GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING li Plttman Class L B I 5 7f Book i:^ GojpghtN" COP««GHT DEPOSIT. A GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING THE MACMILLAN COMPANY NEW YORK • BOSTON • CHICAGO • DALLAS ATLANTA • SAN FRANCISCO MACMILLAN & CO., Limited LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA MELBOURNE THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd. TORONTO A GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING BY HUGH CLARK PRYOR HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION NORTHERN NORMAL AND INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL ABERDEEN, SOUTH DAKOTA AND MARVIN SUMMERS PITTMAN PROFESSOR OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION MICHIGAN STATE NORMAL COLLEGE YPSILANTI, MICHIGAN THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1921 All rights reserved PSINTBD IN THE UNITED STATES OF AHEBIOA ,-,^^'^' ^^'\ COPYKIGHT, 1911, By the MACMILLAN COMPANY. Set up and electrotyped. Published September, 192 1. SEP 22 1921 Norbiooti iPre00 J. S. Cashing Co. — Berwick & Smith Co. Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. g)CI.A622914 PREFACE The primary purpose of this book is to help teachers to improve the quahty of their teaching of spelHng. While it has been written with the problems of the in- experienced teacher foremost in mind, it is believed that it may be of substantial value to experienced teachers as well. Simplicity of expression and natural sequence in arrangement are very important to busy, practical teachers. An earnest effort has been made throughout the book to keep these factors in mind. The authors wish to express their appreciation to the following persons for criticism and suggestion : Frederick G. Bonser, Teachers College, Columbia University ; J. T. Calhoun, State Rural Schools, Jackson, Mississippi ; J. A. Churchill, Superintendent of Public Instruction, Salem, Oregon ; Frank L. Clapp, University of Wisconsin ; W. S. Dakin, State Inspector of Schools, Hartford, Connecti- cut; E. S. Evenden, Teachers College, Columbia Uni- versity; Roland Fennimore, Superintendent of Schools, Bradley Beach, New Jersey; John M. Foote, Depart- ment of Education, Baton Rouge, Louisiana ; Ethel Gal- leher, Western State Normal School, Kalamazoo, Michi- gan; J. R. Grant, State Supervisor of Rural Schools, Little Rock, Arkansas; C. C. Henson, Isidore Newman Manual Training School, New Orleans, Louisiana ; S. A. Leonard, Lincoln School, New York City; W. A. McCall, vi PREFACE Teachers College, Columbia University; Charles M. Reinoehl, Supervisor of Rural Schools, Department of Public Instruction, Helena, Montana; E. N. Rhodes, State Normal School, Salem, Massachusetts; W. W. Theisen, Director of Educational Measurements, Depart- ment of Public Instruction, Madison, Wisconsin; Miss Charl O. Williams, County Superintendent, Shelby County, Memphis, Tennessee ; and the authors of the many books and articles on spelling which have been investigated in the course of this study, and which are listed in the bibliography. TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE Introductory Chapter ix PART I — FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES Chapter I. Learning through Experiment. — A compari- son of the method of learning through repeated trial and error with the method of learning through scien- tific experiment. Description of some well-known experiments in spelling method. Summary. Ques- tions and exercises I Chapter II. The Psychology of Spelling. — Learning as connecting. Application of the law of habit forma- tion. The place of interest and motivation. Choice of words. Number of words. The recitation period as a study period. Summary. Questions and exercises 23 PART II — METHODS, MATERIALS, AND DEVICES Foreword 33 Chapter I. Methods of Teaching Spelling. — The Inci- dental Method. The Test-Drill Method. The Teaching-Study Method. The Content-Dictation Method. Summary. Questions and exercises . . 35 Chapter II. Types of Spelling Books. — The logical type. The phonetic type. The psychological or language teaching type. The mixed type. Miscellaneous types. Summary. Questions and exercises . . 52 vii viii TABLE OF CONTENTS FAGB Chapter III. Standards by Which to Measure Spelling Books. — Usefulness of the words. Value of the text from the instructional and the informational view- points. Provision for correct habit formation. Use of phonetic principles. Quality of devices. Use of similarities and contrasts. Summary. Questions and exercises 69 Chapter IV. Special Lists and How to Use Them. — Jones' "One Hundred SpeUing Demons" — Pryor's " Suggested Minimal SpelUng List. " Summary. Ques- tions and exercises 76 Chapter V. Spelling Lists Made by the School. — The Brown County Spelling Book — Its value in the moti- vation of other work. Summary. Questions and exercises 99 Chapter VI. Devices for Teaching Spelling. — Devices based on psychological principles. Value and danger of games. Picture presentation. Visualizmg the words. Guessing games. Rewards for success. Old games. Spellmg matches. Summary. Questions and exercises Chapter VII. Some Questions Often Asked by Teachers. — The incorrigible speller. The careless speller. Tests, when and how to give them. The use of the dic- tionary. Summary. Questions and exercises . .128 Bibliography 137 112 INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER Is our spelling poor? Yes, it is poor but it is not so bad as is ordinarily supposed. We use a small number of words in our wi-iting. Not more than one thousand are necessary to satisfy most of our daily needs. One hundred of these common words are misspelled many more times, as a group, than the other nine hundred; so frequently, in fact, that Professor Jones has properly called them the "One Hundred Spelling Demons." It has been supposed by some persons that our fore- fathers spelled better than we do. This belief arose from the fact that a great deal was said about the good spellers who won in the old spelling bees and very little about the "ninety and nine" who were "spelled down." In 1906 some old spelling examination papers which had been written in 1846 were discovered in the attic of one of the school buildings in Springfield, Massachu- setts. The words were pronounced to the eighth grade children and they did much better than their forefathers had done sixty years before in the same school. This old Springfield list has been pronounced to eighth grade children all over the country, always, so far as the writers know, with the same result: children of the present generation have shown their superiority as spellers over the Springfield children of 1846. While our shortcomings have been overemphasized, ix X INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER it is nevertheless true that our spelling is poor. We are poorer spellers than we ought to be because we do not study intelligently. We do not, as we should, keep the law of habit formation clearly in mind in teaching and learning spelling. A great deal can be done by the teacher to secure better spelling by proper motivation of the work. The words selected should be so closely connected with the real problems of daily life that the child cannot fail to appre- ciate their usefulness. While the teacher's judgment as to what words should be used is better than the child's, greater enthusiasm and interest may be aroused by having the pupils help occasionally in making the spelling lists. Finally, if we are to secure permanent improvement, we must seek to develop in each child a spelling con- sciousness or ability to detect errors, and a spelling con- science which will not permit him to pass by a mis- spelled word. Very few teachers have a good classroom technique in the teaching of spelling. As a rule, the pupils are told to "study the next lesson" and, too often, no at- tempt is made to point out, or to have the pupils point out, the pitfalls to be avoided. It has been found that the best results are secured when the teacher studies and plans the spelling lesson carefully, in advance, and leads the pupils to see the difficulties in each word. As a result of various experiments that have been made, the modern teacher is able to make spelling assignments more wisely than was the teacher of even a decade ago. In a later chapter, an effort will be made to explain some of the principles of good classroom procedure. INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER xi During recent years, so many experiments have been made, so many spelling texts and lists have been pre- pared, and so much of a general nature has been written on the subject of spelling, that the inexperienced teacher may well be confused. The authors have attempted to evaluate this material and to present, particularly to the inexperienced teacher : first, a simple interpretation of the best known experi- ments; second, a discussion of the fundamental psy- chological principles involved in the teaching of spell- ing; third, a review of the best methods; fourth, an appraisement of the various types of spelling texts that are now being used; fifth, a discussion of the various lists which have been made with suggestions as to the making of others; sixth, a classification and discus- sion of classroom devices ; and last, the answers to a few of the questions often asked by teachers. A GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING PART I FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES CHAPTER I LEARNING THROUGH EXPERIMENT There are in general two ways of acquiring better methods of working — by repeated trial and error and by conscious, purposeful experiment. Both have been in use for ages, but the former has been the more common. The trial and error method has proved to be such a wasteful one that it has in- spired the saying, "Experience keeps a dear school.'^ Scientific experiment has been used by fewer persons because it requires a clearer consciousness of a specific goal and greater patience, persistence, orig- inality, and initiative on the part of the user; but it is becoming more and more common as a method of learning the right way of doing things, and the trial and error method — the method of learning through experience alone — is 2 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING falling more and more into disrepute among think- ing people. Teachers are a conservative folk and have clung to the old ways of doing things longer than doctors, lawyers, business men, and people in many walks of life; they have long learned through repeated trial and error ; hence, the experimental method of studying problems of teaching has had a hard time gaining the teachers' favor. At last, however, educa- tion has come to be recognized as a science and even the youngest teacher sees the benefits to be gained through careful testing of methods and of results. The first experiments in the field of spelling were crude and imperfect in many ways, but they should be mentioned here because they aroused interest and paved the way for the many helpful experi- ments that have been performed in more recent years. Let us consider a few of the early efforts along this line. EXPERIMENTS The first person to do any experimental work worthy of notice in connection with spelling was a physician. Dr. J. M. Rice. He became interested in education because of his work with children. Finally, he became convinced that schoolmen did not know a great deal about their own work, that they were really proceeding by the use of the trial and error method, and that they were not in the LEARNING THROUGH EXPERIMENT 3 habit of testing their results. He decided to make an experiment; and with that experiment a new- era in the teaching of spelHng began. Dr. Rice's experiment was a test in spelhng. In 1894, he made out a Hst of words and had them pronounced to school children all over the ,^^^^ j^^ country to find out how well they could Rice Con- spell. This first test consisted of words ® which were pronounced in lists. Dr. Rice was not very well satisfied with the way in which the teachers conducted the tests, so he decided to direct more specifically the giving of the second test. This time he had the teachers read sentences containing the words to be spelled. Finally, he tested the pupils' ability by having them write compositions in which the misspelled words were counted. He found that the pupils did better in the second test than in the first and in the third than in the second. It was not surprising that the best results were obtained in the last test because the children selected their own words and, naturally, they chose only those which they were sure that they could spell. These tests were not conducted very carefully, but they did teach teachers and students of education a great deal. Dr. Rice arrived at some very startling conclusions. He claimed that the kind of school a pupil attended had little to do with his spelling ability, that the pupils in progressive schools did no better, on the whole, than pupils in unprogressive schools. 4 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING He claimed that the child who came from a good home did no better, on the average, than the child from a poor home, and that the foreign-born child spelled just as well as the native-born American. He said that pupils learned no better under one method of in- struction than under any other, and that pupils who spent only fifteen minutes a day on spelling did just as well as those who spent half an hour or more. He found that the older pupils did better than the younger ones. The personality of the teacher seemed to him to play an important part in the pupils' prog- ress in spelling ; that is, good, strong teachers got better results, on the whole, than those with weak personalities. Dr. Rice's findings met with a storm of protest, opposition, and abuse on the part of school people, but he did a great deal to make them think, and from that time on long-established custom counted less and judicious experiment more in education. Let us consider Dr. Rice's conclusions from our point of view. We know, now, that pupils in progressive schools spell better than those in unprogressive schools. We know that the personal- ity of the teacher in and of itself cannot produce better results in spelling, except in so far as it makes for greater satisfaction and makes the pupil work harder. Pupils do as well in short periods, of fifteen minutes for example, as in longer periods. The method of teaching does have a good deal to do with LEARNING THROUGH EXPERIMENT 5 the results. There is a difference of opinion as to the effect of age on speUing abihty, but the general opinion is that accelerated pupils, or those ahead of their grade, do best. The next experimenter in spelling was Assistant Superintendent 0. P. Cornman of the Philadelphia pubhc schools. He was of the opinion that incidental the incidental method of teaching spelling, Spelling i.e., teaching it in connection with other subjects, secured just as good results as a regular spelling drill. He compared the records of many Philadel- phia schools which had used the incidental with those which had used the drill method. He also com- pared the records in schools which had used both methods. The records for fifty schools for a period of three years showed very little advantage for the drill method. Cornman concluded that the time devoted to drill did not have any great effect on the results, that the incidental method was a time saver, and that the average teacher could get no better results than those shown at Philadelphia at that time. There are serious objections to Commands con- clusions. To begin with, the incidental method is not a time saver, because the time is really taken from those other subjects with which spelling is taught. The weak pupil suffers more than the strong one when the incidental method is used because of his lack of initiative and independence. We 6 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING know now that there is a good deal of difference in the kind of drill and that good drill does get good results. The chances are that the drill method used in Philadelphia at that time was not good. A later experiment shows the results to be obtained by careful drill. In 1910, Mr. J. E. W. WaUin made a study of the records of three schools in Cleveland, Ohio, where a Drill S^^^ ^^'^^^ method was in use. Spelling Method had been as poor in Cleveland as in other cities. Finally, an effort at reform was made because the public demanded it ; and a special drill method was worked out. The plan was to emphasize two words in each lesson. These words were reviewed the following day and again a week later. After eighty new words had been taught, they were reviewed again for a test. At the end of the year, all new words were reviewed for the annual spelling contest. The next year they were taken up in connection with new words. Al- together, each word was presented five times in two years. This method has made Cleveland famous for the spelling ability of her children. Mr. Wallin wished to get light on five questions : (1) "What has the age of the pupil to do with spell- ing ability?" (2) '^What is the spelling ability of boys as compared with girls?" (3) '^Do pupils learn spelling more easily in one grade than in another?" (4) "Do pupils spell as well when they LEARNING THROUGH EXPERIMENT 7 write words in sentences as they do when the words are pronounced separately?" (5) "How does the incidental method of spelling compare in efficiency with the drill method ?'' He concluded that "on time" pupils spelled better than those who were behind or ahead of their grades ; that is, normal fifth grade or fourth grade or sixth grade pupils spelled better, as a rule, than those who were retarded or accelerated. Girls spelled better than boys in most cases. Words were spelled almost as well when they were written in sentences as when they were written by them- selves. Wallin's greatest discovery was that good drill made for better spelling than the incidental method of teaching. This experiment was conducted much more care- fully than either Rice's or Cornman's and is much more trustworthy. It is generally agreed, now, that the drill method is better because it requires closer attention to the work being done. Teaching spelling in connection with reading, language, and other subjects scatters the attention and cannot fix very good spelling habits. The drill and incidental methods of teaching are general. Many experiments have been performed to test specific methods of teaching. For value of example, homonyms, such as to, too, and Grouping two; heat and heet, choir and quire, present a puz- zling problem. Should they be taught together or 8 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING separately ? Principal H. C. Pearson of the Horace Mann School in New York City decided that he would find out. In 1911 he made some careful tests and found that all grades except the fifth in his school did better when the words were taught together. Another experiment, in one of the Mont- clair, New Jersey, schools, showed that all except the fifth and seventh grades did better when the homonyms were taught together. More proof is needed before the question can be decided. The method of teaching homonyms separately seems to be most generally accepted among teachers. If confusion results, as in the case of hare and hear, or other homonyms, Bagley suggests that, in order to break up the bad habits, it is "necessary to bring the mechanical process into the focus of conscious- ness and then replace it with another process. '^ Studley and Ware, authors of " Common Essentials in Spelling, '' are of the opinion that homonyms should be taught separately. Thorndike, one of the greatest authorities on matters of this sort, is not sure whether homonyms should be taught to- gether or separately. Some authors of spelling books group words. Grouping homonyms seems logical from the results of the experiments just described, but should we use other schemes for grouping? For example, should words like linear, lineage, lineal, lineament be grouped together in a textbook? C. H. Wagner LEARNING THROUGH EXPERIMENT 9 tried out this plan and found that pupils improved much more rapidly when the spelling words were grouped than when no such device was used. An- other scheme is to group words around some common interest ; for example, names of flowers, of rivers, of mountains, of agricultural products, or of birds. This seems to produce better results than jumbling unrelated words together in the same list. The first grouping scheme must be helpful because there are more repetitions of the same element than would be the case if the words were in separate lessons, and this fixes the correct spelling habit. When the second scheme of grouping is used, the pupil's interest is aroused and he gives closer attention. We know that this produces better results. The kind of method to be used depends on a great many different things. One cannot teach primary pupils in the same way that intermediate or grammar grade pupils are taught. Boys cannot always be taught in the same way as girls. Johnnie cannot always be taught in the same way as Henry ; and, in fact, Johnnie himself cannot always be taught in the same way to secure the best results. The teacher must study her pupils and decide for herself what method is needed to fit each case. More will be said about methods later on, however, and the subject need only be mentioned here. 10 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING Another question which often troubles the teacher is this : Should words be spelled orally or written ? Written vs Writing the word "in the air" with the Oral finger cannot have much value because ^® ^°^ the pupil cannot see what he has done. According to Horn, going through the form of writing on the top of the desk or on paper has been found to be better. The best plan of all is to have the pupils actually write. Young pupils have con- siderable difficulty with the writing itself, so it is better for them to use the oral method until they have learned to write without having to worry about the form of the letters. No doubt some pupils learn best by writing, others by spelling orally, and others by seeing words written. Just which way is best must be worked out for each pupil. Since we spell words more frequently when we are writing than at any other time, it is a good plan to have all pupils begin writing as early as possible. How shall the words be presented? Dr. J. W. Baird of Clark University performed some experi- ments to determine the best way to present speUing words. It was found that when words were only pronounced, 6.48 per cent were misspelled; when heard and spelled aloud by the pupil, 4.66 per cent were misspelled ; when they had simply been shown to the pupil, 2.60 per cent were misspelled; when they had been seen and spelled aloud by the pupil, 2.27 per cent were misspelled ; and when they had LEARNING THROUGH EXPERIMENT 11 been seen, used, spelled, and written by the pupil, 1.00 per cent were misspelled. This shows that the greater the number of associations formed, the better the pupil learns. In cases where the word has been seen, used, spelled, and written, the word and its sound, its meaning, its visual image, and the muscular sensation of writing it, are all con- nected or associated. As has been said, some pupils learn more readily by one method than another. It is well to help the individual to find just which method is best for him to use and to let him use it. The satisfaction which results makes the learning easier. The teacher should encourage learning through the different senses. No doubt, the teacher often wonders how she should emphasize difficult letters or parts so as to make sure that the pupils will not mis- special spell them. How should the first ''a" in Emphasis separate be impressed on the pupil's mind ? part of Different devices have been suggested, ^^^^ such as writing it in red or some other color, insert- ing a capital ^'A,'' writing the letter more heavily than the otheVs, or doing something else to make it stand out clearly. W. T. Taylor thought of writing a spelling book with all the "crucial letters," as he called them, printed in red. He tried out his plan by having one group of pupils study lists of words printed in ordinary black type, and another group study the same lists with troublesome letters 12 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING printed in red, nothing being said about the purpose of the red letters. The pupils who used the black lists did better than the others. Such a device is not particularly valuable because we cannot pick out the letter or group of letters which cause difficulty to all pupils. The first ''a" in separate may cause difficulty to one pupil while another will have no difficulty with ^^a" and make an error m another part of the word. Do rules help in the teaching or learning of spelling? Rules are nearly always too difficult for Value of elementary pupils to apply because they Rules cover relatively few words and there are many exceptions. Naturally, they do help if the pupil knows the rule and remembers to which words it applies. A common example is the rule for the use of ie and ei; "^ before e, except after c, or when sounded like a as in neighbor and weigh.'' There are so many things to think of in the appH- cation of this rule and it is so easy to forget, that it seems more economical to spend the time needed to fix the habit of using the rule in the learning of spelling words. Cook and O'Shea, Suzzallo, and other authorities agree on this point. Will the adoption of simplified spelling help? During the past decade in particular, there has Simplified been a great increase in the interest in Spelling simpHfied spelling. There has been a great deal of controversy regarding the question LEARNING THROUGH EXPERIMENT 13 as to whether simplified speUing will really help much in doing away with our spelling difficulties. Some authorities say that it will, but they are contradicted by others whose opinions have just as much weight. Miss Shaw, who has made a study of the problem, says that ^^ simplified spelling has, for the present generation at least, greatly increased bad spelling.'