ELEMENTS 
 
 OF 
 
 GENERAL HISTORY, 
 
 BY ALEXANDER FRASER TYTLER, F. R. S. E- 
 
 Professor of History in the University of Edinburgh. 
 WITH A 
 
 CONTINUATION, 
 
 TERMINATING AT 
 
 THE DEMISE OF KTNG GEORGE III., ],82a 
 
 BY REV. EDWARD NARES, D. D. 
 
 Professor of Modern History in the University of Oxford 
 
 TO WHICH ARE ADDED, A SUCCINCT 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES : 
 
 WITH 
 
 ADDITIONS AND ALTERATIONS- 
 
 BY AN AMERICAN GENTLEMAN. 
 
 SUPPLYING IMPORTANT OMISSIONS, BRINGING DOWN THE NARRATION 
 
 OF EVENTS TO THE BEGINNING OF THE PRESENT YEAR, 
 
 AND CORRECTING MANY PASSAGES RELATING 
 
 TO THE 
 
 HISTORY OF THIS COUNTRY. 
 
 WITH AN IMPROVED 
 
 TABLE OF CHRONOLOGY; 
 
 A COMPARATIVE VIEW OF 
 
 ANCIENT AND MODERN GEOGRAPHY J 
 
 AND 
 
 QUESTIONS ON EACH SECTION. 
 
 ADAPTED FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND ACADEMIES, 
 BY AN EXPERIENCED TEACHER. 
 
 STEREOTYPED BY T. H. CARTE A at CO. BOSTON. 
 PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY HORATIO HILL & CO. 
 
 1830. 
 
1 
 
 - DISTRICT OF NEW-HAMPSHIRE, to wit : 
 
 District Clerk's office. 
 
 BE IT REMEMBERED, that on the sixth day of November, A. D 
 1,824, and in the forty-ninth year of the Independence of the United States 
 of America, ISAAC HILL, of the said District, has deposited in this office 
 the title of a book, the right whereof he claims as proprietor, in the words fol- 
 lowing, to icit : — 
 
 "Elements of General History, ancient and modern. By Alexander Fra- 
 eer Tytler, F. R S. E. Professor of History in the University of Edinburgh. 
 With a continiKition, terminating at the demise of King George III.. 1,820. 
 By Rev. Edward Nares, D. D. Professor of Modern History in the Univer- 
 sity of Oxford. To which are added, a succinct History of the United 
 States; with additions and alterations, by an American gentleman. Supply- 
 ing important omissions, bringing down tbe narration of events to the begin- 
 ning of the present year, and correcting many passages relating to the history 
 of this country. With an improved Table" of Chronology ; a comparative 
 view of Ancient and Modern Geography ; and Questions on each section. 
 Adapted for the use of Schools and Academies, by an experienced 
 Teacher." 
 
 In conformity to the act of the Congress of the United States, entitled 1 . 
 "An act for the encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of maps, 
 charts, and books, to the authors and proprietors of such copies, during the 
 times therein mentioned ;" and also an act, entitled, " An act supplementa- 
 ry to an act, entitled an act for the encouragement of learning, by securing 
 the copies of maps, charts, and books, to the authors and proprietors of such 
 copies during the times therein mentioned, and extending the benefits there- 
 of to the arts of designing, engraving, and etching historical a\:d other 
 prints * 
 
 WILLIAM CLAGGETT, Clerk 
 
 of the District of JYeic- Hampshire. 
 A true copy of Record. 
 
 Attest WILLIAM CLAGGETT, Clerk 
 
 ID. JCL'XOncfcXigc 
 
 Duke University 
 MAY 7 
 
ADVERTISEMENT. 
 
 Ln preparing this edition, the original text of Tytler and 
 Nares has been carefully revised and corrected. Part IV., 
 which contains the History of South America, New Spain, and 
 the West Indies, has been added. These countries are scarcely 
 noticed in former editions; but they have acquired a rank and 
 importance which make their history equally important to the 
 plan of this work, and equally interesting, with that of most 
 countries in Europe. Additions have also been made to many 
 chapters in Part III., by which the history is continued to the 
 commencement of 1,824. The Questions for Examination in 
 the edition of 1,823, have been corrected, and new Questions 
 are added, adapted to the additions made to the text. 
 
 The publisher has been at considerable expense in obtaining 
 these improvements, but he trusts that they make this edition 
 decidedly superior to any that has been hitherto published. 
 
 * 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 — *►•••<««- 
 
 THE following work contains the Outlines of a Course of Lectures on 
 General History, delivered for many year3 in the University of Edin- 
 burgh, and received with a portion of the public approbation amply 
 sufficient to compensate the labours of the author. He began to compose 
 these Elements principally with the view of furnishing an aid to students 
 attending his Lectures ; but soon conceived, that, by giving a little more 
 amplitude to their composition, he might render the work of more general 
 utility. As now given to the public, he would willingly flatter himsell 
 that it may be not only serviceable to youth, in furnishing a regular plan 
 for the prosecution of this important study, but useful even to those who 
 have acquired a competent knowledge of general history from the peru- 
 sal of the works of detached historians, and Avho wish to methodize that 
 knowledge, or even to refresh their memory on material facts and the 
 order of events. 
 
 In the composition of these Elements the author has endeavoured to 
 unite with the detail of facts, so much of reflection as to aid the mind 
 in the formation of rational views of the causes and consequences of 
 events, as well as of the policy of the actors ; but he has anxiously 
 guarded against that speculative refinement which has sometimes entered 
 into works of this nature. Such works profess to exhibit the philosophy 
 or the spirit of history, but are more adapted to display the writer's 
 ingenuity as a theorist, or talents as a rhetorician, than to instruct the 
 reader in the more useful knowledge of historical facts. 
 
 As the progress of the human mind forms a capital object in the study 
 of history, the state of the arts and sciences, the religion, laws, govern- 
 ment, and manners of nations, are material parts, even in an elementary 
 work of this nature. The history of literature is a most important arti- 
 cle in this study. The author haa therefore endeavoured to give to each of 
 these topics its due share of attention ; and in that view they are sepa- 
 rately treated, in distinct sections, at particular periods of time. 
 
 ALEX. FRASEIl TYTLER. 
 Edinburgh, rfpril 180K 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 -►»•••«•— 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Page. 
 Advantages arising from the Study of History, and more particularly 
 
 from prosecuting it according to a regular Plan - - - - 11 
 Plan or the course - 13 
 
 PART FIRST 
 
 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 Sect. 1. Earliest authentic Accounts of the History of the World 17 
 Seet. 2. Considerations on the Nature of the First Governments, and 
 
 on the Laws, Customs, Arts, and Sciences of the first 
 
 Ages 38 
 
 Sect. 3. Of the Egyptians 20 
 
 Sect. 4. Of the Phoenicians 22 
 
 Sect. 5. The History of Greece ib. 
 
 Sect. G. Reflections on the first and rudest Periods of the Grecian 
 
 History 23 
 
 Set. 7. Early period of Grecian History. Argonautic Expedition. 
 
 Wars of Thebes and Troy 24 
 
 Sect. 8. Establishment of the Greek Colonies - 25 
 
 Sect. 0. The Republic of Sparta 26 
 
 Sect. 10. The Republic of Athens 28 
 
 Sect. 11. Of the state of the Persian Empire, and its History down to 
 
 the War with Greece 29 
 
 Sect. 12. The War between Greece and Persia 31 
 
 Sect. 13. Age of Pericles -----.... 33 
 
 Sect. 14. The Republic of Thebes 35 
 
 Sect. 15. Philip of Macedon ---'-... i 0> 
 
 Sect. 1G. Alexander the Great - 36 
 
 Sect. 17. Successors of Alexander 38 
 
 Sect. 18. Fall and conquest of Greece 39 
 
 Sect 19. Political Reflections arising from the History of the States of 
 
 Greece ..._ 45 
 
 Sect 20 State of the Arts in Greece ...... 41 
 
 Sect. 2J Of the Greek Poets 43 
 
 Sect. 22. Of the Greek Historians ------ 45 
 
 Sect. 28. Of the Greek Philosophers - v - 47 
 
 S«ct. 24. The History of Rome 49 
 
 Reflections on the Government and State of Rome under the 
 
 Kings . v . . . - & 
 
 A2 
 
f CONTENTS. 
 
 Pag©. 
 
 Sect. 25. Rome under the Consuls - .... 53 
 
 Sect. 26. The LawofVolero 56 
 
 Sect. 27. The Decern vi rate 57 
 
 Sect. 28. Increase of popular Power 58 
 
 Sect. 29.. Conquest of Italy by the Romans • - - - - 59 
 
 Sect. SO. History of Carthage ' - 60 
 
 Sect. 31. History of Sicily - - - CI 
 
 Sect. 32. The Punic Wars 62 
 
 Sect. 3"J. The Gracchi, and the Corruption of the Commonwealth 64 
 Sect 34. Progress of the Civil Wars. Second Triumvirate, and fall of 
 
 the Republic 67 
 
 Sect. 35. Considerations on such particulars as mark the Genius and 
 
 national Character of the Romans .... 70 
 
 System of Roman Education ...... j|j. 
 
 Sect. 36. Of the Progress of Literature among the Romans - 71 
 
 Scci. 37. State of Philosophy among the Romans ... 75 
 
 Sect. 38. Of the Public and Private Manners of the Romans - - 76 
 
 Sect. 39. Of the Art of War among the Romans ... 77 
 Sect. 40. Reflections arising from a View of the Roman History during 
 
 the Commonwealth ...... 7<> 
 
 Sect. 41. Rome under the Emperors ------ 81 
 
 Sect. 42. The same subject continued ..... g4 
 
 Sect. 43. Age of the Antonines, &c. 87 
 
 Sect. 44. State of the Roman Empire at the time hf Constantine. His 
 
 Successors .-.....- <X) 
 Sect. 45. Progress of the Christian Religion from its Institution to the 
 
 Extinction of Paganism in the Reign ofTheodosius - 93 
 
 Sect. 40. Extinction of the Roman Empire in the West - - 95 
 Sect. 47. Of the Origin, Manners, and Character of the Gothic Nations 
 
 before their establishment in the Roman Empire - 97 
 Sect. 48. Of the Manners, Laws, and Government of the Gothic Na- 
 tions after their establishment in the Roman Empire 99 
 Sect. 49. Method of studying Ancient History .... 102 
 
 PART SECOND. 
 
 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 1. Of Arabia and the Empire of the Saracens - - 10€ 
 
 Monarchy of the Franks ... . . 108 
 
 Reflections on the State of France during the Merovingian 
 
 race of its Kings 109 
 
 Charlemagne. The new Empire of the West - - 112 
 
 Manners, Governments, and Customs of the Age of Char- 
 lemagne - - - - - - - - -113 
 
 Retrospective View of the Affairs of the Church before the 
 
 Age of Charlemagne 115 
 
 Empire of the West under the Successors of Charlemagne 116 
 Empire of the East, during the Eighth and Ninth Centuries 118 
 State of the Church in the Eighth and Ninth Centuries - 119 
 Of the Saracens irt the Eighth and Ninth Centuries - 12<-' 
 
 Empire of the West and Italy in the Tenth and Eleventh 
 
 Centuries 121 
 
 S«ct. 12. History of Britain from its earliest Period down to the Nor- 
 man Conquest 12o 
 
 Soct 13 Of the Government, Laws, aud Manners*bf the Anglo-Saxons 127 
 
 Sect. 
 
 I. 
 
 Sect. 
 
 
 
 Sect. 
 
 3. 
 
 Sect. 
 
 4. 
 
 Sect. 
 
 'o. 
 
 Sect. 
 
 c>. 
 
 Sect. 
 
 7. 
 
 Sect. 
 
 8. 
 
 Sect. 
 
 9. 
 
 Sect. 
 
 10. 
 
 Sect. 
 
 11. 
 
CONTENTS. 7 
 
 Page. 
 
 Sect, 14. State of Europe during the Tenth, Eleventh, and Twelfth 
 
 Centimes 128 
 
 Sect. 15. History of England in the Eleventh, Twelfth, and part of the 
 
 Thirteenth Centuries - 130 
 
 Sect. 16. State of Germany and Italy in the Thirteenth Century ' 134 
 
 Sect. 17. The Crusades or Holy Wars 135 
 
 Sect. '18. Of Chivalry and Romance 138 
 
 Sect. 19. State of Europe in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries 140 
 Sect. 20. Revolution in Switzerland ---... 141 
 
 Sect, 21. State, of Europe continued in the Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and 
 
 part of the Fifteenth Centuries .... j.jo 
 
 Sect. 2*2. History of England in the Thirteenth Century - - 143 
 
 Sect. 23. History of Scotland from the Eleventh to' the Fourteenth 
 
 Century 144 
 
 Sect. 24. History of England in the Fourteenth Century - - 14b' 
 
 Sect. 25. England and France in the Fifteenth Century. Slate of 
 
 Manners - - - - - - - - -147 
 
 Sect. 2G. Decline and Full of the Greek Empire ... 149 
 
 Sect. 27. Government and Policy of the Turkish Empire - - 150 
 
 Sect. 28. France and Italy in the End of the Fifteenth Century 1^1 
 
 Sect. 29. History of Spain in the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries 152 
 Sect. 30. France, Spain, and Italy, in the End of the Fifteenth and Be- 
 ginning of the Sixteenth Century .... 153 
 
 Sect. 31. History of England from the Middle of the Fifteenth to the 
 Beginning of the Sixteenth Century. Civil Wars of York 
 
 v.nd Lancaster 154 
 
 Sect. 32. History of Scotland from the Middle of the Fourteenth Cen- 
 tury to the End of the Reign of James V. - - 156 
 Sect. 33. Of the Ancient Constitution of the Scottish Government 159 
 Sect. 34. A view of the Progress of Literature and Science in Europe 
 from the Revival of Letters to the Lnd of the Fifteenth 
 
 Century - - - 160 
 
 Sect. 35. View of the Progress of Commerce in Europe before the 
 
 Portuguese Discoveries 1G3 
 
 Sect. 30. Discoveries of the Portuguese in the Fifteenth Century, and 
 
 their effects on the Commerce of Europe ... 1(35 
 Sect. 37. Germany and France in the Reigns of Charles V. and Fran- 
 cis I. _ - 167 
 
 Sect. 38. Observations on the Constitution of the German Empire 170 
 
 Sect. 39. Of the Reformation in Germany and Switzerland, and the 
 
 Revolution in Denmark and Sweden - - - - 171 
 Sect. 40. Of the Reformation in England under Henry VIII. and his 
 
 Successors 17-1 
 
 Sect. 41. Of the Discovery and Conquest of America by the Spaniards 175 
 Sect. 42. Possessions of the other European Nations in America 177 
 
 Sect. 43. Of the State of the Fine Arts in Europe, in the Age of Leo X. J80 
 Sect. 44. Of the Ottoman Power in the Sixteenth Century - - 185* 
 Sect. 45. State of Persia, and the other Asiatic Kingdoms, in the Six- 
 teenth and Seventeenth Centuries .... 183 
 
 Sect. 46. History of India. 184 
 
 Sect. 47. Ancient State of India; Manners, Laws, Arts, and Sciences, 
 
 and Religion, of the Hindoos ----- 18G 
 
 Sect. 48. Of China and Japan 188 
 
 Sect. 49. Of the Antiquity of the Empire of China. State of the Arts 
 
 and Sciences, Manners, Government, Laws - - 189 
 
 Sect. 50. Mr. Bailly's Theory of the Origin of the Sciences among the 
 
 Nations of Asia - 192 
 
 Sect. 51. Reign of Philip II. of Spain. Revolution of the Netherlands, 
 
 and Establishment of the Republic of Holland - 194 
 
 Sect. 52. Of the Constitution and Government of the United Provinces 196 
 Sect. 53. Reign of Philip II. continued 197 
 
8 CONTENTS. 
 
 Pago 
 
 Sect. 54. Stale of France in the End of the Sixteenth Century, under 
 Henry II., Francis II., Charles IX., Henry III., and 
 
 Henry IV. 197 
 
 Sect. 55. History of England and Scotland in the Reigns of Elizabeth 
 
 and Mary Queen of Scots 199 
 
 Sect. 50. History of Great Britain in the Reigns of James I. and 
 
 Charles I. 203 
 
 Sect. 57. The Commonwealth of England 207 
 
 Sect. 58. Reigns of Charles II. and James II. - • - 209 
 
 Sect. 59. On "the British Constitution 211 
 
 Sect. 00. Of the Public Revenue of Great Britain • - - 214 
 
 Sect. 61. History of France under Lewis XIII. .... 216 
 
 Sect G2. Spain under Philip III. and Philip IV. Constitution of Por- 
 tugal and Spain -------- 217 
 
 Sect G3. Affairs of Germany from the Abdication of Charles V. to the 
 
 Peace of Westphalia 218 
 
 Sect. 04. France under Lewis XIV. 219 
 
 Sect. 05. Of the Constitution of France under the Monarchy - 223 
 
 Sect. 00. Of Peter the Great, Czar of Muscovy, and Charles XII., 
 
 King of Sweden 224 
 
 Sect. 07. A View of the Progress of Science and Literature in Europe, 
 from the End of the Fifteenth to the End of the Sixteenth 
 Century 227 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 THE HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 
 
 Sect. 1. A General View of the History of Mankind in the Primeval 
 
 Ages - - - - - 231 
 
 Sect. 2. Summary View of Jewish History .... 232 
 
 Sect. 3. The Antiquity of the Scriptures 233 
 
 Sect. 4. The Subject of the Books, and Characters of the Writers 235 
 
 Sect. 5. Of the Antediluvian World 240 
 
 Sect. 0. First Ages after the Deluge 241 
 
 Sect. 7. Of the Jews - - ib 
 
 Sect. 8. The History of the Hebrews during the Government of the 
 
 Judges " 244 
 
 Sect. 9. Retrospect of the Government of the Hebrews - - 245 
 
 Sect. 10. Regal Government of the Hebrews .... 246 
 
 Sect. 11. Restoration of the Jews to their Liberty and Country - 249 
 
 Sect. 12. The State of Learning and Commerce among the Jews 252 
 
 Conclusion 253 
 
 PAUT THIRD. 
 
 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 Sect. 1. France, from the death of Lewis XJV., 1,715, to the Peace of 
 
 Vienna, 1,733 257 
 
CONTENTS. 1) 
 
 Page. 
 
 Sect. 2. England, from the Accession of the House of Hanover, 
 
 1,714, to the end of the Reign of George the First, 1,727 2€2 
 
 Sect. 3. Austria, (and Germany,) from the Peace of Rastadf, 1,714, 
 
 to the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, 1, 748 208 
 
 Sect. 4. England, from the Accession of George II. to the Throne, 
 
 1,727, to his death, 1,760 273 
 
 S-ect. 5. State of Europe at the Conclusion of the Peucc of Aix-la- 
 Chapelle, 1,743 - 278 
 
 Sect. G. Of the Seven Years' War, 1.755— 1,7(32 ... 281 
 
 Sect. 7. From the Accession of George III.. 1,7G0, to the Commence- 
 ment of the Disputes with America, 1,764 - 2SS 
 
 Sect. 8. Disputes between Great Britain and her American Colonies. 
 
 1,764—1,783 291 
 
 Sect. 0. France, from the Peace of Paris, 1,763, to the Opening of the 
 
 Assembly of the States General, 1,789 - - - 297 
 
 Sect. 10. Austria, from the conclusion of the Seven Yearn' War, to the 
 
 death' of Maria Theresa, 1,763 — 1,780 - - - 307 
 
 Sect. 11. Reigns of Joseph Ii., Leopold II., &c, from 1,765 to 1,800 301) 
 
 Sect. 12. France, from the Opening of the Assembly of the States 
 
 General. 1,789, to the deaths of the King and Queen, 1,793 31 G 
 
 Sect. 13. Great Britain, from the conclusion of the American War, 
 
 1,783, to the Peace of Amiens, 1,802 - 322 
 
 Sect. 14. France, from the death of the King and Queen, and Over- 
 throw of the Girondist or Brissotine Party, 1,793, to the 
 Establishment of the Directory, 1,795 - - - l>33 
 
 Sect. 15. France, from the Establishment of the Directory, 1,795, to the 
 
 Peace of Amiens ....... 337 
 
 Sect. 16. France, from the Peace of Amiens to the Treaty of Tilsit, 
 
 1,807 3-1? 
 
 Sect. 17. Spain and Portugal, from 3.783 to 1,814 - - - 353 
 
 Sect. 13. France, from the Peace of Tilsit, to the Abdication of Na- 
 poleon, 1,814 359 
 
 Sect. 19. Poland, from the Commencement of the Eighteenth Century, 
 
 to the Treaty of Vienna, 1,815 - ■ - - - 363 
 
 Sect. 20. Great Britain, from the Peace of Amiens, 1,802, to the death 
 
 of George III., 1.820 369 
 
 Sect. 21. Frain :e, from the Entrance of the Allies into Paris, March, 
 1,814, to the final Evacuation of it by the Foreign Troops, 
 1,818' - ' 375 
 
 Sect. 22. Northern States of Europe, from the Close of the Seven- 
 teenth Century ........ [)7{, 
 
 Sect. 23. Southern States of Europe, from the Close of the Seventeenth 
 
 Century 387 
 
 Sect. 24. Of India, or llindoostan 391 
 
 State of Arts, Sciences, Religion, Laws, Government, &c. - - 398 
 
 Botany ... 402 
 
 Electricity 405 
 
 Mineralogy and Geology - - - . - - -407 
 
 Geography 409 
 
 Discoveries and Inventions ... . -419 
 
 Religion ....... . 420 
 
 History, Polite Literature, Fine Arts, &c. - 422 
 
 Treaty of Vienna, 1,815 .... 423 
 
 2 
 
10 CONTENTS. 
 
 PART FOURTH. 
 
 THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Pago 
 
 .yrct. 1. Discovery of America 424 
 
 Sect. 2. Discoveries by the English. Settlement of Virginia. - 427 
 
 Sect 3. Settlement of Massachusetts, Rhode-Island, Connecticut, New- 
 Hampshire, Maine, Maryland, North and South Carolina, 
 New-York, New-Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, and 
 Georgia ........ 43] 
 
 Sect. 4. War with France, and Conquest of Canada. Disputes with 
 
 Great Britain, and War of the Revolution - - - 438 
 Sect. 5. Establishment of the State and National Governments. Wars 
 
 with Tripoli and the Indians, &c. .... 443 
 
 Sect. 6. War with Great Britain, &.e. 451 
 
 A Table of Chronology 
 
 Comparative view of Ancient and Modpp.k Gro( haphy 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 »*»•#•««- 
 
 1. THE value of any science is to be estimated according to its tenden- 
 cy to promote improvement, either in private virtue, or in those qualities 
 which render man extensively useful in society. Some objects of pur? ait 
 have a secondary utility ; in furnishing rational amusement, which, re- 
 lieving the mind at intervals from the fatigue of serious occupation, in- 
 vigorates and prepares it for fresh exertion. It is the perfection of any 
 science, to unite these advantages, to promote the advancement of public 
 and private virtue, and to supply such a degree of amusement, as to super- 
 sede the necessity of recurring to frivolous pursuits for the sake of relaxa- 
 tion. Under this description falls the science of history. 
 
 2. History, says Dionysius of Halicarnassus, is " philosophy teaching 
 by examples. 11 The superior efficacy of example to precept is universally 
 acknowledged All the laws of morality and rules of conduct are veri- 
 fied by experience, and are constantly submitted to its test and examina- 
 tion. History, which adds to our own experience an immense treasure of 
 the experience of others, furnishes innumerable proofs, by which we may 
 verify all the precepts of morality and of prudence. 
 
 3. History, beside its general advantages, has a distinct species of util- 
 ity to different men, according to their several ranks in society, and occu- 
 pations in life. 
 
 4. In this country it is an indispensable duty of every man of liberal 
 birth, to be acquainted, in a certain degree, with the science of politics ; 
 and history is the school of politics. It opens to us the springs of human 
 uffair3 ; the causes of the rise, grandeur, revolutions, and fall of empires ; 
 it points out the reciprocal influence of government and of national man- 
 ners ; it dissipates prejudices, nourishes the love of our country, and di- 
 rects to the best means of its improvement ; it illustrates equally the bless- 
 ings of political union, and the miseries of faction ; the danger, on one 
 hand, of anarchy, and, on the other, the debasing influence of despotic 
 power. 
 
 5. It is necessary that the study of history should be prosecuted accord- 
 ing to a regular plan ; for this science, more perhaps than any other, is 
 liable to perversion from its proper use. With some it is no better than 
 an idle amusement ; with others it is the food of vanity ; with a third 
 class it fosters the prejudices of party, and leads to political bigotry. It 
 is dangerous for those who, even with the best intentions, seek for histori- 
 cal knowledge, to pursue the study without a guide ; for no science hae 
 been so little methodized. The sources of prejudice are infinite ; and the 
 mind of youth should not be left undirected amidst the erring, the partial, 
 and contradictory representations of historians. Besides the importance of 
 being able to discriminate truth from falsehood, the attention ought to be 
 directed only to useful truths. Much danger arises from the perusal o£ 
 memoirs, collections of anecdotes, &c. ; for many of those works exhibit 
 the most depraved pictures, weaken our confidence in virtue, and present 
 the most unfavourable views of human nature 
 
i2 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 6. There are many difficulties which attend the attempt of forming a 
 proper plan of study, and giving an instructive view of general history, 
 utility is to be reconciled with amusement, prejudices are to be encoun- 
 tered, variety of taste to be consulted, political opinions balanced, judg- 
 ment and decision exercised on topics keenly controverted. The proposer 
 o( such a plan ought therefore to be possessed equally of firmness of mind 
 and moderation of sentiment. In many cases he must abandon popularity 
 for the calm approbation of his own conscience. Disregarding every 
 partial and inferior consideration, he must direct his view solely to 
 the proper end of all education, the forming of good men, and of good 
 citizens. 
 
 7. The object and general purpose of the following course, is to exhibit a 
 progressive view of the state of mankind, from the earliest ages of which 
 we have any authentic accounts, down to the close of the 17th century ; 
 to delineate the origin of states and of empires, the great outlines of their 
 history, the revolutions which they have undergone, the causes which 
 have contributed to their rise and grandeur, and operated to their decline 
 and extinction. For these purposes it is necessary to bestow particular 
 attention on the manners of nations, their laws, the nature of their govern- 
 ment*, their religion, their intellectual improvements, and their progrets 
 in the arts and sciences. 
 
PLAN OF THE COURSE. 
 
 TWO opposite methods have been followed in giving academical lectures 
 on the study of history : one exhibiting a strict chronological arrangement 
 of events, upon the plan of Turselline's Epitome ; the other, a series of dis- 
 quisitions on the various heads or titles of public law, and the doctrines of 
 politics ; illustrated by examples drawn from ancient and modern history. 
 Objections occur to both these methods : the former furnishes only a dry 
 chronicle of events, which nothing connects together but the order of 
 time ; the latter is insufficient for the most important purposes of history, 
 the tracing of events to their causes, the detection of the springs of hu- 
 man actions, the display of the progress of society, and of the rise and fall 
 of states and empires ; finally, by confining history to the exemplification 
 of the doctrines of politics, we lose its effect as a school of morals. 
 
 In the following lectures we hold a middle course between these ex- 
 tremes, and endeavour, by remedying the imperfection of each, to unite. 
 if possible, the advantages of both. 
 
 While so much regard is had to chronology as is necessary for showing 
 the progress of mankind in society, and communicating just ideas of the 
 state of the world in all the different ages to which authentic history ex- 
 tends, we shall, in the delineation of the rise and fall of empires and their 
 revolutions, pay more attention to the connexion of subject than that of 
 lime. 
 
 In this view we must reject the common method of arranging general 
 history according to epochs, or aeras. 
 
 When the world is viewed at any period either of ancient or of modern 
 history, we generally observe one nation or empire predominant, to whom 
 all the rest bear, as it were, an under part, and to whose history we find 
 that the principal events in the annals of other nations may be referred 
 from some natural connexion. This predominant empire or state it is pro- 
 posed to exhibit to view a3 the principal object, whose history therefore 
 is to be more fully delineated, while the rest are only incidentally touch* 
 ed when they come to have a natural connexion with the principal. 
 
 The Jewish history, belonging to a different department of academical 
 education, enters not into the plan of these lectures ; though we often re- 
 tort to the sacred writings for detached facts illustrative of the manners 
 of ancient nations. See Appendix. 
 
 In the ancient world, among the profane nations, the Greeks are the 
 earliest people who make a distinguished figure, and whose history ia at 
 the same time authentic. 
 
 The Greeks owed their civilization to the Egyptians and Phoenicians. 
 The Grecian history is therefore properly introduced by a short account 
 of these nations, and of the Assyrians, their rivalg, conquered at one time 
 by the Egyptians, and conquerors afterwards of them in their turn. 
 
 Rise of the independent states of Greece, and singular constitution of 
 the two great republics of Sparta and Athens. 
 
 The war of Greece with Persia induces a short account of the preceding 
 periods of the history of that nation, the rise of the Persian monarchy, tbft 
 nature of its government, manners, and religion. 
 B 
 
14 PLAN OF THE COURSE. 
 
 The Grecian history is pursued through all the revolutions of the na« 
 tion, till Greece becomes a province of the Roman empire. 
 
 Political reflections applicable to the history of the states of Greece. — 
 Progress of the Greeks in the arts.— Of the Greek poets, — historians, — 
 philosophers. 
 
 Rome, after the conquest of Greece, becomes the leading object of at- 
 tention. 
 
 Origin of the Romans. — Nature of their government under the kings.— 
 Ea3y substitution of the consular for the regal dignity. — Subsequent 
 changes in the constitution. — Progress to a democracy. — Extension of the 
 Roman arms. — Conquest of Italy. — Wars with foreign nations. 
 
 The Punic wars open a collateral view to the history of Carthage and 
 of Sicily. 
 
 Success of the Roman arms in Asia, .Macedonia, and Greece. — Opu- 
 lence of the republic from her conquests, and corruption of her manners. — 
 The civil wars, and ruin of the commonwealth. 
 
 Particulars which mark the genius and national spirit of the Romans : — 
 education, — laws, — literary character, — aft of war, — public and private 
 manners. 
 
 Rome under tl e emperor?. — Artful policy by which the first emperors 
 di«guised their absolute authority. — Decline of the ambitious character 
 of the Romans. — Easy submission to the loss of civil liberty. — The military 
 spirit purposely abased by the emperors. — The empire divided becomes 
 a languid body, without interned vigour. — The Gothic nations pour down 
 from the north. — Italy conquered successively by the Heruli, Ostrogoths. 
 and Lombards. — Extinction of the western empire. 
 
 The manners, genius, laws, and government of the Gothic nations, form 
 an important object of inquiry, from their influence on the manners and 
 policy of the modern European kingdoms. 
 
 In the delineation of modern history the leading objects of attention are 
 more various ; the scene is oftencr changed : nations, which for a while 
 occupy the chief attention, become fee a time subordinate, and afterwards 
 re-assume their rank as principal ; yet the same plan is pursued as in the 
 department of ancient history : the picture is occupied only by one great 
 object at a time, to which all the icst hold an inferior rank, and art 
 taken notice of only when connected with the principal. 
 
 Upon the fall of the western empire^ tl ns are the first who dis- 
 
 tinguish themselves by the extension of their conquests, and the splen- 
 dour of their dominion. 
 
 While the. Saracens extend their arms in the east and in Africa, a new 
 empire of the west is founded by Charlemagne. — The rise and progress of 
 the monarchy of the Franks. — The origin of the feudal system. — State of 
 the European manners in the age of Charlemagne. — Government, arts 
 and sciences, literature. 
 
 As collateral objects of attention, we survey the remains of the Roman 
 empire in the east ; the conquests and settlements of the Normans ; the 
 foundation and progress of the temporal dominion of the church of Rome ; 
 the conquest of Spain by the Saracens. 
 
 The conquest of England by the Normans solicits our attention to the 
 history of Britain. Retrospective view of the British history, from its ear- 
 liest period to the end of the Anglo-Saxon government in England. — Ob- 
 servations on the government, laws, and manners, of the Anglo-Saxons. 
 
 Collateral view of the state of the continental kingdoms of Europe, 
 during the ninth, tenth, and eleventh centuries. — France under the Ca- 
 petianrace of monarchs. — Conquests of the Normans in Italy and Sicily. — 
 State of the northern kingdoms of Europe. The eastern empire. — Empire 
 af Germany, — Disputes of supremacy between the popes and the emperon. 
 
PLAN OF THE COURSE. 15 
 
 The history of Britain still the principal object of attention. — England 
 under the kings of the Norman line, and the first princes of the Plantage- 
 net branch. — The conquest of Ireland, under Henry II., introduces an an- 
 ticipated progressive view of the political connexion between England 
 and Ireland down to the present time. As we proceed in the delineation 
 of the British history, we note particularly those circumstances which 
 mark the growth of the English constitution. 
 
 At this period all the kingdoms of Europe join in the crusades. — A brief 
 account is given of those enterprises. — Moral and political effects of the 
 crusades on the nations of Europe. — Origin of chivalry, and rise of roman- 
 tic fiction. 
 
 Short connected sketch of the state of the European nations alter the 
 crusades. — Rise of the house of Austria. — Decline o[ the feudal govern- 
 ment in France. — Establishment of the Swiss republics. — Disorders in the 
 popedom. — Council of Constance. 
 
 The history of Britain resumed. — England under Henry III. and Ed- 
 ward I. — The conquest of Wales. — The history of Scotland at this period 
 intimately connected with that of England. — View of the Scottish history 
 from Malcolm Canmore to Robert Bruce. — State of both kingdoms during 
 the reigns of Edward II. and III. — The history of France connected with 
 that of Britain. — France itself won by Henry V. 
 
 The state of the east at this period affords the most interesting object of 
 attention.. — The progress of the Ottoman arms retarded for awhile by the 
 conquests of Tamerlane and of Scanderbeg. — The Turks prosecute their 
 victories under Mahomet the great, to the total extinction of the Const an- 
 tinopolitan empire. — The constitution an<i policy of the Turkish empire. 
 
 France, in this age, emancipates herself from the. feudal servitude ; and 
 Spain, from the union of Arragon and Castile, and the fall of the kingdom 
 of the Moors, becomes one monarchy under Ferdinand and Isabella. 
 
 The history of Britain is resumed. — Sketch of the history of England 
 down to the reign of Henry VIII. ; of Scotland, during the reigns of the 
 five Jameses. — Delineation of the ancient constitution o[ the Scottish gov- 
 ernment. 
 
 The end of the fifteenth century is a remarkable a;ra in the history of 
 Europe. Learning and the sciences underwent at that time a very rapid 
 improvement ; and, after ages of darkness, shone out at once with sur- 
 prising lustre. — A connected vieAv is presented of the progress of literature 
 in Europe, from its revival down to this period. — In the same age the ad- 
 vancement of navigation, and the course to India by the Cape of Good 
 i lope, explored by the Portuguese, affect the commerce of all the Europe 
 an kingdoms. 
 
 The age of Charles V. unites in one connected view the affairs of Ger- 
 many, of Spain, of France, of England, and of Italy. The discovery of 
 the new world, the reformation in Germany and England, and the splen- 
 dour of the fine arts under the pontificate of Leo X., render this period one 
 of the most interesting in the annals of mankind. 
 
 The pacification of Europe, by the treaty of Catteau Cambresis, allows 
 us for a while to turn our attention to the state of Asia. A short sketch is 
 given of the modern history of Persia, and the state of the other kingdom* 
 of Asia, in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries ; the history of India ; 
 the manners, laws, arts, and sciences, and religion of the Hindoos ; the 
 history of China and Japan ; the antiquity of the Chinese empire, its 
 manners, laws, government, and attainments in the arts and sciences. 
 
 Returning to Europe, the attention is directed to the state of the conti- 
 nental kingdoms in the age of Philip II. Spain, the Netherlands, France, 
 and England, present a various and animated picture. 
 
 England under Elizabeth. The progress of the reformation in Scot- 
 land.— The distracted reign of Mary, queen of Scots. — The history of 
 
16 PLAN OF THE COURSE. 
 
 Britain pursued without interruption down to the revolution, and here clos- 
 ed by a sketch of the progress of the English constitution, and an exam- 
 ination of its nature at this period, when it became fixed and determined. 
 
 The history of the southern continental kingdoms is brought down to 
 the end of the reign of Louis XIV. ; of the northern, to the conclusion of 
 the reigns of Charles XII. of Sweden, and of Peter the great, czar of Mus- 
 covy. 
 
 We finish this view of universal history, by a survey of the state of the 
 arts and sciences, and of the progress of literature in Europe, durin^ the 
 sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. 
 
 The chronology observed in this View of Universal History is that of 
 archbishop Usher, which is founded on tfu Hebrew text of the Sacred Writ- 
 ings. A short Table of Chronology is subjoined to these heads, for the 
 ease of the student. 
 
PART FIRST. 
 ANCIENT HISTORY, 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 EARLIEST AUTHENTIC ACCOUNTS OF THE HISTORY OF 
 THE WORLD. 
 
 It is a difficult task to delineate the state of mankind in the ear- 
 liest age:: of the world. We want information sufficient to give ns 
 positive ideas on the subject; but as man advances in civilization, 
 and in proportion as history becomes useful and important, its cer- 
 tainty increases, and its materials are more abundant. 
 
 Various notions have been formed with respect to the population 
 of the antediluvian world and its physical appearance; but as these 
 are rather matters of theory than of fact, they scarcely fall with- 
 in the province of history ; and they are of the less consequence^ 
 because we are certain that the state of those antediluvian ages 
 could have had no material influence on the times which succeeded 
 them. 
 
 The hooks of Moses afford the earliest authentic history of the 
 ages immediately following the deluge. 
 
 About 150 years after that event, Nimrod (the Belus of profane 
 historians) built Babylon, and Assur built Nineveh, which became the 
 capital of the Assyrian empire. 
 
 Ninus the son of Belus, and his queen Semiramis, are said to have 
 raised the empire of Assyria to a higher degree of splendour. 
 
 From the death of Ninias the son of Ninus, down to the revolt of 
 the Medes under Sardanapaius, a period of 800 years, there is a 
 chasm in the history of Assyria and Babylon. This is to be supplied 
 only from conjecture. 
 
 The earliest periods of the Egyptian history are equally uncer- 
 tain with those of the Assyrian. Menes is supposed the first king of 
 Egypt ; probably the Misraim of the Floly Scriptures, the grandson 
 ot^ Noah, or, as others conjecture, the Oziris of Egypt, the inventor 
 of arts, and the civitizer of a great part of the eastern world. 
 
 After Menes or Oziris, Egypt appears to have been divided into 
 four dye;- sties, Thebes, Thin, Memphis, and Tanis ; and the people 
 to have attained a considerable degree of civilization: but a period 
 of barbari ;m succeeded under the shepherd-kings, subsisting for the 
 space of so ne centuries, down to the age of Sesostris (1650 A. C). 
 who united the separate principalities into one kingdom, regulateu 
 its po.icy vith admirable skill, and distinguished himself equally by 
 his foreig i conquests, and by his domestic administration. 
 h 2 3 
 
18 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 CONSIDERATIONS ON THE NATURE OF THE FIRST GOVERN- 
 MENTS, AND ON THE LAWS, CUSTOMS, ARTS, AND 
 SCIENCES OF THE EARLY AGES. 
 
 § 1 . The earliest government is the patriarchal, which subsists in 
 the rudest periods of society. 
 
 This has an easy progress to the monarchical. 
 
 The first monarchies must have been very weak, and their terri- 
 tory extremely limited. The idea of security precedes that of 
 conquest. In forming our notions of the extent of the first monar- 
 chies, we are deceived by the word king, which according to modern 
 ideas, is connected with an extent of territory, and a proportional 
 
 ?ower. The kings in scripture are no more than the chiefs of tribes, 
 'here were five kings in the vale of Sodom. Joshua defeated in his 
 wars thirty-one kings, and Adonizedec threescore and ten. 
 
 When families grew into nations, the transition from patriarchal to 
 regal government, was easy; the kingly office, probably passed by 
 descent from father to son, and the sovereign ruled his tribe or na- 
 tion, as the patriarch his family, by the right of birth. 
 
 The first ideas of conquest must have proceeded from a people in 
 the state of shepherds, who, necessarily changing their pastures, 
 would probably make incursions on the appropriated territory of 
 their neighbours. Such were the Arabian or Phoenician invaders, 
 who, under the name of shepherd-kings, conquered Egypt. But 
 kingdoms so founded could have little duration. Laws and good 
 policy, essential to the stability of kingdoms, are the fruit of intellec- 
 tual refinement, and arise only in a state of society considerably ad- 
 vanced in civilization. 
 
 The progress from barbarism to civilization is slow, because every 
 step in the progress is the result of necessity, after the experience 
 of an error, or the strong feeling of a want. 
 
 § 2. Origin of Laws. Certain political writers have supposed 
 that in the infancy of society penal laws must have been extremely 
 mild. We presume the contrary to have been rather the case, as 
 the more barbarous the people^ the stronger must be the bonds to 
 restrain them : and history confirms the supposition in the ancient 
 laws of the Jews, Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, and Gauls. 
 
 Among the earliest laws of all states are those regarding marriage ; 
 for the institution of marriage is coeval with the formation of society. 
 The first sovereigns of all states are said to have instituted marriage ; 
 and the earliest laws provided encouragements to matrimony. 
 
 Among the ancient nations the husband purchased his wife by 
 money, or personal services. Among the Assyrians the marriageable 
 women were put up at auction, and the price obtained for the more 
 beautiful was assigned as a dowry to the more homely. 
 
 The laws of succession are next in order to those of marriage. 
 The father had the absolute power in the division of his estate. 
 But primogeniture was understood to confer certain rights. 
 
 Laws arise necessarily and imperceptibly from the condition of 
 society ; and each particular law may be traced from the state of 
 manners, or the political emergency which gave it birth. Hence 
 we perceive the intimate connexion between nistory and jurispru- 
 
ANCIENT HISTORl'. 19 
 
 dence, and the light which they must necessarily throw upon each 
 other. The laws of a country are best interpreted from its history ; 
 and its uncertain history is best elucidated by its ancient laws. 
 
 § 3. Earliest Methods of authenticating Contracts. Before the inven- 
 tion of writing, contracts, testaments, sales, marriages, and the like, 
 were transacted in public. The Jewish and the Grecian histories fur- 
 nish examples. Some barbarous nations authenticate their bargains 
 by exchanging symbols or tallies. — The Peruvians accomplished most 
 of the purposes of writing by knotted cords of various colours, termed 
 quipos. r Ihe Mexicans communicated intelligence to a distance by 
 painting. Other nations used an abridged mode of painting, or hi- 
 eroglyphics. Before writing the Egyptians used hieroglyphics for 
 transmitting and recording knowledge : after writing, they employ- 
 ed it for veiling or concealing knowledge from the vulgar. 
 
 § 4. Methods for recording Historical Facts, and publishing Laws. 
 Poetry and song were the first vehicles of history, and the earliest 
 mode of promulgating laws. The songs of the bards record a great 
 deal of ancient history; and the laws of, many of the ancient nations 
 were composed in verse. 
 
 Stones, rude and sculptured, tumuli and mounds of earth, are the 
 monuments of history among a barbarous people ; and columns, tri- 
 umphal arches, coins, and medals, among a more refined. These 
 likewise illustrate the progress of manners and of the arts. 
 
 § 5. Religious Institutions. Among the earliest institutions of all 
 nations, are those which regard religious worship. The sentiment 
 of religion is deeply rooted in the human mind. An uninstructed 
 savage will infer the existence of a God, and his attributes, from the 
 general order and mechanism of nature ; and even the temporary 
 irregularities of nature lead to religious veneration of the unknown 
 power which conducts it. 
 
 Before conceiving the idea of a Being utterly imperceptible to his 
 senses, a savage would naturally see% that Being in the most striking 
 objects of sense to which he owed his most apparent benefits. The 
 son, extending his beneficial influence over all nature, was among 
 the earliest objects of worship. The fire presented a symbol of the 
 sun. The other celestial bodies naturally attracted their share of 
 veneration.* 
 
 The symbolical mode of writing led to many peculiarities of the 
 idolatrous worship of the ancient nations. Animals, symbolical of the 
 attributes of deity, became gods themselves. The same God, repre- 
 sented by different animals, was supposed to have changed himself 
 into different forms. The gratitude and veneration for men whose 
 lives had been eminently useful, joined to the belief of the souPs im- 
 mortality, led to the apotheosis of heroes. Many excellent reflections 
 on idolatry and polytheism are found in the book called The Wisdom 
 of Solomon. 
 
 Thu priesthood was anciently exercised by the chief or monarch ; 
 
 * It is a theory, supported by many facts, that in the beginning, all reli- 
 gious truth was made known to man by direct revelation, in succeed- 
 ing ages, intellectual perception was gradually clouded by the sensual 
 and gross nature of man, until his mind could not contemplate Deity, but 
 through the veil of His works. Thus the heavenly were perhaps, at first 
 worshipped as representative of their maker, but gradually became abject* 
 of direct adoration, and finally every element was peopled witb deities ; 
 and mountains, forests, streams, and animals, were consecrated and wor- 
 shipped. 
 
50 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 but as an empire became extensive, the monarch exercised this office 
 by his delegates ; and hence an additional source of veneration for the 
 priesthood. The priests were the framers and the administrators of 
 the laws. 
 
 § 6. Arts and Sciences of the Ancient A r attons. The useful arts are 
 the offspring of necessity ; the sciences are the fruit of ease and 
 leisure. The construction of huts, of weapons of war, and of hunt- 
 ing, are the earliest arts. Agriculture is not practised till the tribe 
 becomes stationary, and property is defined and secured. 
 
 The sciences arise in a cultivated society, where individuals enjoy 
 that leisure which invites to study and speculation. The priests 
 maintained in that condition by the monarch were the earliest cul- 
 tivators of science. The Egyptian science was confined to the 
 priests. Astronomy, which is among the earliest of the sciences, 
 owed its origin probably to superstition. Medicine was among the 
 early sciences. All rude nations have a pharmacy of their own, 
 equal in general to their wants. Luxury, creating new and more 
 complex diseases, requires a profounder knowledge of medicine, and 
 of the animal economy. 
 
 SECTION til. 
 
 OF THE EGYPTIANS. 
 
 1 . A great portion of the knowledge and attainments of the ancient 
 nations, and by consequence of those of the moderns, i* to be traced to 
 Egypt. The Egyptians instructed the Greeks ; the Greeks perform- 
 ed the same office to the Romans; and the latter have transmitted 
 much, of that knowledge to the world, of which we are in possession 
 at this day." 
 
 2. The antiquity of this empire, though we give no credit to the 
 chronicles 6f Manetho, must be allowed to be very great. The Mo- 
 saic writings represent Egypt, about 430 years after the Hood, as a 
 Nourishing and well regulated kingdom. The nature of the country 
 itself affords a presumption of the great antiquity of the empire, and 
 its early civilization. From the fertilizing e fleets of the waters of 
 the Nile, it is probable that agriculture would be more early prac- 
 tised there, than in regions less favoured by nature. The periodical 
 inundations of the Nile are perhaps owing to the vapours of the 
 Mediterranean condensed on the mountains of Ethiopia. 
 
 3. The government of Egypt was a hereditary monarchy. The 
 powers of the monarch were limited by constitutional laws ; yet in 
 many respects his authority was extremely despotical. The func- 
 tions of the sovereign were partly civii and partly religious. — The 
 king had the chief regulation of all that regarded the worship of the 
 fjods; and the priests, considered as his deputies, rilled all the of- 
 fices of state. They were both the legislators and the civil judges ; 
 they imposed and levied the taxes, and regulated weights and meas- 
 ures. The, great national tribunal was composed of thirty judges, 
 chosen from the three principal departments of the empire. The 
 administration of justice was defrayed by the sovereign, and, as par- 
 ties *rere their own advocates, was no burden upon the people. 
 The penal laws of Egypt were uncommonly severe. Female chas* 
 
 • For the supposed origin of Egyptian science, see Part II. Sect. 60. 
 
ANCIENT HISTORY. Si 
 
 titv was most rigidly protected. Funeral rites were not conferred 
 till after a scrutiny into the life of the deceased, and by a judicial 
 decree approving his character. The characters even of the sovo 
 reigns were subjected to this inquiry. 
 
 There was an extraordinary regulation in Egypt regarding the 
 borrowing of money. The borrower gave in pledge the body of 
 his father, and it was deprived of funeral rites if he failed to re- 
 deem it. 
 
 Population was encouraged by law ; and every man was bound to 
 maintain and educate the children born to him ot his slaves. 
 
 4. The manners of the Egyptians were very early formed. They 
 had a singular attachment to ancient usages ; a dislike to innovation; 
 a jealousy and abhorrence of strangers. 
 
 5. They preceded most of the ancient nations in the knowledge 
 o( the useful arts, and in the cultivation of the sciences. Architecture 
 was early brought to great perfection. Their buildings, the pyra- 
 mids, obelisks, &c, have, from the mildness of the climate, suffered 
 little injury from time. Pliny describes the contrivance for trans- 
 porting the obelisks. The whole country abounds with the remain* 
 oif ancient magnificence. Thebes, in Upper Egypt, was one of the 
 most splendid cities in the world. 
 
 The pyramids arc supposed by some writers to have been erected 
 about 900 years A. C. They were probably the sepulchral monu- 
 ments of the sovereigns. The Egyptians believed that death did 
 not separate the soul irorn the body ; and hence their extreme care 
 to preserve the body entire, by embalming, concealing it \u caves and 
 catacombs, and guarding it "by such stupendous structures. Mr~ 
 Bruce supposes the pyramids to be rocks hew& mto a pjrapmlaj 
 form, and encrusted, where np.cossayy^ -vita mason-work.* 
 
 The remains of art in Egypt, though venerable for their great an- 
 tiquity, are extremely deficient in beauty and elegance. The Egyp- 
 tians, were ignorant of the construction of an arch. The remains of 
 painting and sculpture evince but a slender proficiency in those art9. 
 
 6. The Egyptians possessed considerable Knowledge ot geometry T 
 mechanics, and astronomy. They had divided the zodiac hto twelve 
 signs ; they calculated eclipses ; and seem to have had an idea of 
 the motion of the earth. 
 
 7. The morality taught by the priests was pure and refined > 
 but it had little influence on the manners of the people. 
 
 8. So likewise the theology and secret doctrines of the priests 
 were rational and sublime ; but the worship of the people was do- 
 based by the most absurd and contemptible superstition. 
 
 9. Notwithstanding the early civilization and the great attainments 
 of this people, their national character was extremely low and des- 
 picable among the contemporary nations of antiquity. The reason 
 of this is, they were a people who chose to sequester themselves 
 from the rest of mankind ; they were not known to other nations by 
 their conquests ; they had little connexion with them by commerce ; 
 and they had an antipathy to the persons and manners of strangers. 
 
 10. There were likewise many circumstances of their own man- 
 ners which tended to degrade them in the opinion of other nations. 
 All professions were hereditary in Egypt, and the rank of each was 
 scrupulously settlea; the objects of the religious worship were dif- 
 ferent in different parts of the kingdom, a fertile source of division 
 
 • Recent travellers have almost demonstrated this supposition. 
 
22 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 and controversy ; their peculiar superstitions were of the most ab- 
 surd and debasing nature ; and the manners of the people were ex- 
 tremely loose and profligate. 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 
 OF THE PHOENICIANS. 
 
 1. The Phoenicians were among {lie most early civilized nations 
 of the east. We are indebted to them for the invention of wiiting, 
 and for the first attempts at commercial navigation. The fragments 
 of Sanchoniatho are the most ancient monuments of writing after 
 the books of Moses. Sanchoniatho was contemporary with Joshua, 
 about 1440 A. C. and 5U0 before the cities of Atiica were united by 
 Theseus. 
 
 2. The Phoenicians, (the Canaanites of scripture), were a com- 
 mercial people in the days of Abraham. In the time of the Hebrew 
 judges they had begun to colonize. Their first settlements were 
 Cyprus and Rhodes ; thence they passed into Greece. Sicily, Sardinia, 
 and Spain ; and formed establishments likewise on tne western coast 
 of Africa. The Sidonians carried on an extensive commerce at the 
 time of the Trojan war. 
 
 SECTION V. 
 
 THE HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 1. Greece being indebted for, the first rudiments of civilization to 
 the Egyptians and Phoenicians, its history is properly introduced by 
 an account of those more ancient nations. 
 
 2. The early antiquities of this country are disguised by fable; 
 but from the time when it becomes important, it has been treated of 
 by eminent writers. 
 
 3. The a icient inhabitants of Greece, the Pelasgi, Iliantes, Lele- 
 ges, were extremely barbarous ; but a dawning of civilization arose 
 under the Titans, a Phoenician or Egyptian colony, who settled in 
 the country about the time of Moses. The Titans gave the Greeks 
 the first ideas of religion, and introduced the worship of their own 
 gods, Saturn, Jupiter, Ceres, &c. Succeeding ages confounded those 
 Titans themselves with the gods, and hence sprung numberless fables. 
 
 4. Inachus, the last of the Titans, foundecl the kingdom of Argos, 
 1 856 A. C. ; and Egialtes, one of his sons, the kingdom of Sicyon. 
 
 5. In the following century happened tne deluge of Ogyges, 1796 
 A. C. Then followed a period of barbarism for above 200 years, 
 
 6. Cecrops, the leader of another colony from Egypt, landed in 
 Attica, 1582 A. C. ; and, connecting himself with the last king, suc- 
 ceeded, on his death, to the sovereignty. He built twelve cities, 
 and was eminent, both as a lawgiver and politician. 
 
 7. The Grecian history derives some authenticity at this period 
 from the Chronicle of Paros, preserved among the Arundelian mar- 
 bles at Oxford. The authority of this chronicle has been questioned 
 of late, and many arguments adduced presumptive of its being a 
 forgery ; but, on a review of the whole controversy, we judge the ar- 
 guments for its authenticity to preponderate. It fixes the dates of the 
 
ANCIENT HISTORY. 23 
 
 most remarkable events in the history of Greece, from the time of 
 Cecrops down to the age of Alexander the great. 
 
 8. Cranaus succeeded Cecrops, in whose time happened two re- 
 markable events recorded in the Chronicle of Paros : the judgment 
 of the areopagus between Mars and Neptune, two princes of Thessa- 
 ly ; and the deluge of Deucalion. The court of areopagus, at Athens, 
 was instituted by Cecrops. The number of its judges varied at differ- 
 ent periods, from nine to fifty-one. The deluge of Deucalion, magni- 
 fied and disguised by the poets, was probably only a partial inundation. 
 
 9. Amphyction, the contemporary of Cranaus, if the founder of 
 the amphyctionic council, must have possessed extensive views of 
 policy. This council, from a league of twelve cities, became a 
 representative assembly of the states of Greece, and had the most 
 admirable political effects in uniting the nation, and giving it a com- 
 mon interest. 
 
 10. Cadmus, about 1519, A. C, introduced alphabetic writing into 
 Greece, from Phoenicia. The alphabet then had only sixteen letters ; 
 and the mode of writing (termed Lomtraphcdon), was alternately from 
 right to left and left to right. From this period the Greeks made 
 rapid advances in civilization. 
 
 SECTION VI. 
 
 REFLECTIONS ON THE FIRST AND RUDEST PERIODS OF 
 THE GRECIAN HISTORY. 
 
 1. The country of Greece presents a large, irregular peninsula, 
 intersected by many chains of mountains, separating its different 
 districts, and opposing natural impediments to general intercourse, 
 and therefore to rapid civilization. The extreme barbarism of the 
 Pelasgi, who are said to have been cannibals, and ignorant of the 
 use of fire, has its parallel in modern barbarous nations. There 
 were many circumstances that retarded the progress of the Greeks 
 to refinement. The introduction of a national religion was best fit- 
 ted to remove those obstacles. Receiving this new system of theolo- 
 gy from strangers, and entertaining at first very confused ideas of it, 
 they would naturally blend its doctrines and worship with the notion-, 
 of religion which they formerly possessed ; and hence we observe 
 only partial coincidences of the Grecian with the Egyptian and 
 Phoenician mythologies. It has been a vain and wearisome labour oi 
 modern mythological writers, to attempt to trace all the fables of anti- 
 quity, and the various systems of pagan theology, up to one common 
 source. The difficulty of this is best shown, by comparing the differ- 
 ent and most contradictory solutions of the same fable given by differ- 
 ent mythologists ; as, for example, lord Bacon and the abbe Banier. 
 Some authors, with much indiscretion, have attempted to deduce ai! 
 the Pagan mythologies from the holy scriptures. Such researches 
 are unprofitable, sometimes mischievous. 
 
 2. Superstition, in the early periods, was a predominant charac- 
 teristic of the Greeks. To "this age, and to this character of the 
 people, we refer the origin of the Grecian oracles, and the institu- 
 tion of the public games in honour of the gods. 
 
 The desire of penetrating into futurity, and the superstition com- 
 mon to rude nations, gave rise to the oracles of Delphi, Dodona, &c. 
 
 The resort of strangers to these oracles on particular occasions, 
 led to the celebration of a festival, and to public games. 
 
24 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 The four solemn games of the Greeks, particularly termed iqpot* 
 were the Olympic, the Pythian, the Nemean, and the Isthmian. 
 They consisted principally in contests of skill in all the athletic ex- 
 ercises, and the prizes were chiefly honorary marks of distinction. 
 Archhishop Potter, in his Archaibgia Grceca, fully details their par- 
 ticular nature. These games had excellent political effects, in pro- 
 moting national union, in diffusing the love of glory, and training the 
 youth to martial exercises. They cherished at once a heroical and 
 superstitious spirit, which led to the formation of extraordinary arid- 
 hazardous enterprises. 
 
 SECTION VII. 
 
 EARLY PERIOD OF THE GRECIAN HISTORY. THE ARGO- 
 NAUTIC EXPEDITION. WARS OF THEBES AND OF TROY. 
 
 1 . The history of Greece, for a period of 300 years preceding 
 the Trojan war, is intermixed with fables ; but contains, at the same 
 time, many facts entitled to credit, as authentic. Erectheus, or Erich- 
 thonius, either a Greek who had visited Egypt, or the leader of a 
 new Egyptian colony, cultivated the plains of Eleusis, and instituted 
 the Eleusinian mysteries, in imitation of the Egyptian games of Isis. 
 These mysteries were of a religious and moral nature, conveying the 
 doctrines of the unity of God, the immortality of the soul, and a 
 future state of reward and punishment. Cicero speaks of them 
 with high encomium. But the ceremonies connected with them 
 seem to be childish and ridiculous. 
 
 2. Theseus laid the foundation of the grandeur of Attica, by unit- 
 ing its twelve cities, and giving them a common constitution, 1257 
 A. C. 
 
 3. The first great enterprise of the Greeks was the Argonautic 
 expedition, 1263 A. C. (Usher), and 937 A. C. (sir I. Newton). 
 This is supposed to have been both a military and a mercantile ad- 
 venture, and was singularly bold for the times in which it was under- 
 taken. The object was, "to open the commerce of the Euxine sea, 
 and to secure some establishments on its coasts. The astronomer 
 Chiron directed the plan of the voyage, and formed, for the use of 
 the mariners, a scheme of the constellations, fixing with accuracy 
 the solstitial and equinoctial points. Sir Isaac Newton has founded 
 his emendation of the ancient chronology on a calculation of the 
 regular procession of the equinoxes from this period to the present, 
 as well as on an estimate of the medium length of human genera- 
 tions. 
 
 4. The state of the military art at this time in Greece may be 
 estimated from an account of the sieges of Thebes and Troy. 
 
 In these enterprises the arts of attack and defence were very rude 
 jnd imperfect. The siege was entirely of the nature of blockade, and 
 therefore necessarily of long duration. A dispute for the divided 
 sovereignty of Thebes between the brothers Eteocles and Polynlces, 
 gave rise to the war, which was terminated by single combat, is 
 which both were killed. 
 
 5. The sons of the commanders slain in this war renewed the 
 quarrel of their fathers, and occasioned the war of the Epigmm^ 
 subject on which Homer is said to have written a poem, now lok, 
 equal to the Iliad and Odyssey. 
 
ANCIENT HISTORY. 2b 
 
 G. The detail of the war of Troy rests chiefly on the authority 
 of {iomer, and ought not, in spite of modern scepticism to he reius- 
 ed, in its principal facts, the credit of a true history. After a block- 
 ade of ten years Troy was taken, either by storm or surprise, 1184 
 A. C, and being set on fire in the night, was burnt to the ground ; 
 not a vestige of its ruins existing at the present day. The empire fell 
 from that moment. The Greeks settled a colony near the spot, and 
 the rest of the kingdom was occupied by the Lydians. 
 
 7. Military expeditions at this time were carried on only in the 
 spring and summer. In a tedious siege the winter was a season of 
 armistice. The science of military tactics was then utterly unknown, 
 every battle being a multitude of single combats. The soldier had 
 no pay but his share of the booty, divided by the chiefs. The 
 weapons of war were the sword, the bow, the javelin, the club, th^ 
 hatchet, and the sling. A helmet of brass, an enormous shield, a 
 cuirass, and buskins, were the weapons of defence. 
 
 SECTION VIII. 
 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE GREEK COLONIES. 
 
 1. About eighty years after the taking of Troy, began the war of 
 the Heraclidae. Hercules, the son of Amphitryon, sovereign of 
 Mycenas, was banished from his country with all his family, while 
 the crown was possessed by a usurper. His descendants, after the 
 period of a century, returned to reloponnesus, and subduing ali 
 their enemies, took possession of the states of Mycenae, Argos, and 
 Lacedaemon. 
 
 2. A long period of civil war and bloodshed succeeded, and Greece, 
 divided among a number of petty tyrants, suffered equally the mis- 
 eries of oppression and anarchy. 
 
 Codrus, king of Athens, showed a singular example of patriotism, 
 in devoting himself to death for his country; yet the Athenians, 
 weary of monarchy, determined to make the experiment of a popu- 
 lar constitution. Medon, the son of Codrus. was elected chief magis- 
 trate, with the title of archon. This is trie commencement of the 
 Athenian republic, about 1068 A. C. 
 
 3. It was at this time that the Greeks began to colonize. The 
 oppression which they suffered at home forced many of tbem to 
 abandon their country, and seek refuge in other lands. A large bocrf" 
 of Cohans from Peloponnesus founded twelve cities in the Lesser 
 Asia, of which Smyrna was the most considerable. A troop of 
 Ionian exiles built Ephesus, Colophon, Clazomene, and other towns; 
 giving to their new settlements the name of their native country, 
 Ionia. The Dorians sent off colonies to Italy and Sicily, founding^in 
 the former, Tarentum and Locri, and in the latter, Syracuse and 
 Arigentum. The mother country considered its colonies as emai> 
 cipated children. These speedily attained to eminence and splen- 
 < io a r, rivalling and surpassing their parent states: and the example 
 of their prosperity, which was attributed to the freedom of their 
 governments, incited the states of Greece, oppressed by a number of 
 petty despots, to put an end to the regal government, and try the 
 experiment ot a popular constitution. Athens and Thebes gave the 
 6rst examples, which were soon followed by all the rest 
 
 4. These infant republics demanded new laws; and it w»fl nec<»s- 
 
 C 
 
26 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 sary that some enlightened citizen should arise, who had discernment 
 to perceive what system of legislation was most adapted to the char- 
 acter of his native state ; who had abilities to compile such a system, 
 and sufficient authority with his countrymen to recommend and en- 
 force it. Such men were the Spartan Lycurgus and the Athenian 
 Solon. 
 
 SECTION IX. 
 THE REPUBLIC OF SPARTA. 
 
 1. The origin of this political system has given rise to much inge- 
 nious disquisition among the modems, and affords a remarkable in- 
 stance of the passion for systematizing. It is a prevailing propensity 
 with modem philosophers to reduce every thing to general princi- 
 ples. Man, say they, is always the same animal, and, when placed 
 in similar situations, will always exhibit a similar appearance. His 
 manners, his improvements, the government and laws under which 
 he lives, arise necessarily from the situation in which we find him ; 
 and all is the result of a few general laws of nature, which operate 
 universally on the human species. But in the ardour of this passion 
 tor generalizing, these philosophers often forget, that it is the Knowl- 
 edge of facts which can alone lead to the discovery of general laws : 
 a knowledge not limited to the history of a single age or nation, but 
 extended to that of the whole species in every age and climate. 
 Antecedently to such knowledge, all historical system is mere ro- 
 mance. 
 
 2. Of this nature is a late theory of the constitution of Sparta, first 
 started by Mr. Browne, in his Essay on Civil Liberty ; and from him 
 adopted by later writers. It thus accounts for the origin of the. Spar- 
 tan constitution.* " The army of the I leraclida?., when they came to 
 recover the dominion of their ancestors, was composed of Dorians, 
 from Thessaly, the most barbarous of all the Greek tribes. The 
 Ach»ans, the. ancient inhabitants of Laconia, were compelled to seek 
 new habitations, while the barbarians of Thessaly took possession 01 
 their country. Of nil the nations which are the "subject of historical 
 record, this people bore the nearest resemblance to the rude Ameri- 
 cans, An American tribe where a chief presides, where the council 
 of the aged deliberate, and the assembly of the people gives their 
 voice, is on the eve of such a political establishment as the Spartan 
 constitution." The Dorians or Thessalians settled in Lacedamion. 
 manifested, it is said, the same manners with all other nations in a 
 barbarous state. Lycurgus did no more than arrest them in that state, 
 by forming their usages into laws. He checked them at once in the 
 first stage of their improvement. "He put forth a bold hand to that 
 spring which is in society, and stopt its motion." 
 
 3. This theory, however ingenious, is confuted by facts. Ail au- 
 cient authors agree, that Lycurgus operated a total change on the 
 Spartan manners, and on the constitution of his country ; while the 
 moderns have discovered that he made no change on either. The 
 most striking features of the manners and constitution of Sparta had 
 not the smallest resemblance to those of any rude nations with which 
 we are acquainted. The communion of slaves and of many other 
 species of property, the right of the state in the children of all the 
 
 * Logsm'i Philosophy of Hiitory, &c. 
 
ANCIENT HISTORY. ' £7 
 
 citizens, their common education, the public tables, the equal divi- 
 sion of lands, the oath of government between the kings and people, 
 have no parallel in the history of any barbarous nation. 
 
 4. The real history of Sparta and its constitution is therefore not 
 to be found in modern theory, but in the writings of the Greek his- 
 torians, and these are our sole authorities worthy of credit. 
 
 After the return of the Heraciidae, Sparta was divided between 
 the two sous of Aristodemus, Eurysthenes, and Procles, who jointly 
 reigned; and this double monarchy, transmitted to the descendants 
 of each, continued iri the separate branches for near 900 years. A 
 radical principle of disunion, and consequent anarchy, made the want 
 of constitutional laws be severely felt. Lycurgus, brother of Poly- 
 decte.3* one of the kings of Sparta, a man distinguished alike by his 
 abilities and virtues, was invested, by the concurring voice oi the 
 sovereigns and people, with the important duty of reforming and new- 
 uiodefli'ag; the r institution of his country, 881 A. C. 
 
 b. Lycurgus instituted a senate, elective, of twenty-eight mem 
 hers ; whose office was to preserve a just balance between the pow- 
 er of the kings and that of the people. Nothing could come before 
 th" assembly of the people which had not received the previous con- 
 sent of the .senate ; and, on the other hand, no judgment of the sen- 
 Ui. was effectual without the sanction of the people. The kings pre- 
 sided in the senate; they were the generals of the republic: but 
 they could plan no enterprise without the consent of a council of the 
 citizens. 
 
 6. Lycurgus bent his attention most particularly to the regulation 
 of manners; and one great principle pervaded his whole system : 
 Luxury 11 toe bane of society. 
 
 Tie divided the territory of the republic into 39,000 equal portions, 
 among the whole of its free citizens. 
 
 lie substituted iron money for gold and silver, prohibited the prac- 
 tice of commerce, abolished all useless arts, and allowed even those 
 necessary to life to be practised only by the slaves. 
 
 The whole citizens made their principal repast at the public ta- 
 bles. The meals were coarse and parsimonious ; the conversation 
 was lilted to improve the youth in virtue, and cultivate the patriotic 
 spirit. 
 
 The Spartan education rejected all embellishments of the under- 
 standing." It nourished only the severer virtues. It taught the du- 
 ties of religion, obedience to the laws, respect for parents, reverence 
 lor old age, inflexible honour, undaunted courage, contempt of dan- 
 ger and of death ; above all, the love of glory and of their country 
 
 7. But the general excellence of the institutions of Lycurgus was 
 impaired by many blemishes. The manners oi' the Lacedaemonian 
 women were shamefully loose. They frequented the baths, and 
 fought naked in the palaestra promiscuously with the men. Theft 
 \\ as a part of Spartan education. The youth were taught to subdue 
 the feelings of humanity ; the slaves were treated with the most bar- 
 barous rigour, and often massacred for sport. The institutions oi 
 Lycurgus had no other end than to form a nation of soldiers. 
 
 8. A faulty part of the constitution of Sparta was the office of the 
 ephori : magistrates elected by the people, whose power, though in 
 some respects subordinate, was in others paramount to that of the 
 kings and senate. 
 
28 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 SECTION X. 
 THE REPUBLIC OF ATHENS. 
 
 1. On the abolition of the regal office at Athens, the change of 
 the constitution was more nominal than real. The archonship was, 
 during three centuries, a perpetual and hereditary magistracy. In 
 754 A. C. this office became decennial. In 648 the archons were 
 annually elected and were nine in number, with equal authority.^ 
 Under all these changes the state was convulsed, and the condition of 
 the people miserable. 
 
 2. Draco, elevated to the archonship G24 A. C, projected a reform 
 in the constitution of his country, and thought to repress disorders by 
 the extreme severity of penal laws. But his talents were unequal 
 to the task he had undertaken. 
 
 3. Solon, an illustrious Athenian, of the race of Codrus, attained 
 the dignity of archon 594 A. C, and was entrusted with the care of 
 framing for his country a new form of government, and a new sys- 
 tem of laws. He possessed extensive knowledge, but wanted that 
 intrepidity of mind which is necessary to the character of a great 
 statesman. His disposition was mild and temporizing ; and, without 
 attempting to reform the manners of his countrymen, he accommo- 
 dated his system to their prevailing habits and passions. 
 
 4. The people claimed the sovereign power, and they received 
 it ; the rich demanded offices and dignities : the system of Solon 
 accommodated them to the utmost of their wishes. He divided the 
 citizens into four classes, according to the measure of their wealth. 
 To the three first, the richer citizens, belonged all the offices of the 
 commonwealth. The fourth, the poorer class, more numerous than 
 all the other three, had an equal right of suffrage with them in the 
 public assembly, wnere all laws were framed, and measures of state 
 decreed. Consequently the weight of the latter decided every ques- 
 tion. 
 
 6. To regulate in some degree the proceedings of those assem- 
 blies, and balance the weight of the popular interest, Solon instituted 
 a senate of 400 members (afterwards enlarged to 500 and 600), 
 with whom it was necessary that every measure should originate,. 
 before it became the subject of discussion in the assembly of the 
 people. 
 
 6. To the court of areopagus he committed the guardianship of 
 the laws, and the power of enforcing them; with the supreme 
 administration of justice. To this tribunal belonged likewise the 
 custody of the treasures of the state, the care of religion, and a 
 tutorial power over all the youth of the republic. The number of 
 its judges was various at different periods, and the most immaculate 
 purity of character was essential to that high office. 
 
 7. The authority of the senate and areopagus imposed seme check 
 on the popular assemblies ; but as these possessed the ultimate right 
 of decision, it w T as always in the power of ambitious demagogues to 
 sway them to the worst of purposes. Continual factions divided the 
 people, and corruption pervaded every department of the state. 
 The public measures, the result of the interested schemes of indi- 
 viduals, were often equally absurd as they were profligate. Athens 
 often saw her best patriots, the wisest and most virtuous of her citi- 
 zens, shamefully sacrificed to the most depraved and most abandoned. 
 
ANCIENT HISTORY. $$ 
 
 0. The particular laws of the Athenian state are more deserving of 
 encomium than its form of government. The laws relating to debt- 
 ors were mill and equitable, as were those which regulated the 
 treatment of slaves. Bat the vassalage of women, or their abso- 
 lute subjection to the control of their nearest relations, approached 
 too near to a state of servitude. The proposer of a law found on 
 experience impolitic was liable to punishment; an enactment ap- 
 parently rigorous, but probably necessary in a popular government 
 
 9. One most iniquitous and absurd peculiarity of the Athenian, and 
 some other governments of Greece, was the. practice of the ostra- 
 cism, a ballot of all the citizens, in which each wrote down the name 
 oi' the person in his opinion most obnoxious to censure ; and he who 
 was thus marked out by the greatest number of voices, though un- 
 impeached of any crime, was banished for ten years from his coun- 
 try. This barbarous and disgraceful institution, ever capable of the 
 grossest abuse, and generally subservient to the worst of purposes, 
 has stained the character of Athens with many flagrant instances 
 of public ingratitude. 
 
 10. The manners of the Athenians formed the most striking con- 
 trast to those of the Lacedaemonians. At Athens the arts were in 
 the highest esteem. The Lacedaemonians despised the arts, and all 
 who cultivated them. At Athens peace was the natural state of the 
 republic, and the refined enjoyment ot life the aim of all its subjects. 
 ■Sparta was entirely a military establishment ; and her subjects, when 
 unengaged in war, were totally unoccupied. Luxury was the char- 
 acter of the Athenian, as frugality of the Spartan. They were 
 
 'equally jealous of their liberty, and equally brave in war. The 
 courage of the Spartans sprang from constitutional ferocity, that oi 
 the Athenian from the principle of honour. 
 
 11. The Spartan government had acquired solidity, while all the 
 rest of Greece was torn by domestic dissensions, Athens, a prey to 
 faction and civil disorder, surrendered her liberties to Pisistratus, 550 
 A. C. ; who, after various turns of fortune, established himself firm- 
 ly in the sovereignty, exercised a splendid and munificent dominion, 
 completely gained the affections of ttie people, and transmitted a 
 peaceable crown to Ids sons Hippias and llipparchus. 
 
 12. Hernaodias and Aristogiton undertook to restore the democra- 
 cy ; and succeeded in the attempt. llipparchus was put to death ; 
 and Hippias, dethroned, solicited a foreign aid to replace him in the 
 sovereignty. Darius, the son of Hystaspes, meditated at this time 
 the conquest of Greece. Hippias took advantage of the views of 
 an enemy against his native country, and Greece was now involved 
 in a war with Persia. 
 
 SECTION XI. 
 
 OF THE STATE OF THE PERSIAN EMPIRE, AND ITS HISTORY 
 DOWN TO THE WAR WITH GREECE. 
 
 1. The first empire of the Assyrians ended under Sardanapalus, and 
 three monarchies arose upon its ruins, Nineveh, Babylon, and the 
 kingdom of the Medes. 
 
 2. The history of Babylon and of Nineveh is very imperfectly 
 known. The Medes, hitherto independent tribes, were united under 
 a monarchy by Dejoces. His son Phraortes conquered Persia, but w *« 
 
 C 2 
 
30 ANCIENT HISTORY 
 
 himself vanquished by Nabuchodonosor 1., king of Assyria, and put 
 to death. Nabuchodonosor II. led the Jews into captivity, took Je- 
 l-usalem and Tyre, and subdued Egypt. 
 
 3. The history of Cyrus is involved in great uncertainty; nor is 
 it possible to reconcile or apply to one man the different accounts 
 given of him by Herodotus, Ctesias. and Xenophon. Succeeding 
 his father Cambyses in the throne of Persia, and his uncle Cyaxares 
 in the sovereignty of the Medes, he united these empires, vanquish- 
 ed the Babylonians and Lydians, subjected the greatest part of the 
 Lesser Asia, and made himself master of Syria and Arabia. 
 
 4. He was succeeded by his son Cambyses, distinguished only as 
 a tyrant and a madman. 
 
 5. After the death of Cambyses, Darius, the son of Hysiaspes, 
 was elected sovereign of Persia, a prince of great enterprise and 
 ambition. Unfortunate in a rash expedition against the Scythians, 
 he projected and achieved the conquest of India. Inflated with suc- 
 cess, he now meditated ah invasion of Greece, and cordially entered 
 into the views of Hippias, who sought by his means to regain the 
 sovereignty of Athens. 
 
 6. Government, .Manners, Lcta% $& of Ike Ancient Persians. The 
 government of Persia wasan absolute monarchy ; the will of the sov- 
 ereign being subject to no control, and his person revered as sacred: 
 yet the education bestowed by those monarchs on their children was 
 calculated to inspire every valuable quality of a sovereign. 
 
 The ancient Persians in general bestowed the utmost attention on 
 the education of youth. Children at the age of live were committed 
 to the care of the magi, for the improvement of their mind and 
 morals. They were trained at the same time to every manly exercise. 
 The sacred books of the Zendavesta promised to every worthy parent 
 the imputed merit and reward of all the. good actions of his chil- 
 dren. 
 
 7. Luxurious as they were in after times, the early Persians were 
 distinguished for their temperance, bravery, and virtuous simplicity 
 of manners. They were all trained to the.Qse of arms, and display- 
 ed great intrepidity in Avar. The custom of the women following 
 their armies to the held, erroneously attributed to effeminacy, was 
 a remnant of barbarous manners. 
 
 8. The kingdom of Persia was divided into several provinces, each 
 under a governor or satrap, who was accountable, to the sovereign 
 for the whole of his conduct. The prince, at stated times, visited 
 his provinces in person, correcting all abuses, easing ihe burdens 
 of the oppressed, and encouraging agriculture and the practice of 
 the useful arts. The laws of Persia were mild and equitable, and 
 the utmost purity was observed in the administration of justice. 
 
 9. The religion of the ancient Persians is of great antiquity. It 
 is conjectured that there were t\vo*Zoroasters ; the first, the founder 
 of this ancient religion, and of whom are recorded miracles and 
 prophecies ; the second, a reformer of that religion, contemporary 
 with Darius the son of Hystaspes. The Zendavesta, or sacred book, 
 compiled by the former, was improved and purified by the latter. 
 It has been lately translated into French by M. Anquetil, and appears 
 to contain, amidst a mass of absurdity, some sublime truths, and ex- 
 cellent precepts of morality. The theology of the Zendavesta is 
 founded on the doctrine of two opposite principles, a good and an 
 evil, Ormusd and Ahriman, eternal beings, who divide between them 
 Ihe government of the universe, and whose warfare must endure till 
 
ANCIENT HISTORY. 3J 
 
 the end of 12,000 years, when the good will finally prevail over the 
 evil. A separation will ensue of the votaries of each : the just shall 
 be admitted to the immediate enjoyment of Paradise ; the wicked, 
 after a limited purification by tire, shall ultimately he allowed to par- 
 take in the blessings of eternity. Ormusd is to he adored through 
 the medium of his greatest works, the sun, moon, and stars. The 
 tire, the symbol of the sun, the air, the earth, the water, have their 
 subordinate worship. 
 
 The morality of the Zetubmsla is best known from its abridg- 
 ment, the Sadder^ complied about three centuries ago by the modern 
 Guebrcs. It inculcates a chastened species of epicurism; allowing 
 a free indulgence of the passions, while consistent with the welfare 
 of society. It prohibits equally intemperance and ascetic mortifica- 
 tion. It recommends, as precepts of religion, the cultivation of the 
 earth, the planting of fruit-trees, the destruction of noxious animals, 
 the bringing water to a barren laud. 
 
 10. Such were the ancient Persians. But their character had un- 
 dergone a great change before the period of the \va*r with Greece. 
 At tliis lime they were a degenerate and corrupted people. Athens 
 had-recently thrown off the yoke of the Pisistratidae, and highly val- 
 ued her new liberty. Sparta, in the ardour of patriotism, forget all 
 jealousy of her rival state, and cordially united in the defence of 
 their Gommon country. The Persians, in this contest, had no other 
 advantage than that of numbers, an unequal match for superior hero- 
 ism and military skill. 
 
 SECTION XI 1. 
 
 THE WAR BETWEEN GREECE AND PERSIA. 
 
 1 . The ambition of Darius, the son of Hystaspes, heightened by the 
 passion of revenge, gave rise to the project of that monarch for the 
 invasion of Greece. The Athenians had aided the people of Ionia in 
 an attempt to throw off the yoke of Persia, and burnt and ravaged 
 Sardis, the capital of ' Lydia. Darius speedily reduced the lonians to 
 submission, and then turned his arms against the Greeks, their allies; 
 the exile liippias eagerly prompting the expedition. 
 
 2. After an insolent demand of submission, which the Greeks scorn- 
 fully refused, Darius began a hostile attack both by sea and land. 
 The first Persian fleet was wrecked in doubling the promontory of 
 Athos; a second, of 600 sail, ravaged the Grecian islands; while an 
 immense army landing in Eubcea, poured down with impetuosity on 
 Attica. The Athenians met them on the plain of Marathon, and, 
 headed by Miltiades, defeated thern with prodigious slaughter, 490 
 A. C. The loss of the Persians in this battle was 6,300, and that of 
 the Athenians 19a 
 
 3. The merit of Miltiades, signally displayed in this great battle* 
 was repaid by his country with the most shocking ingratitude. Ac- 
 cused of treason for an unsuccessful attack on the isle of Paros, hi* 
 sentence of death was commuted into a fine of fifty talents ; which 
 being unable to pay he was thrown into prison, and there died of his 
 wounds. 
 
 4. The glory of ungrateful Athens was yet nobly sustained in the 
 Persian war by Themistocles and Aristides. Darius dying was suc- 
 ceeded by his son Xerxes, the heir of his father's ambition, but not o? 
 
32 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 his abilities. He armed, as is said, five millions of men, for the con- 
 quest of Greece; 1,200 ships of war, and 3,000 ships of burden. 
 Landing in Thessaly he proceeded, by rapid marches, to Thermop- 
 ylae, a narrow defile on the Sinus Maiiaais. The Athenians and 
 Spartans, aided only by the Thespians, Plataeans, and Eginetos, de- 
 termined to withstand the invader. Leonidas, king of Sparta, was 
 chosen to defend this important pass with 6,000 men. Xerxes, after 
 i weak attempt to corrupt him, imperiously summoned him to lay 
 down his arms. Let him come, said Leonidas", and take them. For two 
 •lays the Persians in vain strove to force their way, and were repeat- 
 edly repulsed with great slaughter. An unguarded track being at 
 length discovered, the defence of the pass became a fruitless attempt 
 on the part of the Greeks. Leonidas, foreseeing certain destruction, 
 commanded all to retire but 300 of his countrymen. His motive was 
 to give the Persians a just idea of the spirit of that foe whom they 
 had to encounter. He, with his brave Spartans, were all cut off to a 
 man, 430 A. C, A monument, erected on the spot, bore this noble 
 inscription, written by Simonides: O stronger! tell it at Lacedcernon, 
 thai zee died here in obedience to her laws. 
 
 5. The Persians poured down upon Attica. ' The inhabitants of 
 Athens, after conveying their women and children to the islands for 
 security, betook themselves to their fleet, abandoning the city, which 
 the Persians pillaged and burnt. The fleet of the Greeks, consisting 
 of 380 sail, was attacked in the straits of Salamis by that of the Per- 
 sians, amounting to 1,200 ships. Xerxes himself beheld from an em- 
 inence on the coast the total discomfiture of his squadron. He then 
 tied with precipitation across the Hellespont. A second overthrow. 
 awaited his army by land : for Mardonius, at the. head of 300,000 
 Persians, was totally defeated at Plata?a by the combined army of the 
 Athenians arid Lacedaemonians, 479 A. C. On the same day the 
 Greeks engaged and destroyed the remains of the Persian fleet at 
 Mycale. Prom that day the ambitious schemes of Xerxes were at 
 an end ; and his inglorious life was soon after terminated by assassina- 
 tion. He was succeeded in the throne of Persia by his son Artaxerxes 
 Longimanus, 464 A. C. 
 
 6. At this time the national character of the Greeks was at its highest 
 elevation. The common danger had annihilated all partial jealousies 
 between the stales, and given them union as a nation. But with the 
 cessation of danger those jealousies recommenced. Sparta, meanly 
 opposed the rebuilding of deserted Athens. Athens, rising again into 
 splendour, saw with pleasure the depopulation of Sparta by an earth- 
 quake, and hesitated to give her aid in that juncture of calamity 
 against a rebellion of her slaves. 
 
 7. Cimon, the son of Miitiades, after expelling the Persians from 
 Thrace, attacked and destroyed their fleet on the coast of'Pamphylia, 
 ;md, landing his troops, gained a signal victory over their army the 
 same day. Supplanted in the public favour by the arts of his rival 
 Pericles, he suffered a temporary exile, to return only with higher 
 popularity, and to signalize himself still more in the service of his 
 ungrateful country. He attacked and totally destroyed the Persian 
 fleet of 300 sail, and, landing in Cilicia, completed his triumph, by 
 defeating 300,000 Persians under ?. I • gabyz es, 460 A. C. Artaxerxes 
 now had the prudence to sue for peace, which was granted by the 
 Greeks, on terms most honourable o tne nation. 1 hey stipulated 
 for the freedom of all the Grecian cities of Asia, and that the fleets of 
 Persia should not approach their coasts from the Euxine to the ex~ 
 
ANCIENT HISTORY. . 33 
 
 treme boundary of Pamphyiia. The last fifty years were the period 
 of the highest glory of the Greeks; and they owed their prosperity 
 entirely to their union. The peace with Persia, dissolving that con- 
 nexion, brought back the jealousies between the predominant states, 
 the intestine disorders of each, and the national weakness. 
 
 8. The martial and the patriotic spirit began visibly to decline in 
 Athens. An acquaintance with Asia, and an importation of her 
 wealth, introduced a relish for Asiatic manners and luxuries. With 
 the Athenians, however, this luxurious spirit was under the guidance 
 of taste and genius. It led o the cultivation of the finer arts; and 
 the age of Pericles, though the national glory was in its wane, is the 
 asra of the highest internal splendour and magnificence of Greece, 
 
 SECTION XIII. 
 ACE OF PERICLES. 
 
 1. Republics, equally with ^ monarchies, are generally regulated 
 by a single will : only, in the former there is a'more frequent change 
 of masters. Pericles ruled Athens with little less than arbitrary 
 sway ; and Athens pretended at this time to the command of Greece. 
 She held the allied states in the most absolute subjection, and lavished 
 their subsidies, bestowed for the national defence, in magnificent 
 buildings, games, and festivals, for her own citizens. The tributary 
 states loudly complained, but durst not call this domineering republic 
 to account ; and the war of Peloponnesus, dividing the nation into 
 two great parties, bound the less cities to the strictest subordination 
 on the predominant powers. 
 
 2. The state of Corinth had been included in the last treaty be- 
 tween Athens and Sparta. The Corinthians waging war with the 
 
 f>eople of Corey ra, an ancient: colony of their own," both parties so- 
 icited the aid of Athens, which took part with the latter: a measure 
 which the Corinthians complained of, not only as an infraction of the 
 treaty with Sparta, but as a breach of a general rule of the national 
 policy, that no foreign power should interfere in the disputes between 
 a colony and its parent state. War was proclaimed on this ground 
 between Athens and Lacedzsmon, each supported by its respective 
 allies. The detail of the war, which continued for twenty-eight 
 years, with various and alternate success, is to be found in Thucyd- 
 ides. Pericles died before its termination ; a splendid ornament of 
 his country, but a corrupter of its manner's. Alcibiades ran a similar 
 career, with equal talents, equal ambition, and still less purity oj 
 moral principle. In the interval of a truce with Sparta he inconsid- 
 erately projected the conquest of Sicily; and, failing in the attempt, 
 was, on tiis return to Athens, condemned to death for treason, fie 
 hesitated not to wreak his vengeance against his country, by selling 
 his services, first to Sparta, and afterwards to Persia. Finally, h« 
 purchased his peace with his country, by betraying the power 
 which protected him, and returned to Athens the idol of a populace 
 as versatile as worthless. 
 
 3. A fatal defeat of the Athenian fleet at .'Egos Potamos, by Ly- 
 sander, reduced Athens to the last extremity; antTthe Lacedaemonians 
 blockaded the city by land and sea. The war was ended by the 
 absolute submission of the Athenians, who agreed to demolish their 
 port, to limit their fleet to twelve ships, and undertake for the futon* 
 
 5 
 
34 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 no military enterprise-, but under command of the Lacedaemonians, 
 405 A. C. 
 
 4, To the same Lysander, who terminated the Peloponnesian war 
 so gloriously for Lacedaemon, history ascribes the first great breach 
 of the constitution of his country, by the introduction of go'd into 
 that republic. Lysander, after the reduction of Athens, abolished 
 the popular government in that state, and substituted in its place 
 thirty tyrants, whose power was absolute. The most emiuent ni 
 the citizens fled from their country; but a band cf patriots, headed 
 by Tlirasybulus, attacked, vanquished, and expelled the usurpers, 
 and once more re-established the democracy. 
 
 5. One event, which happened at this time, reflected mere disgrace 
 en the Athenian name than their nation;)! humiliation : this was the per- 
 secution and death of Socrates, a philosopher who was hims< f the 
 pattern of every virtue which he taught. The sophists, whose futile 
 logic he derided and exposed, represented him as an enemy to the 
 religion of his country, because, without regard to the popular su- 
 perstitions, he led the mind to the knowledge of a Supreme Ueing, 
 the creator and ruler of the universe, and to the belief of a future 
 state of retribution. He made his defence with the manly fortitude of 
 eon scions innocence; but in vain : his judges were his personal ene- 
 mies, and he was condemned to die by poison. 397 A. C. (See Sec- 
 tion XXIII, § 5.) 
 
 (3. On the death of Darius Nothus, his eldest son Artaxerxes Mne- 
 mnn succeeded to the empire of Persia. His younger brother Cyrus 
 formed the project of dethroning him, and with the aid of 13,000 
 Greeks engaged him near Babylon, but was defeated and slain; a 
 just regard ot his most culpable enterprise. The remainder of the 
 Grecian army, to the amount of 10,000, under the command of Xen- 
 ophon. inade a most amazing retreat, traversing a hostile country oi 
 * .600 mites in extent, from Babylon to the banks of the Euxine Xen- 
 ophon has beautifully Written the history of this expedition ; but has 
 painted the character of Cyrus in too Haltering colours, and without 
 the smallest censure of his criminal ambition. 
 
 7. The Greek cities of Asia had taken part with Cyrus. Sparta 
 was engaged to defend her countrymen, and consequently was in 
 volved in a war with Persia. Had Athens added her strength, the 
 Greeks might have once more deiied the power of Asia; but jealousy 
 kept the states divided, and even hostile to each other; and the gold 
 of Artaxerxes excited a general league in Greece against Lacedae- 
 mon. Agesilaus, king of Sparta, sustained for a time^ the honour of 
 his country, and won some important battles in Asia.; but ofhers were 
 lost in Greece ; and a naval defeat near Guides utterly destroyed the 
 Lacedaemonian fleet. Finally, to escape total destruction, the Spartans 
 sued for peace, and obtained it by the sacrifice to Persia of all the 
 Asiatic colonies, 387 A. C. Artaxerxes further demanded, and obtain- 
 ed for his allies the Athenians, the islands of Scj res, Lemnos, and Im- 
 bros : a disgraceful treaty; a mortifying picture of the humiliation of 
 the Greeks, 
 
ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 SECTION XIV. 
 
 THE REPUBLIC OF THEBES. 
 
 1. While Athens and Sparta wers thus visibly tending to decline, 
 the Theban republic emerged from obscurity, and rose for a time 
 to a degree of splendour eclipsing all its contemporary states. The 
 republic was divided by taction, one party supporting its ancient de- 
 mocracy, and the other aiming at the establishment of an oligarchy. 
 The latter courted the aid of the Spartans, who embraced that occa- 
 sion to take possession of the citadel. Four hundred of the exiled 
 Thebans tied for protection to Athens. Among these was Pelopidas, 
 who planned and accomplished^ the deliverance of his country. Dis- 
 guising himself and twelve of his friends as peasants, he entered 
 Thebes in the evening, and joining a patriotic party of the citizens 
 they surprised tne heads of the usurpation amid the tumult of a feast, 
 and" put them all to death. Epaminondas, the friend of Pelopidas. 
 shared with him in the glory of this enterprise ; and attacking, wit:! 
 the aid of 5,000 Athenians, l lie Lacedaemonian garrison, drove them 
 entirely out of the Theban territory. 
 
 2. A war necessarily ensued between Thebes and Sparta^ in which 
 the former had the aid of Athens. This, however, was but for a sea- 
 son. Thebes singly opposed the power of Sparta, and the league ot 
 Greece: but Epaminondas and Pelopidas were hiec generals." The 
 latter, amidst a career of glory, perished in an expedition against 
 the tyrant of Phcrah. Epaminondas, triumphant at Leuctra and Man- 
 tinea, fell in that last engagement, and with him expired the giory oi 
 his country, 363 A. C. Athens and Sparta were humbled at the battle 
 ofMantinea. Thebes was victorious ; but she was undone by the death, 
 of Epaminondas. All parties were tired of the war; and Artaxerxes 
 more powerful among those infatuated states than in his own domin- 
 ions, dictated the terms of the treaty. It was stipulated that each 
 power should retain what it possessed; and that the less states, now 
 tree from the yoke of the greater, should remain so. 
 
 SECTION XV. 
 PHILIP OF MACEDOiS r . 
 
 1. Gkellci; was now in the most abject situation. The spirit ot 
 patriotism appeared utterly extinct, and military glory ^ at an end. 
 Athens seemed to have lost all ambition; the pleasures of luxury had 
 entirely supplanted heroic virtue ; poets, musicians, sculptors, and 
 comedians, were now the only great men of Attica. Sparta, no less 
 changed from the. simplicity of its ancient manners, and its power 
 abridged by the new independency of the states of Peloponnesus, 
 was in no capacity to attempt a recovery of its former greatness. h\ 
 this situation Philip of Macedon formed the ambitious project of bring- 
 ing under his dominion the whole of Greece. 
 
 2. He had mounted the throne of Macedon by popular choice, in 
 violation of the natural right of the nearer heirs to the crown : and 
 he secured his power by the success of his arms against the Illyrians, 
 Paeonians, and Athenians, who espousechthe interest of his competitors. 
 Uniting to great military talents the most consummate artifice ami ad- 
 
36 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 dress, he had his pensionaries in all the states of Greece, who direct- 
 ed to his advantage every public measure. The miserable policy 
 of these states, embroiled in perpetual quarrels, co-operated with his 
 designs. A sacrilegious attempt of the rhocians to plunder the tem- 
 ple of Delphos excited the sacred war, in which almost all the repub- 
 lics took a part Philip's aid being courted by the Thebans and 
 Thessalians, he began hostilities by invading Phoeis, the key to the 
 territory of Attica. iEschines, the orator, bribed to his interest, at- 
 tempted to quiet the alarms of the Athenians, by ascribing to Philip 
 •i design only of punishing sacrilege, and vindicating the cause of 
 Apollo. Demosthenes, with true patriotism exposed the artful de- 
 signs of the invader, and with the most animated eloquence roused 
 his countrymen to a vigorous effort for the preservation of their nat- 
 ural liberties. But the event was unsuccessful The battle of Che- 
 ronaea, fought 337 A. C, decided the fate of Greece, and subjected all 
 (he states to the dominion of the king of Macedon. But it was not 
 his policy to treat them as a conquered people. They retained their 
 separate and independent governments, while he controlled and direct- 
 ed all the national measures. Convoking a general council of the state?, 
 Philip was appointed commander in chief of the forces of the nation; 
 and he laid before them his project for the conquest of Persia, ap- 
 pointing each republic to furnish its proportional subsidies. On the 
 eve of this great enterprise Philip was assassinated by Pausanias, a 
 captain of his guards, in revenge of a private injury, 336 A. C. Tne 
 Athenians, on the death of Philip, meanly expressed the most tumul- 
 tuous joy, in the hope of a recovery of their liberty; but this vision- 
 ary prospect was never realized. The spirit of the nation was gone ; 
 ana 1 in their subsequent revolutions they only changed their masters. 
 
 SECTION XVI. 
 
 ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 
 
 1. Alexander, the son of Philip, succeeded at the age of twenty to 
 the throne of Macedon, and, after a few successful battles against the 
 revolted states, to Oke command of Greece. Assembling the deputies 
 of the nation at Corinth, he communicated to them his resolution of 
 prosecuting the designs of his father for the conquest of Persia. 
 
 2. With an army of 30,000 foot, and 5,000 horse, the sum of 70 tal- 
 ents, and provisions only for a single month, he crossed the Hellespont, 
 and in traversing Phrygia visited the tomb of Achilles. Darius Co- 
 domanus, resolved to crush at once this inconsiderate youth, met him 
 on the banks of the Granicus with 100,000 foot and 10,000 horse. 
 The Greeks swam the river, their king leading the van, and, attack- 
 ing the astonished Persians, left 20,000 dead upon the field, and put to 
 flight their whole army. Drawing from his first success a presage 
 of continued victory, Alexander now sent home his fleet, leaving to 
 his army the sole alternative, that they must subdue Asia or perish. 
 Prosecuting their course for some time without resistance, the Greeks 
 were attacked by the Persians in a narrow valley of Cilicia, near the 
 town of Issus. The Persian host amounted to 400,000 ; but their sit- 
 uation was such that only a small part could come into action, and 
 they were defeated with prodigious slaughter. The loss of the Per- 
 sians in this battle was 1 10,000 ; that of the Greeks (according to Q. 
 Curtius) only 450. 
 
ANCIENT HISTORY. *7 
 
 3. The history of Alexander by Quintus Curtius, though a most 
 elegant composition, is extremely suspicious on the score of authen- 
 tic information. Arrian is the best authority. 
 
 4. The generosity of Alexander was displayed after the battle of 
 Issus. in his attention to his noble prisoners, the mother, the wife, 
 and family of Darius. To the credit of Alexander it must be owned 
 that humanity, however overpowered, and at times extinguished by 
 his passions, certainly formed a part of his natural character. 
 
 5. The consequence of the battle of Issus was the submission of 
 all Syria. Damascus, where Darius had deposited his chief treasures, 
 was betrayed and given up by its governor. The Phoenicians were 
 
 E leased to see themselves thus avenged for the oppression which the} 
 ad suffered under the yoke of Persia. 
 
 6. Alexander had hitherto borne his good fortune with moderation 
 Felix, says Curtius, si fiac coiitinentia ad ultimum -vita perseverare pot ■ 
 uisset ; sed noiulum Fortuna se amino ejus infuderat.* He directed hto 
 course towards Tyre, and desired admittance to perform a sacrifice 
 to Hercules. The Tyrians shut their gates, and maintained for seven 
 months a noble defence. The city was at length taken by storm, 
 and the victor glutted his revenge by the inhuman massacre of 8,000 
 of the inhabitants. The fate of Gaza, gloriously defended by Betis, was 
 equally deplorable to its citizens, and more disgraceful to the con- 
 queror. Ten thousand of the former were sold into slavery, and its 
 brave defender dragged at the wheels of the victors chariot : Glori- 
 ante rege, Ackillem, a quo genus ipse deduceret, imitatwn se esse, parta 
 in hostein capienda.] Curtius. 
 
 7. The taking of Gaza opened Egypt to Alexander, and the whole 
 country submitted without opposition. The course he now pursued 
 demonstrated that in his conquests he followed no determined plan. 
 Amidst the most incredible tatigues, he led his army through the 
 deserts of Lybia, to visit the temple of his father, Jupiter Amnion. Ob 
 his return he built Alexandria, at the mouth of the Nile, afterwards the 
 capital of the Lower Egypt, and one of the most flourishing cities in 
 the world. Twenty other cities of the same name were reared by 
 him in the course of his conquests. It is such works as these that 
 justly entitle the Macedonian to the epithet of Great. By rearing 
 in the midst of deserts those nurseries of population and of industry, 
 he repaired the waste and havoc of his conquests. Except for those 
 monuments of his glory, he would have merited no other epithet 
 than that assigned him by the brahmins of India, The Mighty Murderer. 
 
 3. Returning from Egypt, Alexander traversed Assyria, and was 
 met at Arbela by Darius, at the head of 700,000 men. The Persian 
 had proffered peace, consenting to yield the whole country from the 
 Euphrates to the Hellespont, to gjive Alexander his daughter in mar- 
 riage, and the immense sum ot 10,000 talents. But these terms 
 were haughtily rejected, and peace ottered only upon the unqualified 
 submission of his enemy. The Persians were defeated at Arbela, 
 with the loss of 300,000 men. Dai ius fled from province to province. 
 At length betrayed by Bessus, one of his own satraps, he was cruelly 
 murdered; and the Persian empire, which had subsisted for 206 
 years from the time of Cyrus the great, submitted to the conqueror. 
 330 A. C. 
 
 * Happy if he could have persevered in this temperance to the end <rf 
 his life, but Fortune had not yet poisoned hi3 mind. 
 
 t The king- boasting - that he imitated Achilles, from whom he supposed 
 himself descended, in the infliction of thi3 punishment upon his enemy. 
 
33 ANCrENT HISTORY. 
 
 9, Alexander now projected the conquest of India, firmly persuad- 
 ed that the gods had decreed him the sovereignty of the whole hal> 
 itable globe He penetrated to the Ganges, and would have pro- 
 ceeded to the eastern ocean, if the spirit of his army had kept pace 
 with his ambition. But his troops, seeing no end to their toils, recus- 
 ed to proceed. He returned to the Indus, whence sending round his 
 fleet to the Persian gulf under Nearchus, he marched his army 
 across the desert to Persepolis. ■-..-,. , . , , na , 
 
 10 Indignant that he had found a limit to his conquests, he abandoned 
 himself to every excess of luxury and debauchery. The arrogance 
 of his nature, and the ardour of his passions, heightened by continual 
 intemperance, broke out into the most outrageous excesses ot cruelty, 
 for which, in the few intervals of sober reflection, his ingenuous 
 mind suffered the keenest remorse. Irom Persepolis he returned 
 to Babylon, and there died in a tit of debauch, in the thirty-third year 
 of his age, and thirteenth of his reign, 324 A. C. 
 
 11 Of the character of Alexander the most opposite and contra- 
 dictory estimates have been formed. While by some he is , esteemed 
 
 without combining with these the sober plans ot a profound politician. 
 In a moral view of his character, we see an excellent and ingenuous 
 nature corrupted at length by an unvarying current of success, and a 
 striking example of the fatal violence of the passions, when eminence 
 of fortune removes all restraint, and flattery stimulates to their un- 
 
 controlled indulgence. 
 
 SECTION XVII. 
 
 SUCCESSORS OF ALEXANDER. 
 
 1 \lexa:m)er, on his death-bed, named no successor, but gave his 
 ring to Perdiccas, one of his officers. When his courtiers asked him 
 to whom he wished the empire to devolve upon his death, he replied, 
 4 To the most worthy ;' : and he is said to have added, that he fore- 
 saw this legacy would prepare for him very extraordinary funeral 
 rites; a prediction which was fully verified. 
 
 2 Perdiccas, sensible that his pretensions would not justify a di- 
 rect assumption of the government of this vast empire, brought about 
 a division of the whole among thirty-three of the principal officers ; 
 and trusting to their inevitable dissensions, he proposed by thatmeansp 
 to reduce all of them under his own authority. Hence arose a series 
 of wars and intrigues, of which the detail is barren both of amuse- 
 ment and useful information. It is sufficient to say, that their conse- 
 quence was a total extirpation of the family ot Alexander, and a new 
 partition of the empire into four great monarchies, the snares ot 
 Ptolemy, Lysimachus, Cassander, and Seleucus. Of these the most 
 powerful were that ot Syria under Seleucus and hisuescendants, and 
 that of Egypt the Ptolemies. . 
 
 "We cannot (says CondiUac) hx our attention on the history oi 
 the successors of Alexander, though a great theatre is opened to our 
 yew, a variety of scenes, and multiplied catastrophes. A picture ia 
 often displeasing from the very circumstance of its greatness. \S e 
 
ANCIENT HISTORY. 39 
 
 k»e the connexion of its parts, because the eye cannot take them in 
 at once. Still less will a large picture give us pleasure, if every part 
 of it presents a different scene, each unconnected with the other." 
 .Such is the history of the successors of Alexander. 
 
 SECTION XVIII. 
 
 FALL AND CONQUEST OF GREECE. 
 
 !. Nor is the history of Greece from the period of the death Oi 
 exanderany longer an interesting or pleasing object of contemplati' 
 Demosthenes once more made a noble attempt to vindicate the nation* 
 id freedom, and to rouse his countrymen, the Athenians, to shake eft* 
 the yoke of Macedon. But it was too late. The pacific counsels of 
 PhoCion" suited bettor the languid spirit of this once illustrious people. 
 
 2. The history of the different republics present from this time 
 nothing but a disgusting series of uninteresting revolutions; with the 
 exception only of that last effort made by the Achaean states to re- 
 vi ve the expiring liberty of their country. The republic of Achaia 
 was a league of a few of the smaller states to vindicate their freedom 
 against the domineering spirit of the greater. They committed the 
 government of the league to Aratus of Sicyon, with the title of prse- 
 tor, a young man of high ambition, who immediately conceived the 
 more extensive project of rescuing the whole of Greece from the 
 dominion of Macedon. But the jealousy of the greater states render- 
 ed this scheme abortive. Sparta refused to arrange itself under the 
 guidance of the praetor of Achaia : and Aratus, forgetting his patriotic 
 designs, sought only now to wreak his vengeance against the Lace- 
 daemonians. For this purpose, with the most inconsistent policy, he 
 courted the aid even of the Macedonians: the very tyrants who had 
 enslaved his country. 
 
 3. The period was now come for the intervention of a foreign 
 power, which was to reduce all under its wide-spreading dominion. 
 The Romans were at this time the most powerful of all the contem- 
 porary nations. The people of Etolia, attacked by the Macedonians, 
 with a rash policy besought the aid of the Romans, who, eager to 
 add to their dominion this devoted country, cheerfully obeyed the 
 summons, and speedily accomplished the. reduction of Macedonia. 
 Perseus, its last sovereign, was led captive to Rome, and graced the 
 triumph of Paulus iEmilius, 167 A. C. From that period the Ro- 
 mans Avere hastily advancing to the dominion of all Greece ; a prog- 
 ress in which their art was more conspicuous than their virtue. 
 Tliey gained their end by fostering dissensions between the states, 
 which they directed to their own advantage, corrupting their princi- 
 pal citizens, and using, in fine, every art of the most insidious policy. 
 A pretext was only wanting to unsheath the sword, and this was 
 furnished bv the Achaean states, who insulted the deputies of imperi- 
 al Rome. This drew on them at once the resentment of the Romans. 
 Metellus marched his legions into Greece, gave them battle, and en- 
 tirely defeated them. Mummius the consul terminated the work, 
 and made an easy conquest of the whole of Greece, which from that 
 period became a Roman province, under the name of Achaia, 1 46 A. C 
 
 4. Rome had acquired from her conquests a flood of wealth, and 
 began now to manifest a taste for luxury, and a spirit of refinement- 
 
40 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 In these points Greece was to its conquerors an rostnicter and a 
 model : 
 
 Gracia capta ferum victorem cepit, et artei 
 Intulit agresti Latio.* 
 
 Hence, even though vanquished, it was regarded with a specie* 0/ 
 respect by its ruder masters. 
 
 SECTION XIX. 
 
 POLITICAL REFLECTIONS ARISING FROM THE HISTORY 
 OF THE STATES OF GREECE. 
 
 1. The revolutions which the states of Greece underwent, and the 
 situations into which they were thrown by their connexion and differ- 
 ences with each other, and their wars with foreign nations, were so 
 various, that their history is a school of instruction in political science. 
 The surest test of the truth or falsehood of abstract principles of pol- 
 itics, is their application to actual experience and to the history of 
 nations. 
 
 2. The oppression which the states of Greece suffered under their 
 ancient despots, who were subject to no constitutional control, was a 
 most justifiable motive for their establishing a new form of govern- 
 ment, which promised them the enjoyment of greater political free- 
 dom. We believe too that those new forms of government were fram- 
 ed by their virtuous legislators in the true spirit of patriotism. But 
 as to the real merits of those political fabrics, it is certain that they 
 were very far from corresponding in practice with what was expect- 
 ed from thorn in theory. We seek in vain, either in the history of 
 Athens or Lacedaemon, for the beautiful idea of a well-ordered common- 
 wealth. The revolutions of government which they were ever ex- 
 periencing, the eternal fictions with which they were embroiled, 
 plainly demonstrate that there wag a radical defect in the structure ol" 
 the machine, which precluded the possibility of regular motion. The 
 condition of the people under those governments was such as pap- 
 took more of servitude and oppression, than that of the subjects ot the 
 most dospotic monarchies. The slaves formed the actual majority of 
 the inhabitants in all the states of Greece. To these the tree citi- 
 zens were rigorous bond-masters. Bondage being a consequence of 
 the contraction of debts even by freemen, a great proportion of these 
 was subject to the tyrannical control of their fellow-citizens. Nor 
 were the richer classes in the actual enjoyment of independence. 
 They were perpetually divided into factions, which servilely ranked 
 themselves under the banners of the contending chiefs of the repub- 
 lic. Those parties were kept together solely by corruption. The 
 whole was therefore a system of servility and debasement of spirit, 
 which left nothing of a free or ingenuous nature in the condition of h> 
 dividuals, nor any thing that could furnish encomium to a real advo- 
 cate for the dignity of human nature. 
 
 Such was the condition of the chief republics of antiquity. Their 
 governments promised in theory, what they never conterred in prac- 
 tice, the political happiness of the citizens. 
 
 • For conquered Greece 3ubdued her conquering foe, 
 And taught rude Rome, the arts of peace to know. 
 
ANCIENT HISTORY. 41 
 
 3. u In democracy (says Dr. Fergusson) men must love equality , 
 (hey must respect the rights of their fellow-citizens ; they must be 
 satisfied with tnat degree of consideration which they can procure by 
 (heir abilities fairly measured against those of an opponent; they 
 must labour for the public without hope of profit ; they must reject 
 every attempt to create a personal dependant©." This is the. picture 
 of a republic in theory. If we reverse this picture in every single 
 particular, and take its direct opposite, we shall have the true por- 
 trait of a republican government in practice. 
 
 4. It is the fundamental theory of Montesquieu's Spirit of £ok», 
 (hat the three distinct forms of government, the monarchical, despot- 
 icaL and republican, are influenced by the three separate principle? 
 of honour, fear, and virtue; and this theory is the foundation on 
 which the author builds a great part of las political doctrines. That 
 each of these principles is exclusively essential to its respective form 
 of government, but unnecessary and even prejudicial in the others, is a 
 position contrary both to reason and to truth. No form of govern- 
 ment can subsist where every one of those principles has not jta 
 operation. The admission of such a theory leads to the most mis- 
 chievous conclusions ; as, for example, that in monarchies the state 
 dispenses with virtue in its officers and magistrates j that public 
 employments ought to be venal; and that crimes, if kept secret, are 
 of no consequence. 
 
 h. it is only in the infant periods of the Grecian history that we 
 are to look for those splendid examples of patriotism and heroic vir- 
 tue, which the ardent mind of uncorrupted youth will ever delight 
 to contemplate. The most remarkable circumstance which strike? 
 us on comparing the latter with the more early periods of the his- 
 tory of the Greeks, is the total change in the genius and spirit of the 
 people. The ardour of patriotism, the thirst of military glory, the 
 enthusiasm of liberty, decline with the rising grandeur and opulence 
 erf" the nation, and an enthusiasm of another species, and far less 
 worthy in its aim, succeeds : an admiration of the line arts, a violent 
 passion for the objects of taste, and for the refinements of luxury. 
 This leads us to consider Greece in the light in which, after the loss 
 of its liberty, it still continued to attract the admiration of other na- 
 tions. 
 
 SECTION XX. 
 STATE OF THE ARTS IN GREECE. 
 
 i. It is not among the Greeks that we are to look for the greatest 
 improvements in the useful and necessary arts of life. In agricul- 
 ure, manufactures, commerce, they never were greatly distinguish- 
 ed. But in those which are termed the fine arts, Greece surpassed 
 all the contemporary nations. The monuments of those which yel 
 remain are the models of imitation, and the confessed standard ot 
 excellence, in the judgment of the most polished nations of modern 
 times. 
 
 2. After the defeat of Xerxes the active spirit of (he Athenians, 
 which would have otherwise languished for want of an object, taking 
 a new direction from luxury, displayed itself signally in all the works 
 of taste in the fine arts. The administration of Pericles was the «era 
 of luxury and splendour. The arts broke out at once with surpris- 
 ing lustre ; and architecture, sculpture, and painting, were carried 
 D2 6 
 
At ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 to the summit of perfection. This golden age of the arts in Greece 
 endured for about a century, till after the death of Alexander the 
 great. 
 
 3. The Greeks were the parents of that system of architecture 
 which is universally allowed to be the most perfect. 
 
 The Greek architecture consisted of three distinct orders: the 
 Doric., the ionic, and Corinthian. 
 
 The Doric has a masculine grandeur, and a superior air of strength 
 to both the others. It is therefore best adapted to works of great 
 magnitude, and of a sublime character. The character of sublimity 
 is essentially connected with chasteness and simplicity. Of this or- 
 der is the temple of Theseus at Athens, built ten years after the bat- 
 tle of Marathon, and at this day almost entire. 
 
 The Ionic order is light and elegant. The former has a masculine 
 grandeur; the latter a feminine elegance. The Ionic is likewise 
 simple : for simplicity is an essential requisite in true beauty. Of 
 this order were* the temple of Apollo at Miletus, the temple of the 
 Delphic oracle, and the temple of Diana at Ephesus. 
 
 The Corinthian marks an age of luxury and magnificence, when 
 pomp and splendour had become the predominant passion, but had not 
 yet extinguished the taste for the sublime and beautiful. It attempts 
 therefore a union of ail these characters, but satisfies not the chasten- 
 ed judgment, and pleases only a corrupted taste. 
 
 -" First unadorned, 
 
 u And nobly plain, the manly Doric rose ; 
 
 " The Ionic then, v.'ith decent matron grace, 
 
 u Her airy pillar heav'd ; luxuriant last 
 
 u The rich Corinthian spread her wanton wreath. " 
 
 Thompson's Liberty, Part 2. 
 
 4. The Tuscan and [n^ Composite orders are of Italian origin. 
 The Etruscan architecture appeals to have been nearly allied to the 
 Grecian, but to have possessed an interior degree of elegance. The 
 Trajan column at Home te ol % this order; iess remarkble for the 
 beauty of its proportions than for the admirable sculpture which 
 decorates it. The Composite, order is what its name implies ; it shows 
 that the Greeks had in the three original orders exhausted all the 
 principles of grandeur and beauty ; and that it was not possible to 
 frame a fourth, except by combining the former. 
 
 5. The Gothic architecture offers no contradiction to these obser- 
 vations. The effect which it produces cannot be altogether account- 
 ed for from the rules of symmetry or harmony in the proportions be- 
 tween the several parts: but depends on a certain idea of vastness, 
 gloominess, and solemnity, which are powerful ingredients in the 
 sublime. 
 
 6. Sculpture was brought by the Greeks to as high perfection as 
 architecture. The remains of Grecian sculpture are at this day the 
 most perfect models of the art ; and the modern artists have no means 
 of attaining to excellence so certain, as the study of those great mas 
 ter-pieces. 
 
 7. The excellence of the Greeks in sculpture may perhaps be 
 accounted for chiefly from their having the human figure often before 
 their eyes quite naked, and in all its various attitudes, both in the 
 palastra, and in the public games. The antique statues have there- 
 fore a grandeur united with perfect simplicity, because the attitude is 
 
ANCIENT HISTORY. 43 
 
 not the result of an artificial disposition of the figure, as in the mod- 
 ern academies, but is nature unconstrained. Thus, in the Dying 
 Gladiator, when we observe the relaxation of the muscles, and the 
 visible failure of strength and life, we cannot doubt that nature was 
 the sculptor's immediate model of imitation.* 
 
 8 And liiis nature was in reality superior to what we now see in 
 the ordinary race^of men. The constant practice of gymnastic ex- 
 ercises gave a liner conformation of body than what is now to be found 
 in the vitiated pupils of modern effeminacy, the artificial children of 
 modern fashion. 
 
 9. A secondary cause of the eminence of the Greeks in the arts of 
 design, was their theology, which furnished an ample exercise for 
 the genius of the sculptor and painter. 
 
 10. We must speak witii more diffidence of the ability of the 
 Greeks in painting, than we do of their superiority in sculpture ; be- 
 cause the existing specimens of the former are extremely rare, and 
 the pieces which are preserved arc probably not the most excellent. 
 But in the want of actual evidence we have every presumption that 
 the Greeks had attained to equal perfection in the art of painting and 
 in sculpture ; for if we find the judgment given by ancient writers of 
 their excellence in sculpture coniirmed by the universal assent of the 
 best critics among the modern^, we have every reason to presume an 
 equal rectitude in the judgment which the same ancient writers have 
 pronounced upon their paintings. If Pliny is right in his opinion of 
 the merits of those statues which yet remain, the Venus of Praxiteles 
 and the Laocoon of Agesander, Polydorus, and Athenodorus, we have 
 no reason to suppose his taste to be less just when he celebrates the 
 merits, and critically characterizes the different manners of Zeuxis, 
 Apelles, Parrhasius, Protogenes, and Timanthes, whose works have 
 perished. 
 
 11. The paintings found in Herculaneum, Pompeii, the Sepul- 
 chrum Nasonianum at Home, were probably the work of Greek 
 artists : for the Romans were never eminent in any of the arts de- 
 pendent on design. These paintings exhibit great knowledge of 
 proportions, and of the chiaro-oscuro ; but betray an ignorance of 
 the rules of perspective. 
 
 12. The music of the ancients appears to have been very greatly 
 inferior to that of the moderns. 
 
 13. The peculiar genius of the Greeks in the line arts extended its 
 effects to the revolutions of their states, and influenced their fate as a 
 nation. 
 
 SECTION XXI. 
 
 OF THE GREEK POETS. 
 
 1. The Greeks were the first who reduced the athletic exercises 
 to a system, and considered them as an object of general attention and 
 importance. The Panathenaean, and afterwards the Olympic, the 
 Pythian, Nemaean, and Isthmian games, were under the regulation 
 of the laws. They contributed essentially to the improvement of the 
 nation ; and, while they cherished martial ardour, and promoted har- 
 
 * Cresilas rulneratum deficient em fecit, ex quo possit intelligi quantum, 
 rtstet animi. Plin. lib. 36. Cresilas has represented a wounded man 
 fainting-, from which we may perceive how much life still remains. 
 
44 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 diness and agility of body, they cultivated likewise urbanity and jm> 
 liteness. 
 
 2. The games of Greece were not confined to gymnastic or athlet- 
 ic exercises. They encouraged competitions in genius and learning. 
 They were the resort of the poets, the historians, and the philosophers. 
 
 3. In all nations, poetry is of greater antiquity than prose composi- 
 tion. The earliest prose writers in Greece, Phetscydes of Scyros, 
 and Cadmus of Miletus, were 350 years posterior to Homer. Any 
 remains of the more ancient poets, as Linus, Orpheus, &c, are ex- 
 tremely suspicious. Homer is generally supposed to have flourished 
 about 907 A. C. ; to have followed the occupation of a wandering 
 minstrel, and to have composed his poems in detached fragment", 
 and separate ballads, and episodes. Pisistratus, about 510 A. C, em- 
 ployed some learned men to collect and methodize these fragments ; 
 and to this we owe the. complete poems of the Iliad and Odyssey. 
 The distinguishing merite of Homer are, his profound knowledge of 
 human nature, Ins faithful and minute description of ancient man- 
 ners, his genius for the sublime and beautiful, and the harmony of 
 his poetical numbers. 1 lis fidelity as a historian has been questioned ; 
 but the great outlines of his narrative are probably authentic. 
 
 4. Jiesiod was nearly contemporary with Homer: we should be 
 little sensible of his merits, if they were not seen through the medi- 
 um of an immense antiquity. The poem of the Works and Days 
 contains some judicious precepts of agriculture. The Theogony is 
 an obscure history of the origin ofahe gods, and the formation of the 
 universe. 
 
 5. About two centuries after Homer and Hesiod, flourished Arehi- 
 lochus, the inventor of Iambic verse; Terpander, -equally eminent 
 as a poet and a musician; Sappho, of whose composition we have 
 two exquisite odes; Alca us and Simonhlos. of whom there are some 
 fine fragments ; and Pindar and Anacreon, who have left enough to 
 allow an accurate estimate of their merits. 
 
 6. Pindar was esteems i by the ancients- theoliief of the lyric poets. 
 He possesses unbounded fancy, and great sublimity of imagery; but 
 his digressions are so rapid and so frequent, that we cannot discover 
 the chain of thought ; and his expression is allowed, even by Longinus. 
 to be often obscure and unintelligible. 
 
 7 Anacreon is a great contrast to Pindar. His fancy suggests only 
 laminar and luxurious pictures. He has no comprehension of the 
 sublime, but contents Inn -self with the easy, the graceful, and ihe 
 wanton. His morality is loose, and his sentiments little else than the 
 effusions of a voluptuary. 
 
 8. The collection termed Anthologia, which consists chiefly of an- 
 cient epigrams, contains many valuable specimens of the taste and 
 poetical fancy of the Greeks, and contributes materially to ihe illus- 
 tration of their manners. The best of the modern epigrams may be 
 traced to this source. 
 
 9. The a>ra of the origin of dramatic composition among the Greeks 
 is about 590 A. C. Thespis was contemporary with Solon. Within 
 little more than a century, the Greek drama was carried to its high- 
 est perfection, for JEschylus died 456 A. C. JEschylus wrote sixty- 
 six tragedies ; for thirteen of which he gained the first prize of dra- 
 matic poetry at the Olympic games. Like Shakspeare, his genius ia 
 sublime, and his imagination unbounded. He disdained regularity of 
 plan, and all artificial restriction; but unfortunately he disdained 
 nkewise the restraints of decency and of good morals. 
 
ANCIENT HISTORY. 4* 
 
 10. Euripides and Sophocles flourished about fifty years after 
 Aeschylus. Euripides is most masterly in painting the passion of love, 
 both in its tenderest emotions and in its most violent paroxysms : yet 
 the characters of his women demonstrate that he had no great opinion 
 of the virtues of the sex. Longinus does not rate high his talent for 
 the sublime. But he possessed a much superior excellence : his verses* 
 with great eloquence and harmony, breathe the most admirable mo- 
 rality. There remain twenty tragedies of Euripides ; and of these, 
 the Medea is deemed the best. 
 
 11. Sophocles shared with Euripides the palm of dramatic poetry ; 
 wid is judged to have surpassed him in the grand and the sublime. Ol 
 1 20 tragedies which he composed, only seven remain. They display 
 great knowledge of the human heart, and a general chastity and 
 Bimplicity of expression, which gave the greater iorce to the occasional 
 »nrokes of the sublime. The Oedipus of Sophocles is esteeiiied the 
 most perfect production of the Greek stage. 
 
 12. The Greek comedy is divided into the ancient, the middle, nnt* 
 the new. The tirst was a licentious satire and mimicry of real per 
 sonages, exhibited byname upon the stage. The laws repressed this 
 extreme license. and gave birta to the middle comedy, whicn continued 
 the satirical delineation of real persons, but under fictitious names 
 The last improvement consisted in banishing all personal satire, anV 
 confining comedy to a delineation of manners. This was the new 
 comedy. Of the first species, the ancient, we have no remains. The 
 dramas of Aristophanes are an example of the second or middle 
 comedy. The grossness of his raillery, nnd the malevolence which 
 frequently inspired it, are a reproach to the morals of that people 
 which could tolerate it. Yet his works have their value, as throwing 
 light upon ancient manners. 
 
 1 3. Of the new comedy, Blimander was the bright example ; pos- 
 sessing a vein of the most delicate wit. with the utmost purity of 
 moral sentiment. Unfortunately we have nothing of him remaining 
 but a few fragments preserved by Athenasus. We see a great deal of 
 his merits, however, in his copyist and translator, Terence. 
 
 14. The actors, both in the Greek and Roman theatres, wore masks, 
 of which the features were strongly painted, and the mouth so con- 
 structed as to increase the power of the voice. It is probable that the 
 tragedy and comedy of the Greeks and Romans were set to music, 
 and sung, like the" recitative in the Italian opera. Sometimes one 
 person was employed to recite or sing the part, and another to per- 
 form the corresponding action or gesticulation. 
 
 15. The mimes were burlesque parodies on the serious tragedy 
 and comedy. The pantomimes consisted solely of gesticulation, and 
 were carried to great perfection. 
 
 SECTION XX1L 
 OF THE GREEK HISTORIANS. 
 
 1. The most eminent of the Greek historians were contempos*- 
 ries. Herodotus died 413 A. C. ; Thucydides 391 A. C. ; and \eno- 
 phon was about twenty years younger than Thucydides, Herodotus 
 writes the joint history of the Greeks and Persians, from the time of 
 Cyrus, to the battles of Flataea and Mycale. He treats incidentally 
 likewise of the Egyptians, Assyrians, Modes, and Lydians. His vera- 
 city is to be depended on in all matters that fell under his own obser- 
 
46 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 ration ; but he admits too easily the reports of others, and is m gen- 
 eral fond of the marvellous. His style is pure, and he has a copious 
 elocution. 
 
 3. Thucydides, himself an able general, has written, with great abil- 
 fry, the history of the first twenty-one years of the Peloponnesian 
 war ; introducing it with a short narrative of the preceding periods 
 of the history of Greece. He is justly esteemed for his fidelity and 
 candour. His style is a contrast to the full and flowing period of 
 Herodotus, possessing,, sententious brevity, which is at once lively 
 and energetic. The history of the remaining six years of the Avar 
 of Peloponnesus was written by Thcopompus and Xenophon. 
 
 3. Xenophon commanded the Greek army in the service of Cyrui 
 the younger, in his culpable enterprise against his brother Artaxerx- 
 es. (See Sect XIII, § 6.) After the failure of this enterprise, Xeno- 
 phon directed that astonishing retreat from Babylon to the Euxine, 
 of which he has given a splendid and faithful narrative. He wrote 
 likewise the Cyropedia, of the history of the elder Cyrus, which 
 is bclived to be rather an imaginary delineation of an accomplished 
 prince than a real narration. He continued the history of Thucyd 
 ides, and lias left two excellent political tracts on the constitutions ol 
 Lacedaemon and Athens. His style is simple and energetic; but the 
 brevity of his sentences sometimes obscures his meaning. 
 
 4. Greece, in its decline, produced some historians of great em 
 j.nence. Polybius, a native of Megalopolis, wrote forty books of the 
 Roman ana* Greek history during his own age ; that is, from the be- 
 ginning of the second Punic war to the reduction of Macedonia into 
 a Roman province ; but of this great work, only the tirst rive books 
 are entire, with an epitome of the following twelve. He merits less 
 the praise of eloquence than of authentic information, and most judi- 
 cious reflection. 
 
 b. Diodorus Siculus flourished in the time of Augustus, and compos- 
 ed, in forty books, a general history of the world, under the title of 
 Bibliotheca Historica. No more remain than fifteen books ; of which 
 the first five treat of the fabulous periods, and the history of the Egyp- 
 tians, Assyrians, Persians, Greeks, &c. prior to the Trojan war. The 
 next rive are wanting. The remainder brings down the history from 
 the expedition of Xerxes into Greece till after the death of Alexander 
 the great. He is taxed with chronological inaccuracy in the earlier 
 parts of his work; bjit the authenticity and correctness of the later 
 periods are unimpeachcd. 
 
 G. Dionysius of Halicarnassus, eminent both as a historian and rhet- 
 orician, flourished in the age of Augustus* His Roman Antiquities 
 contain much valuable information, though his work is too much 
 tinctured with the spirit of systematizing. 
 
 7. Plutarch, a native of Oberonea, in Beeotia, flourished in the 
 reign of Nero. His Lives of Illustrious Men is one of the most val- 
 uable of the literary works of the ancients; introducing us to an 
 acquaintance with the private character and manners of those eminent 
 persons whose public achievements are recorded by professed his- 
 torians. His morality is excellent; and his style, though unpolished, 
 is clear and energetic. 
 
 8 Arrian wrote, in the reign of Adrian, seven books of the wars of 
 Alexander, with great judgment and fidelity; his narrative, being 
 composed on the authority of Aristobulus and Ptolemy, two of 
 Alexander's principal officers. His style is unadorned, but chaste,, 
 perspicuous, and manly. 
 
ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 SECTION XXIII. 
 
 OF THE GREEK PHILOSOPHERS. 
 
 1 After the time of Homer and Hesiod, the increasing relish for 
 poetical composition gave rise to a set of men termed rhapsodists, 
 whose employment was to recite at the games and festivals tne com- 
 positions of the older poets, and to comment on their merits and ex- 
 plain their doctrines. Some of these, founding schools of instruction, 
 were dignified by their pupils with the epithet of Sophists, or teach- 
 ers of wisdom. 
 
 2. The most ancient school of philosophy was that founded by 
 Thales, 640 A. C., and termed the Ionic. Thales is celebrated for 
 ins knowledge of geometry and astronomy. His metaphysical doc- 
 trines are imperfectly known. He taught the belief of a first cause, 
 and an over-ruling providence ; but supposed the Divinity to animate 
 the universe, as the soul does the body. The moral doctrines of the 
 Ionic school were pure and rational. The most eminent of the dis- 
 ciples of Thales were Anaximander and Anaxagoras. 
 
