station. From this diagram the annual variation and the relation of such varia- tion to the mean are clearly shown. * Bulletin C, Weather Bureau, page 13. Variations in Annual Rainfall DIAGRAM IO VARIATION IN ANNUAL RAINFALL AT VARIOUS LOCALITIES. IN THE UNITED STATES. 97 CO 8 e ip e 8 e • OB O a a f nn 1111 mi- hi.; m mi III! mi 1111 in. J Ann rniiini 11 HI III III n if 11. ■s.n IT Iflll 20 -II 10 11 Willi, llllilii I'lllll! 'I-H"ii lillllil II ill muni muni : Ill ll< III lilMN Tliill 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 lllllll r 1; i J «o ^ BO £ - — SO Ct 10 ■ ST. LOUIS. MO. r 1 ■ mmmmvmwm rPITTST LEAVENWORTH, KAN. SAN FRANCISCO, CAL IO =™r=- jTTiinFi n nit SAN DIE 00. CAL 1 ■ .* *fi 98 Rainfall of the United States Some idea of the limiting conditions, and the average re- lations of extremely dry and extremely wet periods can also be determined from this diagram. 77. Periodic Variation in Rainfall. — The maximum and minimum monthly rainfall occurs at each locality at fairly definite periods. The climatic conditions are, in a general way, fairly constant, and as the cycle of seasons change, they produce conditions favorable or unfavorable to the precipita- tion of rain. These vary largely from year to year, but have, nevertheless, the same general character. Diagrams n and 12 show typical annual fluctuations of the rainfall for various months in the year at a number of places throughout the United States. More extended types of the monthly distribution of precipitation in the United States is shown on Diagram 13. 78. Relative Importance of Rainfall Data. — As far as the influence on stream flow, and the engineering problems di- rectly connected therewith is concerned, the periods of win- ter and spring rains are the most important, while for agri- cultural purposes the rains of most importance are the rains of the spring and summer. Averages of rainfall are only of general interest. For the detailed consideration of hydrological study, the actual vari- ation in yearly rainfall, and the actual distribution throughout the various years is of greatest importance. The question of the frequency of occurrence of periods of extreme rainfall, and the rate of rainfall for such periods are matters of importance in both engineering and agricul- ture. If rain commonly occurs at times when most needed, and under conditions where it can be best utilized, it becomes of great value; whereas its occurrence at the wrong season, and under unfavorable conditions, may make it of no value, or of positive detriment. For agricultural purposes, light rains at frequent inter- vals are much to be preferred to heavy and extended rains, for in the former case much of the moisture will be directly .' t, Periodic Variations in Rainfall DIAGRAM I I 99 TYPICAL ANNUAL- FLUCTUATION OF RAINFALL ATLANTIC COAST. t< ui 5 a < a ^3 m o u NEW ORLEANS NORFOLK BOSTON UACKSONVI 6T.U>UIS- ST.PAUe^ HI6SI93IPPI VAU-CY. 3* OOCd J> jjj* M([L>g 5 * B 5 a < ; j 5 fi r 5 2 L.E Lofa 100 Rainfall of the United States DIAGRAM 12 TYPICAL ANNUAL FLUCTUATION OF RAINFALL ROCKY MOUNTAtNS, lillMfilfil 7- 6- ^ PORTLAND, SAN FRANCIS Cc: SAN DtEGp FT.CJPANT. OENVER ■.BENTON. PACIFIC COAST. x58! &* «$ x,Aa»e,H( rsl 0/ym/>,a, M4s/,. \Sta/ior7 " R %"tZ*'z — -■ i v., — ■ •mm — • —. _ i f*,ch * '~ SE or -^ a "™ 1 lUby "S" _ . ■ _ "" U~„. -SS -3 — - _ .. -a' _- - «S _ _ — 5i; Sep/ember - ■5h S- "" ■ Lam inf.i Vict, Wash DC 3 A/as/ Ten, •1 Stfh u/.A 'inn Apache Ariz & seC/ /Ja, fe. /2>^/ taniS, Orvy. SUg/ion — '- "* -tf ^r =»' ■-^ = = ! fMn "fY, .. - ov -^ — - c """■ - ft - - ^\? - CX ~ ■ sZ. "h -s = = ~ /tvt/faf - - x> — " — -. I**. — •%; -iS - C. \ a ^ •Station Buff y a .A/Y b| Ph./oMphiafa K Afvrp/iyrVC K "S Omo/'o Me/> ftW,n 9 *A>MAf. ^ = =:l - o ■ :: yr."r^/r _. » = ;~ -3 - -■- = = ! - " Hi — Se^^ Cairo, /it. Wi/minfton.MC ft A/iarni, Mo tSirertjpa J c%« nne.MfyaifT. Station %ZZ2%, — J ; - - s — i . ■- ■" 2L_ *r~« i;- -*i 1 1 I s — ■ — - — Cfj — <*M9~tr ;r a __ _. ■- .s< _ _ ■■ /V»,e— *i— > _ — . a BirdsNest. Va. ft.Gilpon.f.Ter MOrtaor w.Za. ^ fine tetrty.C* * t Zfe»r« v, Co/o. Station t ^! — I'" : ^ - :: r*t,r*wr-v - jj s::; i/u„m Avws? ■ 5l' = ^ _ S§*§ * "•£ ^s i 102 Rainfall of the United States utilized for plant life, while in the latter, much of it will be lost by passing from the surface and in producing floods in the streams. 79. Intensity of Rainfall. — To the engineer, for the pur- pose of the design of sewerage and drainage works, the ques- tion of the maximum rainfall, and the greatest length of time for which such rainfall may extend, becomes important. Rain- falls of great intensity usually occur for only limited periods of time. There is no sufficiently definite relation, however, be- tween intensity and time to admit of a precise expression by a mathematical formula. It is possible, however, by platting the various recorded rainfalls with reference to the rate of fall, to produce a diagram on which may be drawn a curve showing the highest intensity of any individual storm which is likely to occur for the locality for which the data is pre- pared, and also to construct various other curves which may be regarded as showing the relative probable limits of the reoccurence of similar conditions. Professor A. N. Talbot has prepared several diagrams (see Diagrams 14, 15, 16 and 17) which show the rates of maximum rainfall in various portions of the United States, on which he has platted curves from a formula he has pro- posed.* The upper curve he terms "The curve of rare rain- 6 fall," and its equation is Y= The lower he terms "The curve of ordinary maximum 1-75 rainfall," and its equation is Y= .25 x In these formulae Y is the rate of rainfall in inches per hour for the time x expressed in hours. The points on the diagram represent the actual records of individual storms. It will be noted that the curve of rare rainfall has been some- times exceeded. * Prof. A. N. Talbot, Rates of Maximum Rainfall. Technograph, 1891-92. Intensity of Rainfall 103 DIAGRAM 14 9 RATES OF 1 1 MAXIMUM RAINFALL \ 8 \ \ \ NEW ENGLAND ¥ \ \ AND 7 1 r \ 7" \ NORTH ATLANTIC \ \ STATES. 6 > v r ' .. £ » ' V 1 S w ♦ \ •s p \ f * > j ^ Ai.e. /i ( \ So , i ' > + ► * ;i ■f \ 4 3 4 V r, ► • \ \ ■ ♦ \ 9 ^v N ' ,*? V t> *\ i- "•» I * ♦- <* * V. Z .♦ ' 1 K 1 ^ ** -~, F ■ •• ♦< >\ % ► + ■ * ,» «n * ►H ! 1 * "" « v- r^« «. f + * > 1 ^ ♦ r -< 1 • t V I "■ ' «. „ ' % t * ^ | ■ A 0* vW* •W>* 104 Rainfall in the United States DIAGRAM 15. f - I • J2 1 \ 9 1 RATES OF I 1 \ MAXIMUM RAINFALL 8 ~T \ _L — \ i NORTH CENTRAL 7 h \ STATES. 6 1 I ► * A a 1 r^ f s I • } II *.Cf« \ t* \ *.y ♦ < n \ J N 4 ♦ 4 i ,. • t \ \ s 5 \ < ► ♦ ■X \ + 1 ' ' \ i. * ■»• . * ♦ *■ h 3 r y \ , h ■t- * V% •s % ., *M ►* + * V tf > i N U + ♦♦ * •>. 1 ' 5 ,f + 1 •v Z * 1 k *< tf > \ '-< ^ ♦• ' £; & F * F ** t- *» - f *v % ♦2k ».* f t i t * f *1 «. ^ £ " ■- 1 i r? N'Jj & * *<3 V ♦- *l i ► ♦ * - ^ * v^. ♦• t t \ fi ► r I •& a- i * + A 3 r • 0* jo* 30* JO" J* Intensity of Rainfall 105 DIAGRAM 16 H }i \ \ 9 \ RATES OF \ \ \ MAXIMUM RAINFALL S \ \ \ _ \ 1 i SOUTH ATLANTIC 7 \ \ \ STATES. \ 6 w V \ ^ v \ ♦ \ •< \ \ \ ► \ J 1 \ J A) 1 \ K \ \ s \ *. ♦• 4 * 1 r \ * , \ z ,\ ,♦ V * ■ \ \ tt ■ \ 1 " V •< L! \ f «■ s f3 V* ♦ X r . V i> x V r> < ' V ■ : r *t ^, ♦ s i * «■ ' * 1 >«. _ \ ♦■ ^ t «« £ <** J ^ <► - „ s * H » * ft; V • . .1 I * ♦■ ■ 1 !• 4 / * >» ^ •( - * - • 1 ♦■ . • 1 "> • •J?"* /*. «?0~ JO* io6 Rainfall of the United States DIAGRAM 17 J i \ \ 9 \ - 1 \«- RATES OF I 6 I \ MAXIMUM RAINFALL. \ \ \ 7 \ GULF STATES. \ \ \ 6 \ \ ♦ i < I \ * \ \ • * I \ 5 I » \ \ Quu \ V v. \ \ ft. 1 t- \ * I « V \ k. | I • «■ - V \ ► V \ I ! X 3 \ ! » t * X V s. *' ♦«■ i tf> ' • ■v. e» y ^ t* ► ♦ ' >» *** ♦J i , : i ■ 1*1 >» ^ - J r \ V L» ■ ► - ♦ ■ v ^ >*, : »*" . # — .. ♦ t- J * - «, I >J r « *.^ ' . ♦ 1 t - k > l -. .♦ ♦ t ■ i * . *" < • ^ t i I « • r i / "•*' o 30 m /* JO* J0" Intensity of Rainfall 107 A similar curve is shown by Diagram 18, which is re- duced from the Report of .the Chief of the Weather Bureau for the year 1896-7. On this plate, Curve A shows the curve of probable maximum intensity for Washington, and B, for Savannah, Ga. These curves are constructed by selecting the rainfalls of maximum intensity for certain consecutive periods of time. The full line shown on the plate was constructed from the combined records of excessive rainfalls in the cities of Boston, Providence, New York, Philadelphia, and Wash- ington, representing the observations for an aggregate of about seventy years, and was the curve adopted by the en- gineers making the Report on the Sewerage of the District of Columbia in 1890. DIAGRAM 18 Cm« oTTrobaMeiraxIfflnat Intensity of RaiefoH I 1 6.0 J 5.0 —fn .5 40 .3 3.0 3 20 5 10 .5 \ Om 2 3 4 5 I h 11 3 2 31 3 4 5~^ 5 2 h Table 26, from Bulletin C of the United States Weather Bureau, shows the heaviest rainfalls on record at selected rep- resentative stations throughout the United States, and Table 27 from the same source shows the annual and seasonal aver- ages, seasonal variations, and quantity of rainfall for each state of the United States. io8 Rainfall in the United States III <£ a s ao txvo ioqo *t*> «o roo «o *o >r to * i/» « 4 n •* - \o ci »o«rt«i •» '0»»<5* NfOVOlOlO « IDCC 00- Oh « CO O t<- cO N CO CO — r>« CO VO ■** r>. 6 >i- CO 6 *}• NO"0<0 '♦00 N vO ■*v6 CO 00 N COCO N ir> - ci N«>OWN 9"OMfiN O0lT)Tj-«O N- NM O 0*0*9 *0 « "1 N 00 O N u"> so *i- n »oo n 6 is vod»t-.6oc d i-. - o\ 'O 6 •- 6* ■♦ r-« \h ir>» . 0\ 1/5 t»» «>o «mio m*(icin \5 n rt-oo ♦ 10™ o O N N O N •*•«« N N ION N * N « TJ- •"T fO N H « fi N N N M HI-* 4- O C <- a; Js «-. 5 " 7? j= -=£'•■£ •"=-=!<*» C3 s 5 3 >-.e-.~ OS s&3 O O C cfi ci .S _ O o.2".*i<5 CS-C0Q* 1- g 0! aji! B.MS x c c COCOCOrC"*- N-^-cbcb tJ- \n*f O\0 cOvO »0 co Non»N m •>*• ♦ t>. iovO **• 6 *6 fOvO ^ «ion 0 VO CO «* «lO« ION. N N ^-sO ij- 00 «rt CO •* O «" «)m NNOOM O irt- lO v£> •* 10 Tfvo NiOO N ro>0 C 9>NN00Oi >0 OOhO ' ONOS Mr. N-fOvO-00 m u>W«rOO N- - Hfs OO tOOO O O0tOCT>[O^ VO-dtC.6 ^ > '2 > '*^^ O OWN O « rOOO J*«J "** J? 5 'jj 2 V £"li > I MlOmO h ' O»0t0r0r0 lO00 MMlflMK) •♦CO CO U1 o>iA)ioiot>. Miootoo «oo dnn4 toro^tJun »orh««tN. 606 s« - eofoojo moon'O NOts.MTj-u'i m«N ioui -*\on>ono w « mo) m iors>io\o "♦♦•PtsO «0 a) 9i"x M r%NNTi-l/> Ot»-NN»>-i NO\Nr*N >-CO00t>.O OONNO •-■-■IrtO *S„«NN wNNNii «>ONNN «*NMrO N«NMN -«NNN NNtON :q m c O 9,^ *3 x: . ic s or S*lf5 ^"i^i ssslf ^«15l Sg5*-gS -lS g &g |§i:^^ lllja |l«el| l|II| |?s^| £i-9:«3 * O 3 S u SJ=££.S 5^4)03 <<<<< coeQttcaeQ oooOQ yQQQQ 5* ill Gtaw •■35 52 S^S.«5> SH ' = 2 s .-* o :£4« * C 4) >, Average of Rainfall 09 TABLE 27. Annual and Seasonal Average of Rainfall for each State Area in square miles Spring. Summer. Au(umn. Winter. Annual. Seasonal variation. Alabama . Arizona... Arkansas. California. Colorado . Connecticut <,.».., Delaware District of Columbia Florida Georgia Idaho Illinois Indiana Indian Territory. Iowa Kentucky. Louisiana. Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi...... Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada , New Hampshire. New Jersey New Mexico New York , North Carolina., North Dakota.., Ohio Oregon Pennsylvania.... Rhode Island .... South Carolina.-. South Dakota.... Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington... West Virginia. Wisconsin Wyoming Total Average . 52,250 113,020 53, 850 158, 360 103,925 4,990 2,050 70 58, 680 59,475 84, 800 56, 650 36,350 31,400 56,025 82,080 40,400 48, 720 33,040 12,210 8,315 58,915 83, 305 46,810 69,415 146,080 77,510 110,700 9,305 7,815 122,580 49,170 52,250 70, 795 41,060 96, 030 45,215 1,250 30, 570 77,650 42, 050 265, 780 84,970 9, 505 42, 450 69, 180 24, 780 50, 040 97, 890 2,985,850 Inches. 14.9 1.3. 14.3 6.2 4.2 11.1 10.2 11.0 10.2 12,4 4.4 10.2 11.0 10.6 8.3 8.9 12.4 13.7 11.1 11.4 11.6 7.9 6.5 14.9 10. 4.'2 8,9 2.3 9.8 11.7 1.4 8.5 12.9 4.6 10.0 9.8 10.3 11.9 9.8 7.2 13.5 8.1 3.4 9.2 10.9 10.9 7.8 4.3 9.2 Inches. 13.8 4.3 12.5 0.3 5.5 12.5 11.0 12.4 21.4 15.6 2.1 11.2 11.7 11.0 12.4 11.9 12.5 15.0 10.5 12.4 11.4 9.7 10.8 12.6 12.4 4.9 10.9 0.8 12.2 13.-3 5.8 10.4 16.6 8.0 11.9 2.7 12.7 10.7 16.2 9.7 12.5 8.6 1.5 12.2 12.5 3.9 12.9 11.6 3.6 Inches. 10.0 2.2 11.0 3.5 2.8 11.7 10.0 9.4 14.2 10.7 3.6 9.0 9.7 8.9 8.1 6.7 9.7 10.8 12.3 10.7 11.9 9.2 5.8 10.1 9.1 2.6 4.9 1.3 11.4 11.2 3.5 9.7 12.0 2.8 9.0 10.5 10.0 11.7 9.7 10.2 7.6 2.2 11.4 9.5 Inches. 14.9 3.1 12.8 11.9 2.3 11.5 9.6 9.0 9.1 12.7 7.0 7.7 10.3 5.7 4.1 3.5 11.8 14.4 11.1 9.5 11.7 7.0 3.1 15.4 6.5 2.3 2.2 8.2 10.7 11. 1 2.0 7.9 12.2 1.7 9.1 21.0 9.5 12.4 9.7 2.5 14.5 6.0 3.5 9.3 9.7 16.8 10.0 5.2 1.6 Inches. 53.6 10.9 50.6 21.9 14.8 46.8 40.8 41.8 54.9 61.4 17.1 38.1 42.7 36.2. 32.9 31.0 46.4 53.9 45.0 44.0 33.8 26.2 53.0 38.0 14.0 26.9 7.6 44.1 47.3 12.7 36.6 53.7 17.1 40.0 44.0 42.5 46.7 45.4 22.9 50.7 30.3 10.6 42.1 42.6 39.8 42.8 32.5 11.6 Inches. 1.6 40.0 2.4 1.1 1.1 1.4 2,4 L5 3.3 1.5 1.-2 1.9 3.0 3.4 1.3 1.4 1.2 1.3 1.0 1.4 3.5 1.5 1.9 2.1 5.0 4.0 1.2 1.2 4,1 1.3 1.4 4.7 1.3 7.8. 