^ It has been argued by some persons that simplified spelHng would make the learning of our language easier for foreigners be- cause so many of them, especially the southern Europeans, have a phonetic language. A distin- guished American scholar of foreign birth, speaking for foreigners in general, has advanced the opinion that an extensive simplification of our spelHng, while lightening the burden of spelling and pronunciation, might so obscure the historic roots of many words as greatly to increase the student's difficulty in gaining their meaning. Our spelling has never been consistent, but it has been improving for many years. Such authorities as Benjamin Ide Wheeler and Professor Brander Matthews believe that, as a rule, our peculiarly spelled words should be spelled more simply than they are. Most teachers agree with them. Let us consider a concrete case. The simplified form of through is " thru.'' What would be the effect of introducing the new form unless it were used in all books, newspapers, and other periodicals? 14 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING There would be a great confusion because school children who are learning to spell would be meeting both forms. They would not be sure which one to use and would use them interchangeably or, perhaps, use even a "cross" between the two. We must re- member that through is not the only word for which a simplified form is suggested ; there are hundreds of others and the confusion would be multiplied by the number of simplified spellings introduced. Simpli- fication is desirable, but why should it not be intro- duced gradually as it has been in the past instead of by a sudden general reform? If a few simplified forms were introduced at a time, teachers would be able to fix the right spelling habits and to watch for evidence of backsliding. So far the evidence for or against simplified spell- ing has been on the side of experience. Little experi- mental work of a serious nature has been done. We must have experiments to test the assertions which we have been making so strenuously before we can go ahead safely with our simplification of words. Does it help to syllabify words which the pupil is to learn to spell? A good many spelling books make use of this device by printing the words in syllables, thus appeal- -. J , ing to the children who get their impres- Syllabi- sions mainly through the eye. Several cation persons have tried to find out by experi ment just how helpful this method is. Miss Abbott LEARNING TFIEOUGH EXPERIMENT 15 found it helpful to adults. Professor Heilman of the Colorado State Teachers' College tried the experiment of having one division each of the fourth, fifth, and seventh grades study syllabified words while the other division studied unsyllabified words. He gave three tests to discover the progress of the children and found that syllabication helped the fourth graders most and the seventh grade pupils least. An experiment by Professor Horn of the University of Iowa did not show any advantage for this kind of syllabifying. Clear pronunciation, which means enunciating each syllable clearly and correctly, helps toward correct spelling. This is especially true of words in which the pronunciation is a key. It hardly seems possible that the pronunciation could be of much assistance in the spelling of such words as thorough, rough, cough, slough, and the like. However, in many words the spelling is made easier by the pronunciation. These are the phonetic words which are spelled just as they sound and words with few or no silent letters. The spelling of words containing the syllables or, er, both pronounced alike, and words containing the syllables e, ea, ei, eo, ay, at, and a, all pronounced like e, is not helped much by pronunciation. The sound sh, in the words sure, ship, conscience, suspicion, ocean, nation, anxious, is not differentiated as to its spelling by the most careful pronunciation. But careless pro- nunciation never helped any one. 16 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING A helpful way in which to make use of syllabication is to have the words separated into syllables after they are pronounced by the pupil. Should spelling be studied in the classroom or outside ? It was the custom for a long time for the teacher to make the assignment after the lesson for the day Super- was recited and to leave the pupils to vised vs. prepare their lesson by themselves as well Unsuper- ^ , i i . i , . , , vised as they could, either at home or m school. Study ^ good many teachers still do this in spite of the fact that it is a wasteful method. The teacher always knows more about the difficulties to be overcome in a spelling lesson than the pupils do. She is not doing her part if she does not make a careful assignment of the lesson, showing the pupils just what they should look out for and telHng them how to overcome the difficulties. A good assign- ment leaves the child well started in the prepara- tion of his lesson. Mr. Pearson of the Horace Mann School made an experiment to find out which was the better way to study. Each grade was divided into two classes. The pupils in one class studied by themselves in school or at home. Those in the other class studied in school under the teacher's supervision. In eight cases out of ten, the supervised study proved the more helpful. No doubt the reader is wondering by this time LEARNING THROUGH EXPERIMENT 17 what is the best method to use. There are many methods which have been tried out more or less thoroughly but we cannot say that there vaiue of is a method. Professor Charters says that Emphasiz- the function of speUing teaching is to help ofde/of the child to form the habit of writing the *^® Letters letters m their correct order in words. There is no one who would not agree with this proposition. Since it is true, we must use all methods to this end. While it is necessary to adapt our methods to the age of the child, to the kind of words which are being taught; to the same pupil at different times, and to different individuals, we must keep in mind, all the time, the importance of writing the letters in the right order in any word. One of the writers of this text made an experiment several years ago to determine the effect of having pupils notice carefully the exact order of the letters in each of the words to be learned. Two fifth grades in Boulder, Colorado, were selected, with the assistance of the Superintendent, for the purpose of the experiment. The teachers were of nearly equal ability so far as the Superintendent was able to judge. The children in the two rooms were of about the same type, coming from good homes in the most desirable sections of the city. They were of about the same general ability so far as scholar- ship is concerned. It was found that one grade had an average in scholarship for the first quarter 18 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING of 82.52 per cent and the other an average of 82.13 per cent. Neither children nor teachers knew that an experiment was being performed until it was almost completed, when one of the teachers learned what was being done and was told the purpose of the experiment. The first class mentioned above will be called "5A" and the second '^5B.'' Both classes were taught the same words. "5A'' was taught in the usual manner, "5B'^ was taught to notice very carefully the order of the letters in the different words. The children in "5B'^ were asked to write their words, always, during the daily spelling lesson. The words were always pronounced clearly, and written on the board in syllables by the teacher. She always spelled by syllables as she wrote. Dur- ing the assignments emphasis was placed on the following points : (1) Silent letters, double letters, vowels having the same sound, as in or and er. (2) Common parts in different words. (3) Difficult combinations of letters. (4) Difference in pronunciation of such prefixes as ily el, al, ol, em and im, en and in. (5) Trying to recall how words were spelled after they had been erased. (6) Each pupil was to study in whatever way seemed best to him ; that is, he learned by looking at the words on the board, by spelling them silently, by writing them, or by a combination of these methods. LEARNING THROUGH EXPERIMENT 19 The teacher was cautioned against : (1) Mispronouncing a word to give the pupil an idea as to how it should be spelled. (2) Using rules. (3) Mentioning possible mistakes such as the use of e in the word separate. (4) Running over time. (5) Making home assignments. A list of words from those to be studied was pro- nounced to both groups of children before the experiment began. The children in "5A" averaged 50.55 per cent and those in "5B'^ averaged 48.58 per cent. The advantage to begin with was with "5A." At the end of six weeks another test was given. The same words were used because the author wished to find just how much the children had improved. This time ''5A" averaged 83.39 per cent and ^'5B'' averaged 89.14 per cent. "5A" had gained 32.84 per cent while ''5B" had gained 40.56 per cent or 7.72 per cent more. This seemed fairly good proof that adhering to a good method had been beneficial to "5B.'' Another fact which was noticed was that there was less variation among the pupils in "5B" after the six weeks' work than there was among the pupils of ''5A.'' The work in "5B" had been of more benefit to the poorest pupils than had that in "5A.'' During this test a careful record of attendance was kept for the two groups. Those in ''5B'' 20 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING averaged 6.5 days' absence, while those in '^5A'' averaged only 2.7 days' absence. This was another evidence of the value of the method since it helped the pupils who had been absent a greater length of time to make a better record. Summary The two common ways of learning better methods have been by repeated trial and error and by scientific experi- ment. On account of their conservatism, teachers have clung to the former method longer than persons in other occupations, but the experimental method is gaining ground. The first experiments in education were crude, and spelling was no exception to the rule. Dr. Rice did con- siderable experimenting in spelling and discovered some startling facts. He was criticized and abused by con- servative educators but his work resulted in an interest in the experimental method. Cornman believed that as good results could be obtained by teaching spelling in connection with other subjects, incidentally, as by drill. His experience showed only a slight advantage for the drill method. Mr. Wallin, who made a much more careful study of the drill method in use in the Cleveland, Ohio, schools, found it much more effective than the incidental method. He found, also, that normal pupils spell better than those who are accelerated or retarded ; that girls, as a rule, spell better than boys; that words are spelled almost as well when they are written in sentences as when written separately. i A good many experiments have been made to solve special problems in the teaching of spelling. Pearson and others found that it was a little better to teach LEARNING THROUGH EXPERIMENT 21 homonyms together than to teach them separately. Other authorities differ in opinion. We need more evidence before we can say just which method should be used. Wagner found that grouping words containing similar elements resulted in better spelling. Young pupils spell better, orally, than when they write, because in writing they have to think about the formation of the letters. It is wise, however, to introduce written spelling at an early age because it is more common than oral spelling. Taylor found that having difficult letters of words printed in colors did not help pupils to spell these words correctly. Such a device has little value, because it is impossible to pick out the parts of words which cause difficulty to all pupils. Authorities agree that it is better to spend the time in fixing the correct spelling habit than in trying to teach the pupil to spell words by rule. There is considerable difference of opinion, but no real experimental proof, regarding the value of simplified spelling. There is no good reason why our spelling should not be much better without simpHfication. Simplification might result in confusion unless introduced gradually. Syllabication of words in script or print makes learning easier, as a rule. Pronouncing by syllables is helpful to the pupil. It has been shown by experiment that study supervised by the teacher is more helpful than unsupervised study. We cannot say that there is a method of teaching spelling. There are many useful methods. One of the authors has demonstrated, experimentally, that emphasiz- ing the correct order of letters in words results in better speUing. All methods must be adapted to this end. 22 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING Questions and Exercises 1. Name five persons who have made investigations or conducted experiments for the purpose of determining better methods of teaching spelhng. What was the dis- tinct contribution made by each? 2. Which experiments discussed in this chapter might you helpfully repeat in your school? 3. What are the benefits which you would derive from personally conducting experiments to help find out good methods of teaching spelling? 4. Plan with three of your friends who teach the same grade that you do, to conduct a spelling investigation for a month and then compare your results with theirs. 5. How can you test your pupils to see to what extent the difficulties of penmanship lessen their ability in spelling ? CHAPTER II THE PSYCHOLOGY OF SPELLING It has been said that the psychologist is a person who tells what everyone knows in language which nobody understands. This must be the reason why some teachers become alarmed when they read the word '^ psychology^' in a title. The authors reaHze that they run a degree of risk in introducing a chapter on psychology, but it is necessary that every teacher should have ^ •^ "^ Learning in mind some of the fundamental psycho- is Con- logical principles if she is to make a success ^®^*"^s of teaching. An attempt will be made to use only such psychological terms and illustrations as any studious teacher can grasp. Professor Thorndike of Columbia University says "Learning is connecting, and man is the great learner primarily because he forms so many con- nections." These connections or bonds of which he speaks are made in the nervous system. They are formed whenever a child or an adult or any ani- mal which has a nervous system learns something. The connection may be between some situation out- 23 24 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING side the individual such as 2X2=1 on the black- board and the response 4 in the individual's mind ; it may be between the thought of the word separate which one wishes to spell and the correct writing of the word, or simply the thought of the correct spelling. There are many different kinds of con- nections between situations and responses, both inside and outside the classroom. A boy sees a baseball and thinks of the game, or he hears the school bell and thinks, "Well, it is time to stop play- ing marbles and learn that pesky geography lesson." The girl sees the dinner table after the family meal and the sight suggests the distasteful task of dish- washing, or she sees a display of hair ribbons and, forthwith, she thinks of the beautiful hair ribbon she received as a present on her last birthday. In these cases, seeing the baseball, hearing the school bell, seeing the dishes, or the display of ribbon, might have led to different responses. This is too fre- quently the case in spelling. Johnnie hears the word separate pronounced and he may write it seperate, seprate, seprat, sepert, or in any of a dozen different ways. In each case he has the wrong response to the situation, although the situation has not changed. This is where the work of the teacher comes in ; it is her duty to see that Johnnie makes the correct response every time, and that, finally, this response becomes automatic. She should make sure that THE PSYCHOLOGY OF SPELLING 25 no pupil has too much to learn or she will defeat the purpose of the spelling lesson. She should mo- tivate the work, or make it so interesting that the child will want to learn, and she should make such clear assignments and direct the study of them in such a way that improvement will be easy. Professor Bagley in his ''Classroom Management" states a very important law of psychology in a very concise way. This is the law of habit for- ^^^ ^^^ mation: " Focalization of consciousness of Habit upon the process to be automatized, plus ^^^ attentive repetition of this process, permitting no exceptions until automatism results." This law is so important in the formation of correct habits of any kind that its application needs to be made perfectly clear. Let us see how it applies to spelling. Suppose we have some particularly difficult word to teach. To begin with, the pupils must give the best attention. All disturbing influences must be shut out and the word to be learned must be in the center of the field of attention. The teacher picks out the difficult parts, one at a time, and emphasizes the correct forms. This is " f ocahzation of conscious- ness on the process to be automatized." The class or the individual pupil is called upon to repeat, attentively, the correct form. This fulfills the second part of the law. There is a little danger that this part of the process may be continued too long ; that is, that the pupil may waste his time in over- 26 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING learning. Professor Thorndike thinks that this result need not be feared. We must be sure, how- ever, that the word is repeated often enough to in- sure correct speUing at all times ; and the task does not end here. Teachers must be constantly on the alert to guard against mistakes in order that they may be prevented or corrected. ^^ Permitting no exceptions to occur '^ is just as important as making a good start. If incorrect forms are permitted to creep in after the word has been correctly learned, bad spelling habits compete with the correct one and the teacher cannot be sure which habit will "come out on top.'