Glass _."?* Book _ Copyright xN°_._ J i COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. HOW TO STUDY LITERATURE A GUIDE TO THE INTENSIVE STUDY OF LITERARY MASTERPIECES BY BENJAMIN A. HEYDRICK, A.B. (Harv.) PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH LITERATURE, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, MILLERSVILLE, PA. HINDS & NOBLE, Publishers 31-33-35 West 15TH Street, New York City THE LIBRARY OF CONGRE88, — «o Cop»fari Reobvbd OCT, fg 1902 CnpvwOHT ewthy C«.AS3 Cfc^*Xa Ho. i^o^ Copyright, 1901, igo2, By BENJAMIN A. HEYDRICK. PREFACE This book is intended to aid in the study of litera- ture. It is generally conceded that the best method is to take up certain literary masterpieces. But how shall a masterpiece be studied ? A play of Shakespeare's is before the class. The text-book is provided with an introduction and notes. The introduction gives the date and the sources of the play ; the notes explain difficult words and allusions. It is easy to assign les- sons on this basis, and very easy to set examinations on it. Yet a class may know introduction and notes thoroughly, and still be far from appreciating or even understanding the play as a piece of literature. For the introduction deals with facts of literary history ; the notes with philology, grammar, and manners and customs of the time. This information is valuable, it is indispensable, but it is, after all, only a means to an end, and that end is the appreciation and enjoyment of a literary masterpiece. The aim of this manual is to facilitate the sys- tematic, careful, and appreciative study of literature as literature. It concentrates attention upon the text itself, not upon editorial explanation or comment. It vi Preface furnishes means by which the student may ascertain for himself the chief characteristics of the book studied. It acquaints him with the fundamental principles of literary construction, and asks him to decide for him- self how far these principles have been observed. Not to present ready-made opinions for his acceptance, but to teach him to see for himself and to judge for himself is the aim throughout. Further, each book is treated as a type, a representa- tive of a class, so that the study of a few books may open the way to the appreciation of many. The sug- gestions for comparative study, the collateral reading recommended, all have this object in view, that through the medium of a few volumes the student may gain an outlook upon the world of literature. Outlines are given for the study of six literary types : in poetry, the epic, lyric, and drama ; in prose, fiction, the essay, and the oration. These classes include practically all the books prescribed for the college entrance examinations and those studied in the first years of college work. In most secondary schools the study of literature is pursued for several years, three or four classics being taken up each year. This manual is not intended to supplant any of the texts used, but to supplement them, to be used with them as a guide. The lists of critical terms given are intended to aid the student to say exactly what he means. It is often Preface vii the case that a beginner feels the beauty or power of a masterpiece as fully as an older reader, but, lacking words to express himself, he falls back upon a general term like "fine," which may mean any one of twenty things. Yet if the terms are at hand, he can select the one he wants ; he understands the meaning of the words, but they are not a part of his working vocabu- lary. To supply this lack, carefully selected lists of the commoner critical terms have been provided. It is not intended that the outlines shall be followed rigidly in every detail. With a certain poem noted for the beauty and variety of its imagery, that section of the outline will be emphasized, the one on character- study, perhaps, abridged. On the other hand, if a class is already able to distinguish the figures of speech, and the poem studied is not noteworthy in this respect, that section of the outline may be omitted. This is, perhaps, only saying that this book does not pretend to take the place of the intelligent teacher. B. A. H. MlLLERSVILLE, PA. KEY TO PUBLISHERS REFERRED TO IN THIS VOLUME Am. Bk. Co American Book Company Ginn ....... Ginn and Company Harpers ....... Harper and Brothers Houghton .... Houghton^ Mifflin and Company B. F. Johnson . . . B. F. Johnson Publishing Company Lippincott J. B. Lippincott Company Lovell A. Lovell and Company Macmillan The Macmillan Company Putnams G. P. Putnam's Sons Scribners ....... Charles Scribner's Sons CONTENTS Preface PART I Nature and Classes of Literature . . . . i Outlines for Study: Narrative Poetry ....... 5 Lyric Poetry 19 Dramatic Poetry 28 Fiction 40 The Essay . The Oration PART II Specimen Studies: Lowell's "Vision of Sir Launfal" . Tennyson's "Bugle Song" . Shakspere's "Hamlet" George Eliot's "Silas Marner" Macaulay's Essay on Samuel Johnson Webster's Bunker Hill Monument Oration Appendix A. Figures of Speech Appendix B. Versification 53 65 73 79 81 92 98 103 108 in NATURE AND CLASSES OF LITERA- TURE Literature, in the broadest sense, includes all written or printed books. Yet one would hardly speak of an arith- metic as a work of literature. A play of Shakspere's, even though bound in paper covers, is literature, while a city directory, bound in leather, is not. It is necessary to distinguish two classes of books : those which aim merely to give information, and those which move us by their beauty or their power. Books of the latter class are called literature. The arithmetic and other text-books, the directory, encyclopaedia, and other reference works, are books to which we go to find out facts. They are not literature, in