 3. Soon after the ionic, arose the Italian sect, founded by Pythag- 
 oras, who was born about 536 A. C. He is supposed to have derived 
 much of his knowledge from Egypt; and he had, like the Egyptian 
 priests, a public doctrine for the people, and a private for his disci- 
 ples ; the former a good system of morals, the latter probably unin 
 telligible mystery- His notions of the Divinity were akin to those ol 
 Thales; but he believed in the eternity of the universe, and its co- 
 existence with the Deity. He taught the transmigration of the soul 
 through different bodies. His disciples lived in common ; abstained 
 rigorously from the flesh of animals; and held music in high estima- 
 tion, as a corrective of the passions. Pythagoras believed the earth 
 to hi a sphere, the planets to be inhabited, and the fixed stars to be 
 the suns and centres of other systems. His most eminent followers 
 were Empedocles, Epicharmus, Ocellus Lucanus, Timseus, Archytas 
 
 4. The Eleatic sect was founded by Xenophanes, about 500 A. C. 
 Its chief supporters were Parmenides, Zeno, and Leucippus, citizen 5 ; 
 of Elea. The metaphysical notions of this sect were utterly unintel- 
 ligible. They maintained that things had neither beginning, end, 
 nor a-ny change ; and that ail the changes we perceive are in our 
 own senses. Yet Leucippus taught the doctrine of atoms, whence 
 he supposed all material substances to be formed. Of this sect were 
 Democritus and Heraclitus. 
 
 5. The Socratic school arose from the Ionic. Socrates died 4v)i 
 A. C, the wisest, the most virtuous of the Greeks. He exploded the 
 futile logic of the Sophists, which consisted of a set of general argu- 
 ments, applicable to all manner of questions, and by which they could, 
 with an appearance of plausibility, maintain either side of any prop- 
 osition. Socrates always brought his antagonist to particulars ; bo- 
 ginning with a simple and undeniable position, which being granted, 
 another followed equally undeniable, till the disputant was conduct- 
 ed step by step, by his own concessions, to that side of the question 
 on which lay the truth. His rivals lost ail credit as philosophers, but 
 had influence to procure the destruction of the man who had expos- 
 ed them. The doctrines of Socrates are to be learned from Plato 
 and Xenophon. He taught the belief of a first cause, whose benefi- 
 
4G ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 cenct is equal to his power, the Creator and Ruler of the universe 
 He inculcated the moral agency of man, the immortality of the somV 
 and a future state of feward and punishment. He exploded thq 
 polytheistic superstitions of his country, and thence became the 
 victim of an accusation of impiety. (See Section XIII, § 5.} 
 
 6. The morality of Socrates was successfully cultivated hy the 
 Cyrenaic sect, but was pushed to extravagance by the Cynics. Vir- 
 tue, in their opinion, consisted in renouncing all the conveniences of 
 life. They clothed themselves in rags, slept and ate in the streets, 
 or wandered about the country with a stick and a knapsack. They 
 condemned all knowledge as useless. They associated impudence 
 with ignorance, and indulged themselves in scurrility and invective 
 without restraint. 
 
 7. TheMcgarian sect was the happy inventor of logical syllogism, 
 or the art of quibbling. 
 
 8. Plato was the tounder of the Academic sect : a philosopher, 
 whose doctrines have had a more extensive empire over the mincld 
 frf mankind, than those of any other among the ancients. Thi3 is in 
 part owing to their intrinsic merit, and in part to the eloquence with 
 which they have been propounded. Plato had the most sublime 
 tdeas of the Divinity and his attributes. He taught that the human 
 ?oul whs a portion of the Divinity, and that this alliance with the 
 eternal mind might be improved into actual intercourse with thtj 
 Supreme Being, by abstracting the soul from all the corruptions 
 which it derives from the body : a doctrine highly flattering to the 
 pride of man, and generating that mystical enthusiasm which has the 
 most powerful empire over a warm imagination. 
 
 9. The Platonic philosophy found its chief opponents in four re- 
 markable sects, the Peripatetic, the Sceptic, the Stoic, and the Epi- 
 curean. 
 
 10. Aristotle, the founder of the Peripatetic sect, was the tutor of 
 Alexander the great, and established his school in the Lyceum at 
 Athens : a philosopher whose tenets have found more zealous parti- 
 sans and more rancorous opponents, than those of any other. His 
 Metaphysics, from the sententious brevity of his expression, are ex- 
 tremely obscure, and have given rise to numberless commentaries. 
 The best analysis of his doctrines is given by Dr. Reid, in Lord 
 Karnes's Sketches of the History of Man. His physical works aro 
 the result of great observation and acquaintance with nature; and his 
 critical writings, as his Poetics and Art of Rhetoric, display both taste 
 and judgment. The peculiar passion of Aristotle was that of classi- 
 fying, arranging, and combining the objects of his knowledge, so as to 
 reduce all to a iexv principles: a very dangerous propensity in phi- 
 losophy, and repressive of improvement in science. 
 
 11. The Sceptical sect was founded by Pyrrho. They formed no^ 
 systems of their own. but endeavoured to weaken the foundations of 
 those of all others* They inculcated universal doubt, as the only true 
 wisdom. There was, in their opinion, no essential difference be- 
 tween vice and virtue, further than as human compact had discrim- 
 inated them. Tranquillity of mind they supposed to be the state of 
 the greatest happiness, and this was to be attained by absolute indif- 
 ference to all dogmas or opinions. 
 
 12. The Stoics, proposing to themselves the same end, tranquillity 
 of mind, took a nobler path to arrive at it. They endeavoured to 
 raise themselves above all the passions and feelings of humanity 
 They believed all nature, and God himself, the soul of the universe, 
 
ANCIENT HISTORY, 4* 
 
 to be regulated by fixed and immutable laws. 'The human soul be- 
 ing a portion of the Divinity, man cannot complain of being actuated 
 by that necessity which actuates the Divinity himself. His pains and 
 his pleasures are determined by the same laws which determine his 
 existence. Virtue consists in accommodating the osition of tlie 
 mind to the immutable laws of nature ; vice in opposing those laws : 
 vice therefore is folly, and virtue, the only true wisdom. A beautiful 
 picture of the Stoical philosophy is found in the Meditations of M. 
 Aurelius Antoninus. (See Madan's Translation.) 
 
 13. Epicurus taught that man's supreme happiness consisted in 
 pleasure. He limited the term, so as to make it mean only the prac- 
 tice of virtue. But if pleasure is allowed to be the object, every 
 man will draw it from those sources which he finds can best supply 
 it. It might have been the pleasure of Epicurus to be chaste and 
 temperate. We are told that it was so. But others find their pleas- 
 ure in intemperance and luxury, and such was the taste of his princi- 
 pal followers. Epicurus held that the Deity was indifferent to all the 
 actions of man. His followers therefore had no other counsellor 
 than their own conscience, and no other guide than the instinctive 
 desire of their own happiness. 
 
 14. The Greek philosophy, on the whole, affords little more than 
 a picture of the imbecility and caprice of the human mind. Its 
 teachers, instead of experiment and observation, satisfied themselves 
 with constructing theories ; and these wanting fact for their basis, 
 have only served to perplex the understanding, and retard equally 
 the advancement of sound morality and the progress of useful knowl- 
 edge, 
 
 SECTION XXIV. 
 THE HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 1. In the delineation of ancient history, Rome, after the conquest 
 c{ Greece, becomes the leading object of attention. The history of 
 this empire, in its progress to universal dominion, and afterwards in its 
 decline and fall, involves a collateral account of all the other na- 
 tions of antiquity, which in those periods are deserving of our con- 
 sideration. 
 
 2. Though we cannot determine theaera when Italy was first peo- 
 pled, yet we have every reason to believe that it was inhabited by 
 a refined and cultivated nation, many ages before the Roman name 
 was known. These were the Etruscans, of whom thesre exist at 
 this day monuments in the fine arts, which prove them to have beer 
 a splendid, luxurious, and highly polished people. — Their alphabet. 
 resembling the Phoenician, disposes us to believe them of eastern 
 origin. The Roman historians mention them as a powerful and opu- 
 lent nation iong before the origin of Rome; and Dionysius of Hali- 
 carnassus deduces most of the religious rites of the Romans from 
 Etruria. 
 
 3. The rest of Italy was divided among a number of independent 
 tribes or nations, comparatively in a rude and uncultivated state ; 
 Umbrians, Ligurians, Sabines, Veientes, Latins, ^Equi, Volsci, &c 
 Latium, a territory of fifty miles in length and sixteen in breadth. 
 contained forty-seven independent cities or states. 
 
 4. The origin of the city and state of Rome is involved m great 
 uncertainty. Dionysius supposes two cities of that name to have 
 
 E 7 
 
60 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 existed, and to have perished before the foundation of the city built 
 by Romulus. The vulgar account of the latter i9, that it was 
 founded 752 A. C. by a troop of shepherds or banditti, who peo- 
 pled their new city by carrying off the wives and daughters « i neir 
 neighbours, the Sabines. 
 
 5. The great outlines of the first constitution of the Roman govern- 
 ment, though generally attributed to the political abilities of Romu- 
 lus, seem to have a natural foundation in the usages of barbarous 
 nations. Other institutions bear the traces of political skill and posi- 
 tive enactment. 
 
 G. Romulus is said to have divided his people into three tribes, and 
 each tribe into ten curite. The lands he distributed into three por- 
 tions; one for the support of the government, another for the main- 
 tenance of religion, and the third for the use of the Roman citizens, 
 which he divided into equal portions of two acres to each citizen. 
 He instituted a senate of 100 members (afterwards increased to 200.) 
 who deliberated on and prepared all public measures for the assembly 
 of the people, in whom was vested the right of determination. The 
 partrician families were the descendants of those centum patres (fom- 
 dred fathers). 
 
 7. The king had the nomination of the senators, the privilege ol 
 assembling the people, and a right of appeal in all questions ot im- 
 portance. He had the command of the army, and the office of pon- 
 tifex maxhrius {high priest). He had, as a guard, twelve lictors, and 
 a troop of horsemen named celeres, or equites, afterwards the distinct 
 order of Roman knights. These regulations are of positive institu- 
 tion : others arose naturally from the state of society. 
 
 8. The patria potcstus (paternal authority) is of the latter nature, be- 
 ing common to ail barbarous tribes. The limitation of ail arts to the 
 slaves arose from the constant employment of the citizens in warfare 
 or in agriculture. 
 
 9. The connexion of patron and client was an admirable institu- 
 tion, which at once united the citizens, and maintained a useful sub- 
 ordination. 
 
 10. The Sabines were the most formidable enemy of the early 
 Romans; and a wise policy united for a while the two nations into 
 one state. After the death of Romulus, who reigned thirty-seven 
 years, Numa, a Sabine, was elected king. His disposition was pious 
 *nd pacific, and he endeavoured to give his people the same charac- 
 ter. He pretended to divine inspiration, to give the greater authori- 
 ty to his laws, which in themselves were excellent. He multiplied 
 the national gods, built temples, and instituted different classes of 
 priests, Jlamines, salii) &c., and a variety of religious ceremonies. 
 The flamines officiated each in the service of a particular deity; the 
 salii guarded the sacred bucklers ; the vestals cherished the sacred 
 fire ; the augurs and aruspices divined future events from the flight 
 of birds, and the entrails of victims. The temple of Janus was open 
 in war, and shut during peace. Numa reformed the calendar, regu- 
 lating the year at twelve lunar months, and distinguished the days 
 for civil occupation (fasti) from those dedicated to religious rest 
 (nefasti). Agriculture was lawful on the latter, as a duty of religion, 
 rfuma reigned forty-three years. 
 
 11. Tullus Hostiiius, the third king of Rome, of warlike disposi- 
 tion, subdued the Albans, Fidenates, and other neighbouring states. 
 The Sabines, now disunited from the Romans, were among the most 
 powerful of their enemies. Tullus reigned thirty three years. 
 
ANCIENT HISTORY. 5) 
 
 12. Ancus IVla.ctius, the grandson of Numa, was elected king on 
 the death of Tullus. He inherited the piety and virtues of his grand- 
 father, ; joined to these the talents of a warrior. He increased 
 the population of Rome, by naturalizing some of the conquered 
 states; enlarged and fortified the city, and built the port of Ostia at 
 the mouth of the Tiber. He reigned gloriously twenty-four years. 
 
 1.3. Tarquinius Friscus, a citizen of Corinth, popular from his 
 wealth and liberality, was elected to the vacant throne. He enlarg- 
 ed the senate by 100 new members from the plebeian families, patres 
 triinorwn gentium (ikefatJiers of the less families). This body consisted 
 now of 300, at which number it remained for some centuries. Tar- 
 qiiin w«v • ictorious in his wars, and adorned and improved the cily 
 with works of utility and magnificence. Such were tiie circus or 
 hippodrome, the walls of hewn stone ; the capitol ; the cloacae, those 
 immense common sewers, which lead to the belief that the new 
 Kome 1: a ■ been built on the ruins of an ancient city of greater mag- 
 nitude. Tarqubiius was assassinated in the thirty-eighth year of his 
 reign. 
 
 14. Servius Tuliius, who had married the daughter of Tarquinius, 
 secured, by his own address and th^ intrigues of his mother-in-law, 
 hi-, election to the vacant throne. He courted popularity by acts of 
 tn.uiiitic :nce.; discharging; the debts of the poor, dividing among the 
 citizen.-] his patrimonial lands, improving the city with useful edifices, 
 and extending its boundaries. 1 he new arrangement which he in- 
 troduced in the division of the Roman citizens is a proof of much po- 
 litical ability, and merits attention, as on it depended many of the 
 revolutions of the republic. 
 
 15. From the time" that the Romans had admitted the Albans and 
 Sabines lo the rights of citizens, the urban and rustic tribes were 
 composed of those three nations. Each tribe being divided into ten 
 curkv, aftd every curia having an equal vote in the comitia, as each 
 individual had in his tribe, all questions were decided by the majority 
 of suurages. There was no pre-eminence between the curixe, and 
 liie order in which they gave their votes was determined by lot. 
 T;;is was a reasonable constitution, so long as the fortunes of the 
 citizens were nearly on a par; but, when riches came to be une- 
 qually divided, it was obvious that much inconvenience must have 
 arisen from this equal partition of power, as the rich could easily, by 
 bribery, command the suffrages of the poor. Besides, all the taxes 
 had hitherto been levied by the head, without any regard to the in- 
 
 i'! : lit v of fortunes. These obvious defects furnished to Servius a 
 j ist pretext for an entire change of system. His plan was, to remove 
 the poorer citizens from all share" of the government, while the 
 burdens attending its support should fall solely on the rich. 
 
 16. Ail the citizens were required, under a heavy penalty, to de- 
 clare upon oath their names, dwellings, number of their children, 
 and amount of their fortune. After this numeration or census, Ser- 
 vius divided the whole citizens, without distinction, into four tribes, 
 named, from the quarters where they dwelt, the Palatine, Suburran, 
 Collaline, and Esquiline. Beside this local division, Servius distribut- 
 ed the whole people into six classes, and each class into several 
 centuries or portions of citizens so called, not as actually consisting 
 of a hundred, but as being obliged to furnish and maintain 100 men 
 in time of war. In the first class, which consisted of the richest citi- 
 zens, or those who were worth at least 100 mince (about 300/. ster- 
 ling), there were no less than ninety-eight centuries. In the second 
 
b2 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 class (those worth 75 mince) there were twenty-two centuries. In 
 the third (those worth 50 mines) were twenty centuries. In the 
 fourth (those worth 25 mince) twenty-two centuries. In the fifth 
 (those worth 12 mince) thirty centuries. The sixth, the most nu- 
 merous of the whole, comprehending all the poorer citizens, furnish- 
 ed only one century. Thus the whole Roman people were divided 
 into 193 centuries,' or portions of citizens, so called, as furnishing 
 each a hundred soldiers. The sixth class was declared exempt from 
 taxes. The other classes, according to the number of centuries of 
 which they consisted, were rated for the public burdens at so much 
 for each century. 
 
 17. The poor had no reason to complain of this arrangement; lut 
 something was wanting to compensate the rich for the burdens to 
 which they were subjected. For this purpose Servius enacted, that 
 hencelbrth the comitia should give their votes by centuries ; the first 
 class, consisting of ninety-eight centuries, always voting first. Thus, 
 though the whole people were called to the comitia, and all seemed 
 to have an equal suffrage, yet in reality the richer classes determin- 
 ed every question, the suffrage of the poor being merely nominal; 
 for as the whole people 1 brmed 193 centuries, and the first and second 
 classes contained 120 of these, if they were unanimous, which gen- 
 erally happened in questions of importance, a majority was secured. 
 Thus, in the comitia centuricUa {assemblies in which the people voted by 
 centuries), in which the chief magistrates were elected, peace and 
 war decreed, and all othf r important business discussed, the richer 
 classes of the citizens had the sole authority, the votes of the poor 
 being of no avail. And such was the ingenuity of this policy, that all 
 were pleased with it : the rich paid their taxes with cheerfulness, as 
 the price of their power; and the poor gladly exchanged authority 
 for immunities. The census, performed every five years, was closed 
 by a lustrum, cr expiatory sacrifice; and hence that period of time, 
 was called a lustrum-. 
 
 18. Servius was assassinated^ after a reign of forty-four years, by 
 his infamous daughter Tullia, married to Tarquinius, the grandson 
 of Prisons, who thus paved the way for his own elevation to the 
 throne. The government of Tarquin,surnamed the proud, was sys- 
 tematically tyrannical. I le ingratiated himself with the lower order?, 
 to abase by their means the power of the higher; but, insolent, ra- 
 pacious, and cruel, he finally disgusted all ranks of his subjects. A 
 rape committed by his sen Soxtus on Lucretia, the wife of Collatings, 
 who, unable to survive her dishonour, stabbed herself in presence oi 
 her husband and kindred, roused their vengeance, and procured. 1 y 
 their influence with their countrymen, the expulsion of the tyrant, 
 and the utter abolition of the regal dignity at Rome, 509 A. C. 
 
 Reflections on the Government and State of Rome during the period of 
 
 ilie kings. 
 
 19. The whole structure of the constitution of the Romans under 
 the monarchy has been by most authors erroneously attributed ex- 
 clusively to the abilities of Romulus, a youth of eighteen, the leader 
 of a troop of shepherds or banditti. Tbis chimerical idea we owe to 
 Dionysius of Halicarnassiis. The truth is, the Roman government, 
 like almost every other, was the gradual result of circumstances ; 
 the fruit of time, and of political emergency. 
 
 20. The constitution of the Roman senate has occasioned consider- 
 
ANCIENT HISTORY. 63 
 
 able research, and is not free from obscurity. It is probable that the 
 kings had the sole right of naming the senators, that the consuls suc- 
 ceeded them in this right, and afterwards, when these magistrates 
 found too much occupation from ihe frequent wars in which the state 
 was engaged, that privilege devolved on the censors. The senators 
 were at first always chosen from the body of the patricians, but after- 
 wards the plebeians acquired an equal title to that dignity. In the 
 early periods of the republic the people could not be assembled but 
 by the senate's authority ; nor were the plebiscite!, (decrees qfihepeo~ 
 pie) of any weight till confirmed by their decree. Hence the early 
 constitution of the republic was rather aristccratical than democrat- 
 ical. F:om this extensive power of the senate the first diminution 
 was made by the creation of the tribunes of the people; and other 
 retrenchments successively took place, till the people acquired at 
 length the predominant power in the state. Yet the senate, even 
 after every usurpation on their authority, continued to have, in many 
 points, a supremacy. They regulated all matters regarding religion; 
 had the custody of the public treasure ; superintended the conduct of 
 ali magistrates; gave audience to ambassadors; decided on the fate of 
 vanquished nations; disposed of the governments of the provinces; 
 and took cognizance, by appeal, in ah crimes against the state. In 
 great emergencies they appointed a dictator, with absolute au-thority. 
 
 21. At the period of the abolition of the regal government the ter- 
 ritory of the Romans was extremely limited. The only use which 
 they made of their victories was to naturalize the inhabitants of 
 some of the conquered states, and so increase their population. Thus, 
 (heir strength being always superior to their enterprise, they laid a 
 solid foundation for the future extension of their empire. 
 
 22. In the accounts given by historians of the strength of the ar- 
 mies, both of the Romans in those early times, and of the neighbour- 
 ing sta.tes, their enemies, we have every reason to believe there is 
 much exaggeration. The territories from which those armies were 
 furnished were incapable of supplying 'theai. 
 
 23. In the continual wars in which the republic was engaged the 
 Romans were most commonly the aggressors. The .causes of this 
 seem to have been the ambition of the consuls to distinguish their 
 ■short administration by some splendid enterprise, and the wish of the 
 senate to give the people occupation, to prevent intestine disquiets. 
 
 24. The regal government subsisted 244 years, and in that time 
 only seven kings reigned, several of whom died a violent death. 
 These circumstances throw doubt on the authenticity of this period 
 of the Roman history. It is allowed that there were no historians for 
 the Jive first centuries after the building of Rome. The first is 
 Fabius Pictor. who lived during the second Punic war. Livy says 
 that almost all the ancient records were destroyed when Rome was 
 taken by the Gauls, 
 
 SECTION XXV. 
 
 ROME UNDER THE CONSULS. 
 
 1. The regal government being abolished, it was agreed to commit 
 
 the supreme authority to two magistrates, who should be annually 
 
 elected by the people from the patrician order. To these they gare 
 
 the names of consuks ; u a modest title, (says Vertot), which gave to 
 
 E 2 
 
64 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 understand that they were rather the counsellors of the republic than 
 its sovereigns ; and that the only point which they ought to have in 
 view was its preservation and glory. - " But, in fact, their authority 
 differed scarcely in any thing from that of. the kings. They had 
 the supreme administration of justice, the disposal of the public 
 money, the power of convoking the senate and assembling the peo- 
 ple, raising armies, naming all the officers, and the right of making 
 peace and war. The only difference was, that their authority was 
 limited to a year. 
 
 2. The first consuls were Brutus and Collatinus (the husband of 
 Lucretia). Tarquin was at this time in Etruria, where he got two of 
 the most powerful cities, Veii and Tarquinii, to espouse his cause. 
 He had likewise his partisans at Rome, and a plot was formed to 
 open the gates to receive him. It was detected, and Brutus had 
 the mortification to find his two sons in the number of the conspira- 
 tors. He condemned them to be beheaded in his presence. Exuit 
 pair em ut consulan agent ; orbusgue vivere, quam publico?, vhiclicUe dees.sc 
 maluii. Val. Max. He ceased to be a father, thai he might execute the 
 duties of a consul : and chose to line childless rather than to neglect the 
 public punishment of a crime. 
 
 3. The consul Valerius, successful in an engagement with the ex- 
 iled Tarquin, was the first Roman who enjoyed the splendid reward 
 of a triumph. Arrogant from his recent honours, his popularity be- 
 gan to decline ; and, in a view of recovering it, he proposed the law, 
 termed from him the Valerian, which u permitted any citizen who 
 had been condemned to death by a magistrate, or even to banish- 
 ment or scourging, to appeal to the people, and required their con- 
 sent previously to the execution of the sentence/' This law gave 
 the first blow to the aristocracy in the constitution of the Roman re- 
 public. 
 
 4. For thirteen years after the expulsion of Tarquin, the Remain 
 were involved in continual wars en his account. Of these the most 
 remarkable was the war with the Etrurians, under Porsena ; a war 
 fertile in exploits of romantic heroism. 
 
 5. Sooi alter this period began those domestic disorders, which 
 continued long to embroil the republic. Great complaints had arisen 
 among the poorer classes of the citizens, both on account of the ine- 
 quality of property, from the partial distribution of the conquered 
 lands, which the higher ranks generally contrived to engross to them- 
 selves, and from the harsh policy by which it was in the power of 
 creditors to reduce to a state of slavery their insolvent debtors. As 
 there was no legal restraint on usury, the poor, when once reduced 
 to the necessity of contracting debts, were left entirely at the mercy 
 of their creditors. These grievances, felt in common by a large pro- 
 portion of the citizens, excited much discontent, which, from com- 
 plaints long disregarded, grew at length into a spirit of determined 
 resistance. The wars required new levies, and the plebeians posi- 
 tively refused to enrol their names, unless the senate should put an 
 end to their oppression, by decreeing at once an abolition of all the 
 debts due by the poor to the rich. The emergency was critical, a§ 
 the enemy was at the gates of Rome. The consuls found their au- 
 thority of no avail ; for the Valerian law had given any citizen con- 
 demned by them a right of appeal to the people. An extraordinary 
 measure was necessary, and a dictator was created for the first time ; 
 a magistrate who, for the period of six months, was invested with 
 absolute and unlimited authority. Lartius, nominated to this high 
 
ANCIENT HISTORY. bh 
 
 office, armed the twenty-four lictors with axes, summoned the whole 
 j>eople to the comitia, and calling over the names, under the penalty 
 of death to any citizen who should dare to murmur, enrolled all such 
 , as he judged most tit for the service of their country. This expedi- 
 ent became henceforward a frequent and certain resource in all sea- 
 sons of public danger. 
 
 6. The death of Tarquin removed one check against the tyranny 
 of the higher over the lower orders; for the latter had hitherto kept 
 alive a salutary apprehension, that, in case of extreme oppression) 
 they would be under the necessity of calling back their king. Whec 
 this fear was at an end, the domineering spirit of the patricians, ex- 
 ceeding every bound both of good policy and humanity, drove the 
 people at length to deeds of mutiny and rebellion. An alarm frow 
 the enemy gave full weight to their power, and made the chief magis- 
 trates of the state solemnly engage their honour to procure a re- 
 dress of their grievances, as soon as the public danger was at an end. 
 The promise, either from a failure of will or of power, was not ful- 
 filled, and this violation of faith drove the people at length to ex- 
 tremities. Bound by their military oath not to desert their standards, 
 they carried them along with them ; and the whole army, in military 
 array, withdrew from Rome, and deliberately encamped on the Mom 
 Sacer, at three miles distance from the city; and here they were soon 
 joined by the greater part of the people. This resolute procedure 
 had its desired effect. The senate deputed ten persons, the most re- 
 spectable of their order, with plenary powers; and these, seeing no 
 medium of compromise, granted to the people all their demands. 
 The debts were solemnly abolished ; and, for the security of their 
 privileged in future, they were allowed the right of choosing magis- 
 trates of their own order, who should have the power of opposing 
 with elf :ct every measure which they should judge prejudicial to 
 their interests. These were the tribunes of the people, chosen annu- 
 ally ; at first live in number, and afterwards increased to ten. With- 
 out guards or tribunal, and having no seat in the senate-house, they 
 had yet the power, by a single veto, to suspend or annul the decrees 
 of the senate and the sentences of the consuls. Their persons were 
 declared sacred, but their authority was confined to the limits of a 
 mile from the city. The tribunes demanded and obtained two magis- 
 trates to assist them, who were termed aediles, from the charge com- 
 mitted to them of the buildings of the city. 
 
 7. From this asra (260 years from the foundation of Rome) we dat« 
 the commencement of the popular constitution of the Roman repub- 
 lic: a change operated by the unwise policy of the patricians them- 
 selves, who, by yielding to just complaints, and humanely redressing 
 flagrant abuses, might have easily anticipated every ground of dis- 
 satisfaction. The first wish of the people was not power, but relief 
 from tyranny and oppression ; and if this had been readily granted 
 them by abolishing the debts, or at least by repressing enormoui 
 usury, and putting an end to the inhuman right of corporal punish- 
 ment and the bondage of debtors, the people would have cheerfully 
 returned to order and submission, and the Roman constitution would 
 have long remained aristocratical, as we have seen it was at the com- 
 mencement of the consular government. But the plebeians having 
 now obtained magistrates of their own order with those high powert 5 
 we shall see it become the object of those magistrates to increase 
 their authority by continual demands and bold encroachments. The 
 people, regarding them as the champions of their rights, are delight- 
 
56 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 ed to find themselves gradually approaching to a level with the 
 higher order; and, no longer bounding their desires to ease and se- 
 curity, are soon equally influenced by ambition as their superiors. 
 While this people, borne down by injustice, seek no more than the 
 redress of real grievances, we sympathize with their feelings, and 
 applaud their spirited exertions. But when they had at length com- 
 passed the end which they wished, obtained ease and security, nay, 
 power which they had neither sought nor expected ; when we see 
 them, after this, increasing iu their demands, assuming that arrogance 
 which they justly blamed in their superiors, goaded en by the am- 
 fcition of their leaders to tyrannize in their turn ; we view with 
 proper discrimination the love of liberty and its extreme licentious- 
 ness ; and treat with just detestation the authors of those pernicious 
 measures, which embroiled the state in endless faction, and paved the 
 way for the total loss of that liberty v of which this deluded people 
 knew not the value when 1hey actually possessed it. 
 
 SECTION XXVI. 
 
 . THE LAW OF VOLERO. 
 
 1. The disorders of the commonwealth, appeased by the creation 
 of the tribunes, were but tor a time suspended. It was necessary 
 that the popular magistrates should make an experiment of their 
 powers. In an assembly of the people one of the consuls, interrupt- 
 ed by a tribune, rashly said, that if the tribunes had called that assem- 
 bly, he would not have interrupted them. This was a concession on 
 the part of the consuls, that the. tribunes had the power of assem- 
 bling the comitia, which, from that moment, they assumed as their 
 acknowledged right, it was a consequence ci this right, that the 
 affairs of the commonwealth should be agitated in those meetings, 
 equally as «n the assemblies held in virtue of a consular summons, or 
 senatorial decree, and thus there were, in a manner, two distinct 
 legislative powers established in the republic. 
 
 2. The trial of Conolanus for inconsiderately proposing the aboli- 
 tion of the tribunate, an offence interpreted to be treason against the 
 state, threw an additional weight into the scale of the people. The 
 proposal of an agrarian law, for the division of the lands acquired by 
 recent conquests, resumed at intervals, though ue\^v earned into 
 execution, inflamed the passions of the rival orders. 
 
 3. Publius Volero, formerly a centurion, and a man distingi 
 
 for his military services, had, in the new levies, been ranked as a 
 common soldier. Complaining of this unmerited degradation, he re- 
 fused his services in that capacity ; and the consuls having con- 
 demned him to corporal punishment, he appealed from their sen- 
 tence to the people. The contest lasted till the annual teim of elec- 
 tions, when Volero himself was chosen a tribune of the people. He 
 had an ample revenge, by procuring the enactment of a most impor- 
 tant law. The comitia by centuries and by curiae could be called 
 only in virtue of a decree of the senate, after consulting the wisp ices; 
 and in those comitia the tribunes had hitherto been tnd the 
 
 most important public affairs discussed. It was dee; lie law 
 
 of Volero, that the election of the tribunes should be u l< and the 
 chief public business henceforward discussed, in the comitia held by 
 tribe* ? which were unfettered by any of those restraints. From this 
 
ANCIENT HISTORY. 57 
 
 period the supreme authority in the Roman republic may be consid- 
 ered as having passed completely from the higher order into the 
 hands of the people. The Roman constitution was now plainly a 
 democracy, 471 A. C. 
 
 SECTION XXVIL 
 
 THE DECEMVIRATE. 
 
 1. The Romans had, till this period, no body of civil laws.— Under 
 the regal government the kings alone administered justice; the 
 consuls succeeded them in this high prerogative, and thus possessed 
 without control the absolute command- of the fortunes and civil rights 
 of all the citizens. To remedy this great defect, Terentillus, a tri- 
 bune, proposed the nomination of ten commissioners, to frame and 
 digest a code of laws for the explanation and security of the rights 
 of ail orders of the state. A measure so equitable ought to have met 
 with no opposition. It was, however, strenuously opposed by the 
 patricians, who, by a fruitless contest, only exposed their own weak- 
 ness. The decemviri were chosen ; but the election being made in 
 the comitia by centuries, the consul Appius Claudius, with his col- 
 league, were at the head of this important commission. The laws* 
 were framed, those celebrated statutes known by the name of the 
 Twelve Tables, which are the basis of the great structure of the 
 Roman jurisprudence, 451 A. C\ 
 
 2. An acquaintance with these ancient laws is therefore of impor- 
 tance. Even in the most flourishing times of the republic they con* 
 tinued to be of the highest authority. They have trie encomium nf 
 Cicero Limsdi; and we learn from him, that to commit these laws 
 to memory was an essential part of a liberal education. From the. 
 twelve tables the jurisconsulti composed a system of judicial forms, 
 for the regulation of the different tribunals. The number of the 
 laws was likewise from time to time increased by the senatusconsultti 
 and plebiscite. 
 
 3. The decemvirs were invested with all the powers of govern- 
 ment, for the consulate had ceased on their creation. Each decem- 
 vir by turn presided for a day, and had the sovereign authority, with 
 its insignia, the fasces. The nine others olhciated solely as judge* 
 in the determination of lawsuits, and the correction of abuses. An 
 abuse, however, of the most flagrant nature, committed by the chief 
 of their own number, was destined speedily to bring their office to 
 its termination. 
 
 4. Appius Claudius, inflamed by lawless passion for the young 
 Virginia, the betrothed spouse of Iciiius, formerly a tribune of the 
 people, employed a profligate dependant to claim the maiden as his 
 own property, on the false pretence of her being the daughter of 
 cue of his female slaves. The claim was made to the decemvir 
 himself in judgment, who pronounced an infamous decree, which 
 tore from her iamiiy tins helpless victim, and put her into the hand* 
 of his own minion. Her father, to save the honour of his child, 
 plunged a dagger into her breast ; and the people, witnesses of this 
 shocking scene, would have massacred Appius on the spot, if he had 
 not found means to escape amidst the tumult. Their vengeance, 
 however, was satiated by the instant abolition of this hated magis: 
 tracy, and by the death of Appius, who chose by his own hand to 
 
 8 
 
bB ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 prevent the stroke of the executioner. The decemvirate had sub- 
 sisted for three years. The consuls were now restored, together 
 with the tribunes of the people, 449 A. C. 
 
 SECTION XXVIII. 
 INCREASE OF THE POPULAR POWER. 
 
 1. The scale of the people was daily acquiring weight, at the ex- 
 pense of that of the highest order. Two barriers, nowever, still 
 separated the patricians and plebeians : one, a law which prevented 
 their iutermafriage, and the other, the constitutional limitation of all 
 (he higher offices to the order of the patricians. It was only neces- 
 sary to remove these restrictions, and the patricians and plebeians 
 were on a footing of perfect equality. The first, after a long but 
 I'mitles* contest, was at length agreed to by the senate ; and this 
 concession had its usual effect of stimulating the people to inflexible 
 perseverance in their struggle for the latter. On an emergence oi 
 war the customary device was practised, of refusing to enter the 
 rolls, unless upon the immediate enactment of a law, which should 
 *itlii jit their capacity of holding all the oflices of the republic. The 
 ieojLte sought a palliative, by the creation of six military tribunes w 
 lieu of the consuls, three ot whom should be patricians, and thro? 
 plebeians. This measure satisfied the people for a time : the consuls 
 uowever, were soon restored. 
 
 2. The. disorders of the republic, and frequent wars, had inter 
 rupted the regular survey of the citizens. This was remedied bj 
 the creation oi a new magistracy. Two officers, under the title oi 
 censors, were appointed (437 A. C), whose duty was not only to 
 make the cenm every live years, out to inspect the morals- and 
 regulate the duties of all the citizens-: an office of dignity equal to 
 
 •its importance, exercised, in the latter times of the republic, only by 
 consular persons, and afterwards annexed to the supreme functions 
 of the emperors. 
 
 3. The dissensions between the orders continued, with little varia- 
 tion either in their causes or effects. The people generally, as the 
 last resource, refused to enrol themselves, till overawed by the 
 supreme authority of a dictator. To obviate the frequent necessity 
 of this measure, which enforced at best an unwilling and compelled 
 obedience, the senate had recourse to a wise expedient ; this was, 
 to give a regular pay to the troops. To defray this expense a mod- 
 erate tax was imposed in proportion to the fortunes of the citizens. 
 From this period the Roman system of war assumed a new aspect. 
 The senate always found soldiers at command ; the army was under 
 its control ; the enterprises of the republic were more extensive, 
 and its successes more signal and important. Veil, the proud rival 
 of Rome, and its equal in extent and population, was taken by Camil- 
 his, after a siege of ten years, A. U. C. 396. The art of war wag 
 improved, as it now became a profession, instead of an occasional 
 occupation. The Romans were, from this circumstance, an over- 
 match for all their neighbours. Their dominion, hitherto confined 
 to the territory of a few miies, was now rapidly extended. It was 
 impossible but that the detached states of Italy must have given way 
 before a people who were always in arms, and, by a perseverance 
 alike resolute and judicious, were equal to every attempt in which 
 they engaged. 
 
ANCIENT HIS1 CRY. &g 
 
 4. The taking of Veii was succeeded by a war with the Gauls. 
 This people, a branch of the great nation of the Celtae, had opened 
 to themselves a passage through the Alps at four different periods, 
 and were at this time established in the country between those 
 mountains and the Appenincs. Under the command of Brennus they 
 laid siege to the Etruscan Clusium ; and the people, of no warlike 
 turn themselves, solicited the aid of the Romans. The circumstan- 
 ces recorded of this war with the Gauls throw over it a cloud ?f 
 fable and romance. The formidable power of Rome is said to have 
 been, in a single campaign, so utterly exhausted, that the Gauls en- 
 tered the city without resistance, and burnt it to the ground, 385 A. 
 C. Though thus overpowered, the Romans, in a single engagement, 
 retrieve all their losses, and in one day's time there is not a Gaul 
 left remaining within the Roman territory. 
 
 To the burning of the city by the Gauls, the Roman writers attri- 
 bute the loss of ail the records and monuments of their early history. 
 
 5. It is singular, that most of the Roman revolutions should have 
 owed their origin to women. From this cause we have seen spring 
 the abolition of the regal office and the decemvirate. From this 
 cause arose the change of the constitution, by which the plebeians 
 became capable of holding the highest offices of the commonwealth. 
 The younger daughter of Fabius Ambustus, married to a plebeian, 
 envious of the honours of her elder sister, the wife of a patrician, 
 stimulated her father to rouse, the lower order to a resolute purpose 
 of asserting (heir equal right with the patricians to all the offices and 
 dignities of the state. After much turbulence and contest the final 
 
 issue was the admission of the plebeians, first to the consulate, and 
 afterwards to the censorship, the pratorship, and priesthood (A. U> 
 C. 454, and A. C. 300) . a change beneficial in the main, as consoli- 
 dating the strength of the republic, and cutting off the principal source 
 of intestine disorder. The factions of the state had hitherto confined 
 the growth of its power, its splendour, and prosperity ; for no state 
 can at once be prosperous and anarchical. We shall now mark the 
 rapid elevation of the R.oman name and empire. 
 
 SECTION XXIX. 
 
 CONQUEST OF ITALY BY THE ROMANS. 
 
 1. The war with the Samnites now began, and was of long contin- 
 uance; but its successful termination was speedily followed by the 
 reduction of all the states of Italy. In the course of this important 
 war the Tarentines, the allies of the Samnites, sought the aid oi 
 Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, one of the greatest generals of his age. Pyrr- 
 hus landed in Italy with 30,000 men and a train of elephants, 280 A. 
 C. He was at first successful, but no longer so than till a short ex- 
 perience reconciled the Romans to a new mode of war. Sensible at 
 length of the difficulties of his enterprise, and dreading a fatal issue, 
 lie embraced an invitation from the Sicilians to aid them in a war 
 with Carthage. On this pretext, which at least was not dishonoura- 
 ble, Pyrrhus withdrew his troops from Italy. In this interval the 
 Romans reduced to extremity the Samnites, the Tarentines, and the 
 other allied states. Pyrrhus returned, and made a last effort near 
 Beneventum. He was totally defeated, lost 26,000 men, and aban- 
 doning at once all further views to Italy, returned with precipitation 
 
60 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 to his own dominions, 274 A. C. The hostile states submitted to the 
 victorious power; and Rome, 480 years from the foundation of the 
 city, was now mistress of all Italy. 
 
 2. The policy observed by the Romans, with respect to the con- 
 quered nations," was wise and judicious. They removed to Rome 
 all the leading men of the principal conquered cities, admitting them 
 into the ancient urban and rustic tribes, and thus soothing the pride of 
 the vanquished, by giving them an apparent share in their own do- 
 mestic government; while, in arranging the constitution of the cities, 
 they tilled their magistracies with illustrious Romans, whose abilities 
 and influence were fitted to maintain those new provinces in alle- 
 giance to the Roman government. 
 
 3. Sicily had long been considered the granary of Italy. The 
 Carthaginians at this time possessed considerable settlements in the 
 island, and were ambitious of acquiring its entire dominion. An ob- 
 vious policy led the Romans to dispute with them this important ac- 
 quisition, and gave rise to the Punic wars. This leads, by a natural 
 connexion, to a short view of the history of Carthage and of Sicily. 
 
 SECTION XXX. 
 
 HISTORY OF CARTHAGE. 
 
 1 . Carthage, according to the most probable accounts, was founded 
 by a colony of Tyrians, about seventy years before the building of 
 Rome. The colony had the same language, the same or nearly 
 similar laws and constitution, the same national character, with the 
 parent state. The city of Carthage was, at the period of the Punic 
 wars, one of the most splendid in the world, and had under its domin- 
 ion 300 of the smaller cities of Africa bordering on the Mediterranean 
 sea. 
 
 2. The constitution of the republic is celebrated by Aristotle as 
 one of the most perfect of the governments of antiquity ; but we 
 know little more than its general nature from ancient writers. Two 
 magistrates, named suffetes, annually chosen, seem to have possessed 
 powers akin to those of the Roman consuls; and the Carthaginian 
 senate to those cf the senate, of Rome; with this remarkable differ- 
 ence, that, in the former, unanimity of opinion was requisite in all 
 measures of importance. A divided senate transmitted the business 
 to the assembly of the people. A tribunal of 104 judges took cog- 
 nizance of military operations, and of the conduct of their generals, 
 A superior council of five seems to have controled the decisions of 
 the larger tribunal. Two peculiarities of the Carthaginian policy 
 have been censured by Aristotle. One peculiarity was, that the same 
 person might hold several employments or offices in the state ; the 
 other that the poor were debarred from all offices of trust or import- 
 ance. But the former of these is frequently both expedient and 
 necessary, and the latter seems agreeable to the soundest policy ; for 
 in offices of trust poverty offers too powerful an incitement to devia- 
 tion from duty. 
 
 3. The first settlements made by the Carthaginians were entirely 
 in thf: way of commerce. Trading 4o the coast of Spain for gold, 
 they built Carthagena and Gades : and coasting along the western 
 phore of Africa, they had establishments for the same purpose as far 
 as the 25th degree of north latitude. The Periplus of Hanno affords 
 
ANCIENT HISTORY. 6 1 
 
 a proof of ardent enterprise and policy. Desirous of extending a 
 limited territory they armed against the Mauritanians, Numidians, 
 and all the neighbouring nations; employing mercenary troops, 
 which they levied, not only in Africa, but in Spain, the two Gauls, 
 and Greece. 
 
 4. The annals of the Carthaginian state are little known till their 
 wars with the Romans. The first of their wars mentioned in history 
 is that with the Greek colonies of Sicily. Darius courted their alli- 
 ance when he meditated the conquest of Greece ; and Xerxes re- 
 newed that treaty when he followed out the designs of his father. 
 
 SECTION XXXI. 
 
 HISTORY OF SICILY. 
 
 1. The early periods of the history of Sicily are as little, known as 
 those of Carthage. The Phoenicians had sent colonies to Sicily Be- 
 fore the Trojan war. The Greeks, in after times, made considerable 
 settlements in the island. The Corinthians founded Syracuse, which 
 became the most illustrious of the Greek cities of Sicily; and from 
 Syracuse arose afterwards Agrigentum, Acra, Casmene, Camarenej 
 and several other Sicilian towns. 
 
 2. The government of Syracuse was monarchical, and might have 
 long remained so, if all its sovereigns had inherited the abilities and 
 virtues of Gelon. But his successors, exercising the worst of tyran- 
 ny, compelled their subjects at length to abolish the regal govern- 
 ment ; and their example was speedily followed by all the Grecian 
 states of Sicily. 
 
 3. The monarchy of Syracuse, however, was revived about sixty 
 years after in the person of Dionysius, a man of obscure origin, .hut 
 of signal ability. Twice expelled for a tyrannical exercise of ck>min 
 ion, he as often found means to overpower his enemies, and ^re-estab- 
 lish himself in the throne. At his death the crown passed, without 
 opposition, to his son, Dionysius the younger, a weak <md capricious 
 tyrant, whom his subjects judging unworthy to rei^ J ? dethroned and 
 banished, 357 A. C. The crown was conferred ^n Dion, his brother- 
 in-law, whose amiable character rendered Aim the delight of his 
 people. But after a short reign this prince fell a victim to treason. 
 Aided by the distractions of Syracuse consequent on this event, Dio- 
 nysius remounted the throne ten years after his expulsion ; but his 
 tyrannical disposition, heightened by his misfortunes, became at 
 length so intolerable, that he was expelled a second time, and 
 banished toCorinthj where he ended his days in poverty and obscurity. 
 The author of this revolution was the illustrious Timoleon, to 
 whose abilities and virtues his country owed equally its liberty and 
 its subsequent happiness and prosperity, 343 A. C. 
 
 The signal opposition of national character between the Romans 
 and the Carthaginians may be easily explained, when we attend to 
 the effects of a commercial life on the genius and manners of a nation. 
 The vices of a commercial people are selfishness, cunning, avariee, 
 with an absence of every heroic and patriotic virtue. The favoura- 
 ble effects of commerce are industry, frugality, general courtesy of 
 manners, improvement in the useful arts. Attending to these coroe- 
 F 
 
62 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 qe rices of the prevalence of the commercial spirit, we shall see the 
 principal features of the Carthaginian character opposed to the 
 Roman. 
 
 SECTION XXXIL 
 
 THE PUNIC WARS. 
 
 1. The triumph which the Romans had obtained over Pyrrhus 
 seemed to give assurance of success in any enterprise in which they 
 should engage. The Mamertmes. a people of Campania, obtained 
 aid from the Romans in an unjustifiable attempt which they made to 
 seize Messina, a Sicilian town allied to Syracuse. The Syracusans, 
 at first assisted by the Carthaginians, opposed this invasion ; but the 
 former, more alarmed by the ambitious encroachments of the Car- 
 thaginians on Sicily^, soon repented of this rash alliance, and joined 
 the Romans in the purpose of expelling the Carthaginians entirely 
 from the island. In tact the Sicilians seem to have had only the des- 
 perate choice of final submission either to Rome or Carthage. 
 They chose the former, as the alternative least dishonourable. The 
 Romans had ever been their friends, the Carthaginians their enemies. 
 
 2. Agrigentum, possessed by the Carthaginians, was taken, after 
 a long siege, by the joint forces oi Rome and Syracuse. A Roman 
 fleet, the first which they ever had, was equipped in a few weeks, 
 and gained a complete victory over that of Carthage, at this time the 
 greatest maritime power in the world, 260 A. C. These successes 
 were followed by (he reduction of Corsica and Sardinia. In a second 
 naval engagement the Romans took from the Carthaginians sixty of 
 their ships of war, and now resolutely prepared for the invasion of 
 Africa. The consul Regulus commanded the expedition. He ad- 
 vanced to the gates of Carthage ; and such was the general conster- 
 nation that the enemy proposed a capitulation. Inspirited, however, 
 by a timely aid of Greek troops under Xantippus, the Carthaginians 
 made a desperate effort, and, defeating the Roman army, made Regu- 
 lus their prisor^r. But, repeatedly defeated in Sicily, they were at 
 length seriousi}' dp^irous of a peace ; and the Roman general was 
 sent with their ambassadors to Rome to aid the negotiation, under a 
 solemn oath to return i* Carthage as a prisoner, if the treaty should 
 fail. It was rejected at the urgent desire of Regulus, who thus sac- 
 rificed his life to what he juoged the interest of his country. 
 
 3. Lilybceum, the strongest of the Sicilian towns belonging to 
 Carthage, was taken after a siege of nine years. After some alter- 
 nate successes two naval battles won by the Romans terminated the 
 war. and Carthage at last obtained a peace on the humiliating terms 
 of aoandoning to the Romans all her possessions in Sicily, the pay- 
 ment of 3,200 talents of silver, the restitution of all prisoners without 
 ransom, and a solemn engagement never to make war against Syra- 
 cuse or her allies. The island of Sicily was now declared a Roman 
 proviace, though Syracuse maintained its independent government. 
 A. U. C. 511, and A. C. 241. & 
 
 4. The peace between Rome and Carthage was of twenty-three 
 yean' duration. The latter power was recruiting its strength, and 
 meditated to revenge its losses and disgrace. The second Punic war 
 began on the part of the Carthaginians, who besieged Saguntum, a 
 city of Spain, in alliance with the Romans The young HannibaJ 
 
ANCIENT HISTORY. 03 
 
 took Saguntum after a siege of seven months ; the desperate inhabi 
 tants setting fire to the town, and perishing amidst thetlames. Han 
 nibal now formed the bold design of carrying the war into Italy. He 
 provided against every difficulty, gained to his interest a part of (he 
 Gallic tribes, passed the Pyrenees, and finally the Alps,* in a toil- 
 some march of five months and a half from his leaving Carthagena j 
 and arrived in Italy with 20,000 foot and 6,000 horse. 
 
 5. In the first engagement the Romans were defeated. They also 
 lost two other important battles at Trebia, and the lake Thras3 T me 
 nus. in the latter of these the consul Flaminius was killed, and his 
 army cut to pieces. Hannibal advanced to Cannae in Apulia, where 
 tlie Romans opposad him with their whole force. A memorable 
 defeat ensued, in which 40,000 Romans were left dead upon the 
 field, and among these the consul /Emilius, and almost the whole 
 body of the knights. If Hannibal had taken advantage of this great 
 victory, by instantly attacking Rome, the fate of the republic was 
 inevitable; but he deliberated, and the occasion was lost. The 
 Romans concentrated ali then- strength. Even the slaves armed in 
 the common cause, and victory once more attended the standards of 
 the republic. Philip, king of Macedon, joined his forces to the 
 Carthaginians, but, defeated by Levinus, speedily withdrew his as- 
 sistance. Hannibal retreated before the brave Marccllus. Syracuse 
 had now taken part with Carthage, and thus paved the way'for the 
 loss of its own liberty. Marcellus besieged the city, which was long 
 defended by the inventive genius of Archimedes; but was taken in 
 the third year by escalade in the night. This event put an end to 
 the kingdom of Syracuse, which now became a part of the Roman 
 province of Sicily, A. U. C. 512, A. C. 212. 
 
 G. While the Avar in Italy was prosperously conducted by the 
 great Fabius, who. by constantly avoiding a general engagement, 
 found the true method of weakening his enemy, the younger Scipio 
 accomplished the entire reduction of Spain. Asdrubal was sent 
 into Italy to the aid of his' brother Hannibal, but was defeated by 
 the consul Claudius, and slain in battle. Scipio, triumphant in Spain, 
 passed over into Africa, and carried havoc and devastation to the 
 : -i !<$ of Carthage. Alarmed for the fate of their empire the Car- 
 I vrjaians hastily recalled Hannibal from Italy. The battle of 
 Ze.na decided the fate of the war, by the utter defeat of the Cartha- 
 ;-ini ins. They entreated a peace, winch the Romans gave on these 
 i oil HUons: that the Carthaginians should abandon Spain, Sicily, and 
 ali the islands; surrender all their prisoners, give up the whole of 
 
 liir fleet except ten gallies, pay 10,000 talents, and, in future, 
 'V.i lertake no war without consent of the Romans, A. U. C. 552, A. 
 C. 202, 
 
 7. Every thing now concurred to swell the pride of the conquer- 
 ors, and to extend their dominion. A war with Philip of Macedon 
 was terminated by his defeat ; and his son Demetrius was sent to 
 Horns as a hostage for the payment of a heavy tribute imposed on 
 the vanquished. A war with Antiochus, king of Syria, ended in 
 hi* ceding to the Romans the whole of the Lesser Asia. But these 
 c al mdid conquests, while they enlarged the empire, were fatal to its 
 
 ■ The passage of Hannibal over the Alps has been lately illustrated, 
 la a most learned and ingenious essay, by Mr. Whitaker (the celebrated 
 historian of Manchester, and vindicator of Queen Mary), who has, with 
 great acuteness, traced every step of the Carthaginian general, from his 
 V-ro^ing the Rhone to his final arrival in Italy. 
 
64 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 virtues, and subversive of the pure and venerable simplicity oi 
 ancient times. 
 
 8. The third Punic war began A. U. C. 605, A. C. 149, and ended 
 in the ruin of Carthage. An unsuccessful war with the Numidians 
 had reduced the Carthaginians to great weakness, and the Romans 
 meanly laid hold of that opportunity to invade Africa. Conscious oi 
 their utter inability to resist this formidable power, the Carthaginians 
 offered every submission, and consented even to acknowledge them- 
 selves the subjects of Rome. The Romans demanded 300 hostages, 
 for the strict performance of every condition that should be enjoined 
 by the senate. The hostages were given, and the condition requir 
 ed was, that Carthage itself should be razed to its foundation. .Des- 
 pair gave courage to this miserable people, and they determined to 
 die in the defence of their native city. Hut the noble effort was in 
 vain. Carthage was taken by storm, its inhabitants massacred, and 
 the city burnt to the ground, A. U. C. 607, A. C. 146. 
 
 9. The same year was signalized by the entire reduction of 
 Greece under the dominion of the Romans. This was the aera of 
 the dawn of luxury and taste at Rome, the natural fruit of foreign 
 wealth, and an acquaintance with foreign manners. In the unequal 
 distribution of this imported wealth, the vices to which it gave rise, 
 the corruption and venality of which it became the instrument, we 
 see the remoter causes of 'those fatal disorders to which the republic 
 owed its dissolution. 
 
 SECTION XXXH1. 
 
 THE GRACCHI, AND THE CORRUPTION OF THE COMMON- 
 WEALTH. 
 
 1. At this period arose Tiberius and Caius Gracchus, two noble 
 youths, whose zeal to reform the growing corruptions of the slate, 
 precipitated them at length into measures destructive of all govern- 
 ment and social order. ^ Tiberius, the elder of the brothers, urged 
 the people to assert by force the revival of an ancient law, for limit- 
 ing property in land, and thus abridging the overgrown estates of the 
 patricians. A tumult was the consequence, in vvhich Tiberius, with 
 300 of his friends, were killed in the forum. This fatal example did 
 not deter his brother, Caius Gracchus, from pursuing a similar career 
 of zeal or of ambition. After some successful experiments of his pow- 
 er, while in the office of tribune, he directed his scrutiny into the cor- 
 ruptions of the senate, and prevailed in depriving that body of its con- 
 stitutional control over all the inferior magistrates of the state. Em- 
 
 {)loying, like his brother, the dangerous engine of tumultuary force, 
 ie fell a victim to it himself, with 3,000 of his partisans, who were 
 slaughtered in the streets of Rome. The tumults attending the se- 
 dition of the Gracchi were the prelude to those civil disorders which 
 now followed in quick succession to the end of the commonwealth. 
 
 2. The circumstances attending the war with Jugurtha gave deci- 
 sive proof of the corruption of the Roman manners. Jugurtha, 
 grandson of Masinissa, sought to usurp the crown of Numidia by 
 destroying his cousins, Hiempsal and Adherbal, the sons of the last 
 king. He murdered the elder of the brothers ; and the younger 
 applying for aid to Rome. Jugurtha bribed the senate, who declared 
 }iim innocent of all culpable act or design., and decreed to him the 
 
ANCIENT HISTORY. 65 
 
 sovereignty of half the kingdom. This operated onlj as an incentive 
 to his criminal ambition. He declared open war against his cousin, 
 besieged him in his capital of Cirta, and finally put him to death. 
 To avert a threatened war Jugurtha went in person to Rome, 
 pleaded his own cause in the senate, and once more by bribery 
 secured his acquittal from all charge of criminality. A perseverance, 
 however, in a similar train of conduct finally drew on him the ven- 
 geance of the Romans; and being betrayed into their hands by his 
 own father-in-law, lie was brought in chains to Rome, to grace the 
 triumph of the consul Marios, confined to a dungeon, and starved to 
 death. A. U. C. 651, A. C. 103. 
 
 3. The ambition of the allied slates of Italy to attain the rights 
 of citizenship produced the social war, which ended in a conces- 
 sion of those rights to such of the confederates as should return 
 peaceably to their allegiance. This war with the allies was a pre- 
 lude to mat which followed between Rome and her own citizens. 
 Sylla an ! Marius, rivals, and thence enemies, were at this time the 
 leaders of the republic. Sylla, commanding in a war against Mithr;- 
 tlates. was superseded, and recalled from Asia. He refused to obey 
 the mandate, ail found his army well disposed to support him. 
 * Let us march to Rome," said they, with one voice; "lead us or* 
 to avenge the cause of oppressed liberty." Sylla accordingly led 
 them on. and they entered Rome sword in hand. Marius and his 
 partisans tied with precipitation from the city, and Sylla ruled for a 
 while triumphant. But the faction of his rival soon recovered 
 strength. Marius returning to Italy, and joining his forces to those 
 of Cinna, his zealous partisan, laid siege to Rome, and, while Sylla 
 was engaged in the Mithridatic war, compelled the city to absolute 
 submission. After a horrible massacre of all whom they esteemed 
 their enemies, Marius aid Cinna proclaimed themselves consuls, 
 without the formality of an election ; but Marius died a few days 
 after in a tit of debauch. 
 
 4. After a victorious campaign in Asia, Sylla returned to Italy, 
 and, joined by Cethegus. Verres, and the young Pompey, gave 
 battle to the party of his enemies, and entirely defeated them, 
 His entry into Rome was signalized by a dreadful massacre, and a 
 proscription, which had tor its object the extermination of every 
 enemy whom he had in Italy. Elected dictator for an unlimited 
 period, he was now without a "rival in authority, and absolute master 
 of the government, which, of course, was no longer a republic. 
 In the exercise of his dominion he deserved more praise than in 
 the means of acquiring it. He restored the senate to its judicial 
 authority, regulated the election to all the important offices of 
 state, and enacted mmy excellent laws against oppression and the 
 abuse of power, Finally, he gave demonstration, if not of a pure 
 conscience, at least of a magnanimous intrepidity of character, by 
 voluntarily resigning all command- retiring to the condition of a 
 private citizen, and offering publicly to give an account of his con- 
 duct. He died within a short time after his resignation. He was 
 certainly a man of great strength of mind, and had some of the qual- 
 ities of a heroic character ; but he lived in evil times, when it was 
 impossible at once to be great and to be virtuous. 
 
 5. The death of Sylla renewed the civil war. Lepidus, a man ctf 
 no abilities, aspired to succeed him in power ; and Pompey, with 
 superior talents, cherished the same ambition. While the latter was 
 emoloyed in the reduction of the revolted provinces of Asia, the 
 
 Y2 9 
 
&C ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 conspiracy of Catiline threatened the entire destruction of Rome 
 It was extinguished by the provident zeal and active patriotism 
 of the consul Cicero. Catiline and his chief accomplices were 
 attacked in the field, and defeated by Antonius. Th^e traitor made 
 a desperate defence, and died a better death than nis crimes had 
 merited. 
 
 6. Julius Caesar now rose into public notice. Sylia dreaded his 
 abilities and ambition, and had numbered him among the proscribed. 
 u There is many a Marius," said he, "in the person of that young 
 man." He had learned prudence from the danger of his situation, 
 and tacitly courted popularity, without that show of enterprise 
 which gives alarm to a rival. While Fompey and Crassus contended 
 for the command of the republic, Caesar, who knew that, by attach- 
 ing himself to either rival, he infallibly made the other his enemy, 
 showed the reach of his talents by reconciling them, and thus 
 acquiring the friendship of both. From favour to hheir mutual friend 
 they agreed to a partition of power; and thus was formed the first 
 triumvirate. Caesacwas elected consul. He increased his popularity 
 by a division of lands among the poorer citizens, and strengthened 
 his interest with Pompey by giving him his daughter in marriage. 
 He had the command of four legions, and the government of trans- 
 alpine Gaul and Iliyrh. 
 
 7. The military glory of the republic, and the reputation of 
 Caesar, were nobly sustained in Gaul. In the first year of his govern 
 ment he subdued the Ilelvetii, who, leaving their own country, had 
 attempted to settle themselves in the better regions of the Roman 
 province. He totally defeated the Germans under Ariovistus, who 
 had attempted a /similar invasion. The Belgae, the Nervii, the 
 Celtic Gauls, the Suevi, Menapii, and other warlike nations, were 
 all successively brought under subjection. In the fourth year of his 
 government lie transported his army into Britain. Landing at Deal, 
 he was opposed by the natives with equal courage and military skill. 
 He gained, however, several advantages, and, bin- ling the Britons to 
 submission, withdrew into Gaul on die approach of winter. He 
 returned in the following summer with a greater force, and, prose- 
 cuting his victories, reduced a considerable portion of the island 
 under the Roman dominion, A. C. 54. But the pressure of affairs 
 in Italy suspended for a time the progress of the Roman arms in 
 Britain. 
 
 3. Caesar dreaded the abilities of Cicero, who had opposed him 
 in his views of ambition. By the machinations of his partizans, 
 w r hile he was absent in Gaul, he procured the banishment of Cicero, 
 and the confiscation of his estates, on the pretence of illegal meas- 
 ures pursued in the suppression of the conspiracy of Catiline. 
 During an exile of sixteen months in Greece, Cicero gave way to a 
 despondency of mind utterly unworthy of the philosopher. Pom- 
 pey had abandoned him, and this ungrateful desertion bore most 
 heavily upon his mind. In the wane of his reputation Pompey soon 
 became desirous to prop his own sinking fortunes by the abilities of 
 Qicero, and eagerly promoted his recal from exile. The death of 
 Crassus, in an expedition against the Parthians, now dissolved the 
 triumvirate ; and Caesar and Pompey, whose union had no other bond 
 than interest, began each to conceive separately the view of undivid- 
 ed dominion. 
 
ANCIENT HISTORY. 61 
 
 SECTION XXXIV. 
 
 PROGRESS OF THE CIVIL WARS. SECOND TRIUMVIRATE- 
 FALL OF THE REPUBLIC, 
 
 1. The ambition of Caesar and of Pompey had now evidently the 
 tame object ; and it seemed to be the only question, in those degen- 
 erate times, to which of these aspiring leaders the republic should 
 surrender its liberties. The term of Caesars government was near 
 expiring. To secure himself against a deprivation of power, he 
 procured a proposal to be made in the senate by one of his partizans, 
 which wore the appearance of great moderation, namely, that 
 Caesar and Pompey should either both continue in their govern- 
 ments, or both be deprived of them, as they were equal!}" capable 
 of endangering the public liberty by an abuse of power. The mo- 
 tion passed, and Caesar immediately offered to resign, on condition 
 that his rival should do so ; but Pompey rejected the accommodation. 
 The term of his government had yet several years" duration, and 
 he suspected the proposal to be a snare laid for him by Caesar. He 
 resolved to maintain his right by force of arm?, and a civil war was 
 the necessary consequence. The consuls and a great part of the 
 senate were the friends of Pompey. Caesar had on his side a victo- 
 rious army, consisting of ten legions, and the body of the Roman cit- 
 izens, whom he had won by his liberality. Mark Antony and Cas- 
 sius, at that time tribunes of the people, left Rome, and repaired to 
 Caesar's camp. 
 
 2. The senate, apprehensive of his designs, pronounced a decree, 
 branding with the crime of parricide any commander who should 
 dare to pass the Rubicon (the boundary between Italy and the 
 Gauls) with a single cohort, without their permission. Cresar 
 infringed the prohibition, and marched straight to Rome. — Pompey, 
 to whom the senate committed the defence of the state, had no 
 army. He quitted Rome, followed by the consuls and a part of the 
 senate, and endeavoured hastily to levy troops over all Italy and 
 Greece; while Caesar triumphantly entered the city amidst the 
 acclamations of the people, seized the public treasury, and possessed 
 himself of the supreme authority without opposition. Having se- 
 cured the capital of the empire, he set out to take the field against 
 her enemies. The lieutenants of Pompey had possession of Spain. 
 Caesar marched thither, and subdued the whole country in the 
 9pace of forty days. He returned victorious to Rome, where, in his 
 absence, he had been nominated dictator. In the succeeding elec- 
 tion of magistrates he was chosen consul, and was thus invested, by 
 a double title, with the right of acting in the name of the republic. 
 Pompey had by this time raised a numerous army, and Caesar was 
 anxious to bring him to a decisive engagement. The two armies 
 met in Illyria, and the first conflict was of doubtful issue. Caesar 
 led his army into Macedonia, where he found a large reinforcement 
 He gave battle to Pompey in the field of Pharsalia, and entirely 
 defeated him. Fifteen thousand of Pompey's army were slain, and 
 24,000 surrendered themselves prisoners to the victor, A. U. C. 705, 
 A. C. 49. 
 
 3 The fate of Pompey was miserable in the extreme. With his 
 wife Cornelia, the companion of his misfortunes, he fled to Egypt m 
 
*8 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 Ti single ship, trusting to the protection of Ptolemy, whose father 
 had owed to nim his settlement on the throne. But the ministers of 
 this young prince, dreading the power of Caesar, basely courted hi? 
 favour hy the murder of his rival. Pompey was brought ashore in 
 a small boat by the guards of the king; and a Knmar centurion, 
 Who had fought under his banners, stabbed him, eve a in the sight of 
 Cornelia, and cutting off his head, threw the body naked on the 
 sands. Caesar pursued Pompey to Alexandria, where the head of 
 that unhappy man, presented as a grateful offering, gave him the 
 first intelligence of his fate. He wept, and turned with horror from 
 the sight. He caused every honour to be paid to his memory, and 
 (com that time showed the utmost beneficence to the partizans of 
 his unfortunate rival. 
 
 4. The sovereignty of Egypt was in dispute between Ptolemy 
 aaj his sister Cleopatra. The latter, though married to her brother, 
 ami joint heir by her fathers will, was ambitious of undivided author- 
 ity: 'and Caesar, captivated by her charms, decided the contest in 
 favour of the beauteous queen. A war ensued, in which Ptolemy 
 was killed, and Egypt subdued by the Roman arms. In this war the 
 fimous library of Alexandria was burnt to ashes, A. C. 48. A revolt 
 of the Asiatic provinces, under Pharnaces, the son of Mithridatcs, 
 was signally chastised ; and the report was conveyed by Caesar to 
 the Roman senate in three words, Vend, vidi^vici. The conqueror 
 returned to Rome, which needed his presence ; for Italy was divid- 
 ed, and the partizans of Pompey were yet extremely formidable. 
 His two son*. With Cato and Sciplo, were in arms in Africa. Ca?sar 
 pursued them thither, and proceeding with caution till secure of his 
 advantage, defeated them in a decisive engagement at Thapsus. 
 ►Scipio perished in his passage to Spain. Cato, shutting himself up 
 in Ctica, meditated a brave resistance ; but seeing no hope of suc- 
 cess, he finally determined not to survive the liberties of his country, 
 and fell deliberately by his own hand. Mauritania was now added 
 to the number of the Roman provinces; and C&sar returned to 
 i Lome, absolute, mister of the empire. 
 
 5. From that moment his attention was directed solely to the 
 prosperity and happiness of the Roman people. ]ie remembered 
 no longer that there had been opposite parlies ; beneficent alike to 
 the friends of Pompey as to his own. He laboured to reform every 
 species of abuse or grievance. He introduced order into every de- 
 partment of the state, defining the separate rights of all its magistrates, 
 and extending his care to the regulation of its most distant provinces. 
 The. reformation of the kalendar, the draining of the marshes of 
 Italy, the navigation of the Tiber, the embellishment of Rome, the 
 ( ompiete survey and delineation of the empire, alternately em- 
 ployed his liberal and capacious mind. Returning from the final 
 overthrow of Pompey's party in Spain, he w r as hailed the father of 
 his country, was created consul for ten years, and perpetual dic- 
 tator. His person was declared sacred, his title henceforth imnerator* 
 A. U. C. 709, A. C. 45. 
 
 6. The Roman republic had thus finally resigned its liberties, by 
 lis own acts. They were not extinguished, as Montesquieu lias 
 well remarked, by the ambition of a Pompey or of a Caesar. If the 
 fie.ntiments of Caesar and Pompey bad been' the same with those of 
 Cato, others would have had the same ambitious thoughts; and, 
 since the commonwealth was fated to fall, there never would have 
 been wanting a hand to drag it to destruction. Yet Caesar had bv 
 
ANCIENT HISTORY. *$ 
 
 force subdued his country ; and therefore was a usurper. If it had 
 been possible to restore the liberties of the republic, and with these 
 its happiness, by the suppression of his usurpation, the attempt 
 would have merited the praise at least of good design. Perhaps so 
 thought his murderers ; and thus, however weak their policy, how- 
 ever base and treacherous their act, they will ever find apologist*. 
 They expected an impossible issue, as the event demonstrated. 
 
 7. A conspiracy was formed by sixty of the senators, at the heat! 
 of whom were Brutus and Cassius; the former a man beloved of 
 Caesar, who had saved his life, and heaped upon him numberless 
 benefits. It was rumoured that the dictator wished to add to his 
 numerous titles that of king, and that the ides of March was fixed 
 cm- for investing him with the diadem. On that day, when taking 
 his seat in the senate-house, he was suddenly assailed by the con- 
 spirators. He defended himself for some time against their daggers, 
 till, seeing Brutus among the number, he faintly exclaimed, u And 
 you, too, my son!" and covering his face with his robe, resigned 
 himself to his fate. He fell, pierced by twenty-three wounds, A. I". 
 C 711, and A. C. 43. 
 
 o. The Roman people were struck with horror at the deed 
 They loved Caesar, master as he was of their lives and liberties. 
 Mark Antony and Lepidus, ambitious of succeeding to the power of 
 the dictator, resolved to pave the way by avenging his death. 
 Caesar, by his testament, had bequeathed a great part of his fortune 
 to the people ; and they were penetrated with gratitude to his 
 memory. A public harangue by Antony over the bleeding body, ex- 
 posed in the forum, inflamed them with the utmost indignation 
 against his murderers, -who mast have met with instant destruction 
 if they had not escaped with precipitation from the city. Antony 
 profited by these dispositions ; and the avenger of Caesar,, of course 
 the favourite of the people, was in the immediate prospect of att«»jjf 
 jng a similar height <.(' dnminjA}, In this, however, he found a for- 
 midable competitor in Octayius. the gr^Pt^Scpiiew and the adopted 
 heir of Caesar, who, at this critical moment, arrived in Rome. 
 Availing hims&lf of these titles, Octavius gained the senate to his inter- 
 est, and divided with Antony the favour of the people. The rival* 
 soon perceived that it was their wisest plan to unite their interests; 
 and they admitted Lepidus into their association, whose power, a§ 
 governor of Gaul, and immense riches, gave him a title to a share 
 of authority. Thus was formed the second triumvirate, the effects 
 of whose union were beyond measure dreadful to the republic. 
 The triumviri divided among themselves the provinces, and cement- 
 ed their union by a deliberate sacrifice made by each of his best 
 friends to the vengeance of his associates. Antony consigned to 
 death his uncle Lucius ; Lepidus his brother Paulns ; and Octaviu* 
 his guardian Toranius and his friend Cicero. In this horrible pro- 
 scription 300 senators and 3,000 knights were put to death. 
 
 9. Octavius and Antony now marched against the conspirators, who 
 had a formidable army in the field in Thrace, commanded by Brutus 
 and Cassius. An engagement ensued at Philippi, which decided 
 the. fate of the empire. Antony obtained the victory, for Octaviu* 
 had no military talents. He was destitute even of personal bravery, 
 and his conduct after the victory was stained with that cruelty which 
 is ever the attendant of cowardice.. Brutus and Cassius escaped ihe 
 vengeance of their enemies by a voluntary death. Antony now 
 sought a recompense for his troops by the plunder of the east 
 
70 ANCIENT. HISTORY. 
 
 While in Cilicia, he summoned Cleopatra to answer for her conduct 
 in dethroning an infant hrother, and in openly favouring the party of 
 Brutus and Cassius. The queen came to Tarsus, and made a com- 
 plete conquest of the triumvir. Immersed in luxury, and intoxicated 
 with love, he forgot glory, ambition, fame, and every thing, for 
 Cleopatra. Octavius saw this phrensy with delight, as the prepara- 
 tive of his rival's ruin. He had nothing to drend from Lepidus, 
 whose insignificant character first drew on him the contempt of his 
 partizans; and whose folly, in attempting an invasion of the province 
 of his colleague, was punished by his deposition and banishment. 
 
 10. Antony had in his madness lavished the provinces of the em 
 pire in gifts to his paramour and her children. The Roman people 
 were justly indignant at these enormities; and the divorce of his 
 wile. Octavia, the sister of his colleague, was at length the signal of 
 declared hostility between them. An immense armament, chiefly 
 naval, came at length to a decisive conflict near Acliurn, on the 
 coast of Epirus. Cleopatra, who attended her lover, deserted him 
 with her galleys in the heat of the engagement; and such was the 
 infatuation of Antony, that he abandoned his ilect, and followed her. 
 After a contest of some hours, the} 7 yielded to the squadron of Octavius, 
 A. i T . C. 723, A. C. 31. The victor pursued the fugitives to Egypt ; 
 and the base Cleopatra proffered^ terms to Octavius, including the 
 surrender of her kingdom, and the abandonment of Anton}. After 
 an unsuccessful attempt at resistance, Antony anticipated his fate 
 by falling on bis sword. Cleopatra soon after, cither from remorse, 
 or more probably from mortified ambition, as "she found it was Ocla- 
 vius's design to lead her in chains to Rome to grace his triumph, had 
 courage to follow the example of her lover, and put herself to death 
 by the poison of an asp. Octavius returned to Rome sole master of 
 the Roman empire, A. U. C. 727, A. C. 27. 
 
 SECTION XXXV. 
 
 CONSIDERATIONS OF SUCH PARTICULARS AS MARK THE 
 GENIUS AND NATIONAL CHARACTER OF THE ROMANS. 
 
 SYSTEM OF ROMAN EDUCATION. 
 
 1. A virtuous but rigid severity of manners was the characteristic 
 of the Romans under their kings, and in the first ages of the repub- 
 lic. The private life of the citizens, frugal, temperate, and labori- 
 ous, had its influence on their public character. The {pallia potestas) 
 paternal authority gave to every head of a family a sovereign author- 
 ity over all the members that composed it; and this power, felt as a 
 right of nature, was never abused. Plutarch has remarked, as a defect 
 in the Roman laws, that they did not prescribe, as those of Lacedae- 
 mon, a system and rules for the education of youth. But the truth 
 js, the manners of the people supplied this want. The utmost at- 
 tention was bestowed in the early formation of the mind and charac- 
 ter. The excellent author of the dialogue De Oratoribus (concerning 
 orators) presents a valuable picture of the Roman education in the 
 < arly ages of the commonwealth, contrasted with the less virtuous 
 practice of the more refined ages. The Roman matrons did not 
 abandon their infants to mercenary nurses. They regarded the 
 careful nurture of their offspring, the rudiments of theii education, 
 
ANCIENT HISTORY. 71 
 
 and the necessary occupations of their household, as the highest 
 points of female merit. Next to the care bestowed in the instilment 
 of virtuous morals, a remarkable degree of attention seems to have 
 been given to the language of children, and to the attainment of 
 a correctness and purity of expression. Cicero informs us that the 
 Gracchi, the sons of Cornelia, were educated, non tarn in grcemio 
 quam in sermonc mains, in the speecli more than in the bosom of their 
 mother That urbanity which characterized the Roman citizens 
 showed itself particularly in their speech and gesture. 
 
 2. The attention to the language of the youth had another source 
 It was by eloquence, more than by any other talent, that the young 
 Roman could rise to the highest olfices and dignities of the state. 
 The studio, forensia {forensic studies) were, therefore, a principal ob- 
 ject of the Soman education. Plutarch informs us, that among the 
 sports of the children at Rome, one was pleading causes before a 
 mock tribunal, and accusing and defending a criminal in the usual 
 forms of judicial procedure. 
 
 3. The exercises of the body were likewise particularly attended 
 to ; whatever might harden the temperament, and confer strength 
 and agility. These exercises were daily practised by the youth, 
 under the eye of their elders, in the Campus Martius. 
 
 4. At seventeen the youth assumed the manly robe. He was 
 consigned to the care of a master of rhetoric, whom he attended 
 constantly to the forum, or to the courts of justice ; for, to be an 
 accomplished gentleman, it was necessary for a Roman to be an ac- 
 complished orator. The pains bestowed on the attainment of this 
 character, and the best instructions for its acquisition, we learn from 
 the writings of Cicero, (^uintilian, and the younger Pliny. 
 
 SECTION XXXVI. 
 
 OF THE PROGRESS OF LITERATURE AMONG THE ROMANS. 
 
 1. Before the intercourse with Greece, which took place afler 
 the Punic wars, the Roman people was utterly rude and illiterate. 
 As among all nations the lirst appearance of the literary spirit is 
 shown in poetical composition, the Roman warrior had probably, 
 like the Indian or the Celtic, his war songs, which celebrated his 
 triumphs in battle. Religion likewise employs the earliest poetry 
 of most nations; and if a people subsist by agriculture, a plentiful 
 harvest is celebrated in the rustic song of the husbandman. The 
 versus fescennini {fescenninc verses), mentioned by Livy, were proba- 
 bly ot the nature of a poetical dialogue, or alternate verses sung by 
 
 " the labourers, in a strain of coarse merriment and raillery. Thw 
 shows a dawning of the drama. 
 
 2. About the 390th year of Rome, on occasion of a pestilence, 
 hidiones (drolls or stage dancers) were brought from Etruria, qui 
 ad tibicinis modos saltantes, haiul indecoros motus more Tasco dabant ; 
 who danced to the tunes of a musician* and, in the Tuscan fashion, exhi- 
 bited motions iliat were not ungraceful. Livy tells us that the Roman 
 youth imitated these performances, and added to them rude and joc- 
 ular verses, probably the fescennine dialogues. The regular drama 
 was introduced at Rome from Greece by Livius Andronicus, A. U. C 
 
72 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 514. The earliest Roman plays were therefore, we may presume, 
 translations from the Greek. 
 
 Et post punica bella quietus quserere ccepit, 
 
 Quid Sophocles, et Thespis, et JEsehylus utile ferrent. 
 
 Hor. Epist. Lib. II, i. 
 
 And being- at peace after the Punic Avars, the Romans began to inquire 
 what advantages might be derived from the writings of Sophocles, Thespia, 
 and jEschylus. 
 
 3. Of the early Roman drama, Ennius was a great ornament, and 
 from his time the art made rapid advancement. The comedies of 
 Plautus, the contemporary of Ennius, with great strength and spirit 
 of dialogue, display a considerable knowledge of human nature, 
 and are read at this day with pleasure. 
 
 4. Caecilius improved so much on the comedy of Plautus, that he 
 is mentioned by Cicero as perhaps the best of the Roman comic 
 writers. Of his compositions we have no remains. His patronage 
 fostered the rising genius of Terence, whose first comedy, the -An- 
 dria, was performed A. U. C. 587. The merit of the comedies of 
 Terence lies in that nature and simplicity which are observable in 
 the structure of his fables, and in the delineation of his characters. 
 They are deficient, however, in comic energy; and are not calcu- 
 lated to excite ludicrous emotions. They are chiefly borrowed from 
 the Greek of Menander and Apollodorus. 
 
 5. The Roman comedy was of four different species : the comedia 
 togata or prcetexlata, the comedia tabernaria. the attellance, and the 
 muni. The first admitted serious scenes and personages, and was of 
 the nature of the^ modern sentimental comedy. The second was a 
 representation of ordinary life and manners. The attellarue were 
 pieces where the dialogue was not committed to writing, but the 
 subject of the scene was prescribed, and the dialogue filled up by 
 the talents of the actors. The mimi were pieces of comedy ol the 
 lowest species ; farces, or entertainments of buffoonery ; though 
 sometimes admitting the serious, and even the pathetic. 
 
 6. The Roman tragedy kept pace in its advancement with the 
 comedy. The best of the Roman tragic poets were Actius and 
 Pacuvius, of whom we have no remains. The tragedies published 
 under the name of Seneca are generally esteemed the work of dif- 
 ferent hands. They are none of them of superlative merit. 
 
 7. Velleius Paterculus remarks, that the aera of the perfection 
 of Roman literature was the age of Cicero, comprehending all the 
 literary men of the preceding times whom Cicero might have seen, 
 and all those of the succeeding who might have seen him. Cicero, 
 Quintilian, and Pliny celebrate, in high terms, the writings of the 
 elder Cato, whose principal works were historical, and have entirely 
 perished. We have his fragments, de Re Rustica (on agriculture), in 
 which he was imitated by Varro, one of the earliest of the good 
 writers among the Romans, and a man of universal erudition. Of 
 the variety of his talents we may judge, not only from the splendid 
 eulogium of Cicero, but from the circumstance of Pliny having re- 
 course to his authority in every book of his Natural History. 
 
 8. Sallust, in order of time, comes next to Varro. This writer 
 introduced an inportant improvement on history, as treated by the 
 Greek historians, by applying (as Dionysius of Halicarnassus says) 
 
ANCIENT HISTORY. 73 
 
 the science of philosophy to the study of facts. Sallust is therefore 
 to be considered as the father of philosophic history ; a species of 
 writing which has been so successfully cultivated in modern times. 
 He is an admirable writer for the matter of his compositions, which 
 evince great judgment and knowledge of human nature, but by no 
 means commendable for his style and manner of writing. He anects 
 singularity of expression, an antiquated phraseology, and a petulant 
 brevity and sententiousness, which has nothing of the dignity of the 
 historical style. 
 
 9. Caesar has much more purity of style, and more correctness 
 and simplicity of expression; but his Commentaries, wanting that 
 amplitude of diction and fulness of illustration which is essential to 
 history, are rather of the nature of annals. 
 
 10. In all the requisites of a historian, Livy stands unrivalled 
 among the Romans ; possessing consummate judgment in the selec- 
 tion of ficts, perspicuity of arrangement, sagacious reflection, sound 
 views of policy, with the most copious, pure, and eloquent expres- 
 sion. It has been objected, that his speeches derogate from the 
 truth of history : but this was a prevalent taste with the ancient 
 writers ; and as those speeches are always known to be the compo- 
 sition of the historian, the reader is not misled. As to the style of 
 Livy, though in general excellent, we sometimes perceive in it, and 
 most commonly in the speeches, an affectation of the pointed sen- 
 tences (the vibrantes sententiolce) and obscurity of the declnimers, 
 which evinces the pernicious influence acquired by those teachers 
 at Rome since the time of Cicero and Sallust. 
 
 11. In the decline of Roman literature Tacitus is a historian of 
 no common merit. He successfully cultivated the method pointed 
 out by Sallust, of applying philosophy to history. In this be dis- 
 plays great knowledge of human nature, and penetrates, with sin- 
 gular acuteness, into the secret springs of policy, and the motives 
 of actions. But his fault is, that he is too much of a politician, 
 drawing his characters after the model of his own mind ; ever as- 
 signing actions and events to preconceived scheme and design, and 
 allowing too little for the operation of accidental causes, which often 
 have the greatest influence on human affairs. Tacitus, in his style, 
 professedly imitated that of Sallust ; adopting all the ancient pnra- 
 seology, as well as the new idioms introduced into the Roman lan- 
 guage by that writer. To his brevity and abruptness he added most 
 of the faults of the declaiming school. His expression, therefore, 
 though extremely forcible, is often enigmatically obscure; the 
 worst property that style can possess. 
 
 1 2. Among the eminent Roman poets (after the dramatic} Lucre- 
 tius deserves first to be noticed. He has great inequality, being at 
 some times verbose, rugged, and perplexed, and at others displaying 
 all the elegance as well as the fire of poetry. This may be in great 
 part attributed to his subject. Philosophical disquisition is unsuitable 
 to poetry. It demands a dry precision of thought and expression, 
 rejecting all excursive fancy and ornament of diction. That luxuri- 
 ance of imagery, which is the soul of poetry, is raving and imper- 
 tinence when applied to philosophy. 
 
 13. Catullus, the contemporary of Lucretius, is the earliest of toe 
 Roman lyric poets. His Epigrams are pointed and satirical, but too 
 licentious; his Idylla tender, natural, and picturesque. He flourished 
 id the age of Julius Caesar. 
 
 14. In the succeeding age of Augustus, poetry attained to its bigfo 
 
 G 10 
 
74 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 est elevation among the Romans. Virgil, Horace, Ovid, and Tibul* 
 lus, were all contemporaries. Virgil is allowed the same rank among 
 the Roman poets, as Homer among the Greek. If Homer excel 
 Virgil in the sublime, the latter surpasses the former in the tender 
 and elegant. The transcendent merits of Homer are sullied by oc- 
 casional defects. Virgil is the model of a correct taste. The dif- 
 ference of manner in the Bucolics, the Georgics, and the iEneid, 
 shows that Virgil was capable of excelling in various departments of 
 poetry ; and such is the opinion of Martial, who affirms that he 
 could have surpassed Horace in lyric poetry, and Varius in tragedy. 
 
 15. Horace excels as a lyric poet, a satirist, and a critic. In his 
 odes there is more variety than in those of either Anacreon or 
 Pindar. He can alternately display the sublimity of the latter, and 
 the jocose vein of the former. His Satires have" that characteristic 
 slyness and obliquity of censure, associated with humour and pleas- 
 antly, which strongly distinguish them from the stern and cutting 
 sarcasm of Juvenal. As a critic, his rules are taken chiefly from 
 Aristotle ; but they contain the elements of a just taste in poetical 
 composition, and therefore do not admit of variation. The Satires 
 of Juvenal, compared with those of Horace, are deficient in lace- 
 (iousness and urbanity ; but they are superior in acuteness of thought, 
 and in manly vigor of .sentiment. 
 
 16. In variety of talent, without supreme excellence, and in ease 
 and elegance of numbers, no Roman poet has exceeded Ovid. In 
 his Metamorphose", particularly, with great fancy, we have speci- 
 mens of the pathetic, the descriptive, the eloquent, and even the 
 sublime. His Elegies have more of nature and of real passion, 
 than those of either Tibullus or Propertius. His amatory verses 
 have much tenderness, but are too frequently loose, and even grossly 
 licentious. 
 
 17. There is nothing more elegant than the compositions of Tl- 
 bullus, nothing more delicate than the turn of his expression ; but 
 it is not the language of passion. The sentiments are tender, but 
 their power of affecting the heart is weakened by the visible care 
 and solicitude of the poet for refined phraseology and polished num- 
 bers; nor is there either much fancy or variety of thought. A sin- 
 gle elegy exhibits the sentiments of the whole. 
 
 18. Martial is the last of the Roman poets who can be mentioned 
 with high approbation. His Epigrams, independent of their art and 
 ingenuity, are valuable, as throwing light upon the Roman manners. 
 He possesses, above every other poet, a naivete of expression, 
 whicn is chiefly observable in his serious epigrams. He is well char- 
 acterized by the younger Pliny, higeniosus, acer, et qui in scribendo et 
 sahs haberet etfellis, nee candor is minus. Epist 3. 21. His writings are 
 ingenious and acute • they possess humour and satire, and no less candour. 
 
 19. Luxuriance of ornament, and the fondness for points, and bril- 
 liancy of thought and expression, are certain indications of the de- 
 cline of good taste. These characters strongly mark the Latin 
 poets of the succeeding ages. Lucan has some scattered examples 
 of genuine poetic imagery, and Persius some happy strokes of ani- 
 mated satire ; but they scarcely compensate the affected obscurity 
 of one, and the bombast of the other. The succeeding poets, Statius, 
 Silius Italicus, and Valerius Flaccus, in their attempts at the most 
 difficult of all species of poetry, the epic, have only more signally 
 displayed the inferiority of their genius, and the manifest decay of 
 the art. 
 
ANCIENT HISTORY. 75 
 
 SECTION XXXVII. 
 STATE OF PHILOSOPHY AMONG THE ROMANS. 
 
 1. Tite Romans, in the earlier periods of the republic, had little 
 leisure to bestow on the cultivation of the sciences, and had no idea 
 of philosophical speculation. It was not till the end of the sixth 
 century from the building of the city, and in the interval between 
 the war with Perseus and the third Punic war, that philosophy made 
 its first appearance at Rome. A few learned Acnasans, banished 
 from their country, had settled in various parts of Italy, and apply- 
 ing themselves to the cultivation of literature and the education 
 of youth, diffused a taste for those studies hitherto unknown to the 
 Romans. The elder citizens regarded those pursuits with an unfa- 
 vourable eye. Jealous of the introduction of foreign manners with 
 foreign studies, the senate banished the Greek philosophers from 
 Rome. Rut an Athenian embassy, arriving soon after, brought 
 thither Carneades and Critolaus, who revived the taste for the Greek 
 philosophy, and left behind them many able disciples, who publicly 
 taught their doctrines. 
 
 2. It was natural that those systems should be most generally 
 adopted which were most suitable to the national character. White 
 the "manners of the Romans had a tincture of ancient severity, the 
 stoical system prevailed. Scipio,Laelius, and the younger Cato rank 
 among its chief partisans. 
 
 3. The philosophy of Aristotle was little known in Rome till the 
 age of Cicero. At that time Cratippus and Tyrannion taught his 
 system with great reputation. Yet Cicero complains that the peri- 
 patetic philosophy was little understood at Rome ; and therefore, he 
 sent his son to study its doctrines in the schools of Athens. 
 
 4. Lucuilus, whose stay in Greece gave him an opportunity of 
 being acquainted with all the ditferent sects, disseminated, on his 
 return to Rome, a very general taste for philosophy. His patronage 
 of learned men, and his liberality in allowing his library to be open 
 for the public use, contributed greatly to the promotion of litera- 
 ture. 
 
 5. The Old and New Academy had each its partisans. Of the 
 former, which may be termed the Stoico-Platonic, the most illus- 
 trious disciples were Marcus Brutus and Terentius Varro. To the 
 philosophical talents of Brutus, and the universal erudition of Varro, 
 the writings of Cicero bear ample testimony. Cicero himself must 
 he deemed the most eminent ot all the Roman philosophers. He is 
 classed among the principal supporters of the New Academy ; 
 though it seems to have been his purpose to elucidate the Greek 
 philosophy in general, rather than to rank himself among the disci- 
 ples of any particular sect. 
 
 6. The cultivation of physics, or natural philosophy, seems to 
 have been little attended to either by the Greeks or Romans. Un- 
 less agriculture should be classed under this description, we know 
 of no Roman authors, except Varro and the elder rliny, who seem 
 to have bestowed much attention on the operations of nature. The 
 works of Varro have perished, except a few fragments. The Nat- 
 ural Plistory of Pliny is a most valuable store-house of the knowl- 
 edge of the ancients in physics, economics, and the arts and sciences. 
 
76 ANCIENT HISTORY 
 
 It U to be regretted that the style is unsuitable to the matter, being 
 too freauently florid, declamatory, and obscure. 
 
 7. Tne philosophy of Epicurus was unknown in the early ages 
 of the Roman commonwealth. It was introduced with luxury, and 
 kept pace in its advancement with the corruption of manners. Cin- 
 neas naving discoursed on the tenets of Epicurus at the table of 
 Pyrrhus, Fabricius exclaimed, "May the enemies of Rome ever 
 entertain such principles !" Yet these principles were, in a short 
 time from that period, too current among the citizens of Rome. 
 
 SECTION XXXVIII. 
 
 Of THE PUBLIC AND PRIVATE MANNERS OF THE ROMANS. 
 
 1. The manners of the Romans in the early ages of the republic 
 were so different from those of the latter times, that one should be 
 led to suppose some very extraordinary causes to have co-operated 
 to produce so remarkable a change ; yet the transition is easy to be 
 accounted for. A spirit of temperance, of frugality, and probity, is 
 the characteristic of every infant establishment. A virtuous simpli- 
 city of manners, and a rigour of military discipline, paved the way 
 for the extension of the Roman arms, and for their prodigious con- 
 quests. These conquest introduced wealth, luxury, and corruption. 
 
 2. In the early times of the republic the patricians, when in the 
 country, forgot the distinction of ranks, and laboured in the cultiva- 
 tion ot their lie Ids, like the meanest plebeians. We have the exam- 
 ples of Cincinnatus, Curius, the elder Cato, and Scipio Africanus. 
 The town was visited only every ninth day, which was the market 
 day. In those times of virtuous simplicity, says Saliust, Dmni mili- 
 Hceque boni mores colebantur. Duabus artibus, audacia in bello, ubi pax 
 evenerat, cequilate, seque remque publicam curabant. Good manners were 
 cultivated both in peace, and war. By two means, valour in war, and 
 equity in peace, they supported themselves and the commonwealth. But 
 when the Romans had extended their dominion, in consequence of this 
 very discipline and these manners, they imported with the wealth of 
 the conquered nations their tastes, their manners, and their vices. 
 
 3. The Romans had no natural taste in the line arts. On the con- 
 quest of Greece an immense field opened at once to their eyes, and 
 the master-pieces of art poured in upon them in abundance. But 
 they could not appreciate their excellences. The Roman luxury, as 
 far as the arts were concerned, was in general displayed in an 
 awkward, heavy, and tasteless magnificence. 
 
 4. The public and private life of the Romans will be best eluci- 
 dated by a short account of the manner in which the day was pass- 
 ed at Rome^ both, by the higher and lower ranks of the people. 
 By a part ot the citizens the morning hours were spent in visiting 
 the temples, by others in attending the levees of the great. The 
 clientes (clients) waited on their patroni (patrons); the patricians 
 visited one another, or paid their compliments to the leaders of the 
 republic. Popularity was always the first object of ambition at 
 Rome, as paving the way to all advancement. From the levee they 
 proceeded to the forum, either to assist in the public business, or for 
 amusement. There the time was spent till noon, which was the 
 hour of dinner among the Romans, This was chiefly a very light 
 repast, of which it was not customary to invite any guests to partake, 
 
ANCIENT HISTORY. ?- 
 
 After dinner the youth repaired to the Campus Martius, where they 
 occupied themselves in athletic exercises and sports till sunset. The 
 elder class retired for an hour to repose, and then passed the after 
 noon in their porticoes, galleries or libraries, where they enjoyed the 
 conversation of their friends, or heard recitations of literary works ; 
 others repaired to the theatres, or to the shows of the circus and 
 amphitheatre. 
 
 5. Combats of gladiators were introduced for the first time about 
 f.he 400th year of the city. These and combats with wild beasts soon 
 became a favourite amusement among the Romans. The spirit of 
 luxury, which in general is not unfavourable to humanity, showed its 
 progress among the Romans by an increasing ferocity and inhumanitv 
 c f the public spectacles. Theatrical entertainments Were in high 
 request. (Sect. XXXVI, § 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.) The taste for pantomime 
 came to such a height, that the art was taught in public schools, and 
 \he nobility and people were divided into parties in favour of the 
 rival performers; an abuse which called at length for the interposi- 
 tion of the laws. 
 
 6. From the porticoes, or from the theatre and amphitheatre, it was 
 customary to go to the baths, of which there were many for the use 
 of the public. The rich had baths in their own houses, vying with 
 each other in this as in every other article of luxury or magnificence 
 From the bath they went immediately to supper, generally about the 
 ninth or tenth hour, counting from sunrise. At table they reclined 
 on couches. The luxury of the Roman suppers far exceeded every 
 thing known among the moderns. An anteccentum of pickles and 
 spices was presented to prepare and sharpen the appetite. Cook- 
 ery became a science. The number and costliness of the dishes 
 were in- ivdilie. The entertainment was heightened by every thing 
 gratifying to the senses; by male and female dancers, musicians, 
 pantomimes, and even shows" of gladiators. 
 
 7. In tLe end of the republic pleasure and amusement were the 
 darling ol ^ct of ail ranks of the citizens: they sought no more than 
 pitnern ct circc-nses [bread and games in the circus). 
 
 SECTION XXXIX. 
 
 OF THE ART OF WAR AMONG THE ROMANS. 
 
 1. From the prodigious success which attended the amis of the 
 Romans, and the dominion which they acquired over the greater 
 part of the known world, it seems a natural iiiiorcr.ee that they must 
 have excelled all the contemporary nations in the military art Vege- 
 tius expressly assigns their extensive conquests to that cause alone. 
 It is the discipline of an army that makes a multitude, act as one man. 
 It likewise increases the courage of troops ; for each individual con 
 fides in the steady co-operation of his fellows. 
 
 2. From the constant practice of athletic exercises, the Romans 
 were inured from infancy to hardiness and fatigue, and bred to that 
 species of life, which a soldier leads in the most active campaign in 
 the field. 
 
 3. The levies were made annually, by the tribes called out, and 
 divided into their respective number of centuries; each century pre- 
 senting by rotation, as many soldiers as there were legions intended 
 to be raised; and the tribunes of the several legions taking their turn 
 
 G2 
 
78 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 by rotation in the selection of the men presented by the centuries*. 
 (Sect. XXIV, § 16.) The number of soldiers in the legion was vari- 
 ous at different periods, from 3,000 to 10,000 and 11,000. 
 
 4. Among the ancient nations there were usually two different 
 arrangements of the troops in order of battle. One the phalanx, 
 or close arrangement in a rectangular form, intersected only by 
 great divisions ; a disposition commonly used by the Greeks, and 
 by most of the barbarous nations. The other the quincunx or 
 chequer, consisting of small companies or platoons, disposed in three 
 straight lines, with alternate spaces between the companies equal 
 to the space occupied by each company. In the first line were the 
 hastati, in the second the principcs, and in the third the triarii. On 
 the flanks of the fir*t line were the cavalry, in detached companies; 
 and in front of the line were the velites, or light-armed troops, who 
 usually began with a skirmishing attack, and then were withdrawn, to 
 make way for the main body to come into action. The advantages 
 of this arrangement were, that the line of battle could be three 
 times formed with fresh troops, and that it was more adapted than 
 any other for rapid changes of movement. In the Roman legion, 
 the arms of the liasiati and principes were the pilum or heavy jave- 
 lin, and the sword and buckler; and of the triarii, the long spear, 
 with the sword and buckler. 
 
 5. Notwithstanding these advantages the quincunx went into disuse 
 toward the end of the republic, and from that time various arrange- 
 ments of the legion were used according 'to circumstances. The 
 Roman tactics are supposed to have been at their greatest pitch of 
 excellence during the runic wars. Hannibal was a great master of 
 the science of tactics ; and the Romans profited by the experience 
 of his ability. The battle of Cannse, as described by Polybius, 
 affords signal evidence of the great talents of the Carthaginian gen- 
 eral. The description of that battle has been misrepresented by 
 Folard; but it is accurately explained in the Memoirs Militaires of 
 M. Guischardt. If the quincunx disposition had been kept by the 
 Roman army in that engagement, the event might have been very 
 different ; for it would have disappointed the effect of an artful 
 manoeuvre planned by Hannibal, on observing his enemy's army 
 arranged in the unusual order of the phalanx. 
 
 6. The art of intrenchment was carried to perfection by the Ro- 
 mans, particular.y by Julius Caesar. With 60,000 men he defended 
 himself in his intrenchments before Alexia, while the lines of cir- 
 cumvallation were attacked by 240,000 Gauls, and the lines of counter- 
 vallation by 30,000, without effect. These intrenchments consisted 
 of a ditch from nine to fifteen feet in depth and width, fenced on the 
 inside by the mound of excavated earth, and on the outside by strong 
 stakes with pointed branches. 
 
 7. In besieging a town several camps were formed round the 
 place, joined to one another by lines of circumvallation and coun- 
 tervallation. A mound of earth {agger) was raised, beginning by a 
 gentle slope from one of the camps, and gradually rising in elevation 
 as it approached the city. The front, where the workmen were 
 employed, was defended by a curtain of hides fixed on strong posts. 
 On this mound the engines of attack, catapidkz and balisice, were 
 advanced, till they played on the very spot which the besiegers wish- 
 ed to assail. The catapulta* discharged heavy stones, the balisim 
 arrows. The same machines were used by the besieged for annoy- 
 ing the enemy. When the engines on the terrace had driven the 
 
AJSCIENT HISTORY. 70 
 
 besieged from the walls, the battering-ram {aries) was then brought 
 up under a pent-house (testudo) ; and, if it once reached the wall, was- 
 generally decisive of the fate of the town. The main object of the 
 Besieged was therefore to prevent its approach by every power of 
 -annoyance. Stones, darts, and combustible matters were continually 
 launched upon the assailants ; and sometimes a mine was dug front* 
 the city to scoop away the terrace and all its engines. These arts 
 of attack and defence of fortified places were in general use among' 
 the nations of antiquity, and continued down to modern times, till the 
 invention of gunpowder. 
 
 8. The naval military art was utterly unknown among the Re 
 mans till the first Punic war. A Carthaginian galley was the first 
 model of a vessel of war. In the space of two months they equipped 
 a fleet of 100 gallies of five banks of oars, and 20- of three banks. 
 The structure of those gallies, and the mode of arranging the row- 
 ers, may be learned from the ancient sculptures and medals. The 
 combatants at sea assailed at a distance with javelins, missile com- 
 bustibles, and sometimes with catapultas and balist<£; but the serious 
 attack was made in boarding, when the vessels were grappled by 
 means of a crane let down from the prow. 
 
 9. In the times of the empire, the Romans maintained their distant 
 conquests, not only by their armies, but by their fleets. The ship* 
 were moored in the large rivers and bays ; and both the legions and 
 the fleets generally preserved a fixed station. 
 
 SECTION XL. 
 
 REFLECTIONS ARISING FROM A VIEW OF THE ROMAN HIS 
 TORY DURING THE COMMONWEALTH. 
 
 1. The history of all nations evinces, that there is an inseparable 
 connexion between the morals of a people and their political pros- 
 perity. But we have no stronger demonstration of this truth than 
 the annals of the Roman commonwealth. To limit to republics alone 
 the necessity of virtue as a principle, is a chimerical notion, fraught 
 with dangerous consequences. Quid leges sine morions xamts ]rro]ici- 
 urd ? [laws witlbout morals avail nothing) is a sentiment equally appli- 
 cable to all governments; and no political system, however excellent 
 its fabric, can possess any measure of duration, without that power- 
 ful cement, virtue, in the principles and manners of the people. (Sect. 
 XIX, 5 4.) 
 
 2. The love of our country, and the desire for its rational liberty, 
 are noble and virtuous feelings ; and their prevalence is ever a test 
 of the integrity of the national morals. But no term has been more 
 prostituted than the word liberty. In a corrupted people the cry for 
 liberty is heard the loudest among the most profligate of the commu- 
 nity. With these its meaning has no relation to patriotism ; it im- 
 ports no more than the aversion to restraint ; and the personal char- 
 acter of the demagogue, and the private morals of his disciples, are 
 always sufficient to unmask the counterfeit. The spirit of patriot- 
 ism and a general corruption of manners cannot possibly be coexis- 
 tent in the same age and nation. 
 
 3. On the other hand, while the morals of a people are pure, no 
 public misfortune is irretrievable, nor any political situation so des- 
 perate, that hope may not remain of a favourable change. In such 
 situations the spirit of patriotism pervading all ranks of the state will 
 
80 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 Boon recover the national prosperity. The history of the Roman peo- 
 ple, and that of the Grecian states, in various crises, both of honour 
 and of disgrace, affords proofs alike of this position and of its converse. 
 
 4. The national character of the Romans seems to have under- 
 gone its most remarkable change for the worse from the time of the 
 destruction of their rival, Carthage. Sallust assigns the cause. Ants 
 
 Carthagincm dtletam, metus hostilis in bonis artibus civitatem retinebat. 
 
 Sed ubi illaformido menlibus decessit, scilicet ea qme secumhe res amant, 
 
 lascivut clique superbia invasere. Before the destruction of Carthage, 
 
 the fear of their enemy kept the people in the practice of -virtue ; but when 
 the restraint of fear ceased to influence their conduct, they abandoned thhtn- 
 s&he? to profligacy and arrogance, the usual concomitants of prosperity . 
 
 5. la the last ages of the commonwealth, avarice and ambition, 
 unrestrained by moral principle, were the chief motives of the Ro- 
 man conquest.'?. It was sufficient reason for going to war, that a 
 country offered a tempting object to the rapacity and ambition of 
 the military leaders. The conquest of Italy paved the way for the 
 reduction oY foreign nations. Hence the Romans imported, with their 
 wealth, the manners, the luxuries, and the vices of the nations which 
 they subdued. The generals returned not as formerly, after a suc- 
 cessful war, to the labours of the field, and to a life of temperance 
 and industry. They were now the governors of kingdoms and prov- 
 inces ; and' at the period of their command abroad, disdainmg the 
 restraints of a subject, they could be satisfied with nothing less than 
 sovereignty at home. The armies, debauched by the plunder of 
 kingdoms, were completely disposed to support them in all their 
 schemes of ambition; and the populace, won by corruption^ always 
 took part with the chief who best could pay for their favour and 
 .support. Force or bribery overruled every election ; and the in- 
 habitants of distant states, now holding the right of chixens.^ were 
 brought to Rem.:, at the command of the demagogue, to influence 
 any popular contest, and turn the scale in his favour. In a govern- 
 ment thus irretrievably destroyed by the decay of those spring 
 which supported it, it was of little consequence by what particular 
 tyrant, usurper, or demagogue, its ruin was finally accomplished. 
 
 G. From a consideration, of the rise and fall of the principal state* 
 of antiquity, it lias been a commonly received opinion, that the con* 
 stitution of empires has, like the human body, a period of growth, 
 maturity, decline, and extinction. But arguments from analogy arc 
 
 extremely deceitful, and particularly so when the analogy is froKs 
 truths. The human body is, from its fabric, natu- 
 
 physTcai to morai 
 
 rally subject to decay, and is perpetually undergoing a change from 
 time, its organs, at first weak, attain gradually their perfect 
 strength, and thence, by a similar gradation, proceed to decay and 
 dissolution. This is an immutable law of its nature, lint the springs 
 of the body politic do not necessarily undergo a perpetual change 
 from time. It is not regularly progressive from weakness to strength, 
 and thence to decay and dissolution ; nor is it under the intmence 
 wf any principle of corruption which may not be checked, and even 
 eradicated, by wholesome laws. Thus the beginning of the cor- 
 ruption of Sparta is attributed to Lysander's breach of the institu- 
 tions of Lycurgus, in introducing gold into the treasury of the state 
 instead of its iron money. But was this a necessary, or an unavoid- 
 able measure ? Perhaps a single vote in the senate "decreed its adop- 
 tion, and therefore another suffrage might have prevented, or long 
 postponed, the downfal of the commonwealth. The Roman repub- 
 
ANCIENT HISTORY. 81 
 
 lie owed its dissolution to the extension of its dominions. If it had 
 been a capital crime for any Roman citizen to have proposed to 
 carry the arms of the republic beyond the limits of Italy, its consti- 
 tution might have been preserved for many ages beyond the period 
 of its actual duration. " Accustom your mind," said Phocion to 
 Aristias, " to discern, in the fate of nations, that recompense which 
 the great Author of nature has annexed to the practice of virtue. 
 No state ever ceased to be prosperous, but in consequence of having; 
 departed from those institutions to which she owed her prosperity. 
 History indeed has shown that all states and empires have had their 
 period of duration ; but history, instructing us in the causes which 
 nave produced their decline and tall, inculcates also this salutary 
 lesson, that nations are in general the masters of their own destiny, 
 and that they may, and most certainly ought to, aspire at immortality. 
 7. It was a great desideratum in ancient politics, that a government 
 should possess within itself the power of periodical reformation; a 
 capacity of checking any overgrowth of authority in any of it? 
 branches, and of winding up the machine, or bringing back the con- 
 stitution to its first principles. To the want of such a power in the 
 states of antiquity (which they ineffectually endeavoured to supply 
 by such partial contrivances as the ostracism and petalism) we may 
 certainly ascribe, in no small degree, the decay of those states ; for 
 in their governments, when the balance was once destroyed, the 
 evil grew worse from day to day, and admitted no remedy but a 
 revolution, or entire change of the system. The British constitu- 
 tion possesses this inestimable advantage over all the governments 
 both of ancient and modern times, with the single exception of the 
 government of the United States of America. Besides the perpetual 
 power of reform vested in parliament, the constitution may be puri- 
 fied of every abuse, and brought back to its first principles, at the 
 commencement of every reign. But of this we shall afterward* 
 treat in its proper place. 
 
 SECTION XLI. 
 ROME UNDER THE EMPERORS. 
 
 1. The battle of Actium decided the fate of the commonwealth, 
 and Octavius, now named Augustus, was master of the Roman 
 empire. He possessed completely the sagacity of discerning what 
 character was best fitted for gaining the affections of the people 
 whom he governed, and the versatility of temper and genius to as- 
 sume it. His virtues, though the result of policy, not of nature. were- 
 certainly favourable to the happiness, and even to the liberties o( 
 his subjects. The fate of Csesar warned him of the insecurity of a 
 usurped dominion ; and therefore, while he studiously imitated the 
 engaging manners and clemency of his great predecessor, he affect- 
 ed a much higher degree of moderation, and respect for the rights of 
 die people. 
 
 2. The temple of Janus was shut, which had been open for 1 8JJ 
 years, since the beginning of the second Punic war ; an event pro- 
 ductive of universal joy. " The Romans (says Condillac) now be- 
 lieved themselves a free people, since they nad no longer to fight for 
 their liberty." The sovereign kept up this delusion, by maintaining 
 the ancient forms of the republican constitution, in the election ol 
 
dt ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 magistrates, &c, though they were nothing more than forms. Ha 
 even pretended to consider his own function as merely a temporary 
 administration for the public benefit. Invested with the consulate 
 and censorship, he went through the regular forms of periodical 
 election to those offices, and at the end of the seventh year of his 
 government actually announced to the senate his resignation of all 
 authority. The consequence was a general supplication of the sen- 
 ate and people, that he would not abandon the republic, which he 
 had saved from destruction. " Since it must be so," said he, " I accept 
 the empire for ten years, unless the public tranquillity shall, before 
 the expiration of that time, permit me to enjoy retirement, which 
 I passionately long for." He repeated the same mockery five times 
 in the course of his government, accepting the administration some- 
 times for ten, and sometimes only for five years. 
 
 3. It was much to the credit of Augustus, that iu the government 
 of the empire he reposed unlimited confidence in Mecaenas, a most 
 able minister, who had sincerely at heart the interest and happiness 
 of the people. By his excellent counsels all public affairs were con- 
 ducted, and the most salutary laws enacted for the remedy of public 
 grievances, and even the correction of the morals of the people. 
 To his patronage literature and the arts owed their encouragement 
 and advancement. By his influence and wise instructions Augustus 
 assumed those virtues to which his heart was a stranger, and 
 which, in their tendency to the happiness of his subjects, were 
 equally effectual as if they had been the genuine fruits of his nature. 
 
 4. On the death of Marcelius, the nephew and son-in-law of Au- 
 gustus, and a prince of g^reat hopes, 23 A. C, the emperor bestowed 
 nis chief favour on Marcus Agrippa, giving him his daughter Julia, 
 the widow of Marcelius, in marriage. Agrippa had considerable 
 military talents, and was successful in accomplishing the reduction of 
 Spain, and subduing the revolted provinces of Asia. Augustus as- 
 sociated Agrippa with himself in the office of censor, and would prob- 
 ably have given him a share of the empire, if his death had not 
 occasioned a new arrangement. Julia now took for her third husband 
 Tiberius, who became the son-in-law of the emperor by a double 
 tie, for Augustus had previously married his mother Livia. This 
 artful woman, removing all of the imperial family who stood betwixt 
 her and the object of her ambition, thus made room for the succes- 
 sion of her son'Tiberius, who, on his part, bent all his attention io gain 
 the favour and confidence of Augustus. On the return of Tiberiu* 
 from a successful campaign against the Germans, the people were 
 made to solicit the emperor to confer on him the government of the 
 provinces and the command of the armies. Augustus now gradually 
 withdrew himself from the cares of empire. He died soon after at 
 Nola, in Campania, in the 76th year of his age, and the 44th of his 
 imperial reign, A. U. C. 7G7, and A. D. 14. 
 
 5. A considerable part of the lustre thrown on the reign of Augus- 
 tus is owing to the splendid colouring bestowed on his character by 
 the poets and other authors who adorned his court, and repaid his 
 favours by their adulation. Other sovereigns of much higher merit* 
 have been less forfunate in obtaining the applause of posterity. 
 
 Illacrymabilea 
 
 Urgaentur, ignotique, longa 
 
 Nocte, carent quia v?ote sacro. Hor. Car. Lib. IV, 9. 
 Unlamented and unknown they sink into oblivion, because they have »• 
 inspired bard to celebrate their praise. 
 
ANCIENT HISTORY. ft3 
 
 One great event distinguished the reign of Augustus, the birth of 
 our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ, which, according to the be* 
 . authorities, happened A. U. C. 754, and four years before the vulgai 
 date of the christian aera.* 
 
 5. Augustus had named Tiberius his heir, together with his moth 
 er Li via ; and had substituted to them Drusus, the son of Tiberius 
 and Germanicus. Tiberius was vicious, debauched, and cruel ; yei 
 the very dread of his character operated in securing an easy suc- 
 cession to the empire. An embassy from the senate entreated him 
 to accept the government, which he modestly affected to decline, 
 but suffered himself to be won by their supplications. NotwithstanoV 
 ing these symptoms of moderation, it soon appeared that the power 
 enjoyed by his predecessor was too limited for the ambition of Ti- 
 berius. It was not enough that the substance of the republic was 
 gone ; the very appearance of it was now to be demolished. Thf 
 people were no longer assembled, and the magistrates of the state 
 were supplied by the imperial will. 
 
 6. Germanicus, the nephew of Tiberius, became the object of hb 
 jealousy, from the glory which he had acquired by his military ex- 
 ploits in Germany, and the high favour in which he stood with the 
 Jioman people, lie was recalled in the midst of his successes, and 
 despatched to the oriental provinces, where he soon after died; and it 
 was generally believed that he was poisoned by the emperor's com- 
 mand. 
 
 7. JElius Sejanus, praefect of the praetorian guards, the favourite 
 counsellor of Tiberius, and the obsequious minister of his tyranny 
 and crimes, conceived the daring project of a revolution, which 
 should place himself on the throne, by the extermination of the whole 
 imperial family. Drusus, the son of the emperor, was destroyed by 
 poison.- Agrippina, the Widow of Germanicus, with her elder son, 
 was banished ; and the younger son was confined in prison. Tibe- 
 rius was persuaded by Sejanus, under the pretence of the discovery 
 of plots for his assassination, to retire from Rome to the Isle of 
 Capreae, and devolve the government upon his faithful minister. 
 But while Sejanus, thus far successful, meditated the last step to the 
 accomplishment of his wishes, by the murder of his sovereign, hi?- 
 treason was detected ; and the emperor despatched his mandate to the 
 senate, which was followed by his immediate sentence and execution. 
 The public indignation was not satisfied with his death . the populace 
 tore his body to pieces, and flung it into the Tiber. 
 
 8. Tiberius now became utterly negligent of the cares of govern- 
 ment, and the imperial power was displayed only in public execu- 
 tions, confiscations, and scenes of cruelty and rapine. At length the 
 tyrant falling sick was strangled in his bed by Macro, the pnefect of 
 the praetorian guards, in the 78th year of his age, and the 23d of his 
 reign. 
 
 9. In the 18th year of Tiberius, our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ, 
 the divine author of our religion, suffered death upon the cross, a 
 sacrifice and propitiation for the sins of mankind, A. I). 33. 
 
 10. Tiberius had nominated for his heir, Caligula the son of Ger- 
 manicus, his grandson by adoption; and had joined with him Tibe- 
 rius the son of Drusus. his grandson by blood. The former enjoyed, 
 on his father's account, the favour of the people ; and the senate, to 
 
 * See Dr. Play fair 1 a System of Chronology, p. 49, 50, a work of »r»at 
 research and accuracy, and by fur the best on that tubject. 
 
M ANCIENT HISTORIC. 
 
 gratify them, set aside the right of his colleague, and conferred on 
 Eim the empire undivided. The commencement of his reign was 
 fignalized by a few acts of clemency, and even good policy. He 
 restored the privileges of the comitia, and abolished arbitrary prose- 
 cutions for crimes of state. But, tyrannical and cruel by nature, ho 
 eubstituted military execution for legal punishment. The provinces 
 were loaded with the most oppressive taxes, and daily confiscations 
 tilled the imperial coffers. 1 he follies and absurdities of Caligula 
 were equal to his vices ; and it is hard to say whether he was most the 
 object of hatred or oi contempt to his subjects. He perished by 
 assassination in the fourth year of his reign, the twenty-ninth of hi* 
 age, A. U. C. 794, A. D. 42. 
 
 11. Claudius, the uncle of Caligula, was saluted emperor by the 
 praetorian guards, who had been the murderers of his nephew. He 
 was the son of Octavia, the sister of Augustus; a man of weak in- 
 tellects, and of no education. His short reign was marked by an 
 enterprise of importance. He undertook the reduction of Britain, 
 and after visiting the island in person, left his generals, Plautius and 
 Vespasian, to prosecute a war which was carried on for several years 
 with various success. The Silures or inhabitants of South Wales, 
 under their king Caractacus (Caradoc), made a brave resistance, but 
 were finally defeated; and Caractacus was led captive to Rome, 
 where the magnanimity of his demeanour procured him respect and 
 admiration. 
 
 12. The civil administration of Claudius was weak and contempt- 
 ible. He was the slave even of his dom-estics, and the dupe of hi* in- 
 famous wives Messalina and Agrippina. The former, abandoned to 
 the most shameful profligacy, was at length but to death on suspi- 
 cion of treasonable designs. The latter, who was the daughter of 
 Germanicus, bent her utmost endeavours to secure the succession to 
 the empire to her son Domitius Oenobardus, and employed every 
 engine of vice and inhumanity to remove the obstacles to the accom- 
 plishment of her wishes. Having at length prevailed on Claudius to 
 adopt her son, and confer on him the title of Csesar, to the exclusion 
 ofhisownson Britannicus, she now made room for the immediate 
 elevation of Domitius. by poisoning her husband. Claudius was 
 put to death in the 15th year of his reign, and the 63d of his age. 
 
 SECTION XLII. 
 
 1. The son of Agrippina assumed the title of Nero Claudius. He 
 had enjoyed the benefit of a good education under the philosopher 
 Seneca, but reaped from his instructions no other fruit than a pedan- 
 tic affectation of taste and learning, with no real pretension to either. 
 While controled by his tutor Seneca, and by Burrhus, captain of 
 the praetorian gnards T a man of worth and ability, Nero maintained 
 for a short time a decency of public conduct ; but the restraint was 
 intolerable, and nature soon broke out. His real character was a 
 compound of every thing that is base and inhuman. In the murder 
 of his mother Agrippina he revenged the crime which she had 
 committed in raising him to the throne ; he rewarded the fidelity 
 of Burrhus, by poisoning him ; and as a last kindness to his tutor 
 Seneca, he allowed him to choose the mode of his death. It was his 
 darling amusement to exhibit on the stage and amphitheatre as an 
 
ANCIENT HISTORY. 85 
 
 actor, musician, or gladiator At length, become the object of 
 universal hatred and contempt, a rebellion of his subjects, headed by 
 Vindex, an illustrious Gaul, hurled this monster from the throne. 
 Me had not courage to attempt resistance ; and a slave, at his own 
 request, despatched him with a dagger. Nero perished in the 30th 
 year of his age, after a reign of fourteen years, A. D. 69. 
 
 2. Galba, the successor of Nero, was of an ancient and illustrious 
 family. He was in the 73d year of his age when the senate, ratify- 
 ing the choice of the praetorian bands, proclaimed him emperor. 
 But an impolitic rigour of discipline soon disgusted the army ; the 
 avarice ot his disposition, grudging the populace their favourite 
 games, and spectacles, deprived him of their affections; and some 
 iniquitous prosecutions and confiscations excited general discontent 
 an I mutiny. Galba, adopted and designed for his successor the able 
 n d virtuous Piso; a measure which excited the jealousy of Otho, 
 lite former favourite, and led him to form the daring plan of raising 
 himself to the throne by the destruction of both. He found the 
 ;• Dorians apt to his purpose. They proclaimed him emperor, ami 
 
 .vented him, as a grateful offering, the heads of Galba and Piso, 
 wlio were slain in quelling the insurrection. Galba had reigned 
 seven months. Major privato visus, dum privatusfuit, ct omnium con- 
 ,r.nsu tapax imperii, nisi imperassct. Tacitus. He appeared to be greater 
 (!mn a private man, while he -was in a private station ; and by the consent 
 if all xoas capable erf governing, if he had not governed. 
 
 3. Otho had a formidable rival in Vitellius, who ha.l been pro- 
 claimed emperor by his army in Germany. It is hard to say which' 
 of the competitors was, in point of abilities, the more despicable, or 
 in character the more infamous. A decisive battle was fought at 
 J'edriacum, near Mantua, where Otho was defeated, and in a fit of 
 despair ended his life by his own hand, after a reign of three months, 
 A. D. 70. 
 
 4. The reign of Vitellius was of eight months' duration. He is 
 sulci to have proposed Nero for his model, and it was just that he 
 should resemble him in his fate. Vespasian had obtained from Nero 
 the charge of the war against the Jews, which he had conducted 
 With ability and success, and was proclaimed emperor by his troops 
 in the enst. A great part of Italy submitted to Vespasian's generals; 
 and Vitellius meanly capitulated to save his life, by a resignation of 
 the empire. The people, indignant at his dastardly spirit, compelled 
 him to an effort of resistance ; but the attempt was fruitless. Priscus, 
 one of the generals of Vespasian, took possession oi Rome ; and 
 Vitellius was massacred, and his body flung into the Tiber. 
 
 5. Vespasian, though of mean descent, was worthy of the empire, 
 an i reigned with high popularity for ten years. He possessed great 
 clemency of disposition. His manners were affable and engaging, 
 and his mode of life was characterized by simplicity and frugality. 
 He respected the ancient forms of the constitution, restored the sen- 
 ate to its deliberative rights, and acted by its authority in the admin- 
 istration of all public affairs. The only blemish in his character was 
 a tincture of avarice, and even that is greatly extenuated bv the 
 laudable and patriotic use which he made of his revenues. Under 
 his reign, and by the arms of his son Titus, was terminated the war 
 against the Jews. They had been brought under the yoke of Rome 
 ! >y Pompey, who took Jerusalem. They were governed for some 
 time by Herod, as viceroy under Augustus. The tyranny of his son 
 Ai'cheiaas was the cause of his banishment, and of the reduction of 
 
 H 
 
80 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 Judaea into the ordinary condition of a Roman province. The Jews 
 rebelled on every slight occasion, and Nero had sent Vespasian to 
 reduce them to order. He had just prepared for the siege of Jeru- 
 salem, when he was called to Rome to assume the government of the 
 empire. Titus wished to spare the city, and tried every means 
 to prevail on the Jews to surrender ; but in vain. Their ruin was 
 decreed by Heaven. After an obstinate blockade of six months 
 Jerusalem was taken by storm, the temple burnt to ashes, and the 
 city buried in ruins. The Roman empire was now in profound 
 peace. Vespasian associated Titus in the imperial dignity, and 
 soon after died, universally lamented, at the age of sixty-nine. A. 
 D. 79. 
 
 6. The character of Titus was humane, munificent, dignified, and 
 splendid. His short reign was a period of great happiness and 
 prosperity to the empire, and his government a constant example of 
 virtue, justice, and beneiicence. In his time happened that dreadful 
 eruption of Vesuvius, which overwhelmed the cities of Hercuianeum 
 and Pompeii The public losses from these calamities he repaired 
 by the sacrifice of his fortune and revenues. He died in the third 
 year of his reign, and fortieth of his age ; ever to be remembered 
 by that most exalted epithet, delicti humani generis {the delight of 
 mankind). 
 
 7. Doniitian, the brother of Titus, was suspected of murdering him 
 by poison, and succeeded to the empire, A. D. 81. He was a vicious 
 and inhuman tyrant. A rebellion in Germany gave him occasion to 
 signalize the barbarity of his disposition; and its consequences were 
 long felt in the sanguinary punishments inflicted under the pretence 
 of justice. The prodigal and voluptuous spirit of this reign was a 
 singular contrast to its tyranny and inhumanity. The people were 
 loaded with insupportable taxes to furnish spectacles and games for 
 their amusement. The successes of Agricola in Britain threw a 
 lustre on the Roman arms, no part of which reflected on the emperor, 
 for he treated this eminent commander with the basest ingratitude. 
 After fifteen tedious years this monster fell at last the victim of assas- 
 sination, the empress herself conducting the plot for his murder, A, 
 D. 96. 
 
 8. Coeceius Nerva, a Cretan by birth, was chosen emperor by the 
 senate, from respect to the "probity and virtues of his character. 
 He was too old for the burden of government, and of a temper too 
 placid for the restraint of rooted corruptions and enormities. Hi , 
 reign was weak, inefficient, and contemptible. His only act of real 
 merit as a sovereign, was the adoption of the virtuous Trajan as his 
 successor. Nerva died after a reign of sixteen months, A. D. 98. 
 
 9. Ulpius Trajanus possessed every talent and every virtue that 
 can adorn a sovereign. Of great military abilities, and an indefatiga 
 ble spirit of enterprise, he raised the Roman arms to their ancient 
 splendour, and greatly enlarged the boundaries of the empire. He 
 subdued the Dacians, conquered the Parthians, and brought under 
 subjection Assyria, Mesopotamia, and Arabia Felix. Nor was he fe 
 eminent in promoting the happiness of his subjects, and the internal 
 prosperity of the empire. His largesses were humane and munifi- 
 cent. He was the friend and support of the virtuous indigent, and 
 the liberal patron of every useful art and talent. His bounties were 
 applied by well judged economy in his private fortune, and a wise 
 r. ^ministration of the public finances. In his own life he was a man 
 of simple manners, modest, affable, fond of the familiar intercourse 
 
ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 of his friends, and sensible to all the social and benevolent affection?. 
 He merited the surname universally bestowed on him, Trajanm 
 Opiimus. He died at the age of sixty-three, after a glorious reign of 
 nineteen years, A. JD. 118. 
 
 1 0. jElius Adrianus, nephew of Trajan, and worthy to fill his place, 
 was chosen emperor by the army in the east, and his titfe was 
 acknowledged by all orders of the state. He adopted a poixy differ- 
 ent from that of his predecessor. Judging the limits of the eifcpire 
 top extensive, he abandoned all the conquests of Trajan bounding 
 the eastern provinces by the Euphrates. He visited in person all the 
 provinces of the empire, reforming in his progress all abuses, reliev- 
 ing his subjects of every oppressive burden, rebuilding the mined 
 < itios, and establishing every where a regular and mild adimnistra 
 lion, uader magistrates of approved probity and humanity. He gave 
 ,; discharge to the indigent debtors of the. state, and appointed liber;! 1 
 institutions lot* the education of the children of the poor. To the 
 talents of an able politician he joined an excellent taste in the libera! 
 arts. His reign, which was of twenty-two years' duration, wai an iaera 
 both of public happiness and splendour. In the last year of his life 
 he bequeathed to the empire a double legacy, in adopting for his 
 immediate successor Titus Aurelius Antoninus, and substituting Aft- 
 tuns Verus to succeed upon his death. These were the Anr.onines, 
 who during forty years ruled the Roman empire with consummate 
 wisdom, ability, and virtue. Adrian died A. 1). 138, at the age of 
 sixty-two. 
 
 SECTION XLIII. 
 
 AGE OF THE ANTONINES, &c. 
 
 1. The happiest reigns furnish the fewest events for the pen of 
 history. Antoninus was the father, of his people. He preferred 
 peace to the ambition of conquest ; yet in every necessary war 
 the Roman arms had their wonted renown. The British province 
 was enlarged by the conquests of Urbicus, and some formidable 
 rebellions were subdued in Germany, Dacia, and the east. The 
 domestic administration of the sovereign was dignified, splendid, and 
 humane. With all the virtues of Numa, his love of religion, peace, 
 and justice, he had the superior advantage of diffusing these blessings 
 over a great portion of the world. He died at the age of seventy- 
 fo::F, after a reign of twenty-two years, A. I). 161. 
 
 2. Annius Verus assumed, at liis accession, the name of Marcus 
 Aurelius Antoninus, and bestowed on his brother Lucius Verus a joint 
 administration of the empire. The former was as eminent for the 
 worth and virtues of his character, as the latter was remarkable for 
 proiligacy, meanness, and vice. Marcus Aurelius was attached both 
 by nature and education to the Stoical philosophy, which he has ad- 
 mirably taught and illustrated in his Meditations. His own life w^ 
 the best commentary on his precepts. The Parthians were repulse.! 
 in an attack upon the empire, and a rebellion of the Germans vyas 
 subdued. In these wars the mean and worthless Verus brought dis- 
 grace upon the Roman name in every region where he commanded : 
 hut fortunately relieved the empire of its fears by an early death. 
 The residue of the reign of Marcus Aurelius was a continued hies - 
 ing to his subjects. He reformed the internal policy of the state, 
 regulated the government of the provinces, anu visited himself, for 
 
88 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 the purposes of beneficence, the most distant quarters of his domin- 
 ions. " He appeared," says an ancient author, " like some benevo- 
 lent deity, diffusing around him universal peace and happiness." He 
 died in Pannonia, in the 59th year of his age, and 19th of his reign, 
 A. D. 180. 
 
 3. Commodus, his most unworthy son, succeeded to the empire 
 on his death. He resembled in character his mother Faustina, a 
 woman infamous for all manner of vice. Her profligacy was known 
 to all but her husband Marcus, by whom she was regarded as a para- 
 xon of virtue. Commodus had an aversion to every rational and 
 liberal pursuit, and a fond attachment to the sports of the circus and 
 amphitheatre, 'the hunting of wild beasts, and the combats of boxers 
 and gladiators. The measures of this reign were as unimportant as 
 the character of the sovereign was contemptible. His concubine and 
 some of his chief officers prevented their own destruction by assas- 
 sinating the tyrant, in the 32d year of his age, and 13th ot bis 
 reign. A. D. 193. 
 