^ Let us illustrate the application of the law of habit formation in another way. Suppose the teacher is teaching the word February. This word is often misspelled because it is mispronounced, Febuary. The teacher should pronounce the word carefully, ''Feb'-ru-a-ry,'' so that every syllable receives its value. If this is done, the word is half learned because every letter except, perhaps, y, stands out so clearly that the child ought to be able to spell this word correctly. Some child who is sure of the spelling might be called upon to spell the word at this time. This would help the child who learns best by hearing. Then the teacher might write or have some child write the word on the board, pronouncing and spelling it by syllables, thus helping the visualizers. Children who learn best THE PSYCHOLOGY OF SPELLING 27 by spelling the word to themselves, or by writing, should be encouraged to use either of these methods of learning. The word is presented to the children in several different ways; and some will make use of each way of learning. It is good psychology to proceed m this manner because one learns best when the material to be learned is presented through different senses. All this explanation has to do with focalization of consciousness on the process, in this case the forming of connections or bonds between the successive letters in such a way as to make sure that they will always be written in the right order whenever the pupil has occasion to use the word. Since the second S3dlable, ru, is so often misspelled, the teacher should make sure that the pupils focalize their attention on it. Next, a good deal of attentive repetition is neces- sary if the children are to learn the word in such a way as to be able to write it automatically ; that is, without having to stop to think about the spelling. Attentive repetition means that the pupil must spell the word carefully, making sure that all the letters are visualized, spoken, or written in the correct order. The better the child succeeds in shutting out all disturbing factors, the more quickly he learns. There should be enough repetition to fix the correct spelling. The child should be able to close his book and recall the word accurately. After the word has been learned, the teacher should 28 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING make sure that it is reviewed at intervals in order to be certaiQ that the correct speUing is fixed. The length of the period between reviews may be made longer and longer, and, finally, the word may be considered learned. The third part of the law of habit formation em- phasizes ^^ permitting no exceptions to occur" until the process has become automatic. This means that the teacher must be continually on the alert to see that the pupil always spells the word as it should be spelled. It means, too, that the pupil must be on the alert, not only while the word is being learned, but also after it has been laid aside as learned. It should be re- peated, in this connection, that all pupils will not misspell words in exactly the same way. The teacher should specialize on the mistakes which occur, "making repairs where needed," as Thorn- dike says. In discussing attention and habit formation, we must not forget interest. Interest plays a big part in one's ability to learn. We learn most readily the lessons in which we are most interested. We do our best work in the subject in which we have the greatest interest, whether that subject be spellmg, arithmetic, grammar, or something else. In some cases the material which one is studying may be un- attractive, and uninteresting. After a time interest may develop, largely perhaps because of satisfaction THE PSYCHOLOGY OF SPELLING 29 in having accomplished something at a distasteful task. The teacher can do a great deal in arousing interest in spelling or any other subject. The ^'big word" to be remembered in this con- nection is ^^ motivation," which is simply another word for interest. By motivation we mean ^^That attack upon school work which seeks to make its tasks significant and pur- poseful for the child, by relating them to his childish experiences, questions, problems, and desires." ^ As applied to spelling, motivation means to make spell- ing appeal to the child's practical nature, to make him see that the subject has a value in everyday life. This may be done by having the pupil make up word lists, a subject which will be discussed later on, or b}^ showing him that by misspelling words in his letters he runs the risk of being misunderstood. The child's interest may be aroused by asking him to keep a personal list of the words which he misspells in order to see how rapidly he can reduce the number. Limiting the spelling list is one important means to- ward motivation. In the past we have been tempted to require the learning of too many words. Some spelling books contained as many as twelve to fif- teen thousand words, many of which would never be used during or after school life. The tendency, in recent years, has been to reduce this number to about four thousand or even less. When the child 1 Wilson, H. B. and G. M., Motivation of School Work. 30 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING sees that most of the words in the speUing lesson are those which he uses in his everyday affairs he is more incHned to study them, and when the teacher takes a vital interest in helping each child to over- come his difficulties the interest in spelling becomes greater. The question may be raised here as to what words -y^at should be included in the spelling list for Words any grade. This will be discussed in the second part of the book. The question as to how many words should be included in the Hst for each grade is a problem of HowM^ny psychology. It is generally recognized Words ^]^at young children are not able to learn as many new words each day as are the older children. Most authorities agree on about two new words as the best number for primary children and not more than five new words for grammar grade children. Another problem to be decided is that of how much time should be devoted to each lesson. It is The Red- generally conceded, now, that not more tation than fifteen minutes a day should be used study ' for spelling and that this should include Period ]3Qth study and recitation. Fifteen min- utes may seem like a short time, but it has been shown that schools which devote a longer time to the subject do not secure results which would justify the expenditure of the extra time. The schools of THE PSYCHOLOGY OF SPELLING 31 Cleveland, Ohio, the record of which in spelling has been discussed earlier in this book, have used rather less time for the subject of spelling than is used in the schools of other cities. Summary It is essential that every teacher should know some- thing about the psychological principles involved in the teaching of spelling. The fundamental principle is that "learning is connect- ing" and that the teacher's chief concern is to see that the right connections are always made by the pupil in learning the spelling of words. Other very important principles to be kept in mind are that the attention of the learner must be focused on the thing to be learned, that repetition must be attentive, and that no exceptions be permitted until correct spelling becomes a habit. Pupils learn most readily the things in which they are interested. Interest may be stimulated by the satisfaction which comes from the completion of a task. Sometimes it is necessary for the teacher to stimulate interest. This is called motivation. Elimination of all words except those in everyday use, showing the practical value of different words, and emphasis on the solution of individual spelling difficulties are all excellent means of motivation. Most authorities agree that from two to five spelling words should be taught each day, depending on the age of the pupils. It is generally conceded that not more than fifteen minutes a day should be spent in the study and recitation of the spelling lesson. 32 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING Questions and Exercises 1. What are the essential elements of a spelling situa- tion ? When is a spelling response a satisfactory response ? What is the teacher's part in this connection? 2. Quote from memory Bagley's statement of the law for the formation of a habit. Explain and illustrate each part of the statement. 3. What is the distinction between ''motivation" as defined by Wilson and ^' sugar coating " as you under- stand that term? Which do you use in teaching spelling? Prove the correctness of your answer by illustrations. 4. How many words do you ask your children to learn daily in each grade? Go over your assignments for the past week and see. 5. Which of the investigations discussed in Chapter I justifies the authors in saying that fifteen minutes daily is sufficient time to devote to the subject of spelling? Give careful attention to this point for a few weeks and see if you agree. PART II METHODS, MATERIALS, AND DEVICES USED IN THE TEACHING OF SPELLING FOREWORD In Part I of this book, we have studied the psycho- logical principles underlying the teaching of spelling. We have shown how, through careful experimenta- tion, these principles and their application to spelling were discovered. We have not attempted to give a summary of all the experiments that have been made. To have done so would have made this book more technical and more detailed than the purposes for which it is written would require or permit. We have presented only those experiments which we feel to be typical and pivotal in nature. From a study of this brief presentation of scientific investigations and from this short statement of the psychological principles which apply to spelling, we trust that the reader will have gained a point of view sufficiently broad to make a further study of this book easy. Not only this, but we hope that the reader will be inspired to further investigation and more extensive reading on this subject. The 33 34 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING literature dealing with spelling is now becoming not only abundant but scientifically accurate and detailed. In Part II we shall consider the methods of teach- ing spelling that are now used, the materials with which spelling is taught, and the classroom devices which teachers have found helpful. What are these methods? How do they differ? What are the raaterials used? What form do they take? What are the devices which classroom teachers have found helpful? A careful reading of Part II will reveal the answers to these questions. CHAPTER I METHODS OF TEACHING SPELLING THE DIFFERENT MODES OF PROCEDURE There are at least four different modes of pro- cedure by which spelling is taught, now in use in the United States. These modes of procedure will be spoken of as ''methods of teaching spelling'' throughout this discussion. They are not distinctly separated; or mutually exclusive, but they are suffi- ciently distinct and exclusive for us to think of them as different methods. In this discussion we shall present the mode of procedure, the advantages claimed for it, and the objections urged against it, for each of the four methods discussed. It must be borne in mind that in all four methods repetition and drill are essential. The names applied to the methods in the following discussion arise, primarily, from the way in which the words are first presented to the pupil. THE INCIDENTAL METHOD As suggested in Chapter I, in our discussion of Commands experiment, the words which constitute 35 36 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING the spelling lessons when this method is in use are taken from the subject matter of other classes. The The words for the spelling for one day Sources of may be taken from the hygiene lesson for for the that same day. The next day, words SpeUing fj-^j^^ ^]^g history lesson may be selected. Agriculture, arithmetic, and all the other subjects may be used as sources of supply for the spelling. The written composition of the children is one of the most fertile sources from which words for the spelling lesson come. Were this method strictly applied, there would be no special and conscious attention to spelling as How the such. The children would be supposed SpeUing is to imbibe the spelling as they studied the Taught Qther subjects. No one, so far as we know, has carried the method to that extreme. What is actually done is to look through the lesson of some subject for the day and pick out a few words which are to be spelled by the members of the class when they come to recite that lesson. A few minutes of the recitation period are taken for emphasizing the spelling of the assigned words. Sometimes teachers select the words from one subject and then devote a special period of the day to the spelling class. This is far from being a pure type of this method of teaching spelling. It can be called '^ incidental'^ only because the words are selected from the assigned lessons of other subjects METHODS OF TEACHING SPELLING 37 and are not taken from a spelling book especially designed for that purpose. When the words to be spelled are selected from lessons dealing with hygiene^ reading^ and other subjects that the child is studying, the Ad- words studied have real meaning to him. vantages They have a purposeful use for him on the same day on which he is studying them. One of the advantages urged for this method is that it saves time, but this claim does not seem to be valid if time is taken for drill, either at the time of the recitation of the subject from which the words are taken, or at a later time. The fact is that more time may be used because the teacher must select the words and the children must locate them in their books. When we include the time that is certain to be used in retelHng the children which words were assigned, we can see that the advantage claimed for this method is doubtful. Too often the words for special study are selected by chance or by caprice. If the teacher has not made special preparation for the assign- ment, she selects the words in a haphazard "'^^ ^°°^ manner. Hygiene happens to be the subject selected for the day and the words that her eye falls upon are : diphtheria, disinfectant, hypodermic, infectious, malignant. The probability is that the fifth grade class, to which these words are assigned, will rarely have an 38 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING occasion to use them in written composition. This makes little difference. The words are hard; the teacher is rushed for time; the class must have words to study for spelling, and so these are selected for the lesson. The foregoing discussion suggests another objec- tion to this method. The average teacher does not know just which are the best words, the most needed words, that a child should study. To say this is to cast no reflection upon the average teacher. Relatively speaking, there are very few people who have made sufficient study of spelling to be even fairly certain of the words that should be taught to children at the different stages of their progress. Even those experts who feel that they have a good idea of the words which should be taught would not be able to select the words in this hasty and acci- dental way. To be able to form this body of opin- ion, the expert has had to take much time for care- ful investigation. What can we expect then of the meagerly equipped teacher who must select these words during the rush of a busy day of teaching? The efficiency of any plan or method of teaching spelling may be fairly well measured by the provi- sions that it includes for attentive repetition. The "Incidental Method" of teaching spelling and the accidental way in which the words are frequently selected make attentive repetition and systematic review practically impossible. METHODS OF TEACHING SPELLING 39 If the Incidental Method is to be used, the teacher should inform herself very thoroughly as to the careful scientific studies that have been made of spelling. What others have discovered would then serve as a guide in the selection of the words which she makes for each grade. There is no doubt that a much higher degree of scientific knowledge and teaching skill is needed for the successful appHcation of this method than is required for other methods. THE TEST-DRILL METHOD Since Jones made his very illuminating study of the words that children actually use in written com- position, there has come into conscious xhe Origin use another plan of procedure that we andAppii- may properly designate as the Test-Drill the Method. The theory upon which this is ^^^^od based is that, since we know what words children actually do use, all that is necessary is to test the children to see if they can correctly spell all those words. If they can, then it becomes a wasteful expenditure of time for the children to study a spelling lesson each day. If they cannot, the teacher knows at once what words to drill upon and the pupil is made conscious of his own limitations. In applying this method the word Hst for the grade is taken and divided into groups. The chil- dren are tested upon each group of words at the beginning of the week, fortnight, or month, or what- 40 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING ever interval the teacher decides to use. The test is given without any warning as to what is to be given, and the children spell without previous study on that particular list. The words that each child misses become his spelling list for the designated period. Let us illustrate : Four hundred and sixty-nine words constitute the Jones list for the third grade. This would be practically fifty-two words for each month of a term of nine months. Suppose that on the first Monday of each month the teacher tested her class on the fifty-two words in the group for that month. She might find that every member of the class could spell a few of the words. Half the class might spell half the words. A few members of the class might be able to spell eighty per cent of the words. Two or three members might be able to spell all the words. Those words that were spelled by all members of the class might be eliminated from the list for study for the month. The teacher would know at once the relative needs of each child. Each child would know exactly what words in the list for the month he could not spell. He would discover his own limitations and would be held in the class only so long as it was necessary to overcome those limita- tions. When this method is used the teacher should apply the process of elimination to her class. She METHODS OF TEACHING SPELLING 41 should do this by taking a few words each day for study and drill. Those words that were misspelled by the greatest number should be selected jj^^ ^^ daily. In this way the better spellers would Conduct complete their lists and be eliminated from the class and there would be retained in the class those who needed most help and most practice. This method of teaching spelling focuses the attention of the teacher and the children Advan- upon the particular words that must be *^ses given special attention. It excuses from the class those children who do not need to devote the time to the work. It keeps each child on the task only so long as he needs to continue and frees him as soon as he has completed his task. He may then devote himself to more profitable work. The Test-Drill Method frees the teacher from teaching a large class and permits her to give her time and attention to the children that need them. This method is based upon the supposition that children already know the meaning and have a mastery of the use in speech of the words that they are to spell. This is a supposi- "'^^ ^°°^ tion contrary to fact. Some children will know. Many children will not know. The method is also based upon the idea that the sole purpose of the spelling class is to teach the order of the letters in the word; and to make the spelling 42 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING of the word automatic. The opponents of this method object, therefore, to its poverty of ideas. They say that while the habit of correct speUing is the goal sought, it is not necessary to rob the teach- ing of spelling of all other associated values in order to attain that end. If this method is to be used by the teacher, the closing days of the month, or whatever period is chosen, should be used for reviews. All the members of the class should participate. Some such devices as those suggested in the last chapter of this book may be used to motivate the reviews. Practically perfect spelling of the chosen Hst of words should be expected from all members of the class at the close of each month when this method is applied. THE TEACHING-STUDY METHOD Very clearly contrasted with the preceding plan is one in which the spelling recitation period is The Spell- "^^^^g^^ ^^ ^s one of energetic teaching on ing Lesson the part of the teacher and one of very Exercise thoughtful study on the part of the pupil, in Think- In this method, the teacher holds herself responsible even more than she does the children. She makes herself responsible for the certainty that the child is conscious of the correct pronunciation, accent, meaning, use of each word, and also that he develops the habit of correctly METHODS OF TEACHING SPELLING 43 spelling the word. She starts with the assumption that he does not know, instead of the assumption that he does know, as in the preceding method dis- cussed. The spelling lesson is thought of much more as a teaching exercise than as a testing or a drill exercise. While there is testing and a great deal of drill, these come as subsequent to and secondary to the teaching. The advocates of this method follow some such procedure as the following : (1) The teacher writes the list of words very plainly on the board and uses each word in some suitable sentence as she writes it. She has the children look at the word for an instant and then she pronounces it again very distinctly, being very certain to give the correct value to each syllable. (2) The children then pronounce the word. At first, some child is called upon who will be sure to pronounce it correctly and distinctly. Then some one who would not have been likely to pronounce it so well, if asked to do so first, pronounces it. Finally, the entire class is asked to pronounce it in concert. (3) The word is then^used in sentences by the children. This is done to make certain that the children have a clear understanding of its meaning, and facility in its use. The definition of the word is not asked for. Webster had some difficulty in making clear the meaning of words by definition. Of course, a child in the elementary school would have even more trouble. The aim is not abstract definition — it is practical use. (4) The children then take a few minutes to study the words as they appear on the board. They note the order of the letters. They close their eyes and see if they can 44 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING recall them in clear mental images. They discover where the difficulties of the words are for them and then attack those difficulties. (5) The words are next erased from the board and dictated to the children. They write the words. (6) The written words are next checked by having one child spell aloud from his paper and having the other members of the class check their mistakes, or by some other method upon which the class may agree. Each pupil notes his mistakes and puts them down on his own "black list" for further study. (7) The words that are taught one day are used for review on the following day and at definitely increasing intervals thereafter. Sound psychological principles are applied in using this method. A vivid initial impression is secured Advan- by the pupil. He has the impression mul- tages tiplied and increased through the eye, ear, hand; and tongue. Attentive repetition is secured through the variety of means used. The class period is a thought-provoking period and not one merely of monotonous repetition. Words are presented and used in expressing ideas. When learned in this way the words will recur naturally when need arises for them in written composition. Believers in the Test-Drill Method of teaching spelling very naturally urge the following objections to the Teaching-Study Method : If only the words that children actually use and therefore already know are taught in the spelling METHODS OF TEACHING SPELLING 45 work, then much of the work indicated above is not only useless, it is wasteful if not silly. It is unwise to subject all pupils — the efficient and the inefficient — to the same task and the same routine. If the purpose of the spelling class is to teach spelling, why take the time to turn it into a lan- guage recitation ? The conflict is sharp and the distinction clear between the theories upon which the Test-Drill Method and the Teaching-Study Method ^ , . 1 1 mi Conclusion of teachmg spelling are based. The con- flict arises chiefly from a disagreement as to the purpose of a spelling recitation. Your conclusion upon this point should determine the plan that you follow. THE CONTENT-DICTATION METHOD A method that is designed to combine the best features of the three preceding methods T^e may be characterized as the Content-Die- Principles tation Method. The best books which which it make use of this method are built upon the ^^ ^^^^* following principles : (1) For each new lesson, a few new words — from two to six — are presented in a meaningful context that is within the comprehension of the child. (2) The context is in the form of a paragraph that is composed of words that are a part of the child's vocabulary as determined by Jones and others. 46 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING (3) The new words are so presented that they will make a vivid initial impression upon the child and so that he will understand their meaning and become ac- customed to their use. (4) Through the repetition that occurs in the para- graphs, sufficient provision is made for drill. This is supplemented by other devices. (5) Since spelhng is used in practice only when we write, the new words are presented to the pupil in a dictated paragraph which he writes. In this way, from the first, the contextual impression of the word that the pupil receives is correct. From its first presentation, it has meaning for him. Recalling the Incidental Method, we shall see that its chief claim to merit comes from the fact that Relation the words were selected from subject Content- i^^^^er that had real meaning for the chil- Dictation dren. The Test-Drill Method derives its to other strength from the fact that the attention Methods of the teacher and the pupil is focused upon those words that demand attention and practice. The Teaching-Study Method has as its chief virtue the fact that the intellects of the teacher and the pupil are actively engaged, respectively, in a clear and correct presentation of the word and in a mastery of it. If the Content-Dictation Method, through the books that make application of it, has succeeded in combining all these qualities without the weaknesses that are charged to each, then this is an accomplishment indeed. METHODS OF TEACHING SPELLING 47 In teaching according to the Content-Dictation Method, one of two possibiHties is open to the teacher. She may take the new words for Mode of the lesson that occur in the paragraph and Procedure teach them as was suggested under the Teaching- Study Method. After having done this, she may dictate the paragraph. This will give opportunity for testing the teaching of the new words and for reviewing the old words that have been previously taught. On the other hand, she may dictate the paragraph first. Some children will probably spell correctly even the new words. If the assumption is correct that only the words that they actually use are being presented, this will be more likely to be true. Those children who do not spell the words correctly will be made immediately conscious of their need and will then be prepared for an intelligent and intensive study of the new words. In this event, we would have an application of the principle of testing first and then teaching where weakness is found. This method presents the new words to the children in a context that will usually have meaning for them. It necessitates spelling in written com- ^^^ ^^^^ position, which is the only form in which spelling is practically applied. It provides for constant review in writing of the words most frequently used in written composition. 