the narrower sense of the word. But a novel we read not for facts, but because it is interest- ing : it holds us by its beauty or power, and therefore it is literature. As literature appears under various forms, it is divided into several classes. The most obvious division is that of poetry and prose. To define poetry is a task which has puzzled the poets themselves. It is possible, how- 2 Nature and Classes of Literature ever, to point out some of the essential differences be- tween poetry and prose. In the first place, they differ in form. Poetry is arranged in short lines ; these lines usually rime, 1 and, further, the accented syllables are so arranged as to form a regular rhythm : they can be read in a sing-song way. This regular rhythm is called metre. But form alone is not sufficient. Thirty days hath September, April, June, and November. y^w***- That couplet has the form of poetry ; it has rime and rhythm, but it is not poetry, it is not even literature. The lines merely help one to remember facts : there is neither beauty nor power in them. Now take two lines of true poetry : Night's candles are burnt out, and jocund day Stands tiptoe on the misty mountain tops. — Romeo and Juliet. Here is not only form, but beauty. What is the fact told in these lines? That it is morning. That is the prose way of saying it. But the poet sees things imagi- natively : to him the paling stars are the dying candles of night, and day is a living being, merry and eager. 1 Formerly, but less correctly, spelled rhyme. See the Century, Standard, or International Dictionary. Nature and Classes of Literature 3 Instead of stating a plain fact, he appeals to our imagi- nation with pictures. Poetry, then, differs from prose in being more imaginative. Again, take a familiar line from Gray's " Elegy " : The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea. There is one word in that line, "lea," that would not be used in prose. Nor would we find " o'er " for "over." Poetry, then, has a slightly different vocabulary from prose. To sum up, poetry differs from prose in possessing metre and usually rime, in using a slightly different vocabulary, and — most important of all — in being more imaginative. Poetry is divided into classes, of which the chief ones are narrative, lyric, and dramatic. Narrative poetry is defined by its name ; it is usually story-telling poetry, dealing with acts and events. If these events are of a lofty nature, and the poem extends to a considerable length, such as Homer's Iliad, it is called an epic. If the poem is short and spirited, such as Longfellow's " Skeleton in Armor," it is called a ballad. In narrative poetry the writer relates the deeds of other men. But if a poet writes of himself, telling his own thoughts and feelings, and thus dealing with emo- tions instead of action, the result is lyric poetry. Lyric poetry may be described as feeling expressed in musical 4 Nature and Classes of Literature words. This feeling may be patriotic, as in our national hymn ; it may be a feeling of grief, of love, of delight in the beauty of nature ; the essential thing is that the writer puts his own feelings into verse. Dramatic poetry is that which is written to be acted. It is like narrative poetry in that it deals with acts and events. In a similar way prose is divided into certain general classes. If an author tells of the deeds of other men, he is writing history, or possibly a historical novel. If the characters are wholly imaginary, he is writing fiction. If he presents his own opinions and judgments in prose, the result is an essay. And finally, if what he writes is intended, not to be read, but to be spoken — -just as a drama is written to be acted — we have oratory. These six classes, narrative, lyric, and dramatic poetry, fiction, the essay, and the oration, include nearly all books that come within the definition of literature. For a discussion of literature in general, with helpful suggestions as to what and how to read, see Ruskin's Sesame and Lilies, Part I ; Frederic Harrison's The Choice of Books (Macmillan) ; Emerson's essay on "Books," in Society and Solitude; James Baldwin's Book- Love?- (McClurg) and Van Dyke's Counsel upon the Reading of Books (Houghton). OUTLINE FOR THE STUDY OF NARRA- TIVE POETRY (See Specimen Study, Part II, p. 73) I. Mastery of Subject-matter The first step in the study of a literary work of any kind is to gain an idea of it as a whole. This can best be done by a single rapid reading, at a sitting, if possible. Do not stop to look up words nor to refer to the notes ; you can understand enough of the work to gain a general idea of it. This done, the book should be read a second time, more carefully, in connection with the notes. These notes are not to be memorized ; they are intended merely to help one to understand the text. After the work has been read in this way, take up the questions in the outline and answer them, with reference to the text when neces- sary. This mastery of subject-matter, the comprehension of the work as a whole, must precede any study of parts or of particular characteristics. 