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MANUAL OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 HARD SOLDERING 
 
 WITH AN APPENDIX ON THE 
 
 REPAIR OF BICYCLE FRAMES; 
 
 NOTES ON ALLOYS AND 
 
 A CHAPTER ON SOFT SOLDERING. 
 
 ^ "^ I AUG 15 1895 
 
 H A R V K Y R o w E \iiL2ry_^^:^'t>^ 
 
 SECOND EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED. 
 
 NEW YORK: 
 
 SPON & CHAMBERLAIN, 12 CORTLANDT ST. 
 
 LONDON : 
 
 E. & F. N. SPON, 125 STRAND. 
 1805. 
 
% 
 
 COPTBIGHT, 183i, BY HaRVEY RoWELL. 
 
 <? 
 
 H41 
 
 D 
 
 Printed by Henry I. Cain, 35, 37 Vesey Street, Now York, U.S.A. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Introduction. 
 Chapter I. — Utensils and Chemicals. 
 
 THE FLAME 8 
 
 LAMP 8 
 
 CHARCOAL 9 
 
 MATS 9 
 
 BLOWPIPES 10 
 
 WASH-BOTTLE 10 
 
 .BINDING WIRE 12 
 
 BORAX 13 
 
 CHEMICALS 14 
 
 Chapter II. — Alloys for Hard Soldering. 
 
 SPELTER 14 
 
 SILVER SOLDER 15 
 
 GOLD SOLDER 17 
 
 Chapter III. — Oxidation. 
 
 OXIDATION OF METALS is 
 
 FLUXES 10 
 
 ANTI-OXIDIZERS 20 
 
 Chapter IV. — Structure of Flame. 
 
 OXIDATION OF GASES 21 
 
 THE CONE 22 
 
 OXIDIZING FLAME 22 
 
 REDUCING FLAME 23 
 
 Chapter V. — Heat. 
 
 l-RANSMISSION 25 
 
 CONDUCTION 26 
 
 CAPACITY OF METALS 27 
 
 RADIATION 27 
 
 APPLICATION 28 
 
IV. 
 
 Chapter VI. — The Process. 
 
 THE WORK TABLE 29 
 
 THE JOINT 30 
 
 APPLYING SOLDER 30 
 
 APPLYING HEAT 31 
 
 THE USE OF THE BLOWPIPE 31 
 
 MAKING A FERRULE 32 
 
 JOINTS , , 34 
 
 TO REPAIR A SPOON 36 
 
 DIFFICULTIES 36 
 
 Chapter VII.— The Process — Continued. 
 
 TO REPAIR A WATCH CASE S7 
 
 HARD SOLDERING WITH A FORGE OR HEARTH 40 
 
 HARD SOLDERING WITH TONGS 41 
 
 Chapter VIII. — Technical Notes. - 
 
 PRESERVING THIN EDGES ii 
 
 SILVERSMITH'S PICKLE 43 
 
 RESTORING COLOR TO GOLD 43 
 
 CHROMIC ACID 44 
 
 STEEL SPRINGS, TO MEND 45 
 
 SWEATING METALS TOGETHER 45 
 
 RETAINING WORK IN POSITION 46 
 
 MAKING JOINTS 46 
 
 APPLYING HEAT 47 
 
 PREVENTING THE LOSS OF HEAT -18 
 
 EFFECT OF SULPHUR, LEAD AND ZINC 49 
 
 TO PRESERVE PRECIOUS STONES 50 
 
 ANNEALING AND HARDENING 51 
 
 BURNT IRON 52 
 
 TO HARD SOLDER AFTER SOFT SOLDER 52 
 
 Chapter IX. — Properties of Metals. 
 
 table of specific gravity 53 
 
 table of tenacity 53 
 
 table of fusibility 54 
 
 fusibility of alloys 54 
 
 Appendix. Index, 
 
^idntposlu^tion.)!^ 
 
 A knowledge of the uses of heat makes the nation civ- 
 ilized; enables man to progress. Just in proportion as 
 the knowledge of the processes depending upon the laws of 
 heat have become disseminated, so have nations grown in 
 importance and advanced in civilization. 
 
 In our age, in construction of forms in metal, heat is indis- 
 pensable. The fundamental processes of casting, anneal- 
 ing, welding and soldering metals underly the other arts 
 and depend upon scientific research for improvement. 
 The products of these arts, as shown in the tools of the 
 artisan, instruments of the surgeon, engineer, astronomer, 
 and the apparatus of the chemist, add to the facilities for 
 investigating the laws of nature, a knowledge of which in 
 turn enables the maker of implements and manipulator of 
 processes to also improve. 
 
 To unite pieces of metal already having solidity and 
 form, in a firm and substantial manner, making the whole 
 as one solid piece, has always been one of the processes 
 most useful to man. Although not particularly hard to 
 acquire, a thorough knowledge of it has been enjoyed by 
 few in comparison with its every day usefulness and im- 
 portance. 
 
 The rapid changes that are taking place in mechanical 
 
b HARD SOLDERING. 
 
 engineering cause a demand for men who understand the 
 arts of construction, men who have a scientific knowledge 
 Oi the laws that underlie their skill, and who are able to 
 adapt the state of the art to new wants. Having no rigid 
 system of apprenticeship in this country, and but few 
 schools where the mechanical arts are taught practically, 
 the young man is often left to accidental resources to ac- 
 quire a knowledge of the useful arts. 
 
 With the rapid development of new inventions comes a 
 class of young men having the genius for mechanical in- 
 vention who desire to be able to construct the devices for 
 their experiments, but who do not want to serve a term of 
 years at any one trade. Since hard soldering or brazing 
 is often a fundamental process in the construction of 
 models, they are often left to weak or clumsy devices to 
 bridge over a lack of knowledge of that process. 
 
 Among the jewelers, gunsmiths, makers of surgical, 
 ra ithematical, optical and philosophical instruments, watch- 
 iiiak(rs and occasionally the dentists, it has been handed 
 down from one generation to another, each one teaching it 
 as adapted to his own requirements, so useful is it in nearly 
 all branches of mechanical construction. 
 
 Much that is published in this little work may be new 
 only to the beginner, and may not add materially to the 
 skill of the experienced workman in his own department 
 of industry, nevertheless it is well to compare notes, and 
 if only one little point is gained it will be worth to the 
 practitioner the cost of so inexpensive a volume. To the 
 person having use for, and seeking such information as it 
 3ontains I hope it may prove invaluable. I ask of the ap- 
 jrentice or amateur into whose hands it may fall that they 
 
INTRODUCTION. 7 
 
 study it thoroughly, and then use the information gained 
 as a stepping stone to the acquisition of further informa- 
 tion and improvement by observation and experiment. 
 Pleasure in work is derived from the ability to do it well. 
 Be thorough, persevering, observing. 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 rXEl^JSII.S AlVO CHEMICAI.S. 
 
 Any clear flame may be used for hard soldering with a 
 blowpipe. That of illuminating gas is to be preferred if 
 obtainable. Away from cities where gas is common, the 
 alcohol lamp is most used. Several kinds of lamps are 
 now sold that are adapted to the wants of the trade, but 
 if these are not at hand a tinner can soon make one. It 
 should hold at least 4 oz. of alcohol, and have a wick tube 
 attached near the bottom not much less than one-half inch 
 in diameter. The top of the wick tube should be cut oiF 
 obliquely, the left side, as it sits facing you, being the 
 lowest. The wick, when saturated, should be so tight that, 
 although it may be moved up or down in the tube, it will 
 remain in any position. The wick tube must have a cap 
 fitting snugly, to cover the end of the wick when not in 
 use. The size of the lamp should correspond with the 
 size of the work and amount of heat required. Blast 
 lamps, furnaces and hearths are now sold, a description of 
 which I leave to the manufacturers. 
 
 The lamp should never be filled quite full of alcohol, it 
 being liable at any time when in use to become warm, thus 
 expanding the alcohol and causing it to overflow or blow 
 out the wick. 
 
 The beginner should form the habit of covering the wick 
 as soon as it is blown out. If left exposed to the air the 
 alcohol evaporates, leaving the water it contains at the end 
 of the wick, rendering it hard to light. 
 
UTENSILS AND CHEMICALS. V 
 
 For gas, the Bunsen burner, with blowpipe tube, is to 
 be obtained from dealers in chemical wares. 
 
 A few pieces of charcoal should be provided on which 
 to lay the work to be soldered. Select that which is well 
 burned and is not too strong through the grain of the wood. 
 The charcoal made from the softer close grained woods or 
 roots is best, since if it is well burned it is not liable to 
 crack and throw sparks with the first heat. Some pieces 
 of coal will continue to burn when laid away if a spark of 
 fire be left unextinguished. The workman will therefore 
 be careful when leaving his work to examine the coal he 
 has been using, and as a further safeguard to cover the 
 table top with sheet metal or slate, where the coal is laid. 
 
 For some kinds of work a mat made of old pieces of 
 binding wire, on which to lay the work, is used. Its ad- 
 vantage is that it presents a uniform surface to lay work 
 on, and in not burning away. Asbestos cloth answers 
 the same purpose. Charcoal, on the other hand, has sev- 
 eral useful qualities peculiar to itself. Pins may be stuck 
 into it to retain in position the pieces to be united. It 
 may be cut into shape to fit the work or to hold melted 
 metals. In burning, it unites with the surplus oxygen 
 surrounding the work, and increasing the heat. 
 
 Blowpipe. — Those offered for sale are so cheap and an- 
 swer the purpose so well that others are not commonly 
 used. They are described as "plain" and "with ball." 
 Some prefer a plain one, and for soft soldering, or jobs re- 
 quiring but a short blast are advantageous, since they dry 
 out quicker than those with a bulb. For a long continued 
 
 blast, those with a bulb are preferable, since the chamber 
 2 
 
10 HARD SOLDERING. 
 
 holds for a time the condensed vapor from the breath. If 
 the bulb does not unscrew to empty, and a series of long 
 continued blasts are to be made, after each blast the bulb 
 should be held over the flame until the moisture is ex- 
 pelled. 
 
 Brass, if well nickel plated is preferable to silver, by 
 reason of its being a poorer conductor of heat. The tip 
 should be platinum, having an orifice of a size suitable to 
 the work. It is well to have the mouth piece plated with 
 silver or gold, or if the workman likes he may make a 
 ferrule of horn, ivory, silver or gold and put on. It is 
 sometimes convenient to have the mouth piece square, as 
 it can then be held in position by the teeth for a short 
 time if it is necessary to use both hands. 
 
 I once made a blowpipe in a few minutes by simply 
 bending a piece of glass tube over the flame of the lamp, 
 to the desired angle, then drawing to a point and break- 
 ing off until the aperture was the right size, usually about 
 one-fiftieth of an inch. Its smooth tapering nozzle gave a 
 very nice jet, better than that of any metal one, according 
 to my experience. A form of blowpipe not usual in the 
 Fig. J. trade is described in Eliot and Storer's 
 
 Chemical Analysis. The construction 
 can be seen from the accompanying Fig. 
 1. The tip should be drilled out of a 
 solid piece of platinum or brass, and 
 should not be fastened on with a screw. 
 
 ''r ' " '-^ 
 
 zzzz^ 
 
 Wash-hottle. — Next to the apparatus 
 for increasing the temperature comes 
 that for reducing it. A fine jet of water is often useful 
 
UTENSILS AND CHEMICALS. 
 
 11 
 
 for cooling portions of the work and for putting out the fire 
 on charcoal. For these purposes I find the chemists' wash 
 bottle very convenient. 
 
 To construct one, procure an open mouthed bottle that 
 will hold at least a half pint, a cork to fit, and a piece of 
 quarter inch glass tube, twice as long as the bottle. At 
 about the length of the bottle and two inches more hold 
 the tube over the flame of the lamp, rolling it slowly over 
 in the flame until it becomes red, then pull it out length- 
 wise until it parts. Break the thread from the end of the 
 measured off piece, leaving a hole large enough to insert an 
 ordinary pin. Ram the hole in the tube full of dry sand 
 and hold in the flame about two inches from the small end, 
 rolling over as before until red hot, then bend to an angle 
 of about 60° or somewhat farther than square. 
 
 Cut the tapering point off the other piece with the corner 
 of a file and fill with sand as before. At about two inches 
 from the end, bend to an angle of 120° or not quite square. 
 Cut off the longer end so as to leave it about two and one- 
 half inches long and insert the end in the flame, as also 
 the sharpened end of a slate pencil. When the glass be- 
 comes pliable insert the end of the pencil in the hole in 
 the tube, and rolling both while the ^'sj- 2. 
 
 pencil is gradually pressed to an angle 
 with the tube, spread the end into a 
 flaring mouthpiece. 
 
 Make two holes in the cork and insert 
 the tubes; the longer end so that it will 
 reach near the bottom of the bottle. 
 See Figures 2 and 3. Insert the other 
 nearly through the cork and leaving the 
 
12 
 
 HARD SOLDERING. 
 
 bent ends in line, cover the surface of the cork with sealing 
 wax. 
 
 If the bottle be now filled with water, and the cork in- 
 serted, when you blow in the mouthpiece, the pressure of 
 the air on the water will force a stream of water from the 
 nozzle. 
 
 A one-half pint three necked Woulff bottle makes a 
 Fig. 3. good wash bottle, as shown in Figure 3. 
 
 A tube is inserted in each of the 
 outer necks while the middle one is 
 used to fill through, and saves the neces- 
 sity i)f removing the corks having tubes 
 in, when it is necessary to replenish. 
 
 It is also an improvement to make a 
 metal elbow for the discharge pipe, 
 fioii which the nozzle may be removed to clean. Clear 
 water only should be used in the bottle. Floating particles, 
 if larger than the aperture in the nozzle, are caught there 
 and stop or clog the stream. 
 
 A^Mm^ 
 
 Binding Wire. — Get the best annealed iron binding 
 wire. For light work see that it is fine about No. 32, and 
 is not tinned. The tinned wire may be used on steel or 
 brass but should never be used on gold or silver. If no 
 other is convenient, remove the tin by drawing it between 
 pieces of No. emery paper and anneal by drawing it 
 slowly through the flame of the lamp, heating it to a dull 
 red as it passes through. If the work is too heavy for a 
 single wire double and twist the light wire. 
 
UTENSILS AND CHEMICALS. 13 
 
 Borax. (Sodae Boras — Biborate of Soda.) Buy al- 
 ways the best in the market. It should be well crystal- 
 ized and in irregular shaped lumps. The surface should 
 not be white or chalky, as that appearance indicates that 
 either the borax or some of its impurities have commenced 
 to oxydize. 
 
 It is liable to be adulterated with alum or salt, and 
 sometimes contains sulphate of potash, sulphate of soda or 
 sulphate of magnesia from which it has not been properly 
 purified. Any of them are deleterious. The importance 
 of having borax of good quality is so great in proportion 
 to the amount used, that the difference in price is insig- 
 nificant. When good is not to be obtained it may some- 
 times be improved by melting to a glass with the blowpipe 
 flame, then dissolving in water and evaporating the water, 
 thus oxidizing a portion of the impurities. 
 
 The useful properties of the borax are that it melts be- 
 fore the solder and flows over the parts to be united, pro- 
 tecting their surfaces and the solder from the oxygen of 
 the air. It also has an affinity for metallic oxides with 
 which it unites, keeping the metallic surfaces clean for the 
 flow of the solder, as will be explained more fully here- 
 after. 
 
 It is sometimes calcined (melted and pulverized) before 
 using. 
 
 It is conveniently prepared for use by rubbing on a piece 
 of slate with a drop of water until it forms a paste. 
 
 The jeweler should add to the articles mentioned a pair 
 of tweezers, some plaster of Paris, some pieces of black 
 lead, a piece of raw potato or apple. Those who work 
 gold and silver will need some chemical reagents, viz: 
 
14 HARD SOLDERINa. 
 
 Nitric Acid, 
 
 Sulphuric Acid, 
 
 Bichromate of Potash, 
 Saltpetre, 
 
 Ammonia, 
 
 Yellow Ochre, &c., 
 the uses of which will be explained in other connections. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 AIvIvOYS FOR HAR» SOI^DHRING. 
 
 Every workman should learn to make his own hard sol- 
 der, since in many instances he can expect success not 
 only by a thorough knowledge of the properties of the ma- 
 terials to be united but also of the metal he proposes to 
 flow on them. 
 
 In the department of soldering called brazing, spelter 
 solder is used. It is composed of equal parts of copper 
 and zinc. The copper should be put in a crucible and 
 heated to a red heat, with a flux composed of charcoal dust 
 and borax, then add the zinc. If the zinc be put in at 
 first it will evaporate or "burn out" before the copper 
 melts. If heated too hot after melting the zinc will evap- 
 orate, passing into the air and coating surrounding objects 
 with white, feathery flakes. If kept melted long a little 
 more zinc should be added if the solder is to be used on 
 brass, but for iron considerable zinc may burn out before 
 it deteriorates. It is cast in ingots, heated red and ham- 
 
ALLOYS. 16 
 
 mered while hot. If too hot it will cake, but if at just the 
 right temperature it will granulate into fine, lustrous par- 
 ticles, not loosing their metallic yellow color. 
 
 It is used on brass, copper, iron or steel, with a blow- 
 pipe or a forge. 
 
 Silver solder is composed of silver, copper and zinc. 
 The silver imparts to the solder strength, malleability 
 and protection from oxidizing. The copper tenacity and 
 malleability. The zinc lends fusibility. 
 
 The object in making a silver solder, is to so alloy a 
 metal that it may be strong, malleable, not liable to oxi- 
 dize, and fusible. The difficulties to be encountered are 
 that an easily fusible metal is not strong and tenacious, 
 and when alloyed with a metal of hard fusibility, produces 
 a brittle alloy. The brittleness is not relieved by reduc- 
 ing the quantity of the fusible metal, since an alloy com- 
 posed of a large quantity of a metal that is hard to fuse 
 and a small quantity of one easily fused is more brittle 
 than if the metals are in reverse proportions. 
 