48 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING Many of the dictation exercises of any book which systematically develops a vocabulary made up of certain predetermined words must neces- sarily be somewhat mechanical. Such a spelling book must endure the handicap^ suffered by the phonetic readers^ of being limited by the con- ditions which it must follow in order to attain its expressed goal. Its dictation exercises cannot be universally signif- icant. A paragraph that would be most significant to a child of English origin living in Staunton, Virginia, might mean little to a child of Italian origin living in Boston, a French child in Thibo- deaux, Louisiana, an Indian child in Sulphur Springs, Oklahoma, a Mexican child in El Paso, Texas, a German child in Bismarck, North Dakota, or a Swedish child at Bemidji, Minnesota. EXTRAVAGANT CLAIMS FOR VARIOUS METHODS It is wise for the teacher to take with a grain of salt the extravagant claims made by the proponents of the various methods of teaching spelling. Without doubt the advocates are honest in their claims and sincere in their beliefs. Doubtless, also, there is much truth to justify the claims. The proponent has probably tried his method and found that it gives excellent results. His errors arise from the fact that he has not given all the other methods an equally enthusiastic and fair trial. METHODS OF TEACHING SPELLING 49 Certain psychological principles that are appli- cable to spelling have been experimentally proved. The difficulty in deciding the advantages of one method over other methods lies in the fact that each has certain sound principles for its support. Before we can know that one method of teaching is better than another, the two methods must be care- fully compared by competent and impartial experi- mentation, conducted according to principles that are scientifically sound. Such comparisons of the various methods of teaching spelling have not yet been made with sufficient accuracy — with the goals agreed upon, the situations equivalent, and the materials the same — to justify the extravagant claims of superiority of any method of teaching spelling over all other methods. It is probable that there will be much scientific study within the next few years of the relative merits of the various methods of teaching the dif- ferent school subjects. It is hoped that this dis- cussion will lead to a series of experiments in the various school systems of the country for the pur- pose of testing the merits of the different ways of teaching spelling, and of providing word lists so selected and arranged as to be suited to the various stages of the child's advancement. Some of the following chapters will discuss word lists. Textbook form and pedagogical procedure are often closely related. The type of textbook used 50 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING in the teaching of speUing will have much to do with the type of method which the teacher will use. . . But the teacher should not be a slave to the adopted text. She should know that there are other ways of teaching spelling besides the one which the author of her text advocates. She should know the reasons for the other ways. This will give her a pedagogical freedom that can- not be had in a slavish following of one text. There will be situations which arise in every class that will call for the application of all the methods dis- cussed in this chapter. If the reading of this chapter has given to the reader a grasp of the prin- ciples involved in each method discussed to such an extent that she can apply them successfully when the situation in which they are needed arises, then this chapter will have served its purpose. The teacher must ever bear in mind that textbooks are not sacred and a particular method is not a law of the Medes and the Persians. The child's needs and the teacher's wisdom are the two determining factors. Materials and methods are means, not ends. Summary The types of teaching procedure, used in the teaching of spelling, can be clearly understood when thought of as the Incidental Method — the Test-Drill Method — the Teaching-Study Method — the Content-Dictation Method. Under the Incidental Method spelling is taught by METHODS OF TEACHING SPELLING 51 correlating it with the other school subjects instead of by using a special text. When the Test-Drill Method is applied, only those words with which children are already familiar are pre- sented for study. The class is first tested to see what words they can already spell. Only those words that they do not spell correctly are given special attention. The Teaching-Study Method is the opposite of the Test-Drill Method. In this case, the words are first care- fully taught by the teacher and studied by the child. Drill is one of a number of phases that receive emphasis. The Content-Dictation Method is an attempt to teach spelling through written composition. There is a careful selection of new words put into a meaningful context which is dictated to the child. Each method has its advantages and is supported by sound principles. The teacher should study the prin- ciples of each and apply each as occasion requires. Questions and Exercises 1. Summarize the four methods of teaching spelling discussed in this chapter, giving the advantages claimed for and the disadvantages charged against each method. Do you agree with this analysis? State your reasons. 2. Give five situations in which you would deem it wise to use the Incidental Method. 3. If you were using the Test-Drill Method, how would you provide employment for those pupils who were excused from the spelling class? 4. Does the lesson plan of the Teaching-Study Method appeal to you as a teacher of spelling or do you think you would find it irksome? If so, why? 5. What are the advantages and disadvantages to the pupil when the teacher composes her own dictation ex- ercises for the use of the class in spelling ? CHAPTER II SPELLING BOOKS The spelling book has had an interesting history. From the days of Noah Webster, when he gave to the world his famous Blue Back Speller, to the present, spelling, as a separate subject, has usually been recognized as one of the fundamentals. For a few years, about the close of the last century, the spelling book fell into disuse because of the revela- tions made by Dr. Rice and by Dr. Cornman, referred to in Part I of this book; but in recent years the schools have been using spelling books because it was found that teaching spelling in an incidental fashion was not producing the desired results. A constantly growing number of books and a wide variety of methods for use in the ele- mentary grades of our schools have been presented for the consideration of educators. We have before us forty different spelling texts that have been used in the public schools of America. Of this number we find, upon investigation, that there are twenty or more different texts that are now in use in the different states of the nation. These texts represent all the various psychological and pedagogical ideas 52 SPELLING BOOKS 53 that have been urged at any time since spelling as a subject began to be taught in our schools. To the layman, all spelling books are alike. A "spelling book is a spelling book." "Pigs is pigs." But; to the person who has made a study of spelling, there is as great a difference be- spelling tween one spelling book and another as ^?^\ there is between the pure bred hog of some modern breed and the little creature that is dignified by the title of guinea pig. "But," you ask, "just what are the differences? Do they not all contain words ? Is it not a matter, after all, of learning to spell words?" So it is, So it was a matter of growing meat with the hog raiser, but he found that there was a difference in the price of the product when he fed a pure bred hog and when he fed a poorly bred hog. He also found there was a difference due to the kind of ration and to the time of feeding. With the learner, it is a matter of learning to spell, but his results will depend much upon what he has to work with and also the manner in which he does his work. SpeUing books differ greatly in their general plan, in the words they contain, and as much, if not more, in the psychological laws that they call into opera- tion. Because of these differences, we give below an analysis of the various types of spelling book. They may be divided roughly into five types. 54 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING The first of these types may be called the logical type because logical arrangement determines the The Logical placing of the words. The old Webster ^s Type glue Back Speller is the oldest and best recognized example of this group. Words were ar- ranged according to the number of syllables. Such matters as the learner's need, probability of use, and the laws of association, were entirely disregarded. That one word had as many letters as another or had a sound similar to that of another was sufficient reason for the two to be placed in the same group, even if one of those words was already well known to the child and the other was one that he need never know and would never use. There has been a large progeny of this type of spelling book. The logical spelling books were favorites in the days when the oral spelling bee was common. The words they contain are excellent for use on such occasions. They are not suitable for everyday use in written composition and it is only in written composition that spelling is really used. In order to illustrate the mechanical qualities of these logical spelling books we give herewith the first and last groups of words given in one of the texts : ache unintentional adz university aid unmentionable aim utilitarian SPELLING BOOKS 55 aisle valetudinarian alms vegetarian aught verification auk veterinary aunt volubility awe voluntarily A glance at the above lists will reveal several things : (1) They are mere lists of words picked from the alphabetical lists as they are found in the dictionary. (2) Few of them are words that children would use. (3) Some of the words that are given in the first lesson in the book would not be used by the children any earlier than would the words that are presented in the last lesson. The element of service seems never to have been considered in the arrangement of the materials. The question before the teacher is : If I have such a text as the above and if I must, according to the rules of the authorities, use it, how shall I handle it ? The first thing to be done is to get clearly in mind the aims that are to be followed. These aims have a twofold purpose for the child : (1) To learn more fully the meaning and use of the words already a part of the child's speaking, hearing, and reading vocabularies. (2) To learn how to spell the word so well that the spelling itself gives the writer no cause for thought or concern when he is to use it in written composition. The author of such a book did not have these aims in mind, for, had this been the case, the materials 56 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING would not have been so arranged. With such a text; the teaching phase of the class work must occupy an unnecessarily large part of the teacher's time. She must think out some plan of association to use in presenting the words, in using the words, and in reviewing the words. This will be difl&cult and wasteful of the teacher's time, but it will result in economy in the time of the children and in more efficient work. To put these words into one para- graph so as to show their meanings would be rather difficult and would produce compositions of sublime absurdity. See the following paragraph as an illustration of an effort to put into suitable context the first ten words referred to above : "The boy suffered from a dreadful ache. Aid was given but it did not accomplish aught. He died and was taken down the aisle of the church. The coffin had been hewn with an adz. The scene filled all who saw it with awe. The aim of the spec- tators was to give alms to the poor relations but the rich aunt objected, saying that she would pro- vide for their wants from her auk farm in the far north." With such a context, the child would probably become so much interested in the somberness of the story or so curious about what an auk farm was that he would lose all interest in the spelling itself. Such original, continuous paragraphs, therefore, seem not SPELLING BOOKS 57 advisable. With such a list of words the aim should be merely to teach the meaning of the word as it would occur in a sentence. The child should re- member the word for its own sake and not for the story's sake. The following sentences will illustrate how these words may be presented in a suitable context : L I have an ache, or pain, in the back of my head. 2. The adz is a tool used by builders of log houses. 3. Aid was given to the woman who was in trouble. 4. My aim is to complete this task to-day. 5. The aisle of the church is the space between two rows of seats. 6. Those who have enough give alms to the very poor. 7. I never hear aught but good of him. 8. An auk is a bird of the far north. 9. Your aunt is your mother's or your father's sister. 10. The mountain is so high it fills me with awe. Such a list of sentences can easily be made by the teacher as she presents the words for the first time to the class. Numerous devices must be used for the purpose of giving drill upon such a list of words. The teacher must not take it for granted that a child can spell a word simply because he understands its use or even because he can use it correctly in oral composition. There is no proof of his ability to spell except the actual unassisted correct writing of the word by the child in his own composition. 58 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING One of the first things that the teacher must learn is that she must use her own judgment in selecting words that are to constitute the child's lesson. If there are words in a group that is being studied that the teacher knows are foreign to the child's experience, conversation, and reading, then those words should be omitted. Spelling texts are being constantly improved, but even the very best texts admit of selection in order better to suit local situations. What is within the city child's ^^ hearing" and ^^ reading" vocabulary may be en- tirely foreign to the rural child and vice versa. The more strictly logical type of spelling book will call for more careful selection of words on the part of the teacher, but all spelling books will de- mand this attention to some degree. Fortunately for the teachers and the children, the extremely logical type of book has largely disappeared. In spite of that fact, we sometimes hear some one say : '^ There has never been a spell- ing book like the old Blue Back ; we do not have spellers to-day such as we had in the old days." Let us agree to both statements and be thankful. The phonetic type of spelling book is a natural descendant of the logical type of spelling book. ^^ Instead of making the requirement a cer- Phonetic tain letter, as the beginning of each word ^yP® of the lesson group, or the same number of letters in the words or the same number of syl- SPELLING BOOKS 59 lables — as was the rule with the logical type — the phonetic type of spelling book places its em- phasis upon similar sounds. It makes its appeal through a group of letters, the sound of which is common to all words in the group, even though the words are not related in meaning. It makes its appeal to the ear and the eye, especially to the ear. It does not concern itself much with association of ideas but rather with association of sounds. The following words taken from one of the best spellers of this type will illustrate this point : out broke pail about smoke sail pout spoke wail stout joke tail spout poke bail shout yoke fail scout choke nail trout woke mail A perusal of the above lists will reveal the common element in each of the words of these lists. These words are so arranged as to secure with ease and speed the second of the purposes of teaching spell- ing; viz., '^Making automatic the spelling of the words studied." It entirely omits the first of these aims; viz., "The teaching of the meaning and use of the words." Even if a child can spell a word with unfailing correctness when it is in such a list as the above, it is not certain that he will be able 60 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING to spell it when it is disassociated from the list and put in a meaningful context. What shall the teacher do when confronted with a situation such as this text presents? Fortunately^ there are a number of things to re- he ve the teachers in this situation : (1) With these books, the lists are usually made up of words that are already familiar to the child and are a part of his spoken vocabulary. The main thing, then, that is needed by him is to learn how to spell the words. (2) Since the child can probably commit to memory more of these words in a given time than he can of a group of wholly dissimilar words, he will have some time to devote to such supplementary work as the teacher thinks to be necessary. (3) One of the great advantages of the phonetic type in the elementary grades is that it appeals to the child's natural fondness for rhyme and similarities. Even this must be capitalized, or else it will prove a sameness that kills rather than a similarity that thrills. The plan of procedure, then, with the phonetic type of spelling book is : (1) to make the most of its good points for rapid, happy, rhythmical drill; (2) to feel free to turn aside and do such other teach- ing as is not provided for by the book. Remember that it is a drill-device book and not a thought- teaching book. By far the largest number of spelling books that SPELLING BOOKS 61 are now on the market and coming from the press are of the psychological or language- ^j^^ p^ _ teaching type. They are based on as- choiogicai sociated ideas. Sometimes the purpose ^J^^J is more dominantly that of stimulating Teaching expression. To illustrate : ^^® A picture is presented of a boy driving home the cows from pasture at the close of day. After class discussion of the picture, the following words are given for the lesson : calves, fodder, switch, patient, driving, country, timothy. The child is then asked to write about the good time he thinks the boy is having. The aim is to teach certain words in a specific connection in order that the child may apply them at once in written composition. A second illustration of this type is the book in which a group of words, all related to the same thing, are included in one lesson. The two lists of words given below are typical : Parts of the Body ear hair eye skull nose cheek mouth teeth brain A House tongue portico piazza arcade vestibule porch veranda balcony passageway 62 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING In this type, a selection of literature is some- times used for class study and then from it are selected certain words for study as drill in spell- ing. The following selection will illustrate this point : "The night has a thousand eyes, And the day but one ; Yet the light of the whole world dies With the dying sun." Words for drill : died, dies, dying, eyes, whole, thousand. A fourth illustration of this type is the book that provides a heterogeneous group of words to be drilled upon but gives a simple sentence to illus- trate the meaning of the word, as follows : tried .... The boys tried to hit the frogs, dance .... They danced about the pond, side .... They ran up and down the sides, toss .... They tossed sticks into the pond, block .... They tossed blocks of wood, too. The books which are written according to the plans that have been illustrated under this third type have one very distinct advantage and are subject to one very great danger. The great ad- vantage is that the words are always presented in a meaningful way. The spelling lesson becomes a thought lesson and not simply an automatic per- formance. The child will readily understand the SPELLING BOOKS 63 words and will be able to use them in sentences that have meaning to himself and to others. The danger to which this type of book subjects the pupil using it is that his attention will be directed to the thought and not to the ^^ order of letters in the word/^ which, after all, is what constitutes spelling. Thought content may be taught in other classes. The purpose of the spelling class is to teach spell- ing, to make automatic the placing of the letters in the correct order in those words that the child has occasion to use in written composition. If this result is not accomplished, then in so far as spell- ing is concerned, all the other work is for naught. The work may have been interesting as language, literature, art, geography, or history, but it was not good teaching of spelling. Whatever else is done in the spelling class may be finally justified as a part of the teaching of spelling only to the ex- tent that it really aids in making automatic the use of the correct order of the letters. If the teacher has a language-teaching spelling book, she must bear these facts in mind. She has an implement with which she can make of the spell- ing lessons very interesting social periods. The spelling lessons may be filled with interesting ideas and happy expression, but the spelling teacher must remember that there must be sufficient review and drill to make automatic the correct order of the letters in the words that are taught. She must 64 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING make certain that the words that have been taught have been learned. If the teacher is alert, this will cause her no trouble but only add to her pleasure as a teacher. There are a number of books that seem not to fall very distinctly under any one of the preceding Mixed types but which seem to partake some- Type what of the characteristics of each. In these books an effort has been made to blend the best qualities of each of the types discussed. What we have said, therefore, in regard to each type would apply, in so far as these qualities are con- cerned, to the mixed type. Under the heading, Miscellaneous Types, at least three classes of books may be mentioned : (1) There is the class built upon the theory that the purpose of the spelling book is to pre- ]y£jg_ sent words that are already familiar to ceiianeous the child and a working part of his spoken and written vocabulary. Under such circumstances, all that is needed is to find what words occur most often in his vocabulary and to arrange them accordingly for class study. The purpose of teaching spelling with such a book is not to teach the meaning of but merely to test the ability to spell these old familiar words. If the pupil cannot spell them correctly, then the teacher must correct his errors and drill upon the correct spelling until it is automatic. Thus the spell- SPELLING BOOKS 65 ing task becomes, first, one of testing, and then one of drilL While review, repetition, and drill are essential in making automatic the order of letters in the word, the scope of the spelling class and the material of the recitation need not be so restricted as such a text would imply. (2) Somewhat related to the above class of books is the one which makes drill its one distinguishing feature. It presents but few words for each new lesson, usually two. It provides for a series of re- views coming at intervals of increasing length. This book has in its favor certain fundamental psychological laws which function in memorizing and which operate against forgetting. The teacher should profit from the principles applied in such a text, but should remember that here, as with other texts, the teacher's own ability must function in providing devices that give variety in order that the scheme of repetition provided may not make the work monotonous. (3) A third example is the book that depends chiefly upon similarities of vowel sounds and of consonant sounds, and that emphasizes diacritical marking. This is a distant offspring of the old logical type described in the beginning of this dis- cussion. It follows strictly logical principles. It finds some element in a group of words that is alike or something in them that is different and it em- phasizes this similarity or difference. 