5 6 Narrative Poetry II. Classification The chief classes of narrative poetry are : (a) The Epic, a long poem treating a heroic theme in a dignified style, as Paradise Lost. (b) The Metrical Romance, a long story in verse, less lofty in theme and style than the Epic ; often a love- story. Examples : Tennyson's Princess ; Scott's Mar- mion. (c) The Metrical Tale, resembling the Metrical Ro- mance, but briefer ; sometimes of a humorous nature. Examples : Chaucer's Canterbury Tales ; Tennyson's "Enoch Arden"; Burns's "Tarn O' Shanter." (d) The Ballad, a short and spirited narrative poem in a simple style. Examples : Longfellow's " Wreck of the Hesperus"; Coleridge's "Ancient Mariner." (e) The Descriptive Poem. This deals with objects instead of events. There are often characters in it as in a tale, but there, is little or no action. Example, Gold- smith's " Deserted Village." If the poem deals with rural life, it is called a Pastoral. Examples : Burns's " Cotter's Saturday Night," and Whittier's " Snow-Bound." (/) The Allegory, a poem aiming to teach a lesson, in which the characters and events have a double signifi- cance. Examples : Spenser's Faerie Queene, and Dry- den's "Absalom and Achitophel." Narrative Poetry 7 (g) The Mock-Epic, or mock-heroic poem, a form of parody in which the grand style of Epic poetry is applied to events of a trivial nature. Example, Pope's "Rape of the Lock." Sometimes a poem exhibits characteristics of more than one of these classes. Lowell's "Vision of Sir Launfal" is a tale, yet it contains so much description that Sted- man calls it a landscape poem. An allegory may be an epic, as Dante's Divine Comedy, or may be a metrical romance, as The Faerie Queene. To which of the foregoing classes does the poem studied belong ? III. Purpose A narrative poem may be written merely to entertain with an interesting and beautifully told story; it may elevate the mind by telling of heroic deeds ; it may set forth the author's opinions upon some important subject ; it may be written to enforce a moral, or to teach a spir- itual truth. (a) What purpose or purposes does this poem serve ? {b) If the poem aims to set forth the author's beliefs, or to teach a lesson of any kind, state this purpose in your own words. (c) Is this purpose definitely stated, or merely im- plied? If stated, where? 8 Narrative Poetry IV. Plot (a) Is the story perfectly clear, or are there parts that you did not understand at the first reading? Where? (b) Considered simply as a story, is it interesting? Is there any place where the interest flags ? (V) The climax of a narrative is the place where the interest is at the highest pitch. Where is the climax here ? (d) Is the story probable, as a whole? Are any of the incidents improbable ? If so, does this improbability make the poem less enjoyable? () Drawn from what classes of society? If from several, with which is the author most successful? (V) Does the author succeed best with men or women? Successful with children ? (d) Are the characters lifelike? (e) Are they like real people, or are they exceptional, being braver, more fortunate, more beautiful, or more villanous than people usually are in real life? (/) Is there any tendency to exaggerate certain traits of character, so making caricatures ? 44 Fiction (g) Are any of the characters historical? If so, does the novelist present them in the same light as historians do? This may be made the subject of a theme. (A) Can you separate the characters easily into two groups, — good people and wicked people, — or are good and evil traits mingled in the same person, the good people sometimes yielding to temptation, and even the worst characters having some redeeming traits? (J) Are the characters consistent, or do they sometimes surprise you by doing something you think they would not do? Characters may be stationary or developing. If sta- tionary, they may suffer changes in fortune, etc., but their natures remain the same. If developing, the experiences they go through change their characters, so that they become more serious, more tolerant, more generous, etc., than at the beginning. (/) Are the characters stationary or developing? If developing, do you think the experiences they go through are adequate to produce such changes ? There are two methods of characterization : the dra- matic and the analytic. In the dramatic we form our opinions of the characters from what they do and say ; in the analytic method, the author comments upon the char- acters, explaining their motives, etc. (k) Which method is usually employed here ? Most Fiction 45 authors combine the two. Point out examples of char- acterization by each method. (/) Who is the hero? What are the chief traits of his character, the things for which you admire him? Who is the heroine, and what are her chief traits ? (;;/) In general, what qualities or traits of character does the author represent as most admirable ? What do you think his ideal man would be like ? Which of his characters comes nearest this? This may be made the subject of a theme. (n) Are there any supernatural characters, as ghosts, etc. ? Is their use effective, or would the story be better without them ? (o) Do men or women occupy the chief place in the story ? (p) In the older type of stories, the author used to call up all his characters in the last chapter and say a few words about the final fortunes of each one. Realistic fiction — that which aims to present life as it is — usually omits this general dismissal at the close. Which method is followed here? VI. Classification Fiction includes the romance and the novel. In the romance the incidents are often improbable or unusual • 46 Fiction the chief characters are not ordinary people ; 1 the chief interest is in the plot : you read it for the story. In the novel the incidents are probable, the characters taken from every-day life, and you are interested in the charac- ters as much as in the plot. Is this a romance or a novel? VII. Description (a) Are there any long passages of description ? Do they interfere with the progress of the story ? Were you tempted to skip them ? (b) Is there much description of nature? Did you like it? Select the best description of a landscape, a sunrise, or a sunset. (c) Does the author introduce objects or details of costume, etc., peculiar to the locality he is describing? This is called local color. (d) Sometimes description is used for dramatic back- ground, as when a fight takes place during a storm, or lovers meet by moonlight ; the surroundings harmonizing with the action, or sometimes contrasting with it. Are there examples of this ? 