 4. The praetorian guards gave the empire to Publics Helvius 
 Pertinax, a man of mean birth, who had risen to esteem by his vir- 
 tues and military talents. He applied himself with -zeal to the cor- 
 rection of abuses; but the austerity of his government deprived htm 
 of the affections of a corrupted people. He had disappointed the 
 army of a promised reward, and, after a reign of eighty-six days, 
 was'murdered in the imperial palace by the same hands which bad 
 placed him on the throne. 
 
 .";. The empire was now put up to auction by the praetorians, and 
 was purchased by Didius Julianus ; while Pescenius Niger in.Asia, 
 Clodius Albinus in Britain, and Septimius Severus in IHyria, were 
 each chosen emperor by the troops which they commanded. Se- 
 verus marched to Rome, and, on his approach, the prsiloiians aban- 
 doned Didius, who had failed to pay the stipulated price for his ele- 
 vation : and the senate formally deposed to put him to death. Seve- 
 rus being now master of Rome, prepared to reduce the provinces 
 which had acknowledged the sovereignty of Niger and Albinu>. 
 The3e two rivals were successively subdued. Niger was slain in 
 battle, and Albinus fell by his own hands. The administration of Se- 
 verus was wise and equitable, but tinctured with despotic rigour. 
 It was his purpose to erect the fabric of absolute monarchy, and all 
 his institutions operated with able policy to that end. He possessed 
 eminent military talents. He gloriously boasted, that, having re- 
 ceived the empire oppressed with foreign and domestic wars, he left 
 it in profound, universal, and honourable peace. He carried with 
 him into Britain his two sons, Caracalla and Geta, whose unpromis- 
 ing dispositions clouded his latter days* In this war the Caledonians 
 under Fingal are said to have defeated^ on the banks of the Carron, 
 Caracul, the son of the king of the world. Severus died at York, in 
 the 66th year of his age, after a reign of eighteen years, A. D. 21 1. 
 
 6. The mutual hatred of Caracalla and Geta was increased by 
 their association in the empire; and the former, with brutal inhu- 
 manity, caused his brother to be openly murdered in the arms of his 
 mother. His reign, which was of six years' duration, and one con- 
 tinued series of atrocities, was at length terminated by assassination, 
 A.D. 217. 
 
 7. Those disorders in the empire which began with Commodus 
 continued for about a century, till the accession of Diocletian. That 
 ^interval was filled by the reigns of Heliogabalus. Alexander Severus 
 
ANCIENT HISTORY. 89 
 
 Maximin, Gordian, Deciu9, Gallus, Valerianus, Gallienus, Claudius, 
 Aurelianus, Tacitus, Probus, and Cams ; a period of which the an- 
 nals furnish neither amusement nor useful information. The single 
 exception is the reign of Alexander Severus, a mild, beneficent, and 
 enlightened prince, whose character shines the more from the con- 
 trast of those who preceded and followed him. 
 
 8. Diocletian began his reign A. D. 284, and introduced a new 
 system of administration, dividing the empire into four governments, 
 under as many princes. Maxirnian shared with him the title of 
 Augustus, and Galerius and Constantius were declared Caesars. Each 
 had his separate department orprovince, all nominally supreme, but 
 in reality under the direction of the superior talents and authority of 
 Diocletian : an unwise polic} 7 , which depended for its efficacy on 
 individual ability alone. Diocletian and Maxirnian, trusting to the 
 continuance of that order in the empire which their vigour had 
 established, retired from sovereignty, and left the government in the 
 hands of the Caesars; but Constantius died soon after in Britain, and 
 I lis son Constantino was proclaimed emperor at York, though Gale- 
 rius did not acknowledge his title. Maxirnian, however, having once 
 more resumed the purple, bestowed on Constantino his daughter in 
 marriage, and thus invested him with a double title to empire. On 
 (he death of Maxirnian and Galerius, Constantino had no other com- 
 petitor but Maxentius,the son of the former, and the contest between 
 them was decided by the sword. Maxentius fell in battle, and Con- 
 stantine remained sole master of the empire. 
 
 9. The administration of Constantino was, in the beginning of his 
 reign, mild, equitable, and politic. Though zealously attached to 
 Ihe'christian faith, he made no violent innovations on the religion ot 
 the state. He introduced order and economy into the civil govern- 
 ment, and repressed every species of oppression and corruption. 
 But his natural temper was severe and cruel, and the latter part of 
 his reign was as much deformed by intolerant zeal and sanguinary 
 rigour, as the former had been remarkable for equity and benignity. 
 From this unfavourable change of character he lost the affections of 
 his subjects ; and, from a feeling probably of reciprocal disgust, he 
 removed the seat of the Roman empire to Byzantium, now termed 
 Constantinople. The court followed the sovereign; the opulent 
 proprietors were attended by their slaves and retainers. Rome was 
 m a few years greatly depopulated, and the new capital swelled at 
 once to enormous magnitude. It was characterized by eastern 
 splendour, luxury, and voluptuousness; and the cities of Greece 
 were despoiled for its embellishments. Of the internal policy of 
 the empire we shall treat in the next section, in an expedition 
 against the Persians, Constantine died at Nicomedia, Jn the 30th 
 year of his reign, and 63d of his age, A. D. 337. la the time of 
 Constantine the Goths had made several irruptions en the empire, 
 and, though repulsed and beaten, began gradually to encroach or 
 the provinces. 
 
 H2 12 
 
90 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 SECTION XLIV. 
 
 STATE OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE AT THE TIME OF CON- 
 
 STANTINE. HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 1. In h>u of the ancient republican distinctions, which were 
 founded chiefly on personal merit, a rigid sub ordination of rank and 
 office now went through all the orders of the state. The magis- 
 trates were divided into three classes, distinguished by the m. mean- 
 ing titles of, l,the illustrious; 2, the respectable; 3, the clarissbni. 
 The epithet of illustrious was bestowed on, 1, the consuls and patri- 
 cians; 2, the praetorian prefects of Rome and Constantinople ; 3, the 
 masters-generai of the cavalry and infantry ; 4, the seven ministers 
 of the palace. The consuls were created by the sole authority ol 
 the emperor : their dignity was inefficient ; they had no appropriate 
 function in the state, and their names served only to give the legal 
 date to the year. The dignity of patrician was not, as in ancient 
 times, a hereditary distinction, but was bestowed, as a title of honour, 
 by the emperor on his favourites. From the time of the abolition of 
 the praetorian bands by Constantino, the dignity of praetorian prte 
 feet was conferred on the civil governors of the four departments of 
 the empire. These were, the East, liiyria. Italy, and the Gauis. 
 They had the supreme administration of justice and of the iinances, 
 the power of supplying ail ihe inferior magistracies in their district, 
 and an appellative jurisdiction from all its tribunals. Independent 
 of their authority, Home and Constantinople had each its own pra> 
 fect. who was the chief magistrate of the chy. In the second class, 
 the respectable, were ihe proconsuls of Asia, Aehaia, and Africa, 
 and the military comites and duces, generals of tire imperial armies. 
 The third class, clarissimi, comprehended the inferior governors 
 and magistrates of the provinces, responsible lo the prelects and 
 their deputies. 
 
 2. The intercourse between the court and provinces was main- 
 tained by the construction of roads, and the institution of regular 
 Eosts or couriers ; under which denomination were ranked the num- 
 erless spies of government, whose duty was to convey all sort of 
 intelligence from the remotest quarter "of the empire"' to its chief 
 seat. Every institution was calculated to support the fabric of des- 
 potism. Torture was employed for the discovery of crimes. Taxes 
 and impositions of every nature were prescribed and levied by the 
 sole authority of the emperor. The quantity and rate were rixed bv a 
 census made over all the provinces, and part was generally paid in 
 money, part in the produce of the lands; a burden frequently found 
 so grievous as to prompt to the neglect of agriculture. Every ob- 
 ject of merchandise and manufacture was likewise highly faxed. 
 Subsidies, moreover, were exacted from all the cities, under the 
 name of free gifts, on various occasions of public concerns; as the 
 accession of an emperor, his consulate, the birth of a prince, a victory 
 over the barbarians, or any other event of similar importance. 
 
 3. An impolitic distinction was made between the troops stationed 
 in the distant provinces and those in the heart of the empire. The 
 latter, termed palatines, enjeyed a higher pay and more peculiar 
 favour, and, having less employment, spent their time in idleness and 
 luxury while the former, termed the borderers, who, in fact, had the 
 
ANCIENT HISTORY. oi 
 
 <;are of the empire, and were exposed to perpetual hard service, had, 
 with an interior reward, the mortiiication of feeling themselves re- 
 garded as of meaner rank than their fellow-soldiers. Constantine like- 
 wise, from a timid policy of guarding against mutinies of the troops, 
 reduced the legion from its ancient complement of 5,000, 6,(300, 
 7,000, and 8,000, to 1,000 or 1,500; and debased the body of the 
 army by the intermixture of Scythians, Goths, and Germans. 
 
 4. This immense mass of heterogeneous parts, which internally 
 laboured with the seeds of dissolution and corruption, was kept to- 
 gether for some time by the vigorous exertion of despotic authority. 
 The fabric was splendid and august ; but it wanted both that energy 
 of constitution and that real dignity, which, in former times, it derived 
 from the exercise of heroic and patriotic virtues. 
 
 5. Constantine, with a destructive policy, had divided the empire 
 among live princes, three of them his sons, and two nejmews; but 
 Constantius, the youngest of the sons, finally got rid of all his com- 
 petitors, and ruled the empire alone v/ith a weak and impotent scep- 
 tre. A variety of domestic broils, and mutinies of the troops against 
 their generals, had left the western frontier to the mercy of the bar- 
 barian nations. The Franks, Saxons, Alemanni, and Sarmatians, hud 
 waste all the. tine countries watered by the Rhine, and the Persians 
 made dreadful incursions on the provinces of the east. Constantius 
 indolently wasted his time ia theological controversies, but was pre 
 vailed on to adopt one prudent measure, the appointment of his 
 cou.il a Julian to the dignity of Caesar. 
 
 6. Julian possessed many heroic qualities, and his mind was formed 
 by nature for the sovereignly of a great people; but, educated at 
 Athens, in the schools of the Platonic philosophy, he had unfortunately 
 conceived a rooted antipathy to the cloctri.nes.pf Christianity. \Vftb 
 every talent of a general, and possessing the corif^8r\ce and affec- 
 tion of his troops, he once more restored the glory oi' the Reman 
 arms, and successfully repressed the invasions of the barbarians. 
 His victories excited' the jealousy of Constantius, who meanly re- 
 solved to remove, from his command the better part of his troops. The 
 consequence was a declaration of the army, that it was their choice 
 that Julian should be their emperor. Constantius escaped the igno- 
 miny that awaited him by dying at this critical juncture, and Julian 
 was immediately acknowledged sovereign of the Roman empire. 
 
 7. The reformation of civil abuses formed the first object of his 
 attention, which he next turned to the reformation, as he thought, 
 of religion, by the suppression of Christianity. He began by reform- 
 ing the pagan theology,', and sought to raise the character of its 
 priests, by inculcating" purity of life and sanctity of morals; thus 
 bearing involuntary testimony to the superior excellence, in those 
 respects, of that religion which he laboured to abolish. Without 
 persecuting he attacked the christians by the more dangerous policy 
 of treating them with contempt, and removing them, as visionaries. 
 from all employments of public trust. He refused them the benefit 
 of the laws to decide their differences, because their religion forbade 
 all dissensions ; and they were debarred the studies of literature and 
 philosophy, which they could not learn but from pagan authors. He 
 was himself, as a pagan, the slave of the most bigoted superstition, 
 believing in omens and auguries, and fancying himself favoured with 
 an actual intercourse with the gods and goddesses. To avenge the 
 injuries which the empire had sustained from the Persians, Julian 
 marched into the heart of Asia, and was for some time in the train 
 
92 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 of conquest, when, in a fatal engagement, though crowned with 
 victory, he was slain, at the age of thirty-one, after a reign of three 
 years, A. D. 363. 
 
 8. The Roman army was dispirited hy the death of its commander. 
 They chose for their emperor Jovian, a captain of the domestic 
 guards, and purchased a free retreat from the dominions of Persia 
 by the ignominious surrender of five provinces, which had been ceded 
 by a former sovereign to Galerius. The short reign of Jovian, a 
 period of seven months, was mild and equitable. He favoured chris- 
 linnity, and restored its votaries to all their privileges as subjects, 
 i le died suddenly at the age of thirty-three. 
 
 9. Valentinian was chosen emperor by the army on the death of 
 Jovian; a man of obscure birth and severe manners, but of consider- 
 able military talents. He associated with himself in the empire hi* 
 brother Valens, to Whom he gave the dominion of the eastern prov- 
 inces, reserving to himself the western. The Persians, under Sapor, 
 uere making inroads on the former, and the latter was subject to 
 continual invasion from the northern barbarians. They were suc- 
 cessfully repelled by Valentinian in many battles ; and his domestic 
 administration was wise, equitable, and politic. The christian reli 
 gion was favoured by the emperor, though not promoted by the 
 persecution of its adversaries ; a contrast to the conduct of Ids 
 brother Valens, who, intemperately supporting the Arian heresy, set 
 •he whole provinces in a tlame, and drew a swarm of invaders upon 
 the empire in the guise of friends and allies, who in the end entirely 
 subverted it. These were the Goths, who, migrating from Scandi- 
 navia, had, in the second century, settled on the banks of the Palus 
 Mceotis, and thence gradually extended their territory. In the reign of 
 Valens they took possession of Dacia, and were known by the distinct 
 appellation of Ostrogoths and Visigoths, or eastern and western Goths ; 
 a remarkable people, whose manners, customs, government, and 
 laws, are afterwards to be particularly noted; 
 
 10. Valentinian died on an expedition against the Alemanni, and 
 was succeeded in the empire of the west by Gratian, his eldest son, 
 .) boy of sixteen years of age, A. I). 367. Valens, in the east, was 
 the scourge of his people. The Huns, a new race of barbarians, of 
 Tartar or Siberian origin, now poured down on the provinces both 
 of the west and east. The Goths, comparatively a civilized people, 
 tied before them. The Visigoths, who were first attacked, requested 
 protection from the empire, .and Valens imprudently gave them a 
 settlement in Thrace. The Ostrogoths made the same request, and, 
 on refusal, forced their way into the same province. Valens gave 
 them battle at Adrianople. His army was defeated, and he was slain 
 in the engagement. The Goths, unresisted, ravaged Achaia and Pan- 
 nonia. 
 
 1 1. Gratian. a youth of great worth, but of little energy of char- 
 acter, assumed 1 heodosius as his colleague. On the early death of 
 Gratian, and the minority of his son Valentinian II, 1 heodosius 
 governed, with great ability, both the eastern and western empire. 
 The character of Theodosius, deservedly surnamed the great, wa§ 
 worthy of the best ages of the Roman state. He successfully repell- 
 ed the encroachments of the barbarians, and secured, by wholesome 
 laws, the prosperity of his people. He died, after a reign of 
 eighteen years, assigning to his sons, Arcadius and Honorius, the 
 separate sovereignties of east and west, A. D. 395. 
 
ANCIENT HISTORY'. 93 
 
 SECTION XLV. 
 
 PROGRESS OF THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION, FROM ITS INST1 
 TUTION TO THE EXTINCTION OF PAGANISM IN THJ 
 RP:iGN OF THEODOSIUS. 
 
 1. The reign of Theodosius was signalized hv the downfal of the 
 pagan superstition, and the full establishment of the christian religion 
 in the Roman empire. This great revolution of opinions is highly 
 -worthy of attention, and naturally induces a retrospect to the condi- 
 tion of the christian church from its institution down to this period. 
 
 It has been frequently remarked (because it is an obvious truth\, 
 that at the time of our Saviour's birth a divine revelation seemed to 
 be more peculiarly needed; and that, from a concurrence of circum- 
 stances, the state of the world was then uncommonly iavourable for 
 the extensive dissemination of -the doctrines which it conveyed. The 
 union of so many nations under one power, and the extension of civ- 
 ilization, were iavourable to the progress of a religion which pre- 
 scribed universal charity and benevolence. The gross superstitions 
 of paganism, and its tendency to corrupt instead of purifying the 
 morals, contributed to explode its influence with every thinking mind. 
 Even the prevalent philosophy of the times, epicurism, more easily 
 understood than the refinements of the Platonisls, and more grateful 
 than the severities of the Stoics, tended to degrade human nature to 
 the level of the brute creation. The christian religion, thus neces- 
 sary fortlic reformation of the world, found its chief partisans in those 
 who were the friends of virtue, and its enemies among \]\e votarie* 
 
 2. The persecution which the christians suffered from the Roman? 
 
 x>t vice. 
 
 ie per 
 
 has been deemed an exception to that spirit of toleration which 
 they showed to the religions of other nations,- but they were toler- 
 ant only to those whose theologies were not hostile to their own. 
 The religion of the Romans was interwoven with their political con- 
 stitution. The zeal of the christians, aiming at the suppression of all 
 idolatry, was naturally regarded as dangerous to the state ; and hence 
 they were the object of hatred and persecution. In the first century 
 the christian church suffered deeply under Nero and Domitian; 
 yet those persecutions had no tendency to check the progress of i[$ 
 doctrines. 
 
 3. It is matter of question what was the form of the primitive 
 church, and the nature of its government; and on this head much 
 difference of opinion obtains, not only between the catholics and prot- 
 cstants, but between ihe different classes of the latter, as the Luther- 
 ans and CalvinistS. it is moreover an opinion, that our Saviour and 
 his apOstles, confining their precepts to the pure doctrines of religion, 
 have left all christian societies to regulate their frame and govern 
 inent in the manner bes^ suited to the civil constitutions of the coun- 
 tries in which they are established. 
 
 4. In the second century inc hooks of the Mew Testament were 
 collected into a volume by the elder fathers of the church, and re- 
 ceived as a canon of faith. The Old Testament had been translai 
 ed from the 1 iebrcw into Greek, by order «of Ptolemy Philadelphia, 
 XVA years before Christ TJie early church suffered much from an 
 absurd endeu«e^r of tlje more 'learned of its votaries to reconcile it? 
 
01 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 doctrines to the tenets of the pagan philosophers : hence the sects of 
 the Gnostics and Ammonians, and the Piatonising christians. In the 
 second century the Greek churches began to form provincial associ- 
 ations, and to" establish general rules of government and discipline. 
 Assemblies were held, termed synodoi and concilia, over which a me- 
 tropolitan presided. A short time after arose the superior order of 
 patriarch, presiding over a large district of the christian world ; and 
 a subordination taking place even among these, the bishop of Rome 
 was acknowledged the chief of the patriarchs. Persecution still at- 
 tended the early church, even under those excellent princes, Trajan, 
 Adrian, and the Antonines; and, in the reign of'Severus, all the prov- 
 inces of the empire were stained with the blood of the martyrs. 
 
 5. The third century was more favourable to the progress of Chris- 
 tianity and the tranquillity of lis disciples. In these times it suffered 
 less from the civil arm Irian from the pens of the pagan philosopers. 
 Porphyry, Philosiratus, &c. j but these attacks called forth the zeal 
 and talents of many able defenders, as Origen, Dionysius, and Cy- 
 prian. A part of the Gauls, Germany, and Britain, received the light 
 of the gospel in this century. 
 
 6. In the fourth century the christian church was alternately per- 
 secuted and cherished by the Roman emperors. iVmong its oppres- 
 sors we rank Diocletian, Galerius, and Julian: among its favourers, 
 Constantine .... Lentinian, Valens, Gratian, and the excel- 
 lent Theodosius, in whose reign the pagan superstition came to its 
 final period. 
 
 7. From the age of Numa to the reign of Gratian the Romans 
 preserved the regular succession of the several sacerdotal colleges, 
 the pontiffs, augurs, vestals, Jhunines, saliL &c., whose authority, 
 though weakened in the latter ages, was still protected by the laws. 
 Even the christian emperors acid, like -heir pagan predecessors, the 
 office of poniifex maxumis, Gratian was the first who refused that 
 ancient dignny as a profanation. In the time of Theodosius the 
 cause of Christianity and of paganism was solemnly debated in the 
 Roman senate between Ambrose, archbishop of Milan, the chamnion 
 of the former, and Symmachus, the defender of the latter. The 
 cause of Christianity was triumphant, and the senate issued its de- 
 cree for the abolition of paganism, whose downial in the capital was 
 soon followed by its extinction in the provinces. Theodosius, with 
 able policy, permitted no persecution of the ancient religion, which 
 perished with more rapidity, because its fail was gentle and un- 
 resisted 
 
 8. But the christian church exhibited a superstition hi some re- 
 spects little less irrational than polytheism, hi the worship of saints 
 and relics; and many novel tenets, unfounded in the precepts of 
 our Saviour and his apostles, were manifestly borrowed From tin; 
 pagan schools. The doctrines of the Platonic philosophy seem to 
 have led to the notion- of an intermediate stale of purification, ce- 
 libacy of the priests, ascetic mortification, penajxes, an'! nionastic 
 seclusion. 
 
ANCIENT HISTORY 9b 
 
 SECTION XLVL 
 
 EXTINCTION OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE IN THE WEST. 
 
 1. In the reigns of Arcadius and Honorius, the sons and successors 
 of Theodosius, the barbarian nations established themselves in the 
 frontier provinces both of the east and west. Theodosius had com- 
 mitted the government to Rufinus and Stilicho' during the nonage oi 
 his sons; and their fatal dissensions gave every advantage to the 
 enemies of the empire. The Huns, actually invited by Rurinus. 
 overspread Armenia, Cappadocia, and Syria. The Goths, under 
 Alaric, ravaged to the borders of Italy, and laid waste Achaia to the 
 Peloponnesus. Stilicho, an able general, made a noble stand against 
 these invaders ; but his plan- were frustrated by the machinations 
 of his rivals, and the weakness of Arcadius, who purchased an 
 ignominious peace, by ceding to Alaric the whole of Greece. 
 
 2. Alaric, now styled king of the Visigoths, prepared to add Italy 
 to his new dominions. He passed the Alps, and was carrying all 
 before him, when, amused by the politic Stilicho with the prospect 
 of a new cession of territory, he was attacked unawares, and defeated 
 by that general, then commanding the armies of Honorius. The 
 emperor triumphantly celebrated, on that occasion, the eternal defeat 
 of the Gothic nation; an eternity bounded by the lapse of a few 
 months. In this interval, a torrent of the Goths breaking down upon 
 Germany forced the nations whom they dispossessed, the Suevi, 
 Alani, and Vandals, to precipitate themselves upon Italy. They 
 joined their arms to those of Alaric, who, thus reinlbrced, determined 
 to overwhelm Home. The policy of Stilicho made him change his 
 purpose, en the promise of 4,000 pounds weight of gold ; a promise 
 repeatedly broken by Honorius, and its violation finally revenged bv 
 Alaric, by the sack and plunder of the city, A. D. 410. With gene- 
 rous magnanimity he spared the lives of the vanquished, and, with 
 singular liberality of spirit, was anxious to preserve every ancient 
 edifice from destruction. 
 
 3. Alaric, preparing now for the conquest of Sicily and Africa, 
 died at this sera of his highest glory; and Honorius, instead of profit- 
 ing by this event to recover his lost provinces, made a treaty with 
 his successor Ataulfus, gave him in marriage his sister Placidia, and 
 secured his friendship by ceding to him a portion of Spain, while a 
 great part of what remained had before been occupied by the Van- 
 dals. He allowed soon after to the Burgundians a just title to their 
 conquests in Gaul. Thus the western empire was passing by de- 
 grees from the dominion of its ancient masters. 
 
 4. The mean and dissolute Arcadius died in the year 408, leaving 
 the eastern empire to his infant son Theodosius II. Theodosius was 
 a weak prince, and his sister Pulcheria governed the empire, with 
 prudence and ability, for the space of forty years. Honorius died in 
 the year 423. The laws of Arcadius and Honorius are, with a few 
 exceptions, remarkable for their wisdom and equity ; which is a 
 singular circumstance, considering the personal character of those 
 princes, and evinces at least that they employed some able ministers. 
 
 5. The Vandals, under Genseric, subdued the Roman province 
 in Africa. The Huns, in the east, extended their conquests from 
 the borders of China to the Baltic sea. Under Attila they laid waste 
 
96 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 Moesia and Thrace ; and Theodosius, after a mean attempt to mur- 
 der the barbarian general, ingloriously submitted to pay nim an an- 
 nual tribute. It was in this crisis of universal decay that the Britona 
 implored the Romans tc defend them against the Picts and Scots, but 
 received for answer, that they had nothing to bestow on them brt 
 compassion. The Britons, in "despair, sought aid from the Saxon3 
 and Angles, who seized, as their property, the country which they 
 were invited to protect, and founded, in the fifth and sixth centuries, 
 the kingdoms of the Saxon heptarchy. (See Fart II, Sect. XII, § 5.) 
 
 6. Attiia, with an army of 500,000 men, threatened the total de- 
 struction of the empire. He was ably opposed by iEtius, general of 
 Valentinian III., now emperor of the west. Valentinian -was shut up 
 in Rome by the arms oi the barbarian, and at length compelled to 
 purchase a peace. On the death of Attiia his dominions were dis- 
 membered by his sons, whose dissensions gave temporary relief to 
 the falling empire of Rome. 
 
 7. After Valentinian III. we have in the west a succession of 
 princes, or rather names, for the events of their reigns merit no 
 detail. In the reign of Romulus, surnamed Augustulus, the son of 
 Orestes, the empire of the west came to a final period. Odoacer,. 
 prince of the Heruii, subdued Italy, and spared the life of Augustulus, 
 on condition of his resigning the throne, A. D. 476. From the build- 
 ing of Rome to the extinction of the western empire, A. D. 476, is 
 n period of 1224 years. 
 
 8. We may reduce to one ultimate cause the various circum- 
 stances that produced the decline and fall of this once magnificent 
 fabric. The ruin of the Roman empire was the inevitable conse- 
 quence of its greatness. The extension of its dominion relaxed 
 the vigour of its frame ; the vices of the conquered nations infected 
 the victorious legions, and foreign luxuries corrupted their command- 
 ers ; selfish interest supplanted the patriotic affection ; the martial 
 spirit was purposely debased by the emperors, who dreaded its 
 effects on their own power ; and the whole mass, thus weakened 
 and enervated, fell an easy prey to the torrent of barbarians which 
 overwhelmed it. 
 
 9. The Herulian dominion in Italy was of short duration. Theo- 
 doric, prince etf the Ostrogoths (afterwards deservedly surnamed 
 the great), obtained permission of Zeno, emperor of the east, to nU 
 tempt the recovery of Italy, and a promise of its sovereignty as the 
 reward of his success. The whole nation of the Ostrogoths attend- 
 ed the standard of Theodoric, who was victorious in repeated en- 
 gagements, and at length compelled Odoacer to surrender all Italy to 
 the conqueror. The Romans had tasted happiness under the govern- 
 ment of Odoacer; but their happiness was increased under the do- 
 minion of Theodoric, who possessed every talent and virtue of a sov- 
 ereign. His equity and clemency rendered him a blessing to his 
 subjects. He allied himself with all the surrounding nations, the 
 Franks, Visigoths, Burgundians, and Vandals. He left a peaceable 
 sceptre to his grandson Athalaric, during whose infancy his mother 
 Amalasonte governed with such admirable wisdom and moderation, as 
 left her subjects no real cause of regret for the loss of her father. 
 
 10. While such was the state of Gothic Italy, the empire of the 
 east was under the government of Justinian, a prince of mean ability, 
 vain, capricious, and tyrannical. Yet the Roman name rose for a 
 while from its abasement by the merit of his generals. Belisarius was 
 the support of his throne ; yet Justinian treated him with the most 
 
AN C1ENT HISTORY. 9 ; 
 
 shocking ingratitude. The Persians were at this time the most for- 
 midable enemies of the empire, under their sovereigns Cabades ant! 
 Cosrhoes; and from the latter, a most able prince, Justinian meanly 
 purchased a peace, by a cession of territory, and an enormous trib- 
 ute in gold. The civil factions of Constantinople, arising from the 
 most contemptible of causes,, the disputes of the performers in the 
 circus and amphitheatre, threatened to hurl Justinian from the 
 throne,, but were fortunately composed by the arms and the policy of 
 i fclisarius. This great general overwhelmed the Vandal sovereignty 
 of Africa, and recovered that province to the empire. He wrested 
 Lily from its Gothic sovereign, and once more restored it for a ■- 
 time to the dominion of its ancient masters. 
 
 ] 1. Italy was recovered to the Goths by the heroic TotiLi, who 
 besieged and took the city of Rome, but forebore to destroy it at 
 the request ox Belisari us. The fortunes of Be lisarius were now in 
 the wane, He was compelled to evacuate Italy, and, on his return 
 to Constantinople, his long services were repaid with disgrace. He 
 was superseded in the command of the armies by the eunuch Nurses, 
 who defeated Totila in a decisive engagement, in which the Gothic 
 prince was slain. Narses governed Italy with great ability for thir- 
 teen, years, when he was ungratefully recalled by Justin II. t 
 cesser of Justinian. He invited the Lombards to avenge his injuri - ; 
 and this new tribe of invaders overran and conquered the coun 
 A. D. 568. 
 
 SECTION XLVII. 
 
 OF THE ORIGIN, MANNERS, AND CHARACTER OF THE 
 GOTHIC NATIONS,* BEFORE THEIR ESTABLISHMENT ! N 
 THE ROMAN EMPIRE, 
 
 1. The history and manners of the Gothic nations are curio/is 
 objects of inquiry, from their influence on the constitutions and na- 
 tional character of most of the modern kingdoms of Europe. V 
 present inhabitants of these kingdoms are a mixed race, compounds d 
 of the Goths and of the nations whom they subdued, the la\v>. man- 
 ners, and institutions of the modern kingdoms are the result of this 
 conjunction ; and in so far as these are ditlerent from the usages prev- 
 alent before this intermixture, they are, in all probability, to be 
 traced from the ancient manners and institutions of those northern 
 tribes. We purpose to consider the' original character of the 
 Gothic nations, and the change of their manners on their establish- 
 ment in the Roman empire. 
 
 2. The Scandinavian chronicles attribute to the ancient inhabitants 
 of that country an Asiatic origin, and inform us that the Goths were 
 a colony of Scythians, who migrated thither from the banks of The 
 Black sea and the Caspian: but these chronicles do not fix the period 
 of this migration, which some later writers suppose to have been 
 1 ,000 years, and others only 70, before the christian sera. Odin, the 
 chief deity of the Scandinavians, was the god of the Scythians. 
 Sigga, a Scythian prince, is said to have undertaken a distant expedi- 
 tion, and, after he had subdued several of the Sarmatian tribes, to 
 have penetrated into the northern parts of Germany, and thence 
 into Scandinavia. He assumed the honours of divinity, and the title 
 ot Odin, his national god. He conquered Denmark, Sweden, and 
 
 I «* 
 
98 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 Norway, and gave wise and salutary laws to the natioas which he 
 had subdued by his arms. 
 
 3. The agreement in manners between the Scythians and the 
 ancient Scandinavian nations, corroborates the accounts given in the 
 northern chronicles of the identity of their origin. The description 
 of the manners of the Germans by Tacitus (though this people was 
 probably not of Scythian, but of Celtic origin) may, in many partic- 
 ulars, be applied to the ancient nations of Scandinavia ; and the 
 same description coincides remarkably with the account given by 
 Herodotus of the manners of the Scythians. Their life was spent 
 in hunting, pasturage, and predatory war. Their dress, their weap- 
 ons, their food, their respect for their women, their religious wor- 
 ship, were the same. They despised learning, and had no other 
 records for many ages than the songs of their bards. 
 
 4. The theology of the Scandinavians was most intimately con- 
 nected with their manners. They held three great principles or 
 fundamental doctrines of religion: "To serve the Supreme Being 
 with prayer and sacrifice ; to do no wrong or unjust action ; and to 
 be intrepid in fight." These principles are the key to the Edda, or 
 sacred book of the Scandinavians, which, though it contains the sub- 
 stance of a very ancient religion, is not a work of high antiquity, 
 being compiled in the thirteenth century by Snorro Sturleson, 
 supreme judge of Iceland. Odin, characterized as the terrible and 
 severe god, the father of carnage, the avenger, is the principal deity 
 of the Scandinavians ; from whose union with Frea, the heavenly 
 mother, sprung various subordinate divinities ; as Thor, who per- 
 petually wars against Loke and his evil giants, who envy the power 
 of Odin, and seek to destroy his works. Among the interior deities 
 are the virgins of the Valhalla, whose office is to minister to the he- 
 roes in paradise. The favourites of Odin are all who die in battle, or, 
 what is equally meritorious, by their own hand. The timid wretch, 
 who allows himself to perish by disease or age, is unworthy of the 
 joys of paradise. These joys are, righting, ceaseless slaughter, and 
 drinking beer out of the skulls of their enemies, with a renovation 
 of life, to furnish a perpetuity of the same pleasures. 
 
 5. As the Scandinavians believed this world to be the work of 
 some superior intelligences, so they held all nature to be constantly 
 under the regulation of an almightv will and power, and subject 
 to a fixed and unalterable destiny. These notions had a wonderful 
 effect on the national manners, and on the conduct of individuals. 
 The Scandinavian placed his sole delight in war : he entertained an 
 absolute contempt of danger and of death, and his glory was estimat- 
 ed by the number which he had slain in battle. The death-song of 
 Regner Lodbrok, who comforts himself in his last agonies by recount- 
 ing all the acts of carnage which he had committed in his life-time, 
 is a faithful picture of the Scandinavian character. 
 
 6. We have remarked the great similarity of the manners of the 
 Scandinavians and the ancient Germans. These nations seem, how- 
 ever, to have had a different origin. The Germans, as well as the 
 Gauls, were branches of that great original nation termed Celtce, who 
 inhabited most of the countries of Europe south of the Baltic, before 
 they were invaded by the northern tribes from Scandinavia. The 
 CeltaB were all of the druidical religion, a system different from the 
 belief and worship of the Scandinavians, but founded nearly on the 
 same principles ; and the Goths, in their progress, intermixing with 
 the Germans, could not fail to adopt, in part, the notions of a kindred 
 
ANCIENT HISTORY. ^ 
 
 religion. Druidism acknowledged a god who delighted in blood 
 shed, taught the immortality of the soul, and inculcated the contempt 
 of danger and of death. Tacitus remarks that the ancient German* 
 had neither temples nor idols. The open air was the temple of the 
 divinity, and a consecrated grove the appropriated place for praver 
 and sacrifice, which none but the priests were allowed to enter. 
 The chief sacrifices were human victims, most probably the prison 
 ers i tken in war. The druids heightened the sanctity of their char- 
 acter by concealing the mysteries of their worship. They had the 
 highest influence over the minds of the people, and thus found it 
 cjasjj to conjoin a civil authority with the sacerdotal; a policy which 
 u the end led to the destruction of the druidical system; for the 
 I tomans found no other way of securing their conquests over any oi 
 t'lfi Celtic nations, but by exterminating the druids. 
 
 7. Whatever difference of manners there may have been among 
 the various nations or tribes of Gothic origin, the great features oi 
 thgir character appear to have been the same. Nature, education, 
 and prevailing habits, all concurred to form them for an intrepid 
 and conquering people. Their bodily frame was invigorated by 
 the climate which they inhabited ; they were inured to danger and 
 CiUgue ; war was their habitual occupation ; they believed in an u.n- 
 alterable destiny, and were taught by their religion that a heroic 
 sacrifice of life gave certain assurance of eternal happiness. Hon 
 could a race of men so characterized fail to be the conquerors of the 
 world? 
 
 SECTION XLV1H. 
 
 OF THE MANNERS, LAWS, AND GOVERNMENT OF THE 
 (rOTHIC NATIONS, AFTER THEIR ESTABLISHMENT IN THE 
 
 ROMAN EMPIRE. 
 
 1. It has been erroneously supposed that the same ferocity oi 
 manners, which distinguished the Goths in their original seats, at- 
 tended their successors in their new establishments in the provinces 
 of the Roman empire. Modern authors have given a currency to 
 this false supposition. Voltaire, in describing the middle ages, paints 
 the Goths in all the characters of horror ; as "a troop of hungry 
 wolves, foxes, and tigers, driving before them the scattered timid 
 herds, and involving all in ruin and desolation.'" The accounts of 
 historians most worthy of credit will dissipate this injurious preju- 
 dice, and show those northern nations in a more favourable point of 
 view, as not unworthy to be the successors of the Romans. 
 
 2. Before their settlement in the southern provinces of Europe, 
 the Goths were no longer idolaters, but christians ; and their mo- 
 rality was suitable to the religion which they professed. Salvianus. 
 bishop of Marseilles, in the fifth century, draws a parallel between 
 the manners of the Goths and of the Romans, highly to the credit ol 
 the former. Grotius, in his publication of Procopius and Jornandes. 
 remarks, as a strong testimony to their honourable character as ;i 
 nation, that no province once subdued by the Goths ever voluntarily 
 withdrew itselt from their government. 
 
 S. It is not possible to produce a more beautiful picture of ;m 
 excellent administration than that of the Gothic monarchy in Italy 
 under Theodoric the great. Though master of the country by 
 
100 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 conquer, yet he was regarded by his subjects with the affection of 
 a native sovereign. He retained the Roman laws, and, as nearly 
 as possil e, the ancient political regulations. In supplying all civil 
 offices of .vtate he preferred the native Romans. It was his care to 
 preserve every monument of the ancient grandeur of the empire, 
 anil to embellish the cities by new works of beauty and utility. 1". 
 the imposition and levying of taxes he showed the most humane in- 
 dulgence on every occasion of scarcity or calamity. His laws were 
 dictated by the most enlightened prudence and benevolence, and 
 trained on th.it principle wnich he nobly inculcated in his instructions 
 to the Roman senate, ' ; Benigni principis est,non tarn deUcta relic p::- 
 uirc, quasn loVerc" It is the duty of a benign prince to be disposed to 
 prevent rather than to punish offences. The historians of the times 
 delight in recounting the examples of his munificence and humanity. 
 Partial as he was to the Arian heresy, many even of the catholic 
 fathers have done the most ample justice to his merits, acknowledging 
 that, under hii reign, the church enjoyed a high measure of pros- 
 perity. Such was Theodoric the great, who is justly termed by Si- 
 donius Apollmaris, Romance decus columenque gentis [the glory and the 
 support of the Roman nation). 
 
 1. But a single example could not warrant a general inference* 
 with regard to the merits of a whole people. The example of 
 Theodoric is not single. If it does not find a complete parallel, it 
 Is at least nearly approached to in the similar characters of Alaric, 
 Amalasonte, and Totila. Alaric, compelled by his enemy's breach 
 of faith to revenge himself by the sack of Rome, showed even in 
 that revenge a noble example of humanity. No blood was .-bed 
 without necessity ; the churches were inviolable asylums; the hon- 
 our of the women was preserved ; the treasures of the city were 
 saved from plunder. Amalasonte, the daughter of Theodoric. 
 repaired to her subjects the loss of her father, by the equity and 
 wisdom of her administration. She trained her son to the study of 
 literature and of every polite accomplishment, as tbe best means of 
 reforming and enlightening his people. Totila, twice master of 
 Rome, which he won by his arms after an obstinate resistance, imi- 
 tated the example of Alaric in his clemency to the vanquished, and 
 in his care to preserve every remnant of ancient magnificence from 
 destruction. He restored the senate to its authority, adorned Rome 
 with useful edifices, regulated its internal policy," and took a noble 
 pride in reviving the splendour and dignity of the empire, Habitavil 
 turn lioinanis, says a contemporary author, tanquam pater cum Jiliis. 
 (le lived vrith the Romans as a father with his children. 
 
 5. The stem of the Gothic nation divided itself into two great 
 nranches, the Ostrogoths, who remained in Pannonia, and the West- 
 rogoths or Visigoths, so termed from their migrating thence to the 
 west of Europe. Italy was possessed by the latter under Alaric, and 
 ny the former under Theodoric. The Visigoths, after the death of 
 Alaric, withdrew into Gaul, and obtained from Honorius the province 
 ot' Aquitaine, of which Thoulouse was the capital. When expelled 
 from that province by the Franks, they crossed the Pyrenees, 
 and, settling in Spain, made Toledo the capital of their kingdom. 
 The race of the Visigoth princes was termed the Balti, that of the 
 Ostrogoths the Amali. The Ostrogoths enforced in their dominions 
 the observance of the Roman laws; the Visigoths adhered to a code 
 compiled by their own sovereigns, and founded on the ancient man- 
 • and usages of their nations. From this code, there fo.ro, we may 
 
AiNClENT HISTORY. 10; 
 
 derive much information relative to the genius and character of this 
 ancient people. 
 
 6. It is enacted by the laws of the Visigoths that no judge shall 
 decide in any lawsuit, unless he find in that book a law applicable to 
 {he case. All causes that fall not under this description are reserved 
 for the decision of the sovereign. The penal laws are severe, but 
 tempered with great equity. No punishment can affect the heirs oi 
 the criminal: Omnia criming, suos sequantur auctores, — ct ille solus judi- 
 cetur culpabilis qui culpanda comimserit^ et crimen cum Mo quifecerk 
 moriatar. All crimes shall attach to their authors, — and he alone shall be 
 judged culpable, wlio hath committed offences, and the crime shall die with 
 him who hath committed it. Death was the punishment of the murder 
 of a freeman, and perpetual infamy of the murder of a slave. Pe- 
 cuniary fines were enacted for various subordinate offences, accord- 
 ing to their measure of criminality. An adulterer was delivered in 
 bondage to the injured husband; and the free woman who had com- 
 mitted adultery with a married man, became the slave of his wite. 
 No physician was allowed to visit a female patient, except in the 
 presence of her nearest kindred. The lex talionis (the law of retalia- 
 tion) was in great observance lor such injuries as admitted it. It was 
 even carried so far, that the incendiary or a house was burnt alive. 
 The trials by judicial combat, by ordeal, and by the judgment of 
 God, which were in frequent use among the Franks and Normans, 
 had no place among the Visigoths. Montesquieu has erroneously 
 asserted, that in all the Gothic nations it was usual to judge the 
 litigants by the law of their own country; the Roman by the Roman 
 law, the Frank by the law of the Franks, the Aleman by the law 
 of the Alemans. On the contrary, the Visigoth cede prohibits the 
 laws of all other nations within their territories. JWdumus sive Ro~ 
 manis legibus, sive alienis insiitutionibus, amplius convexari. We will not 
 be controlled by the Roman laws* nor by foreign institutions. The laws 
 of the Franks and Lombards are remarkable for their wisdom and 
 judicious policy. 
 
 7. The government of the Goths, after their settlement in the 
 Roman provinces, was monarchical. It was at first elective, and 
 afterwards became hereditary. The sovereign on his death-bed 
 appointed his successor, with the advice or consent of his grandees, 
 illegitimacy did not disqualify from succession or nomination to the 
 tli rone. 
 
 8. The dukes and counts were the chief officers under the Gothic 
 government. The duke (dux exercitus) was the commander m chief 
 of the troops of the province ; the count {comes) was the highest 
 civil magistrate. But these offices frequently intermixed their func- 
 tions, the count being empowered, on sud.'en emergencies, to assume 
 a military command, and the duke, on some occasions, warranted to 
 exercise judicial authority. In general, however, their departments 
 were distinct. Of comites there were various orders, with distinct offi- 
 cial powers; as, comes, cubiculi, chamberlain, comes stabuH, constable, &c. 
 These various officers were the proceres or grandees of the kingdom, 
 by whose advice the sovereign conducted himself in important mat- 
 ters of government, or in the nomination of his successor; but we do 
 not find that they had a voice in the framing of laws, or in the im- 
 position of taxes ; and the prince himself had the sole nomination tr- 
 ail offices of government, magistracies, ^ nr4 disrniti 
 
102 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 SECTION XLIX. 
 
 METHOD OF STUDYING ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 1. A general and concise view of ancient history may be acquired 
 l>y the perusal of a very few books ; as that part of the Course? Etude 
 of the Abbe Condillac which regards the history of the nations of 
 antiquity; the Elements of General History by the Abbe Millot, part 
 1st; the Epitome of Turseliine, with the notes of L'Agneau, part 
 1st; or the excellent Compendium Historicc L T niversali$, by profess* r 
 Offerhaus of Groningen. The two first of these works have the 
 merit of uniting a spirit of reflection with a judicious selection of 
 events. The notes of L'Agneau to the Epitome of Turseliine con- 
 tain a great store of geographical and biographical information. 
 The work of Ofierhaus is peculiarly valuable, as uniting sacred with 
 profane history, and containing most ample references to the ancient 
 authors, The Discours star VHistoire Univcrsdle, by the bishop 
 of Meaux, is a work of high merit, but is not adapted to convey : 1(1 „ 
 formation to the uninstructed. It is more useful to those who have 
 already studied history in detail, for uniting in the mind the great 
 current of events, and recalling to the memory their order and con- 
 nexion. 
 
 But the student who wishes to derive the most complete advan- 
 tage from history, must not confine himself to such general or com- 
 pendious views; he must resort to the original historians of ancient 
 times, and to the modern writers who have treated with amplitude 
 of particular periods. It may be useful to such students to point 
 out the. order in which those historians may be most profitably 
 perused. 
 
 2. Next to the historical books of the Old Testament, the most 
 ancient history worthy of perusal is that of Herodotus, which com- 
 prehends the annals of Lydia, Ionia, Lycia, Egypt, Persia, Greece, 
 and Macedonia, during above 230 years preceding 479 A. G. 
 
 Book 1. History of Lydia from Gyges to Croesus. Ancient Ionia. 
 Manners of the Persians, Babylonians, &c. History of Cyrus the 
 Elder. 
 
 B. 2. History of Egypt, and Manners of the Egyptians. 
 
 B. 3. History of Cambyses. Persian Monarchy under Darius 
 Hystaspes. 
 
 B. 4. History of Scythia. 
 
 B. 5. Persian Embassy to Macedon. Athens, Lacedaemon, Corinth, 
 at the same period. 
 
 B. 6. Kings of Lacedaemon. War of Persia against Greece, to the 
 battle of Marathon. 
 
 B. 7. The same War, to the battle of Thermopylae. 
 
 B. 8. The Naval Battle of Salamis. 
 
 B. 9. The Defeat and Expulsion of the Persians from Greece. 
 
 (The merits of Herodotus are shortly characterized in Sect. 
 XXII, §1.) 
 
 3. A more particular account of the periods treated by Herodotus 
 may be found in Justin, lib. 1, 2, 3, and 7 ; in the Cyropedia of Xeno- 
 
 Phon; in the Lives of Aristides, Themistocles, Cimon, Miltiades, and 
 ausanias. written by Plutarch and Cornelius Nepos; and in the 
 lives of A laximander, Zeno, Empedocles, Heraclitus, and Democri- 
 tus, by D genes Laertius. 
 
ANCIENT HISTORY. 103 
 
 *: fke Grecian history is taken up by Thucydides from the 
 period where Herodotus ends, and is continued for seventy years to 
 the twenty-first of the Pelopormesian war. (Thir; work characterized, 
 beet, XXII, & 2.) This period is more amply illustrated by perusing 
 the 11th and 12th books of Diodorus Siculus ; the Lives of Alcibia 
 des, Chabrias, Thrasybulus, and Lysias, by Plutarch andNepos; the* 
 2d, 3d. 4th, and 5th books of Justin; and the 1 4th and 15th chapter* 
 ■01 thQ 1st book of Orosius. 
 
 o. Next to Thucydides the student ought to peruse the 1st and 
 2d books of Xenophon's History of Greece,, which comprehends the 
 narrative of the Peloponncsian war, with the contemporary history of 
 the Modes and Persians ; then the expedition of Cyrus {Anabasis), and 
 the continuation of the history to its conclusion with the battle of 
 Mantinea. (Xenophon characterized, Sect. XXII, § 3.) For illustrat- 
 ing this period we have the Lives of Lysander, Agesilaus, Artaxerxes 
 Coaon, and Datames, by Plutarch and Nepos; the 4th, 5th,. and 6tif 
 book? of Justin ; and the 1 3th and 16th books of Diodorus Siculus.. 
 
 6. After Xenophon let the student road the 15th and 16th books 
 of Diodorus, which contain the history of Greece asd Persia, from 
 the battle of Mantinea to the reign of Alexander the great- (Diodorus 
 characterized, Sect. XXII, § 5.) To complete this period let him 
 read the Lives of Dion, Iphicrates, Timotheus, Phocion, and Timo- 
 leon, by Nepos. 
 
 7. For the history of Alexander the great we have the admirable 
 works of Arrian and Quintus Curtius. (Arrian characterized, Sect. 
 XXII, § 8.) Curtius possesses great judgment in the selection of 
 facts, with much elegance and perspicuity of diction. lie is a good 
 moralist, and a good patriot; but his passion for embellishment 
 derogates from the purity of history, and renders- his authority sus- 
 picious. 
 
 8. For the continuation of the history of Greece from the death 
 of Alexander, we have the 1 8th, 19th, and 20th books of Diodorus ; 
 the history of Justin from the 13tti book to the end; and the Lives 
 of the principal personages written by Plutarch- The history oi 
 Justin is a judicious abridgment of a much larger work by Trogus 
 Pompeius, which is lost. Justin excels in the delineation of charac 
 ters, and in purity of style. 
 
 9. I have mentioned" the Lives of Plutarch and Cornelius Nepos 
 as the best supplement to the account of particular periods of ancient 
 history. It is the highest praise of Plutarch that his writings are 
 admirable for their morality, and furnish instructive lessons of active 
 virtue. He makes us familiarly acquainted with the great men ot 
 antiquity, and chietly delights in painting their private character and 
 manners. The short Lives written by Nepos show great judgment, 
 and a happy selection of such facts as display the genius and charac 
 ter of his heroes. They are written with purity and elegance. 
 
 10. For the Roman history in its early periods we have the An- 
 tiquities of Dionysius of Halicarnassus, which bring down the his- 
 tory of Rome to 412 A. U. C. They are chiefly valuable, as illus 
 trating the manners and customs, the rites civil and religious, and the 
 laws of the Roman state. But the writer is too apt to frame hypoth 
 eses, and to give views instead of narratives. We expect these in 
 the modern writers who treat of ancient times, but cannot tolerate 
 them in the sources of history. 
 
 11. The work of Livy is far more valuable than that of Dio- 
 eysius. It is a perfect model of history both as to matter and compo? 
 
104 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 ?ition. (Characterized, Sect. XXXVI, § 10.) Of 132 books only '.5 
 remain, and those are interrupted by a considerable chasm. The 
 first decade (o r ten books') treats of a period of 460 years ; the sec- 
 ond decade, chaining seventy-live years, is lost; the third contain? 
 the second Punic war, including eighteen years ; the fourth contains 
 the war against Philip of Macedon, and the Asiatic war against Anti- 
 ochus, a space of twenty-three years. Of the fifth decade there are 
 only five books; and the remainder, which reaches to the death of 
 1 )riisus, 746. A. U. C. together with the second decade, have been 
 --applied by Freinshemius. To supply the chasm of the second de- 
 cade the strident ought to read, together with the epitome of those 
 lost books, the first and second books of Polybius ; the 17th, 18th, 
 22d, and 23d books of Justin ; the lives of Marcellus and Fabius 
 Maximus by Plutarch; and the Punic and lllyrian Avars by Appian. 
 
 12. The history of Polybius demands a separate and attentive 
 perusal, as an admirable compendium of political and military in- 
 struction. Of forty books of general history we have only five en- 
 tire, and excerpts of the following twelve. Polybius treats of the 
 history of the Romans, and of the nations with whom they were at 
 Avar, from the beginning of the second Punic Avar to the beginning of 
 the Avar Avith Macedonia, comprising in all a period of about fifty 
 years. Of the high estimation in which Polybius avhs held by the 
 authors of antiquity Ave have sufficient proof in the encomiums be- 
 stowed on him by fcicero, Strabo, Josephus, and Plutarch ; and in the 
 use which Livy has made of his history, in adopting his narratives 
 by a translation nearly literal. 
 
 13. The Avork of Appian, which originally consisted of tAA^enty 
 books, from the earliest period of the Roman history doAvn to the 
 age of Adrian, is greatly mutilated ; and there remains only his 
 account of the Syrian, Parthian, Mithridatic, Spanish, Punic, ami 
 lllyrian Avars. His narrative of each of these Avars is remarkably 
 distinct and judicious ; and his composition, on the Avhole, is chaste 
 and perspicuous. After the history of Appian the student should re- 
 sume Livy, from the beginning of the third decade, or 21st book, to 
 the end. Then he may peruse with advantage the Lives of Hanni- 
 bal, Scipio Africanus, Flaminius, Paulus iEmilius, the elder Cato, the 
 Gracchi, Marius, Sylla, the younger Cato, Sertorius, Lucuilus, Julius 
 Caesar, Cicero, Pompey, and Brutus, by Plutarch. 
 
 14. Sallusfs histories of the Jugurthine Avar and of the conspir, r.oy 
 of Catiline come next in order. (Sallust characterized, Sect. X.XX\ !. 
 jj ft;} Then folknv the Commentaries of Caesar, remarka! 
 perspicuity of narration, and a happy union oi brevity with elegant 
 simplicity of style. (Sect. XXXIV, Cj9.) The epitomes of Floras and 
 of Veleius Paterculus may be perused Avith advantage at this period 
 oi the course. The latter is a model for abridgment of history, in 
 the opinion of the president Henault. 
 
 15. For the history of Rome under the first emperors wo have 
 Suetonius and Tacitus; and for the subsequent reigns, the s< rios of 
 the minor historians, termed Historic Augusta Scriptorcs {writers of 
 august history), and the Byzantine writers. Suetonius gives us a 
 series of detached characters, illustrated by an artful selectic i c facts 
 and anecdotes, rather than a regular history. His work is chiefly 
 valuable as descriptive of Roman manners. His genius has too much 
 of the caustic humour of a satirist. Tacitus, with greater poAvers 
 and deeper penetration, has drawn a picture of the times in stern 
 and gloomy colours. (Sect. XXXVI, §11.) From neither of these his 
 
ANCIENT HISTORY. 1 05 
 
 torians will the ingenuous mind of youth receive moral improvement, 
 or pleasing and benevolent impressions ; yet we cannot deny their 
 high utility to the student of politics. 
 
 16. If we except Herodian, who wrote with taste and judgment, it 
 is doubtful whether any of the subsequent writers of the Roman 
 history deserve a minute perusal. It is therefore advisable for the 
 student to derive his knowledge of the history of the decline and 
 fall of the Roman empire from modern authors, resorting to the 
 original writers only for occasional information on detached points of 
 importance. Fortius purpose, the General History by Dr. Howej 
 is a work of great utility, being written entirely on the basis of the 
 original historians, whose narrative he generally translates, referring 
 constantly to his authorities in the margin. In this work the student 
 will rind a valuable mass of historical information. 
 
 17. The reader having thus founded his knowledge of general his- 
 tory on the original writers, will now peruse with great advantage 
 the medern histories of ancient Greece and Rome by Mitford, Gillies, 
 Gast, ilooke, Gibbon, and Furgusson; and will find himself qualified 
 to form a just estimate of their merits, on which it is presumptuous 
 to decide without such preparatory knowledge.^ 
 
 IB. The greatest magazine of historical information which has 
 ever been collected into one body, is the English Universal History: 
 a most useful work, from the amplitude of its matter, its general 
 accuracy, and constant reference to the original authors. We may 
 occasionally consult it with great advantage, on points where deep 
 research is necessary; but we cannot read it with pleasure a$ a con- 
 tinued work, from its tedious details and harshness of style, its abrupt 
 transitions, and the injudicious arrangement of many of its parts. 
 
 19. Geography and chronology have been justly termed the lights 
 of history. We cannot peruse with advantage the historical annals 
 of any country without a competent knowledge of its geographical 
 situation, and even of its particular topography. In reading the de- 
 scription of any event the mind necessarily iorms a picture of the 
 scene of action"; and it is surely better to draw the picture with truth 
 from nature and reality, than falsely from imagination. Many actions 
 and events are likewise intimately connected with the geography and 
 local circumstances of a country, and are unintelligible without a 
 knowledge of them. 
 
 20. The. use of chronological tables is very great, both for (lie 
 purpose of uniting in one view the contemporary events in different 
 nations, which often have an influence on one another, and for re- 
 calling to the memory the order and series of events, and renewing 
 the impressions of the objects of former study. It is extremely use- 
 ful, after perusing the history of a nation in detail or that of a certain 
 age or period, to" run over briefly the principal occurrences in a table 
 of chronology. The most perfect works of this kind are the chro- 
 nological tables of Dr. Playiair, which unite history and biography ; 
 the tables of Dr. Blair ; or the older tables by Tatieht .* 
 
 END OF PART FIRST. 
 
 * A list of the best translations of the principal books above mentioned 
 Herodotus, translated by Beloe, 4 vols. 8vo. 
 Xenophon's Cycropedia by Cooper, 8vo. 
 Xenophon's Anabasis, by Spelman, 2 vols. 8vo. 
 Xenophon's History of Greece, by Smith, 4ta. 
 
 14 
 
PART SECOND. 
 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 OF ARABIA, AND THE EMPIRE OF THE SARACENS. 
 
 The fall of the western empire of the Romans, and the final sub 
 jugation of ltalj by the Lombards, is the sera from which we date the 
 commencement of Modern History. 
 
 The eastern empire of the Roman? continued to exist for many 
 ages alter this period, still magnificent, though in a state of compar- 
 ative weakness and degeneracy. Towards the end of the sixth cen- 
 tury a new dominion arose iu the east, which was destined to produce 
 a worn', iiui change on a great portion of the globe. 
 
 The Arabians, at this time a rude nation, living chiefly in indepen- 
 dent tribes, who traced their descent from the patriarch Abraham, 
 professed a mixed religion, compounded of Judaism and idolatry. 
 Mecca, their holy city, rose to eminence from the donations of pil- 
 grims to its temple, in which was deposited a black stone, an object^ 
 of high veneration. Mahomet was born at Mecca, A. D. 571. Of 
 mean descent, and no education, but of great natural talents, he sought 
 to raise himself to celebrity, by feigning a divine mission to propagate 
 a new religion for the salvation of mankind. He retired to the des- 
 ert, and pretended to hold conferences with the angel Gabriel, who 
 delivered to him, from time to time, portions of a sacred book or Co- 
 ran, containing revelations of the will of the Supreme Being, and of 
 the doctrines which he required his prophet to communicate to the 
 world. 
 
 2. This religion, while it adopted in part the morality of Christian- 
 ity, retained many of the rites of Judaism, and some of the Arabian 
 superstitions, as the pilgrimage to Mecca ; but owed to a certain spirit 
 
 Plutarch, by Langhorne, 6 vols. 8vo., or 6 vols. 12mo. Wranghani'i 
 
 edition. 
 Thucydides, by Smith, 2 vols. 8vo. 
 Dionysius Halicarnassus, by Spelman, 4 vols. 4to. 
 Polybius, by Hampton, 4 vols. 8vo. 
 LiTy, by Baker, 6 vols. 8vo 
 
 Sallust, by Murphy, 8vo. ; b> Stuart, 2 vols. 4to. ; by Rose, Ova. 
 Tacitus, by Murphy, 8 vols. 8vo. ; Irish edition, 4 vols. 8vo 
 Suetonius, by Thompson, 8vo. 
 Diodorus Siculus, by Booth, folio. 
 Arrian, by Rook, 2 vols. 8vo. 
 Q. Curtius, by Digby, 2 vols. 12mo. 
 Justin, by Turnbull, 12mo. 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 107 
 
 of Asiatic voluptuousness its chief recommendation to its votaries. 
 The Coran taught the belief of one God, whose will and power were 
 constantly exerted towards the happiness of his creatures ; that the 
 duty of man was to love his neighbours, assist the poor, protect the 
 injured, to be humane to inferior animals, and to pray seven times a 
 day. The pious mussulman was allowed to have four wives, and as 
 many concubines as he chose ; and the pleasures of love were prom- 
 ised as the supreme joys of paradise. To revive the impression of 
 these laws, which God had engraven originally in the hearts of men, 
 he had sent from time to time his prophets upon earth, Abraham^ 
 Moses, Jesus Christ, and Mahomet ; the last the greatest, to whom 
 all the world should owe its conversion to the true religion. By 
 producing the Coran in detached parcels, Mahomet had it in his pow- 
 er to solve all objections by new revelations. 
 
 3. Dissensions and popular tumults between the believers and infi- 
 dels caused the banishment of Mahomet from Mecca. His flight, 
 called the hegyra, A. D. 622, is the aera of his glory. He retired to 
 Medina, and was joined by the brave Omar. lie propagated his doc- 
 trines with great success, and marched with his followers in arms, and 
 took the city of Mecca. In a kw years he subdued all Arabia; and 
 then attacking Syria, took several of the Roman cities. In the midst 
 of his victories he died at the age of sixty-one, A. D. 632. He had 
 nominated AH, his son-in-law, his successor; but Abubeker, his father- 
 in-law, secured the succession by gaining the army to his interest. 
 
 4. Abubeker united and published the books of the Coran, and 
 prosecuted the conquests of Mahomet. He defeated the army of He- 
 raclius,took Jerusalem, and subjected all the country between Mount 
 Libanus and the Mediterranean. On his death Omar was elected to 
 the caliphate, and in one campaign deprived the Greek empire of 
 Syria, Phoenicia. Mesopotamia, and Chaldaea. In the next campaign 
 he sulxlued to the mussulman dominion and religion, the whole em- 
 
 Eire of Persia. His generals at the same time conquered Egypt, 
 ibya, and Numidia. 
 
 5. Otman, the successor of Omar, added to the dominion of the 
 caliphs Bactriana, and part of Tartary, and ravaged Rhodes and the 
 Greek islands. His successor was AH, the son-in-law of Mahomet, a 
 name to this day revered by the Mahometans. He transferred the 
 seat of the caliphate from Mecca to Coufia, whence it was afterwards 
 removed to Bagdat. His reign was glorious, but only of five years' 
 duration. In the space of half a century from the beginning of the 
 conquests of Mahomet, the Saracens raised an empire more extensive 
 than what remained of the Roman. Nineteen caliphs of the race ot 
 Omar (Ommiades) reigned ir\ succession, after which began the dy- 
 nasty of the Abassida:* descenaeu by the male line from Mahomet. 
 Almanzor, second caliph of this race, removed the seat of empire Vj 
 Bagdat, and introduced learning and the culture of the sciences, 
 which his successors continued to promote with equal zeal and Hber- 
 ality. Haroun Alraschid, who flourished in the beginning of the ninth 
 century, is celebrated as a second Augustus. The sciences chiefly 
 cultivated by the Arabians were, medicine, geometry, and astronomy 
 They improved the oriental poetry, by adding regularity to its fancy 
 and fuxuriancy of imagery. 
 
10b MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 SECTION II. 
 MONARCHY OF THE FRANKS. 
 
 1. The Franks were originally those tribes of Germans who inhab- 
 ited the districts lying on the Lower Rhine and Weser, and who, in 
 the time of Tacitus, passed under the names of Chauci, Cherusci. 
 Catti, Sicambri, &c. They assumed or received the appellation oi 
 Franks, or freemen, from their temporary union to resist the domin- 
 ion of the Romans. Legendary chronicles record a Pharamond and 
 a Meroveus ; the latter the head of the first race of the kings of France, 
 termed the Merovingian ; but the authentic history of the Franks 
 commences only with his grandson Clovis, who began his reign in 
 the year 481. In the twentieth year of his age Clovis achieved the 
 conquest of Gaul, by the defeat of Syagrius the Roman governor; 
 and marrying Clotilda, daughter of Chilperic king of Burgundy, soon 
 added that province to his dominions, by dethroning his father-in-law 
 He was converted by Clotilda ; and the Franks, till then idolaters, be- 
 came christians, after their sovereign's example. The Visigoths, 
 professing Arianism, were masters at this time of Aquitaine, the coun- 
 try between the Rhone and Loire. The intemperate zeal of Clovis 
 prompted the extirpation of those heretics, who retreated across 
 the Pyrenees into Spain; and the provinces of Aquitaine became part 
 of the kingdom of the Franks. They did not long retain it, for The- 
 odoric the great defeated Clovis in the battle of Aries, and added 
 Aquitaine to his dominions. Clovis died A. D. 511. 
 
 2. His four sons divided the monarchy, and were perpetually at 
 war with one another. A series of weak and wicked princes succeed- 
 ed, and Gaul for some ages was characterized under its Frank sover- 
 eigns by more than ancient barbarism. On the death of Dagobert II, 
 A. D. 638, who left two infant sons, the government, during their mi- 
 nority, fell into the hands of their chief officers, termed mayors of the 
 palace ; and these ambitious men founded a new power, which for 
 some generations held the Frank sovereigns in absolute subjection, 
 and left them little more than the title of king. Austrasia and Neus- 
 tria, the two great divisions of the Frank monarchy, were nominally 
 governed by Thierry, but in reality by Pepin Heristel, mayor of the 
 palace, who, restricting his sovereign to a small domain, ruled France 
 for thirty years with great wisdom and good policy. His son, Charles 
 Martel, succeeded to his power, and under a similar title governed for 
 twenty-six years with equal ability and success. He was victorious 
 over all his domestic foes. His arms kept in awe the surrounding 
 nations, and he delivered France from the ravages of the Saracens, 
 whom he entirely defeated between Tours and Poictiers, A. D. 732 
 
 3. Charles Martel bequeathed the government of France, as anun 
 disputed inheritance, to his two sons, Pepin le href and Carloman, 
 who governed, under the same title of mayor, one Austrasia, and the 
 otherNeustria and Burgundy. On the resignation of Carloman, Pepin 
 succeeded to the sole administration. Ambitious of adding the title 
 of king to the power which he already enjoyed, he proposed the 
 question to pope Zachary, whether he or his sovereign Childeric 
 was most worthy of the throne ? Zachary, who had his interest in 
 view, decided that Pepin had a right to add the title of king to the 
 office ; and Childeric was confined to a monastery for life. With 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 109 
 
 > im ended the first or Merovingian race of the kings of France, 
 A D. 751. 
 
 4. Pepin recompensed the service done him by the pope, by turn- 
 ing his arms against the Lombards. He deprived them of the exar- 
 chate of Ravenna, and made a donation of that and other considerable 
 territories to the holy see, which were the first, as is alleged, of it? 
 temporal possessions. Conscious of his defective title, it was the 
 principal object of Pepin le href to conciliate the affections of the 
 people whom he governed. The legislative power among the Franks 
 was vested in the people assembled in their champs dc Mars. Under 
 the Merovingian race the regal authority had sunk to nothing, while 
 the power of the nobles had attained to an inordinate extent. Pepin 
 found it his best policy to acknowledge and ratify those rights, which 
 he could not without danger have invaded; and thus, under the char- 
 acter of guardian of the powers of all the orders of the state, he exalt- 
 ed the regal office to its proper elevation, and founded it on the se- 
 curest basis. On his death-bed he called a council of the grandees, 
 and obtained their consent to a division of his kingdom between his 
 two sons, Charles and Carloman. He died A..D. 760, at the age of 
 iifty-three, after a reign of seventeen years from the death of Chil- 
 deric III, and an administration of twenty-seven from the death of 
 Charles Martel. 
 
 SECTION 111. 
 
 REFLECTIONS ON THE STATE OF FRANCE DT/RING THE 
 MEROVINGIAN RACE OF ITS KINGS. ORIGIN OF THE 
 FEUDAL SYSTEM. 
 
 1. The manners ef the Franks were similar to those of the other 
 Germanic nations described by Tacitus. Though under the command 
 of a chief or king, their government was extremely democratical, and 
 they acknowledged no other than a military subordination. The legis- 
 lative authority resided in the general assembly, or champs de Mars. 
 held annually on the 1st day of March; a council in which the king 
 had but a single suffrage, equally with the meanest soldier.^ But, 
 when in arms against the enemy, his power was absolute in enforcing 
 military discipline. 
 
 2. Alter the establishment of the Franks in Gaul some changes took 
 place from their new situation. They reduced the Gauls to absolute 
 subjection ; yet they left many in possession of their lands, because the 
 new country was too large for ite conquerors. They left them like- 
 wise the use. of their existing laws, which were those of the Roman 
 code, while they themselves were governed by the salique and npua- 
 rian taws, ancient institutions in observance among the P ranks before 
 they left their original seats in Germany. Hence arose that extraor 
 dinary diversity of local laws and usages in the kingdom of France s 
 which continued down to modern times, and gave occasion to number 
 less inconveniences. 
 
 3. The ancient Germans had the highest veneration for the priests 
 or druids. It was natural that the Franks, after their conversion to 
 Christianity, should have the same reverence for their bishops, to 
 whom accordingly they allowed the first rank in the national as- 
 sembly. These bishops were generally chosen from among the na- 
 tive Gauls ; for, having adopted from this nation their new religion- 
 it was natural that their priests should be chosen from the same peo- 
 
110 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 pie. The influence of the clergy contributed much to ameliorate 
 the condition of the conquered Gauls, and to humanize their conquer- 
 ors; and in a short space of time the two nations were thoroughly in- 
 corporated. 
 
 4. At this period a new system of policy is visible among this unil 
 ed people, which by degrees extended itself over most of the nations 
 of Europe. This is the feudal system. By this expression is properly 
 meant that tenure or condition on which the proprietors of land held 
 their possessions, viz. , an obligation to perform military service, 
 whenever required by the chief or overlord to whom they owed al- 
 legiance. 
 
 Many modern writers attribute the origin of this institution or poli- 
 cy to the kings of the Franks, who, after the conquest of Gaul, are 
 supposed to have divided the lands among their followers, on this 
 condition of military service. But this notion is attended with insur- 
 mountable difficulties. For, in the first place, it proceeds on this false 
 supposition, that the conquered lands belonged in property to the king, 
 and that he had the right of bestowing them in gifts, or dividing them 
 among his followers ; whereas it is a certain tact, that among the 
 Franks the partition of conquered lands was made by lot, as was the 
 division even of the spoil or booty taken in battle ; and that the king's 
 share, though doubtless a larger portion than that of his captains, was 
 likewise assigned him by lot. Secondly, if we should suppose the king 
 to have made those gifts to his captains out of his own domain, the 
 creation of a very few benejicia {benefices) would have rendered him 
 a poorer man than his subjects. We must therefore have recourse 
 to another supposition for the origin of the fiefs ; and we shall rind 
 that it is to be traced to a source much more remote than the con- 
 quest of Gaul by the Franks. 
 
 5. Among all barbarous nations, with whom war is the chief occu- 
 pation, we remark a strict subordination of the members of a tribe to 
 their chief or leader. It was observed by Caesar as peculiarly strong 
 among the Gaulish nations, and as subsisting not only between the 
 soldiers and their commander, but between the inferior towns or vil- 
 lages, and the canton or province to which they belonged. In peace 
 every man cultivated his land, free of all taxation, and subject to no 
 other burden but that of military service, when required by his chief. 
 VVhen the province was at war^each village, though taxed to furnish 
 only a certain number of soldiers, was bound to send, on the day ap- 
 pointed for a general muster, all its males capable of bearing ajpms ; 
 and from these its rated number was selected by the chief of the prov- 
 ince. This clicnlcla {vassalage) subsisted among the Franks as well 
 as among the Gauls. It subsisted among the Romans, who, to check 
 the inroads of the barbarian nations, and to secure their distant con- 
 quests, were obliged to maintain fixed garrisons on their frontier-. 
 To each oflicer in those garrisons it was customary to assign a por- 
 tion of land as the pledge and pay of his service. These gifts were 
 termed benejicia, and their proprietors beneficiarii. Flin. Ep. lib. 10. 
 ep. 32. The benejicia were at first granted only for life. Alexander 
 Severus allowed them to descend to heirs, on the like condition ot 
 military service. 
 
 6. When Gaul was overrun by the Franks, a great part of the lands 
 was possessed on this tenure by the Roman soldiery, as the rest was 
 by the native Gauls. The conquerors, accustomed to the same poli- 
 i'jfy would naturally adopt it in the partition of their new conquests ; 
 each man, on receiving his share, becoming bound to military service, 
 
MODERN HISTORY. Ml 
 
 as a condition necessarily annexed to territorial property. With 
 respect to those Gauls who retained their possessions, no other 
 change was necessary but to exact the same obligation of military 
 vassalage to their new conquerors, which they had rendered to their 
 former masters the emperors, and, before the Roman conquest, to 
 their native chiefs. Thus no other change took place but that oi 
 the overlord. The system was the same which had prevailed for 
 ages. 
 
 7. But these benejicia, or fiefs, were personal grants, revocable by 
 the sovereign or overlord, and reverting to him on the death of the 
 vassal. The weakness of the Frank kings of the Merovingian race 
 emboldened the possessors of fiefs to aspire at independence and 
 security of property. In a convention held at Andeli in 587, to treat 
 of peace between Gontran and Childebert II., the nobles obliged 
 these princes to renounce the right of revoking their benefices, 
 which henceforward passed by inheritance to their eldest male issue. 
 
 b. It was a necessary consequence of a fief becoming perpetual and 
 hereditary, that it should be capable of subinfeudation; and that the 
 vassal himself, holding his land of the sovereign by the tenure of 
 military service, should be enabled to create a train of inferior vas- 
 sals, by giving to them portions of his estate to be held on the same 
 conMjtjon. of following his standard in battle, rendering him homage 
 as theft lord, and paying, as the symbol of their subjection, a small 
 annual present, either ot money or the fruits of their lands. Thus, 
 in i\ little time, the whole territory in the feudal kingdoms was either 
 hell rnmediately and in capite of the sovereign himself, or mediately 
 by inferior vassals of the tenants in capite. 
 
 0. It was natural in those disorderly times, when the authority of 
 government and the obligation of general laws were extremely weak, 
 that the superior or overlord should acquire a civil and criminal 
 jurisdiction over his vassals. The comites, to whom, as the chief 
 magistrates of police, the administration of justice, belonged of right, 
 paid !UUe attention to the duties of their office, and shamefully abused 
 their powers. The inferio!/ classes naturally chose, instead of seek- 
 ing justice through this corrupted channel, to submit their lawsuits to 
 the arbitration of their overlord ; and this jurisdiction, conferred at first 
 by the acquiescence of parties, came at length to be regarded as 
 founded on strict right. Hence arose a perpetual contest of jurisdic- 
 tion between the greater barons in their own territories and the es- 
 tablished judicatories; a natural cause of that extreme anarchy and 
 disorder which prevailed in France during the greater part of the 
 Merovingian period, and sunk the regal authority to the lowest pitch 
 cf abasement. In a government of which every part was at variance 
 with the rest r it was not surprising that a new power should arise, 
 which, in able hands, should be capable of bringing the whole under 
 subjection. 
 
 10. The mayor of the palace, or first officer of the household, 
 gradually usurped, under a series of weak princes, the whole 
 powers of the sovereign. This office, from a personal dignity, be- 
 came hereditary in the family of Pepin Heristel. His grandson, 
 Pepin le bref, removed from the throne those phantoms of the Me 
 rovingian race, assumed the title of king, by the authority of a pa- 
 pal decree, and reigned for seventeen years with dignity and success. 
 He was the founder of the second race of the trench monarchs 
 known by the name of the Carlo vingian. See Rett's Elements of 
 General Knowledge, vol. I. 
 
112 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 CHARLEMAGNE. THE NEW EMPIRE OF THE WEST. 
 
 1. Pepin h bref, with the consent of his nobles, divided, on his 
 death-bed, the kingdom of France between his sons, Charles and 
 Carloman, A. D. 768. The latter died a few years after his father. 
 and Charles succeeded to the undivided sovereignty. In the course 
 of a reign of forty-five years Clmrhmagne (for so he was de- 
 servedly styled) extended the limits o£ his empire beyond the Dan- 
 ube; subdued Dacia, Dalmatia, and Istria ; conquered and subjected 
 all the barbarous tribes to the banks of the Vistula ; made himself mas- 
 ter of a great portion of Italy ; and successfully encountered the arms 
 of the Saracens, the Huns, the Bulgarians, and the Saxons. His 
 war with the Saxons was of thirty years' duration, and their final 
 conquest was not achieved without an inhuman waste of blood. At 
 the request of the pope, and to discharge the obligation of his lather 
 Pepin to the holy see, Charlemagne dispossessed Desidcrius king oi 
 the Lombards of all his dominions, though allied to him by marriage ; 
 and put a final period to the Lombard dominion in Italy, A. D. 77 1. 
 
 2. He made his entry into Rome at the festival of Easter, was 
 there crowned king of France and of the Lombards, and was, by 
 pope Adrian I, invested with the right of ratifying the election o! 
 the popes. Irene, empress of the east, sought to ally herself with 
 Charlemagne, by the marriage of her son Constantine to his daugh- 
 ter; hot her subsequent inhuman conduct, in putting Constantino to 
 death, gave ground to suspect the sincerity of her desire for that 
 alliance. 
 
 o. in the last visit of Charlemagne to Italy lie was consecrated 
 emperor of the west by the hands of pope Leo III. It is probable 
 that if he had chosen Rome for his residence and seat of government, 
 and at his death had transmitted to his successor an undivided domin- 
 ion, the great but fallen empire of the west might have once more 
 been restored to lustre and respect. But Charlemagne had no fixed 
 capital, and divided, even in his lifetime, his dominions among hk 
 children, A. D. 806. 
 
 4. The economy of government and the domestic administration 
 of Charlemagne merit attention. Pepin le href had introduced the 
 system of annual assemblies or parliaments, held at first in March, 
 and afterwards in May, where the chief estates of clergy and nobles 
 were called to deliberate on the public affairs and the wants of the 
 people. Charlemagne apointed these assemblies to be held twice in 
 the year, in spring and in autumn. In the latter assembly all affairs 
 were prepared and digested; in the former was transacted the busi- 
 ness of legislation ; and of this assembly he made the people a party, 
 by admitting from each province or district twelve deputies or rep- 
 resentatives. The assembly now consisted of three estates, each of 
 which formed a separate chamber, and discussed apart the concerns 
 of its own order. They afterwards united to communicate their 
 resolutions, or to deliberate on their common interests. The sove- 
 reign was never present, unless when called to ratify the decrees of 
 the assembly. 
 
 5. Charlemagne divided the empire into provinces, and the prov- 
 inces into districts, each comprehending a certain number of conn- 
 
MODERN HISTORY. i^ 
 
 ties. The districts were governed by royal envoys, chosen from the 
 clergy and nobles, and bound to an exact visitation of their territories 
 every three months. These envoys held annual conventions, at 
 which were present the higher clergy and barons, to discuss the 
 affairs of the district, examine the conduct of its magistrates, and 
 redress the grievances of individuals. At the general assembly, or 
 champ de Mai, the royal envoys made their report to the sovereign 
 and states; and thus the public attention was constantly directed to 
 all the concerns of the empire^ 
 
 G. The private character of Charlemagne was most amiable and 
 respectable. His secretary, Eginhart, has painted his domestic life 
 in beautiful and simple colours. The economy of his family is char 
 acteristic of an age of great simplicity ; for his daughters were as- 
 siduously employed in spinning and housewifery, and the sons were 
 trained by their father in the practice of all manly exercises. This 
 illustrious man died A. D. 814, in the seventy-second year of his age. 
 Contemporary with him was Haroun Alraschid, caliph of the Sara 
 cens, equally celebrated for his conquests, excellent policy, and the 
 wisdom and humanity of his government. 
 
 7. Of all the lawful sous of Charlemagne, Lewis the debonnaire 
 was the only one who survived him, and who therefore succeeded 
 without dispute to all the imperial dominions, except Italy, which 
 the emperor had settled on Bernard, his grandson by Pepin, his 
 second son. 
 
 SECTION V. 
 
 ■ * 
 
 MANNERS, GOVERNMENT, AND CUSTOMS OF THE AGE OF 
 
 CHARLEMAGNE. 
 
 1 . In establishing the provincial conventions under the royal 
 envoys, Charlemagne did not entirely abolish the authority of the 
 ancient chief magistrates, the dukes and counts. They continued 
 to command the troops of the province, and to make the lc vies in 
 stated numbers from each district. Cavalry were not numerous in 
 the imperial armies, twelve farms being taxed to furnish only one 
 horseman with his armour and accoutrements. The province sup- 
 plied six months'' provisions to its complement of men, and the king 
 maintained them during the rest of the campaign. 
 
 2. The engines for the attack and defence of towns were, as in 
 tonne r times, the ram, the balista, catapulta, testudo, &c. Charle 
 magne had his ships of war stationed in the mouths of all the larger 
 rivers. He bestowed great attention on commerce. The merchants 
 of Italy and the south of France traded to the Levant, and exclianged 
 the commodities of Europe and Asia. Venice and Genoa were 
 Rising into commercial opulence; and the manufactures of wool, glass, 
 and iron, were successfully cultivated in many of the principal towns 
 in the south of Europe 
 
 3. The value of money was nearly the same as in the Roman 
 empire in the age of Constantine the great. The numerary livre, 
 in the age of Charlemagne, was supposed to be a pound of silver, in 
 value about 31. sterling of English money. At present the livre is 
 worth 10 l-2d. English. Hence we ought to be cautious in forming 
 our estimate of ancient money from its name. From the want of 
 
 15 
 
tl4 MODERN HISTORY.. 
 
 this caution have arisen the most erroneous ideas of the commerce^ 
 riches, and strength of the ancient kingdoms. 
 
 4. The capitularia {statute-books) of Charlemagne, compiled into a 
 body A. D. 827, were recovered from oblivion in 1531 and 1545. 
 They present many circumstances illustrative of the manners of the 
 times. Unless in great cities there were no inns : the laws obliged 
 every man to give accommodation to travellers. The chief towns 
 were built of wood. The state & the mechanic arts was very low 
 in Europe. The Saracens had made more progress in them. Paint 
 ing and sculpture were only preserved from absolute extinction by 
 the existing remains of ancient art. Charlemagne appears to have 
 been anxious for the improvement of music; and the Italians are said 
 to have instructed his French performers in the art of playing on the 
 organ. Architecture was studied and successfully cultivated in that 
 style termed the Gothic, which admits of great beauty, elegance, 
 and magnificence. The composition of Mosaic appears to have been 
 an invention of those ages. 
 
 5. The knowledge of letters was extremely low, and confined to a 
 few of the ecclesiastics. Charlemagne gave the utmost encourage- 
 ment to literature and the sciences, inviting into bis dominions of 
 France, men eminent in those departments from Italy, and from the 
 Britannic isles, which, in tho<e dark ages, preserved more of the 
 light of learning than any of the western kingdoms. c; JVeque enim 
 silenda laus Britannia:, Scotvx, et Ribemir, q.ir_ studio liberaliuin artium 
 eg tempore anteceUebant reliquis occidentalibus regnis ; et cum prces.eriim 
 monachoru.n. qui Hterardia gbriam, alibi aid languentem aid depressatru, 
 in iis regionibus impigrc susciiabant atque ti'.cLantur."' Murat Antiq. 
 Ital. Diss. 43. " / must not omit the praise aue'to England, Scotland-, 
 and Ireland, which at tlud time excelled the otlier western kingdoms in the 
 
 scarcity of books in those times, and the nature of their subjects, 
 as legends, lives of the saints, k,c, evince the narrow diffusion of 
 literature. 
 
 6. The pecuniary lines for homicide, the ordeal or judgment of 
 God, and judicial combat, were striking peculiarities in the laws ant! 
 manners of the northern nations, and particularly of the Franks. By 
 this warlike, barbarous people, revenge was esteemed honourable and 
 meritorious. The high-spirited warrior chastised or vindicated with 
 his own hand the injuries which he had received or inflicted. The 
 magistrate interfered, not to punish, but to reconcile, and v/as satisfied 
 if he could persuade the aggressor to pay, and the injured party to 
 accept, the moderate tine which was imposed as the price of blood, 
 and of which the measure was estimated according to the rank, the 
 sex, and the country of the person slain. But increasing civilization 
 abolished those barbarous distinctions. We have remarked the equal 
 severity of the laws of the Visigoths, in the crimes of murder and 
 robbery ; and even among the t ranks, in the age of Charlemagne, 
 deliberate murder was punished with, death. 
 
 7. By their ancient laws, a party accused of any crime was al- 
 lowed to produce compurgators, or a certain number of witnesses. 
 according to the measure of the offence ; and if these declared 
 upon oath their belief of his innocence, it was held a sufficient #xcul 
 pation. Seventy-two compurgators were required to acquit a mur- 
 derer or an incendiary. The flagrant perjuries occasioned by this 
 
MODERN HISTORY. fI5 
 
 absurd practice probably gave rise to the trial by orcteaf, which was 
 termed, as it was believed to be, the judgment of God. The crimi- 
 nal was ordered, at the option of the judge, to- prove his innocence 
 or guilt, by the ordeal of cold water, of boiling waiter, or red hot 
 iron. He was tied hand and foot, and thrown into a pool, (o sink or 
 swim; lie was made to fetch a ring from the bottom of a vessel oj 
 boiling water, or to walk barefooted over burning ploughshares. His- 
 tory records examples of those wonderful experiments having been, 
 made without injury or pain. 
 
 8. Another peculiarity of the laws and manners of the northern 
 nations was judicial combat. Both in civil suits and in the trial oi 
 crimes, the party destitute of legal proofs might challenge his antag- 
 onist to mortal combat, and rest the cause upon its issue. This san- 
 guinary and most iniquitous custom, which may be traced to this day 
 in the practice of duelling, had the. authority of law in the court of 
 the constable and marshal, even in the last century, in France and 
 England. 
 
 SECTION VI. 
 
 RETROSPECTIVE VIEW OF THE AFFAIRS OF THE CHURCH 
 BEFORE THE AGE OF CHARLEMAGNE, 
 
 1. Tke Arian and Pelagian heresies divided the christian church 
 for many ages. In the fourth century, Arius,. a presbyter of Alexan- 
 dria, maintained the separate and interior nature of the second per- 
 son of the trinity, regarding Christ as the noblest of created beings,, 
 through whose agency the Creator had formed the universe, liis 
 doctrine was condemned in the council of Nice, held by Constantine 
 A. D. 325, who afterwards became a convert to it. For many cen- 
 turies it had an extensive influence, and produced the sects of the 
 Eunomians, Semi-Arians, Eusebians, ecc. 
 
 2. In the beginning of the fifth century Pelagius and Ca?lestius, 
 the former a native of Britain, the latter of Ireland, denied the doc- 
 trine oi" original sin, and the necessity of divine grace to enlighten 
 the understanding, and purify the heart ; and maintained the suffi- 
 ciency of man^s natural powers for the attainment of the highest 
 degrees of piety and virtue. These tenets were ably combated by 
 St. Augustine, and condemned by an ecclesiastical council, but have 
 ever continued to find many supporters, 
 
 3. The most obstinate source of controversy in those ages was the 
 worship of images ; a practice which was at first opposed by the 
 clergy, but was afterwards, from interested motives, countenanced 
 and vindicated by them. It was, however, long a subject of division in 
 the church. The emperor Leo the kaurian, A. D. 727, attempted 
 to suppress this idolatry, by the destruction of every statute and pic- 
 ture found in the churches, and by punishment of their worshippers; 
 but this intemperate zeal rather increased than repressed the super- 
 stition. His son Constantine Copronymus, with wiser policy, pro- 
 cured its condemnation by the church. 
 
 4. From the doctrines of the Platonic and Stoic philosophy, 
 which recommended the purification of the soul, by redeefufng it 
 from*its subjection to the serti rose the system of penances, mor- 
 tification, religious sequestration- and monachism. After Constantine 
 had put an end to the persecution of the christians, many conceived 
 
116 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 t a duty to procure for themselves voluntary grievances and suffer- 
 ings. They retired into caves and hermitages, and there practised 
 the most rigorous mortifications of the flesh, by fasting, scourging, 
 vigils, &c. This phrensy first showed itself in Egypt in the fourth 
 century, whence it spread over all the east, a great part of Africa, 
 and within the limits of the bishopric of Rome. In the time of The- 
 odosius these devotees began to form communities or camobia, each 
 associate binding himself by oath to observe the rules of his order. 
 .St. Benedict introduced monachism into Italy, under the reign of 
 Totiia ; and his order, the Benedictine, soon became extremely nu- 
 merous and opulent. Many rich donations were made by the devout 
 and charitable, who believed that they profited by the prayers of the 
 monks. Benedict sent colonies into Sicily and France, whence they 
 soon spread over all Europe. 
 
 5. In the east, the monachi solitarii (solitary monks) were first incor- 
 porated into ccsnob-ia by St. Basil, bishop of Caesarea, in the middle of 
 the fourth century ; and some time before that period the first monas- 
 teries for women were founded in Egypt by the sister of St. Pacomo. 
 From these, in the following age, sprung a variety of orders, under 
 different rules. The rule of the canons regular was framed after the 
 model of the apostolic life. To chastity, obedience, and poverty, the 
 mendicants added the obligation of begging alms. The military reli- 
 gious orders were unknown till the age of the holy wars. (Sect. XVII, 
 ^ :'».) The monastic fraternities owed their reputation chiefly to the 
 little literary knowledge which, in those ages of ignorance, they ex- 
 clusively possessed. (For the origin of monachism, see Varieties of 
 literature.) 
 
 C. In the fifth century arose a set of fanatics termed stylites. or pil- 
 lar-saints, who passed their lives on the tops of pillars of various height. 
 Simeon of Syria lived thirty-seven years, and died on a pillar sixty 
 feet high. This phrensy prevailed in the east for many centuries. 
 (For a curious account of the fanaticism of the Hindoos, see Tennanfs 
 Indian Recreations.) 
 
 7. Auricular confession, which had been abolished in the cast in 
 the fourth century, began to be in use in the west in the age of Char- 
 lemagne, and has ever since prevailed in the Romish church. The 
 canonization of saints was, for near twelve centuries, practised by ev- 
 ery bishop. Pope Alexander III, one of the most vicious of men, 
 first claimed and assumed this right, as the exclusive privilege of the 
 successor of St. Peter % 
 
 8. The conquests of Charlemagne spread Christianity in the north 
 of Europe ; but all beyond the limits of his conquests was idolatrous, 
 Britain and Ireland had received the light of Christianity at an earlier 
 period ; but it was afterwards extinguished, and again revived under 
 the Saxon heptarchy. 
 
 SECTION VII. 
 
 EMPIRE OF THE WEST UNDER THE SUCCESSORS OF CHAR- 
 LEMAGNE. 
 
 1. The empire of Charlemagne, raised and supported solely by his 
 abilities, fell to pieces under his weak posterity. Lewis (le debonnaire\ 
 the only survivor of his lawful sons, was consecrated emperor and 
 king of the Franks at Aix la Chapelle, A. D. 816. Among the first 
 
MODERN HISTORY 117 
 
 ~'tS of his reign was the partition of his dominions among bis children. 
 To Pepin, his second son, he gave Aquitaine,a third part of the south 
 of France; to Lewis, the youngest, Bavaria ; and he associated his 
 eldest son Lotharius with himself in the government of the rest. The 
 three princes quarrelled among themselves, agreeing in nothing but 
 in hostility against their father. They made open war against him, 
 supported by pope Gregory IV 7 . Thepretencc was, that the empor 
 or having a younger son, Charles, born after this partition of his 
 states, wanted to give him likewise a share, which could not be dene 
 hut at the expense, of his elder brothers. Lewis was compelled to 
 surrender himself a prisoner to his rebellious sons. They confined 
 him tor a year to a monastery, till, on a new quarrel between Lewis 
 the younger and Pepin, Lotharius once more restored his father to 
 the throne: but his spirits were broken, his health decayed, and he 
 ("inished, soon after, an inglorious and turbulent reign, A. D. 840. 
 
 2. The dissensions of the brothers still continued. Lotharius, now 
 emperor, and Pepin his brother's son, having taken up aims against 
 the two other sons of Lewis ie debonnaire, Lewis of Bavaria and 
 Charles the bald, were defeated by them in the battle of Fontenai, 
 where 100,000 are said to have fallen in the field. The church in 
 those times was a prime organ of the civil policy. A council of bish- 
 ops immediately assembled, and solemnly deposed Lotharius. At live 
 same time they assumed an equal authority over his conquerors, 
 whom they permitted to reign, on the express condition of submissive 
 obedience to the supreme spiritual authority. Yet Lotharius, though 
 excommunicated and deposed, found moans to accommodate matters. 
 with his brothers, who" agreed to a new partition of the empire. By 
 the treaty of Verdun, A. I). 813, the western part of France, termed 
 ■Neustria and Aquitaine, was assigned to Charles the bald ; Lotharins. 
 with the title of emperor, had the nominal sovereignty of Italy, and 
 the real territory of Lorraine, Tranche Compte, Provence, and the 
 Lyonnois; the share of Lewis was the kingdom of Germany. 
 
 3. Thus was Germany finally separated from the empire of the 
 Franks. On the death of Lotharius, Charles the bald assumed the 
 empire, or, as is said, purchased it from pope John VIII, on the con- 
 dition of holding it as a vassal to the holy see. This prince, after a 
 weak and inglorious reign, died by poison, A. D. 877. He was the 
 first of the French monarchs who made dignities and titles hereditary. 
 Under the distracted reigns of the Carlovingian kings, the nobles at- 
 tained great power, and commanded a formidable vassalage. They 
 strengthened themselves in their castles and fortresses, and bid defi- 
 ance to the arm of government, while the country was ravaged and 
 desolated by their feuds. 
 
 4. In the reign of Charles the bald, France was plundered by the 
 Normans, a new race of Goths from Scandinavia, who had begun 
 their depredations even in the time of Charlemagne, and were only 
 checked in their progress by the terror of his arms. A. D. 843 they 
 sailed up the Seine, and plundered Rouen ; while another fleet enter 
 ed the Loire, and laid waste the country and its vicinity, carrying, 
 together with its spoils, men, women, and children, into captivity. 
 In the following year they attacked the coasts of England, France^ 
 and Spain, but were repelled from the last by the good conduct and 
 courage of its Mahometan rulers. In 845 they entered the Elbe> 
 plundered Plamburgh, and penetrated far into Germany. Eric, king 
 of Denmark, who commanded these Normans, sent once more a fleet 
 into the Seine, which advanced to Paris. Its inhabitants lied, and the 
 
ilS MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 city was burnt. Another fleet, with little resistance, pillaged Bour 
 deaux. To avert the arms of these ravagers, Charles the bald bribed 
 them with money, and his successor, Charles the gross, yielded them 
 a part of his Flemish dominions. These were only incentives to 
 fresh depredation. Paris wa«s attacked a second time, but gallantly 
 defended by count Odo or Eudes, and the venerable bishop Goslin. 
 A truce was a second time concluded ; but the barbarians only chang- 
 ed the scene of their attack : they besieged Sens, and plundered 
 Burgundy. An assembly of the states held at Mentz deposed the 
 unworthy Charles, and conferred the crown on the more deservint 
 Eudes : who, during a reign often years, bravely withstood the Nor 
 mans. A great part of the states of France, however, refused hi 
 title to the crown, and gave their allegiance to Charles surnamed the 
 simple. 
 
 5. Rollo, the Norman, in 912, compelled the king of France io 
 yield him a large portion of the territory of Neustria, and to give 
 him his daughter in marriage. The new kingdom was now called 
 Normandy, of which Rouen was the capital. 
 
 SECTION VIII. 
 
 empire of the east During the eighth and ninti: 
 
 centuries. 
 
 1. While the new empire of the west was thus rapidly tending 
 to dissolution, the empire of Constantinople still retained a vestige ot 
 its ancient grandeur. It had lost its African and Syrian dependencies. 
 and was plundered by the Saracens on the eastern frontier, and rav- 
 aged on the north and west by the Abari and Bulgarians. The capi- 
 tal, though splendid and refined, was a constant scene of rebellions 
 and conspiracies ; and the imperial family itself exhibited a series of 
 (he most horrid crimes and atrocities. One emperor was put to 
 death in revenge of murder and incest ; another was poisoned by his 
 queen ; a third was assassinated in the bath by his own domestics; a 
 fourth tore out the eyes of his brother ; the empress Irene, respecta- 
 ble for .her talents, was infamous for the murder of her only son. 
 Of such complexion was that series of princes who swayed the scep- 
 tre of the east nearly 200 years. 
 
 2. In the latter part of this period a most violent controversy was 
 maintained respecting the worship of images, which were alternately 
 -destroyed nnd replaced according to the humour of the sovereign. 
 The female sex was their most .zealous supporter. This was not the 
 only subject of division in the christian church ; the doctrines of Man- 
 ic.hes were, then extremely prevalent, a«d the sword was frequent- 
 ,-y employed to support and propagate their tenets. 
 
 ^3. The misfortunes of the enipire were increased by an invasion 
 of the Russians from the Palus Mceolis and Euxiue, In the reign of 
 Leo, named the philosopher, the Turks, a new race of barbarians, of 
 Scythian or Tartarian breed, began to make effectual inroads on its 
 territories. About the same time its domestic calamities were aggra- 
 vated by the separation of the Greek from the Latin church, of 
 .which we shall treat under the following section.. 
 
MODERN HISTORY 1 19 
 
 SECTION IX 
 
 STATE OF THE CHURCH IN THE EIGHTH AND NINTH 
 CENTURIES. 
 
 1. The popes had begun to acquire a temporal authority under 
 Pepin le href and Charlemagne, from the donations of territory 
 made by those princes,- and they were now gradually extending a 
 spriritual jurisdiction ovei all the christian kingdoms. Nicholas L 
 proclaimed to the whole world his paramount judgment in appeal 
 from the sentences of all spiritual judicatories; his power of as- 
 sembling councils of the church, and of regulating it by the canons 
 of those councils ; the right of exercising his authority by legates in 
 all the kingdoms of Europe, and the control of the pope over all 
 princes and governor's. Literary imposture gave its support to these 
 pretences. Certain spurious epistles were written in the name of 
 Isidorus, with the design of proving the justice of the claims of the 
 pope ; and the forgery of those epistles was not completely exposed 
 tiil the sixteenth century. Among the prerogatives of the popes was 
 the regulation of the marriages of all the crowned heads, by the 
 
 extension of the prohibitions of the canon law, with which 
 they alone had the power of dispensing. 
 
 2. One extraordinary eveiiv (if true) afforded, in the ninth cen- 
 tury, a ludicrous interruption to the boasted succession of regular 
 bishops from the days of St. Peter, the election of a female pope, 
 who is said to have ably governed the church for three years, till 
 delected by the birth of a child. Till the reformation by Luther 
 {his event was not regarded by the catholics as incredible, nor dis- 
 graceful to the church: since that time its truth or falsehood has 
 been the subject of keen controversy between the protestants and 
 Catholic©; audi the evidence for its falsehood seems to preponderate. 
 
 3. The church was thus gradually extending its influence, and 
 its head arrogating the control over sovereign princes, who, by a 
 singular interchange of character, seem, in those ages, to have 
 fixed their chief attention on spiritual concerns. Kings, dukes, and 
 counts, neglecting their temporal duties, shut themselves up in clois- 
 ters, and spent their lives in prayers and penances. Ecclesiastics 
 were employed in all the departments of secular government; and 
 they alone conducted all public measures and state negotiations, 
 which of course they directed to the great objects of advancing the 
 interests of the church, and establishing the paramount authority ci 
 (ho. holy sec- 
 
 4. At this period, however, when the popedom seemed to have 
 attained its highest ascendanc}', it suffered a severe wound in that 
 remarkable schism which separated the patriarchates of Rome and 
 Constantinople, or the Greek and Latin churches. The Roman pon- 
 tiff had hitherto claimed the right of nominating the patriarch of 
 Constantinople. The emperor Michael III. denied this right, and de- 
 posing the pope's patriarch, Ignatius, appointed the celebrated Photius 
 in his stead. Pope Nicholas 1. resented this affront with a high spirit, 
 and deposed and excommunicated Photius, A. D. 863, who, in his 
 turn, pronounced a similar sentence against the pope. The church 
 was divided, each patriarch bein,g supported by many bishops and 
 their dependent clergy. The Greek and Latin bishops had long 
 
20 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 differed in many points of practice and discipline, as the celibacy of 
 the clergy, the shaving of their beards, &c; but in reality the prime 
 source of division was the ambition of the rival pontiffs, and the jeal 
 ousy of the Greek emperors, unwilling to admit the control of 
 Rome, and obstinately asserting every prerogative which they con- 
 ceived to be annexed to the capital of the Roman empire. As nei 
 I her party would yield in its pretensions, the division of the Greek 
 and Latin churches became from this time permanent. 
 
 5. Amid those ambitious contests for ecclesiastical power and pre 
 eminence^ the christian religion itself was disgraced, both by tlif 
 practice and by the principles of its teachers. Worldly ambition 
 gross voluptuousness,, and grosser ignorance, characterized all rank? 
 of the clergy ; and the open sale of benefices placed them often it 
 the hands of the basest and most profligate of men. Yet the charac 
 ter of Photius forms an illustrious exception. Though bred a state?. 
 man and a soldier, and in both these respects of great reputation, lu 
 attained, by his singular abilities, learning, and worth, the high';* 
 dignity oft.be church. His Bibliotheca is a monument of the m «* 
 various knowledge, erudition, and critical judgment. 
 
 SECTION X. 
 
 Ill 1 : SARACENS IN THE EIGHTH AND NINTH CENTIMES. 
 
 1. In the. beginning of the eighth century the Saracens subverted 
 (he monarchy of the Visigoths in Spain, and easily overran the coun- 
 ;.y. They had lately founded in Africa the empire of Morocco, 
 which was governed by Muza, viceroy of the caliph Valid Almanzor. 
 .'lux ! sent his general Tariph into Spain, who, in one memorable 
 battle, fought A. I). 713, stripped the Gothic king Rodrigo of his 
 crown and life. The conquerors, satisfied with the sovereignty of 
 country, left the vanquished Goths in possession of their proper- 
 laws, and religion. Abdallah the Moor married vhe widow of 
 Koiiri^o, and the two nations formed a perfect union. One small 
 pari of the rocky country of Asturia alone adhered to its christian 
 prince, Pelagius, who maintained his little sovereignty, and transmit- 
 : inviolate to his successors. 
 
 he Moors pushed their conquests beyond the Pyrenees; but 
 division arising among their emirs, and civil wars ensuing, Lewis 
 is debonnaire took advantage of the turbulent state of the country, 
 . invaded and seized Barcelona. The Moorish sovereignty in the 
 I) of Spain was weakened by throwing off its dependence on 
 Hie caliphs; and in this juncture the christian sovereignty of the 
 Asturias, under Alphonso the chaste, began to make vigorous en- 
 croachments on the territory of the Moors. Navarre and Arragon, 
 roused by this example, chose each a christian king, and boldly as- 
 serted their liberty and independence. 
 
 3. While the Moors of Spain were thus losing ground in the north, 
 they were highly flourishing in the southern parts of the kingdom. 
 ..<.!>'iilrahman, the last heir of the family of the Ommiades (the 
 Ac&ssidae now enjoying the caliphate), w T as recognized as the true 
 representative of the ancient line by the southern Moors. He fixed 
 the seat of his government at Cordova, which, for two centuries from 
 that time, was the capital of a splendid monarchy. This period 
 irom the middle of the eighth to the middle of the tenth century. 
 
MODERN HISTORY. jgj 
 
 is the most brilliant sera of Arabian magnificence. Whilst Haroun 
 Alraschid made Bagdat illustrious by the splendour of the arts and 
 sciences, the Moors of Cordova vied with their brethern of Asia 
 in the same honourable pursuits, and were undoubtedly at this period 
 the most enlightened of the states of Europe. Under a series of 
 able princes they gained the highest reputation, both in arts and 
 arms, of all the nations of the west. 
 
 •!. The Saracens were at this lime extending their conquests m 
 almost every quarter of the world. The Mahometan religion was 
 professed over a great part of India, and all along the eastern and 
 Mediterranean coast of Africa. The African Saracens invade^ 
 : icily, and projected the conquest of Italy. They actually laid 
 siege to Rome, which was nobly defended by pope Leo IV. They 
 were repulsed, their ships were dispersed by a storm, and theirarmy 
 was cut to pieces, A. D. 848. 
 
 5. The Saracens might have raised an immense emphe, if they 
 had acknowledged only one head; but their .states were always dis- 
 united. Egypt, Morocco, Spain, arid India, had all their separate 
 sovereigns, who continued to respect the caliph of Bagdat as the 
 successor of the prophet, but acknowledged no temporal subjection 
 to his government. 
 
 SECTION XI. 
 
 KMP1RE OF THE WEST AND ITALY IN THE TENTH AND 
 ELEVENTH CENTURIES. 
 
 i. The empire founded by Charlemagne now subsisted only in 
 name. Arnold, a bastard son. of Carloman, possessed Germany. 
 Italy was divided between Guy duke of Spoletto and Berengarhis 
 duke of Priuli, who had received these duchies from Charles the 
 bald. France, though claimed by Arnold, was governed by Eudes. 
 Thus the empire in reality consisted only of a part of Germany, 
 while France, Spain, Italy, Burgundy, and the countries between the 
 and Rhine, were all subject to different powers. The emper- 
 ors were at this time elected by the bishops and grandees, all Of 
 whom claimed a voice. In this manner Lewis the son of Arnold, 
 the last of the blood of Charlemagne, was chosen emperor after the 
 death of his lather. On his demise Otho duke of Saxony, by h» 
 
 redit with his brother grandees, conferred the empire on Conrad 
 duke of Franconia, at whose death Henry surnamed the fowler, son 
 
 ■f the same duke Otho, was elected emperor, A. D. 018. 
 
 2. Henry I. (the fowler), a prince of great abilities, introduced 
 rder and good government into the empire. He united the gran- 
 lees, and curbed their usurpations ; built, embellished, and fortified 
 he cities; and enforced with great, rigour the execution of the laws 
 n the repression of all enormities, lie had been consecrated by 
 us own bishops, and maintained no correspondence with the see of 
 iiome. 
 
 3. His son Otho (the great), A. I). 938, again united Italy to the 
 empire, and kept the popedom in complete subjection. He made 
 Denmark tributary to the imperial crown, annexed the crown of Bo- 
 hemia to his own dominions, and seemed to aim at a paramount 
 authority over all the sovereigns of Europe. 
 
 L 
 
122 MODERN HISTORY 
 
 4. Otho owed his ascendancy in Italy to the disorders of the pa- 
 pacy. Formosus, twice excommunicated by pope John VIIL, had 
 arrived at the triple crown. On his death his rival 5 pope Stephen 
 V r IL, caused his body to be dug out of the grave, and, after trial for 
 his crimes, condemned it to be Hung into the Tiber. The friends of 
 Formosus had interest to procure the deposition of Stephen, who 
 was strangled in prison. They sought and found his body, and 
 buried it. A succeeding pope, Sergius III., again dug up this ill-fated 
 carcase, and threw it into the Tiber. Two infamous women,Marozia 
 and Theodora, managed for many years the popedom, and filled the 
 chair of St. Peter with their own gallants, or their adulterous off- 
 spring.. Such was the state of the holy see, when Berengarius duke 
 of Priuli disputed tiie sovereignty of Italy with Hugh of Aries. 
 The Italian states and pope John XII., who took part against Beren- 
 garius, invited Otho to compose the disorders of the country. He 
 entered Italy, defeated Berengarius, and was consecrated emperor 
 by the pope, with the titles of Caesar and Augustus; in return for 
 which honours he confirmed the donations made to the holy see by 
 his predecessors, Pepin, Charlemagne, and Lewis the debonnaire. 
 A. JD. 962. 
 
 5. But John XII. was false to his new ally. He made his peace 
 with Berengarius, and both turned their arms against the emperor. 
 Otho flew back to Rome, and revenged himself by the trial and 
 deposition of the pope ; but he had scarcely left the city, when 
 John, by the aid of his party, displaced his rival Leo VIII, Otho 
 once more returned, and took exemplary vengeance on his enemies, 
 by hanging one half of the senate. Calling together the lateral) 
 council, he created a new pope, and obtained from the assembled 
 bishops a solemn acknowledgment of the absolute right of the cm- 
 
 >eror to elect to the papacy, to give the investiture of the crown of 
 taly, and to nominate to all vacant bishoprics ; concessions observed 
 no longer than while the emperor was present to enforce them. 
 
 6. Such was the state of Rome and Italy under Otho the great ; 
 and it continued to be much the same under his successors for a cen- 
 tury. The emperors asserted their sovereignty over Italy and the 
 popedom, though with a constant resistance on the part of the 
 Romans, and a general repugnance of the pope, when once establish- 
 ed. In those ages of ecclesiastical profligacy it was not unusual to 
 put up the popedom to sale. Benedict VIIL and John XIX., two 
 brothers, publicly bought the chair of St. Peter, one after the other ; 
 and, to keep it in their family, it was purchased afterwards by their 
 friends for Benedict IX., a child of twelve years of age. Three 
 popes, each pretending regular election and equal right, agreed first 
 to divide the revenues between them, and afterwards sola" all their 
 shares to a fourth. 
 
 7. The emperor Henry III., a prince of great ability, strenuously 
 vindicated his right to supply the pontifical chair, and created three 
 successive popes without opposition. 
 
 E 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 123 
 
 SECTION XII. 
 
 HISTORY OF BRITAIN FROM ITS EARLIEST PERIOD DOWN 
 TO THE NORMAN CONQUEST. 
 
 1. The history of" Britain has been postponed to this time, that it 
 may be considered in one connected view from its earliest period to 
 ihe end of the Anglo-Saxon government 
 
 We strive not to pierce through that mist of obscurity which veils 
 original population of the British isles; remarking only, as a mat- 
 ter cf high probability, that they derived their first inhabitants from 
 ! he ( V'ue of Gaul, Their authentic history commences with the first 
 Slogan invasion; and we learn from Caesar and Tacitus, that the 
 country was at that period in a state very remote from barbarism, 
 as divided into a number of small independent sovereignties, each 
 jVrince having a regular army and a fixed revenue. The manners, 
 sage, and religion of the people, were the same as those of the 
 (* 1 1 Sic Ceit?.\ The religion was the druidical sjstem, whose in* 
 c pervaded every department of the government, and, by its 
 :^vrcr over the minds of the people, supplied the imperfection of 
 
 % Julius Caesar, after the conquest of Gaul, turned his eyes 
 
 ttrds Britain. He landed on the southern coast of the island, 55 
 
 •\ (\ ; and sheeting with most obstinate resistance, though on the 
 
 rv'h.oie gaining some advantage, he found himself obliged, after a 
 
 : i campaign, to withdraw tor the winter into Gaul. He returned 
 
 •: following summer with a great increase of force, an army of 
 
 ,' 1,000 foot, a competent body of horse, and a thct of GOO sail. The 
 
 enlent chiefs of the Britons united their forces under Cassibe- 
 
 Janus king of the Trinobantes, and encountering the legions with 
 
 I resolution, displayed all the ability of practised warriors. But 
 
 i\\c contest was vaiii Caesar advanced into the country, burnt Veru- 
 
 lasjiutn, the capital of Cassibelanus, and, alter forcing the Britons 
 
 .'.■ articles of submission, returned to GauL 
 
 X The domestic disorders of Italy gave tranquillity to the Britons 
 for near a ceniury ; but, in the reign of Claudius, the conquest of the 
 island was determined. The emperor landed in Britain and com- 
 pell< d the submission oi the south-eastern provinces. Ostorius Scapula 
 leieated Caractacus, who was sent prisoner to Rome. Suetonius 
 inus,- the general of Nero, destroyed Mona (Anglesey, or as 
 others think, Man), the^ centre of the druidical superstition. The 
 Iceni (inhabitants of Norfolk and Suffolk), under their queen Boadicea, 
 ked several of the Roman settlements. London, with its Roman 
 garrison, was burnt to ashes. But a decisive battle ensued, in which 
 £50,000 of the Britons fell in the held, A. D. 61 . Thirty years after, 
 in the reign c( Titus, the reduction of the island was completed by 
 the Roman general, Julius Agricola. He secured the Roman prov- 
 ince, against invasion from the Caledonians, by walls and garrisons; 
 and reconciled the southern inhabitants to the government of their 
 conquerors, by the introduction of Roman arts and improvements. 
 Under Severus the Roman province was extended far into the north 
 of Scotland. 
 
 1. With the decline of the Roman power in the west, the 
 southern Britons recovered their liberty, but it was only to become 
 
124 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 the object of incessant predatory invasion from their brethren of the 
 north. The Romans, after rebuilding the wall of Severus, finally bid 
 adieu to Britain, A. D. 448. The Picts and Caledonians now broke 
 down upon the south, ravaging and desolating the country, without a 
 purpose of conquest, and merely, as it appears, for the supply of their 
 temporary wants. After repeated application for aid from Rome 
 without success, the Britons meanly solicited the Saxons for succour 
 ;ind protection. 
 
 5 The Saxons received the embassy with great satisfaction. Brit- 
 ain had been long known to them in their piratical voyages to i f - 
 eoasts. The}" landed to the amount of 1,600, under the command oi 
 Hengist and Horsa, A. D. 450; and joining (he South Britons, soon 
 compelled the Scots to retire to their mountains. They next turned 
 their thoughts to the entire reduction of the Britons, and received 
 large reinforcements of their countrymen. After an obstinate contest 
 of near 150 years, they reduced the whole of England under the Sax- 
 on government. Seven distinct provinces became as many indepen- 
 dent kingdoms. 
 
 6. The history of the Saxon heptarchy is uninteresting^ U-^u^ tfci 
 obscurity and confusion. It is sufficient to mark the duration of ttiP 
 several kingdoms, till their union under Egbert. Kent began in 455. 
 and lasted, under seventeen princes, till 827, when it was sui.duei i > 
 the West Saxons. Under Etheibert, one of its king.-, the Saxww 
 ,vere converted to Christianity by the monk Augustine. Norfivumber 
 land began in 597, and lasted, under twenty-three kings, till VJ:.. 
 East Angha began in 575, and ended in 793. Mercia subsisted lfottl 
 582 to 827. Essex had fourteen princes, from 527 to 747. 
 
 had live kings before its reduction under the dominion of (J'.e West 
 Saxons, about 600. Wessex (the country of the West Saxons) 
 in 519, ana had not subsisted* above eighty years, when Cadvvafhi, 
 king of Wes-iex, conquered Sussex, and annexed it to bis dominions, 
 As there was no tixed rule of succession, it was the policy of the Sax- 
 on princes to put to death all the rivals of their intended snee 
 From this cause, and from the passion ibr celibacy, the royal lamili^ 
 \vere nearly extinguished in the kingdoms of the heptarchy ; and K<-- 
 bart, prince of theWest Saxons, remained the sole surviving descend"' 1 ! 
 of the Saxon conquerors of Britain. This circumstance, so fa\ < 
 to his ambition, prompted him to attempt the conquest of the heptar- 
 chy; and he succeeded in the enterprise. By his vjctorio- 
 and judicious policy all the separate states were united jnto one great 
 kingdom, A, D. 827, near 400 years after the first arrival of the Sax* 
 ons in Britain. 
 
 7. England, thus united, was far from enjoying tranquillity. The 
 piratical Normans or Danes had for lifty years desolated her cotfAfs, 
 and continued, for some centuries after this period, to be a perpetu j 
 .scourge to the country. Under Alfred (the great), grandson oi ! ■>;- 
 bert, the kingdom was from this cause reduced to extreme wretched? 
 j; ess. The heroic Alfred in one year defeated the Danes in eight bat- 
 ties; but a new irruption of their countrymen forced him to solicit a 
 peace, which these pirates constantly interrupted by new hostilities. 
 Alfred was compelled to seek his safety for many months in an obscure 
 quarter of the country, till the disorders of the Danish army offered 
 a rair opportunity oi' attacking them, which he improved to the entire 
 deieat ot his enemies. He might have destroved them all, but chose 
 rather to spare and to incorporate them with his English subj tjte. 
 This clemency did nol restrajrj their countrymen from !jtt.pmp{ ; jn^ $ 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 12b 
 
 Mew invasion. They were again defeated with immense loss; and 
 the extreme severity which it was necessary to exercise against the 
 vanquished, had the effect of suspending the Danish depredations for 
 several Wars. 
 
 8. Alfred, whether considered in his public or private character, 
 deserves to be reckoned among the best and greatest of princes. He 
 United the most enterprising and heroic spirit with consummate pru- 
 dence and moderation, the utmost vigour of authority with the most 
 engaging gentleness of manner, the most exemplary justice with the 
 greatest lenity, the talents of the statesman and the man of letters 
 with the intrepid resolution and conduct cf the general. He found 
 the kingdom in the most miserable condition to which anarchy., do- 
 mestic barbarism, and foreign hostility, could reduce it: he brought 
 it to a pitch of eminence surpassing, in many respects, the situation of 
 its contemporary nations. 
 
 !). Alfred divided England into counties, with their subdivision? of 
 hundreds and tilhings. The tithing or decennary consisted of ten 
 families, over which presided a tithing-man or borg-holder ; and ten 
 <•{ these composed the hundred. Every house-holder was answerable 
 for his family, and the tithing-man for all within his tithing. In the 
 decision of inferences the tithing-man had the assistance of the rest 
 < Phis decennary; An appeal lay from the decennary to the court of 
 (lie hundred, which was assembled every tour weeks; and the cause 
 was tried by a jury of twelve freeholders, sworn to do impartial jus- 
 tice. An annua.! meeting of the hundred was held for the regulation 
 of the police of the district. The county-court, superior to that of 
 the hundred, and consisting of all the freeholders, met twice a vear, 
 after Michaelmas and Easter, to determine appeals from the hundreds, 
 and settle disputes between the inhabitants of different hundreds.' 
 The ultimate appeal from ail these courts lay to the king in council; 
 and the frequency of these appeals prompted Alfred to extreme cir- 
 cumspection in the appointment of his judges. Pie composed for the 
 regulation of these courts, and of his kingdom, a body of laws, the 
 basis of the common law of England. 
 
 10. Alfred gave every encouragement to the cultivation of letters, 
 as the best means of eradicating barbarism. He invited, from every 
 quarter of Europe, the learned to reside in his dominions, established 
 schools, and is said to have founded the university of Oxford. He 
 was himself a most accomplished scholar for the age in which he 
 lived, as appears from the works which he composed: poetical ano- 
 loguG^, the translation of the histories of Bede and Orosius ; and of Bo- 
 ethius on the consolation of philosophy. In every view of his char- 
 acter we must regard Alfred' the. great as one of the best and wisest 
 men that ever occupied the regal seat. He died at the age of fifty- 
 three, A. D. 901, after a glorious reign of twenty-nine years and a 
 half. 
 
 11. The admirable institutions of Alfred were partially and feebly 
 enforced under his successors ; and England, still a prey to the rava- 
 ges of the Danes and intestine disorder, relapsed into confusion and 
 barbarism. The reigns of Edward the elder, the son of Alfred, and 
 of his successors, Athelstan, Edmund, and Edred, were tumultuous and 
 anarchical. The clergy began to extend their authority over the 
 throne, and a series of succeeding princes were the obsequious slaves 
 of their tyranny and ambition. In the reign of Ethelred, A. D. 983, 
 the Danes seriously projected the conquest of England; and led by 
 Sweyn king of Denmark, and Olaus king of Norway, made a more 
 
126 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 formidable descent, won several important battles, and were restrain- 
 ed from the destruction of London only by a dastardly submission, 
 and a promise of tribute to be paid by the inglorious Ethelred. The 
 English nobility were ashamed of their prince, and, seeing no other 
 relief to the kingdom, made a tender of the crown to the Danish 
 monarch. On the death of Sweyn, Ethelred attempted to regain his 
 kingdom, but found in Canute, the son of Sweyn, a prince determined 
 to support his claims. On the death of Ethelred, his son Edmund 
 Ironside gallantly but inetfectually opposed Canute. At length a 
 partition of the "kingdom was made between Canute and Edmund^ 
 which, after a few months, the Danes annulled by the murder oj 
 Edmund, thus securing to their monarch Canute the throne of ail 
 England, A, D» 1,017. Edmund left two children, Edgar Atheling, 
 and Margaret, afterwards wife to Malcolm Canmore, king of Scot- 
 land. 
 
 12. Canute, the most powerful monarch of his time, sovereign oi 
 Denmark, Norway, and England, swayed, for seventeen years, the 
 sceptre of England with a firm and vigorous hand, lie was scvcro 
 in the beginning of his reign, while Ids government was insecure ; 
 but mild and equitable when possessed of a settled dominion* He 
 left. A. D. 1,030, three son-, Sweyn, who was crowned king of Nor 
 way, Harold, who succeeded to the. throne of England, and ilardi 
 Canute, sovereign of Denmark. Harold, a merciless tyrant, died in 
 the fourth year of his reign, and was succeeded by Harcucanuie, 
 who, after a violent administration oi two years, died in a til of de 
 hauch. The English seized this opportunity of shaking off the 
 Danish yoke, and conferred the crown on Edward, a younger son oi 
 Ethelred. rejecting the preferable right of Edgar Atheling, the sou 
 cf Edmund, who, unfortunately for his pretensions, was, at this time 
 abroad in Hungary, Edward,, suruarned the confessor, A. IX 1,041, 
 reigned weakly and i-igloriously for twenty-five years. The rebel- 
 lious attempts of Godwin, earl of YVesscx, aimed at nothing less than 
 a usurpation, of the crown; and on his death, ids son Harold, cherish- 
 ing secretly the same views of ambition, had the address to .secure to 
 his interest a very formidable party in the kingdom. Edward, to de- 
 feat these views, 'bequeathed the crown to William duke of Norman- 
 dy, a prince whose great abilities and personal prowess had rendered 
 his name illustrious over Europe. 
 
 13. On the death of Edward the confessor, 1,066, the usurper 
 Harold took possession of the throne, which the intrepid Norman 
 determined immediately to reclaim as his inheritance ot right. II« 
 made the most formidable preparations, aided, in this age of roman- 
 tic enterprise, by .many of the sovereign princes,, and a vast body oi 
 the nobility, from the different continental kingdoms. A Norwegian 
 fleet of 300 sail entered the Humber (a river oh the eastern coast 
 of England). The troops were disembarked, and, after one success- 
 ful engagement, were defeated by the English army in the interest 
 of Harold. William landed his army on the coast of Sussex, to the 
 amount of 60,000 ; and the English, under Harold, flushed with their 
 recent success, hastily advanced to meet him, being imprudently re- 
 solved to venture all on one decisive battle. The total rout and dis- 
 comfiture of the English army in the field of Hastings, on the 14th 
 day of October, 1,066, and the death of Harold, after some fruitless 
 attempts of further resistance, put William duke of Normandy ia 
 possession of the throne of England. 
 
MODERN lifsTGRY. 127 
 
 SECTION XIII- 
 
 OF THE GOVERNMENT, LAWS, AND MANNERS OF THE 
 
 ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 1. The government, laws, and manners of the Anglo-Saxons have 
 become a subject of inquiry to modern writers, as being supposed to 
 have had influence in the formation of the British constitution. 
 The government of the Saxons was the same as that of all the an- 
 cient Germanic nations, and they naturally retained, in their new 
 settlement in Britain, a policy similar to "their accustomed usages. 
 Their subordination was chiefly military, the king having no more 
 authority than what belonged to the general, or military leader. 
 There was no strict rule of succession to the throne ; for though the 
 king was generally chosen from the family of the last prince, yd 
 the choice usually loll on the person of the best capacity for govern- 
 ment. In some instances the destination of the last sovereign regu- 
 lated the choice. We know very little of the nature of the Anglo- 
 Saxon government, or of the distinct rights of the sovereign and 
 people. 
 
 2. One institution common to all the kingdoms of the heptarchy was 
 the vviitenngemot, or assembly of the wise men, whose consent was 
 requisite for enacting laws, and ratifying the chief acts of public ad- 
 ministration. Tiie bishops and abbots formed a part of this assem- 
 bly ; also the aldermen, or earls, and governors of counties. The 
 wites, or wise men, are discriminated from the prelates and nobility 
 and have by some been supposed to have been the representative? 
 of the commons. But we hear nothing of election or representation 
 in those periods, and we must therefore presume that they were 
 merely landholders, or men of considerable estate, -who, from their 
 weight and consequence in the country, were held entitled, without 
 •mv election, to take a share in the public deliberations. 
 
 o. The Anglo-Saxon government was extremely arislocratical ; 
 ihe regal authority being very limited, the rights of the people little 
 known or regarded, and the nobility possessing much uncontrolled 
 Mu\ lawless rule over their dependents. The offices of government 
 were hereditary in their families, and they commanded the whole 
 military force of their respective provinces. So strict was the clien- 
 fch, between these nobles and their vassals, that the murder of a vas- 
 sal was compensated by a line paid to his lord. 
 
 4. There were three ranks of the people, the nobles, the free, arni 
 the slaves. The nobles were either the king : s thanes, who held 
 their lands directly from the sovereign, or less thanes, who held land? 
 from the. former. One law of Atheistan declared, that a merchant 
 who had made three voyages on his own account was entitled to the 
 dignity of tli*me ; another decreed the same rank to a ceorle, or hus- 
 bandman, who was able to purchase five hides of land, and had a 
 mapel, a kitchen, a hall, and a bell. The ceorles, or freemen of the 
 lower rank, occupied trie farms of the thanes, for which they paid 
 rent ; and they were removable at the pleasure of their lord. The 
 slaves or villains were either employed in domestic purposes, or in 
 cultivating the lands. A master was lined for the murder of his slave j 
 and if he mutilated him, the slave recovered his freedom. 
 
 5. Under this aristocratical government there were 6ome traces of 
 
12£ MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 the ancient Germanic democracy. The courts of the decennary, the 
 hundred, and the county, were a considerable restraint on the pow- 
 er of the nobles. In the county-courts the freeholders met twice 
 a year to determine appeals by the majority of suffrages. The 
 alderman presided in those courts, but had no vote : he received a 
 third of the fines, the. remaining two-thirds devolving to the king, 
 which was a great part of trie royal revenue. Pecuniary tines were 
 the ordinary atonement for every species of crime, and the modes 
 of proof were the ordeal by lire or water, or by compurgators 
 (Part \l. Sect V., § 7.) 
 
 u As to the military force, the expense of defending the state lay 
 equally on all the land, every five hides or ploughs being taxed to 
 famish a soldier. There were 243,600 hides in England, conse- 
 quently the ordinary military force consisted of 48,720 men. 
 
 '.■. The king's revenue, besides the lines imposed by the courts, 
 consisted partly of his demesnes or property-lands, which were ex- 
 tensive, and partly in imposts on boroughs and sea-ports. The Dane- 
 geit jya's a tux imposed by the states, either for payment of tribute 
 exacted by the Danes, or for defending the kingdom against them. 
 By the custom of gavelkind, the land was divided equally among all 
 the male children of the deceased proprietor. Lands held by the 
 tenure of Borough-English, on the death of the tenant, went to the 
 voungest son, instead of the eldest. Book-land was that which was 
 nek! by charter, and folk-land what was held by tenants removable 
 at pleasure. 
 
 8. The Anglo-Saxons were behind the Normans in every point ot 
 civilization; and the conquest was therefore to them a real advan- 
 tage, as it led to material improvement in arts, science, government, 
 *-"ri laws. 
 
 SECTION XIV. 
 
 STATE OF EUROPE DURING TPIE TENTH, ELEVENTH, AND 
 TWELFTH CENTURIES. 
 
 1. France, from the extent and splendour of its dominion under 
 Charlemagne, had dwindled to a shadow under his weak posterity. 
 At the end of the Carlo vingian period France comprehended neither 
 _Normandj r , Dauphine, nor Provence. On the death of Lewis V 7 . 
 ^ Faineant), the crown ought to have devolved on his uncle, Charles 
 of Brabant, as the last male of the race of Charlemagne ; but Hugh 
 Capet, lord of Picardy and Champagne, the most powerful of the 
 French nobles, was elected sovereign by the voice of his brother 
 peers, A. D. 987. The kingdom, torn by parties, suffered much 
 domestic misery under the reign of Hugh, and that of his successoi 
 Robert; the victim of papal tyranny, for daring to marry a distant 
 cousin without the dispensation of the church. 
 
 2. The prevailing passion of the times was pilgrimage and chiv- 
 alrous enterprise. In this career of adventure the Normans most 
 remarkably distinguished themselves. In 983 they relieved the 
 prince of Salerno, by expelling the Saracens from his territory. 
 They did a similar service to pope Benedict VIII., and the duke of 
 Capua ; while another band of their countrymen fought first against 
 the Greeks, and afterwards against the popes, always selling their ser- 
 vices to those who best rewarded them. William Fierabras, and his 
 brothers, Humphrey, Robert, and Richard, kept the pope a prisoner 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 129 
 
 for a year at Benevento, and forced the court of Rome to yield Capua 
 to Richard, and Apulia and Calabria to Robert, with the investiture 
 of Sicily, if he should gain the country from the Saracens. In 1,101. 
 Rogero the Norman completed the conquest of Sicily, of which the 
 popes continued tojbe the lords paramount. 
 
 3. The north of Europe was in those periods extremely barba- 
 rous. Russia received the christian religion in the eighth "century. 
 Sweden, after its conversion in the ninth century, relapsed into idola- 
 try, as did Hungary and Bohemia. The Constantinopolilan empire 
 defended its frontiers with difficulty against the Bulgarians on the 
 west, and against the Turks and Arabians en the east and north. 
 