66 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING Illustration : o like e, as in odor, ardor, armor, harbor J humor, y like i, as in dye, type, style, rhyme, lying. The great weakness of this type of book is that, although it associates ideas, the ideas are very ab- stract and unimportant and are so varied that they confuse rather than clarify the problem of spelling. That the first of the miscellaneous types of books could show results should be expected. It under- takes so little that it should succeed in what it undertakes. That number two could boast of good results is only natural. A drop of water dropping constantly on a rock will finally make an impres- sion. That number three should be able to make a good showing would be a miracle indeed. While we have tried in the preceding pages to give the teacher an analysis of the various types of spelling books that are now before the public and in use in our schools, it must be understood that we have merely given our own analysis and judg- ment.^ The relative value of different types of books in accomplishing different desirable ends has not yet been scientifically determined. One of the oppor- tunities of the classroom teacher of to-day is def- initely to settle some of these problems which clamor for solution. ^ See a related analysis in the Journal of Educational Researchf Vol. I, February, p. 119, Article by Clifford Woody. SPELLING BOOKS 67 Summary Spelling books may be grouped, roughly, according to their most dominant characteristics, under the following classifications: (1) Logical, (2) Phonetic, (3) Psycho- logical or Language-Teaching, (4) Mixed, (5) Miscella- neous. The Logical Type is the oldest. Its lessons are com- posed of words that have one common element such as the same number of letters, s^dlables, the same initial or final letter, and the like. Physical similarity is the determining factor. The Phonetic Type makes similarity of sound its controlling factor. It is a logical speller in that it em- phasizes the logic of tone, whereas the earlier speller em- phasized the logic of structure. The Psychological or Language-Teaching Type is a book that makes the association of ideas the central thought. The aim is to teach spelling but to do so in such a way that it shall be accompanied by much good language work. The Mixed Type is a book in which the various char- acteristics of all types are so interwoven that it seems not to have a definite method of its own. Miscellaneous Types is a term chosen to represent all those that do not fall clearly within one of the types mentioned before. Under this heading might be classed a number of books now before the American school public. Only three have been mentioned : first, a book that makes the child's own vocabulary the limit of the text; second, a book that makes repetition the major factor; third, a book that makes word similarities that are determined by diacritical marking the basis for the teaching effort. 68 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING Questions and Exercises 1 . Summarize the characteristics of the first four types of books discussed in this chapter. Does the text which you use belong to one of these types? To which? 2. What are the characteristics of the three books described under Miscellaneous Types? Does your adopted text belong to one of these types? To which? 3. Which of the eight kinds of books described in this chapter would you prefer to use as a text? What are the arguments you would use to induce your book com- mission to adopt your choice ? 4. Describe an experiment you might conduct to test the relative merits of two or more spelling texts with which you are familiar. CHAPTER III STANDARDS BY WHICH TO MEASURE SPELLING BOOKS Teachers in the elementary schools of our coun- try should be able to measure the merits of the texts that they use. A survey of the speUing texts that are now in use throughout the United States shows very clearly that the teachers of the coun- try and the school committees who select the books for the teachers have not in the past been very familiar with spelling book standards. We give below a few of the fundamental principles that we feel every book intended for use as a text in spell- ing should meet. We believe that if the teachers will measure the particular texts that they^ happen to be using by these standards, it will aid them in discovering the weaknesses of their books and the weaknesses of their own classroom work, and will thus make it possible for them to correct hitherto undiscovered defects. (1) Does the text present the words that a child uses and needs now and will need very soon ? Dr. W. Franklin Jones has made a study of the words that children actually use at different ages 69 70 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING and in the different grades of schooL His list of 4532 words and the Ayres list of a thousand words Useful- ^^^ ^^^ ^^^^ reliable sources of material ness of that are available for use in these grades. Other lists of value, concerning which more will be said in the next chapter, are now coming into pubHc recognition, notably the Iowa Spelling Scale. These lists present the minimal essentials, so to speak, of what all children will need, without refer- ence to locality, present environment, or proposed occupation. One of the possible criticisms of the Language-Teaching spelling books, discussed in the previous chapter, is that they usually have a number of lessons included that are not applicable to all sections of the country or to the social and vocational environment of all pupils. But these lessons are not particularly objectionable if the teacher will use common sense and omit such special groups of words as will awaken no past experience or fill no future need of the child. Some books contain as many as five thousand words, while careful examination of the facts reveals that not more than half that number are really used by the child. That the child may need a word and may use it when he is grown is no reason for having him learn to spell it when he is a pupil in the third grade. (2) Is the material of the text so arranged that it lends itself to the instruction, inspiration, and information of the child? SPELLING BOOK STANDARDS 71 If the material is not so arranged, the text is no better than were those of a century ago, before the laws of psychology were made known by Arrange- much experimentation with cause and mentof effect, situation and response, satisfaction and annoyance, association, etc. The teachableness of the words will depend chiefly upon their grouping. Interested attention, an element absolutely necessary to the teaching of spelling, depends upon the group- ing of the words. Just how can they be so ar- ranged as to beget the maximum amount of thought- ful, voluntary, and continued attention? This is the problem for the text maker, and an important claim to merit for his text should be based upon his success in this particular. (3) After we are sure that the author has given us a text that is thought-provoking, idea-stimulat- ing, neurone-exciting in its nature, the next thing that concerns us is : What for correct means has he provided to make habitual J?^^^*^. , . » , -. , Formation the exact reproduction of the order of the letters in the words by the child whenever the child has to write the words ? In other words, what means has he used for providing drill for the words that he has presented in such an attractive manner ? Experimentation shows that man forgets very easily and very quickly. It shows further that he forgets more rapidly just after a thing has been learned than he does later on. We must therefore make certain 72 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING that means are provided for drilling on new words very soon after they have been learned. There must be other drills at intervals increasing in length. The text itself should be fertile with suggestions and illustrations as to how drills may be made inter- esting. The text maker should know much more of this than does the elementary teacher and should not fail to give her the benefit of that knowledge. (4) To what extent does the book make use of phonetic principles and devices ? Spelling is largely a phonetic process. This is particularly true in the earlier work of the child. Use of However, even during the first year in Phonetic which the child makes a systematic study of spelling, the device of phonetic resem- blance should not be the only means of association used. He will, it is probable, have learned much of phonetics in his reading classes during the first two years of his school life, even if he has not taken up the systematic study of spelling. By the time he has completed his third school year he should have a practical mastery of elementary phonetics and his attention should be centered upon other types of association and other ideas that will in- terest him vastly more than will the phonetic similarities of words. (5) Does the book make sufficient use of similar- ities and of contrasts in the form and meaning of words to stimulate thinking by the child? SPELLING BOOK STANDARDS 73 Although speUing lessons should gradually en- rich the child's mind with thought content, and although the process must make habit- useof ual the correct order of letters in words, ^°?- parison it must not be felt that it is outside and Con- the province of the spelling lesson to call *^^^* for careful observation of similarities and contrasts, and the liberal use of reason in arranging words in groups according to form or function. Such work will serve to impress the order of the letters and the meaning and function of the words far more than will mere repetition. Such exercises will give repetition and at the same time will hold the pupiFs attention. The above suggestion must not be taken to mean that the teacher must work to see just how many problems she can discover that can be worked out in connection with the speUing lessons. The reason- ing phase of the work can be easily overdone. One text that came to our notice had used this de- vice to such an extent that it had become a mod- ern illustration of the ancient mental arithmetic. Everything the author could think of had been compared or contrasted. So much was this true that one, in making a study of the book, came to feel that it was not meant to teach spelling but to test one's ingenuity in solving little spelling and language puzzles. In conclusion, it may be said that while the above standards should apply to the material and 74 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING methods of every good spelling book, it does not follow that a book must be cast aside as worthless if it does not contain all these elements. The authors of spelling books usually are deeply imbued with one idea. They are perfectly honest in putting it forward even to the point of overemphasis. They have usually tried out in many classrooms the plan which they present and they have the satis- faction of knowing that it worked. If it worked in their classrooms, it will work in yours. This is true. But it is also true that you may be able to use such of their ideas as seem wise to you and, at the same time, supplement these ideas wdth sug- gestions from other sources. To point out ways of doing this is the purpose of this discussion. If a study of these standards serves to give to the teacher a broader view and greater independence of method, then they will have served the purpose for which they are set forth. Summary Teachers in the elementary schools should be able to judge the merits of the books that they use. This ability will aid them better to adapt their methods to the children's needs and to offset more effectively the text's limitations. The following questions, when answered with fairness and good judgment based upon the facts in the books and the scientijfic literature on the subject, should give the teacher a fair estimate of the merits of a text: SPELLING BOOK STANDARDS 75 Does it present the words that a child needs and uses now and will need and use very soon ? Is the material of the text so arranged that it lends itself to the instruction, inspiration, and information of the child? Has the author provided drill for the purpose of making habitual the exact reproduction of the order of the letters in the word by the child whenever he has to write it? Does the book make wise and helpful use of phonetic principles and devices? Does the book make sufficient use of similarities and contrasts in the form and meaning of words to stimulate thinking by the child ? A book may be a valuable book even though it does not conform to all these standards. Few books do. But the teacher should understand that it is her duty to supply what the book lacks. Questions and Exercises 1. Consider the different types of spelling books avail- able in your community. Try to identify each of the books with one of the types discussed in Chapter II. To how many of the standards set forth ^in this chapter does each book conform? 2. What principle does the author of each spelling text examined by you, follow in presenting the words to the children for the first time? 3. What plan is used in each text for making habitual the spelling of the words? 4. Select from each text five words that you know are frequently misspelled and trace them throughout the book. How many times and at what intervals are they presented ? CHAPTER IV SPECIAL LISTS AND HOW TO USE THEM In Part II of the Eighteenth Year Book of the National Society for the Scientific Study of Edu- cation, Dr. Ernest Horn, of the University of Iowa, has presented a very careful summary of all the more important experiments and investigations that have been made in connection with the teaching and learn- ing of spelling. Of this compilation of more than one hundred significant experiments and investiga- tions, we shall concern ourselves in this chapter, primarily, with only two. The first of these is the list of "One Hundred Spelling Demons'' prepared by Dr. Franklin Jones, recently of the University of South Dakota. The second is '^A Suggested Minimal Spelling List" arranged by grades, pre- pared by one of the authors of this guide. "one hundred spelling demons" Dr. Jones investigated the following problem : *' What words, grade for grade, do children use in their own free written speech, and what words, therefore, do they need to know how to spell?'' 76 SPECIAL LISTS AND HOW TO USE THEM 77 To answer this question, Dr. Jones selected 1050 children in four states, distributed from the second to the eighth grades inclusive. He had source of each child write from fifty-seven to one Material hundred and five compositions and then he counted the number of words that were used by each child and the number of words that were used by all the children of each of the seven grades. His discoveries were very interesting. He found that the children of the second grade used 1927 words in all. The third grade added to this number . 469 words The fourth 442 words The fifth 432 words The sixth 425 words The seventh 419 words The eighth 418 words Thus, the number of words used by all children in each grade group varied from 1927 used by the second grade to 4532 used by all the children from the second to the eighth grade inclusive. The inter- esting point in this whole matter and the one to which the attention of the reader is especially called is this fact : More than nine tenths of all words that were misspelled by these 1050 children were found in the 2396 words that were in the written vocab- ularies of the second and third grades. The one hundred words that caused the greater part of the trouble have been dubbed "The One Hundred Spelling Demons'^ and are given as follows : 78 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING which can't guess they their sure says half there loose having break separate lose just buy don't Wednesday doctor again meant country whether very friend February beheve none business know knew week many could laid often some seems tear whole been Tuesday choose won't used wear tired cough always answer grammar piece where two minute raise women too any ache done ready much read hear forty beginning said here hour blue hoarse write trouble though shoes writing among coming to-night heard busy early wrote does built instead enough once color easy truly would making every straight since dear through sugar Practically any child that is advanced enough to be in an intermediate spelling class is mature enough to know how to spell or to learn to spell the words in the above list. They are in a sense difficult. If the reader will glance over the list she may find a number that even yet give her trouble in her own written work. This is due to the fact SPECIAL LISTS AND HOW TO USE THEM 79 that at the right time those words were not so taught and so drilled upon that their spelling became automatic in the mind. What an obligation, then, upon the teacher to see that the children whom she teaches shall not be similarly handicapped and embarrassed during their lives by the inability to spell words in such very common use — words that can be so easily taught and learned if they are taught in the right way and learned at the right time. We are confident that another shorter list of Spelling Demons of anotherKtype'of words could be discovered were one to make a careful study of the errors that children make in the spelling of words that call for the use of the hyphen and the apos- trophe. This could include possessives, contrac- tions, and compounds. A suggestive study of this question is presented in the English Journal for June, 1919, by John A. Lester. His discussion relates particularly to this difficulty as related to college Freshmen, but an even more fruitful study of it might be made as it is related to the elementary school. A SUGGESTED MINIMAL SPELLING LIST "A Suggested Minimal Spelling List," referred to above, is presented here because it serves as one of the most comprehensive summaries of the vari- ous spelling lists that have been developed by investigators who have studied this question, and 80 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING because it groups together those words that must be taught by the teachers and learned by the children of America if correct spelling is to be a result of our educational system. It is hoped that this tenta- tive graded list will meet the popular demand for a short list containing the most commonly used words. It has been assumed that a useful spelling list should contain : first, the words which children in Material the elementary school are most likely to Included ^gg {^i their daily written work ; and, second, the words which will be most frequently used after the pupil leaves school. This list was compiled from the following spelling tests and word lists : Professor Jones' Concrete Investigation of the Material of English Spelling. This is probably the most thorough- going of the publications examined. It presents 4532 words derived from the study of 15,000,000 words in the themes of 1050 elementary school children, grades 2 to 8, inclusive. Common Essentials in Spelling, a list of 3470 words, prepared by C. K. Studley and Allison Ware. It is a compilation of the words found in Dr. Leonard P. Ayres' Spelling Vocabularies of Personal and Business Letters, those included in a list prepared by Miss Effie McFadden and Dr. Frederic Burke of the San Francisco, California, State Normal School, and the words found in the com- positions of the children of the Chico District, California. Mr. Algar Woolf oik's list, containing 411 words from the written work of children in grades 3 to 8, inclusive, of the Horace Mann School, New York City, the public SPECIAL LISTS AND HOW TO USE THEM 81 schools of Newark, New Jersey, and those of Richmond, Virginia. This hst inchides only words which were mis- spelled four or more times in the manuscripts examined. Mr. Homer J. Smith's hst of 1138 words as derived from a total of 12,500 words used in the spontaneous com- positions of elementary school children in grades 3 to 8, inclusive. The list omits numerals, all proper nouns, pronouns, prepositions, and some conjunctions. The Johnstown, Pennsylvania, Spelling List, prepared by the teachers and supervisors of the public schools. This Hst has been incorporated in a series of spelling books, containing approximately 4000 words, for use in grades 1 to 8, inclusive. The Hsts prepared by the teachers of the Boston public schools who were asked to contribute minimal and sup- plementary word lists for all the elementary grades. The former contain 840 words ; the latter, 2542. Dr. Leonard P. Ayres' Measuring Scale for Ability in Spelling. This contains one thousand words compiled by the author from the most frequently occurring words in (1) his study of the Vocabularies of Personal and Business Letters, (2) Cook and O' Shea's study of personal letters, (3) Eldridge's newspaper hst, (4) ''the 358 most fre- quently occurring words in an aggregate of 100,000" found in the Bible and ''various authors" by Reverend J. Knowles of London, England. Hick's Champion Spelling Booh. Only the words em- phasized in daily lessons, 1872 in all, are included, the assumption being that they are not only the most fre- quently misspelled, but also the ones in most common use. An examination of the following lists showed what words would probably be found in the vocabularies 82 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING of business people, and, consequently, in the vocab- ularies of pupils going to work upon the completion of the elementary school, or earlier : Spelling Vocabularies of Personal and Business Letters. The 542 common words found in this study of Dr. Leonard P. Ayres are probably too well known to need discussion. Mr. W. E. Chancellor's Hst consisting of the 1000 most common words, compiled from his personal correspondence as superintendent of schools. Professors Cook and 0' Shea's Hst consisting of three thousand words from the correspondence of thirteen adults. The newspaper list compiled by Mr. R. C. Eldridge of Niagara Falls, New York, is the most comprehensive of all the hsts examined. It consists of six thousand words from two pages of each of four Buffalo, New York, Sunday papers. In all the lists examined, the noticeable frequency of a few words indicates that they are the commonest ones in the daily business and private correspondence of most people. According to Mr. Eldridge, "the first 750 words" in his list "with their repetitions, constitute more than three-fourths of all the words on the eight pages from which they have been drawn, and probably a large part of these words will be found in nearly the same proportion in any English conversation or printed matter." Dr. Ayres tabu- lated the first words in each line of several hundred letters, 23,629 words in all, including repetitions; SPECIAL LISTS AND HOW TO USE THEM 83 542 words with their repetitions made up seven eighths of the total number, while 23,087 with their repetitions constituted the other one eighth. Mr. Knov/les' 358 words with their repetitions com- prised 75 per cent of the 100,000 words which he tabulated. Owing to the wide geographical distribution of the places from which the lists came, the individual lists contain many words of purely local significance. The common words which form the nucleus of our written vocabulary are found to a large extent in all the lists. After the lists had been selected, each was num- bered, and all the words were checked in a dictionary. The figure 1 was placed before every word in the dictionary which occurred in the Eldridge list. The figure 2 was placed before each word that was found in the Jones list. The other ten lists were checked in the same fashion. All together, about 30,000 words were checked. By far the greatest number of words in each list occurred in only one list, a somewhat smaller number in two lists, and so on down to 121 that were common to 10 lists, 54 common to 11 lists, and only 9, viz., again, any, believe, look, many, money, remember, there, and through, that were found in all the lists. It was arbitrarily decided to include in the final list all words which occurred in at least six of the twelve lists examined ; there were 1309 such words. 