1.3. 1.2 1.7 3.9 1.4 1.4 2.3 1.3 1.3 4.3 1.4 2.2 2.7 10. 8.3 8.6 36. 3 3.0 no Rainfall of the United States LITERATURE. U. S. Weather Bureau, Annual Reports; also Monthly Weather Review. C. A. Schott, Tables and Results of the Precipitation in Rain and Snow in the U. S. Smithsonian Cont. to Knowledge, No. 222, 1874. H. H. C. Dunwoody, Charts and Tables showing the Geographical Distribution of Rainfall in the U. S. U. S. Signal Service, Professional Paper No. IX, 1883. M. W. Harrington, Rainfall and Snow of the U. S. Bulletin C, U. S. Weather Bureau, 1894. A. J. Henry, Rainfall of U. S. Bulletin D, U. S. Weather Bureau, 1897. Turneaure and Russell, Public Water Supply, Chapter IV, Rainfall. The Causes of Rainfall. Prof. W. M. Davis. Journal of the New England W. Wks. Ass'n, 1901. Excessive Precipitation in the United States. Monthly Weather Review, Jan- uary, 1897. Rates of Maximum Rainfall. Prof. A. N. Talbot. Technograph, 1891. Tables of Excessive Precipitation of Rain at Chicago, 111., from 1889 to 1897, inclusive. Edmund Duryea, Jr. Journal of the Western Soc. of Eng., Vol. 4, Nos. 1 and 2, 1899. Excessive Rainfalls Considered with Special Reference to Their Appearance in Populous Districts. Captain R. L. Hoxie. Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., June, 1891. Does the Wind Cause the Diminished Amount of Rain Collected in Elevated Rain Gauges? Desmond Fitzgerald. Jour. Asso. of Eng. Soc, 1884. Distribution of Rainfall during the Great Storm of October 3rd and 4th, 1876. Francis. Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., 1878. The New England Rain-storm of February 10-14, 1886. Engineering News, 1886, Vol. 15, p. 216. Rainfall Observations at Philadelphia. Reports Phila. Water Bureau, 1890-92. Eng. Record, 1891, Vol. 23, page 246; 1892, Vol. 26, page 360. Self-registering Rain-gauges and Their Use for Recording Excessive Rainfalls. Eng. Record, 1891, Vol. 23, page 74. The Practical Value of Self-recording Rain-gauges. Weston. Eng. News, 1889, Vol. 21, p. 399- 1 1 I CHAPTER VIII. THE DISPOSAL OF THE RAINFALL. 80. Manner of Disposal — The ultimate disposal of the rainfall depends on the rate of rainfall and the condition of the surface receiving it. If the receiving surface is highly pervious the water may pass into the strata as rapidly as it falls. A heavy rainfall occurring when the ground is frozen, or on an impervious stratum, will flow at once into the streams, with a velocity regulated by the surface gradient. A com- paratively small rainfall may produce, under these circum- stances, flood conditions. A similar rainfall during the sum- mer will be largely lost by evaporation, taken up by the grow- ing crops, or may rapidly sink into pervious ground, giving little or no run off. Subject to these variations, the annual rainfall is partially lost in evaporation, partially taken up by the strata, a limited portion is used by vegetable growth, and the balance forms the flood flow of streams. The impor- tance of each manner of disposal depends entirely on the con- trolling surface conditions. 81. Percolation. — A portion of the rainfall on pervious strata sinks below the surface until it reaches a relatively im- pervious stratum. The water then follows the dip until it fills the stratum, thus causing it to become impervious to fur- ther percolation, or until it finds an outlet in springs and rivers, or flows to more distant and unknown outlets, sometimes be- low the surface of the sea. A portion of the underground water is absorbed by the roots of plants, and on this- water vegetation must depend for its supply during dry periods. Water drawn from the earth by plants, after performing its functions in vegetation, is trans- pired from the vegetable surfaces. fS0» 127* 125* 133' 12T llfc* flT 115* II3T 111* 109* tOT IDS* 103* 10T Map No. 15 79' 11' r5» 13' 71' €9» er 65* 85" «3° 61" 79 s 114 The Disposal of the Rainfall The dry weather flow of streams also depends on per- colating water. Streams derived from areas where porous strata are largely developed are the more constant, and are less subject to fluctuations either from floods or drought. From this source is also derived all phreatic waters — -ground water, the underflow of streams, deep and artesian waters, and the waters of springs. 82. Evaporation. — Whenever water is in contact with un- saturated atmosphere evaporation occurs. Evaporation takes place from damp earth surfaces and from the water surface of swamps, lakes, streams, and oceans. The percolation of water into the strata limits the amount actually evaporated from a given area by reducing the amount of water in contact with the atmosphere and thus confining the evaporation largely to exposed water surfaces. If such were not the case the evapora- tion, over much of the area of the United States, would greatly exceed the annual rainfall, and no water would be available for other uses. (See Map No. 15, showing the annual evapora- tion in the United States.) Evaporation depends upon the temperature of the water, and on the temperature and humidity of the atmosphere ad- jacent to it. It is greatly promoted by atmospheric currents, which remove the vapor already formed, and bring dry air into contact with the water surface. (Turneaure & Russell, Water Supply, Chapter V. Rafter, Relation of Rainfall to Run Off, p- 38.) 83. Water Used by Growing Crops. — The quantity of water used by growing crops is very large, as already noted in Section 31. The water serves to convey the soluble foods of the soil to the various fibres of the plant, and is then transpired from the vegetable surfaces. The amount actually retained as a part of vegetable growth is very small. This is shown in Table 28, which shows the amount of water required to produce a pound of dry matter, including, however, transpiration and evaporation from the cultivated surface.* * Eighth Annual Report Wisconsin Agric. Exp. Station, p. 126. Run Off 115 TABLE 28. The Amount of Water Required to Produce a Pound op Dry Matter in Wisconsin for Oats, Barley and Corn. u I Lbs. of water per lb. of dry matter. Computed amount of water. Mean. Lbs. In tons per acre. In inches. Barley . Barley . 1 2 158.3 141.03 .3966 .3488 399.14 404.33 401.74 7,441 1,494.67, 13.19 Oats- .. . Oate . . 1 2 224.25 220.7 .4405 .4471 509.31 493.63 501.47 8,861 2,221.76 19.60 Corn . . Corn . 1 2 300.45 298.65 1.0152 .9727 295.95 307.03 301.49 19.845 2,991.53 26.39 The actual amount of water used in irrigation is not always a criterion of the amount actually needed for plant growth. The amount used varies greatly in different locali- ties, as would be expected from the great difference in local conditions. In most cases the quantity of water used is in excess of the amount actually needed for the crops. Table 29 shows the result of actual measurements of water used for irrigation purposes.* 84. Run Off. — The water which passes directly into the streams by surface flow is the principal cause of floods In addition to the surface flow, the streams ultimately receive the larger proportion of the ground waters, and from this source the ordinary dry weather flow of streams is maintained. The entire stream flow constitutes the run off. which varies greatly in different streams, and also in the same stream in different years. In a general way, however, the run off is approximately constant and its amount is shown in Map No. 16. *Bul. 86, U. S. Dept. Agric. Irrigation Investigation. n6 The Disposal of the Rainfall si §3*^ a -43 2 •a So a"? c.S Q 5S •s gx gi -i O « O co ai m S5S §1- S.2. »■<>«} *• r- oo t~ © eo io oo oo «o in © »o eo* eo eo in" S3 S CO t. Z a J 1 5 4> V a a i.H iSSg J «BDOh3««o2 2 -6 -4 T llll 1HIIM III llllllllllllllll Illllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll 45,000 i <&N 60,000 55,000 50,000 45,000 40,000 35,000 30,000 25,000 uirii muni 'HiHimr ww ' w v iniipiiiiii i win llllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll 12 10 6 *-4 2 o II 20,000 15,000 10,000 5,000 60,000 ill ««e iiiiiiuf turnip muni " f miii < llllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll Discharge of Hndson River at Mechanic3T!!!e, K"e>r York, 1S89-1893. 122 Stream Flow DIAGRAM 20 r^i^b^fc^irV'fWjr^f^t^B^g^a^f^ IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIllllllHIIBIIIIIISIIIIIIIIIIIIIIilllllllllllllllllllllll 220,000 200,000 180,000 WO, 000 140,000 120.000 100,000 80,000 40,000 40,000 20,000 ll it 1 1 1 lllllllllllllllllllllll II 1 ^iiihiiiiiiii 11 in r h him illinium 11 1 1 mil " mini 1 mir i >ii -Discharge of Susquehanna River at Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, 1891-ISQ8. Diagram 25, on which the monthly rainfall has been given, also affords an interesting illustration of the relation of monthly rainfall and stream flow. Diagram 26, which shows the variation in mean monthly run off from the great lakes for each year from i860 to 1892, illustrates the influence of storage on maintaining uniformity of flow. While a considerable seasonable variation in flow Variation in Flow 123 DIAGRAM 2 EgEamEaEaBamEaii ffl iaaEaibatafcakia 5,000 3,500 -Discharge of North River at Poet Republic, Virginia. 1895-1898. is shown in the run-off, such variation is small compared with the volume of discharge, and does not exhibit the rapid fluctua- tion in flow, caused by rainstorms, as in the case of smaller streams. 87. Extreme Variation. — In many hydraulic problems the extreme variations in stream flow, either maximum or minimum, are the most important factors. Various formula have been suggested for flood flows, none of which, however, should be used without a knowledge of the conditions under which they are applicable. The known ratio of actual maxi- mum and minimum flow on watersheds, where such flow has been determined, is of importance. Such data serves as the best guide for all such calculations, where the area considered is subject to similar conditions. The maximum and minimum flow of various American and foreign streams is contained in Table 30, which gives the drainage area, mean annual rain- fall, and maximum and minimum discharge in cubic feet per second per square mile of various streams in the United States and foreign countries.* *Report of State Engineer of New York on Barge Canal, 1901. 124 Stream Flow DIAGRAM 22. S«c..ft. ]* r tit i»«»t- ■iwnr -hw- •ui inr -spr -ror -Btr t T -Ha- ■ f -| lf -j -_ jj_ s_ I ASSS j /<99* r r ~T j II ,, r I - i :"::::ji:::::::::i:: T r 7 000 -- 1 , • l4 : :.__ji ]j f I TT II ___: it J L [ T -1 i Iti 1 i j » . T M .lit . __ i_._ r Hi , j lii II 1 lii Hi i ji it 2,0( 1,000 1. 2000 11,000 10, 000 9,000 8,000 000 000 ooo oocr ooa ooo ooo 000 000 000 ii ni ! «mi niMiir w ■ n i miiiihii r * i ii i nt \r i ii 191 1 1 iii in iin (Minimum ti iir minimi iiiiiniiii in in HI ' «i * < «r '*[ IIIIIIIIIII Mil 111111111! HUH ill imiir' 'wnniii ,r " iiii ii i iiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiPiiiiiiiiiiii i ii ii 9,000 8,000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 I iiiiuimriiimiiiiimiifiainriii mimr i iimh i i " 'ii * if i 'it iiffiiiiiiirfrwiiii'ii! v iwinr i i <*i * Discharge Of Ocmulgee River at Macon, Georgia, 1893-1898. Diagram 27 also shows the rate of maximum flood dis- charge of certain American and European rivers.* (See Turneaure & Russell, Water Supply, Chapter VI.) 88. Monthly Average Flow. — For the purpose of certain calculations, the average monthly stream flow is the most con- venient basis. The average monthly discharge, in cubic feet per second per square mile of drainage area, of a few eastern rivers of the United States, is given in Table 31. From this table it will be seen that the minimum average monthly flow of a stream does not always occur during the same month, and •Report of State Engineer of New York on Barge Canal, 1901 Variation in Flow DIAGRAM 23 125 F^iira^cnEai a ^ia^Bg^KanEaEai^iaiziLTjrj^ 10,000 8,000 7,000 6,000 5,000 4,000 3,000 2,000 1,000 ^■Uiw "W" m I.S .1. UIIIIIIIMiiMII Discharge of Bear River at Collinston, Utah, 1889-1S98. 126 Stream Flow DIAGRAM 24. Sec.-ft. 5.500 5.000 4.500 4,000 3,500 3,000 2.500 2, COO 1,500 1, 000 500 5,500 5,000 4, 500 4,000 3,500 3,000 2,500 2,000 1,500 1,000 500 5, 500 5,000 4,500 4,000 3, 500 3,000 2,500 2,000 1,500 1,000 500 5,500 5,000 4,500 4,000 3,500 3, COO 2,500 2,000 1,500 1,000 500 5,500 5,000 4,500 4,000 3.500 8,000 1500 2, C00 1,500 1.000 500 r;3 M^ E« fc^ IriJ b3 1^ btf fa3 brt fca Ii3 1^ IIIIIM MllimilMHMPIHWr)" -.75 -SO -.25 "IIIIHIMIII minimi in iiiiiiiiiiiiumiiiiiiiiiniiii tmiimmimiiiimi *lPIHIPP ,r minimi iniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiifiiiiiiiiiiiiii o k75 SO -25 O 73 'iMiHi'iimiiiiv' 'Mil NS comparable: TO MOHAWK VALLEIY- + fco) CORRESPONDS TO FLOODS Ky occur occasionally + 74) corresponds to floods l\V OCCUR RARELY. >NS ON AMERICAN R1VER8. riONS ON ENGLISH R1VER6- ATTIONS ON rRENCHfBEUGIAN RIV. VATION5 ON GERMAN «AUaTRI AN ^»V> «>M REPORT OF KuiCHLINQ.CE. State. CanalSurv&Y- ^^ ■••^ ^^ ^ P"""" aw* ■ «an (k A • «• • • • • • • * \ *• • i «* • ^ 1 !