 An alloy of silver in large proportion and zinc would be 
 easily fused and hard to oxidize, but brittle. We there- 
 fore retain enough of the silver to prevent oxidation, re- 
 duce the zinc as much as possible and retain the property 
 of easy fusion, and add copper to get strength and tenacity. 
 
 The proportions for a good hard solder are about. Sil- 
 ver 18, Copper 4, Zinc 1, by weight. They may be al- 
 loyed in a crucible, and if done so, should have the silver 
 and copper melted together first with just heat enough to 
 make them unite, under a flux of borax. Then add the 
 zinc and pour into an ingot mould immediately. Or, coin 
 silver may be melted first, and one-third its weight of 
 
16 HARD SOLDERING. 
 
 spring brass, cut up in fine pieces, added. Pour as soon 
 as it presents a clean smooth surface. Put in borax as 
 before for a flux. It should be cast thin and rolled with- 
 out annealing. 
 
 If you want a little for your own use, and do not care 
 to keep it on hand a long time, weigh out 3 or 4 penny- 
 weights of coin silver and one half as much of clean 
 spring brass. I say spring brass because that is an alloy 
 of copper 2 parts, zinc 1 part, by weight. It is a light 
 yellow color. Red brass should be avoided. Cut the 
 brass in thin shreds. In a piece of charcoal cut a hollow 
 near one side about the size of a teaspoon bowl. Put the 
 silver in and add a little borax. Melt the silver with the 
 reducing flame of the blowpipe. (Chapter IV.) Add the 
 brass and keep a gentle flame on until the brass is absorb- 
 ed and it presents a clean smooth globule and no longer. 
 Lay down your blowpipe and pick up a flat piece of iron 
 not less than a sixteenth of an inch thick. Place the iron 
 on the edge of the charcoal and rock it over on the melted 
 "■lobule so as to flatten and cool it at the same time. Put 
 it through the rolls or otherwise make a sheet of it, but 
 do not anneal it. Heating the surface oxidizes the copper, 
 evaporates the zinc and makes it harder to flow. For 
 convenience the same strip may be rolled to diflferent 
 thicknesses to suit the work on which it is to be used. 
 
 If for any reason it is to be remelted, a small piece of 
 zinc should be added while in a state of fusion to take the 
 place of that evaporated. Too much zinc causes it to 
 lose strength and to turn dark when exposed to the air. 
 
 Some add a three-fourths part of metallic arsenic to 
 make the solder more white and fusible. It also makes it 
 
ALLOYS. 17 
 
 more brittle and the fumes from the arsenic must be avoid- 
 ed since they are deleterious. If used it should be added 
 at the last moment. 
 
 Articles of gold are sometimes soldered with gold of a 
 bwer grade. For 22 carat gold, add to a pennyweight of 
 the gold 2 grains of silver and 1 grain of copper, and the 
 same proportion of silver and copper for gold of 18, 16 or 
 14 carats, with which to solder them. For the manufacture 
 of articles that are to be exposed for any length of time 
 to the action of acids, as in dental work, they should be 
 used. For articles of ornament and for the repair of 
 jewelry, spring brass may be used instead of the silver 
 and copper, making a solder of good color and more easily 
 fused. Some use with coin gold, the same proportion of 
 brass as for silver solder. The same precaution should 
 be used in making as for silver solder, to add the brass, 
 which contains the more fusible metal, zinc, last, and to 
 cool as soon as alloyed, to prevent the volatilization of the 
 zinc. 
 
 Gold of a fineness of 12 carats or less may be soldered 
 with 10 or 12 carat gold to which about 2 grains of zinc 
 to the pennyweight has been added, but in no case should 
 a gold solder be made that is less than 8 carats fine. The 
 gold is wasted by not being suflBcient in quantity to pro- 
 tect the alloy from oxidizing. It is better for such work 
 to use silver solder. 
 
 Gold solder for general work may be made of Gold 18, 
 Silver 4, Copper 5, Zinc 2 parts, by weight, or, to 1 dwt. 
 18 carat gold add 5 grs. spring brass. This will be 15 
 carat gold. Tin is sometimes used instead of zinc, but it 
 makes a more brittle alloy owing to its easier fusibility. 
 
18 HARD SOLDERING. 
 
 The gold solders are made on charcoal, pressed and 
 rolled as described for silver. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 OXIDAXIOIV. 
 
 While the oxygen of the air is of the greatest assistance 
 in producing the heat that the workman employs, it also 
 becomes his greatest enemy in the property it has of unit- 
 ing with the metals of Avhich his work is composed. In 
 welding, brazing, hard soldering or soft soldering, only 
 chemically clean metallic surfaces will unite. The pure 
 metals must come in contact in order to establish perma- 
 nent affinity. 
 
 Nearly all the metals and alloys in common use oxidize. 
 The oxidized metal is the red rust or the black scale on 
 iron or steel ; the white oxide of zinc ; the red oxide of 
 lead ; the yellow oxide, or litliarge, and the white oxide, or 
 white lead ; the black oxide of copper ; the oxide of tin, 
 called putty powder. 
 
 Gold derives its superior value from its properties of 
 resisting the oxidizing power of the air and water, its 
 malleability and its scarcity. Silver derives its value 
 from the same properties, but possessing them in a less 
 degree, while it is more abundant, is cheaper in market 
 value. 
 
 In the working of metals the workman resorts to other 
 substances that possess the power of resisting the action 
 
OXIDATION. 19 
 
 of the oxygen and of uniting with the oxides of the 
 metals, if formed. Different substances are used, adapted 
 to protect the metals at the degree of heat required for the 
 process used. In welding, borax is used, because at a red 
 heat it melts and flows over the surface of the iron, pro- 
 tecting it from the hot air of the forge and uniting with 
 the oxide or scale if formed. In brazing and hard solder- 
 ing the same substance is used for the same purpose. 
 When the temperature is not raised to a sufficient extent 
 to melt borax, sal ammoniac, muriate of zinc, resin, Venice 
 turpentine, and even tallow and sweet oil may be used, as 
 in soft soldering and the tinning of iron. These sub- 
 stances are called fluxes, and are used for the one purpose 
 of protecting the metal from the oxygen of the air. The 
 beginner must not get them confused, for while borax is 
 the shield at a high temperature, it is not only useless but 
 in the way at a low one, and Avhile tallow or oil will flux 
 at a low temperature and when used alone, they have the 
 opposite effect at a little higher temperature or mixed with 
 other fluxes. 
 
 Charcoal also operates to protect metals from the oxygen 
 of hot air by itself uniting with it, or in a vicarious way. 
 The workman who solders on charcoal can often protect 
 one side of his work from oxidizing by causing it to fit the 
 coal tightly. The charcoal burns around the work and 
 consumes the oxygen before it reaches the side in contact. 
 
 Other substances called antioxidizers are used to pro- 
 tect the surface of metals from the action of the air where 
 solder is not intended to flow. The blacksmith "lutes'' 
 his steel dies, or the gunsmith his engraved work, with 
 clay. The jeweler coats his work with yellow ochre and 
 
20 HARD SOLDERING, 
 
 other substances given hereafter, for the same purpose. 
 They act in a mechanical way by being interposed between 
 the surface to be protected and the air. 
 
 To resist the action of the air upon articles in ordinary 
 use the gunsmith blues or browns the surface, that is, he 
 produces on the surface a coat of oxide to prevent farther 
 oxidation; the brass finisher "ormolus," that is, heats un- 
 til a light coat of oxide forms and then applies a light 
 coat of shellacf; the electro-metallurgist plates with gold, 
 silver or nickel. For the same purpose sheets of iron 
 are tinned and coated with zinc. Zinc, although freely 
 oxidizable, takes on a coat of oxide impervious to air or 
 moisture, thus preventing further oxidation. 
 
 Of anti-oxidizers, the most important ingredients are 
 yellow ochre and borax. The workman may compound to 
 suit himself. To prevent steel from scaling, yellow ochre 
 and water forming a paste to spread on will answer the 
 purpose. To prevent alloys of gold from changing color, 
 pulverized borax should be added to the ochre, as also a 
 little aqua ammonia to assist in forming a paste. A good 
 recipe is 
 
 Borax, ----- 1 oz. 
 
 Aqua Ammonia, - - - - i oz. 
 
 Yellow Ochre, - - - - 1^ oz. 
 
 Water to make a paste. 
 Some add also pulverized charcoal. If kept tightly 
 stopped it seems to improve with age. 
 
 The means of removing oxides formed in hard soldering 
 and of restoring the color to alloys will be considered in 
 Chap. VII. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 STRUCTURE OF FI.AME. 
 
 Since the flame of tlie lamp is of general use in solder- 
 ing, it may be well to devote a little time to the study of 
 its structure. The flame is produced by the combustion 
 of gases. In the case of alcohol or oil, the liquid at the 
 end of the wick is raised to a temperature at which it 
 volatilizes. The gases are then heated until they combine 
 with the oxygen of the air, in turn producing heat and 
 volatilizing more of the liquid. The wick of the lamp or 
 candle conveys the liquid to the point of combustion to 
 maintain the supply. The gases as they 
 arise from the wick come in contact 
 with the oxygen in the air, with which 
 they unite. As the stream of hot gases 
 flows upward the outer portion comes 
 in contact Avith the air first, and the 
 inner portions as they pass upward are 
 presented to the air. Fig. 4, causing the 
 flame from a round wick to be conical 
 in shape. Where the process of the 
 union of the gases is going on, that is at 
 all points of this cone of flame, B^ Fig. 
 4, the elements are raised to a high de 
 gree of temperature. The highest tem- Fig- 4. 
 
22 HARD SOLDERING. 
 
 perature is at the apex of the cone where combustion, or 
 oxidation of the gases, is proceeding from all sides. Ir.- 
 side of this outer cone of flame is a space comparatively 
 cool, but filled with gases at a temperature sufficiently 
 high to oxidize if brought in contact with the air, A, Fig. 
 4. If a wire gauze be held across the middle of the cone 
 the flame will be cut off at that point and the flame below 
 presents a ring of combustion. The reason that the flame 
 is cut off by the wire gauze is that the heat is conducted 
 away by the metal and the gases cooled thereby below the 
 temperature at which combustion takes place. If a piece 
 of watch spring be inserted across the lower part of the 
 flame it will be heated to redness at two points where it 
 crosses the outer cone of combustion, while the portion in 
 the interior of the flame will be below that temperature. 
 In the flame from oil lamps and candles this cone of in- 
 tense heat is luminous. 
 
 If the point of the blowpipe be inserted in this ct)ne, 
 
 Fig. 5, and through 
 the small aperture in 
 its end, a jet of air be 
 blown, the heated gases 
 in the interior of the 
 Fig. 5. "^ * flame are supplied with 
 
 oxygen and combustion is carried on from within, increas- 
 ing the combustion and consequently the heat. The 
 stream of air elongates the flame in its direction and ex- 
 poses it to a greater air surface. This flame is technical- 
 ly called the oxidizing flame, from the fact that it carries 
 with it a quantity of free heated oxygen, that unites with 
 the heated metal, carbon of the charcoal, Sec. If it be 
 
STRUCTURE OF FLAME. 23 
 
 blown on a piece of bright iron or steel, as the oxygen 
 unites with the surface exposed, it passes through the 
 tempering colors, straw, purple, blue, and if the process 
 be continued to a red heat, a hard black scale of oxide of 
 iron is formed covering the surface to a depth correspond- 
 ing to the duration of exposure. Pure gold and silver are 
 but little ajBfected by it, as they unite with oxygen only to 
 a slight extent, but copper is very susceptible to the action 
 of hot oxygen, losing its metallic lustre, and assuming a 
 dull brown color. It causes alloys of which it is an in- 
 gredient to do likewise. Zinc is volatilized by the heat, 
 and the vapor coming in contact with the hot oxygen, 
 unites, forming fleecy white particles of oxide of zinc 
 that float in the air or adhere to the charcoal. Tin at 
 a little above its melting point is entirely oxidized and 
 converted into putty powder. Lead does likewise, but the 
 oxide is yellow and heavier, commonly called litharge. 
 
 If the point of the blowpipe be held at a little distance 
 from the lower part of 
 the flame and a gentle Ja 
 
 blast be blown over the 
 flame, as in Fig. 6, 
 the flame is diverted 
 in the direction of the Fig 6. 
 
 stream of air, and the flame supplied with oxygen from 
 the outside. The inner cone of heated carbonaceous 
 gases. A, Fig. 6, remain ready to unite with any oxygen 
 with which they may come in contact. Oxidized metals 
 in the interior of this flame are deprived of their oxygen 
 and reduced to a metallic state. It is therefore called the 
 reducing flame. 
 
24 
 
 HARD SOLDERING, 
 
 ^ 
 
 If the point of tlie 
 blowpipe be held just 
 at the edge of the 
 cone of combustion 
 as in Fig. 7, and a 
 gentle blast blown, a 
 double cone may be formed, having a point of intense heat 
 at A, with neither oxidation or deoxidation. 
 
 These different flames are utilized in soldering by ap 
 plying the intense heat of the oxidizing flame to raise the 
 temperature of the cold article to be soldered, if it be 
 large, before the solder is applied. Also, when it is 
 necessary to call to his assistance the heat of the burning 
 charcoal, it supplies the carbon of the coal with heated 
 oxygen to assist its combustion. When the process has 
 arrived at that stage at which the solder fuses it is neces- 
 sary to protect it and and the joint into which it is expect- 
 ed to flow from oxidation. The blowpipe is then with- 
 drawn, producing the reducing flame. 
 
 On coarse work the oxidizing flame may be used to save 
 time, but on light repairing and gold alloys too much care 
 cannot be exercised to use the reducins; flame. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 HEAX. 
 
 Heat Is transmitted by conduction or convection, radia- 
 tion and rejection. 
 
 Heat, in solid bodies, seems to be transmitted from one 
 particle to the next by a slow process called conduction, 
 »nd in liquids by the movement of the particles to and 
 from the source of heat. 
 
 Heat radiates or passes through the surrounding air, like 
 light, with great rapidity. It is in this state governed b^; 
 laws similar to light, being capable of reflection. 
 
 It may be produced by chemical action and transmitted 
 by any of the foregoing methods. It may be developed 
 within a body by causing it to obstruct a current of elec- 
 tricity or motion. 
 
 For the work of which we are treating the main source 
 of heat is by the combustion of coal, gas or liquids — the 
 union of the oxygen of the air with carbon or hydrocar 
 bons. The work may be immersed in the burning coal, 
 receiving heat from all sides, as in soldering and brazing; 
 the flame from liquids or gas may be driven onto it as in 
 hard soldering, or it may be conducted to the work as in 
 soft soldering. 
 
 By whatever means the heat be imparted to a body, as 
 soon as it is introduced it strives to equalize itself through- 
 
 4 
 
26 HARD SOLDERING. 
 
 out the body and to escape by every means of transmis- 
 sion. As the heat seeks to escape from the workman by 
 every method, so must the skilled workman employ every 
 method to lead the heat to the point desired and make it 
 culminate in accomplishing his designs. 
 
 The escape of heat by conduction varies in different 
 bodies. If you take an iron spoon and a silver one and 
 hold the bowls of both in hot water, you will feel the heat 
 in the silver one some time before you do in the one made 
 of iron. From this you may learn that you can heat a 
 portion of a bar of iron without losing much heat by con- 
 duction if the process be carried on briskly, but an at- 
 tempt to heat a spot on a similar silver bar would be at- 
 tended Avith considerable loss of heat by conduction. 
 
 The relative conducting power of metals is given in 
 Fowne's Chemistry as follows. 
 
 Silver, 
 
 1000 
 
 Steel, - - - 
 
 116 
 
 Copper, - 
 
 - 736 
 
 Lead, - ., _ 
 
 85 
 
 Gold, - 
 
 532 
 
 Platinum, 
 
 84 
 
 Brass, 
 
 - 236 
 
 German Silver, 
 
 63 
 
 Tin, - 
 
 145 
 
 Bismuth 
 
 18 
 
 Iron, 
 
 - 119 
 
 Zinc (Mech. Diet.) - 
 
 363 
 
 Another principle to be taken into consideration in this 
 connection is the amount of heat required to raise the tem- 
 perature of different metals. Metals differ in their capac- 
 ity for heat. Iron requires more heat to raise it a certain 
 number of degrees of temperature than silver, so that al- 
 though there is not so much loss of heat at any given 
 point, by conduction, it is necessary to impart more heat 
 to raise the temperature of the whole iron bar an equal 
 number of degrees than the one ot" silver. This capacity 
 
STRUCTURE OF FLAME. 27 
 
 for heat of any substance is called its specific heat. A 
 celebrated French experimenter, Regnault, gives the fol- 
 lowing numbers to express the relative specific heat of the 
 metals as compared with water; 
 
 Aluminum, 
 
 0.2143 
 
 Mercury, - 
 
 0.0333 
 
 Antimony, - 
 
 - 0.0508 
 
 Nickel, 
 
 - 0.1086 
 
 Bismuth, - 
 
 0.0308 
 
 Platinum, 
 
 0.0329 
 
 Copper, 
 
 - 0.0952 
 
 Silver, 
 
 - 0.0570 
 
 Gold, 
 
 0.0324 
 
 Tin, 
 
 0.0562 
 
 Iron, - 
 
 - 0.1138 
 
 Water, 
 
 - 1.0080 
 
 Lead, 
 
 0.0314 
 
 Zinc, 
 
 0.0955 
 
 It will be seen, for an example, by comparing the tables, 
 that copper has a high conducting power and also a hi^h 
 capacity for heat, thereby being hard to heat, while plati- 
 num is a poor conductor and also has a low specific, ren- 
 dering it easy to heat. 
 