1 In the old romance, of Scott and Dumas, the characters are usually types : the soldier, the priest, the noble, etc., embodying the character- istics of a class, but not sharply individualized. In the modern romance, of Stevenson, the characters are individualized. Fiction 47 In describing people, various methods may be used : Exaggeration of some particular trait or feature ; giv- ing a character some peculiarity, and always mentioning this when the character appears, so that it becomes a means of identifying him. Enumeration : mentioning many details of appearance, dress, manners, etc. Selected details : mentioning only two or three de- tails, but these so well chosen that you have a clear idea of the person. (e) Note where the principal characters first appear, and see which method is followed in describing them. (/) Does the author's strength lie chiefly in narration, in character drawing, or in description ? (If a fuller study of description is desired, other ques- tions will be found under Narrative Poetry, Sec. VI, p. 10.) VIII. Contrast Contrast is one of the most effective devices in art. It may be in the plot, as where a defeat is closely followed by a victory ; or in character, two persons being intro- duced, one just the opposite of the other in certain re- spects ; or there may be a contrast between the same person's actions on different occasions ; there may be contrast in the descriptions ; and there may be contrast 48 Fiction in the mood or tone of the story, as where a tragic pas- sage is followed by one in a lighter or even a humorous vein. Point out, if possible, an example of each. Note any other ways in which contrast is used. IX. Style A. Style in General i. Does it possess individuality, i.e. is it markedly differ- ent from that of other writers, so that you could recognize a book by this writer if you did not know who wrote it ? 2. Does the author have the power of making epigrams, i.e. short, striking sentences, full of meaning, that may serve as quotations ? Select and memorize some of these. 3. Is there any humor? Is it quiet or broad? Is it one of the strong points of the book? Give examples. 4. Are there pathetic passages? Are they affecting? Select the best. Is pathos one of the strong points of the book? 5. Would you describe the style as : Direct, animated, brilliant? Balanced, stiff, artificial, bookish, dull? Eccentric, confused, disjointed, obscure? Quote passages in illustration, and say which of these qualities are characteristic of the style, which are occa- sional. Fiction 49 6. Of the three chief qualities of style, clearness, force and beauty, which is most notable in this book ? B. Diction 1. Does the author use any words that are unfamil- iar? Many? Give examples. 2. Is dialect used? Is it hard to understand? What is gained by its use ? 3. In the dialogues, do the characters talk like ordi- nary people, or is the conversation rather stiff and book- ish ? Or are they too clever, always saying bright things ? 4. Which of these terms best describe the diction : Simple, idiomatic, colloquial? Polished, elevated, dignified? Terse, vigorous, picturesque? (If a fuller study of style is desired, see questions under Essay, Sec. V, p. 58.) X. Characteristics of Author With very few exceptions, authors put their own per- sonality into their works, so that it is possible to infer from any book some of the characteristics of the man who wrote it. In answering the questions below, do not expect to find indications of all or of many of the charac- 50 Fiction teristics enumerated. Some will probably be apparent at once, others will disclose themselves after a little study. {a) Judging from the book alone, would you infer that the author was : Earnest, sympathetic, broad-minded, philanthropic? Flippant, cynical, prejudiced, misanthropic? Cheerful, optimistic; or grave, pessimistic?, Independent, original, a reformer? Conventional, conservative ? A man of high ideals ? patriotic ? devout ? In each case tell upon what passages you base your reply. (b) Do his writings indicate that he possessed : A vivid imagination? A keen sense of humor? A philosophical turn of mind, shown in a tendency to generalize, or to seek for causes ? (c) Was he a man who had evidently had a wide ex- perience of life? A man of much learning, scholarship ? A man of broad culture, familiar with music, paint- ing, literature, etc.? A lover of nature ? What were his favorite books ? Fiction 5 1 (d) Apart from his fame as an author, would you like to know him? To have him for a friend? (e) Write a theme upon the character of the author as shown in his works, quoting passages to illustrate your points. XI. Life of Author See Narrative Poetry, Sec. XII, p. 16. XII. Critical Opinion Read one or two good critical articles discussing this author. Lists of such articles are given in Clark's Eng- lish Prose Writers (Scribners). Consult a standard his- tory of literature to learn the historical importance of this writer ; how he ranks with others of his time \ how he compares with other great novelists. See references under Narrative Poetry, Sec. XIII, b, and add the following : The Development of the English Novel, Cross (Macmillan), and The Eiiglish Novel, Raleigh (Scribners) . The latter book follows the history of fiction only to 1814. The Evolution of the English Novel, Stoddard (Macmillan) is a recent book of value in the study of fiction. XIII. Comparative Study- Choose a story recently read, if possible, one of a differ- ent