84 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING Arranging the words by grades presented a much greater difficulty than their selection. An examina- tion of eight graded Hsts ; viz., The California and Johnstown spellers, Hick's Champion Spelling Book, and the Boston, New Orleans, Richmond, Smith, and Woolfolk lists revealed much difference of opinion as to where some of the words should be placed. Thus, accept was put in the third grade list by one author, in the fourth by a second, and in the fifth by a third, in the sixth by three, and in the seventh by two. It appears among the sixth grade words in the appended list. Address, which appeared in three fifth, one sixth, and one eighth grade list, has been placed in the fifth grade of the appended Hst. Am, which was found in first, second, and fifth grade lists, most frequently in the last, was placed in the fifth grade. Each word in the entire list was assigned to the grade agreed upon by the majority of authors investigated, although in some cases the placing appeared to be pedagogically unsound. Some words could be classified very readily because of the close agreement as to where they belonged ; when there was an exact division of opinion as to the location of a word, this word was placed in the lowest grade mentioned. As was expected, most of the words fell into the primary grade lists, a considerably smaller number into the intermediate grade lists, and comparatively few into the grammar grade lists. The distribution was as follows: 318 SPECIAL LISTS AND HOW TO USE THEM 85 words in the second grade, 342 in the third, 216 in the fourth, 164 in the fifth, 135 in the sixth, 96 in the seventh, and 14 in the eighth. Suggested Minimal Spelling List, Arranged by Grades (Second Grade) 318 words add been brother cost after bear burn could ago bed but count air before buy cow alone beg by cross also begin call cup am belong came cut among best candy dark an better card dead ankle bill care dear are bird cart December arm black case deep as block cat did ask blue catch dirt asleep boat cent do at body- chair done ate boil change doctor August book chicken dog aunt both church dollar away box clerk don't bad boy coat door ball bread cold down bank brick comb draw basket bright come dress be bring copy drink 86 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING drop from head late drowned front hear lay dust full heard lazy each game heart leaf ear garden help leg early get her lesson east getting here let even girl high letter ever give hill long every go him make eye goes himself making face going his me fair gone home meet faU gold horse men far good house more fast got how mother father grass hungry mouse feed great hurt mouth feet green I my fence ground ice near few grow if never fill guess ill new find had in next fine half into nice first hair invite no fix hand is nose flower hang it not fly happy jump of fowl hard keep off foot has kind on for hat knew one found have knife only freeze having laid our fresh he large out SPECIAL LISTS AND HOW TO USE THEM 87 own shoe the we paper shut theater well pencil sick them went pink sister then were push sit these west put six they what read sky this white red snow three who road so time will root soap to wind rose store told window round story took word run study top would said tail two write saw take under writing say teeth up wrote school ten us yes seed than was you seven thank wash young shall that water your she (Third Grade) 342 words about almost April bath above along around because across always arrest become act animal attend behind addition answer autumn beneath afraid answers avoid beside again any baby between all anything back big alley appear banana bite allow apple barn blossom 88 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING board common farther June born company feel July bottom control fellow just bought cook field kill branch corner fierce kitchen break cotton figure knee breakfast cough floor knock breath cousin flour knot broke daily fond know brown danger fortune lady build date friend last built daughter fruit laugh bundle deserve gave learn bury die glad leather busy dinner good-by leave butter dish grade left button divide grain lemon cake double grocery lightning car drive hall Hke caught duty heavy listen center earn. herself little chase earth hold live child eat hole look children egg hoarse lose chimney else honest lot circle empty hope loud city end hour love clean enough hundred low climb except inch machine close excuse inquire many cloth explain intend mark coarse fail iron master color family island measure coming farm jail meat SPECIAL LISTS AND HOW TO USE THEM 89 mice often reach sorry might old ready south mile once recess speak milk open remember spell minute orange ribbon spring miss other ride stand mistake ought right star mistress over ring stay Monday- pair room still money parlor rough stood month part running stopped morning party safe street move people Saturday sugar much perhaps scissors suit music pick see summer must picture sell sun myself pie send Sunday name piece sent supper naughty- place September sure need plain severe swim news play snake table nickel pleasant ship talk night point short taste ninth poor should teacher noise pound show tell noon pretty side themselves north prompt sing there nothing quart sleep thing notice quarter sleigh think now quick small third nut quiet sold thought obey quite some thread o'clock race something threw October raise soon through 90 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING throw ugly way with Thursday uncle wear without tire until week woman tired upon wet whose to-day use wheel wood toward used when work town vacation where worth traction very whether wrap tree voice which wrapped truly wagon while written truth wait whisper yard try walk whistle year tried wall whole yellow Tuesday want why yesterday turn warm winter yet twelve watch wish (Fourth Grade) 216 words able breathe collar escape account burglar corn expect ache bushel cottage failure according cabbage country fashion age canoe dentist fear alarm capital depot feather allowed carriage desert felt angel chain discover fight attack chocolate dismiss finish author circus ditch fire beginning civil division food believe class dream form biscuit club engine forward blanket coffee enjoy furnace SPECIAL LISTS AND HOW TO USE THEM 91 furniture metal pumpkin station grammar middle quarrel stone guard mind question stop guide mine rain straight gun mischief rapid strong hammer most reason such healthy mountain receive sweep heat neighbor recent taught history- neither regard teach hoping ninety remain term human number roar thick idea orchard roof those important outside same though Indian palace saucer thousand inside parade scholar throat justice park second thunder kept pass seem together king past sentence to-morrow labor pay separate tongue land peace set too lawn period several track life piano shadow train hght pigeon sew travel lying please shore trial line pleasure shoulder trip linen pledge since trouble lonesome pocket sir umbrella manage poem skin unless man poison slide village March poHce smoke visit market post soldier visitor matter potato son waist may practice stairs war mean present start weather 92 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING weigh won wonderful wreck win wonder world wrong women (Fifth Grade) 164 words address collect fever nature afternoon column fifth nephew against comfort finger none agreeable concern forest November already concert frightened object although couple glass occupy angry course government ocean anxious court handkerchief opinion army cushion heaven orphan arrival damage height ourselves article dangerous hospital page attention debt instead passenger automobile defeat interest person auto describe jealous persuade awful destroy journey picnic bathe different judge pin beat direction language plant beautiful disappoint lawyer position bicycle dispute length pour birth doubt level press blow edge loose price bruise equator mail problem business everything match promise carpet exercise maybe proper cause expense medicine railroad cement familiar merely rather chance famous modern real coast favorite narrow reply SPECIAL LISTS AND HOW TO USE THEM 93 rise settle suggest usual river shepherd supply vegetable roll sight suppose view saddle sincerely surprise wake sail size tear waste scratch song telegraph wave sea square terrible weak secret state Thanksgiving Wednesday section steal ticket wide select stock to-night within sense strange true wound serious succeed union woolen serve success useful (Sixth Grade) 135 words absent calendar factory material accept captain favor mere acquaintance catalogue finally museum advantage certain foreign national advice charge freight necessary altogether citizen further newspaper appetite clear general note application climate genuine oblige arrival coal glorious occasion assist contain guest odor assistance decision imagine office attempt diamond immediately order avenue dictionary importance parentage baggage difference impossible particular balance due innocent patient breast during jewel pavement brief entertain least peculiar cabin extreme luncheon physical 94 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING pity rate search temperature plan really season their plenty receipt sheriff thermometer political refer shine thin possible relief sign thorough power repair silver trust prefer report special unable principal request spend understand principle restaurant spoil variety print result spread valuable prison return steady volume private review stomach wander punish route strength weight purpose scene student wife pursue scenery telephone wire (Seventh Grade) 96 words accident catarrh deal issue acknowledge cemetery death judgment advertise century decide knowledge amount character desire license apply check disappear manufacture appoint college distance marriage appreciate command education mention arrange committee effect minister arrangement complete effort moment association compliment experience mortgage assure conduct gymnasium nuisance bargain consider honor obtain benefit continue illustrate offer bouquet convenient information opportunity campaign criticize interrupt opposite candidate cylinder invitation perfect SPECIAL LISTS AND HOW TO USE THEM 95 personal recommend service subject physician reference signature sufficient practical relative similar superintendent prairie religion single system preparation remark sleeve tariff prepare remedy society therefore privilege salary sole usually recognize secretary splendid yield (Eighth Grade) 14 words affair forenoon allege member argument proceed attendance public camphor secure corpse treasure department vacant The foregoing list of words is not meant to dis- place the Spelling Book. It is rather a scale by which to measure the content of the book. Purpose of These words are not all the words which a *^® ^^^* book should contain, but a book should certainly contain all these words. This list may be used to very practical ends in the latter part of the year by every teacher of spelling. It can be used, also, as the basis for Friday afternoon spelling matches. The Hsts of words for special tests may be taken from it. The children may be given the Hst and told that when they have completed the eighth grade, this is the smallest 96 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING number of words that they should be able to spell correctly, without even having to think about the order of the letters. The teacher should give written tests including a large number of words to discover those words which the children cannot spell. To have the child use the words in sentences is preferred to mere list speUing. When the teacher has discovered the troublesome words, and when the child is made aware of his own limitations, then some definite teaching and careful and persistent study may be done in connection with the words that are misspelled. A child should not be required to study words that he already knows, but rather those words that he cannot spell. Thus, there will be motive for study and pleasure in the work, for the child himself will see the necessity for and benefit of his study. The testing should begin with the words suggested for the grades below that in which the child is lo- cated, and should work up to his present classifi- cation. He will discover the words that he should know but does not. When these are discovered, the teacher should work with the child according to the methods of teaching discussed earlier in this book. It is believed that if the teacher will devote about a month at the close of each year to such work as is here suggested, the results will amply repay her for the time spent. The inter-school written and oral spelling match, SPECIAL LISTS AND HOW TO USE THEM 97 discussed in a later section of this book, is one of the best means by which to motivate good work and is valuable for the purpose of reviewing the work of the year and fixing definitely in the minds of the children those words that everyone should know how to spell automatically. Summary Many scientific investigations have been made in connection with spelling. In this chapter we have dis- cussed two of those that have resulted in special lists of important words : 1. We have discussed Dr. F. Jones' list, commonly known as ''One Hundred Spelling Demons," because it includes words that are frequently used and most often misspelled. 2. We have discussed H. C. Pryor's "A Suggested Minimal Spelling List," because it has been compiled from a number of other reputable lists. Such lists as the two discussed in this chapter should be used by the teacher as guides to direct her effort. They may also be used by the class for purposes of review. Questions and Exercises 1. What phase of the study made by Jones interests you most? What surprises does it contain for you? 2. Test your school by means of the "One Hundred Spelling Demons " to see if the results justify this name for those words. 3. Does Pryor's " A Suggested Minimal Spelling List " contain all the words which you think such a list should contain? Wherein does it seem most limited? What 98 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING method would you use to determine what words should be added ? 4. How do you account for the fact that there are so many words in the lists for the lower grades and so few in those for the higher grades, in the Pry or List ? 5. Compare the words assigned by Pryor to some one grade with the words listed in your adopted text for the same grade. To what extent do the two lists agree? CHAPTER V SPELLING LISTS MADE BY THE SCHOOL Important as are the words that are found in a good speUing book and important as are the words that are presented in any of the well-known spelling lists, the teacher must bear in mind that they do not include all the words that her children need to know how to spell. Obviously no spelling book would contain very many local words unless it were one meant purely for local use. But no ready-made list will serve the teacher and the school nearly so well as will a list which the school itself makes. The original lists may be of different kinds and may have a variety of purposes in addition to the purpose of teaching spelling. The first and most important original list is that which each child makes for himself. This may in- clude words which he finds difficulty in original spelling, words which he is adding to his ^^^^^ vocabulary, words with certain peculiarities, and words that are names of types of things in which he is interested. Next in importance is the Class List or the School List which represents some special interest of the 99 100 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING group for a particular time. This list should be made under the white heat of enthusiasm in some Class or specialized interest. There should be a School fixed time at which the list must be com- ^^^*^ pleted. Some particular phase of the sub- ject should be considered each day. All members of the class should contribute to the list. For a time the regular spelling assignment for each pupil should be to bring to class as many words as possible bearing upon the subject. When the lists have been completed, then there should be a season of mem- orization and testing. The best way, perhaps, to secure the maximum of interested attention and at the same time to provide for repetition, so neces- sary in spelling, is to review the work in a spelling bee at the close of the special study. Through such a Class or School List, any special interest of community, county, or state may be studied. The aim should be very definite in order to get the best results. The rural training schools connected with the Oregon Normal School, while under the direction of one of the authors, made a Willamette Valley Spelling Book. The purpose of this book was to see what agricultural words were needed partic- ularly by the farmers of that vaUey. A similar experiment has been conducted in Brown County, South Dakota, in connection with the supervision of rural schools. SPELLING LISTS MADE BY THE SCHOOL 101 THE BROWN COUNTY SPELLING BOOK During the month of December, 1919, sixteen schools undertook to make a Brown County SpeUing Book. Ten days were set aside for collecting the words that related to ten different subjects of special interest in Brown County. After the words were collected, the pupils were allowed ten days in which to learn them in preparation for a big spelling bee held in the town of Warner on December 19. Those words are given below, not because they are of any special worth to those living outside Brown County, but to illustrate how this type of work may be done. The children spelled the words and then used them in sentences which stated actual facts. Sug- gestive sentences and phrases are given with the words under the first topic to show how this work was done. The reader will see how similar sen- tences could be made in which all the other words of the list might be used. No. I. — Words and Phrases Dealing with the History of Brown County and South Dakota 1. Clarence Johnson . Clarence Johnson was one of the first settlers of Brown County. 2. William Young . . William Young was his friend. 3. Hattie Young . Hattie Young was the sister of William Young who came with him. 4. frontiersmen . . . They were good frontiersmen. 102 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 5. Missouri River . 6. trail .... 7. Fort Pierre . 8. Fort Sisseton . 9. ' Military Road 10. first home . . 11. established 12. parallel 1 . . 13. crosses J . . 14. log cabin 1 . . 15. settlers J . . 16. accident . . 17. incident . . 18. plow . . . 19. James C. Lindboe 20. dugout . . . 21. public meeting 22. post office . . 23. Columbia . . The Missouri River is the largest river in-South Dakota. They came along the old trail. Fort Pierre was the first fort built in the state. Fort Sisseton was another well- known fort. Military Road is another name for the old trail. The first home in South Dakota was a log cabin. Ordway was established in 1887. The forty-sixth parallel crosses the county. The early settlers lived in log cabins. They suffered no accidents dur- ing the first year. There were no unusual in- cidents during the year. A ploio was used in Brown County in 1880 for the first time. James C, Lindboe is the name of the first child born in the county. He lived in a dugout. The first public meeting was held in Brown County on July 4, 1879. The first post office was estab- lished at Columbia. Columbia is the site of the first post office in the county. SPELLING LISTS MADE BY THE SCHOOL 103 24. James Humphrey 25. Brown County . 27. election .... 28. Brown Brothers . . 29. automobile . . . 30. Mr. Baird .... 3L 32. airplane . . . . Thomas A. Boyden 33. oxen 34. population . . . 35. Ordway . . . . 36. Aberdeen . . . . 37. railroad . . . . 38. Chicago . . . . 39. 40. Milwaukee . . . Saint Paul . . . 41. James River James Humphrey established Rondell in 1880. Brown County is a county in the state of South Dakota. It was organized in 1880. The first election was held in 1880. Brown Brothers owned the first automobile in the county. We have thousands of automo- biles now. Mr. Baird owned the first air- plane in the county. We shall all have airplanes soon. Thomas A. Boyden was the first merchant in the county. Oxen drew the first wagon that came to the county. The population was 25,786 for the county in 1910. Ordway was one of the impor- tant towns of the state in early days. Aberdeen is the best town in the state, we think. The C. M. & St. P. is our most important railroad. Chicago is the commercial cen- ter of the Middle West. Milwaukee is a famous city. Saint Paul is one of the twin cities. James River is the only river in this county. 