 As soon as a body becomes heated more than the sur- 
 rounding matter it loses heat by radiation. The heat pro- 
 jects in right lines into space from all points of its sur- 
 face. The capacity of any body to radiate and to absorb 
 heat is equal. Radiation is varied by the condition of the 
 surface of a body. Dark or rough surfaces lose more heat 
 by radiation and absorb more than light or polished sur 
 faces. Blackened tin having a radiating power of 100, 
 clean tin will radiate but 12, and if the surface be rough- 
 ened by scraping, 16 will indicate its power of radiation. 
 Radiant heat, or in other words heat that has been radiat- 
 ed from an over heated body, is subject to laws of reflec- 
 tion similar to light, in which case the heat rays are thrown 
 off from the body without entering. Hence if a body re- 
 flects the heat it does not absorb it, and vice versa. 
 
28 HARD SOLDERING. 
 
 Having considered the methods by which heat escapes 
 from a body, we may now review the ways the workman 
 has of applying the heat and preventing its escape. In 
 common use we have the flame of the lamp or of gas; the 
 heat from the burning coal on the hearth or in the forge; 
 the heat from conduction from hot tongs, the copper, and 
 sometimes by pouring melted metal over a body. To the 
 flame of gas or the lamp which raises the temperature, as 
 explained in another chapter, by contact with gases in a 
 state of combustion, we often add the heat radiated and 
 reflected from burning charcoal, and cover parts that are 
 not exposed to the flame with some poor conductor of 
 heat, such as clay or plaster of Paris, to prevent the radi 
 ation of the heat absorbed by conduction. In the forge 
 the temperature is raised by cor tact with burning solids, 
 conductini!;, radiatino; and reflectinsr the heat. In some 
 instances where heat and pressure combined are neces- 
 sary, heated tongs are applied, thus heating bj? conduc- 
 tion and at the same time retaining the parts in position 
 during their expansion. When the work is too large for 
 other methods it is sometimes imbedded in sand or other 
 poor conductor, leaving the portion to be heated exposed 
 so that melted metal may be kept running over it until the 
 part is raised to the desired temperature by conduction 
 from the melted metal. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 THE PROCESS. 
 
 We will suppose the reader to be provided with the 
 tools and material described for hard soldering, but in the 
 art to be a beginner, and we will suppose him to be try- 
 ing to learn with the mouth blowpipe, the alcohol lamp 
 and charcoal, since when these are learned the other 
 methods are easy. 
 
 Select a place for the work table away from sunlight 
 or other strong or bright light, in order that the flame 
 may be more readily seen, and its character distinguished. 
 
 Place the lamp directly in front, the pieces of charcoal 
 to the left. Next the lamp on the right put the tweezers 
 and some solder cut up in little squares proportioned to 
 the size of the joint to be made, then the slate and borax, 
 the wash bottle and the blowpipe. 
 
 Take for an experiment a piece of brass wire an inch 
 long which it may be desired to unite to a narrow strip 
 of sheet brass. With a flat file, file the wire half away, 
 leaving it flat perhaps a quarter of an inch from the end 
 to a shoulder, leaving the filed surface clean, bright and 
 dry. File or polish bright the end of the strip of sheet 
 metal where the wire is to lay. Do not touch these clean 
 surfaces with the sweaty hands. Place the piece o^ wire 
 
30 HARD SOLDERING. 
 
 on the sheet metal as you want it when solid and wrap a 
 piece of the iron binding wire twice around near the end 
 of the brass wire, lap the ends over the round wire and 
 twist tight. Make a similar wrap of wire near the end 
 of the sheet metal. Blow a drop of water from the wash- 
 bottle on the slate and rub the borax in the water until a 
 paste is formed. Apply a coat of this paste all around 
 the edges where the two pieces come in contact. Lay the 
 work on the charcoal so that the joint will come near its 
 right edge. Take the cover off the lamp wick and light 
 the lamp. Grasp the charcoal with the left hand, taking 
 such a hold that the flame will not reach the thumb or 
 fingers and having the palm of the hand in a verticil po- 
 sition so that the little sparks of ignited charcoal that 
 may become dislodged will not fall into the palm of the 
 hand. 
 
 Place the blowpipe to the mouth with the nozzle directed 
 to the left and just outside the lower part of the flame. 
 Fill the cheeks with air from the lungs and blow sufficient- 
 ly hard and steady to give a permanent lateral direction 
 to the flame. Bring the work into the flame first one side 
 of the joint then the other. The heat will be conducted 
 to the work and cause the borax to expand, but if the heat 
 be continued it will settle down again, having been de- 
 prived of the water of crystalization by the heat. Now 
 stop the blast, care being taken not to inhale through the 
 blowpipe. 
 
 With the tweezers pick up a piece of the solder, and 
 after touching it to the borax paste to moisten it and cause 
 it to adhere to the work, place it beside the wire between 
 the wraps of binding wire. 
 
THE PROCESS. 31 
 
 Apply the flame as before, heating first one side of the 
 joint, then the other, but not on the joint until it becomes 
 nearly red hot, then apply the flame to the joint until it 
 becomes red hot and the solder melts and flows all through 
 the joint. As soon as the solder flows quickly remove 
 the blowpipe. It is easy to tell when the solder flows for 
 while it is melted it glistens with radiated light. 
 
 Blow a stream of Avater from the wash-bottle on the 
 charcoal to extinquish the fire and cool off the work. 
 
 It will be necessary for the beginner to practice with 
 the blowpipe in order to blow a continuous stream of air 
 through the blowpipe nozzle while he breathes through his 
 nostrils. To one not accustomed to the blowpipe it seems 
 a paradox, but is, nevertheless, easily acquired by any 
 one the anatomy of whose throat is perfect. 
 
 If you close your mouth and fill your cheeks with air 
 until they are distended you will find that you can close 
 the passage between the mouth and throat so that while 
 you breathe through the nose the cheeks remain full. Then 
 if a blowpipe be inserted in the mouth and this passage 
 closed the blowpipe will not permit the air to escape from 
 the cheeks so rapidly but that the lungs may be filled by 
 inhaling through the nose while the muscles of the cheeks 
 are forcing the air out of the blowpipe. When the lungs 
 are replenished the passage is opened and the cheeks re- 
 filled. 
 
 Begin by breathing naturally with the cheeks full, then 
 put the blowpipe in the mouth and practice until you can 
 breathe right along naturally, replenishing the cheeks when- 
 ever necessary. After you have become accustomed to 
 blowing it will not be necessary to replenish the cheeks 
 
32 HARD SOLDERING. 
 
 every breath or to have the cheeks much distended, and 
 yon will be able to perform the whole operation without it 
 distracting your attention from the other parts of the 
 process. 
 
 If the beginner has trouble in acquiring dexterity he 
 may take a rim fire cartridge shell and make a hole in the 
 end smaller than the hole iu- the blowpipe nozzle, at first, 
 so as not to empty the cheeks too fast. Put it between 
 the lips in the place of the blowpipe and practice blowing 
 through it. As skill is acquired enlarge the aperture un- 
 til it becomes as large or larger than the one in the blow- 
 ])ipe. It may he carried iu the pocket to practice with at 
 any moment of leisure. 
 
 If the beginner is now ready for another experimental 
 lesson he may make a ferrule. Procure a piece of sheet 
 iron, brass or silver, and j)lace on the charcoal. Hold the 
 blowpipe point just outside of the lower part of the flame 
 and blowing the flame upon the sheet metal, heat it red 
 liot. If of iron allow it to cool gradually, but if of brass or 
 silver blow a jet from the wash bottle on it until it is cool. 
 It will then be annealed, and if you make any particular 
 measure you will not be annoyed when it is done by find- 
 ing that it has expanded in hard soldering and does not fit. 
 
 Cut out a strip as wide as your ferrule is to be and as 
 long as its circumference. Form into shape, keeping the 
 edges to be united clean. If the metal is thick and the 
 joint well fitted, it may be soldered without binding ; but if 
 the metal be lighter the ferrule long, put a couple wraps of 
 binding wire near each end to hold the edges together. If 
 of brass, silver or gold, 'pnt a strip of flat sheet brass 
 lengthwise along the back of the ferrule opposite the joint 
 
THE PROCESS. 33 
 
 and wrap the binding wire around both. Brass, silver or 
 gold, in heating, expand more than the iron binding wire 
 and are more pliable when hot. If the binding wire be 
 wrapped directly around them, by not expanding so much 
 it sinks into the hot brass, silver or gold, and makes 
 grooves around the fen-ule, sometimes causing much annoy- 
 ance to restore to shape and polish out. 
 
 When you have it wrapped and the edges fitted closely 
 together, take a file and run along inside the ferrule length- 
 wise of the joint, to remove the burr and scale and bright- 
 en the metal near the joint, to facilitate the flow of the 
 solder. If of iron or brass spread on plenty of borax 
 jiaste inside and out ; but if of silver or gold enough can 
 be spread on with a small ijencil brush, as those metals 
 do not oxidize materially, and do not require much fluxing, 
 but it should be evenly applied and cover every exposure 
 of the joint. 
 
 Make a little hollow in the charcoal and lay the ferrule 
 in, joint down. Put a small piece of coal near the end 
 farthest from the flame. Hold the charcoal so that you 
 can blow through the ferrule if you desire, and, applying 
 the blowpipe flame, heat all over evenly until the borax 
 settles. With the tweezers take a piece of solder, as be- 
 fore, and touching it in the borax paste, lay it on the joint 
 inside of the ferrule at a little distance from one end, and 
 another piece near the other end ; if the ferrule be long put 
 one or more pieces in the middle. 
 
 Now ai)ply the flame to the outside of the ferrule on top 
 until it becomes nearly red, then direct it inside, as far in 
 as you can conveniently, and downward along the joint 
 until the solder flows. 
 5 
 
34 HARD SOLDERING. 
 
 If of silver or gold see that tlie blue flame does not im- 
 pinge on the edge of the metal long in the same place, as 
 it may melt down, and if you see the metal at any time 
 begin to crinkle or shrivel, throw off the flame as soon as 
 possible. If the solder should not flow up to the end do 
 not direct too much heat there, as those corners are easily 
 melted away. It is better to put on fresh borax, a new 
 piece of solder, and try it again. 
 
 The solder should not be a^ thick as the gold or silver 
 sheet, but the brass or iron will stand for almost any thick- 
 neSri of solder to melt. 
 
 Some workmen put the joint uppermost on the coal and 
 apply the solder on the outside. 
 
 We will next take a job of repairing, for instance a sil- 
 ver teaspoon that has been broken across the middle of 
 the shank. The joint may be made 
 by squaring the broken ends and 
 putting them flat together, depend- 
 ing on pinning the work to the 
 charcoal to hold it in place while 
 under heat. It may be made by 
 sawing into each piece and inserting 
 into the kerfs a piece of silver, as 
 in Fig. 8. ^^ 
 
 It may be made by holding each end on an anvil and 
 drawing to a bevel edge with the pane end of a hammer, 
 making a bevel perhaps one fourth of an inch long on each 
 piece, then file smooth and bright and laying the two bev- 
 eled ends together, as in Fig. 9, wrap with binding 
 wire. If the spoon is to be united in any of these ways 
 it should be fastened to the charcoal with pins made by 
 
THE PROCESS. 35 
 
 cutting off pieces iron Avire, about No. 20 in size. If it is 
 not convenient to pin to the chnrcoal the latter joint may- 
 be made with a notch in it to prevent slipping apart, as 
 shown by Fig. 10, when the binding wire will retain the 
 pieces in position in every direction. 
 
 A piece of charcoal should be selected as long as t!ie 
 spoon, on which it may lie so that the joint and the ends 
 will rest on the coal. Pin it to the coal if necessary, and 
 apply the borax paste. Put a small piece of charcoal on 
 top of the larger piece, on the side of the spoon and op- 
 posite where the flame will strike when blowing on the 
 joint. If this piece has a beveled side, so as to project 
 over the spoon at the joint, so much better. Place a 
 piece of coal on the spoon bowl. 
 
 Diri'ct the flame on the coal around the spoon, to ignite 
 the coal and to heat the borax. When the borax has set 
 tied, put on a piece of solder, this time a thick one, so 
 that it may not melt and burn before the metal of the 
 spoon is hot enough for it to flow in the joint. It should 
 be about half as thick as the metal at the joint. Apply 
 the flame first one side of the joint then on the other, un- 
 til these parts are nearly red hot. By doing so the heat 
 will be conducted into the metal at the joint, and heat it 
 gradually, without melting the solder, the object being to 
 apply the heat in such a manner as to heat the metal at 
 the joint without permanently yiclting the solder. By 
 having these parts hot Avhen the flame is applied to the 
 joint to melt and flow the solder, the heat will not be con- 
 ducted away, but will suddenly raise the temperature to 
 the required degree without oxidizing the solder or vola- 
 tilizing any of its component parts, and also economizing 
 
36 HARD SOLDERING. 
 
 the heat of the flame, the theory of which has been ex- 
 p^.ainecl in foregoing chapters. 
 
 When the parts on each side of the joint show nearly a 
 red heat, see that the point of the blowpipe is outside 
 of the flame, and direct a gentle blast on the joint until it 
 becomes red, the solder fuses and a bright glistening line 
 along the joint tells that the solder has run through. 
 
 It is common for the beginner to blow too hard, and to 
 hold the work too close to the lamp, with the hope of 
 thereby increasing the heat. The blast when the solder 
 is to be fused should be moderate, and the work at the 
 blue apex of the inner cone of the flame, a point that can 
 readily be seen by removing the work or by slackening 
 and then gradually increasing the force of the blast. 
 
 If from poor borax, an unclean joint, or an improper 
 application of the heat, the first piece of solder does not 
 flow as it should, another piece with a little fresh borax 
 may be added, and the work again heated. Sometimes 
 the workman may be annoyed by the solder forming a 
 globule, dancing around and refusing to flow into the joint. 
 In such a case, if the metal below is hot enough, it will 
 sometimes flow if the blast be suddenly checked or Avith- 
 drawn. If it continues long, so as to volatilize the more 
 fusible parts of the solder, remove the globules and as 
 much of the old borax as is practicable, and apply fresh 
 borax and solder, and take a new heat. When the work 
 is required to possess the utmost strength, and will stand 
 the heat, it may be kept heated after the solder has run, 
 in order that it may alloy deeper into the metal of the 
 PTork, and make the metal at the joint more homogeneous. 
 
 If the spoon had cracked down the bowl and it were re- 
 
THE PROCESS. 37 
 
 quired to repair it, the edges should be brought together 
 at the top, and a hole punched in each near the corner, 
 through which to bind with a piece of silver wire large 
 enough to fill the holes, or, rivet a piece of silver on. 
 The surplus metal can be dressed off after soldering. It 
 is necessary in the case of cracked pieces of concave form 
 to provide against the unequal expansion from heat, as it 
 tends to open the crack. A secure method of retaining 
 the parts having been provided for, proceed as before. 
 Place a small piece of charcoal in the spoon bowl, to 
 coimteract radiation of heat. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 THE PROCESS-Continued. 
 
 We will suppose that by this time our apprentice has 
 become familiar Avith the blowpipe, flame, and materials on 
 his table, and desires to replace a broken joint on a silver 
 watch-case. He will find the ends of the outer joints 
 plugged with little tapering pieces of silver, that he may 
 remove by cutting into slightly with an engraver's chisel, 
 and pressing them out. The joint pin may then be driv- 
 en out by inserting a small punch in the hole and pushing 
 from left to right. The old pieces of joint should be re- 
 moved entirely, and the hollow seat dressed smooth and 
 bright with a round file. From a piece of hollow wire of 
 the size of the joint cut a piece a little long, and fit to the 
 exact length between the joints. Examine it to find on 
 
38 HARD SOLDERING. 
 
 whicli side it is closed, dress it bright on that side and 
 mark it so that the joint in the wire may come on the case 
 and be soldered up when it is united to the case. If it is 
 a light case, and the hole in the joint wire small, there is 
 danger that the so'der may flow into the hole and fill it 
 up. To save this prospect of future trouble, the careful 
 workman dresses a piece of pencil black lead, to fit the 
 hole in the wire. The properties of the black lead or 
 plumbago, that make it useful for this purpose, are that 
 the solder will not unite with it, that it is not altered by 
 heat, and that it may be crumbled to powder to remove it, 
 if necessary. 
 
 Having marked the exact position that you desire the 
 joint to occupy, if you intend to retain it in position by 
 passing iron binding wire around the Avhole cap, it will be 
 well to fit a heavy piece of brass wire across inside the 
 cap from flange to flange, or the silver of the case in ex- 
 panding more than the iron binding wire, will be contracted 
 out of its natural shape unless supported. Heavy wire 
 should not be used to bind such a job. When light 
 wire is used it should only be wrapped twice around, so 
 that if it be seen to be doing damage it may be easily 
 burned asunder by the point of the flame. The wire is 
 not usually needed after the solder is applied. 
 
 Apply the borax and put it on the charcoal. Your sol- 
 der this time should be thinner than the matcri;il of the 
 joint wire, and cut into small pieces so that it will not be 
 necessary to use more than enough to answer the purpose, 
 since the surplus may flow into places where it will be dis- 
 agreeable to remove. Place some small pieces of char- 
 coal inside the cap, and blow the flame over them, to par- 
 
THE PROCESS. 39 
 
 tially ignite them. Heat enough to calcine the borax. 
 Put a piece of solder either alongside or near the end of 
 the joint. Heat every part of the cap but the joint, and 
 ignite the pieces of charcoal within to prevent the escape 
 of heat by radiation, and thereby prevent the heat from 
 being conducted away when the critical moment arrives. 
 The carbon of the ignited charcoal will also unite with 
 the oxygen of the air, and tend to prevent oxidation of 
 the work. When it is all well heated, apply the heat to 
 the joint and the metal adjacent, carefully watching that 
 no one point shows too luminous, or otherwise indicates 
 that it is receiving too much heat. The work should be 
 kept slowly moving under the flame, so that the blue cone 
 will not come in contact with a thin edge of metal at the 
 same place any length of time, or you may see the edge 
 shrivel and melt before you are aware of the intense heat. 
 