type, as a novel instead of a romance, and go over it 52 Fiction to compare with this in the chief points of the outline, noting particularly where there are marked differences. Are these due to the time in which the men wrote, the subject, the nature of the story, — whether romance or novel, — or to differences in the authors ? This compari- son may be made the subject of a theme. XIV. Collateral Reading The present is the age of the novel as truly as the Elizabethan period was the age of the drama. The student of literature should read at least one book by each of the masters of English fiction. Defoe, Goldsmith, Jane Aus- ten, Scott, Dickens, Thackeray, George Eliot, R. L. Stevenson, Rudyard Kipling ; and Cooper, Hawthorne, Poe, and W. D. Howells may be mentioned as a suggestive list. The supply of fiction is so constant to-day that the temptation is strong to read the book of the day, usually of very slight significance, and speedily forgotten. Emer- son's rule never to read any book that is not a year old will save one from much trash. 4$ OUTLINE FOR THE STUDY OF THE ESSAY (See Specimen Study, Part II, p. 98) I. Mastery of Subject-matter The first step in the study of a literary work of any kind is to gain an idea of it as a whole. This can best be done by a single rapid reading, at a sitting if possible. Do not stop to look up words nor to refer to the notes ; you can understand enough of the work to gain a general idea of it. This done, the book should be read a second time, more carefully, in connection with the notes. These notes are not to be memorized ; they are intended merely to help one to understand the text. After the work has been read in this way, take up the questions in the outline and answer them, with reference to the text when neces- sary. This mastery of subject-matter, the comprehension of the work as a whole, must precede any study of parts or of particular characteristics. II. Classification Essays may be classified, according to the manner in which the subject is treated, into : 53 V 54 The Essay ' \ Narrative Essays, those which relate a series of events, as a biography or a historical sketch. Examples : Macau- lay's " Warren Hastings " ; De Quincey's " Flight of a Tartar Tribe." Critical Essays, usually dealing with questions of litera- ture or art, as Lowell's Among My Books ; Walter Pater's The Renaissance. Reflective, or Wisdo??i Essays, dealing with general sub- jects, and usually didactic. Example, Bacon's Essays, and Emerson's. Perso7ial Essays, which do not pretend to present new truths, nor great thoughts, but give the author's individual opinions of men and things. The personal essay is often humorous. Example, Lamb's Essays of Elia. Essays may belong to more than one of these classes. Macaulay's " Life and Writings of Addison " is partly narrative, partly critical. Yet one characteristic usually predominates. To which of the above classes does the essay belong? III. Structure The essay has no rigid laws of structure. In longer essays, however, such as Macaulay's, some plan is fol- lowed. (a) The Introduction. The opening paragraphs usu- The Essay 55 ally serve as an introduction. Where does the intro- duction end? This may serve several ends, as follows : To state clearly and fully the subject of the essay ; to arouse interest in this subject ; to give the author's reasons for choosing the subject; to indicate the manner in which the subject is to be treated. (&) What purpose or purposes does this introduction accomplish? (V) The Body. What is the central theme of the essay, the principal subject treated? State this in a sentence. Is there more than one subj ect ? If several, are they closely related? Then does the essay possess unity? (Essays are permitted more latitude in this respect than other literary forms.) Are there any digressions, places where the author speaks at some length, usually several pages, of matters not directly connected with the main subject? Do these violate the unity of the essay? (d) The Conclusion. Has the essay a formal conclu- sion? If so, where does it begin? This may serve to sum up the main points in the essay ; to restate certain points for emphasis ; or to make a well- rounded close, leaving a favorable impression in the minds of the hearers. (e) What purpose or purposes does this conclusion serve? 56 The Essay IV. Study of Essay as a Whole The method of study will depend upon the nature of the essay. A. Narrative Essay i. Are the events told in a logical order, so that the thought of the essay is easy to follow? What order is observed, that of time, or of cause and effect? 2. Is there much description of places? Enough to give a clear idea of the situation? Too much? Select the best descriptive passages. 3. Are the descriptions of people vivid? Do you have a clear mental picture of them? 4. If the essay is biographical, does the author succeed in presenting a complete picture of the man, — is he real to you? 5. If the essay is biographical, read the account of the man given in an encyclopaedia. Comparing this with the essay, is the essayist a hero-worshipper, presenting his subject in the most favorable light, or has he dwelt too much upon faults, lowering the man in our opinions ? Or is the essay a frank setting-forth of the facts, without bias in either direction? If the latter, what was the essayist's motive in telling what was already known ? 6. If the essay is historical, compare it with the ac- count given in a standard history. Judged by this, is the The Essay 57 essay accurate in matters of fact? Is it more, or less, interesting, or vivid, than the history? Are any new facts brought out in the essay? If not, what was the aim of the essayist in restating facts already known ? B. Critical Essay This usually deals with an author or a single book. Read the book first, then the essay. i. Does the essayist judge too harshly or praise too highly? Is he fair? 2. Can you feel the merit of all that he praises? If not, does this show that the praise is misplaced? 