_ •o • * • • • A • • A e * A* * « • 1" "" >0 250O 2750 S000 3ZSO 350O S7ffo 4O0O AtSD 4500 +7F0 80OO E BASIN- SQ. MILES -(M.) 1 36 Stream Flow for the consideration of these streams, for practical purposes, the better arrangement of the recorded flows is not by monthly- periods, but in the relative order of the flows. In Table 32, this data has been rearranged so that the least flow for any month in the given year is shown on the first line, and the flows of other months are arranged below TABLE 31. AVERAGE DISCHARGE. IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND PER SQUARE. MILE OF DRAIN- AGE! AREA OF VARIOUS .RIVERS OF THE UNITED 5TATE5j FROrvl I8S6 TO I90I- HUDSON RIVER AT ME.CHANICSVIULE. NY. DRAINAGE. AREA 4-300 SQ. MILES SHENANDOAH R. MILLVILLE. W.VA. 2995 SQM. POTOMAC R. POINT OF ROCN.MO. 9e54>-30.M. DELAWARE R. LAMBERTVILLE, N.JL 6S55 3Q.M. YEAR &3 'as '90 '91 '92 '93 '94 '95 's 5 '97 'ae >^9 ' 30 Ol AV '97 '98 99 AV 90 99 AV. 99 JANUARY MM Z44 zso .84 419 .71 130 .16 1.5 , a 5 17 149 30 6 9 1.65 40 5C 1.66 86 2.44 197 2.22 3.13 FEBRUARY 82 .84 1.7* 2.59 2.06 102 1.07 .79 10 4 J5 7 15 1.17 .7 7 .54 I.Si ,J3J7 .33 1.23 1 64 ■92 3.0 1 197 3.67 MARCH 1.32 L84 2.47 3.9* 2.41 197 128 .93 3.4 2 27 44 214 .72 l.SO 24 ? 1 53 5 229 1.44 1.65 3.73 2.69 5.73 APRIL 473 3.04 335 1,45 479 i9£ 247 529 s.: 542 J 30. "S.2S 502 6.26 4.3 9 .79 1.0! 110 sa 1 73 1 25 1.49 3".0S MAY 476 197 398 23 437 4-9; 168 152 « 2 27 24 S217 00 2.60 Z{, 7 1 S6 1 4H 65 I.3S 1.96 1.19 150 119 JUNE 1.09 152 1.64 .71 2230 1.0 7 1.5 S .63 1.0 5 2.6 > I.I .58 .91 173 13 r .46 .3. .55 !*5 AS 57 .5 1 .3-7 JULY 34 128 .43 .32 Z-06 se .70 37 .« 2 24 7 3 .54 .52 -19 e< i ■'* 2 .2£ .31 .34 26 .27 27 399 AUGUST 38 .9: .45 36 1.22 lm 35 .67 J 4 18, 3 1.14 31 60 1.03 .8 5 2 = 2.7J 36 1. ,3 241 .25 1.33 77 SEPTEMBER .« .4-< ,.97 .45 99 1.33 .42 .SB .« 4 .6 .8 .46 .42 £9 7 3 .22 .4C .34 32 27 .25 .26 1.33 OCTOBER 1.02 .6. 2.03 .33 £.3 at .81 .58 5 , .5 , 1.7. .58 47 34 .8 E .23 166 .27 72 1.4a .10 ©4- 93 NOVEMBER Z3t L77 203 .91 1.69 6 142 107 2.S 2 22 2.0. 1.42 " S3 l.fe- * 26 .65 5-1 54 .95 -34 es 1.50 DECEMBER 222 2.92 .72 1.91 .93 I-6C .97 2.42 1.3 4 32 B 1-241 102 13 SB I.G 3J A7 1.343 47 77 1.66 LOS 186 AVERAGE 177 l.« L94 1.62 234 ice 1.37 141 16 6 2.0 ,8. 143 50 167 86 9<= 83 1.35 1 .12 2 23 CENLSEL RIVER N.Y. 1070 3Q.M. OR.A. RUN orf IN SEC-FEET PER iQM OSWE.GO SOOO 8«. R V1ILE3 BLACK R N.Y 1689 3QMILE3 LAKECHAMPLAIl| MOHAWK R | HUD50NR. | LITTLE FALL* | FT EDWARD3 7750 3Q.M | I306SOM. | 2800SQ.M. YEAR 93 94 35 's ; av. 97 9«|s9 60 c 1 AV. 97 '98 93 OO 0, AV |J9S OO fa AV. 98 99 00 01 AV. 1" 00 01 AV. JANUARY MM 66 7 - o *S saUj .61 I 07 as 1.18 24= 150 • So 1 6 7 III .37 41 IJJ 3 , 44 2 11 •» 33 2.5 l» LIS US I 02 FEBRUARY .85 JZ 9 .66 124) 49 .93 37 .76 1.14 20 123 3-« ^ 1 74 125 ,87 1.2 3 1 47 M5 (94 84 m 2 55 S3 1 24 MARCH 331 94 AC » 2.75 L9s| .97 .99 1 45 1.33 334 5.« an 1.5 7 3 16 3. 17 143 20« 3 1 67 288 ,85 Si --" ,.23 1 47 APRIL U! .01 33 B 293 20! IS 1 153 280,3 35 2.25 5oz 2* 73. 7.37 7M 5. 94 1 2.60 284 3S 5 J. 20 4 20 4.23 S.4 5.3, 4 = 4 0, 7 55 6 53 MAY t4J J9 .i 7 1.60 US 16 jj 1.35 ,.33 2 M I.S5 2« 16, 29 302 265 2.5*1)317 232 3< * 3.05 2.03 ,58 22<1 1 9 134 3 03 239 JUNE. 10 J3 , ,4 .76 L6«j 40 & 1 £3 I.OI 144 8 8 8£ 2.81 1 36 179 2+2 21 230 ■7«l .4' 252 , .3 1 5( 10 2.23 JULY .14 .11 ^ 4 16 +a .34j| .15 .19 73 .38 .47 .6 .44 70 04 .65 ,25 ,54 1-3 2 1 37 .61 .72 84 .7 4 .45 7d 5S AUGUST « l* . < .IS 47 .I8J 12 .13 38 .26 1 2 7< 4 .SO U3 .84 _$<) !20 1.7 1 Z6 .17 53 89 .5 i 2 " S3 .90 38 SEPTEMBER Ji .93 ■10 ( 38 .25 2?j 12 .13 37 23 .■* .52 54 ,43 .37 47 92 9 I 86 ,84 23 * 90 » *e AC .63 3» OCTOBER J« 44 .11 I 14 .67 21 4d .ii 17 43 26 | 5« 1.6 .3' 64 2ll 1.12 S3 as 8 2 73 ,9, 39 ii 3 1 3 9 ,41 *, .59 NOVEMBER .54 .a; 47 t B .64 36 ad 22 4a se si |2i 2fl .3 2 45 14! 1 85 US 104 7 £ .99 221 1 36 29i 13 1 94 , 8 1 ,3 31 1 .24 DECEMBER 25* £l 32 1.4* 83 -723) JZ 1*0 34 1.02||2K 1.4- 13 2 24 2 Ol Ii 147 1.72 1.3 5 1.51 1.54 zsi 246 3 52 2 4 ^3J 1 Of 1 36 AVERAGE .47 E2 10 * .99j .33 37 13 |10 17 i«r 206 '■■" ,47 a no ;.-: » ! '-'- 1 55 ' KENNEBEC RIVER WATE.RVILLE. ME 4410 3 Q MILES ANDROSCOGGIN R RUIV1FORO FALLS,!!!! 2220 5Q M MERRIN1AC RIVER LAWRENCE, MASS 4553 3Q. M CONNECTICUT R M0LY0KE.MA33. 66GOS0M. YEAR 93 '9 + S3 96 97 98 ■99 AV. 96 97 9S 9£ > AV 'so 91 92 e 3 194 9J «* 97 38 93 AV. 96 ©7 99 AV. JANUARY CC 3 ■« .86 01 73 .53 64 149 82 OS 9E 1.04 155 2.92 107 1 5 66 .4 3 75 .'4 1.73 1 38 12k 36 1.19 1 .01 FEBRUARY 53 M 41 fcj 84 77 54 60 78 .74 .77 a 78 1.70 294 .94 >.0| .94 5' 200 ,0. 1.7 ,07 1 .40 ,05 *7 1.0a .91 MARCH 9 3 43 295 86 2 56 73 1 S3 Z4S .0, .32. 6 ) 1 60 544- 5,9 ,61 236 J 16 1 28 +»2 131 24 3 07 3,4 16- M 29 7 APRIL 244J33 5 4> 61 5 75 £.74 531 5.06 361 3.56 H9 31 ) 4.29 J.7S 4 73 l7S*3.42J2.4j|435 400 3 97 S3 sa 3. 75 4-8? 4:0 333 412 MAY 6« 1 1 2,7 307 fclO 5 70 401 ♦ 59 539 323, 1,21 44- 5 4 31 3 14 1.61 226| 424^ I.J4] 1.37 96 2.:2 24 .0- 2.19 1 ,2 24C 2 ,9 1 97 JUNE 34 1 7 1 46. I23J2 94 Z!i 2 00 2.IC 140 3 ,5 I 14 14 2.03 1 73 100 1.28 .9^I33| .67 .77 2 79 14 u 1 24 42 2 58, LSI 130 JULY ' 3 13 80 L2IJ296 39 137 sx 2»£ W r » 1.38 k.9 C-4 I05J 52J 5o| 57 « 237 54 SA 79 4-2 27, 45 I.IS AUGUST 3 4 61 7l|l65 71 73 .80 rj Oi .73 B 1 SI .75 J4 106 57J 57 #43 44 1 12 a 44 60 .'4. 1 IS 1 57 .72. 3EF-TEMK ii 4 40 7*104 39 45 62 a r 72J « 6 3 SO 10* 56. .67 61 *0 .37 67 61 M •7* 55 " ..-> 56 OCTOBER 3 A 1C 03 .6 9 = Zf .6" ?3 72, 27 7 3 .91 270 47 47, 73 S^ »= 1 14, 48 1 « 33 435 1 |] 42 MM 1 03 NOVEMBER 1 e 1 1 ; .J,» 1 77 46 1 17 L«J 03 27 1 7 1 n |0J J4 .4s| J 76J2..0 ,4* 1 i£ 2, 1 1 20 : ,> , 72 i?i 1 72 DCCEMBEd V V 37 Ju. 39 51 73 ;>o 17 33 7 3 94 1 +4 ^0 ,8C|).I7| .C7J204 M 2 23, , 9 v. 1 31 M IS, n 1 50 *ve.rx/tqi n. 1 i . 2; i, 197 >■"■' 1 7* «u 1.3 ^c« .84 •JJm)»i ,38 , .'. 13. 1 4. I 443 »J 1 f » 1.60 Monthly Average Flow 137 progressively from minimum to maximum. The average monthly flow thus arranged for each watershed will give a much better criterion of the stream flow to be expected on each watershed during the year than the average monthly flow as shown in Table 31. From Table 32 it will be seen that the average minimum monthly flow of the Hudson River at Mechanicsville, N. Y., TABLE 32 AVERAGE DISCMARGE IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND PER SQUARE MILE OF DRAINAGE AREA. MONTHLY DISCHARGE. OF EACH RIVER ARRANGED IN ORDER OF MINIMUM FLOW. HUDSON RIVER AT M ECrtANICSYILLE, N.Y- DRAINAGE AREA 4500 SQ. MILE5 SHENANDOAH R. 2995 SQM POTOMAC R- POINT OF ROCK, MO 9654-30, M. DELAWARE R. LAMBERTVILLE, N.J.6855 5QM YEAR Ifea '83 '90 '91 '92 '33 '94 '95 96 '37 '9£ '9S '00 Ol AV. '97 '98 i'99 AV. '95 '99 AV '9 9 MINIMUM .34 43 3> 63 56 42 5 7 5 \ 56| -S 7 3 , 4-2 54 41 1 22 .28| .27 .26 26 ,8 22 5 7 .38 .K 45 45 93 7, 55 58 a 2 .6,1 .6 I 4 6 47 6 1 23 JM\ .31 39 27 25 36 7? 63 8- 72 .99 81 70 .58 . J,, 1 J 4j 52 .79 7 f-l .26 33 .34 .31 .45 .25 35 93 82! .9- r.w .59 1 22 .66 .81 79 .9 I J„ t .5 i .60 63 .9 ol .30 44 .36 .35 .92 .27 60 33 1.02 IJU 1 74. 1.69 1-02 .97 .as 1.0 2 I63J 1.2 5 J £ .9, 59 I.I >| AC .5,] .47 .46 .95 .34 65 1 ,9 1 08 ,5 1.97 .91 ' 1 07 ,07 .67 1.0 4 Z.22L5 1.0 2 III 94 A #. .S3 .Si Ao| LIS .44- SO 133 14, 1.7 2 03 1 23 2.06 1.11 ,42 .93 1.0 5 2.47Jl.7 2 I.I 7 1.13 1.03 1.4 7j .46 .as] 55 ee 1.49 .57 ' 03 1 50 1 52 \a 2.05 IM 2.4, ,.53 ,.50 1.52 1.5 1 Z.63J 1.7 5 1.4 2 1.30 1.73 \ m i.osj .as 79 1.65 1.19 , 42 I 8 3 3.5 3,94 4.37 3.98 2.47 2.42 3.0 2 3.20J 3.0 sJ Z. 7 2 77 2.6< 3.2 1 1.66 lj«| 1.66 1.7 3 2.4-1 3.01 271 J 08 MAXIMUM 4 7« 3.0 3 98 4.45 4 79 4:93 3M 5.29 5.5 5 4.24J4.4 9 J.« 5 5.02 62E 4.6 7Jit37 273) 2.29 2.80 2.46 3.73 3.20 J. 76 GENESEE RIVER, N.Y I07O SQ'M. OR. A OSWXGO, R. AT 03WECO,N.Y. SOOO ofl.MlLES BLACK R N.r. : -, 1689 SQ. MILES LAKE CHAMPLAIN 77S0SQ.M. MOHAWK R.N Y LITTLE FALLS 1308 5Q.M. HUDSON R FT EOWARC33 2800 5C.V, YEAR 9* 95 96 '97 AV '98 39 pO '01 '0 2 AV <37 98 '99 '00 '01 AV 99 '00 '0 I AV. '99 + ' 72 AV fes bo '01 AV MINIMUM 14 .10 .16 .13 J^L 37 20 &t .4 5* 86 58 .85 . 8 74 n 4aj .« .50 26 ^5 .40 2? ■17 .17 .19 .27J ./2| .13 .37 22 .72- 5 to ,.,3 .76 .47 92 . 32 .80 Xi S3\ « 5-7 57 .44 6S .«-9 44 " .20 25 .3t|,II| .17 .38 26 .79 .44 1.2! .8' .89 1.04 . 98 .97 39 6 .as 63 .«' 45 .54. £1 .12 24 .32 Ad .15 .19 43 29 87 6. .7" I.*i .91 MS 1.20 1 zt .21 £l| *9J 5X 73 4£ .59 .78 .6 2 &2 .13 A .45 .7»| .22] 4« 38 .52 , l& S .&. ,.5( 1 .09 1.25 ,41 I 32 .33 78, 4,= ee 56 .63 .62 84 .a .17 .31 75 64 8 I.5C I.4-, ,.25 ,.5+1, 33 .37 ,.,5 J..» I.3Z jGt 1, i3 .90 93 .22 82 .ee Si.J 42 1 07 77 ,66 1.2 1.5- 228 1.69 1.37 35 46 ,3d ,. 8 J,.33| 1.51 |,26 MS .56 1.12 1.10 .47 91 .S3 I24J .49J 93 1.36 1.01 use ia 2.24 2.65 2.11 147 ,.87 1 S3 .6 2 2.0! l"1 1.24 175 ,. 18 ,06 1.34 ~*c -66 1.03 I5l| B&\ .93 1.45 . 1.20 20 2.4 2.6- 2.38 1.63 2.06 1 70 .80 rj 2.92,5 2 53 \st , 23 i.*a ,3, 132 1.74 i.tz l.«j| .97] IJ) 1.45 1.92 2.0! 26 3.02 2.81 2.6S 1.79 2.32 2 70 2.27 2.5 7 2 963ozl 2.S5 (,.£4 uijui 2.11 r 9 1.94 3.00 2.7a l.&sjljsjlflo 200 . 1.70 2.46 29" JO' 3:8 2.9, 2.6C 2.42 3 66 2.9 6 zea^ 4.2335■ < u 3 3 "3 (0 3 U 3 < It D i u L" u 0) kJ ID a u (0 ( u > r DC U ( u u 1 i z 4 >■ < K B id L r I J 5 Q. < c u t 3 *> 5 3 h 3 K u d t u t u h a a a 10 > z kJ 1 I > < z 1 1 10 kJ L X < A o kJ «) B — 1 r-li. b ° u o o 1 in 1 7 * B hR OKI N JNiSf HO\ / MI^AN Mo MT|- LY ?AII rAi !. I| i in aits i IM Ut l |>IK ov -R VAi -H Wt u f r — *- • k i * — - r I *> .— - y. •*T _j M *?■ -I6Z r*S! -»< --"■ IB»J It* .. } -41 Ij ■■"■ "° T -•$ -T . 1 -«' -5 111 1 •t< -U O J ■u TOLL LINES SHOW MEAN MONTHLY RUNOFF JN INCHES IN DEPTH OVER WATER SHED. Showing Relation of Mean Monthly Stream Flow to Mean Monthly Rainfall on Rock River Watershed. of monthly rainfall, and will produce a stream flow for sev- eral months even without rain. The ground water is called upon to furnish more or less of the stream flow sometimes early in May, and seldom later than the beginning of June, and during June, July and August the rainfall is rarely sufficient to take care of the evaporation and plant growth without something of a draft on the ground water. The stream flow for this period is usually entirely de- Stream Losses from Percolation 143 pendent on the ground water, except during exceptional rain storms. By the end of the growing period the ground water is often so depleted as to be capable of storing five or six inches or more of rainfall. During the replenishing period the ground again begins to receive its store of water, and with favorable rainfalls, be- comes full during the storage period of the winter and spring. The relation of Rainfall to Run-Off and Evaporation (which is, in this case, intended to include all other methods of disposal except run-off), for various periods of the water year, and for various eastern rivers, are illustrated in Tables 33> 34> 35 an d 36. These relations are also graphically shown on Diagrams 30, 31 and 32. These tables and diagrams have been reproduced from Rafter, The Relation of Rainfall to Run-Off*, to which refer- ence is given for further discussion. 91. Stream Losses from Percolation. — While the seepage or ground water ordinarily furnishes the dry weather flow of streams, yet in some cases the river water may again partially seep into their banks at other portions of their courses, if the condition of the ground water level so permits. This condi- tion seldom exists, however, except in the flood stages of a stream where the rapid rise in the waters of the stream is greater than that of the ground water and reverses the ground water slope in the immediate vicinity of the river. (See Table $J.) In some cases in the arid regions, the waters of streams entirely disappear, their waters, aside from those portions lost by evaporation, being entirely lost in the strata. Such streams usually originate in humid regions, or in the moun- tain snows, and steadily decrease in size as they flow, con- stantly losing their waters by evaporation and percolation until they terminate in a sink. Such waters either form a morass of sufficient extent so that the surface evaporation dis- poses of the remaining stream flow, or the waters continue as an underflow in the pervious strata.* * See Slichter, The Motions of Underground Waters, p. 38. 44 Stream Flow TABLE 33. Connecticut River, 1873-1885, inclusive. [Catchment area =10,234 square miles, j 1872. 1873. c 1874. « Period. Rain- fall . Run- • off. Evapo- ration. Rain- fall. Run- fall. Evapo- ration. Rain- fall. Run- off. Evapo- ration. Storags , 14. 92 18.06 12.42 13. 30 6.C9 6.84 1.62 12.67 5.73 18.16 10. 11 15.04 21.80 2.71 5.22 3.64 7.40 9.82 23.08 14.37 7.76 2a 04 6.62- 2.15 0.04 7.75 Replenishing 5.61 Year 48.30 £8.23 20.07 43.31 29.73 13.58 45.21 31.81 13.40 Period 1875. 1878. a 1877. 17. 51 14.55 11.38 15/47 3.80 3.60 2.04 10.75 7.78 22. 50 12.51 10.57 24.74 3.35 2.28 < - 2.24 9.18 8.29 18.09 14.00 13.08 12.68 2.91 5.27 5.41 11.08 ' 7.81 43.42 22.87 20.55 45.58 30.37 15.21 45. 