 Watch intently for the bright glistening line along the 
 joint that announces that the work is done, and quickly 
 remove the flame to save farther danger. 
 
 With the wash bottle blow a stream of water on the 
 coal around the work until the main piece is quenched, 
 but do not direct the stream onto one side of the cap, or 
 in any way cause it to cool from a high degree of heat 
 suddenly, or it will warp. If the coal be quenched 
 around the cap, and the pieces of coal inside removed and 
 quenched, it will now be cool enough to remove from the 
 coal and take oS the iron binding wire, when, while 
 slightly warm it may be immersed in the silversmith's pick- 
 ling solution described in the next chapter- If immersed 
 a little warm, the black oxide is sooner removed. 
 
 Had the cap been of gold, it would have been neces- 
 
40 HARD SOLDERING. 
 
 sary to cover the surface with an anti-oxidizing paste, to 
 prevent loss of color by the copper of the alloy oxidizing 
 in the presence of the hot oxygen. 
 
 The caution in regard to iron binding wire, and sudden 
 cooling springing the work, applies to dental plates, or 
 any work having an accurate form to preserve. 
 
 In brazing or hard soldering large pieces, when it is 
 necessary to use a hearth or forge, the pieces are bound 
 together with heavy annealed iron wire, large enough not 
 to burn off in the fire. Since the heat cannot be managed 
 so w^ell as with the flame and blowpipe, it is sometimes 
 necessary to lute, or cover with clay, the lighter or more 
 exposed portion of the work, to protect it from the heat. 
 The same care is used to have the joint clean and bright, 
 and the same rules observed in regard to the borax and 
 solder, as in soldering with the flame. Charcoal is best, 
 but if not at hand, and bituminous coal is to be used, it 
 should have the sulphurous gases driven from it by burn- 
 ing to a coke before putting the work in the fire. 
 
 It is sometimes necessary to unite long thin strips of 
 metal that cannot be fastened on anything to hold the 
 ends in position, since the fastenings would have to be ap- 
 plied at a distance from the ends to be united, and wlun 
 the heat would be applied the expansion would cause them 
 to buckle out of shape. To unite such articles, as for in- 
 stance a band saw, prepare the end for a lap joint. Lap 
 the ends more than the width of the saw. Cut a notch, 
 larger than the lap, in a block, and fasten the pieces so 
 that the edges of the back may be in line, and the laps 
 
THE PROCESS. 41 
 
 in position over the notch. Fasten to the block by 
 screws or clamps. Cut a piece of silver solder, rolled 
 thin, as large as the lap. See that the solder and the 
 faces to be united are clean and bright, and insert the 
 the solder between the lapped surfaces. Apply the borax 
 paste all around the edges. Heat the jaws of a pair of 
 tight shutting blacksmith's tongs red hot, and shut them 
 onto the joint, inclosing joint, solder, and all. If the 
 jaws are so light as not to close firmly, screw a clamp on- 
 to them. Cool with a stream of water. The heat from 
 the jaws of the tongs is sufficient by conduction to flow 
 the solder, and the pressure retains the parts in position 
 and prevents buckling. 
 
 The solder may sometimes in blowpipe soldering be ap- 
 plied to advantage by placing a thin strip in the joint. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 XECHNICAI. NOTES. 
 
 It may be of advantage to the student in the art of hard 
 soldering to introduce a chapter containing notes, partly 
 in review, to impress the important points more firmly in 
 the mind; and partly novel, being such ideas as have been 
 derived from practice and experiment, and which may 
 sometimes save, even to an experienced hand, many times 
 the price of a little book. 
 6 
 
42 HARD SOLDERINa. 
 
 Sometimes parts to be united have edges or corners so 
 thin as to be almost certain to be "cat away." This eat- 
 ing away or shrinking is caused partly by the heat coming 
 in contact with a large area of metal in proportion to the 
 bulk. Conduction does not equalize the heat fast enough 
 to carry it away from the thin place, thus it becomes heat- 
 ed more than the adjacent thicker metal, and melts, or 
 comes near the melting point, before the solder flows 
 When the solder flows it alloys with the thin hot edge or 
 corner, and causes it, too, to flow toward the thicker or 
 cooler metal. It may often be prevented by inserting in 
 the joint a thin piece of sheet metal, of the same material 
 as the body of the work, and a little larger, so as to ex- 
 tend beyond the thin edge, as in Fig. 11. The solder 
 must be flowed on both sides of it. It 
 conducts the heat away from the thin 
 edges and attracts the flowing solder 
 outward to make a perfect, full joint. 
 The surplus metal is afterward dressed 
 p. off. Sach a piece is often useful also 
 
 in gold rings that have been worn to 
 thin edges, or have been resoldered so many times that 
 the solder has alloyed with the body of the metal and 
 causes it to melt easily. It is a good plan to insert such 
 a piece in cutting down and hard soldering rings filled 
 with hard solder, in which case it is not necessary to use 
 any hard solder on the outside, since if the piece of sheet 
 metal be properly cleaned the filling will flow, but it is 
 safer to use a little, if for nothing else than to tell when 
 to stop the blast. 
 
TECHNICAL NOTES. 43 
 
 The silversmith's "pickle" is made by diluting nitric 
 acid with ten times its bulk of water, putting it in an 
 open vessel like a pickle dish and adding as much sul- 
 phuric acid, by measure, as was used of nitric acid. The 
 acids should not be mixed in a tight vessel. If the pickle 
 stands exposed to the air it will evaporate, but is restored 
 again by adding water. Iron should never be allowed to 
 get in it. Articles should never be taken out of it with 
 steel tweezers; the binding wire should be removed from 
 all articles before they are put in. Whenever by any 
 means iron gets in the solution it is dissolved by the acids 
 and held in solution. The pickle also holds copper in so- 
 lution. These are ready to be deposited whenever the 
 acid comes in contact with any metal for which it has a 
 greater affinity, therefore it deposits a coat of copper 
 when iron is presented, and a coat of iron when silver is 
 presented, coloring the work instead of cleaning it. 
 
 Restoring color to gold alloys is a subject on which the 
 author has spent a good deal of time in investigation and 
 experiment. If an alloy of gold, containing gold, silver 
 and copper, be heated in contact with oxygen to a red 
 heat, without any anti-oxidizer to protect the surface, it 
 becomes coated with a brown scale. It is only surface 
 deep, and may be polished off in many cases. We have 
 seen that gold does not oxidize to any appreciable extent; 
 that silver has not much affinity for oxygen, but that cop- 
 per is easily oxidized. If we now dip it in the silver- 
 smith's pickle the sulphuric acid will remove this oxide of 
 copper, and leave a surface composed of gold and silver, 
 
44 HARD SOLDERING. 
 
 consequently it has turned pale, or lost its color. The 
 problem then is when the copper has oxidized, to remove 
 the copper oxide and as much silver as the alloy contains 
 in proportion to the copper that has been lost by oxida- 
 tion. The only chemical reagent known that has an affii i 
 ty for silver and not for the other metals is chromic acid. 
 Sulphuric acid removes the copper readily, but not the 
 silver. Chromic acid is not commonly kept for sale, but 
 is, fortunately, easily made. Take a bottle and fill half 
 full of bichromate of potash. Then fill the bottle nearly 
 full of sulphuric acid. The sulphuric acid has a greater 
 affinity for the potash than the chromic acid. It unit( s 
 with the potash and liberates the chromic acid. It works 
 best warm. If the article be dipped in it when the solu- 
 tion is warm and allowed to remain a short time the 
 chromic acid unites with the silver of the surface, and re- 
 moving it, restores the alloy to its original color. It may 
 be restored after having been dipped in the silversmith's 
 pickle or without. The solution may be used cold if the 
 article be plunged in hot, but it is not so easily regulated, 
 as the acid operates quickly under such circumstance?. 
 It must not be allowed to remain in too long, or it will as- 
 sume a dirty brown color. The chromic acid should be 
 kept in a vessel tightly closed, as it evaporates if exposed 
 to the air. If water is added to chromic acid it does not 
 dilute it as it does other acids, but forms a new compound. 
 I have found that this compound, after it has stood a few 
 days, works as well as the clear acid, if too much water is 
 not added. 
 
 Chromic acid is one of the best tests for silver, since if 
 a drop of it be put on silver it changes its color from its 
 
TECHNICAL NOTES. 45 
 
 natural crimson red to a dark maroon, while on any other 
 white metal it remains a clear transparent crimson. 
 
 Articles that have had chromic acid on them should be 
 washed with water and brushed with chalk. 
 
 Pieces are sometimes united by a process called "sweat- 
 ing." The process is similar to that of hard solderinp-, 
 but no solder is used. The joint is made as for hard sol- 
 der, cleaned, borax applied, and heated beyond the point 
 at which hard solder would flow. Just before the metal 
 melts and assumes a globular form, the surface has the 
 appearance of sweating and the particles move sufficiently 
 to unite. At this point the heat is removed. This 
 process is useful in repairing silver caustic holders, where 
 the chemical action of the nitrate of silver disintegrates 
 hard solder joints. 
 
 Steel springs may, if freshly broken and the broken 
 surfaces are bright and clean, be repaired by soldering 
 with good 18 carat gold. As soon as the spring is sol- 
 dered, while it is yet red hot, plunge it into water or 
 sperm oil, thus hardening it with the same heat with which 
 it is soldered. Then proceed to temper. The tempering 
 is accomplished if the springs are small by putting them 
 into an iron spoon bowl and covering with sperm or lard 
 oil, then heating the metal until the oil burns off. Larger 
 springs may be covered with a coil of iron wire dipped in 
 oil and the oil burned off. If the oil is burned off two or 
 three times the springs are tougher. 
 
46 HARD SOLDERING. 
 
 When the binding wire runs across an open place in the 
 work it is liable to burn off. It may be prevented to a 
 certain extent by doubling and twisting the wire. The 
 doubled and twisted wire is better for most purposes than 
 heavy wire. It is strong, pliable, and more elastic than 
 the larger solid wire, and is not so liable to shrink into 
 the work. 
 
 Light pieces are often held in position on larger ones 
 by a piece of watch spring. Heat it red hot to draw the 
 temper, bend to a right angle and stick one end down into 
 the charcoal. The other end projects over the work and 
 presses down on the piece to be held. 
 
 When two ends of similar size and form are to be unit- 
 ed, a hole may be drilled in each and a pin inserted. The 
 pin must be clean so that the solder will flow through the 
 hole. Drill the holes without oil. 
 
 When a long joint is to be made in very thin sheet 
 
 metal the edges may be cut into at 
 
 equal distances and depths, then one 
 
 Fig. 12. turned up and the next down along 
 
 each edge, Avhcn they may be put together, as in Fig. 12. 
 
 Retain with binding wire or an occasional rivet. After 
 
 soldering dress off the surplus. 
 
 To put little studs or lugs on wire or other work, when 
 ___^^_^_^^_^_^ it is diflBcult to retain the little pieces 
 in place, use a long piece, as in Fig. 
 
 Fig. 13. 18, and cut off after soldering. 
 
TECHNICAL NOTES. 47 
 
 When two flat or square pieces of similar size and shape 
 
 are to be united longitudily, the joint is 
 
 easily formed by bending the pieces, as 
 
 in Fig. 14, and dressing off the corners 
 
 after soldering. It is frequently done 
 
 in making rings smaller, repairing spec 
 
 Fig. 14. 
 
 tacle bows, &c. 
 
 It is often necessary to call the attention of the begin- 
 ner a second time to the fact that the body of the metal 
 on which solder is expected to flow must be hotter than 
 the melting point of the solder, and that it is injurious to 
 melt the solder until the work is heated. The desire to 
 accomplish the object of flowing the solder leads many in- 
 telligent but inexperienced workmen to go, as they sup- 
 pose, directly at it by applying the heat to the solder, 
 which fuses, assumes a globular shape, and rolls around 
 on the borax and cooler metal beneath, but persistently, 
 as if with a desire to annoy the workman, refuses to flow. 
 There may be other causes, as an unclean surface, poor 
 borax, a solder that fuses at too low a temperature, but it 
 usually arises from a lack of heat in the right place at the 
 right time. The Avork should, if possible, be a little hot- 
 ter than the solder, when an attraction will be established 
 that will draw the solder into the joint. Even when the 
 metal beneath announces by its glow that it is above the 
 required temperature, if the little globule of molten sol- 
 der be still hotter, it will seem to be in a state of internal 
 ebullition, and like a drop of water on heated iron, seem 
 to be held away by its own vapor. Under such circum- 
 Btances if the flame be removed for an instant, allowing it 
 
48 HARD SOLDERING. 
 
 to radiate a little heat, it suddenly drops into the joint. 
 Too much care in applying the flame cannot be exer- 
 cised to bring the two pieces to be united to the required 
 temperature at the same time. If the workman is care- 
 less in this respect he will be annoyed by having the sol- 
 der flow on oue piece, and if that state of aflfairs be long 
 continued the solder alloys, and perhaps eats away a por- 
 tion of the work. If of gold, although the joint may be 
 made with a new heat and a fresh piece of solder, when 
 it comes to be polished up it may show a spot of a differ- 
 ent color. Heat the piece first that requires the most 
 he it to bring it to the required temperature. If bulky, 
 then a greater mass is to be heated, if large and thin its 
 radiating surface is greater. The loss of heat by radia- 
 tion may often be prevented by placing small pieces of 
 o'larcoal on or near the work. They also seem to prevent 
 oxidation by uniting with the oxygen of the air when they 
 become hot. Large plates are often advantageously coated 
 with a layer of plaster of Paris to prevent radiation. 
 Being a poor conductor it serves to prevent the heat from 
 escaping, and in brazing may be used to prevent exposed 
 parts from becoming too hot. It should not be applied 
 very near the joint since it, also, will prevent the flame 
 from heating the metal. 
 
 It is well to use as hard a solder as the nature of the 
 work will permit. The harder flowing solders are not 
 only usually stronger and less liable to oxidize, but the 
 work is more easily repaired in case of accident. It is of 
 little use to make a solder that will melt at a less temper 
 ati;re than the fusing point of borax, since if it flows at 
 
TECHNICAL NOTES. 49 
 
 all it must be applied while the temperature is above that 
 point. 
 
 In heating large pieces over a forge, beware of sulphur, 
 lead or zinc. If soft coal is used, fresh coal should not 
 be put on the fire while the process of brazing is going on. 
 Lead or zinc sometimes get in the fire, and being evapo- 
 rated and oxidized, deposit their oxides on the cooler met- 
 al of the article to be soldered. Brass, or pieces of spel- 
 ter burning in the fire produce vapors of zinc, often suffi- 
 cient to cause a failure of a job of brazing or welding, by 
 being deposited on the article to be brazed or welded. 
 
 When it is desired to flow solder in a crack for the pur- 
 pose of filling it up, the solder should, if practicable, be 
 flowed on both sides, if it extends through. Solder may 
 sometimes be advantageously placed on the opposite side 
 of a plate from the one to which the heat is applied. 
 
 Small pieces of solder may be more easily picked up 
 with the tweezers, if laid on something soft, like a piece 
 of buck or chamois skin, or better yet, a little piece of 
 printers' roller composition. The points of the tweezers 
 pass below the edges of the little pieces and get a firmer 
 hold. Rubber is not good, since it contains sulphur. 
 
 When through soldering, extinguish the charcoal thor- 
 oughly. Disastrous fires sometimes result from forgotten 
 pieces of burning charcoal. 
 
 To prevent oxidation in holes in the work, that in gold 
 may destroy the color, or may damage screw threads, it 
 is of advantage to tamp them full of charcoal dust. 
 7 
 
50 HARD SOLDERINa. 
 
 Beware of throwing the sharp pointed flame on thin 
 edges. 
 
 Articles to be repaired sometimes have stones set in 
 them in such a manner that it is inconvenient to remove 
 tliem. The workman should remember that these brittle 
 substances expand with heat; that if any portion is sud- 
 denly raised to a higher temperature than the rest, that 
 portion expands and breaks from the cooler portion, either 
 by cracking or flaking off. The heat then must be applied 
 gradually, and in such a manner that the stone will be 
 heated evenly and slowly. To assist in preserving an 
 even temperature, all grease or dirt must be removed, and 
 thin slices of raw apple or potato bound on the exposed 
 portion of the stone. It keeps the flame off, and by the 
 moisture contained equalizes the temperature. 
 
 Diamonds should be removed. When heated very hot 
 they fuse and unite with the oxygen of the air, forming 
 carbonic acid gas, which is too common to be considered 
 valuable. 
 
 All stones composed of alumina resist the heat. These 
 are the sapphire, oriental ruby, oriental topaz, oriental 
 emerald, oriental amethyst, and adamantine spar. Those 
 composed of quartz also resist the heat. They are rock 
 crystal, amethyst, false topaz, prase, chrysoprase, cornel- 
 ian, sard, the agates, onyx and heliotrope. Avoid heat- 
 ing jet, pearls and all ornaments of shell, ivory, bone or 
 celluloid, unless you can keep them immersed in water. 
 
 In putting together thin pieces, which, when a perfect 
 job is accomplished, will leave an inclosed space, a small 
 hole should be made in one of the pieces. The air inside 
 
TECHNICAL NOTES. 61 
 
 will be much rarefied by the heat, and the solidifying of 
 the solder while hot may from the pressure of the air, 
 cause it to collapse- The little hole also allows the in- 
 closed air to escape through it while being heated, and 
 prevents the parts from being displaced by the expansion 
 of the air. 
 