 4. In Italy, excepting the territory of the popedom, the principali- 
 ties of the independent nobles, and the states of Venice and Genoa, the 
 greater part of the country was now in the possession of the Nor- 
 mans. Venice and Genoa were rising gradually to great opulence iron,' 
 commerce. Venice was for some ages tributary to the emperors v\ 
 Germany. In the tenth century its doge assumed the title of duke 
 of Dalmatia, of which the republic had acquired the property I y 
 conquest, as well as of Istria, Spalatro, Ragusa, and Narenza. 
 
 5. Spain was chiefly possessed by the Moors; the christians rofeiin* 
 ihg only about a fourth of the kingdom, namely, Astoria, pait of Castile 
 nm\ Catalonia, Navarre, and Arragon. Portugal was likewise occu- 
 pied by the Moors. Their capital was Cordova, the seat of luxury 
 and magnificence. In the tenth century the Moorish dominions were 
 tpiit among a number of petty sovereigns, who were constantly i.k 
 war with one another. Such, unfortunately, was likewise the situa- 
 tion of the christian pail of the kingdom; and it was no uncommon 
 policy for the christian princes to form alliances with the Moors 
 against one another. Besides these the country abeunded with indtv 
 pendent lords, who made war their profession, and performed the 
 ofiice of champions in deciding the quarrels of princes, or enlisted 
 themselves in their service with all their vassals and attendants. Of 
 these, termed caririleros andantes, or knights-errant, the most dis- 
 iin^uislied was Uorlrigo the cid, who undertook for his sovereign, 
 Aiphonso king of Old Castile, to conquer the kingdom of New Cas- 
 tile, and achieved it with success, obtaining the government of Va- 
 lencia as the reward of his services. 
 
 G. The contentions between the imperial and papal powers made 
 | distinguished figure in those ages. Henry III. vindicated the im- 
 perial right to .fill the chair of St. Peter, and nominated three suc- 
 cessive popes, without the intervention of a council of the church. 
 But in the minority of his son Henry iV., this right was frequently inter- 
 rupted, and Alexander II. kept his seat ? though the emperor "named 
 smother in his place. It was the lot oi this emperor to experience 
 the utmost extent of papal insolence raid tyranny. Alter a spirited 
 contest with Gregory VII., in which the pope was twice his prisoner. 
 ■,ind the emperor as often excommunicated and deposed, Henry fei! 
 at ienglh the victim of ecclesiastical vengeance, Urban II,, a success 
 v.ot of Gregory, prompted the two sons of Henry to rebel against 
 their father; ana his misfortunes were terminated by imprisonment 
 and death in 1,106. The same contests went on under a succession < f 
 popes and emperors, but ended commonly in favour of the former. 
 Frederick I. (Barbarossa), a prince of hi^h spirit, after an indignant 
 denial of the supremacy of Alexander III., and a refusal of the cus- 
 tomary homage, was at length compelled to kiss his feet, and appease 
 his holiness by a .large cession of territory. Pope Celestinus kicked 
 
130 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 off the imperial crown of Henry VL, while doing homage on his 
 knees, but made amends for this insolence by the gift of Naples and 
 Sicily, from which Henry had expelled the Normans. These terri 
 tories now became an appanage of the empire, 1,194. The sue 
 ceeding popes rose on the pretensions of their predecessors, till a» 
 length Innocent ill., in the beginning of the thirteenth century, estab- 
 lished the power of the popedom on a settled basis, and obtained a 
 positive acknowledgment of the papal supremacy, or the right prin 
 cipalitcr ct jinaliter {principally and finally) to confer the imperii 
 crown. It was the same pope Innocent whom we shall presently 
 see the disposer of the crown of England in the reign of the tyrant 
 John. 
 
 SECTION XV. 
 
 HISTORY OF ENGLAND IN THE ELEVENTH, TWELFTH, ANL 
 PART OF THE THIRTEENTH CENTURIES. 
 
 L The consequence of the battle of Hastings was the submission 
 of all England to William the conqueror. The character of this 
 prince was spirited, haughty, and tyrannical, yet not without a por 
 tion of the generous affections, He disgusted his English subjects 
 by the strong partiality which he showed to his Norman followers, 
 preferring them to all offices of trust and dignity. A conspiracy 
 arose from these discontents, which William defeated, and avenged 
 with signal rigour and cruelty. He determined henceforward to 
 treat the English as a conquered people, it policy that involved hia 
 reign in perpetual commotions, which, while they robbed him of all 
 peace ot mind, aggravated the tyranny of his disposition. To his 
 own children he owed the severest of his troubles. His eldest son 
 Robert rose in rebellion, to wrest from him the sovereignty of 
 Maine ; and his foreign subjects took part with the rebel. William 
 led against them an army of the English, and was on the point of 
 perishing in tight by his son's hand. Philip I. of Erance had aided 
 this rebellion, which was avenged by William, who carried havoc and 
 devastation into the heart of his kingdom, but was killed in the en- 
 terprise by a fall from his horse, 1,087. He bequeathed England to 
 William his second son; to Robert he left Normandy; and to Henry, 
 his youngest son, the properly of his mother Matilda. 
 
 I. William the conqueror introduced into England the feudal law, 
 (dividing the whole kingdom, except the royal demesnes, into baron- 
 ies, and bestowing the most of these, under the tenure of military 
 service, on his Norman followers. 13y the forest laws he reserved 
 Jo himself the exclusive privilege of killing game over all the 
 Kingdom; a restriction resented by his subjects above every other 
 mark of servitude. Preparatory to the introduction of the feudal 
 tenures, be planned and accomplished a general survey of all the 
 lands in the kingdom, with a distinct specification of their extent, na 
 lure, value, names of their proprietors, and an enumeration of every 
 class of inhabitants who lived on them. This most valuable record, 
 called Doomsday-book^ is preserved in the English exchequer, and is 
 now printed. 
 
 3. William ll. (Rufus) inherited the vices, without any oi the 
 virtues, of his father. His reign is distinguished by no event of im- 
 portance., and., after the defeat of one conspiracy in its outset, pre 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 131 
 
 sents nothing but a dull career of unresisted despotism. After a reign 
 of thirteen years he was killed when hunting by the random shot of 
 an arrow, 1,100. The crown of England would have devolved on his 
 elder brother Robert ; but his absence on a crusade in Palestine made 
 way for the unopposed succession of his younger bi other Henry, 
 who, by his marriage with Matilda, the niece of Edgar Atheling, link- 
 ed the last remnant of the Saxon with the Norman line. With most 
 criminal ambition, he now invaded his brother's dominions of Norman- 
 dy; and Robert, on his return, was defeated in battle, and detained 
 for life a prisoner in England. The crimes of Henry were expiated 
 by his misfortunes. His only son was drowned in bis passage from 
 Normandy. His daughter Matilda, married first to the emperor Hen 
 ry V., and afterwards to Geoffrey rlantagenet of Anjou, was destined 
 to be bis successor ; but the popularity of his nephew Stephen, son 
 of the count of Blois, defeated these intentions. Henry I. died in Nor- 
 mandy, after a reign of thirty-live years, A. 1). 1,135; and, in spite of 
 his destination to Matilda, Stephen seized the vacant throne. The 
 party of Matilda, headed by her natural brother, the earl of Glouces- 
 ter, engaged, defeated, and made Stephen prisoner. Matilda in her 
 turn mounted the throne ; but, unpopular from the tyranny of her 
 disposition, she was solemnly deposed by the prevailing party of her 
 rival ; and Stephen was once more restored. He found, however, in 
 Henry Piantagenet, the son of Matilda, a more formidable competitor. 
 Of a noble and intrepid spirit, he resolved, while yet a boy. to reclaim 
 bis hereditary crown; and, landing in England, won by his prowess. 
 lind the favour of a just cause, a great part of the kingdom to his in- 
 terest. By treaty with Stephen, who was allowed to reign for life- 
 lie secured the succession at his death, which soon after ensued, 
 1,154. 
 
 4. Henry II., a prince in every sense deserving of the throne, began 
 bis reign with the reformation of all the abuses of the government of 
 his predecessors ; revoking all impolitic grants, abolishing partial im- 
 munities, regulating the administration of justice, and establishing the 
 freedom of the towns by charters, which are at this day the basis of 
 the national liberty. Happy in the affections of his people, and pow- 
 erful in the. vast extent of additional territory which he enjoyed on 
 'he continent in right of his father and of his wife, the heiress of a 
 great portion of France, his reign had every promise of prosperity 
 and haopiness ; but from one fatal source these pleasing prospects 
 were all destroyed. Thomas Becket was raised by Henry from ob- 
 scurity to the office of chancellor of England. On the vacancy of the 
 see of Canterbury the king, desirous of his aid in the correction of 
 ecclesiastical abuses, conferred the primacy on his favourite ; and the 
 arrogant Becket availed himself of that authority to abase the prerog- 
 ative of his sovereign, and exalt the spiritual power above the crown 
 It was disputed, whether a priest could be tried for a murder, and pun - 
 ished by the civil court. It was determined in the affirmative by thf 
 councif of Clarendon, against the opinion of Becket. Pope Alexander 
 III. annulled the decree of the council; and Becket, who took part 
 with the pope, was deprived by Henry of all his dignities and estates. 
 He avenged himself by the excommunication of the. king's ministers : 
 und Henry, in return, prohibited all intercourse with the see of Romc- 
 At length both parties found it their interest to come to a good under- 
 Standing. Becket was restored to favour, and reinstated in his primacy, 
 when the increasing insolence of his demeanour drew from the king 
 Some hasty expressions of indignation, which his servants interpreted 
 
132 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 into a sentence of proscription, and, trusting that the deed would be 
 grateful to their master, murdered the prelate while in the act of 
 celebrating vespers at the altar. For this shocking action Henry 
 expressed the regret which he sincerely felt, and the pope indulgent- 
 ly granted his pardon, on the assurance of his dutiful obedience to 
 the holy church. 
 
 5. The most important event of the reign of Henry II. was the 
 conquest of Ireland. The Irish, an early civilized people, and among 
 the first of the nations of the west who embraced the christian reli- 
 gion, were, by fiequent invasions of the Danes, and their own domes- 
 tic commotions, replunged into barbarism for many ages. In the 
 twelfth century the kingdom consisted of live separate sovereignties, 
 Lister, Leinster, Minister, Meath, and Connaught; but these were 
 subdivided among an infinite number of petty chiefs, owing a very 
 weak allegiance to their respective sovereigns. JJermot Macmor- 
 rogh, expelled from his kingdom of Leinster tor a rape on the daugh- 
 ter of the king of Meath, sought protection from Henry, and engaged 
 to become his feudatory, if he should recover his kingdom'by the aid 
 of the English. Henry empowered his subjects to invade Ireland, 
 and, while Strongbow earl of Pembroke and his followers were lay- 
 ing waste the country, landed in the island in 1,172, and received the 
 .-aibmission of many of the independent chiefs. Roderick O'Connor. 
 prince of Connaught, whom the Irish elected nominal sovereign oi* 
 all the provinces, resisted for three years the arms of Henry, but 
 finally acknowledged his dominion by a solemn embassy to the king 
 at Windsor. The terms of the submission were, an annual tribute of 
 every tenth hide of land, to be applied for the support cf government, 
 nnc) an obligation of allegiance to the crown of England; on which 
 conditions the Irish should retain their possessions, and Roderick his 
 kingdom; except the territory of the Pale, or that part which the 
 English barons had subdued before the arrival of Henry. 
 
 6. Henry divided Ireland into counties, appointed sheriffs in each, 
 and introduced the laws of England r into the territory of the Pale! 
 The rest of the kingdom was regulated by (heir ancient laws, till the 
 reign cf Edward I., when, at the request of the nation, the English 
 laws were extended to the whoie kingdom. In the fust Irish parlia- 
 ment, which was held in the same reign. sir John VYogan presided as 
 deputy of the sovereign. From that time there was little intercourse 
 between the two kingdoms for some centuries ; nor was the island 
 considered as fully subdued till the reign of Elizabeth and of her suc- 
 cessor James I. 
 
 7. The latter part of the reign of Henry II. was clouded by domes- 
 tic misfortunes. His children, Henry, Richard, Geoffrey, and John, 
 instigated by their unnatural mother, rose in rebellion, and, with the 
 aid of Louis VII., king of France, prepared to dethrone their father. 
 While opposing ihem with spirit on the continent, his kingdom was 
 invaded by the Scots under William (the lion). He hastened back to 
 England, defeated the Scots, and made their king his prisoner. Two 
 of his sons, Henry and Geoifrey, expiated their offences by an early 
 death; but Richard, once reconciled, was again seduced from his al- 
 legiance, and, in league with the king of France, plundered his fa- 
 thers continental dominions. The spirit of Henry was unequal to his 
 domestic misfortunes, and he died of a broken heart in the 58th year 
 of his age. 1,189, an ornament to the English throne, and a prince sur- 
 passing all his contemporaries in the valuable qualities of a sovereign. 
 
MODERN HISTORY 133 
 
 To him England owed her first permanent improvement in arts, in 
 laws, in government, and in civil liberty. 
 
 0. Richard L C cceur de lion) immediately on his accession embark 
 ed for the Holy Land, on a crusade against the infidels, after plunder- 
 ing his subjects of an immense sum of money to defray the charges 
 oi the enterprise. Forming a league with Philip Augustus of France, 
 the two monarchs joined their forces, and acting for some time in 
 concert, were successful in the taking of Acraor Ptolemais; but Phil- 
 ip, jealous of his rivafs glory, soon returned to France, while Richard 
 had the honour of defeating the heroic Saladin in the battle of Asca- 
 lon. with prodigious slaughter of his enemies. He prepared now for 
 the siege of Jerusalem; but, finding his army wasted with famine and 
 fatigue, he was compelled to end the war by a truce with Saladin, in 
 which he obtained a free passage to the Holy Land for every chris- 
 tian pilgrim. Wrecked in his voyage homeward, and travelling in 
 disguise through Germany, Richard was seized, and detained in pris- 
 on, by command of the emperor Henry VI. The king of France un- 
 generously opposed his release, as did his unnatural brother John, 
 from selfish ambition; but he was at length ransomed by his subjects 
 for the sum of 150,000 merks, and, after an absence of nine years, re- 
 turned to his dominions. His traitorous brother was pardoned after 
 some submission ; and Richard employed the short residue of his 
 reign in a spirited revenge against his rival Philip. A truce, howev- 
 er, was concluded by the mediation of Rome; and Richard was soon 
 after killed, while storming the castle of one of his rebellious vassate 
 in the Limosin. He died in the tenth year of his reign, and forty- 
 second of his age, 1,199. 
 
 9. John (lack-land) succeeded to the throne en the death of his 
 brother, but found a competitor in his nephew Arthur, the son of 
 Geoffrey, supported by Philip of France. War was of course renew- 
 ed with that country. Arthur, with fatal confidence, throwing him- 
 self into the hands of his uncle, was removed by poison or the sword: 
 a deed which, joined to the known tyranny of his character, rendered 
 John the detestation of his subjects. Pie was stripped by Philip of 
 his continental dominions, and he made the pope his enemy by an ava- 
 ricious attack on the treasures of the church. After an ineffectual 
 menace of vengeance. Innocent III. pronounced a sentence of interdict 
 against the kingdom, which put a stop to all the ordinances of religion. 
 In baptism, and the burial of the dead. He next excommunicatea 
 John, and absolved his subjects from their allegiance ; and he finally 
 deposed him, and made a gift of the kingdom to Philip. John, intimi- 
 dated into submission, declared himself the pope^s vassal, swore alle- 
 giance on his knees to the papal legate, and agreed to hold his king- 
 dom tributary to the holy see. On these conditions, which ensured 
 die universal hatred and contempt of his people, he made his peace 
 with the church. It was natural that his subjects, thus trampled upon 
 and sold, should vindicate their rights. The barons of the king- 
 dom assembled, and, binding themselves by oath to a union of meas- 
 ures, resolutely demanded from the king a ratification of a charter of 
 privileges granted by Henry I. John appealed to the pope, who, in 
 support of his vassal, prohibited the confederacy of the barons as re- 
 bellious. The barons were only the more resolute in their purpose- 
 and the sword was their last resource. At length John was compelled 
 to yield to their demands, and signed at Runymede, on the 19th 
 day of June, 1,215, that solemn charter, which is the foundation and 
 oulwark of English liberty, Magna Ckarta {the great charter). 
 M 
 
534 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 10. By this great charter, 1, the freedom of election to benefices 
 was secured to the clergy ; 2, the tines to the overlord on the suc- 
 cession of vassals were regulated; 3, no aids or subsidies were allow- 
 ed to be levied from the subject, without the consent of the great 
 council, unless in a few special cases; 4, the crown shall not seize 
 the lands of a baron for a debt, while he has personal property 
 sufficient to discharge it ; 5, all the privileges granted by the lying to 
 his vassals shall be communicated by them to their inferior vassals; 
 6, one weight and one measure shall be used throughout the king- 
 dom; 7, all men shall pass from and return to the realm at their 
 pleasure; 8, all cities and boroughs shall preserve their ancient 
 Liberties; 9, the estate of every freeman shall be regulated by his 
 will, and, if he die intestate, by the law; 10, the king's court shall he 
 stationary, and open to all ; 1 1, every freeman shall be lined onlj r in 
 proportion to his offence, and no fine shall be imposed to his utter 
 ruin; 12, no peasant shall, by a tine, be deprived of his instruments 
 of husbandry ; 13, no person shall be tried on suspicion alone, but 
 on the evidence of lawful witnesses; 14, no person shall be tried 
 or punished unless by the judgment of his peers and the law of the 
 land. 
 
 1 1. John granted at the same time the Charta de Forcsta (the char- 
 ier coiicenimg forests), which abolished the royal privilege of killing 
 game over all the kingdom, and restored to the lawful proprietors 
 their woods and forests, which they were now allowed to enclose 
 and use at their pleasure. As compulsion alone had extorted these 
 concessions, John was determined to disregard them, and a foreign 
 force was brought into the kingdom to reduce the barons to submis- 
 sion. The barons applied for aid to France, and Philip sent his son 
 ^Lewis to England with an army; and such was the people's hatred 
 <of their sovereign, that they swore allegiance to this foreigner. At 
 this critical period John died at Newark, in 1,216, and an instant 
 change ensued. His son Henry III., a boy of nine years of age, was 
 crowned at Bristol ; and his uncle, the earl of Pembroke, was appoint- 
 ed protector of the realm. The disaffected barons returned to their 
 allegiance; the people hailed their sovereign ; and Lewis with his 
 army, after an ineffectual struggle, made peace with the protector, 
 and evacuated the kingdom. 
 
 SECTION XVI. 
 
 BTATE OF GERMANY AND ITALY IN THE THIRTEENTH 
 CENTURY. 
 
 1 Frederick II., son of Henry VI., was elected emperor on the 
 resignation of Otho IV., in 1,212. At this period Naples, Sicily, and 
 Lombardy, were all appanages of the empire ; and the contentions 
 between the imperial and papal powers divided the states of Italy 
 into factions, known by the name of Guelphs and Ghibellines, the 
 former maintaining the supremacy of the pope, the latter that of the 
 emperor. The opposition of Frederick to four successive popes 
 was avenged by excommunication and deposition ; yet he kept posses- 
 sion of his throne, and vindicated his authority with great spirit. 
 Frequent attempts were made against his lite, by assassination and 
 poison, which he openly attributed to papal resentment. On his 
 death, in 1,250, the splendour of the empire was for many years ob- 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 136 
 
 scured. It was a prey to incessant factions and civil war, the fruit o{ 
 contested claims of sovereignty. Yet the popes gained nothing by 
 its disorders, for the troubles of Italy were equally hostile to their 
 ambition. We have seen the turbulent state of England. France 
 was equally weak and anarchical ; and Spain was ravaged by the 
 contests of the Moors and christians. Yet, distracted as appears the 
 situation of Europe, one great project gave a species of union to this 
 discordant mass, of which we now proceed to give an account. 
 
 SECTION XVII. 
 
 THE CRUSADES, OR HOLY WARS. 
 
 1. The Turks or Turcomans, a race of Tartars from the regions 
 of Mount Taurus and Imaus, invaded the dominions of Moscovy 
 in the eleventh century, and came down upon the banks of the 
 Caspian. The caliphs employed Turkish mercenaries, and they 
 acquired the reputation of able soldiers in the wars that took place 
 on occasion of trie contested caliphate. The caliphs of Bagdat, the 
 Abassidae, were deprived of Syria, Egypt, and Africa, by their rival 
 caliphs of the race of Omar ; and the r I urks stripped of their do- 
 minions both the AbassidtE and Ommiades. Bagdat was taken by the 
 Turks, and the empire of the caliphs overthrown in 1,055 ; and these 
 princes, from temporal monarchs, became now the supreme pontiffs 
 of the Mahometan faith, as the popes of the christian. At the time 
 of the first crusade, in the end of the eleventh century, Arabia was 
 governed by a Turkish sultan, as were Persia and the greater por- 
 tion of Lesser Asia. — The eastern empire was thus abridged of its 
 Asiatic territory, and had lost a great part of its dominions in Europe. 
 It retained, however, Greece, Macedonia, Thrace, and Illyria; and 
 Constantinople itself was populous, opulent, and luxurious. Palestine 
 was in the possession of the Turks; and its capital Jerusalem, fallen 
 from its ancient consequence and splendour, was yet held in re- 
 spect by its conquerors as a holy city, and constantly attracted the re- 
 sort of Mahometans to the mosque of Omar, as of christian pilgrims 
 to the sepulchre of our Saviour. 
 
 2. Peter the hermit, a native of Amiens, on his return from this 
 pilgrimage, Qomplaineu in loud terms of the grievances which the 
 christians suffered from the Turks; and Urban II. pitched on this 
 enthusiast as a lit person to commence the execution of a grand de- 
 sign which the popes had long entertained, of arming all Christen- 
 dom, and exterminating the infidels from the Holy Lancl. The project 
 was opened in two general councils held at Placentia and Clermont, 
 The French possessed more ardour than the Italians; and an im- 
 mense multitude of ambitious and disorderly nobles, with all their 
 dependents, eager for enterprise and plunder, and assured of eternal 
 salvation, immediately took the cross. Peter the hermit led 80,000 
 under' his banners, and they began their march towards the east in 
 1,095. Their progress was marked by rapine and hostility in every 
 christian country through which they passed ; and the army of the 
 hermit, on its arrival at Constantinople, was wasted down to 20,000. 
 The emperor Alexius Comnenus, to whom the crusaders behaved 
 with the most provoking insolence and folly, conducted himself with 
 admirable moderation and good sense. He hastened to get rid of 
 this disorderly multitude, by furnishing them with every aid which 
 
136 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 fliey required, and cheerfully lent his ships to transport them across^ 
 the Bosphorus. The sultan Solyman met them in the plain of 
 JNIicea, and destroyed the army of" the hermit. A new host in the 
 mean time arrived at Constantinople, led hy more illustrious com- 
 manders; by Godfrey of Bouillon duke of Brabant, Raymond count 
 of Thoulouse, Robert of Normandy, son of William king of Eng- 
 land, Bohemond, son of Robert Guiscard, the conqueror of Sicily, 
 and other princes of high reputation. To these, who amounted to 
 some hundred thousands, Alexius manifested the same prudent con- 
 duct, to accelerate their departure. The Turks, overpowered by 
 numbers, were twice defeated; and the crusaders, pursuing their suc- 
 cesses, penetrated at length to Jerusalem, which after a siege of sis 
 weeks, they took by storm, and with savage fury massacred the 
 whole of its Mahometan and Jewish inhabitants, A. D. 1,099. Godfrey 
 was hailed king of Jerusalem, but was obiiged soon after to cede his- 
 kingdom to the pope 1 * legate. The crusaders divided Syria and 
 Palestine, and formed four separate states, which weakened their 
 power. The Turks began to recover strength ; and the christians 
 of Asia soon found it necessary to solicit aid from Europe. 
 
 3. The second crusade set out from the west in 1,1 1G, to the- 
 amount of 200,000 French, Germans, and Italians, led, by Hugh* 
 brother of Philip I. of France. These met with the same fete 
 which attended the army of Peter the hermit. The garrison of 
 Jerusalem was at this time so weak, that it became necessary to 
 embody and arm the monks lor its defence; and hence arose the 
 military orders of the knights templars and hospitallers, and soon 
 rtfter the Teutonic, from the German pilgrims. Mcanlirne pope 
 Eugenius III. employed St. Bernard to preach a new crusade in 
 France, which was headed by its sovereign Lewis VII. , (the young) T 
 who, in conjunction with Conrad III., emperor of Germany, mus- 
 tered jointly' 300,000 men. The Germans were extirpated by the 
 sultan of Iconium; the French were totally defeated near Laodicea; 
 r.nd the two monarchs, after much disaster, returned with shame to 
 their dominions. 
 
 4. The illustrious Saladin, nephew of the sultan of Egypt, formed 
 the design of recovering Palestine from the christians; and besieging 
 Jerusalem, he took the city, and made prisoner its sovereign, Guy 
 of Lusignan. Pope Clement III., alarmed at the successes oi the 
 infidels, began to stir up a new crusade from France, England, and 
 Germany; and the armies of each country were headed by their 
 respective sovereigns, Philip Augustus, Richard L, and Frederick 
 Barbarossa; In this third crusade the emperor Frederick died in 
 Asia, and his army, by repeated defeats, mouldered to nothing. 
 The English and French were more successful : they besieged and 
 took Ptolemais; but Richard and Philip quarrelled from jealousy ci 
 each other's glory, and the French monarch returned in disgust to 
 his country. Richard nobly sustained the contest with Saladin, 
 whom he defeated near Ascalon ; but his army was reduced by iam- 
 iae and fatigue. He concluded a treaty, at least not dishonourable, 
 with his enemy, and was forced at length to escape from Palestine 
 with a single ship. (See Sect. XV r ., § 8.) Saladin, revered even by 
 the christians, died in 1,195. 
 
 5. A fourth crusade was lilted out in 1,202, under Baldwin count 
 of Flanders, of which the object was not the extirpation of the infi- 
 dels, but the destructior of tile empire of the east. Constantinople, 
 embroiled by civil war and revolution from disputed claims to the 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 13T 
 
 sovereignty, was besieged and taken by the crusaders ; and Baldwin, 
 their chief, was elected emperor, to be within a few months dethron- 
 ed and murdered. The imperial dominions were shared among the 
 principal leaders; and the Venetians, who had lent their ships for the 
 expedition, got the isle of Candia (anciently Crete) for their reward. 
 Alexius, of the imperial family of the Commeni, founded a new sove- 
 reignty in Asia, which he termed the empire of Trebizond. The ob- 
 j el of a fifth crusade was to lay waste Egypt, in revenge for an 
 . :tta< k on Palestine, by its sultan Saphadin. Partial success and ulti- 
 mate ruin was the issue of this expedition, as of all the preceding. 
 ' 0. At this period, ',227, a great revolution took place in Asia. 
 GeugMcan with his Tartars broke down from the north upon Persia 
 and .Syria, and massacred indiscriminately Turks, Jews, and Chris- 
 tians, who opposed them. The christian knights, templars, hospital- 
 lers, and Teutonic, made a desperate but ineffectual resistance; and 
 Palestine must have been abandoned to these invaders, if its fate had 
 not been (ov a while retarded by the last crusade under Lewis IX. of 
 Trance. This prince, summoned by Heaven, as he believed, after 
 four years'' preparation, set out for the Holy Land, with his queen, 
 (lis three brothers, and all the knights of France. His army began 
 their enterprise by an attack on Egypt, where, after some consider- 
 able successes, (hey were at length utterly defeated; and the 
 French monarch, with two of bis brothers, ieii into the hands of the 
 i ricmy. He purchased his liberty at an immense ransom, and, return- 
 ing to France, reigned prosperously and wisely for thirteen years. 
 But the same phrensy again assailing him, he embarked on a crusade 
 against the Moors in Africa, where he and his army were destroyed 
 by a pestilence, 1,270. it is computed that, in the whole of the 
 crusades to Palestine, two millions of Europeans were buried in the 
 east. 
 
 7. Effects <>f the crusades. One consequence of the holy w r ars is 
 supposed to have been the improvement of European manners ; but 
 the times immediately succeeding the crusades exhibit no such actual 
 improvement. Two centuries of barbarism and darkness elapsed 
 between the termination of those enterprises and the foil of the 
 Greek empire in 1,453, the aera of the revival of letters, and the 
 commencement of civilization. A certain consequence of the cru 
 fades was the change of territorial propert}' in all the feudal king- 
 doms, the sale ot* the estates of the nobles, and their division among 
 a number of smaller proprietors. Hence the feudal aristocracy was 
 weakened, and the lower classes began to acquire weight, and a 
 spirit of independence. The towns hitherto bound by a sort of vassal- 
 age to the nobles, began to purchase their immunity, acquired the 
 right of electing their own magistrates, and were governed by their 
 own municipal laws. The church, in some respects gained, and in 
 others lost by those enterprises. The popes gained a more extend- 
 ed jurisdiction ; but the latal issue oi' those expeditions opened the 
 eyes of the world to the selfish and interested motives which had 
 prompted them, and weakened the sway of superstition. Many of the 
 religious orders acquired an increase of wealth ; but this was bal- 
 anced by the taxes imposed on the clergy. The coin was altered 
 and debased in most of the kingdoms of Europe, from the scarcity 
 of specie. The Jews were supposed to have hoarded and concealed 
 it, and hence they became the victims of general persecution. The 
 most substantial gainers by the crusades were the Italian states of 
 Genoa, Pisa, and Venice, from the increased trade to the Levant 
 M2 18 
 
138 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 for the supply of those immense armies. Venice, as we have seen, 
 took an active concern, and obtained her share of the conquered 
 territory. 
 
 The age of the crusades brought chivalry to its perfection and gave 
 rise to romantic fiction. 
 
 See Rett's Elements of General Knowledge, vol. I. 
 
 SECTION XVIII. 
 
 OF CHIVALRY AND ROMANCF. 
 
 1. Chivalry arose naturally from the condition of societv in those 
 ages m which it prevailed Among the Germanic nations the profes- 
 sion of aims was esteemed the sole employment that deserved the 
 name of manly or honourable. The initiation of the youth to this pro- 
 fession was attended with peculiar solemnity and appropriate cere- 
 monies. The chief of the tribe bestowed the sword and armour on 
 his vassal, as a symbol of their devotion to his service. In the prog* 
 ress of the feudal system these Vassals, hi imitation of their chief, as- 
 sumed the power of conferring arms on their sul>vassals, with a 
 similar form of mysterious and pompous ceremonial. The candidate 
 for knighthood underwent his preparatory fasts and vigils, and re- 
 ceived on his knees the accollade and benediction of his chief. Aim- 
 ed and caparisoned, he sallied forth in quest of adventure, which, 
 whether just or not in its purpose, was ever .esteemed honourable in 
 proportion as it was perilous. 
 
 2. The esteem of the female sex is characteristic of the Gothic 
 manners. In those ages of barbarism the castles of the greater bar- 
 ons were the courts of sovereigns in miniature. The society of the 
 ladies, who found only in such fortresses a security from outrage, pol- 
 ished the manners; and to protect the chastity anil honour of the fair 
 was the best employ and the highest merit of an accomplished kmgh-t. 
 Romantic exploit therefore had always a tincture of gallantry! 
 
 It hath been through all ages ever seen, 
 
 That with the praise of arms and chivalry 
 The prize of leant}- ^ i ill hath joined been, 
 
 And that for reasons special privity : 
 For cither doth on other much rely j 
 
 For he, me seems, most tit the fair to serve, 
 That can her best defend from villany ; 
 
 And she most lit his service doth deserve 
 That fairest is, and from her faith will never sv/erve. 
 
 Sfc15NS]£B. , S Fairv Qv&bk. 
 
 o. To the passion for adventure and romantic iove was added h 
 high regard for morality and religion ; but as the latter were ever 
 subordinate to the former, we may presume, more in favour of the 
 refinement than of the purity of the khights. It was the pride of a 
 knight to redress wrongs and injuries ; but in that honourable employ- 
 ment he made small account of those which he committed. It was 
 easy to expiate the greatest offences by a penance or a pilgrimage, 
 which furnished only a new opportunity for adventurous exploit. 
 
 4. Chivalry, whether it began with the Moore or Normans, attain- 
 ed its perfection at the period of the crusades, which presented a no- 
 
MODERN HISTORY. VM 
 
 ble object of adventure, and a boundless Held for military glory. 
 Few indeed returned from those desperate enterprises ; but those had 
 a high reward in the admiration of their countrymen. The bards and 
 romancers sung their praises, and recorded their exploits, with a 
 thousand circumstances of fabulous embellishment.' 
 
 5. The earliest of the old romances (so termed from the Romance 
 language, a mixture of the Frank and Latin, in which they were 
 written) appeared about the middle of the twelfth century, the period 
 of the second crusade. But those more ancient compositions did not 
 record contemporary events, whose known truth would have preclud- 
 ed all liberty of fiction or exaggeration. Geoffrey of Monmouth, ana 
 the author who assumed the name of archbishop Turpin, had free 
 scope to their fancy, by celebrating the deeds of Arthur and the 
 knights of the round table, and the exploits of Charlemagne and his 
 twelve poors. From the fruitful stock of those first romances sprung 
 a numerous offspring equally wild and extravagant, 
 
 6. Philosophers have analyzed the pleasure arising from works of 
 iiction, and have endeavoured, by various hypotheses, to account tot 
 the interest which we take in the description of an event or scene 
 which is known to be utterly impossible. The fact may be simply 
 explained as follows. Every narration is in some degree attended 
 with a dramatic deception. We enter for the time into the situation 
 of the persons concerned; Sod, adopting their passions and feelings, 
 we lose all sense of the absurdity of their cause, while we see tbv 
 agents themselves hold it for reasonable and adequate. The most ii> 
 credulous sceptic may sympathize strongly with the feelings of Ham- 
 let at the sight of his fathers spectre. 
 
 7. Tims powerfully affected as we are by sympathy, even against 
 the conviction of our reason, how much greater must have been the 
 effect of such works of the imagination in those days, when popular 
 superstition gave full credit to the reality, or at least the possibility, 
 of all that they described ! And hence we must censure, as both uik- 
 necessary and improbable, the theory of Dr. Hurd, which accounts 
 tor all the wildness of the old romances, on the supposition that their 
 fictions were entirely allegorical ; which explains the giants and sav- 
 ages into the oppressive feudal lords and their barbarous dependents; 
 as M. Mallet construes the serpents and dragons which guarded the 
 enchanted castles, into their winding walls, fosses, and battlements. 
 it were sufficient to sav, that many of those old romances are inex- 
 plicable by allegory. They were received by the popular belief as 
 truths ; and even their contrivers believed in the possibility of the 
 scenes and actions which they described. In latter ages, and in tbv* 
 wane of superstition, yet while it stiil retained a powerful influence, 
 the poets adopted allegory as a vehicle of moral instruction : and to 
 this period beiong those political romances which bear an allegorical 
 explanation ; as the Fairy Queen of Spenser, the Orlando of Ariosto, 
 and the Gierusalomtnc Liuerata of Tasso. 
 
 o. In more modern times the taste for romantic composition declin- 
 ed with popular credulity; and the fastidiousness of philosophy affect- 
 ed to treat all supernatural fiction with contempt. But it was at 
 length perceived that this refinement had cut off a source of very 
 high mental enjoyment. The public taste now took a new turn ; and 
 this moral revolution is at present tending to its extreme. We are 
 gone back to the nursery to listen to tales of hobgoblins ; a change 
 which we may safely prognosticate can be of no duration. 
 
140 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 SECTION XIX. 
 
 STATE OF EUROPE IN THE THIRTEENTH AND FOURTEENTH 
 CENTURIES. 
 
 1. Constantinople, taken in 1,202 by the crusaders, was possessed 
 only for a short time by its conquerors. It was governed by French 
 emperors tor the space of sixty years, and Was retaken by the 
 Gieeks in 1,261, under Michael Palceologus, who, by imprisoning and 
 putting out the eyes of his pupil Theodore Lascaris, secured to him- 
 self the sovereignty. 
 
 2. In the beginning of the thirteenth century Germany was 
 governed by Frederick II., who paid homage to the pope lor tire 
 kingdom <.f Naples and Sicily, which was possessed by his son Con- 
 ;,'i. and afterwards bv his brother Manfred, who usurped the crown 
 in violation of the right of his nephew Conradin. Pope Clement IV., 
 jpalous (,f the dominion of the imperial family, gave the investiture 
 m Naples and Sicily to Charles of Anjou, brother of Lewis IX. ot 
 s Vance, who defeated and put to death his competitors. The Sicil 
 
 i his revenged this act of usurpation and cruelty by the murder, in 
 oue night, of every Frenchman in the island. This shocking massa- 
 cre, termed the Sicilian vespers, happened on Easter Sunday, 1,282- 
 U was followed by every evil that comes in the train of civil war and 
 
 ['OVOiulioOi 
 
 o. The beginning of the thirteenth century hat! been signalized 
 by a new species of crusade. The Albigenses, inhabitants of Alby 
 in the fays dc Yaud, were bold enough to dispute many of the tenets 
 of tiie catholic church, judging them contrary to the doctrines of 
 scripture. Innocent III. established a holy commission at Thouiouse, 
 with power to try and punish those heretics. The count of Thou- 
 iouse opposed this persecution, and was, lor the punishment of his 
 oilence, compelled by the pope to assist in a crusade against his own 
 vassals. Simon de Monfort was the leader of this pious enterprise, 
 which was marked by the most atrocious cruelties. The benefits of 
 (the holy commission were judged by the popes to be so great, that it 
 became from that time a permanent establishment, known by the* 
 name of the inquisition. 
 
 4. The rise of the house of Austria may be dated from 1,27-t, 
 when Kodolphus of Hapsbourg, a Swiss baron, was elected emperor 
 of Germany. Me owed his elevation to the jealousies of the elec- 
 toral princes, who could not agree in the choice of any one of them- 
 selves. The king of Bohemia, to whom Kodolphus had been stew- 
 ard of the household, could ill brook the supremacy of his former de- 
 pendent ; and refusing him the customary homage for his Germanic 
 possessions, Kodolphus stripped him of Austria, which has ever since 
 remained in the lamily of its conqueror. 
 
 5. The Italian states of Venice, Genoa, and Pisa, were at this time 
 flourishing and opulent, while most of the kingdoms of Europe (if 
 we except England under Edward I.,) were exhausted, feeble, ami 
 disorderly. A dawning of civil liberty began to appear in France 
 under Philip IV. {le bclV who summoned the third estate to the 
 national assemblies, which had hitherto consisted of the nobility and 
 clergy, 1,303. Philip established perpetual courts of judicature in 
 France, under the name of parliaments. Over these the parliament 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 141 
 
 of Paris possessed a jurisdiction by appeal ; but it was not till latef 
 times that it assumed any authority in matters of Slate. 
 
 6. The parliament of England had before this era begun to assume 
 'fts present constitution. The commons, or the representatives of 
 counties and boroughs, were first called to parliament by Henry 
 III. Before that time this assembly consisted only of the greater 
 -barons and clergy. But of the rise and progress of the constitution 
 of England we shall afterwards treat more paticularly in a separate 
 section. 
 
 1. The spirit of the popedom, zealous in the maintenance and ex- 
 tension of its prerogatives, continued much the same in the thirteenth 
 and fourteenth, as we have seen it in the three preceding centuries 
 Philip the fair had subjected his clergy to bear their share of the 
 public taxes, and prohibited all contributions to be levied by the pop© 
 in Ids dominions. This double offence was highly resented by Boni- 
 face VIIL, who expressed his indignation by a sentence of excom 
 munication and interdict, and a solemn transference of the kingdom 
 of France to the emperor Albert. Philip, in revenge, sent his gen- 
 eral Nogaret to Rome, who threw the pope into prison. Fhc 
 French, however, were overpowered by the papal troops; and Iho 
 death of Boniface put an end to the quarrel. 
 
 8. it is less easy to justify the conduct of Philip the fair to the 
 knights templars than his behaviour to pope Boniface. The whok 
 of this order had incurred his resentment, from suspicion of harbour- 
 ing treasonable designs, lie had inllucnce with Clement V. to pro- 
 cure a papal buU warranting their extirpation from all the christian 
 kingdoms : and this infamous proscription was carried into effect 
 over all Europe. Those unfortunate men were solemnly tried, not 
 for their real offence, but for protended impieties and idolatrous prac- 
 tices, and committed to the flames 1,309 — 1,312. 
 
 SECTION XX. 
 REVOLUTION OF SWITZERLAND. 
 
 I* The beginning of the fourteenth century was distinguished by 
 the revolution of Switzerland, and the rise of the Helvetic republic. 
 The emperor Rodolphus of Hapsbourg was hereditary sovereign 
 of several of the Swiss cantons, and governed his states with much 
 equity and moderation. His successor Albert, a tyrannical prince, 
 formed the design of annexing the whole of the provinces to his 
 dominion, and of erecting them into a principality for one of his 
 sons. The cantons of Schweitz, Ury, and Undcrwald, which had 
 •.ihvays resisted the authority of Austria, combined to assert their 
 freedom ; and a small army of 400 or 500 men defeated an immense 
 host of the Austrians in the pass of Morgate, 1,315. The rest of the 
 cantons by degrees joined the association. With invincible persever- 
 ance the united cantons won and secured their dear-bought liberty, 
 after sixty pitched battles with their enemies. 
 
 2. Constitution of Switzerland. The thirteen cantons were united 
 by a solemn treaty, which stipulated the proportional succours to bo 
 furnished by each in the case of foreign hostility, and the measures 
 to be followed for securing the union of the states, and accommodat- 
 ing domestic differences. With respect to its internal government 
 and economy each canton was independent, Of some the constitution 
 
142 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 was monarchical, and of others republican. All matters touching 
 the general league were transacted either by letters sent to Zurich, 
 and thence officially circulated to all the cantons, or by conferences. 
 The general diet, where two deputies attended from each canton, was 
 held once a year, the first deputy of Zurich presiding. The catholic 
 and protectant cantons likewise held their separate diets on occasional 
 emergencies. 
 
 3. The Swiss, when at peace, employed their troops for hire in 
 foreign service, judging it a wise policy to keep alive the military 
 spirit of the nation; and the armies thus* employed have been equally 
 distinguished for their courage and fidelity. The industry and 
 economy of the Swiss are proverbial ; and their country supports an 
 abundant population, from the zealous promotion of agriculture and 
 manufactures. 
 
 SECTION XXI. 
 
 STATE OF EUROPE IN THE THIRTEENTH, FOURTEENTH, AND 
 PART OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURIES. 
 
 1. The rival claims of superiority between the popes and em- 
 perors still continued. Henry VLL, (lie successor of Albert, vindicat- 
 ed his right by the sword, triumphantly fought his way to Rome, 
 Where he was solemnly crowned, and imposed a tribute on all the 
 states of Italy. His sudden death was suspected to be the consequence 
 of papal resentment. In his time tbe seat of the popedom was trans- 
 ferred by Clement V. from Rome to Avignon, 1,309, where it re> 
 rnained till 1,377. The factions of Italy were the cause of this re- 
 moval. Lewis of Bavaria, the successor of Henry, deposed and ex- 
 communicated by John XXII., revenged himself by deposing the 
 pope. This pontiff, who had originally been a cobbler, surpassed 
 most of his predecessors in pride and tyranny. He kept his seat on 
 the papal chair, and left at his death an immense treasure accumu-* 
 lated by the sale of benefices ; while his rival the emperor died in 
 indigence. 
 
 2. His successor in the empire, Charles IV., published, in 1.355, 
 the imperial constitution, termed the golden bull, the fundamental law 
 of the Germanic body, wbich reduced the number of electors to 
 seven, and settled on them all the hereditary offices of state. Tire 
 electors exemplified their new rights by deposing bis son Wenceslaus 
 for incapacity. 1,400. Three separate factions ol" the French and 
 Italian cardinals having elected three separate popes, the emperor 
 Sigismund judged this division of the church to he a fit opportunity 
 for his interference to reconcile all differences, and establish his own 
 supremacy. He summoned a general council at Constance in 1,414, 
 and ended the dispute by degrading all the three pontiffs, and naming 
 a fourth, Martin Colonna. This division of the papacy is termed 
 the great schism of the zvest, 
 
 3. The spiritual business of the council of Constance was no less 
 important than its temporal. John Huss, a disciple of Wickliff, was 
 tried for heresy, in denying the hierarchy, and satirizing the inv 
 moralities of the popes and bishops. He did not deny the charge, 
 and, refusing to confess his errors, was burnt alive. A similar fate 
 was the portion of his friend and disciple, Jerom of Prague, who 
 
MODERN HISTORY t*3 
 
 displayed at his execution the eloquence of an apostle, and the con- 
 stancy of a martyr, 1,416. Sigismund felt the consequence of these 
 horrible proceedings ; for the Bohemians opposed his succession to 
 their vacant crown, and it cost him a war of sixteen years to attain it. 
 4. Whatever was the imperial power at this time, it derived but 
 small consequence from its actual revenues. The wealth of the 
 Germanic states was exclusively possessed by their separate sove- 
 reigns, and the emperor had little more than what he drew from 
 Bohemia and Hungary. The sovereignty of Italy was an empty 
 title. The interest of the emperor in that country furnished only a 
 source of faction to its princes, and embroiled the states in perpetual 
 quarrels. A series of" conspiracies and civil tumults form the annals 
 of the principal cities for above 200 years. Naples and Sicily were 
 ruined by the weak and disorderly government of the two Joannas. 
 A passion which the younger of these conceived for a soldier of the 
 name of Sforza raised him to the sovereignty of Milan ; and her 
 adoption, lirst of Alphonzo of Arragon, and afterwards of Lewis ol 
 Anjou, laid the foundation of those contests between Spain and 
 France for the sovereignty of the two Sicilies, which afterwards 
 agitated all Europe. 
 
 SECTION XXII. 
 
 HISTORY OF ENGLAND IN THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 1. On the death of John, his son Henry III. succeeded to tha 
 crown of England at nine years of age. He was a prince of ami- 
 able dispositions, but of weak understanding. His preference oi 
 foreign favourites disgusted his nobles ; and the want of economy in hia 
 government, and oppressive exactions, deprived him of the affection 
 of his people. Montfort earl of Leicester, son of the leader of the 
 crusade against the Albigenses, and brother-in-law of the king, con- 
 ceived a plan for usurping the government. He formed a league 
 with the barons, on the pretext of reforming abuses, and compelled 
 J-Ienry to delegate all the regal power into the hands of twenty-four 
 of their number. These divided among themselves the olfices of 
 government, and new-modelled the parliament, by summoning a cer- 
 tain number of knights chosen from each county. This measure 
 was fatal to their own power; for these knights or representatives 
 of the people, indignant at Leicester's usurpation, determined to 
 restore the royal authority; and called on prince Edward, a youth 
 of intrepid spirit, to avenge his fathers wrongs and save the king- 
 dom. 
 
 2. Leicester raised a formidable force, and defeated the royal 
 army at Lewes, in Sussex, 1,264, and made both the king and prince 
 Edward his prisoners. He now compelled the impotent Henry to 
 ratify his authority by a solemn treaty. He assumed the character 
 of regent, and called a parliament, summoning two Knights from 
 each of the counties, and deputies from the principal boroughs, the 
 lirst regular plan of the English house of commons. This assembly 
 exercising its just rights, and asserting with firmness the re-establish- 
 ment of the ancient government of the kingdom, Leicester judged it 
 prudent to release the prince from his confinement. Edward was 
 no sooner at liberty than he took the field against the usurper, who. 
 was defeated and slain in the battle of Evesham, on the 4th day of 
 
144 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 August, 1 ,265. Henry was now restored to his throne by the arms 
 of his gallant son, who, after establishing domestic tranquillity, em- 
 barked in the last crusade with Lewis IX., and signalized his prowess 
 by many valorous exploits in Palestine. He had the honour of con- 
 eluding an advantageous truce for ien years with the sultan of Baby- 
 lon, and was on his return to England when he received intelligence 
 of his accession to the crown by tbe death of his father, 1,272. 
 
 3. Edward I. projected the "conquest of Wales in the beginning 
 of -his reign. 'I he Welsh, the descendants of the ancient Britons 
 who had escaped the Roman and Saxon conquests, preserved their 
 liberty, laws, manners, and language. Their prince, Le welly n, 
 refused his customary homage to the king of England. Edward in- 
 vaded Wales, and, surrounding the army of the prince, who retreated 
 to the mountains, cut oft' all his supplies, and compelled him to an 
 unqualified submission. The terms demanded were, the surrender 
 of a part of the country, a large sum of money, and an obligation of 
 perpetual fealty to the crown of England. The Welsh infringed 
 this treaty, and Edward marched his army into the heart of the 
 country, where the troops of Lewcllyn made a most desperate but in- 
 effectual resistance. In a decisive engagement, in 1,283, the prince 
 was slain. His brother David, betrayed into the hands of the con* 
 queror, was inhumanly executed on a gibbet ; and Wales, complete- 
 ly subdued, was annexed to the crown of England. With a policy 
 equally absurd and cruel, Edward ordered the Welsh bards to be put 
 to death wherever found; thereby ensuring the perpetuation of their 
 heroic songs, and increasing the abhorrence of the vanquished people 
 for their barbarous conqueror. 
 
 4. The conquest of Wales inflamed the ambition of Edward, and 
 inspired him with the design of extending his dominion to the ex- 
 tremity of the island. The designs of this enterprising monarch on 
 the kingdom of Scotland invite our attention to that quarter. 
 
 SECTION XXIII. 
 
 HISTORY OF SCOTLAND FROM THE ELEVENTH TO THE 
 FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 1. The history of Scotland before the reign of Malcolm III., sur* 
 named Canmore, is ohscure and fabulous. 1 his prince succeeded to 
 the throne in 1,057 by the defeat of Macbeth, the murderer of his 
 father Duncan. Espousing the cause of Edgar Atheling, heir of the 
 Saxon kings of England, whese sister he married, he thus provoked 
 a war with William the conqueror, which was equally prejudicial 
 to both kingdoms. In an expedition of Malcolm into England it is 
 alleged, that, after concluding a truce, he was compelled by William 
 to do homage for his kingdom. The truth is, that this homage was 
 done for the territories in Cumberland and Northumberland won by 
 the Scots, and held in vassalage of the English crown ; though this 
 homage was afterwards absurdly made the pretext of a claim of 
 feudal sovereignty over all Scotland. In a reign of twenty-seven 
 years Malcolm supported a spirited contest with England, both under 
 William I. and his son Rufus ; and to the virtues of his queen Mar- 
 garet, his kingdom, in its domestic policy, owed a degree of civiliza- 
 tion remarkable in those ages of barbarism. 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 14£ 
 
 2. Alexander I., his son and successor, defended, with equal spirit 
 and good policy, the independence of his kingdom; and his son 
 David I., celebrated even by the democratic Buchanan as an honour 
 to his country and to monarchy, won from Stephen, and annexed to 
 his crown, the whole earldom of Northumberland. In those reigns 
 we hear of no claim of the feudal subjection of Scotland to the 
 crown of England ; though the accidental fortune of war afterwards 
 furnished a ground for it. William I., (the lion), taken prisoner at 
 Alnwick by Henry II., was compelled, as the price of his release, to 
 -lo homage for his whole kingdom; an obligation which his succes- 
 sor Richard voluntarily discharged, deeming it to have been unjustly 
 extorted. 
 
 3. On the death of Alexander III. without male issue, in \ ,285, 
 Bruce and Baliol, descendants of David I. by the female line, were 
 competitors tor the crown, and the pretensions of each were support- 
 ed by a formidable party in the kingdom. Edward I. of England, 
 chosen umpire of the contest, arrogated to himself, in that character, 
 flic feudal sovereignty of the kingdom, compelling all the barons to 
 swear allegiance to him, and taking actual possession of the country 
 by his troops. He then adjudged the crown to Baliol, on the express 
 condition of his swearing fealty to him as lord paramount. Baliol, 
 .however, soon after renouncing his ajlegiance, the indignant Edward 
 invaded Scotland with an immense Force, and compelled the weak 
 prince to abdicate the throne., and resign the kingdom into his l*ands 
 
 4. William Wallace, one ot the greatest heroes whom history re- 
 cords, restored the fallen honours of his country. Joined by a few 
 pal riots, his first successes in attacking the English garrisons brought 
 numbers to his patriotic standard. Iheir successes were signal and 
 conspicuous. Victory followed upon victory. While Edward was 
 engaged on the continent, his troops were utterly defeated in a des- 
 perate engagement at Stirling, and forced to evacuate the kingdom. 
 »Vallacc, the deliverer of his country, now assumed the title ol gov- 
 ernor of Scotland under Baliol, who was Edward's prisoner; a dis- 
 tinction which was followed by the envy and disaffection of many ol 
 (he nobles, and the consequent diminution of his army. The Scots 
 were defeated at Falkirk. Edward returned with a vast accession of 
 force. After a fruitless resistance the Scottish barons tinally obtained 
 peace by a capitulation, from which the brave Wallace was excepted 
 by name. A fugitive for some time, he was betrayed into the hands ol 
 Edward, who put him to death, with every circumstance of cruelty 
 that barbarous revenge could dictate, 1,304. 
 
 5. Scotland found a second champion and deliverer in Robert 
 Bruce, the grandson of the competitor with Baliol; who, deeply re- 
 senting the humiliation of his country, once more set up the standard 
 of war, and gave defiance to the English monarch, to whom his 
 fither and grandfather had meanly sworn allegiance. Under this in- 
 trepid leader^the spirit of the nation was roused at once. The Eng- 
 lish were attacked in every quarter, and once more entirely driven 
 out of the kingdom. Robert Bruce was crowned king at Scone, 
 1,306. Edward was advancing with an immense army, and died at 
 Carlisle on the 7th day of July, 1,307. He enjoined it with his last 
 breath to his son, Edward II., to prosecute the war with the Scots to 
 the entire reduction of the country. 
 
 N 19 
 
146 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 SECTION XXIV. * 
 
 HISTORY OF ENGLAND IN THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY, 
 
 1. In the reign of Edward 1. we observe the constitution of Eng- 
 land gradually advancing. The commons had been admitted to par- 
 liament in the latter period of his father Henry III. A statute was 
 passed by Edward, which declared, that no tax or impost should be 
 levied without the consent of lords and commons. Edward ratified 
 the Magna Charta no less than eleven times in the course of Ids reign ; 
 and henceforward this fundamental law began to be regarded as sa- 
 cred and unalterable. 
 
 2. Edward II. was in character the very opposite of ids father; 
 weak, indolent, and capricious; but of humane and benevolent affe'c- 
 licns. lie disgusted his nobles by his attachment to mean and unde- 
 serving favourites, whom he raised to the highest dignities of the 
 state, and honoured with his exclusive confidence. Piers Gavestou, 
 a vicious and trilling minion, whom the king appointed regent when 
 en a journey to Paris to marry Isabella, daughter of Philip the fair, 
 disgusted the barons to such a pitch, that they compelled the king to 
 ci legate all the authority of government to certain commissioners, and 
 to abandon his favourite to their resentment. He was doomed to 
 perpetual imprisonment, and, on attempt to escape, was seized and 
 beheaded. 
 
 3. Edward, in obedience to his father's will, invaded Scotland with 
 an army of 100,000 men. King Robert Bruce met this immense 
 force with 30,000 men at iJannociiburn, and defeated them with pro- 
 slaughter. This important victory secured the Independence 
 
 land. Edward escaped by sea to his own dominions. A new 
 favourite, Spenser, supplied the place of Gaveston; but his undeserv- 
 ed elevation and overbearing character completed the disaffection oj 
 the nobles to their sovereign. The queen, a vicious adulteress, joi;-- 
 ed the malcontents, and, passing over to trance, obtained from Iiei 
 brother Charles IV. an army to invade England, and dethrone hen 
 husband, iler enterprise was successful. Spenser and his father 
 were betrayed into the hands of their enemies, and perished on a 
 *caifold. The king was taken prisoner, tried by parliament, and sol- 
 emnly deposed; and being confined to prison, was soon after put to 
 death in a manner shocking to humanity, 1,32 7. 
 
 A. Edward 111., crowned at fourteen years of age, could not submit 
 to the regency of a mother stained with the foulest of crimes. His 
 fathers death was revenged by the perpetual imprisonment of Isabel- 
 la, and the public execution of her paramour Mortimer. Bent on the 
 conquest ol Scotland, Edward marched to the north with a prodigious 
 army, vanquished the Scots in the battle of Halidoun-hill, and placet! 
 on the throne Edward Baliol, his vassal and tributary. But the king- 
 dom was as repugnant as ever to the rule of England, and a favoura- 
 ble opportunity was taken for the renewal of hostilities, on the depart- 
 ure of Edward for a foreign enterprise, which gave full scope to his 
 ambition. 
 
 5. On the death of Charles IV. without male issue, the crown ot 
 France was claimed by Edward III. of England, in right of his moth- 
 er, the sister of Charles, while, in the mean time, the throne was oc- 
 cupied by the male heir, Philip of Valois. Edward fitted out an im- 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 141 
 
 mense armament by sea and land, and, obtaining a signal victory over 
 the French fleet, landed on the coast of Normandy, and with his son, 
 the black prince, ran a career of the most glorious exploits. Philip.^ 
 with 100,000 men, met the English with 30,000, and was entirely de-' 
 Pentad in the held of Cressy, August 26, 1,343. Calais was taken by 
 Ihe English, and remained in their possession 210 years. The En- 
 glish are said to have first used artillery in the battle of Cressy. Fire 
 arms were then but a recent invention (1,310), and have much con- 
 tributed to lessen both the slaughter and the frequency of wars. Mr. 
 i lume well observes that war is now reduced nearly to a matter oj 
 i: i Iculaiion. A nation knows its power, and, when overmatched, 
 either yields to its enemies, or secures itself by affiance. 
 
 r. The Scots in the mean time invaded England, and were defeated 
 hi the brittle of Durham by Phiiippa, the heroic queen of Edward III. ; 
 and their sovereign David II. was led prisoner to London. A truce 
 roYiciuded between Edward and Philip was dissolved by the death of 
 life latter. Philip was succeeded by his son John, who took the field 
 with b'0,000 men against the black prince, and -was defeated by him 
 with a fir inferior number in the signal battle of Poictiers, September 
 S9, I. >ob. Johnldng of Prance was led in triumph to London, the 
 !•>'! tow-prisoner of David king of Scotland. But England derived from 
 ;•>..-< victories nothing but honour. The French continued the war 
 v iih great vigour during the captivity of their sovereign, who died 
 i i London iu 1,364. They obtained a peace by the cession to the 
 English of Poiton, St. Ohge, Perigord and other provinces;' and Ed- 
 ward consented to renounce his claim to the crown of France. The 
 death of the black prince, a most heroic and virtuous man, plunged 
 the nation in grief, and broke the spirits of his father, who did not long 
 sun he him. 
 
 7. Richard II. succeeded his grandfather, in 1,377, at the age of 
 eleven. Charles VI; soon after became king of France at the age 
 of twelve- Both kingdoms suffered from the distractions attending a 
 regal -minority. In England the contests lor power between the 
 king's uncles, Lancaster, r*ork, and Gloucester, embroiled all public 
 measures; and the consequent disorders required a stronger hand to 
 cdmpose them than that of the weak and facile Richard. Taking 
 advantage' of the king^s absence, then engaged in quelling an insur- 
 rection in Ireland, Henry of Lancaster rose in open rebellion, and 
 r.ompGJJed Richard, at his return, to resign the crown. The parlia- 
 ment confirmed his deposition, and he was soon after privately assas- 
 sinated. Thus began the contentions between the houses of York 
 find Lancaster. 
 
 SECTION XXV. 
 
 ENGLAND AND FRANCE IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 
 STATE OF MANNERS. 
 
 L Henry IV. ascended the throne on the deposition of Richard II., 
 1 ,399 ; and had immediately to combat a rebellion raised by the earl 
 of Northumberland, for placing Mortimer, the heir of the house of 
 York, on the throne. The Scots and Welsh took part with the rebels, 
 but their united forces were defeated at Shrewsbury, and their lead- 
 s', young Percy (Hotspur), killed on the field, A second rebellion 
 
i48 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 headed bjr the archbishop of York, was quelled by the capital punish- 
 ment of its author. The secular arm was rigorously extended 
 against the followers of Wickliff, and this reign saw the first detestable 
 examples of religious persecution. The life of Henry was imbitter- 
 ed by the youthful disorders of his son the prince of Wales, who 
 afterwards nobly redeemed his character. Henry IV. died in 1,413, 
 at the age of forty-six. 
 
 2. Henry V. took advantage of the disorders of France, from the 
 temporary" insanity of its sovereign Charles VL, and the factious 
 struggles for power between the dukes of Burgundy and Orleans, 
 to invade the kingdom with a large army, which a contagious dis- 
 temper wasted down to a fifth of its numbers ; yet with this handful 
 of resolute and hardy troops, he defeated the French army of 00,000, 
 under the constable" D'Albert, in the famous battle of Agincourt, iu 
 which 10,000 of the enemy were slain, and 14,000 made prisoner?, 
 October 24, 1,415. Returning to England to recruit his forces, he 
 landed again with an army of 25,000, and fought his way to Paris. 
 The insane monarch, with his court, lied to Troye, and Henry pur- 
 suing, terminated the war by a treaty with the queen-mother of 
 the duke of Burgundy, by which it was agreed that he should marry 
 the daughter of Charles VL, and receive the kingdom of France as 
 her dowry, which, till the death of her father, he should govern as 
 regent. 
 
 3. Mean time the return of Henry to England gave the dauphin 
 hopes of the recovery of his kingdom. He was victorious in an- 
 engagement with the English tinder the d«ke of Clarence ; but his 
 success was of no longer duration than the absence cf the English 
 sovereign, who was himself hastening to the period of his triumphs. 
 Seized with a mortal distemper, Henry died in the 34th year of bis 
 age, 1,422, one of the most heroic princes that ever swayed the 
 sceptre of England. His brother, the duke of Bedford, was declared 
 regent of France, and Henry VI., an infant nine months old, was pro* 
 claimed king at Paris and at London, 1,422. 
 
 4. Charles VII. recovered France by slfw degrees. With the aid 
 of a young female enthusiast, the maid of Orleans, whom the credu- 
 lity of the age supposed to be inspired by Heaven, he gained several 
 important advantages over the English, which the latter inhumanly 
 revenged, by burning this heroine as a sorceress. Her death was of 
 equal advantage to the French as her life had been. The govern- 
 ment of the English was universally detested. Alter a struggle of 
 many years, they were at length, in 1,450, deprived of all that they 
 had ever possessed in France, except Calais and Guignes. Charles, 
 when he Had restored his kingdom to peace, governed it with admi- 
 rable wisdom and moderation. 
 
 5. The state of England and of France, the two most polished 
 kingdoms in Europe, furnishes a good criterion of the condition of 
 society in those ages of which we have been treating. Even in 
 the large cities the houses were roofed with thatch, and had no 
 chimnies. Glass windows were extremely rare, and the floors 
 were covered with straw. In England wine was sold only in the 
 shops of the apothecaries. Paper made from linen rags was first 
 manufactured in the beginning of the fifteenth century ; and the usq 
 of linen for shirts was at that time a very rare piece of luxury, 
 Yet even before that age the progress of luxury had excited a se- 
 rious alarm, for the parliament under Edward IIL found it necessary 
 to prohibit the use of gold and silver in apparel to all who hail net 
 
MODERN HISTORY 149 
 
 a hundred pounds a year ; and Charles VI. of France ordained, that 
 none should presume to entertain with more than two dishes and a 
 mess of soup. Before the reign of Edward I. the whole country of 
 England was plundered by robbers in great bands, who laid waste 
 entire villages; and some of the household officers of Henry III. 
 excused themselves for robbing on the highway, because the king 
 allowed them no wages. In 1,303 the abbot and monks of Westmin- 
 ster were indicted for robbing the king's exchequer, but acquitted. 
 The admirable laws of Edward I., which acquired him the title of 
 fhe English Justinian, give strong testimony of the miserable policy 
 and barbarism of the preceding times. 
 
 SECTION XXVI. 
 
 DECLINE AND FALL OF THE GREEK EMPIRE. 
 
 1. In the fourteenth century the Turks were proceeding by de- 
 grees to encroach on the frontiers of the Greek empire. The sul- 
 tan Ottoman had fixed the seat of his government at Byrsa in Bi- 
 thynia ; and his son Orcan extended his sovereignty to the Propontis, 
 and obtained in marriage the daughter of the emperor John Canta- 
 cuzenos. About the middle of the century the Turks crossed over 
 into Europe, and took Adrianopie. The emperor John Palaeologus, 
 after meanly soliciting aid from the pope, concluded a humiliating 
 treat\- with sultan Amurat, and gave his son as a hostage to serve in 
 the Turkish army. 
 
 2. Baiazet, the successor of Amurat, compelled the emperor to 
 destroy his fort of Galata, and to admit a Turkish judge into the city. 
 He prepared now to besiege Constantinople in form, when he was 
 forced to change his purpose, and defend himself against the victorious 
 Tamerlane. 
 
 3. Timur-bek or Tamerlane, a prince of the Usbek Tartars, and 
 descended from Gengiskan, after the conquest of Persia, a great part 
 of India and Syria, was invited by the Asiatic princes, enemies of 
 Bajazet, to protect them against the Ottoman power, which threaten- 
 ed to overwhelm them. Tamerlane, flattered by this request, im- 
 periously summoned the Turk to renounce his conquests; but the 
 message was answered with a proud defiance. The armies met near 
 Angoria (Ancyra) in Phrvgia, and Bajazet was totally defeated an<! 
 made prisoner by Tamerlane, 1,402. The conqueror made Samar- 
 cand the capital of his eninire, and there received the homage of all 
 the princes of the east, lamerlune was illiterate, but yet was solici- 
 tious for the cultivation of literature and science in his dominions. 
 Samarcand became for a while the seat of learning, politeness, and 
 the arts ; but was destined to relapse, after a short period, into its 
 ancient barbarism. 
 
 4. The Turks, after the death of Tamerlane, resumed their pur- 
 pose of destroying the empire of the east. Amurat II., a prince of 
 singular character, had, on the faith of a solemn treaty with the 
 king t)f Poland, devoted his days to retirement and study. A viola- 
 tion of the treaty, by an attack from the Poles on his dominions, made 
 him quit his solitude. He engaged and destroyed the Polish army, 
 with their perfidious sovereign, and then calmly returned to his re- 
 treaty till a similar crisis of -public expediency once more brought 
 him into active life. He left his dominions to hig son Mahomet if,, 
 
150 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 eurnamed the great, who resumed the project for the destruction of 
 Constantinople ; but its fall was a second time retarded by the neces- 
 sity in which the Turks were unexpectedly placed, of defending 
 their own dominions against a powerful invader. 
 
 5. Scanderbeg (John Castriot) prince of Albania, whose territories 
 had been seized by Amurat 11., was educated by the sultan as his 
 own child, and when of age, intrusted with the command of an 
 army, which he employed in wresting from Amurat his paternal 
 kingdom, 1,443. By great talents and military skill he maintained 
 his independent sovereignty against the whole force of the Turkish 
 empire. 
 
 6. Mahomet II., son of the philosophic Amurat, a youth of twen- 
 ty-one years of age, resumed the plan of extinguishing the empire 
 of the Greeks, and making Constantinople the capital of the Otto- 
 man power. Its indolent inhabitants made but a feeble preparation 
 for defenco. and the powers of Europe looked on with supine indif- 
 ference, 't'he Turks assailed the city both by land and sea ; and, 
 battering down it- vyalls with their ennnon. entered sword in hand, 
 and massacred ail whq opposed them. The emperor Gonstaafing 
 was slain; the city surrendered ; and thus was finally extinguished 
 the eastern empire of the Romans. A. D. 1,153, which, from the 
 building of its capital by Constantino the great, had subsisted 1,123 
 years. The imperial edifices were preserved from destruction. 
 The churches wore converted into mosques; but the exercise oi 
 their religion was allowed (o all the christians. From that time the 
 Greek christians have regularly chosen their own patriarch, whom 
 the sultan instals; though his authority continues to !:e disputed by 
 the Latin patriarch, who is chosen by the p^ope. Mahomet the great 
 liberally patronized the arts and sciences; and, to compensate lor 
 the migration of these learned Greeks, who, on the fall of the empire, 
 spread themselves over the countries of Europe, invited loth artists 
 and men of letters to his capital from other kingdoms, 
 
 7. The taking of Qpnstantinople was followed by the conquest of 
 Greece and Epirus. Italy might probably have met a similar fate, hut 
 by means of their fleet the \ enetians opposed the arms of Mahomet 
 with considerable success, and even attacked him in Greece. The 
 contending powers soon after put an end to hostilities by a treaty. 
 Mahomet the great died at (he age of fifty-one, 1,481. 
 
 SECTION xxvn. 
 
 GOVERNMENT AND POLICY OF THE TURKISH EMPIRE. 
 
 1 The government of Turkey is an absolute monarchy, the 
 whole legislative and executive authority of the state centering in 
 the sultan, whose power is subject to no constitutional control. It is, 
 however, limited in some degree by religious opinion; the precepts 
 of the Coran inculcating certain duties on the sovereign, which it 
 would be held an impiety to transgress. It is yet more strongly limit- 
 ed by the fear of deposition and assassination. Under these restraints 
 the prince can seldom venture on an extreme abuse of power. 
 
 2. The spirit of the people is fitted for a subjection bordering on 
 slavery. Concubinage being agreeable to the law of Mahomet, the 
 {grand seignior, the viziers, are born of female slaves : and there is 
 Scarcely a subject of the empire of ingenuous blood by both parents. 
 
ODERN HISTORY. 15) 
 
 It is a fundamental maxim of the Turkish policy, that all the officers 
 of state should be such as the sultan can entirely command, and at 
 any time destroy, without danger to himself. 
 
 3. The grand vizier is usually entrusted with the whole functions 
 of government, and of course subjected to the sole responsibility for 
 all public measures. Subordinate to him are six viziers of the bench, 
 who are his counsel and assessors in cases of law, of which he is 
 supreme judge. The power of the grand vizier is absolute, over all 
 the subjects of the empire ; but he cannot put to death a begler- 
 beg or a bashaw without the imperial signature ; nor punish a jani- 
 zary, unless through the medium of his military commander. The 
 bcglerbegs arc the governors of several provinces, the bishawsof 
 a single province. All dignities in the Tukish empire are personal, 
 and dependent on the sovereign's pleasure. 
 
 4. The revenues of the grand seignior arise from taxes and cus- 
 toms laid on the subject, annual tributes paid by the Tartars, stated 
 gifts from the governors of the provinces, and, above all, tb* 'ronfis- 
 catiqns of estates, from the viziers and bashaws downwards m the 
 iowest subjects of the empire. The certain and fixed revenues ct 
 the sovereign arc small in comparison of those which are aiburarv., 
 iiis absolute power enables him to execute great projects aV a juialjj 
 expense. 
 
 SECTION XXVIII. 
 
 FRANCE AND ITALY IN THE END OF THE FIFTEENTH 
 CENTURY. 
 
 1. Scarcely any vestige of the ancient feudal government nc^ 
 remained in France. The only subsisting fiefs were Burgundy and 
 Brittany. Charles the bold, duke of Burgundy, who sought to in- 
 crease his territories by the conquest of Switzerland and Lorraine, 
 was defeated by the Swiss, and killed in battle. lie left no son, and 
 Lewis XL of France took possession of Burgundy as a male fief, 
 1,447. The duke's daughter married Maximilian, son of the empe- 
 ror Frederick IIL, who, by this marriage, acquired the sovereignty 
 of the Netherlands. 
 
 2. The acquisition of Burgundy and of Provence, which was be- 
 queathed to France by the count de laMarche, increased very great- 
 iy the power of the crown.- Lewis XL, an odious compound of vice, 
 cruelty, and superstition, and a tyrant to his people, was the author 
 of many wise and excellent regulations of public policy. The bar- 
 barity of the pubiic executions in his reign is beyond all belief; yet 
 the wisdom of his laws, the encouragement which he gave to com- 
 merce, the restraints which he imposed on the oppressions of the 
 nobility, and the attention which he bestowed in regulating the courts 
 of justice, must ever be mentioned to his honour. 
 
 3. The count de la Marche, beside the bequest of Provence to 
 Lewis XL, left him his empty title of sovereign of the Two Sicilies, 
 Lewis was satisfied with the substantial gift; but his son Charles 
 VIII. was dazzled with the shadow. In the beginning of his reign 
 he projected the conquest of Naples, and embarked in the enterprise 
 with the most improvident precipitancy. 
 
 4. The dismembered state of Italy was favourable to his view». 
 
152 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 The popedom, during the transference of its seat to Avignon, had 
 lost many of its territories. Mantua, Modena, and Ferrara, had their 
 independent sovereigns. Piedmont belonged to the duke of Savoy ; 
 Genoa and Milan to the family of Sforza. Florence, under the Medi- 
 ci, had attained a very high pitch of splendour. Cosmo, the founder 
 oti hat family, employed a vast fortune, acquired by commerce, in 
 the improvement of his country, in acts of public munificence, and in 
 ike cultivation of the sciences and elegant arts. His high reputation 
 obtained for himself and his posterity the chief authority in his native 
 stale. Peter de Medici, his great grandson, ruled in Florence at the 
 period of the expedition of Charles VIII. into Italy. 
 
 5. The papacy was enjoyed at this time by; Alexander VI., a mon- 
 ster of wirkedness. The pope and the duke of Milan, who had invited 
 Charles to this enterprise, immediately betrayed him, and joined the 
 interest of the king of Naples. Charles, after besieging the pope in 
 llome, and forcing him to submission, devoutly kissed his feet. He 
 now marched against Naples, while its timid prince Alphonso fled to 
 Sicily, and his son to the isle of Ischia. after absolving bis subjects 
 from their allegiance. Charles entered Naples in triumph, and was 
 hailed emperor and Augustus: but he lost his new kingdom in almost 
 as short a time as he had gained it. A league was tormed against 
 France between the pope, the emperor Maximilian, Ferdinand of Ar- 
 i-rigon, Isabella of Castile, and the Venetians ; and on the return of 
 Charles to France, the troops which he had left to guard his conquest 
 were entirely driven out of Italy. ^ 
 
 6. It has been remarked that, from the decisive effect of this con- 
 federacy against Charles VII [., the sovereigns of Europe derived a 
 useful lesson of policy, and first adopted the idea of preserving a bal- 
 ance of power, by that tacit league which is understood to be always 
 subsisting, for the prevention of the inordinate aggrandizement of any 
 particular state. 
 
 7. Charles VIII. died at the age of twenty-eight, 1,498 ; and, leav- 
 ing no children, the duke of Orleans succeeded to the throne of 
 France by the title of Lewis XII 
 
 SECTION XXIX. 
 
 HISTORY OF SPAIN IN THE FOURTEENTH AND FIFTEENTH 
 CENTURIES. 
 
 1 . We go back a little to the middle of the fourteenth century, to 
 trace the history of vSpain. Peter of Castile, sumamed the cruel, for 
 tk> other reason but that he employed severe means to support his 
 just rights, had to contend against a bastard brother, Henry of Trans- 
 tamarre, who, with the aid of a French banditti, called Malandrins, 
 led by Bertrand du Guesclin, strove to dispossess him of his kingdom. 
 Peter was aided by Edward the black prince, then sovereign of Gui- 
 enne, who defeated Transtamarre, and took Bertrand prisoner ; but, 
 on the return of the prince to England, Peter was attacked by his 
 former enemies, and entirely defeated. Unable to restrain his rage 
 in the first view with Transtamarre, the latter put him to death with 
 his own hand, 1,368 ; and thus this usurper secured for himself and 
 his posterity the throne of Castile. 
 
 2. The weakness and debauchery of one of his descendants, Hen- 
 ry IV. of Castile, occasioned a revolution in Ihe kingdom The mat 
 
MODERJN HISTORY. 15S 
 
 jority of the nation rose in rebellion , the assembly of the nobles sol- 
 emnly deposed their king, and, on the alleged ground of his daughter 
 Joanna being a bastard, compelled him to settle the crown on his sis- 
 ter Isabella. They next brought about a marriage between Isabella 
 and Ferdinand of Arragon, which united the monarchies of Arragon 
 and Castile. After a ruinous civil war the revolution was at length- 
 completed by the death of the deposed sovereign, 1,474, and the re- 
 tirement of his daughter Joanna to a monastery, 1,479. 
 
 3. At the accession of Ferdinand and Isabella to the thrones of Ar- 
 ragon afcd' Castile, Spain was in a state of great disorder, from the 
 lawless depredations of the nobles and their vassals. It was the first 
 object of the new sovereigns to repress these enormities, by subject 
 ing the offenders to the utmost rigour of law, enforced by the sword 
 The holy brotherhood was instituted for the discovery and punishment 
 p-fcriEies; and the inquisition (Sect. XIX, 6 3), under the pretext of 
 extirpating heresy and impiety, afforded the most detestable exam- 
 ples of sanguinary persecution. 
 
 4. The Moorish kingdom of Granada, a most splendid monarchy, 
 but at that time weakened by faction, and a prey to civil war, offered 
 a tempting object to the ambition of Ferdinand and Isabella. Albo<> 
 cen was at war with bis nephew Aboabdeli, who wanted to dethrone 
 him ; and Ferdinand aided Aboabdeli, in the view of ruining both ; 
 for no sooner was the latter in possession of the crown by the death 
 of Alboacen, than Ferdinand invaded his ally with the whole force ct 
 Arragon and Castile. Granada was besieged in 1,491, and, after a 
 blockade of eight months, surrendered to the victor. Aboabdeli, bv 
 a mean capitulation, saved his life, and purchased a retreat for his 
 countrymen to a mountainous part of the kingdom, where they were 
 suffered to enjoy unmolested their laws and their religion. Thus 
 ended the dominion of the Moors in Spain, which had subsisted for 
 aOG years. 
 
 5. Ferdinand, from that period, took the title of king of Spain. In 
 1,492 he expelled all the Jews from his dominions, on the absurd 
 ground, that they kept in their hands the commerce of the kingdom ; 
 and Spain thus lost above 150,000 of the most industrious of her in- 
 habitants. The exiles spread themselves over the other kingdoms ot 
 Europe, and were often the victims of a persecution equally inhuman. 
 It would appear that Spain has felt, even to the present times, the ef- 
 fects of this folly, in the slow progress of the arts, and that deplora- 
 ble inactivity winch is foe characteristic of her people. Even the 
 discovery oi the new world, which happened at this very period, and 
 which stimulated the spirit of enterprise and industry in all the neigh- 
 bouring kingdoms, produced but a ieeble impression on that nation, 
 which might in a great degree have monopolized its benefits. Oi 
 that great discovery we shall afterwards treat in a separate section 
 
 SECTION XXX. 
 
 FRANCE, SPAIN, AND ITALY, IN THE END OF THE FIF- 
 TEENTH AND BEGINNING OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 1. Lewis XII., eagerly bent on vindicating his right to Naple*, 
 courted the interest of pope Alexander VI., who promised his aid on 
 condition that his natural son, Caesar Borgia, should receive from 
 Lewis the duchy of Yalentinoi*, with the king of Navarre ? s sister iu 
 
 2U 
 
Ip4 MODERN HISTORY 
 
 marriage. Lewis crossed the Alps, and in the space of a few days 
 was master of Milan and Genoa. Sforza duke ot Milan became his 
 prisoner for life. Afraid of the power of Ferdinand of Spain, Lewis 
 joined with him in the conquest of Naples, and agreed to divide 
 with him the conquered dominions, the pope making no scruple to 
 sanction the partition. But the compromise was of no duration ; 
 for Alexander VI., and Ferdinand, judging it a better policy to share 
 Italy between themselves, united their interest to deprive Lewis 
 of his new territories. The Spaniards, under Gonsalvo tie Cordova, 
 lefealed the French, under the duke de Nemours and the chevalier 
 ird; and Lewis irrecoverably lost his share of the kingdom of 
 
 2. Mi-: cry relates with horror 1 he crimes of pope Alexander V., 
 
 his son Csesar Borgia; their murders, robberies, profanations, 
 <. They compassed their ends in attaining every object oi 
 ambition, but with the universal abhorrence of mankind, and 
 
 y met with an ample retribution for their crimes. The popo 
 
 by poison, prepared, as was alleged, by himself for an enemy; 
 and Borgia, stripped of all his possessions by pope Julius II., and sent 
 
 •: •'• to Spain by Gonsalvo de Cordova, perished in miserable 
 rity: 
 
 Julius 11., the successor of Alexander, projected the formidable 
 bagne of Ca'rnbray, i',508, with the emperor, the kings of France 
 
 i>:'in. the duke of Savoy, and king o( Hungary, for the destrut- 
 
 '.': -.'. of Venice, and the division of her territories among the confed- 
 
 ' .-. They accomplished hi part their design, and Venice was on 
 
 verge of annihilation, when the pope changed his politics, 
 i Laving made the French subservient to his views of plundering the 
 Venetians, he now formed a new league with the Venetians, Ger- 
 mans, and Spaniards, to expel the French from Italy, and appropriate 
 ail their conquests. The Swiss and the English co-operated in this 
 design. The French made a brave resistance under their generals 
 Bayard and Gaston de Foix, but were finally overpowered. Lewis 
 was compelled to evacuate Italy ; Ferdinand, with the aid of Henry 
 \ "III. of England, stripped him of Navarre, and forced him to pur- 
 chase a peace. He died in 1,515. Though unfortunate in his milita- 
 ry enterprises, from the superior abilities of his rivals pope Julius 
 and Ferdinand, yet be was justly esteemed by his subjects for the 
 •Visdom and equity of his government. 
 
 SECTION XXXI. 
 
 HISTORY OF ENGLAND FROM THE MIDDLE OF THE 
 FIFTEENTH TO THE BEGINNING OF THE SIXTEENTH 
 CENTURY-. CIVIL WARS OF YORK AND LANCASTER. 
 
 1 . We have seen France recovered from the English in the early 
 part of the reign of Henry VI., by the talents and prowess of Charles 
 nil. During the minority of Henry, who was a prince of no capa- 
 city. England was embroiled l»} r the factious contention for power 
 between his uncles, the .duke of Gloucester and the cardinal oi Win- 
 chester. The latter, to promote his own views of ambition, married 
 Henry to Margaret of Anjou, daughter of Rcgner the titular king of 
 Naples, a woman of great mental endowments and singular heroism 
 
MODERN HISTORY. /65 
 
 of character, but whose seventy in the persecution of her enemies 
 alienated a great part of the nobles from their allegiance, and in- 
 creased the partisans of a rival claimant of the crown. 
 
 2. This was Richard duke of York, descended by his mother from 
 Lionel, second son of Ed ward III., and elder brother to John of Gaunt, 
 the progenitor of Henry VI. The white rose distinguished the fac- 
 tion of York, and the red rose that of Lancaster. The party of 
 York gained much strength from the incapacity of Henry, who was 
 subject to periodical madness ; and Richard was appointed lieutenant 
 and protector of the kingdom. The authority of Henry was now 
 annihilated; but Margaret roused her husband, in an interval oi 
 sanity, to assert his right; and the nation was divided in arms be- 
 tween the rival parties. In the battle of St. Albans 5,000 of the 
 Lancastrians were slain, and the king was taken prisoner by the duke 
 of York, on the 22d day of May, 1,456, Yet the parliament, while 
 it continued the authority of the protector, maintained its allegiance 
 to the king. 
 
 3. The spirit of the queen reanimated the royal party; and the 
 Lancastrians gained such advantage, that the duke of \ ork tied to 
 Ireland, while his cause was secretly maintained in England by Guv 
 earl of Warwick. In the battle of Northampton the party ot York 
 again prevailed, and Henry once more was brought prisoner to Lon- 
 don; while his dauntless queen still nobly exerted herself to retrieve 
 ids fortunes. York now claimed the crown in open parliament, be 
 prevailed only to have his right of succession ascertained on Henry 1 ? 
 ieath- to the exclusion of the royal issue. 
 
 the next battle the duke of York was .-lain, and his party de- 
 •• ; but his successor Edward, supported by Warwick, aveftge'd 
 Jus disaster by a signal victory near Touton, in Yorkshire. in 
 which 40,000 oi" the Lancastrians were slain. York was proclaimed 
 king by the title of Edward IV., while Margaret, with her dethroned 
 husband and infant son, lied into Flanders, 
 
 5. Edward, who owed his crown to Warwick, was ungrateful 
 to his benefactor ; and the imprudence and injustice of his condi^! 
 forced that nobleman at length to take part with the faction of Lan- 
 paster. The consequence was, that, after some struggles, Edward 
 was deposed, and Henry VI. once more restored to the throne by 
 the hands of Warwick, now known by the epithet of the kmg-vtaker.. 
 Rut this change was of no duration. The party of York ultimately 
 prevailed. The Lancastrians were defeated in the battle of Bai'iiet. 
 and the brave Warwick was slain in the engagement, 1,472. 
 
 l\ The intrepid Margaret, whose spirit was superior to every 
 change of fortune, prepared to strike a last blow for the crown oi 
 England in the battle of Tewksburv- The event was fatal to her 
 hopes : victory dec ared for Edward. Margaret was sent prisoner to 
 ihe tower of London; and the prince her son, a youth of high spirit. 
 when brought into the presence oi" his conquqror, having nobly dared 
 to justify his enterprise to the face of his rival, was barbarously mur- 
 dered by the dukes of Gloucester and Clarence. Henry VI. was 
 soon after privately put to death in the Tower. The heroic Margaret j 
 ransomed by Lewis XL, died in France, 1,482. 
 
 7. Edward IV., thus secured on the throne by the death of all his 
 competitors, abandoned himself without reserve to the indulgence ol 
 a vicious and tyrannical nature. He put to death, on the most frivo- 
 lous pretence, his brother Clarence, Preparing to gratify his subjects 
 by a war with France, he died suddenly in the forty-second year oi 
 
\W MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 his age, poisoned, as was suspected, by his brother Richard duke of 
 Gloucester, 1,483. 
 
 8. Edward left two sons, the elder, Edward V., a boy of thirteen 
 years of age. Richard duke of Gloucester, named protector in the 
 minority oF his nephew, hired, by means of Buckingham, a mob ol 
 the dregs of the populace to declare their wish for his assumption 
 of the crown. He yielded, with affected reluctance, to this voice of 
 the nation, and was proclaimed king by the title of Richard III., 1,483. 
 Edward V., after a reign of two months, with his brother the duke 
 of York, were, by command of the usurper, smothered while asleep, 
 And privately buried in the Tower. 
 
 9. These atrocious crimes found an avenger in Henry earl of 
 Richmond, the surviving heir of the house of Lancaster, who, aided 
 by Charles VIII. of France, landed in England, and revived the spirits 
 o? a party almost extinguished in the kingdom. He gave battle to 
 Richard in the field of Bosworth, and entirely defeated the army of 
 the usurper, who was slain while righting with the mest desperate 
 courage, August 22, 1,485. The crown which he wore in the engage- 
 ment was immediately placed on the head of the conqueror. This 
 auspicious day put an end to the civil wars of York and Lancaster. 
 Henry VII. united the rights of both families by his marriage with 
 Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV. 
 
 10. The reign of Henry VII. was of twenty-four years r duration: 
 and under his wise and politic government the kingdom recovered 
 all the wounds which it had sustained in those unhappy contests. 
 Industry, good order, and perfect subordination, were the fruit of the 
 excellent Taws passed in this reign ; though the temper of the sove- 
 reign was despotic, and his avarice, in the latter part of his reign, 
 prompted to the most oppressive exactions. 
 
 \\. The government of Henry was disturbed by two very singular 
 enterprises ; the attempt of Lambert Simnel, the son of a baker, to 
 counterfeit the person of the earl of Warwick, son of the duke of 
 Clarence ; and the similar attempt of Perkin Warbeck, son of a 
 Elemish Jew. to counterfeit the duke of York, who had been smother- 
 ed in the Tower by Richard III. Both impostors found considerable- 
 support, but were finally defeated. Simnel, after being crowned 
 king of England and Ireland at Dublin, ended his days in a menial 
 office of Henry's household. Perkin supported his cause by lorce 
 of arms for live years, and was aided by a great proportion of the 
 English nobility. Overpowered at length he surrendered to Henry, 
 who condemned him to perpetual imprisonment ; but his ambitious 
 spirit meditated a new insurrection, and he was put to death as a 
 traitor. Henry VII. died in 1,509, in the fifty-third year of his age, 
 and the twenty-fourth of his reign. 
 
 SECTION XXXII. 
 
 HISTORY OF SCOTLAND FROM THE MIDDLE OF THE 
 FOURTEENTH CENTURY TO THE END OF THE REIGN OF 
 JAMES V. 
 
 1. hv no country of Europe had the feudal aristocracy attained t 
 a greater height than in Scotland. The power of the greats - 
 barone, while it rendered them independent, and often the riva" - 
 
MOJDERxN HISTORY 157 
 
 of their sovereign, was a perpetual source of turbulence and dis- 
 order in the kingdom. It was therefore a constant policy of the 
 Scottish kings to humble the nobles, and break their factious com- 
 binations. Robert I. attempted to retrench the vast territorial pos- 
 sessions of his barons, by requiring every landholder to produce tbe 
 titles of his estate; but was resolutely answered, that the sword was 
 (heir charter of possession. 
 
 2. On the death of Robert in 1,329, and during the minority oi 
 hh son David, Edward Baliol, the son of John formerly king of 
 .Scotland, with the aid of Edward III. of England, and ot many oi 
 the factious barons, invaded the kingdom, and was crowned at Scone, 
 while the young David was conveyed for security to France. The 
 fn.:;;n dependence of Baliol on the English monarch deprived him of 
 the affections of the people. Robert, the steward of Scotland, Ran- 
 dolph, and Douglas, supported the Brucian interest, and, assisted by 
 the French, restored David to his throne. This prince was destined 
 to sustain many reverses of fortune ; for, in a subsequent invasion oi 
 the English territory by the Scots, he was taken prisoner in the bat- 
 tle of Durham, and conveyed to London. He remained eleven 
 }*ears in captivity, and witnessed a similar fate of a brother monarch. 
 John king of France, taken prisoner by the black prince in the battle 
 of Poictiers. David was ransomed by his subjects, and restored to 
 his kingdom in 1,357 ; and ended a turbulent reign in 1,370-1. The 
 crown passed at his demise to his nephew Robert, the high steward 
 of Scotland, in virtue of a destination made by Robert 1. 
 
 3. The reign of Robert II., which was of twenty years' duration, 
 was spent in a series of hostilities between the Scots and English, 
 productive of no material consequence to either kingdom. The 
 weak and indolent disposition of his successor Robert III., who found 
 himself unequal to the contest with his factious nobles, prompted 
 him to resign the government to his brother, the duke of Albany. 
 This ambitious man formed the design of usurping the throne by the 
 murder of his nephews, the sons of Robert. The elder, Rothsay, a 
 prince of high spirit, was imprisoned on pretence of treasonable de- 
 signs, and starved to death. The younger, James, escaped a similar 
 fate which was intended for him; but on his passage to France, 
 whither he was sent for safety by his father, he was taken by an Eng- 
 lish ship of war, and brought prisoner to London. The weak Robert 
 sunk under these misfortunes, and died, 1,405, after a reign of fifteen 
 years. 
 
 4. James I., a prince of great natural endowments, profited by a 
 captivity of eighteen years at the court of England, in adorning" his 
 mind with every valuable accomplishment. At his return to his 
 kingdom, which in his absence had been weakly governed by the 
 regent Albany, and suffered under all the disorders of anarchy, he 
 bent his whole attention to the improvement and civilization of his 
 people, by the enactment of many excellent laws, enforced with a 
 resolute authority. The factions of the nobles, their dangerous com- 
 binations, and their domineering tyranny over their dependents, tbe 
 great sources of the people's miseries, were firmly restrained, aot! 
 most severely punished. But these wholesome innovations, white 
 they procured to James the affections of the nation at large, excited 
 the odium of the nobility, and gave birth to a conspiracy, headed 
 by the earl of Athole,/the king's uncle, which terminated* in the 
 murder of this excellent prince, in the 44th year of his age, A. D. 
 1,437. 
 
 O 
 
Ib8 MODERJN HISTORY. 
 
 5. His son James II. inherited a considerable portion of the talents 
 of his father; and, in the like purpose of restraining the inordinate 
 power of his nobles, pursued the same maxims of government, which 
 an impetuous temper prompted him, in some instances, to carry to 
 the most blameable excess. The earl of Douglas, trusting to a pow- 
 erful vassalage, had assumed an authority above the laws, and a state 
 and splendour rival to those of his sovereign. He was seized, and 
 beheaded without accusation or trial. His successor imprudently 
 running the same career, and boldly justifying, in a conference, his 
 rebellious practices, was put to death by the king's own bund. Thus 
 were the factions of the nobles quelled by a barbarous rigour 01 
 authority. To his people James was beneficent and humane, and 
 his laws contributed materially to their civilization and prosperity. 
 He was killed, in the 30th year of his age, by the bursting of a can- 
 non, in besieging the castle of Roxburgh, A. D. 1,460. 
 
 G. His son James III., without the talents of his predecessors, 
 affected to tread in the same steps. To humble his nobles he be- 
 stowed his confidence on mean favourites, an insult which the for- 
 mer avenged by rebellion. His brothers Albany and Mar, aided 
 by Edward IV. of England, attempted a revolution in the kingdom, 
 which was frustrated only by the death of Edward. In a second re- 
 bellion the confederate nobles forced the prince of Rothsny, oi-!c>t son 
 of James, to appear in arms against his t'ather. In an engagement 
 near Bannockburn the rebels were successful, and the king was slain 
 in the 35th near of his age, 1,488. 
 
 7. James IV., a great and most accomplished prince, whose talents 
 were equalled by his virtues, while his measures of government were 
 dictated by a true spirit of patriotism, won by a well-placed confi- 
 dence the affections of his nobility. In his marriage with Margaret, 
 the daughter of Henry VII. ot England, both sovereigns wisely 
 sought a bond of amity between the kingdoms; but this purpose was 
 frustrated in the succeeding reign of Henry VIII. The high spirit of 
 the rival monarchs was easily inflamed by" trifling causes of offence; 
 and France, then at war with England, courted the aid of her an- 
 cient ally, .lames invaded England with a powerful army, which \\e 
 wished to lead to immediate action; but the prudent delays of Surrey, 
 the English general, wasted and weakened his force. In the fatal 
 battle of Elodden the Scots were defeated with prodigious slaughter. 
 The gallant James perished in the fight, and with him almost the 
 whole of the Scottish nobles, A. D. 1,513. 
 
 8. Under the long minority of his son James V., an infant at the 
 time of his father's death, the kingdom was feebly ruled by his uncle 
 Albany. The aristocracy began to resume its ancient spirit of inde- 
 pendence, which was ill-brooked by a prince of a proud and un» 
 controlable mind, who felt the keenest jealousy of a high preroga- 
 tive. With a systematic policy he employed the church to abuse the 
 nobility, conferring all the offices of state on able ecclesiastics. The 
 cardinal Beaton co-operated with great zeal in the designs of his 
 master, and under him ruled the kingdom. 
 
 9. Henry VIII., embroiled with the papacy, sought an alliance 
 with the king of Scots; but the ecclesiastical counsellors of the lat- 
 ter defeated this beneficial purpose. A war was thus provoked, and 
 James was reluctantly compelled to court those nobles whom it had 
 hitherto been his darling object to humiliate. They now determined 
 on a disgraceful revenge. In an attack on the Scottish border the 
 English were repelled, and an opportunity offered to the Scots of 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 153 
 
 cutting off their retreat. The king gave his orders to that end, but 
 his barons obstinately refused to advance beyond the frontier. One 
 measure more was wanting to drive their sovereign to despair. In a 
 subsequent engagement with the English 10,000 of the Scots deliber- 
 ately surrendered themselves prisoners to 500 of the enemy The 
 high spirit of James sunk under his contending passions, and he died of 
 a broken heart in the 33d year of his age, A. D. 1,542, a lew days 
 after the birth of a daughter, yet more unfortunate than her father, 
 Mary queen of Scots. 
 
 SECTION XXX111. 
 
 OV THE ANCIENT CONSTITUTION OF THE SCOTTISH GOVERN- 
 MENT. 
 
 1. We have seen that it was a constant policy of the Scottish kings 
 to abase the power of their nobles ; and that the struggle for power 
 was the source of much misery and bloodshed. But this policy w;is 
 necessary, from the dangerous ambition and lawless tyranny of those 
 nobles, who frequently aimed at overturning the throne, and exercis- 
 ed the severest oppression on all their dependents. The interests, 
 therefore, of the people, no less than the security of the prince, de- 
 manded the repression of this overweening and destructive power. 
 The aristocracy was, however, preserved, no less by its own strength 
 than by the concurrence of circumstances, and chiefly by the violent 
 and unhappy fate of the sovereigns. Meantime, though the meas 
 ores which the kings pursued were not successful, yet their conse- 
 quences were beneficial. They restrained, if they did not destroy, 
 the spirit of feudal oppression, and cave birth to order, wise laws 
 and a more tranquil administration of government 
 
 2. The legislative power, though nominally resident-dn the parlia- 
 ment, was virtually in the king, who, by his influence, entirely con- 
 troied its proceedings. The parliament consisted of three estates, 
 the nobles, the dignified clergy, and the less barons, who were the 
 representatives of the towns and shires. The disposal of benefices, 
 gave the crown the entire command of the churchmen, who were 
 equal to the nobles in number; and at least a majority of the com- 
 mons were the dependents of the sovereign. A committee, termed 
 the lords of the articles, prepared every measure that was to come 
 before the parliament, tfy the mode of its election this committee 
 was in effect nominated by the king, it is to the credit of the Scot 
 tish princes, that there are few instances of their abusing an authority 
 so extensive as that which they constitutionally enjoyed. 
 
 3. The king had anciently the supreme jurisdiction in all causes, 
 civil and criminal, which he generally exercised through the medium 
 of his privy council ; but in 1,425 James i. instituted the court of ses- 
 sions, consisting of the chancellor and certain judges chosen from the 
 three estates. This court was new-modelled by James V., and its 
 jurisdiction limited to civil causes, the cognizance of crimes being 
 committed to the justiciary. The chancellor was the highest officer 
 of the crown, and president of the parliament. To the chamberlain 
 belonged the care of the finances and the public police; to the high 
 steward the charge of the king's household ; the constable regulated 
 all matters of military arrangement ; and the marshal was the king's 
 Ueutenant, and master of the norse. 
 
160 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 4. The revenue of the sovereign consisted of his domain, which 
 was extensive, of the feudal casualties and forfeitures, the profits of 
 the wardships of his vassals, the rents of vacant benefices, the pecu- 
 niary fines for offences, and the aids or presents occasionally given 
 by the subject ; a revenue at all times sufficient for the purposes of 
 government, and the support of the dignity of the crown. 
 
 5. The political principles which regulated the conduct of the Scots 
 .toward other nations were obvious and simple. It had ever been an 
 object of ambition to England to acquire the sovereignty of Scotland, 
 which was constantly on its guard against this design of its more potent 
 neighbour. It was the wisest policy for Scotland to attach itself to 
 France, the natural enemj 7 of England ; an alliance reciprocally court- 
 ed from similar motives. In those days this attachment was justly 
 deemed patriotic ; while the Scots, who were the partisans of Eng- 
 land, were with equal justice regarded as traitors to their country. 
 In the period of which we now treat, it was a settled policy of the 
 English sovereigns to have a secret faction in their pay in Scotland, 
 for the purpose of dividing and thus enslaving the nation; and to this 
 source all the subsequent disorders of the latter kingdom are to be 
 attributed. 
 
 SECTION XXXIV. 
 
 A VIEW OF THE PROGRESS OF LITERATURE AND SCIENCE 
 IN EUROPE, FROM THE REVIVAL OF LETTERS TO THE 
 END OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 1 . The first restorers of learning in Europe were the Arabians, 
 who, in the course of their Asiatic conquests, becoming acquainted 
 with some of the ancient Greek authors, discovered and justly appre- 
 ciated the knowledge and improvement to be derived from them. 
 The caliphs procured from the eastern emperors copies of the an- 
 cient manuscripts, and had them carefully translated into Arabic ; es- 
 teeming principally those which treated of mathematics, physics, and 
 metaphysics. They disseminated their knowledge in the "course ot 
 their conquests, and founded schools and colleges in all the countries 
 which they subdued. 
 
 2. The western kingdoms of Europe became first acquainted with 
 the learning of the ancients through the medium of those Arabian 
 translations. Charlemagne caused Latin translations to be made from 
 the Arabian, and founded, after the example of the caliphs, the uni- 
 versities of Bononia, Pavia, Osnaburg, and Paris. Alfred wth a simi- 
 lar spirit, and by similar means, introduced a taste for literature in 
 England ; but the subsequent disorders of the kingdom replunged it 
 into barbarism. The Normans, however, brought from the continent 
 some tincture of ancient learning, which was kept alive in the monas- 
 teries, where the monks were meritoriously employed in transcrib- 
 ing a few of the ancient authors, along with the legendary lives of 
 the saints. 
 
 3. In this dawn of literature in England appeared Henry of Hunting- 
 ton and Geoffrey of Monmouth, names distinguished in the earliest 
 annals of poetry and romance ; John of Salisbury, a moralist ; Wil- 
 liam of Malmesbury, annalist of the history of England before the 
 reign of Stephen ; Giraldus Cambrensjs^ known in the fields of histo? 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 161 
 
 ry, theology, and poetry; Joseph of Exeter, author of two Latin epic 
 poems on the Trojan war, and the war of Antioch, or the crusade, 
 which are read with pleasure even in the present day. 
 
 4: But this era of a good taste in letters was of short duration. 
 The taste for classical composition and historical information yielded 
 to the barbarous subtleties of scholastic divinity taught by Lombard 
 and Abelard, and to the abstruse doctrines of the Roman law, which 
 began to engage the general attention from the recent discovery of 
 the pandects at Amalphi, 1,137. The amusements of the vulgar 
 in those periods were metrical" and prose romances, unintelligible 
 \ rophecies, and fables of giants and enchanters. 
 
 5. In the middle of the thirteenth century appeared a distinguish- 
 ed genius, Roger Bacon, an English friar, whose comprehensive mind 
 was tilled with all the stores of ancient learning; who possessed a 
 discriminating judgment to separate the precious ore from the dross, 
 an 1 a power of invention fitted to advance in every science which was 
 the object of his study. lie saw the insufficiency of the school phi- 
 losophy, and first recommended the prosecution of knowledge by ex- 
 periment and the observation of nature. He made discoveries of 
 importance iri astronomy, optics, chemistry, medicine, and mechanics, 
 ife reformed the kalendar, discovered the construction of telescopic 
 glasses forgotten after his time, and revived by Galileo, and has left a 
 plain intimation of his knowledge of the composition of gun-powder. 
 let this superior genius believed in the possibility of discovering an 
 elixir for the prolongation of life, in the transmutation of metals into 
 gold, and in judicial astrology. 
 
 6. A general taste prevailed for poetical composition in the twelfth 
 and thirteenth centuries. The troubadours of Provence wrote son- 
 nets, madrigals, and satirical ballads ; and excelled in extempore dia- 
 logues on the subject of love, which they treated in a metaphysical 
 and Platonic strain. They contended for the prize of poetry at sol- 
 emn meetings, where princes, nobles, and the most illustrious ladies 
 attended to decide between the rival bards ; and some, of those prin- 
 ces, as Richard 1. of England, Frederick I. emperor of Germany, are 
 celebrated as troubadours of eminence. Many fragments yet remain 
 of their compositions. 
 
 7. The transference of the papal seat to Avignon, in the fourteenth 
 century, familiarized the Italian poets with the songs of the trouba- 
 dours, and gave a tincture of the Provencal style to their compo- 
 sitions, which is very observable in the poetry of Petrarch and of 
 Dante. The Divina Comedia of Dante first introduced the machine- 
 ry of angeis and devils in the room of the pagan mythology, and is a 
 work containing many examples of the terrible sublime. The Son- 
 nets and Cunzoni of Petrarch are highly tender and pathetic, though 
 vitiated with a quaintness and conceit, which is a prevalent feature 
 of the Italian poetry. The Decameronc of Boccacio, a work of the 
 same age, is a master-piece for invention, ingenious narrative, and 
 acquaintance with human nature. These authors have fixed the 
 standard of the Italian language. 
 
 8. Contemporary with them, and of rival merit, was the English 
 Chaucer, who displays all the talents of Boccacio, through the me- 
 dium of excellent poetry. The works of Chaucer discover an exten- 
 sive knowledge of the sciences, an acquaintance both with ancient 
 and modern learning, particularly the literature of France and Italy, 
 and above all, a most acute discernment of life and manners. 
 
 9. Of similar character are the poems of Gower, but of a graver 
 
 2 21 
 
102 MODERN HISTORY. *■** 
 
 cast, and a more chastened morality. Equal to these eminent men 
 in every species of literary merit was the accomplished James I. of 
 Scotland, of which his remaining writings bear convincing testimony. 
 The doubtful Rowley of Bristol Is said to have adorned the fifteenth 
 century. 
 
 10. Spain at this period began to emerge from ignorance and bar- 
 barism, and to produce a few of those works which are enumerated 
 with approbation in the whimsical but judicious criticism of Cervan- 
 tes. (Don Quixote, b. 1, c. 6.) 
 
 11. Though poetry attained in those ages a considerable degree 
 of splendour, yet there was. little advancement in general literature 
 and science. History was disgraced by the intermixture of miracle 
 and fable ; yet we find much curiovw information in the writings 
 of Matthew of Westminster, of Walsinghanv, Everanl, Duysbu rg, and 
 the Chronicles of Froissart and Monstrelet. Philip de Commincs 
 happily describes the reigns of Lewis XI. and Charles MIL ©f 
 France. Villain and Platina arc valuable recorders ef the affair? of 
 Italy. 
 
 12. A taste for classical learning in the fifteenth century led to 11k? 
 discover}' of many of the ancient authors, Poggio discovered the 
 writings of Quintilian and several of the compositions of Cicero, 
 which stimulated to farther research, and to tbe recovery of many 
 valuable remains of Greek and Roman literature. Put this ta?!e was 
 not generally diffused. France and England Were extremely barbae 
 rous. The library at Oxford contained only GOO' volumes, and there 
 were but four classics in the royal library at Paris, But a brighter 
 period was approaching. On the fall of the eastern empire, in the 
 end of the fifteenth century, the dispersion of the Greeks diffused a 
 t:i--te for polite literature over all the. west of Europe. A succession 
 of popes, endowed with a liberal and enlightened spirit, gave every 
 encouragement to learning and the sciences ; and, above all, tfae 
 noble discovery of the mi tf printing contributed to their rapid ad- 
 vancement and dissemination, and gave a certain assurance of the 
 perpetuation of every valuable art, and the progressive improvement 
 of human knowledge. 
 
 13. The rise of dramatic composition among the moderns is to be 
 traced to the absurd and ludicrous representation, in the churches, 
 o'l the scripture histories, called in England mysteries, miracles, and 
 moralities. These were first exhibited in the twelfth century, and 
 continued to the sixteenth, when they were prohibited by law in 
 England. Of these we have amusing specimens in Warton's His- 
 tory of English Poetry. Profane dramas were substituted in their 
 place ; and a mixture of the sacred and profane appears to have 
 been known in France as early as 1,300. In Spain the farcical mys- 
 teries keep their ground to the present day, and no regular compo- 
 sition for the stage was known till the end of the sixteenth century 7 . 
 The Italians are allowed by their own writers to have borrowed 
 their theatre from the French and English. 
 
 See Rett's Elements of General Knowledge, vol, \ 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 SECTION XXXV. 
 
 VIEW OF THE PROGRESS OF COMMERCE IN EUROPE BEFOUE 
 THE PORTUGUESE DISCOVERIES. 
 
 1 . Before we give an account of the discoveries of the Portu- 
 guese in the lifteenth century, in exploring a new route to India, we 
 shall present a short view of the progress of commerce in Europe 
 down to that period. 
 
 The boldest naval enterprise of the ancients was the Periplus ot 
 Hanno, who sailed from Carthage to the coast of Guinea, within 
 four or five degrees of the equator, A. C. 570. The* ancients (\U I 
 not know that Africa was almost circumnavigable. They had a very 
 limited knowledge of the habitable earth. They believed that both 
 the torrid and frigid zones were uninhabitable ; and they were very 
 imperfectly acquainted with a great part of Europe, Asia, ami Af- 
 rica. Denmark, Sweden, Prussia, Poland, and the greater part ol 
 Russia, were unknown to them. In Ptolemy's description of the 
 globe, the 63d degree of latitude is the limit of the earth to tl*> 
 north, and the equator to the south. 
 
 2. Britain was Circumnavigated in the time of Domitian. r i^h% 
 Romans frequented it for the purposes of commerce ; and Tacit u* 
 mentions London as a celebrated resort of merchants. The com- 
 merce of the ancients was, however, chiefly confined to the Meditep- 
 ranean. In the flourishing periods of the eastern empire the mer- 
 chandise of India was imported from Alexandria ; but, after the coi>- 
 quest of Egypt by the Arabians, it was carried up the Indus, and 
 thence by land to the Oxus, which then ran directly into the Caspian 
 sea; thence it was brought up the Wolga, and again carried over land 
 to tine Don, whence it descended into the Euxine. 
 
 3. After the tall of the western empire commerce was long at a 
 .stand in Europe. When Attila was ravaging Italy the Yeneti took 
 refuge in the small islands at the northern extremity of the Adriatic, 
 and there founded Venice, A. D. 452, which began very early to 
 equip small fleets, and trade to the coasts of Egypt and the Levant-, 
 for spices and other merchandise of Arabia and India. Genoa, Flor- 
 ence, and Pisa, imitated this example, and began to acquire consider- 
 able wealth ; but Venice retained her superiority over these rival 
 states, and gained considerable territory on the opposite coast of Illy *- 
 icum and Dalmatia. 
 
 4- The maritime cities of Italy profited by the crusades, in furnish- 
 ing the armies with supplies, and bringing home the produce of the 
 east The Italian merchants established manufactures similar k» 
 those of Constantinople. Rogero king of Sicily brought artisans 
 from Athens, and established a silk manufacture at Palermo in 1,130. 
 The sugarcane was planted in Sicily in the twelfth century, 'and 
 thence carried to Madeira, and finally made its way to the VVest 
 Indies. 
 
 5. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries the Italians were the 
 only commercial people of Europe. Venice set the first exampte 
 of a national bank in 1,157, which has maintained its credit to the 
 present times. The only trade of France, Spain, and Germany, at 
 tliis time, was carried on at stated fairs and markets, to which traders 
 resorted from all quarters, paying a tax to the sovereigns or tlie lords 
 
164 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 of the territory. The more enterprising bought a privilege of es 
 emption, by paying at once a large sum, and were thence called fret 
 traders. 
 
 6. In the middle ages the Italian merchants, usually called Lom- 
 bard*, were the factors of all the European nations, and were en* 
 riced, by privileges granted by the sovereigns, to settle in France, 
 Spain, Germany, and England. They were not only traders in com- 
 modities, but bankers, or money dealers. In this last business they 
 found a severe restraint from the canon law prohibiting the taking 
 of interest ; and hence, from the necessary privacy of their bargains, 
 there were no bounds .to exorbitant usury. The Jews, too, who 
 were the chief dealers in money, brought disrepute on the trade of 
 hftnkmg^ and frequently suffered, on that account, the most intoler- 
 able persecution and confiscation of their fortunes. To guard against 
 these injuries they invented bills of exchange. 
 
 7. The Lombard merchants excited a spirit of commerce, and 
 gave birth to manufactures, which were generally encouraged by 
 the sovereigns in the different kingdoms of Europe. Among the 
 chief eircourageiqents was the institution of corporations or monop- 
 olies, the. earliest of • which arc traced up to the eleventh century; 
 a policy beneficial, and perhaps necessary, where the spirit of indus- 
 try is low, and manufactures are in their infancy; but of hurtful con- 
 sequence where trade arid manufactures are nourishing. 
 
 8. Commerce began to spread toward the north of Europe about 
 the end o\' the twelfth century. The sea-ports on the Baltic traded 
 with France and Britain, and with the Mediterranean by the staple 
 of the isle of Oleron, near the mouth of the Garonne, then possessed 
 by the English. The commercial laws of Oleron aixl VWsbuy (en 
 the Baltic) regulated for many ages the trade of Europe. To pre- 
 fect their trade from piracy, Lubec, Hamburgh, and most of the nci t{> 
 
 crn sea-ports, joined in a confederacy, under certain general regula- 
 tions, termed the league of the kanse-Umns ; a union so beneficial m 
 its nature, and so formidable in point of strength, that its alliance iv; s 
 courted by the predominant powers of Europe. 
 
 9. For the trade ef the hanse-towns with the southern kingdom!*, 
 Bruges, on the coast of Flanders, was found a convenient entn p< '. 
 and thither the Mediterranean merchants brought the commodities 
 of India and the Levant to exchange with the produce and manufac- 
 tures ef the north. The Flemings now began to encourage trade 
 and manufactures, which thence spread to the Brabantcrs : but theii 
 growth being checked by the impolitic sovereigns of those j ro\ 
 mces, they found a more favourable field in England, which was des- 
 tined to derive from them the great source of its national opulence. 
 
 10. The Britons had very early seen the importance of commerce 
 Bede relates that London was frequented by ioreigners for the pur- 
 pose of trade in 614; and William of Maimesburv speaks of it, in 
 1,041, as a most populous and wealthy city. The cinque ports. 
 Dover, Hastings, Rythe, Romney, and Sandwich, obtained in that age 
 their privileges and immunities, on condition of furnishing each fivt? 
 ships of war. These ports are now eight in number, and send their 
 members to parliament. 
 
 11. The woollen manufacture of England was considerable in the 
 twelfth century. Henry II. incorporated the weavers of London, 
 and gave them various privileges. By a law passed in his reign, all 
 cloth made of foreign wool was condemned to he burnt. Scotland 
 at this time seems to have possessed a considerable source of wealth, 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 165 
 
 rts is evident from the payment of the ransom of William the lion, 
 which wns 10,000 merks. equal to 100,0001. sterling of present 
 money. The English found it difficult to raise double that sum for the 
 ransom of Richard I., and the Scots contributed a proportion of it. 
 The English sovereigns at first drew a considerable revenue from 
 the custom on wool exported to be manufactured abroad; but becom- 
 ing soon sensible of the benefit of encouraging its home manufacture. 
 they invited, for that purpose, the foreign artisans and merchants to 
 reside in England, and gave them valuable immunities. Edward III. 
 was peculiarly attentive to trade and manufactures, as appears b}' the 
 laws passed in his reign ; and he was bountiful in the encouragement 
 of foreign artisans. The succeeding reigns were not so favourable. 
 During the civil wars of York and Lancaster the spirit of trade ami 
 manufactures greatly declined ; nor did they begin to revive ami 
 tlourish till the accession of iienry VII. In that interval of their de- 
 cay in England commerce and the arts were encouraged in Scotland 
 by James 1. and bis successors, as much as the comparatively ruiie 
 and turbulent state of the kingdom would permit. The herring nsli- 
 ery then began to be vigorously promoted; and the duties laid en 
 the exportation of woollen cloth show that this manufacture was then 
 considerable among the Scots. Glasgow began to acquire wealth 
 by the fisheries in 1,120, but had little or no foreign trade till after 
 the discovery of America and the West Indies. 
 
 12. Henry VII. gave the most liberal encouragement to trade am} 
 manufactures, particularly the woollen, by inviFing foreign artisans, 
 and establishing them at Leeds, Wakefield, Halifax, and other places. 
 The navigation acts were passed in his rei^n, and commercial treaties 
 formed with the continental kingdoms tor the protection of the 
 merchant-shipping. Such was the state of commerce at the time 
 when the Portuguese made those great discoveries which open*- 
 ed a new route to India, and gave a circulation to their wealth over 
 most of the nations of Europe. 
 
 SECTION XXXVI. 
 
 DISCOVERIES OF THE PORTUGUESE IN THE FIFTEENTH 
 CENTURY, AND THEIR EFFECTS ON THE COMMERCE OF 
 EUROPE. 
 
 1. The polarity of the magnet had been known in Europe a* 
 early as the thirteenth century ; but the compass was not used in 
 sailing till the middle of the fourteenth; and another century had 
 elapsed from that period, while yet the European mariners scarcely 
 ventured out of the sight of their coasts. The eastern ocean was 
 little known ; and the Atlantic was supposed to be a boundless ex- 
 panse of sea, extending probably to the eastern shores of Asia. In 
 the belief that the torrid zone was uninhabitable, a promontory on 
 the African coast, in the 29th degree of north latitude, was termed 
 Cape Non, as forming an impassable limit. 
 
 2. In the beginning of the fifteenth century John king of Por- 
 tugal sent a few vessels to explore the African coast ; and these 
 doubling Cape Non proceeded to Cape Boyador, within two de- 
 grees of the northern tropic. Prince Henry, the son of John, equip- 
 ped a single ship, which, being driven out to sea. landed on the island 
 
1G6 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 of Porto Santo. This involuntary experiment emboldened the 
 mariners to abandon their timid mode of coasting, and launch into the 
 open sea. In 1,420 the Portuguese discovered Madeira, where they 
 established a colony, and planted the Cyprus vine, and the sugar cane. 
 
 3. The spirit of enterprise being thus awakened, prince Henry 
 obtained from Eugene IV. a bull granting to the Portuguese the 
 properly of all the countries which they might discover between 
 Cape Kon and India. Under John II. of Portugal the Cape Verd 
 islands were discovered and colonized; and the fleets, advancing to 
 the coast of Guinea, brought home gold dust, gums, and ivory. Hav- 
 ing passed the equator, the Portuguese entered a new hemisphere, 
 and boldly proceeded to the extremity of the continent. In 1,479 a 
 tieet under Vasco de Gama doubled the Cape of Good Hope, and, 
 sailing onwards beyond the mouths of the Arabian and Persian gulfs, 
 arrived at Calicut, on the Malabar coast, after a voyage of 1,500 
 leagues, performed in thirteen months. 
 
 4. De Gama entered into an alliance with the rajah of Calicut, a 
 tributary of the Mogul empire, and returned to Lisbon with speci- 
 mens of the wealth and produce of the country. A succeeding tleet 
 formed settlements, and, vanquishing the opposition of the native 
 princes, soon achieved the conquest of all the coast of Malabar. 
 The city of Goa, taken by storm, became the residence of a PortiP- 
 giicse viceroy and the capital of their Indian settlements. 
 
 5. The Venetians, who had hitherto engrossed the Indian trade 
 by Alexandria, now lost it for ever. After an ineffectual project ot 
 cutting through the isthmus of Suez, they attempted to intercept the 
 Portuguese by their fleets stationed at the mouth of the Red sea and 
 Persian gulf, but were every where encountered by a superior 
 force. The Portuguese made settlements in both the gulls, and 
 vigorously prosecuted their conquests on the Indian coast and sea. 
 The rich island of Ceylon, the kingdoms of Pegu, Siam, and Malao 
 ca, were speedily subdued, and a settlement established in Bengal 
 They proceeded onward to China, hitherto scarcely known to the Eu- 
 ropeans but by the account of a single Venetian traveller, Marco Paolo, 
 in the thirteenth century ; and they obtained the emperor's permis- 
 sion to form a settlement at Macao, thus opening a commerce with 
 that immense empire, and the neighbouring islands of Japan. In the 
 space of fifty years the Portuguese were masters of the whole trade 
 of the Indian ocean, and sovereigns of a large extent of Asiatic 
 territorv. 
 
 6. These discoveries produced a wonderful effect on the com- 
 merce of Europe. The produce of the spice islands was computed 
 to be worth annually 200,000 ducats to Lisbon. The Venetians, 
 after every effort to destroy the trade of the Portuguese, offered to 
 become sole purchasers of all the spice brought to Europe, but were 
 refused. Commercial industry was roused in every quarter, and 
 manufactures made a rapid progress. Lyons, Tours, Abbeville, Mar- 
 seilles, Bordeaux, acquired immense wealth. Antwerp and Amster- 
 dam became the great marts of the north. The former owed its 
 splendour to the decline of Bruges, which was ruined by civil com- 
 motions ; and the Portuguese made Antwerp their entrepot for the 
 supply of the northern kingdoms. It continued highly flourishing 
 till the revolt of the Netherlands, in the end of the sixteenth century, 
 when it was taken by the Spaniards, and its port destroyed by block- 
 ing up the Scheld. 
 
 " f The trade of Holland rose on the fall of Antwerp. Amsterdam 
 
MODERN HISTORY res 
 
 became considerable after the decline of the hanseatic confederacy 
 in 1,428, but rose into splendour and high commercial opulence from 
 the destruction of Antwerp. The United Provinces, dependent on 
 industry alone for their support, became a model of commercial ac- 
 tivity to all nations. 
 
 8. Britain felt the effect of that general stimulus which the Por- 
 tuguese discoveries gave to the trade of Europe ; but other cansfcs 
 had a more sensible operation to that end in England. The reforma- 
 tion, by suppressing the convents, and restoring many thousands to 
 society, and the cutting off the papal exactions, which drained the* 
 kingdom of its wealth, the politic laws passed in the reign of Henry 
 VIll., and the active patriotism of Elizabeth, were vigorous incentives 
 to national industry. 
 
 9. From the time of Henry Vlll. to the present, the commerce 
 and manufactures of England have been uniformly progressive. 
 The rental of England in lands and houses did not then exceed live 
 millions per annum ; it is now above eighteen millions. The unman- 
 ufactured wool of one year's growth is supposed to be worth two 
 millions; when manufactured, as it now is, by British hands, it b- 
 worth eight millions. Above a million and a half of hands are em* 
 ployed in that manufacture alone ; half a million are employed in 
 the manufactures of iron, steel, copper, brass, lead ; the linen man- 
 ufactures of England, .Scotland, and Ireland, occupy nearly a million', 
 and a number not much inferior is employed in the fisheries. It is 
 presumable, on the whole, that nearly a fourth of the population of the 
 united kingdoms is actually employed in commerce and manufacture*. 
 
 10. The vast increase of the national wealth of Britain appears 
 ehielly, 1, from the increase of population, which is supposed to 
 be nearly five to one (at least in the large cities) since the reign 
 of Elizabeth ; 2, from the great addition made to the cultivated 
 lands of the kingdom, and the high improvement of agriculture 
 since that period, whence more than quadruple the quantity of food 
 is produced ; ;5, from the increase of the commercial shipping, at 
 least sixfold within the same time ; 4, from the comparative low rate 
 *>f interest, which is demonstrative of the increase of wealth. Tiie 
 consequences of the diffusion of the commercial spirit are most im- 
 portant to the national welfare. Erom general industry arises afflu- 
 ence, joined to a spirit of independence ; and on this spirit rests the 
 freedom of the British constitution, and all the blessings which are 
 r- /joyed under its protection. 
 
 SECTION XXXVII. 
 
 GERMANY AND FRANCE IN THE REIGNS OF CHARLES V. 
 AND FRANCIS I. 
 
 1. We resume the detail of the history of Europe at the beginning 
 of the sixteenth century, previously remarking, that the Germanic 
 empire continued for above fitly years in a state of languid tranquilli- 
 ty, from the time of Albert II., the successor of Sigismund, during the 
 long reign of Frederick III., whose son Maximilian acquired, bjr his 
 marriage with Mary, duchess of Burgundy, the sovereignty of the 
 Netherlands. Maximilian was elected Emperor in 1 ,49.3 ; and, by 
 establishing a perpetual peace between the separate Germanic states, 
 hid the foundation of the subsequent grandeur of the empire. 
 
168 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 2. Philip archduke of Austria, son of Maximilian, man led Jane, the. 
 daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella; and of that marriage the eldest 
 son was Charles V., who succeeded to the throne of Spain in 1,510, 
 and, on the death of his grandfather Maximilian, preferred his claim 
 to the v :mt imperial throne. He had for his competitor Francis I. 
 of France, who had distinguished himself by the conquest of the Mil- 
 anese, and the adjustment of the contending interests of the Italian 
 states'. The German electors, afraid of the exorbitant power both of 
 Charles and of Francis, would have rejected both, and conferred the 
 imperial crown on Frederick duke of Saxony ; but this extraordinary 
 man declined the proffered dignity, and his council determined the 
 election in favour of Charles ot Austria, 1,519. 
 
 3. Charles V. and Francis I. were now declared enemies, and their 
 mutual claims on each other's dominions were the subject of perpet- 
 ual hostility. The emperor claimed Artois as paijt of the N ether- 
 lands. Francis prepared to make good his right to the Two Sicilies. 
 Charles had to defend Milan, and to support his title to Navarre, 
 which bad been wrested from France by his grandfather Ferdinand- 
 Henry V III. of England was courted by the rival monarchs, as the 
 weight of England was sufficient to turn the scale, where the power 
 of each was nearly balanced. 
 
 4. The first hostile attack was made by Francis on the kingdom of 
 Navarre, which he svou and lost in the course of a few months. The 
 emperor attacked Picardy, and his troops at the same time drove the 
 French out of the Milanese. On the death of Leo X., Charles placed 
 cardinal Adrian on the papal throne, 1,521 ; and by the promise of 
 elevating V/olsey, the minister of Henry VIII., to that dignity, on the 
 death of Adrian, gained the alliance of the English monarch in his war 
 against France. 
 
 5. At this critical time Francis imprudently quarrelled with his 
 l«st general, the constable of Bourbon, who, in revenge, deserted 
 the emperor, and was by him invested with the chief command of hi? 
 armies. The imperial generals were far superior inabilities to their 
 opponents. The French were defeated at Biagrassa, and Charles 
 was carrying every thing before him in Italy, when Francis entered 
 the Milanese, and retook the capital ; but, in the subsequent battle of 
 Pavia, his troops were entirely defeated, and the French monarch 
 became the constable of Bourbon's prisoner, 1,525. 
 
 6. The emperor made no advantage of his good fortune. By the 
 treaty of Madrid, Francis regained his liberty, on yielding to Charles 
 the duchy of Burgundy, and the superiority of Flanders and Artois.. 
 He gave his two sons as hostages for the fulfilment of these conditions; 
 but the states refused to ratify them, and the failure was compromised 
 for a sum of money. 
 
 7. On the renewal of the war, Henry VIII. took part with France, 
 and Charles lost an opportunity of obtaining the sovereignty of Italy. 
 The papal army in the French interest was defeated by the consta- 
 ble of Bourbon, and the pope himself made prisoner ; but Bourbon 
 was killed in the siege of Rome, and Charles allowed the pope to 
 purchase his release. ' 
 
 3. After the conclusion of the peace of Cambray, 1,529, Charles 
 visited Italy, and received the imperial diadem from pope Clement 
 VII. The Turks having invaded Hungary, the emperor marched 
 against them in person, and compelled the sultan Solyman, with an 
 army of 300,000 men, to evacuate the country. He soon after em- 
 barked for Africa, to replace the dethroned Muley Hassan in the 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 169 
 
 sovereignty of Tunis and Algiers, which had been usurped by Hay- 
 radin Barbarossa ; and he achieved the enterprise with honour. His 
 reputation at this period exceeded that of all the sovereigns of Eu- 
 rope, for political ability, real power, and the extent and opulence of 
 his dominions. 
 
 9. Francis was glad to ally himself even with the Turks to cope 
 with the imperialists, and Barbarossa inyaded Italy ; but the troops of 
 Charles prevented the co-operation of the French, and separately 
 defeated and dispersed the allied powers, while another army of the 
 imperialists ravaged Champagne and Picardy. 
 
 10. In the interval of a truce, which was concluded at Nice, for 
 ten years between the rival monarchs, Charles passed through 
 France to the Netherlands, and was entertained by Francis with the 
 most magnificent hospitality. He had promised to grant to the French 
 king his favourite desire, the investiture of Milan ; but failing to keep 
 his word, the war was renewed with double animosity. The French 
 and Turkish fleets attacked Nice, but were dispersed by the Ge- 
 noese admiral, Andrea Doria. In Italy the French were victori- 
 ous in the battle of Ccrizoles, but drew no benefit from this partial 
 advantage. The imperialists, on the whole, had a decided superior- 
 ity, and France must have been undone, if the disorders of Germany, 
 from the contending interests of the catholics and protestants, had 
 not forced the emperor to conclude the treaty of Crepi with Francis, 
 1,544. At the same time Francis purchased a peace with Henry 
 VIII., who had again taken part with his rival. Francis died soon 
 after, in 1,547 ; a prince of great spirit and abilities, and of a gener- 
 ous and noble mind, unfortunate only from the necessity of strug- 
 gling against a power which overmatched him both in policy and 
 in resources. 
 
 11. A short time before this period, was founded the order of the 
 Jesuits by Ignatius Lovola, 1,535. The principle of the order was 
 implicit obedience ancl submission to the pope. The brethren were 
 not confined to their cloisters, but allowed to mix with the world ; 
 and thus, by gaining the confidence of princes and statesmen, they 
 were enabled to direct the policy of nations to the great end of estab- 
 lishing the supreme authority of the holy see. The wealth which 
 (hey accumulated, the extent of their power, and the supposed con- 
 sequences of their intrigues to the peace of nations, excited at length 
 a general hostility to their order ; and the institution has recently 
 been abolished in all the kingdoms of Europe. 
 
 12. If Charles V. aimed at universal empire, he was ever at a dis- 
 tance from the object of his wishes. The formidable confederacy of 
 the protestanis to preserve their liberties and their religion, gave 
 him perpetual disquiet in Germany. He never could form his do- 
 minions into a well connected body, from the separate national inter- 
 ests of the Spaniards, Flemish, and Germans; and even the imperial 
 states were divided by their jealousies, political and religious. The 
 hostilities of foreign powers gave him continual annoyance. He found 
 in Henry II., the successor ot Francis, an antagonist as formidable as 
 his father. His cares and difficulties increased as he advanced in life, 
 and at length entirely broke the vigour of his mind. In a state of 
 melancholy despondency he retired trom the world at the age of fifty- 
 six, resigning first th« kingdom of Spain to his son Philip II., 1,556* 
 ana afterwards the imperial crown in favour of his brother Ferdinand, 
 who was elected emperor on the 24th day of February, 1,568. 
 