17 20.86 24 31 1878. 1879. Storage Growing Replenishing 21.88 | 13.59 ! 10.56 Year 38.02 3.45 3.03 24.53 3.86 10.14 7.50 21.50 23.19 I 21.49 16.07 | 2.92 48.74 | 27.34 1.70 13.15 6.55 21.40 18.29 11.82 11.58 41.69 14.78 2.45 2.62 ■19.85 "Not included in 6 Rainfall computed, approximate. DIAGRAM 30. 3.51 9. ST 8.96 21.84 Period. 1881. 1882. 1883. 20.83 11.30 11.38 16.02 2.93 3.39 4.81 8.37 7.99 520.50 611.45 66.50 15.14 3.35 2.17 8.36 8.10 4.33 612.85 613.50 68.20 8.73 2.51 1.37 4.12 10.99 4 83 Year 43.51 22.34 21.17 38.45 17.66 20.79 32.55 12.61 19.94 Period. 1884. 1885. 21.42 12.14- 8.51 20.20 2.79 2.61 1.22 9.35 5.90 18.58 14.82 11.76 13.63 3.20 5.61 4.95 11.62 6.15 Year 42.07 25.60 16.47 45.16 22.44 22.72 — Rnn-ofT d;»gnun of Hudson and Oen.woo riveni Monthly Flow TABLE 34. —Hudson River, 1888-1901, inclusive. [Catchment area=4,500 square miles.] 145 1888. 1889. 1890. Period. Rain- fall. Run- off. Evapo- ration. Rain- fall. Run- off. Evapo- ration, Ram- fall. Run- off. Evapo- ration. 20.40 10.25 13.27 17.06 2.06 4.53 3.34 8.20 8.74 17.10 15.05 10.81 14.04 4.28 3.41 3.06 10.79 7.40 24.75 13.50 12.10 19.28 2.85 6.81 5.47 10.65 5.29 Year . 4a. 92 a23.64 20.28 a42.96 21.71 21.25 "50.35 28.94 21.41 1891. 1892. 1893. 20.69 13.49 8.78 16.59 2.07 1.90 4.10 11.42 6.88 24.95 19.12 9.80 22.50 6.87 3.71- 2.45 12.25 6.09 19.83 13.37 8.98 15.20 3.12 3.59 4.63 10.25 5.39 42.96 20.56 22.40 '53.87 33.08 20.79 48.18 21.91 20.27 1894. 1895. 1896. 21.37 8.73 11.87 13.18 3.20 2.99 8.19 5.53 8.88 15.79 10.37 10.51 11.68 2.36 3.42 4.11 8.01 7.09 22.17 10.25 12.79 16.52 2.53 4.58 5.65 7.72 8.21 Year 41.97 19.37 22.60 36.67 17.46 19.21 45.21 23.62 21.58 1897 1898. 1899. Storage Growing Replenishing 19.77 15.80 10.94 14.60 7.79 3.80 5.17 8.01 7.14 22.80 13.52 12.19 18.61 3.24 5.27 4.19 10.28 6.92 19.48 7.40 8.91 15.15 1.63 2.76 4.33 5.77 6.15 Year 46.51 26.19 20.32 48.51 27.12 21.39 35.79 19.54 16.25 1900. 1901. Storage 21.13 12.11 12.17 16.12 2.30 2.25 5.01 9.81, 9.92 18.47 15.09 9.02 14.84 4.02 3 3.63 11.07 6 02 Year 45.41 20.67 24.74 42.58 21.86 20.72 a Approximate. DIAGRAM 31 Bus-off diagram of Moat-mrum Blv 146 Stream Flow TABLE 35. Genesee River, 1890-1898, inclusive. [Catchment area = 1,070 square miles.] 1890. 1891. 1892. Period. Rain- | Run- Evapo- fall. 1 off. j ration. Rain- fall. Run- off. Evapo- ration. Rain- fall. Run- off. Evapo- ration. "23.01 "10.52 "14.01 612.96 2.51 5.75 610.05 8.01 8.26 18.22 12.78 7.12 11.88 1.06 1.11 6.34 11.72 6.01 19.84 15.30 6.55 9.38 4.90 , 1.14 10.46 Growing 10.40 5.41 "47.54 6 21.22 "26.32 38.12 14.05 24.07 41.69 15.42 26.27 1893. 1894. 1895. 20.65 9.55 9.10 611.10 61.00 1.25 6 9.55 68.55 7.85 27.71 7.95 12.13 15.73 1.46 2.19 1L98 6.49 9.94 13.20 11.13 6.67 5.63 .36 .68 7.57 Growing..-. 10.77 5.03 39.30 613.35 625.95 47.79 19.38 28.41 31.00 6.67 24.33 1896. 1897. 1898. Storage Growing I 17.84 10.28 j 12.56 9.25 .83 2.72 8.59 9.45 9.84 15.68 11.92 6.79 7.31 1.34 .73 8.37 10.58 6.06 18.66 14.15 9.69 10.40 2.05 2.68 8.2* 12.10 7.01 Year 40.68 12.80 27.88 34.39 t.38 25.01 42.50 15.13 27.37 "For years 1890-1892 the runoff is that of Oatka Creek, a tributary of Genesee rainfall of Oatka Creek catchment area has been taken rather than that of entire area. ''Approximate. TABLE 36. River, and the upper Genesee Muskingum River, 1888-1895, inclusive. [Catchment area=5,828 square miles.] 1888. 1889. 1890. Period. Rain- fall. Run- off. Evapo" ration- Rain- fall. Run- off. Evapo- ration. Rain- fall. Run- off. Evapo- ration. 17.16 14.31 11.14 5.17 1.77 3.39 11.99 12.54 7.75 13.52 12.12 10.24 6.02 1.24 .96 7.50 10.88 9.28 27.77 13.68 15.52 18.07 2.64 6.13 9.70 11.04 9.39 42.61 10.33 32.28 35.88 8.22 27.66 56.97 26.84 30.13 1891. 1892. 1893. 16.72 13.56 7.08 12.42 1.77 1.37 4.30 11.79 5.71 20.39 16.54 4.81 9.06 3.65 .67 11.33 12.89 4.14 25.04 8.31 9.01 14.13 1.22 .85 10.91 7.09 Replenishing 8.16 Year 37.36 16.56 21.80 41.74 13.38 28.36 42.36 16.20 26.16 j 1894. J895. Storage 16.93 4.56 7.63 .66 .41 9.30 3.90 8.61 13.04 " 9.14 7.66 4.04 .49 .37 9.00 8.65 9.02 30.51 7 29 Year 8.70 21.81 29. 84 4.90 24.94 Stream Flow DIAGRAM 32 147 92. Seepage from Artificial Channels. — In artificial chan- nels the loss from seepage or percolation is often considerable, a large portion of the supply being sometimes needed to main- tain the flow. Seepage losses in such cases are so closely re- lated to losses by evaporation that it is seldom possible to distinguish the exact relation between the two. On the proposed enlargement of the Erie Canal, the loss from seepage, evaporation, etc., has been calculated at from 4.5 to 5.5 inches on the total area of the canal each day.* In some measured sections of American canals this loss has reached as high as 17 inches or more. The majority of French and German canals of the better class are so con- structed that the loss is not more than 2 inches per day. In many irrigation ditches in the west, where the embank- ments are carried above the general ground level and are made of pervious material, the loss from this source becomes an important and often very serious matter, as the loss in many cases fully equals the amount of water actually utilized in irrigation. 93. Basis of Estimates of Stream Flow. — No exact law for determining the relation of rainfall and stream flow has been, or, from the nature of the case, ever can be found, for such relations are, of necessity, peculiar to the watershed, and subject both to the local conditions of the watershed and to the variation in annual climatic conditions. * Report on Water Supply for the New York Barge Canal, by Kuichling. 148 Stream Losses from Percolation p4 OS £ oo 1-t l I "3 i *4 a iver. Ditch, yder. i o a § i 2 =s£*:S2 2 ,2 ° ° i)-2 -_ -_ z. ■_ X! X tStci tllill wo m elow t Ju mile o.-. soo"* S^ s jtad esBgjout jo lun'oray T* 00 H CO O ^" r-i ri •O 1* OOrtrt'^-OI-) -isniohJo^iJo 8 1 o d g o •p9Jl\SB9Ca « c 1-1 t~o> t- ia i-5» ar->*# s>-« t- CO c» o o o | SlUXOd U99A\.}9q sanK i-l r-l CN i-t 1 'o 'pamssata t- • o t- ■ CO H v-c SJUIOd U99Ail9q .X9AU ©' . CO •34 I O 8 JO 9THR.T0A UI 9SB9I0Ja CI I " III Ph a a ■pom t> w c: t- "* 3 •* C- J E^IO tH COCN CN rH i »— 1 a •noi^is 2 ?sb[ moj^ •s^Ba'Bo cr- "0 •CO cc *00 5S 00 CO . OS C5 rH ^t * "00 CN CN rH CN 00 woo CO o pOB 89q0}ip U0T}'B8tJJT It • «3 K • CO r-l t- c- ' 't~ oi o' d o' o co'cn 1 S £q .19 AT J tnOJJ P91I9A X . rH c . O ■>* CN CO '. i°° ^ CN rH TK i- iHtK 5! -ip j9}ba\ jo aunotuv >n «c !o 10 • OC O COC1 (X • • J5C1C1HO 00 CO CN K0 O O o •J9AIJ «r- • CO • iO C5 CN O Tf< ; : «* » co 00 c- c: r- 1- o t- o ? ux i9%v*. jo' ^unoxny O^ joo § • OMOHt- . C~ t- CJ rH fH i j 001-1 ■*' — i to -h! 33 ^H OCOCO iK O CN Ci b- CN O O CO ■*!<•■** H CN i \ t ~ t CN CN r-4 1-1 1-1 •° J, <8 p I hi O a, «S t- • t ( : t '•A I M - l 9 > S; • <0 ; > ^ c > 5 : £ 8t. Vrain Creek.. Big Thompson Cn South Platte Rive Cache la Poudre 1 3outh Platte Rive o 5 « «8 VT 6F 156 Groundwater also extensive developments in the San Joaquin valley, 1 and in Southern California, at San Bernardino and Pasadena. 2 There are also numerous other localities where artesian conditions of local importance have been developed in the glacial drift and in other geological deposits. Some of the areas shown on the map are not greatly developed, but are considered of sufficient importance for at least passing men- tion. (Turneaure & Russell, Water Supply, Sections 95-103; Slichter, The Motion of Underground Water, Chapter 3.) LITERATURE. Ground Water. The Water Resources of Indiana and Ohio. Leverett. Report U. S. Geo. Survey, 1896-97, p. 419. The Rock Waters of Ohio. Orton. Report U. S. Geo. Survey, 1897-98, p. 633. Report on the Geology and Water Resources of Nebraska West of the One Hundred and Third Meridian. Darton. Report U. S. Geo. Survey, 1897-98, p. 719. Principles and Conditions of the Movements of Ground- Water. King. Report U. S. Geo. Survey, 1897-98, pp. 67-294. Theoretical Investigation of the Motion of Ground- Water. Slichter. Report U. S. Geo. Survey, 1897-98, pp. 295-384. The Underground Water of the Arkansas Valley in Eastern Colorado. Gilbert. Report U. S. G. S., 1895-96, Part II, p. 557. The Water Resources of Illinois. Leverett. Report U. S. G. S., 1895-96, Part II, p. 701. Utilizing a Spring as a Source of Water-Supply for a Town. Hawes. Jour. New Eng. W. W. Ass'n, 1896, XI, p. 156. History and Description of the Water Supply of the City of Brooklyn, 1896. de Varona. Brooklyn Dept. of City Works. The Selection of Sources of Water Supply. Stearns. Jour. Ass'n Eng. Soc, 1891, X, p. 485. Experiences Had During the Last Twenty-five Years with Waterworks Having an Underground Source of Supply. Salbach. Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., 1893, XXX, p. 293. The Development of Percolating Underground Waters. Eng. News, 1895, XXXIII, p. 116. On the Subterranean Water in the Chalk Formation of the Upper Thames, and Its Relation to the Supply of London. Harrison. Proc. Inst. C. E., 1890, CV, p. 22. Artesian Waters and Wells. Preliminary Report of the Artesian Basin of Wyoming. Bui. No. 45, Wyoming Exp. Station. Artesian Well Prospects in the Atlantic Coastal Plain Region. Darton. Bui. No. 138, U. S. G. S. Artesian Wells of Idaho. (See Geology and Water Resources of the Snake River Plains of Idaho. Russell. Bui. No. 199, U. S. G. S.) Artesian Wells of the Upper Mississippi Valley. (See Hydro-Geology of the Upper Mississippi Valley. D. W. Mead. Jour. Ass'n Eng. Soc, Vol. XIII, p. 329.) 1 Eng. Record, February 17th, 1894. Artesian Wells in the San Joaquin Valley. 2 W. S. & I., Paper No. 8r. California Hydrography. J. B. Lippincott No. No. 7- 12. No. 30. No. No. 31- 53- Artesian Water 157 Requisite and Qualifying Conditions of Artesian Wells. T. C. Chamberlain. 5th Annual Report, Director of the U. S. G. S., p. 133. Artesian Basins in Northwestern Idaho and Southeastern Oregon. Russell. Water Supply and Irrigation Papers No. 78. Artesian Wells of the Gulf Coastal Plain. 4th Annual Report Geological Survey of Texas, 1892. Artesian Waters of the Llano Estacado. G. G. Shumond. Bui. No. 1, Geo. Survey of Texas, 1892. Preliminary Investigation to Determine the Proper Location of Artesian Wells Within the Area of the 97th Meridian, and East of the Foothills of the Rocky Mountains. Senate Executive Document No. 222, 51st Congress, 1st Session, 1890. Geological Reports of the Artesian and Underflow Investigation Between 97th Meridian in Longitude and Foothills of the Rocky Mountains. Senate Document No. 41, Parts 1, 2, 3 and 4; 52nd Congress, 1st Session, 1892. See also the following Water Supply and Irrigation Papers of the U. S. G. S.: No. 4. A Reconnaissance in Southeastern Washington, by I. C. Russell. 1897. No. 6. Underground Waters of Southeastern Kansas, by Erasmus Haworth. 1897. Seepage Waters of Northern Utah, by Samuel Fortier. 1897. Underground Waters of Southeastern Nebraska, by N. H. Darton. 1898. Water Resources of the Lower Peninsula of Michigan, by A. C. Lane. 1899. Lower Michigan Mineral Waters, by A. C. Lane. 1899. Geology and Water Resources of Nez Perces County, Idaho, Pt. I, by I. C. Russell. 1901. No. 54. Geology and Water Resources of Nez Perces County, Idaho, Pt. II, by I. C. Russell. 1901. No. 55. Geology and Water Resources of a Portion of Yakima County, Wash., by G. O. Smith. 1901. No. 59. Development and Application of Water in Southern California, Pt. I, by J. B. Lippincott. 1902. No. 60. Development and Application of Water in Southern California, Pt. II, by J. B. Lippincott. 1902. No. 67. The Motion of Underground Waters, by C. S. Slichter. 1902. No. yy. Water Resources of Molokai, Hawaiian Islands, by Waldemar Lind- gren. 1903. No. 90. Geology and Water Resources of Part of the Lower James River Val- ley, South Dakota, by J. E. Todd and C. M. Hall. 1904. Also Professional Papers No. 17. Preliminary Report on the Geology and Water Resources of Nebraska West of the One Hundred and Third Meridian, by N. H. Darton. 1903. Preliminary Paper on Artesian Wells, Page 1, Monthly Review of Iowa Weather and Crop Service, Vol. 2, April, 1891. Power from Artesian Wells. Engineering Magazine, October, 1895. The Artesian Wells of Southern Wyoming. Bui. No. 20, Wyo. Exp. Sta. Some Particulars of An Artesian Well Bored Through the Oolithic Rocks at Bourne, Lincolnshire. James Pilbrow. Page 245, Vol. 75, Proc. Inst. C. E. The Artesian Wells of Iowa. W. H. Norton. Iowa Eng. Soc, 1898, p. 98. Artesian Wells as a Water Supply for Philadelphia. O. C. S. Carter. Jour. Franklin Inst., September, 1893. Artesian Well Practice in the Western United States. Compiled from a Gov- ernment Report. Eng. News, 1891, XXV, p. 172, et seq. Artesian Wells of Colorado. Bui. No. 16, State Agric. College, 1891. Artesian Wells in South Lincolnshire. J. C. Gill. Vol. 101, Part III, Proc. Inst. C. E. Artesian Wells of the Great Plains. Dept. of Agric, 1882. 