 The heat necessary in hard soldering anneals all metals 
 in common use, except steel when suddenly cooled. Other 
 metals are rehardened by hammering, rolling, drawing or 
 twisting. Plates are most commonly hardened by ham- 
 mering. Articles constructed partly of wire, as a pin 
 tongue, may be hardened by twisting. The softer places 
 yield to the torsion, and thereby become hard. Steel sol- 
 dered with 18 carat gold may be heated to a low red heat, 
 sufficient to harden if done with care. If soldered with 
 silver solder, they may be hardened with a stream of 
 water while yet hot after the flow of the solder. When 
 any portion of steel work is to be hard, a stream of water 
 from the wash-bottle applied to that part while red hot 
 will harden it, leaving the rest soft. When steel is to be 
 soft it should not be removed from the coal until black, 
 but be allowed to cool gradually. 
 
 Some workmen fuse the borax and reduce it to a powder 
 before using, to prevent it from expanding and displacing 
 parts at the first heat. 
 
 For very delicate work, the hard solder may be filed in- 
 to dust, mixed with the borax and applied all at once. 
 
 It is not worth while to spend time trying to hard sol- 
 
52 HARD SOLDERING. 
 
 der pieces of burnt iron, in which the interior of the metal 
 is oxidized. The solder will sometimes flow on the out- 
 side Avhere the borax deoxidizes it, but seldom will flow 
 through the joint. 
 
 If an article has been soft soldered and it is desirable 
 to hard solder it, the soft solder must be entirely removed 
 In^ cutting or scraping it off. If when it was soldered 
 with soft solder it was heated too much, the soft solder 
 may have formed a new and very fusible alloy with the 
 body of the work, in which case it is dangerous to attempt 
 to use hard solder. When that is the case, the new alloy 
 formed is more brittle and feels gritty when scraped. 
 Consequently when scraping off the soft solder if the 
 metal beneath the soft solder feels gritty, and continued 
 scraping does not remove the gritty metal, it will be dan- 
 gerous to attempt to hard solder. But if the soft solder 
 when scraped off leaves the metal at the joint as soft as 
 the rest, there will be little danger in hard soldering, if 
 the soft solder be entirely removed. 
 
 In the foregoing work, the plain, old-fashioned blowpipe, 
 lamp, &c., have been described, and the process conducted 
 with articles easily obtainable. It is expected that the 
 reader will adopt anything more convenient, if practicable. 
 Excellent apparatus is now offered in the line of automatic 
 lamps, blowers, prepared chemicals, (fee, notwithstanding, 
 I would recommend every young man to learn in such a 
 way as to be independent of every unnecessary article. 
 A-fter having learned, he may make the work easier by 
 ainy means practicable. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 PROPERTIES OF MEXAI.S. 
 
 Table of the specific gravity of metals at 60^ Fahren- 
 heit, or 15.5' Centigrade: 
 
 Aluminum, - 2.60 Nickel, - . 8.80 
 
 Bismuth, - - 9.90 Platinum, - . 21.50 
 Copper, - - 8.96 Silver, - - 10.50 
 
 Gold, - - - 19.50 Tin, - - . 7.99 
 Iron, ... 7.79 2inc, - - 7.10 
 
 Lead, - . - II.45 
 
 The figures show the number of cubic inches of wa'er 
 necessary to balance one cubic inch of the respective 
 metals. 
 
 Tenacity of metals is ascertained by observing the 
 weights required to break wires drawn through the same 
 orifice. They stand in the following ratio: 
 Iron, ... 269 Gold,° - - - GS 
 Copper, - - - 157 Tin, - - . .24 
 Platinum, - - 124 Zinc, - - - 12 
 Silver, - - - 85 
 
 inir 
 
 The different metals become fusible, or melt, accordi 
 to Prof. Daniel's pyrometer, at the following degrees of 
 temperature: 
 
54 HARD SOLDERING. 
 
 METAL. FAHRENHEIT. 
 
 CENTIGRi 
 
 Bismuth, - . - . 
 
 497 
 
 258 
 
 Copper, 
 
 1996 
 
 1091 
 
 Gold, - - ... 
 
 2016 
 
 1102 
 
 Iron, cast, . . . . 
 
 2786 
 
 1630 
 
 Lead, _ . . . 
 
 617 
 
 325 
 
 Nickel and Iron, wrought, high- 
 
 
 
 est heat of forge. 
 
 
 
 Platinum, not fusible in ordi- 
 
 
 
 nary furnaces. 
 
 
 
 Silver, - - 
 
 1873 
 
 1023 
 
 Tin, 
 
 442 
 
 228 
 
 Zinc, - - . - - 
 
 773 
 
 412 
 
 Alloys of metals vary from the mean melting point of 
 the metals of which they are composed. They usually 
 melt at a lower degree of temperature than the mean, and 
 sometimes at a lower degree than either of the metals of 
 which they are composed, as for instance, tin solder, com- 
 posed of two parts tin and one of lead, melts at about 
 360^ F. A hard solder, composed of two-thirds silver 
 and one-third spring brass, melts easier than either the sil- 
 ver or the brass. 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 Mats to hold tlio work on, wliile being heated, are now 
 made of charcoal cut into rectangnlar pieces and chemi- 
 cally treated to prevent burning when not iu use. A 
 valuable improvement. They are also made of asbestos 
 for special purposes, as for holding dental plates, spectacle 
 bows and for melting small bodies of metals. Magnesia 
 blocks and carbon blocks are also used by jewellers. 
 
 Attach to your mouth blowpipe a steel point, projecting 
 beyond the bend, to touch fused solder that does not go 
 where you want it. 
 
 When it is necessary to use alcohol the article made from 
 wood answers the purpose and is much chea})cr. If of 
 good quality the odor is not conspicuous, but some of it is 
 objectionable on that account. 
 
 An investing material to cover portions of work that arc 
 liable to break by heat and to retain the parts in proper 
 position, such as teeth in dental work and jn'ecions stones 
 in jewelry, is comjiosed of five parts of white beach sand 
 and four parts of ])laster of Paris. Mix dry and then add 
 water to make a consistency easy to manipulate. A little 
 asbestos fibre is sometimes added. When a thick body of 
 the investing material is used, as around a denture, a 
 strong wire is inserted in the middle of the investment to 
 
5G HARD SOLDERING. 
 
 retain it in position in case it cracks with the lieat. As 
 the metal, if it gets hot, expands more than the invest- 
 ment a piece of asbestos wicking may be laid in the place 
 of the Avire. It comes in balls like candle wicking and is 
 used by steam fitters in packing hot joints. For special 
 purposes a shallow cup of the required shape may be made 
 to hold the investing material and the Avhole heated in an 
 oven, or muffle furnace, to near the soldering point, the 
 joints htiving been previously prepared for the flow of the 
 solder. Heat and cool any article invested slowly in pro- 
 portion to the thickness of the investment. 
 
 Hard solder does not alloy with platinum at the fusing 
 point of the solder. Clean the platinum and sweat in a 
 little ])ure gold at a wliito heat at the place where the 
 solder is to flow. Then solder as if soldering to gold. 
 Gold plate is now sold alloyed with platinum for springs 
 and places requiring a stiff metal not lial)le to oxidize. 
 Scraps of it should be kept separate from other gold as 
 they do not readily mix when melted together. 
 
 Bicycle frames are constructed of light steel tubes, which 
 sometimes break. The most satisfactoiy way to repair 
 such fractures is to braze them. Dress off the ragged 
 edges and the insides of the tubes, one half-inch from the 
 ends, smooth and bright. Make a ring of light steel, or 
 iron, and make bright on the outside. Coat over with 
 pulverized borax mixed with water, to form a paste, and 
 insert in the ends to splice them together. Drill holes 
 and pin it in if necessary to keep the frame in shape. 
 Heat on a brazier's heartli if practicable. If nothing 
 better can be had use a blacksmith's forge. Use charcoal, 
 or 111 the abvsence of that make coke by roasting the gas 
 out of soft coal. V/hen the fire burns clear cover the 
 
SOLDERING BICYCLE FRAMES. 57 
 
 joint with borax and lioat nntil the Ijorax melts. Turn 
 the joint in tlie fire so as to heat evenly and then lay 
 on a lump of spelter. Spelter is low brass, in small lumps, 
 and can be obtained from any brass founder. When the 
 tube gets to a low red heat the s])elter should melt and flow 
 into the joint. Silver solder is preferable to spelter but 
 more expensive. Use the best borax and plenty of it. 
 The frame may be wrap])ed with asbestos cloth, each side 
 of the joint, to protect it from undue heat in a forge, but 
 this would not be necessary on a hearth with double gas- 
 jets. It is sometimes a good plan to wraj) a brass wire 
 (about No. IG) around the joint to conduct the melted 
 solder Avhere you want it to go. This can be dressed off 
 afterwards. Where it is impracticable to insert a ring a 
 wire may sometimes be wound around and left on to 
 .strengthen the joint. Do not heat above a red heat as 
 you may burn the steel tube. If the solder does not flow 
 at that temperature something is wrong. The surface may 
 not be clean enough ; the borax may be old, or i:)oor ; or 
 the spelter may have the zinc burnt out of it. Put on 
 more borax if it melts and does not adhere or flow, but if 
 it does not melt get new s])elter or hard solder. 
 
SOFT SOLDERING. 
 
 The same natural laws that have been explained in relation 
 to Hard Soldering also apply to the use of softer alloy. 
 
 The surfaces to be united must be clean and bright; the 
 heated surfaces must be protected from the air by a suitable 
 flux and must be heated beyond tlie melting point of the 
 solder to be used. 
 
 The tools and appliances differ. While soft soldering is 
 done over a jet of flame, as a gas burner or alcohol lamp, 
 and the blowpipe occasionally used to direct the flame, the 
 most common tool is the copper one, sometimes called 
 a soldering iron. Soft solder lias so much less tenacity 
 that it is necessary to luive large lapping surfaces to give it 
 strength, or folded and locked joints, which are only to be 
 held in position by tlie solder. 
 
 The ordinary solder is composed of lead 75 parts and tin 
 25 parts, by weight, A better flowing solder is made by 
 adding more tin, but where much solder is used it is 
 economy to use as little as practicable on account of its cost. 
 When more tin is used the solder is called /«/. This is used 
 by jewelers in repairing jewelery. For repairing plated- 
 ware, when the lean solder would cause the joint to dis- 
 
SOFT SOLDERING. 59 
 
 color and look bad, it is preferable to use pure tin, which 
 holds its color about as well as silver and sometimes saves 
 re-plating the work on which it has been used. 
 
 Fluxes. — Eosin is the most common flux to be used on 
 tinned-ware where it is only necessary to protect the surface 
 from the air. It melts and flows over the surface to be 
 soldered but does not ignite by the lieat of the copper. It 
 is pulverized and rubbed on the seam with a small stiff 
 pencil brush. Solder does not adhere to iron readily. For 
 that reason a flux is prepared by dissolving strips of metallic 
 zinc in muriatic acid until no more will be taken by the acid 
 and diluting with from 2 to 8 times as much water. A 
 lump of sal ammoniac added protects the soldering copper 
 from corrosion as well as assists to clean greasy surfaces. 
 The chemical action of this flux is that the muriatic acid 
 unites with the iron and deposits a film of zinc to which 
 the solder more readily adhers. Iron that is covered with 
 a scale of oxide may have the scale removed by immersing 
 in dilute muriatic acid and small articles are tinned by 
 taking them from this solution, when they have turned 
 white, and dipping in melted solder, or tin. 
 
 The copper is usually an octagonal bar drawn out to a 
 point by hammering, and a handle attached. Its shape 
 should be adapted to the work for which it is to be used. 
 The point is filed bright and kept clean and well tinned. 
 To tin the point file it bright and heat it. As soon as it is 
 hot enough to melt rosin cover the point with it and heat 
 until it will melt solder. Put some rosin and solder on a 
 board together and rub the point of the copper in it turning 
 it occasionally until the solder adhers to the copper. Now 
 when heated and drawn across a bar of solder a drop of 
 solder will adhere to it and can be conveyed to the point pre- 
 
GO FLUXES — THE COPPER. 
 
 viously coated with rosin, or zinc solution, when the drop of 
 solder will leave the cojjper and unite with the article to 
 be soldered. The copper must not be overheated or the 
 coating of solder will burn off, or alloy with the copjier, and 
 it will be necessary to dress it over and re-tin. When they 
 become worn and blunt from use they are drawn out cold 
 with a hammer and re-tinned. Other metals maybe used to 
 convey the heat but copper has a great capacity for heat 
 and is easy to draw into shape and easy to coat Avith tin. 
 
 A wet rag is kept at hand on which to wipe the copper 
 to keep it clean when in use. When soldering much with 
 acid, or on a greasy surface, wet this rag in a weak solution 
 of sal ammoniac. 
 
 The coppers are usually heated in pots made for the 
 purpose, using for fuel charcoal, or gasoline, but may be 
 heated in a forge or stove. For simply stopping a hole, the 
 surface having been prepared and a lum]) of solder laid on 
 may be melted with a piece of iron, or other metal, not 
 tinned. 
 
 In reparing joints where steam pressure is to be restrain- 
 ed dependence should not be placed on soft solder alone. 
 Heat and pressure cause soft solder to ooze and eventually 
 leak unless supported by some stiffer metal. If the joint 
 cannot be brazed, or hard soldered, make a ])atch of hard 
 metal having an ample area of surface for the soft solder to 
 flow in and solder on. 
 
 In reparing jewelry the flux used is muriate of zinc. 
 Rosin is not used because it spreads over the work and is 
 difficult to clean off. Soft solder should not be used when 
 hard solder can be, but in many cases it is the only way as 
 where the parts of the article itself are put together with 
 
SOFT soldp:uing. 61 
 
 soft sol(]er or contain settings that will not stand the heat 
 necessary fur hard solder. Most parts to be repaired, such 
 as pin joints, button backs, ear-ring loo2)s, etc., are made for 
 soft soldering by being provided with a large surface to 
 attach with the solder, which not only gives strength but 
 covers the solder. Care should be taken that the solder 
 does not flow Ijeyond the piece to be attached. The usual 
 Avay to solder them on is to put some acid flax on the sur- 
 face of the piece to be attached and holding it in or near 
 the flame touch occasionally with a slender bar of solder 
 until a little melts and flows over the surface. CUean the 
 place where it is to be attached and put on the acid flux. 
 Press the two pieces together and heat until the solder 
 melts and unites with both pieces. Cool in Avater and brush 
 with chalk to cleanse from any acid that may adhere. 
 
 Jewelry, with jet settings, may be mended with soft solder 
 without removing the settings, if care is used in heating. 
 It must be borne in mind, however, that the jet melts at 
 about the same temperature as that recjuired for ordinary 
 soft solder, and ignites at a little higher temj)erature. 
 Black glass used in imitation will stand heat but must 
 not be mistaken for jet. Pearl settings should be re- 
 moved, or protected from the heat. Shell and imitation 
 cameos are held in their mountings by jneces of metal put 
 on with soft solder and will not stand the heat necessary 
 to hard solder. A small copper, or nickel bar, is sometimes 
 better than the gas jet, or lamp flame, in directing the heat 
 and solder to a certain point. 
 
 Brittannia and plated-ware may be rei)aired with soft 
 solder although they sometimes melt at a lower temperature 
 than the solder. This is done with a coi)per by putting on 
 
62 KEPAIKING PLATED-WAKE, GUNS. ETC. 
 
 a small portion of solder at a time and removing the 
 copper to allow the work to cool thoroughly after each 
 application. 
 
 Cake baskets and articles of jilated-warc liavingwire boles 
 and hinges of hard metal, usually brass plated over, some- 
 times get them broken off. Clean the parts to be united 
 and tin over the hard metal portion. Q'hen holding the 
 parts in i)Osition apjdy tlic flame with the blowpipe to the 
 hard nu'tal pai't, at some distance from the joint, to prevent 
 tlie soft metal from melting in the joints, as soon as the 
 solder melts promptly remove the flame. Use pure tin for 
 such places instead of solder. The heat does not remove 
 the plating, or injure it, if cleaned without scouring. If 
 discolored, ai)ply a little of the pickle solution used in hard 
 soldering, and wash off. 
 
 Alloys are made that melt in boiling water, but they do 
 not flow so well and lack tenacity. They are seldom used 
 in soft soldering. Two parts bismuth, one of lead and one 
 of tin melts at about 200*^ Fahrenheit and is probably as 
 good as any of these soft alloys. 
 
 Guns sometimes have their barrels put together with soft 
 solder and the lug that holds the tij) stock is often ])ut on 
 in the same manner. These lugs frequently break off and 
 must be repaired by the same process. Scrape the parts 
 bright and wet with the strong solution of muriate of zinc. 
 Flow solder on the parts until it adheres perfectly. Then 
 ])utting the lug in position wrap a piece of annealed wire 
 around the lug and barrels and twist the ends tightly. Put 
 a nail between the wire and the top rib of the gun to prevent 
 the rib from loosening, if heated so as to melt the solder 
 with which it is held to the barrels. Hold over a gas 
 
SOFT SOLDERING. 63 
 
 jet, or flame, iuid heat the bai-rels under the lug, that 
 is, the top of tlie barrels, until nearly hot enough to melt 
 solder. Lav a piece of solder on each side of the lus: and 
 removing the barrels from over the flame, blow with the 
 blowpipe, as in hard soldering, on the lug and adjacent part 
 of the barrels until the exposed pieces of solder melt and 
 flow in. Turn right side up and cool with Avater. Wash 
 off the acid and cleanse where the fumes of the acid adhere 
 to the Avork, to jirevent corrosion. Look over the gun and 
 ascertain the cause of the undue strain on the lug which 
 broke it off. Some guns from faulty construction have a 
 habit of breaking them off, which must be remedied before 
 they will stay on, or the soldering may be blamed where it 
 is as well done as i)ossible. 
 
SOLDERING ALLOYS. 
 