104 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 42. Mistress Seaman Mistress Seaman was one of the first teachers of the county. No. II. — Words and Phrases Dealing with Brown County Soil 9. stratum 10. strata 11. agricultural 12. fertile 13. alkali 14. porous 15. valuable and Phrases Dealing with Brown County Crops 14. beans 15. pumpkin 16. squash 17. carrot 18. peas 19. onion 20. timothy 21. brome grass 22. pigeon grass 23. clover 24. sweet clover 25. foliage 26. tomatoes 1. black loam 2. sandy loam 3. gumbo 4. glacial deposits 5. gravel 6. productive 7. clay 8. subsoil No. III. — Words 1. wheat 2. oats 3. corn 4. barley 5. spelt 6. millet 7. aKalfa 8. forage 9. Dent com 10. rye 11. flax 12. potatoes 13. beets No. IV. — Words and Phrases Deahng with Crop Pests in Brown County 1. hot winds 3. smut 2. rust 4. hail SPELLING LISTS MADE BY THE SCHOOL 105 5. gopher 6. squirrels 7. grasshopper 8. crickets 9. cut worms 10. potato bug 11. potato scab 12. cabbage worm 13. quack grass 14. wild oats No. V. 15. wild mustard 16. sunflowers 17. Canadian thistle 18. drought 19. fungi 20. mildew 21. potato blight 22. Hessian fly 23. tumble weed 24. mortgage Words and Phrases that Relate to Some Allies of Brown County Farmers 1. hawks 2. meadow larks 3. robins 4. magpies 5. swallows 6. thrushes 7. flickers 8. pheasant 9. prairie chicken 10. pollen 11. bees 12. ants 13. cats 14. dogs 15. foxes 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. snake toads bacteria inoculate Bordeaux mixture formalin 22. fungicide 23. humus Paris green cow testing association parcel post split log drag snow rain sunshine No. VI. — Words Dealing with the Pure-bred Animals and Fowls in Brown County 1. Horses: 2. Hogs: 3. Chickens: Percheron Poland China Plymouth Rock* Belgian Berkshire Wyandotte 106 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING [. Horses: 2. Hogs: 3. Chickens: Clydesdale Duroc-Jersey Rhode Island Red thoroughbred Chester White Orpington mule Yorkshire Leghorn Hampshire Buff Cochin Langshan L Cattle: 5. Turkeys: 8. Descriptive words: Durham a. black draft Shorthorn b. bronze roadster Hereford dual purpose Guernsey 6. Geese : hardy Holstein a. Toulouse rustler Brown Swiss h. African docile Galloway vicious Aberdeen 7. Ducks : gentle Angus a. Pekin sensible Ayrshire h. Indian prolific Holstein- Runners stubborn Friesian milch beef pedigreed ^0. VII. — Words and Phrases Relating to an Up-to-date Brown County Barn 1. electric lights 10. silo 2. water system 11. ensilage 3. stanchion 12. automatic water bowls 4. cement floor 13. salt dishes 5. hay sling 14. ventilation 6. elevator 15. light 7. electric currycomb 16. granary 8. feed bins 17. tool shed 9. cupola 18. haymow SPELLING LISTS MADE BY THE SCHOOL 107 No, . VIII. — Words and Phrases Relating to an Up-to-date Brown County Farm L garage 22. fertilizer 2. Ford 23. barnyard manure 3. electric motor 24. mulch 4. gravel roads 25. farm accounting 5. cement walks 26. insecticide 6. artesian well 27. legumes 7. water system 28. Babcock milk tester 8. pressure tank 29. balanced ration 9. machine shed 30. germination test 10. ice house 31. silage 11. shredder 32. tile drain 12. harvester 33. garden 13. gasoline engine 34. brooder 14. horse power 35. bulletins 15. kerosene 36. candling eggs 16. cultivator 37. college extension 17. header 38. conservation 18. binder 39. county agent 19. formaldehyde 40. diversified farming 20. irrigation 41. bank credit 21. rotation No. . IX. — Words and Phrases Relating to an Up-to-date ' Country Home 1. furnace 8. porcelain bathtub 2. electric engine 9. sun porch 3. telephone 10. piano 4. sewer system 11. victrola 5. septic tank 12. indoor toilet 6. electric washer, fan. 13. motor power iron, stove 14. Rural Free Delivery 7. cement basement 15. running water 108 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 16. linoleum 22. vacuum cleaner 17. standard pictures 23. ventilation 18. newspapers 24. flowers 19. ^'Farm Journal' ' 25. balanced meals 20. ''Good Housekeeping" 26. kitchen accounting 21. County Health Nurse No. X. — Words Relating to an Up-to-date Brc County Community 1. community church 8. brass band 2. consolidated schools 9. Boy Scouts 3. cooperation 10. Camp Fire Girls 4. fairs 11. traveUng library 5. housekeepers' club 12. grange 6. literary society 13. motor bus 7. choral society 14. Farm Bureau We have heard a good deal about spelling being taught incidentally with other subjects, but we have Value of heard practically nothing of other subjects the List being taught incidentally with spelling. A ^tion^of perusal of the foregoing list will show just other how many other subjects can be taught incidentally with such a homemade list of words as the above. One farmer remarked: "I have had at least one child in the school each year, for four years now, who was supposed to study agriculture out of a book, but they have learned more agriculture in the last ten days and taught me more than we all have learned in the previous four years.'' Another farmer said: "Say, Mister, my SPELLING LISTS MADE BY THE SCHOOL 109 youngsters haven't been studying at home for a long time. I supposed that it had gone out of style to study at home o' nights any more hke they used to in the old days, but bless my life if it hasn't come back with a whiz since you have been making that Brown County Spelling Book. Why — they have rooted through all of the old farm journals that have been lying around the house for years. The first time the library's been opened in years was this week. Those youngsters keep me and the Missus ran- sacking our brains to recall what happened when we first came to this county twenty-five years ago." Another farmer said: "Say, what are you trying to do? Put the city in the country? Since my chaps have been making that Brown County Spelling Book they tell me twenty times a day that something around here is not up to the twentieth century standard." The above illustrations are sufficient to show how the simple work of the spelling class had influenced the life of the home. The parents were participat- ing actively in the work of the school. Home life, agriculture, social activities, history, geography, morals, etc., were being taught in connection with the making of a mere list of words to be used in a spelling match. This idea is capable of almost limitless applica- tion. Geography, history, industry, home life, church life, community activities, and many other no GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING subjects could be studied in an introductory or review fashion in connection with speUing. To illustrate the use to which such work can be put, suppose a teacher in the state of Maine were to say to her spelling class: "For to-morrow, I want you to bring to class the names of all the rivers in the state that you can find.'^ Among the words would be Penobscot; Kennebec, Androscoggin, Alla- gash, and Saco. For the pupil to study the words in this way would be vastly better than for the teacher to choose those same words from a regular spelling book, or for her to pick them out of the geography. The children like to contribute to the list by their own efforts and when this is done in pursuance of some object in which they are inter- ested, they have two interests that lead them on instead of one. This type of spelling work should come as a change, a vacation from regular spelling work with the book. About one month out of the year could be devoted profitably to work of this sort. Summary The spelling lists which the teacher and the children compile for themselves can be made of incalculable worth. The lists that the child makes of the words which he misses from day to day, the lists that he makes in which he groups words with common characteristics, or of words that relate to one of his special interests, are for him the most important kinds of lists. SPELLING LISTS MADE BY THE SCHOOL 111 In this chapter the attention has been directed to a Hst that was made by the children in a certain selected district of Brown County, South Dakota, during the year 1919-20. We give this as a type. Such a list can be made by any teacher and group of children in any locahty. Such a study will provide an opportunity to famiharize the children with some phase of life in the community in which the school is located, and will help them to learn to spell the words common to that locality. Questions and Exercises 1. Have all of the children of your school make individual lists of all the words they miss during one month. How many words are common to all the mem- bers of each class? To any two classes? To the entire school? What conclusion do you make from the results of the comparisons? 2. What one interest in your community could be studied most effectively according to the plan used in the Brown County experiment? 3. Check the Brown County list to see what words in it should become a part of the permanent writing vocabu- lary of your pupils. If you had been one of the teachers in the experimenting group, how would you have dealt with the words which you did not consider valuable as a part of the writing vocabulary? 4. Would you justify the making of such a Hst purely on the basis of its worth in fixing habits of speUing? Why? CHAPTER VI DEVICES FOR TEACHING SPELLING In Part I of this book we discussed some of the psychological principles underiying the teaching of spelling. There are other psychological factors, though, that must be recognized and borne in mind. We wish at this point to call the attention of the teacher to the factors that relate to the child's love for play and his responses to others in his group. One of the original tendencies of man is to play. He may play with things or persons. He gets pleasure out of things if he can manipulate them, change them, build them up, take them apart, rearrange them, destroy them. He gets more pleasure out of persons because his play nature is given larger scope. He may tease, bully, or submit to a person. He may compete with and master a person. His desire for companionship, his pleasure at doing what he sees others do, his satisfaction at seeing his own accomplishments imitated by others, are all given exercise when he is associated with persons. Practically all the devices that are in- cluded in this book are based upon these psycho- 112 DEVICES FOR TEACHING SPELLING 113 logical characteristics in man : his love for manipula- tion, association, and competition. The child's nature is the nearest approach we have to the original nature of man. The child spends practically all his life in play till he enters school. In the past we have too often felt and have made the child feel that all play must stop when he enters school. When we insist upon this, we are trying to dam up a channel which the ages have dug. Psychologists tell us that there are three ways with which to deal with original tendencies : (1) crush them, (2) direct them into new channels, (3) develop them. There are practically none of man's original tendencies and instincts that we should crush. There are many that we should develop and many that we should guide into new channels. Play is one of the tendencies that should be guided into right channels and cultivated to produce the best results. Children get their clearest initial im- pressions, do their most attentive work, repeat action or speeches more often with interested at- tention, and apply what is learned more quickly and with more satisfactory results when they are playing than at any other time. This is our only ex- cuse for introducing the following games and devices into a book that is designed as a scientific inspira- tion and a practical help to teachers of spelling. Our one word of caution is that the teacher must 114 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING not make the game her hobby. She must not feel that there should never be a time when the children are asked to take work as work. She should rather feel that the game is a sort of rest from work. Play itself would lose its meaning and pleasure if all life were play. '^Moderation in everything/^ then, should be the teacher's aim. Small children are very fond of pictures. They like to construct things. They like to collect things. They like to give to inanimate objects char- Repre- acteristics of animate objects. Their sentations ]^qq]^q^ pictures, and playthings are to them almost what persons are to older people. For these reasons, the following devices are good in the lower grades. Take a picture of a house, barn, yard, field, apple, peach, leaf, tree, or any other object that will sug- 1. Objects g^^^ t^ ^^^ pupils a number of associated Pictured words. Write the words within the outer Words border of the picture and have the pupils Inside study from this. Use the picture at the recitation time. The children may make the draw- ing after the class for seat work and write in the words as a penmanship lesson. This device could be extended by not having any particular list of words, but by merely putting the picture on the board. Then have the children pre- pare the list of words that the picture suggests. They may bring them to class. For the first recita- DEVICES FOR TEACHING SPELLING 115 tion, the class listens to the reading of the various lists. They hear each child spell his list of words. If any words have been misspelled, these should be memorized in their proper form for the next lesson. The picture may be kept on the board until the list of words has been completely learned. Special spelling booklets may be made for the various months or seasons of the year. These books should contain the words that have been 2. Seasonal spelled during the period and the cover Booklets design should be one appropriate to the month or season. The cover should be the product of the child's own originality and creation. This will serve to stimulate and motivate not only the work in speUing but that in drawing also. VISUALIZING In Part I, we have already emphasized the im- portance of having the child learn through as many senses as possible. It was also pointed out that the most important of these senses in learning to spell is the sense of sight. Practice, therefore, in visualizing the words needs to be given to the children. Here are some devices that are usable for this purpose. The teacher can improvise others if she desires. 1. Write the words on the board very plainly. Have the children spell the word letter by letter. Then have the children close their eyes. As each 116 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING child is tapped on the head, he gives the letter that is needed until the word being spelled is complete. 2. Write the words on the board. Have the children look at them. Then direct the children to rest their heads on their desks with their eyes closed. Cover a word or erase a word and ask the children to look up and spell the word that is missing. 3. Assign a number of words for the lesson to be learned. When the lesson is prepared, have one or more of the children go to the board and write a cer- tain number of the words. Have those who remained at the seats go to the board and write all the words which the first group failed to write. If the lesson is short, aU members of the class might be sent to the board at one time. To reproduce a list of words without a book calls for clear and effective visualizing. 4. To build words on a given stem or with a certain initial or final letter or syllable calls for good visualization. Take such a syllable as an, am, ail, ful, ly, con, or ex, and see how many words can be built upon it within a certain number of minutes. If the work ends at this point we have a language lesson and not a spelling lesson. Of the words thus built we should select the misspelled ones for the next lesson. GUESSES Children like to guess. "Guess What'' is one of their favorite games. This can be used to good DEVICES FOR TEACHING SPELLING 117 effect in school. It calls for clear visualization and it secures attentive, interested repetition. The following two illustrations show how this may be done: 1. The lesson consists of six words : kitchen, sugar, kettle, stove, fire, candy. Sue is selected as the leader. She stands and says, "Jane, I am thinking of a word." Jane rises and says, "Is it k-e-t-t-1-e, kettle?'' Sue replies, "It is not k-e-t-t-1-e, kettle. '^ John rises and says: "Is it c-a-n-d-y, candy ? '' Sue says : "Yes, it is c-a-n-d-y, candy." Then John becomes the leader. Thus the words may be gone over a number of times imtil they are well learned. 2. The next device is just a shght variation of the one given above. Suppose there is a longer Hst of words, the same group of cliildren, and the same goal in view — drilling upon the group of words until the spelling of them becomes automatic. In this case the child leading would say, "I am think- ing of a word that begins with f." Some one would rise and say, "Is it f-i-r-e, fire?" The leader would then reply, "Yes, it is f-i-r-e, fire." This device should be used only when the list is much longer than in the ordinary lesson, for the beginning letter is such a good cue that the word in question would be guessed the first time and thus prevent the de- sired amount of drill. This device is good for a weekly or monthly review. 118 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING REWARDS The question of rewards for school work has ever been a mooted one. It is now quite generally agreed that rewards that have a money value in themselves should not be given for excellence in ordinary school work. But we must all realize that all work is done for some sort of reward and whatever reward is offered should be such that each member of the class has a chance to secure it. The reward that is most potent in its influence upon conduct and effort is perhaps that which we receive in the form of appreciation or approval from others. Here again we find the original instincts or tendencies manifesting themselves — the instinct of apprecia- tion of the approval of others and the instinct of love of superiority over others and a recognition by others of that same superiority. We give below a few illustrations of devices that make use of these original tendencies to a limited degree : 1. The teacher draws a picture of a large pumpkin, watermelon, apple, peach, pie, or other object, on the board. She indicates that it is divided into pieces. On each piece of the object pictured she writes some word of the lesson. The game is to see who can spell all the words. Every child who spells correctly all the words in the lesson gets one of the pieces with his name written on that piece. 2. One of the oldest and most common rewards for class excellence is the custom of giving honor marks to a child who stands at the head of his class for one recitation, DEVICES FOR TEACHING SPELLING 119 or more, according to agreement. The chief weakness of this plan is that it can, of course, be used only for oral spelling work. 3. Another form of reward that appeals to children in the elementary grades is to award stars to them for a certain degree of excellence. White stars may be put by the child's name for each perfect recitation; blue stars may be awarded for five perfect lessons ; red stars for ten perfect lessons ; and gold stars for twenty perfect lessons in succession. This device can be varied according to the teacher's desire and the situation in her own school. 4. To write on the board, at the end of the week, the name of each child who has made a perfect record for the week is a good stimulus. 5. Very closely akin to this is to have an honor roll for the month and to publish in the local paper or in the school paper the names of all children who have attained a certain record during the specified time. 6. Another plan that is sometimes used with effect is the class honor badge made of aluminum or some other metal on which is written the words, ''Champion Speller." When a child has been the champion for a week he is permitted to wear the badge until the new champion is declared. OLD GAMES The devices thus far discussed have been such as to apply more particularly to the work with smaller children. Much of this work has appealed to the individual only. But as children grow older they become more gregarious. They form cliques, groups, gangs, and clans. They like to play and to fight in groups. To get the best individual effort from 120 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING them, the appeal must be made to the group conscious- ness and spirit. Their games on the playgrounds are such as are played by one group matching its wit and strength against the wit and strength of the other group. The games of the school work should be classed according to the same principle. The games adapted to spelling which are suggested here do not call for a group against a group, but they all involve group activities. The children are lined up in one row for the game. The teacher gives each child two words. All who spell their two words correctly move one place to the next station. Those who do not spell both words correctly must wait one more turn before they are permitted to move. There are four stations in the game from the time the child starts till he gets back home, — his own desk. That is, each child must spell at least eight words. The poor speller spells more ; the more poorly he spells, the more turns he has. This is the great advantage of this game — practice is given where practice is needed. Into a box (a pool) are placed the words that are to be spelled. Each child takes his turn at fishing for a word. He catches one and hands it Fishing . . to the teacher. She pronounces it to him. If he writes it correctly, it becomes his fish; if not, it is the teacher's fish. It is saved and he is taught the word. The game is to see who can get DEVICES FOR TEACHING SPELLING 121 the greatest number of fish. If the children are small, this game may be adapted and called "Jack Horner's Pie." The children all stand at their seats. One child is designated as Puss. The teacher gives out words to the children in their turn. Each ^ child spells his word if he can. If he Wants a misses, then Puss has a chance to spell it. ^^^®' If Puss succeeds, she takes his station and the one missing the word becomes the Puss. Very similar to "Puss Wants a Corner" is "Mushpot." The children form a ring. One child is put into the pot. Wlien some one misses a word, the one in the mushpot spells it. If he spells it, he takes a place in the ring and the one missing it takes the place in the mushpot. During the winter the snowball is a good device. Draw a picture of the snowball with a child pushing it. The words of the spelling lesson are „ , . „ Making written on pieces of paper. They are the Snow- divided among the children. When they ^^^ are spelled, then they are pinned on the snowball. This is called "rolling the ball." V^en all words are on it, then they begin to "unroll it" by taking the words off and spelling them as they come off. When they are all off, the ball is melted. This is a game that all children enjoy because they Hke to imagine themselves traveling. It is played 122 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING by appointing a number of ticket agents to repre- sent the different cities that the children decide to Seeing the visit on that particular trip. Each agent World ig provided with a number of words which the children must spell before they can board the train or boat and get away from that city. This is another good game for a monthly review lesson. The best game of all, perhaps, for the children in the grammar grades is the game of baseball. It is played just like ordinary baseball. The Baseball . ^ , , , captains ot the teams choose batters. The teacher serves as scorer and umpire. The namqs are written down in the order chosen. Nine vertical columns are placed beside the names of each team. These represent innings. The teacher, or some one else, ^' pitches '^ words to the batter. If he hits three times he goes to first base and is succeeded by another batter. Each time that a man goes around the bases, he makes a score for his team. If he misses a word when it is given him, the catcher spells it. Then he is out. When three men are out, the other side takes the bat. SPELLING MATCHES No device for review has been found that excels the old-fashioned spelling matches. These are based on the group spirit and the instincts of rivalry and mastery. There are many forms that the match DEVICES FOR TEACHING SPELLING 123 may take. We give below a few of the more common forms : Two captains choose the spellers. The teacher gives out the words. If any one misses a word, he sits down. The side that has a member r^^^ standing when all members of the other Common side have been seated is the champion. The weakness of this plan is that the poorest spellers are seated first. Sides are chosen just as in the common match. The teacher gives out the words just as in the other plan. The difference is that in this plan, The Catch when the word is missed, the teacher Match makes no indication to the class of that fact. If a pupil standing in line notes that the word is missed, he may spell it, and then all on the opposing side who have let it pass must be seated. In this plan, the game is to see who can make the highest score. No one is seated till the game is over. One hundred points or any other number The Score of points agreed upon may constitute a Match game. Under this form, the pupils on each side must spell the words that are given to them by the other side. If they spell each word that is