158 Groundwater Chemical Analysis of the White Silver Water of the Artesian Well, Lafayette, Indiana. Report of C. M. Wetherill, Lafayette, 1858. Artesian Wells of Denver. Report by Special Committee of the Colorado Scientific Soc. Published by the Society, 1884. Geological Conditions Affecting the Water Supply of Houses and Towns. Lecture by Joseph Prestwich, Oxford, 1876. Artesian Wells of Iowa. W. H. Norton. Vol. 6, Iowa Geo. Survey. Artesian Wells in Kansas. Robert Hay. 22nd Report Kansas Academy of Science. Artesian Water Supply of Galveston, Texas. Eng. News, p. 138, Vol. 29. The World's Use of Artesian Wells. Eng. News, May 16th, 1891. Artesian Wells, Notes on Drilling. Eng. News, July 25th, 1885. Artesian Wells in New England. Report of Water Com. of Taunton, Mass., for 1889. Artesian Wells for Water Supply, Chatham and Madison, N. J. Eng. News, p. 92, Vol. 42. The Large Artesian Well Plant at Camden, N. J. Eng. News, May nth, 1899. Artesian Well at City Park, Davenport, Iowa. Scientific Am. Sup., April 13th, 1889. The Glenwood Well. Iowa C. E. & Surveyors Soc, 1895. The Deep Artesian Well at Galveston, Texas. Eng. News, August nth, 1892. Artesian Wells in Dakota. Eng. News, April 13th, 1889. Artesian Wells of South Dakota. Fire and Water, July 18th, 1891. St. Augustine Artesian Water. Eng. News, February 20th, 1892. St. Augustine's Great Artesian Well. Fire and Water, March 2nd, 1889. St. Augustine's Well. Eng. News, April 2nd, 1892. Marion Artesian Well, Charleston, S. C. Eng. News, April 4th, 1891. The Great Artesian Well at St. Augustine, Florida. Eng. News, April 6th, 1889. Notes on Artesian Water, and the Effects of Irrigation on Sub-Surface Water in the San Joaquin Valley. Eng. Record, February 17th, 1894. Artesian Wells. Scientific Am. Sup., January 4th, 1879. Artesian Wells in France. Herbert. Paris. Eng. News (?), June 16th, 1888. Subterranean Waters of the Ouednir. Scientific Am. Sup., May 26th, 1889. A Great Artesian Well. Fire and Water, June 23rd, 1888. A New Plant for Increasing the Water Supply at Rockford, 111. D. W. Mead. Proc. of Iowa C. E. & Surveyors Soc, 1900. Artesian Wells in the Red River Valley. Monograph No. 25, U. S. G. S. The Glacial Lake Agassiz. Upham. p. 550. The Geological Structure of the Extra-Australian Artesian Basins. Maitland. Proc Royal Soc. of Queensland, Vol. XII, April 17th, 1896. Relates to the artesian basins of the United States. Wells of Northern Indiana, by Frank Leverett. W. S. & I. Papers No. 21. Wells of Southern Indiana, by Frank Leverett. W. S. & I. Papers No. 26. The Ground Waters of a Portion of South Dakota. J. E. Todd. W. S. & I. Papers No. 34. Deep Borings of the United States, Part I. N. H. Darton. W. S. & I. Papers No. 57. Deep Borings of the United States, Part II. N. H. Darton. W. S. & I. Papers No. 61. 159 CHAPTER XL HYDROGRAPHY OF SURFACE WATERS. 98. Growth of Rivers. — The drainage waters which ulti- mately become the stream flow, are the active geological agents which have been and are largely instrumental in the disintegration of the strata, and are still more largely instru- mental in the transportation of the disintegrated material and its deposition at other points. Geological and topographical conditions modify the possi- ble extension of a drainage system, but within the limits estab- lished by these conditions, the drainage waters are the direct agent in the formation and modification of their own drainage area. The laws of river development and growth are important and must be known and appreciated in all engineering ques- tions involving the improvement of rivers and the protection of areas subject to river overflow. (Tarr, Physical Geography, Chapters XV. and XVI.) The principal drainage areas of the United States are shown on Map No. 18. 99. Growth of Lakes. — Lakes are of various origins, and are classified by Powell, according to such origin, into Diastro- phic, Coulee, Crater, Bayou, and Glacial Lakes.* Examples of each of these types are found within the U. S. The Great Lakes are Diastrophic in origin, although glacial action had much to do with the present form. These lakes are of great importance in commerce and transporta- tion, and their drainage waters are also utilized to a consider- able extent for power purposes. * Powell, Physiographic Features. 129* 127° 125' 123* 12T 119* 117' 113* 113" 111* 109' 107' 105" 103* 101* 47 45 43 A. / /° /i •« / \ / 1 ° 1 I 0, I I L J /I /f^j^A / " flk /V // A/ r~*4- / / v / ^"^W-^ Its & / c \ // M / /"^^ /_ 4< m$t^ IT a t 1^ r nH_D ■4. « /WTHi4\ M13M T^/Fh i?Hto/l// TvTW^ r*W?H-N? r Kr* s ir^_ 34- 41 a *&££• H HLi R A S7 1 i~. a t'c^ 35 i 3 !t i . — _ ^2 81 r^ — ' 28 -p0\ ^a 25 / r\- «#>* r ^ — -L^ / & K* * Qr^^ > / / / ^?v 7i>7 v^r „A* \f ^-/ 1 Ifer iiV wv no* us* tir loar tor 10 6* 10 y id' 81 98* 9V 88* 87" 85 s 83" ai* "l&> 1 62 Hydrography The U. S. Government annually expends large sums in the maintenance and improvement of navigation on these lakes, and extended observations are made to determine their hydrological factors. Many of these observations are of much interest, as they afford perhaps the largest available measure of change in hydrological conditions. ioo. Hydrography of the Great Lakes. — The surfaces of these lakes are subject to seasonal and annual fluctuations. Seasonal fluctuations are caused largely by the variation of the rainfall and run off from month to month, by the effects of temperature and by the variation in barometric pressure. The annual variations and the variations between different years are largely due to the variations in annual rainfall on the watersheds, although its distribution through the seasons, and the factors which also control stream flow, likewise modify these results. The mean annual variation in the surface elevation of the Great Lakes is shown on Diagram 33. The variation in the annual means is shown in Diagram 34, and the variation in lake levels from i860 to 1902 is shown on Diagram 35. In connection with these diagrams, diagram 26, showing the flows of the rivers connecting and draining the Great Lakes should be examined. Table 38 gives the principal physical data of these lakes. 101. The Ocean. — The ocean is of the greatest interest to the engineer as a highway of commerce. Its influences are encountered by the engineer in the improvement of harbors, the construction of navigable channels, and the improvement of tidal rivers. Its currents have an important influence on the temperature and humidity of the lands near which they flow. The important features of the ocean are : First, Its Currents, Second, Its Tides, Third, Its Waves, Fourth, Its Temperatures, Fifth, Its Form and Depth. (Tarr, Physical Geography, Chapters 9, 10 and II.) Hydrograph of the Great Lakes DIAGRAM 33. 163 DIAGRAM 36, Bd« 58 1 1 66 Hydrography DIAGRAM 34. VARIATION OF ANNUAL MEANS U.S. DEEP WATERWAYS COMMISSION "Water Level Diagram Chic»gc , Angiul . IBS© . § j 9 a a I S si n n n n ill! £'e r aftonf /•ert A tYX S trptfrti Oh Sl^Kir-ior ^A ^.# AfJCfi'I AW it vv V l* 4-tf <7i? J K) !«!»[§; loit Sard Tv \ t* & \A„ jf/' if*' r .5 tN 'A V-V V 2'. id 4' TAj'irO u\ A r^ V M y, a of I. >c U Ul " m itti no ttm Hydrography of the Great Lakes 267 TABLE 38. PHYSICAL DATA OF THE GREAT LAKES.* Superior Basin. Area of drainage basin square miles 76,100 Area of Lake Superior do 3 2 , I oo Discharge St. Mary's River (mean 1882-1898) s-f 69,954 Discharge St. Mary's River (mean 1860-1903) s-f 77,345 Annual Rainfall (mean 1882-1898) s-f 147,164 Annual Rainfall (mean 1882-1898) inches 26.27 Annual Evaporation (mean 1882-1898) do 13-75 Temperature (mean 1882-1898) 35-95°F- Wind, velocity per hour (mean 1882-1898) miles 9.7 Humidity, percentage of saturation (mean 1882-1898) . . per cent. 76.5 Huron and Michigan Basins. Area of drainage basin square miles 137,800 Area of Lakes Huron and Michigan do 45,500 Discharge St. Clair River (mean 1882-1808) s-f 191,980 Discharge St. Clair River (mean 1860-1902) s-f 197,820 Annual Rainfall (mean 1882-1898) s-f 325,857 Annual Rainfall (mean 1882- 1898) inches 32.12 Annual Evaporation (mean 1882-1898) do 20.56 Temperature (mean 1882-1898) 42.o8°F. Wind, velocity per hour (mean 1882-1898) miles 10.3 Humidity, percentage of saturation (mean 1882-1898) . . per cent. 76.5 St. Clair and Erie Basins. Area of drainage basin square miles 40,800 Area of Lakes St. Clair and Erie do 10,600 Discharge Niagara River (mean 1882-1898) s-f 207,468 Discharge Niagara River (mean 1860-1902) s-f 219,843 Annual Rainfall (mean 1882-1898) s-f 102,308 Annual Rainfall (mean 1882-1898) inches 3408 Annual Evaporation (mean 1882-1898) do 26.10 Temperature (mean 1882-1898) 48.01 °F. Wind, velocity per hour (mean 1882-1898) miles 10.4 Humidity, percentage of saturation (mean 1882-1898) . . per cent. 73.6 Ontario Basin. Area of drainage basin square miles 33,000 Area of Lake Ontario do 7,400 Discharge of St. Lawrence River (mean 1882-1898) s-f 248,518 Discharge of St. Lawrence River (mean 1860-1902) .... s-f 251,930 Annual Rainfall (mean 1882-1898) s-f 89,557 Annual Rainfall (mean 1882-1898) inches 36.87 Annual Evaporation (mean 1882-1898) do 23.82 Temperature (mean 1882-1898) 44.io°F. Wind, velocity per hour miles 10.6 Humidity, percentage of saturation (mean 1882-1898) . . per cent. 74.9 * Annual Report Chief of Engineers U. S. A., 1003. p. 2861. Appendix F. F. F., 1 68 Hydrography LITERATURE. Rivers. The Rivers of North America. Russell. Physics and Hydraulics of the Mississippi River. Humphrey & Abbot. The Improvement of Rivers. Thomas and Watt. Wiley & Sons. Tenth Census of the United States, 1880, Vols. 16 and 17 on Water Powers. River Hydraulics. James A. Seddon. Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., October, 1899; also January and March, 1900. Hydrology of the Mississippi River. J. L. Greenleaf. Am. Jour, of Science, July, 1896. The Missouri River. Geo. S. Morrison. The School of Mines Quarterly, November, 1895. The Nile River. Indian Engineering, March 18th, 1899. The Missouri River. O. B. Cohn. Mineral Gazette, April 6th and 13th, 1893. Erosion of the River Banks of the Mississippi and Missouri Rivers, by J. A. Ackerston. Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., June 1st, 1893. Basin and Regime of the Mississippi. C. M. Woodward. Van Nostrand's Eng. Mag., Vol. 27, p. 18. Rivers. By Edwin Easton. Van Nostrand's Eng. Mag., Vol. 19, p. 345. Rivers. By W. H. Wheeler. Treats of the Rivers in the Eastern and Midland Districts of England. Van Nostrand's Eng. Mag., Vol. 27, 281. Limiting Waves on Meander Belts of Rivers. Prof. M. S. W. Jefferson. Na- tional Geo. Mag., October, 1902. Transportation of Solid Matter by Rivers. The Suspension of Solids in Flow Water. E. H. Hooker. Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., August, 1806. Transportation of Solid Matter by Rivers. Wm. Starling. Trans. Ass'n C. E. of Cornell Univ., June 18th, 1896. Methods and Conditions of Transportation of Sediment. By Wm. Starling. Eng. Mag., November, 1892. Silt Movement of the Mississippi; Its Volume, Cause and Condition. R. E. McMath. Van Nostrand's Eng. Mag, Vol. 28, p. 32. Lakes. Topographic Feature of Lake Shores. Page 75, 5th Annual Report of Director U. S. G. S. Lake Fluctuation. O. Guthrie. The American Engineer, August 1st, August 8th, August 15th, August 22nd, 1888. Notes About the Geology and Hydrology of the Great Lakes. P. Vedel. West. Soc. Eng., Vol. 1, No. 4. The Temperature of Lakes. Desmond FitzGerald. From Am. Soc. C. E., August, 1895. Lake Currents. W. H. Hearding. Journal Asso. Eng. Soc, 1892. Lake Bonneville. Gilbert. Monograph No. 1, U. S. G. S. Lake Lahontan. Russell. Monograph No. 11, U. S. G. S. The Glacial Lake Agassiz. Upham. Monograph No. 25, U. S. G. S. General Account of the Fresh Water Morasses of the United States. U. S. Shaler. 10th Annual Report U. S. G. S., p. 261. Geological History of Harbors. Shaler. 13th Annual Report U. S. G S., p. 99- Ocean Currents. Ocean Currents. James Page. Nat. Geo. Mag., April, 1902. Recent Discoveries Concerning the Gulf Stream. J. E. Pillsbury. Century Mag., February, 1892, p. 533. Measurement of the Velocity of Ocean Current at Great Depths. Eng. News, November 14th, 1885. Origin of the Gulf Stream and Circulation of Waters in the Gulf of Mexico. U. B. Sweitzer. Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. 40, p. 86. Ocean Waves and Wave Force. Theodore Cooper. Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. 36, p. 139. Physical Geography of the Sea. M. F. Maury. Hydrography of the Great Lakes. 169 Tides. Atlantic Coast Tides. M. S. W. Jefferson. Nat. Geo. Mag., December, 1898. Tidal Instruments. Sir Wm. Thomson. Proc. Inst. C. E., Vol. 65, p. 2. General Notes on Ocean Waves and Wave Force. Theodore Cooper. Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., April, 1896. Yearly Tides. W. S. Auchencloss. Proc. Eng. Club of Phila., Vol. IX, p. 343. Tidal Oscillation. L. D'Auria. Jour. Franklin Inst., Vol. 131, p. 350. Range of Tides in Rivers and Estuaries. E. A. Gieseler. Jour. Franklin Inst, Vol. 132, p. 101. Theory of the Tides. L. D'Auria. Jour. Fran. Inst., Vol. 123, pp. 331 and 409. Tide Phenomenon, Galveston, Texas. Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. 25, p. 543. Tidal Waves. Van Nostrand's Eng. Mag., September, 1884. Theory of and Prediction of Heights of Tides. E. A. Gieseler. Jour. Franklin Inst., March and October, 1883. Tides and Tidal Scour. Joseph Boult. Van Nostrand's Eng. Mag., Vol 28, p. 148. The Problem of the Tides. J. F. Hefford. Trans. Ass'n of C. E., Cornell University, June, 1896. Distribution of Velocity and Tidal Currents. Ann. des Ponts et Chaussees, 1898. Study of the Action of the Tides in the English Channel. Ann. des Ponts et Chaussees, 1809. 170 CHAPTER XII. HYDROMETRY. 102. Of Flowing Water. — The measurement of flowing water is by no means a simple operation, especially in chan- nels of varying sections. In channels of uniform section there is a regular increase in velocity from the sides to the center of the stream, and from the bottom of the channel to the sur- face, which in each case is fairly uniform and constant. In natural river channels, where the cross-section is dif- ferent at each station, and where the banks and bottom of the stream differ in form and direction from point to point, the river flow, which in general varies in the same manner as the current in uniform channels, is also affected by cross and counter-currents and other irregularities in the flow, which are caused by the inequalities in the banks and bed of the stream. 103. Vertical Velocity Curves. — Diagrams 36 and 37, which are reproduced from the report of the State Engineer of New York, show various mean vertical velocity curves. These diagrams show comparisons between the mean vertical velocities of streams with different classes of beds, and also comparative velocity curves for open and ice covered sec- tions.* For some time, the Corps of Engineers, U. S. A., have been engaged on hydrographic surveys of the rivers connect- ing and draining the Great Lakes, and some of the graphical records of their observations are of great interest and value in showing the actual variations encountered in stream meas- urements, which must be known and appreciated in order that the engineer may understand the limitations of hydrometry, * Report State Engineer, N. Y. Supplement, 1902. Vertical Velocity Curves 171 8 < a < 5 (0 U D O > h O O J y > J h a > z < kJ IL O z (0 DC z o u 3 > j 1 r < > < z < > 1 -1 »- > 5 i > 5 10 3 _ — •-* d = ' — Jtr 3 * > w HI > b k) > 1 X w u 1 r « hi > 01 > ^* ^> z 2- < s * X % N 5 s\ U > 3 3 3 LAa z \ ^ u 5 IL Z < i it, z s 5: 1 9 i z < I s 9 I I e a a z S I I I 1 \ s *• \ V T \ V ^ i , J c > { ) 1 < p 5 > < 5 c if > < 5 f I j 5 8 p z or a 3 O I oj oq OJD >< WldSa -IVXOl JO -LN30 »3c3 v O > w t ■ ^-- > z < Hi cc ■5 R IU > »0 IL O Z 1 (0 « w < W ti if ki > a. 3 ll. r a 1 1 1 5 < j Q. to IU > a 3 U7 IL O z £ • 1 s »V ^: ^* ***»*. k '•s ^ ^ \\ v \ vs V v \ ■ \ V \ \1 c > < c > J C ) ) c > 5 > > 5 1 f ) j i i I 8 I kJ © or H (0 Hi ^ of Id Hld30 "1\/^.OJ. JO JLW33 a^d 172 Hydrometry CO 2 < o < 5 9 y > a: U > h o o J y > j 5 h a. y > z < y z o z o (0 DC z o u * > o t s o 3 i < I* z a S 8 I 8 z hi of <+ < CT z > > > > z D \ / > IT ^ / / tff \ \ * < t III 1 \ / > ^ ' a V w / »0 ^ / u. 1 z < fcl I 1 \ / / \ f z < ID \ 1 1 1 1 c ) < c \ W I 5 \ 5 1 c > s ) s ► i o o Mld3Q -1VJLOX JO 1N3D tJ3d 4 Z * z Mi it 8 I z I mm - **», i (0 III ■»" J> k ul I D (VJ V) IL z > V 7> z 5 (I 10 k. z < 111 'V \ N N \ > v V 2 1 I 1 1 1 1 • 1 V- \ \\ lit < > c i 5 i C f 5 1 i : t > 5 I ? > 8 z hi a. o o u - ki h K 3 ill « > u o >y is < < i o X HJ-cd^aa -ivxoi JO J-NUD d3d Surface Fluctuations 173 and the errors which are liable to arise in hydrometric opera- tions. Several diagrams and maps have been reproduced from the report of the Engineers of the Northern and North-west- ern lake survey. Those selected illustrate the hydrographic conditions at the head of the St. Clair River. 104. Vertical Surface Fluctuation. — Diagram 38 is a re- production of the graphical record of the U. S. L. S., Gauge No. 5, for May 17th, 1899. This gauge is located at the head of the St. Clair River, and the diagram shows both the nature of the graphical record which can be obtained from such a gauge, and also the fact, not ordinarily fully appreciated, that the surface of the moving water in a river channel has a con- stant vertical motion, not only from hour to hour, but literally from minute to minute. With the facts shown by this diagram fully in mind, it will be readily understood that a single set of observations of river flow is of little or no value as a basis for drawing conclusions as to maximum or minimum dis- charge, or for establishing, in any sense, the regime of the stream. DIAGRAM 38. Reproduction of Record of U. S.L.S. Gauge No. 5 for May 17, 1899. AT Hcao of SttClaih Riven. 6 7 B 10 11 18 M M 105. Physical Data of the St. Clair River. — Map No. 19 is a hydrographic map of the St. Clair River, and shows the h r 5 1 I'll . SUP :rtt «itt t &iAi • ? £ •> ■ I * S* 1 ** i |:U1 rjm~J * : 5 5 S at? iJfl.liiii. iit , .! 1 MAP No. 19. it it ! >c y < rrra 1/ / i s * ill j) i :| J ! * "1 / / VN N__ 176 Hydrometry conditions from Lake Huron to a point some five miles south. The cross-sections at various intervals are shown, and the contours of the stream bed are given. DIAGRAM 39. Diagram 39 shows the characteristics of the St. Clair River from St. Clair to the discharge section. The variations in the elevation of the river bottom, in the area of cross-sec- tion and in the width of the stream, are shown. From this diagram and from Map 19, an understanding of the constant change in conditions of flow may be gained. In considering the data of this river, it should be understood that it is a river of considerable magnitude, and that the conditions en- countered in it are much more uniform and constant than in most of the smaller streams with the measurement of which the engineer will ordinarily be concerned. The discharge section for the measurement of this river is shown near the bottom of the map. Mr. L. C. Sabin, As- sistant Engineer in charge, describes this section as follows : "The location seeming to present the most favorable con- dition for discharge measurement is the reach of the river, about two miles in length, beginning just above the mouth of the Black River. This portion of the river is comparatively Surface Fluctuations 77 straight and uniform, and after a survey of the location the discharge section, called "dry dock," was selected, at a point near the foot of the reach, where the river was a trifle wider and shallower than above or below. The general direction of the river at this place is north-east to south-west, the sec- tion is a little over 2,100 feet in width, and as the observa- tions for discharge were to be taken 100 ft. apart, the section was divided into 21 partial areas, with a discharge section at the centre of each (except in case of two end areas, the width of which varied with the water stage)." This section is No. 19 on Map 19, and is also shown on Diagram 40. DIAGRAM 40. Curves of Equal Velocity Section Dry Dock r. mton of O Oischorots. «?S 49-60 Mean Water Stage • 576.6 ft. Mean Velocity -3.33 Itstc ITS. 2 4 i ( 7 I S 10 HA 2 3 4 5 16 17 8 19 20 21 \ Transverse Curve of Mean Velocities i Section 'Dry Dock' Fmr> mean of 12 D'Schoraes. Abi 43-S9 rzAdn*. Mean WbterSbge-57Si v. 5 1- Several recording water gauges were located on this river, one about 1,500 ft. above the discharge section is called Gauge "Dry Dock." Another self-recording gauge was located on the Grand Trunk Railway property, near the head of the river ; just below section No. 4, and is called, "G. T. R." Gauge. A third recording gauge was established on the lake shore, 600 ft. above Fort Gratiot lighthouse, and is called "Lighthouse" Gauge. i 7 % Hydrometry 106. Propagation of Waves. — Concerning the fluctua- tions in water level, Mr. Sabin says : "Among many examples of extreme fluctuations collected by the self-registering gauges, we have selected one to show the propagation of a wave from the lake through the outlet. The record of the four gauges on December 7th, 1899, are re- produced on Diagram 41, all drawn to the same vertical and DIAGRAM 4 time scale. * * * This particular wave was caused by both wind and barometer. In the morning a storm of some intensity was centered over Duluth, and during the forenoon of the 7th, the water level at the foot of Lake Huron had been abnormally depressed by a stiff south wind, and the effect of the barometer gradient. The low passed the meridian of Port Huron about 3 p. m., causing a rearrangement of the iso bars over Lake Michigan, and a shift of wind from the south to the west. This removed the cause of the low water and in the reaction the water rose to about as far above normal as it had been below. "The rate of travel of the wave down stream is the point to which attention is called. It seems that the maximum is reached at G. T. R. very soon after it occurred at lighthouse, but the maximum at dry dock occurred about fifteen minutes later, while nearly an hour is required for it to reach Roberts' Landing. A study of this and other similar records leads to the conclusion that the time required for a certain fluctuation Fluctuations in Current Velocity 179 in stage at G. T. R. to be felt at dry dock is fifteen minutes. This corresponds to a velocity of wave of 24 feet per second. The theoretical velocity V= VgD, where D represents mean depth, would be about 31 ft. per second." DIAGRAM 42 III >3 Current Velocity at Section Dry Dock Changes in Velocity following Fluctuations in Water Level. June 5th, 1899. Meter no. IB at 0.3 depth at Sta.20. © @ @ ($ @- 107. Fluctuation in Current Velocity. — On Diagram 42 is shown the fluctuations in current velocity at section Dry Dock on the St. Clair River from ten o'clock to eleven o'clock in the forenoon, and from one o'clock to four o'clock in the afternoon of June 5th, 1899. There is also platted on this dia- gram the records of the water gauges at G. T. R. and at Dry Dock. Concerning these fluctuations, Mr. Sabin says: "The velocity of the stream filaments passing a fixed point in the cross-section seems to be ever changing. These varia- tions may be divided into at least two classes: first class to include those fluctuations having a short period but consid- erable aptitude, and the second class, covering the more per- manent changes, which may be traced to the change in stage. "The fluctuations in stage, with an aptitude of over one foot, is shown in discharge curve by an extreme variation of i8o Hydrometry DIAGRAM 43. Fluctuations in Current Velocity 181 DIAGRAM 44. Pulsations of Current at Section D^yDock" Simultaneous Observations at Points 50 ft apart Parallel to Current Catamaran No. 2. Row Boat Row Boat Catamaran NO, i o ® • o at STA.6+50 0N Sec 50 ft below Sec ioo ft below Sec. i50 ft below sec I I 1(9)1 I 1(0 Time in Minutes. Set 5 @IMQMI©I11©III (^1||©I11©|||©|||©|11&||| 1 82 Hydrometry velocity of nearly a foot per second. This represents the second class fluctuation in current velocity, with the cause traced directly to variation in stage. "The first class of fluctuation does not admit of such sim- ple treatment. The most variable observations were those made on Sept. 23rd, when two catamarans, held 150 ft. apart, and two small boats were placed between them 50 ft. apart, each boat and catamaran had a meter running at the same depth and taking simultaneous readings at 15 sec. intervals. Some of the results of this work are shown on diagrams 43 and 44. "In the first three sets (Diagram 43) the meters were in a line across the stream, and 50 ft. apart. In the second three sets (Diagram 44), the line of meters extended in the direc- tion of the current. In the first sets it is seen that two adjacent meters may follow each other for a time, but will soon de- part, when another pair will act together. This serves to bring out the fact that the minor fluctuations do not affect the entire cross-sectional line, and, in fact, that there is no synchronism over any large portion of it, neither can the fluctuations be traced with accuracy to the four positions, as would be the case if a wave of great extent passed across the stream diagon- ally. In the remaining curves taken with the meters in line of current, the similarity of the four curves seem to be plain, although a certain wave, if we may so speak of it, in the curve of the upper stream meter, may die out or change its form before reaching the last meter in the line. There are so many crests and troughs that may be followed through the series that little doubt can remain that these fluctuations travel down stream for some distance without much diminution in energy. The time required to travel 150 ft. appears to be one minute, giving a velocity of only about 2j4 ft. per second. As this is less than 1-10 of the velocity of the fluctuations of the second class, it points to the conclusion that the two classes are quite distinct, both in immediate cause and in character." Diagram 40, which shows a cross-section of the river at section Dry Dock, also shows the curves of equal velocity at that section. A transverse curve of mean velocities is also Fluctuations in Current Velocity 183 shown. This diagram is an interesting study of the effect of the shape of cross-section on the velocity of flow, and illus- trates how irregularities in flow may be produced by rapid variations in cross-section. LITERATURE. Turneaure and Russell, Water Supplies, Chapter 12. Merriman, Treatise on Hydraulics. Bellasis, Hydraulics' with Tables. Flynn, Flow of Water in Irrigation Canals. Water Supply and Irrigation Papers, U. S. G. S. : No. 56, Method of Stream Measurement, 1901. No. 64, Accuracy of Stream Measurement, E. C. Murphy, 1902. No. 94, Hydrographic Manual of U. S. G. S., E. C. Murphy, 1904. Description of Some Experiments on the Flow of Water. Fteley and Stearns. Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. 12. Recent Experiments on the Flow of Waters over Weirs. M. Bazin. Annals des Ponts et Chaussees, October, 1888; see also Proc. Eng. Club of Philadelphia, Vol. 7. Coefficients in Hydraulic Formulas. Keating. Jour. Wes. Soc. Eng., Vol. I, p. 190. Experimental Data for Flow over Broad Crest Dam. Johnson and Cooley. Jour. Wes. Soc. Eng., Vol. I, p. 30. New Formula for Calculating the Flow of Water in Pipes and Channels. Jour. Asso. Eng. Soc, Vol. 13, p. 295. Recent Hydraulic Experiments. Cunningham. Trans. Inst. C. E., Vol. 71, p. 1. Measurement of Water. Bui. 6, Montana Agricultural Exp. Sta., 1885. The Cippoletti Trapezoidal Weir. Flynn and Dyer. Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. 32, p. 9. Methods of Gauging the Discharge from Hemlock Lake. Skinner. Trans. Asso. C. E., Cornell University, 1898. Measurement and Division of Water. L. G. Carpenter. Bui. 27, State Agric. College, Fort Collins, Colorado. Annual Report Chief Eng. U. S. A., 1900. Appendix I. I. I. Survey of N. and N. W. Lakes. Same, 1902. Appendix E. E. E. and 1903 Appendix F. F. F. AVERA6ES FOR THE PERIOC FROM WWTER Of 147^77 TOWWTER 01 THE ICE SEASON. BASIN OF THE GREAT LAKES AND SURROUNDING TERRITORY. LONGITUDE 70* TO 109* WEST. LATITUDE 37* TO 68* NORTH SHOWING BY YEARS AND AVERAGES THE RECORD FOR CHARACTERISTIC ROUTES AND REGIONS. explanations: scale horizontal:— oats »Mii ■ fir i ,"*. i rViB. faASfc. LOCATION I MOV. | DCC. | JAM FEB. I MAR. LAKE MICHIGAN, LAKE SUPERIOR AND LAKE SI6NS actuaa. ice ,-- last and first vessel official closing and opening . open season squivalent perioo ,-.... AUTHORITY Com/iHtcL ly OMUtard. Chariot J>oar* , untUr aUroclion of Z.Z. Coolly, CJS., from. XecoroUonUfelforotogicai Of/tc* , Jie^artmon*. efj^tblie TfbrHt, Dtftarimoni. ef Marine and fit) 'fries, and. Iltftart. mont of JZailwa&o arut Cusurf* , Dominion, of' Canada,, ttnet of -ike n\aiker Buretui,, Engineer Cor/** l r S.J^Zig?*t Jfous* £sta.iitLsf*mmnt, and. CoUo&nrs of CUttomi aft** VrUtmA /Siatts. from, Harbor Com.. mifsioners , JSuetsorc May CoTnjtamy ,-*~ario*ts ctocunmj-ttf , ami nriraa' . obtairioct. largely 6y s/ieaiat corre&fioneUnoo , and origwtalfy i for- o\& Commission.. AVERA6ES FOB THE PERIOD FROM WINTER OF 1876 -77 TO WINTER OF 7895-96 INCLUSIVE. ROUTE BETWEEN CHICAGO AND ATLANTIC OCEAN. VIA ST. LAWRENCE RIVER. LOCATION PORT ARTHUR, ONT OVLUTH, MINN. SAULT STE. MARIE, MICH. ILL. Strwn fern.. STRAITS OF MACKINAC. ST CLAIR FLATS DETROIT RIVER MONROE, MICH. (Local) TOLEDO, OHIO. • CLEVELAND,0HI0. • BUFFALO, NY. » 0SWE6O, N.Y. oaOENSBUR6,N.V. LAKE ST. FRANCIS. MONTREAL, PQ. DEC. 23 DEC 14 DEC* JAN 10 JAN. 6 DEC.I7 DEC. 18 DEC. 13 DEC.I6 DEC 23 DEC DEC DEC 15 DEC 23 DEC MAY I APR. 2+ APR IS FEBE4 APR.IS APR S MAR 21 MAR. 7 MAR .3 1 MAR. 24 APR 9 APR 4 APR e APR 14 APR.IS JAN. FES. MAR. CHICAGO, ILL .Slnw ->»-<. milwaukee, wis. grand haven, mich. grand rapids, mich. green bay, wis. Long Tail point l.h.wis sherwood - - * - mission point l6hth5e.mich GREEN ISLAND, i min0minee light house .micw eagle bluff light hse .wis grand traverse l h,w1s. porte des morts lh..wis south fox island - - mich little traverse l.h.mich, poverty island l.h,mich. wag0shance l'ght h'scwcm esc an aba, mich, straits of mackinac, mi mackinaw city, mich. passage isl'd l.h., port arthur , ont. grand marais light hse.minn duluth.minn. ashland, wis. outer island light h'se.mich port a6e river - Sand point light house - marquette, mich. » light house.mick, grand isl and light h"se sault st e.marie . ont. detour lighthouse , mic cheboygan light house.mich alpena, mich, thunder bay light hse,mi stur6e0n point l.h., mich kincardine, ont. tawas light house, mich charity island l.h. saginaw rlv. ranges l hj1ic* port austin li6ht house ,mich sand beach « goderich.ont fort 6rati0t l'ght h'sejwch sarnia. ont. port huron, mich LAKE ST. CLAIR AND LAKE ERIE. ST. CLAIR FLATS L.H..LSTCLA WINDMILL POINT L'GHT H"SE >IK BELLE ISLE L.H.,L.ST CLAIR. - PORT DOVER, ONT. PORT STANLEY, ONT. WINDSOR, ONT. DETROIT R.MAMAJUOA ISL'D L STA MONROE, UICH RAISIN RIVER. T0LE00.0HI0 SANDUSKY BAY, .CEDAR PT. CLEVELAND.OHiO. ERIE.PENN. 8UFFALO.N Y. LAKE ONTARIO AND LAKE ONEIDA TORONTO, ONT. OSWEGO, N.Y. BELLEVILLE. ONT. CAPE VINCENT. N.I KINGSTON, ONT OGOENSBURG.NV CONSTANTIA.NY. BREWERTON.N.Y- VIA LAKE CHAMPLAIN AND HUDSON RIVER ST. LAWRENCE RlV.. L. CHAMPLAIN AND HUD LCHAMPLAIN OPP. BURLINGTON WHITEHALL. N.Y. ALBANt\ N.Y. L»J 63 .6 102 L2B 94 VIA MOHAWK VALLEY AND HUDSON RIVER GEORGIAN BAY ROUTE LAKE ST FRANCIS, ONT MONTREAL, PQ. QUEBEC, PQ. ST. CHARLES RlV ROUSES POINT.NT L CHAMPLAIN, OPPBURLINGTON WHITEHALL. N.Y. Al BANT, N.Y. THE ARSENAL CENT'l PARK.HVI COLL INOWOOO, ONT. LAKE- 8IMCOE, •• TORONTO, ONT. DEC. 3 APR 24 DEC 25 APR Zt DEC 21 MAR 25 GEORGIAN BAY ROUTE. OTTAWA ROUTE. i.mwn p mti.1 wvu i m i lhii i fit*. NOV. 28 MAYS no v. is APR.ee .--.mil LAKE NIPIS8ING.ONT OTTAWA, ONT Owen souno.OnT collingwood.ont 1 Al £ SIMCOt ,OWT YOHK FACTORY. HAYES RIVER KwHvfT » S DIAGRAM 46 U 5 OC£P WATERWAY* ( Cttrago. November. 1886. 1 86 CHAPTER XIII. ICE INFLUENCES. 108. Formation of Ice. — Ice is formed in natural waters at temperatures ranging from 32° to 28° F., depending on the amount of mineral matter held in solution. In streams and fresh water lakes where the waters are comparatively free from mineral matter, the waters become heavier as they become colder until a temperature of about 39.2° F. is reached, beyond which the cooling of the surface water results in expansion and the retention of the cool water at the surface, after which freezing rapidly follows. The formation of ice, at least when the ice reaches a thick- ness of one foot or more, offers a serious impediment to navi- gation. The ice season in the basin of the Great Lakes is shown by Diagram 45, and the local variations of the season at selected localities are shown on Diagram 46.* 109. Effects of Ice. — Ice in forming expands with great force, and structures built in northern waters must be de- signed to avoid injurious effects from this cause. Engineering constructions in streams must also be built to resist the movements of ice in the spring, when it is some- times carried out by floods, which give it considerable velocity, and consequently great force. Free water ways should also be provided for all streams subject to spring runs of ice; other- wise the ice may lodge on obstructions, damming back the waters and resulting in the destruction of much property by the overflow and by the sudden release of the impounded waters. no. Anchor Ice. — While solid ice is light enough to float, and remains at the water surfaces, it often happens that thin flakes and needles of ice, which are formed in the running * Report of U. S. Deep Waterway Commission, Doc. 192, 54th Congress. Effect of Ice on River Flow 187 water, have nearly the specific gravity of the water. In this condition the ice is readily carried below the surface by even slight currents, and frequently causes considerable trouble, both to waterworks intakes and to water power plants, often causing inlets to be completely choked up, and the plants to be shut down until the ice can be removed. Such conditions only arise in open bodies of water and cease when the surface is frozen over. in. Effect on River Flow. — The presence of a layer of ice greatly modifies the river flow. The friction of flow on the ice sheet is approximately the same as the friction on the river bed. This will be seen from the vertical curve shown on Diagram 37. LITERATURE. Anchor Ice. Geo. H. Henshaw. Its Cause and Action in Stopping River Channel. Transactions Canadian Soc. C. E., Vol. I, p. 1. Pressure and Strength of Ice. Account of Extensive Experiments by the Government. Col. Wm. Ludlow. Proc. Eng. Club, Philadelphia, Vol. 4, No. 2, p. 93. Elasticity of Ice Determinations. By Prof. John Trowbridge. Am. Jour. Science, May, 1885. Strength of Ice from German Experiments. Eng. News, December 26th, 1885; also Proc. Inst. C. E., Vol. 82, p. 391. Expansion of Ice. Movement of Bridge Piers by Expanding and Contracting Ice. J. H. Dumbell. Canadian Soc. C. E., 1892. See also Abstract Eng. News, January 12th, 1893; also Eng. Record, August 6th, 1892. Strength of Ice. C. W. Beach, A. M. Munn, and H. E. Reeves. Technograph No. 9. Ice Shield at Buffalo Water Works. Eng. Record, April 1st, 1899. Expansion of Ice Compared with Steel Expansion. Eng. News, 1893, pp. 37, 41, 94, 242, 285 and 303. Sustaining Power of Ice. Eng. News, 1893, p. 208. Tensile Strength of Ice. Eng. News, 1894, p. 285. Anchor Ice Stand-Pipe Failure, Marysville, Mo. Eng. News, 1893, p. 294. Strainers for Excluding Ice from Pipe Inlets. Eng. News, 1893, p. 309; 1895, P- 33- Contrivance for Removing Anchor Ice from Chicago Water Works Inlet. Eng. News, 1891, p. 622. Anchor Ice, Evanston, 111. Eng. News, 1895, p. 33. Anchor Ice at Whiting, Ind. Eng. News, 1894, 2nd Vol., p. 4. The Growth and Sustaining Power of Ice. P. Vedel. Jour, of the Franklin Inst., Vol. 140, pp. 355 and 437- Anchor Ice. Jour, of the New Eng. W. Wks. Ass'n, Vol. 10, No. 4, June, 1896, pp. 265 to 277. Experiments with Anchor Ice, Lawrence, Mass. Jour. New Eng. Water Wks. Ass'n, Vol. 10, p. 275. Ice, Effects on Ferry Boats. Tran. Am. Soc. M. E., Vol. 7, p. 194. The Ice Season in the Basin of the Great Lakes and Surrounding Territory. Charles Po6re, C. E. Exhibit C, p. 193, Report U. S. Deep Waterway Com., 1896. Existing Glaciers of U. S. Page 309, 5th Report, Director U. S. G. S. Glacier Bay and Its Glaciers. H. F. Reid. Page 421, 17th An. Report, Div. U. S. G. S. Glaciers of Mt. Rainier. G. O. Smith. Part 2, p. 341, 18th Report, Div. U. S. G. S. LOCAL VARIATIONS I FROM REPORT OF U.S. OCEP W 108 QUEBEC, P. Q. St. Cherle* River. ALBANY N.Y. Hudson River BUFFALO, fO MONTREAL, P. Q. |wvru«it| nov. DEC | JAH.j FEB. | MAK. AM*. MAY 1896 -'96 ll889-<90 ! 1879 -feo 1869 -'70 1859 -'GO 1849-50 1839 -'40 «29-^0 1809-10 1799 -WK ■m 1644 -'45 AHUH w4»"*tl 1829 18 19 -to I809-'I0.. 1608 -7 OSWE6 DIACRAM 46. SI THE ICE SEASON ATCR-WAY COMMISSION. Lake EH* HARTFORD, CONN. Connecticut River OULUTH , MINN. >, N.Y. FEB. i MAR. 1 AM. MAY m*mm TURNERS FALLS,MASS Connecticut Rtv. wintftor NOV. DEC. I JAN. FE8. MAR. APR. MAY I895-'S6 lees-'ee »I«AU mmmm iritYV GRAND RAPIDS, MICH. ivn' v . i::-,- 00. *. *1 " r4 PS ■ • • • 1-1 • • 1-1 • • rm ' *ji ri CM © CO . . 1" . . O . . . . © . . CO . — . — 'O CO CM r- U0 ©co© ©4 t- O " "CS ." 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O CM rH IO -~S •sjAi '.rawaraiiqAY H ^J • IO ■ ^P ■« £ O O • • o -o • • • • ft O w p Q CO W 1 a >> CO Ceo «a- CO «—0 o 3 - o o o to • o to to c3 cS cS CJ — .^ J3 . o B 5^3 - ?;H i-5 co-^ dS3 55 o KC?: rt ^ >.- .. 2 1 o c 3 o ■ co • • X! « u 3J rt g 1 « 1! i i 1 '^ to bo si*. a CO < 1 Hill | C3 s a 1 1 Sirg . a se£ = 5 .2.2 p's e« '« ©2 E 3.1 H 3 "3 .53 — s ' ' "5 1 "a s p a Analyses of Water 195 3 III a < ►* 1 {I I 1 o s g ••Sim. -"a np puoj •U3AV ^""H '•OK '3A0JQ 3[pp!K 'H9M uetseuv ''e?AY ' 9W d[ n a 'IPAV aeis^uv POoai^uo "°K l BC U naB H •l\9jA ueisdwv BpaoofiA\ ;iPA\ s.majpnci •ok <£»!0 xoax Bi 'AJ!0 a'jois •8 S i a O m j g a £ t "" 2-2 .2.2 piill 5.. ill 22I Socage OW'yoi-iOfc 196 Chemistry of Natural Waters 114. Seasonal Variation. — Surface waters, derived par- tially from surface flows and partially from ground water which has flowed perhaps only a short distance through the strata, are usually more free from mineral matter than the deep ground waters. In the springtime the flow of streams is derived more largely from melted snows and surface flows, and is at such times more free from mineral matter than dur- ing times of low water. During low water the flow is derived entirely from the ground water. All surface waters have also a seasonal variation in the organic matter which they contain. This variation is as marked as that of the mineral matter contained in them. 115. Deep Waters. — Deep and artesian waters are usually charged more highly with mineral matter than those obtained from the more superficial deposits. The distance a water flows through the strata, which is also a measure of the length of time which it has been in contact with the salts of the strata, will also indicate in a general way the relative amounts of salts which will be found in the water. In this connection note the increase in the amounts of mineral mat- ter, in waters obtained from the potsdam strata, as the dis- tance from the outcrop increases. This is shown by the analyses of the waters at Rockford, Monmouth, and Jersey- ville, Illinois, as shown in Table 42. 