 We find in the books on the metals a good many alloys 
 for hard soldering, most of which are ohselete. Some 
 ini])r()V(_'ments have heen made however. The dentists now 
 use a gold solder containing zinc, similar to that described 
 in the body of this Avork for jewelers. It does not seem to 
 l)e corroded l)y the acids of the mouth as was supposed. 
 The zinc evaporates when tlie solder is fused, not only 
 getting rid of a. ])ortion of the zinc but leaving a joint over 
 which the same solder may flow again. Coin gold can be 
 soldered with 20-carat solder having the other 1.6 carats of 
 zinc but I8-carat gold is more often used having 3.6 carats 
 brass containing co])per 2 ])arts, zinc 1 ])art, by weight. 
 
 A g()(»d hard solder for brass is co})2)er 3 oz., brass 2 oz., 
 tin 5 oz., chea})er than silver l)ut not quite so strong. 
 
 A white hard solder for silver, where the utmost strength 
 is not required, is composed of silver 1 oz., zinc 30 grains. 
 
 Platinum may l)e soldered witli ])ure silver. 
 
 Aluminum bronze is said to be soldered by using a flux 
 of chloride of silver and a solder of — jmre tin 900 parts, 
 coj^per 100, bismuth 2 to 3 parts. Melt the co})per first 
 and add the tin a little at a time, then the bismuth and if 
 convenient a little phosphorus. 
 
NDEX. 
 
 ANTI-OXIDIZER 19, 20 
 
 ALLOYS, HARD SOLDER u 
 
 BIxVDING WIRE 12 
 
 BLOWPIPE 9, 10. 30, 31, 3J 
 
 BORAX 13 
 
 BRAZING 40 
 
 CAPACITY FOR HEAT 27 
 
 CHARCOAL 9 
 
 CHROMIC ACID 43, 44 
 
 COLOR, GOLD 43. 44 
 
 CONDUCTION OF HEAT 26 
 
 FLAME, STRUCTURE OF 21 
 
 FLAME, REDUCING i3 
 
 FLAME, OXIDIZING 22 
 
 FLUXES 19 
 
 FUSIBILITY OF METALS 64 
 
 FUSIBILITY OF ALLOYS 64 
 
 GOLD, COLOR 43, 44 
 
 GOLD SOLDER 17 
 
 HARD SOLDER ALLOYS 14 
 
 HARDENING METALS 51 
 
 HEAT „ 25 
 
 HEAT, CAPACITY FOR 2T 
 
 HEAT, CONDUCTION OF 26 
 
 HEAT, APPLICATION OF 36, 4T 
 
 HEAT, PREVENTING LOSS OF 48 
 
 JOINTS 84, 46 
 
 LAMP 8 
 
HARD SOLDERING. 
 
 OXIDATION 18 
 
 OXIDIZING FLAME 22 
 
 PICKLE, SILVERSMITH'S 43 
 
 PLUMBAGO 33 
 
 PRECIOUS STONES 60 
 
 REDUCING FLAME 23 
 
 SILVER SOLDER 16, 16 
 
 SILVERSMITH'S PICKLE 43 
 
 SOLDER, GOLD 17 
 
 SOLDER, SILVER 15, 16 
 
 SOLDER, HARD ALLOYS 14 
 
 SPECIFIC GRAVITY 63 
 
 SPELTEP, 14 
 
 STEEL SPRINGS 46 
 
 STRUCTURE OF FLAME 21 
 
 SWEATING METALS 45 
 
 WASH-BOTTLE. . _ 10, 11 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 BRAZING STEEL TUBING FOR BICYCLE FRAMES 56, S7 
 
 FLUXES FOR SOFT SOLDERING 59. 60 
 
 HARD SOLDERING PLATINUM 56 
 
 HEATING THE COPPER 60 
 
 INVESTING MATERIAL 55 
 
 MATS TO HOLD WORK ON 55 
 
 REPAIR OF BICYCLE FRAMES 56, 57 
 
 REPAIRING BRITANNIA-WARE, PLATED-WARE, ETC 61, 62 
 
 REPAIRING GUNS WITH SOLDER 62, 63 
 
 REPAIRING JEWELRY 60, 61 
 
 :SILVER SOLDER FOR STEEL TUBES 57 
 
 SOFT SOLDERING— TOOLS AND APPLIANCES, 58 
 
 :SOLDERING ALLOYS 64 
 
 ;SOLDERING COPPER, THE 59 
 
 ■.STEEL POINT FOR MOUTH BLOW-PIPE 55 
 
 WOOD ALCOHOL 55 
 
L LELONG & BROTHER, 
 
 Gold and Silver ReAuers, 
 Assayers and 
 
 SWEEP SMELTERS, 
 
 S. W. Cor. Halsey & Marshall Streets, 
 NEWARK, N. J. 
 
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 Dealers in Gold and Silver for all 
 Manufacturing and Professional Purposes. 
 
 We are constantly receiving old gold and silver, 
 accumulated by Retail Jewelers, Watchmakers and the 
 Professions, for which we pay the assay value. Express 
 packages should be prepaid- 
 
 Waste of any description containing Gold and Silver 
 refined at our Laboratory and the bullion purchased. 
 
 JEWELERS' SWEEPINGS OUR SPEGIALTY. 
 
 Corresponde7ice Solicited. Established 37 Years. 
 
PRACTICAL BOOKS 
 
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 Compftiisatiiig" Pendnlums, and How to Make Them. A practical 
 
 treatise on the construction of mechanically perfect Pendulums, 
 for the use of watchmakers. By J. L. Finn and S. Riefler. Illus- 
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 Repjiirin^ Repeating" Wjitches. By C. T. Etchells. A practical 
 
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 The most vexatious repairs that come to the watchmaker are those 
 on repeating watches — and yet they are the most profitable if you 
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 Prize Essay ou the Balance Staff and Cylinder. By P. W. Eigner. 
 This essay took the first prize offered by the American Horological 
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 staff to pivots. Illustrated with numerous engravings. Paper 
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 Adjnstnients to Positions, Isochronism and Compensation. The 
 
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 Jewelers' Practical Receipt Book. Contains a mass of most valu- 
 able receipts, formulas and information, gathered from the best 
 and most reliable sources. Fifth edition, revised and enlarged. 
 48 pp. Price, 15 cents. 
 
 Repiiiring Watch Cases. A practical treatise on the subject. By 
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 of the Case ; Taking Out the Dents. 40 pp. Price, 25 cents. 
 
 Watch Repairing. By N. B. Sherwood. Contents: The Bench and 
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 Mailed to any address on receipt of price. 
 
POLYPHASE 
 
 Electric Currents^ 
 
 AND 
 
 ALTERNATE-CURRENT MOTORS, 
 
 BY 
 
 SILVANUS P. THOMPSON, D.Sc 
 
 In preparing the lectures for the press a good deal of new matter has 
 been added. No attempt has been made either to preserve the colloquial 
 form of the discourses or to give to them any pretence to literary style. 
 They are put together in their present shape for the use of students and 
 engineers, and introductory matter has been added to make the relations of 
 polyphase currents to ordinary single-phase currents more clear. 
 
 No apology is needed for devoting special attention at the present time 
 to the subject of polyphase electric currents. There seems to be no doubt 
 that in the problem of the electric transmission of power a very important 
 part will, in the future, be played by alternating currents combined in 
 systems of two or three different phases. Already a number of examples 
 exist; and some very large works are now in course of construction. The 
 undoubted advantages possessed by polyphase systems over either (a) 
 continuous current systems, or (b) ordinary single-phase alternate currents, 
 for the special service of power transmission, are beyond question; but it 
 remains to be seen how far the complications thereby inevitably introduced 
 are, in practice, sufficiently great to militate against polyphase distribution 
 for the purpose of general electric lighting supplies. 
 
 In these pages the subject will be dealt with under the following sub- 
 divisions : — Generators for Polyphase Currents; the Properties of the 
 Rotatory Magnetic Field, with some account of its historical development; 
 the Theory, Construction and Performance of Polyphase Motors ; the 
 Theory and Construction of Motors operated by ordinary single-phase 
 Alternate Currents; together with some account of Polyphase Transformers, 
 and of the measurement of power in polyphase systems. 
 
 Contents of Chapters. 
 Chapter I. — Polyphase generators. II. —Combinations of polyphase 
 currents. III. — Properties of rotating magnetic fields. IV. — Early de- 
 velopment of rotatory-field motors. V. — Structure of polyphase motors. 
 VI. — Elementary theory of polyphase motors. VII. — Analytical theory 
 of polyphase motors. VIII. — Monophase motors. IX. — Miscellaneous 
 alternate current motors. X. — Polyphase transformers. XI. — Measure- 
 ment of polyphase power. XII. — Notes on design of polyphase motors. 
 XIII. — Mechanical performance of polyphase motors. XIV. — Some ex- 
 amples of modern polyphase motors. XV. — Distribution of pf)lyiihase 
 currents from central stations. Index. 
 
POLYPHASE ELECTRIC CURRENTS. 
 
 Folding Plates to Scale. 
 
 I. — Two-phase Alternate Current Motor, 6 H.P., 1200 revolutions pei 
 minute. System, C. E. L. Brown. Scale, i to 4. 
 
 IL — Three-phase Alternate Current Motor, 100 H.P., 5,000 volts, 60c 
 revolutions. Scale, i to 10. 
 
 Illustrations in the Text. 
 
 Simple alternate-current generator (single-phase). Westinghouse Co'i 
 alternator (single-phase). Sketch of four-pole field. Four-pole fiek 
 developed flat. Alternate-current machine : lap-winding. Ditto : wave 
 winding. Curve of induced, electromotive force in an ordinary or single 
 phase alternator. Curve of current lagging behind curve of volts. Trans 
 mission from a simple single-phase alternator to a simple synchronoui 
 motor. Gramme alternator. Illustration of two-phase transmission. Tw( 
 alternate currents differing by a quarter period. A three-phase generator 
 Three-phase currents differing 60^ in phase. Field-magnet of three-phasi 
 alternator at Lauffen. Developed diagram of winding of three-phas( 
 alternator. Arrangement of windings of three-phase alternators. Sectioi 
 of field-magnet. Sketch of field magnet. Polyphase generator of thi 
 Oerlikon Co. Westinghouse two-phase generator. Brown's " Umbrella' 
 type of alternator. Three-phase generators at the Power station at Hoch 
 felden (Switzerland). Section of the Niagara 5,000 H.P. generator. On( 
 of the Niagara generators. Combination of polyphase currents. Group 
 ing of lamps in a polyphase system. Combination of magnetic fields 
 Deprez's theorum. Arago's spinning disk. Babbage and Herschel'i 
 experiment. Slit disks used by Babliage and Herschel. Faraday's disl 
 machine. Eddy-currents in spinning disk. Paths of eddy-currents. Hanc 
 commutator for imitating three-phase currents. Hand commutator foi 
 producing three-phase currents. Baily's Polyphase Motor. Deprez': 
 apparatus. Ferraris' motor. Borel's motor. Coerper's motor. Nikol: 
 Tesla's researches, including a multipolar design, a phase-splitting device 
 and a split-phase motor. Haselwander's motor. Circuits of the Lauffen 
 Frankfort transmission. Dobrowolsky's 100 H.P. three-phase motor 
 Stator and rotor designed by Brown. Eddy-currents induced in a coppei 
 cylinder. Modern short-circuited rotor. Experimental forms used b) 
 Brown. Tesla's two-pole field. Tesla's four-pole field. Helios Co. four 
 pole field. Dobrowolsky two-pole field. Wound rotor of the Oerlikon Co 
 Structure of the stator. Monophase motors. Elihu Thomson's motor 
 Polyphase transformers. Three-phase transformer constructed by Siemen; 
 and Halske. Dobrowolsky's starting-resistance. Koll^en's starting-gear foi 
 monophase motor. Brown's starting-gear. Pole high-pressure three-phas( 
 motor. Brown's two-phase motor of 120 H.P. Brown's slow-speed two 
 phase motor of loO H.P. Stator of Brown's slow-speed two-phase motor. 
 
 Appendix I. — Bibliography of Polyphase Currents and Rotatory-Fiek 
 Motors. (Books and Articles.) 
 
 Appendix II. — Schedule of some British Patents Bearing on Polyphase 
 and Alternate-Current Motors. 
 
 250 PAGES, 171 ILLUSTRATIONS, CLOTH, $3.50. 
 
 ^ ^^. I., I ' 12 CORTLANDT STREET, 
 
 opon oc unamDeriaiii, new york. usa. 
 
AA^ORKSHOP RKCEIPTS, 
 
 FOR THE USE OF 
 
 MANUFACTURERS, MECHANICS, 
 
 AND 
 
 SCIENTIFIC AMATEURS. 
 
 I FIEST, SECOND, THIRD, AND FOURTH SERIES, 
 
 EACH CONTAINING ABOUT 450 PAGES, 'WITH ILLUSTKATIONS, CROWN OCTAVO, CLOTH. 
 
 PRICE $2.00 EACH. 
 
 FBESS XOTICES. 
 
 This series comprises a store of inforiuation that is of servico in 
 every-day life. Xational Druggist. 
 
 We heartily recommeriLl this cyclopaedia of technical information 
 to all of our readers, but especiallj' to manufacturers and mechanics. 
 ^'Milding. 
 
 The topic? treated are very many, and minute details are given as 
 to manipulation, and manufacture of materials that cannot be easily 
 cbtained in stores. Builder and Woodicorker. 
 
 We cannot enumerate the heads of chapters, but it is safe to say 
 to the reader that he will lind in this series, reliable information upon 
 every process known to the Arts in use at the present day. Mechani- 
 cal Engineer. 
 
SECOND EDITION. REVISED AND BROUGHT UP TO 1895. 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 WORKSHOP RECEIPTS, FIRST SERIES. 
 
 Alloys : Aluminum bronze, Babbit's attrition metal, brass, brighten- 
 ing and coloring brass, Britannia metal, bronze, bullet metal, Chinese silver, 
 cock nietrJ, gongs, German silver, artificial gold, gun metal, journal boxes, 
 impressions, medals, muntz metal, ormolu, pinchbeck, pipemetal for organs. 
 Queen's metal, rivet metal, imitation silver, speculum metal, statuary metal, 
 sterotype metal, tinning, tombac, tutania, type metal, white metal. 
 
 Alcohol Barrels. Amber : Working, mending. 
 
 Aquafortis : Aqua-regia, blacking. 
 
 Bleaching : Ivory, lace, paper, prints and printed books, silk, wool. 
 
 Boiler Incrustations : 13 remedies to prevent incrustation. 
 
 Book Binding : Tools, pressing, sewing, cutting, ornamenting, head- 
 banding, casing, finishing, lettering, polishing edges of leaves, binding 
 without tools, marbling paper and book edges, tools, colors, patterns. 
 
 Bronzing : Brass work, copper utensils, electrotypes, gas fittings, 
 iron, jjaper, plaster, wood. 
 
 Bronzing Powders : Bronzing gun-barrels. Cameo Cutting. 
 
 Candle-making : Animal fat, tallow boiling, clarifying tallow, ozo- 
 kerit, wicks, dips, moulds, composite and transparent candles, diaphane, 
 snuffless wicks. Catgut Making. 
 
 Cements : Acid proof, acju arium, architectural, jewelers', Chinese, 
 cutlers', elastic, chemical, engineers', fire proof and water proof, fire lutes, 
 glue, liquid, marine, portable, gums, mucilage, artificial gum, impervious, 
 indianite, iron pots and pans, iron railings, iron rust joints, ivory or mother- 
 of-pearl, jet, leather, marble, meershaum, glass and wood, parchment paper, 
 book-binders' paste, plumbers' cement, prints, rubber, stonemasons', turn- 
 ers' cement for filling wood cracks, wood vessels. ■ Using cements. 
 
 Cleansing : Alabaster, copper, brass inlaid work, engravings, hands, 
 hats, jewelry, marble, metals, pearls, pictures, plate, silver, steel. 
 
 Crayons : Direction for making fourteen colors of crayons, crayons 
 for drawing on glass. 
 
 Drawings : Paper, mounting drawings, fastening paper on board, 
 cutting pencils, erasing errors, instruments, board, pens, rule, dividers, 
 pencilling, finishing, lettering, borders, Indian ink, colors, shading, cutt- 
 ing and using stencil plates, frames, vegetable parchment, indelible pencils, 
 mounting engravings, renewing manuscripts, traceing and transfer paper, 
 copying drawings to scale. 
 
 Dyeing: Mordants, cotton, black, blue, (five shades), brown (four 
 shades), drab, fawn, green (two shades), lavender (two shades), lilac, pink, 
 red (ten shades), stone, yellow (four shades), cotton spirits. Silk: 31 
 shades, ammonia paste, indigo, silk spirits, muriate of tin. WoOLEN : 38 
 shades, woolen spirits, ash vat. 
 
 Engraving : Copper, copper plate, gold and silver, lithography, ink, 
 stones, chalk, transfer paper, transfering, drawing on stone, steel. WoOD: 
 Engravers' lamp, tools, preparing gravers and tint tools, holding graver, 
 woods, drawing on the block, proofs, plugging. f 
 
 Etching: Ground, dabber, oil-rubber, rotten-stone, smoking taper, 
 
FIB ST SEEIES—SECOXD EDITION. 
 
 bordering wax, engraver's shade, hand rest, stopping out varnish, turpen- 
 tine varnish, aquafortis, tracing and tracing paper, transferring paper, testing 
 the ground, heating the plate for ground, smoking the plate, transferring, 
 etching, bordering, biting in, second biting, cleaning off, dry point re-bit- 
 ing, re-etching, process avoiding stopping-out, general instructions. 
 
 Aqua-tint Engraving : Ground, testing, spirits, trial of ground, 
 laying ground, stopping out the lights, touching stuff, ground to etch on, 
 general instructions, rosin ground engraving, Hamerton's processes, etc. 
 