 P 22 
 
1TO MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 SECTION XXXVIII. 
 
 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CONSTITUTION OF THE GERMAN 
 
 EMPIRE. 
 
 1. Previot;sly to the reign of Maximilian L, the Germanic empire 
 was subject to all the disorders of the feudal governments. The 
 general diets of the state were tumultuous and indecisive, and their 
 constant wars with one another kept the whole in anarchy and bar- 
 barism. Wenceslaus, in 1,383, endeavoured to remedy those evils 
 by the enactment of a general peace ; but no effectual measures 
 were taken for securing it. Albert II. attempted to accomplish 
 the same end, and had some success. He divided Germany into six 
 circles, each regulated by its own diet ; but the jealousies of the states 
 prompted them constantly to hostilities, which there was no superior 
 power sufficient to restrain. 
 
 2. At length Maximilian I. procured, in 1,500, that solemn enact- 
 ment which established a perpetual peace among the Germanic 
 states, under the cogent penalty of the aggressor being treated as a 
 common enemy. He established the imperial chamber for the settle- 
 ment of all differences. The empire was divided anew into ten cir- 
 cles, each circle sending its representatives to the imperial chamber, 
 and bound to enforce the public laws through its own territory. A 
 regency was appointed to subsist in the intervals of the diet, composed 
 of twenty members, over whom the emperor presided. 
 
 3. These regulations, however wise, would probably have failed 
 of their end, if the influence of the house of Austria, which has for 
 three centuries continued to occupy the imperial throne, had not 
 enforced obedience to them. The ambition and policy of Charles 
 V. would have been dangerous to the freedom of the German prin- 
 ces, if the new system of preserving a balance of power in Europe 
 had not made these princes find allies and protectors sufficient to 
 traverse the emperor s schemes of absolute dominion. He attained, 
 however, an authority far beyond that of any of his predecessors. 
 The succeeding emperors imitated his policy ; but, as they did not 
 possess equal talents, they found yet stronger obstacles to their en- 
 croachments on the freedom of the states. 
 
 4. The Germanic liberties were settled for the last time by the 
 treaty of Westphalia, in 1,648, which tixed the emperors preroga- 
 tives, and the privileges of the states. The constitution ofthe em- 
 pire is not framed for the ordinary ends of government, the prosper- 
 ity and happiness of the people. It regards not the rights of the 
 subjects, but only the independence of the several princes ; and its 
 sole object is to maintain each in the enjoyment of his sovereignty, 
 and prevent usurpations and encroachments on one another's terri- 
 tories. It has no relation to the particular government of the states, 
 each of which has its own laws and constitution, some more free, and 
 others more despotic. 
 
 5. The general diet has the power of enacting the public laws of 
 the empire. It consists of three colleges, the electors, the princes, 
 and the free cities. All such public laws, and all general measures, 
 are the subject of the separate deliberation of the electoral college 
 and that ofthe princes. When jointly approved by them, the resolu- 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 17 1 
 
 tion is canvassed by the college of the free cities, and, if agreed to, 
 becomes a placitwn of the empire. If approved finally by the em- 
 peror, it is a conclusum, or general law. ti disapproved, the resolu- 
 tion is of no effect. Moreover, the emperor must be the proposer of 
 all gener.il laws. Still farther, no complaint or request can be made 
 by any of the princes to the diet without the approbation of the 
 elector archbishop of Mentz, who may refuse it at his pleasure. 
 These constitutional defects are the more hurtful in their conse- 
 quences, from the separate and often contending interests of the prin- 
 ces, who have all the rights of sovereignty, the power of contracting 
 foreign alliances, and are frequently possessed of foreign dominions 
 of far greater value than their imperial territories. 
 
 (5. The Germanic constitution has, however, in some respects, its 
 advantages. The particular diets of each circle tend to unite those 
 priaces in all matters of national concern, whatever may be the dis- 
 cordance of their individual interests. The regulations made in 
 those diets compensate the want of a general legislative power. Be- 
 side the circular diets, the electors, the princes, the free cities, the 
 catholics, and the protestants, hold their particular diets, when their 
 common interests require it; and these powers balance one another. 
 Considered, therefore, solely in the light of a league of several inde- 
 pendent princes and states, associating for their common benefit, the 
 Germanic constitution has many advantages; in promoting general 
 harmony, securing the rights of its members, and preventing the. 
 weak from being oppressed by the strong. 
 
 SECTION XXXIX. 
 
 OF THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY AND SWITZERLAND, 
 AND THE REVOLUTION IN DENMARK AND SWEDEN. 
 
 1. The age of Charles V. is the era of the reformation of reli- 
 gion, of the discovery of the new world, and of the highest splen- 
 dour of the fine arts in Italy and the south of Europe. We shall 
 treat in order of each of these great objects ; and, first, of the refor- 
 mation. 
 
 The voluptuous taste and the splendid projects of pope Leo X. 
 demanding large supplies of money, he instituted through all the 
 christian kingdoms a sale of indulgences, or remittances from the 
 pains of purgatory. This traffic being abused to the most shocking 
 purposes, Martin Luther, an Augustine friar, ventured to preacn 
 against it, and to inveigh with acrimony against the power which 
 authorized it. He found many willing hearers, particularly in the 
 electorate of Saxony, of which the prince Frederick was his friend 
 and protector. Leo X. condemned his tenets by a papal bull, which 
 only increased the zeal and indignation of the preacher. In a book 
 which he published, entitled the Babyhnish Captivity, he applied 
 all the scriptural attributes of the whore of Babylon to the papal 
 hierarchy, and attacked with equal force and virulence the doctrines 
 of transubstantiation, purgatory, the celibacy of the priests, and the 
 refusal of wine to the people in the communion. The book being 
 condemned to the flames, Luther burned the pope's bull and the 
 decretals at Wittemberg, 1,520. 
 
 2. One of the first champions, who took up the pen against Lb- 
 
172 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 ther, was Henry VIII of England ; whose book, presented to pop© 
 Leo, procured him the title now annexed to his crown, of defender of 
 the faith. The rest of Europe seemed to pay little attention to 
 these rising controversies. Charles V., studious of the friendship of 
 the pope, took part against Luther, and summoned him to answer 
 for his doctrines in the diet of Worms. The reformer defended 
 himself with great sphit, and, aided by his friend the elector, made 
 a safe escape into Saxony, where the mass was now universally 
 abolished, the images destroyed, and the convents shut up. ^ The 
 friars and nuns returned to the world, and Luther took a nun for his 
 wife. Nor did these secularized priests abuse their new freedom, 
 for their manners were decent, and their life exemplary. 
 
 3. Erasmus has justly censured the impolicy of the catholic clergy 
 in their modes of resisting and suppressing the new doctrines. They 
 allowed them to be discussed in sermons before the people, and em- 
 ployed for that purpose furious and bigoted declaimers, who only 
 increased and widened differences. They would not yield in the 
 most insignificant trifle, nor acknowledge" a single fault ; and they 
 persecuted with the utmost cruelty all whose opinions were not 
 agreeable to their own standard of faith. How wise is the counsel of 
 lord Bacon ! u There is no better way to stop the rise of new sects 
 and schisms, than to reform abuses, compound the lesser differences, 
 proceed mildly from the first, refrain from sanguinary persecutions, 
 and rather to soften and win the principal leaders, by gracing and 
 advancing them, than to enrage them by violence and bitterness." 
 Bac. Mor. Ess. Sect. 1 . Ess. 1 2. 
 
 4. Switzerland followed in the path of reformation. Zuinglius of 
 Zurich preached the new tenets with such zeal and effect, that the 
 whole canton was converted, and the senate publicly abolished the 
 mass, and purified the churches. Berne took the same measures 
 with greater solemnity, after a discussion in the senate which lasted 
 two months. Basle imitated the same example. Other cantons 
 armed in defence of their faith ; and in a desperate engagement, in 
 which the protestants were defeated, Zuinglius was slain, 1,531. 
 
 5. Lutheranism was now making its progress towards the north 
 of Europe. Sweden, Denmark, and Norway, were at this time gov- 
 erned by Christiern II., the Nero of the north. The Swedes, re- 
 luctantly submitting to the yoke, were kept in awe by Troll, arch- 
 bishop of Upsal, a faithful minister of the tyrant in all his schemes 
 of oppression and cruelty. On intelligence of a revolt, the king 
 and his primate, armed with a bull from pope Leo X., massacred 
 the whole body of the nobles and senators, amidst the festivity of a 
 oanquet. Gustayus Vasa, grand nephew of Charles Canutson, 
 formerly king of Sweden, escaped from this carnage, and concealed 
 himself in the mines of Dalecarlia. By degrees assembling a small 
 army, he defeated the generals of Christiern, whose cruelties at 
 length determined the united nations to vindicate their rights, by a 
 solemn^ sentence of deposition. The tyrant fled to Flanders, and 
 Frederick duke of Holstein was elected sovereign of the three 
 kingdoms ; but Sweden, adhering to her heroic deliverer, and the 
 heir of her ancient kings, acknowledged alone the sovereignty of 
 Gustavus Vasa, 1,521. The bull of Leo X., and its bloody conse- 
 quences, were sufficient to convert Sweden and Denmark to the 
 tenets of the reformed religion. Gustavus enjoyed his sceptre many 
 years in peace, and contributed greatly to the happiness and pros* 
 perity of nis kingdom. 
 
MODERN HISTORY, 173 
 
 6. As early as 1,525, the states of Saxony, Brunswick, Hesse Cas- 
 sel, and the cities of Strasburgh and Frankfort, had embraced the 
 doctrines of the reformation. Luther had now a species of spiritual 
 control, which he exercised by means of a synod of six reformers. 
 His successful example gave rise to reformers of different kinds, 
 whose doctrines were less consonant to reason or good policy. Two 
 fanatics of Saxony, Storck and Muncer, condemned infant baptism, 
 and therefore were termed anabaptists. They preached universal 
 equality and freedom of religious opinion, but, with singular inconsis- 
 tency, attempted to propagate their doctrines by the sword. They 
 were defeated at Mulhausen, and Muncer died on a scaffold ; but the 
 party seemed to acquire new courage. They surprised Munster, 
 expelled the bishop^ and anointed for their king a tailor named Jack 
 ot Leyden, who defended the city with the most desperate courage, 
 but fell at length, with his party under the superior force of regular 
 troops. The anabaptists, thus sanguinary in their original tenets 
 and practices, have long ago become peaceable and harmless sub- 
 jects. 
 
 7, The united power of the pope and emperor found it impossi- 
 ble to check the progress of the reformation. The diet of Spires 
 proposed articles of accommodation between the Lutherans and 
 catholics. Fourteen cities of Germany, and several of the electors, 
 protested formally against those articles; and hence the Lutheran 
 party acquired the name of protectants. They presented to the 
 assembly at Augsburg a confession of their faith, which is the stand- 
 ard of the protestant doctrines. 
 
 8. The virtuous lives and conduct of the protestant leaders^ com- 
 pared with those of the higher clergy among the catholics, formed 
 a contrast very favourable to the progress of the reformation. The 
 solemn manner in which the states of Switzerland, and particularly 
 Geneva, had proceeded, in calmly discussing every point of contro- 
 versy, and yielding only to the force of rational conviction, attracted 
 the respect of all Europe. John Calvin, a Frenchman, becoming a 
 zealous convert to the new doctrines, was the first who gave them a 
 systematic form by his- Institutions, and enforced their authority by 
 the establishment of synods, consistories, and deacons. The magis- 
 tracy of Geneva gave these ordinances the authority of law ; and 
 they were adopted by six of the Swiss cantons, by the protestants ol 
 France, and the presbyterians of Scotland and England. The ablest 
 advocates of Calvin will find it difficult to vindicate him from the 
 charge of intolerance and the spirit of persecution ; but these, which 
 are vices or defects of the individual, attach not in the least to the 
 doctrines of the reformation, which are subject to the test of reason, 
 and can derive no blemish or dishonour from the men who propagat- 
 ed them, or even from the motives which might influence some oi 
 their earliest supporters. This observation applies more particularly 
 to the subject of the ensuing section. 
 
 See Kett's Elements of General Knowledge, VoL I. 
 P2 
 
174 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 SECTION XL. 
 
 OF THE REFORMATION IN ENGLAND UNDER HENRY VIII., 
 AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 1. Wickliff, in the middle of the fourteenth century, by an at- 
 tack on the doctrines of transubstantiation, indulgences, and auricular 
 confession, and still more by a translation of the scriptures into the 
 vernacular tongue, had prepared the minds of the people of England 
 for a revolution in religious opinions; but his professed followers 
 were not numerous. 1 he intemperate passions of Henry VII I. were 
 the immediate cause of the reformation in England. He had been 
 married eighteen years to Catharine of Spain, aunt of Charles V., 
 by whom he had three children, one of them, Mar*, afterwards queen 
 of England ; when, falling in love with Anna Bullen, he solicited 
 Clement VII. for a divorce from Catharine, on the score of her for- 
 mer marriage to his elder brother Arthur. The pope found himself 
 io the painful dilemma of either affronting the emperor, or mortally 
 offending the king of England. In hope that the king's passion 
 might cool, he protracted the time by preliminaries and negotiations, 
 but to no purpose. Henry was resolutely bent on accomplishing 
 his wishes. The Sorbonue and other French universities gave an 
 opinion in his favour. Armed with this sanction, he caused Cranmer 
 archbishop of Canterbury to annul his marriage. The repudiated 
 queen gave place to Anna Bullen. On this occasion VVolsey, the 
 minister of Henry,, lost the favour of his master, by opposing, as 
 was believed, his darling measure. 
 
 2. Clement VII., from this specimen, of the wayward temper of 
 Henry, resolved to keep well with the emperor, and issued his bull, 
 condemnatory of the sentence of the archbishop of Canterbury. 
 Henry immediately proclaimed himself head of the church of Eng- 
 land ; the parliament ratified his title, and the pope's authority was 
 instantly suppressed in all his dominions, 1,534. He proceeded to 
 abolish the monasteries, and confiscate their treasures and revenues, 
 electing out of the latter six new bishoprics and a college. The 
 immoralities of the monks were sedulously exposed, the forgery of 
 relics, false miracles, &c. held up to the popular scorn. 
 
 3. Yet Henry, though a reformer, and pope in his own kingdom, 
 had not renounced the religion of Rome: he was equally an enemy 
 to the tenets of Luther and Calvin as to the pope's jurisdiction in 
 England. Inconstant in his affections,, and a stranger to all humanity, 
 he removed Anna Bullen from the throne to the scaffold, to gratify » 
 new passion for Jane Seymour, a maid of* honour, who happily died 
 about a year after. To her succeeded Anne of Cleves, whom he 
 divorcecf in nine months, to make way for Catharine Howard. She 
 underwent the same fate with Anna Bullen, on a similar suspicion of 
 infidelity to his bed. His sixth wife, Catharine Parr,, with difficulty 
 retained her hazardous elevation, but had the good fortune to sur- 
 vive the tyrant. 
 
 4. On the death of Henry VIII., 1,547, and the accession of his son 
 Edward VI., the protestant religion prevailed in England, and was 
 favoured by the sovereign ; but he cued at the early age of fifteen, 
 1 ,553 j and the sceptre passed to the hands of his sister Mary, an in- 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 175 
 
 tolerant catholic, and most cruel persecutor of the protestants. In 
 her reign, which was of five years' duration, above 800 miserable 
 victims were burnt at a stake, martyrs to their religious opinions 
 Mary inherited a congenial spirit with her husband, Philip II. of Spain, 
 whose intolerance cost him the loss of a third part of his dominions. 
 
 5. Mary was succeeded in 1,558 by her sister Elizabeth, the daugh- 
 ter of Anna Bullen, a protestant, the more zealous from an abhor- 
 rence of the character of her predecessor. In her reign the religion 
 of England became stationary. The hierarchy was established in its 
 present form, by archbishops, bishops, priests, and deacons, the king 
 being by law the head of the church. The liturgy had been settled 
 in the reign of Edward VI. The canons are agreeable chiefly to the 
 Lutheran tenets. 
 
 Of the reformation in Scotland we shall afterwards treat under u 
 separate section. 
 
 SECTION XLI. 
 
 OF THE DISCOVERY AND CONQUEST OF AMERICA BY THE 
 SPANIARDS. 
 
 1. Among those great events which distinguished the age of Charles 
 V. was the conquest of Mexico by Fernando Cortez, and of Peru by 
 the two brothers, Francis and Gonzalo Pizarro. The discovery oi 
 America preceded the first of these events about twenty-seven years; 
 but the account of it has been postponed, that the whole may be 
 shortly treated in connexion. 
 
 Christopher Columbus, a Genoese, a man of an enterprising spirit, 
 having in vain solicited encouragement from his native state, from 
 Portugal, and from England, to attempt discoveries in the western 
 ocean, applied to Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain. Under the patron- 
 age of Isabella, as queen of Castile, he was furnished with three 
 small ships, ninety men, and a few thousand ducats for the expense 
 of his voyage. After thirty-three days' sail from the Canaries he dis- 
 covered San Salvador, September, 1,492; and soon after the islands 
 of Cuba and Hispaniola. He returned to Spain, and brought a few 
 of the natives, some presents of gold, and curiosities of the country. 
 He was treated by the Spaniards with the highest honours, and soon 
 supplied with a suitable armament for the prosecution of his discove- 
 ries. In his second voyage he discovered the Caribbees and Jamaica. 
 In a third voyage he descried the continent of America, within ten 
 degrees of the equator, toward the isthmus of Panama. The next 
 vear the geographer Americus followed the track of Columbus, and 
 had the undeserved honour of giving his name to this continent. 
 
 2. The inhabitants of America and its islands were a race of me n 
 quite new to the Europeans. They are of the colour of copper. In 
 some quarters, as in Mexico and Peru, the Spaniards are said to have 
 found a flourishing empire, and a people polished, refined, and luxu- 
 rious ; in others, man was a naked savage, the member of a wander- 
 ing tribe, whose sole occupation was hunting or war. The savages 
 ofthe continent were characterized by their cruelty to their enemies, 
 their contempt of death, and their generous affection for their friends. 
 The inhabitants ofthe islands were a milder race, of gentler manners, 
 and less hardy conformation of body and mind. The larger animals, 
 as the horse, the cow, were unknown in America. 
 
176 MODERN HISTORV. 
 
 3. Those newly-discovered countries were believed to contain in 
 exhaustible treasures. The Spaniards, under the pretence of reli 
 gion and policy, treated the inhabitants with the most shocking inhu- 
 manity. The rack, the scourge, the faggot, were employed to con- 
 vert them to Christianity. They were hunted like wild beasts, or 
 burnt alive in their thickets and fastnesses. Hispaniola, containing 
 three millions of inhabitants, and Cuba, containing above 600,000, 
 were absolutely depopulated in a few years. It was now resolved to 
 explore the continent; and Fernando Cortcz, with eleven ships and 
 617 men, sailed for that purpose from Cuba in 1,519. Landing at 
 Tabasco, he advanced, though with a brave opposition from the na- 
 tives, into the interior of the country. The state of Tlascala, after 
 ineffectual resistance, became the ally of the Spaniards. On the ap- 
 proach of the Spaniards to Mexico, the terror of their name had pav- 
 ed the wav for an easy conquest. 
 
 4. The Mexican empire, though founded little more than a century 
 before this period, had arisen to great splendour. Its sovereign, Mon- 
 tezuma, received the invaders with the reverence clue to superior 
 beings. But a short acquaintance opened the eyes of the Mexicans, 
 Finding nothing in the Spaniards beyond what was human, they were 
 .laring enough to attack and put to death a few of them. The in- 
 trepid Cortez immediately marched to the palace with fifty men, 
 and putting the emperor in irons, carried him oft* prisoner to his 
 camp; where he afterwards persuaded him to acknowledge himself 
 a vassal of the, king of Castile, to hold his crown of the king as his 
 superior, and to subject his dominions to the payment of an annual 
 tribute. 
 
 5. Velasquez, governor of Cuba, jealous of Cortcz, attempted to 
 supersede him, by despatching a superior army to the continent ; but 
 Cortez defeated his troops, and compelled them to join his own ban- 
 ners. In an attack b}' the Mexicans for the rescue of their sovereign, 
 Montezuma, having offered to mediate between them and their ene- 
 mies, was indignantly put to death by his own subjects. The whole 
 empire, under its new sovereign, Guatimozin, was now armed against 
 the Spaniards; and while the plains were covered with their archers 
 and spearmen, the lake of Mexico was iilled with armed canoes. To 
 oppose the latter the Spaniards built a lew vessels under the walls of 
 their city, and soon evinced tiieir superiority to their feeble foe on 
 both elements. The monarch was taken prisoner by the officers of 
 Cortez, and was stretched naked on burning coals, because he refus* 
 ed to discover his treasures. Soon after a conspiracy against the 
 Spaniards was discovered, and the wretched Guatimozin, with all the 
 
 f>rinces of his blood, were executed on a gibbet. This was the last 
 flow to the power of the Mexicans; and Cortez was now absolute 
 master of the whole empire, 1,525. 
 
 6. In the year 1,531 Diego D'Almagro and Francis Pizarro, with 
 250 foot, 60 horse, and 12 small pieces of cannon, landed in Peru, a 
 large and flourishing empire, governed by an ancient race of mon- 
 archs named Incas. The lnca Atabalipa receiving the Spaniards with 
 reverence, they immediately required him to embrace the christian 
 faith, and surrender all his dominions to the emperor Charles V.,who 
 had obtained a gift of them from the pope. The proposal being mis- 
 understood, or received with hesitation, Pizarro seized the monarch 
 as his prisoner, while his troops massacred 5,000 of the Peruvians on 
 the spot. The empire was now plundered of prodigious treasures In 
 gold and precious stones ; and Atabalipa, being suspected of conceal- 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 17? 
 
 ing a part from his insatiable invaders, was solemnly tried as a crimi- 
 nal, and strangled at a stake. 
 
 7. The courage of the Spaniards surpassed even their inhumanity. 
 JD'Almagro marched 500 leagues, through continual opposition, to 
 Cusco, and penetrated across the Cordilleras into Chili, two degrees 
 beyond the southern tropic He was slain in a civil war between 
 him and his associate Francis Pizarro, who was soon after assassinated 
 by the party of his rival. A lew years after the Spaniards discover- 
 ed the inexhaustible silver mines of Potosi, which they compelled 
 the Peruvians to work for their advantage. The} 7 are now wrought 
 by the negroes of Africa. The native Peruvians, who are a weakly 
 race of men, were soon almost exterminated by cruelty and intoler- 
 able labour. The humane bishop of Cliiapa remonstrated with suc- 
 cess to Charles V. on this subject ; and the residue of this miserable 
 people hare been since treated with more indulgence. 
 
 8. The Spanish acquisitions in America belong to the crown, and 
 not to the state: they are the absolute property of the sovereign, 
 and regulated solely by his will. They consist of three provinces^ 
 Mexico, Peru, and Terra Firma; and are governed by three vice- 
 roys, who exercise supreme civil and military authority over their 
 respective provinces. There are eleven courts of audience for the 
 administration of justice, with whose judicial proceedings the vice- 
 roys cannot interfere ; and their judgments are subject to appeal to 
 the royal council of the Indies, whose jurisdiction extends to every 
 department, ecclesiastical, civil, military, and commercial. A tribu- 
 nal in Spain, called Casa tie la ContnUacion, regulates the departure 
 of the fleets, and their destination and equipment, under the control 
 of the council of the Indies. 
 
 9. The gold and silver of Spanish America, though the exclusive 
 property of the crown of Spain, has, by means of war, marriages of 
 princes, and extension of commerce, come into general circulation, 
 and has greatly increased the quantity of specie, and diminished the 
 value of money over all Europe. 
 
 SECTION XLIL 
 
 POSSESSIONS OF THE OTHER EUROPEAN NATIONS IN AMER- 
 ICA. THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1. The example of the Spaniards excited a desire in the other 
 nations of Europe to participate with them in the riches of the new 
 world. The French, in 1,557, attempted to form a settlement on 
 the coast of Brazil, where the Portuguese had already established 
 themselves from the beginning of the century. The colony was 
 divided by faction, and was soon utterly destroyed by the Portu- 
 guese. It is one of the richest of the American settlements, both 
 from the produce of its soil, and its mines of gold and precious 
 stones. 
 
 2. The Spaniards were in possession of Florida when the French 
 attempted to colonize it in 1,564, without success. The French 
 established a settlement in Acadie in 1,604, and founded Quebec in 
 Canada in 1,608. But these settlements were perpetually subject to 
 attack from the English. In 1,629 the French had not a loot of 
 territory in America. Canada has been repeatedly taken by the 
 
 tf3 
 
178 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 English, and restored, by different treaties, to the French ; but since 
 the peace of 1 ,763 it has been a British settlement. The French 
 drew their greatest advantages from the islands of St. Domingo^ 
 Guadaloupe, and Martinico. From their continental possessions ot 
 Louisiana, and the settlements on the Mississippi, which they have 
 now lost, they never derived any solid benefit. 
 
 3. The Dutch have no settlement on the continent of America, 
 but Surinam, a part of Guiana ; and, in the West-Indies, the islands 
 of Currassoa and St. Eustatius. The Danes possess the inconsidera- 
 ble islands of St. Thomas and Santa Cruz. 
 
 <!. The British have extensive settlements on the continent of 
 America, and in the West-India islands. England derived her right 
 to her settlements in North America from the first discovery of the 
 country by Sebastian Cabot in 1,497, the year before the discovery 
 of the continent of South America by Columbus ; but no attempts 
 were made by the English to colonize any part of the country till 
 nearly a century afterward. This remarkable neglect is in some 
 measure accounted for by the frugal maxims of Henry VII., and the 
 unnropitious circumstances of the reigns of Henry VIII., of Edward VI., 
 and ot the bigoted Mary : reigns peculiarly adverse to the extension 
 of industry, trade, and navigation. 
 
 5. In 1,585 sir Walter Raleigh undertook to settle a colony in Vir- 
 ginia, so named in honour of his queen ; but his attempts were fruit- 
 less. Two colonies, destined for settlement, were successively sent 
 over to the Virginian territory ; but the first was reduced to great dis- 
 tress, and taken back to England by sir Francis Drake ; the second, 
 left unsupported, could never afterward be found. 
 
 6. In 1,606 king James granted a patent for settling two planta- 
 tions on the main coasts of North America. Dividing that portion 
 of the country, which stretches from the thirty-fourth to the forty- 
 fifth degree of latitude, into two districts nearly equal, he granted 
 the southern, called the first colony, to the London company, and 
 the northern, called the second, to the Plymouth company. On 
 the reception of this patent several persons of distinction in the Eng 
 lish nation undertook to settle the southern colony; and in 1,607 the 
 first permanent colony was settled in Virginia. 
 
 7. The fir*t settlement in the northern district was made at Ply- 
 mouth in 1,620, by a number of puritans, who, having a few years 
 before left England, to liberate themselves from the oppressions of 
 the episcopal hierarchy, had found a temporary asylum in Holland. 
 In 1,629 the patent of Massachusetts was confirmed by king Charles 
 1. ; and in the following year a large body of English non-conformkste 
 settled that territory. The settlement of Connecticut was begun in 
 1,636 by emigrants from Massachusetts. The settlement of Provi- 
 dence, in Rhode Island, was begun the same year by Roger Wil- 
 liams, a clergyman, who, for his refusal to submit to the control of 
 the government of Massachusetts, in religious matters, had been ex- 
 iled from that colony. New York, originally settled by the Dutch, 
 and by them called New Netherlands, was taken from them by the 
 English in 1,664, at which time it was subjected to the British crown, 
 and settled by English colonists. New Jersey was settled in 1,667, 
 principally by quakers from England. The charter of Pennsylvania 
 was given in 1,681 by king Charles II. to William Penn ; and a set- 
 tlement was begun the same year by a colony consisting principally 
 of quakers. The patent of Maryland was given by king Charles L 
 to lord Baltimore in 1,632; and two years afterward the colony was 
 
MODERN HISTORY. f» 
 
 settled by a body of Roman catholics from England. The charter 
 of Carolina was granted by Charles II. to the earl of Clarendon and 
 several associates in 1,663; and that colony was soon after settled by 
 the English. In 1,729 the province was divided into two distinct 
 governments, one of which was called North, and the other 
 South Carolina. The charter of Georgia was given in 1,732 by king 
 George II. to a number of persons in England, who, from motives oi 
 
 {»atriotism and humanity, projected a settlement in that wild territory. 
 >y this measure it was intended to obtain, first, possession of an exten- 
 sive tract of country ; to strengthen the province of Carolina ; to 
 rescue a great number of people in Great Britain and Ireland from 
 the miseries of poverty ; to open an asylum for persecuted protes- 
 tants in different parts of Europe ; and to attempt the conversion and 
 civilization of the natives. Under the guidance of general Ogle, 
 thorpe a colony was settled here in 1,733. Nova Scotia was settled 
 in the reign of James I. The Floridas were ceded by Spain to Greal 
 Britain at the peace of 1,763; but they were reduced by the arms 
 of his catholic majesty during the American war, and guaranteed to 
 the crown of Spain by the definitive treaty of 1,783. 
 
 8. All the British colonies in North America were subject to the 
 government of Great Britain from the time of their settlement un- 
 til the year 1,775. Opposition to certain measures of the British 
 parliament, the tendency of which, was to claim for the king ami 
 parliament of Great Britain, a right to tax colonies, that did not send 
 representatives to parliament, and were therefore hostile to rights and 
 liberties, that had been enjoyed and exercised by the colonies from 
 their origin, having induced the government to send troops to Amer 
 ica to enforce submission to their laws, hostilities commenced in 
 April, 1,775. In 1,776 the American congress declared the United 
 States independent In September 1,783, a definitive treaty of peace 
 was concluded, by which his Britannic majesty acknowledged the 
 United States of America to be free, sovereign, and independent 
 states. In 1,789 the government of these states was organized, con- 
 formably to the federal constitution ; and George Washington, who 
 had been commander in chief of the revolutionary army, was inaugij- 
 rated the first president. 
 
 9. The British colonies in America, and the United States, are 
 gre:itly inferior to the Spanish American colonies in natural riches, 
 as they produce neither silver nor gold, nor cochineal ; yet they 
 are in general of fertile soil, and considerably improved by industry. 
 ' They afford a profitable market for European manufactures. Canada 
 furnishes for exportation wheat, flour, flax-seed, lumber, fish, potash, 
 oil, ginseng, furs, pelts, and various other commodities. 1 he pro- 
 duce of the West India islands (Jamaica, Barbadoes, St. Christopher 1 *, 
 Antigua, the Granadas, and other islands), in sugar, coffee, cocoa- 
 rum, molasses, cotton, and other articles, is of .very git^at value to 
 the mother country. The northern states in the federal union fur- 
 nish masts, ship timber, lumber, potash, furs, pelts, fish, beef, pork, 
 butter, cheese, rye, and maize; the middle states, flour, maize, 
 flax-seed, peas, deer skins, and other pelts ; and the southern states, 
 rice, flour, indigo, cotton, tobacco, pork, live oak, tar, pitch, ana 
 turpentine. 
 
•80 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 SECTION XLI11. 
 
 OF THE STATE OF THE FINE ARTS IN EUROPE IN THE AGE 
 OF LEO X. 
 
 I. Is enumerating those great objects which characterized the 
 end of the fifteenth and the beginning of the sixteenth century, we 
 remarked the high advancement to which the line arts attained in 
 Europe in the age of Leo X. The strong bent which the human 
 mind seems to take, in certain periods, to one class of pursuits in 
 preference to all others, as in the age of Leo X., to the hue arts of 
 pointing, sculpture, and architecture, may be partly explained from 
 moral causes ; such as the peaceful state of a country, the genius or 
 taste, and the liberal encouragement of its sovereigns, the general 
 emulation that arises where one or two artists are of confessed emi- 
 nence, and the aid which men derive from the studies and works of 
 one another. These causes have doubtless great influence, but do 
 not seem entirely sufficient to account for the fact. The operation 
 of such causes must be slow and gradual. In the case of the tine 
 arts, the transition from obscurity to splendour was rapid and instan- 
 taneous. From the contemptible mediocrity in which they had re- 
 mained for ages, they rose at one step to the highest pitch of excel- 
 lence. 
 
 2. The arts of painting and sculpture were buried in the west un- 
 der the ruins of the Roman empire. They gradually declined in 
 tlie latter ages, as we may perceive by the series of the coins of the 
 lower empire. The Ostrogoths, instead of destroying, sought to 
 preserve the monuments of taste and genius. They were even the 
 inventors of some of the arts dependent on design, as the composition 
 of Mosaic. But, in the middle ages, those arts were at a very low 
 ebb in Europe. They began, however, to revive a little about the 
 end of the thirteenth century. Cimabue, a Florentine, from the 
 sight of the paintings of some Greek artists in one of the churches, 
 began to attempt similar performances, and soon excelled his models. 
 His scholars were Ghiotto, Gaddi, Tassi Cavillini, and Stephano Fio- 
 rcntino ; and they formed an academy at Ftorence in 1,350. 
 
 3. The works of those early painters, with some fidelity of imita- 
 tion, had not a spark of grace or elegance ; and such continued to be 
 the state of the art till toward the end of the fifteenth century, when 
 it arose at once to the summit of perfection. Raphael painted at 
 first in the hard manner of his master Perugino ; but soon deserted 
 it, and struck at once into the noble, elegant, and graceful ; in short, 
 the imitation of the antique. This change was the result of genius 
 alone. The ancient sculptures were familiar to the early painters, 
 but they had looked on them with cold indifference. They were 
 new surveyed by other eyes. Michael Angelo, Raphael, and Leo- 
 nardo da Vinci, were animated by the same genius that formed the 
 Grecian Appelles, Zeuxis, Glycon, Phidias, and Praxiteles. 
 
 4. Nor was Italy alone thus distinguished. Germany, Flanders, and 
 Switzerland, produced in the same age artists of consummate merit. 
 Before the notice of these, we shall briefly characterize the schools 
 of Italy. 
 
 5. \ irst in order is the school of Florence, of which the most em- 
 inent master was Michael Angelo, born in 1,474. His works aie 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 18! 
 
 eharacterized by a profound knowledge of the anatomy of the human 
 figure, perhaps chiefly formed on the contemplation of the ancient 
 sculptures. His paintings exhibit the grand, the sublime, and terri- 
 ble ; but he drew not from the antique its simple grace and beauty. 
 
 G. The Roman school was founded by Raphael d'Urbino. born in 
 1 , 103. This great painter united almost every excellence ot the art. 
 In invention, grace, majestic simplicity, forcible expression of the 
 pj' ions, he stands unrivalled, and far beyond all competition. He 
 has borrowed liberally, but without servility, from the antique. 
 
 7. Of the school of Lombardv, or the Venetian, the most eminent 
 artists were Titian, Giorgione, Corrcgio, and Parmeggiano. Titian 
 i- m >-t eminent in portrait, and in the painting of female beauty. 
 Such is the truth of his colouring, that his figures are nature itself, 
 ll a & the testimony of Michael Angelo to the merits of Titian, that, 
 if he had studied at Rome or Florence, amidst the master-pieces of 
 antiquity, he would have eclipsed all the painters in the world. Ti 
 (im lived to the age of a hundred. Giorgione, with .similar merits?, 
 was cut off in the nower of his 3 T outh. Correggio was superior i.. 
 colouring, and in the knowledge of light and shade, to all who have 
 preceded or followed him. This knowledge was the result of study. 
 In other painters those effects are frequently accidental, as we ob- 
 serve that they are not uniform. Parmeggiano imitated the graceful 
 manner of Raphael, but carried it to a degree of affectation. 
 
 8. Such were the three original Italian schools. The character of 
 the Florentine is grandeur and sublimity, with great excellence of 
 design, but a want of grace, of skill in colouring, and effect of light 
 and shade. The character of the Roman is equal excellence of de- 
 sign, a grandeur tempered with moderation and simplicity, a high 
 degree of grace and elegance, and a superior knowledge, though not 
 an excellence, in colouring. The character of the Venetian is tha 
 perfection of colouring, and the utmost force of light and shade, 
 with an inferiority in every other particular. 
 
 9. To the school of Raphael succeeded the second Roman school, 
 or that of the Caraccis, three brothers, of whom Annibal was the 
 most famous. His scholars were, Guercino, Albano, Lanfranc, Dom- 
 enichino, and Guido. Of these eminent painters the first and last 
 were the best. The elegant contours of Guercino, and the strength 
 svyeetuess, and majesty of Guido, are the admiration of all true judges 
 of painting. 
 
 10 In the same age the Flemish school, though of a quite differ- 
 ent character, and inferior to the Italian, shone with great lustre. 
 Oil painting was invented by the Flemings in the fifteenth century ; 
 and, in that age, Heemskirk, Frans Floris, Quintin Matsys, and the 
 German Albert Durer, were deservedly distinguished. Of the Flem- 
 ish school, Rubens, though a painter of a much later age, is the 
 chief ornament. His figures, though too corpulent, are drawn with 
 great truth and nature. He possesses inexhaustible invention, and 
 great skill in the expression of the passions. Switzerland produced 
 Hans Holbein, a painter of great eminence in portrait, and remarka- 
 ble for truth of colouring. From his residence at the Gourt of Henry 
 VIII. there are more specimens of his works in Britain than of any 
 Mher foreign painter. Holland had likewise its painters, whose chief 
 merit was the faithful representation of vulgar nature, and perfect 
 knowledge of the mechanism of the art, the power of colours, and 
 the effect of light and shade. 
 
 11. With the art of painting, sculpture and architecture were lilte- 
 Q 
 
182 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 wise revived in the same age, and brought almost to perfection, 
 The universal genius of Michael Angelo shone equally conspicuous 
 in all the three departments. His statue of Bacchus was judged by 
 Raphael to be the work of Phidias or Praxiteles. The Grecian ar- 
 chitecture was first revived by the Florentines in the fourteenth cen- 
 tury; and the cathedral of Pisa was constructed partly from the ma- 
 terials of an ancient Greek temple. The art arrived at perfection in 
 the age of Leo X., when the church of St. Peters at Rome, under 
 the direction of Bramante, San Gallo, Raphael, and Michael Angelo, 
 exhibited the noblest specimen of architecture in the world. 
 
 12. The invention of the art of engraving on copper by Tomaso 
 Finiguerra, a goldsmith of Florence, is dated about 1,460. "From Ita- 
 ly it travelled into Fjanders, where it was rirst practised by Martin 
 Schoen of Antwerp. His scholar was the celebrated Albert Durer, 
 who engraved excellently both on copper and on wood. Etching on 
 copper by means of aquafortis, which gives more ease than the stroke 
 of the graver, was discovered by Parmeggiano, who executed in that 
 manner his own beautiful designs. No art underwent, in its early 
 stages, so rapid an improvement as that of engraving. In the course 
 of 150 years from its invention it attained nearly to its perfection ; 
 for there has been little proportion; 1 .! improvement in the last century 
 since the days of Audran, Poilly, and Edclinck. 
 
 13. The art of engraving in mezzotinto is of much later date than 
 the ordinary mode of engraving on copper. It was the invention of 
 prince Rupert about 1,650. It is characterized by a soilness equal 
 to that of the pencil, and a happy blending of light and shad'.-, and is 
 therefore peculiarly adapted tapcrtrait, where those requisites are 
 most essential. 
 
 14. The age of Leo X. was likewise an era of very high literary 
 gplendour ; but of the distinguished writers of that period we shall 
 afterwards treat, in a connected view of the progress of literature 
 and the sciences during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. 
 
 SECTION XLiY. 
 
 OF THE OTTOMAN POWER IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 1. From ^he period of the taking of Constantinople, in the middle 
 of the fifteenth century, the Turks were a great and conquering 
 people. In the sixteenth century, Selim 1., after he had subdued 
 Syria and Mesopotamia, undertook the conquest of Egypt, then gov- 
 erned by the Mamelukes, a race of Circassians, who had seiz 
 country in 1,250, and put an end to the government of the Arabian 
 princes, the posterity of Saladin. The^ conquest of Egypt by Selim 
 made little change in the form of its government. It profe 
 
 own the sovereignty of the TurivS, but is in reality still governed by 
 the Mameluke beys". 
 
 2. Solyman (the magnificent) son of Selim, was, like his prede- 
 cessors, a great conqueror. The island of Rhodes, possessed by the 
 knights of St. John, was a darling object of his ambition. Ihes^i 
 knights had expelled the Saracens from the island in 1,310. Soly- 
 man attacked Rhodes with 140,000 men and 400 ships. The Rho- 
 dian knights, aided by^ the English, Italians, and Spaniards, made a 
 noble defence ; but, after a siege of many months, were forced to 
 capitulate and evacuate the island, in 1.522. Since that time Rhodes 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 183 
 
 has been the property of the Turks. The commercial laws of the 
 ancient Rhodians were adopted by the Romans, and at this day are 
 the foundation of the maritime jurisprudence of all the nations of 
 Europe. 
 
 3. Solyman subdued the greater part of Hungary, Moldavia, and 
 Walachia; and took from the Persians Georgia and Bagdat. His 
 son Selim II. took Cyprus from the Venetians in 1,571. They ap- 
 plied to the pope for aid, who, together wifch Philip II. of Spain, enter- 
 ed into a triple alliance against the Ottoman power. An armament of 
 250 ships of war, commanded by Philip's natural brother, Don John 
 of Austria, was opposed to 250 Turkish gallies in the gulf of Le- 
 jmiilo, near Corinth; and the Turks were defeated, with the loss of 
 150 ships and 15,000 men, 1,571. This great victory was soon after 
 followed by the taking of Tunis by the same commander. 
 
 4. But these successes were of little consequence. The Otto- 
 man power continued extremely formidable. Under Amurath II. the 
 Turks made encroachments on Hungary, and subdued a part of Per- 
 sia. Mahomet III., though a barbarian in his private character, sup- 
 ported the dignity of the empire, and extended its dominions. The 
 « Htoman power declined from his time, and yielded to that of the 
 Persians under Schah-Abbas the great, who wrested from the Turks 
 a large part of their late-acquired dominions. 
 
 SECTION XLV. 
 
 STATE OE PERSIA AND OTHER ASIATIC KINGDOMS IN THE 
 SIXTEENTH AND SEVENTEENTH CENTURIES. 
 
 1. The great empire of Persia, in the end of the fifteenth century, 
 underwent a revolution on account of religion. Haydar or Sophi, a 
 religious enthusiast, established a new sect of Mahometans, which 
 held Ali to be the successor of Mahomet instead of Omar, and abol- 
 ished the pilgrimages to Mecca. The Persians eagerly embraced a 
 doctrine, which distinguished them from their enemies the Turks; 
 and Isniael, the son of Sophi, following the example of Mahomet, 
 enforced his opinions by the sword. He subdued all Persia and Ar- 
 menia, and left this vast empire to his descendants. 
 
 2. Schah-Abbas, surnamed the great, was the great-grandson ol 
 Ismael Sophi. lie ruled his empire with despotic sway, but with 
 most able policy. He"' "regained the provinces which had been 
 taken by the Turk-, and drove the Portuguese from their settlement 
 of Ormuz. He rebuilt the fallen cities of Persia, and contributed 
 greatly to the introduction of arts and civilization. His son Schah 
 Sesi reigned weakly and unfortunately. Tn his time Schah-Gean, the 
 great Mogul, deprived Persia of Candahar; and the Turks took Bag- 
 dat in 1,0:38. From that period the Persian monarchy gradually de- 
 clined. Its sovereigns became the most despicable slaves to their 
 own ministers; and a revolution in the beginning of the eighteenth 
 century nut an end to the dynasty of the Sophis, and gave the throne 
 to the Aighan princes, a race of Tartars. 
 
 cs The government of Persia is almost as despotic as that of Tur- 
 key. The sovereign draws a small yearly tax from every subject, 
 and receives likewise stated gifts on particular occasions. The 
 crown is hereditary, with the exclusion of females ; but the sons of 
 
iS4 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 a daughter succeed in their course. There is no other rank in Per- 
 sia than that annexed to office, which is held during the monarch's 
 pleasure. The national religion is the Mahometan, as reformed by 
 Sophi. The sect of the Gue1)res preserve the religion of Zoroaster. 
 as contained in the Zendavesta and Sadder, and keep alive the sacred 
 fire. "(Part I., Sect. XI.) 
 
 4. The poetry of the Persians displays great fancy and luxuriance 
 o£ imagery. The epic poet Firdousi is said to rival the various 
 merits of Homer and Ariosto; and the writings of Sadi and Hafez, 
 both in prose and poetry, are admired by all who are conversant hi 
 oriental literature. 
 
 5. Tartary. From this vast tract of country sprafig those con- 
 querors who produced all the great revolutions in Asia. Tartary is no 
 more than a vast desert, inhabited by wandering tribes, who follow 
 the life of the ancient Scythians. The Turks, a race of Tartars 
 overwhelmed the empire of the caliphs. Mahmoud, a Tartar, con- 
 quered Persia and great part of India in the tenth century. The 
 Tartar Gengiscan subdued India, China, Persia, and Asiatic Russia, in 
 the beginning of the thirteenth century. Batoucan, one of his sons, 
 ravaged to the frontiers of Germany. Tamerlane, the scourge of 
 the Turks, and the conqueror of a great part of Asia, was of the 
 race of Gengiscan. Babar^ great-grandson of Tamerlane, subdued 
 all the country between bamarcand and Agra in the empire of the 
 Mogul. The descendants of those conquerors reign in India, Persia, 
 and China. 
 
 6. Tliibet. The southern part of Tartary, called Thibet, exhibits 
 the phenomenon of a kingdom governed by a human being called 
 the Dalai Lama, or Great Lama, whose divinity is acknowledged 
 not only by his own subjects, but over China and a part of India. 
 This supposed god is a young man, whom the priests educate and 
 train to his function, and in whose name they in reality govern the 
 kingdom. 
 
 SECTION XLYI. 
 HISTORY OF INDIA. 
 
 1. The earliest accounts of this great tract of civilized country 
 are those of Herodotus, who lived about a century before Alexander 
 the great; and it is remarkable that the character given of the people 
 by that early writer, corresponds perfectly with that of the modern 
 Hindoos. He had probably taken his accounts from Scylax of Cari- 
 andria. whom Darius Hj'staspes had sent to explore the country. 
 But till the age of Alexander, the Greeks had no particular knowl- 
 edge of that extraordinary people. Alexander penetrated into the 
 Panjab, where his troops refusing to proceed, he embarked on the 
 Hyclaspas, which runs into the Indus, and thence pursued his course 
 for above 1,000 miles to the ocean. The narrative given by Arrian 
 of this expedition was taken from the verbal accounts of Alexander's 
 officers; and its particulars agree yet more remarkably than those of 
 Herodotus with the. modern manners of the Hindoos. 
 
 2. India was visited by Selcucus, to whose share it fell in the par- 
 tition of Alexander's empire ; and Antiochus the great, 200 years 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 166 
 
 afterward, made a short expedition thither. It is probable too Uiat 
 some small intercourse subsisted between the Greek empire of Bao 
 triana and India ; but, till the fifteenth century, no European power 
 thought of forming any establishment in that country. From the age 
 ci Alexander down to the period of the Portuguese discoveries there 
 had constantly been some commercial intercourse between Europe 
 and India, both by sea and across the desert. 
 
 3. The Mahometans, as early as A. D. 1,000, had begun to estab- 
 lish an empire in India. Mahmoud, a Tartar, conquered a great 
 part of the country, and established his capital at Ghaznn, near the 
 sources of the Indus, extirpating, wherever he came, the Hindoo 
 religion, ami establishing the Mahometan in its stead. Mohammed 
 Gori, in 1,191, penetrated to Benares; and one of his successors 
 fixed the seat of his empire at Delhy, which has continued to be the 
 capital of the Mogul princes. The sovereignty founded by Mah- 
 moud was overwhelmed in 1,222 by Gengiscan, as was his empire in 
 the following century by Tamerlane, whose posterity are at this day 
 en the throne of the Mogui empire. 
 
 4. The Mogul empire was, even in the beginning of the 18th cen- 
 tury, the most powerful and nourishing of. all the Asiatic monarchies. 
 The emperor Aurengzebe, the son of Schah-Gean though a mon- 
 ster of cruelty, and a most despotic tyrant, enjoyed a life prolonged 
 to a hundred 3'ears, crowned with uninterrupted prosperity and suc- 
 cess. He extended his empire over the whole peninsula ol India 
 within the Ganges. 
 
 5. The dominion of the Mogul is not absolute over all the coun- 
 tries which compose his empire. Tamerlane allowed the petty 
 princes, rajahs or nabobs, to retain their territories, of which theii 
 descendants are at this day in possession. They pay a tribute to the 
 great Mogul, as an acknowledgment of his sovereignty, and ob- 
 serve the treaties agreed to by their ancestors; but they are in 
 other respects independent princes. 
 
 6. Bengal became a part of the Mogul's empire by conquest in the 
 end of the sixteenth century, and was commonly governed by a son 
 of the great Mogul, who had under him several inferior nabobs, the 
 former princes of the country. Such was its condition when the 
 British Last India company, between 1,751 and 1,760, conquered and 
 obtained possession of that kingdom, together with Bahar and 
 part of Orissa, a large, populous, and most nourishing country, con- 
 taining above ten millions of inhabitants, and producing an immense 
 revenue; and these territories have since that period received a con- 
 siderable addition. The East India company has the benefit of the 
 whole commerce of the Mogul empire, with Arabia, Persia, ana 
 Thibet, as well as with the kingdoms of Azem, Aracan, Pegu, Siam, 
 Malacca, China, and many of the oriental islands. 
 
 The fixed establishments of the British in the country of Indostan 
 have afforded opportunity of obtaining much instructive knowledge 
 relative to the ancient state of that country, of which we shall g\\e 
 a short sketch in the following section 
 
 Q2 24 
 
166 MODERN HSITORY. 
 
 SECTION XLVI1 
 
 ANCIENT STATE OF INDIA. MANNERS, LAWS, ARTS, 
 SCIENCES, AND RELIGION OF THE HINDOOS. 
 
 1. The remains of the ancient knowledge of the Hindoos have 
 been preserved by a hereditary priesthood, in the Sanscrit language, 
 long since extinct, and only known to a lev/ of the Bramins. The 
 zeal of some learned Europeans has lately opened that source of in- 
 formation, whence we derive the most interesting particulars of this 
 extraordinary people, perhaps the first cultivators of the sciences. 
 and the instructors of all the nations of antiquity. We shall briefly 
 notice their singular division into casts, their civil policy, laws, prog- 
 ress in the arts and sciences, and religion. 
 
 2. The whole body of the people was divided into four orders, or 
 casts. The highest cast, that of the Bramins, was devoted to religion 
 and the cultivation of the sciences ; to the second belonged th 
 ervation of the state; they were its sovereigns and its magistrates 
 in peace, and its soldiers in war; the third were the husbandmen and 
 merchants; and the fourth the artisans, labourers, and servants. 
 These are inseparable distinctions, and descend from generation to 
 generation. Moreover, the individuals of each class follow invai iabiy 
 the professions of their forefathers. l.very man, Irorn his birth, 
 knows the function allotted to him, and fulfils with ease and satisfac- 
 tion the duty which he cannot avoid. Hence arises that permanence 
 of manners and institutions which so singularly characterizes this 
 ancient nation. 
 
 3. This classification is an artificial arrangement, which could have 
 originated only from the mind of a legislator among a polished peo- 
 ple, completely obedient to government. It is therefore a proof of 
 the. highly civilized state of the Hindoo nation in the most remote 
 periods ot antiquity. 
 
 4. The civil policy of the Hindoos is another proof of their ancient 
 civilization. At the time of Alexander the groat, India was divided 
 into large and powerful kingdoms, governed by sovereigns whose do- 
 minion was not absolute, but controlled by the. superior authority of 
 the Bramins. A system of feudalism has ever prevailed in India. 
 The rights to land Mow from the sovereign, to whom a certain duty 
 is payable by the class of the husbandmen, who transmit their posses- 
 sions to their children under the same tenure. Strabo and Diodorus 
 remarked three classes of officers among the Indians : one class whose 
 department was the regulation of agriculture, tanks, highways 
 another which superintended the police of the cities ; a third which 
 regulated the military department. The same policy prevails at this 
 day under the Hindoo princes. 
 
 6. The jurisprudence of Hindostan is an additional proof of great 
 antiquity and civilization. The Ayen-Akbery, and still more the 
 compilation of Hindoo laws from the ancient Sanscrit records, made 
 by order of Mr. Hastings, contain the jurisprudence of a refined and 
 commercial people, among whom law had been a study and profes- 
 sion 
 
 6. Many monuments exist in India of the advanced state of the use- 
 ful and elegant arts in the remotest periods of antiquity. The an- 
 cient pagodas, of vast extent and magnificence, whether cut in the 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 187 
 
 solid rock, as in Elephanta and Salsette, or in the open air, as at 
 Chilambrum and Seringbam; the sumptuous residences of the Bra- 
 rnins ; and the ancient hill fortresses^ constructed with prodigious 
 strength and solidity, evince a great advancement in the arts. The 
 resort of the most polished nations of antiquity to India for cotton 
 cloths, tine iinen, and works in metal and ivory, proves these manu- 
 factures to have been superior to all known at that time in Europe. 
 
 7. The late translations from the Sanscrit of several ingenious 
 compositions of high antiquity, as the dramatic piece Suconuda. the 
 UiiopaJcsa, a series of moral apologues and fabies, the Alalia barat, 
 an epic poem, composed above 2,000 years before the Christian em, 
 all concur in proof of a similar advancement in literature. We have 
 reason to believe from such works as are of a philosophical nature, 
 that there is scarcely a tenet of the Greek philosophy which has not 
 been antecedently the suhject of discussion among the Bramins of 
 India. 
 
 3. The numeral ciphers first introduced into Europe by the Ara- 
 bians were, as those authors confess, borrowed from the Indians. 
 Ala we a century ago, the French mathematicians evinced, by the 
 evidence of a Siamese manuscript, containing tables for calculating 
 the places of the heavenly bodies, the astonishing advancement 
 made by this ancient people in the science of astronomy. A set of 
 astrouoifiical tables obtained lately from the Bramins by M. Gentil 
 goes baeVtoan era termed Calyougham, commencing 3,102 years 
 before the birth of Christ. These tables are used by the modern 
 Bramins, who are quite ignorant of the principles on which they 
 have been constructed. 1VL Bailiy has proved that they are the 
 same as these, employed by the moderns, with which the Greeks and 
 Chaldeans were utterly unacquainted. 
 
 U. Lastly, from the religious opinions and worship of' the Hindoos 
 we must draw the same conclusion as from all the preceding tacts. 
 One uniform system of superstition pervades every religion of India, 
 which is supported by the most sagacious policy, and by every thing 
 that can excise the veneration of its votaries. The Bramins, elevat- 
 ed above every class of men, and exclusively acquainted with the 
 mysteries of that religion, which it is held impious for any other class 
 to attempt to penetrate ; the implicit reliance on the authority of 
 these Bramins ; the ceremonies of their worship, adapted to im- 
 press the imagination and to affect the passions; all concurred to forti- 
 ty this potent superstition, and to give its priests a supreme ascen- 
 dancy over the minds of the people. But those priests, enlightened 
 as they were, rejected that false theology. Their writings demoiv 
 - 'rate that they entertained rational and elevated conceptions with 
 regard to the Supreme Being, and the support of the universe. 
 
 10. On the whole, there is a high probability that India was the 
 great school from which the most early polished nations of Europe 
 derived their knowledge of arts, sciences, and literature. 
 
 Persons who want more particular information respecting India 
 are referred to Maurice's Indian Antiquities, and Tennanf s Indian 
 Recreations. 
 
fca MODERN HISTORY 
 
 SECTION XLVIU. 
 
 OF CHINA AxND JAPAN. 
 
 I. As we proceed eastward in the survey of the Asiatic continent, 
 the great empire of China next solicits our attention, in the end of 
 the tenth century, China^ Persia, and the greater part of India were 
 ruled by the Tartar descendants of Gengiscan. The Tartar family 
 of Yven, who conquered China, made no change in its laws and sys- 
 tem of government, which had been permanent from time immemo- 
 rial. Of this family there reigned nine successive monarchs, without 
 any attempt by the Chinese to throw off the Tartar yoke. The 
 odious and contemptible character of the last of these sovereigns at 
 length excited a rebellion, which, in 1,357, drove the Tartars from 
 the throne ; and the Chinese, for 276 years, obeyed their native 
 princes. The Tartars, taking advantage of an insurrection in one of 
 the provinces, invaded China in 1,641, and made an easy conquest. 
 The emperor shut himself up in his palace, and, after putting to 
 death all His family, finished the scene by hanging himself. lhe 
 same Tartars occupy the throne of China at this day, and observe 
 the same wise policy of maintaining inviolate the Chinese laws, poli- 
 cy, and manners. Of these we shall give a brief account in the sub- 
 sequent section. 
 
 L 2. The empire of Japan was discovered by the Portuguese about 
 the middle of the sixteenth century. The open and unsuspicious 
 character of this industrious and polished people led them to en- 
 courage the resort of foreigners to their ports ; and the Spaniards, 
 after they had obtained the sovereignty of Portugal, carried on a 
 most beneficial trade to the coasts of Japan. The emperor zeal- 
 ously promoted this intercourse, till the insatiable ambition of the 
 Spaniards gave him alarming conviction of its danger. Under the 
 pretence of converting the Japanese from idolatry, a vast number 
 c-f priests was sent into the country ; and one half of the people 
 were speedily set at mortal variance with the other. It now be- 
 came necessary to prohibit this work of conversion by an imperial 
 edict. However a tree trade was allowed till 1,637, when a con- 
 spiracy of the Spaniards for dethroning the emperor and seizing ilvc 
 government was discovered. An edict was issued for the expulsion 
 of all the Spaniards and Portuguese, who resisted till they wcj g 
 overpowered by force of arms. Since that period all the European 
 nations have been excluded from the ports of Japan. The Dutch 
 only, who had been the discoverers of the conspiracy of the Span- 
 iards, are allowed the privilege of landing on one of the small islands, 
 for the purposes of trade, after making oath that they are not . .f the 
 Portuguese religion. 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 18* 
 
 SECTION XLIX 
 
 OF THE ANTIQUITY OF THE EMPIRE OF CHINA. STATE 
 OF THE ARTS AND SCIENCES, MANNERS, GOVERNMENT, 
 LAWS. 
 
 1. The antiquity of this vast empire, and the state of its govern- 
 ment, laws, manners, and attainments in the arts and sciences, have 
 furnished an ample field of controversy. Voltaire, Raynal, and other 
 writers have ^iven to the Chinese empire an immense antiquity, and 
 a character of such high civilization and knowledge of the sciences 
 and arts at a very remote period, as to be utterly irreconcilable to the 
 state and progress of man as described in the books of Moses. On 
 the other hand, it is probable that the desire of invalidating those 
 opinions has induced other writers of ability to go to an opposite ex- 
 treme ; to undervalue this singular people, and to give too little 
 weight to any accounts which we have received either of the dura- 
 lion of their empire, of the economy of their government and police, 
 or of their attainments in the arts and sciences. Amidst this contnv 
 riety of sentiments we shall endeavour to form such opinion as ap 
 pears most consonant to the truth. 
 
 2. The panegyrists of the Chinese assert that their empire has 
 subsisted above 4,000 years, without any material alteration in ite 
 laws, manners, language, or even fashion of ut'r^; iu evidence oi 
 which they appeal to a series of eclipses, marking contemporary 
 events, all accurately calculated, for 2,155 years before the birth of 
 Christ. As it is easy to calculate eclipses backwards from the pres* 
 ent day to any given period of time, it is thus possible to give to a 
 history, fictitious from beginning to end, its chronology of real 
 eclipses. This proof therefore amounts to nothing, unless it were 
 likewise proved that all those eclipses were actually recorded at the 
 time when they happened; but this neither has been nor can be 
 done ; for it is an allowed fact, that there are no regular historical 
 records beyond the third century before the christian era. The 
 present Chinese are utterly ignorant of the motions of the celestial 
 bodies, and cannot calculate eclipses. The series mentioned has 
 therefore in all probability been calculated by some of the Jesuits^ 
 to ingratiate themselves with the emperors, and flatter the national 
 vanity. The Jesuits have presided in the tribunal of mathematics 
 for above 200 years. 
 
 3. But if the authentic annals of this empire go back even to the 
 third century before Christ, and record at that time a high state of 
 civMization, we must allow that the Chinese are an ancient and early 
 polished people, and that they have possessed a singular constancy 
 in their government, laws, and manners. Sir William Jones, no 
 bigoted encomiast of this people, allows their great antiquity and 
 early civilization, and, with much apparent probability, traces their 
 origin from the Hindoos. He appeals to the ancient Sanscript records- 
 which mention a migration ot certain of the military class termed 
 Chinas, from India to the countries east from Bengal. The stationa* 
 ry condition of the arts and sciences in China proves that they have 
 not originated with that people : and -many peculiarities of the maiv 
 ners, institutions, and popular religion of the Chinese, have a near 
 affinity to those of the Hindoos, 
 
190 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 4. The government of China is that of an absolute monarchy. 
 The patriarchal system pervades the whole, and binds all the mem- 
 bers of this vast empire in the strictest subordination. Every father 
 is absolute in his family, and may inflict any punishment short of 
 death upon his children. The mandarin of the district is absolute, 
 with the power of life and death over all its members; but a capital 
 sentence cannot be inflicted without the emperor's approbation. 
 The emperor's power is absolute, over all the mandarins, and every 
 subject of the empire. To reconcile the people to this despotic 
 authority, the sovereign alone is entitled to relieve the wants of the 
 poor, and to compensate public calamities, as well as the misfortunes 
 of individuals, lie is theretbre regarded as the father of his people, 
 and even adored as a benevolent divini'.y. 
 
 5. Another circumstance which conciliates the people to their 
 government is, that all honours in China are conferred according to 
 merit, and that chiefly literary. The civil mandarins, who are the 
 magistrates and judges, are appointed to office according to their 
 measure of knowledge and mental endowments. No othce or rank 
 is hereditary, but may be aspired to by the meanest of the people. 
 The penal laws of China are remarkably severe; but their execu- 
 tion may be remitted by the emperor. The judicial tribunals are 
 regulated by a body of written laws of great antiquity, and founded 
 on the basis of can versa 1 justice and equity. The emperor's opinion 
 i~arely differs from the sentences of those courts. One tribunal 
 judges of the qualification- of the mandarins; another regulates the 
 morals of the people, Einil the national manners ; a third is the tribu- 
 nal of censors, which reviews the laws, the conduct of the magis- 
 trates and judges, and even that of the emperor himself. These tri- 
 bunals are rilled by an equal number of Chinese and Tartars. 
 
 6. It has been observed that the sciences have been stationary in 
 this empire for many ages. They are at this day extremely low, 
 though far beyond the attainments of a barbarous people. The 
 language of China seems to oppose Va2 prosecution of speculative 
 researches. It has no regular inflections, and can with difficulty 
 express abstract ideas. We have remarked the ignorance of tlie 
 Chinese in mathematics and astronomy. Of physics they have no 
 acquaintance beyond the knowledge of apparent facts. They never 
 ascend to principles, nor form theories. Their knowledge of modi* 
 due is extremely limited, and is blended with the most contemptible 
 superstition. Of anatomy they know next to nothing; and in sur- 
 gery they have never ventured to amputate a limb, nor to reduce a 
 fracture. 
 
 7. The stale of the useful and elegant arts Iras been equally sta- 
 tionary as that of the sciences. Many ages ago they had attained 
 a certain point of advancement, which they have never exceeded. 
 The Chinese are said to have manufactured glass for 2,000 years ; 
 yet at this day it is inferior in transparency to the European, and is 
 not used in their windows. They are reported to have known gun- 
 powder from time immemorial; but they never employed it in artil- 
 lery or fire-arms till they were taught by the Europeans. They are 
 said to have invented printing in the age of Julius Caesar, yet they 
 know not the use of moveable types, and print from blocks of wood. 
 When first shown the use of the compass in sailing, they affirmed 
 Ihat they were well acquainted with it, but found no occasion to em- 
 ploy it. The art of painting in China is mere mechanical imitation, 
 without grace, expression, or even accuracy of proportions. Of the 
 
 
MODERN HISTORY. fb\ 
 
 rules of perspective they have not the smallest idea. In sculpture, 
 as in the figures of 'their idols, the Chinese artists seem to delight in 
 distortion and deformity. Their music is not regulated by any prin- 
 ciples of science. They have no semitones, and their instruments 
 are imperfect and untunable. The Chinese architecture has variety, 
 lightness, and sometimes elegance ; but has no grandeur, nor sym- 
 metrical beauty. 
 
 8. In some of the arts the Chinese have attained great excellence. 
 In China agriculture is carried to the highest pitch of improvement. 
 There is not a spot of waste land in the whole empire, nor any land 
 which is not highly cultivated. The emperor himself is the chiei 
 of the husbandmen, and annually holds the plough with his own 
 hands. From the high state of agriculture, and the modes oi 
 economizing food, is supported the astonishing population of 333 
 millions, or 2G0 inhabitants to every square mile of the empire. 
 The gardening of the Chinese, and their admirable embellishment 
 of rural nature, have of late been the object of imitation in Europe, 
 but with far inferior success. The manufacture of porcelain is an 
 original invention of this people; and the Europeans, though ex- 
 celling them in the form and ornament of the utensils, have never 
 been able to attain the excellence of the material. 
 
 9. The morals of the Chinese have furnished a subject both of 
 praise and censure. > The books of Confucius are said to contain an 
 admirable system of morality. But the principles of morals have 
 their foundation in human nature, and must, in theory, be every 
 where the same. The moral virtues of a people are not to be esti- 
 mated from the books of their philosophers. It is probable that the 
 manners of the superior classes are in China, as elsewhere, much 
 influenced by education and example. The morals of the lower 
 classes, are said to be extremely loose, and their practices most dis- 
 honest. They are regulated by no principle but selfish interest, 
 and restrained only by the fear of punishment. 
 
 10. The religion of the Chinese is different in the different ranks 
 of society. There is no religion of the state. The emperor and 
 the higher mandarins profess the belief of one Supreme Being, 
 Ctiangk, whom they worship by prayer and thanksgiving, without 
 any mixture of idolatrous practices. " They respect the lama of 
 Thibet as the high-priest or prophet of this religion. A prevalent 
 sect is that of Tao-$se, who believe in the power of magic, the agency 
 of spirits, and the divination of future events. A third is the sect of 
 Fo, derived from India, whose priests are the Bonzes, and whose 
 fundamental doctrine is, that all things rose out of nothing, and must 
 finally return to nothing; that all animals are first to undergo a series 
 of transmigrations; and that as man's chief happiness is to approach 
 as near as possible to a state of annihilation in this life, absolute idle 
 ness is more laudable than occupation of any kind. A variety of 
 hideous idols is worshipped by this sect. 
 
 11. The Chinese have their sacred books entitled Kings ; as the 
 Yking, Chouhng, &c. ; which, among some good moral precepts, con- 
 tain much mystery, childish superstition, and absurdity. These are 
 chiefly resorted to for the divining of future events, which seems the 
 idtimatum of research among the Chinese philosophers. The obser- 
 vation of the heavenly bodies is made for that purpose alone. The 
 changes of weather, the performance or omission of certain cere- 
 monies, the occurrence of certain events in particular times and 
 places, are all believed to have their influence on futurity, and are 
 
192 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 therefore carefully observed and recorded. The rules by which 
 those omens are interpreted are said to have been prescribed by the 
 ^reat Confucius, the lather of the Chinese philosophy, 500 years be- 
 fore the christian era. 
 
 12. We conclude, on the whole, that the Chinese are a very re- 
 markable people ; that their government, laws, policy, and knowl- 
 edge of the arts and sciences, exhibit unquestionable proofs of great 
 antiquity and early civilization ; that the extraordinary measure of 
 duration assigned to their empire by some modern writers rests on 
 no solid proofs ; that their government, laws, manners, arts, and 
 scientific attainments, are not deserving of that superlative praise 
 which has been bestowed on them. M 
 
 SECTION L. 
 
 M. BAILLY'S THEORY OF THE ORIGIN OF THE SCIENCES 
 AMONG THE NATIONS OF INDIA. 
 
 1. The striking resemblance in many points of character between 
 the Chinese and the ancient Egyptians, has led to the conjecture, 
 either that they were originally the same people, one being a col- 
 ony of the other, or have had, at some remote period, such inter- 
 course, either by conquest or by commerce, as to occasion a recipro- 
 cal communication of manners and the knowledge of arts and sciences. 
 M. de Mairan has remarked the following points of similarity. The 
 Egyptians and the Chinese had the same permanence of manners, 
 and abhorrence of innovations; they were alike remarkable ibr the 
 respect entertained by children to their parents ; they were equally 
 averse to war; they had the same general superficial knowledge of" 
 the arts and sciences, without the ability to make great attainments; 
 they both, in the most ancient times, used hieroglyphics ; the Egyp- 
 tians had a solemn festival, called the feast of the lights; the Chinese 
 have the feast of the lanterns; the features of the Chinese are said to 
 resemble the ancient Egyptian statues ; certain characters engraven 
 on an Egyptian bust of lsis were found to belong to the Chinese lan- 
 guage. 
 
 2. M. Bailly has taken a wider range of observation, and from a 
 review of the manners, customs, opinions, and attainments of the 
 Indians, Persians, Chinese, Chaldeans, and Egyptians, has discovered 
 many circumstances of similarity between all those nations, equally 
 remarkable as the foregoing. He has thence formed the singular 
 hypothesis, that the knowledge common to all those nations has been 
 derived from the same original source, a most ancient and highly 
 ■cultivated people of Asia, of which every trace is now extinct. If we 
 find, says he, in the scattered huts of peasants, fragments interspersed 
 of sculptured columns, we conclude for certain that they are not the 
 work of the rude peasants who reared those huts, but that they are 
 the remains of a magnificent building, the work of able architects, 
 though we discover no other traces of the existence of that building, 
 and cannot ascertain its precise situation. 
 
 3. The sciences and arts of the Chinese have been stationary for 
 2,000 years. The people seem never to have availed themselve9 
 of the lights of their ancestors. They are like the inhabitants of a 
 country recently discovered by a polished people, who have taught 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 193 
 
 them some of their arts, and left their instruments among them. 
 The knowledge which they possess, seems to have been imported, 
 and not of original growth, for it has never been progressive. 
 
 4. The Chaldeans were an enlightened people at the commence- 
 ment of the Babylonish empire, 2,000 years before the Christian era. 
 They were astronomers, and understood the revolutions of the ce- 
 lestial bodies. The Chaldeans were probably the remains of this 
 ancient people. The Bramins of India believe in the unity of God, 
 and the immortality of the soul ; but with these sublime tenets they 
 intermix childish absurdities. They derived the former from wise 
 instructers ; the latter were the fruit of their own ignorance. The 
 Sanscrit, a copious and elegant language, and the vehicle of all the 
 Indian knowledge and philosophy, has been a dead tongue for thou- 
 sands of years, and is intelligible only to a few of the Bramins. It 
 was probably the language of that great ancient people. 
 
 5. The coincidence or similarity of customs concurs to establish 
 the belief of an original nation. The custom of libation was com- 
 mon to the Tartars and Chinese, and to the Greeks and Romans. 
 All the Asiatic nations had festivals of the nature of the Roman satur- 
 nalia. The tradition of the deluge is diffused among all those nations. 
 The tradition of the giants attacking heaven is equally general. 
 The doctrine of the metempsychosis was common to the Egyptians. 
 Greeks, Indians, Persians, 1 artarians, and Chinese. The religion of 
 all those nations is founded on the profound but erroneous doctrine 
 of the two principles, a universal soul pervading all nature, and 
 inert matter on which it acts. A conformity in a true doctrine is no 
 proof of mutual communication or concert ; but it is ingeniously re- 
 marked, that a conformity in a false doctrine comes very near to such 
 a proof. 
 
 6. The Egyptians, Chaldeans, Indians, Persians, and Chinese^ all 
 placed their temples fronting the east, to receive the first rays of the 
 sun. Hence the worship of the sun has been the religion of the an- 
 cient people from which these are descended. All these nations had 
 a cycle, or period of sixty years, for regulating their chronology. 
 They all divided the circle into 360 degrees; the zodiac into twelve 
 sign? ; and the week into seven days. The Chinese, Indians, and 
 i^yptians designed the seven days of the week by the names of time 
 seven planets ranged in the same order. The long measures of the 
 ancient nations had all one common origin. 
 
 7. These singular coincidences, says M. Bailly, can be explained 
 only upon three suppositions : 1, that there was a free commimicn- 
 tion between all those ancient nations ; 2, that those circumstances 
 of coincidence are so founded in human nature, that the most un- 
 connected nations could not fail to hit upon them ; or, 3, that they 
 have been all derived from a common source. He rejects the two 
 former suppositions, as contrary, in his opinion, to fact, and adopts 
 the last. 
 
 3. The precise situation of this great ancient people, M. Bailly does 
 not pretend to fix with certainty; but offers probable reasons for 
 conjecturing that it was about the 49th or 50th degree of north lati- 
 tude, in the southern regions of Siberia. Many of the European 
 and Asiatic nations attribute their origin to that quarter, which thence 
 appears to have been extremely populous. Nitre, a production 
 from animal substances, is more abundant there than in any oth^r 
 region. The observations of the rising of the stars, collected by 
 Ptolemy, must have been made in a climate where the longest <ky 
 R 26 
 
194 MODERN HISTORY . 
 
 was sixteen hours, which corresponds to the latitude of 50 degrees 
 No European nation in that latitude understood astronomy in those 
 early periods. The veneration of the Indians and Chinese for the 
 Lama of Thibet is a proof that the religion of those nations originat 
 ed io that quarter. 
 
 9. But does that region exhibit any traces of having been ever 
 inhabited by a polished people ? Here the theory of M. Bailly seems 
 to be least supported by proof. He observes, that ancient mines 
 have been discovered in those parts of Siberia, which have been 
 wrought to great extent in a period beyond all record or tradition ; 
 that ancient sepulchres have been found, in which there were orna- 
 ments of gold of skilful workmanship ; but the facts specified are so 
 few as to warrant no positive inference. 
 
 10. This theory is an amusing specimen of the authors ingenu- 
 ity ; but it has not. the force to draw our assent to his conclusions. 
 We have noticed it as specifying many curious facts relative to the 
 manners and attainments of the ancient nations, and as furnishing 
 strong evidence of the common origin of mankind. The nations 
 above mentioned, though many of them remote from one another, 
 were all connected, as links ot a chain, by proximity ; whence it is 
 easy to conceive that knowledge Should diverge from a centre to 
 a very distant circumference. M. Bailly has given no reasonable 
 ground for fixing that centre in the position which he has assigned 
 to it. 
 
 SECTION LI. 
 
 REIG^N OF PHILIP II. OF SPAIN. REVOLUTION OF THE 
 NETHERLANDS AND ESTABLISHMENT OF THE REPUBLIC 
 OF HOLLAND. 
 
 1. After a short survey of the Asiatic kingdoms, we return to the 
 history of Europe hi the sixteenth century. 
 
 In the time of Philip II., the successor of Charles V., the balance 
 of power in Europe was sustained by Spain, France, England, and 
 Germany, all at this time highly nourishing and respectable, either 
 from the talents of their sovereigns, or their internal strength. Eliz- 
 abeth. Henry II., and Philip II., were all acute and able politicians ; 
 thougn the policy of Philip partook more of selfish craft, and had 
 less of the manly" and heroic, than that of either of his rival mon- 
 archs. Philip was at this time sovereign of Spain, the Two Sicilies. 
 Milan, and the Netherlands. He had likewise, for a few years, the 
 power of England at his command, by his marriage with Mary, the 
 elder sister and predecessor of Elizabeth. 
 
 2. Pope Paul IV 7 ., jealous of the power of Philip, formed an alli- 
 ance with Henry IL of France to deprive the Spaniards of Milan 
 and the Two Sicilies. Philip, with the aid of the English, defeated 
 the French at St. Quintin in Picardy, and hoped from this signal vic- 
 
 tory, to force the allies into a peace ; but the duke of Guise recov- 
 ered the spirits of the French, by the taking of Calais from the Eng- 
 lish, which they had now possessed for two hundred years. Anoth- 
 
 er great victory, however, obtained by Philip near Gravelines, 
 brought on the treaty of Catteau-Cambresis in 1,559, by which the 
 French surrendered to Spain no less than eighty-nine fortified towns 
 ia the Low Countries and in Italy. 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 195 
 
 3. Philip, now at ease from foreign disturbances, began to be dis- 
 quieted on the score of religion. An intolerant bigot by nature, he 
 resolved to extirpate every species of heresy from his dominions. 
 The Netherlands, an assemblage of separate states, were all subject 
 to Philip, under various titles ; and he had conferred the government 
 of Holland, Zealand, Friesland, and Utrecht, on William, prince of 
 Orange, a count of the German empire. The Lutheran and Caivin- 
 istic opinions had made great progress in those quarters ; and Philip, 
 determining to repress them, established the inquisition with plenary 
 powers, created new bishops, and prepared to abrogate the ancient 
 laws, and give the provinces a new political institution. These inno- 
 vations created alarm and tumult; and the duke of Alva was sent into 
 [■"landers to enforce implicit submission. 
 
 4. The inquisition began its bloody work, and many of the prin- 
 cipal nobility of the provinces were its victims. The minds ot the 
 people were completely alienated, and a chief was only wanting to 
 give union to their measures. The prince of Orange, who was 
 under sentence of the inquisition, found no difficulty to raise an army ; 
 and having easily reduced some of the most important garrisons, 
 lie was proclaimed stadtholder of Holland and Zealand in 1,570. 
 Eighteen thousand persons perished by the hands of the executioner 
 in tthe course of the duke ot Alva's government, which was of five 
 years' duration. His place was supplied by Requesens, a man of hu- 
 manity, but bound to obey his inhuman master, who, on the death of 
 Requesens, sent his own brother don John of Austria, to endeavour 
 (o regain the revolted states ; but the attempt was fruitless. The 
 whole seventeen provinces had suffered alike from the tyranny of 
 their sovereign ; but particular jealousies prevented a general union, 
 and only seven of them asserted their independence, by a solemn 
 treaty formed at Utrecht, on the 23d of January, 1,579; by which it 
 was agreed that they should defend their liberties as one united 
 repuhiic; that they should jointly determine in matters of peace and 
 war, establish a general legislative authority, and maintain a liberty 
 of conscience in matters of religion. These seven united provinces 
 are, Guelderhuul, Holland, Zealand, Friesland, Utrecht, Overyssel, 
 ami Groningen. William prince of Orange was declared their chief 
 Magistrate, general, and admiral, by the title of Stadtliolder. 
 
 a. Philip vented his indignation by a proscription of the prince of 
 Orange, offering 25,000 crowns for his head ; and he compassed his 
 revenge ; for this illustrious man was cut off by an assassin in 1,584. 
 1 lis son Maurice was elected stadtholder in his room, and sustained 
 his important office with great courage and ability. With a slender 
 aid from Elizabeth of England, who delighted to traverse the plans of 
 Philip, this infant commonwealth accomplished and secured its inde- 
 pendence, which it maintained till its recent subjugation 
 
 6. The other ten provinces, whose discontents were expressed 
 only by murmur and complaint, were soothed by a new charter from 
 Philip confirming their privileges; while at the same time he took 
 every possible measure to prevent any attempt on their part to 
 Uirow off the yoke. 
 
196 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 SECTION Lll. 
 
 OF THE CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED 
 PROVINCES. 
 
 !. The treaty of confederation of the Seven United Provinces*, 
 framed in 1,579, and solemnly renewed in 1,583, is declared to be, 
 oy its nature, indissoluble. Each province thereby preserved its 
 own laws, magistrates, sovereignty, and independence. They form, 
 however, one body politic, having renounced the right of making 
 separate alliances or treaties, and established a general council, with 
 power of assembling the states, and regulating the common affairs of 
 the republic. The assembly of the states-general was originally held 
 only twice a year, but became afterwards a perpetual council. 
 
 2. In all matters which regard not the general interest of the na- 
 tion, each of the states or provinces is in itself a republic, governed 
 by its own laws and magistrates, and possessing a supreme legislative 
 authority. The deputies from each of the towns form the council of 
 the province, in which is vested its separate government ; and these 
 deputies are regulated by the instructions of their constituents. The 
 votes of the majority of deputies decide in the provincial council in 
 ail matters which regard not the general interest of the nation. 
 
 3. The great council of the states-general always met in assembly 
 at the Hague, and is composed of the deputies from the seven prov- 
 inces, of which Holland sends three, Zealand and Utrecht two, and 
 the others one ,* each deputy being regulated by the council of his 
 province. A majority of voices is here decisive, unless in the great 
 questions of peace, war, and alliance, in which unanimity is requisite. 
 The disadvantage of this constitution is the delay and difficulty in 
 the execution of public measures. All the towns and all the nobles 
 of a province must deliberate and instruct their deputy, before the 
 states-general can take the matter under consideration. This great 
 defect is partly corrected by the power and influence of the stadt- 
 holder. 
 
 4. The stadtholder is commander in chief of the sea and land 
 forces, and disposes ot all the military employments. He presides 
 over all the courts of justice, and has the power of pardoning crimes. 
 He appoints the magistrates of the towns, from a list made by them- 
 selves ; receives and names ambassadors, and is charged with the ex- 
 ecution of the laws. He is supreme arbiter in all differences between 
 the provinces, cities, or other members of the state. 
 
 5. William, the first stadtholder, did not abuse these high powers ; 
 nor did his successors, Maurice and Henry-Frederick. But under 
 William II. the states became jealous of an exorbitant authority in 
 their chief magistrate, and on his death the office was for some time 
 abolished. In that interval the republic was almost annihilated by 
 the arms of Lewis XIV. ; and, sensible of their error, they restored 
 the office of stadtholder in the person of William III., who retrieved 
 the fortunes and honour of his country. In gratitude for his services, 
 the dignity was made hereditary in his family, a solecism in the gov- 
 ernment of a republic. On the death of William without issue, the 
 office was once more abolished for twenty years, when it was again 
 restored, declared hereditary in the family of Orange, and descendi- 
 ble even to the issue of a daughter. The only restrictions are, that 
 
Modern history. i§? 
 
 the succeeding prince shall be of the protestant religion, and neither 
 king nor elector of the German empire. 
 
 SECTION LIII. 
 REIGN ON PHILIP II. CONTINUED. 
 
 1 . The loss of the Netherlands was in some degree compensated 
 to Philip II. by the acquisition of the kingdom of Port jgah Muley 
 Mahomet, king of Fez and Morocco, dethroned by his uncle Muley 
 Moluc, solicited the aid of don Sebastian king of Portugal to regain 
 his throne. Sebastian landed with an army in Africa, but was de- 
 feated by the Moors and slain; and the contending Moorish princes 
 perished in the same engagement. Sebastian was succeeded by his 
 grand-uncle don Henry, who died after a reign of two years. The 
 competitors for the crown were don Antonio prior of Crato, and 
 Philip If., paternal and maternal uncles of the last sovereign. Philip 
 defeated his rival in a decisive engagement at sea, and, without fur- 
 ther opposition, took possession of the throne of Portugal, 1,580. 
 
 2. Elizabeth of England had warmly espoused the cause of the 
 revolted Netherlands, and her admiral sir Francis Drake had taken 
 some of the Spanish settlements in America. To avenge these in- 
 juries, the invincible armada, of 150 ships of war, 27,000 men, and 
 3,000 pieces of cannon, was equipped by Philip for the invasion of 
 England. The English fleet, of 108 ships, attacked them in the 
 night, and burnt and destroyed a great part of the squadron. A 
 storm, which drove them on the rocks and sands of Zealand, com- 
 pleted their discomfiture, and only 50 shattered vessels, with 6,000 
 men returned to Spain, 1,588. 
 
 3. The restless spirit of Philip II. was engaged at the same time in 
 She reduction of the Netherlands, the project for the invasion of 
 England, and the dismembering of the kingdom of France. The 
 lust scheme was as ineffectual as the two former. It was defeated at 
 once by the conversion of Henry IV. to the catholic religion. The 
 policy of Philip had nothing in it great or generous. His restless 
 ambition was fitted to embroil Europe ; but he had not the judgment 
 to turn the distresses which he occasioned to his own advantage. 
 In his own kingdoms, as in his domestic life, he was a gloomy and in- 
 human tyrant. Yet, from the variety and magnitude of his designs, 
 the power by which they were supported, and the splendour of his 
 dominion, the character of Spain was high and respectable in the 
 scale of the nations of Europe. 
 
 SECTION LIV. 
 
 STATE OF FRANCE IN THE END OF THE SIXTEENTH CEN- 
 TURY ; UNDER HENRY II., FRANCIS II., CHARLES IX., HENRY 
 III., AND HENRY IV- 
 
 1. The reformed religion had made the greater progress in 
 France from the impolitic persecution which it sustained from 
 Henry II., the son and successor of Francis I., who, though he aided 
 the protestants of Germany in resisting the despotism of Charles V., 
 showed no mercy to their brethren in his own kingdom. 
 
i$8 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 2. Qn the death of Henry II. the conspiracy of Amboise was plan- 
 ned by the prince of Conde, for the destruction of the duke of Guise, 
 who ruled the kingdom under Francis II., and to whose intolerance 
 and cruelty the protestauts attributed all their calamities. Guise 
 owed his ascendancy chiefly to the marriage of his niece, Mary 
 queen of Scots with the young monarch ; and the detection of this 
 conspiracy, the massacre "of its principal leaders, and the barbarous 
 punishment of all who partook in it, while they confirmed his power, 
 served only to increase the rancour of the contending parties. 
 
 3. Francis 11. died after a reign of one year, 1,560, and was suc- 
 ceeded by his brother Charles IX., a boy of ten years of age. The 
 queen-mother^ Catharine de Medicis, who had no other principle but 
 the love of power, was equally jealous of the influence of the 
 Condes and the Guises. An ecclesiastical assembly, held by her de- 
 sire at Poissy, gave toleration to the protestants to exercise their 
 worship througn all France, without the walls of the towns. The 
 zeal or the imprudence of the duke of Guise infringed this ordinance*, 
 and both parties flew to arms- The admiral Ceiigni commanded the 
 troops of the protestants, who were aided by 10,000 Germans from 
 the Palatinate. Philip of Spain, to increase the disorders, sent an 
 army to the aid of the catholics. 
 
 4. The horrors of civil war were aggravated by murders an i 
 assassinations. The duke of Gnise was the victim of the frantic zeal 
 of an enthusiast. After many desperate engagements, with various 
 success, a treacherous peace was agreed to by the catholics ;' and 
 Coligni, with the chiefs of the protestant party, were invited to 
 court, and received by the queen-mother and her son with the most 
 extraordinary marks of favour: among the rest Henry of Navarre, 
 to whom the young monarch had given his siiter in marriage. Such 
 were the preparatives to the infernal massacre of St. Bartholomew. 
 On the night of the 23d of August, 1,572, at the ringing of the matin 
 bell, the catholics made a general massacre of all the protestants 
 throughout the kingdom of France. Charles IX., a monster of 
 cruelty assisted in the murder of his own subjects. 
 
 5. Amid those horrors Henry duke of Aniou, brother of Charles 
 IX.. was elected king of Poland ; but had scarcely taken possession 
 of nis throne, when he was called to that of France by the death 
 of its execrable sovereign, 1,574. The weakness of the new mon 
 arch, Henry III., was unfit to compose the disorders of the kingdom 
 Equally bigoted and profligate, he became the scorn of his subjects, 
 and the dupe of the contending factions. 
 
 6. The protestant party was now supported by the prince of 
 Conde and young Henry of Navarre, descended from Robert of 
 Bourbon, a younger son of Lewis IX. The duke of Alencon, the 
 king's brother, had likewise joined their party. The catholics, to 
 accumulate their strength, formed a bond of union, termed the league, 
 nominally for defence of the state and its religion, but in reality for 
 usurping all the powers of government, and suppressing the protes- 
 tant faith. Of this dangerous association Henry III., with the weakest 
 policy, declared himself the head, and thus the avowed enemy of 
 one half of his subjects. He saw his error when too late, and, 
 dreading the designs of the duke of Guise, and his brother the cardinal 
 of Lorraine, whose authority had superseded his own, he basely rid 
 himself of his fears by procuring their assassination. This vicious 
 and contemptible tyrant, after a reign of fifteen years, was assassinated 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 193 
 
 by Jaques Clement, a jacobin monk, from the frenzy of fanaticism, 
 1,589. 
 
 7. The next heir of the crown was Henry of Navarre, who had 
 been educated a protestant by his mother, the daughter of Henry 
 d'Albert king of N avarre. At the age of sixteen he had been declared 
 head of the party of the Huguenots ; his uncle the prince of Conde 
 and the admiral Coligni acting as his lieutenants. His hrst military 
 enterprises were unsuccessful. Invited to Paris, at the peace ol 
 1,572, to marry the sister of Charles IX., he narrowly escaped from 
 the massacre of St. Bartholomew, but remained three years a prison- 
 er. On the death of Charles he again took the field against the 
 army of the league, which he defeated in the battle of Coutras, 
 1,587, and still more signally in that of Arques, 1,589. After the 
 death of Henry III., he won the celebrated battle of Ivry; and, 
 being acknowledged sovereign of France by all but the party of the 
 league, then in possession of Paris, he laid siege to the city, which 
 must have capitulated if Philip II. had not sent succours. Religion was 
 the sole cause of the disunion of France, and the only obstacle to 
 the acknowledgment of Henry's title by the greater part of his sub- 
 jects. By the earnest persuasion of Rosni (duke of Sully), a protes- 
 tant, Henry was prevailed on to declare himself a catholic. He ab- 
 jured at St. Denis, and was crowned king at Chartres, 1,594. He 
 soon alter took possession of Paris ; but it took him several years- 
 both of war and negotiation, before he gained the whole of his king- 
 dom, exhausted as it was, and ruined by civil discord. 
 
 8. The subsequent life of this excellent prince was devoted to the 
 reparation of those misfortunes. After forcing Philip II. to conclude 
 the advantageous peace of Vervins, 1,598, his whole attention was 
 .bestowed on the improvement of his kingdom, by reforming its laws, 
 regulating its finances, encouraging agriculture and manufactures, 
 enlarging and embellishing the cities, and finally by successfully 
 reconciling the partisans of the contending religions, in all his bene- 
 ficial schemes, he found an able assistant in his minister the duke ol 
 Sully, who has beautifully depicted the liie and character of his mas- 
 ter, in his memoirs we see not only the great designs, but the pri- 
 vate virtues, the engaging and amiable manners of this illustrious 
 man, who, while he was the arbiter of the contending powers ol 
 Europe, was the indulgent father of a happy people. 
 
 9. The period of the splendour and happiness of France was ot 
 short duration. Henry IV., worthy to be immortal, was assassinated 
 at the age of fifty-seven, May 4, 1,610, by Ravaillac, an insane fanat- 
 ic. At the time of his death, he meditated the great project of a 
 perpetual peace between the states of Europe, a design highly char- 
 acteristic of the benevolent mind of its author. But the weaknesses oi 
 mankind, and the impossibility of reasoning with nations as with wise 
 individuals, must certainly have rendered this design impracticable at 
 that period. 
 
 SECTION LV. 
 
 HISTORY OF ENGLAND AND OF SCOTLAND IN THE REIGNS 
 OF ELIZABETH AND MARY QUEEN OF SCOTS. 
 
 1. Elizabeth, daughter of Henry VI1L, by Anna Bullen, succeeded 
 to the throne on the death of her sister Mary, 1,558; and England 
 
200 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 attained a high degree of splendour, under the rule of this great and 
 politic princess, whose talents enabled her to pursue the true interests 
 of her people, while her vigorous and intrepid mind led her to take 
 an important part in maintaining the balance of power in Europe. 
 While she encouraged at home every useful art and manufacture, 
 she colonized a great part of North America, supported the infant 
 republic of Holland against its tyrannical enemy, humbled the pride 
 of Spain in the defeat of its invincible armada, and assisted Henry IV. 
 in the recovery of his kingdom. It was her fortune to have the aid 
 of most able ministers, and her merit to place her confidence in their 
 counsels. 
 
 2. If Elizabeth had been equally endowed with the virtues of the 
 heart as with the powers of the mind, she would have shone the 
 most illustrious character in the annals of modern Europe. Her 
 conduct to her cousin Mary queen of Scots has fixed an indelible 
 stain on her character. Mary, the daughter of James V., and great 
 grand-daughter of Henry Vil., educated in France, and married, 
 when very young, io the dauphin, afterwards Francis II., had im- 
 prudently assumed the anus and title of queen of England, by the 
 persuasion of her maternal uncles the Guises. The pretence was 
 the illegitimacy of Elizabeth, declared by Henry VilL, on his divorce 
 from Anna Builen. This false step laid the foundation of all the 
 miseries of the queen of Scots. 
 
 3. The reformation was at this time going forward in Scotland 
 with the most ardent zeal. The earls of Argyle, Morton, Glencairn, 
 and others, its chief promoters, had, by their own authority, suppress- 
 el the worship of the mass over a great part of the kingdom. 
 The catholic bishops, by an ili-judged persecution of the reformers, 
 greatly increased the number of their proselytes. They began to 
 muster their strength, and, headed by John Knox, a disciple of Cal- 
 vin, a virtuous man, but of the most furious and intemperate zeal, 
 threw down the altars and images, expelled the priests, and demol- 
 ished the churches and monasteries. The protestants were new 
 acting in arms, and in open defiance of government ; and the queen- 
 mother, Mary of Guise, attempted, by the aid of French troops, to 
 reduce her subjects to submission. They applied for aid to Elizabeth 
 the protestant queen of England, who sent an army and a fleet to their 
 assistance. The death of the queen-mother was followed by a capit- 
 ulation, by vvhich it was agreed that the French should evacuate 
 Scotland, and that Mary should renounce all pretension to the crown of 
 England. The protestant religion, under presbyterian forms, was 
 now established in the room of the catholic. 
 
 5. In this situation of Scotland, Mary, at the age of eighteen, on 
 the death of her mother, and of her husband Francis II., returned 
 to her hereditary kingdom ; having fortunately escaped an English 
 iieet, which Elizabeth had despatched to take her prisoner on her 
 passage. Her misfortunes began from that hour. Her protestant 
 subjects regarded their catholic queen with abhorrence, and looked 
 up to her enemy Elizabeth as their support and defender. That 
 artful princess had secured to her interest the very men on whom 
 the unsuspecting Mary placed her utmost confidence, her bastard 
 brother the earl of Murray, the earl of Morton, and secretary Leth- 
 ington. The views of Murray aimed at nothing less than his sister's 
 crown, and tke obstacles which opposed his criminal ambition served 
 <»nly to render his attempts more daring and flagitious. 
 
 6. The marriage of Mary with her cousin lord Darnley, son of the 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 201 
 
 earl of Lennox, who stood in the same relation to ElizaDeth, was not 
 agreeable to that princess. Encouraged by Elizabeth's ministers, 
 Randolph and Cecil, Murray formed a conspiracy to seize and impris- 
 on Mary, to put to death her husband, and usurp the government ; 
 and on the detection of his designs, attempted to support them by 
 open rebellion. Defeated, exited, pardoned, and loaded with benefits 
 by his injured sovereign, he persevered in the same atrocious pur- 
 poses, till he at length accomplished them. 
 
 6. The spouse of Mary had incurred her resentment by his vices 
 and follies. Taking advantage of the weakness of his mind, Mur- 
 ray, Morton, and Lethington, had rendered him jealous of the par- 
 tiality of Mary for her foreign secretary, the aged Rizzio, and en- 
 gaged him in the barbarous act of murdering this ill-fated wretch 
 at the feet of the queen, to whose garments he clung for protection. 
 The purpose of this shocking outrage was to procure the abortion 
 of Mary, then big with child, and possibly her death ; or, if she 
 should survive, to alienate completely her affections from her hus- 
 band, and thus to render her suspected of the design which they 
 had projected of cutting him off by assassination. In the latter pur- 
 pose they succeeded. The house which Darnley inhabited was blown 
 up by gunpowder: his body was found strangled near the place, and 
 a report immediately prevailed, that Mary had been accessory to his 
 murder. 
 
 7. A most imprudent step, to which she was conducted by the 
 same band of traitors, gave countenance to this suspicion. At the 
 earnest recommendation of Morton and some of her chief nobility, 
 she married the earl of Bothwell, a man openly stigmatized as one 
 of the murderers of her husband. He had, it is true, been absolved 
 on trial for that crime, and had by force made himself master of her 
 person. The plans of Murray and his associates, successful to the 
 utmost of their wishes, were now ripe for consummation. On the 
 pretext of the queen's guilt of murder and adultery, she was confined 
 by Murray in the castle of Lochleven, and there compelled to resign 
 her crown into the hands of her unnatural brother, who was to govern 
 the kingdom as regent during the minority of her infant son, now 
 proclaimed king by the title of James VI., 1,567. Bothwell escaped 
 beyond sea, and died in Denmark. 
 
 3. A great part of the nation reprobated those infamous proceed- 
 ings. Mary escaped from her confinement, and at the head of an 
 army gave battle to the rebels at Langside ; but, being defeated, she 
 tied tor shelter to the north of England. Elizabeth, who had secretly 
 encouraged all the machinations of her enemies, had now gained a 
 great object of her ambition ; she had in her hands a hated rival, and, 
 by her support of Murray and his party, the absolute command oi 
 the kingdom of Scotland. Yet policy required some show el 
 friendship and humanity to the queen of Scots, who claimed, as a 
 suppliant, her protection and aid. She professed her desire to do 
 her justice, but first required that she should clear herself of the 
 crimes alleged against her. To this Mary agreed, with the intrepid- 
 ity of conscious innocence. In a conference held for that purpose, 
 Murray openly stood forth as the accuser of his sister and queen, 
 appealing to certain letters said to have been written by her to Both- 
 well, plainly intimating her guilt. Copies of these letters were pro- 
 duced. Mary demanded the originals, boldly declaring them to be 
 the forgeries of her enemies; but they were never produced. She 
 retorted on Murray and Morton the "charge of Darnley 's murdei, 
 
202 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 and the conference was broken off at the command ot the queen of 
 England, who detained Mary in close imprisonment. 
 
 9. The ungenerous policy of Elizabeth was condemned by her 
 own subjects. The duke of Norfolk, the first of her nobility, and, 
 though a protestant, favoured by the catholic party in England, 
 secretly projected to marry the queen of Scots. The discovery of 
 his views having given alarm to Elizabeth, brought that ill-fated 
 nobleman to the block, and hastened the doom of the unfortunate 
 Mary. Worn out with the miseries of her confinement, she private- 
 ly solicited the aid of foreign princes for ■ her deliverance. Her 
 cause was espoused by all the catholics of England ; and some of the 
 most intemperate of these had formed a plot to deliver her from 
 •.aptivity, and to place her on the throne, by the murder of Eliza- 
 beth. This dangerous conspiracy was discovered, and its authors 
 deservedly suffered death. The schemes of Mary for her own de- 
 liverance were held presumptive of her acquiescence in the whole of 
 the plot. Though an independent sovereign, she was brought to 
 trial before a foreign tribunal which had already decreed her fate ; 
 and, being condemned to suffer death, she was beheaded at Fother- 
 ingay castle, 1,587, in the forty-fifth year of her age, and the nine- 
 teenth of her captivity in England. Previously to this event, Murray 
 had fallen the victim of the private revenge of a gentleman whom he 
 had injured ; Lefhington poisoned himself in prison, to escape the 
 sentence of his enemies ; and Morton, some time regent of the king- 
 dom, was afterwards tried and suflered death for his concern in the 
 murder of Darnley. 
 
 10. We have mentioned the formidable preparations of Philip II. 
 for the invasion of England, and their disastrous issue in the total 
 destruction of the invincible armada. The English, in their turn, 
 made descents on the Spanish coasts ; and the glory of the nation 
 was noblv sustained by those great admirals, Raleigh, Howard. 
 Drake, Cavendish, and Hawkins. The earl of Essex distinguished 
 himseif in those expeditions, and won the favour of Elizabeth, both 
 by his prowess and personal accomplishments. The death of Lei- 
 cester, her former favourite, and of her minister Burleigh left Essex 
 unrivalled in her affections, and of chief authority in the direction of 
 her councils. Haughty, and impatient of control, he disgusted the 
 nobles ; and his failure in quelling a rebellion in Ireland gave them 
 ground to undermine him in the favour of his sovereign. In the mad- 
 ness of inordinate ambition, he proposed to possess himself of the 
 person of the queen, and compel her to remove his enemies, and 
 acquiesce in all his measures. This treasonable enterprise brought 
 him to the scaffold, 1,600. 
 
 11. From that lime Elizabeth fell into profound melancholy, and soon 
 after died in the seventieth year of her age, 1,603, having named for 
 her successor James VI. of Scotland. Her talents were great, and 
 the firmness of her mind was unequalled ; but her private char- 
 acter was tarnished by cruelty, hypocrisy, and an insatiable desire 
 of admiration. Her maxims of government were despotic, and she 
 had little regard for the liberties of her people, or the privileges of 
 her parliaments, to whom she never allowed the liberty of disputing 
 her commands. The actual government of England in those day* 
 was little different from an absolute monarchy. 
 
MODERN HISTORY. ♦ &)3 
 
 SECTION LVI. 
 
 HISTORY OF GREAT BRITAIN IN THE REIGNS OF JAMES I, 
 AND CHARLES I. 
 
 1. James VI. of Scotland succeeded by hereditary right to the 
 throne of England, thus uniting the two crowns ; a prince of consid- 
 erable learning and talents, but of little vigour of mind or political 
 energy. He became unpopular from his notions of an uncontrollable 
 prerogative, to which unwisely proclaiming his title, he provoked 
 his subjects to question it. The current of public opinion was now 
 strongly turned to an extension of the rights of the subject, and to a 
 retrenchment of the powers of the crown ; and during this reign the 
 seeds were sown of that spirit of resistance on the part of the peo- 
 ple, which was destined in the next to overturn the constitution. 
 
 2. Domestic events were such as chiefly distinguished the reign 
 of James I. A conspiracy was discovered! in 1,603 for subverting 
 the government, and placing the king's cousin, Arabella Stuart, on 
 the throne, in which the lords Cobham and Grey, and Sir Walter Ra- 
 leigh were principally concerned. The two former were pardoned, 
 and Raleigh was condemned, but reprieved. On the ground of his 
 infringement of the peace with Spain, by unwarrantably attacking 
 one of her American settlements, he was beheaded on his former 
 sentence, after an interval of fifteen years. 
 
 3. Another conspiracy followed, of a still more dangerous nature, 
 the gunpowder treason ; a plot of the catholics to destroy at one 
 blow the king and the whole body of the parliament, 1,604. It was 
 discovered from a circumstance of private friendship, on the very 
 eve of its accomplishment; and the principal conspirators suffered 
 capital punishment. The public indignation now raged against the 
 catholics ; and the humanity of James, which sought to mitigate this 
 fury, was as ungenerously as absurdly construed into a favour which 
 he entertained for their religious principles. 
 
 4. It was a peculiar weakness of the king to attach himself to 
 undeserving favourites. Such was Carre earl of Somerset, who had 
 no other recommendation but a handsome person, and who, after 
 several years' exercise of all the insolence of power, fell into dis- 
 grace, on conviction of his concern in an infamous murder. His 
 place was supplied by Villiers^, afterwards duke of Buckingham, a 
 man devoid of every talent of a minister and odious to all ranks 
 of the state. He planned a journey of Charles prince of Wales into 
 Spain to court the intanta, and by his folly and insolence frustrated 
 the treaty on the brink of its conclusion. 
 
 5. Elizabeth, the daughter of James, was married to the prolestant 
 elector Palatine, Avho was dispossessed of his electorate by the empe- 
 ror Ferdinand II., for imprudently accepting the crown of Bohemia, 
 till then an appanage of the empire. James was urged by parlia- 
 ment to a war in defence of his son-in-law, which touched the nation 
 both as a point of honour and as the cause of the protestant interest 
 He sent a feeble armament, which was of no service, the only mili- 
 tary enterprise of his reign. His favourite project was a comnlele 
 union of the kingdoms of England and Scotland ; a measure which, 
 however beneficial, the mutual prejudices of the two nations were as 
 
204 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 yet too violent to bear. As a preparatory step, tne episcopal hie- 
 rarchy was introduced into Scotland ; but this served only as the in- 
 centive of future commotions. James I. died in 1625, in the 59th 
 year of his age, and the 22d of his reign over England. 
 
 6. On an impartial estimate of the character of the succeeding 
 monarch, Charles I., it may be allowed, that this unfortunate prince 
 would have reigned with high popularity, if the nation in his reign 
 had entertained the same opinions of the regal prerogative, of the 
 powers of parliament, and of the liberty of the subject, which had 
 prevailed for the two preceding centuries. But it was his lot to 
 mount the throne at that critical period when the public opinion had 
 undergone an entire revolution on those topics; and, with many ex- 
 cellent endowments both of head and heart, he wanted that political 
 prudence which should have taught him to yield to the necessity oi 
 the times. 
 
 7. Charles was offended with his first parliament, on their refusal 
 of adequate supplies for the war in support of his brother-in-law, the 
 elector Palatine. Engaged to his allies, the king, dissolving the par- 
 liament, issued warrants for borrowing money of the subject. A new 
 parliament was found equally uncomplying, and evinced its jealousy 
 of the king by the impeachment of his minister, Buckingham. Charles 
 avenged the insult by imprisoning two members of the house of com- 
 mons. A dissension thus begun was continually aggravated by new 
 causes of offence. The levying of money from the subject was on- 
 forced by billeting soldiers on those who refused to lend to the crown : 
 and some were even imprisoned on that account. A war was under- 
 taken against France, by Buckingham's instigation, a sufficient cause 
 of its unpopularity ; and it ended in a fruitless attempt on Rochelle. 
 The king again dissolved his parliament, 1,G2G. 
 
 8. A new parliament exhibited a spirit of determined reformation. 
 A Petition of Right was passed by both houses, which declared the 
 illegality of raising money without their sanction, or of enforcing loans 
 from the subject, annulled all taxes imposed without the consent oi 
 parliament, and abolished the exercise of the martial law ; and Charles 
 was obliged, with much reluctance, to give his assent to this great 
 retrenchment of prerogatives, sanctioned by the usage of the most 
 popular of his predecessors. 
 
 9. The taxes of tonnage and poundage had usually been continued 
 from one reign to another. On this ground the king conceived that 
 he was warranted to levy them without a new grant; and a member 
 of the house of commons was imprisoned on refusal to pay them. 
 
 This arbitrary measure excited an outrageous ferment in that assem- 
 bly, and the consequence was a new dissolution of the parliament, 
 
 1,629. 
 
 10. It was now a measure of necessity to make peace with France 
 and Spain. The king persevered in levying the tonnage, poundage, 
 and ship-money; and high fines were imposed for various offences, 
 without trial, by authority of the star-chamber. The legality of the 
 tax of ship-money was disputed by John Hampden, who was con- 
 demned by the court of exchequer, contrary, as was generally 
 thought, to justice and the laws of the realm. 
 
 11. Those discontents were increased by religious enthusiasm. 
 Charles, by the advice of Laud, archbishop of Canterbury, had relax- 
 ed the penalties against catholics, and countenanced some innova- 
 tions in the ceremonials of church worship, preludes, as they were 
 termed, to the popish idolatries. He had likewise imprudently at. 
 
MODERN HISTORY 205 
 
 tempted to introduce the liturgy of the church of England among the 
 Scots. These measures excited in Scotland very general discontent, 
 and produced the most violent commotion. A bond, termed the Na- 
 tional Covenant, containing an oath of resistance to all religious iniv>- 
 vations, was subscribed in Scotland by all ranks and conditions ; and 
 in a general assembly at Glasgow the episcopal hierarchy was sol- 
 emnly abolished, 1,638. To maintain this violent procedure the 
 Scots reformers took up arms, and, after seizing and fortifying the 
 most important places of strength in the kingdom, boldly marched 
 into the heart of England. 
 
 12. It was now absolutely necessary to assemble a parliament, and 
 the king at kmgth saw that the torrent was irresistible, and resolved, 
 though too late, to yield to it. A bill passed for abolishing the ton- 
 nage and poundage without consent of parliament, and received the 
 royal assent. Monopolies of every kind were abolished. A parlia- 
 ment was agreed to be summoned every third year. Unsatisfied 
 with these concessions, the commons impeached the earl of Strafford, 
 the king's first minister, of high treason, together with Laud, arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury, who were charged, as the chief counsellors of 
 the crown, with a design of subverting the laws and constitution of 
 the realm. The fate of Strafford, whose trial "by his peers would 
 have terminated in his acquittal, was secured by a bill of attainder, 
 to which the king was, with the greatest reluctance, forced to give 
 his assent The commons seized that moment of anguish to ob- 
 tain his consent to a decisive measure, a bill which rendered the 
 parliament perpetual, by declaring that it should net be dissolved nor 
 adjourned except by its own decree, 1,641. Strafford and Laud were 
 both beheaded. 
 
 13. This last measure of the commons evinced a determined pur- 
 pose to overturn the constitution. Their proceedings hitherto nad 
 the show of justice, and most of them might be vindicated on the 
 principles of true patriotism. But from this period their conduct 
 was treason to their country and its government. The last bill de- 
 stroyed the equal balance of the constitution of England, and every 
 subsequent measure was a step towards its annihilation. 
 
 14. The Irish catholics took advantage of these disorders, and, 
 with the purpose of assuming the entire command of that kingdom, 
 and shaking off its dependence on England, attempted, in one day to 
 massacre ail the protestants in Ireland. To extinguish this horrible 
 rebellion Charles consigned to the parliament the charge of the war, 
 which they interpreted into a transference to them of the whole mil- 
 itary powers of the crown. Under this authority a great force was 
 levied, and supplied with arms from the royal magazines. 
 
 1 5. The bishops having complained that their lives were in danger 
 from the populace, and having protested against the proceedings of 
 the lords in their absence, were impeached of treason ; y the com- 
 mons, and committed to the Tower. The patience of Charles was 
 exhausted. He caused five of the commons tc be impeached, and 
 went in person to the house to seize them ; a breach of the privilege 
 of parliament, for which he found it necessary to atone by a humili- 
 ating message. 
 
 16. A new bill of the commons, naming the commanders of all the 
 fortified places, who should be responsible to parliament alone, was 
 understood to be a declaration of war. The next step was to assume 
 the whole legislative power, by declaring it a breach of privilege to 
 dispute the law of the land promulged by the lords and commons. 
 
 o 
 
206 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 But the lords were merely a name, being entirely under the control 
 of the commons. 
 
 17. The sword was now to decide the contest. The royal cause 
 was supported by a great proportion of the landed interest, all the 
 friends of the established church, and all the catholics in the king- 
 dom. On the side of the parliament were the city of London and 
 most of the greater towns, with all the dissenters and sectaries. The 
 first campaign was favourable to the royalists, who defeated the par- 
 liamentary forces at Worcester and Edgehill, but lost the battle of 
 Newbury. 
 
 18. The parliament now entered into a strict confederacy with 
 the Scots, both in the articles of politics and religion; and the Solemn 
 League and Covenant, a new bond more specific in its objects than 
 the former, and more treasonable in its purpose, was framed at Edin- 
 burgh, for the purification of both churches, the reformation of both 
 kingdoms, the maintenance of the privileges of king and parlia- 
 ment, and bringing to justice all malignants. In consequence of this 
 confederacy, 20,000 Scots took the field to co-operate with the forces 
 of the parliament. 
 
 19. At this time Oliver Cromwell commanded a regiment of 
 horse under Fairfax, general of the parliament ; but in reality direct- 
 ed all the measures of the army. In Scotland the royal cause was 
 gallantly sustained by the marquis of Montrose; but all was lost in 
 England by the defeat at Naseby, in 1,645. The troops of the roy- 
 alists being entirely dispersed, the king threw himself into the hands 
 of the Scots, who basely delivered him up to the commissioners of 
 parliament, from whom he was taken by Cromwell's orders, and con- 
 ducted to the army, which was now master of the kingdom. Crom- 
 well entering London assumed an absolute control over the parlia- 
 ment, and imprisoned all who disputed his authority. Charles, escap- 
 ing from his confinement, fled to the isle of Wight ; but was there de- 
 tained a prisoner in Carisbrook castle. 
 
 20. The parliament, suffering under this military usurpation, were 
 now sincerely desirous of terminating a miserable anarchy by a 
 treaty with the king, and, after a long negotiation, all terms were 
 finally adjusted. Charles agreed to resign to parliament the military 
 power, the disposal of all the offices of state, and the right of creat- 
 ing peers without the consent of parliament: he agreed to abolish 
 the episcopal hierarchy, and to establish the presbyterian discipline. 
 These concessions the parliament accepted by a majority of suffra- 
 ge*, and declared them to be a sufficient basis for the settlement of 
 the kingdom. Cromwell instantly surrounded the house of commons, 
 and, excluding all but his own partisans (about sixty in number), a 
 second vote was passed, rescinding the former, and declaring rt 
 treason in a king to levy war against his parliament. A court of 
 justice was then appointed to try the king for this act of treason. 
 The house of lords, having unanimously rejected this decree, were 
 immediately voted, by this junto of independents, to be a useless 
 branch of the constitution. 
 
 21. Charles was brought to trial, and, refusing to acknowledge the 
 authority of his judges, was condemned to suffer death. He was 
 beheaded on the 30th of January, 1,649. The arbitrary proceedings 
 of this monarch in the beginning of his reign were certainly suffi- 
 cient to justify that resistance on the part of the' people which at 
 length produced its effect, in confining the regal authority within its 
 just bounds, and securing the rational liberties of the subject. Bui 
 
MODERN HISTORY. ' 207 
 
 from the period when this end was attained, resistance ceased to be 
 lawful. Its further operations were criminal in the extreme. The 
 subsequent usurpations of the commons can no more be justified on 
 any constitutional principle, than the murder of the king can be de- 
 fended on the score of legality, justice, or humanity. 
 
 SECTION LVII. 
 THE COMMONWEALTH OF ENGLAND. 
 
 1. The parliament of Scotland had taken no part in these lattei 
 scenes, and had formally protested against the trial of the king. On 
 his death they proclaimed Charles II. their sovereign, but on the ex- 
 press condition of his signing the covenant, and ratifying their con- 
 fession of faith. Ireland recognised him without any conditions. 
 The heroic marquis of Montrose landed in the north of Scotland with 
 a few foreign troops, and attempted to reduce the party of the cove-' 
 nanters, and to establish the legal authority of the king, independent 
 of the servile restrictions with which they had fettered it. Being 
 attacked by a much superior force, he was defeated, and betrayed 
 into the power of his enemies, who put him to death by the hands 
 of the executioner, 1,650; displaying in the circumstances of his 
 punishment all the insolence of cruelty which distinguishes revenge 
 in the meanest of souls. Charles retired to Scotland, and was obliged, 
 however reluctantly, to acquiesce in all the terms that were imposed 
 on him. 
 
 2. Cromwell, with 16,000 men, marched into Scotland against the 
 royalist covenanters, whom he defeated in the battle of Dunbar. He 
 then followed the royal army, which retreated into England, and 
 destroyed it in the decisive battle of Worcester, September 3, 1,651. 
 Charles fled in disguise through the western and southern counties, 
 till he found an opportunity of escaping to France ; and Cromwell 
 returned in triumph to London. 
 
 3. The republican parliament formed and executed great designs. 
 A war with Holland was most ably maintained on both sides by tfcree 
 great naval commanders, Blake, the British admiral, and Van Tromp 
 and de Ruyter, the Dutch admirals ; but the advantage was greatly 
 in favour of the English, who took above 1,600 Dutch ships. The 
 parliament, "elated by these successes, justly conceived that, while 
 the nation was thus powerful at sea, the army was an unnecessary bur- 
 den, and determined to reduce it. To prevent this measure, Crom- 
 well framed a remonstrance of the army, demanding the election of 
 a new parliament. This remonstrance being disregarded, he entered 
 the house of commons, which he had surrounded with his troops, and 
 declaring the parliament dissolved by his authority, forcibly turned 
 the members out of doors. The republic of England, which had 
 subsisted four years and three months, was thus annihilated in one 
 
 . moment, April 20, 1,653. 
 
 4. It was necessary, however, that there should be the appearance 
 of a parliament. A few mean persons, of fanatical character, were 
 chosen by Cromwell's partisans, from the different counties of Eng- 
 land, with five from Scotland, and six from Ireland, to hold their func- 
 tion for fifteeen months. This assembly, termed Barebone's parlia- 
 ment, from its leading member, a leather-seller, became the scorn of 
 the public, and was dissolved, by its own vote, after five months. 
 
*08 MODERN HISTORY 
 
 5. The government was now vested in the council of officers, 
 who nominated Oliver Cromwell lord protector of the three king- 
 doms, invested him with the power of making peace, war, and alli- 
 ance, and authorized a standing army of 30,000 men to be kept up 
 for the support of government. His administration was despotic, 
 vigorous, and spirited. He maintained the honour of the nation in 
 the war with the Dutch, compelling them to yield the honour of the 
 flag, and to compensate to the India company all its losses. He was 
 successful likewise in his negotiations with France and Spain. But 
 in his domestic government he was traversed by his parliaments, 
 whom it cost him a continual struggle, and even violence, to keep in 
 order. One parliament, properly prepared, voted him the regal 
 title, which, by the council of his best friends, he was forced, most 
 unwillingly, to refuse. In recompense of this self-denial, the parlia- 
 ment confirmed his title of protector, with a fixed revenue, and de- 
 creed his right of appointing a successor. He was king in ail but 
 the name. 
 
 6. By consent of parliament Cromwell appointed a house of lords; 
 hut all the ancient peers declined the 'proffered honour. He was 
 forced to choose peers from the commons ; and thus he lost the ma- 
 jority in the lower house. His temper soured with disappointment, 
 a prey to chagrin, and in continual fear of assassination, he fell at 
 length into a mortal disease, and died in the fifty-ninth year of his age, 
 September3, 1,658. 
 
 7. Richard Cromwell, son of Oliver, succeeded to the protectorate 
 by his father's appointment. He was a man of weak understanding 
 and facile temper, utterly unfit for his hazardous situation, which 
 accordingly he maintained only for a few months, resigning his office 
 on the 22d of April, 1,659. His brother Henry, viceroy of Ireland* 
 immediately followed his example. The family of the Cromwells, 
 which the talents of one man had elevated above the sovereigns of 
 their country, returned to its original obscurity. 
 
 8. The remains of that nominal parliament which had put the king 
 to death, termed, in derision, the rump, was now dissolved by the 
 council of officers. Of these every aspiring individual had his own 
 separate views of ambition. Intrigue, cabal, and anarchy, were univer- 
 sal; and the nation, looking forward with horror to a series of calam- 
 ities, began earnestly to desire the restitution of its ancient govern- 
 ment. George Monk, commander of the army in Scotland, judged 
 those symptoms favourable for restoring the exiled monarch to the 
 throne of his ancestors. Marching his army into England, he declar- 
 ed his resolution to bring about the election of a free parliament, 
 which all men knew to be synonymous with the restoration of the 
 king. It was of course violently opposed by the republican party, 
 who even attempted to excite a new civil war; but they were forced 
 at length to acquiesce in the measure. A free parliament was assem- 
 bled, and a message was presented from Charles, offering a full in- 
 demnity, complete liberty of conscience, and payment of all arrears 
 to the army. The message was received with transports of joy, and 
 Charles II was proclaimed king on the 29th day of May, 1,660. 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 209 
 
 SECTION LVIll. 
 THE REIGNS OF CHARLES II. AND JAMES II. 
 
 1. The nation, without imposing any terms on their new sove- 
 reign, trusted implicitly to his good dispositions. Charles was humane 
 and complacent, but indolent, luxurious, and prodigal ; and therefore 
 was neither able to support the national honour abroad, nor to com- 
 mand obedience and respect to his domestic government. The sale 
 of Dunkirk was a measure offensive to the pride of the nation. A 
 war with Holland, supported at a vast expense, and maintained in 
 many desperate but indecisive engagements, was attended finally 
 with no material benefit. By the treaty of Breda, concluded in 1,667 
 New York was secured to the English, the isle of Polerone to the 
 Dutch, and Acadia in North America to the French. 
 
 2. The sale of Dunkirk, and the unsuccessful issue of the war> 
 attributed to the counsel of the earl of Clarendon, procured the dis- 
 grace and banishment of that illustrious man, 1,667. The peace was 
 scarcely concluded with Holland, when England joined with her and 
 Sweden in a triple alliance, to oppose the progress of the arms of 
 Lewis XIV. in the Low Countries; and that object being attained by 
 the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelte, in 1,668, the French monarch gained 
 the English over to his interest in a new war against the Dutch, 
 which brought their republic to the brink of destruction. 
 
 3. The domestic administration of Charles was embroiled frcm 
 various causes, originating in the personal character and dispositions 
 of the sovereign. He trusted to profligate and worthless counsellors. 
 His arbitrary notions of government, and the partiality which he 
 showed to the catholics, gave perpetual alarm and uneasiness to a 
 great proportion of his subjects. Complaints resounded from every 
 quarter; and the parliament required a test-oath, abjuring popery, 
 from all persons in public employment. On refusal to take this oath, 
 the king's brother, James duke of York, was deprived of his office 
 of high admiral. 
 
 4. Titus Oates, a worthless impostor, pretended to have discov- 
 ered a plot of the catholics for assassinating the king, burning Lon- 
 don, massacring the protestants, and placing the duke of York on 
 the throne. Another villain, named Bedioe, joined his evidence 
 to that of Oates; and on their perjured testimony, afterward fully 
 exposed, a few miserable priests suffered death. A new test was 
 imposed, which excluded ail papists from both houses of parliament. 
 The treasurer Danby was impeached for advising the last peace with 
 France, though it was proved that he had acted by his sovereign's 
 orders; and a bill passed the house of commons, excluding the duke 
 of Y ork from the succession to the crown. A more important bill 
 for the general liberty, the act of habeas corpus was the work of the 
 same session of parliament. (Sect. LIX., § 14.) 
 
 5. The distinguishing epithets of whig and tory were now first 
 known ; the former, the opposers of the crown, against the latter, 
 its partisans ; and each party, as in all factions, carried its principles 
 to an extreme. The whigs, predominant in the next parliament, 
 raged with fury against the catholics, and insisted on the king's assent 
 to the bill for the exclusion of his brother. His only expedient was 
 to dissolve the parliament, but he found their successors equally vio 
 S2 27 
 
210 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 lent After various fruitless attempts to conciliate their favour to his 
 measures, a dissolution of this parliament ensued, the last which 
 Charles assembled. 
 
 6. But the great cause of dissatisfaction remained. The duke of 
 York was at the bottom of all the measures of government. A con- 
 spiracy was formed by Shaftesbury, Russel, Sydney, and the duke of 
 Monmouth, natural son of the king, on the pretence of vindicating 
 the national liberties. It was discovered by one of the associates, 
 and Russel and Sydney suffered capital punishment. The detection 
 of this conspiracy strengthened the authority of the sovereign. The 
 duke of York was restored to his office of high admiral, and tacitly 
 acknowledged as the successor to the crown. Charles II. died on 
 the Cth of February, 1,685, in the 55th year of his age, and the 25'h 
 of his reign. 
 
 7. The duke of York succeeded to the throne by the title of 
 James II. His reign was short and inglorious. He was the instru- 
 ment of his own misfortunes, and ran headlong to destruction. The 
 catholics at this time were not the hundredth part of the nation, 
 yet James was weak enough to make the desperate attempt of sub- 
 stituting the popish faith in room of the protestant. Discarding the 
 nobiiity from his councils, he was directed solely by Romish priests. 
 In the very outset of his reign he expressed his contempt of the au- 
 thority of parliament, and a tirm purpose to exercise an unlimited 
 despotism. 
 
 8. The duke of Monmouth, having excited a new rebellion, was 
 defeated, made prisoner, and beheaded; and the most inhuman 
 rigour was exercised in the punishment of all his partisans. The 
 parliament was in general submissive to the king's will, which for a 
 while met with no opposition nor control. A declaration was pub- 
 lished, establishing full liberty of conscience in matters of religion; 
 and several bishops, who refused to publish it in their diocesses, 
 were committed to prison, A catholic president was appointed to 
 one of the colleges at Oxford. An ambassador was sent to the pope, 
 and a papal nuncio received in London. The catholics openly boast- 
 ed that theirs would soon be the religion of the state. 
 
 6. James had three children; Mary, the wife of the stadtholder 
 William prince of Orange ; Anne, married to prince George of Den- 
 mark; and James, an infant. The stadtholder had considered his 
 right to the crown of England as certain before the birth of this 
 inlant, and, after that event, projected still to gain it by arms or in- 
 trigue ; the infatuation of the king and the general discontent of the 
 people giving him the most flattering invitation. James was inform- 
 ed of those views of his son-in-law, but would give them no credit, 
 till actually apprized of his landing with an army, November 15th, 
 1,688. 
 
 10. The principal nobility and officers immediately joined the 
 standard of the prince of Orange; and James was at once abandoned 
 by his people, ministers, favourites, and his own children. Leaving 
 London in disguise, he was discovered and brought back by the pop- 
 ulace ; but the prince of Orange wisely favoured his escape, and he 
 found means a few days after, to convey himself to France. 
 
 11. The throne being declared vacant, it was proposed in a con- 
 vention-parliament, that the crown should be settled on the princess 
 Mary and her issue, her husband governing as regent, whom failing, 
 on the princess Anne. The stadtholder declining the office of regent, 
 it was tinally resolved to confer the crown on the prince and prin- 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 211 
 
 cess of Orange, the former to have the sole administration of the 
 government. 
 
 1 2. To this settlement was added a declaration fixing the rights of 
 the subject and the royal prerogative. Of this the most important 
 articles are the following. The king cannot suspend the laws, nor 
 their execution ; he cannot levy money without consent of parlia- 
 ment; the subjects have right to petition the crown; a standing 
 army cannot be kept up in time of peace but by consent of parlia- 
 ment ; elections and parliamentary debate must be free, and parlia- 
 ments must be frequently assembled, &x. Such was the final settle- 
 ment of the British government at the great era of the revolution. 
 At this period, when the constitution became fixed and determined, 
 we finish the sketch of the history of our own country. 
 
 SECTION LIX. 
 ON THE BRITISH CONSTITUTION. 
 
 1. The rudiments of the constitution of England may be traced as 
 far back as the Norman conquest. William distributed a great pro- 
 portion of the lands among his Norman followers, subjecting these, 
 as well as the Anglo-Saxons who retained their property to the feu- 
 dal tenures, and thus extinguishing at once the ancient liberties of the 
 people. England was divided into 60,215 military fiefs, all held 
 of the crown, under the obligation of the vassal's taking arms for 
 his sovereign whenever required. In the continental kingdoms of 
 Europe, as in France, the feudal system arose by slow degrees, nor 
 was there of consequence the same union of the fabric as in 
 England. The feudal lords were independent of one another, ever 
 at variance from their mutual pretensions, and often owning but a 
 very slender allegiance to the crown. Their vassals suffered from 
 oppression, and often struggled for their freedom ; but those efforts 
 being partial produced no consequence iavourabie to the liberty of 
 the nation. In England all were oppressed by the enormous weight 
 of the crown ; it was a common grievance, and produced at times a 
 violent effort for the general liberties of the people. 
 
 2. The forest-laws imposed by the conqueror (Sect. XV., § 2, 11.) 
 were a grievance felt by the whole nation, as rendering every man's 
 property precarious, and subject to the arbitrary encroachments of 
 the crown. It was no wonder that the barons and their vassals should 
 cordially unite to rid themselves of so intolerable a hardship. Henry 
 I. found it necessary to conciliate his subjects, by mitigating the most 
 .rigorous of the feudal laws. A greater advance was made under 
 Henry II., by the institution of the trial by jury. But John impru- 
 dently resisting this natural progress toward a rational freedom, wa9 
 soon compelled into those important concessions, the Charta de Foresta 
 and Magna Charta. From that time the constitution of England was 
 that of a limited monarchy, whatever we may judge of the actual 
 government, which was often most arbitrary and despotical. 
 
 3. The next memorable era in the progress of the English consti- 
 tution was the reign of that weak prince Henry III., when the par- 
 liament received a new form, by the admission of the representatives 
 of the people, the deputies of the counties and boroughs. (Sect. 
 XXII., § 2.) His successor Edward I. acknowledged their authority 
 ki obtaining ail his subsidies, and ratified a new law, which declared, 
 
212 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 that no tax should be levied without the consent of lords and com- 
 mons. The Magna Charta was confirmed no less than eleven times 
 in the course of this reign. 
 
 4. Thus the constitution continued advancing till its progress was 
 suspended by the civil wars of York and Lancaster. The rights of 
 both prince and people seemed then to be entirely forgotten ; and 
 the race of Tudor found no resistance from parliament to their vigor- 
 ous and despotic sway. The talents of Elizabeth, and the high 
 character which her government sustained with foreign powers, ex- 
 tinguished all domestic disquiets, while the predominant feeling was 
 the maintenance of the power and dignity of the crown. 
 