116. Organic Matter. — River waters, which have fallen on populous districts and on fertilized agricultural land, or which have received the sewage of municipalities, are some- times highly charged with organic matter, and its accompany- ing bacterial life. Such waters sometimes contain the specific germs of certain forms of disease, and if used, without purifica- tion, for dietetic purposes, may reproduce similar diseases in those using it. When water is to be used for the purpose of a public water supply, or for manufacturing purposes, it is often necessary to have examinations made to determine the nature and amount of the matter it may contain. The extent of these analyses depends on the use to which the water is to be put, and, to some extent, on its natural history. These analyses usually include one or more of the following: Organic Matter 197 First. An analysis of the mineral residue, showing the amounts and character of the mineral matter contained in the water. Second. A sanitary or organic analysis showing the amounts of certain products or accompaniments of organic matter. Third. A bacterial examination, to determine the relative number of bacteria present and often to determine their char- acter. Fourth. A microscopic examination to identify the micro- scopic organisms present. The results of sanitary analyses and bacterial counts are indicative only and must always be interpreted in the light of the natural history of the water itself. LITERATURE. Mineral Analyses of Waters. Mineral Waters, Ark. Geo. Survey, Vol. 1. Mineral Waters, Missouri Geo. Survey, Vol. 3. American River Waters, Monograph 11, U. S. G. S., Lake Lehoutan, Table A. American Spring Waters, Ibid, Table B. Inclosed Lake Waters, Ibid, Table C. Waters of Yellowstone Nat. Park, Bui. 47, U. S. G. S. Bulletin No. 24, Wyoming Experimental Station, August, 1895. Chemical Analyses and Water Contents of Wyoming Soils. Bulletin No. 35, Wyoming Experimental Station, 1897. Analyses. Waters of New Jersey. Geo. Survey, N. J., Vol. 3, "Water Supply," p. 299. The River Irrigating Waters of Arizona. Bulletin No. 44, Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station, University of Arizona, Tucson, 1901. The Underground Waters of Arizona, their Character and Use. Bulletin No. 246, Agric. Experimental Sta., University of Arizona, 1903. Wells, Streams and Lakes in Red River Valley. Pages 536-545, Monograph No. 25, U. S. G. S., Glacial Lake Agassiz. Upham. Mineral Springs of the U. S. Bulletin No. 32, U. S. G. S., Washington, 1886. Soils and Waters of the Upper Rio Grande and Pecos Valley in Texas. Bulletin No. 12, Geo. Survey of Texas. H. H. Harrington. 1890. Sanitary Analyses of Waters. Sanitary Investigations of the Illinois Rivers and Tributaries. Illinois State Board of Health, 1901. Sanitary Investigations of the Illinois, Mississippi and Missouri Rivers. Illinois State Board of Health, 1901-1902. Chemical Survey of the Water Supplies of Illinois. Preliminary Report. A. W. Palmer. 1897. Chemical Survey of the Waters of Illinois. Report of the Years 1897- 1902. Palmer. Sanitary and Biological Examination of Water. Waters of New Jersey. N. J. Geo. Survey, Vol. 3, "Water Supply," p. 299. Air, Water and Food. Richards & Woodman. John Wiley & Sons. Water Supply, Chemical and Sanitary. Mason. John Wiley & Sons. 198 Chemistry of Natural Waters Examination of Water for Sanitary and Technical Purposes. Henry Leffman. P. Blackstone, Sons & Co. Micro-organisms in Water. Percy & G. C. Franklin. Longleys & Co. Microscopy of Drinking Waters. Whipple. Wiley & Sons. Examination of Water. Mason. Wiley & Sons. Chemistry of Water Supply. A. W. Palmer. Illinois Society of Engineers and Surveyors, 1898. Methods for the Determining of Color, and the Relation Of Color to the Char- acter of Water. F. S. Holton. Journal of the New England Water Works Ass'n, December, 1898. The Analyses of Potable Water. C. W. Folkard. Page 57, Vol. 68, Institute of Civil Engineers, Part 2. Analytical Examination of Water Samples from West Superior, Wis. Reprints from Official Report. Origin of the Appearance, Taste, and Odors Affecting the Brooklyn Water Supply. A. R. Leeds. American Water Works Ass'n, 1897. Progress in Biological Water Analyses. W. T. Sedgwick. Journal New Eng- land Water Works Ass'n, p. 50, Vol. 4. How to Study the Biology of a Water Supply. Geo. W. Rafter. Reprint from Paper before Section of Microscopy, Rochester Academy of Science. On the Use of the Microscope in Determining the Sanitary Value of Potable Water. Geo. W. Rafter. Bulletin of the Section of Microscopy. Rochester Academy of Science, 1886. Biological Examination of the Mohawk River, Schenectady, N. Y. C. E. Brown. Report February 20th, 1893. Analyses of Water, Chemical, Microscopical and Biological. T. M. Brown. Journal of the New England Water Works Ass'n, p. 79, Vol. 4. Biological Examination of Water. W. T. Sedgwick. Journal of the New England Water Works Ass'n, p. 7, Vol. 2. Bacteria and Other Organisms in Water, with Discussion. John W. Hill. Transactions, American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 33, p. 423. Sanitary Examination of Drinking Water. Edmund R. Angell. 3rd Annual Report, New Hampshire State Board of Health. Microscopic Analyses of Water. Scientific American Supplement, 1883. Biological Study of Water. Scientific American Supplement, September, 1885. Test for Purity of Drinking Water. Francis Wyatt. Engineering and Mining Journal, August 12th, 1893. Ammonia and Nitric Acid in Rain Waters, Collected at the Agricultural College. G. H. Failyer. Kansas City Academy of Science, 22nd Annual Meet- ing, 1890. Potable Water. C. W. Folkard. "Van Nostrund's Scientific Series No. 101. Microscopical Examination of Potable Water. Geo. W. Rafter. Van Nos- trund's Scientific Series No. 103. Water and Public Health. Fuertes. John Wiley & Sons. Drinking Water and Ice Supplies. Prudden. G. P. Putnam & Sons. Water Analyses. Wanklyn. Keegan, Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co. Water Analyses. McDonald. J. & A. Churchill. Water Bacteriology. Elements of Water Bacteriology. Prescott & Winslow. John Wiley & Sons. The Story of the Bacteria. Prudden. G. P. Putnam & Sons. Bacteria and Their Products. Sims Woodhead. Charles Scribner's Sons. Principles of Bacteriology. Abbott. Lee Bros. & Co. Bacteriology. Sternberg. Bacteriology, Floating Matter of the Air in Relation to Putrefaction and Infec- tion. Tyndall. D. Appleton & Co. Microbes Des Eaux. Victor Despeignes. J. B. Bailliere et Fils, Paris, 1891. 199 CHAPTER XV. APPLIED HYDROLOGY. 117. Application. — In the application of the principles of hydrology to practical purposes, the nature and extent of the data needed and consequently of the investigations which it is necessary to undertake, varies in accordance with the pur- pose in view. In the following outlines, the principal factors to be considered are shown and the hydrological data on which they depend are briefly indicated. 118. Water Supply. — A. Investigation of Sources (Physiography and Hydrogeology). a. Quantity; sufficient with or without pond- age. (Rainfall, run off, evaporation and seepage.) b. Quality; suitable with or without treatment. (Sanitary protection, softening, filtration, storage.) B. Methods of Development. a. Surface Water (sanitary protection). Dams and Reservoirs (geology, seepage, evaporation). Inlets (floods, ice). b. Subsurface Water (sanitary protection). Open wells, drive wells, infiltration gal- leries, storage (geology). c. Deep Water (geology). Springs and artesian flows. Deep wells and pumping. 200 Applied Hydrology Shaft, tunnels and wells. Storage. C. Head for Distribution (relation of energy). a. Gravity (conduits). b. Direct pumping (machinery). c. Pumping to reservoir. D. Distribution. (Hydraulic.) a. Pipe system. b. Valves, hydrants and services. c. Control of delivery meters. 119. Water Power. A. Source (hydrography). a. Great Lakes. b. Streams. c. Springs and artesian wells (rare). B. Quantity (rainfall, run off, evaporation). a. Average flow and variations. b. Minimum flow. c. Maximum flow. C. ' Head ; amount of head and influence of maxi- mum flow on head. E. Development. a. Dams and spillways (geology and run off). b. Head and tail races. c. Power plant and auxiliaries. d. Transmission. 120. Irrigation. A. Source of supply (hydro-geology). a. Quantity; sufficient with or without pond- age. b. Quality; suitable for agricultural purposes. B. Methods of Development. (See Water Supply.) C. Head for Distribution. a. Gravity. b. Pumping (machinery). D. Distribution (evaporation, seepage). a. Canals, flumes and ditches. b. Modules or measuring devices. Sewerage and Drainage 20 1 121. Agricultural Drainage (Rainfall, run-off). A. Subsoil drainage. Drains, ditches, outlets. B. Surface drainage. a. Extent of drainage area. b. Rainfall and run off. c. Outlet, gravity, pumping. d. Canals and ditches. 122. Flood Protection (Run-off). A. Height and nature of floods. B. Dikes and levees. C. Interior drainage. 123. Municipal Sewerage and Drainage. A. Systems; combined, separate, mixed. B. Extent of area and population. C. Topography; grades. D. Quantity. a. Storm water (rainfall and run off). b. Sewage. E. Disposal. a. Directly to streams ; gravity, pumping. b. Treatment. F. Conduits and appurtenances. 124. Transportation and Navigation. A. Canals. a. Route (geology and topography). b. Water supply. Source (rainfall, run-off and evaporation). Quantity needed (lockage, seepage, evapo- ration and waste). c. Works Excavation and embankments. Aqueducts and culverts. Dams and waste weirs. Locks, gates and valves. B. River Improvements. a. Stream flow (rainfall, run off, variations). b. Reservoirs. 2o2 Applied Hydrology c. Dredging. d. Dams; fixed and movable. e. Locks ; gates and controlling works. C. Harbors (currents, tides and waves). a. Breakwater. b. Dredging. c. Docks. LITERATURE. Water Supply. Turneaure & Russell, Potable Water Supplies. Wiley & Sons. Fanning, Hydraulics and. Water Supply Engineering. Van Nostrand. Folwell, Water Supply Engineering. Wiley & Sons. Goodell, Water Works for Cities and Towns. Engineering Record. Burton, The Water Supply of Towns. Crosby, Lockwood & Son. Turner & Brightmore, Water Works Engineering. E. & F. N. Spor. Freeman, Report on New York's Water Supply. Schuyler, Reservoirs. Wiley & Sons. Hill, Public Water Supplies. Van Nostrand. Hazen, The Filtration of Public Water Supplies. Wiley & Sons.' La Coux, Industrial Uses of Water. Van Nostrand. Mason, Water Supply (from a Sanitary Standpoint). Wiley & Sons. Gould, Elements of Water Supply Engineering. Eng. News. Fuester, Water and Public Health. Water Power. Frizell, Water Power. Wiley & Sons. Marks, Hydraulic Power Engineering. Van Nostrand. Robinson Hydraulic Power and Hydraulic Machinery. Griffen & Co. Bodmer, Hydraulic Motors. Van Nostrand. Wegman, The Design and Construction of Dams. Wiley & Sons. Irrigation. Wilson, Manual of Irrigation Engineering. Wiley & Sons. Newell, Irrigation in the United States. Crowell & Co. Mead, Irrigation Institutions. Macmillan Co. Canals and Irrigation in Foreign Countries. Special Consular Report. Drainage and Sewerage. Folwell, Design, Construction and Maintenance of Sewerage Systems. Wiley & Sons. Ogden, Sewer Design. Wiley & Sons. Elliott, Engineering for Land Drainage. Wiley & Sons. Ridal, Sewage and Bacterial Purification of Sewage. Wiley & Sons. Baumeister, Cleaning and Sewerage of Cities. Van Nostrand. Improvements of Waterways, Etc. Thomas & Watt, The Improvement of Rivers. Wiley & Sons. Cunningham, Dock Engineering. Lippincott Co. Brown, Drainage Canal and Waterway. Donnelley & Sons. Bond, Barg Canal. Special Report N. Y. State Engineer, 1001. Report of Board of Engineers on Deep Waterways. Two parts with Atlas. Doc. 149, 56th Congress. Report of U. S. Deep Waterway Commission. Doc. 192, 54th Congress. r .c'^ •o o . _ --/• v %, 0* N ' ' '' , & v t ° \ i « o rs ^ \V«* : V V .\\ * '• v ._ . . . ,J V c N \ ,.'■.' ,4 ©ft » . i i.' , '/■ * » - " ' >°' •i i * A \- ' * V V V * .A N° *+_ ^ -0' A*' 0' ♦ ^ ,• . f ' r 'K 0' "v* J 0' > q "* \* V a 1 > A A* 1 \ &% ■O ^ v f>, ,