3. Is it the aim of the essayist to call attention to merits which have not been appreciated? To point out faults in a work that has been overestimated? Or to give a complete view of the work, showing merits and faults im- partially? To answer this, read a criticism of the book by another author, and compare the two. C. Reflective Essay This demands careful study, sentence by sentence, to insure that the meaning is grasped. Difficult words and allusions should be looked up in an unabridged diction- ary, not to commit the definitions, but to understand the use of the words in this place. 58 The Essay D. Personal Essay To what extent does the author reveal himself in his work ? Can you infer what his habits were ? his likes and dislikes? his favorite books? See questions under Nar- rative Poetry, Sec. X, p. 14. V. Style A. Style in Genei'al 1. Does it possess individuality, i.e. is the style mark- edly different from that of other writers, so that you might recognize a book of his even if you did not know the author ? 2. Is there any humor in the essay? Is it quiet or broad? Is humor one of the strong points of the book? Point out examples. 3. Is pathos found? Is it effective? 4. Does the author employ irony? ridicule? satire? Any of these to a marked degree ? 5. Are figures of speech used? frequently? Are they effective? Point out examples. (See Appendix A, p. 108.) 6. Is the work characterized by accuracy of statement ? logical power? keen analysis? sympathetic appreciation? or by exaggeration ? prejudice ? untruth ? The Essay 59 7. Select such of the terms below or of your own choosing as apply to his style : Smooth, graceful, musical; Rough, plain, harsh, commonplace ; Direct, animated, brilliant, stimulating ; Balanced, rhetorical, stiff, bookish, dull ; Clear, flexible, poetic, dignified ; Obscure, rambling, confused, eccentric, pedantic. 8. Of the three chief qualities of style, clearness, force, and beauty, which is the most marked here ? 9. Compare a few pages of an oration and note differ- ences of style. What appear to be the distinguishing qualities of essay style? 10. Write a theme on the style of this essay, giving quotations to illustrate the chief points. B. Quotation and Allusion 1. Does the author quote other writers ? Frequently? From what books does he quote oftenest? Does he quote accurately? An allusion is an indirect reference, the author taking for granted the reader's knowledge of the thing referred to. Thus to say, " I was plunged in a slough of despond," is to make an allusion to Pilgrim's Progress ; " He poured out the vials of his wrath upon my head" is an allusion to 60 The Essay Revelation. Allusions to the Bible are frequent, also to Shakspere, to Milton, and to classic mythology. 2. Are there examples of allusion? What books are most frequently alluded to ? C. Paragraphs i. Long, short, or of medium length? The average length of paragraphs in modern prose, unbroken by dia- logue, is between ioo and 120 words. 1 Count ten con- secutive paragraphs and get the average. 2. Do they possess unity? The test for this is to state the substance of the paragraph in a sentence. Try ten paragraphs in this way to see whether any of them contain ideas not closely related to the main thought. 3. Are the paragraphs usually linked together by some expression at the beginning, as "in the next place," or by the repetition of a word used near the end of the pre- ceding paragraph? Point out examples of linked para- graphs. 4. If possible, make an outline of the essay, by para- graphs, stating the subject of each in a sentence. Do the paragraphs follow in logical order, one continuing the thought of the preceding paragraph, or are there some that seem out of place? 1 This statement is based on a count of thousands of examples taken from modern writers. The Essay 61 D. Sentences i. Always clear? In structure, are they simple or much involved? 2. Long, short, or of average length? The average sentence-length in modern prose is between twenty-five and thirty words. 1 Count twenty consecutive sentences and find the average. 3. Do they sometimes contain several principal ideas, not closely related, and so lack unity? 4. In structure, are they generally loose or periodic? 5. Are balanced sentences used frequently? Give examples. 6. Are exclamatory or interrogative sentences used frequently? What is gained by this form? 7. Is antithesis used? Climax? Give examples. 8. Does the author possess the power of making epi- grams, i.e. short, pithy sentences that may serve as quo- tations? Give examples. E. Words 1. Are there any unusual words? many? are these words newly coined? slang? technical terms? foreign words? dialect? obsolete words? Give examples. 2. Is the author's vocabulary copious ? This is shown partly in the use of unfamiliar words, partly in the repe- 1 See note, p. 60. 62 The Essay tition of ideas without repeating the words, partly in the choice of words, the author always having the right word to express his meaning. 3. Does he use words precisely, showing an exact knowledge of their meanings? 4. Does he prefer specific or general terms? Give examples. 5. Are there examples of Biblical forms of speech? Give examples. 