 5. But under the succeeding prince, when his power and dignity 
 were abased by his own weakness, the nation began to awake from 
 its lethargy ; and that spirit of opposition, which in this reign con- 
 fined itself to complaints, in the next broke forth with alarming vio- 
 lence. Charles I., endowed with superior energy of character, acted, 
 as he conceived, on a principle of duty, which obliged him to main- 
 tain the prerogative of his predecessors, and to transmit it unimpaired 
 to his posterity ; but he was imprudent in exerting with rigour an 
 authority which he wanted ultimate resources to support. He was 
 compelled to sign the Petition of Rights, a grant more favourable to 
 liberty than Magna Charta. The true patriots were satisfied with 
 this concession, which conferred the most ample constitutional free- 
 dom. But the popular leaders made patriotism the cloak of insatia- 
 ble ambition; and advanced in their demands with every new com- 
 pliance. The last appeal was made to the sword, and the contest 
 ended in the destruction of the constitution. 
 
 6. The despotism which succeeded, and the fluctuation of power 
 from the long parliament to the protector, and finally to the leaders 
 of a standing army, aiforded demonstrative evidence how vain was 
 the project of a republic, under which the demagogues had masked 
 their designs. YVeary of anarchy, the nation returned with high 
 satisfaction to its former constitution, a limited monarchy. 
 
 7. iSlew encroachments under Charles II. produced new limita- 
 tions ; and the act of Habeas Corpus gave the utmost possible security 
 to personal liberty. The violent and frantic invasion of the consti- 
 tution by James II., banished himself and his posterity from the 
 throne, and produced a new and solemn contract between the king 
 and the people. Regarding, therefore, the revolution as the final 
 settlement of the English constitution, we shall endeavour briefly to 
 delineate the chief features of that great political structure. 
 
 ^ 8. The constitution of Great Britain may be viewed under two 
 distinct heads, the legislative power, and the executive power ; the 
 last comprehending the prerogative of the crown. 
 
 The power of legislation belongs to parliament, whose constituent 
 parts are, the king, lords, and commons. The house of lords con- 
 sists of the temporal peers of England, and of the spiritual, or the 
 two archbishops and twenty-four bishops., To these, since the 
 unions with Scotland and Ireland, are added sixteen delegates from 
 the peerage of the former kingdom, and thirty-two from the latter. 
 The house of commons consists of the deputies or representatives 
 of the counties and principal towns and boroughs of England, and 
 the two universities, amounting in all to 513 members; to whom, 
 since the unions, are added 45 from Scotland and 100 from Ireland. 
 These deputies are chosen by the freeholders who possess a prop- 
 erty yielding a certain yearly rent. The chancellor generally pre- 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 213 
 
 sides in the house of lords ; the speaker is president in the house of 
 commons. 
 
 9. The king is the most essential component part of parliament, 
 because he alone has the power to convoke, prorogue, and dissolve 
 it. He has likewise a negative on all its acts, which are invalid 
 without his approbation ; and each house has a negative on the de- 
 crees of the other. It is likewise competent to the king to propose 
 any measure to be laid before the parliament. 
 
 10. All questions regarding public affairs and national measures 
 may originate in either house, of parliament, except grants of money, 
 which must always take their rise in the house of commons, and 
 cannot be altered, though they may be rejected, by the lords. Any 
 matter must be primarily discussed in that house in which it origi- 
 nates, and, until it is there decided, cannot be received by the other 
 house, unless a conference should be demanded. A bill refused by 
 either bouse is utterly void; and a bill passed by both houses is void, 
 if refused by the king. 
 
 11. The executive power of government is vested in the king. 
 (1.) The first branch of his office is the administration of justice. 
 The judges of ali courts of judicature are the king's substitutes. 
 He is the prosecutor of all crimes, and has the power of pardoning 
 and suspending (he execution of all sentences. (2.) He is the foun- 
 tain of all honour, the giver of all titles and dignities, and the dis- 
 poser of all the offices of state. (3.) He is the superintendant of 
 commerce, and has the power of regulating weights and measures, 
 and of coining money. (4.) He is the head of the church, and 
 names the archbishops and bishops. (5.) He is commander in 
 chief of ail the sea and land forces, and can alone equip fleets^ levy 
 armies, and appoint all their officers. (6.) He has the power of row- 
 ing war, peace, and alliance, and of sending and receiving ambassa- 
 dors. (7.) He is above the reach of all courts of justice, and is not 
 responsible to any judicature for Ms conduct iri the administration oi 
 government. 
 
 12. These high powers of the sovereign, which, at first sight, 
 would seem to render him an absolute monarch, are thus admirably 
 controlled. The king is dependent on parliament for all subsidies, 
 without which he can neither maintain his fleets and armies, nor pay 
 the salaries of officers. The parliament indeed settles a revenue on 
 the king for life, but this is merely sufficient for the maintenance of 
 his household, and for supporting a proper dignity of establishment 
 As the king's revenue must be renewed by parliament at the begin- 
 ning of every reign, it is in their power to withhold it till all abuses 
 s£iaTl be remedied. At those periods therefore the constitution may 
 be brought back to its first principles, and all encroachments of the 
 prerogative may be restrained. 
 
 13 The king can never reign without a parliament. It must by 
 law be assembled once in three years, on a notice of forty day* 
 before its meeting. Though the king is the head of the church, yet 
 he cannot alter the established religion, nor frame ecclesiastical 
 regulations. These must be made by the assembly of the clergy. The 
 king cannot interfere in the ordinary administration of justice, nor 
 refuse his consent to the prosecution of crimes. He may pardon 
 offences, but cannot exempt the offender from pecuniary compensa- 
 tion to the party injured. He cannot alter the standard of money, 
 either in weight or alloy. He cannot raise an army without the con- 
 sent of parliament; and though a moderate standing force is kept up 
 
214 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 with their consent, yet the funds for its payment require an annual 
 renewal by parliament. Though the sovereign is not amenable to 
 any judicature, yet his ministers are responsible for all the measures 
 of government, and are impeachable by the commons at the bar of 
 the house of lords, for every species of misconduct or misdemeanour. 
 The freedom of parliamentary discussion is secured, because no 
 member can be questioned for any opinions or words, except in that 
 house of parliament in which they were uttered. 
 
 14. The personal security and the rights of the subject are fur- 
 ther guarded by these three peculiarities of the British constitution, 
 the habeas corpus, trial by juries, and the liberty of the press. By 
 the act of liabeas corpus, every prisoner must be brought before a 
 judge, the cause of his detainer certified, and the judge is authorized 
 and bound to discharge him, if the cause of his imprisonment be in- 
 sufficient or illegal. The violation of this statute is punishable by the 
 highest penalties. The habeas corpus may be suspended in times of 
 danger to the state, as during the existence of a conspiracy or rebel- 
 lion. Though this act does not extend to Scotland, yet the subjects of 
 that part of the united kingdoms are equally secured by their own 
 laws. (Statute 1,701, c. 6.) 
 
 15. All crimes must be tried by a jury of twelve men in England 
 and Ireland, and fifteen in Scotland. The prisoner has a right of 
 challenging or objecting to the jurors ; and (except in Scotland), with- 
 out showing any cause, he may challenge twenty successively in or- 
 dinary cases, and thirty-five in cases of treason. The jury are judges 
 both of the law and the fact ; nor has the opinion of the court any 
 weight in their decision, but such as they choose to give it. 
 
 16. The liberty of the press is a guardian of the constitution, be- 
 cause it is competent for any individual to convey to the public his 
 opinion of the whole conductof government, and the merits of its con- 
 ductors; to canvass every counsel of state, and to examine every pub- 
 lic measure ; thus forcibly restraining all ministers and magistrates 
 within the limits of their duty. It is further the guardian of injured 
 innocence, and the redresser of all wrongs that evade the cognizance 
 of law. Yet this most valuable right, if unrestrained, would be the 
 source of the greatest mischief. If it were allowable with impunity 
 to assail the established government, to convulse society, to dissem- 
 inate atheism, to injure the reputation, or to endanger the life and 
 property, of individuals, by false accusations, there would be an end 
 of ali liberty and civil happiness. The liberty of the press consists 
 in this, that there is no examination of writings previous to the print- 
 ing and publishing of them; but, after publication, such writings as. 
 offend in any of the above particulars are punishable by law, on trial 
 oi the offence by jury. Thus the public is properly constituted the 
 judge and censor of all writings addressed to itself. 
 
 17. Such are briefly the outlines of the admirable fabric of the 
 British constitution. Esto perpetua I {may it exist for ever!) 
 
 SECTION LX. 
 OF THE PUBLIC REVENUE OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 1. The property belonging to the crown of Great Britain, which 
 was anciently very great, and fully adequate to the maintenance of 
 government, consisted of domain-lands, the first fruits and tenths of 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 215 
 
 church-benefices, the rents of vacant bishoprics and abbeys, the pro£ 
 its of military tenures, fines imposed in courts of justice, forfeitures, 
 &c. From alienations made by the sovereigns, and retrenchments of 
 their prerogative, the property of the crown is now become so in- 
 considerable, that the king may be regarded as entirely dependent 
 on the people for the support of his dignity, and the means of carry- 
 ing on the business of the state. The public revenue, destined for 
 these two purposes, arises now from the subsidies granted by the 
 people. The supplies are voted by the commons, and the means 
 of furnishing them, by taxes proposed by the chancellor of the 
 exchequer, must receive their sanction. 
 
 2. Of these taxes some are annual, as the land tax and malt tax ; 
 others are perpetual, as the customs, excise, salt duty, post-office 
 duty, stamps, house and window tax, duties on servants, hackney 
 coaches, pensions, &c. The customs are a tax paid by the merchant 
 on all imported and exported commodities; the excise is an inland 
 imposition, laid sometimes on the consumer, and sometimes on the 
 retail seller. 
 
 2. The produce of these taxes is, in the first place, destined to 
 the payment of the interest of the national debt, and afterward to 
 the ordinary support of government. 
 
 The national debt arose soon after the revolution, when it was 
 thought hazardous to impose annual taxes equal to the annual ex- 
 pense of government, and more expedient to borrow large sums for 
 the immediate service of the state, raising annually no more than 
 to pay the interest of that debt. The same system has been since 
 persevered in; so that the national debt, which a century ago was 
 16 millons, is now above 300 millions. To pay the interest of this 
 enormous sum the produce of the taxes (excepting the malt and 
 land tax) are primarily destined; and as somewhat more is annually 
 raised than the interest of the debt and the maintenance of govern- 
 ment demand, the surplus constitutes a sinking fund for paying off 
 the principal of the debt. 
 
 4. The produce of the taxes, originally separate funds, is now 
 thrown into two or three capital funds; one of which is mortgaged 
 by parliament for the maintenance of the king's household and the 
 civil list, namely, the salaries of officers of sfcate, judges, and ambas- 
 sadors, private expenses, pensions, &c. 
 
 5. Notwithstanding the little prospect of an extinction of the 
 national debt, government maintains its credit, and will always find 
 lenders, because the terms granted are beneficial, and the security is 
 transferable ; £0 that a lender can thus always obtain payment of his 
 principal sum, and frequently make gain by the transference. The 
 value of stock rises and falls from various occasional causes, as na- 
 tional prosperity, or the reverse, plenty or scarcity of money, quan- 
 tity of public debt. On this variation is founded the practice ot 
 stock-jobbing, that is, either buying and selling actual property in the 
 public funds, which is a lawful speculation, or gaming and wagering 
 on the price of stock, which is an illicit but common practice. The 
 practice of stock-jobbing, even by the transference ot actual proper- 
 ty, and far more by gaming on that which is fictitious, is prejudicial 
 to commerce and manufactures, by engrossing a great part of the 
 national wealth, repressing industry, encouraging fraud, and often 
 tempting to the most treacherous and dangerous devices for raising 
 and sinking the funds. 
 
116 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 SECTION LX1. 
 
 HISTORY OF FRANCE UNDER LEWIS XIII. 
 
 1 France, which under Henry IV. had risen from a state of miser- 
 able anarchy to high prosperity and splendour, sunk, upon his death, 
 into weakness, faction, and disorder. Mary of Medici, regent in the 
 minority of her son Lewis XIII., a weak woman, and of restless am- 
 uition, disgusted the nobility by her partiality for her Italian courtiers. 
 Concini, her first minister, created marshal d'Ancre, became so uni- 
 versally odious, that he was openly murdered in the Louvre, and 
 his body torn to pieces. The queen was removed from Paris, and 
 kept for two years a prisoner at Blois, till relieved by the duke 
 d'Epernon, to serve his own purposes of ambition. The queen's party 
 was at war with that of her son, and the whole kingdom in a state of 
 anarchy. 
 
 2. The genius of cardinal Richelieu, who was now brought into 
 power by Mary of Medici, soon effected a wonderful change. He 
 reconciled the mother and her son, soothed the contending factions, 
 and, on the king's assuming the government, directed every public 
 measure to the complete re-estabiishment of the power and dignity 
 of the monarchy. The party of the Calvinists, alienated by perse- 
 cution, attempted to throw off their allegiance, and to establish an in- 
 dependent state, of which Rochelle was to be the capital. Richelieu 
 bargained with the Dutch to furnish a fleet for subduing their prot- 
 ectant brethren, and the Dutch now fought as keenly for the catho- 
 lic religion as they had lately fought for the protestant. The Eng- 
 lish sent a fleet to the aid of the people of Rochelle, who for a year 
 maintained a most obstinate siege against the French troops, com- 
 manded by the cardinal in person. They were at length forced to 
 surrender. Rochelle and all the other protestant cities of France 
 were stripped of their privileges, and their fortifications were de- 
 stroyed. Thus Calvinism was for ever crushed in France. 
 
 3. Lewis XIII., though a weak prince, saw his advantage in en- 
 tering into all the great designs of his minister. Richelieu influ- 
 enced the politics of all Europe ; and the power of Austria was 
 attacked in Germany, Flanders, Spain, and Italy. His talents were 
 equally displayed in active war, in foreign negotiation, and in his 
 iornestic arrangements. Yet at this very time a formidable cabal 
 wa3 undermining him. Mary of Medici was jealous of the man 
 whom she had raised : and the duke of Orleans, the king's brother, 
 staight to supplant him in power. Richelieu, with astonishing intre- 
 pidity of mind, repressed this conspiracy. Fortified by the king's 
 authority he seized the marshal de Marihac, one of his most danger- 
 ous enemies, at the head of his army ; and tried and put him to 
 death by a lawless stretch of power. Orleans, apprehensive of a 
 afmi! ir late, tied from the king lorn ; and Mary of Medici, arrested 
 and removed from court, ended her career of ambition in voluntary 
 exile at Brussels. Orleans, supported by the duke de Montmorenci, 
 attempted a rebellion; but their army was defeated, and Montmo- 
 re"ci executed for treason. The queen had taken part with the 
 enemies of the cardinal, who imprisoned her confessor, and seized 
 and examined her papers. Anne of Austria was very near sharing 
 tht. late of Mary of Medici. 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 217 
 
 4 Amidst all this turbulence of foreign war and state cabal, Riche- 
 lieu cultivated literature, encouraged the sciences, instituted the 
 French academy, and composed pieces for the theatre. The admin- 
 istration of Richelieu, though turbulent from faction and civil war, 
 was. on the whole, extremely glorious for France ; and sowed the 
 seeds of its splendour in the succeeding reign of Lewis XIV. The 
 death of this great minister ? in 1,642, was soon after followed by the 
 death of his sovereign Lewis XIII., in 1,643. 
 
 SECTION LXII. 
 
 SPAIN UNDER PHILIP III. AND PPIILIP IV. CONSTITUTION OF 
 PORTUGAL AND OF SPAIN. 
 
 1. From the death of Philip II. Spain declined in power, and, not- 
 withstanding its great sources of wealth, the national finances were 
 in the utmost disorder. Philip III. was forced to conclude a peace 
 with the Dutch, and to restore to the house of Nas.au its confiscated 
 estates. With a weak and despicable policy he expelled from his 
 kingdom all the Moors, who were the most industrious of its inhabi- 
 tants, 1,610. This depopulation, with that already produced by its 
 American colonies, rendered Spain a lifeless and enervated mass. 
 Philip was entirely under the influence of his minister the duke of 
 Lerma. 
 
 2. The national weakness and disorders increased under Philip IV., 
 who, equally spiritless as his father, was implicitly ruled by his min- 
 ister Olivarez. His reign was a continued series of miscarriages and 
 defeats. The Dutch seized Brazil; the French invaded Artois; 
 Catalonia revolted to France ; and Portugal shook oif its yoke, and 
 became an independent kingdom. 
 
 3. No revolution was ever effected with such ease and celerity 
 as ttiat of Portugal. The people were disgusted with the rigorous 
 and impolitic administration ot Olivarez. The duke of Braganza, 
 descended from the ancient kings of Portugal, had the command of 
 the army. Instigated by the ambition of the duchess, and seeing the 
 spirit of the nation favourable to his views, he caused himself to be 
 proclaimed king at Lisbon. The Spanish guards were attacked and 
 routed, and the chi,ef partisans of the government put to death by 
 the populace. All the principal towns followed the example of the 
 capital, and soon after all the foreign settlements. From that era, 
 1,640, Portugal became an independent sovereignty, after having 
 been sixty years an appanage of the kingdom of Spain. 
 
 4. The government of Portugal approaches to an absolute mon- 
 archy. The consent of the states or cortes, consisting of clergy, 
 nobility, and commons, was formerly necessary to the imposition of 
 taxes, and the settlement of the succession to the crown. But this 
 assembly, convoked only by the royal mandate, has for a long time 
 ceased to meet. The ordinary business of government is transacted 
 by the king and his council ol state, which is appointed by himself. 
 The revenue of the crown arises from its domains, including the 
 family estates of Braganza ; from the duties on exports and imports, 
 from the taxes, and from a stated proportion of the gold brought from 
 Brazil. The state of the commerce and manufactures of Portugal 
 is extremely low. Though the soil and climate are favourable to 
 cultivation, yet the agriculture of the kingdom is much neglected. 
 
 T 20 
 
218 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 5. The reigns of Philip III. and IV. of Spain, though an era of 
 national humiliation, derived some tame from the state of literature- 
 Dramatic composition, poetry, romance, and even history, were 
 cultivated with great success. But these pursuits are in some sort 
 the amusements of indolence, which was the predominant character 
 of the people. This character may have arisen from two sources. 
 The torrent of wealth poured in from America retarded, in the lower 
 classes, domestic industry and manufactures, while it increased the 
 pride of the gentry, and made them disdain all occupation ; and the 
 despotism of the government strongly repressed all enterprise and 
 activity in the people. 
 
 6. The constitution of Spain, of which the sovereignty was in an- 
 cient times elective, is now that of an absolute monmxhy. The 
 crown is hereditary; though at different times, as in 1,619 and 1,713, 
 there has been a new limitation of the succession made by the mor*- 
 arch. The Cortes, or states of the kingdom, limited in former times 
 the power of the sovereign ; but Charles V. annihilated their author- 
 ity, by depriving the nobility and clergy of their seat in those as- 
 semblies. The remaining members, the deputies of the towns, are 
 entirely under the control of the monarch. The king's council, or 
 Consejo Real, is the organ of government ; but no department of the 
 state has any constitutional power to regulate the will of the prince. 
 
 SECTION LXIII. 
 
 AFFAIRS OF GERMANY FROM THE ABDICATION OF CHARLES 
 V. TO THE PEACE OF WESTPHALIA. 
 
 1. To preserve the connexion of the affairs of Germany with 
 those of the other kingdoms of Europe, we must return to the period 
 of the abdication of Charles V., when the empire was distracted 
 by the political factions and quarrels of its independent princes, and 
 by the contending sects of the catholics, Lutherans, and Calvinists. 
 Ferdinand vainly attempted to reconcile those tactions, and to unite 
 the three religions. Maximilian II. had still less power to effect this 
 object than his predecessor ; nor was the state of affairs changed 
 during the succeeding reigns of Rodolphus II. and Matthias. A civil 
 war of thirty years" duration reduced the empire to extremity. 
 Under Ferdinand II., a zealous catholic, the protestant states of Bo- 
 hemia, which had suffered under the government of Matthias, con- 
 ferred their crown on the elector Palatine. Ferdinand, in revenge, 
 deprived him both of his crown and electorate. 
 
 2. The protestant cause was declining fast in Germany, and every 
 thing seemed to indicate success to the schemes of Ferdinand for its 
 entire annihilation, when it received nevf vigour from the interven- 
 tion of Gustavus Adolphus king of Sweden. This great prince de- 
 feated the imperial generals, and carried the protestant banners trium- 
 phantly through Germany. The emperor was completely humbled, 
 and the elector Palatine was on the eve of restoration to his domin- 
 ions, when the heroic Gustavus was slain in the battle of Lutzen, 
 1,632. The war was successfully prosecuted by the Swedish gener- 
 als, while cardinal Richelieu harassed the house of .Austria both in 
 Germany and Spain. 
 
 3. In the succeeding reign of Ferdinand III., the protestants of 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 219 
 
 Germany found the most active support both from the Swedes and 
 the French. The emperor was forced to conclude the peace ol 
 Westphalia in 1,648 ; and these powers dictated the terms. By this 
 celebrated treaty all disputes were settled between the contending 
 princes of the empire, and also between the contending religions ; 
 the Swedes were indemnified for the charges of the war, and ac- 
 quired Pomerania, Stettin, Wismar, and other provinces, and their 
 sovereign the dignity of prince of the empire ; its chief posses- 
 sions were restored to the Palatine family ; tne king of France was 
 made landgrave of Alsace; and an equal establishment of the three 
 religions was decreed. This salutary peace laid the foundation of 
 the future greatness and prosperity of the German empire. 
 
 SECTION LXIV. 
 FRANCE UNDER LEWIS XIV. 
 
 !. On the death of Lewis XIII. in 1,633, his son Lewis XIV. suc- 
 ceeded to the throne in the fifth year of his age. Europe, as we 
 have seen, was in a most turbulent state ; and France, under the ad- 
 ministration of Richelieu, acted a conspicuous part in exciting those 
 general commotions. The queen mother Anne of Austria, appointed 
 regent by the states, chose for her minister the cardinal Mazarin, an 
 Italian, and from that circumstance odious to the people. The Span- 
 iards, taking advantage of the king's minority and the popular dis- 
 contents, made an attack on Champagne ; but were defeated in a 
 series of engagements by the great Conde. The marshal de Tu- 
 renne shared with him the palm of glory. The peace of Westpha- 
 lia composed those differences. 
 
 2. At this very time the commotions of the Fronde broke out in 
 Paris. The jealousy of Mazarines power, felt by the nobility, the 
 unpopularity of his measures, the disorder of the finances, and the 
 oppression of new taxes, inflamed the nation ; and the intrigues of 
 the coadjutor, afterwards cardinal de Retz, blew the flame into a 
 civil war. The parliament of Paris took part with the rebels, who 
 were headed by the prince of Conti, the dukes of Longueviile and 
 Bouillon, and the chief nobility. The queen and the Royal family 
 removed to St. Germain's, and the ministerial party besieged Paris. 
 Turenne, who at first supported them, was gained over by the 
 rebels. The women, who are always concerned in the disturbances 
 of France, acted a conspicuous part in those of the Fronde. A short 
 pacification ensued ; but the imprudent violence of Mazarin soon re- 
 newed the disorders. At length the parliament of Paris assumed 
 the right of banishing this unpopular minister, who retired to the 
 imperial dominions ; but his influence continued to regulate the 
 measures of state. 
 
 3. A change ensued on the king's coming of age, 1,652. De 
 Retz and Orleans, the chief promoters of the rebellion, were ban- 
 ished, and Mazarin resumed his station as minister. Conde had 
 joined the Spaniards in an attack on the French Netherlands, but 
 was overmatched by Turenne, who revenged this insult by the taking 
 of Dunkirk and several fortified towns under the Spanish govern- 
 ment. By convention with Cromwell, Dunkirk had been ceded to 
 the English, and afterwards sold to France by Charles II., as has been 
 related, 
 
no MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 4. The war with Spain ended in 1 ,659, by the peace of the Py- 
 renees. Many cessions were made on both sides, but France kept 
 Roussilion and part of Artois. It was stipulated that Lewis XIV. 
 should marry the infanta, daughter of Philip tV.,but should renounce 
 all right which might thence open to the crown of Spain. 
 
 5. The treaty of the Pyrenees gave peace to the south of Europe. 
 The wars in the north between Sweden, Poland, and Denmark, 
 which arose after the abdication of Christina of Sweden, were termi- 
 nated in the year following by the treaty of Oliva. Christina, a sin- 
 gular, but not a great woman, held the sceptre of Sweden for twen- 
 ty-two years after the death of her father, Gustavus Adolphus. At 
 length, tired of the cares of government, and affecting a passion for 
 literature and philosophy, she resigned the crown to her cousin, 
 Charles X., in 1,654. Soon after this event Casimer king of Poland 
 was induced by age and sickness to abdicate the throne, after an hon- 
 ourable reign. 
 
 6. Mazarin died in 1,661, and Lewis XIV. entered on a vigorous 
 and splendid career. The finances, which from the lime of Henry IV. 
 had been in extreme disorder, were admirably regulated by Colbert; 
 and the commerce and manufactures of the kingdom, wisely en- 
 couraged by government, were soon in the most flourishing situation. 
 The canal of Languedoc joined the bay of Biscay and the Med- 
 iterranean ; the principal sea-ports were enlarged and fortified ; and 
 the internal police of the kingdom was regularly and strictly enforc- 
 ed. At the same time the arms of France aided England against the 
 Dutch, Germany against the Turks, and Portugal against Spain. 
 
 7. On the death of Philip IV., Lewis, pretending that Spain had 
 failed in payment of the dowry of his queen, besieged and took Lisle, 
 with several other fortified towns of Flanders ; and in the next cam- 
 paign made himself master of Franchc-Comte. Lewis marched with 
 his armies, but the glory of these conquests was owing to Turenne 
 and Vauban. The triple alliance formed by England, Holland, and 
 Sweden, checked this career, and brought about the treaty of Aix- 
 la-Chapelle, 1,668, by which Lewis, though he retained Flanders, 
 restored Franche-Comte, and confirmed the peace of the Pyrenees. 
 
 8. The strength and prosperity of the kingdom continued to 
 increase under the able administration of Colbert and Louvois. The 
 civil factions of Holland between the stadtholder and the party of 
 the De Wits, tempted Lewis to undertake the conquest of that coun- 
 try. England, Germany, and Sweden, favoured his views. He 
 overran the provinces of Utrecht, Overyssel, and Guelderland, and 
 advanced almost to the gates of Amsterdam, when the Dutch inun- 
 dated the country by letting in the sea, and the French were forced 
 to retreat. 
 
 9. The confederate powers now became jealous of the ascendan- 
 cy of France ; and the prince of Orange had sufficient influence 
 with England, and both branches of the house of Austria, to obtain 
 their alliance in aid of the republic. The arms of Lewis, however, 
 continued to be successful, and the peace concluded at Nimeguen, 
 in 1,678, was much to the honour of France. Franche-Comte was 
 assured as a part of her dominions, and Spain allowed her right by 
 conquest to a great proportion of the Netherlands. 
 
 10. Notwithstanding the peace, Lewis, with the most culpable 
 insincerity, seized Strasburg, and secretly assisted the Hungarians 
 and Turks in their attack on the imperial dominions. Vienna must 
 have fallen into the hands of the Turks, if it had not been seasonably 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 221 
 
 relieved by the victorious arms of John Sobieski king of Poland, in 
 1,683. 
 
 11. One of the weakest and most impolitic measures of Lewis 
 XIV., was the revocation of the edict of Nantes, granted by Henry 
 IV r . for the toleration of the protestants. While their worship was 
 suppressed, their churches demolished, and their ministers banished, 
 the protestant laity were forbidden, under the most rigorous penal- 
 ties, to quit the kingdom, 1,685. France, however, by this measure, 
 lost above 500,000 of her most industrious and useful subjects ; and 
 the name of Lewis XIV. was execrated over a great part of Europe. 
 Not long after this time a similar excess of intolerant bigotry pre- 
 cipitated James II. from the throne of Britain, and forced him to seek 
 an asylum from the monarch of France. 
 
 1 2." William prince of Orange, the inveterate enemy of Lewis, 
 brought about the league of Augsburg, 1,680; and the war was 
 renewed with France by Germany, Spain, England, and Holland. 
 The French arms were still successful. Luxemburg deft ated 
 William in the battles of Stcenkirk and Nerwinden ; Noailles was 
 victorious in Spain; and an army of 100,000 French ravaged the 
 Palatinate, and took many of the most important towns on the Rhine. 
 This was the crises of the glory of Lewis, whose fortunes were to 
 sustain the most mortifying reverse. 
 
 13. Those various and most extensive military enterprises, how- 
 ever flattering to the pride of the monarch, had been attended with 
 enormous expense, and no solid advantage to the nation. The 
 finances had fallen into disorder after the death of Colbert, and a 
 peace was absolutely necessary. By the treaty of llyswick, concluded 
 in 1,697, Lewis restored to Spain all the conquests made in the two 
 last Avars, several towns to the emperor, the duchy of Lorraine to its 
 duke, and acknowledged the light of William to the crown of Eng- 
 land. 
 
 14. The succession of the kingdom of Spain, on the expected 
 death of Charles II., without issue, was now the object of political 
 intrigue. The emperor and the king of France had the only natural 
 right of succession ; but William 111., of England, from the dread 
 of such an increase of power to either, proposed a treaty of partition 
 of the Spanish dominions, at home and abroad, between the elector 
 of Bavaria, the dauphin, and the emperors second son. Charles II. 
 chose rather to make his own destination, and appointed by will that 
 the duke of Anjou, second son of the dauphin, should inherit Spain ; 
 on whose death without issue, it should devolve on the archduke 
 Charles, youngest son of the emperor. 
 
 1 5. On the death of Charles the duke of Anjou succeeded to the 
 throne of Spain, in virtue of this settlement. The emperor, the 
 king of England, and the Dutch, proposed to separate from his 
 crown the Spanish dominions in Italy. In this enterprise prince 
 Eugene, son of the count de Soissons, commanded the imperial 
 troops, an illustrious renegado from France, of great prowess and 
 military skill. 
 
 16. James II j of England died in 1,701 at St. Germain's, and Lewis 
 gave mortal offence to the government of that country by acknowl- 
 edging the title of his son. On the death of king William in the 
 year following war was declared by England, Holland, and the em- 
 pire, against France and Spain. Lewis XIV. was now in the declin« 
 of life. He had lost the ablest of his ministers and his greatest gen- 
 erals. The finances of the kingdom were exhausted. The armies 
 
 T2 
 
222 MODERN HISTORY 
 
 of his enemies were commanded by Eugene and the duke of Matt* 
 borough, the ablest generals of the age, and supported by the treas- 
 ures of the united powers. Savoy and Portugal joined this formidable 
 confederacy, to overwhelm both branches of the house of Bouf*b( n 
 and place the emperors son on the throne of Spain. 
 
 17. Marlborough took Venlo, Ruremonde, and Liege. Eugertc 
 and Marlborough defeated Tallard and Marsin, with the elector of 
 Bavaria, in the signal battle of Blenheim, 1,704- England arid i in- 
 land attacked Spain by sea and land. Catalonia and Valencia Were 
 subdued in six weeks. Gibralter was taken by the English, and 
 has ever since remained in their possession. In the battle of 
 
 lies, Marlborough defeated Yiiieroy, and left 20,000 dead on the rie»i. 
 The contest, at first doubtful in Italy, ended alike disastrously for t\Ai 
 house of Bourbon. The archduke Charles was in the. mean time 
 proclaimed king at Madrid; and Philip V. had serious thoughts cf 
 abandoning Spain, and establishing his dominion in America. But 
 the successes of the duke of Berwick, natural son of James II.. recov- 
 ered for a while his desponding spirit, and even prompted his graml* 
 father Lewis to avenge himself on England, by aiding the bold but 
 desperate enterprise of establishing the pretended .lames en the 
 throne of Britain. 
 
 18. But France and Spain were daily losing ground. The pope 
 had acknowledged the title of the archduke Charles; the i 
 seized the Mediterranean islands ; and Lewis, fallen from 
 proud pretensions, humbly entreated a peace, which was rt 
 unless on the condition of dethroning his grandson with his own arms. 
 He maintained for a while this unequal contest, and was at 
 forced to propose terms equally humiliating ; the cession of all hi- 
 quests in the Netherlands and ori the Rhine ; the acknowledgment of 
 the archduke's title to the crown of Spain; and a promise to give no 
 aid to his grandson. But thesg terms were refused, and the in i 
 condition still insisted on, -mat he should assist in defhronii 
 grandson. A last exertion was made in Spain under the duke of 
 Vendome, at the head of a prodigious army; and the victory re- 
 tained by the French at Villa-vitiosa restored Philip V. to the throne 
 of Spain. His competitor, the archduke, soon after became em- 
 peror, on the death of his cider brother. 
 
 19. The intrigues of the cabinet of queen Anne, and the coming 
 in of a tory ministry, change tile politics of Europe. It wa re- 
 solved to make peace with and Spain, and the treaty V:,.- 
 concluded at Utrecht in I, Tib. It was stipulated that Philip king 
 of Spain should renounce all eventual right to the crown of France, 
 and his brother to the crown o*i pain. The Hutch obtained an ex- 
 tension of frontier, and the emperOra great part of Spanish Flanders 
 The English gained from Sj Gibraltar and Minorca, and fron 
 France, Acadia, Nevvfouhdlah I Hudson's Bay, with the demolition 
 of the harbor of Dunkirk. following year, a peace was con- 
 cluded at Rastadt between : rarice and the empire! 
 
 20. The conclusion of tl ■, after an honourable war, was 
 the most memorable even ign of queen Anne, if we except 
 the union of the two king;!' fmd and Scotland, in 1,706, which 
 was brought about by the negotiation of commissioners mutually 
 chosen, to secure the rights of : ch kingdom in the best manner for 
 their mutual benefit 1 ;vas stipulated that both should be represent- 
 ed by one parliamen >8;, that they should have the 
 same privileges wj lo commerce, and that each kingdom 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 223 
 
 should retain its own laws and established religion. The succession 
 to the crown was limited to the house of Hanover. Queen Anne 
 died on the 30th of July, 1,714. Lewis XIV. died on the 1st of 
 September, 1,715, in the 78th year of his age. He was a prince of 
 great vigour of mind, of good talents, though unimproved by educa- 
 tion, of dignified yet amiable manners. His greatest fault was inor- 
 dinate ambition, to which he sacrificed the real interests of his people. 
 It was his highest honour, that he discerned and recompensed every 
 species of merit. France was in his time equally illustrious by the 
 great military talents of her generals, and by the' splendour of liter- 
 ature and of the arts and sciences. 
 
 SECTION LXV. 
 
 OF THE CONSTITUTION OF FRANCE UNDER TPIE MONAR- 
 CHY. 
 
 1 . It is necessary for understanding the history of France, that 
 we should have some acquaintance with its former monarchical con- 
 stitution : we shall therefore briefly trace the progress of the gov- 
 ernment under the different races of its sovereigns. The regal pre- 
 rogative was extremely limited under the Merovingian princes. 
 (Sect. II., III.) The general assembly of the nation had the right of 
 electing the sovereign, and the power of legislation. Under the 
 Cariovingian race the authority acquired by Pepin and Charlemagne 
 sunk to nothing in the hands of their weak posterity; and though 
 the crown had ceased to be elective, the regal dignity was a mere 
 shadow. The power of the state had passed into the hands of a 
 turbulent aristocracy, ever at variance among themselves, and uniting 
 only to abase the crown and to oppress the people. 
 
 2. Under the third or Capetian race the crown acquired more 
 weight, and many of the sovereigns exerted a proper spirit in re- 
 straining the power of the nobles, and in punishing their lawless 
 out rages. To balance the weight of the aristocracy Philip the fair 
 introduced the third estate to the national assemblies, which for 
 above four centuries had consisted only of the nobles and clergy 
 The chief power of the state began now to shift to the scale of the 
 monarch. The national assembly interfered rather to ratify than to 
 decree ; and in the fifteenth century the right of legislation was under- 
 stood to reside wholly in the crown. The right of taxation seemed 
 to follow of course. The assemblies or states-general were now 
 rarely convened, and from the reign of Lewis XIII. were discontinued. 
 
 3. But another powder gradually rose in the state, which in some 
 measure supplied the function of the assemblies in limiting the royal 
 prerogative. The parliaments were originally the chief courts" of 
 justice in the territory where they were established. The parlia- 
 ment of Paris naturally claimed a higher respect and dignity than 
 the parliaments of the provinces ; and, acquiring a right of appeal 
 from their decrees, was considered as the paramount jurisdiction, 
 and the depository of the laws of the kingdom. The sovereigns of 
 France, on first assuming the powers of legislation and taxation, pro- 
 duced their edicts to be registered in the court of the parliament of 
 Paris, and frequently consulted with its members on momentous 
 affairs of state, as in questions of peace, war, or alliance. Thus the 
 
224 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 nation began to regard the parliament of Paris as a body which 
 shared the powers of government with the monarch. In the latter 
 reigns the parliament availed itself of that general opinion, and made 
 a bold stand in opposing any arbitrary stretches of the king's author*- 
 ity, bv refusing to verity and register his edicts. 
 
 1. But as this power of the parliament was in reality a usurpation, 
 it was constantly a subject of dispute. The members of this court 
 were in no sense the representatives of the people, nor vested With 
 any portion of the constitutional authority of the national assemblies. 
 They were in the king's nomination, removable by him at pleasure, 
 and "even subject to entire annihilation as a body at his command. 
 Even without so violent a remedy, the sovereign could at any time 
 frustrate their opposition to his will, by personally appearing in the 
 hall of parliament, and commanding his edict to be registered. 
 
 5. Yet a power thus easily defeasible had its advantages to the 
 state, and operated as a considerable restraint on the royal authority. 
 Considering itself as the guardian of the public liberty, it remonstrat- 
 ed against ail arbitrary encroachments of the crown, and by giving 
 alarm to the nation, furnished an opposition sufficiently powerful to 
 obtain its ends. The provincial parliaments, though they likewise 
 registered the royal edicts, never assumed any similar authority. 
 They were only the chief courts of civil judicature. 
 
 6. The king of France was therefore to be considered as an al>- 
 solute monarch, whose authority was in some degree limited by the 
 consuetudinary regulations of the state, and could not easily become 
 entirely despotic and tyrannical. The crown was hereditary, but 
 could not descend to a iemale, nor to a natural son. The royal rev- 
 enue was partly fixed and partly arbitrary. The fixed revenue com- 
 prehended the royal domains, the duties on wines and salt, the land 
 tax, capitation tax, and gift of the clergy ; the other arose from all 
 other taxes which the monarch thought fit to impose, and from the 
 sale of offices. Most of these duties were leased out to the larmers- 
 general. 
 
 7. The Gallican church, though catholic, and acknowledging 
 the spiritual authority of the pope, had greatly abridged his ancient 
 prerogatives within the kingdom. The assembly of the church 
 declared, in 1,682, that no temporal sovereign could be deposed by 
 the pope, nor subjects absolved from their allegiance ; it decreed the 
 subjection of the pope to the councils of the church, and denied his 
 infallibility when in opposition to the canons of those councils. The 
 pope had no power to levy money in France without the ro^il 
 license. In short, the ecclesiastical authority was in all repects sulv- 
 ordinate to the civil. 
 
 SECTION LXV1. 
 OF PETER THE GREAT, CZAR OF MUSCOVY, AND CHARLES 
 
 1. Two most illustrious men adorned the north of Europe in the 
 latter part of the age of Lewis XIV., Peter the great of Muscovy 
 and Charles XII. of Sweden. 
 
 Russia is said to have received the light of Christianity in the 
 tenth century, but its history is uttoriy unknown till the middle of 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 225 
 
 the fifteenth. At that period John Basilowitz redeemed the empire 
 from its subjection to tne Tartars, and extended its limits. His suc- 
 cessors maintained a considerable splendour as sovereigns ; but their 
 dominions were uncultivated, and their subjects barbarians. Alexis 
 Michaelowitz, father of Peter the great, was the first who published 
 a code of laws. At the end of the sixteenth century Siberia was 
 added to the empire, which till that time had been bounded by tlto 
 limits of Europe. 
 
 2. Peter, the youngest son of the emperor Alexis, became mas 
 ter of the empire in 1,689, by setting aside a weak elder brother, 
 and banishing a factious sister, who had seized the government He 
 was uneducated, and his youth had been spent in debauchery ; but 
 his new situation immediately displayed his talents, and gave birth to 
 the wisest plans for the improvement of a barbarous people. Tlao 
 army and navy demanded his first attention. He began by breaking 
 the turbulent "militia of the Strelitzes, and by decrees formed a regiv 
 lar army of 12,000 men on the strictest model ot discipline. He en> 
 ployed some Dutchmen to build a small fleet, and made the first ex* 
 periment of his arms in taking Azof from the Turks in 1,696. 
 
 3. Having gained the little instruction which he possessed from 
 foreigners, Peter resolved to travel in search of knowledge. Ap- 
 pointing Le Fort, an able Genevese, his ambassador, he travelled 
 as a private person in his suite through Germany to Holland, and 
 Studied the art of ship-building, by working in the docks with his 
 own hands. Thence he passed to England, and ]n a similar manner 
 acquired the knowledge of every art fitted for the improvement of 
 his kingdom. The relative sciences were cultivated with the samo 
 ardour and success ; and in sixteen months he returned to Moscow to 
 reduce those important acquirements into practice. 
 
 4. Regiments were raised and trained to exercise on the German 
 model ; the finances arranged and systematized ; the church ro* 
 formed by new canons and regulations; the patriarchate abolish- 
 ed ; and a much abused civil and criminal jurisdiction taken frtwn 
 the .clergy. It was necessary to carry this reform even to the abo- 
 lition of the national dress, and the suppression of ancient usages 
 and habits of life, innovations reluctantly submitted to, but enfocce.cl 
 by absolute power. 
 
 5. While this great genius was thus employed in new-modelling 
 and polishing a barbarous empire, a competitor arose to dispute with 
 him the sovereignty of the north, and to divide the admiration of 
 Europe. Charles XII. succeeded to the throne of Sweden in 1,695, 
 at fifteen years of age ; a prince whose singular heroism of character 
 and extraordinary achievements have ranked him with the greatest 
 conquerors of antiquity. The situation of his kingdom speedily 
 brought his genius into display. Russia, Poland, and Denmark, joined 
 in a league to seize and divide his dominions. The attack was 
 begun by the Danes on Holstein, while the king of Poland invaded 
 Livonia, and the czar, Ingria. Charles immediately landed an army 
 on Zealand, at the gates of Copenhagen, and in six weeks forced the 
 ling to purchase the safety of his capital and kingdom, by laying 
 down his arms, and making full indemnity to the duke of Hobtekk 
 He now hastened into Ingria, and at the battle of Narva defeated 
 60,000 of the Russians, and took 30,000 prisoners. Such was the 
 first campaign of Charles XII., then a boy of seventeen. 
 
 6. Poland was destined to receive a more humiliating chastise- 
 ment. Charles reduced Courland and Lithuania, penetrated into the* 
 
 29 
 
226 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 heart of the kingdom, and subdued the capitals of Warsaw and Cra- 
 cow. He then assembled the states, declared king Augustus de- 
 posed, and signified his pleasure that Stanislaus, his own dependant, 
 should be elected sovereign of Poland. The factions of the king- 
 dom aided this revolution, and the will of Charles was complied 
 with. The deposed king retired to his electoral dominions of 
 Saxony. 
 
 7. A negotiation begun with the czar was abruptly terminated by 
 Charles, who declared that he would negotiate only at Moscow. 
 Entering the Russian dominions with 45,000 men, he was in the way 
 o^ executing his threat, when he was induced, by a treacherous 
 promise of aid from the Cossacks, to march through the Ukraine in 
 the depth of winter. His army was wasted by fatigue and famine, 
 when he was encountered by the czar at Pultowa; and the fate of 
 Russia, Sweden, and Poland, hung upon that battle. Charles w&b 
 •entirely defeated : 9,000 Swedes fell in the field, and 14.000 were 
 taken prisoners, 1,709. Augustus was restored to the throne of 
 Poland, and the czar took possession of Finland and Livonia. 
 
 8. With the wreck of his army, reduced to 1,800 men, Charles 
 retreated into the Turkish dominions, and formed a camp near Bei> 
 ■der. He endeavoured to prevail^ upon the grand seignior to arm 
 .against the czar, and succeeded after a long negotiation. Two hun- 
 dred thousand Turks took the field, and the czars army, far interior 
 in number, was surrounded, and, after ineifectual resistance, forced 
 to capitulate to the grand vizier. The news of this capitulation de- 
 stroyed all the hopes of Charles ; and his subsequent conduct seems 
 ...the iresult of frernzy. The grand seignior having intimated his de- 
 sire that the Swedes should quit his territories, Charles fortified his 
 -camp, and declared that he would defend it to the last extremity. 
 After every means ineffectually tried to make him alter this resolu- 
 tion, he was attacked by the Turkish army, and taken fighting sword 
 An hand amidst a massacre of his troops. 
 
 9. In the mean time the czar and the king of Denmark were rav- 
 aging Sweden. Charles returned in disguise with two of his officers* 
 to his own dominions, and immediately conceived the % design of 
 wresting Norway from Denmark. Failing in the outset of this enter- 
 prise, he was persuaded by Gortz, his prime minister, to attempt to 
 dethrone George II., to seize a part of his continental dominions,and 
 to place the pretender James on the throne of England. This 
 proiect was concerted between Gortz and Alberoni, prime minister 
 hi' Philip V. The czar joined in the scheme^ and made peace with 
 Sweden : but an unforeseen event broke all their measures. In be- 
 sieging the Norwegian fortress of Frederickshall, Charles was killed 
 by a cannon-ball, on the 1 lib of December, 1,718. 
 
 10. Sweden gained by the death of Charles a reformation of her 
 government, and a salutary limitation of the arbitrary power of the 
 sovereign. His sister Ulrica succeeded to the throne, and raised to 
 it her husband, Frederick landgrave of Hesse-Cassel. The states 
 made peace with all the hostile powers. The czar was now engaged 
 in a war with Persia, in the view of obtaining the command and 
 commerce of the Caspian. This object he accomplished, and gained, 
 by cession from the sophi, three provinces of the Persian empire. 
 
 Peter the great died January 28, 1,725, and was succeeded by the 
 czarina Catherine, formely a Livonian captive, who possessed merit 
 equal to her elevated station. His only son, Alexis Petrowitz, had 
 been condemned to lose his life for treason, and the mode of his 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 227 
 
 death, which immediately followed his condemnation, is unknown., 
 Russia owes to Peter the great all those beneficial improvements 
 which have raised her, within the period of a century, from barba- 
 rism and obscurity, to the highest rank among the powers of Europe. 
 
 SECTION LXVIL 
 
 A VIEW OF THE PROGRESS OF SCIENCE AND LITERATURE 
 IN EUROPE, FROM THE END OF THE FIFTEENTH TO THE 
 END OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 1. We have seen how much literature and the sciences were in- 
 debted to the art of printing for their advancement and dissemination 
 toward the end of the fifteenth century. (Sect. XXXIV., § 12.) 
 From that period classical learning, criticism, poetry, and history, 
 made a rapid progress in most of the kingdoms of Europe. Philos- 
 ophy did not keep pace with literature. The dogmas of Aristotle 
 had kept possession of the schools till the seventeenth century, and 
 had engrafted themselves even on the doctrines of theology. It 
 required a superior genius to dissipate the mist of error, and to 
 break the fetters on all advancement in useful science. Such wa? 
 the great Bacon lord Verulam, the most profound philosopher, and 
 perhaps the most universal genius, that any age has produced. We 
 find in his works an estimate of the actual attainments in all the 
 sciences, a catalogue of the desiderata in each department, and a 
 detail ot the methods best suited to prosecute improvement and new 
 discoveries. In fine, we owe to Bacon the sure method of advanc- 
 ing in knowledge by experiment and the observation of nature, 
 instead of system and conjecture. 
 
 2. The philosophy of Bacon produced its effect only by sloiv de- 
 grees. Gassendi, though he exposed the doctrines of Aristotle, was 
 still a theorist, and attempted to revive the atomic system of Epicu- 
 rus. Des Cartes followed in the same track, and reared a whimsical 
 theory of the universe, produced, as he supposed, by the fortuitous 
 combination of atoms, moving in vortices through the immensity of 
 ^pace ; a theory recommended by the ingenuity with which it was 
 supported, and its apparently solving many of the phenomena of 
 nature. A century before Copernicus had published his system of 
 the planets, which, though condemned by the church, was received 
 by Des Cartes and the best philosophers. 
 
 3. Galileo, in 1,609, constructed telescopes (Sect. XXXIV., § 5), 
 and discovered the satellites of the larger planets, Jupiter and Saturn, 
 and their motions, for which he was rewarded by imprisonment, as a 
 supporter of the Copernican heresy. Kepler investigated the laws 
 which regulated the motions of the planets, and the analogy between 
 their distances from the sun and periodical revolutions. The discov- 
 eries in astronomy led to improvements in navigation, and a great ad- 
 vancement of geometry in all its branches. Napier, in 1,614. abridg- 
 ed calculation by the invention of logarithms. The Toricellian ex- 
 
 Siriments determined the weight of the atmosphere. In 1,616 
 arvey discovered the circulation of the blood. 
 
 4. The Royal Society, which originated from private meetings of 
 the English philosophers, was incorporated by Charles II., in 1,662, 
 and has greatly contributed to the advancement of the sciences and 
 
22S MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 useful arts. The Royal Academy of Sciences was instituted ii 1,666 
 by Lewis XIV. Similar institutions were founded in most of the coun- 
 tries of Europe ; among which there is a communication of science, 
 and a laudable emulation excited by the publication of their transac- 
 tions. 
 
 5. In the end of the seventeenth century arose the immortal Newton, 
 who, by exhausting the most important discoveries of the laws of na- 
 ture, has rendered it impossible for posterity to eclipse his Rime. He 
 had discovered, before the age of twenty-four, the theory of universal 
 gravitation, a principle which solves the chief phenomena of nature, 
 and connects and regulates the whole machine of the universe. His 
 theory of light and colours is the foundation of the whole science of 
 optics, and his Priucipia the basis and elements of all philosophy. 
 
 6. Locke, the contemporary of Newton, successfully applied lord 
 Bacon 1 * mode of investigation to the study of the human mind ; and, 
 utterly rejecting the systems of the old philosophers, examined the 
 soul by attending to its operations. From the simple tact that alj 
 knowledge is progressive, and that an infant gains its ideas gradually 
 through the medium of its senses, he drew the general conclusion, 
 that there are no innate ideas in the mind, but that all are either inv 
 mediate perceptions conveyed by the senses, or acts of the mind re- 
 flecting on those perceptions; a conclusion which has been obstinate- 
 ly controverted, chiefly by drawing from it false consequences, but 
 which has never yet been shaken. 
 
 7. The progress of literature in the sixteenth and seventeenth 
 centuries was equally remarkable with that of science and philoso- 
 phy. Trissino was the first of the moderns who composed an epic 
 poem in the language of his country, Ultalia liberata da Goii, and 
 the first Italian who wrote a regular tragedy, Sophonisba. Of merit 
 much superior to the epic poem of Trissino is the Lusiad of the 
 Portuguese Camoens, a work abounding with passages of high poetic 
 beauty, and displaying a sublime imagination. In the end of the six- 
 teenth century Spain produced the Araucana of Ercilla, an epic poem 
 of great inequality of merit, but frequently exhibiting novelty of 
 figures and bold conceptions. The subject is a revolt of the Peru- 
 vians against the Spaniards. 
 
 8. But the principal epic poems of this age are the Orlando Fu- 
 rioso of Ariosto, and the Gierusalcmmc Liberata of Tasso : the former 
 a work most irregular in its plan, most unconnected and desultory in 
 its conduct, most extravagant and absurd in the characters of its per- 
 sons, but displaying alternately every excellence of poetry in the 
 various departments of the descriptive, comic, satiric, moral, and 
 sublime. The Gierusalemine of Tasso, of a regular plan and perfect 
 polish in its structure, has been frequently brought in comparison 
 with the equally highly linished poem of the Jbneid ; nor does the 
 Italian suffer much in the comparison. There is a romantic charm 
 both in the incidents and characters of his poem, which must everrerv- 
 der it a favourite with all readers of genuine taste. 
 
 9. From the time of Tasso the genius of epic poetry lay dormant 
 for a century, till the days of Milton ; for the Fairy Queen of Spenser 
 is rather a romantic allegory than an epic poem. The Paradise Lost. 
 compared with the great poems of antiquity, is more irregular and 
 less perfect as a whole than the Riad, Mnetd, and Odyssey ; but ex- 
 hibits, in detached parts, more of the sublime and beautiful than any 
 of them. It has been well remarked, that the inequality of this poem 
 arises in a great measure from the nature of the subject, of which 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 229 
 
 some parts are the most lofty which can enter into the human mind, 
 and otners could only have been supported by a laborious elegance 
 and polish, which the author's genius could not stoop to bestow. 
 
 10. Lyric poetry was cultivated in the sixteenth century, in Italy, 
 France, and England, but with no great success. The less poems of 
 Ariosto and Tasso have no tincture of the genius displayed in their 
 greater works. Chiabrera is perhaps the only lyric poet of tlus 
 period that merits distinction. In France, Ronsard and Bellay imi- 
 tated Petrarch with all his false wit, but without his passion. Marot, 
 however, in the naivete and easy vein of his humour, is justly ac- 
 counted the master of La Fontaine. In the beginning of the seven- 
 teenth century French versification received a considerable polish 
 from the compositions of Racan, and yet more from those of Mal- 
 herbe ; and toward the end of that century lyric poetry was cultivat- 
 ed with high success by La Farre, Chapelle, and Bachaumont, Chau- 
 lieu and Gresset. 
 
 1 1 . The English lyric poetry of the sixteenth century, of Spenser. 
 Surrey, Harrington, Sydney, and even Shakespeare, is harsh and 
 unharmonious; nor is much improvement discernible till the time of 
 Cowley and Waller. The merit of Cowley as a lyric poet was too 
 highly prized in his own age, and is underrated in ours. With all his 
 raise wit, pedantry, and obscurity, he is often both sublime and 
 pathetic in no moderate degree. 'Ihe lyric ode in the third book of 
 the Davideu has few parallels in the English language. As a prose 
 writer, Cowley shines in that age with superior excellence. Waller 
 is more polished and harmonious than any of the preceding or con- 
 temporary poets, but his wit is quaint, and his elevation too frequent- 
 ly bombast. 
 
 12. Drydeiij in the end of the seventeenth century, carried lyric 
 poetry toperiection. His Ode on St Cecilia's day surpasses all the 
 lyric compositions both of ancient and modern times. He shines 
 conspicuously as a satirist, possessing the keen and caustic wit, with- 
 out the indelicacy, of Juvenal or Horace. His versions from Chau- 
 cer and Boccacio are easy and spirited, and display a happy talent 
 for poetical narrative. His numerous dramatic pieces, though exhib- 
 iting both invention and poetic beauty, are delicient in true passion, 
 and in the just delineation of character. 
 
 13. At the end of the sixteenth century the drama in Europe be- 
 gan to furnish a rational entertainment. At that period, Lope de 
 Vega and Calderona in Spain, and Shakespeare in England, produced 
 those pieces, which, though irregular and stained with blemishes, 
 are at this day the admiration of their countrymen. The Spanish 
 plays of that age have been a rich mine for succeeding dramatists, 
 both among the French, Italians, and English. The merits of Shakes- 
 peare are lamiliar to every person of taste. Ignorant of the rules 
 of his art, he is the pure child of nature, and thus exhibits often her 
 caprices and absurdities ; but these are redeemed by the most trans- 
 cendent beauties. The old English drama is, with all its irregular- 
 ities, incomparably superior to the modern, both in touching the pas- 
 sions and in displaying just views of human character. The persons 
 are more discriminated by various and appropriate features, and the 
 nicer shades of nearly resembling characters are thus more distinctly 
 marked. The mixture of the comic and tragic in the same plot, 
 though condemned by modern practice, is a great scurce of pleasure 
 in the pieces of Shakespeare and his contemporaries ; nor is there any 
 thing in such a mixture but what is consonant to nature. To a per 
 
 U 
 
230 MODEiilN ULS'i'OttY 
 
 son of true taste it will be found often to heighten, by contrast, tbe 
 capital emotion to be excited. 
 
 14. The compositions for the French stage, in the end of the 
 seventeenth century, are strictly conformable to dramatic rules; 
 and many of those pieces are models of a correct and polished taste, 
 The morality of the French drama of that age and the next is in gen- 
 eral purer than ours ; but their pieces are deficient in the nice delin- 
 eation of character, and in the power of exciting the passions. 
 Corneille and llacine brought the French tragedy to its highest ele- 
 vation ; as Moliere the comedy. Corneille has more grandeur and 
 sublimity than his rival, who excels him in the tender and pathetic 
 The comedies of Moliere, highly amusing in the present time, were 
 more particularly valuable in the age when they were written, and 
 had a sensible eflect in correcting its prevailing follies; the pedantry 
 of the ladies, the ignorance and quackery of the physicians, and the 
 pride and arrogance of the French noblesse. The last of the emi- 
 nent dramatists who adorned France in the seventeenth century was 
 the elder Crebillon, who drew many sublime and impassioned scenes 
 from the source of terror ; and who, in all his works, was as emi- 
 nently the friend of virtue as his worthless son has been the pander 
 of vice. 
 
 15. The most eminent historians of the sixteenth century are, 
 De Thou, Davila, and Machiavel. De Thou has written the annals 
 of his own time, from 1,545 to 1,607, with great judgment, and in 
 most elegant Latin' composition. The history of Davila, the annals 
 of the civil wars of Fiance in the time of the league, though the 
 work of a partisan, is composed with no common degree of candour 
 and impartiality. In the beginning of the sixteenth century Machia- 
 vel wrote his History of Florence, of which the style is classical and 
 the matter well arranged, but too much interruptedly reflections and 
 political discussions.^ In the seventeenth century Bentivoglio com- 
 posed his History of the Civil Wars of Flanders, with the most ac- 
 curate knowledge of his subject, perspicuity of narrative, and ele- 
 gance of style. Among the English historians in the beginning of 
 that period llaleigh is the most distinguished ; though his History of 
 the World is, in point of style, inferior to the judgment shown in the 
 arrangement of the matter. In the latter part of the seventeenth 
 century, Clarendorvs History of the Rebellion is a work of the high- 
 est merit, whether we consider the authenticity of the facts, the deep 
 knowledge of human nature displayed in the delineation of the 
 characters, or the grave and manly eloquence of the style. If, in 
 the opposition of political opinions," he has been deemed too partial 
 in defence of his sovereign, even his adversaries have admitted his 
 perfect integrity, and entire conviction of the rectitude of the cause 
 which he supports. 
 
HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 A GENERAL VIEW OF THE HISTORY OF MANKIND IN THE 
 PRIMEVAL AGES. 
 
 f. In contemplating those great outlines of history, the memorable 
 nnd important events which have determined the condition of man- 
 kind, and rendered (he aspect of the moral and intellectual world 
 such as we now view it, we shall fnu\ abundant subjects for observa- 
 tion and reflection, in many cases we shall be obliged to have re- 
 course to conjecture, rounded oh different degrees of probability; 
 ami t-Qfcna of these probabilities may be so corroborated by general 
 existing circumstaiices as to amount almost to certaintv. 
 
 2. Of the primeval state of mankind we know little "from historical 
 information, and can form an opinion of it only from conjecture 
 founded on the nature of things. 1- Vom the extremely slow progress of 
 civilisation it is reasonable to suppose that men must have existed a 
 long time before they began (o write the history of such transactions 
 and events as they deemed most important. All their care and atten- 
 tion would at fitst.be employed in providing the means of supplying 
 their physical wants, and of rendering their existence tolerable. In 
 that state of simple nature they would not think of transmitting an ac- 
 count of their actions to posterity, and could hardly have any oc- 
 currences worth recording. Here our knowledge of human nature 
 and of human wants will supply the deficiency of history. From 
 the experience of our own wants, and of tiie means of supplying them, 
 we may infer almost with certainty, that habitations would be built as 
 a shelter from the inclemency of the weather: and in fact we tind 
 this to be the case in all those countries which are at present occupied 
 by savages. In process of time some attention would be given to 
 the cultivation of the soil, to make the earth produce such vegetables 
 a* were (it for the food of man. The arts most essential to the com- 
 fortable existence of the human species would be invented before 
 (lie use of letters. 
 
 3. From all ihe<Q circumstances we may reasonably suppose that 
 the first rude sketch of history would be the traditionary tales de- 
 livered from father to son through successive generations ; and these 
 in reality constitute the basis of The first historical records. Such are 
 the fabulous relations of the first historians among the Greeks. It 
 appears that the Greeks had adopted the historical legends of the 
 Egyptian priests, who were accustomed to cover their religion and 
 learning with the mystical veil of allegory ; and that in many cases 
 they mistook the Egyptian mode of allegorizing the early periods of 
 history, and have presented to posterity an absurd and monstrous 
 tissue of fabulous narrative of kings who never reigned, and of heroes 
 of celestial descent. 
 
232 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 4. Superstition being natural to man before the mind is enligntened 
 by philosophy, it is no wonder that the writings of the first historians 
 contain many relations of the communication of gods and demi-gods 
 with mankind, and of the frequent interference of supernatural 
 agents in human affairs. The vivid imaginations of the early Greek 
 authors, heated with superstition, and unrestrained by philosophy, 
 expanded into wild exuberance, and fabricated the most absurd and 
 ridiculous tales. Hence the period of time which elapsed between 
 the establishment of political and civil society in Greece, and the 
 Trojan war mav be justly denominated the fabulous age ; and indeed 
 most part of what is related concerning that war, has evident marks 
 of fiction stamped upon it; for all the historical accounts of it are 
 originally founded on the poems of Homer. No writings can claim 
 the title of an authentic history of Grecian affairs before the Per- 
 sian wars. The histories of all other heathen nations were not less 
 fabulous and absurd than those of the Greeks; and indeed all that 
 we know concerning them has been transmitted to us through the 
 medium of Greek writers. 
 
 5. When we consider the general state of the world in the early 
 ages, with respect to political, commercial, and literary communica- 
 tion, however we may amuse ourselves with perusing the accounts 
 transmitted to us of the transactions of remote antiquity, reason tells 
 us that they are nothing but fiction or historical romance. Until 
 the Greeks (who were the inventors, or at least the improvers of 
 arts and sciences) had attained a considerable degree of civilization 
 und opulence, and had begun to cultivate the arts of convenieney,. 
 luxury, and elegance, little credit is due to profane history. This 
 period cannot be fixed long before the first Persian war, which hap- 
 pened about 503 years before the birth of Christ. For information 
 relative to the state of mankind, and the events which occnrLed 
 before that period, we must have recourse to the writings of the 
 Jews. 
 
 6. This consideration naturally leads us to turn our attention to 
 those ancient records of the Jews, which have always been deemed 
 sacred by them, and of which the authenticity has been acknowl- 
 edged by the generality of mankind, who have perused them with 
 due attention. The Jewish annals are the most ancient of all that 
 have been transmitted to us, and the most intrinsically rational and 
 probable. They likewise contain a series of transactions and events 
 equally curious and interesting. In them we find the only rational 
 account of the creation of the world, and the beginning of things ; 
 of the dispersion of mankind, and the origin of ancient nation?. 
 
 SECTION II. 
 SUMMARY VIEW OF JEWISH HISTORY. 
 
 1. The Israelites, or ancient Jews, were those distinguished peo- 
 ple, who were favoured by the immediate care of the Almighty, 
 and conducted by his especial guidance to Judea, a place of resi- 
 dence promised to their remote ancestors. In consequence of their 
 obstinacy, idolatry, and wickedness, and more particularly for the 
 rejection of their Messiah, they were subdued bv the Romans, after 
 sustaining a siege in their metropolis, Jerusalem, unparalleled in the 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 233 
 
 annals of history for its distresses, calamities, and slaughter. Jerusa- 
 lem was reduced to ruins, the Jewish government was totally sub- 
 verted, and the surviving people were dispersed over most parts of 
 the world. Their descendants still remain unmixed with the rest 
 of mankind, and are marked by their original features of national 
 peculiarity : they adhere with the most zealous attachment to the 
 religion of their forefathers, and cherish the hopes of restoration to 
 their former prosperity and country by means of a glorious and tri- 
 umphant Deliverer. 
 
 L\ They preserve, with the most watchful care, the sacred books 
 of their ancient writers. And astonishing, very astonishing it is to 
 observe, tfiat in the prophetical parts of these sacred books are containeti 
 all the events before mentioned of their extraordinary history. Their 
 particular conduct, and the vicissitudes of their national affairs, were 
 predicted by their prophets, and more especially by Moses, their 
 great law-giver, in the infancy of the world, at the vast distance of 
 thirty-three centuries from the present times. The accomplishment 
 of these predictions bears the fullest and most striking evidence to 
 the truth and inspiration of their prophets, and illustrates the dis- 
 pensations of Providence to his chosen people. 
 
 o. These sacred books contain likewise predictions the most exaci 
 of the character, office, and actions of the Messiah of the Jews, the 
 great Law-giver of the christians, the appointed Saviour of the world. 
 
 4. Such interesting circumstances as these, in addition to the pe- 
 culiar nature of the Jewish polity, considered as a divine institution, 
 the curious manners and customs, and the memorable actions of the 
 descendants of Abraham, the most ancient people of whom we have 
 any authentic accounts, combine to place ihese books first in order 
 of importance, as in order of time. If we consider tlie great antiqui- 
 ty, die subjects, and the characters of the r&riters, of these booh, and the 
 place which they occupy in the order of general history, particular- 
 ly as they stand connected with the christian revelation, they will be 
 found to deserve our verv earnest attention-. 
 
 SECTION III. 
 THE ANTIQUITY OF THE SCRIPTURES. 
 
 1. No writings of any other nation can be brought into competi- 
 tion, in respect of antiquity, with those of the Jews. In proof of 
 this assertion it may be remarked, that Moses lived more than a 
 thousand years before the age of Herodotus, who is reputed the 
 father of Grecian history. As another proof of the priority of the 
 Jews to the Greeks, it appears by the confession of the Greek wri- 
 ters, that they received the letters of their alphabet from the Phoe- 
 nicians ; and there are very sufficient grounds for believing that the 
 Phoenicians derived the art of writing from the Jews. The learned 
 and acute Porphyry, who was an equal enemy both to Jews and 
 christians, and much attached to the learning of Greece, candidly 
 acknowledged that Moses, and the prophets who immediately suc- 
 ceeded him, flourished nearly a thousand years before any of the 
 Greek philosophers. 
 
 2. The books which compose the canon of the Jewish scriptures 
 have the concurrence of all antiquity in favour of their originality. 
 They were delivered to the Hebrews in their own language, with 
 
 U 2 & 20 
 
234 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 every mark of genuineness, by the persons whose names they bear, 
 and those persons, by recording contemporary events, constantly 
 appealed to well-known proofs o^ their regard to truth. The pro- 
 phetical books in particular contain the evidences of their inspira- 
 tion, as well as of the integrity and piety of their authors. The ex- 
 ternal proofs are clear and strong, as well as the internal ; in conse- 
 quence of which all the.^e books have always been preserved with 
 the greatest care, and have been held in the highest veneration. 
 
 3. It is no less curious than important to remark the traditions 
 preserved in the pagan world, which confirm the truth of the Pen- 
 tateuch, or the rive books written by Moses. The Chaldeans pie- 
 served the history of their Xisurus, who was the Noah of Moses. 
 The Egyptians asserted that Mercury had engraved his doctrine 
 upon columns, which had resisted the violence of a deluge. TIkj 
 Cninese historians record that Peyrun, a mortal beloved and protect 
 ed by the gods, saved himself in a vessel from the general inundation 
 The Hindoos say that the waters of the ocean spread over the surface 
 of the earth, except one mountain to the north ; that one woman 
 and seven men saved themselves on this mountain, with certain 
 plants and animals. They add, in speaking of their god Vishnou, that 
 at the deluge he transformed himself into a fish, and conducted the 
 vessel which preserved the relics of the human race. Tins vessel 
 is likewise a subject of tradition in the northern parts of the world. 
 Sulivairs View of Nature, Letter G7. 
 
 4. That the sacrifice of animals was necessary to appease th<> 
 offended gods, was a religious tenet very general and very ancient. 
 The account of the long iives of the patriarchs is confirmed by wri- 
 ters of various countries. Their primitive manners, and their 
 mode of performing sacrifices, and oflerkig prayers to the great Au- 
 thor of nature on the summits of mountains, and in the retirements 
 of groves, agree with the descriptions of Homer, and many other 
 early writers. Zoroaster, the great teacher of the ancient Persians, 
 derived from the books of Moses the first principles of his religion, 
 his ceremonial laws, his account of the creation, of the first parents 
 of mankind, of the patriarchs, and particularly of Abraham, whose 
 pure religion he professed to restore. 
 
 5. In the attributes and characters of the heathen gods may be 
 lound allusions to the ancient expressions of the Hebrew scriptures. 
 In the customs, laws, and ceremonies of many other nations may be 
 traced a resemblance to tin:- Mosaical institutions. In the accounts 
 of the deities of the Pagans, and the early heroes and benefactors oi 
 mankind, particularly in those which adorn the pages of Grecian 
 history, are represented many of the patriarchs ami illustrious per- 
 sons of scripture. Many principles of the most eminent philoso- 
 phers, many fictions of the most celebrated poets, both of Greece 
 and Rome, and many institutions of the most renowned heathen law- 
 givers, cannot fail, by their circumstances of resemblance, to direct 
 our attention to the great legislator of the Jews. The most venera- 
 ble and ancient traditions of the world seem to contain the parts of 
 one original and uniform system, which was broken by the disper- 
 sion of the primeval families after the deluge, and corrupted by the 
 revolution of ages. They were the streams which flowed through 
 the various countries of the earth, from the great source of Mosa- 
 ical history.* 
 
 * See Stillingfleet, b. iii, c. 5 ; Bryant's Mythology ; Maurice's Indian 
 Antiquities \ Raleigh's History of the World, p. 71. 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 23A 
 
 6. Josephus, the Jewish historian, flourished in the reign of the 
 emperor Vespasian. He was a person of great learning and emi- 
 nence, and conducted his inquiries with singular diligence, industry, 
 and care. He corroborates the testimony of the sacred writers, ai*I 
 illustrates their truth ; as he not only gives a regular detail of the meat 
 remarkable transactions of the Jews, hut introduces considerable 
 notices of all those people, with whom they formed alliances, or car- 
 ried on wars. In his treatise against Apion he exposes the contr.v- 
 dictions which occurred in the Egyptian, Chaldean, and Phoenician 
 records; vindicates the authority of the Jewish scriptures ; describes 
 the care which was taken in their preservation ; and states their 
 superior pretensions, more particularly in point of antiquity, to the 
 respect and reverence of mankind.* 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 
 THE SUBJECTS OF THE BOOKS, AND CHARACTERS OF THE 
 WRITERS. 
 
 1. The subjects of the books of the Old Testament are truly 
 wonderful and striking, and of such a nature as to surpass all monu- 
 ments of profane learning, equally in importance as in antiquity. 
 Of all parts which compose the sacred canon, none are more curious 
 than Genesis, the fust book written by Moses ; because it contains a 
 sketch of the earliest history of mankind. There stand recorded 
 the creation of the world and its inhabitants, the fall of our first pa- 
 rents from their state of innocence and happiness, and their banish- 
 ment from the garden of Eden ; the repeated and signal promises of 
 a future restorer of the lost blessings of mankind ; the history of the 
 patriarchs, honoured by the revelations of Jehovah; the description 
 of the general deluge ; the dispersion of the progenitors of the hu- 
 man race overall the earth; the adoption of a particular family to 
 perpetuate the remembrance, and establish the worship of the true 
 God, and their prosperous settlement in Egypt. Instances indeed are 
 mentioned of early depravity, and of the violence of the passion*, 
 attended with suitable punishments; yet society appears under its 
 simplest form in point of manners, and we discern no traces of the 
 luxury and false refinement of subsequent times. 
 
 2. In the books of the Jews is recorded an account of the^ descen- 
 dants of Israel ; a race of men selected from all others, and favoured 
 with successive revelations of the divine will. Here are shown the 
 instances of their fidelity, perverseness, and disobedience : their 
 glory and triumphs ; their disgraces, and their subjection to foreign 
 powers. Here is seen the superintendance of a divine and especial 
 Providence watching over innocence, suspending wrath, and taking 
 the most signal vengeance upon unrepented offences. Here are 
 developed the failings of the most virtuous persons, and the obdurate 
 wickedness of confirmed sinners. Here are displayed the mixed 
 characters even of the most excellent men, the eminent examples oi 
 faith and piety, of courage and patience, in the conduct of Abraham, 
 Lot, Job, Joseph, Moses, David, Hezekiah, Josiah, and Daniel. 
 
 • Kett's Interpreter of Prophecy, vol. i, p. 200, Lardner, vol, vii, p. 
 30, 259, &c. 
 
236 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 And most interesting is it to observe, that the knowledge of the 
 one true God was communicated to this people, and preserved by 
 them alone ; that they had the most sublime ideas of his nature 
 and attributes; that a magnificent temple was erected to his honour; 
 a regular service was instituted ; holy ceremonies were performed; 
 an order of priests of one particular family was consecrated.- a pure 
 worship was established by his express command, and regulated by 
 iii- particular laws. Thus were the Jews enlightened by a knowl- 
 edge of the true object of divine worship; and thus were the purity 
 and holiness of their religious ordinances conducted, at a time when 
 all other nations presented a wide scene of gross superstition and 
 mental darkness ; when the rest of the human race, and even the 
 most intelligent and polished nations of Egypt and Greece, showed 
 the most abject degradation of their nature, by prostrating them- 
 selves before idols of their own workmanship; and abused the evi- 
 dence of sense, and the faculty of reason, by imputing to wood and 
 stone the attributes of divine power. 
 
 3. We see likewise a succession of prophets raised up among tl>e 
 Jons, to communicate the divine will, to warn them of evils, and to 
 announce to them blessings to come. These holy men, ever obedi- 
 ent to the call of Heaven, rose superior to all worldly considerations; 
 and with a spirit of intrepidity and independence, which clearly 
 showed that Heaven was the source of their reliance, they executed 
 thqir sacred commissions, unawed by the threats of kings, or the 
 resentment of the people. Thej : foretold remote events in times 
 when they appeared most improbable ever to take place, and when 
 no human foresight, and no calculation of chances, could guide them 
 to the discovery of the particular affairs, which fulfilled their pre- 
 dictions. Moses, in a long and most interesting detail of threats and 
 promises, furetold the exact manner in which his people were ordain- 
 ed to be happy or miserable, according as they followed or disobeyed 
 the divine laws. At a subsequent period, when Jerusalem was laid 
 in ruins, and the Jews were groaning under the sorrows of the Baby- 
 lonish captivity, Isaiah solemnly addressed Cyrus by his name, more 
 than u hundred years before" his birth, as the deliverer of Israel, and 
 the new founder of the Holy City-* When Babylon was shining in 
 the meridian of its glory, and its monarchs ruled over all the nations 
 of the east with the most despotic sway, the same prophet predicted 
 the total subversion of their empire, and the complete desolation of 
 their vast metropolis. That all these and numerous other predictions 
 were exactly verilied by the events, are truths continued by the evi- 
 dence of profane as well as sacred history. 
 
 4. The same inspired prophets had a much more grand and im- 
 portant object in view, than to declare the future dispensations of 
 Providence to one nation in particular ; for they announced, in terms 
 at first dark and mysterious, but progressively more clear and cir- 
 cumstantial, the future birth of a Messiah, a glorious king, a divine 
 legislator, who was to abolish the sacrifices and religious institutions 
 of the Jews, and to proclaim and establish a general law for the 
 observance and happiness of all mankind. Here the evangelists con- 
 tribute their aid to illustrate the declarations of the prophets, and 
 unite the history of the Old with that of the New Testament, in 
 the most close and indissoluble bonds of union, 
 
 * Isaiah, B. C. 757. Cyrus, B. C. 589. Kett's Interpreter of Prophecy, 
 ¥o). i, p. 130. 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 237 
 
 5. The historical books of scripture, considered from the time of 
 the giving of the law to Moses to the reformation in the worship and 
 government by Nehemiah, after the Babylonish captivity, contain a 
 summary account of the Jewish affairs for a period of eleven centu- 
 ries.* They were evidently not intended to give a complete detail 
 of national transactions, as their writers had a more sublime and im- 
 portant end in view. To illustrate the prophecies, by relating cir- 
 cumstances which existed at the time when they were uttered, and 
 to show their accomplishment ; to record various revelations of the 
 divine will, and to describe the slate of religion among the Hebrews, 
 and the various dispensations of Providence, in public as well as in 
 private occurrences, seem to have been their chief objects. Hencu 
 it is that the chain of history is sometimes broken into detached part 1 *, 
 and its detail is interrupted by a recital of private transactions. Tfw 
 books of scripture occasionally assume the form, and comprise the 
 beauties of a very interesting kind of biography. Of this nature are 
 the several accounts of Job, Tiuth, and Esther ; but they are far from 
 being unconnected with the principal design of the sacred writers ; 
 inasmuch as they show that the same divine Providence which presid- 
 ed over the nation at large, extended its particular care to iricJivicV 
 uals, and that the examples of private virtue were inseparable from 
 the great interests of public welfare and happiness. 
 
 6. The Israelites, for many ages separated from the rest of man- 
 kind by their peculiar institutions, were little acquainted with com- 
 merce, and made small advances in those arts, which, with a refine- 
 ment, and a diversity of employments, introduce luxury and corrup- 
 tion of manners. They were governed by equal laws, and possessed 
 nearly equal property. They admitted no hereditary distinction of 
 rank, except in favour of the regal tribe of Judah, and the sacep*- 
 dotal family of Levi. Their occupations from the earliest times were 
 of the most simple kind, and consisted in pasturage and agriculture. 
 To guide the plough, and tend thetlock, were employments whiclK 
 recommended by the innocence of primeval manners, and dignified 
 by length of time, were exercised by kings, prophets, and generals. 
 Moses was called from feeding his ilock, to conduct the Israelites to 
 the promised land ; Elisha forsook the plough, to be invested with 
 the mantle of prophecy ; and Gideon left the threshing-floor, to lead 
 the army of his country to battle, 
 
 7. The country of Judca presented a sceue diversified by fruit- 
 ful vallies, barren recks, and lofty mountains, and was watered by 
 numerous streams. It produced the palm-tree, the balsam, the vine, 
 the olive, the fig. and all the fruits which abound in the more tetn* 
 perate regions of Asia. From the labours of the field, and from cul- 
 tivating the vine, the attention of the Israelites was regularly called 
 by religious worship, which was intimately blended with the civil 
 constitution of the state. The splendour of their public services, the 
 pomp and magnificence of their rites and ceremonies, the stated re- 
 currence of their various festivals and sacrifices, the sabbath, the 
 passover, the celebration of the sabbatical year, and the jubilee ; and. 
 more than all, the constant experience of divine interposition, filled 
 their minds with the most awful and grand ideas, and gave them the 
 deepest impressions of the majesty, power, goodness, and justice oi 
 God. 
 
 * Moses, B. C. 1,571. Nehemiah, B. C, 546. Gray's Key to the Old 
 Testament, p. 124, 
 
e38 JEWISH HISTORY 
 
 8. These were the circumstances which, combining to form their 
 national manners, had the greatest influence upon their writings. 
 The historical style is marked by the purest simplicity of ideas, oc 
 casionally raised to a tone of elevation. In the works of Moses there 
 is a majesty of thought, which is most strikingly expressed in plain 
 alid energetic language. In the prophetical writings the greatest 
 Splendour and sublimity of composition are conspicuous. They are 
 enriched by those glowing images, and raised by that grandeur of 
 Miction, which charm the classical reader in the most admired pro- 
 ductions of Greece and Home. The roval psalmist is eloquent, cii ••- 
 nitied, and pathetic. All the beauties of composition unite in Isaiah-, 
 such is the majesty of his ideas, the propriety, beauty, and fertility 
 rif his imagery, and the elegance of his language, employed upon thu 
 noblest subjects which could possibly engage our attention. Jere- 
 miah excels in those expressions of tenderness, which excite, with 
 the most pleasing enthusiasm, the feelings of compassion. 
 
 9. By such peculiar beauties of composition are recommended 
 the most interesting details of events, and the most faithful deline- 
 ations of characters. The great Creator calls all things into ex- 
 istence with his omnipotent word. The first parents of mankind, 
 innocent and happy, are blessed with his immediate converse, and 
 enjoy the blooming groves of Paradise. Joseph, the pious, the 
 chaste, and the wise, after having undergone great afflictions, and 
 rising by his extraordinar}' merit to an othce of ihe highest honour 
 in the court of Pharaoh, discovers himself in a manner the most 
 pathetic to hi* repentant brethren, and is restored to his a»eci and 
 affectionate father, whom he invites into Egypt to share his pros- 
 perity. The children of Israel, guided by the divine Power, which 
 veils its glory in a cloud, pass safely through the Red Sea, in which 
 the host of the impious Pharaoh are overwhelmed. Upon the sum- 
 mit of Mount Sinai Moses receives the two tables of the command 
 ments, amid the thunder, lightning, clouds, and darkness, which 
 ohscure the great Jehovah from his eyes. The royal psalmist sings 
 the wonders of creation, the powers of his God, and his own de- 
 feats and triumphs. The peaceful and prosperous Solomon, whose 
 renown was extended over all the east, rears the structure of the 
 magnificent temple ; and amid the multitudes of his adoring sub- 
 jects consecrates it to the service of the one true God, in a prayer 
 which equally attests his wisdom and his piety. In the visions of 
 futurity Isaiah beholds the deliverance of the chosen people ; the 
 complete destruction of the great empire of Babylon, by which 
 ibey were enslaved; and the promised Messiah, the Saviour cf 
 mankind, sometimes depressed by want and sorrow, and sometime* 
 arrayed in the emblems of divine majesty and power, lie predicts 
 the final recal of the Jews to their native laud, and the wide diffu- 
 sion of the christian faith. Jeremiah sinks a weeping mourner over 
 the ruins of his native city, deplores its calamities, and consoles his 
 countrymen by expressly declaring, that they should never cease 
 to be a nation to the end of the world. Daniel explains to Bei- 
 sha^zar the mystic characters inscribed upon the walls of his palace, 
 • f md views, in his wide prospect of future times, the fates of the four 
 great empires of the world. Cyrus, long before announced by 
 fsaiah, as the great subyerter ot the Babylonish empire, and the 
 restorer of the glory of Jerusalem, publishes his decree for the 
 restoration of the captive Jews; and the holy city and temple 
 rjse from their ruins with new grandeur and. magnificence. r I he 
 
JEWISH HISTORY. &£ 
 
 Jews are settled and reformed by the pious care of Nehemiab, and 
 the canon of the scriptures is closed by Malachi. This last of tlio 
 prophets enjoins the strict observance of the law of Mo?es 7 till tho 
 great Precursor should appear, in the spirit of Elias, to announco 
 the approach of the Messiah, who was to establish a new and an 
 everlasting covenant.* 
 
 10. Such are a few of the interesting circumstances contained m 
 the books of the Old Testament, which engage our attention, chaim 
 our imagination, and gratify our curiosity, while they confirm out 
 belief in the great evidences of revelation. In all these work* 
 we may remark the bright truths of religious instruction, shining 
 forth amid the venerable simplicity of the most ancient history ; a 
 history unrivalled for the grandeur of the ideas which it conveys, 
 the liveliness of its descriptions, and the number of its beautiful and 
 sublime images. 
 
 11. In these books of sacred history there is an impartiality ol 
 narrative, which is an undoubted characteristic of truth. If wo 
 read the Lives of Plutarch, or the History of Livy, we soon dis- 
 cover that these writers composed their works under the influence 
 of many prejudices in favour of their respectives countries. A veil 
 is thrown over the defects of their heroes, but their virtues are 
 placed in a strong light, and painted in vivid colours. In the scrip- 
 tare.-, on the contrary, both of the Old and the New Testament, tho 
 strictest impartiality prevails. The vices of David, Solomon, and 
 their successors, are neither concealed nor palliated. There is no 
 ostentation of vanity, no parade of panegyric ; virtue charms with 
 her native beauty, and vice requires no disguise to conceal her de- 
 formity. The characters of persons are sketched, and the effects of 
 the passions are represented without reserve or concealment ; and 
 the moral to be drawn from each description is so obvious, as to ac- 
 count for the frequent omission of remarks and applications. The 
 abject condition of the Jews, when prohibited the use of weapons of 
 war by the victorious Philistines ; their relapses into idolatry, their 
 perverseness of disposition, and their various defeats and captivities, 
 with every circumstance of private as well as public disgrace, are 
 recorded without palliation or reserve. Always rising superior to 
 the motives which induce other authors to violate the purity and de- 
 grade the majesty of truth, these writers keep one great and most 
 important end constantly in view, and show the various methods by 
 which the providence of God effected his gracious designs; how lie 
 produced good from evil, and employed the sins and follies of man- 
 kind as the instruments of his gracious purposes 
 
 \2. An acquaintance with the affairs of the Jewish , nation forms 
 the first link in the chain of ancient records. Thus we may observe 
 the connexion which subsists between the branches of sacred and 
 profane history. We place the works of pagan writers in their 
 proper situation, and give them additional value, by making them 
 subservient to the cause of religion, and instrumental in the illustra- 
 tion of revealed truth. If the student is not called upon by proies- 
 sional inducements to read the scriptures in their original languages, 
 he may rest contented with translations ; and it seems to be a well- 
 
 * For these very impressive passages of the Bible, see Gen. i, ii, xlir 
 xlv ; Exod. xiv, xx ; the Psalms ; 1 Kings viii ; Isaiah ii, vi, ix, x, xi, xiv 
 xxviii, xxxii, xl, xliii, Ix, lxi, lxiii, lxv, and more particularly liii ; La 
 ment. i, kc. ; Daniel v, vii ; Ezra vii ; Nehem. xiii ; Malachi iii, iv. 
 
240 JEWISH HISTORY. 
 
 founded opinion among the learned, that he may rely with confidence 
 upon the general fidelity of our English version. 
 
 SECTION V. 
 OF THE ANTEDILUVIAN WORLD. 
 
 1. Apt authentic account of the creation of the world, and of the 
 primitive state of mankind is to be found only in the bible. There 
 we are informed by Moses, the most ancient of all historians, that in 
 the beginning God created the earth, the celestial bodies, and all 
 things Loth animate and inanimate ; that he created one man and one 
 woman, named Adam and Eve, and placed them in a garden or para- 
 dise, situated in the land of Eden. According to the best chronolo- 
 gers the creation of the world was accomplished in the year 4,004 
 A. C. Adam and Eve soon transgressed the commands of God, and 
 were therefore expelled from their delightful abode. 
 
 2. Adam and Eve had two sons, whose names were Cain and AbeL 
 Cain, the elder, was a husbandman, and Abel was a shepherd, Cain 
 was of a vicious, Abel of a virtuous disposition. Hence the worship 
 of Abel was more acceptable to the Lord than that of Cain. Insti- 
 gated by envy and malice, Cain killed his brother when they were 
 together in the field. For this atrocious crime he was severely pun- 
 ished by the Lord, and became " a fugitive and a vagabond upon the 
 earth." 
 
 3. After the murder of Abel, another son, named Seth, was born 
 to Adam. From this time the descendants of Adam multiplied rapid' 
 ly, and at length spread over the face of the earth. 
 
 4. One of the most remarkable circumstances of the former world 
 is the longevity of the people. Adam lived 930 year?, Seth 912 
 years, Jared 962 years, Methuselah 909 years, Noah 950 years. 
 
 5. In process of time mankind became so wicked that the Lord 
 was resolved to destroy them by a deluge. Amid the general cor- 
 ruption and depravity of the human race one virtuous man was found. 
 Noah, the son of Lamech, zealous for the reformation of men, be- 
 came a preacher of righteousness to the degenerate and vicious 
 people among whom he lived, and employed both his council and au- 
 thority to reclaim them ; but in vain. And God commanded Noah to 
 build a great ship, called an ark, and to put in it his wife, his three 
 sons and their wives, and also a tew males and females of every spe- 
 cies of living things, that they might be saved from the general del- 
 uge which would shortly overwhelm the whole earth, and extirpate 
 ail creatures. The flood continued 150 days, and then gradually sub- 
 sided. Noah and his family, and all the animals, went out of the 
 ark (2,343 A. C.) ; and in process of time they multiplied and spread 
 over the surface of the earth, as we now see them. 
 
 6. Of the literary and scientific attainments of the antediluvians 
 wc. know very little. From the Mosaic account they do not appear 
 to have been great. Moses has briefly informed us what was the 
 origin of various customs and arts, and has recorded the names of 
 their inventors. Lamech the son of Cain gave the first example of 
 polygamy. Cain built the first city, and introduced the use of 
 weights and measures. One of Cain's grandsons " was the father of 
 such as dwell in tents, and of such as have cattle." Julal invented 
 music ; Tubal Cain the arts of forging iron, and of casting brass ; 
 and a woman called Naamah the arts of spinning aud weaving 
 
JEWISH HISTORY. 241 
 
 Their religious rites were few and simple. They worshipped God 
 by prayer, and sacrifices of certain animals. 
 
 SECTION VI. 
 FIRST AGES AFTER THE DELUGE. 
 
 1. The remembrance of the three sons of Noah, the first foun- 
 ders of the nations of the earth after the deluge, has been preserved 
 among the several nations descended from them. Japhet peopled 
 the greater part of the west, and continued long famous under the 
 name of Japetus. Ham was reverenced as a deity by the Egyptians, 
 under the title of Jupiter Hammon. The memory of Shem has 
 always been venerated by his descendants, the Hebrews, who de- 
 rived their name from his son Heber. 
 
 2. Except the building of the tower of Babel no event of impor- 
 tance occurs in the history of Moses during the space of nearly 
 1,100 years from the deluge to the call of Abraham. About 100 
 years after the deluge the descendants of Noah were become nu- 
 merous at the foot of Mount Ararat, and in the plain of Shinaar, ex- 
 tending along the banks of the Euphrates and the Tigris. They 
 found that the country was not extensive enough to contain them 
 much longer, and therefore that they must separate. They agreed 
 to build a very high tower, which might be a signal of union, if they 
 should ever desire to return to their native country. When they had 
 raised the tower to a certain height, the workmen suddenly perceiv- 
 ed that they did not understand the words of one another, and that 
 all spoke different languages. Consequently it was impossible to 
 continue the work, and the people dispersed in different directions. 
 Hence the origin of different languages, and the dispersion of the 
 human race over the habitable globe. 
 
 3. Soon after this memorable event, Nimrod, a violent and impe- 
 rious man, built the city of Babel, or Babylon, and laid the founda- 
 tion of the first great empire, called the Babylonian, which was 
 afterwards so famous in the history of the Jews. 
 
 SECTION VII. 
 
 OF THE JEWS. 
 
 1. The Jews derived their origin from Abraham, the son of Terah, 
 the tenth in lineal descent from Shem the son of Noah. The de- 
 scendants of Shem spread from Armenia, where the ark is supposed 
 to have rested after the deluge, to Mesopotamia, and thence into 
 Chaldea, where Abraham was born. As Abraham was appointed to 
 be the progenitor of a great and distinguished nation, God separated 
 him from the other descendants of Shem, by causing Terah to re- 
 move from Chaldea into the country of Haram, near the borders of 
 Mesopotamia, where he died. Abraham intended to settle in Haram; 
 but in obedience to the will of God, he removed into the land of 
 Canaan, which was appointed to be the inheritance of his posterity. 
 From tnis period commences a long series of events, which are re- 
 corded in the book of Genesis, and are represented as immediately 
 directed by the Lord. 
 
 2 After Abraham arrived in Canaan, his first care was to erect aa 
 X 31 
 
242 TEWISH HISTORY. 
 
 altar for the worship of God, who appeared to him, and confirmed 
 the promise which he had before made to him, to give the country 
 to his children. When he had lived some time in Canaan, a fam- 
 ine compelled him to remove his family into Egypt, (1,916 A. C), 
 where he resided till the famine ceased, and then returned. His 
 wife Sarah, when she was advanced in years, brought him a son, 
 who was called Isaac. When Isaac grew to man's estate he married 
 Rebecca, who was afterward the mother of Jacob. In process of 
 time Jacob had ten sons, who were the fathers of ten tribes. By the 
 command of the Lord, Jacob took the name of Israel, and hence his 
 posterity were called Israelites, or the children of Israel. 
 
 3. Joseph, the ninth son, was the favourite of his father, which 
 excited the jealousy and hatred of his elder brothers, who sold him 
 to some merchants, and told Jacob that he had been devoured by 
 wild beasts. The merchants carried their slave into Egypt, and 
 sold him to Potiphar, an officer of king Pharaoh's guard, 1,724 A. 
 C. Joseph served Potiphar with such diligence and fidelity, that he 
 soon committed to him the care of his domestic affairs. 
 
 The wife of Potiphar repeatedly attempted to seduce Joseph into 
 the gratification of her amorous propensities ; but her immodest ad- 
 vances being rejected with disdain, she was incensed, and malicious- 
 ly accused him of an attempt to violate her chastity. On this false 
 accusation he was immediately thrown into prison, but was soon 
 liberated by the king. Such is, in all ages and in all countries, the 
 vindictive disposition of a lascivious woman, whose allurements nave 
 been neglected or resisted. The disappointed wanton prosecutes, 
 with everlasting enmity, the innocent object of her carnal desires ! 
 
 4. Joseph, being skilful in the interpretation of dreams, was intro- 
 duced to Pharaoh king of Egypt, who was perplexed by two dreams 
 ivhich he could not explain. Joseph interpreted his dreams, which 
 predicted abundant products of the earth for seven years, and after- 
 ward a dreadful famine for seven years. He was released from pris- 
 on, and appointed to conduct the affairs of Egypt under Pharaoh. 
 
 5. In consequence of the famine with which Canaan was afflicted 
 (as it had been foretold), Jacob and his family removed into Egypt, 
 1,702 A. C. Joseph assigned them a residence in the land of Goshen, 
 a fertile country fit for pasturage, situated between the Nile and the 
 Red Sea. In this happy country the descendants of Jacob increased 
 and flourished, and became so numerous and prosperous that at 
 length the envy and fears of the Egyptians began to be excited 
 against them. To check their prosperity rigorous measures were 
 pursued by the rulers of Egypt. Their lives were imbittered by 
 hard service, and all their male children were ordered to be drowned 
 at their birth. 
 
 6. Till the time of their residence in the land of Goshen, the He- 
 brews had led a pastoral life, and had not been subject to any regular 
 form of government. Children were obedient to their parents, and 
 servant to their masters. Religion appeared in its most simple and 
 amiable form. One God, the Creator and Governor of the world, 
 was worshipped without images, and without an established priest- 
 hood. Equal purity in faith and worship, in principle and practice. 
 
 f>revailed among the people. But in proportion as wealth ana 
 uxury increased, the religion of the Hebrews became more sensual. 
 Like all eastern nations they were prone to the worship of the heav- 
 enly bodies. Priestcraft employed images, and the delusive artifices 
 of superstition to attract the devotion of the people. 
 
JEWISH HISTORY. 243 
 
 7. The history of the Hebrews, during the patrirrchal ages, is 
 related in the first book of Moses, with simplicity, minuteness, and 
 apparent fidelity. There we read a description of ancient customs 
 and manners in the lives of the patriarchs, Abraham, Isaac, and 
 Jacob. The story of Joseph and his brethren has been always 
 admired for the simplicity of the language, and the affecting cir- 
 cumstances whieh it exhibits. As the numerous facts and incidents 
 in the early periods of the history of the Hebrews are familiar to 
 every reader, and are besides of little importance in the political 
 annals of the nation, it seems superfluous to enter into a detail of 
 them. We shall therefore next present a compendious view of the 
 history of the Hebrews from the period of their departure out of 
 Egypt, 1,487 A. C. 
 
 8. After much oppression and suffering, God raised up a deliverer 
 of his chosen people, who rescued them from a state ot cruel servi- 
 tude, and brought them out of the land of bondage. This deliverer 
 was Moses, the most distinguished personage of ancient times, born 
 1,567 A. C. In consequence of Pharaoh's inhuman decree, Moses 
 was exposed by his mother on the banks of the Nile, and was found 
 by the king's daughter, who compassionately adopted him, and thus 
 saved his life. Before their departure from Egypt, and in their long 
 and tedious journey of forty years through the wilderness, many 
 extraordinary and supernatural events are recorded in the Bible, and 
 ascribed to the miraculous interposition of the Lord in behalf of his 
 people. During their wanderings in the desert, they received from 
 their illustrious guide, with many other signal proofs of divine favour 
 a system of religion and laws, under the sanction of God. 
 
 9. The Mosaic code, though the most ancient that has been trans- 
 mitted to posterity, contains the best maxims of legislative wisdom. 
 It is an admirable summary of our various duties to God and man ; 
 and it enforces the observance of those duties by the powerful mo- 
 tives of gratitude, hope, and fear. It directs our adoration to one 
 God, the author of all blessings ; commands us to reverence his holy 
 name ; and denounces dreadful vengeance against those who shall 
 transfer to idols, or to the creature, that worship which is due only 
 to the Creator. To prevent the neglect of those sacred obligations, 
 it ordains a Sabbath every week, to be set apart for rest, and for pious 
 meditation on the works and the beneficence of God. Four of the 
 statutes of the Mosaic code comprehend the principles of universal 
 jurisprudence. 1. Thou shalt not kill 2. Thou shalt not commit adul- 
 tery. 3. Thou shalt not steal. 4. TIiou shalt not bear false witness. 
 They have formed the basis of criminal law in all civilized nations, 
 and are essential to the good order of society. They conclude with 
 an admonition against avarice, the incentive to the commission of all 
 offences. 
 
 10. While Moses lived in Egypt he must have remarked the bane- 
 ful effects of the abuse of unlimited power entrusted to priests. He 
 therefore wisely separated the sacerdotal jurisdiction from the civil. 
 The ministers of religion were not allowed to interfere in seculai 
 affairs. Their duties were confined to the worship of God ; and 
 their civil authority extended no farther than to take cognizance of 
 such offences or trespasses as were immediately connected with re- 
 ligious worship. The care and direction of all secular concerns were 
 committed to the elders of the people, who administered justice un- 
 der the control of a supreme magistrate, emphatically styled a 
 judge. In the judge was vested all power civil and military. It ?.p* 
 
244 JEWISH HISTORY. 
 
 pears however that the high priest at length invaded the military 
 prerogative of the judge. 
 
 11. Sensible of the ignorance and perverseness of the people 
 under his care, Moses omitted no precepts nor instructions which 
 he thought might tend to inform their minds, to regulate their con- 
 duct, to correct their vicious propensities, and to promote their wel- 
 fare and security. He prescribed rules for their diet* for the preser- 
 vation of their health, and for the treatment and cure of those 
 diseases to which they were most liable. Having conducted the 
 Israelites through many dangers and difficulties within sight of the 
 promised land, and appointed Joshua his successor, Moses died in 
 1,447 A. C. 
 
 SECTION VIII. 
 
 THE HISTORY OF THE HEBREWS DURING THE GOVERNMEx\T 
 OF THE JUDGES. 
 
 1. This period is extremely turbulent and sanguinary; a period 
 of barbarism, ignorance, and anarchy. We know not certainly how 
 the judges were chosen, nor what was the extent of their power. 
 They appear to have been military chiefs, for they commanded 
 armies, and some of them acquired fame by successful expeditions 
 against the enemies of their country. 
 
 2. The chiefs or rulers of the Syrian kingdoms, principalities, or 
 townships, had chosen no common leader, or generalissimo, nor 
 digested any regular plan of defence against the Hebrews, who had 
 been long hovering on the frontiers of Syria, and betrayed hostile 
 intentions ; consequently many of these petty states on both sides 
 of the river Jordan were subdued, and the inhabitants massacred, 
 before any league was formed for their mutual defence. At length 
 they became apprehensive of utter destruction from their fierce 
 and cruel invaders, and a general alliance was concerted among the 
 remaining kings and chiefs of the country between the Jordan and 
 the Mediterranean sea. Joshua twice attacked the combined army 
 unexpectedly, and defeated it with great slaughter. Most of the in- 
 habitants, except those who resided in impregnable cities on the sea 
 coast, were put to the sword, or compelled to flee from the ven- 
 geance of their enemy. Their possessions were divided among 
 the tribes of Israel ; and thus the victorious Hebrews conquered 
 and occupied the southern parts of Syria, called Judea or Canaan, 
 and still known by the name of Palestine. Joshua having on manv 
 occasions received miraculous assistance in the perilous conquest o? 
 Canaan, and in the execution of the arduous and important offices of 
 a government of incessant activity and energy, died in 1,439 A. C. 
 leaving the Israelites in the quiet enjoyment "of the country which 
 the Lord had formerly promised to Abraham and his posterity. 
 
 3. After the conquest of Canaan the Hebrews did not continue 
 long to observe and obey the institutions of Moses. They fell into 
 apostacy and confusion. They were alternately harassed by intestine 
 commotions, and reduced to temporary bondage by the nations which 
 they had before conquered. When relieved from the miseries of a 
 foreign yoke, they commonly became subject to the more grievous 
 oppressions of domestic tyranny. But in the various changes of their 
 
JEWISH HISTORY. 245 
 
 manners and fortunes, it is remarkable that some of their gross- 
 est idolatries, and severest afflictions, happened when the civil power 
 and the authority of the priesthood were exercised by the same 
 person. 
 
 4. After the death of Joshua the Israelites were governed by elders 
 about 20 years. Then followed an anarchy of about 18 years, during 
 which they were engaged in many successful and unsuccessful wars, 
 and were often reduced to servitude. 
 
 After the government of the Hebrews had continued with little 
 interruption, about 295 years, under twelve successive judges, in the 
 form prescribed by Moses, Eli, the high-priest united in his person 
 those powers and functions which, before his accession to the 
 supreme magistracy, had been kept distinct. Eli appears to have 
 been equally incapable of discharging the civil, the military, and the 
 religious duties of his high offices. The people fell into idolatry, 
 and were subjugated by an ancient nation called the Philistines. In 
 a great battle with the Philistines the army of the Hebrews was 
 routed with dreadful slaughter, and the two profligate sons of Eli 
 were killed. The news of thisdisaster put an end to the life of Eli, 
 after he had governed the Israelites forty years. 
 
 5. The next and last judge of the Hebrews was Samuel the 
 prophet, 1,1 12 A. C. He brought back the people to a sense of their 
 duty, and soon restored the departed glory of Israel by a great vic- 
 tory over the Philistines. They now recovered their liberty, and 
 the cities which had been taken from them in former wars. Samuel 
 was indefatigable in the administration of justice. When age had 
 rendered him incapable of executing his laborious duties, he united 
 his two sons with him in the administration of the government. 
 But their evil conduct offended the people, who complained to Sam- 
 uel that his sons were not worthy to succeed him as judges. They 
 demanded a king to govern them. Samuel therefore assembled the 
 people, and explained to them the extreme danger of changing their 
 ancient form of government to that of a monarchy ; but in vain. 
 They persisted in their resolution, and a man named Saul was ap- 
 pointed the first king of the Hebrews, after the government by 
 judges had subsisted, with some intermission, about 356 years, from 
 .J oshua to Saul. x 
 
 SECTION IX. 
 
 RETROSPECT OF THE GOVERNMExNT OF THE HEBREWS. 
 
 1. The advancement of Saul to the regal dignity was the second 
 change made in the constitution given by Moses. The common- 
 wealth was originally a theocracy; and the people acknowledged 
 no other king but God. They paid respect to the priests, as the 
 superintendents of his worship ; and they obeyed the judges, as 
 the interpreters of his laws, and the delegates of his power. The 
 succession to the priesthood was fixed, being made hereditary in 
 the family of Aaron. The office of ruler, or judge, being apparent- 
 ly left to the appointment of God, and determinable neither by the 
 choice of the people, nor by lineal descent, gave access to disturbance, 
 violence, and intrigue. Moses prevented any public commotion by 
 naming and consecrating a successor to himself. 
 X2 
 
246 JEWISH HISTORY. 
 
 2. After the death of Joshua intestine divisions, or rather a spirit 
 of licentiousness and rapine, threw the nation into a state of anarchy 
 and confusion. As this disunion and civil disorder exposed them to 
 the invasions of the adjacent states, military talents and success were 
 regarded as infallible proofs of divine favour, and conferred upon any 
 person so distinguished, the title and authority of judge. Gideon 
 obtained many signal victories over the Philistines, the inveterate 
 enemies of the Hebrews, and enriched his soldiers with plunder. 
 Out of gratitude for his services, the people offered to make him 
 and his posterity their rulers. Though he declined thf name of 
 judge, yet he retained the power, and appropriated to himself the 
 most valuable part of the spoils of his enemies. His natural son 
 Abimelech succeeded to the office of judge by force and violence. 
 Sacred history does not inform us how the next two judges obtained 
 their dignity. After them the supreme power was committed to one 
 of Gilead's illegitimate issue, on account of his valour and military 
 talents. Thus the office of judge continued to fluctuate till it was 
 annexed to the high priesthood. in the person of Eli, as has been re- 
 lated. The death of his two vicious sons interrupted the succession 
 in his line. The office was lastly conferred on Samuel, whose un- 
 just and rapacious sons were thought unworthy to succeed him. The 
 people having received no permanent benefits from the administra- 
 tion either of judges or of priests, resolved to appoint a king to govern 
 them. This political innovation was the result of levity and impa- 
 tience rather than of mature deliberation. It neither gave stability to 
 the new government nor prevented the evils of the old. 
 
 SECTION X. 
 REGAL GOVERNMENT OF THE HEBREWS. 
 
 1. The reign of Saul began about 1,091 A. C. He was a shep- 
 herd of lofty stature. The beginning of his reign was auspicious, 
 and distinguished by a complete victory gained over the Ammonites, 
 which made him popular among his subjects. But he incurred the 
 displeasure of Samuel, the prophet, and his whole reign of 40 years, 
 was a continued scene of foreign or domestic troubles. Being de- 
 feated in a battle with the Philistines in 1,051 A. C., he killed him- 
 self. 
 
 2. Two candidates preferred their claim to the vacant throne. 
 Ish-bosheth, Saul's son, founded his pretensions on the right of im- 
 mediate descent, and was supported by many of the tribes. David, 
 a young shepherd, was famous for killing, with a stone thrown from 
 a sling, a Philistine named Goliath, a man of gigantic size and 
 strength. He had likewise been privately anointed by Samuel 
 before tlie death of Saul ; and his title, as of divine appointment, 
 was therefore acknowledged by the powerful tribe of Judah. A 
 civil war ensued, which lasted above seven years, and was terminat- 
 ed by the assassination of Ish-bosheth. All the tribes now submit- 
 ted to David, and the kingdom became hereditary in his family, 
 though the right of succession was still unsettled, and was transfer- 
 able from one branch to another at the will of the reigning sover- 
 eign. This appears from Solomon's succession to the throne in 
 preference to his elder brother. 
 
 3. The reign of David is illustrious and interesting. He enlarged 
 
JEWISH HISTORY. 247 
 
 the bounds of Palestine by conquest, took Jerusalem, which he made 
 the capital of his dominions, and enriched himself and his subjects 
 with the spoils of his enemies. He revived among the people an 
 attachment to religion by the institution of solemn ceremonies ; and 
 he introduced a taste for the arts, by inviting into the country able 
 mechanics and artists for the completion of the grand edifices which 
 he erected. 
 
 4. The latter part of David's reign was unfortunate. The king- 
 dom was ravaged by pestilence, famine, and disastrous wars. His 
 mind was harassed by domestic misfortunes. Some of his sons were 
 disobedient and wicked. His favourite son Absalom raised a rebel- 
 lion with a design to dethrone his father; but was defeated and slain. 
 David caused his son Solomon to be crowned in 1,01 1 A. C, and died 
 in 1,010 A. C, having reigned seven years and a half over Judah, 
 and 33 years over all Israel. 
 
 5. The reign of Solomon presents a splendid view of the kingdom 
 of Israel in the height of its prosperity, felicity, and glory, enjoying 
 all the blessings of tranquillity in such a manner, and for such a 
 length of time, as it never experienced in any former or subsequent 
 period. It directed the councils of all the petty states between the 
 Euphrates and the Mediterranean ; and held the balance of power 
 between the two great monarchies of Egypt and Assyria. Com- 
 merce flourished in a degree which, at that early period of the world, 
 must' appear extraordinary. The fleets of Israel, under the direc- 
 
 'tion of Tyrian mariners, traded to the land of Ophir, which some 
 suppose to be a district in Ethiopia, on the eastern coast of Africa. 
 To this country they probably went by the Red Sea. By their lu- 
 crative voyages they augmented the wealth of the nation, which 
 David had already enriched by the spoils of war. But this agreea- 
 ble and prosperous condition did not continue long. Solomon, elated 
 by uniform prosperity, set no bounds to his magnificence and luxury ; 
 and laid heavy taxes on the people to enable him to support his pro- 
 fuse expenditure. These burdensome imposts created disaffection 
 in the minds of his subjects, and toward the end of his reign gave 
 rise to a poweriid faction, at the head of which was a haughty and 
 impetuous young man called Jeroboam. 
 
 6. The most remarkable event in the reign of Solomon is the 
 buiiding of a magnificent temple at Jerusalem, which was completed 
 in about seven years. The plan had been formed by David, and 
 materials, workmen, and money, provided for its execution. This 
 was probably the most superb and costly fabric that has been erected 
 in ancient times. 
 
 The wisdom of Solomon is proverbial. The books of Proverbs 
 and Ecclesiastes arc ascribed to him, either as the author or col- 
 lector; and abound with precepts and maxims that are applicable to 
 every condition of life. But notwithstanding the superior knowl- 
 edge for which Solomon was so justly celebrated, he appears to have 
 been immersed in sensual pleasures. He had 700 wives of different 
 countries and religions, beside 300 concubines ! The allurements of 
 those voluptuous women led him into effeminacy, and the excess- 
 ive indulgence of the animal passions, and into the neglect of his 
 important duties to God and his people ; and their influence and su- 
 perstitions at length drew him into idolatry. This illustrious and 
 renowned monarch reigned 40 years, and died in 971 A. C, without 
 leaving any memorial of his power. 
 
 7. With Solomon expired the grandeur and the tranquillity of the 
 
248 JEWISH HISTORY. 
 
 Hebrews. Upon the accession of his son Rehoboam to the throne 
 the faction of Jeroboam broke out into open rebellion, and terminat- 
 ed in the revolt of the ten tribes from their allegiance to the house 
 of David. The tribes of Judah and Benjamin continued loyal to 
 their lawful sovereign, The revolted tribes elected Jeroboam for 
 their king, and the monarchy was split into the two separate king- 
 doms of Israel and Judah, 971 A. C. 
 
 8. The policy of Jeroboam produced a religious as well as a po- 
 litical separation. While the kings of Judah held the temple where 
 the sacrifices were offered, and whither all the people were obliged 
 to resort at stated times, they would always have an ascendancy 
 over the kingdom of Israel. Jeroboam therefore thought it neces- 
 sary to adopt some measures to prevent the frequent visits of his 
 subjects to Jerusalem, the metropolis of the kingdom of Judah. 
 The priests, the Levites, and all who were concerned in the ministry 
 of religion, were firmly attached to the house of David ; and Jero- 
 boam supposed that they would naturally exert the influence which 
 religion gave them over the minds of the people, to alienate their 
 affection from his governments and to bring them back to their alle- 
 giance to their lawful sovereign. To prevent the obvious conse- 
 quences of the continuance of his subjects in religious communion 
 with the house of David and kingdom of Judah, Jeroboam sacrificed 
 the interest of religion to his political motives. He built a "jew 
 temple, and instituted a new priesthood ; ai } thus produced a new 
 schism among the followers of the Mosaic A \ 's, which was never 
 extinguished. Soon after this separation' . religion of the ten 
 tribes under Jeroboam, deviating more and more from the original 
 institutions of Moses, became a mixture of J udaism and Pagan idol- 
 atry. 
 
 9. After this memorable epoch in the history of the Israelites we 
 find little more in their annals than such transactions and events as 
 constitute the ordinary subjects of political records. The kingdom 
 of Judah adhered with inflexible attachment to princes of the house 
 of David ; but^ usurpations in the kingdom of Israel were common. 
 The history of the kingdoms of Israel and Judah during a period of 
 almost 400 years, till the burning of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnez- 
 zar, may, with the exception of a few intervals, be called the an- 
 nals of disunion, vice, wars, massacres, servitude, famine, and pestU 
 lence. In this long period of general wickedness and misery, one 
 of the most remarkable events is a great battle fought between 
 Jeroboam and Abijam the successor of Rehoboam. 1 he army of 
 the former consisted of eight hundred thousand men, that of the 
 latter of four hundred thousand. Jeroboam was defeated, and live 
 hundred thousand of his men were killed in the battle.* 
 
 10. At last the kingdom of the ten tribes was extinguished. The 
 people were transported into Assyria, and dispersed into different 
 parts of the country, whence they never returned. The common 
 people who were left in Canaan were intermixed with strangers ; 
 and from that mixture of different nations sprung the motley race, 
 which were afterward known by the name of Samaritans. The 
 sad catastrophe of the kingdom of Israel is described by the proph- 
 ets in very pathetic terms. The infants and pregnant women were 
 murdered with horrid barbarity. The men, who had not been slain 
 in battle, nor had not escaped by flight, were dragged into bondage. 
 
 * The limits of this work do not admit a particular history of the gene- 
 rally uninteresting 
 
JEWISH HISTORY. 249 
 
 and their country was divided among the colonies of the conquerors. 
 This event happened about 720 A. C., after the kingdom had sub- 
 sisted about 254 years. 
 
 11. The tottering kingdom of Judah still continued to enjoy a 
 precarious existence ; invaded at different times by the Babylonians, 
 rendered tributary, and finally subjugated ; its metropolis and temple 
 razed to their foundations by that mighty conqueror Nebuchadnez- 
 zar, 584 A. C. ; and all the principal persons, and the must skilful 
 artists of every kind, removed to Babylon. Thus ends the kingdom 
 of Judea, after it had subsisted 468 years from the beginning of the 
 reign of David, and 388 years from the separation ot Judah and the 
 ten tribes. 
 
 SECTION XI. 
 
 RESTORATION OF THE JEWS TO THEIR LIBERTY AND 
 COUNTRY. 
 
 1. The privation of liberty, and the miseries of bondage seem to 
 have brought the people of Israel and J udah to a sense of their past 
 transgressions. Unable to resist the power of man, they now placed 
 their sole confidence in the goodness and mercy of God. Neither 
 promises nor threats could induce them to abandon their duty, and 
 worship the idols of t v heathens. 
 
 2. After they had t ft captivity 70 years, Cyrus, king of Persia, 
 having conquered Bab,, , set them at liberty, and issued a decree, 
 by which they were permitted to return to their own country, and 
 to rebuild Jerusalem and the temple, 543 A. C. He restored to 
 them all the sacred utensils which Nebuchadnezzar had taken away 
 from the temple. He laid down a plan of the new temple, and 
 ordered that the expense of erecting it should be paid out of the 
 royal treasury. All who desired it were allowed to remain in their 
 present places of residence, and to contribute as much as they pleas- 
 ed to the holy edifice. 
 
 it may be proper to observe in this place, that the Israelites who 
 returned from the captivity of Babylon were then and ever after- 
 ward called Jews, because the tribe of Judah was the most power- 
 ful of all the tribes of Israel, and indeed almost the only one which 
 was considerable after their restoration to their liberty and country. 
 
 3. Many of the Israelites chose to remain at Babylon. Those 
 who returned to Palestine began the work of the temple with alac- 
 rity and vigour. Its progress suffered a temporary obstruction 
 through the intrigues of their enemies, and the caprice 6i' Cyrus's 
 immediate successors. But in the beginning of the reign of Darius 
 the decree of Cyrus in favour of the Jews was ratified, and many 
 new clauses were added for their effectual assistance and security. 
 A particular charge was given to the governors of Syria and Sama- 
 ria, not only to prevent any further obstruction of the work, but also 
 to furnish supplies out of the tribute of those provinces for carrying 
 it on with greater expedition ; and it was declared that all persons 
 who should act contrary to these instructions would be punished with 
 death. 
 
 4. Darius continued to manifest his favour for the Jews, during 
 the remainder of his long reign. Their privileges were confirmed 
 to them by his son Xerxes. Their interest was still greater with 
 
250 JEWISH HISTORY. 
 
 Artaxerxes, the Ahasuerus of scripture, through the influence of his 
 queen Esther, a Jewess, and also through the services of her uncle 
 Mordecai, who had discovered and frustrated a conspiracy against the 
 king's life. From Artaxerxes, Ezra obtained very liberal donations, 
 to be applied to the service of the temple ; and full powers to gov- 
 ern the Jews as the divine will should direct. The like commission 
 was also granted to Nehemiah, who rebuilt .the walls of Jerusalem, 
 and reformed many abuses both civil and religious. 
 
 After these two we find no more governors of Judea, which prob- 
 ably became subject to the governor of Syria, from whom the nigh- 
 priests might immediately derive their authority. In this prosperous 
 state were the Jews about 420 years before the christian era. 
 
 5. From this time we may ascribe most of the misfortunes which 
 befel the Jewish nation to men who aspired at the sacerdotal dignity 
 through ambition and avarice more than zeal for religion. For 
 whole centuries the office of high-priest was the chief object of men's 
 ambition. The candidates purchased the office from the Syrian gov- 
 ernors, and retained it by means of money. Hence they oppressed 
 the people with taxes that they might fulfil their pecuniary engage- 
 ments. There was no energy among this degraded people, no dig- 
 nity among the great, no foresight, no thought of pursuing proper 
 measures against foreign invasion. 
 
 6. About 328 A. C. Alexander the great besieged Tyre, and was 
 incensed against the Jews," because they had refused to supply his 
 army with provisions during the siege. After the capture of Tyre 
 he marched to Jerusalem with the intention of punishing the Jews 
 for their disobedience of his orders. Jaddua the high-priest was 
 ordered in a dream to meet the threatening conqueror in his pontifi- 
 cal robes, at the head of all the priests in their proper habits, and 
 attended by the rest of the people dressed in white garments. 
 Alexander was struck with this religious pomp, and approaching 
 the high-priest with awful respect, embraced him with a religious 
 kind of veneration. He told his attendants, who expressed surprise at 
 his submissive behaviour, that he did not pay this profound respect to 
 the high-priest, but to the God whose minister he was. Alexander 
 then went to Jerusalem, and offered sacrifice in the temple to the 
 God of the Jews. Upon his departure he granted to the Jews the 
 freedom of their country, laws, and religion, and exempted them 
 from paying tribute every seventh year. During bis whole reign 
 they enjoyed great tranquillity ; but with him expired the prosperous 
 state of their country. Judea was successively invaded and subdued 
 by the Syrians and Egyptians, and the people were reduced to bon- 
 dage. 
 
 7. The Jews kept their sabbath so rigidly that they would not 
 fight on that day, nor even defend themselves although attacked by 
 an enemy. Ptolemy king of Egypt, having invaded Judea, took ad- 
 vantage of this religious impediment. He entered Jerusalem on the 
 sabbath-day without resistance, and carried away to Egypt a huadred 
 thousand captives, 316 A. C. 
 
 After thts time the Jews became the victims of foreign and domes- 
 tic wars, and of horrid massacres. 
 
 8. About 198 A. C. Antiochus the great, king of Syria, took 
 Jerusalem, plundered the temple, sold 40,000 Jews to the neigh- 
 bouring nations, and established paganism throughout Judea. The 
 sacrifices ceased, and there scarcely existed any external signs of 
 religion. 
 
JEWISH HISTORY. 251 
 
 This persecution roused the resentment and provoked the resist- 
 ance of a priest named Mattathias, and his five sons surnamed Mac- 
 cabeus. They all retired into the wilderness, and were soon joined 
 by a great number of Jews who wished to avoid idolatry and religious 
 persecution. An army was raised, of which the command was given 
 to the eldest son of Mattathias, named Judas Maccabeus. 
 
 The deliverance of the Jews from the tyranny and oppression of 
 the Greeks, by the uncommon talents, bravery, and patriotism of 
 Judas Maccabeus, is an achievement as glorious perhaps as any per- 
 formed by the most iilustrious heroes of Greece and Rome. Having 
 gained many signal victories, and delivered his country from bondage 
 and idolatry, he was at last slain in battle, 157 A. C. 
 
 9. The brothers of Judas, pursuing their advantages with perse- 
 verance and exertion, established the independence of their country, 
 and changed its republican government to a vigorous and flourishing 
 monarchy. 
 
 10. John Hyrcanus, son of Simon Maccabeus, uniting in his person 
 the offices of high-priest and generalissimo of the army, and possess- 
 ing all the talents requisite for the pontifical, the military, and the 
 regal offices, vanquished the enemies of his country, and firmly estab- 
 lished his government. His sons assumed the title as well as the 
 power of kings ; and the high-priesthood remained in his family, 
 though not in the person of the monarch. The descendants of Hyr- 
 canus are distinguished, in the history of the Jewish nation, by the 
 appellation of the Asmonean dynasty , which continued about 126 
 years. 
 
 11. The unlucky dissensions of this family terminated ultimately 
 in the conquest of Judea and the capture of Jerusalem by Pompey 
 the great, and the subjection of the Jewish nation to the Romans, 
 59 A. C. 
 
 12. After this event the Jewish monarchy was re-established by 
 the favour and under the protection of the Romans, who placed 
 Herod the great, the son of Antipater, on the throne of David. 
 This prince demolished the old temple of Jerusalem, and rebuilt 
 it in a very magnificent manner. He reigned with great splendour, 
 but with singular despotism and tyranny. He possessed great abili- 
 ties, but was cruel and unjust both in his public and private transac- 
 tions. His public life exhibits a continued scene of battles, massa- 
 cres, and violence. He died in the first year of the birth of Christ, 
 or the fourth of the vulgar era. 
 
 The reign of Herod was distinguished by a memorable event, 
 which has proved more important in its consequences than any that 
 has occurred since the creation of the world, the birth of Jesus Christ, 
 L'ie author of the christian religion. 
 
 1:1 Soon after the death of Herod, Judea was in reality reduced 
 to a Roman province, and the governors were appointed by the 
 emperors of Rome. In this condition it remained till the final ex- 
 tinction of the Jewish nation in the year of Christ 75, or of the vul- 
 gar era 72. 
 
 The rapine and cruelty of Florus, governor of Judea, caused a 
 rebellion of the Jews, in which 150,000 persons are said to have 
 perished, 69 of Christ, or A. D. 6G. 
 
 The violent and sanguinary factions among the Jews destroyed in- 
 credible numbers of people of all ranks. 
 
 14. At length the Jewish nation was extinguished by the Romans, 
 and its metropolis reduced to ashes by Titus the Roman general. 
 
252 JEWISH HISTORY. 
 
 The last siege of Jerusalem jvas attended with scenes of carnage, 
 famine, disease, and desperation, far more horrible than any to be 
 found in the annals of human wickedness and misery. During the 
 calamitous progress of the siege, Titus displayed many instances of 
 humanity toward the sufferings of the besieged, and of his solicitude 
 for the preservation of the city and temple ; but in vain. Their 
 doom was predestinated by the irrevocable degree of the Almighty. 
 The magnificent temple of the Jews perished in the general wreck 
 of the nation, and not one stone was left upon another, 75 of Christ, 
 or A. D. 72. 
 
 According to a moderate calculation the number of persons who 
 perished by violent deaths during the last war in Judea amounted to 
 more than one million four hundred thousand, besides many who died 
 of grief and famine. 
 
 Since that time the descendants of those who survived the dissolu- 
 tion of the Jewish nation have been wandering about the world, 
 the objects of hatred and contempt rather than of kindness and com- 
 miseration. In all countries where they have been permitted to 
 reside, they have been excluded from the participation of certain 
 political privileges which the people of those countries enjoy. 
 
 SECTION XII. 
 
 THE STATE OF LEARNING AND COMMERCE AMONG THE 
 
 JEWS. 
 
 1. Of all the interesting prospects which history opens to our 
 view, the progressive advancement of the human mind, in the im- 
 provement of its faculties, is the most agreeable, and the most 
 worthy of our attention and regard. The brilliant and destructive 
 exploits of conquerors may dazzle for awhile; but the silent labours 
 of the student and the artist, of the architect and the husbandman, 
 which embellish the earth and convert it into a paradise, confer per- 
 manent benefits on mankind, and promote their prosperity and hap- 
 piness. The arts and sciences distinguish the civilized man from the 
 savage ; and the investigation of their origin and progress would 
 constitute the noblest attribute of history. How unfortunate it is, 
 that the ancient historians have almost neglected so interesting and 
 pleasing a subject. All the knowledge which we can obtain concern- 
 ing the origin and progress of learning must be gleaned from uncon- 
 nected fragments and scattered notices, laboriously collected from 
 a multifarious and confused mass of trivial particulars. 
 
 2. The period of the scriptural history includes the whole space 
 of time from the creation of the worlcf to the subversion of the 
 Babylonian monarchy, or about 3,457 years. During this long suc- 
 cession of ages a great variety of political, civil, and religious in- 
 stitutions had been invented ; the human mind had been much im- 
 proved in some countries ; agriculture had been skilfully practised ; 
 the surface of the earth had been adorned with large cities and 
 stately edifices. Of these interesting subjects, few particulars have 
 been faithfully transmitted to posterity, except such as relate to Jew- 
 ish laws and institutions, some scattered hints respecting ancient 
 commerce, and some excellent specimens of writing in the Prophets 
 and Psalms. In those venerable monuments of antiquity, the sacred 
 writings, we trace the Israelites from the patriarchal ages, through 
 the turbulent times ol barbaric ignorance, to a considerable degree 
 
JEWISH HISTORY. 251 
 
 of civilization and refinement. Of their civil and religious institu- 
 tions we have a clear and explicit account ; of their knowledge of 
 the arts and sciences we possess little information. The Jews do not 
 seem to have been a scientific or philosophical nation in any period 
 of their history. They appear to have been sufficiently skilful in 
 the arts of necessity and conveniency ; but not to have made much 
 proficiency in those of luxury and ornament Some admirable speci- 
 mens of literature are presented in the scriptures, especially in the 
 writings of the ProphetSj and in the Psalms. In the historical books 
 we observe plainness of style and conciseness of narrative, and un- 
 common perspicuity in the didactical pieces. The writings of the 
 prophets are chiefly poetical, veiy different, and all originals. Most 
 of them display sublime sentiments, expressed with energy of diction, 
 and decorated with oriental imagery. 
 
 3. In the patriarchal ages commerce was so far known and exer- 
 cised that gold and silver were used as the medium by which it was 
 regulated. In the tumultuous times which succeeded the patriarchal 
 we obtain very little information concerning the state of commerce. 
 We have no reason to think that commerce was ever in a flourishing 
 state among the Jews. In times of remote antiquity the mechanic 
 arts and various kinds of manufactures had made considerable prog- 
 ress in some countries. This is manifest from the curious and rich 
 materials of the tabernacle and of the high-priest's garments. The 
 Israelites, no doubt, brought from Egypt much of their knowledge 
 of arts, sciences, and literature ; for the Egyptians had, irom time 
 immemorial, been gradually advancing in learning and civilization ; 
 and, during the greater part of the period now under contemplation, 
 were famous for the excellence of their civil policy, the extent and 
 population of their cities, the magnificence of their public edi- 
 fices, and the flourishing state of agriculture. In all these respects 
 the Egyptians were distinguished above all the contemporary nations 
 of antiquity. 
 
 CONCLUSION. 
 
 1. Lv taking a retrospective view of the various nations which 
 have successively appeared and flourished upon the grand theatre 
 of this world, and have at length vanished and sunk into oblivion, 
 their rise, progress, and decline, arrest our attention, and excite our 
 curiosity and compassion. The ignorance, avarice, wickedness, and 
 ambition of mankind may be assigned as the general causes of the 
 dissolution of nations. Many of those kingdoms and states once so 
 great and flourishing have not only disappeared, but even their names 
 and all remembrance of them must have perished, if they had not 
 been preserved and perpetuated in the historical records of scrip- 
 ture. In them, however, we behold the transitory and fading splen- 
 dour of all human glory, and a diminutive picture of every thing 
 which the world calls great ; as eminence of genius and learning, 
 military honour and fame, extent of power and dominion, political 
 wisdom, the faculty of eloquence. Finally, we draw this sad conclu- 
 sion, that history is little more than a dismal record of the crimes 
 and the calamities of the human race !* 
 
 * For a very copious and useful chronological table of the history d*' 
 Che Bible see Calmet's Dictionary of the Bible, vol. II. This table is an 
 epitome of the history of the Jews, and will be particularly useful to 
 theological students. 
 Y 
 
ELEMENTS 
 
 or 
 
 GENERAL HISTORY, 
 
 ANCIENT AND MODERN; 
 
 BEING A CONTINUATION 
 
 TK&MUteTUfG AT THB 
 
 DEMISE OF HIS MAJESTY KING GEORGE I1L, 1,83©. 
 
 BY THE REV. EDWARD NARES, D. D. 
 Regio* Professor of Modern History in the University of Oxford 
 
 CONCORD, Jf. H. 
 
 PUBLISHED BY HORATIO HIIX, & Co 
 1830. 
 
ADVERTISEMENT. 
 
 As the learned author of the Elements of General History, pro- 
 fessor Ty tier, (by courtesy lord Woodhouselee,) lived until the year 
 J, 8 13, it is much to be regretted that he did not bring his history 
 down to a later period. 
 
 In the present volume nothing further has been attempted than to 
 continue the history from the point at which the professor left it, in 
 the same concise style, and with as much attention to the original 
 method and design, as could be rendered consistent with the extraop 
 dinary nature of the facts and incidents to be recorded. 
 