given, they make one point ; if they fail to spell the word, the side that gave the word must spell it. This would give the side that gave and spelled the word one point for spelling it; and since the word was missed by the other side, the side which gave the 124 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING word receives as many points as there are letters in the word. Illustration: John gives Jack the word '^ Constantinople/' Jack misses it. John then must spell his own word. If he does, he gets one point for spelling it and fourteen points because the other side missed it, making in all fifteen points. The game here is to see if one side can trip the other in the correct spelling of words that have the Homonym same sound but have a different meaning. Match This is a contest in points — ten making a game. If the child on one side misses, the next child on the giving side must spell the words. If these words are spelled correctly, the side gains two points or as many points as there are homonyms. If less than ten points are made by one side, then the side having the larger number of points at the close of the lesson is the winner. Illustration : — Mary says to Jack: "Jack, I have two rabbits. Mother says that is too many. I am going to sell them." Jack gets his words confused. Susan, who is next on Mary's side, takes up the task and spells them all correctly and shows that she knows which word belongs in which place. She thus gains three points for her side, not because she spelled them and applied them correctly, but because the other side lost them. The matches thus far described are oral matches, but oral matches, valuable as they are, have two DEVICES FOR TEACHING SPELLING 125 great weaknesses : first, they do not give practice in the kind of speUing — written speUing — which is used in everyday Hfe ; second, the number written of words spelled is very Hmited in the oral ^^^ Match match. The child may fail to get the very word on which he should have practice. Written matches are, therefore, preferable in many ways. These may be arranged by rows in the schoolroom or by teams. The children may be sent to the board or they may spell at their seats. If they are sent to the board, their words can be seen better, errors quickly noted, individual weaknesses found, and words discovered by each child upon which practice is needed. The team that misspells the fewest words is winner of the match. Opponents at the board. The teacher starts the match by giving out a word. The child who first writes the word correctly may choose the written next two spellers and assign the word, ^y ^^^ The winner chooses the next spellers, and so on. The teacher announces a topic. The teams begin and write as many words as they can which relate to the topic for the period of time allowed. Topical When the time is up the number of words batches correctly spelled by the groups are counted. The side that has the largest number of correctly spelled words wins the match. The misspelled words are taken for a special drill lesson the next time. The same game may be slightly changed by 126 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING taking a given letter, prefix, suffix, or other char- acteristic and forming words by using it. The teacher will need to remember that games are the dessert and not the regular meal of the school- room. They will spoil the appetite not only for the substantial part of the meal, but also^for the dessert itself if they are used overmuch or unwisely. Summary Practically all principles are put into operation through some sort of device. The principles of teaching spelling are no exception to this rule. In this chapter we have discussed a number of devices that classroom teachers have found helpful. These devices have been classified in the following manner : 1. Picture Representations 2. VisuaUzing 3. Guesses 4. Rewards 5. Old Games 6. Spelling Matches Questions and Exercises 1. To what extent do the devices presented in this chapter "motivate'^ the study of spelling and to what extent do they ''sugar coaf it? Justify or condemn with the best arguments you can present. 2. For what grades do you feel that each of theee devices is best suited? 3. Try out in your school the various devices sug- gested. Which do you think will work with ^the greatest amount of satisfaction and why? DEVICES FOR TEACHING SPELLING 127 4. Can you take these suggested devices and improve upon them so that they will better suit the situation as it exists in your school? (Try this. Your pupils will be able to give many good suggestions.) 5. Of the forms of the written spelling match with which you are familiar, which one is best? Why? CHAPTER VII SOME QUESTIONS OFTEN ASKED BY TEACHERS 1. I have a child in my school that cannot learn to spelL What shall I do with him? This is a problem that several persons have The In- carefuUy investigated. The so-called in- corrigible corrigible spellers fall into four groups ^^ ®' and may be considered in that way. First: There is the child that cannot learn. He does not have learning ability. The probability is that if he can learn anything he can learn to spell. If he cannot learn anything else, then you cannot expect to teach him spelling. He is men- tally deficient and should be referred to the county superintendent, and the superintendent should see that the child is placed in the kind of school that provides for his needs. Your school does not. These children are not really problems for the average teacher because there are so few of them in school. The teacher should be very careful not to suggest that a child does not have the ability to leam. Be convinced before making such a declaration. When 128 QUESTIONS OFTEN ASKED BY TEACHERS 129 you do make it, make it to the proper persons in order to secure aid for the child. Second: There is the child who is physically handicapped. Four out of five among the children who have been carefully examined as "hopeless spellers " have proved to have defective eyesight. If the child has mental ability but is an exceptionally poor speller, you should have his eyes examined to see if they are not the seat of his difficulty. Third: There is the child who has been poorly taught. He is lacking i*n precision and in spelling pride. There is nothing wrong with his mind except that it is the victim of bad habits. Your task, then, becomes one of breaking up old habits and establish- ing new ones that are correct. There is a tendency on the part of teachers to " cast stones '^ at their prede- cessors by blaming all of the weaknesses of the children upon former teachers. If the teacher finds a weakness in a child, she should glory in the oppor- tunity that it provides for her to do a miracle rather than fret about the poor instruction that the child has formerly received. _, Fourth: There is the child who is suffering from poor instruction at present. The probability is that such children form by far the largest of the four groups of poor spellers. If the child speUs poorly, the probability is that the present teacher is failing to make the best use of materials and methods. The teacher should give her own work the closest 130 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING investigation. Is she failing to interest the child? Is the work too difficult? Is the material suitable for him? Is he properly classified? Has he lost faith in himself? Just what are his limitations? These are questions that the teacher should answer before she acknowledges that the child is a ^^ hope- less speller.'^ 2. My pupils can spell correctly when they really try hut in their written work they constantly make errors. They double the ivrong letter, omit the final letter, exchange the position of letters in the word, and make a variety of other inexcusable mistakes. Why do they make these mistakes and how can they be cor- rected f The greatest difficulty with these children is that they do not have a spelling conscience. They ^ must come to feel that to miss a word is to Careless commit a real social offense. In order to ^® ®' produce this feeling among these children social situations must be provided. They can be provided by tying up the school life with the real life of the community. Friendly letters, notes of invitation, orders for merchandise, correspondence with children in neighboring cities and states, and with children in foreign lands will provide many opportunities to awaken children to a realization of the necessity for correct spelling. But they must come to feel that it is as important that all the words in their letters to close personal friends shall be QUESTIONS OFTEN ASKED BY TEACHERS 131 spelled correctly; as it would seem to them were the letter written to the President of the United States. Until they have developed this feeling, they have not developed a spelling conscience. They have a social conscience but not a spelling conscience. A spelling conscience will hurt them when they misspell a word, it matters not to whom or for what purpose that word is written. They must come to have a regard for the form of the word itself. Together with the development of a spelling conscience must come the development of a con- sciousness on the part of the child as to when a word is correctly spelled and when it is not. With some attention to this phase, the child will soon come to know when a word is correctly spelled and when it is misspelled. In order to train the children to notice errors, the teacher should require them to look over their written work and to mark all words that they know are incorrectly spelled and also those about which they are doubtful. Some acceptable symbol of mark- ing the words should be adopted by the school. After these doubtful and incorrectly spelled words have been marked, the pupil should look them up in the dictionary, put them down on his ^' black list," rewrite them correctly, and keep them for later drill. It is only by holding himself to strict account that the pupil can develop the consciousness of correctness or incorrectness in spelling. If he 132 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING is not strict with himself he will spell a word one way one time and another way the next, so that it will not be long until he will not know when it is wrong and when it is right. In this situation, the problem is more serious than it would have been at the beginning. Here old habits must be broken and new ones formed. A careful study of the word, therefore, to see where the error occurs, a strong impression of the correct form, attentive repetition to stamp in the correct form and to break the incorrect bonds, and the determination of the teacher never to permit an exception until the new habit is firmly fixed, are the essential factors with which pupils and teacher must work in overcoming habits of incorrect spelling. 3. What tests should he given in spelling? How should they he conducted? There are four types of tests, classified according to purpose. The preliminary test is a test given _, „ before the words are tausjht to the children The Pre- . ° liminary This type of test has two purposes. It ®^* seeks to find what children need most in- struction and which words are most difficult to spell. The test should be given some time before the words are to be taught so that the impression of the words will have been erased before the time for the teaching. A record should be kept by the teacher of the percentage of the class who miss each word. This will reveal the relative difficulty QUESTIONS OFTEN ASKED BY TEACHERS 133 of the words. She should also keep a record of the percentage of the words missed by each child. This will reveal the individual need of the children. This preliminary test is used most in connection with the Test-Drill Method discussed in the chapter on Methods. The test of teaching should come after the words for the day have been presented. It is the daily test of the teacher rather than of the child. -,, ^ ^ Ine lest The reader will recall the details of how of Teach- the new words were taught under the ^^ Teaching-Study Method. The last part of the lesson, according to that method, is to have the children write sentences in which the words taught occur. If these words are correctly spelled, then, the teacher may feel that the teaching is satis- factorily done. If the children do not spell the words correctly in the first written application, the teacher must blame herself instead of the children. She must see what she has failed to do in her effort to fix the order of the letters in the child's memory and must endeavor to correct the defect in her teaching. Review tests should be given from time to time — at the ends of weeks, months, semesters, years. The purpose of these reviews is to test the _ child's retentiveness, to recall the earlier Review impressions, to repair the gaps that time '^®^* has created. These review tests should usually be 134 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING in the nature of gameS; contests, stunts. This will prevent the work from becoming a bore. The children will work to win the game, but the speUing results will be just as valuable as if the spelling it- self were the only goal. Standard tests have been devised for the purpose of comparing the spelling of children in one school system with that of those in another standard System or to compare the children of one ^®^*^ school building with children in the same grade of another building in the same school system. Standards have been worked out by Ayres, Buck- ingham, Ashbaugh, and others. The teacher should famiharize herself with these. She should test her own children according to the directions given on the test. This will help her to compare the situation in her school with the standard. From the results of these tests she can get some idea of the limitations of her pupils. When these are re- vealed, she should study the pedagogical litera- ture dealing with spelling to find suggestions for correcting the limitations which the test has re- vealed. 4. In our state each child above the third grade is required to have his own dictionary. The words for the spelling lesson are assigned and each child is expected to look up the words in the dictionary and write sentences showing their use. What do you think of the plan ? QUESTIONS OFTEN ASKED BY TEACHERS 135 Eveiy child able to read it should have a diction- ary. It should assist the pupil when he wishes to use words of which he is not sure of the mean- _ , Use of ing or spelling. For a veiy young child to the Die- get from the dictionary the correct mean- *^®"^^y ing of a word is difficult. It is better for the teacher to explain the meaning, illustrate the use, and then ask the child to use it in sentences of his own. To require children to write dictionary defi- nitions of words as a part of the spelling lesson is a questionable procedure. The use of the dictionary should be carefully taught to the children so that they can consult it quickly when they have need. They should be en- couraged to use it. It has an important place in helping to build up a spelling conscience and a spell- ing consciousness. The children should be led to regard the dictionary as a friend in times of need and not as an instrument of torture. Questions and Exercises 1. List the special difficulties which you personally have had in your efforts to become a good speller. What particular discussions in this book have applied to your own situation? 2. List the principal difficulties which you have en- countered as a teacher of spelling. Which discussions have helped you most in their solution ? 3. Are the particular questions discussed in this chapter the ones which you have most often asked? 136 GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF SPELLING What other questions do you think should have been included ? 4. List the questions on spelling which are still un- answered for you. Look carefully through the book to see if you cannot find a satisfactory answer. 5. Do you wish to make a more extended study of some phase of the teaching of spelling ? If so, we refer you to the material suggested in the bibliography. ] ; PART III BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Abbott, Edwina E. — On the Analysis of the Memory Conscious- ness in Orthography. Psychological Review Monograph Sup- plement, Vol. II, 127-158. 2. Anderson, W. N. — The Determination of a Spelling Vocabulary Based upon Written Correspondence. Ph.D. Thesis, Univer- sity of Iowa, 1917. 3. Ashbaugh, E. J. — A Spelling Scale of 3000 Common Words. University of Iowa Extension Bulletin, No. 43, 1918. 4. Ayres, L. P. — The Public Schools of Springfield, Illinois, 71-74. Russell Sage Foundation, 1914. 6. Ayres, L. P. — The Spelling Vocabularies of Personal and Business Letters. Russell Sage Foundation. 6. Ayres, L. P. — A Measuring Scale for Ability in Spelling. Russell Sage Foundation, 1915. 7. Bagley, W. C. — Classroom Management. The Macmillan Company. 8. Bagley, W. C. — The Educative Process. The Macmillan Company. 9. Baur, Nicholas. — Writing Vocabulary of Pupils in the New Orleans Public Schools. Department of Superintendence, New Orleans, 1913. 10. Bobbitt, F. — What the Schools Teach and Might Teach. The Cleveland Survey, 1915. 11. Brandenberg, G. C. — The Spelling Ability of University Students. School and Society, VII, 26-29 ; 1918. 12. Buckingham, B. R. — Buckingham's Extension of the Ayres Spelling Scale. University of Illinois. 13. Buckingham, B. R. — Spelling Ability; Its Measurement and Distribution. Teachers College Contributions to Education, No. 59. 137 138 BIBLIOGRAPHY 14. Burnham, W. H. — The Hygiene and Psychology of Spelling. Pedagogical Seminary, XIII, 408-501 ; 1906. 15. Charters, W. W. — A Spelling Hospital in High School. School Review, March, 1910. 16. Charters, W. W. — Methods of Teaching. Row, Peterson & Co. 17. Charters, W. W. — Teaching the Common Branches. Row, Peterson & Co. 18. Colvin, S. S. — The Learning Process. The Macmillan Com- pany. 19. Cook, W. A., and O'Shea, M. V. — The Child and His Spelling. The Bobbs-Merrill Company. 20. Cook, W. A. —Shall We Teach Spelling by Rule? Journal of Educational Psychology, III, 316-325; 1912. 21. Cornman, O. P. — Spelling in the Elementary Schools. Psycho- logical Clinic. 22. Courtis, S. A. — Teaching Spelling by Plays and Games. S. A. Courtis, Detroit, Michigan. 23. Eldridge, R. C. — Six Thousand Common English Words. R. C. Eldridge, Niagara Falls, New York. 24. Freeman, F. N. — Psychology of the Common Branches. Hough- ton Mifflin Company, 25. Foster, W. T. — The Spelling of College Students. Journal of Educational Psychology, II, 211-215; 1911. 26. Hawkins, C. J. — Experiments on Memory Types. Psychological Review, IV, 289-294; 1897. 27. Heilman, J. — Effect of Syllabification on Learning to Spell. Unpublished Study, Colorado State Teachers College. 28. Holmes, H. W. — Time Distribution by Subjects and Grades in Representative Cities. Fourteenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part I, 21-28. 29. Horn, E. — Principles of Methods in Spelling. Eighteenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part II, 52-77. 30. Johnstown, Pa., Public Schools. — The Teaching of Spelling, \191S. 31. Jones, W. F. — Concrete Investigation of the Materials of English Spelling. University of South Dakota, 1913. 32. Kendall, C. N., and Mirick, Geo. A. — How to Teach the Funda- mental Subjects. Houghton Mifflin Company. 33. Kratz, H. E. — Studies and Observations in the School Room. Educational Publishing Company. BIBLIOGRAPHY 139 34. Lewis, E. E. — Spelling List for Use in Normal Training High Schools. Iowa State Department of Public Instruction. 35. Longenecker, Gertrude. — The Teaching of Spelling. State Normal School, San Diego, California. 36. Mead, Cyrus D. — The Spelling Ability of Plumas County Chil- dren. Supplement to California Blue Bulletin, December, 1919. 37. Matthews, Brander. — The Spelling of Yesterday and of To-mor- row. Outlook, LXXXII, 848-853. 38. McMurry, F. M. — How to Study, 83-84. Houghton Mifflin Company. 39. New Jersey Department of Public Instruction. — The Teach- ing of Spelling. 40. Nicholson, Anne. — A Speller for the Use of the Teachers of Cal- ifornia. California State Printing Office, Sacramento, 1914. 41. Owen Publishing Co. — Methods, Aids, and Devices, Vol. I. 42. Pearson, H. C. — Experimental Studies in the Teaching of Spell- ing. Teachers College Record, January, 1912. 43. Pearson, H. C. — The Scientific Study of the Teaching of Spell- ing. Journal of Educational Psychology, May, 1911. 44. Perry, A. C. — Problems of the Elementary School, 171-176. D. Appleton & Co. 45. Pryor, H. C. — A Study in the Psychology and Pedagogy of Spelling. Master's Thesis, University of Colorado, 1912. 46. Pryor, H. C. — Spelling. Fourteenth Yearbook of the Na- tional Society for the Study of Education, Part 1, 78-89. 1915 . 47. Pryor, H. C. — A Suggested Minimal Spelling List. Sixteenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Parti, 73-84; 1917. 48. Pyle, W. H. — Outlines of Educational Psychology. Warwick & York, Inc. 49. Rapeer, L. W. — Teaching Elementary School Subjects. Charles Scribner & Sons. 50. Rice, J. M. — The Futility of the Spelling Grind. Forum, 23 ; 163-172; 1897. 51. Riley, J. W. — The Springfield Tests. Holden Company, Spring- field, Massachusetts. 52. Rowe, Stuart H. — Habit Formation and the Science of Teaching. Longmans, Green & Co. 53. Schwiering, O. C. — A Study in Grouping by Similarity in Spell- ing. Wyoming School Journal, May-June, 1917. 140 BIBLIOGRAPHY 54. Sears, J. B. — Spelling Efficiency in the Oakland, California, Schools, Bureau of Information, Statistics, and Educational Research, 1915. 55. Shaw, Ester E. — 7s Spelling a Failure ? Educational Review, September, 1911. 56. Spindler, F. N. — Memory Types in Spelling. Education, XXVIII, 175-181. 57. Starch, D. — Measurement of Efficiency in Spelling. Journal of Educational Psychology, 167-186, March, 1915. 58. Starch, D. — Educational Measurement, Chapter VI. The Macmillan Company. 59. Straubenmuller, Gustave. — Standards in Spelling. Board of Education, New York City. 60. Studley, C. K. and Ware, Allison. — Common Essentials in Spell' ing. State Normal School, Chico, California. 61. Suzzallo, Henry. — The Improvement of Instruction in Spelling. Teachers College Record, January, 1912. 62. Suzzallo, Henry. — The Teaching of Spelling. Houghton Miffin Company. 63. Spelling in the Boston Public Schools, McEvoy Magazine, 1915. 64. Stuart, A. T. — Washington, D. C, List. Board of Education Bulletin. 65. Taylor, W. T. — The Color Element in Early Education. Journal of Educational Psychology, XVII, 201-251. 66. Theisen, W. W. — Studies in Educational Measurements in Wis- consin, No. 1, 18-20 ; 1918. 67. Thorndike, E. L. — Educational Psychology. Teachers College, Columbia University. 68. Tidyman, W. F. — The Teaching of Spelling. World Book Company. 69. Wagner, C. A. — An Experimental Study; Grouping by Simi- larity as a Factor in the Teaching of Spelling. Ph. D. Thesis, University of Pennsylvania. 70. Wallin, J. E. W. — Spelling Efficiency in Relation to Age, Grade, and Sex and the Question of Transfer. Warwick & York, Inc. 71. Wheeler, Benjamin I. — Orthography and Simplified Spelling. Outlook, LXXXVI ; 314-317. 72. Whipple, G. M. — Relative Efficiency of Phonetic Alphabets. Warwick & York, Inc. 73. Winch, W. H. — Experimental Researches on Learning to Spell BIBLIOGRAPHY 141 Journal of Educational Psychology, IV, 1913 ; 524-537, 579- 592. 74. Winch, W. H. — Further Experimental Researches on Learning to Spell. Journal of Educational Psychology, V, 449-460; 1914. 75. Winch, W. H. — Additional Researches on Learning to Spell. Journal of Educational Psychology, VII, 93-110; 1916. 76. Witmer, L. — A Case of Chronic Bad Spelling. Psychological Clinic, I, 53-64; 1907. 77. Wyckoff, Adelaide E. — Constitutional Bad Spellers. Ped- agogical Seminary, II, 448-451 ; 1892. 7^ Woolfolk, Algar. — The Need of Intensive Work in Spelling. Unpublished thesis, Teachers College, Columbia University. i