6. Select the two or three words in the following list which best describe his diction : Clear, simple, idiomatic, colloquial, homely ; Learned, terse, polished, eloquent, ornate (over-orna- mented) ; Obscure, quaint, grotesque, hackneyed, verbose (too many words) . Quote passages which illustrate your answer. Distin- guish between qualities that are characteristic of the author's style, and those which are shown occasionally. VI. Memory Passages Select the best passages in the essay. Do they ap- peal to you chiefly because of their beauty, or their truth, or their strength? Memorize one of these passages. Select and memorize single sentences that impress you. The Essay 63 VII. Characteristics of Author See Narrative Poetry, Sec. X, p. 14. VIII. Life of Author See Narrative Poetry, Sec. XII, p. 16. IX. Critical Opinion Read one or two good critical articles discussing this author. Lists of such articles are given in Clark's Eng- lish Prose Writers (Scribners) . Consult a standard his- tory of literature to learn the historical importance of this writer ; how he ranks with other great essayists. Books that will be useful here are, for English literature : Gosse, Eighteenth Century Literature (Macmillan) ; Perry, Eighteenth Century Literature (Harpers) ; Saintsbury, Nineteenth Century Literature (Macmillan) ; Oliphant, Victorian Literature (Lovell). For American literature, Richardson, Ame7'ican Literature (Putnams) ; Wen- dell, Literary History of America (Scribners) ; Carpen- ter, American Prose (Macmillan.) X. Comparative Study Select an essay by another author, preferably one al- ready studied or read, and compare with this. See Nar- rative Poetry, Sec. XIV, p. 17. 64 The Essay XI. Collateral Reading The works of the great essayists present a rich field for the student. The following list is suggested : Bacon, Emerson, Macaulay, Addison, Lamb, Carlyle, Ruskin, De Quincey, Matthew Arnold, Lowell, John Burroughs. OUTLINE FOR THE STUDY OF THE ORATION (See Specimen Study, Part II, p. 103) I. Mastery of Subject-matter See Essay, Sec. I, p. 53. II. Structure An oration may usually be divided into three parts : the introduction ; the discussion, or handling of the theme ; and the conclusion, or peroration. Can this oration be so divided? Where does the introduction end? The discussion? III. The Introduction This may serve several ends, as follows : To state clearly and fully the subject of the oration ; to arouse interest in this subject ; to give the orator's reasons for choosing the subject ; to indicate the manner in which the subject is to be treated ; to gain the good-will of the audience. 65 66 The Oration What purpose or purposes does this introduction accom- plish? IV. The Discussion An orator always has some definite aim. He may wish to persuade his hearers of some truth ; or to move them to some action ; or to lead them to honor some character. This motive forms the central theme of the oration, and to developing this the discussion is devoted. (a) What is the central theme here ? State it clearly in a sentence. Where is this fully set forth ? Why here rather than sooner or later ? An orator aims to influence men's minds. He may do this by appealing to their intellect, presenting argu- ments, or appealing to their emotions, arousing their anger, pity, sympathy, etc. (&) Which method is employed most frequently? Point out examples of each, if possible. In passages which appeal to the intellect, does the orator usually make a statement and then give his reasons for it, or do the reasons come first, the statement following as a conclusion? Which order seems preferable? (c) If the orator is attempting to persuade his hearers to a certain course of action, does he take them on high moral grounds, appealing to their honor, their patriotism, their sense of justice, etc. ; or does he rest his case upon The Oration 67 expediency, showing that it would be easier, cheaper, more convenient, or more to their advantage, to act so? Give examples of appeals of each kind, if possible. (d) Are there any places where the orator turns aside and speaks at some length of matters which do not bear directly on the main thought? Can you justify these digressions ? V. The Peroration This may serve to sum up the main points in the ora- tion ; to restate certain points for emphasis ; or to make a well-rounded close, leaving a favorable impression in the minds of the hearers. (a) What purpose or purposes does this peroration serve ? (b) Is the style of the peroration at all different from that of the introduction, or the discussion? In what respect ? VI. Style See Essay, Sec. V, p. 58, and add to the questions there given the following, under Style in General : Euphony, or pleasing sound, is particularly desirable in an oration. Read the best passages aloud ; note the rhythm of the sentences. Would they deliver well ? Are there any unpleasant combinations of sounds ? 68 The Oration VII. Memory Passages Select the best passages in the oration. Do they appeal to you chiefly because of their beauty, or their truth, or their strength? Memorize one of these pas- sages. Select and memorize single sentences that impress you. VIII. Characteristics of Author See Narrative Poetry, Sec. X, p. 14. IX. Life of Author See Narrative Poetry, Sec. XII, p. 16. X. Critical Opinion See Essay, Sec. IX, p. 63. XI. Comparative Study Select another oration, preferably one already studied or read, and compare with this according to suggestions given under Narrative Poetry, Sec. XIV, p. 1 7. XII. Collateral Reading (a) Illustrative Matter. Great orations are usually inspired by great crises in a nation's life, or deal with The Oration 69 men who have made great achievements. To appreciate such orations fully, it is necessary to be familiar with the measures or the men discussed. Standard biographies, such as the American Statesmen Series, and the larger histories of the United States and England, will furnish means for this study. (b) Other Orations. The number of great orators whose