 To this end it has been found necessary to carry on the history of 
 Great Britain and Ireland from the period of the death of queen 
 Anne; 
 
 That of the Southern Continental States of Europe, from the end 
 of the reign of Louis XIV ; 
 
 And that of the Northern States from the death of Charles XII 
 ©f Sweden, and Peter the First of Russia, 
 
PART THIRD. 
 MODERN HISTORY, 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 FRANCE FROM THE DEATH OF LEWIS XIV. 1,715, TO THE 
 PEACE OF VIENNA, 1,738. 
 
 1. The last years of the very long and splendid reign of Lewis 
 XIV. were clouded by many severe domestic misfortunes, and a 
 great change in the sentiments and manners of the sovereign' and his 
 court. A mystical religion became the vogue, accompanied with 3 
 gravity of demeanour approaching to prudery. The amiable Fene- 
 lon fell into these errors, which were countenanced by madame de 
 Maintenon, who had been privately married to the king, and seems 
 to have possessed his confidence in a high degree. 
 
 'i. On the king's demise (see Sect. LXIV.) the crown descended 
 to his grandson, Lewis XV., an infant, only five years old. Tn a 
 very short space of time, losses had occurred in the royal family, so 
 strange and unexpected, as to afford ground for suspicion, greatly 
 to the prejudice of the duke of Orleans, nephew of Lewis XI v. 
 Three heirs to the crown, the Dauphin, his son the duke of Bur- 
 gundy, and his grandson the duke oi Bretagne, had all died within 
 the short space of eleven months, during the years 1,711, 1,712, 
 leaving, to intercept the claims and pretensions" of the duke of Or- 
 leans, only the duke of Berry and one infant, apparently of a feeble 
 and delicate constitution, and whose own life had alsobecn in dan- 
 ger. The king of Spain had been previously compelled, according 
 to the spirit of the celebrated treaty of the Pyrenees, formally to 
 renounce his claims to the succession, notwithstanding his near rela- 
 tionship to the crown of France. Lastly, the duke of Berry died, 
 May 1,714, at the early age of 13. 
 
 3. Fortunately for the reputation of the duke of Orleans, (who, 
 though of loose morals, seems to have possessed too generous a 
 heart for such base deeds), the infant dauphin not only lived to be- 
 come king, but to survive the duke himself, many years. Nor were 
 the suspicions which had been raised by the sudden deaths of so 
 many heirs to the crown, strong enough to prevent the nation repos- 
 ing tne highest confidence in the duke, by suffering the kingly power 
 to pass into his hands, as sole regent, during the minb <:\ • J hough 
 contrary to the express appointment of the late ki ig 3 is said 
 
 to have wisely observed, when for form's sake he ex ei ? his will, 
 that it would have but little weight with the peopl .( a iia- 
 
 *qent, as soon as his eyes were closed. The nation k , v::edo4 
 Y2 
 
358 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 to the disposition of the parliament, in setting aside the claims of the 
 illegitimate princes, whom the will of Lewis XlV. favoured ; and 
 the duke of Orleans was careful to fix that body in his interest, by 
 promising to restore to it its full power of remonstrance, which had 
 been greatly restrained during the preceding reign. 
 
 4. Lewis XIV. had left his kingdom so incumbered with debt, and 
 so surrounded by mortified, jealous, and exasperated neighbours, 
 eager to recover what had been taken from them during the trium- 
 phant wars of that monarch, that it became an object ot the highest 
 importance to the regent, for the nation's sake, as well as his own, to 
 maintain peace as far as he could with foreign states. To this end, 
 though contrary to any former course of things, he prudently endea- 
 voured to form alliances with the courts of St. James's ami Vicniia. 
 In the former case the advantages were similar and mutual. By the 
 treaty of Utrecht, England stood engaged to secure the French 
 crown to the regent, in case Lewis XV. should die without issue ; 
 and to keep her steady to this engagement, it was easy tor the duke 
 to comply with the wishes of the whig government of England, in 
 withholding all encouragement from the pretender. 
 
 5. However pacific the views of the regent might be, Spain 
 seemed to present an obstacle to the repose and tranquillity of Ei>- 
 rope. There a minister of a very different disposition had obtained 
 the chief management of affairs, who appeared bent upon disturbing 
 both the French and English governments, in order to recover \\\v,\\ 
 had been taken from Spain by the treaty oi' Utrecht, especially in 
 Italy ; to deprive the duke of Orleans of the regency, in favour of 
 the king his master, and to seat the pretender on the throne of Great 
 Britain, with the aid of Russia and Sweden. Such were the plans of 
 the celebrated Alkeroni ; originally the son of a ganjener; afterwards 
 in the lowest stations in the church of Piacentia, but who had raised 
 himself, by an extraordinary display of genius and talent, to the high- 
 est degree of credit and influence at the court of Philip \\, with the 
 
 • exalted rank of cardinal. 
 
 6. These movements indeed on the part of Spain, were not in 
 themselves altogether unfavourable to the views of the regent: in 
 better securing To him the good will of England and Austria, always 
 prepared to be jealous of too close an intimacy between the courts 
 of Paris and Madrid. Some historians have even gone so far as to 
 suppose it to have been a settled contrivance to impose on the former 
 two courts, but certainly without sufficient grounds. 
 
 7. It seems to have been a great oversight in the negotiations at 
 Utrecht, not to have endeavoured more effectually to reconcile the 
 courts of Austria and Spain. The former, after the treaty, remained 
 jealous of the occupation of the. Spanish throne by Philip; while 
 the latter couid not fail to be aggrieved and offended at being made 
 to contribute to the indemnification of Charles VI., by a very consid- 
 erable dismemberment of its dominions, without any suitable or 
 adequate remuneration. 
 
 8. To counteract the projects of Alberoni, the regent entered into 
 an alliance with England and the United States ; entirely sacrificing 
 to the former the interests of the pretender, who was to be sent out 
 of France. But the Spanish minister was not to be deterred by this 
 triple alliance and contederacy against him. Having watched his op- 
 portunity of a war between the. emperor of Germany and the Porte, 
 he suddenly commenced hostilities; and, with no small degree of 
 treachery, in the course of the years 1717 and 1718 succeeded in 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 239 
 
 wresting from Austria the island of Sardinia, and from the duke of 
 Savoy that of Sicily, thus violating, in the most direct and glaring 
 manner, the solemn treaty of Rastadt, so lately concluded. In con- 
 sequence of these proceedings, and in order to remedy, as it would 
 seem, the defects and omissions of the original convention, Austria 
 was admitted a party to the alliance between France, England, and 
 Holland, with a view to bring about a reconciliation between the 
 emperor and Spain, upon the basis of the following arrangement : 
 that the former should renounce all claims to the Spanish throne in 
 favour of Philip, while the latter should surrender to the emperor the 
 Netherlands, the duchy of Milan, and the kingdom of Naples, a^- 
 signed to him by the treaty of Utrecht and the quadruple alliance. 
 That the duke of Savoy should yield Sicily to Austria, receiving in 
 exchange the island of Sardinia from Spain ; and that the eldest son 
 of Fiiilip by his second marriage, don Carlos, should be secured in 
 the reversion of the duchies ot Parma and Placentia, and the grand 
 duchy of Florence, to be holden as male hef's under the emperor, 
 and on no occasion whatever to be united to the crown of Spain. 
 
 9. There never was a period perhaps in which it would have 
 been more difficult to unravel the policy of these several courts. U 
 was certainly a strange thing for the emperor to agree, in any man- 
 ner, to admit the Spaniards into Italy, of which he had so much reason 
 to be distrustful ; much more to assist in doing so. While those very 
 term-, which were undoubtedly introduced to gratify the Spanish 
 minister^ in this particular respect, so far from securing the ready 
 consent of the court of Madrid, only induced it to make fresh efforts. 
 The predominance of France and England, however, soon became 
 so conspicuous, as to compel Philip to subscribe to the articles, of th«. 
 alliance, and even to dismiss his favourite minister, the cause of ail 
 the grievances of which the allied powers had to complain. In 
 1,720 Austria took possession of Sicily, and Victor Amadeus 11. trans- 
 ferred the seat of his government to the island of Sardinia. 
 
 10. In the month of December, 1,723, in the 50th year of his age, 
 :he regent dake of Orleans died very suddenly in a fit of apoplexy. 
 ! .{e was a prince of shining talents, and of great taste and spirit; but 
 lissolute in his habits of lite to a most disgraceful pitch of extrava- 
 gance. He did not indeed suffer his pleasures and licentious connex- 
 ons to interfere greatly with the discharge of his public duties, but 
 hey tarnished his fame, and in all likelihood shortened his life. He 
 tad the misfortune in his youth to be put into the hands o{ a most 
 unprincipled tutor, the Abbe Dubois, who continued with him to 
 !he last year of his life, dying only four months before him, a cardi- 
 nal of Rome, and prime minister of France ! The elevation of this 
 profligate man to such high stations in the church and state, did 
 more mischief to the cause of religion and morality, than the person- 
 al vices of the regent, who, amidst a thousand foibles, had some great 
 and brilliant qualities. 
 
 Neither Austria nor Spain were satisfied with what had been done 
 for them, and strong remonstrances were prepared on the part of the 
 dukes of Parma and Placentia, the grand duke of Tuscany, and th€ 
 pope, against the grants in reversion to the Infant of Spain. At 
 tempts were made to reconcile the two courts more effectually by d 
 congress, summoned to meet at Cambray, in the year 1,724, under 
 the joint mediation of France and England, but ineffectually : in 
 1,729 another, but more private attempt, had better success ; it was 
 ^dertaken by a very singular and eccentric character, the baron, or 
 
260 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 duke, de Ripperda, Dutch minister at the court of Madrid, who suc- 
 ceeded so far, through his own intrigues, and the venality of the im- 
 perial court, as to give umbrage to the governments of France and 
 England ; the latter soon saw the necessity of guarding, by a coun- 
 ter-treaty, framed at Hanover, against the effects of Ripperda's in- 
 terposition. 
 
 1 1. Secret articles were said to be signed and executed, to recov 
 er for Spain the fortress of Gibraltar and the island of Minorca, to 
 seat the pretender on the throne of Great Britain, to forward the 
 emperors views with regard to the Ostend East India Company, 
 and to cement the alliance by marriages which would have laid a 
 foundation for the reunion of the Austrian and Spanish dominions 
 fender one sovereign. Ripperda himself is said to have ccmmunicat 
 o:i these secret articles to the English government: he was made to 
 pay dear for his treachery. 
 
 As the empress of Russia had acceded to the treaty of Vienna, 
 concluded by Ripperda, and France and England had taken steps to 
 -ecure Holland and Prussia on their side, Europe seemed to be 
 threatened with another general war, but the timely death of the 
 empress, in 1,727, and the defection of Prussia, gave a turn to affairs, 
 and left room for the renewal of the congress of Cambray, transferred 
 in the year 1,728, to Soissons, where fresh endeavours were made 
 to establish a solid and permanent peace. As the emperor, however, 
 insisted on the accession of all the contracting powers, to the Prag- 
 matic Sanction, which was to secure to his heirs general the undi- 
 \ iUcd succession to all his territories and dominions, the other courts 
 Withdrew 1 ; and in JNovember, 1,729, concluded at Seville in Spain a 
 Separate treaty, in which it was agreed, between France, England. 
 and Spain, to support the pretensions of the Infant to the duchies of 
 Parma, Piacenlia, and Tuscany. To this treaty Holland was soon 
 after brought to accede, on the condition that her rights should be 
 protected against the new East India Company, established by the 
 emperor at Ostend, which was considered as contrary to the treaty 
 of Westphalia, and manifestly injurious both to England and the 
 (United States. The treaty of Seville was settled so totally without 
 the concurrence of the emperor, that his name was not even men- 
 tioned in it; which, as might be reasonably expected, gave great 
 offence. In the year 1,731 , however, England, and in 1 ^7o'2 Holland, 
 acceded to the wishes of the emperor, in regard to the Pragmatic 
 Sanction, on condition that the archduchess, who should succeed to 
 the empire, should not marry any Bourbon, or other prince or po- 
 tentate, capable ®f disturbing the peace of Europe. The Ostend 
 Company was given up; the Infant don Carlos took possession of the 
 duchies of Parma and Placentia on the death of the last of the Far- 
 nese family, and the grand duke of Tuscany acknowledged him as 
 his heir. A treaty between England, Holland, and the empire, call- 
 ed the second treaty of Vienna, was signed and executed at the lattei 
 place, which may be said to have terminated all the differences aris- 
 ing out of the Spanish succession, by which the greater part of Eu- 
 rope had been kept in a state of agitation for the space of thirty 
 years. 
 
 While these things were in agitation, Victor Amadeus, embarrass- 
 ed, as iV. is said, with the counter engagements he had entered into 
 with Austria and Spain, thought fit to resign his crown to his son, 
 Charles Emmanuel, but soon repenting of what he had done, pre- 
 pared to reascend his abdicated tnrone; this rash and injudicious step 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 261 
 
 vas the cause of his imprisonment, and probably of his death, which 
 happened in November, 1,732. 
 
 12. In 1,733, France became involved again in a war, both the 
 origin and end of which had something remarkable in them. The 
 throne of the elective kingdom of Poland becoming vacant by the 
 demise of Augustus of Saxony, two competitors appeared on the 
 stage ; the son of the deceased king, and Stanislaus Lescinsky, who 
 had with great credit previously occupied it through the interposi- 
 tion of Charles XII. of Sweden, (see Sect. LXV1.) and whose daugh- 
 ter wa3 married to Lewis XV. The emperor of Germany, the 
 Czarina, and the king of Prussia, espoused the cause of the former, 
 France supported the latter, and commenced hostilities against the 
 emperor, by detaching the king of Sardinia from his interests, and 
 occupying Lorrain, whose duke was engaged to marry the emperor's 
 daughter. But the principal seat of war was in Italy, where the 
 French, Spanish, and Sardinian combined troops obtained many ad- 
 vantages, and ultimately succeeded in seating don Carlos, duke of 
 Parma, &c, on the throne of the Two Sicilies, to which he had been 
 particularly invited by the Neapolitans. The Austrian court had 
 been very supine, in not guarding better against the manifest de- 
 signs of the queen of Spain, mother of don Carlos. He was crown- 
 ed king by the title of Charles the third, July 3, 1,735. Naples 
 was subdued in 1 ,734, and Sicily in the year following. During this 
 contest, the celebrated prince Eugene, though then past seventy 
 rears of age, had the command of the imperial army on the Uhine ; 
 out he had great cause to be offended with the situation in which he 
 was placed ; the French being stronger ; England not to be roused 
 to assist him, through the pacific views of the minister VValpole ; and 
 having, both at court and in the army, many rivals and secret ene- 
 mies. His only consolation was, the extreme and enthusiastic at- 
 tachment of the soldiers, the very remembrance of which, as he 
 feelingly acknowledges in his own memoirs, often afterwards drew 
 tears from his eyes. 
 
 13. Matters were brought to an accommodation, through the med^ 
 alio* of the maritime powers, (who, undoubtedly, appear in this 
 case to have been guilty of misleading the emperor,) by a convert 
 tion signed at Vienna," in November, 1,738. By this treaty soma 
 very extraordinary appointments took place. Stanislaus, the depos- 
 ed king of Poland, iather-in-law to the king of France, obtained, 
 keeping his kingly title, the duchies of Lorrain and Bar, to revert to 
 France after his^death, which did not take place till the year 1,766. 
 In exchange for what was thus bestowed upon Stanislaus, the duke 
 i)f Lorrain obtained the grand duchy of Tuscany, the reversion of 
 which had been guaranteed to the Infant don Carlos, but who was, 
 by the same treaty, acknowledged king of the Two Sicilies, surren- 
 lerin^in his turn to the emperor, his two duchies of Parma and Pla- 
 ^entia • Vigevano and Novaro were given to the king of Sardinia ; 
 ind to the emperor, the Milanese, the Mantuan, and Parma. 
 
 On the conclusion of the peace, France acceded to the Pragmatie 
 Sanction. The kings of Spain and Sardinia showed some reluctance 
 o agree to the terms of the treaty, but were induced to sign it in the 
 :ourse of the year 1,729. It is certainly very remarkable, that, in 
 consequence of a dispute about the crown of Poland, not only the 
 emperor should have lost almost all his possessions in Italy, but 
 France should have been able to recover a province of which she 
 had been deprived for the space of nearly a thousand years, and so 
 
£62 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 Situated as to render it one of the most splendid and gratifying acqai 
 sitions she could possibly have contemplated. 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 ENGLAND FROM THE ACCESSION OF THE HOUSE OF HAN- 
 OVER, 1,714, TO THE END OF THE REIGN OF GEORGE THE 
 FIRST, 1,727. 
 
 1. Queen Anne was no sooner dead, [Part II. Sect. LXIV. § 20.] 
 than steps were taken for the immediate acknowledgment of her suc- 
 cessor, George Lewis, elector of Brunswick Luneburg, pursuant to 
 the several acts of parliament, for securing the protestant succession, 
 in exclusion of the pretender, the house of Savoy, and, in fact, every 
 catholic branch of the royal family of England ; many of whom 
 were more directly in the line of inheritance than the protestant 
 descendants of James the first, in whom the crown was now vested ; 
 not, however, without due regard to that hereditary line which may 
 be said to have occupied the throne from the time of Egbert. The 
 late union with Scotland, 1,706, [see as above] was calculated to sup- 
 press any general desire, on the part of the people there, to place 
 themselves again under a distinct sovereign. 
 
 2. The accession of George I., to judge from the addresses of the 
 two houses of parliament, and the general tranquillity manifested in 
 all parts of the three kingdoms, at the time of his proclamation, 
 would seem to have been acceptable to the nation at large. Nor 
 was the French king long before he openly acknowledged his right 
 and title to the crown of Great Britain, though the sincerity of nis 
 declarations in favour of a protestant succession, and the exclusion 
 of the house of Stuart, was not too confidently relied upon. The 
 states of Holland were, probably, entirely cordial, both in their ex- 
 pressions of congratulation, and promises of support, according to 
 existing engagements to that effect, as guarantees of the Hanoverian 
 succession. From the king of Prussia, and various other princes and 
 states of Germany, his majesty also received the strongest assuran- 
 ces of support ; yet so little are these courtesies to be trusted, that 
 it is more than probable, from circumstances since come to light, 
 that at this very moment, with regard to the continental states in 
 general, he had more enemies than friends. 
 
 3. His entrance into his new dominions, however, September 
 1,714, was hailed in a manner that could not fail to be extremely 
 gratifying to the king, though it soon became manifest, and couiu not 
 well have been otherwise, that there were many secret heart-burn- 
 ings and disappointed hopes, to prevent that perfect unanimity which 
 was most desirable on an occasion so important. The tories, some 
 of whom had evidently been tampering with the pretender, during 
 the last years of the queen's reign, were greatly discomfited, and 
 in a very marked manner discountenanced by the king himself. The 
 whigs enjoyed a triumph. The pretender's friends in general stood 
 confounded, not only by the low estate of his cause, but by the per- 
 plexity of their own feelings, with regard to his more direct heredi 
 tary claims to the crown. In this dilemma, it is not to be wondered 
 that several should refuse to take the oaths of allegiance and abju- 
 ration. Scotland also, in part at least, bewailed its lost independency 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 263 
 
 by the act of union, which some were forward to have dissolved 
 again ; and the papists, being very numerous in Ireland, rendered 
 the peace of that kingdom constantly precarious. 
 
 4. The person, manners, and deportment of the new sovereign, 
 were not such as immediately to conciliate his British subjects ; but 
 he was by no means destitute of kingly virtues and accomplishments 
 of a more solid and important description. Having delivered tho 
 ministerial government of the realm into the hands of tne whigs, it wni 
 not long before serious proceedings were entered into, by the new 
 administration, against the authors and advisers of the late peace and 
 treaty of Utrecht; and articles of impeachment for high treason ex- 
 hibited against the earl of Oxford, viscount Bolingbroke, the duke ot 
 Ormond, earl of Strafford, and others. The duke of Ormond, and 
 lord Bolingbroke, absconded ; the earl of, Oxford, with greater mag- 
 nanimity, stood upon his defence, and though imprisoned for a con- 
 siderable time, was finally acquitted. Under a pretence of the 
 church being in danger, which seems to have been adopted as a sort 
 of watch-word by the tory party and Jacobites, (for so the adherents 
 of the pretender were called,) riots and tumults took place in many 
 parts of the kingdom ; in consequence of which, the king was em- 
 powered by parliament (1,715,) to raise fresh forces, and tne habeas 
 Corpus act was suspended, for the more speedy apprehension and de- 
 tention of suspected persons. 
 
 5. In Scotland, however, notwithstanding great precautions to the 
 contrary, a rebellion actually broke out in the month of August. 
 1,715, headed by the earl of Mar, late secretary of state for that 
 kingdom; and in September, the pretender's standard was erected 
 at a place called Brae Mar, though the pretender himself did not ar- 
 rive in Scotland till the December following ; before which time a 
 severe action had taken place at Dunblain, between the contending 
 armies, commanded on the side of the English by the duke c» 
 Argyle ; and on the side of the Scotch by the earl of Mar. The 
 prefender, on reaching the shores of Scotland, was received with 
 regal honours, and addresses were presented to him from many cor- 
 porate bodies; even his coronation was fixed to take place on the 
 23d day of Januarv. But during the course of these transactions, 
 the chief officers of his army, as soon after appeared, were but too 
 well convinced of their perfect inability to terminate the contest 
 successfully, many things having fallen out to the disappointment of 
 their hopes ; particularly the death of Lewis XIV., who, notwith- 
 standing his protestations in favour of the house of Hanover, had 
 secretly favoured their cause. The English army, besides, since the 
 battle of Dunblain, had been considerably reinforced, by Dutch as 
 well as English troops. This being the case, as we learn irom an ac- 
 count given by the earl of Mar himself, they felt compelled to abandon 
 their enterprise for the present; and in order to check the pursuit 
 of the enemy, eager to seize the person of the pretender, they per- 
 suaded the latter to leave the kingdom again, and return to France ; 
 the earl of Mar himself accompanying him. They were followed, 
 afterwards, by many leaders of the rebels, who, in a most extraordi- 
 nary manner, escaped the English vessels stationed to intercept their 
 passage ; but some of those, who had previously fallen into the 
 hands of the English, as the earl of Derwentwater, and others, were 
 impeached, and pleading guilty, executed. Many escaped by an act 
 of grace. Thus was the rebellion, in a great measure, subdued ; 
 congratulatory addresses poured in upon the sovereign, and a day ot 
 
264 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 public thanksgiving was appointed to be observed throughout the 
 kingdom. 
 
 6. The whigs, however, apprehending that their opponents, in o 
 new parliament, might regain their ascendancy, and be able to carry 
 into execution their projects against the existing government, brought 
 in a bill, (since called the septennial bill,) for enlarging the continu- 
 ance of parliament, whereby the term was extended from three to 
 $even years, unless sooner dissolved by the king, and to begin with 
 the parliament. then chosen and assembled; a most important meas- 
 ure, and accidentally originating with a party more friendly in repute 
 to the rights and liberty of the people than the step itself would 
 seem to imply. Abstracted from all temporary or party considera- 
 tions, it may justly be "regarded as a very delicate and important 
 point in politics, to determine either a maximum or minimum, with 
 regard to the duration of such elective assemblies as the English 
 house of commons. Frequent elections being essentially necessary 
 to preserve the people from any gross neglect of their interests by 
 their representatives, or any unconstitutional encroachment on their 
 liberty, as well as to remedy abuses ; but too frequent elections, hav- 
 ing evidently the ill effect of keeping up party divisions, feuds, and 
 animosities, interrupting business, and lessening the confidence of 
 foreign states in the measures of government. Too frequent elec- 
 tions, besides, by bringing independent candidates so much the 
 oflener into a contest with the treasury, (for government must have, 
 and will always endeavour to exert, a powerful influence,) may in 
 time deter such persons from a conflict so disadvantageous ; unless, 
 in short, government influence in elections should be entirely done 
 away, the more frequently they recur, the more they will harass 
 and weaken private independence. (See Burke's works.) It was 
 undoubtedly a bold step for any parliament, chosen under the popu- 
 lar triennial act of king William, to enlarge its own continuance ; nor 
 was it ill urged by a member of the house of peers, as an argument 
 against the bill, that, " if the existing house of commons continued 
 themselves beyond the time for which they were chosen, they were 
 no more the representatives of the people^ but a house of their own 
 making."' The whigs, however, had this excuse, that the proposed 
 measure was calculated to suppress a rebellion, or prevent the re- 
 newal of one ; not raised, like other rebellions, under a pretence of 
 liberty, but, in their eyes, clearly tending towards slavery, in the 
 establishment of a catholic prince, and the destruction of the prot- 
 ectant interests, both in church and state. It was well that they as- 
 signed any limit to their continuance, since a mere repeal of the 
 triennial act would have left the term undefined. The bill was final- 
 ly passed, after much opposition in the lower house, and a strong 
 protest on the part of masy lords in the upper, by a majority in the 
 commons of 264 to 121 ; and it has continued the law of parliament 
 ever since. 
 
 7. In the year 1,717, an unpleasant dispute occurred, affecting the 
 church, and which seems to have terminated the sittings of convo- 
 cation. Dr. Hoadley, bishop of Bangor, gave occasion to it, by a 
 sermon preached before the king, March 31, on "The Nature of 
 the Kingdom of Christ," and by a publication entitle^ " a Preserva- 
 ftve against the Principles and the Practices of the Non-jurors." 
 The bishop had been a warm friend to the revolution, and many of 
 the principles he asserted were undoubtedly directed rather against 
 popery than our own establishment ; while, in opposition to the iure 
 
MODERN HISTORY. S86 
 
 diviiio pretence of the tories, he declaimed violently against every 
 abuse of authority, at the hazard of impairing all church discipline, 
 derogating from the regal supremacy in u causes ecclesiastical, ana 
 annulling the force of all civil sanctions whatsoever in matters of 
 religion ; on these grounds the convocation took the matter up, but 
 without much effect. It was dissolved in the midst of the controver- 
 sy, and has never sat to do business since. Those who chiefly at- 
 tacked the bishop in print, were Dr. Snape of Eton, dean Sherlock, 
 Dr. Cannon, (who undertook to vindicate the proceedings of convo- 
 cation,) Dr. Potter, afterwards archbishop of Canterbury, and Mr. 
 William Law. Perhaps no antagonist entered the lists, with more 
 decorum of manners, or integrity of disposition, than the latter, who, 
 in several letters addressed to the bishop, plainly proved that, how- 
 ever innocent his intentions might be, his arguments and expressions 
 plainly tended to the subversion of all church authority, and the en- 
 couragement of a most fatal indifference to every particular form of 
 worship and belief. Which, considering the high situation he held 
 in the church, and the duties attached to that station, could not but 
 appear in the light of an abandonment of those principles, which 
 afone could have placed him there. Such, however, was the state 
 of parties at the time, that the bishop was advanced to a higher post 
 in the church, and some of the most forward of his opponents dis- 
 missed from their employments about the court. 
 
 8. In 1,718 George the first became a party to the celebrated 
 quadruple alliance, formed to counteract the plans and projects of the 
 Spanish minister Alberoni, (Sect. I. § 8.) who, while his views were 
 chiefly directed towards his native country, Italy, managed to involve 
 almost the whole of Europe in contests and jealousies, exceedingly 
 perplexing, and inimical to the peace and tranquillity of many states. 
 Distant as Sweden was, geographically, from the seat and object of 
 his manoeuvres, yet, in order to prevent any interruption from Eng- 
 land, he had nearly instigated the celebrated Charles XII. to invade 
 the latter country, for the purpose of restoring the pretender to the 
 throtte of his ancestors. His agents and accomplices, however, 
 were fortunately detected in time to prevent the rupture between 
 the two courts. George 1. was no favourite, either with the Swedish 
 monarch, or his celebrated competitor, the czar of Muscovy. 
 
 9. Ths chief object of the quadruple alliance, as has been before 
 hinted, was to reconcile and adjust the rival claims and pretensions 
 of the courts of Vienna and Madrid. Alberoni had endeavoured, 
 during the war between the emperor and the Turks, to get posses- 
 sion of Sardinia, Sicily, and other places, for the sons of the queen 
 of Spain, a princess of Parma, his native country. Pie had proposed, 
 in short, to recover for Spain all that had been conceded and surren- 
 dered by the treaty of Utrecht. (Part II. Sect. LXIV.) The inter- 
 ference of England, in seeding a fleet to the Mediterranean, to sop- 
 part the rights of the emperor, according to treaty, at the very mo- 
 ment when the Spanish forces were prepared to invade Sicily aad 
 the kingdom of Naples, exceedingly exasperated the cardinal min- 
 ister, and induced him to heap reproaches on the British govern 
 ment for their precipitate proceedings, pretending that the Spaniards 
 had in every instance manifested a favourable disposition towards 
 England ; though nothing was more notorious than that her mer- 
 chants had been scandalously ill-treated by them, and her minister 
 at Madrid overwhelmed with complaints to that effect The latter, 
 Wtfeed, stated afterwards in the house of commons, that he had pre- 
 
 Z M 
 
266 JlODEKH HI3TORI. 
 
 sented, at the least, five-and-twenty memorials to the court of Spain 
 upon the subject, without redress ; and notwithstanding all these in- 
 dignities, and to evince the desire of his government not too precipi- 
 tately to commence hostilities, had communicated to the Spanish min- 
 ister the numbers and force of the English fleet before it sailed, in 
 order to convince him of its superiority, and deter him from the 
 measures he had in view. The defeat of the Spanish fleet, off Sicily, 
 by admiral Byng, August 1,718, ruined all the projects of Albcroni \ 
 he soon after tell into disgrace, and was precipitated from the exalted 
 station he had attained to by the strength of his genius; which, what- 
 ever his enemies might allege, certainly bespoke a keen and vigir 
 lant statesman, and an able minister, as far as regarded the interests 
 of the country he served, both foreign and domestic. 
 
 10. Though so severe an action had taken place in the Mediter 
 ranean, between the English and Spanish fleets in the month of 
 August, war was not formally declared at London till the close of 
 the year 1,718, (Dec. 29.) between which period and the final dis- 
 grace and retirement ol the Spanish minister, he had attempted 
 two measures of deep revenge, one on the power and person ottho 
 duke of Orleans, regent of France, and the other on the goverrv- 
 ment of George I. of England, by an invasion of his dominions in 
 favour of the pretender, and under the direction of the expatriated 
 duke of Ormond. It is remarkable that these projects were severally 
 detected by the French regent and British monarch, in time to admit 
 of their warning each other of the danger in which they were re- 
 spectively placed, and of offering the assistance which the cases re- 
 quired. 
 
 11. The war so suddenly and unexpectedly excited between 
 Oreat Britain and Spain, was in no long course of time brought to 
 an issue very honourable and glorious to the former ; admiral Byng, 
 with his fleet in the Mediterranean, having so managed matters as 
 fully to accomplish all the purposes of his mission, putting the em- 
 peror into possession of Sicily, and the duke of Savoy of Sardinia, 
 under circumstances of peculiar difficulty and embarrassment, owing 
 to the obstinacy, backed by the bravery of the Spaniards, the hin- 
 drances arising from a succession of governors at Naples, and the 
 loss of time in the necessary communications with his own court 
 and that of Vienna. No man, perhaps, ever discharged so delicate 
 and arduous a commission, with more applause on the part of hi? 
 own country and her allies, or with fewer complaints and less obloquy 
 on the .part of his opponents. The latter indeed, in this case, rather 
 ioined in the commendations so liberally bestowed on him by his em 
 ployers, at the termination of the, short but vigorous contest. When 
 he waited on the king at Hanover, his majesty is said, very justly, to 
 have observed to him, that he had found out the secret of obliging 
 his enemies as well as his friends ; alluding to the very honourable 
 terms in which the Spaniards had expressed themselves concerning 
 him, both as an oflicer and negotiator. He was most deservedly ad- 
 vanced to the peerage, by the title of viscount Torrington, and had 
 other appropriate honours bestowed upon him. Towards the close 
 of the year 1,719, the king of Spain acceded to the terms of the 
 quadruple alliance : nis minister, on the urgent and joint demands 
 of the king of England, the emperor, and regent of France, having 
 been previously dismissed, and banished the kingdom of Spain. 
 
 12. In the course of the year 1,719, a bill was brought into par- 
 liament by the ministry, for limiting tha number of the peers. It 
 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 267 
 
 originated with Lord Sunderland, who is said to have had in view to 
 restrain the power of the prince of Wales, whom he had offended, 
 when he should succeed to the throne. After much debate, and it is 
 supposed almost entirely through the influence of Sir Robert Wal- 
 pole, it was rejected by a large majority, 269 to 177. 
 
 13. In 1,720 the king was much occupied in affording protection 
 and support to the protestant interests abroad, and in endeavouring 
 to restore peace and tranquillity amongst the northern states. Swe- 
 den, Denmark, Prussia, and Poland, reaped the fruits of his media- 
 tor) ; but the czar resisted his proposal?, and, for some time, contin- 
 ued to act against Sweden, in defiance of the combined operations ot 
 that country and England. He at last, however, consented to accept 
 the mediation of France, and peace was established between Russia 
 and Sweden, by the treaty of Nystadt, 1,721. 
 
 1 4 Nothing occurred in this reign more disastrous in its conse- 
 quences, or more strange and extravagant in its origin and progress, 
 than the celebrated South Sea scheme, whereby, though immense for- 
 tunes were rapidly made by some, many individuals were ruined, 
 and public credit alarmingly shaken. The details of this curious 
 speculation and bubble (as it has been but too justly denominated,) 
 it would be exceedingly uninteresting to enter into, in a work like 
 <Lhe present, and they are easily to be found elsewhere ; but such an 
 instance of public infatuation, illusion, and credulity, was only to be 
 snatched by the Mississippi scheme, projected by Law, during the 
 regency in France, which had a similar effect, and which was most 
 probably the model from which Sir John Blunt, the projector of the 
 South Sea scheme, took the hint The French system has been sup- 
 posed to have had something more substantial in it, with respect to 
 the exclusive trade to Louisiana. But the South Sea scheme had 
 certainly commercial advantages attached to it. The two schemes, 
 it must be admitted, supply the most useful lesson to all wise states, 
 not to tamper with the public credit, or countenance such suspicious 
 projects; tor though both these adventures set out with very plau- 
 sible pretences of public benetit, and a certainty of relieving, rather 
 than distressing, the credit of the nation, their course and progress 
 soon became such as to excite the most lively apprehensions in all 
 considerate minds, of the consequences which actually ensued ; es- 
 peciallv in England. 
 
 15. The politics of Europe were in a very perplexed state, to- 
 wards the close of the reign of George I., owing to two treaties, 
 of which some account has been given in another place, but which 
 were very important to the English nation. These were the trea- 
 ties of Vienna and Hanover, the former of which took place in 
 April, and the latter in September, 1,725. By the former, the em- 
 peror and Spain were supposed secretly to have bound themselves 
 to procure the restitution of Gibraltar and Port Mahon, to the latter 
 power; to aid the pretender, and to further the interests of the Os- 
 tend East India Company, which had given umbrage to England, 
 Holland, and France, By the latter treaty, England was able to 
 secure on her side, against the projects oi Austria and Spain, the 
 kings of Prussia and Sweden, and the states of Holland ; but as this 
 aid was very slowly and reluctantly promised, and, in one instance, 
 soon abandoned, the state of affairs would have been very alarming, 
 but for the encouragement given by parliament, which was so effec- 
 tual, that though considerable preparations for war took place on the 
 part of almost all the nations concerned, articles of peace, through 
 
268 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 the mediation of France, were agreed upon in May, 1,727, and a6* 
 cepted by the imperial court and Spain ; by these the charter of tht 
 Ostend company was suspended for a certain period, and the sieg< 
 o£ Gibraltar, which had actually commenced, and been carried o^ 
 for four months, raised and abandoned. 
 
 16. George 1. died at Osnaburgh, on his way to his electoral do- 
 minions, June 11, 1,727, with the reputation of an honest and generous 
 prince. He was brave in the field, and wise in council ; having had 
 many arduous negotiations on his hands, which he commonly con- 
 ducted to a favourable issue ; not often, however, without large sub- 
 sidies. His own measures were generally defensive and preventa- 
 tive. He was fortunate in the state of things, at the period of Queen 
 Anne's death, and in the removal of Lewis XIV., and Charles XII. of 
 Sweden, both of whom were personally unfriendly to him, and cer- 
 tainly had projects on foot lor the restoration of the Stuart family. 
 King George constantly manifested a disposition to govern according 
 to the laws and constitution of the kingdom. And it has been observ- 
 ed to his credit, that the nation not only improved in wealth and 
 crelit during his reign, but enjoyed a greater degree of tranquillity 
 at home, and a longer duration of peace abroad, than during an)' 
 period since the time of Queen Elizabeth. At the time of his death 
 he was in the sixty-eighth year of his age. 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 AUSTRIA (AND GERMANY) FROM THE PEACE OF RASTADT, 
 1,714, TO THE PEACE OF A1X-LA-CHAPELLE, 1,743. 
 
 1. The afairs of Austria, as incidentally connected with those of 
 France, Spain, England, Italy, and Prussia, from the year 1,713 to 
 1,73G, have been already treated of in the preceding sections. It 
 may be necessary, however, to take a brief view of matters, from the 
 commencement of the reign of Charles VI., to the death of that mon- 
 arch ; which event, as we shall have to show, greatly disturbed the 
 whole of Europe, and occasioned the war which was terminated by 
 the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1,748. 
 
 2. Chailes VI., who had borne a conspicuous part in the succession 
 war, as a competitor for the Spanish throne, (Part II. Sect. LX1V.) 
 became emperor in the year 1,711, on the demise of his eldei 
 brother, Joseph I. Though he had declined becoming a party to 
 the treaty of Utrecht, in 1,713, it was not long before he perceived 
 his error, being left alone to support an expensive war. In the fol- 
 lowing year, therefore, he received the proposals made to him by 
 the court of Versailles, consented to the opening of conferences, ii 
 the month of November, 1,713, and, in the March following, 1,714, 
 signed the treaty of Rastaift, by which he obtained possession of the 
 Spanish Netherlands, (except" the barrier towns ceded to Holland.) 
 Naples, Sardinia, Milan, Frieburg, and Kehl. 
 
 3. But he was very soon disturbed in a part of these acquisitions, 
 by the restlessness and jealousy of Spain, already noticed. Great de- 
 signs were formed against his Italian territories ; Sardinia actually 
 taken from him, in 1,717 ; Sicily, in 1,718, and further encroachments 
 projected, but for the timely interposition of the English, under 
 admiral Byng, in the Mediterranean, (Sect. II. § 9, 1J.) who soon 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 261) 
 
 brought matters to a favourable issue for Austria, with infinite credit 
 to himself, both as an officer and a negotiator. 
 
 +. Spain had eagerly caught at the opportunity which presented 
 itself of making these attacks upon Austria, while the latter power 
 was engaged in war with Turkey, in aid of the Venetians. The 
 Turk?, (instigated, it has been said, by the Spanish minister, to 
 < "ngage the attention of Austria,) in violation of the treaty of" Car- 
 ! ' vi!z. had taken the Morea from the Venetians, before Austria 
 came to their aid, in the year 1,716; nor, though from that time 
 hi powerfully assisted, were they able to recover that peninsula. 
 Charles VI., however, was not long at variance with the Porte upon 
 t.iis occasion. As early as the year 1,718, through the extraordinary 
 >'i\ll and valour of prince Eugene, the Austrian commander, things 
 were brought to' ah issue, and a peace concluded, through the me- 
 (ii lion of England and Holland, at Passarowitz, by which the Turks 
 were alio wed to retain the Morea, on ceding to the Venetians some 
 f onfrer (owns in Albania and Dalmatia, while Austria obtained Bel- 
 ; ;i;i ■, the. Bannat of Temeswar and VVallachia, as far as the Aluta : 
 sue vtfas also able to establish a free commerce in all the harbours of 
 the Bhick Sea, and of the Danube, as well as with the Persians. The 
 early termination of this war, together with the successes of the 
 ug.ish on the shores of Sicily, checked the operations of the Span- 
 iards, and disposed them to agree to the terms of the quadruple al- 
 ii :><: ' Spain and Austria, however, were not effectually reconciled 
 till the year l,72. r ), at which period the emperor was induced to re- 
 nounce his pretentions upon Spain and the Indies. 
 
 5. Charles VI. was for a long time deeply occupied in endeavour- 
 ing to preserve his own dominions from such difficulties as Spain had 
 jeen involved in, at the beginning of this century, owing to the dis- 
 puted succession to the Spanish throne, on the demise of Charles II., 
 and in which he had himself been so greatly concerned, lie propos- 
 ♦ .■:!. for this end, by a u Pragmatic Sanction," to make it a law, that 
 if he should, at the time ot his death, have either sons or daugh- 
 ters, the hereditary dominions and crowns belonging to the house cl 
 Austria, should remain united. In failure of such issue, male or fe- 
 male, the daughters of his deceased brother, Joseph, were to succeed ; 
 and if tfiey died without heirs, the inheritance was to pass to his sis- 
 ters, and their descendants. When this act was proposed, at the 
 diet of Ratisbon, it was violently resisted by the electors of Saxony 
 and Bavaria, as well as the elector Palatine, but by the treaty of Vien 
 na, 1,731, as well as by previous negotiations at the different courts ol 
 Europe, almost every power, except France, was brought to consent 
 to the proposed regulations ; England and Holland, in particular, 
 having been gained over by the emperor's agreement to suppress the 
 new East India Company which he had endeavoured to establish 
 at Ostend. The guarantee of France was not obtained till six yeai-s 
 after, in recompense of the transfer of the duchies of Lorraine ana 
 Bar to the latter power, on the demise of Stanislaus, king of Poland, 
 who obtained the government of those countries by the treaty of 
 1,738. 
 
 6. Charles VI. had scarcely succeeded in his great object of the 
 pragmatic sanction, before he was engaged in a fresh war with the 
 Turks, in virtue ot a treaty concluded with Russia, who had com- 
 menced hostilities against the Porte, in 1,736. The war on the 
 
 {>art of Austria, however, was of very short duration. She had 
 ost the support of her famous general, prince Eugene ; and her 
 Z2 
 
£70 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 armies, on the present occasion, appear to have been ill conducted. 
 Jealousies and disagreements amongst the superior officers, and a 
 great want of resources, baffled all their operations. In 1,739, the 
 emperor was compelled to submit to the terms of the treaty of 
 Belgrade, which was highly advantageous to Turkey. Austria 
 surrendered Servia, with the fortresses of Belgrade and Szabateh ; 
 and Austrian Wallachia, with the fortress of Drsova. By the treaty 
 of Belgrade, the i'orte also obtained advantages over Russia; but it 
 is now known, that this convention was very artfully conducted by 
 an agent of the French court, who was instructed not only to prevent 
 the dismemberment of Twrkey, by the combined forces of Austria 
 and Russia, but to resist the aggrandizement of the former, and 
 separate her, if possible, from her northern ally. 
 
 7. In the year immediately following that in which the treaty of 
 Belgrade had restored harmony between the two courts of Vienna 
 and Constantinople, so much to the advantage of the latter, Charles 
 VI. died, the last heir-male of the Austrian iine of princes. jNTotwith- 
 standing all the care he had taken to secure to his daughter the 
 entire hereditary dominions of his family ; and though almost the 
 whole of Europe had guaranteed the indivisibility of his dominions, 
 according to his wishes, he was no sooner dead than numerous 
 claims were set up, and a war kindled, which may lie snid to have, 
 in its progress, involved every European state. 'The .archduchess, 
 Maria Theresa, consort of Francis, duke of Tuscany, according to 
 the terms of the Pragmatic Sanction, (which, however, had been ill 
 .Irawn up,) succeeded, on the death of her father, to the following 
 kingdoms, states, and territories: Hungary and Bohemia, Silesia 
 and Austrian Suabia, Upper and Lower Austria, Styria, Carimhia, 
 Carniola, Burgau, Brisgau, the Low-Countries, Triuii, Tyrol, the 
 Mantuam and the Duchies of Milan, Parma, and Piacentia. 
 
 8. Unfortunately for the archduchess, Charles VI. had left his 
 army in a bad condition, his lhiances embarrassed, and, at the Lime 
 of his death, a scarcity almost approaching to famine, prevailed in 
 many parts of his dominions. All these circumstances combined, 
 were calculated to raise up competitors for different portions of his 
 estates. Not were they at al) tardy in advancing their claims. The 
 electee- of Bavaria pretended to be the proper heir to the kingdom 
 of Be tie via. Augustus II., elector of Saxony ami king of Poland, 
 tiavin married the eldest daughter of Joseph I., eider brother oi 
 Char. i [., claimed the whole Austrian succession. The king of 
 Spain did the same, though upon a more remote title, and entirely 
 t.hrou : ftales. The king of Sardinia made pretensions to the 
 duchy of ,.:•; tn, and Frederic U.^ of Prussia, to the province of Sile- 
 sia. 
 
 !'. j f these several claimants had formally agreed to the 
 terms ■ gmatic sanction, and even at first proiessed the most 
 favour I sitions towards the archduchess, who had taken quiet 
 posses . that had descended to her; but the times, aud the 
 pecul: istances of the empire, encouraged them to break 
 throng gagemente; not, however, altogether without some 
 »retei .:■ and justice ; as was the case with France. The 
 kingo •!, as well as the kings of Poland and Spain, pre- 
 tender red a right from two princesses, married to Lew- 
 is XIL the whole succession ; but choosing, rather than 
 to dey Re titles, to take the part of the elector of Bava- 
 wa, he ii ... in his guarantee of the Pragmatic Sanction, by the 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 771 
 
 clause " sine prcejudicio tertii? he was fairly left at liberty to espouse 
 any claims that should appear to him more just than those of the 
 archduchess, queen of Hungary. This clause had, indeed, been in- 
 troduced into some of the acts of guarantee, though not into all 
 
 10. The most forward and active of the queen's opponents was u 
 prince little known till then, Frederic king of Prussia, at that time 
 about twenty-eight years of age. He had succeeded, through the 
 prudence of his father, to an army and a treasury of no inconsider*- 
 able importance ; both of which he had himself also found time to 
 improve. His movements were sudden, and quite unexpected by 
 the court of Vienna ; and he soon made known what his demands 
 were, proposing that if they should be granted, he would support 
 Austria against other enemies, and assist the queen in placing her 
 husband on the imperial throne. He pretended, indeed, at first; to 
 be only desirous ol occupying Silesia, as a friend to the queen ; but 
 the mask was soon laid aside, and his fixed determination to become 
 master of Lower Silesia rendered visible to all the world. 
 
 11. The queen would consent to the surrender of no part of her 
 inheritance, though possibly her refusal in this instance, occasioned 
 the alliance soon afterwards formed between the court of Versailles 
 and Frederic, from which she Suffered so much. England, it is said, 
 counselled submission in the point of Silesia, foreseeing the conse- 
 quences ; but worse consequences, perhaps, were to be apprehend- 
 ed, had she complied. It would, in all likelihood, have disposed 
 others to urge their claims with greater importunity. 
 
 12. Aided by France and Saxony, the elector of "Bavaria, towards 
 the middie of the year 1,741, acquired possession of the kingdrm of 
 Bohemia, and was proclaimed king, and inaugurated with great 
 solemnity; and, on the 12th of February, 1,742, he had the imperial 
 dignity conferred on him by the diet ol Frankfort, under the title of 
 Charles V 11., having been chosen, however, when some of the elec- 
 tors were disqualified from voting. 
 
 13. Never was there a greater prospect of a total dismemberment 
 of the Austrian dominions than at this time. Different parts were 
 regularly assigned to the several claimants, and nothing left for the 
 daughter of Charles VI. but the kingdom of Hungary, the province 
 of Lower Austria, the Belgian states, and the duchies of Carinthia, 
 Styria, and Carniola. ^ Precautions had even been taken to prevent 
 her deriving any aid from Russia, by exciting Sweden fro declare wai 
 against the latter power. But the spirit of this surprising woman 
 was not to be broken by the powerful combination against her. She 
 had, at the very commencement of her reign, in a singular and ex 
 traordinary manner, and with consummate wisdom, particularly by 
 taking the ancient oath of king Andrew II., attached to her interests 
 the brave Hungarians. Repairing to them with her infant son, she 
 threw herself entirely upon their protection, and, in the most public 
 manner, addressing them in the Latin language, at a special assembly 
 of the states, presented her child to them in terms the most pathetic 
 Supported by their valour, and with the help of English and Dutch 
 money, she baffled all her enemies, and finally dissipated the storm 
 that so rudely threatened her. It was not, indeed, until Walpole was 
 removed from the English ministry that the queen received any ac- 
 tive assistance from the king of England ; but afterwards, both in 
 Flanders and Italy, he was a powerful ally. She also derived some 
 succours from the king of Sardinia, not, however, very creditably 
 purchased with regard to Genoa- 
 
272 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 1 4. Had the numerous powers first armed against Maria Theresa! 
 or intimidated into a state of neutrality, agreed amongst themselves, 
 it would have been impossible for the queen to have withstood their 
 attacks ; but, fortunately for her, many stood so directly in a state of 
 rivalship towards each other, and France was such an object of sus 
 picion and alarm to almost all the other confederates, that their very 
 first movements produced jealousies and divisions amongst them ; 
 and. what is very remarkable, the earliest who showed a disposition 
 to treat with the queen was the king of Prussia, in consequence of 
 i!ie successes of the elector of Bavaria in Bohemia. 
 
 15. The interference of England, in behalf of the queen, did at 
 first, indeed, only exasperate France, and the other allies of Charles 
 V!I.. and excite them to a more vigorous opposition. But the death 
 of" the emperor, in the year 1,745, who had derived no happiness, 
 bat. indeed, a great deal of misery, from his short exaltation, and his 
 sou's prudent and wise abandonment of such high dignities, in order 
 to secure his quiet possession of his paternal dominions, left the 
 ;• teen at liberty to procure for her husband, Francis, grand duke of 
 '2 >oany, the imperial crown; his election to which took place in 
 the month of September of the same year; the queen agreeing to 
 .ihnil the young elector of Bavaria to the full possession of his he- 
 reditary dominions, and to acknowledge his father, Charles VII., to 
 have been duly invested with the imperial dignity. After some 
 signal successes, the queen's great adversary, the king of Prussia, 
 also came into her terms, having agreed, in a treaty concluded at 
 Dresden, to acknowledge the validity of Francis's election, on being 
 put in possession of Silesia and the county of Glatz, the chief objects 
 for which he had been contending. The elector Palatine was like- 
 wise included in this treaty. 
 
 to. The French continued the war in the Netherlands, as well 
 as in Italy, and with considerable success; but the queen being a 
 good deal disembarrassed by the peace she had been able to con- 
 :uIp with Prussia, had it soon in her power to recover all that 
 ;;ia French and Spaniards had acquired in Italy, while the French 
 conquests in Flanders and Holland led to the rc-eslablishment of 
 the stadtholdership, and thereby baffled all their hopes of future 
 advantages in those parts. The interference of the empress of 
 Ivissia, subsidized by England, and, above all, the peculiar situation 
 of the king of France, whose finances were almost exhausted, and 
 who had suffered severe losses by sea, tended to bring matters to an 
 hsue, A congress was opened at Aix-la-Chapellc, which, though 
 ivther slow in its operations, at last terminated in a peace, concluded 
 October 7, 1,748, exactly a hundred years after the famous treaty 
 ojf Westphalia, which served for a basis of the negotiations entered into 
 upon this occasion. By this convention, as in most other instances o 
 Lne same nature, there was so general a restitution of conquests, as 
 plainly to mark the folly and injustice of having continued the war 
 *»> long. During this contest, in the year 1,743, died the cardinal de 
 I' kury, first minister of France, at the very advanced age of ninety. 
 1 Ie did not assume the reins of government till he was seventy- 
 three. He had many virtues, but was much more admired by his 
 countrymen for his integrity and disinterestedness, than for energy 
 of character, or public spirit. 
 
 1 7. The treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle bringing us, as nearly as can be, 
 to the middle of the eighteenth century, it may be well to take a 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 273 
 
 dew of Europe at this particular period, and as connected with 
 this celebrated treaty ; but this must be reserved for a future section. 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 
 ENGLAND FROM THE ACCESSION OF GEORGE II. TO THE 
 THRONE, 1,727, TO HIS DEATH, 1,760. 
 
 1. The accession of George II., who came to the throne 1,727, in 
 the 44th year of his age, and in a time of profound peace, was not at- 
 tended with such changes as many had expected. Even the minis- 
 ter himself, sir Robert Walpole, is said to have been surprised at tha 
 reception he met with from his majesty, on the demise of the late 
 king, and at the continuance of the power in his hands. But this is 
 now known to have been owing to the wise and prudent care of 
 queen Caroline, who, at this moment, was found to possess an influ 
 ence over her royal consort, which had been by many little suspect 
 ed, but which her extreme good sense, and discreet conduct, eeemed 
 fully to justify. The whigs might justly be considered as the truest 
 friends of the house of lianover and "the protestant church; and 
 their continuance in power at the commencement of a new reign, 
 though very grating to the adverse parly, seemed to be extremely 
 iavourable to the quiet of the nation. 
 
 2, The gpod-wili which had sprung up, and been encouraged dur- 
 ing the regency, between the rival courts of Versailles and London- 
 was not materially disturbed during the whole administration of 
 Walpole, and his pacific contemporary, cardinal Fleury ; the queen 
 being also friendly to peace. But as it is not easy for any peaceable 
 government long to escape the encroachments of other states, Spain, 
 apparently presuming on the forbearance^ or apathy of the British 
 ministry, committed great depredations, for a series of years, upon 
 the trade of England with. America and the West-Indies, committing 
 many acts of most atrocious cruelty, in addition to their other deeds 
 of insult and plunder, Some steps were at length taken to remedy 
 these evils, but the conduct of Spain was so generally resented by 
 the nation, as to render even the convention, by which the disputes 
 were referred to arbitration, extremely unpopular. It being thought. 
 by many of all descriptions, not only that the grievances complained 
 of had been too long submitted to and endured, and the measures 
 hitherto taken to redress them been too tame and submissive, but 
 that nothing less than a war could restore the lost consequence of 
 the state, or bring such offenders to reason. 
 
 3. The Spaniards, indeed, had defended their conduct in many 
 memorials, pretending that the English were the aggressors, in car* 
 rying on a contraband and unlawful trade with their colonies ; but 
 had this been capable of proof to the extent the Spaniards pretend- 
 ed, which was certainly not the case, there is no doubt but that they 
 suffered themselves to be hurried into most unjustifiable excesses in 
 their measures of reprisal, and exceedingly ill-treated both the mer- 
 chants and sailors of England. They insisted upon a general right 
 of search, on the open seas, and condemned the ships and cargoes, 
 upon such frivolous pretences as could not fail to be extremely in- 
 jurious and oppressive, and quite contrary to existing treaties. In 
 one instance, a whole fleet of English merchant-shius, at the island of 
 
£74 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 Tortugas, was attacked by Spaniards, as if the two nations had been 
 at open war. 
 
 4. It would be scarcely possible, perhaps, to justify entirely the 
 extraordinary forbearance of the British government, for nearly 
 twenty years, during which not only these indignities had been con- 
 tinu illy repeated, but express engagements, and promises to redress 
 and abstain from such aggressions in future, notoriously violated. 
 This had been remarkably the case with respect to the stipulations 
 of the treaty of Seville, concluded in the year 1,729. There were 
 very warm debates in parliament on the subject, and the ministry 
 were hard pressed to defend themselves from the charge of supine- 
 ness, gross indifference to the sufferings of the merchants, and the 
 honour of the crown, and, in some instances, even of criminal conniv- 
 ance. And, indeed, their opponents obtained, at length, this triumph 
 over them, that the very convention which was to be the prelimina- 
 ry of a perfect adjustment of differences, and a surety for the indem- 
 nification of the merchants for all their losses, was, like every pre- 
 ceding treaty and compact, disregarded by Spain, and war obliged 
 to be declared before the year was out, to compel her to more 
 just and equitable measures. The war, however, was not so success- 
 ful as to render it clear that the pacific and wary proceedings of the 
 British minister were otherwise than most prudent and wise, consid- 
 ering the general circumstances of Europe. "Omnia prius expe* 
 riri verbis quam armis sapient em decet, is a maxim which has 
 been applied to the conduct of sir Robert Walpole, by an author, 
 not backward to admit that, on some points, in regard to continental 
 politics, the pacific system was carried too far. The period during 
 which it prevailed will, certainly, for ever be a remarkable era in 
 English history, especially as the reigning sovereign was notorious- 
 ly a soldier, and by no means personally disposed to adopt so inactive* 
 a line of conduct. 
 
 5. Though the people had been clamorous for the war with 
 Spain, they were soon dissatisfied with the conduct of it, and that to 
 so great a degree, as to compel the minister, sir Robert Walpole, 
 though with considerable reluctance, to resign his appointments ; 
 which took place in February, 1,742; the approbation of his sove«- 
 reign being manifested in his elevation to the peerage, by the title of 
 eari of Oxford, lie was succeeded by lord Carteret. Sir Robert 
 Walpole had been an able, intelligent, and prudent minister ; a con- 
 slant lover of peace, in the way pf defence and prevention; and 
 upon this he prided himself: he was of the whig party, which ex- 
 posed him much to the rancour, not only of those whose political 
 opinions were different, but of many disappointed persons who 
 thought with him. By these he was stigmatized as having reduced 
 corruption to a system ; but by others, this charge was as confidently 
 repelled ; nor would it be difficult to prove that, though he often spoke 
 as if he knew every man's price, he governed, not by corruption, 
 but by party attachments, as his friends and admirers have alleged. 
 Upon two great occasions his plans were thwarted by some who 
 lived to see and correct their errors, as w r as the case, particularly, 
 with Mr, Pitt, in regard to the excise bill, first proposed to the house 
 of commons in the year 1,732. There was never, perhaps, a case 
 in which party, faction, and ignorance prevailed more over truth, 
 and justice, and prudence. The bill was calculated to check and 
 control the most gross and pernicious frauds upon the revenues ; to 
 favour and encourage, in every possible manner, the fair dealer, 
 
MODERN HISTORY. mb 
 
 /and through him the public in general,) and by the savings pro 
 auced in the treasury, materially to lighten the public burthens : yet 
 such a clamour was raised against the measure, from its first sugges- 
 tion, as to oblige the minister to abandon it. 
 
 6. The other measure, which brought great odium on this able 
 minister of finance, was his trespass on the sinking fund, first estab- 
 lished in 1,727, and which he made no scruple to alienate for public 
 purposes, as occasion seemed to require. The very name of this 
 fund is not equally applicable to all times. At first it arose entirely 
 from savings, and its perpetual or uninterrupted operation under such 
 circumstances, would appear to have been an indispensable part of 
 its character. It had been calculated as proceeding upon the basis 
 of compound interest; while new loans and debts, contracted for 
 pressing emergencies, were held to burthen the public in the way 
 of simple interest only. But in these days, the whole state of tho 
 question is changed. The modern sinking fund is not a sinking fund 
 of surpluses or savings, but in itself a borrowed fund ; of great power 
 and great utility, occasionally, but plainly at the command of the 
 public, whenever the current expenses cannot be provided for at a 
 less cost ; and, indeed, often beneficially to be applied to such pur- 
 poses, in greater or less proportions, to the avoidance of many 
 heavy charges of management, high premiums, and new taxes. The 
 alienation of the original sinking lund, by sir Robert Walpole, how- 
 ever, has been very ably defended since, though opposed and resist- 
 ed, at tiie time, with a virulence and animosity exceedingly distress- 
 ing to that minister. 
 
 7. The new administration, which came into power on the resig- 
 nation of Walpole, so little answered the expectations of their 
 friends, deviated so soon from the principles they had avowed, while 
 in opposition, and seemed so much more disposed to espouse the 
 cause of Hanover, at the expense, and to the loss, of England, in 
 useless subsidies and foreign wars, than to attend to the domestic 
 difficulties under which she was supposed to be labouring, that they 
 became, in a very short time, quite as unpopular as their predeces- 
 sors, and in 1,745, the very year in which Walpole died, the rebel- 
 lion broke out in Scotland. 
 
 8. This attempt against the house of Hanover, undertaken by the 
 heir of the Stuart family, in person, was, undoubtedly, an; ill-con- 
 ducted, as it was ultimately an unsuccessful, enterprise ; though to 
 cali it altogether a weak one, would be contrary to historical truth. 
 Its commencement, indeed, had all the appearance of the most ro- 
 mantic infatuation, but in its progress it became so formidable, as 
 ,even to threaten the capital of England, and the protestant succes- 
 sion ; nor was it subdued without great efforts and exertions on the 
 part of the king's forces, so unavailing and disheartening at first, as 
 to render the issue of the contest extremely problematical. It was, 
 in fact, at the beginning, despised and neglected, by the lords of the 
 regency, in the absence of the king, who was then at Hanover, so 
 that time was given for such an accession of friends and adherents to 
 the cause of the pretender, while the English army was left without 
 any adequate reinforcements, that the rebels not only got possession 
 of Edinburgh, after a very severe but most successful action with 
 the English, at Preston Pans, but were able to march, unmolested, 
 for into England, and even to retreat, in the face of a powerful army, 
 under circumstances peculiarly creditable to the prowess, humanity , 
 
 „d military skill of toe Scottuh commander. 
 
276 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 9. Had the young prince met with the encouragement he expect- 
 ed on his march to the south, he might have possessed himself of the 
 English, as he had done of the Scotch, capital ; but his hopes of aid 
 were, considering all things, strangely and cruelly disappointed. 
 Not a soul joined him, of any importance, though he had advanced 
 nearly to the very centre of the kin-, lorn ; while the French failed 
 to fulfil their engagement of invading the southern parts of the 
 island, in order to divide and occupy the English army, so that his 
 retreat became a point of prudence perfectly inevitable, however 
 mortifying and grating to the gallant spirit of Charles, who un- 
 doubtedly manifested a strong disposition to proceed against all obsta 
 cles. 
 
 10. The conflict between the two nations, on this occasion, was 
 greatly affected by the religious tenets and principles of the oppos- 
 ing parties. Had Scotland been entirely catholic, the hopes of the 
 Stuart family would have been extremely reasonable ; but it was. 
 at this period, divided between the presbyterians and the catholics ; 
 the Lowlanders being of the former sect, and the Highlanders, gen- 
 erally speaking, of the latter. The presbyterians, who had gained 
 great advantages, in the way of toleration, by the revolution, having 
 become whigs in principle, naturally adhered to the house of Han- 
 over, while the catholic Highlanders were quite as fully and as nat- 
 urally inclined to support their native prince. Nothing could be 
 wise r, perhaps, under these circumstances, than the sending a princo 
 of the blood to command the British forces, and, as it happened, no 
 'jfhe-er of the British army could be more popular than the duke of 
 Cumberland, at this very period. His royal highness joined the 
 arm ^ at Edinburgh, not long after the battle of Falkirk, in whicJi 
 the English, under general llawley, had recently sustained a check. 
 Tb; duke, indeed, had been expressly recalled from Flanders, to 
 sup »rcss the rebellion, which was, in no small degree, detrimental 
 and injurious to the cause of the allies. 
 
 11 The conduct of the son of the pretender was certainly that 
 of ;. brave feut inconsiderate young man. Sanguine in his expecta- 
 tior s, beyond what any circumstances of the case would completely 
 jushfy, he, in more instances than one, committed himself too far, and 
 at lae very last exposed himself to a defeat, which might, at least, 
 feun e been suspended or mitigated, if not totally avoided. He madv 
 a stand against the king's forces at Culloden, while his troops were 
 in a b<iu condition for lighting, and when it would obviously have 
 be? n better policy to have acted on the defensive ; to have retired 
 before his adversary, tiii he had led him into the more impractica- 
 ble parts of the highlands, where all his military means would 
 have been crippled, and a retreat, perhaps, at least, have been 
 rendered indispensably necessary ; but by risking the battle of Cullo- 
 den, (April W, 1,746) he lost every thing. The duke of Cumber- 
 land gained a most decisive victory ; and so completely subdued the 
 hopes and spirits of his young opponent, that he never afterwards 
 joined his friends, though solicited, and indeed engaged, so to do ; but 
 wandering about the country for a considerable time, with a price of 
 £30,000 set ©n his head, after enduring incredible hardships and 
 difficulties, embarked for France ; and thus terminated for ever the 
 struggles of that exiled and deposed family to recover its ancient 
 dominions. The very remarkable instances of attachment, fidelity, 
 and pure hospitality, by which, after the battle of Culloden, the 
 *mfortunate fugitive was preserved from the hands of his pursuers, 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 277 
 
 surpass any thing of the kind recorded in history, and reflect indelible 
 credit on the high and disinterested feelings and principles of those 
 who assisted him in his escape. 
 
 12. The most melancholy circumstance attending this rash un- 
 dertaking, was the necessity that arose for making examples of those 
 who had abetted it, in order more securely to fix on the throne of 
 Great Britain the reigning family ; who, having acquired that right 
 in the most constitutional manner, could not be dispossessed of it, but 
 by an unpardonable violation of the law. Of the excesses committed 
 by the English troops after the battle of Culloden, it is to be hoped, 
 as indeed it has been asserted, that the accounts are exaggerated 
 but in the common course of justice, many persons, and some of the 
 highest rank, underwent the sentence of death for high treason, 
 whose crime, through a melancholy infatuation, must in their own 
 eyes have appeared the very reverse, and whose loyalty and attach- 
 ment, under different circumstances, and with the law and constitution 
 on their side, would have deserved the highest praise. Though 
 many of the adherents of the pretender suffered, many of them 
 made their escape beyond sea, and arrived safely at the different 
 ports of the continent. No attempts have since been made by any of 
 the catholic descendants of the royal family of Great Britain to dis- 
 turb the protestant succession in the house of Brunswick. 
 
 13. This illustrious house sustained a very unexpected and mel- 
 ancholy loss^ in the year 1,750, by the death of his royal highness 
 the prince ot Wales, father of his late majesty ; who, in consequence 
 of a cold caught in his gardens at Kew, died of a pleuritic disorder, 
 on the twentieth day of March, in the forty-fifth year of his age. 
 He was a prince endowed with many amiable qualities ; a munificent 
 patron of the arts, a friend to merit, and sincerely attached to the in- 
 terests of Great Britain. 
 
 14. In the course of the year 1,751, a remarkable act was passed 
 in parliament, for correcting the calendar, according to the Gregori- 
 an computation. It was enacted, that the new year should begin 
 on the first of January, and that eleven days between the second and 
 fourteenth days of September, 1,752, should for that time be omitted, 
 so that the day succeeding the second, should be called the fourteenth 
 of that month. This change was on many accounts exceedingly im- 
 portant, but to persons wholly unacquainted with astronomy, it ap- 
 peared a strangely arbitrary interference with the currency and set- 
 tled distinctions of time. 
 
 15. Though the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1,748, may be said 
 to have restored peace to Europe, the English and French came to 
 no good understanding with regard to their remote settlements. 
 The war in those parts involved the interests of the natives or set- 
 
 lers, as well as of the two courts, and scarcely seems to have fallen 
 under the consideration of the negotiating ministers. In the east and 
 in the west many disputes and jealousies were raised, which though 
 referred to special commissioners to adjust, in no long course of time 
 involved both countries in a fresh war, the particulars of which w T ill 
 be found elsewhere : a war which extended to all parts of the globe, 
 and continued beyond the reign of George II., who died suddenly 
 at Kensington, in 1,760, in the 77th year of his age, and 34th of his 
 reign. 
 
 16. George II. was a prince of high integrity, honour, and vera- 
 city, but of a warm and irritable temper, of a warlike dtcposuitw, 
 and though for a long time restrained by his pacific minister, sir 
 
 A a 
 
273 MODERN HISTORY 
 
 Robert Walpole, from taking any active part in the disputes of the 
 continent, yet constantly inclined to do so, from an attachment, very 
 natural, tnough unpopular amongst his British subjects, to his Ger- 
 man dominions. He was greatly under the influence of his queen, 
 while she lived, "whose mild, prudent, and conciliating manners,'' 
 to use the words of a very impartial and judicious biographer, 
 11 were more congenial to the character of the English nation." 
 Queen Caroline had indeed many great and splendid virtues ; thou- h 
 of most amiable and domestic habits, she was well versed in the 
 politics of Europe, and had considerable literary attainments, which 
 disposed her to be a friend to learned persons, particularly to many 
 members of the church, of which several striking and remarkable 
 instances have been recorded. It is sufficient to mention the names 
 of Herring, Clarke, Hoadley, Butler, Sherlock, Hare, Seeker, and 
 Pearce. She was the daughter of John Frederick, margrave of 
 Brandenburgh Anspach, and was born in the year 1,683. She was 
 married to his majesty in 1,70a, and had issue two sons and live 
 daughters. Her death, which occassioned great grief to her royal 
 consort and family, took place on the 20th of November, 1,733, 
 when she was in the 55th year of her age. 
 
 SECTION V. 
 
 STATE OF EUROPE AT THE CONCLUSION OF THE PEACE 
 OF AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, 1,748. 
 
 1. By the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle the house of Hanover was 
 effectually established on the throne of Great Britain, to the entire 
 exclusion of the Stuart family. Though the peace was not popular 
 in England, and she was supposed by many to have made too great, 
 and in some instances ignominious concessions, yet it was certainly 
 fortunate for her that the continental powers confined their views to a 
 balance which did not extend to the sea; and thereby left in her 
 hands a force, beyond calculation superior to that of the other 
 countries of Europe, and amounting almost to a monopoly of com- 
 merce, credit, and wealth, so as to render her, as it were, the chief 
 agent or principal, in all political movements, for the time to come. 
 Her prosperity, indeed, had been on the increase, in no common de 
 gree, from the accession of the Brunswick family. 
 
 2. Austria lost, by the treaty of 1,748. Silesia and Glatz, the 
 duchies of Parma, Placentia, and Guastalla, and some places in 
 the Milanese : but she succeeded, and chiefly at the expense of her 
 allies, in the article of the succession. All former treaties were 
 formally recognised, which involved indeed other losses to the em- 
 pire, if compared with the time of Charles V ; but the dominions 
 of the latter were certainly too extensive, and too detached, to form 
 a great and stable empire. This, indeed, may be said to have been 
 the case with regard even to the reduced domains of Charles VI. ; 
 but his high-spirited daughter, Maria Theresa, was to the last indig- 
 nant at the losses she had sustained. She corrected the error into 
 which she had fallen with regard to Genoa, and which occasioned 
 great commotions there, by consenting to let the marquisate of Final 
 revert to that republic, which had been very arbitrarily given, in 
 the course of the war, as a bribe to the king of Sardinia, and made 
 a free port, to the evident disadvantage of the Genoese, who had 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 27? 
 
 originally purchased it for a valuable consideration, under the guar 
 antee of Great Britain. 
 
 3. Prussia gained, by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, Silesia, and 
 the county of Glatz, which were guaranteed to her by all the con- 
 tracting powers; and by this accession of territory she was raised 
 into the condition of a power capable of entering into the field oi 
 action, as a rival of Austria ; which might have been foreseen, when 
 Leopold erected it into a kingdom, for the express purpose of coun- 
 terbalancing the power of France. As it was, the unity of the em- 
 pire PeeiitQG to be dissolved, and a door set open to future revolutions 
 in the Germanic body. The character and subsequent achievements 
 of Frederick II. contributed greatly to the aggrandizement of his do- 
 minions. He was active, bold, fond of glory, and indefatigable. He 
 was brave in the field, and wise in the cabinet. Desirous of shining 
 in all that he undertook, he was indefatigable in keeping his army 
 constantly ready for all emergencies, and in repairing the damages to 
 which his dominions had been subjected by his ambition. He drew 
 to him many eminent persons of ail countries, of whose society he 
 pretended to be fond ; but he oftentimes showed himself to be a 
 most merciless tyrant, a blunderer in political economy, and, if not 
 quite an atheist, very lax in his principles of religion. 
 
 4. Holland lost much by the peace, and gained nothing. Some, 
 indeed, doubted whether she did not greatly endanger her indepen- 
 dence, by consenting to make the stadtholdership hereditary in the 
 house ol Orange, and that in favour of the female as well as male 
 heirs of the family : but others conceived that this approach to mo- 
 narchical government greatly strengthened the republic ; and it would 
 indeed seem that it had declined much in power and consequence, 
 from the very period when that office was abolished, in the preced- 
 ing century. One precaution was adopted with regard to the female 
 heirs to the Stadtholdership : they were precluded from marrying any 
 king, or elector of the empire ; a precaution which there were, in 
 the history of Europe, sufficient reasonsto justify. 
 
 5. Spain obtained, for two branches of her royal family, the king- 
 dom ot Naples, and the duchies of Parma, Placentia, and Guastalla ■ 
 the latter to revert to Austria, that is, Parma and Guastalla, and Pla- 
 centia to Sardinia, should the new duke, don Philip, die without issue, 
 or succeed to either of the kingdoms of Spain or Naples. But the 
 power of Spain was not much increased, either by land or sea. On 
 the latter, indeed, the English had an overwhelming superiority; 
 and. on land, though her armies were brave, they were generally ill 
 conducted, and her government too bad to render her respectable 
 in the eyes of Europe. Ferdinand VI., indeed, the successor of 
 Philip, who came to the throne just before -the conclusion of the 
 treaty, applied himself, with no small degree of credit, to retrieve 
 the character of the nation, 
 
 6. Austria, by seeking an alliance with Russia, had introduced the 
 latter power into the southern states of Europe, and given her consid- 
 erable weight and consequence, as a counterbalance to her great 
 rival, France. Scarcely known at the commencement of the century, 
 the movement impressed upon this mighty empire by the extraor- 
 dinary genius and vigour of reter the first, had carried her forward, 
 with a rapid progression ; so that, by the middle of the century, site 
 might justly be regarded as amongst the most considerable powers ol 
 Europe Her armies were, perhaps, more than semi-barbarous; but 
 they were brave, indefatigable, hardy, and supported by the reli 
 
280 MODERN HISTORY 
 
 gious principle of predestination; the foundation of a desperate 
 kind of hardihood, seldom to be resisted. Her internal resources 
 were not at all considerable, but they were daily improving. When 
 Peter the first came to the crown, her revenues amounted to six 
 millions of roubles; in 1,748 they were nearly quadrupled. Thus 
 rapidly advancing, with one arm reaching to the Baltic, and the 
 other to the Black sea, it was very obvious to discern that when, by 
 good management, her gigantic body should be duly invigorated, 
 she had every chance ot becoming a most formidable power. 
 Already had she shown herself such, to a great degree, in the influ- 
 ence she had acquired in Sweden, Denmark, and Poland ; in her 
 commercial treaties with England, her alliance with Austria, and her 
 wars with the Turks. Her resources and' means of improvement 
 were great ; rivers not only navigable during the summer, but during 
 the winter also, affording, by means of sledges, every opportunity 
 of a quick and easy transport of all sorts of commercial goods ; the 
 greater part of her southern provinces fertile, and requiring little 
 culture ; mines of gold, iron, and copper; great quantities of timber, 
 pitch, tar, and hemp. She had not yet learned to manufacture her 
 own productions, or to export them in her own ships, and conse- 
 quently to make the most of them : but she was in the way to learn 
 such arts, and when once attained, she had the fairest prospects of 
 acquiring a decided superiority, not only in the Baltic, and White 
 sea, but on the Black sea and Caspian. 
 
 7. Turkey, at the middle of the eighteenth century, was compar- 
 atively a gainer by the wars in which she had been engaged. She 
 had taken the Morea from the Venetians, recovered from Austria 
 Belgrade, Servia, and some provinces of Transylvania and Wallachia, 
 and had hitherto baffled the attempts of Russia, to get absolute pos- 
 session of the Crimea, and of the mouths of the Danube. 
 
 8. France obtained little in point of extent by the treaty of Aix- 
 la-Chapelle, but that little was of extreme importance. The posses- 
 sion of Lorraine, in addition to Alsace, and several strong forts on the 
 Rhine, strengthened and completed, in the most perfect manner, her 
 eastern frontier, and placed her in a most commanding attitude with 
 regard to the German states. During the administration of cardinal 
 Fleury, which lasted till the year 1,743, her marine had been de- 
 plorably neglected, while the English had been able to enrich them- 
 selves at the expense of the French, particularly by intercepting 
 many valuable convoys, and capturing many ships of her reduced navy. 
 
 9. An author of reputation has proposed to throw the different 
 European states, at the conclusion of the peace of 1,748, into the 
 four fallowing classes : — 
 
 1. Those mat having armies, fleets, money, and territorial resour- 
 ces, could make war without foreign alliances. Such were England 
 and France. 
 
 2 Those that with considerable and powerful armies, were de 
 pendent on foreign resources. Austria, Prussia, and Russia. 
 
 3. Those that could not engage in war, but in league with other 
 states, subsidized by them, and always regarded in the light of sec- 
 ondary powers by the large ones. Portugal, Sardinia, Sweden, 
 Denmark. 
 
 4. Such as were interested in maintaining themselves in the same 
 condition, and free from the encroachment of others. Switzerland 
 Genoa, Venice, and the German states. 
 
 Holland, Spain, and Naples, being omitted in the above account 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 281 
 
 might reasonably be thrown into a fifth class, as countries generally 
 so connected with England, France, and Austria, as to be constantly 
 involved in every war affecting either of those countries. 
 
 SECTION VI. 
 OF THE SEVEN YEARS 1 WAR, 1,775—1,762. 
 
 1. ThoucH for some short time after the conclusion of the peace 
 of Aix-la-Chapelie, in 1,748, England and France seemed to enjoy, 
 in no common degree, the blessings of peace, and to be upon a foot- 
 ing of perfect amity wrth each other, yet it would appear that the 
 seeds of a future Avar were sown in the very circumstances of that 
 convention. England was left in possession of such a preponderating 
 free ;\t sea, while the French marine, through the parsimony or in- 
 attention of cardinal Fleury, had fallen into so low a state of depres- 
 sion, that it is not to be wondered that all who were interested about 
 the latter, should have their minds tilled with jealousy and resentment. 
 This w 7 as'soon manifested, not only by the vigorous attempts made at 
 this rime to restore the marine of France, but in i\)e projects formed 
 ;'<ir dispossessing the English of their principal settlements in the East 
 Indies and America ; a blow which might have been far more fatal to 
 the English nation, than any leagues or confederacies in favour of the 
 pretender. To secure the cc-operation and support of Spain in these 
 designs, France had endeavoured, in the year 1,753, to draw the lat- 
 ter into a family compact, which, though afterwards brought about, 
 was at this time successfully frustrated, by the extraordinary care 
 and vigilance of the British minister at Madrid. 
 
 2. The peace established in Europe in 1,748, can scarcely be said 
 to have ever been effectually extended to Asia and America. The 
 conquests on each side indeed had been relinquished and surrendered 
 by that treaty, but in a most negligent .manner with respect to limits 
 and boundaries ; and in each of those distant settlements, France at 
 that time happened to have able and enterprising servants, who 
 thought they saw, in their respective governments, such means of 
 aggrandizing themselves and their country, and of thwarting the 
 British interest, as were not to be overlooked or neglected. In the 
 East Indies very extraordinary attempts were made to reduce the 
 whole peninsula of India Proper, in short, the whole Mogul empire, 
 under the dominion of France, by an artful interference in the ap- 
 pointment of the governors of kingdoms and provinces, the Soubah- 
 darS) Nabobs, and Rajahs. The power of the mogul had been irrevoca- 
 bly shaken by Kouli-Khan, in 1,738, from which time the viceroys 
 and other subordinate governors had slighted his authority, and, in 
 a greater or less degree, become independent. The interference of 
 the French was calculated to throw things into confusion, by dispos- 
 sessing those who were adverse to them of their governments and 
 territories, and thus compelling them, as it were, to seek 6uccour from 
 the English ; which ultimately brought the two rival nations of Eu- 
 rope into a state of hostility, not as avowed principals, but as the 
 auxiliaries of the different native princes or nabobs. In no long 
 course of time, things took a turn entirely in favour of the English 
 and their allies; the French were baffled in all their projects, every 
 place they possessed taken from them, a suspension of arms agreed 
 upon, in 1,754. and the French governor, Dupleix, the ambitious and 
 
 A a 2 36 
 
282 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 enterprising author and fomenter of all the troubles, but who ha9 
 been ill-supported by his government at home, recalled from India. 
 
 3. It was at this period that the celebrated Mr. Clive, after vrrds 
 lord Clive, first distinguished himself, who had not only disc- ■••.■■ ent 
 enough to see through and detect all the artifices and <\ ■■•*•«•;. <f 
 Dupleix, but, though not brought up to the military profess >' <>n 
 displayed such skill and courage in conducting the operations ol the 
 army, as speedily established his lame, and laid the foundation for his 
 future elevation and glory. 
 
 4. In America, the boundaries of the ceded provinces not having 
 been justly defined in the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, the French had 
 formed a design of connecting, by a chain of forts, their two distant 
 colonies of Canada and Louisiana, and to confine the English entirely 
 within that tract of country which lies between the Alleghany and 
 Apalachian mountains and the sea. No part of this design could be 
 carried on without manifest encroachment on territories previous!), 
 either by agreement, settlement, or implication, appropriated to 
 others ! Where the boundaries were not precisely defined, ail that w;ls 
 not English or French, belonged to the native tribes, and the only 
 policy that the European colonists had to observe, was to conciliate 
 the friendship, or resist the attacks of these ferocious neighbours. But 
 the scheme the French had in agitation threatened to be extremely 
 injurious to the English colonists; giving them, in case of war, a fron- 
 tier of fifteen hundred miles to defend, not merely against a race of 
 savages, as heretofore, but against savages supported by disciplined 
 troops, and conducted by French officers. 
 
 5. It was not possible for England long to contemplate these ag- 
 gressions and projects without interfering ; but her means of resisting 
 them were n'-t equal to those by which the French were enabled to 
 carry them iito execution. The English colonies were notoriously 
 divided by distinct views and interests ; had many disagreements and 
 differences among themselves, which seemed, for some time at least, 
 totally to pievent their acting in concert, however necessary to 
 their best interests. The French depended on no such precarious 
 Support, but were united both in their object and operations. Hos- 
 tilities, however, did not actually commence till the year 1,755, from 
 which period the contest in North America was carried on with 
 various success, between the French and English, severally assisted 
 by different tribes of Indians ; in the course of which, it is more than 
 probable, that sad acts of cruelty may have been perpetrated, and 
 both nations have been to blame in some particulars ; but it is cer- 
 tainly remarkable, that each party stands charged exclusively with 
 such atrocities by the historians of the adverse side ; and while the 
 English writers attribute the whole war to the intrigues and en- 
 croachments of the French, the latter as confidently ascribe it to the 
 cupidity and aggressions of the English. It is very certain, however, 
 that, before the war actually commenced, the French court made 
 such strong but insincere professions of amity, and a desire of peace, 
 as to deceive its own minister at the court of St. James's, M. de 
 Mirepoix, who felt himself so ill-treated in being made the tool of 
 such duplicity and dissimulation, as to cause him to repair to Paris, 
 to remonstrate with the administration who had so cajoled him. It 
 is necessary to mention these things, where historical truth is the 
 great object in view. , 
 
 6. At the commencement of this contest between France and 
 England, the former seems to have been most successful on land : 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 28» 
 
 but the latter, and to a much greater degree, at sea. Before the 
 end of the first year of the war, no less than tnree hundred French 
 merchant vessels, some of them extremely rich, with eight thousand 
 sailors, being brought into the English ports ; and while the rate of 
 insurance in the latter country continued as usual, in France it 
 quickly rose to 30 per cent., a pretty strong indication of the com- 
 parative inferiority of the latter, as far as regarded her marine, and 
 the safety of her navigation. 
 
 7. But it was soon found expedient by one, if not by both parties, 
 to divert the attention from colonial to continental objects ; a meas- 
 ure which, as in a former instance, the French writers ascri! -e 
 entirely to England, and the English writers as confidently to France ; 
 but it is sufficiently clear that the latter first entertained views upon 
 the electorate of Hanover, which gave that turn to the war in gen- 
 eral. Considering what had passed in the preceding struggle upon 
 the continent, nothing could be more strange than the couduct of the 
 different states of Europe on this particular occasion. Instead ct 
 receiving assistance from the empress queen, whose cause England 
 had so long and so magnanimously supported, and who was hound 
 by treaty to contribute her aid in case of attack, Maria Theresa 
 evaded the applications made to her by the court of St. James's, 
 (perhaps in rather too high and peremptory a tone,) on the pretence 
 that the war between France and England had begun in America ; 
 and she applied herself with peculiar assiduity to recover, through 
 the aid of Russia, the provinces of Silesia and Glatz, which had been 
 ceded to the Prussian monarch. 
 
 u. It has been conjectured that her imperial majesty had been 
 greatly offended at the preliminaries of peace, in 1,740, having 
 been signed by England without her approbation, and that she was 
 capable of carrying her resentment so far as voluntarily to throw 
 herself into the arms of France, without further consideration ; 
 while the French king, whose strange course of life had been too 
 openly ridiculed by the king of Prussia, foolishly suffered himself to 
 be cajoled into an alliance with Austria, after three hundred years of 
 warfare, against his former active and powerful ally ; thereby break 
 ing through the wise system of Richelieu, and helping to raise the 
 very power, of whose greatness France had the most reason to be 
 jealous ; but Maria Theresa, and her minister, prince Kaunitz, to 
 produce this great change in the policy of France, had stooped W 
 flatter and conciliate the king's mistress, the marchioness oi Pom- 
 pad our, 
 
 9. Fortunately for England, however, the conduct of these two 
 courts quickly determined the king of Prussia to form an alliance 
 with the elector of Hanover; to stirle and forget all former differ- 
 ences and animosities, and peremptorily to resist the entrance of for- 
 eign troops into Germany ; a measure which, though first directed 
 against Russia, subsidized by England, equally applied to France. 
 An alliance between the kings of Great Britain and Prussia had long 
 been contemplated by some of the ablest statesmen of the former 
 country, as the most natural and wisest connexion that could be 
 formed to counteract the projects and power of France. Hitherto 
 strong personal jealousies and ill-will on the part of the two sove- 
 reigns had prevented any such union, and now it was brought about 
 by accident; much more, however, to the advantage of Prussia than 
 of Great Britain. It had been proposed in England, to subsidize 
 Russia, but the negotiations of the former with the king of Prussia*, 
 
284 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 whom the czarina personally disliked, produced a close but unex- 
 pected union of Russia, Austria, and France ; not so much against 
 England, perhaps, as against Prussia, nor yet so much against the 
 kingdom of Prussia as against the king himself. 
 
 10. Such was the commencement of what has been termed the 
 seven years' war. It seemed soon to be forgotten that it was origin- 
 al iy a maritime or colonial war. The whole vengeance of France 
 and Austria, in 1,757, was directed against the king of Prussia, and 
 electorate of Hanover. The Prussian monarch, relying on his well- 
 organized army and abundant treasury, despised the powerful com- 
 bination against him, and commenced the war in a most imposing 
 (bough precipitate manner, by dispossessing, at the very outset, the 
 king of Poland, elector of Saxony, in alliance with Austria, of his 
 capita!, of his whole army, and of his electoral dominions, in a way 
 iiitie creditable to his character, notwithstanding the strong political 
 motives alleged in his subsequent manifestoes. The situation of 
 France, by this sudden manoeuvre, was certainly rendered most ex- 
 traordinary, At the commencement of the former war, she had 
 done her utmost to dethrone Augustus, king of Poland, in favour ol 
 Stanislaus, whose daughter had married the French king ; and she 
 had now just as strong and urgent a reason to assist in restoring Au- 
 gustus to his hereditary dominions, the daughter of the latter being 
 married to the dauphin, and the life of the dauphiness having been 
 endangered by the intelligence received of the rigorous treatment of 
 her royal parents. 
 
 11. it was during the seven years' war, that Frederic of Prussia 
 acquired that glory in the held which has rendered his reign so 
 conspicuous and remarkable. The intended victim, as he had great 
 reason to suppose, of an overwhelming confederacy of crowned 
 heads, he lost no time in defending himself against their attacks, by 
 occupying the territories of those who threatened him, so suddenly 
 find arbitrarily indeed, with regard to Saxony, as to give offence to 
 the greater part of Europe; but generally contending with surprising 
 success against superior armies, though incessantly summoned from one 
 held of battle to another, by the numerous and divided attacks of his 
 opponents : nor was there one of all the powers that menaced him, 
 whom he did not find means to humble, and in some instances punish 
 most severely, at first, with an impetuosity bordering upon rashness; 
 afterwards, by more wary and circumspect proceedings. In Silesia, 
 Saxony, Brandenbourg, Hanover, and Westphalia, he had to contend 
 with the armies of the empire, Austria, Russia, Sweden, France, and 
 Saxony : 200,000 men are supposed to have fallen annually in these 
 campaigns. Though often worsted, (as must be the case, where no 
 Consideration of superior numbers is allowed to operate as a check,) his 
 great genius was never more manifested, than in the quick reparation 
 of such reverses. Often did his situation appear perfectly desperate, 
 both to friends and enemies, yet as often did he suddenly succeed in 
 some new effort, and in extricating himself from disasters which 
 threatened entirely to overwhelm him; being ail the while under 
 the ban of the empire, in virtue of a decree of the aulic council, 
 which bound every German circle, in obedience to the imperial 
 orders, to assist in depriving him of his possessions, dignities, and 
 prerogatives. The rapidity of his motions was beyond all example ; 
 neither danger nor misfortune could dishearten him ; and had his 
 moderation been but equal to his courage, had he, in all cases, been 
 as humane as he was brave, his military character would have 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 285 
 
 Stood higher, perhaps, thao that of any other commander, ancient or 
 modern. 
 
 12. The army, it must be acknowledged, for some time afforded 
 but little assistance to, if it did not actually embarrass, the operations 
 of Frederic. A formidable force of 38",000 Hanoverian, Hessian, 
 unci other troops, under the command of the duke of Cumberland, 
 had, in a most extraordinary manner, been reduced, though neither 
 beaten nor actually disarmed, to a state of inactivity, and the king s 
 German dominions abandoned to the enemy, by a convention the 
 most singular upon the records of history ; and if actually necessary, 
 oiiiy rendered so by the .impolitic movements of the cofnmander-in 
 chief, who, instead of endeavouring to join the Prussians, after a 
 sharp contest, in which the French had the advantage, retreated in ;i 
 totally different direction, merely to keep up, as it has been supposed, 
 a communication with the place to which the archives and mosc 
 valuable effects of Hanover had been removed. 
 
 13. This convention, indeed, signed at Closter-seven, September 
 8, 1,757, was said to have been concluded against the wishes of -tin* 
 royal commander Jiimself, and entirely at the instance and requisition 
 of the regency of Hanover. Be this, however, as it may, it was un- 
 doubtedly almost fatal to the king of Prussia, and exceedingly 
 humiliating to England, though ultimately attended with this good 
 effect, that it seems to have roused and stimulated both the pcopk* 
 and government to greater exertions. Unfortunately much of this 
 good spirit and renewed activity was wasted in fruitless attempts on 
 the coast of France, which cost the nation much money, and, as it 
 turned out contributed little or nothing to her glory and advantage :, 
 the demolition of the works at Cherburg, and capture of Belle Isle, 
 i,7Gl, which was of use afterwards, as an exchange for Minora*, 
 being all she had to boast of. To her great and indefatigable ally, 
 the king of Prussia, these expeditions to the French coast could be 
 of no use, except in diverting a part at least of the French forces, 
 which might otherwise have been opposed to him ; but they had 
 scarcely this effect, and though that great minister, Mr. Pitt, after- 
 wards lord Chatham, appears to have been the chief promoter of 
 these measures, in opposition to many members of the British 
 cabinet, the policy of them, even had they been more successful, ha* 
 been pretty generally questioned. Her soldiers, many thought, were 
 principally wanting in Germany, the grand theatre of military opera- 
 tions, to strengthen and give effect to the judicious and bold measures 
 of prince Ferdinand, who, being, by the advice, it is said, of tha 
 Prussian monarch, on the retirement of the duke of Cumberland^ 
 after the convention spoken of, placed at the head of the allied 
 army, had succeeded in compelling the French to evacuate Hanover, 
 Brunswick, and Bremen. England indeed had been liberal in her 
 subsidies, even to a degree that some thought unwise and extrava- 
 gant, and she had been successful in America, Asia, Africa, and geiv 
 erally on the ocean. The French navy indeed, was almost annihilat- 
 ed ; and her colonies, both in the east and west, had fallen a prey to 
 the English armies ; even Canada, the source and focus, as it were, of 
 the transatlantic disputes between England and France, was complete- 
 ly subdued by the armies under the command of Wolte, Townshend, 
 Monckton, Murray, and Amherst, who displayed such zeal, valour, 
 and abilities, in the capture of the towns of Quebec and Montreal, as 
 have never been exceeded. 
 
 14. Though prince Ferdinand had driven the French back, it was 
 
206 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 doubted whether the forces under his command would be sufficient 
 to maintain these advantages ; apprehensions, indeed, were entertain- 
 ed, that he might be reduced to form another convention as humiliat- 
 ing as that of Closter-seven. But the genius and valour of this 
 great prince surmounted the difficulties in which he seemed to be 
 placed, by most judiciously, and with no small art, compelling the 
 French to come to an engagement, under circumstances peculiarly 
 favourable to the allied armv; and the battle of Minden, which took 
 place August 1, 1,759, though the subject afterwards of much jealousy 
 amongst the allies, effectually relieved the electorate of Hanover, and 
 the greater part of Westphalia, from the presence of the French. 
 
 15. It was at this period, August 10, 1,759, that Ferdinand VI., 
 of Spain, died, and was succeeded by his brother, don Carlos, king 
 of the two Sicilies, under the title of Charles III., in consequence 
 of which succession, and according to the terms of the treaty of 
 Aix-la-Chapelle, don Philip should have surrendered the duchies of 
 Parma, Placentia, and Guastalla to Austria and Sardinia, and remov- 
 ed to Naples, (see Sect. V. § 5;) but as Charles III. had never acced- 
 ed to that treaty, he left the crown of the two Sicilies to his third son, 
 Ferdinand, and don Philip agreed, and was allowed by Austria, to 
 retain the three duchies ; the courts of France and Spain having 
 managed to quiet the alarms of Sardinia, in regard to the reversion 
 of Placentia. 
 
 1 6. The removal of don Carlos to Spain, at a time when so many 
 advantages had been gained over the French by the English, at sea 
 and }n America, justly alarmed the new monarch Vor his own colonies 
 and settlements jn those parts ; and these apprehensions soon became 
 a reason for his entering into a family compact with France, which 
 had been attempted before, but frustrated by the care and vigilance 
 of the British minister. It was in fact entirely arranged and con- 
 cluded in the month of August, 1,761, and extended to all the Bou/^ 
 boti princes ; it was a treaty of mutual and reciprocal naturalization, 
 and equality of rights, to the subjects of all the Bourbon states. 
 France, Spain, the two Sicilies, Parma, and Placentia, with a general 
 guarantee of each other's dominions, under all possible circumstances 
 except one, which was, that Spain should be excused from interfering 
 in way quarrels of France, arising out of the treaty of Westphalia, 
 unless some maritime power should take part in such disputes, or 
 France be invaded. 
 
 1 7. The above clause in the treaty was judged to be so evident!} 
 aimed at England, as to justify an immediate declaration of war 
 against Spain on the part of the former, which accordingly took 
 place early in the year 1,762 ; nor was Spain backward in following 
 the example against England, in resentment, as it was alleged, of the 
 supercilious and arbitrary manner, in which the latter had interfered 
 with regard to the family compact. 
 
 18. Ihe first fruits of this extraordinary confederacy were a gross 
 attempt upon the independency of Portugal, as an ally of England, 
 by France and Spain ; an attempt the most appalling to Portugal, 
 had not her brave and honourable sovereign resolved rather to per- 
 ish than to submit to the terms dictated to him by the combined mon* 
 archs. England was in every way bound to give aid and support to 
 her ancient and faithful ally, on so trying an occasion ; and, fortunately, 
 her help came so opportunely and so promptly, as to enable the 
 king of Portugal to repel the Spaniards, who had not only passed the 
 frontiers, but actually taken several towns. Thus was that monarch 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 28T 
 
 and his dominions saved from the effects of as wicked and arbitrary 
 a design as was ever entertained against an independent or neutral 
 potentate, and that on the sole ground of his connexion with Eng- 
 land at the moment ; to whose resentment he would of course have 
 been exposed, had he tamely submitted to the tyrannical demands of 
 France and Spain. In either case, he seemed to be threatened with 
 ruin and destruction, had things taken a different turn, from what 
 actually came to pass. 
 
 19. The hostilities into which Great Britain was driven by this 
 unprovoked attack upon Portugal, as well as by the threatening 
 aspect and spirit of tne family compact, which seemed to undo aO 
 that had been accomplished by the succession war, were in every 
 instance crowned with success ; so that in both hemispheres, her arms 
 may be said to have been victorious, and her triumph complete ; and 
 Spain had great cause to rue her short concern in the war, into 
 which she had been cajoled by France, and which operated as fully 
 to the disappointment of the latter power. In the mean while, the 
 king of Prussia, who had been brought to the very verge of ruin, 
 according to his own statement and confession, was most unexpect- 
 edly relieved by surprising changes in the Russian councils, through 
 the demise of Elizabeth, and accession of Peter III., whose reign in- 
 deed was too short to enable him to render any real assistance to 
 the king of Prussia, in the held, which might have been expected 
 from the enthusiastic admiration with which his actions were beheld 
 by the Russian monarch. But this weak, though benign prince, in 
 consequence of his too extensive plans of reform, and a difference 
 with his empress, was soon removed ; and though his successor and 
 consort,* Catherine the second, did not by any means pay the same 
 court to Frederic, yet her opposition to him was very slight, and 
 soon terminated by a treaty of peace, in which she was followed by 
 Sweden. 
 
 20. All these things evidently tended towards a general peace, if 
 England, who had certainly been the most successful of all the pow- 
 ers concerned, could be brought to consent to be stopped in her 
 career of victory and triumph. A change of ministry had, however, 
 laid the foundation for such measures. Mr. Pitt, who was lor the 
 continuance of the war, on some private information, as it has been 
 thought, of the progress and terms of the family compact, had re- 
 signed soon after the demise of the king, George II. ; and lord Bute, 
 who owed his place and power as minister, much more to the per- 
 sonal good-will and attachment of the new king, than to the voice 
 and favour of the people, foreseeing that it might be difficult for 
 him to raise either money or men for the prosecution of the war, 
 (bounties for recruits, in particular, having risen to an unexampled 
 height,) and having against him many important individuals of both 
 parties, entered freely into negotiations with France, which were 
 brought to an issue by the peace of Paris, (or Fontainebleau,) 1,763. 
 
 21. This treaty was not popular in England, though, undoubtedly,, 
 she reaped the benefit of many remarkable concessions, particularly 
 m America, where she acquired, not only the whole province of 
 Canada, but part of Louisiana ; tne junction of which two distant 
 French settlements, to the embarrassment, and possibly, total subjec 
 lion of the English colonies, had been the express occasion of the 
 war ; but by many persons it was thought, and perhaps with great 
 reason, that England had surrendered too much, considering the 
 high situation in which she stood, and the advantages that might 
 
288 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 have been reaped by a little longer continuance of the war ; and m 
 what she both surrendered and retained, an ill and impolitic selec- 
 tion, it was alleged, had been made of posts and settlements. The 
 treaty of Hubertsburg, by which the war was terminated between 
 Austria and Prussia in the same year, 1,763, restored matters, in re- 
 gard to those two powers, exactly to their former state, after seven 
 most destructive and expensive campaigns ! Nothing of territory 
 was lost and nothing gained by either party. England, undoubtedly, 
 was left in the highest state of prosperity at the conclusion of these 
 two treaties. Her navy unimpared, or rather augmented at the ex- 
 pense of the navy of France ; her commerce extending from one 
 extremity of the globe to the other, with an accession ol important 
 settlements ceded to her by France in Asia, Africa, and America. 
 
 SECTION VII. 
 
 FROM THE ACCESSION OF GEORGE III. 1,760, TO THE COM- 
 MENCEMENT OF THE DISPUTES WITH AMERICA, 1,764. 
 
 1. Though a new enemy, for a very short time, was added to the 
 list of those who were contending with England and her allies, 
 when George the second died, by the accession of Spain to the 
 family compact, and continental confederacy, in 1,761, yet the seven 
 year/ war, through the exhaustion of the allies of Austria, par- 
 ticularly the Saxons, Poles, and French, may be said to have been 
 drawing to a conclusion, when George 111. ascended the tlxrone of 
 Great Britain, on the demise of his grandfather, October 25, 1,760. 
 For the termination of that war, see Sect. VI. 
 
 2. Much notice was taken of a passage in the king's first speech 
 to his parliament, in which he expressed the glory he felt in having 
 been born and educated in Britain ; and though some have pretended 
 to see in it, a reflection on his royal predecessors, yet it was surely 
 wise in the first sovereign of the house of Hanover, who stood clear 
 of foreign manners, and foreign partialities, so to bespeak the love 
 and attachment of his subjects. It is true, indeed, that England had 
 prospered in no common degree from the first accession of that 
 illustrious family, but it cannot be denied, that a distaste of foreign 
 manners, as well as a jealousy of foreign partialities, had occasionally 
 interrupted the proceedings of government, and were at all events 
 calculated to keep up, in the minds of the disaffected, a remembrance 
 of the breach that had been made in the succession to the throne. 
 Fourteen years having passed since any attempt had been made to 
 reetore the Stuart family, and the condition ot that family having 
 become such, as to render any further endeavours to that effect, ex- 
 tremely improbable, nothing more seemed wanting to remove all 
 remaining prejudices against the Brunswick line of princes, than 
 that the sovereign should be a native of the land he ruled. 
 
 3. In addition to this tie upon his subjects, every thing seemed to 
 conspire, as far as regarded the character, manners, and dispositio.- 
 of the young king, to secure to him the attachment of his people ; 
 and to give hopes of a quiet and tranquil reign. One of the very 
 first acts of which was calculated to impress the idea of his being a 
 true friend to the liberty of the subject, by rendering the judges 
 independent of the crown. His majesty was married, soon after nis 
 accession, to the princess Charlotte of Mecklenhurgh Strelitz, with 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 289 
 
 whom he was crowned al Westminster, on the 22d day of Septem 
 ber, 1,761. 
 
 4. However promising the appearances both of external and in- 
 ternal tranquillity might be, at the commencement of the new 
 reign, it was not long before the nation became agitated by party 
 disputes and differences, of no small importance. In 1,762, a ques- 
 tion arose, which though it led to very distressing tumults, terminat 
 ed in the relief of the subject from an arbitrary process, exceedingly 
 repugnant to the spirit of the constitution, and the great charter of 
 British liberty. General warrants, and the seizure of private papers 
 without sufficient necessity, the legality of which had been disputed, 
 in the case of Mr. Wilkes, member for Ailesbury, during which that 
 gentlemen displayed considerable fortitude, though certainly with 
 great failure of respect towards the crown, were declared to be 
 illegal by a solemn decree of parliament, 1,765, nor has any attempt 
 been since made to reinvest the government with so dangerous and 
 formidable a power. The question of general warrants, however, 
 was not the only one in which Mr. Wilkes appeared as the champion 
 of the people's liberties. Being elected for Middlesex, after having 
 been expelled the house, he claimed his seat, in deriance of the res- 
 olutions of parliament, but was not allowed to sit. Five years after- 
 wards, he was permitted again to enter the house of commons ; but 
 in this instance the parliament maintained its power of declaring a 
 particular individual disqualified, against the decision of a majority 
 of electors ; a curious point as atiecting the consiitution, and the 
 elective franchise. 
 
 5. Though the courts of Vienna, France, and Prussia, had cause to 
 be tired of the war, in which they had been engaged since the year 
 1,755, it is certain that England was in a state to continue it, especial- 
 ly by sea, when the treaty of Paris, or Fontainebleau, was concluded, 
 in 1,763. As long as Mr. Pitt continued a member of administration, 
 the war had been carried on vigorously, and had become exceeding- 
 ly popular, so that on the resignation of that great minister, in 1,761, 
 and the appointment of lord Bute, whose distrust of his own abilities 
 to continue it, disposed him to listen to the overtures of France, 
 great di scontents arose. The minister was suspected of harbouring 
 in his breast the most despotic principles, and of having inculcated 
 the same into the mind of his sovereign, while yet a youth. He 
 was supposed to possess too exclusive an influence in that quarter ; 
 and though, in private life, a most respectable nobleman, of great 
 worth and probity, learning, and talents, his public measures were 
 the continual theme of obloquy and abuse. Had Mr. Pitt continued 
 in office, it is more than probable that the allies might have gained 
 greater advantages on the continent, and the Spaniards been more 
 severely punished for their interference ; so that the pacific meas- 
 ures of the new minister, drew upon him the displeasure, if not the 
 contempt, as well of his own countrymen, as of the king of Prussia 
 also ; who in his writings has inveighed greatly against the prevail 
 ing influence of the noble earl at this period, in the cabinet and coun 
 cils of Great Britain. 
 
 6. The riots and tumults excited by the proceedings against Mr 
 Wilkes, and the extreme unpopularity of lord Bute, contributed to 
 render the first years of the reign of George III. exceedingly unqui- 
 et, and to involve his majesty in many unpleasant difficulties, from 
 the addresses, petitions, and remonstrances, which flowed in upon 
 liim, often couched in such language as it was impossible not to re- 
 
 * ■ Bb 37 
 
290 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 sent, and as often insinuating what, perhaps, was not founded on 
 truth : for it has never yet been clearly ascertained that the public 
 actually suffered from any improper secret influence, or that the 
 measures of lord Bute, with regard to the peace of Paris, all things 
 considered, were impolitic or unwise. The worst feature in this 
 peace, with regard to England, seems to have been, the failure to 
 guard against the effects, in future, of the family compact, which 
 was left in full force. Mr. Pitt had his eye constantly upon this, and, 
 had he continued in power, would, no doubt, have continued the 
 war with spirit and perseverance : this great minister had retired 
 undisgraced; he received a pension indeed for himself, and a peer- 
 age for his lady. His politics, to the day of his death, continued 
 widely different from those of lord Bute, and were constantly more 
 popular: but the great fault of the latter seems to have been, that 
 he engaged in public business, contrary to the bent of his own dispo- 
 sition, and was too sensible of his unpopularity, to undertake any 
 measure that required much public support. All he did, therefore, 
 seemed to be managed in the way of private influence, cabal, and 
 intrigue. 
 
 7. In addition to the addresses and remonstrances alluded to in the 
 foregoing section, the popular fervour and agitation received consid- 
 erable encouragement from the letters of an anonymous writer, 
 never yet discovered, — a writer who displayed such an extraordi- 
 nary knowledge of the proceedings of the court and cabinet, and 
 had the power of expressing himself in a style so vigorous, striking, 
 nnd keenly satirical, as to demand the attention of all parties, and 
 confound the majority of those whom he personally attacked. But 
 the extreme severity of a concealed and unknown accuser, and the 
 gross personalities in which he often indulged, not sparing majesty 
 itself, threw a cloud over his writings, which can never be done 
 away, to the satisfaction of any candid or liberal mind. Though the 
 mention of these celebrated letters is rather anticipated in this place, 
 as they did not publicly appear till the year 1,769, yet, as they par- 
 ticularly relate to the foregoing transactions, and state of affairs in 
 the early years of the reign of George III., and long preceded the 
 actual commencement of the war with America, the first authors of 
 which he seemed disposed to screen^ a better opportunity of intro- 
 ducing the subject might scarcely be found. The many fruitless, but 
 very curious attempts that have been made, at various times, to dis- 
 cover the real author, have contributed, in addition to the extraordi- 
 nary character of the work itself, and the political questions discuss- 
 ed in it, to prevent its ever sinking into oblivion. The letters of 
 Jkmim,w\\.h all their blemishes, will probably never fail to find a 
 place in the libraries of the British scholar, and British statesman. 
 
 8. In the prosecution of this work, it should also be noticed, that a 
 great constitutional point came under discussion, namely, whether, 
 m cases of libel, the jury were judges of the law, as well as of the 
 fact. In most other cases, no such difficulty seemed to occur. In 
 cases of murder, not only the act of killing, but the murderous in- 
 tent, was submitted to the decision of the jury ; and in trials for felony 
 of every description, the course was the same. Lord Mansfield, in 
 this case, insisted that the jury had only to decide on the fact of 
 publication, and that the court was to determine upon the law of 
 fibel. This has generally been disputed by juries ; and they have 
 found ways of evading the difficulty, by either themselves referring 
 Che law to the judge, by a special verdict, or by pronouncing a gea- 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 291 
 
 eral acquittal. Unfortunately, libels are of that description as con- 
 stantly to excite those jealousies and suspicions, from which every 
 court of justice should be free. They affect, also, two of the high- 
 est privileges of Englishmen, — the right of private judgment, and 
 the liberty of the press. In the case of Junius, the point in dispute 
 was by no means so settled as to obviate future differences. 
 
 9. The year 1,764 is memorable for the commencement of the 
 dispute between Great Britain and her American colonies ; but a- 
 the history of this contest involves many curious questions of policy; 
 as its results, in regard not only to England and America, but to tne 
 world in general, were very important; and its termination led to a 
 total separation of the colonies from the mother country, thereby 
 establishing a distinct state and government of European settlers in 
 the western hemisphere, the detail&of it will be reserved for another 
 section. 
 
 SECTION VIII. 
 
 DISPUTES BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN AND HER AMERICAN 
 COLONIES. 1,764—1,783. 
 
 1. The seven years' war, terminated by the peace of Paris, or Fon- 
 tainebleau, in 1,763, had been begun in America, as has been shown- 
 (Sect. VI.) Great Britain, at considerable expense of men and 
 money, had resisted the encroachments of France on the British 
 colonies, and thereby afforded to the latter, protection, perhaps be 
 yond what any commercial benefits, under the colonial system, 
 could be said fully to compensate. A question therefore arose, 
 whether the colonies might not be called upon to contribute, by di- 
 rect taxation, to the relief of the general expenses and burthens 61 
 the mother country. The national debt, it was argued by the British 
 government, was the debt of every individual in the whole empire, 
 whether in Asia, America, or nearer home. 
 
 2. The question, however, was no sooner started than decided 
 by administration ; chiefly through the influence and on the sugges- 
 tion of Mr. George Grenville, then prime-minister, who, in the very 
 year succeeding the peace of Paris, procured the stamp-act to be 
 passed, by which the Americans were directly subjected to a tax 
 imposed by the British parliament, without their own consent, not 
 immediately applicable to their own wants or necessities, and contrary 
 to every former mode of raising money for such purposes. This 
 was certainly sufficient to excite alarm, and lead to questions of pol- 
 icy and prudence ; of power and right ; of legislation and represen- 
 tation ; never yet so thoroughly discussed or investigated. Flitherto, 
 without questioning the power, government had- forborne from 
 taxing them as a matter of policy and propriety ; and thus, as it 
 was well said at the time, those two very difficult points, superiority 
 in the ^residing state, and freedom in the subordinate, had been prac- 
 tically reconciled. 
 
 3. The situation of America rendered these questions the more 
 important and alarming to the mother country, in case of opposition, 
 as having been originally peopled from Europe, in a great measure, 
 by refugees, exiles, and persons adverse to the governments, which 
 they had left, both in church and state, and well inclined, probably, to 
 
m MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 assert a republican independence. Their legislative assemblies were 
 already of the popular cast, and their feelings and spirits accordant. 
 It must also be admitted, that upon the very ground of pecuniary or 
 other aids, they had much to allege in respect of their benehcial 
 returns to England, in taking her manufactures, and having assisted 
 her in the conquest of Canada. Most unfortunately, the very grants 
 which had been made by their assemblies, in aid of England, during 
 the last war, were alleged as an argument (a most irritating one, un- 
 doubtedly,) of their ability to pay any imposts the parliament might 
 choose to lay upon them. 
 
 4. As the ministry had decided hastily upon the general question, 
 they seem also to have suffered themselves to be precipitated into 
 some of the worst measures they could have adopted to render their 
 novel demands palatable. Their very hist tax, imposed by the 
 stamp act of 1,764, though simple in its principle, was ill-suited to 
 the state of America. The mere distribution of the stamps, through 
 such a variety of different states, involved in it a thousand difficulties; 
 and there were provisions in the act itself, which might, if at ail 
 abused or neglected, have subjected the people to unheard of vexa- 
 tions and oppressions. It is scarcely, therefore, to be wondered that, 
 on its first promulgation in America, the act should have been re- 
 ceived with the greatest indignation, and even with defiance. 
 
 5. In the mean time, the cause of the Americans was espoused 
 by a strong party at home, a party, so far from being contemptible, 
 as to include some of the first persons of the nation, both in rank and 
 importance. The debates in both houses were violent, but the topics 
 discussed, in -every point of view, interesting. The friends of the 
 Americans, if it may be proper now to call them so, obtained and 
 swayed, for a very short period, the helm of government. In June, 
 1,765, the Grenville administration was dismissed, and a new one, at 
 the head of which was placed the marquis of Rockingham, came 
 into power, through the mediation of the duke of Cumberland. 
 They continued in office, however, for little more than one year ; 
 but in that short space of time, the stamp-act, which had been so ill 
 received in America, was formally repealed. 
 
 6. But the grand question relating to the right of taxation was 
 by no means determined by this measure : a declaratory act was 
 particularly passed at the same time, for maintaining the constitu- 
 tional authority of Great Britian, in "all cases whatsoever;*' and 
 though there was certainly no design, in those who promoted the 
 repeal, to act upon this authority, by establishing any other tax of 
 a similar kind, yet the colonists v\ ere prepared, as much as ever, 
 to dispute the principle, as far as it regarded taxation ; and their 
 courage and confidence at this time stood high, in consequence of 
 the importance which had been given to them in the last war, and 
 their emancipation from all dread of the French and Spaniards, by 
 the cession of Canada and the Floridas. In the colony of Virginia 
 the right of taxation was voted to rest entirely in the king, or his 
 representative, and the general assembly of the colony. This was, 
 undoubtedly, the usual course of things ; and in this way subsidies to 
 a considerable amount had been granted to the crown. This prece- 
 dent was soon foi lowed by others of the legislative bodies, and 
 adopted in the general congress of New York, 1,765. 
 
 7. It was not pretended that the Americans paid no taxes ; but a 
 distinction was now set up, which there had been no occasion to 
 insist upon before. To external taxation, through the operation of 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 laws of trade and navigation, enacted in the mother country, they 
 were willing to yield submission ; they had constantly done so, nor 
 were they now disposed to resist such enactments; but all inter- 
 nal duties for raising a revenue, or supporting establishments, were 
 held to be very differently circumstanced. Taxes of this nature 
 were considered as being, in the very language of parliament itself, 
 gifts, and grants. None, therefore, it was urged, could give the 
 money of America but the people of America themselves. If they 
 chose to make such grants, they might receive a legislative sanction, as 
 in England ; but legislation and taxation were distinct things. Tax- 
 ation, according to the spirit of the English constitution, implying 
 consent, direct or by representation, could not otherwise be rendered 
 either legal or just. Local circumstances would render the repre- 
 sentation of America, in the British parliament, impracticable, 
 and a supposed virtual representation was no less than mockery. 
 The representatives of England, in taxing others, taxed themselves 
 also ; but this could not be the case in regard to American imposts. 
 
 8. Such were some of the strongest reasons urged against the 
 measure in general; but, as the right of taxation had not been ex- 
 pressly given up by any part in England, but rather insisted upon in the 
 declaratory act, no concession short of this seemed likely to do good. 
 The stamp-act had caused an irritation, which no qualified repeal 
 couid allay : internal taxation was not only resisted as an encroachment 
 on e3iablished rights and usages, but, in resentment of such wrongs, 
 attempts were made to hinder the further operation even of exter- 
 nal taxation. Non-importation, and non-consumption agreements 
 were soon entered into, and associations formed to methodise and 
 consolidate the opposition to government. A resolution had been 
 passed when lord North was minister, promising to desist from all 
 taxation, except commercial imposts, whenever any one of the 
 colonial assemblies should vote a reasonable sum, as a revenue, to be 
 appropriated by parliament; but this had no good effect. 
 
 9. In so embarrassed a state of things, it is not very surprising 
 that the ministry at home should have entertained wrong measures, 
 and miscalculated the effects of the plans they were pursuing* 
 The truth of history tends to show that, however they might be 
 embarrassed by an active opposition in parliament, that opposition 
 fairly forewarned (hem of the consequences of their meditated pro 
 ceedings, which came to pass exactly as they had been foretold. 
 But after this demand had once provoked the question of right, and 
 that question had divided the people of both countries into two strong 
 parties, things soon fell into that state, in which it became impossible 
 to restore affairs to their original condition, either by perseverance 
 or concession. Every effort of coercion was resented as an illegal 
 encroachment; every conciliatory proposition received as a proof 
 of alarm and timidity, and as a pledge of victory and success to fu 
 ture opposition. 
 
 10. It has been questioned whether independence was not in the 
 view of the Americans from the very first stirring of the question, 
 or even previously ; but had this been the case, they would have 
 been more prepared ; their addresses to the king and parliament, on 
 various occasions, after the commencement of the dispute, must have 
 been fallacious to the highest pitch of dissimulation, if they had de- 
 termined against all compromise from the very beginning ; but, in- 
 deed, the remonstrances and complaints of General Washington, on 
 the ill state of his army, and total want of many essential requisites, 
 
 Bb2 
 
204 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 on first taking the command, seem clearly to prove that they were 
 driven to assert their independence by the course of things; a large 
 portion of their fellow-subjects and countrymen on both sides of the 
 Atlantic, judged them to be oppressed, and thus gave a character to 
 their opposition which could not very creditably be forfeited. Upon 
 the whole it may be considered probable that some of the most 
 prominent and active leaders of the revolution had very early con- 
 ceived the design of establishing the independence of their country ; 
 but that the mass of the people in the colonies, had no such inten- 
 tion until after their first successes. 
 
 11. Hostilities did not actually commence till the year 1,775, ten 
 years from the first passing of the stamp-act. In a short time after 
 the passing of that act, it was repealed, as has been stated; but in 
 1,767 the project of tnxing America was revived by Mr. Charles 
 Townshend, and from that period to the commencement of the war, 
 both countries were in a state of the greatest agitation. Debates 
 ran high at home, and in America their gravest proceedings were ac- 
 companied with such threats of defiance, and such indignant resent- 
 ment of all innovations, as almost necessarily to bring (hem under the 
 strong hand of power. But government underrated tl^eir means of 
 resistance; when brought into a state of union, by the congress, 
 their force was no longer to be despised ; all temporizing expedients 
 were at an end, a circumstance ill understood by the ministry at 
 horn?, who lost much time in endeavouring to retrieve matteiv by 
 fruitless attempts, sometimes in the way of conciliation, and at 
 others, of inethcient resistance. Thus, when in 1,770 many com- 
 mercial duties were taken off, which the mother country had an un- 
 doubted right to impose, the concession was ill received, in conse- 
 quence of the single exception of tea, which was continued in order 
 to assert the rights and supremacy of Great Britain ; but this was 
 done in a manner too imperious, and without sufficient force tosubdue 
 the resentment it was calculated to excite, at such a moment. At 
 the very breaking out of the war, ministers appear to have been by 
 far too confident of speedily suppressing so formidable an insurrec- 
 tion ; an ii^urrection which had had time allowed it to organize 
 itself, and which had drawn upon it the attention of the whole civ- 
 ilized world. 
 
 12. The war may be said to have actually commenced only on 
 the 14th of April, 1,775, though some English regiments had been 
 sent to Boston so early as the year 1,768. In an affair at Lexington, 
 amounting to no more than a skirmish, the English were completely 
 worsted, a circumstance calculated to give spirits to the Americans, 
 at a most awful and momentous period. General Washington, who 
 had distinguished himself in the war against the French, and bore a 
 most irreproachable character, was appointed to take the command 
 of the American army ; a post of the utmost responsibility, and re- 
 quiring talents, temper, and discretion, of no common description. 
 
 13. The sword being drawn, and no hopes remaining of an amica- 
 ble adjustment of differences between the crown and its transatlantic 
 subjects, now in a state of open revolt ; and the success of the first 
 liostiii : "S having animated the military ardour of the Americans, 
 they proceeded, by a solemn declaration of the general congress at 
 Philadelphia, July 4, 1,776, to declare the thirteen provinces inde- 
 pendent ; by which act America may be said to have been divided 
 from the mother country, 294 years after the discovery of that coun- 
 kry by Columbus; 166 from the first settlement of Virginia; and 156 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 295 
 
 from the settlement of Plymouth in Massachusetts Bay. The Amei 
 ican Congress exercised its important functions with great energy 
 and dignity, and the campaign of 1,77G turned out favourably for the 
 Americans, and highly to the credit of their very able and brave 
 commander. 
 
 14. Whether it were owing to the low opinion entertained by the 
 government at home, of the resistance likely to be offered by the 
 Americans, or to a dislike of the cause in which they were engaged 
 on the part of the British commanders, it is exceedingly certain, that 
 the English army did not obtain the advantages it was supposed it 
 might have done, or proceed as if it were able speedily to crush the 
 rebellion that had been raised. The American troops were every 
 day improving, and every day deriving encouragement, either from 
 unexpected successes, or the inactivity of the armies opposed to 
 them. On the other hand, the English were either indulging in 
 pleasure, when they should have been in action, or disheartened by 
 sudden surprises or repulses, which redounded greatly to the credit 
 of their less disciplined, and less organized opponents. In a short 
 time, however, the war became more complicated, and opened a 
 scene, which not only involved the continent of Europe in the con- 
 flict of the day, but probably led to changes and convulsions, as ex- 
 traordinary and as extensive as ever the world experienced. 
 
 15. in the month of November, 1,776, the celebrated Dr. Franklin 
 and Silas Deane had been despatched by congress, to solicit, at the 
 court of Versailles, the aid and assistance of French troops. Accord- 
 ing to the former course of things, nothing could be more strange 
 than such an application, at such a court ; an application from rebel- 
 lious subjects, from the assertors of republican independence, to a 
 court celebrated for the most refined despotism, and ruling a people, 
 heretofore the grossest admirers and flatterers of regal power; an 
 application from persons of the simplest habits; frugal, temperate, 
 industrious, find little advanced in civilization, to a court immersed in 
 pleasure, gay, and dissipated, profligate and corrupt, civilized to the 
 highest pitch of courtly refinement, of polished manners, and of 
 splendid luxury : lastly, an application from a people who had car- 
 ried their dissent from the church of Rome farther than any protes- 
 tants in Europe, to a court still subject to the papal see, a cherished 
 branch of the catholic church. 
 
 16. Extraordinary, however, in ail respects, as this American mis- 
 sion seems to have been, it met with a cordial and favourable recep- 
 tion. Even the queen of France was found to espouse the cause of 
 the revolted subjects of Great Britain, little foreseeing the handle 
 she was giving to many keen observers of her own courtly extrava- 
 gance and thoughtless dissipation. The die was soon cast ; a formal 
 treaty was entered into, acknowledging the independency of Amer- 
 ica ; succour and support to a large extent promised, and otlicers ap- 
 pointed to conduct the French forces, likely, it would seem, above 
 all others, to imbibe the spirit of freedom, which animated the 
 Americans, and to espouse their cause upon principle. They were 
 all noble, indeed ; but in America they were sure to be taught how 
 vain were such distinctions, if not supported by public opinion, 
 
 17. The English government was not formerly apprised ,of this 
 unexpected alliance, till the year 1,778, when it received a very 
 curious and insulting notification of it from the French ambassador. 
 It does not appear that the aid thus obtained by the American mis- 
 sion, was altogether grateful to the Americans themselves, though it 
 
296 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 had the full effect of raising up new and powerful enemies against 
 the 'mother country, and involving Europe in their cause ; for, 
 through the French influence, in the year 1,779, Spain joined the 
 confederacy against England, and, in 1,780, Holland. In the mean 
 while commissioners had heen sent from England to America, to 
 treat for peace, but the Americans, insisting on the previous ac- 
 knowledgment of their independency, rendered their attempts fruit- 
 less. 
 
 18 Whatever loss of fame, reputation, and territory Great Britain 
 incurred in America, her arms never shone with greater lustre than 
 on some occasions in which she was engaged during this war. with 
 the confederate powers of Europe ; in Asia particularly, she was 
 acquiring an 'empire ten times greater in wealth and population, than 
 all she bad to lose in the west: but of all her achievements at this 
 period, none, perhaps, was so conspicuous, none so glorious, as the 
 defence of Gibraltar under General Elliot, afterwards lord Heath- 
 field, against the combined forces of Spain and France. The prepa- 
 rations made to recover that important fortress for Spnin, exceeded 
 every thing before known. The ultimate success of the. attempt 
 was calculated upon as so certain, that some of the French princes 
 of the blood, repaired to the. Spanish camp merely to witness its sur- 
 render. But the heroism of the troops in garrison baffled all their 
 designs, and the timely arrival of the British fleet completed the 
 triumph, in October, 1,782. The siege (begun in 1,779) was entire- 
 ly abandoned, with the loss of ail the Spanish floating batteries, and 
 the defeat of the combined fleets of France and Spain, by lord Howe. 
 This action took pince on the 20th of October; in the following 
 month provisional articles of peace were signed at Paris, by British 
 and American commissioners, and early in the ensuing year a treaty 
 concluded at Versailles, between Great Britain, France, and Spain, 
 to which, in February, Holland also acceded. 
 
 19. Towards the close of the war, many important discussions in 
 parliament took place on the American affairs, in which it was 
 found, that those who had most espoused her cause, on the question 
 of internal taxation, and most objected to the measures of administra- 
 tion in the conduct of the war, differed, at the last, from each other, 
 on the question of American independence ; a difference rendered 
 peculiarly memorable, as being the subject of the last speech and 
 appearance in parliament of that illustrious statesman, the earl of 
 Chatham. On April 7, 1,778, though labouring under a severe lit of 
 illness, he appeared in his place, in the house of lords, and delivered 
 a most animated and energetic speech, in which he strongly protest- 
 ed against the surrender of the sovereignty of Great Britain over 
 her colonies ; soon after, rising to reply to the Duke of Richmond, 
 he fell back on the seat in a fainting fit, and in a few days expired, 
 at his seat in Kent. In four years from this event, Great Britain was 
 compelled, to yield .upon this great point, and, by the peace of Ver- 
 sailles, ratified and concluded September 3, 1,783, the thirteen United 
 olonies of America were admitted to be "Free, Sovereign, and indepen- 
 dent States " 
 
MODERN HISTORY. m 
 
 SECTION IX. 
 
 FRANCE, FROM THE PEACE OF PARIS, 1,763, TO THE 
 OPENING OF THE ASSEMBLY OF THE STATES GENERAL, 
 1,789. 
 
 1. For the affairs of France, from the death of Lewis XIV., to 
 the peace of Vienna, L/738, (see Sect. I.) In the year of 1,740, 
 owing to the death of the emperor, Charles VI., Europe was again 
 agitated, and France, in espousing the cause of the elector of Bava- 
 ria, against the house of Austria, became involved in the war, which 
 was terminated by the peace m Aix-la-Chapelle, 1,718, (see Sect 
 111.) From the conclusion of the above treaty, to the commence- 
 ment of the seven years' war, she enjoyed a state of external peace 
 and tranquillity. But though this short interval of repose from war, 
 wa3 applied to the improvement of the kingdom, in no common de 
 gree, both in the capital and provinces, by the establishment of 
 schools and hospitals, the erection of public edifices, the building of 
 bridges, digging canals, and repairing roads ; in the cultivation and 
 improvement of many arts, the extension of commerce, and encour- 
 agement of manufactures; of silk, of porcelain, and tapestry, in par- 
 ticular ; yet amidst all these improvements she enjoyed little of inter- 
 nal tranquillity. Religious disputes greatly occupied the attention 
 of all ranks of persons, and involved the clergy, the court, the par- 
 liaments, and the people, in incessant contests, exceedingly disgrace- 
 ful, and, considering the temper of the times, the advancement of 
 human knowledge, and the progress of ideas, extremely injudicious. 
 
 2. During the reign of Lewis XIV., a tierce contention had arisen 
 between the Jesuits and Jansenists, on certain obscure points in 
 theology, which, after much fruitless argument, much raillery and 
 abuse on both sides, through the influence of the Jesuits with the 
 king, were referred to the decision of the Roman pontiff. One hun- 
 dred and one propositions, out of one hundred and three, which were 
 *aid to favour the Jansenists, in a book written by the Pere Quesnel, 
 were, in the year 1,713, declared by the holy office to be heretical, 
 and consequently condemned in form.* The interposition of his ho 
 liness had little effect, in regard to the restoration of peace and tran- 
 quillity. The public instrument, by which the sentence was passed 
 on the Jansenist party, (in the language of Rome commonly called 
 the bull " Unigenittis" from the hrst word with which it begins,) 
 became the signal for fresh animosities, murmurs, and complaints. 
 The peopie, the parliament, many prelates, and others of the clergy, 
 violently exclaimed against it, as an infringement of the rights of the 
 Gallican church, contrary to the laws, and a violation of the freedom 
 of opinion in matters of religion. But the king, acting under the 
 same influence as had induced him to forward the appeal, ordered it 
 to be received, and in a short time afterwards died. The regent 
 duke of Orleans found means to keep things tolerably quiet during 
 
 * The king's confessor, the P. le Tetlier, happened to have told the 
 king that this book contained more than 4 hundred censurable propositions. 
 To save the credit of the confessor, the pope condemned a hundred and 
 one, and stated the above reason for what he had done, in express terms, 
 to the French ambassador at Rome. 
 