 Fireworks : Full directions for making rockets, pyrotechnic and 
 rocket stars, golden rain, port fires, roman candles, touch-paper, quick- 
 match, gerbcs and jets of fire, lances, colored lights, tourbillions, drawing- 
 room fireworks, fire-balloons, serpents, fire-showers, pin-wheels, crackers, 
 colored fires, Pharoah's serpents. 
 
 Floor-cloth. Fluxes. Fulminates. Guncotton. Gunpowder. 
 
 Glass : Full direction of processes involved in its manufacture. 
 
 Graining : Grounds, colors, styles, graining roller, overgraining, 
 marbling, a very full article. 
 
 Iron and Steel Tempering : Case hardening, tools, malleable iron, 
 softening cast-iron and files, tempering cast steel, mill picks, springs. 
 
 Ivory : Artificial, defects in, flexible, mounting, preparing for paint. 
 
 Lathing and Plastering : Lathing, laying, coarse stuff, fine stuff, 
 setting, floating, ba>tard and trowelled stucco, ceilings, pugging. 
 
 Marble Working : Polishing, mounting, selecting, veneering, on 
 wood, metals, zinc and boxes, sculpture by acids, mastics for repairs, stuccoes, 
 wax varnish to preserve statues, coloring, cleansing and repairing marble. 
 
 Enameling Slate. Mother-of-Pearl and its applications. 
 
 Nitro-glycerine : Dynamite. 
 
 Painting: Fresco, glass, oil colors (a number of valuable hints to 
 Artists), plaster, sign boards, transparent painting on linen and paper, water 
 colors, wirework zinc. 
 
 Paper : Enamelled, incombustible, ivory, lithographic transfer, mani- 
 fold writing, powder, stains for paper. 
 
 Paper Hanging. Papier Mache. Parchment. 
 
 Pavements : Asphalt, tar and concrete. 
 
 Photography : A valuable illustrated article of over loo pages, 
 describing all modern processes and developments of the art. 
 
 Plating: An article occupying more than 120 pages, giving careful 
 and detailed descriptions of all processes involved, dipping articles of copper 
 and its alloys, cleansing all the metals before placing in the plating solution, 
 use of scratch brush, battries (a long discription of various kinds used), 
 and valuable data concerning baths, etc., used in obtaining deposits of 
 antimony, bismuth, brass, cobalt, copper, gold, iridium, iron and steel, lead, 
 mercury, nickel, palladium, platinum, silver, tin, and quick deposits of 
 metal on various material. 
 
 Polishing: Powders, wheels, burnishing, French polishing, fret- 
 work, horn and ivory, polishing in the lathe, metals, mother-of-pearl, plas- 
 ter casts, shells, slate and vulcanite. 
 
 Pottery : Bodies, colored clays, colors under glaze, enamels and 
 fluxes, glazes, printing oil and stains for pottery. 
 
 Printer's Rollers. Recovering Waste Metal. 
 
 Rubber : Ebonite and vulcanite. Rust : Prevention of, etc. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 WORKSHOP RECEIPTS, SECOND SERIES. 
 
 Acidimetry and Alkalimetry: ready means of estimating tiie 
 acidity and alkalinity of liquids. 
 
 Albumen: occurrence, characters, comi:)Osition, impurities, qiialities, 
 uses, coagulation, restoration to coagulable state; full details of manufact- 
 ure of Blood albumen. Egg albumen. Fish albumen, and Vegetable albu- 
 men, with suggestions as to new sources. 
 
 Alcohol: sources; synopsis of manufacture of Caustic alcohol (sodium 
 ethylate), and alcohol from Fruit, Grain, Molasses, Moss, and Eoots; recti- 
 fication; and Wood alcohol (pjToxyhc spirit). 
 
 Alkaloids: general methods of preparation; special methods for 
 Aconitine, Atrof)ine, Berberine, Brucine, Calumbine, Cascarilline, Colchi- 
 cine, Morphine, Narcotine, Nicotine, Pii^erine, Quinine (including amor- 
 phous quinine and quinetum), Salicine, Strychnine, and Veratrine. 
 
 Baking-powders : general remarks on true value and essential con- 
 ditions, and many reclines for their preparation. 
 
 Bitters : recipes for Amazon, Angostura, Aromatic, Boker's, Brandy, 
 Essence, French Cognac, Hamburg, Nonpareil, Orange, Peruvian, Spanish, 
 Stomach, Stoughton, and Wild Cherry bitters. 
 
 Bleaching: recipes for bleaching and decolorizing Albumen, Animal 
 fibres, Coral, Cotton, Esparto, Feathers, Guttapercha, Hair, Ivory, Jute, 
 Linen, Oils and Fats, Paper pulp, Paraffin, Eags, Shellac, Silk, Silver 
 dials. Sponge, Starch, Straw, Wax, Wool. 
 
 Boiler Incrustations : niimerous analyses of feed waters from 
 rivers, lakes, wells, town supply, rain, canals, pits, springs, and the sea, 
 Avith analyses of the incrustations produced by them, and a critical 
 examination of the various chemical, chemico-mechanical and jDhysical 
 l^rocesses for preventing boiler corrosion. 
 
 Cements and Lutes : general directions for the preparation and 
 application of cements and lutes; numerous recipes under the following 
 Leads, — Acidproof, Alabaster, Algerian, Almond paste. Amber, Aquarium, 
 Architectural, Armenian or Diamond, Badigeon, Bottle, Brimstone, Buck- 
 land's, Canada balsam. Cap, Casein, Chemical, Chinese glue. Chrome, 
 Coppersmiths', Corks, Crucible, Curd, Cutlers', Dextrine, Egg, Elastic, 
 Engineers', Fat, Fireproof, French, Glass, Glass to Metals, Gliie (includ- 
 ing Fish glue, Lapland glue. Liquid glue. Mouth or Lip glue, Portable 
 glue). Glycerine, Gum Arabic, Gum tragacanth, Hensler's, Indiarubber, 
 Iron, Isinglass, Ivory, Japanese, Jewellers', Kerosene lamps, Labels, Lab- 
 oratory, Lead, Leather, Mahogany, Marble, Marine glue, Masons , Meer- 
 schaum, Metal to glass, stone, etc.. Microscopical, Milk, Naturalists', 
 Opticians', Parabolic, Parian, Paris, Paste, Peasley, Plasters, Plumbers', 
 Porcelain, Putty, Sealing-wax, Shellac, Soluble glass, Sorel's, Steam, Stone. 
 Turners', Waterproof, WoUaston's, Wood, Zeiodelite. 
 
 Cleansing : a comi^lete selection of recipes for washing, cleaning, 
 scouring, purifying, and removing stains, arranged under the following 
 heads, — Brass, Bronze, Casks, Celluloid, Chip bonnets. Coins, Copper ves- 
 sels, Druggists' utensils, Engravings, Feathers, Fire-arms, Floors, Fur, 
 Gas chandeliers. Gilt mountings. Gilt picture frames. Glass (bottles, 
 globes, plates, slides, paint stains, windows). Gloves, Gold, Iron and Steel, 
 Ivory and Bones, Leather, Marble, Jlirrors, Oilcloth, Paint, Paintbrushes, 
 
SECOND SERIES. 
 
 Paintings, Parchment, Sheepskin mats, Silver, Sponge, Stains removing 
 (aniline, fruit and wine, gi-ease and oil, ink and ironmould, hme and lyes, 
 mildew, milk and coffee, paint and varnish, stearin, tannin, tar and axle- 
 grease). Stills, Stones, Stuffed animals, Teaj^ot, Textile fabrics (English 
 and French cleaning and scouring, cleaning with benzine, apparatus nsed, 
 methods of operation for ancient tapestry, carpets, cloth, curtains, and 
 bed fiirniture, dresses, flannel, hearthrugs, lace, shawls and scarves, 
 sheepskin rugs and mats, silk goods, table covers), Tobacco jaipes, Velhim, 
 Violins, Violin bows, "Wall papers. Zinc vessels. 
 
 Confectionery : the confectioners' stove, clarification of sugar, boil- 
 ing degrees of sugar; methods of making Cakes (Bordeaux, pound, Italian 
 bread, Savoy, wafers). Candied si;gar (chain, crystallized chocolate, crys- 
 tallized fruits, liqueur rings). Candy (artificial fruit and eggs, burnt 
 almonds, coconut ice, coltsfoot candy, filberts and pistachios, ginger can- 
 dy, lemon prawlings, orange prawlings, peppermint, lemon and rose 
 candy, plum candy, sweetflag candy), Chocolate (roasting, making, drojjs, 
 harlequin pistachios, cinnamon, mace, clove, stomachic, and vanilla choco- 
 late), .Comfits (almond, barberrj', caraway, cardamom, celery, cherry, 
 cinnamon, clove, colouring, corainder, flavoiired with liqueurs, ginger, 
 lemon peel or angelica, nonpareils, orange, raspberry), Crack, and Cara- 
 mel (acid drops and sticks, almond hardbake, almond rock, barley sugar 
 drops and tablets, brandy balls, clove, ginger, or peppermint rock, extract- 
 ing the acid from candied drops, nogat, raspberry rock or sticks, spinning, 
 almond baskets, Chantilly baskets, gold web, grape, orange or cherry bas- 
 kets, raspberry rock, rock sugar, silver web) Drops (catechu, chocolate, 
 cinnamon, clove, coffee, ginger, lemon, orange-flower, orgeat, peppermint 
 raspberry, rose, vanilla, violet). Ices (apparatus, freezing, almond or orgeat 
 ice cream, apple water ice, apricot water ice, barberry, biscuit cream, brown 
 bread ice, burnt almond ice cream, burnt ice cream, cherry water ice, 
 chestnut ice, chocolate ice, coffee ice cream, cream ice, currant ice, currant 
 water ice, custard for ices, custard ices, damson ice, filbert ice cream, gin- 
 ger ice, gooseberry water ice, lemon ice cream, lemon water ice, liqueur 
 cream ice, liqueur water ice, millef ruit ice cream, millefruit water ice, noyau 
 cream ice, orange ice cream, orange water ice, peach ice, peach water ice, 
 pineapple ice, pineapple water ice, pistachio ice cream, punch water ice, 
 raspberry ice, raspberry water ice. ratafia cream, Koman punch ice, straw- 
 berry ice, strawberry water ice, Swiss pudding, tea ice, vanilla ice), Loz- 
 enges (bath pipe, brilliants, catechu, cinnamon, clove, coltsfoot, ementine, 
 ginger, ipecacuanha, lavender, magnesia, marshmaUow,nitre, nutmeg, jDatta 
 rosa, pepiDermint, refined liquorice, rhubarb, rose, saffron, sponge, steel, 
 suli:ihur, tolu, vaniUa, worm, yellow pectoral, zinc). 
 
 Copying : obtaining copies of printed and written matters by 
 Chemical methods (including cyanotype or ferro-prussiate paper, cyano- 
 ferric or gommoferric paper, Joltrain's, Beneden's, Dietrich's, autoscoijic, 
 Tilhet's, Zuccato's, Pumphrey s, Waterlow's, hectograph or chromjgrajjh, 
 Magne's, "Willis's, Poitevin's, "Woodbury's, photo-lithographic, Niepee's, 
 Ehrard's, Fox Talbot's, Scamoni's, Nuth's, phototyi^y, Michaud's, chromo- 
 type, Lenoir's, Warnerke's, Edwards' heliotype, "Waterhouse's, Alissoff's 
 polygraphic, Asser's, Komaromy's, and numerous other jjrocesses); by 
 Meclianical methods (embracing stencils of various kinds, tracing on cloth, 
 tracing-cloth, and other recipes) , Copying Pencils ; Transferring (photo- 
 gi-aphs to wood, engi-avings to paper, transfer process on glass). 
 
 Disinfectants : the preparation and characters of all the substances 
 hitherto proposed as deodorizers, disinfectants, or antiseptics, with com- 
 parative tables of results according to different authorities, and discussions 
 
SECOND SERIES. 
 
 on the advantages and disadvantages of the disinfectants now before the 
 public. 
 
 Dyeing, Staining-, and Colouring : containing a most compre- 
 hensive collection of new and ajjproved recipes, under the following 
 heads — Calico-printing, in chrome standard, discharge style (blacks, blues, 
 whites, yellows), indigo effects (direct indigo blues, lapis resists, combined 
 indigo and madder effects, white reserves, white resists, orange reserves, 
 yellow reserves, blues, and white, red, green and yellow, green, and yel- 
 low discharges on vat-blues), madder colours (blacks, browns, chocolate, 
 drab, jDurples, reds, whites), manganese bronze style, padding style, pig- 
 ment style, plate style, reserve style, spirit colour style (blues, browns, 
 chocolate, greens, pinks, purples, reds, yellows), steam colours (amber, 
 blacks, blues, browns, buff, chocolates, cinnamon, drab, greens, greys, 
 lavender, lilac, orange, pinks, purjales, reds, violets, yellows); China grass j 
 Cotton (blacks, blues, browns, chocolate, claret, drabs, greens, greys, olive, 
 oranges, purples, reds, ^aolets, yellows) ; Encaustic colours; Feathers; Flow- 
 ers, Grasses, and Mosses ; Hats (beaver, cream, fawn, mouse, rose, slate, 
 cinnamon) ; Horn (blacks, greens, purples, red, tortoise8hell,yellow) ; Horse- 
 hair (blue, brown, red); Ivory (blacks, blues, browns, greens, reds, yel- 
 lows), vegetable ivory; Kid gloves (blacks, browns, Eussia red, grey, violet, 
 yellow); Leather (blacks, blues, browns, russets, reds, yellows, greens, 
 violets, purples, crimson); Metals (brass, bronze, gold, gun-metal, iron 
 and steel, silver, zinc); Paper (ambers, blues, browns, buffs, chocolates, 
 crowfoot, fawns, greens, greys, lilacs, Nankeen tissue, olives, oranges, 
 pinks, reds, roses, skin colour, straw tint, violet, white tissue, yellows) ; 
 Parchment; Silk (blues, greens, magentas, maroons, pansj', scarlets, vio- 
 lets, yellows); Straw; Whitewashing, calcimining, or distemper; Wine; 
 W^ood (blacks, blackboard washes, blues, browns, ebonizing, floors, greens, 
 greys, mahogany, oaks, purples, reds, satinwood, violet, walnut, yellows); 
 Wool (amaranth, blacks, blues, greens, grenades, greys, maroons, olives, 
 oranges, ponceau, puce, reds, violets, wood-colour). 
 
 Essences : Aconite, Allspice, Almonds, Ammoniacum, Anchovy, An- 
 gelica, Aniseed, Anodyne, Antihysteric, Aromatic, Bark, Beef, Bitter, 
 Camphor, Caraway, Cardamon, Cascarilla, Cassia, Cayenne, Celery, Chamo- 
 mile, Cinnamon, Cloves, Cochineal, Coffee, Coltsfoot, Cubebs, Dill, Ergot, 
 Fennel, Fruit (artificial, including apple, ai^ricot, banana, blackberry, 
 black cherry, cherrj-, currant, grape, lemon, melon, nectarine, orange, 
 peach, pear, pineapple, plum, raspberrj', strawberry). Ginger, Guaiacum, 
 Headache, Hop, JLenion, Lemon-peel, Lovage, Nutmeg, Orange, Orange- 
 peel, Penn^Toyal, Peppermint, Qiiassia, Quinine, Kennet, Khubarb, Koy- 
 ale, Sarsaparilla, Savory Spices, Soap, Soup Herbs, Spruce, Turtle, Water 
 Fennel, Westphalian, Wormwood. 
 
 Extracts: preparation; Aconite, Aloes, Angelica, Apples, Belladonna, 
 Buchu, Cainca, Calabar Bean, Calumba, Cherry (Wild), Cinchono, Colchi- 
 cum, Colocynth, CottoD-root, Cubebs, Ergot, Gentian, Golden Seal, Helle- 
 bore, Hops, Jaborandi, Jalap, Junii^er, Lactiicarium, Lettuce, LobeUa, 
 Logwood, Madder, Male Fern, Malt, Meat, Mezereon, Myrrh, Narcotic, 
 Nux Vomica, Opium, Pareira, Pellitory, Pinkroot, Poppies, Quassia, Rha- 
 tany, Rhubarb, Sarsaparilla, Scammony, Senna, Smoke, Squills, Stillingia, 
 Stramonium, Taraxacum, Tobacco, Valerian, Wormseed. 
 
 Fireproofing : Buildings, Extinguishing Compounds, Textile Fab- 
 rics, Timber, Writing Materials. 
 
 Gelatine, Glue, and Size : manufacture of glue, manufacture of 
 size, drying glue, composition of glue, Characters of glue, selection of 
 glue, manufacture of gelatine from bones, Rice's gelatine, Cox s sparkling 
 
SECOXD SERIES. 
 
 gelatine, Heiaze's gelatine from neats'-foot-oil residues, Nelson's gelatine^ 
 comparison of gelatines, preventing nuisance at glue works. 
 
 Glycerine : sources, early processes. Price's method, obtaining 
 glycerine from spent lyes of the soapmaker. 
 
 Gut : the prei^aration of gut for fiddle-strings and sausage-skins,* 
 silk-worm gut. 
 
 Hydrogen peroxide : manufacture and application. 
 
 Ink : Black writing. Coloured ^vl•iting, Copjang, Engraving, Indelible, 
 Indian, Invisible or Sympathetic, Marking, Miscellaneous, Printing, and 
 Stamping inks. 
 
 Iodine : manufacture from seaweeds, and from caliche. 
 
 Iodoform : processes for making. 
 
 Isinglass : from fish, and from various kinds of seaweed. 
 
 Ivory substitutes : niimerous ways of preparing artificial substi- 
 tutes for ivory, siich as celluloid, etc. 
 