speeches survive as literature is not large. Pitt, Burke, Fox, Sheridan, Clay, Calhoun, Webster, Everett, Lincoln, Sumner, and Phillips, are among the most im- portant. The student who aims at public life, with its accompanying necessity for public speaking, will be helped by studying the models of oratory left by these men. Part II SPECIMEN STUDIES STUDY OF LOWELL'S "VISION OF SIR LAUNFAL" II. Classification Metrical Tale. III. Purpose (a) To entertain, and to teach a spiritual truth. (b) It teaches the true spirit of charity : that unless you give yourself with your gift, it is nothing. (c) This lesson is definitely stated in Part I, stanza 6, and in Part II, stanza 8. IV. Plot (a) The story is clear after the introduction of Sir Launfal, but in the first prelude it does not appear for some time what the poem is about. (t?) It is interesting, though perhaps the interest flags in the long description in the second prelude. {c) The climax occurs in Part II, stanza 7, where the leper is transformed. (d) The story is probable, since the two meetings with the leper are represented as only a dream. 73 74 Lowell's "Vision of Sir Launfal" ( |w I w |uu That you do bend your eye on vacancy w I W I V I W I W And with the incorporal air | do hold discourse ? w| W I ^ I w I ^ Forth at your eyes | your spirits wildly peep ; w| W I W I W I KJ And, I as the sleeping soldiers | in the alarm 130 The position of the caesura, marked thus | , is regular in the first two lines; in line 122 it is in and after the first foot; in line 123 it is in the first and in the third; in line 1 24 it is in the fourth foot, and so on. Trochaic feet are substituted in lines 123, 125, 126, etc. Spondees are found in lines 120, 123, 125, etc. Pyrrhic feet occur in lines 120, 122, 123, etc. The extra syllable is found in line 121. Line 125 is divided between two speakers, and, as often in such cases, has extra syl- lables. Line 120 is run-on, the others end-stopt. (£) Lyrics in the play are Ophelia's songs, in Act IV, Scene 5, and the snatches of song sung by the clown in Act V, Scene 1. (c) Prose is used in Act II, Scene 2, and elsewhere where Hamlet feigns madness ; it is used in Act III, Scene 2, for Hamlet's advice to the players, which, being purely didactic, is hardly suited for poetic form; when 90 Shakspere's " Hamlet " Horatio enters, however, the dialogue is on a higher level, more emotional, and naturally rises to blank verse. The play within the play, Act III, Scene 2, is written in rime, to distinguish it from the play proper. IX. Style (a) The language of the play is not always clear. Sometimes the obscurity is due to obsolete words, some- times to the thought ; but the meaning is usually clear after a little study. (l>) Biblical allusions are found occasionally. In V, 2, 231, the saying "there's a special providence in the fall of a sparrow " is a reference to Matt. x. 29 : "Are not two sparrows sold for a farthing? and one of them shall not fall on the ground without your Father." Other ex- amples are I, 2, 131, and V, 1, 40. (c) Examples of poetic diction are : " mine arm " ; " thrice " ; " oft " ; " hath," — all in II, 1, 90-1 10. (d) There is no marked use of dialect, though the opening of Act V, Scene 1, approaches it. (s. Catiline, and others. (For Orations I, II. translated and parsed, see other page.) Cicero's Select Letters. Cicero's Tusculan Disputations. Cornelius Nepos, complete. Eutropius. Horace, complete. Juvenal's Satires, complete, Livy, Books I and II. Livy, Books XXI and XXII. Lucretius, in preparation Martial's Epigrams {paper). Ovid's Metamorphoses, complete in two volumes. Phaedrus' Fables. Plautus' Captivi, and Mostellaria. Plautus' Pseudolus, and Miles Gloriosus. Plautus' Trinummus, and Menaechmi. Pliny's Select Letters, complete in two volumes. Quintilian, Books X and XII. Roman Life in Latin Prose and Verse. Sallust's Catiline, and the Jugurthine War. Seneca on Benefits. Tacitus' Annals, the First Six Books. Tacitus' Germany and Agricola, Tacitus' On Oratory. Terence: Andria, Adelphi and Phormio. Terence: Heautontimorumeno .. Virgil's jEneid, the First Si.v Books. (For Book I translated and completely scanned and parsed, see other page.) Virgil's Eclogues and Georgics. Viri Romae. ^Eschines Against Ctesiphon. ^Eschylus' Prometheus Bound ; Seven vs. Thebes. ^Eschylus' Agamemnon. Aristophanes' Clouds. Aristophanes' Birds, and Frogs. Demosthenes' On The Crown. Demosthenes' Olynthiacs and Philippics. Euripides' Alcestis, and Electra. Euripides' Bacchantes, and Hercules Furens. Euripides' Hecuba and Andromache. Euripides' Iphigenia In Aulis, In Tauris. Euripides' Medea. Herodotus, Books VI and VII. Herodotus, Book VIII. Homer's Iliad, the First Six Books. Homer's Odyssey, the First Twelve Books. Isocrates' Panegyric, in preparation. Lucian's Select Dialogues, two volumes. Lysias' Orations. The only Translation extant. Plato's Apology, Crito, and Phaido. Plato's Gorgias. Plato's Laches {paper). Plato's Protagoras, and Euthyphron. Plato's Republic. Sophocles' GEdipus Tyrannus, Electra, and Antigone. Sophocles' QEdipus Coloneus. Thucydides, complete in two 7'olumes. Xenophon's Anabasis, the First Four Books. (Book /, trans- lated and completely parsed, in prep. See other page.) Xenophon's Cyropadia, complete in two volumes. Xenophon's Hellenica, and Symposium (The Banquet). Xenophon's Memorabilia, co?nplete. Freytag's Die Journalisten (paper). Goethe's Egmont. Goethe's Faust. Goethe's Hermann and Dorothea. Goethe's Iphigenia in Tauris. Lessing's Minna von Barnhelm. Lessing's Nathan The Wise. Lessing's Emilia Galotti. • Schiller's Ballads. Schiller's Der Neffe als Onkel. Schiller's Maid of Orleans. Schiller's Maria Stuart. 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