 Leather : Calf-kid, Chamois leather. Currying, Depilatories or Un- 
 hairing, Glove-kid, Imitation leather, Morocco leather, Patent (Japanned 
 or Enamelled) leather, Russia leather. 
 
 Luminous bodies: natural phosphorescent substances; artificial 
 luminous paints, — Balmain's, Heaton and Solas', etc. 
 
 Magnesia : new and cheap way of preparing. 
 
 Matches: general sketch of manufacture, especially with regard to 
 the ingredients, etc., of igniting compositions; Vestas and Vesuvians. 
 
 Paper: selection and assortment of rags; boiling raw materials re- 
 cipes for high-class papers; washing and breaking; draining and pressing. 
 Astronomical drawing paper. Blotting paper. Crystalline paper. Decipher- 
 ing burnt documents, riltering-j)aper, Hardening paper, Iridescent paj^er, 
 Lithographic paper, Luminous paper. Oiled paper. Packing-paper, Safety- 
 paper, Smoothing paper. Splitting a sheet of paper, Test-papers, Tracing- 
 paper, Transfer-paper, Waxed paper. 
 
 Parchment : preparation of natural parchment, and artificial parch- 
 ment or parchment jjaper; removing wrinkles from parchment. 
 
 Perchloric acid : cheap mode of making. 
 
 Pigments, Paint, and Painting : embracing the preparation oi 
 P'ujments, including alumina lakes, blacks (animal, bone, Frankfort, ivory, 
 lamp, sight, soot), blues, browns, greens, reds, whites, — by American, 
 Dutch, French, German, Kremnitz, and Pattinson processes, precautions 
 in making, and composition of commercial samples, — whiting, Wilkinson's 
 white, zinc white), yellows; Paint (vehicles, testing oils, driers, grinding, 
 storing, applying, priming, drying, filling, coats, brushes, surface, water- 
 eolours, removing smell, discoloration; miscellaneous paints — cement 
 paint for carton-pierre, copper, gold, iron, hme, silicated, steatite, trans- 
 parent, tungsten, window, and zinc paints); Pamiingf (general instructions, 
 proportions of ingredients, measuring paint work; carriage painting— 
 priming paint, best putty, finishing colour, cause of cracking, mixing the 
 paints, oils, driers, and colours, varnishing, importance of washing 
 vehicles, re- varnishing, how to dry paint: woodwork painting. 
 
 Potassium oxalate : new and easy way of making it for photo- 
 graphic iDurposes, 
 
 Preserving: charred paper, food (beer, fish; fruit, grain, and vege- 
 tables; honey, meat, milk), fruit-juices, gum, hay, indiarubber, leather, 
 leeches, lemon-juice, Rankin's and Pasteur's fluids, skins and furs, stone, 
 textile fabrics, urine, vaccine lymph, wood. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 WORKSHOP RECEIPTS, THIRD SERIES. 
 
 Alloys: components, general principles for making, how to melt 
 metals, fluxes, fusibility of metals, order of melting ingredients of alloys, 
 table of fusing points, furnaces for melting brass and other alloys, cruci- 
 bles for melting alloys, casting mixed metals, right moment for pouring, 
 moulding articles in relief, composition for core for difficult jobs. Solders. 
 Miscellaneous alloys (embracing compounds for friction bearings, steam- 
 whistles, cylinders, taps, valve-boxes, jiistons, mathematical instruments, 
 rivets, pinchbeck, tombac, electrotypes, bullet metal, j^in wire, flute-keys; 
 composition of various Japanese and other bronzes, ancient coins, rings, 
 figures, implements, pins; manufacture and ornamentation of Jajoanese 
 bronzes; inoxidizable alloys, soft alloy for cold soldering, alloj's for small 
 articles, white alloj', alloy for medals and coins, amalgam for coating 
 plastic castings, anti-friction alloys, sterro-metal, bismuth bronze. 
 
 Aluminium: properties, manufacture, ai^plications. 
 
 Antimony. Barium. Berryllmm. Bismuth. Cadmium. Ccesium. 
 Calcium. Cerium. Chromium. Cobalt. 
 
 Copper: jiroperties, cleaning ore, crushing, jigging, huddling; dry 
 methods of treating ores — German, English (including furnaces and 
 details of working) ; wet method; hardening and toughening the metal; 
 common impurities and their influence; characters of pure electrical co})- 
 per wire; tubes, bending; welding copper. 
 
 Electrics: Alarms: examples of house alarms, tell-tales for cisterns 
 and boilers, time signals, and tell-tale clocks, their construction and flx- 
 ture. Batteiies: constitution of a battery; making batteries; zinc plates, 
 forming cylinders, amalgamating with mercury, attaching; negative ele- 
 ments; exciting fluids ; separating the elements; containing cells con-- 
 etruction, arrangement, cost, peculiarities, and apijlications of various 
 forms of battery. Bells: the apparatus employed; choice and arrange- 
 ment of battery, circuit wire, circuit closer and bell; systems of establish- 
 ing bells. Carbons. Coils, (induction, intensity, resistance). Dynamo- 
 electric machines, princii^les and methods of construction. Microphones. 
 Motors: principles and practice of construction. Phonograph. Photo- 
 phone. Storage: the storage and reproduction of electric energy, con- 
 struction, charging, maintenance, effectiveness and cost. Telephone: 
 principles underlying their action, various forms, — the string telephone, 
 Kennedy's, Thompson's, Gower's, their construction and arrangement, 
 with hints on making calls, augmenting sound, cheap magnets, circuits, 
 transmitter and switch. 
 
 Enamels and Glazes: enamelling cloth, leather, metals. Glaz- 
 ing pottery, — composition of the glazes, their preparation and application. 
 Enamelling on wood. 
 
 Glass: breaking, coating on metals; colored, — transi^arent and 
 opaque tinted glass, preparation of the iiigments and stains. Engraving, 
 etching, frosting, and gilding. Ornamentation processes on glass, — adding 
 stars, coils of thread, colored casings, metallic plates, grains of colored 
 glass, iridescence, frosting, and etchings in gold leaf on finished 
 glass, eroding glass surfaces, colored photographs on glass, protecting 
 glass surfaces from effects of heating and cooling, roughening glass, sj^un 
 glass (its production properties and uses,) stoppering glass bottles, writing 
 
THIED SERIEa. 
 
 on glass — preparing the surface and compounding the writing fluids. 
 
 Gold: distribution, modes of occurrence^ methods of extraction, 
 amalgamation^ refining, properties of gold. 
 
 Indium. Iridium. 
 
 Iron and Steel: decorating, malleable iron, melting, tempering 
 iron and steel, — effects of hardening, causes of hardening, influence of 
 carbon, influence of temperature, classifying steels, testing steels and 
 irons, hardening and tempering defined, heat tests, heating steel, fuel for 
 heating, quenching, degrees of temper, cracking and splitting, burning, 
 modifications of dipping, annealing, recipes (case-hardening, wrought 
 iron, axle arms, prussiate of potash process, cutters, files, gravers, ham- 
 pers, lathe mandrel, mill-picks, mining picks, saws, springs, taps and 
 llies, tools generally); welding, — conditions, heating, fluxes, selection of 
 iron, natvire of welding, recipes for welding steels, irons, cast iron, spring- 
 plates, etc. 
 
 Lacquers and Lacquering: brass, bronze, brunswick black, cop- 
 per, gold, iron and steel, Japanese and Chinese lacquers. 
 
 Lead: soiirces, the ore-hearth, reverberatory furnaces, blast fur- 
 naces, precipitation, slag melting, wet methods of extraction, softening, 
 desilverizing, sheet lead, lead pipe, shot. 
 
 Lubricants: friction defined, characteristics of an efiicient lubri- 
 cant, viscosity and gumming of oils, fire-testing mineral oils, flashing- 
 points, igniting-points, and burning-points. Formulas for lubricants, 
 axle-greases, railway grease, waggon grease. 
 
 Magnesium. Manganese. Mercury. Mica. Molybdenum. 
 
 Nickel: ores, processes of extraction, treating sulphides, treating 
 arsenides, treating very poor ores worked for other metals, properties and 
 uses of nickel. 
 
 Niobium. Osmium. Palladium. Platinum. Potassium. Rhodium. 
 Kubidium. Ruthenium. 
 
 Selenium; how found, commercial sources, preparation from native 
 copi^er -lead selenide, from sulphuric acid chamber and flue deposits where 
 seleniferous sulphur or pyrite is burned, and from the flue-dust of lead 
 desilverizing works, propertes. 
 
 Silver; occurrence, ores, extraction bj^ amalgamation processes, ex- 
 traction by cupellation and eliquation, purification of commercial silver. 
 
 Slag; the production of blast furnace slag, its comj^osition, purposes 
 to which it may be applied, including road-metal, castings, paving-blocks, 
 bottle-glass, shingle, sand, cement, mortar, bricks, artificial stone, mineral 
 wool, insulating, manure, and casting-beds. Arrangement of the Cleve- 
 land Slag Works, analyses of Finedon, Cleveland, Hematite, Bessemer, 
 Dowlais, and Dudley slags, Portland cement, slag concrete bricks, slag 
 cement, gypsum and puzzolanas. 
 
 Sodium. Strontium. Tantalum. Terbium. Thallium. Thorium. 
 
 Tin: ores, cleaning and sorting the ore, stamping the ore, calcining 
 the ore, washing the roasted ore, smelting the black tin, refining, utiliza- 
 tion of scrap tin, properties and uses. 
 
 Titanium. Tungsten. Uranium. Vanadium. Yttrium. 
 
 Zinc: ores; extraction of the metal, calcining for oxidation, smelting 
 the oxide by the Belgian, English and Silesian methods. 
 , Zirconium. 
 
 ^ Aluminium: discussion of the merits of several newly proposed 
 methods for cheapening the production of the metal. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 WORKSHOP RECEIPTS, FOURTH SERIES. 
 
 Waterproofing: — Kubber Goods; spreading the rubber, recovering 
 naptha from the sohition, varnishing fabrics, elastic faln-ics. Cupram- 
 monimn, zinc-ammonium and simihxr j^reparations, Willesden fabrics. 
 Miscellaneous ■waterproofing preparations. 
 
 Packing and Storing; glass and china, deliquescent salts, ex- 
 plosives, flowers, articles of delicate odor. 
 
 Embalming: corjises and anatomical specimens. 
 
 Leather Polishes: liquid and paste blackings, dubbings, and 
 glosses for harness, boots, and patent leather. 
 
 Cooling: — Air; by mechanical means, by evaiDoration, bj' ice, by 
 underground channels. Cooling and Freezing Water; by solution of 
 solids, by evaporation of liquids, by expansion of gases. Cooling syrups, 
 solutions, etc. 
 
 Pumps and Siphons: — Pumps; pulleys, windlasses, levers, troughs, 
 swapes, bucket wheels, screws, scoops, and pumps for raising water; acid 
 pumps, syrup pumps, soap and lye pumps. Sijihons; of glass and metal. 
 
 Dessicating: air-ovens, water-ovens. 
 
 Distilling: water, tinctures, extracts, camphor, essential oils, flowers. 
 
 Emulsifying: pharmaceutical and jihotographic emulsions. 
 
 Evaporating: general principles; saline solutions, saccharine 
 liquors, glycerine. Acids, — in leaden, glass and platinum vessels. 
 
 Filtering: — Water: by using gravel and sand, charcoal, iron, mag- 
 nesia, porous pottery, cellulose, and sponge as filtering media; filtering 
 cisterns. Laboratory filters for pharmaceutical, chemical, photographio 
 and other purposes. Filters for liquids demanding special conditions; 
 gelatinous fluids, liquids affected by air, lime muds from soda causticisers, 
 syrups and oils. 
 
 Percolation: macerating and filtering by displacement. 
 
 Electrotyping; apparatus and fittings, preparing the form, pre- 
 paring the moulding pan, blackleading, stopping out, the deposit, trim- 
 ming and bevelling, mounting, picking. 
 
 Stereotyping: — Plaster process; apparatus, preparing the metal, 
 preparing the form, casting the plate, cooling the cast, knocking-out the 
 plate, flattening the plate, turning to uniform thickness, planing the back, 
 bevelling and squaring, mounting, perfecting. Paper Process; supple- 
 mentary remarks. 
 
 Bookbinding: folding, beating and rolling, collating, marking up 
 and sawing in; sewing, forwarding, pasting up, pasting on the end papers, 
 trimming, gluing up, rounding, backing, millboards, drawing in and 
 pressing, cutting, coloring the edges, gilt edges, head banding, covering, 
 pasting down, hand-finishing, blocking, calf colouring. 
 
 Straw-plait, Matting, and Basket-making. 
 
 Musical Instrxunents: — Pianos: selecting, putting in a string, re- 
 pairing sticker-hinge, re-hinging levers, centers sticking, keys sticking, 
 blocking, taking to pieces, keys, hammer sticking, pitch, buzzing, faulty 
 repetition, renewing pins and wires, rusty wires. Celeste pedal. Harmon- 
 iums: the case, feeders, valve-boards, feeder-folds, wind-trunks, reser- 
 voir, foot-boards, wind-chest. Musical Boxes. 
 
 Clock and Watch Mending: — Clocks: — eight-day, thirty-hour 
 
FOURTH SERIES. 
 
 English, spring, musical, outdoor, drum, bird, American, German, French. 
 Watches: repairing and cleaning, fitting dials, timing watches. 
 
 Photography: Gelatine processes, the gelatine, emulsions, develop- 
 ers, intensitiers, stripping film from negatives, remedy for frilling, piit- 
 ting up plates, reducing negatives, toning silver citro-chloride prints and 
 transparent positives, drying plates, gelatino-bromide film paper, tissue 
 negatives from jjlates. Collodion processes: coUodio-citro-chloride 
 emulsion, collodio chloride pajjer, exam2:>le of collodion process, fixing 
 silver prints withovit hyi^osulphite, permanent silver prints, transparen- 
 cies, collodion formula, saturated iron solution, iron developers, collodio- 
 chloride printing process, intensifying solution for wet-plate negatives, 
 developer for very delicate transparencies, durable sensitised paper, 
 Werge's gold toning bath, lime toning bath, collodion enlargements. 
 Albumen j^rocesses: albumenising paper, floating albumenised paper on 
 the silver bath, silver printing on albumenised paper, lantern slides on 
 albiimen, glazing albumenised prints. Miscellaneous, stripping films, 
 restoring faded photographs, printing a positive from a positive, reduc- 
 ing over-printed proofs, photographing by magnesium Light, paper nega- 
 tives, photographing paper photographs, a photographic print upon paper 
 in five minutes, paper negatives, enlarging on argentic j)aper and opals, 
 light for the dark room, mounting prints, papor pan, testing a lens, 
 photographing on wood, silver prints mounted on glass, medallions, 
 vitrified photographs, enamel pliotographs, toning, out-door photography, 
 negative, bath, varnishes, preparing sulphurous acid, instantaneous shut- 
 ter, arranging drop-shutters for a variety of lenses, measurement of 
 speed of drop-shutters, instantaneous shutter for timed exposures, mak- 
 ing photographic exj^osures in the dai-k room, dry-plate holder and ex- 
 posing case, camera attachment for paper negatives, apparatus for instan- 
 taneous photography. 
 
 Index and General Index to Series I to IV 
 
 Each Series possesses its own special value, and the utility of the four 
 volumes has been completed by furnishing the fourth with a General 
 Index to the whole set. From the great range of subjects dealt with and 
 the facility thus afforded for reference, the four series of 'Workshop 
 Receipts' may be said to constitute in themselves a well-stored library of 
 technical information such as no other jiublication affords. The descript- 
 ions and instructions are given in plain language, aided by diagrams 
 where necessary; technicalities are explained, and eveiy care has been 
 taken to check the quantities, and to make the index a real guide to 
 the contents. 
 
JUST PUBLISHED. 
 
 Workshop Receipt 
 
 (FIFTH SERIES.) 
 
 8vo. 440 pp. Fully Illustrated. Cloth, $2.00 
 
 \\ ith the spread of technical Education, which is srch a feature in the 
 present century scarcely a household but has its more or less p" emiou! 
 workshon :n wh.h the mechanical and scientific tastes of the boys n be 
 developed and made useful. No better way of keepino- idle hands from 
 m>sch.f can be imagined, and there is alwa/s a charm\lt homeiad" 
 kmcknacks. and a satisfaction in doing one's own repairs about the dweJ 
 :ng. that qu.te atone for any little defects that a professional eye m gt 
 discover. As a.d books to such industrious amateurs, and by no means to 
 be despised even by the trained mechanic, WORKSHOP RECEIPTS 
 have enjoyed a wide reputation for close on a quarter of a century Of 
 
 ::^^:'t:^l;:^;^-l-;i-:- 
 
 ti • 1 ^ 1 ,• . " up Lu uace. in the matter of illustrafiVinc 
 
 this last addition to their number is specially liberal. "^"^trations 
 
 COKTEKTS. 
 
 Diamond Cutting and Polishing; Labels; Laboratory Apparatus- 
 Cements and Lutes; Cooling, Copying, Desiccating, Distilh^g Ev/por^^^ 
 ing. Illuminating Agents; Filtering; Explosives; Fire-pro^fing 'ink 
 Lacquers; Magic Lanterns; Electrics; Metal Work; Musicaflnstrutent' 
 Packing and Storing; Percolating; Preserving. Corrision I^^ p 3:/ 
 
 ^:l^'n ^XtS!:'lJ'T''''''T Glass Manipula^rn! 
 T • . " ,. lasting, Stereotyping; Tobacco Pipes- Tarn- 
 
 Tying and Splicing Tackle; Velocipedes; Repairing Books Nettng-' 
 vUIking Sticks;^ Boat Building; Anemometers; Measuring Angles' 
 Barometers; Camera Lucida; Dendrometers. ^ ^ 
 
iiiiitiiiiiniui 
 
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 
 
 013 972 634 ♦