298 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 his administration of affairs, nor did the flame burst out again till the 
 year 1,750, when, through the bigotry of the then archbishop of 
 Paris, the clergy were encouraged to refuse extreme unction to all 
 whofehould not produce confessional notes, signed by persons who 
 adhered to the bull. 
 
 3. It is easy to guess the confusion and deep distress, indeed, 
 which so singular and intolerant a measure was likely to produce. 
 The cause of the recusants and people in general, was, upon this 
 occasion, strongly Supported by the parliament of Paris, and other 
 parliaments ; and as in the preceding struggles the Jansenists had 
 been thrown into prison, in this the magistrates made no scruple o 
 committing all who refused to administer the sacrament to persons in 
 their last moments. The Jtesuits had again recourse to the king. 
 
 4. The common course of proceeding, in all disputes and con- 
 tentions between the king and his parliaments, had hitherto borne 
 the stamp of the most perfect despotism. However bold, or how- 
 ever respectful the remonstrances might be on the part of the lat- 
 ter, they were not allowed to have the least effect against the de- 
 termination of the court. If these judicial bodies became too re- 
 fractory, banishment ensued of course, and not the slightest regard 
 was paid to any arguments they might allege, nor any resistance 
 they might offer, in support of the liberties of their fellow subjects. 
 
 5. Things came to the usual crisis on the present occasion. All 
 the chambers of parliament refused to register the letters patent by 
 which they were commanded to suspend the prosecutions relative 
 to the refusal of the sacraments. In the year 1,753, they were 
 banished, and much inconvenience arose from the interruption of 
 business, and suspension of justice ; while the clergy, attached to 
 the bull, mrrle great boast of the victory they had obtained, and 
 endeavoured continually to strengthen themselves more and more 
 ugainst their adversaries. The king often wavered, but was as 
 oiten brought back by the interposition of the pope and obstinate 
 perseverance of the Jesuiis; in 1,754, however, seizing the opportu- 
 nity of the bilth of a second son to the dauphin, (the duke of Ber- 
 ry, afterward:* Lewis XVI.,) he recalled the parliament, but with- 
 out effecting peace. The members had been received at Paris 
 with loud acclamations, and every demonstration of joy ; their 
 conduct had rendered them popular to an extraordinary degree, so 
 that when commanded afresh to register the king's edicts, they 
 again refused. This bold act of disobedience subjected them to 
 the last extremity of kingly authority. The sovereign repaired 
 himself to the hall of parliament, November, 1,756, and in a bed of 
 jm-iice (the term by which such assemblies were peculiarly desig- 
 nated,) finally ordered them to register the edicts in his name, which 
 they could no longer, as the constitution then stood, refuse. Many, 
 however, resigned their appointments, and much discontent prevailed 
 amongst the people. It should be observed, that by this time the 
 depositaries of the laws and advocates had begun to depart from 
 their usual routine of technical formalities, and, animated by the ex- 
 amples set them, to enter largely into the general questions of law 
 and iiberty, rights and obligations, duty and privilege ; they began, 
 in short, systematically to take the part of the oppressed ; they were 
 prepared, not only to remonstrate, but to argue, debate, and openly 
 to protest against the violation of the rights of the people. 
 
 6 The hand of a fanatic, in the year 1,757, appeared to have 
 the effect of altering the king's mind once more. As his majesty 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 299 
 
 was stepping into his carriage, he was stabbed by an assassin of 
 the name of Damiens, his object being, according to his own confes- 
 sion, not to kill, but to alarm his majesty, with a view of producing 
 some change in the king's sentiments, that might dispose him to en- 
 join the administration of the sacraments to dying persons, without 
 the confessional notes insisted upon ; but little reliance is to be placed 
 on any declarations of this nature. In this instance they seemed 
 not to agree with the conduct of the assassin. That Lewis acted as 
 he did soon afterwards, with regard to the points in dispute, in conse 
 quence of this attempt on his life, is by no means certain ; but in a 
 short time matters were accommodated with the parliament, and the 
 archbishop of Paris, the chief fomcnter of the disturbances on the 
 part of the clergy, banished. 
 
 7. It may not be unreasonable, perhaps, to date the commence 
 ment of the revolution that broke out nearly thirty years after 
 wards, from this period. Scarcely any thing could have contributed 
 more to encourage the revolutionary principles already at work, 
 than disputes which indicated such inveterate superstition and big 
 olry ; such determined opposition to ail freedom of thought; such 
 sophistry and intrigue ; such submission to the court of Rome; such 
 contempt of the public opinion, as expressed, for want of any better 
 constituted organ, in the remonstrances of the French parliament ; 
 such a disposition on the part of the court and clergy to uphold the 
 arbitrary powers of the sovereign, and this at a moment when the 
 private life of the monarch himself was in the highest degree profli- 
 gate and abandoned, and the whole system of government a system 
 of venaiity, favouritism, and public plunder. These imprudent and 
 unwise proceedings, at such a time, gave a handle to the philosophers, 
 or lite rati, of the day, to take the reform of matters into their own 
 hands, and by supplying them with such ample materials for the 
 exercise of their wits, as well as their courage, laid the foundation 
 for a revolution which (so extensive were the abuses of government) 
 almost necessarily threw every thing into confusion, and in the end 
 tar outstepped the bounds of all sober and discreet reform. Bred up 
 by the Jesuits themselves, and instructed in all the branches o' 
 worldly and polite knowledge, they were amply prepared to expose 
 the weakness or wickedness of their masters, when once the veil 
 that shrouded their deceptions was by any accident removed. They 
 stood ready to avail themselves of any circumstances that might 
 tend to render manifest the pride and obstinacy, hypocrisy and 
 deceit, of an overbearing sect, who by their influence with the king, 
 might at any time trample upon the liberties of the people. 
 
 8. These philosophers, (for so they have been with too little dis- 
 criminatioH called,) thus raised in the estimation of an oppressed 
 people into the rank of champions of public freedom, were unfortu- 
 nately, but probably through the artful designs of their instructers, 
 little acquainted with the true principles of religion, however fa- 
 miliar they might be with its abuses. In directing their attacks, 
 therefore, against the Jesuits, they were rather anxious that their 
 shafts should reach all 'the regular clergy, or monastic orders in 
 general; nor were they at ail careful how much religion itself 
 might suffer in the overthrow of its ministers. The enemies of the 
 Jesuits in China, Portugal, Spain, and America, had been the 
 Dominicaas and Cordeliers. It was the aim of the philosophers, in 
 crushing th# Jesuits, to crush their rivals also; they were there- 
 fore as severe against the Dominicans as against the Jesuits: the 
 
300 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 parliament only attacked the latter. However attached Lewis XV. 
 might be to the Jesuits, as the defenders of the catholic religion, 
 and kingly authority, he appears to have entertained a jealousy 
 of them, as censors of his immoral course of life, and as more at- 
 tached to his son the dauphin than to himself. He therefore be- 
 came indifferent to the attacks making upon them ; while his mis- 
 tress, the marchioness of Pompadour, and his minister, the duke de 
 Choiseul, in order to keep the king wholly in their own power, were 
 ready to take part against the dauphin, the queen, the royal family, 
 and the Jesuits themselves, of whom they were, for the reasons 
 above stated, justly suspicious. The duke de Choiseul himself, in- 
 deed, is said to have given the following account of his enmity to the 
 order ; that being on an embassy at Rome, the general of the order 
 frankly told him, that he knew, before he came, every thing that 
 he had* said about the society at Paris, and so convinced him that 
 what he said was true, that he could not doubt but that, through 
 some means or other, they were able to learn all that passed, not 
 only in the ctfbinets of princes, but the interior of private houses, 
 and that so dangerous a society ought not to subsist. It is proper to 
 state this, in order to exonerate the duke from any suspicion of 
 having sacrihed them to the philosophers, whose irreligious princi- 
 ples he is known latterly not to have approved. 
 
 9. In the year 1,759 the Jesuits had been expelled from Portugal, 
 on a charge of countenancing an attack on the king's life. Under 
 these circumstances, it is not surprising that the enemies of the order 
 at Paris should attempt to fix on them the charge of the late attack 
 on Lewis XV., and to attribute to them regicide principles. Damiens 
 himself seemed to have taken pains to leave the matter in extreme 
 doubt. They already were sufficiently branded in the eyes of the 
 public, as the friends and assertors of arbitrary power, and enemies 
 to liberty. To relieve the sovereigns of Europe from the thraldom 
 of a sect so powerful, so artful and dangerous, became a principle of 
 action, which the public were well enough disposed to countenance, 
 and an opportunity only was wanting to accomplish their ruin. 
 
 JO. This opportunity the Jesuits themselves provided for their 
 enemies. Having endeavoured to escape from a demand made on 
 them in consequence of some mercantile proceedings, in which one 
 of their society was deeply involved, the tribunals to which the 
 case was referred, having a handle given them by the pleadings 
 of the Jesuits, very properly required to see the articles of their 
 institution, hitherto, that is, for more than two centuries, kept se- 
 cret from all the world. The times were well fitted for such a 
 discovery. All men of wit and understanding, however unprinci- 
 pled themselves, were well prepared to detect and expose the vul- 
 nerable parts of their great charter or institute, (tor so it was 
 called) and to lay open to the world at large the peculiar arts and 
 contrivances, by which they were systematically instructed to ac- 
 quire an absolute dominion over the minds and consciences of men. 
 The mysterious volume was found to contain sufficient to convict 
 them of such bad principles, with regard both to civil government 
 and morality, that, though the king hesitated at first to pass sen- 
 tence on them, being almost as much afraid of their rivals and op- 
 ponents, the Jansenists, the parliament, and the philosophers, as of 
 themselves; yet, at length, August 6, 1,762, he was prevailed upon 
 to issue a decree, by which they were secularized, and their posses- 
 sions ordered to be sold, which was speedily, and with very few 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 301 
 
 exceptions, carried into execution in all parts of the kingdom. 
 Efforts indeed were made to save them, as being essentially necessa- 
 ry to combat the attacks ol the new philosophy, and to check the 
 progress of deism and atheism ; as heretofore they had interposed to 
 confound schismatics and heretics ; both the altar and the throne, it 
 was alleged, needed their services now more than ever; but all 
 these movements in their favour were in vain. The duke de 
 Choiseul and the marchioness of Pompadour had the influence to 
 procure an edict from the king for the actual abolition of the order 
 in France, which was issued in November, 1,764, and other courts 
 of Europe judged it wise to take the same steps. Spain and Portu 
 gal having at this time ministers, whose principles and politics much 
 resembled those of the duke de Choiseul; the count d'Aranda, and 
 *the marquis de Pombal ; the Jesuits were expelled from Spain, 
 Naples, and Sicily, from Mexico, Peru, and Paraguay, in the course 
 of one and the same year, 1 ,767. 
 
 11. The fate of the Jesuits was no sooner decided, than the par- 
 liaments, elated by the downfal of their great opponents, began to at- 
 tack the arbitrary power of the king. The profligate life of the 
 latter had withdrawn him too much from the cares of government, 
 and opened the door to abuses in almost every department of admin- 
 istration ; but while the parliaments were thus engaged, some very 
 extraordinary processes at law, particularly the case of the Calm 
 family at Thoulouse, of Labarre at Abbeville, and of the celebrated 
 Lolly, commander in India, in which shocking instances of fanaticism 
 and oppression occurred, turned the eyes of the philosophers, with 
 Voltaire at their head, to the defects of the French jurisprudence, and 
 excited a strong feeling against both the laws of France, and the 
 administrators of them. 
 
 12. The nation had sustained a considerable loss in the death of 
 the dauphin, who, though a favourer of the Jesuits to a certain ex- 
 tent, exhibited a character so different from that of his father in 
 many most essential points, as to render him very justly popular: his 
 highness died at the age of 36, in the year 1,765 ; his wife, a prin- 
 cess of the house of Saxony, surviving him only fifteen months. In 
 1,770, through the agency of the duke de Choiseul, a new connex- 
 ion took place between the courts of Vienna and Versailles, by the 
 marriage of the young dauphin, afterwards Lewis XVI., with the 
 daughter of the empress dowager, the archduchess Marie Antoi- 
 nette ; an union attended with such costly and splendid festivities at 
 the time, as must excite, in every sensible mind, the most awful re- 
 flections on the dismal events which are now known to have clouded 
 its latter days. 
 
 13. The marriage of the dauphin took place at a time when the 
 differences between the king and his parliament had arisen to the 
 greatest height. In the course of the years 1,770 and~ 1,771, the 
 king held several beds of justice, but without at all subduing the 
 spirit which had been raised against his edicts, and which the minis- 
 ter, in opposition to the chancellor, is supposed to have encouraged ; 
 a new parliament, and six councils, on the suggestion of the latter, 
 were proposed to be constituted, to supply the place of the refracto- 
 ry members, who were banished ; but this measure was opposed, 
 not only by the. regular parliaments, but by the princes of the blood, 
 and several even of the very persons nominated to form and preside 
 in the new assemblies. Several provincial parliaments, as well as 
 
 C c 
 
302 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 that of Paris, were suppressed, and as many as seven hundred magis- 
 trates exiled or confined. 
 
 14. The year 1,774 terminated the life and reign of Lewis XV. ; 
 he died in the 65th year of his age, having reigned 58. The latter 
 part of his life was highly disgraceful in a private point of view, and 
 utterly feeble in a public one ; nor was his death at all regretted. 
 He was succeeded by his grandson Lewis XVI., who had lost an 
 elder brother in the year 1,761, his father in 1,765, and his mother 
 in 1,767; strange mortality in one family, and too much resembling 
 the losses in that of Lewis XIV., (see Sect. I.,) then imputed to 
 poison ; a charge revived upon this occasion, but probably entirely 
 without foundation. 
 
 15. At the very commencement of his reign, but not without some 
 sacrifice of his private feelings and opinions, Lewis XVI. complied 
 with the general wish of having the old parliaments restored, and 
 the new councils formed by the chancellor Maupeou, dissolved ; a 
 measure which seemed to diffuse an almost universal joy throughout 
 the capital and provinces. The king had taken into his service two 
 ministers of a disposition favourable to the wishes of the people ; 
 the venerable count de Maurepas, and M. Turgot. In conjunction 
 with these ministers, Lewis was undoubtedly disposed to reform 
 abuses, and promote the happiness of his people ; but unfortunately 
 the state of France, if not of the world in general, precluded all 
 hope of any gradual and temperate change. 
 
 16. The American contest had commenced ; a declaration of rights 
 had appeared there, exceedingly well calculated to open the eyes 
 of those who had not yet seen, and to encourage the revolutionary 
 movements of those who had been able to detect, and were prepared 
 to expose, the great abuses subsisting in the French government; al- 
 ready had the philosophers successfully attacked the Jesuits ; aimed 
 some severe blows at the monastic orders in general, as well as at the 
 court of Rome, which had supported and abetted them in every at- 
 tempt to uphold the papal and royal authority, and to stifle the com- 
 plaints of the people. The tyranny thus inveighed against and at- 
 tacked, had incited an opposition, much more likely to promote 
 licentiousness than assist the cause of real and genuine liberty. The 
 errors of Catholicism, upheld by a bigoted and infatuated clergy, at 
 variance with the only assemblies in the nation capable of any con- 
 stitutional remonstrance, however ineffectual, naturally hurried the 
 wits and freethinkers of that lively nation into extremes which every 
 sober minded man could not fail to lament ; in a very short course of 
 time, from railing at the regular clergy, they proceeded to rail at 
 religion, and even atheism was propagated in a way that bespoke a 
 dreadful disregard of ail principles of religion, common honesty, and 
 honour • in works purporting to have been written by very respect 
 able persons, deceased, who had holden, when alive, opinions diamet- 
 rically opposite to those that were thus stamped with their names. 
 These were among some of the most dreadful forerunners of a rev- 
 olution, which, had it been properly managed, had it fallen into the 
 hands of persons better prepared to act upon the true principles of 
 religion and orderly government, considering the progress of knowl- 
 edge and the powerful impulse which the human mind had received, 
 was not unseasonable in point of time and circumstances. 
 
 17. It would be absurd, however, to deny the abilities of many of 
 the persons who now stood forward to stem the torrent of abuses, 
 and vindicate the rights of the people ; several of them had wit, 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 303 
 
 and learning, and science, at command, to the highest degree ; some 
 cf them had a lively sense of liberty, but they had been ill-taught 
 on the subjects of religion and morality ; they had read Locke, with- 
 out imbibing Locke's best principles ; they had confounded the 
 abuses of Christianity with Christianity itself ; they were witty and 
 ingenious, but not comparable in wisdom and conduct with their con- 
 temporaries in Scotland, or in England ; the latter were the truest 
 friends to liberty, the best philosophers, and the best politicians, as 
 their writings show. The celebrated Encyclopaedia, which first ap- 
 peared in 1,751, had supplied an opportunity for all the literati of 
 France to express their most private sentiments on government, 
 political economy, and the management of the finances. Amongst 
 these the economists bore a conspicuous part ; their whole system, 
 when rightly understood, being one of liberty, whether it regarded 
 personal rights, the free application of industry, or the exportation 
 of corn. r i he author to the Introduction to the Encyclopaedia, M. 
 d'Alembert, was a man of considerable talents, but a deist in principle ; 
 his coadjutor, Diderot, an atheist. 
 
 18. The ministry of Turgot, while it lasted, was rather calculated 
 to give encouragement to the French reformers ; h^s own views 
 were undoubtedly liberal and patriotic, and he had a master sincere- 
 ly disposed, in all likelihood, to further any practicable plan of 
 reform, but the course of the minister was too precipitate ; his views 
 extended to too many objects, and were such as admitted not of any 
 speedy accomplishment; they were too mighty for the grasp of any 
 one man ; they only excited the animosity of the privileged orders, 
 and drove them into measures of defence, more calculated to work 
 their own overthrow than conciliate their enemies. The advocates 
 of ancient abuses and unreasonable customs, they treated their op- 
 ponents with an ill-judged contempt, and by resisting all amelioration 
 of the present order of things, laid the foundation for a thousand 
 impracticable systems and extravagant theories, new constitutions 
 and schemes of government, which being severally proposed, tried, 
 and rejected, in rapid succession, at last involved every thing in con- 
 fusion, anarchy, and ruin. 
 
 19. While the seeds of revolution, if not of republicanism, plen- 
 tifully sown, were beginning to germinate in France, in America the 
 people were already acting upon the very principle of resistance to 
 an alleged tyranny. It required only to bring the two countries, by 
 some means or other, into contact, to spread the contagion, and 
 revolutionize both nations as the different circumstances and charac- 
 ters of the people should severally determine. At the beginning of 
 the year 1 ,778, a formal alliance was negotiated between the court 
 of Versailles and the revolutionary government of America; but 
 long before that, in the year 1,774, the American declaration of 
 rights, on which their opposition to the English government rested, 
 was received in France, as a kind of practical application of the 
 theoretical schemes of the French philosophers, and might reasona- 
 bly have alarmed all the courts of Europe ; though the contrary 
 was the fact. France and Spain sent help, and Prussia approved the 
 American proceedings, not so much out of friendship towards the 
 Americans, as of blind hostility to Great Britain. The king of France 
 is said to have foreseen the ill consequences of such a war, but to 
 have weakly given way to contrary advice. 
 
 20. The speeches of opposition, in the mean time, in the two Eng- 
 lish houses of parliament, greatly interested the people on the conti 
 
304 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 nent ; the crowned heads, indeed, took little notice of the warning 
 whilst the subjects were listening attentively to the lessons of liberty 
 promulgated by Chatham. Fox, and Burke. Unfortunately, the court 
 of Versailles, at this very time, with the exception of the king, who 
 was inclined to economy, fell into the utmost extravagancies of 
 luxury, gayety, and dissipation ; drew largely, and without any con- 
 sideration, on the public treasury, though the finances were in a 
 most depressed state ; invented all kinds of novelties, and seemed 
 bent upon exchanging the forms and etiquette of a court for trifling, 
 though expensive amusements, not omitting such as promoted and 
 encouraged the spirit of gambling. 
 
 21. While these things were going on at court, and too much 
 countenanced, it is to be feared, by the queen, she received a visit 
 from her eccentric brother, the emperor Joseph the second, which 
 had, or appeared to have, an extraordinary effect on the Parisians ; 
 being so timed as to fall in with the new notions that had been 
 adopted, of manly simplicity, and a republican severity of manners. 
 The incognito he preserved, he carried so far as to dismiss, in a very 
 striking manner, all the glare and pomp of royalty ; the frankness 
 of his manners, unostentatious and frugal mode of life, led the French 
 more particularly to notice, and to condemn more severely, the 
 thoughtless luxury and dissipation of their own court and princes. 
 
 22. The king had a hard and cruel task upon his hands ; he found 
 it impossible to check a course of extravagance and levity in bis 
 own family, which he cculd not, and, in fact, did not approve ; in his 
 choice of ministers, he was sure to offend one party or the other ; 
 thus, when in 1,776, on the dismission of M. Turgot, he first appoint- 
 ed the celebrated M. Necker, of Geneva, to the high office of su- 
 preme director of the finances, the privileged orders took the 
 alarm ; they thought they saw in the citizen of a republic, and a 
 protestant, a decided friend to the liberal ideas that were afloat to 
 their prejudice, and the enemy and corrector of all abuses of power 
 and place. When, on the removal of M. Necker, the management 
 of the finances was delivered into other hands, the people complain- 
 ed that their friend and favourite had been sacrificed, to intrigue and 
 cabal, and that he had been checked and supplanted, at a moment 
 when he was chalking out a system of reform, highly beneficial to 
 the state, and favourable to their best interests. 
 
 23. In 1,783, M. de Calonne undertook to restore order to the 
 finances, and his measures were exactly such as were calculated to 
 bring matters to a crisis, and hasten the revolution which had for a 
 long time been impending. Inclined to favour the luxury and prod- 
 igality of the court, and at the same time to provide for the deficien- 
 cies in the revenue, he boldly attacked the privileged orders, by 
 proposing, as the best impost he could devise, a general land tax 
 fairly adjusted, and from which there should be no exemption. To 
 carry this great point into execution, being no favourite with the 
 parliament, he recommended the convocation of the assembly of the 
 notables ; (a name given to a former meeting of select and distin- 
 guished persons, in the year 1,626.) To this advice the king assent- 
 ed, doubtless with the best intentions, though many about the court 
 pretended, even at that time, to foresee in this measure the downfal 
 of the monarchy, and the ruin of the minister who had proposed it. 
 The king gave his consent, December 1,786, and in February 1,787 
 this extraordinary assembly met. The minister had undoubtedly act- 
 ed constitutionally in calling it, however rashly in regard to his own 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 305 
 
 interests, and the king has been supposed to have imbibed from his 
 father a strong inclination to consult such public and national councils. 
 In this instance, however, both the crown and the minister were de- 
 ceived; the latter, who expected to be allowed to lay his plans 
 before them in the way of commands to be obeyed, was soon dis- 
 placed, on the remonstrances and demand of the very assembly he 
 had ventured to call together ; and though it did some good in the 
 way of regulation and reform, during the short period of its sitting, 
 which was only till the 25th of May, 1,787, it was far from answer- 
 ing the purposes for which it had been convoked. The members of 
 it, however, had acquired information hitherto withheld from the 
 public, and imbibed principles friendly to liberty. 
 
 24. On the dismission of M. de Calonne, his successor, the 
 archbishop of Thoulouse, by an arbitrary and inconsiderate be 
 haviour, involved his sovereign in another unpleasant contest with 
 the parliament, who, in a moment of irritation, called for a meet- 
 ing of the states-general. The credit and power of the parliaments 
 had hitherto been chiefly owing to the disuse of these national 
 councils, so that if it had been proposed with any sincere desire of 
 redressing grievances, and resisting oppression, the members with 
 whom it originated would have deserved the credit of patriotism ; 
 but probably they were swayed by motives less pure. The king, 
 however, consented to their convocation in 1,792, but in the mean 
 time had many unpleasant altercations with the parliament, and 
 on one occasion was treated with so little ceremony, or rather such 
 indignity, as it was thought, by the due d'Orleans, as to occasion his 
 banishment. 
 
 25. The minister, in order to break or reduce the power of par- 
 liament, thus openly at variance with him, and to get rid of the 
 younger members, whose refractory spirit was but too apparent, 
 projected the appointment of a cour plcniere, consisting of persons 
 selected by the king from the principal nobility, professions and 
 officers of state. The court was formed, and sat long enough to 
 enforce the ministerial decrees, but amidst such murmuring and 
 confusion, such violent remonstrances and objections, attended with 
 popular commotions in the capital and provinces, that in a short 
 time the scheme was abandoned, and the minister announced td the 
 public the king's intention of convoking the states-general in the 
 year ensuing ; he was then dismissed from his high office, and, to 
 the great joy of the parliament and people, M. Necker was recalled. 
 
 26. The royal word had been pledge for the summoning the 
 states-general in 1,739; and it was soon found to be a promise, 
 which, though the chief management of the finances had passed 
 into other and more popular hands, could not easily be abandoned. 
 They had not been assembled since the year 1,614, and difficulties 
 therefore were started as to the best mode of arranging them ; the 
 king even condescended to refer the matter to the decision of all 
 the corporate and learned bodies of the realm ; an extraordinary step 
 to take, but favoured by the minister, who had it in view to give con- 
 sequence to the third estate, or commonalty, in order to counter- 
 balance the too great influence of the privileged orders. 
 
 27. This popular design of the minister, besides alarming the 
 clergy and nobility, did not meet with the ready concurrence of 
 the parliament; and it was even proposed, by M. d'Espresmesnil, 
 a member who had incurred both banishment and imprisonment in 
 the course of his opposition to the court, to adopt at once the plan of 
 
 Cc2 39 
 
500 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 1,614; a proposal to which the parliament acceded ; but it had the 
 effect of rendering them immediately as unpopular as the privi- 
 leged orders. The claims of tne third estate met with the support 
 ofa large majority of the people, as might naturally have been 
 expected at such a moment; the commons of 1,788 were very dif- 
 ferent from those who were first summoned to meet in 1,302, upon 
 a plan which had continued to 1,614. It was reasonable to adopt 
 new forms ; and it was therefore strongly insisted that they should, 
 upon this occasion, in order to be upon a par with the other orders, 
 have a double representation, and deliberate together. Had the plan 
 of the states-general of 1,614 been adopted, the parliament would 
 have appeared there with much greater eclat than in any new ar- 
 rangement ; this may account for the part they took upon this occa- 
 sion. They entirely expected, in demanding the convocation of the 
 states, that they should have the chief place in that assembly, and 
 continue to enjoy the confidence of the people. 
 
 28. Such was the state of things at this memorable period ; an 
 infatuation the most surprising seemed to hurry on the privileged 
 orders to their ruin and destruction, and with them the monarchy. 
 Instead of bending in any manner to the force of popular opinion, 
 or acknowledging the justice of the claims made on them, as a fa- 
 voured class, they more strongly than ever stood upon their privi- 
 leges, and appeared to treat with contempt that powerful and now 
 enlightened majority that was opposed to them ; they insisted more 
 than ever upon their feudal rights, after the whole system had been 
 virtually abolished. Conduct of this kind could not fail to stimulate 
 the other party to deeds of violence and retaliation, in which the 
 authority of the established laws and customs came soon to be to- 
 tally disregarded, and every thing seemed to tend to ruin and dev- 
 astation ; when the election of the states-general was appointed to 
 take place, both sides exerted themselves with the utmost zeal and 
 anxiety, but the result was found to be highly favourable to the 
 democratic party. 
 
 29. Great changes had already taken place in the character and 
 manners of the Parisians. Since the American war, a strong dispo- 
 sition had been shown to imitate the English, in dress, manners, 
 amusements, and freedom of speech ; the respect which had former- 
 ly prevailed for high birth and rank was every day diminishing ; 
 persons of all classes were beginning to be raised to situations of dis- 
 tinction and confidence ; and some of the great themselves, instead 
 of maintaining the distance preserved by their ancestors, made ap- 
 proaches towards the lower ranks, by intermarriages, and the open 
 and general encouragement of literature, trade, commerce, and 
 agriculture ; even the females began to discuss questions of state, to 
 express a lively and sentimental concern for all oppressed persons or 
 nations, and to wish that all the young men who could speak elo- 
 quently upon these subjects in their private assemblies, should have, 
 as in England, a field opened to them for the more public display of 
 their talents and abilities. It is not to be wondered that, under these 
 circumstances, every eye should be fixed on the meeting of that 
 great national council, whose powers had not been called into action 
 for the long space of nearly two centuries. 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 307 
 
 SECTION X. 
 
 AUSTRIA, FROM THE CONCLUSION OF THE SEVEN YEARS' 
 WAR TO THE DEATH OF MARIA THERESA, 1,763—1,780. 
 
 1. With regard to Austria, the seven years' war terminated with 
 the peace of Hubertsburg, which was signed on the 5th of Febru- 
 ary, 1,763, (see Sect. VI.) and on the 27th of May, 1,764, as the 
 fruits of that peace, the empress was gratified with the election of 
 her son Joseph to the dignity of king of the Romans ; a point of 
 great importance to her, considering the circumstances that had re- 
 tarded the elevation of her royal consort to the imperial throne. 
 The election was most opportune, for the emperor Francis survived 
 it but a very short time, being struck with a fit of apoplexy in the 
 month of August of the same year, while attending the nuptials of 
 his second son at Inspruck, in the Tyrol. Francis had borne his fac- 
 ulties meekly, resigning to his imperial consort the cares, as well as 
 the state and parade of government, which, indeed, more regularly 
 appertained to her than to himself; he obviously withdrew from 
 the authority that seemed to have devolved to him ; and if he occu- 
 pied himsell' at all with the affairs of government, it was rather to 
 supply its pecuniary demands from his Tuscan treasury, than for any 
 other purposes ; not so much in the way of gain, as of regular busi- 
 ness and prudential management. Of the high estimation in which 
 he was held by the empress there can be little doubt ; her affection 
 for him had a romantic cast, and seemed founded on what so seldom 
 occurs, or can be expected to occur in royal marriages, an early, 
 fixed, and solid attachment. 
 
 2. Her majesty employed herself, from the conclusion of the 
 treaty of Hubertsburg, in ameliorating in every way possible the 
 condition of her country ; in founding philosophical academies, re- 
 forming the schools, encouraging by premiums the manafactures, 
 and in restraining several feudal abuses : she had the opportunity 
 afforded her of contributing to the introduction of the variolous inocu- 
 lation into her dominions. She interfered, and in a very judicious 
 manner, in the regulations regarding monasteries and nunneries, abol- 
 ished the dangerous privilege of asylum, the horrible excesses of 
 the inquisition, and tne inhuman judicial process of torture. She 
 also suppressed the society of Jesuits. 
 
 3. Considering the extreme repugnance Maria Theresa had 
 shown to the dismemberment of her own domains on the oeath of 
 her father, it must seem greatly to redound to her discredit that she 
 could have become a party to the partition of Poland : but it may 
 very fairly be inferred that she was driven into it. Being unable to 
 serve the cause of Saxony she had no other alternative against the 
 combination of Russia, Prussia, and the Porte, than to claim a part : 
 though it is almost proved that she was drawn in by Prussia to par- 
 take of the plunder, that she might also share the odium excited by 
 it. After the partition indeed began to have effect, and was sanction- 
 ed by the Polish delegates nominated for that purpose, Maria 
 Theresa appears to have had no scruples in extending her encroach- 
 ments, and supporting Prussia in the same attempts, to such a degree 
 even as to provoke the interposition of Russia. It was not till the 
 
308 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 year 1,777 that all the three parties were satisfied, and brought to 
 an agreement in regard to limits; the portion assigned to Austria 
 being decidedly the greatest in extent. In the same year the em- 
 press queen, by a convention, signed on the 5th day of February, 
 obtained possession of the Buccovina, ceded to her by the Porte. 
 Her situation was at this period particularly flourishing, her army 
 numerous and well disciplined, her finances "in good order, and her 
 alliance with France cemented by many marriages with the Bourbon 
 princes ; but after the partition of Poland, and the connexion the 
 empress queen seemed thus to have formed with Russia and Prussia, 
 an anti-Austrian party sprang up at the court of Versailles, who 
 persuaded the king to renew his connexions with Prussia, in order 
 to secure some check against the augmentation of the power of 
 Austria ; this, however, was done without violating subsisting trea- 
 ties, or breaking friendship with Maria Theresa. Lewis XVI. was 
 much more jealous of the son than of the mother, and not without 
 reason ; the views of the former being evidently ambitious and en- 
 croaching, and highly anti-gallican. 
 
 4. In December, 1,777, on the death of the elector of Bavaria, 
 both the emperor and empress queen laid claim to his dominions as 
 fiefs or allodials, properly descending or reverting to one or other 
 of them, having previously taken steps to arrange matters with their 
 more immediate competitor, the elector Palatine ; and relying 
 strongly on the support of France, as well as on the age and infirmi- 
 ties of the king ot Prussia : but the latter found means to interpose 
 by stimulating the duke of Deux Pont?, presumptive heir to the 
 elector Palatine, to appeal to himself and the king of France against 
 the dismemberment of the Bavarian territories, referring, in confir 
 mation of his rights, to the treaty of Pavia, confirmed by the Golden 
 Bull, and the treaty of Westphalia; all these authorities were disput- 
 ed on the part of the emperor and empress, who insisted on the 
 validity and legality of the arrangements made with the elector 
 Palatine. The emperor in the mean while offered to submit his 
 own claims to the judgment of the diet, and to mediate between his 
 mother and the other claimants : preparations, nevertheless, were 
 made for deciding the matter by arm:', and both the emperor and 
 king of Prussia took the field at the head of their respective forces ; 
 but the empress queen, fearing for her son, made many overtures of 
 peace, sought the mediation of Russia and France, and, though con- 
 tinually thwarted by the emperor, who was inclined to war, and un- 
 willing to submit to the dictates of foreign powers, succeeded in re- 
 storing tranquillity, by the treaty of Teschen, 1,779. By this treaty 
 many arrangements were entered into to satisfy the king of Prussia., 
 the elector Palatine, the duke of Deux Fonts, and the elector ot 
 Saxony. And Austria acquired territory, though of no great extent, 
 very important in point of situation. She obtained from Bavaria the 
 circle of Burghausen, which opened a passage to the Tyrol, and 
 was not compelled absolutely to renounce any of her claims, though 
 she found means to forego with credit the further prosecution of 
 them. 
 
 France had done enough during these disputes about Bavaria, to 
 give umbrage to the court of Vienna ; she had secretly opposed the 
 dismemberment of the electorate, she had not supplied the succours 
 she was required to do according to the treaty of Versailles, and she 
 had manifested a distrust of the emperor, bordering upon contempt 
 This conduct had the effect of throwing the latter into the arms of 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 309 
 
 England and Russia; in the contest with America, Joseph espoused 
 the cause of England, pronounced it to be the cause of all sovereigns, 
 and prohibited all intercourse between the subjects of the empire 
 and the revolted colonies. With regard to Russia he took a more 
 active part; he visited Catherine on her celebrated journey to the 
 Crimea, and at Petersburg ingratiated himself with her to an ex- 
 traordinary degree, alienated her from the old king of Prussia, and in 
 so doing procured her assistance in promoting the advancement of 
 his brother the archduke Maximilian to the coadjutorship of Cologne 
 and Munster, the last wish of Maria Theresa, who had thus, in an 
 extraordinary manner, found the means to provide, before her death, 
 for all her numerous family. But her end was approaching: in 
 November, 1,780, she was seized with an illness, which terminated 
 her existence ; her last days were passed in acts of devotion and atten- 
 tions to her son, the emperor, and others of her family, particularly 
 striking and grand. She displayed at this awful moment a powerful 
 mind, a warm heart, and a truly christian fortitude : she died No- 
 vember 29, 1,780, in the 64th year of her age, and 41st of her 
 reign. She was not exempt from weaknesses, but her virtues, 
 both public and private, greatly preponderated ; the former were of 
 the most splendid cast, the latter altogether as amiable. Nine out of 
 sixteen children survived her. 
 
 Joseph, who succeeded her ; Leopold, great duke of Tuscany ; 
 Ferdinand, governor of Austrian Lombardy and duke of Modena 
 by reversion ; Maximilian, coadjutor of Cologne and Munster ; Mary 
 Anne, abbess of Prague ; Mary Christina, wife of Albert, duke of 
 Saxony ; Maria Elizabeth, abbess of Inspruck ; Maria Amelia, duchess 
 of Parma ; Caroline, queen of Naples ; Maria Antoinetta, queen of 
 France. 
 
 SECTION XL 
 
 REIGNS OF JOSEPH II., LEOPOLD II., &c, FROM 1,765 TO 1,800. 
 
 1. On the demise of his father, Francis I., Joseph, who had been 
 elected king of the Romans in 1,764, ascended the imperial throne, 
 at the age of twenty-four, in the year 1,765, his mother being still 
 living. It was soon apparent that he projected great changes, and 
 the reformation of many abuses, but in pursuing these purposes he 
 was undoubtedly too precipitate and too adventurous; his educa- 
 tion had not been such as to fit him for such high attempts, it was 
 impossible to unite in the way he proposed such scattered domin- 
 ions ; it was impossible to carry into execution all the schemes he 
 had invented for the consolidation and improvement of the empire 
 In the Belgic provinces, in particular, he rendered himself extreme- 
 ly unpopular by the violence of his proceedings, but this was not 
 till after his mother's death ; as long as she lived she sedulously en- 
 deavoured to restrain the impetuosity and warlike disposition of her 
 son, apprehending that he had many enemies at hand, and that not' 
 withstanding the pretended courtesy of the king of Prussia, mani- 
 fested in private interviews as well as public negotiations, he could 
 not havo much chance of success in coping with so able, powerful, 
 and experienced an opponent ; in this, perhaps, she showed some 
 sense, though it has been doubted whether she did not too much 
 control the ardent spirit of her son. The empress queen dying in 
 
310 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 the year 1,780, Joseph was left to the pursuit of nis own whims and 
 projects, in many instances most extravagant, in almost all oppressive. 
 For though there was an appearance of liberality, and much show of 
 good, he evidently seemed to consult nothing but his own arbitrary 
 will. 
 
 2. Had his education been such as J so enable him to form a right 
 judgment of things, had not his genius been cramped, and his rea- 
 son perverted, by a choice of tutors and preceptors peculiarly ill 
 qualified to fit him for the arduous and conspicuous station to which 
 ne had been elevated by the circumstances of his birth and con- 
 nexions, he might certainly have done great good, and actually 
 ameliorated the condition of a large and most interesting portion 
 of the human race, for his manners were such as to have led him 
 to a just knowledge of their wants, and a proper sense of their 
 claims upon society. He travelled through Europe, as if he were 
 bent on seeing the real condition of his fellow-creatures, in all ranks 
 and situations of lite ; discarding all pomp and parade, he sought the 
 society and conversation of persons far below him, and encouraged 
 every one to give him information unon subjects most nearly touch- 
 ing their interests. Since Peter I. of Russia, no monarch had taken 
 such pains to procure information, and survey every thing with his 
 own eyes. ' 
 
 .3. The whole extent of his dominions was supposed to contain 
 a population of 24,000,000, distinguished however by a great va- 
 riety of laws, customs, religious opinions, and language ; the lower 
 orders subject to many restrictions, attaching to the state of vas- 
 salage in which they were still held by their feudal lord and su- 
 periors. The Roman catholic religion chiefly prevailed ; the cler- 
 gy were wealthy, and possessed great influence. Maria Theresa 
 had perceived what was wrong, and had shown an excellent dis- 
 position to amend matters, but had -partly been compelled by cir- 
 cumstances, and swayed by prudence, to proceed moderately and 
 gradually. Joseph was more impetuous ; he was so eager to break 
 down all distinctions, that, among other regulations, he insisted 
 on having but one language for the whole empire, though no less 
 than ten principal languages were spoken at that time, and in 
 common use. Within the confines of his dominions, all his other 
 projects were of the same description, whether good or bad, ex- 
 ceedingly too hasty ; he broke up old systems before he was well 
 prepared to establish new ones, and in the interval, necessarily 
 occasioned such confusion, disgust, and trouble, as to hinder every 
 good effect, and thwart his own purposes ; in all his regulations he 
 seemed bent upon upholding his own imperial power, not only by / 
 omitting to introduce any new checks upon it, but even abolishing; 
 old ones ; he particularly displeased his Hungarian subjects, thosi 
 faithful adherents of his mother, by interfering with their laws and 
 customs, and offending some of their fondest prejudices. 
 
 4. Though attached to the Roman catholic religion, he showed 
 great disregard of the papal authority, by subjecting the mc/nas- 
 teries to episcopal jurisdiction, suppressing many, and reducing) the 
 numbers, both of monks and nuns, in all that were permitted to 
 continue, with great want of feeling ; he omitted to make any pro- 
 vision for those who were discharged ; he broke through many su- 
 perstitions, not rightly judging how deeply they were interwoven 
 with the religious feelings of the people, and how much the latter 
 therefore were likely to be affected by such violence and haste ; 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 311 
 
 he abolished the privileges of primogeniture, declared marriage 
 (heretofore regarded as a sacrament) to be only a civil contract, 
 and rendered bastards capable of inheriting. The wisest and most 
 truly liberal of all his innovations was that which, by a public edict, 
 dated October 31, 1,781, established a general toleration for all the 
 " Acatkolici," or dissenters from the Romish religion. This and other 
 measures of interference with ecclesiastical matters so disturbed and 
 alarmed pope Pius VI., as to induce him to take a journey to Vienna, 
 personally to remonstrate with the emperor. His plan was opposed 
 at Rome, and entirely discouraged by the Austrian ministry ; but his 
 holiness persisted, and, after a visit of much form and ceremony, re 
 turned in about a month, without effecting any change in the senti- 
 ments or proceedings of Joseph* 
 
 5. In the same precipitate manner, as in other instances, he sud- 
 denly abolished feudal vassalage, without any suitable arrangements 
 for the relief of those who must evidently suffer by such an impor- 
 tant change of tenure ; and while he prided himself upon putting an 
 end to slavery, he subjected the emancipated to such arbitrary im 
 posts of his own invention, as plainly to convince them that they had 
 not in reality recovered their freedom. To countervail these errors 
 in legislation and government, he certainly showed great merit in 
 the encouragement he gave to arts, letters, trade, and manufactures; 
 in founding numerous schools and universities, public libraries, labor- 
 atories and observatories ; in improving the public roads, making 
 canals, and establishing free ports. In 1,784, he obtained permission 
 from the Porte to navigate the Turkish seas, which seemed to afford 
 excellent means to his Hungarian subjects, who were otherwise ill 
 situated for trade, to carry , on an extensive commerce by way of 
 the Danube ; war, however, soon interrupted this accommodation ; in 
 1,787 it came to an end. 
 
 6. In 1,781, Joseph, having concerted his plans with France, who 
 had altered her measures towards him, probably for the very pur- 
 pose, determined to break through the barrier treaty* imposed 
 upon Austria when the Netherlands were transferred to Charles VI., 
 and which, though undoubtedly affording security to Austria itself 
 against the French, must be allowed to have constantly carried in 
 it something galling to the feelings of the imperial court, as entirely 
 dictated by the maritime powers. The fortifications of the barrier 
 towns had now fallen into decay, and the connexion which had 
 for some time subsisted between the courts of Versailles and Vien- 
 na, seemed to afford the emperor plausible grounds for declining to 
 pay for the military protection of a frontier no longer likely to be 
 disturbed. He therefore directed all the fortifications in the Nether- 
 lands to be done away, except those of Luxemburg /*, Ostend, Narrow^ 
 and Antwerp ; while the Dutch, who had been desired to withdraw 
 their garrisons, as no longer necessary, or entitled to pay, judged it 
 wise to comply. 
 
 7. This violation of the barrier treaty, complied with in the last 
 instance so easily by the united provinces, was quickly followed 
 by fresh demands on the latter power, under pretence of more ac- 
 curately adjusting the boundaries of the Dutch and Austrian Neth- 
 erlands. The cession of the city of Maestricht and the contigu- 
 ous, district of Outer Meuse being among other things insisted 
 apoji. At length, however, and about the year 1,784, these claims 
 
 * See Coxe iv. 152, 153, &c. 
 
312 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 all seemed to merge in one sweeping demand, to have the full and 
 free navigation of the river Scheld, for the purposes of establishing, 
 in favour of his Flemish subjects, a direct trade with the East In- 
 dies, and of restoring the city of Antwerp, once the emporium of 
 Europe, to its proper degree of splendour and importance ; a proj- 
 ect, which, if it could have been accomplished without interfering 
 with so many foreign interests, and the manifest violation of sub- 
 sisting treaties, may be said to have reflected no disgrace on the 
 policy, wisdom, or paternal care of the emperor; but it was impos- 
 sible to expect that such changes should be allowed to proceed 
 without great opposition. It was soon discovered that both France 
 and Prussia were prepared to support the Dutch against him, and 
 though the empress of Russia had endeavoured to deter the latter 
 from aiding the Hollanders, the project was laid aside, and Joseph, 
 instead of his views on the Scheld, resumed some of his former de- 
 mands. In the end, however, every thing was compromised by 
 money, through the mediation of the French king, or rather in con- 
 formity to the dictates of the French minister. 
 
 8. Another object which the emperor attempted almost at the* 
 same time, but equally without enect, was the exchange of the 
 Netherlands for Bavaria. He had taught his mother to covet the 
 latter country, and its acquisition would undoubtedly have render 
 ed his dominions more compact, and given him a continued line of 
 territory, from the frontier of Turkey to the Mediterranean sea, 
 while it might have relieved him from the charge of a more distant 
 portion of his dominions, held by a very uncertain and troublesome 
 tenure* Joseph had calculated upon overcoming all the difficul- 
 ties that might arise from foreign powers; had secured the consent 
 of Russia, and even negotiated the proposed exchange with the 
 elector of Bavaria, (who, if it took place, was to be made king of 
 Austrasia or Burgundy.) But Frederic II., at the age of seventy- 
 four, again interposed : and, by forming with the several princes and 
 states of the empire what was called the Germanic union, for main- 
 taining the integrity and indivisibility of the Germanic body # in gen- 
 eral, effectually prevented the exchange so much desired' The 
 principal parties to the union, which was settled and confirmed, July 
 1,785, were, besides the king of Prussia, the electors of Hanover, 
 Saxony, and Mentz, the margrave of Anspach, and the duke oi 
 Deux Fonts. The whole scheme, indeed, was found to be so im- 
 practicable, that the emperor and elector judged it prudent to deny 
 that any convention to that effect had taken place between them. 
 
 9. In 1,788, Joseph incurred considerable disgrace, by his attacks 
 upon Turkey. He had projected, in conjunction with the empress 
 m Russia, whom he had flattered by a visit to the Crimea, the total 
 dismemberment of that empire ; but blunder upon blunder defeated 
 his purposes, and he retired from the contest blamed by all parties. 
 In 1,789, however, hostilities were renewed, and in the battle of* 
 Rimnik, which took place in the month of September, the combined 
 forr.es of Russia and Austria gained an important victory over the 
 Turks, under the command of the grand vizirr. The capture of 
 Belgrade soon after, by the army of Loudon, completed their 
 triumphs ; but their success occasioned jealousies, which effectually 
 interrupted the career of victory. England, Holland, and Prussia, 
 began to be alarmed at the increasing power of Russia and Austria ; 
 and, by fomenting the troubles in the Netherlands, drew the atten- 
 tion of Joseph from his intended encroachments on Turkey. 
 
MODERN HISTORY. SIS 
 
 10. In no part of his dominions were his attempts at reformation 
 worse received, or worse managed, than in the Netherlands. Di- 
 vided into many provinces, and each province governed by distinct 
 laws, customs, and regulations; some secured by charter, in the 
 enjoyment of important privileges and immunities, nothing could 
 possibly have been thought of more vexatious than that of redu- 
 cing them all under one system of administration, commencing witk 
 tjie sudden and violent abolition of many convents, and the sup- 
 pression of many institutions, forms, and ceremonies, by long usage 
 become little less than sacred in the eyes of the people. The 
 courts of law, the universities and schools, were subjected to sim- 
 ilar changes, nor did the imperial decrees spare any order of men, 
 or any public establishment, however respectable in other respects^ 
 from undergoing this severe ordeal, and revolutionary process. 
 Nothing could exceed the consternation and disgust with which these 
 new regulations were received by all ranks of persons, from the 
 lowest to the highest ; for even the governors-general sided with 
 the refractory party, and were averse from carrying into execution 
 a system so exceedingly repugnant to the feelings of the people m 
 general, but especially of the principal persons amongst the cler- 
 gy, laity, and magistrates. Riots and disturbances took place, as 
 might have been expected, in many parts, and France was applied 
 to for assistance, as guarantee of their liberties. The whole au- 
 thority of government seemed to be vested in the minister plenipo- 
 tentiary of the emperor, count Belgioso, who had to contend alone 
 against the formidable opposition that had sprung up ; for not onfcy 
 the governors-general, as has been before intimated, were on the 
 side of the people, but even the imperial minister, prince Kaunita, 
 who greatlj disapproved the violent proceedings of his master. 
 
 11. Joseph at hrst assumed an appearance of rigour and inflexibili- 
 ty, in the pursuit of his new measures, little suitable to the actual 
 situation of affairs. He had not foreseen so formidable a resistance, 
 and when it occurred, he depended too much on his means for sup- 
 pressing it ; embarrassed as he was at the time by the war with 
 Turkey. After much threatening, therefore, and strong marks of 
 displeasure against the Belgic states, he found it advisable to com- 
 promise matters, for a time at least : or rather to offer to relinquish 
 all the objectionable parts of his new system ; to re-establish the 
 ancient constitution, confirm the celebrated charter, called La joy' 
 emc tlsitree, and submit to have the case referred to delegates on both 
 sides. In this, however, he was not sincere, and his duplicity and 
 arbitrary disposition becoming every day more manifest, it was 
 impossible to prevent things coming to extremity. The example 
 of France was contagious ; the whole population became divided 
 into two parties of patriots and royalists, and the former were 
 soon found to be the strongest. In November, 1,789, the states de- 
 clared their independence, in consequence of a meeting held at 
 Ghent ; the soldiery began to take part with the people. On the 
 26th of December, the states of Brabant assumed the sovereign pow- 
 er, in which they were soon followed by the states of the other 
 provinces ; a federal union was formed, under the title of the United 
 Belgic States, and a congress of deputies to administer the new gov- 
 ernment, appointed to assemble on the lith of January, 1,790. 
 
 1 2. Thus were the low countries sacrificed to the injudicious and 
 hasty measures of the emperor, who was too late rendered sensible 
 of his errors, when he found them perfectly irreparable, either hi 
 
 Dd 40 
 
314 MODERN HISTORY 
 
 be way of conciliation or force. He lived to see hi9 offere of pea«* 
 Hid reconciliation rejected with scorn and contempt, while he totally 
 'ailed in his endeavours to procure the aid of foreign states to reduce 
 'lis revolted subjects to obedience. In other parts of his dominions, 
 particularly in Hungary, the same spirit of opposition to his plan,* 
 nad been excited, and kept up by similar measures of irritation and 
 defiance, till the time of his decease drew near. He would then 
 willingly have retraced his steps, and did, indeed, take some men^- 
 ures to conciliate the offended Hungarians; but the termination of his 
 life was fast approaching, hastened no doubt by the opposition and 
 ill fortune which had attended almost the whole of his political career. 
 He had weakened his constitution in all probability by the restk-M 
 life he had led, and the hardships and fatigues to which he had ex- 
 posed himself in the Held ; but he suffered severely in his mind from 
 the course things had taken in the Netherlands, and though he exhib- 
 ited in his last moments the fortitude, resignation, and composure 
 of a true christian, yet it is truly melancholy to think that his whole 
 reign was passed in rendering* himself and others wretched. He 
 expired on the 20th of February, 1,790, in the forty-ninth year of 
 his age ; and leaving no issue, was succeeded in his* hereditary do- 
 minions by his brother Leopold, who was also chosen emperor before 
 the end of the year in which his brother died. 
 
 13. The reign of the emperor Leopold II. was very short, and 
 far from a happy one. His brother had left his dominions in a 
 wretched state of disconient and confusion ; diminished, in some 
 most important instances, and pretty generally exposed to the attacks 
 of formidable and designing enemies. Leopold had been able to do 
 some good amongst his Tuscan subjects before he ascended the 
 royal and imperial thrones, but his genius and talents were judged 
 to be unequal to the government of a mighty empire. He soon 
 gave satisfaction however, to the aching minds of his new subjects, 
 by restoring to many their ancient privileges, and revoking the in- 
 judicious and irritating innovations oi his deceased brother. Nor did 
 he manage his foreign negotiations ili ? which, had they failed, might 
 have involved him in inextricable difficulties. By flattering the Eng- 
 lish, and appearing to enter into their views in regard to Turke v 
 and the Netherlands, he deterred the king of Prussia from prosecut- 
 ing his designs upon Gallicia. which he wished to procure for Po- 
 land, in exchange for Dantzic and Thorn. Afterwards, by fomenting 
 that monarch's resentment against England, who appeared to haw 
 abandoned him, he managed to form a union with the very court 
 which at the commencement of his reign had manifested the great- 
 est symptoms of rivalry and opposition. This accommodation with 
 the king of Prussia greatly facilitated his accession to the imperial 
 «rown, which was conferred upon him, October 9, 1,790. 
 
 14. By very firm, but conciliatory behaviour towards the Hun- 
 garians, who seem to have imbibed at this time many of the demo- 
 cratic principles of the French, he not only effectually ingratiated 
 himself with the leading persons of the kingdom, but regained the 
 affections of the people at large, which had been sadly alienated 
 through hi9 brother's unwise interference with their most favourite 
 customs and established rights. 
 
 15. Leopold did not so easily settle his disputes with the Nether- 
 lands. The mediation of England, Holland, and Prussia, had been 
 offered, but he rather inclined to rely on his own strength, and hw 
 connexions with France, which were every hour becoming more 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 315 
 
 uncertain and precarious. He had recourse therefore to force, and 
 succeeded indeed in re-establishing the imperial authority, but total- 
 ly detached from any cordial returns of loyalty on the part of the 
 Belgians, which became but too apparent, when his subsequent dis- 
 putes with the revolutionary government of France exposed those 
 part" of ihe Austrian dominions to fresh troubles and disturbances. 
 
 1G. The situation of the emperor Leopold, it must be granted, 
 was vei s embarrassing in the tirst years of the French revolution 
 The constraint put upon the royal family of France, to which he 
 ?tood so nearly allied, and the threats denounced so openly against 
 the queen his sister, in particular, must have greatly affected his 
 private feelings, while many of the German states, whose rights, 
 ecclesiastical and territorial, guarantied by the peace of West- 
 phalia, had been invaded in Alsace, Franche Compte, and Lorraine. 
 by the decree of the national assembly, for abolishing the feudal 
 privileges, publicly called upon him to interpose in their behalf, as 
 head ot the empire ; as he stood bound to do indeed by his capitula- 
 tion with the diet, on receiving the imperial crown. In regard to 
 the royal family of France, his first plans, in conjunction with the 
 king ot Prussia, were clearly injudicious, and injurious to the cause 
 he took in hand. The French revolutionists were not in a state to 
 be intimidated by angry manifestoes or threats of foreign interfe- 
 rence. The emperor himself, indeed, did often appear cautious of 
 embroiling his country in a war with France, but was at length prob- 
 ably provoked into it, by the violence of the Jacobinical faction at 
 Paris, rather than persuaded by the representations of the emigrant 
 princes, or royal family at Paris, as was so strongly alleged. Beyond 
 the alliance with Prussia, however, concluded on the 19th of Febru- 
 ary, 1,792, the emperor Leopold can scarcely be said to have had 
 any share in the war with France ; for, on the 27th of that very 
 month, he was seized with an illness, which in three days terminated 
 his life, at the early age of forty-four, leaving his dominions in a 
 state of more serious danger than when he began his reign. 
 
 17. The emperor Leopold was succeeded in his hereditary states 
 by his eldest son Francis, born in 1,768, who became emperor in 
 the July following his lather's death, and still reigns. This mon- 
 arch had to begin those hostilities with France which his predeces- 
 sor seems to have contemplated with considerable distrust, and 
 he became a party to the too hasty proceedings of his Prussian ally 
 and the duke of Brunswick, who increased the irritation and pro- 
 voked the resistance of the French, by menaces extremely impo- 
 litic, considering the actual state of things. Thev endeavoured-^ in- 
 deed, to throw the blame on the emigrant princes, who, it was 
 alleged, had misled them by false representations of the good dispo- 
 sition of the. people in the interior of France. They expected to 
 find a large majority ready to co-operate with them in the overthrow 
 of the ruling faction. 
 
 13. The emperor soon found himself in a very awkward situar 
 tion. Instead of invading France with any effect he haa the mor- 
 tification to see his own dominions invaded by the French, under 
 a general (Dumourier), who had boasted that he would subdue 
 the Austrian Netherlands before the end of the year ; an engage- 
 ment which he in a great measure fulfilled, through the disaffection 
 of the Belgians, who were ready enough to throw off the Austrian 
 yoke, heedless that they were in the way of having another imme- 
 diately imposed upon them still more galling and vexatious. In tbe 
 
310 MODERN HISTORY 
 
 month of November, 1,792. all subjection to the imperial authority 
 was openly renounced in the very capital of the Netherlands, and 
 the French allowed to enter the city in triumph. While these things 
 were going on in Flanders, Germany itself was invaded by the French 
 general, (Justine, Mentz taken, and heavy contributions levied in the 
 towns of Worms and Frankfort. 
 
 19. Early in the year 1,793, the Austrians under general Clair- 
 fait and the prince of Saxe Coburg, obtained advantages over the 
 French, at Aix-la-C nape lie, which were followed by the capture 
 of the towns of Valenciennes and Conde, in conjunction with the 
 British army under the command of the duke of York. A separa- 
 tion of the two armies alterwards took place, which was attended 
 with unpleasant circumstances, and seems to have happened very 
 contrary to the desire and wishes of the Austrian commander*. 
 The troops under the duke laid siege to Dunkirk, but were unsuc- 
 cessful in their attempts against the place, being obliged to abandon 
 the undertaking with the loss of the greatest part of their artillery 
 and stores. 
 
 20. In the year 1,794, the allied armies again acted in conjunction 
 against the Prench under general Pichegru, the emperor himself 
 having joined the camp, but the overwhelming power of the French 
 baffled all their attempts to defend the Netherlands, which fell en- 
 tirely into the hands oi the enemy. 
 
 21. The share which the emperor Francis II. had in the final 
 dismemberment of Poland, 1,795, will be shewn in the history of 
 that unhappy country. The king of Prussia having gained great 
 advantages by this transaction, declined any longer assisting the allies 
 against France, and in open violation of his engagements with Eng- 
 land, made a peace with the French government, April 5, 1,195, to 
 the great disgust of me confederates. 
 
 22. The contests between the armies of Germany and France, 
 in the years 1,796, 1,797, were carried on with the greatest vigour, 
 skill, and bravery, on the Rhine, in Suabia, in the Tyrol, and in 
 Italy. In 1,796, the archduke Charles, brother of the emperor, 
 acquired great glory by checking the progress of the two celebrat- 
 ed French generals, Jourdan and Moreau : and, though compelled 
 to retire betore Buonaparte, in 1,797, and to subscribe to the peace 
 of Campo-Formio, as will be related elsewhere, his credit with the 
 army remained undiminished, and his reputation as a general unim- 
 paired. On the renewal of the war in 1,799, at the instigation of 
 the Neapolitan court, the Austrians were assisted by the Russians, 
 and at the close of the eighteenth century, the tide of affairs seemed 
 to be turning greatly against the French, when a new revolution in 
 the fluctuating government of that disturbed people, suddenly chang- 
 ed the face of things, as will be shewn in our continuation of th<a 
 history of France, 
 
 SECTION XII. 
 
 FRANCE, FROM THE OPENING OF THE ASSEMBLY OF THB 
 STATES-GENERAL, 1,789, TO THE DEATHS OF THE KING 
 AND QUEEN, 1,793. 
 
 1. The states-genera! met, May 5, 1,789. The king's speech has 
 been much admired, as the address of an upright, humane, and 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 317 
 
 patriotic prince, to a respectable assemblage of his subjects, by 
 whose political and legislative exertions he hoped to improve the 
 state of the nation. The nobles and clergy had expressed a willing- 
 ness to forego their pecuniary privileges, but there were othei 
 grounds upon which they seemed likely to be at variance with the 
 third estate. The latter were for obliterating all traces of distinc- 
 tion in their legislative capacity ; while the former were so impru- 
 dent as to take some steps, not only indicative of an invincible attach- 
 ment to such distinctions, but bearing an air of arrogance and defi- 
 ance in them, ill suited to the times. The very costume adopted on 
 the occasion was calculated to render the representatives of the 
 commonalty almost ridiculous in the eves of their countrymen. 
 The nobles and clergy were distinguished by robes peculiarly rich 
 and brilliant; but the whole of the third estate were directed to 
 appear in the common and antiquated black dress of the members of 
 the law, though of various callings and professions. As soon, how 
 ever, as the commons had verified their powers and were prepared 
 to act, without waiting for the concurrence of the other two orders, 
 it was proposed by a.M. Le Grand, and seconded by the Abbe Sieyes. 
 fo call their meeting the u National Assembly" as forming a national 
 representation one and indivisible. This was eagerly adopted by 
 a majority of the members, but objected to by the king: at length, 
 however, some of the clergy and nobles having joined the third estate, 
 the king himself condescended to approve and sanction the union, a 
 matter of great triumph to the popular party, and which, in fact, 
 made them the arbiters of the destiny of trance. 
 
 2. On the 11th of July, 1,789, the king thought it necessary to 
 dismiss M. Necker ; many tumults and insurrections were the con- 
 sequence of this unpopular proceeding; the Bastile state prison, 
 once crowded with the victims of arbitrary power, but at this mo- 
 ment, and under the mild reign of Lewis XVI., almost empty, was 
 besieged by the mob, taken, and razed to the ground. After many 
 tumults of this kind, the king judged it expedient to comply with 
 the wishes of his people, and to recall the discarded minister; he 
 was also induced by circumstances, to yield to another demand of 
 more importance, namely, the dismissal of all his troops from the 
 environs of Paris and Versailles. In the meanwhile, the marquis de 
 ia Fayette^ who had been engaged in America, and there imbibed a 
 •spirit of liberty, was fixed upon to take the command of the new 
 militia or city guard. Alarmed at the appearance of things at this 
 r>eriod, many nobles, and even one of the king's brothers, left J the 
 kingdom. This haa undoubtedly a bad effect ; it not only left the 
 king more exposed to the violence of faction, but seemed to betoken 
 n disregard of the liberties of their country, and a settled purpose of 
 invoking foreign aid. 
 
 3, The national assembly soon divided itself into two parties ; 
 the aristocrats, or such as not only favoured royalty, but to a cer- 
 tain extent, the privileged orders, nobles, and clergy; and the 
 dejnocrats, or advocates of freedom ; the sworn enemies of all op- 
 pressive and distinct privileges ; they were also distinguished iato 
 royalists and patriots. Among the former we may reckon the mod- 
 erates, whose speeches in the assembly are justly to be admired, 
 for their extreme good sense and rational politics. Of the nobles, 
 ft should be observed, that the most obnoxious were those who 
 had purchased their nobility, amounting to many thousands. Of 
 the ancient, and hereditary nobility there were, it was compuh- 
 
 Dd2 
 
318 MODERN HISTORY, 
 
 ed, not more than two hundred families iD the whole kingdom 
 when the revolution began, nor were their privileges and exemp- 
 tions by any means so great as was pretended. It was soon ?een 
 which party was the most powerful ; on the 4th of August, 1,789, 
 decrees were passed, as if with the full consent of the whole a.^ 
 sernbly, for the abolition of the privileges of the nobles and clergy, 
 provinces and towns; while persons of every rank and description 
 were pronounced to be eligible to all civil, military, and ecclesi- 
 astical appointments. The royal family were exposed to horrible 
 insults and indignities at Versailles, and at length almost forcibly 
 conveyed to Paris; in consequence of which removal, the assem- 
 bly also adjourned its sittings to the capital, a fatal step to takft, 
 as it could not but expose them to the tyranny of a faction, and 
 the fury of the Parisian mob. Among the measures adopted at 
 this period, the rao jt important were those which placed nil 
 church property at the disposal of the nation, dissolved all monas- 
 tic establishments, feudal privileges and rights, and suppressed tin- 
 provincial parliaments and assemblies, by artfully dividing the king- 
 dom into 3:5 departments, the work of the Abbe Sieves; by this act 
 the very name of province was obliterated, from the French vocabu- 
 lary, and with it ail pecular rights, laws, and jurisdictions; all pro- 
 vincial governors, commandants, sub-delegates, presidents, and tri- 
 bunals of election ; mayors, echevins, jurats, courts of aid. chamber* 
 of accounts, &c. Every thing was at this time transacted m the way 
 of violence and destruction ; every law voted by acclamation, with 
 Gttle patience and less judgment ; thus, when it was proposed to 
 abolish all titles and hereditary distinctions; armorial bearings, live- 
 ries, &c. the democrats would scarcely surler the question to be <!t> 
 bated, and it was carried by a large majority, though so many mem- 
 bers of the assembly must have been deeply affected by it. 
 
 4. The national assembly was slow in preparing a constitutional 
 code, particularly in deciding upon the three following questions. 
 Whether such assemblies should be permanent or periodical? com- 
 posed of one or two chambers? and whether the king's xcto should 
 fye absolute or suspensive ? While these things were in agitation, the 
 King had attempted to rescue himself from the trammels imposed 
 upon him, by a timely escape from Paris ; but he was stopped on bis' 
 journey, and compelled to return. At length the assembly terminat- 
 ed its labours; a constitutional act was prepared and presented to 
 the king, of which, after an interval of ten days, he declared his ac- 
 ceptance. Had he been fiee, it is impossible that he could have 
 given his sanction to a measure which subjected the monarch to the 
 will of a domineering assembly, and was ill-calculated to repress the 
 efforts and designs of a licentious and restless faction. The assembly, 
 however, having thus completed its task, was dissolved by the king 
 on the 30th day of September. 1,791, being succeeded by another 
 convention, denominated u the legislative assembly," whose delibera- 
 tions were confined to the space only of one year ; none of the 
 members of the former assembly being eligible to the latter. 
 
 5. In the year 1,792, Austria and Prussia, in consequence of a - 
 declaration and agreement (according to all accounts imprudent) 
 determined upon at Pilnitz, in the preceding year, began to inter- 
 fere in behalf of the king and royal family, but so far from alarm- 
 ing the revolutionary party in France, their interposition seemed 
 wiry to have the effect of instigating it to acts of greater violence 
 wwf more determined courage. War was without scruple declared 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 3*0 
 
 against the king of Hungary and Bohemia, in the month ol April, 
 and every preparation made to resist all counter revolutionary 
 projects. Sweden and Russia had shewn a strong disposition also to 
 interfere; but the assassination of the Swedish monarch, Gustavtis 
 HI., in 1,792, and the distance of Russia from France, prevented 
 both those countries engaging in actual hostilities. In the mean 
 time, Paris became a scene ot dreadful confusion; every day some 
 new faction seemed to arise to baffle the attempts of those who 
 had yet wisdom or temperance enough to prevent things coming to ah 
 extremity. The legislature was at the mercy of the Parisian clubs. 
 and of the mobs, too freely admitted into the galleries of the assem- 
 bly. The king was insulted in the grossest manner for having ven- 
 tured to interpose his suspensive negative to the passing of two 
 severe decrees; one against those who had emigrated, and the 
 other against the clergy who declined taking the civic oath. M. Li 
 Fayette, who had been appointed to take the command of the army, 
 wrote from his camp to admonish the national representatives to res- 
 cSfle the country and the king from the factious designs of the enrag- 
 < ;d jacobins; but in vain; it served only to exasperate still more the 
 anti-royalists, and to bring fresh troubles on the royal family. Th*i 
 tfesjgn of the factious seems to have been, either to intimidate the king 
 to a degree of abject submission, or to provoke him to act against the 
 constitution in a manner that might render him liable to the ven- 
 geance of the people. The march of the Prussian army, and a 
 threatening manifesto issued by its commander, the duke of Bruns- 
 wick, irritated, the violent party into a frantic determination to abolish 
 royalty. The king was supposed, or represented, to be confederate 
 with the enemv, and deeply engaged in a plot with his emigrant 
 brothers and relatives, to counteract the revolution. 
 
 ('). A dreadful attack was ma.de on the palace in the month of 
 August, the particulars of which are too disgusting to dwell upon; 
 but it completed the triumph of the demagogues; tor in compelling 
 the king's guards to act on their defence, they had it in their power 
 to charge the king himself with having made war upon his people. 
 Nothing was now heard but the cry of "liberty and equality." The 
 ** chief of the executive power," as they chose to denominate his maj- 
 e'-ay, was formally suspended from his functions, and, under the pre- 
 tence of guardianship, committed with his queen and family to the 
 temple. 
 
 7. The assembly appeared from this moment to be as much in 
 the power of the faction as the king. The period has been too 
 justly distinguished by the appropriate title of M the reign of terror. 1 " 
 The execrable Robespierre was in reality at the head of affairs, and 
 t would be impossible adequately to describe the atrocities of his 
 merciless career. It would exceed the limits of this work to enter 
 far into particular details. La Fayette abandoned the army, as 
 unwilling to serve under such masters; his conduct has been ar- 
 raigned, as reflecting at once upon his- loyalty, his patriotism, and 
 his courage ; it was thought that with the army so much at his 
 disposal as it seemed to be, had his principles been such as he pre 
 tended, he would have marched back to Paris, and saved his coun 
 try and his king from the ruin with which they were threatened. 
 In the meanwhile the combined troops of Austria and Prussia were 
 approaching the frontiers; differences subsisted in the army; nor 
 was general Dumourier, who had succeeded to the command on 
 the retirement of La Fayette, generally confided in, either by the 
 
320 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 army or the faction. To lessen the number of aristocrats, many 
 suspected of belonging to that party were hurried to prison, where 
 without scruple, aud with such barbarity as is not to be paralleled 
 lo the records of history, they were almost all assassinated, to the 
 amount, as it has been estimated, of not less than five thousand. 
 Tkis happening on the second of September, all who were con- 
 cerned in it, as principals or abettors, were denominated Septeu*- 
 bribers. 
 
 8. These were but preludes to a catastrophe, if possible, still 
 more shocking; a murder perpetrated with a studied deliberation, 
 »nd with all the mockery of legal forms and ceremonies. However 
 hastened by the hostile approach of the confederate powers, and 
 the injudicious threats ihey threw out in case any violence should 
 be offered to the king ? s person, nothing could possibly excuse tin? 
 perversion of justice, and gross inhumanity which marked the trials 
 <if the king and queen; nothing exceed the melancholy circumstan- 
 ces of their imprisonment and execution! On the 11th of Decem- 
 ber, 1,792, the king appeared before the convention, to hear the 
 » Uarges preferred against him. u You are accused," said the 
 president, "by the French nation, of having committed a multitude 
 of crimes, for the purpose of re-establishing your tyranny by the 
 destruction of liberty." He then entered into a few particulars. 
 The king, with great dignity, replied, u No existing laws prohibit- 
 ed -me from doing as I did; I had no wish to injure my subjects, no 
 intention of shedding their blood." Further accusations were 
 pressed upon him, from which he defended himself with the same 
 firmness and simplicity of language, the same coolness and intre- 
 pi.iity of mind. He declared boldly, that his conscience fully ac- 
 quitted him of the things laid to his charge, and appealed to the 
 whole course of his behaviour and carriage towards them as king, 
 lo exonerate himself from the horrid imputation of having been 
 eager and ready to shed the blood of his people, This charge, in- 
 deed, rested solely on the events of the 10th of August, when the 
 rabble broke into the palace of the Tuilleries, and not only men- 
 aced the lives of the king and his family, but are allowed to have 
 begun the sanguinary part of the conflict, by the murder of five of 
 his Swiss guards. It was not till after this event that the re6t of 
 these faithful adherents fired upon the aggressors, and drew upon 
 themselves the vengeance that terminated so fatally, for they were 
 all destroyed. 
 
 9. It having been resolved that the judgment and decision of the 
 case should rest with the national representatives, the convention 
 met on the 15th of January, 1,793, lo discuss the question of the 
 kirig^s guilt, upon the charges so loosely and so maliciously brought 
 against nim, when it appeared that only thirty-seven were disposed 
 to think favourably of his conduct. Six hundred and eighty-three 
 members, with little or no hesitation, some, indeed, with the most 
 cruel eagerness and exultation, pronounced him guilty. An attempt 
 was made to procure a reference of this matter to the people ; but 
 It was over-ruled by a majority of one hundred and thirty-nine. 
 
 10. Having determined the question of his guilt, that of his pun- 
 ishment became the next subject of discussion. It was proposed 
 to decide between detention, banishment, and death. After a de- 
 late, in which the amiable monarch seemed to be regarded by many 
 as despotism personified, no less than three hundred and sixty-one, 
 or, according to some accounts, three hundred and si xtv-six members, 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 521 
 
 roted peremptorily for death ; and on a further question, whether 
 the execution of the sentence should be suspended or take place 
 Immediately, the votes for the latter amounted to three hundred and 
 eighty against three hundred and ten. The king was to be informed 
 of the result of their proceedings, and to suffer death in twenty-four 
 hours afterwards. The advocates for the king were allowed to 
 address the assembly, and to move an appeal to the people, but with- 
 out effect. On the motion of Robespierre, the decree was pro- 
 nounced irrevocable, and the king's defenders debarred from any 
 further hearing. 
 
 11. On the 21st of January his majesty, having previously taken 
 leave of his family, and performed the services of devotion, was 
 Conveyed to the place of execution: nothing could exceed the 
 pious resignation with which he submitted to the cruel and unjust 
 sentence which doomed him to death, and during his passage to'tho 
 square of the revolution, where the guillotine was erected, he bo 
 trayed no symptoms of fear or anger. On the scaffold, he maniiVs* 
 ed "a strong desire to address the crowd ; but the drums were mads 
 to sound louder, and he was rudely bidden to be silent ; in a moment 
 after, his head was severed from his body, and shewn to the people 
 as the head of a tyrant and a traitor ! 
 
 12. History, both public and private, has borne ample testimony 
 to the falsehood of the charges brought against him ; every nation 
 in Europe concurred in condemning the conduct of the French regi- 
 cides ; and though, in exciting the resentment of fresh enemies, 
 England and Spain particularly, it threatened the ruin of the new 
 republic ; it appeared by no means to have satisfied the blood-thirsty 
 vengeance of the ruling faction. The democratic, or republican 
 party, had long been split into two divisions, and their opposition to 
 each other seemed at this time to be at the height. Brissot^ who 
 headed the Girondists, (so called from the department of Girond^ 
 which some of that side represented,) was still alive ; Robespierre, 
 Danton, and Marat, directed the movements of the opposite faction; 
 for some time previously called the Mountain, from the elevated seats 
 they occupied in the hall of the convention. 
 
 13. It seemed now to be a question which of these turbulent par- 
 ties should obtain the ascendancy ; and a contest of this nature was 
 not likely to be decided without a much larger effusion of blood. 
 "The reign of terror"" still continued, and many more victims wer» 
 r>re paring for the stroke of that fatal instrument, which seemed to 
 nave been timely invented for the quick and incessant course of 
 decapitation and destruction now adopted. Had any thing been capa- 
 ble of producing domestic union, it might have been expected, from 
 the formidable confederacy of foreign powers, armed against the na- 
 tion ; for, in addition to Austria and Prussia, England, Spain, ami 
 Portugal, were at open war with France ; while a royalist party had 
 arisen within its own confines, of rather a formidable description 
 considering the strength of the enemies without, and the distracted 
 slate c.f the government. 
 
 14. Though such was the situation of the country, with regard 
 to foreign powers, and royalists at home, the struggle between thp 
 Girondists and Robespierrean faction was carried on at Paris with 
 the utmost violence and precipitation ; but the Mountain prevailed. 
 The leaders of the Brissotines were arrested and confined in the 
 month of May, and on the 31st of October following, all executed 
 Brl&sot himself saw sixteen of his party guillotined before it came to 
 
 41 
 
322 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 his turn, and four were beheaded afterwards. Many ot them were 
 persons of considerable talents, and not destitute of private virtues, 
 bad they lived in less turbulent and trying times. 
 
 15. Horrible as this execution must have been, one still more 
 appalling had engaged the attention of the people, on the same spot, 
 only fifteen days before. Loaded with insults, and deprived of every 
 possible comfort or consolation, " the widow of Lewis Capet," as 
 they chose to call their queen, (a princess of Austria, and daughter 
 of the high-minded Maria Theresa,) had not been suffered to enjoy 
 one moment of repose from the day of the king's execution ; prep- 
 arations were soon after made for her own trial, which, if possible, 
 was conducted in a manner still more revolting to every feeling 
 mind, than that which had been adopted in the case of her unhappy 
 consort. Her guilt and her punishment were as soon decided upon; 
 but even after this sad act of vengeance and injustice, shocking circuit 
 stances of ignominy, degradation, and persecution took place, scarce- 
 ly to be credited as the acts of any portion of a people at all advanced 
 in civilization ; she was cast into a dungeon, and delivered into the 
 custody of a gaoler seemingly selected on purpose to insult over 
 her misfortunes, and aggravate her sufferings. On the dreadful day 
 of her execution, she was conveyed to the scaffold in a common ttrb, 
 with her hands tied behind her, amid the brutal shouts of an infuriat- 
 ed populace. Thus died, in the 38th year of her age, the queen 
 of one of the greatest kingdoms of the earth ; a princess, who, 
 though not entirely free from faults, had, till this fatal revolution, 
 lived in all the splendour and luxury of a court, the marked object, 
 not only of admiration and adulation, but of homage so profound, and, 
 in some instances so servile and ensnaring, as to palliate and account 
 for all the errors of her short, but eventlul life 
 
 SECTION XIII. 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN, FROM THE CONCLUSION OF THE AxMERN 
 CAN WAR, 1,783, TO THE PEACE OF AMIENS, 1,802. 
 
 1. From the peace of Versailles, in 1,783, to the commencement 
 of the year 1,793, Great Britain kept free from war, though not 
 without some disputes with foreign powers, and occasional calls 
 upon her to interpose, as an ally or mediatrix, in the affairs of other 
 slates, Holland particularly. Soon after the termination of the 
 American war, extraordinary changes in the administration took 
 place. The ministry that negotiated the peace, at the head of 
 which was the earl of Shelburne, was displaced, and succeeded by 
 what was called the coalition ministry, from the extraordinary cir 
 cumstance of Mr. Fox and lord North becoming joint secretaries of 
 state, after an opposition peculiarly animated, and a positive declara- 
 tion on the part of the former, that they differed so in principle as to 
 render such an union for ever impracticable. 
 
 2. The unpopularity of such an apparout dereliction of principle, 
 as might reasonably be expected, rendered their continuance in 
 power extremely precarious, and it was not long before their re- 
 moval was effected, in consequence of a bill brought into parlia» 
 ment by Mr. Fox, to regulate the affairs of India. The measure 
 was judged to be fraught with danger to the constitution, by throw- 
 ing too much power into the hands of a board of commissioners, to 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 323 
 
 be chosen by parliament, and though it passed the commons, it was 
 thrown out by the lords, and the ministry dismissed. 
 
 3. Mr. Pitt, a younger son of the great lord Chatham, now cam* 
 into power, not in any subordinate situation, but as premier, though 
 at the early age of twenty-four, and under circumstances peculiarly 
 embarrassing, for he had long to contend against a majority of th* 
 house of commons, who threatened to stop the supplies, and effect, 
 hi* removal, as not enjoying the coniidence of the people. This 
 being judged too great an interference with the prerogative, and 
 many addresses being presented to the king to retain him in his 
 service, the parliament was at length dissolved, and the issue turned 
 out to be extremely favourable to the choice of his majesty. 
 
 4. The affairs of India manifestly requiring the interposition of 
 government, Mr. Pitt, as soon as possible, procured a bill to thaf 
 effect to he passed, according to which a board of control was to bu 
 appointed, not by parliament, but by the crown. Though this in- 
 creased in some degree the influence of the latter, it was judged to 
 be far less hazardous than the proposal of Mr. Fox, which threatened 
 to throw such a power into the hands of the minister and his friends, 
 as might enable them to overawe the sovereign, and render their 
 removal almost impracticable. Mr. Pitt's bill, also, was found to in- 
 '^rfere far less with the chartered rights of the company. It passed 
 
 ie lords, August 9, 1,781. 
 
 b. Another measure of considerable importance occupied the at- 
 tention of the minister, during the year 1,786, which was expected 
 to contribute greatly to the support of public credit. This was the 
 establishment of a new sinking fund, by appropriating the annual 
 sum of one million, to be invariably applied to the liquidation of tlie 
 public debt. At a subsequent period, a sinking fund of still greater 
 importance was established, by which every future loan was t-o 
 carry with it its own sinking fund. This was proposed to the house 
 in 1792, and readily adopted; it consisted in raising one per cent., 
 besides the dividends upon every new stock created, to be applied 
 by the commissioners for the reduction of the national debt, in the 
 same manner, and under the same regulations as the original mil- 
 lion.* 
 
 6. From the commencement of the year 1,786, to the year 1,795 <( j 
 the attention of the British parliament was in a very extraordina;^ 
 manner occupied with the charges brought against Mr. Hasting?, 
 governor-general of Bengal, in February, 1,786. Mr. Burke, whose 
 mind had been long affected by the abuses practised in India, by 
 the servants of the company, had appeared for some time to have 
 fixed his eye upon Mr. Hastings, as a fit object of prosecution ; and 
 he now moved for papers to substantiate the charges upon which 
 he meant to impeach him. These charges being discussed in par- 
 liament, during the session of 1,787, and referred to a committee, 
 were confirmed by the house of commons, on the 9th of May, and 
 the articles of impeachment exhibited to the house of lords, on the 
 1 4th ; in consequence of which Mr. Hastings was taken into cus- 
 tody, but, on the motion of the lord chancellor, admitted to bail. 
 The trial did not commence till February 15, 1,788, was continued 
 not only through the whole of that parliament, though very slowly, 
 but after much debate, determined to be pending on the commence- 
 
 * By this provision every loan would have its own fund, which would 
 ©perate at compound interest, and discharge the debt in forty-sev«n y«ar« 
 at the longest, from the time it was first incurred. 
 
3*4 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 ment of the new parliament, 1,790, and not brought to a conclusion 
 till the month of April, 1,795. 
 
 7. The question whether the impeachment abated on the dis- 
 solution of parliament, appearing to involve a constitutional point 
 of the highest importance, was discussed with singular attention, 
 and a large display of" legal and parliamentary knowledge. The 
 law member? of both houses were never perhaps so divided in their 
 opinions; but the numerous precedents cited by Mr. Pitt seemed 
 eieurly to decide the question as follows : that though legislative 
 processes are abated by prorogation or dissolution, it is not so with 
 regard to judicial proceedings. It appeared to be a nice and curious 
 question, and, as affecting the responsibility of ministers, its decision 
 way be regarded as singularly important. 
 
 8. Though in the course of the uroceedings and prosecution of 
 Che various charges against Mr. Hastings, the eloquence of the 
 managers exceeded all that could have been expected, yet never 
 perhaps were so great talents employed with less success ; a trial of 
 such seeming importance, so strangely protracted ; or a case of 
 impeachment brought to an issue so little answerable to the expec- 
 tations thai had been excited. It would be impossible to deny that 
 flagrant and enormous abuses had been committed in India during 
 the period in question, yet, the very length of the trial made it ap- 
 peal- to most persons in the light of a persecution, and that of an in- 
 dividual to whom the company and the nation stood highly indebted 
 for many eminent services. As it ended in the acquittal of Mr. Has- 
 tings, that gentleman may be presumed innocent. One good, how- 
 ever, seems to have arisen from the investigation ; all succeeding 
 governors-general have certainly been more circumspect and correct 
 m their proceedings. 
 
 3. In the course of the year 1,707, great disturbances having 
 taken place in the united provinces, fomented by the French, and 
 threatening the dissolution of the stadtholderate, an alliance was 
 termed between the courts of St. James's and Berlin, to protect the 
 rights of the prince of Orange, and resist the interference of the 
 French. Preparations for war took place, but the Prussian army 
 decided matters without any active co-operation on the part of 
 
 ^at Britain. The alarming state of things in France, appeared 
 
 pfleter the court of" Versailles from rendering that assistance to 
 %he malecontents of rfctfand, which the latter had been taught to 
 expect 
 
 10. During the session of 1,788, the attention of the house of 
 commons was first called to the horrible circumstances attending 
 (he African slave-trade. It is quite surprising that such a traffic 
 should have been so long carried on, without exciting the resent- 
 ment of every sensible mind, and disgusting the feelings of a civil 
 ized people ; unfortunately, when first noticed, it was found to be 
 so deeply interwoven with the interests of our settlements in the 
 West Indies, and to depend so much on foreign states, as well as 
 our own, as to render it almost necessary to proceed slowly and 
 cautiously, though it was impossible not to be horror-struck with 
 the information laid before the house, particularly in regard to 
 what was called the middle-passage, or transportation of the unhap- 
 py Africans, from their native shores to the several islands. As it 
 would be inconsistent with the nature of such a work as the present, 
 to enter into the detail of the proceedings upon this very interesting 
 •ubject, which took up a long time, and can scarcely now be said to 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 323 
 
 he terminated, it may be sufficient to note, that, after continual re- 
 newals of the subject in the two houses of parliament, yet, owing to 
 many untoward circumstances, it was not tinally abolished till the 
 yiiar 1,806, nor has it even yet been in the power of any ministry, 
 or any of our diplomatists, effectually to prevent the trade, as car- 
 ried on by foreign states, though every person of humane feelings 
 must devoutly wish and desire that it should be so. It must, how- 
 ever, always redound to the credit of our own country, that the 
 voice of compassion and mercy was first heard amongst us, and that 
 the first arm stretched out to save and to rescue a large proportion 
 of our fellow-creatures from the most abject slavery and cruel tor- 
 tures that ever we're indicted, was the arm of a Briton 
 
 11. The parliament being prorogued on the 11th of July. 1,788, 
 to the 20lh of November, was compelled to meet on the day ap- 
 pointed, by circumstances of a most distressing kind. His majesty, 
 probably through excess of business, to which he was known to 
 clevote more time and labour than could well be consistent with 
 his health, was seized with an illness which totally incapacitated 
 him from discharging the functions of his high and exalted station. 
 It must appear strange, that by the laws and constitution of tlifi 
 realm, so little provision had been made for a catastrophe by no 
 means out of the line of probability, that it became a question into 
 what hands the suspended executive had devolved, and this led, a* 
 might be expected, to very warm and important debates in parlia- 
 ment Though the prince of Wales, being of full age, did not person- 
 ally claim the regency as matter of right, his party did. The min- 
 ister, Mr. Pitt, contended that it belonged to parliament to supply 
 the deficiency ; and this question being stated, it was judged expe- 
 dient to debate it, and settle it by vote. The decision upon this 
 occasion was entirely in favour of the power of parliament to 
 appoint the regent, none doubting, however, that the heir apparent 
 was the fit object of such appointment. Other questions were 
 agitated at the same time, of equal importance ; particularly how 
 far restrictions could be imposed by parliament, in regard te the ex- 
 ercise of prerogatives, the whole of which were reasonably enough 
 supposed to be essential to the government of the country- This 
 question also was decided in favour of the minister, who had proposed 
 restrictions, with an understanding, however, that they could only 
 apply to a temporary suspension of the kingly power. In this case 
 also, the care of the king's person was assigned not to the regent, but 
 to the queen. One great difficulty remained after all the discussions 
 upon the regency, it was doubted how the lord chancellor could 
 be empowered to put the great seal to a commission for opening the 
 sessions of parliament, so as to restore u the efficacy of legislation ; r 
 it was decided that he might be directed to do it in the name of tb« 
 king, by authority of the two houses. 
 
 12. Fortunately for the public, this first illness of his majesty 
 was of so short duration, as to render unnecessary all the changes 
 that had been contemplated. Early in the year 1,789, the lord 
 chancellor was able to announce to the houses of parliament, the 
 perfect recovery of the king. Nothing could exceed the transports 
 of joy with which this intelligence was received throughout the 
 whole kingdom. A national thanksgiving was appointed, and his 
 majesty went himself in great state to St Paul's, to offer up his 
 grateful devotions on the event. The illuminations on the occasion 
 were so general, that it is probable, from the accounts given of 
 
 Ee 
 
326 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 them, that scarcely a cottage in the most remote parts of the island 
 was without its show of loyalty and affection. The appearance of 
 the metropolis, in particular, was most extraordinary, and notwith- 
 standing the immense concourse of people that continued almost the 
 whole night in the streets, and the crowded throng of carriages and 
 horses, so strong a disposition was shown by all ranks and descriptions 
 of persons to conduct things peaceably, that fewer accidents occurred 
 than were ever known before in similar cases. 
 
 13. It should be noted, as a matter of general history, that had 
 not his majesty recovered so opportunely, difficulties of an extraor- 
 dinary nature "might have ensued, from the different proceedings of 
 the two legislatures of Great Britain and Ireland. While in the 
 former it was decided that the prince could not assume the regency . 
 as matter of right, and that the parliament had a power to impose 
 restrictions, in Ireland, his right appeared to be acknowledged by 
 the two houses agreeing to address him, to take upon him immediately 
 the government of that kingdom, during the king's incapacity, and 
 with the usual powers of royalty. 
 
 14. In the year 1,789, the proceedings in France began to occupy 
 the attention of Europe, and of England in particular. A struggle lor 
 freedom seemed to be so congenial to the spirit of the people of the 
 latter country, that it is not to be wondered that the commencement 
 of so extraordinary a revolution should excite the strongest senSa- 
 tions. Unfortunate^' the abuses in the French government were so 
 many, and some of them so entirely contrary to every principle of 
 reason and equity, that it soon became apparent that nothing less 
 than a radical change, and revolution of every existing institution 
 and establishment, would satisfy the disturbed minds of that volatile 
 people ; minds unhappily prepared not merely to resist oppression, 
 but to throw off every restraint of religion and morality. Such an 
 example, therefore, required to be watched and guarded against, in 
 a country whose free constitution supplied its own means of refor- 
 mation in every case of necessity, and where tumultuary proceedings 
 could only lead to ends the most fatal and deplorable. hlv. \'h'- 
 seemed aware of this, and though Ids measures of precaution were 
 supposed occasionally to press too hardly. on the liberty of the sub- 
 ject, it must' be admitted that a very improper intercourse Was at 
 times carried on between the several popular associations in England 
 and Ireland, and the national assembly of France. The object of 
 the latter, in its replies to the addresses presented to it, being, accord- 
 ing to all reasonable interpretation of the terms used, to invite ami 
 encourage the discontented of all countries to follow their example. 
 which was every day becoming more violent and anarchical 
 This was not all; emissaries were employed to propagate theii 
 principles in other countries, many of whom came to England, v.m.l 
 met with an encouragement not to be overlooked by a governine:;! 
 properly sensible of the dangers to be incurred by any adoption of 
 such sentiments and principles, in a country so very differently situ- 
 ated from that of France. England had long ago done for herself 
 what France was now attempting ; and though no such changes and 
 revolutions can be expected to take place without some violence. 
 yet England had passed through this ordeal, and accomplished her 
 point a whole century before France began to assert her liberties. 
 It was iittle less than an insult to every true Englishman, therefore, 
 ft) attempt to stir him up to such violent proceedings as had already 
 been countenanced and sanctioned bv the French revolutionists; bw> 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 327 
 
 that such attempts were making, could not but be too obvioua. On 
 the 19th of November, 1,792, the national assembly passed a decree, 
 that they would grant fraternity and assistance to all who might wish 
 to recover their liberty. This was two months after they had pro- 
 claimed the eternal abolition of royalty, and imprisoned the king; after 
 they had declared hereditary nobility to be incompatible with a free 
 state ; and thus, by implication, declared that England and most of 
 the other states of Europe were not free. It was afterwards proved, 
 by their own acknowledgment, that before any declaration of war. 
 more than a million sterling had boon senl to England from the 
 national treasury of France, for purposes strictly revolutionary 
 No country was free from these political disturbers; even general 
 Washington, as president of the United States of America, was 
 obliged to publish letters patent, to withdraw his countenance from 
 the accredited French ministers in that country, who had grossly 
 insulted him as head of the executive government. 
 
 15. In... the year 1,790,. an unpleasant dispute arose between the 
 courts of St. James's and Madrid, which had nearly involved the 
 two countries in a war. It related to a settlement on the north- 
 western coast of America, which had been attempted by some sub- 
 jects of Great Britain, at Nootka Sound, for the carrying on a fur 
 irade with China. The Spaniards, conceiving this to be an invasion 
 of their rights, under a claim to these distant regions the most ex- 
 travagant and absurd, with great precipitation attacked the English 
 settled there, took the ibrt which had been erected with the consent 
 of the Indians, and seized upon the vessels. It was not possible to 
 pass over so great an outrage ; but by the vigorous and timely prep- 
 arations made to procure reparation, and the little hope ot assist- 
 ance to be derived from France, in case things should come to ex* 
 tremities, the Spanish court was brought to terms before the expira- 
 tion of the year; and not only every point in dispute, ceded to th* 
 English, but many advantages granted with regard to the navigatior 
 of the Jr/aciiic ocean. 
 
 IS. In the course of the same year, the British court interfered 
 successfully to restore peace between Austria and Turkey, and 
 was further instrumental, though not withou f some hindrances, in 
 reducing the revolted Netherlands to the dominion and authority 
 of the former power. Her attempts to mediate between Russia 
 and the Forte, were by no means so successful, and had nearly, in 
 deed, involved the nation in war, for an object of very little im- 
 portance in the eyes of the public at large, though the^ ministei 
 seemed to think otherwise. In consequence, however, of the op- 
 position he met with, he was induced to forego the plan he had ir 
 view, of preventing Russia getting possession of the town of Ocza- 
 kow, anil a peace was concluded with that power at Yassi, January 
 1,792. 
 
 17. Towards the close of the same year, after the king of France 
 and his family were in a state of confinement, many attempts were 
 made by the national assembly to ascertain the views of England 
 with regard to the confederacy formed against her, and the question 
 of peace or war seemed nearly brought to an issue, before the horrible 
 execution of the king, in the month of January, !,793. That event 
 being followed by the dismissal of the French minister at London, 
 appeared so totally to dissolve all friendly communications between 
 the two countries, as to induce the French government, by a decree 
 ui the assembly Februswg 3, 1,793, to declare war against the king 
 
328 MODERN HISTORY 
 
 tf Great Britain and the stadtholder of Holland ; in which decree, 
 there was evidently an attempt in the very wording of it to separate 
 the people of the two countries from their respective sovereigns. 
 
 18. By this time, indeed, the encroaching disposition of the 
 French revolutionists was manifested in their annexation of Savoy 
 to France for ever, as soon as they had gained any advantages over 
 it; and in their conduct in the Netherlands, by declaring the navi- 
 gation of the Scheld free, contrary to all subsisting treaties with 
 tne Dutch. The same spirit was apparent in their refusal to ex- 
 empt Alsace and Lorraine from the operation of the decrees for the 
 abolition of feudal rights, and in their forcible seizure of Avignon 
 and the comtat Venaissin, which had belonged to the Roman see 
 for many centuries. It is true, the indiscreet manifestoes of the 
 combined armies were sufficient to stimulate a people, already in 
 a high degree of irritation, to acts of severe reprisal, in all cases of 
 success ; but it was very manifest that they had already violated 
 their own principle of not acting on a system of aggrandizement, 
 of which they made such boast at the beginning of the revolution. 
 Their glaring abandonment of this principle, and the injury done to 
 the Dutch by opening the Scheld, were the ostensible grounds of 
 the war on the part of England. The declaration of France, in 
 some degree, saved the minister from the responsibility of having 
 actually commenced hostilities, however, in the opinion of opposi- 
 tion, he might be said to have provoked them; but it should still be 
 observed, that there was a treaty subsisting between the two countries., 
 affirming that the recal or dismission of public ministers should be 
 considered tantamount to a declaration of war. If so, and the treaty 
 was not invalidated by the change of things at Paris, as many asserted, 
 the lirst declaration of war proceeded from the English government, 
 who, on the suspension of the kingly authority, had recalled lord 
 Govver from Paris, (many other courts, however, having done the 
 same,) and on the death of the king, abruptly dismissed the French 
 minister, M. Chauvelin, from England. 
 
 19. The exact objects of the hostile interference of England 
 were never formally explained in parliament, though in the king's 
 declaration they wt:e regarded as too notorious; every thing con- 
 duced to render it apparent, that they had in view as much to op- 
 pose the propagation of anarchical principles, as the "violence of 
 territorial aggressions ; that previously to the declaration of war 
 on either part, the English government had shown a disposition not 
 to interfere with the internal affairs of France, seems manifest from 
 many circumstances. 
 
 20. It is not necessary to enter into the details of the war thai 
 took place after England joined the confederacy. The extraor- 
 dinary progress and success of the French appertains to the history 
 of that country, and may therefore be found elsewhere. Though 
 the British troops fought with their accustomed bravery, and ob- 
 tained in their nrst campaign some signal advantages, yet, owing 
 m some measure to the want of harmony and cordiality between 
 the confederates, but still more to the overwhelming force of 
 France, now risen en masse, -they ultimately met with great reverses, 
 and were compelled to abandon the country they had undertaken to 
 defend ; but though unsuccessful by land, on the ocean England 
 maintained her wonted superiority. Many of the French West In- 
 dia islands fell into her power in the summer of 1 ,794, and a most 
 decisive victory was gained by lord Howe, over the Brest tleet 5 on 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 329 
 
 the 1st of June. The island of Corsica also was subdued, and by 
 the antt-gallican party, with the celebrated Paschal Paoli at their 
 head, erected into a monarchy, the kingly power and prerogatives 
 being freely conferred on his majesty George 111. In the month of 
 October, however, 1,796, the French parly recovered the ascenden- 
 cy, and the island being evacuated by the English, was re-annexed 
 to France. 
 
 21. At the conclusion of the year 1,794, though France hail on 
 the continent made surprising acquisitions, the spirits of the English 
 were far from being shaken, and the utmost efforts were cheerfully 
 made for continuing the contest on the ocean; and in all the colonies 
 of the enemy, the advantages were clearly on the side of the British, 
 during the years 1,795, 1/796, and 1,797, when negotiations for 
 pence took place, but without being brought to any favourable issao. 
 At the close of 1,797, his majesty, attended by the two houses <>! 
 parliament, and the great officers of state, went to St. Paul's, to o$ r 
 up a public and national thanksgiving for the naval victories obtained 
 it all parts of the world; upon which occasion, many fla:;* and 
 colours taken from the French, Spaniards, and Dutch, were borne in 
 *ob«m pomp to the cathedral, and deposited on the altar. Not hint: 
 could exceed the enthusiasm with which the British nation at tb:- 
 period appeased disposed to resist the threats of the enemy. The 
 national militia having offered to transfer their services tb I?elau<l. 
 to suppress a rebellion which had broken out there, volunteer corn- 
 wore formed in all parts of the kingdom to supply their place, and 
 the people were readily induced to submit to a measure of iinann 
 toon Hirst adopted, namely, of raising, by a triple assessment, (after- 
 wards converted into an income and property tax,) a large propoi- 
 tion of the supplies wanted for carrying on the war within the rear 
 so much, in short, of the loan, as should exceed the sum dischargee, 
 by the operation of the sinking fund, so that no addition should Be 
 made to the permanent debt 
 
 22. In the year 1,793, the affairs of Ireland occasioned great dif- 
 ficulties. A regularly organized rebellion, the leaders of whfch 
 were in constant communication with the enemy, threatened to- 
 tally to dissolve the connexion subsisting between that country 
 and Great Britain, and to invite the aid and co-operation of Franc 
 at the manifest hazard of rendering Ireland a dependency of the 
 latter power, as had already been the case with Savoy, Belgium, 
 Lombardy, and Venice. Ireland had but lately obtained concessions 
 from England of no inconsiderable importance, a free trade, and the 
 recognition of her political independence ; but the catholics were dis- 
 satisfied with the national representation, to the defects in which 
 they attributed the continuancfof the penal statutes still directed 
 against them. The French revolution led to the formation of the 
 society of United Irishmen, in 1,791, which had many reforms and 
 changes in view, though short perhaps of an entire revolution. In 
 1,795, from representations made to it of the oppressed state of Ire- 
 kind, the French government regularly proffered its assistance to 
 subvert the monarchy, and separate Ireland from Britain. Fortunate- 
 ly the plans of the traitors were timely discovered, and though it 
 was not possible to prevent a recourse to arms, which afflicted many 
 parts of the kingdom between April and October, yet the principal 
 ringleaders were for the most part seized, executed, or compelled to 
 fly, and under the able government of lord Cornwallis, tranquillity 
 
 Ee2 4© 
 
S30 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 was happily restored, with less difficulty and damage than had beefi 
 expected. 
 
 23. The situation of affairs in Ireland during 1,798, led in the fol- 
 lowing year to the project of an union between the two countries, 
 which Mr. Pitt submitted to the British parliament in the form of a 
 message from the king, January 22, 1,799. The Irish legislature 
 having been declared independent in 1,732, it was obvious that no 
 such measure could be carried into execution without the free con- 
 sent and acquiescence of the Irish parliament. Many circumstan- 
 ces seemed to conduce to render the proposed union desirable and 
 beneficial to both nations, and at this particular moment, to recoa 
 die most people to it. The catholics of Ireland had become <1U~ 
 satisfied with the parliament of that country, while the protestunts, 
 who were greatly outnumbered by the catholics, though they pos- 
 sessed four fifths of the property of the kingdom, had good reason 
 to suppose their interests and ascendency would be best secure;! 
 in one united and imperial parliament, than in a distinct legisla- 
 ture, in a country where the catholics had already obtained their 
 elective franchise, and composed the bulk of the population. They 
 might also reasonably apprehend the consequences of the overtures 
 that had been made to France, and the alarming progress of revolu- 
 tionary principles. In the case of the regency, the tigers incident 
 to two distinct legislatures, had been rendered sufficiently apparent. 
 On all these accounts, though the measure was at first very ouUljj 
 entertained, and even rejected by the Irish house of commons ; the 
 minister was greatly encouraged to proceed, by the strong support 
 he received in both countries, from persons of all ranks and parlies. 
 A series of resolutions was proposed to the house, to be laid before 
 his majesty, recommendatory of the proposed union, which, after 
 6ome opposition, was sent to a committee by a majority of 141) lo 
 15. In the lords, the address passed without a division ; a protest, 
 however, being entered on the books, signed by three lords. liol- 
 land, Thanet, and King. 
 
 24. The last year of the eighteenth century was distinguished 
 by the most important events in India, where the English, under the 
 government of the earl of Morning ton, totally defeated the most 
 insidious, and powerful enemy, the forces in that remote country 
 ever had to contend with ; Tippoo Saib, the sultan of Mysore, son 
 of the celebrated Hyder Ally Khan, who had usurped those domin- 
 ions in 1,761. In the years 1,784, and 1,792, treaties of peace hail 
 been concluded between the sultan and the English, which, however, 
 had had very little effect on the former, who had shown himself 
 constantly attached to the French interests ; and having been com* 
 pelled by the last treaty to ced#*one half of his dominions to the 
 conquerors, and to deliver two of his sons as hostages into the hand 
 of lord Cornwallis, the governor-general, appears to have harboured 
 the most inveterate hatred against the English from that moment, 
 and to have meditated, by the aid of the French, and certain of the 
 native powers, nothing less than their total extirpation. It would be 
 impossible, perhaps, to find in history stronger instances of doplicity 
 and treachery, than were practised by this celebrated potentate 
 against the British interests, during the years 1,797 and 1,708, in 
 the spring of the latter of which, lord Mornington arrived in India. 
 With the French directory, with the French colonial government in 
 Mauritius, with the king of Candahar, with the courts of Poonah 
 *nd Hyderabad, with Buonaparte in Egypt, and even with the Otto- 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 331 
 
 man Porte, at the same time, the wily sultan managed to carry on 
 secret negotiations, amidst the strongest professions of amity and 
 attachment towards the English government. It has been conjectur- 
 ed, that had he obtained effectual aid from the French, in extirpating 
 the English, he would as willingly have turned against his European 
 abettors; the purport of fill his negotiations with the native powers, 
 being to stir them up to a general combination against the i/iJidcU 
 and enemies of the prophet, without any distinction of the two 
 nations. 
 
 25. By the extreme vigilance and cautious proceedings of the, 
 new governor-general, the^ intrigues of the sultan, notwithstanding 
 his reiterated assurances of fidelity, were so amply discovered and 
 exposed, as to vindicate, in the fullest manner, -the declaration of 
 war which took place in February, 1,799, and which was speedily 
 followed up by the most vigorous proceedings on the part, of the 
 army, terminating in the capture of Seringapatam, the capital of 
 the Mysore.au dominions, May 4, and the death of the sultan, whose 
 body was found, after the action, covered with heaps of dead, His 
 immense territories were divided amongst the allied powers, the 
 remains of his family provided i'ov in the Carnatic, and ,\ boy of five, 
 years old, the surviving representative of the Hindoo dynasty, restor- 
 ed to the throne of his ancestors. 
 
 23. la the first year of the new century, the projected union and 
 incorporation of the two legislatures and kingdoms of Great Britain 
 and Ireland^ was brought to a conclusion. Doubts were expressed 
 ia the Irish house of commons, and supported by great strength of 
 argument, whether, as a delegated body, and without a fresh ap- 
 peal to their constituents, they could formally consent to their own 
 armihrlatien. Strong suspicions also wore thrown out, that the plan 
 had no Other object n view than that of recovering to England the 
 domination she had surrendered in 1,782, who:) trie independency of 
 the Irish legislature had been fully, and, as it was alleged, finally 
 acknowledged and established; but those objections we.va ever- 
 ruled. It was no surrender, it was urged, of their legislative rights, 
 to consent to be incorporated with the parliament of Great Britain, 
 but a consolidation of them ; and their consent would acquire a 
 character from the regulations of 1,782, highly honourable to the 
 nation ; she could now treat as an independent state, and upon u 
 footing of equality, instead of being in any respect compelled, as. 
 might otherwise have been the case, to an union of subjection. 
 Early in the yea? 1,800, the assent of the two houses of parliament, 
 ifl Ireland, was signified in addresses to his majesty, transmitted 
 through the lord lieutenant, which being submitted to the British 
 parliament, after much discussion and debate on the bill in gen- 
 eral, as well as its several provisions, the union of the two king 
 doais was finally arranged to take place from the first of Jauuarv, 
 1,801. 
 
 27. The act of incorporation contained eight articles : the first 
 three decreed the union of the two kingdoms, the maintenance of 
 the protestant succession, and consolidation of the parliament. By 
 the fourth, it was settled that four prelates should sit alternately in 
 each session, and twenty-eight lay peers be elected for life, while 
 two members for each county, (thirty-two in all) and thirty-six citi- 
 zens and burgesses, should represent the commons. The fifth article 
 united the churches of England and Ireland ; the sixth and seventh 
 provided for the commercial and financial arrangements of the two 
 
533 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 countries, and the eighth for the maintenance of laws then in force* 
 and continuance of the courts of judicature. 
 
 28. On the first of January, 1,801, a royal declaration was issued} 
 regulating the style and titles appertaining to the imperial crown of 
 Great Britain and Ireland, with the arms, llags, and ensigns thereot 
 In these arrangements, the opportunity was judiciously taken of 
 laying aside the title of king of France, and the French arms; the 
 title in English was confined to Great Britain and Ireland; in Latin, 
 u Britanniarwn liex^ and the quartering of the "jleurs de /is," omit- 
 ted in the blazonry. 
 
 L'9. A fresh revolution in the government of France, about this 
 time, having thrown the executive power, in a great measure, 
 •nto the hands of a supreme magistrate, the first consul, and over- 
 tures for peace having been made by Buonaparte in that capacity, 
 much discussion upon the subject took place between the ministers 
 of the two countries, but without effect. The Austrians having 
 sustained a defeat in Italy, had solicited and obtained a suspension of 
 hostilities, and entered upon some negotiations for peace, to which 
 England was invited to become a party, upon consenting to a navai 
 armistice, but her maritime power stood so high, that while Malta 
 continued subject to France, and the French army unsubdued in 
 Egypt, she could not reasonably be expected to forego such advan- 
 tages, and to place herself upon a footing with her continental ally, 
 whose situation was so different. Her determination to continue the 
 war, was soon followed by the surrender of Malta, on the 5th of Sep- 
 tember, 1,800, and in the course of the next year, the French troops 
 were compelled finally to abandon Egypt; thus terminating an ex- 
 pedition, in a great degree mysterious, but which, no doubt, might 
 have led to the disturbance of our power in India, had it not been for 
 the interruption it met with on its way thither, and the overthrow of 
 Tippoo Saib. 
 
 30. in the course of the year 1,800, the enemies of England were 
 greatly increased by the revival amongst the northern powers, of 
 the armed neutrality, originally devised and adopted in 1,780. As 
 this dispute involved a very curious point of international law, it 
 would have been well, if it could have been brought to such an 
 issue as might have settled the question for ever ; but, after much 
 negotiation, and some very unpleasant conflicts at sea, (particularly 
 with the Danes,) seizures and embargoes, the matter terminated 
 rather in an uncertain compromise, than any positive adjustment. 
 The right of search by belligerents, however inconvenient to neu- 
 trals, seemed to have been acknowledged for many centuries, as a 
 principle of maritime law; upon the system of the armed neutrality, 
 it was contended that ships under convoy should pass free, the flag 
 of the neutral power being sufficient pledge and security that the 
 eargoes were not contraband of war. The claim in this case being 
 evidently directed against England, then, and at all times mistress 
 of the sea, rendered it a point of extreme importance ; one which 
 fhe could not surrender without a contest, or armed negotiation: 
 otherwise, and if it had not been decidedly in favour of her oppo- 
 nents, the countenance given to the new system by so many states of 
 Europe, Russia, Denmark, Sweden, Prussia, Naples, France, Spain, 
 Holland, Austria, Portugal, Venice, and Tuscany, (for by some steps 
 or other they all seemed disposed to adopt the spirit of it,) might have 
 been expected to amount to a formal recognition of its principle, as 
 a proper law of nations ; the dispute, however, upon this occasion, 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 333 
 
 was settled at Petersburg, by negotiation, after the accession of tlie 
 emperor Alexander, and attended with concessions on the part of the 
 Baltic powers, of singular importance, though less complete than 
 {hey might have been, owing to the counter concessions of Britain. 
 Thus, though it was decided that enemy's property embarked on 
 board neutral ships, should be liable to confiscation, and that the 
 right of searching merchant ships, even under convoy of a ship of 
 war, should be recognized, yet, it was at the same time determined 
 that arms and ammunition only should be considered as contraband^ 
 and that the right of searching merchant ships under convoy should 
 appertain exclusively to vessels belonging to the royal navy. If not 
 entirely decisive, however, the stipulations of this celebrated con- 
 vention highly deserve to be looked up to as a proper standard of 
 the rights of neutrality. 
 
 31. During the contest that arose with England, out of this con- 
 federacy of the nothern powers, the king of Prussia, one of the coi> 
 tracting parties, saw tit to take possession of the king of Great Brit- 
 ain's electoral states of Hanover, but on the change of affairs m 
 Russia, was speedily induced to restore them. 
 
 32. By the treaty of peace concluded at Luneville, between the 
 emperor of Germany and France, February 9, 1301, England was 
 left without an ally, and a change of ministry having taken place 
 about the same time, may be said to have laid the foundation for 
 more serious negotiations for peace, on the part of England and 
 France, than had hitherto taken place since the commencement of 
 the revolution. Nothing, however, seemed to hasten it so much 
 as the defeat of the French army in Egypt, and the settlement of 
 the differences between England and the Baltic powers, which 
 enabled her to negotiate with more advantage, and greatly loweiv 
 ed the spirit of the French government. ^ Preliminaries were signed 
 on the first of October, 1,801, and a definitive treaty concluded at 
 Amiens, between Great Britain and the French republic, Spain and 
 Holland, on the 25th of March, 1,802. By this treaty, England 
 obtained Ceylon from the Dutch, and Trinidad from the Spaniards, 
 relinquishing all her other conquests ; Malta being given back to 
 the knights of St. John of Jerusalem, under the guarantee of the 
 principal powers of Europe. 
 
 SECTION XIV. 
 
 FRANCE, FROM THE DEATH OF THE KING AND QUEEN, 
 AND OVERTHROW OF THE GIRONDIST OR BRISSOTINB 
 PARTY, 1,793, TO THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE DIREO- 
 TORY, 1,795. 
 
 1. The situation of France, towards the close of the year 1,7 C J3^ 
 was deplorable in the extreme. It lay at the mercy of a faction, 
 not merely blood-thirsty, but which nothing but blood would satis- 
 fy. The jacobins, or Hobespierrean party, determined to root out 
 every thing that could, by the remotest implication, be denounced 
 as adverse to their plans, procured a decree to be passed, exceed* 
 ing every thing that can be conceived in atrocity. Such was the 
 u Loi sur les suspects," passed in September, by which their agents 
 
554 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 in all parts of the country, were empowered to arrest, imprison, 
 and thereby doom to destruction, whomsoever suspicion in any 
 manner attached to. not merely as principals, but as connected with 
 principals, however unavoidably, naturally, or accidentally. One 
 article alone will explain the rest. The following are the persons 
 denounced in the 5th: — All of the ancient class of nobility; all hus- 
 bands, wives, fathers, mothers, sons, or daughters, brothers, sisters, 
 or agents of emigrants, who shall not have constantly manifested 
 an attachment to the revolution. The queen, the twenty-two victims 
 of the Girondist party, and general Custine, may be considered as 
 among the earliest and most distinguished persons that fell under 
 the power of this horrible fiction. The due d'Orleans, though not 
 belonging to the. Girondist party, was denounced by Robespierre 
 himself, as connected with them, and publicly executed on the 6th 
 of November; but his life and conduct, both public and private, had 
 been such, that he fell totally unregretted. It would be vain to 
 attempt to relate the many dreadful events which marked this bloody 
 period, it is to be hoped history will never again have to record 
 such complicated cruelties and miseries, such premeditated murders 
 such studied torments, mental and bodily. 
 
 c 2. On the 17th of November, of this memorable yeai, the cath- 
 olic religion, (at the instance of an archbishop of' Paris, Gobet!) 
 was publicly abjured by 'the convention, and decrees past, amidst 
 the most tumultuous acclamations, for substituting a religion of reason 
 in its room. The churches were quickly despoiled of their ornaments, 
 the altars destroyed, civic feasts instituted instead of religious festi- 
 vals, and Liberty, Equality, &c. consecrated as objects of worship. 
 These revolutionary and anti-catholic decrees were moreover 
 ordered to be translated into Italian, on purpose that they might be 
 transmitted in that most intelligible, and therefore most offensive 
 shape, to the pope. The calendar underwent aiso a correction. A 
 new republican form and era being adopted and established, to com- 
 mence from the 22d of September, 1,792, the day on which the na- 
 tional convention began its sittings, and royalty was abolished. The 
 year was divided into twelve parts, of thirty days each, distinguished 
 according to the prevalent seasons, Vendemiairc, September and Oc- 
 tober; Bruiuaire, October and November ; Frimairc, November and 
 December ; A'ivose, December and January; Pluviose, January and 
 February; Pentose, February and March; Germinal, March and 
 April; Floreal, April and May; Prairlal, May and June: JMessidor, 
 June and July ; Thcnnidor, July and August ; Fructidor, August and 
 September. "The Sabbath was abolished, and five complimentary 
 days added, all commemorative of the revolution. Each month was 
 divided into three decades, and a respite from labour allowed on 
 every tenth day. 
 
 3, It was not possible to suppose that those who ruled during 
 this dark u reign of terror," could long be suffered to retain their 
 power and station in the republic. Fortunately for the good of 
 human society, their very crimes rendered them jealous and sus- 
 picious of each other, so that before many months had passed, 
 after the execution of the queen and the Brissotines, the earth was 
 rid of such monsters, proscribed and driven to the scaffold by their 
 own friends and associates in wickedness ; Robespierre, from whom 
 the faction chiefly took its denomination, being at length accused, 
 condemned, and executed, in the course of a few hours in the month 
 of July, 1/794, to the satisfaction of the whole civilized world. Be- 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 335 
 
 fore this great day of retribution, however, one more victim of roy- 
 alty was brought to the scaffold, whose sole offence must have been 
 the heroic display she had made, in her constant attendance upon 
 the king, her brother, and his most unhappy family, of every amia- 
 ble virtue that could adorn a woman. The princess Elizabeth, who 
 had continued in the temple, with the two children of the unhappy 
 Lewis XVI., from the period of* his execution, was brought before 
 the revolutionary tribunal, accused of u accompanying; the late king 
 when he attempted his escape ;" of having u attended upon and ad- 
 ministered help to the wounded in the conflict with the guards ; M 
 and of "having encouraged her infant nephew, Lewis XV11., to en 
 tertain hopes of ascending the throne of his father;' 1 and upon these 
 charges sentenced to die, May 10, 1,794, and executed without pity 
 or remorse. 
 
 4. It was during the year 1,793, that Napoleou Buonaparte, a na- 
 tive of Corsica, had lirst an opportunity of distinguishing himself in 
 the French army, being employed in the direction of the artillery at 
 the siege of Toulon, which had fallen for a short time into the hands 
 of the English. Hitherto the war against the powers in opposition 
 to France, had been carried on in a most desultory and extraordinary 
 manner, with more success certainly on the part of the French than 
 could have been expected, from the extraordinary condition and cir- 
 cumstances of their armies, and the strange state of responsibility in 
 which their commanders were placed by their rulers at home. 
 Some of their generals were compelled to desert, many were pro- 
 scribed, and many, alter displaying the utmost valour in the held. 
 were actually brought to the scaffold. Nevertheless, the impulse 
 given to the revolutionary army, by the circumstances of their coun- 
 try, aided by mistakes and jealousies on the part of their opponents, 
 enabled it to combat effectually against much better organized 
 troops, and to resist the attacks that were made upon it in all quar- 
 ters; for in addition to the Austrians and Prussians, Sardinians, Eng- 
 lish and Spanish, in La Vendee and other departments, a civil war 
 prevailed, where many acts of heroism, indeed, were displayed 
 by a brave, but unsuccessful band of royalists, who ultimately 
 paid dear for their revolt, by the most horrid and disgraceful punish- 
 ments. 
 
 5. The French revolution had now attained that pitch of extrav- 
 agance and disorder, which left no hopes of any check or termi- 
 nation, but that which actually ensued, namely, a military despo- 
 tism. According to the remarks of one of the ablest members of the 
 first national assembly, one who was sacrificed at the period we 
 have been treating of, in a way the most treacherous and revolting 
 to every feeling mind, the French revolution being undertaken not 
 for the sake of men, but for the sake of opinion, had no distinct 
 leader, no Cromwell or Fairfax. All were leaders, all institutorA, 
 all equally interested in the course of affairs. Such a revolution, 
 he observes, must be commenced by all, but he was sagacious 
 enough to foresee that it would probably be terminated by one. All, 
 however, for a certain time, being leaders and institutors, nothing 
 could ensue from such a state of things, but continual struggles to be 
 uppermost ; continual denunciations and proscriptions of rival parties , 
 and a strange succession of new constitutions, and new forms of gov- 
 ernment, as any opening seemed to occur for bringing things to a 
 settlement. 
 
 6. The death of Robespierre, and of many of his accomplices, 
 
336 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 clearly afforded such an opening, if not for settling, at least for 
 ameliorating things ; but for some time the convention and the na- 
 tion seemed to be in too great a surprise and consternation to pro- 
 ceed with any method to so desirable an end. The former having 
 had its origin in the days of anarchy and confusion, seemed little 
 prepared to defend or support its own dignity, but the cry of hu- 
 manity began again to be raised, and to be heard, and in no long 
 course of time after the defeat of Robespierre, the jacobin club, 
 from which had emanated all the previous acts and decrees, so 
 disgraceful to France, was abolished and dissolved, by a decree of 
 tne convention. The reformation of the laws and government 
 gave greater trouble. The pain of death had been decreed against 
 any who should propose to set aside the constitution of 1,793, and 
 with this sentence hanging over them, all the people had sworn tp 
 uphold and maintain it. Tired, however, of the absolute and un- 
 controllable power they had exercised, many members, even of the 
 convention, sincerely wished for more limited authority. A com- 
 mittee was appointed to prepare a new code of laws, and, in the 
 mean time, processes were carried against some of the most violent 
 of the abettors of the late tumults and disorders, particularly the 
 commissioners who had sanctioned the most dreadful proceeding* 
 at Lyons, Nantes, Orange, and Arras. The execrable law under 
 >d:kn they had acted, u Loi des suspects," was repealed, and a just 
 vengeance directed against those who had been most forward to car- 
 ry it into execution. 
 
 7. At length a new constitution was framed, presented to the 
 convention, and approved. Two legislative councils, one of five 
 hundred members, and the other of two hundred and fifty, were 
 t « enact the laws ; the former to propose, the latter to sanction or 
 eject them. The executive government was committed to five 
 directors, chosen by the legislature, but whose responsibility was 
 t It-defined, and their connexion with the legislative bodies not suffi- 
 ciently provided for, either as a balance, or controlling power. It 
 was not without other limits and blemishes, but it may undoubtedly 
 be regarded as making a much nearer approach to order and reg- 
 ularity, than the one which it was intended to supersede. It wa» 
 formally accepted and proclaimed, September 23, 1,795.* 
 
 o. This may be considered as the third constitution established 
 since the first meeting of the states-general, in 1,789; great objec- 
 tions were made to one article, which secured the return of a very 
 large proportion of the members of the convention, to serve in the 
 new legislature. Tumults were raised in the sections of Paris, and 
 an attack made upon the convention, which, however, was at last 
 rescued from the violence of the mob. Buonaparte, who was then 
 at Paris, was appointed to act upon this occasion in defence of the 
 assembly. 
 
 9. Externally, the affairs of France may be said to have been at 
 this moment in a high and extraordinary degree of prosperity. The 
 campaigns of 1,794 and 1,795, committed to the charge of very able 
 generals, Pichegru, Souham, Jourdan, Kleber, Moreau, and Du- 
 gommier, had hitherto succeeded beyond their utmost expectations. 
 The Belgian states, and the united provinces, had not only been 
 
 * The directors being Reubel, Letoumeur, Lareveillere-Lepaux, Bar* 
 ras, and Sieyea ; lut the latter declining- the honour, Carnot supplied hi* 
 
 place. 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 337 
 
 wrested from the hands of their defenders, the Austrian*, Prussians^ 
 and British, but associated with the French republic in a close con- 
 federacy. The stadtholdership was again abolished, and the stack- 
 holder and his family obliged to take refuge in England. In the 
 mean time, peace had been concluded with many of the belligerent 
 power?, highly advantageous to France; with Prussia, Spain, the 
 landgrave of Hesse, the grand duke of Tuscany, and others ; while 
 the navigation of the livers Rhine, Meuse, and Scheldt, had been 
 rendered free, in all their courses and branches, to the people of 
 France. These proceedings, with regard to the Belgian states and 
 Holland, were the commencement of a system pursued from that 
 time on all the frontiers of the new republic. By a decree of the 
 national assembly, the French generals were directed to proclaim 
 every where the sovereignty of the people^to suppress all authorities 
 and privileges, to repeal all taxes, and establish provisional govern- 
 ments on democratic principles. By this system of "fraternization™ 
 as it was called, the subdued countries being formed into republic!!, 
 u republiques satellites^ as they were significantly denominated by the 
 French themselves, were associated with France as subordinate 
 states. Of the states first revolutionized in this manner, the Batavian 
 republic took the lead, surrendering to France, without hesitation, 
 the chief of her fortresses, and thus extending, and at the same time 
 protecting her frontier. The mistake she made in thus welcoming 
 the French, was but too soon discovered. The French levied heavy 
 contributions ; the English took from them many of their foreign 
 settlements, and particularly the cape of Good Hope, and the island 
 of Ceylon. 
 
 10. In the month of June, 1,795, Louis X VII , the unfortunate son 
 of Louis XVI., died in the temple, under circumstances extremeh 
 suspicious, and very deplorable, having been some time in the cus- 
 tody of a low-born drunken wretch, who did every thing he could 
 to insult and torment him, and undermine his health. He was in the 
 eleventh year of his age at the time of his death. His sister, the 
 princess royal, (the present duchess of Angouleme) was soon after 
 wards most happily released from her miserable prison, whence b 
 father, mother, and aunt, had been successively led to execution, 
 and where an only brother had died a victim to cruelty, and perhaps 
 poison. Her royal highness was exchanged for certain members of 
 the late convention, who had been delivered up to the allies, by the 
 generals who had incurred the displeasure of their rulers at Paris, 
 or had fallen into the hands of the enemy by other accidents. 
 
 SECTION XV. 
 
 FRANCE, FROM THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE DIRECTORY, 
 1,795, TO THE PEACE OF AMIENS. 
 
 1. The appointment of the five directors, was an act oi policy 
 on the part of the ruling members of the convention, who thought 
 it better to hazard such a division of the executive power, than to 
 
 §ive umbrage to the people, by the renewal of a first magistrate, 
 lough an elective one. As these new officers, however, owea 
 their nomination to the influence of those members of the iate con- 
 vention who were chosen to form a part of the legislative body ; a 
 Ff 43 
 
338 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 close union was soon found to subsist between the directors and the 
 majority of the council. 
 
 2. The council of ancients, consisting of two hundred and fifty 
 members, at lirst appeared to form the bulwark of the new consti- 
 tution ; having no share in the framing of the laws, they were able 
 to interpose with the greater dignity in pronouncing their judgment 
 upon such as were referred to them, and often exercised the re- 
 stored privilege of the veto beneficially for the public. The judi- 
 cial murders of the reign of terror were terminated, and the gov- 
 ernment displayed, in many instances, a return to moderation and 
 humanity, extremely desirable and praiseworthy, but in the south- 
 ern department, a system of reaction and retaliation prevailed, which 
 it was beyond their power to control. An organized body of assassins 
 kept all those parts of the nation in a state of incessant alarm. The 
 metropolis was in some degree restored to its wonted gayety, but 
 every thing bespoke, as might reasonably be expected, a most de- 
 moralized state of society. The stage became intolerably licentious, 
 and the public amusements were disgraced, by a freedom of man- 
 ners, and indelicacy of dress on the part of the females, beyond mea- 
 sure offensive. Those whose nearest connexions had been doomed 
 to the scaffold, could find no better mode of commemorating their 
 loss, than by festive meetings, called t; Bah a la Viciime^ to which 
 no one could be admitted but such as had lost a father, a mother, a 
 husband, a wife, a brother, or a sister, by the guillotine ! 
 
 3. Hitherto the prowess of the French armies had been mani- 
 fested much more in the north, and on the Rhine, than in the 
 southern parts of the continent; towards Italy, the Austrians and 
 Piedmontese seemed to hold the French in check. JDu^ommier had 
 indeed invaded Spain with enect; and by his attacks contributed 
 to bring about a peace with that country ; but now a new scene 
 was about to open, leading to such a succession of victories and 
 revolutions as it would be impossible fully to describe in such a work 
 as tin; present. 
 
 4. Early in the year 1,796, general Buonaparte obtained (bein^ 
 then twenty-six years of age,) the chief command of the army of 
 Italy, as it was called. His eagerness to commence operations 
 drew upon him some remonstrances. It was suggested to him that 
 m.iny things were wanting in his army necessary to the campaign. 
 * I have enough," said he, "if 1 conquer, and too many if 1 should 
 be beaten." The Austrian army in those, parts was commanded 
 by g-eneral Beaulieu. an officer peculiarly active and enterprising. 
 Gf neral Buonaparte took the command of the French army on the 
 30;h of March, and between the 12th and 15th of April, beat the 
 Austrian troops in three distinct engagements, at Montenotte, IVlil- 
 lesimo (or Montelezino,) and JDego. In the space of ibur days, it 
 has been computed, that the Austrian army was diminished to the 
 amount of 15,000 men, being separated at the same time from their 
 Piedmontese allies. After the battie of Dego, Buonaparte advanced 
 rapidly into Piedmont, nor did he stop till he had arrived at the 
 very gates of Turin. There he agreed to an armistice solicited by 
 the king, who was ignominiously compelled to submit to his occu- 
 pying with French troops all the principal fortresses of his coud 
 try. Happy to be allowed to retain the capital, he was also obliged 
 to cede Savoy, Nice, Tende, and Beuil. From Turin, Buona* 
 parte pursued his course into Lombait'y, and by the celebrated 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 339 
 
 battle of Lodi, :>n the 10th of May, obtained complete possession of 
 the Milanese. 
 
 6. Unwilling to enter immediately into the narrow parts of Italy 
 in this stage of his proceedings, he satisfied himself with threaten- 
 ing the pope and the king of Naples, till he brought them to terms 
 of peace ; the former surrendering to the French republic, Bologna, 
 Ferrara, and the coasts oi the Adriatic, from the mouths of the Po, 
 to Ancona ; and the latter consenting to contribute largely to the 
 maintenance of the French army, and to close his ports against 
 the enemies of France. The dukes of Parma and ModenSj made 
 Submission in lime to save (heir countries. The grand duke of 
 Tuscany had previously acknowledged the French republic, but 
 was bidden very peremptorily to exclude the English from the 
 port oi' Leghorn. The submission of all these princes and states 
 to the overwhelming force of the army under the command of Buo- 
 naparte, was but part of the victory he obtained over them. In 
 every step he took, lie was careful, by new laws, treaties, and po- 
 litical arrangements, to ^revolutionize/'' the countries over which 
 he obtained an ascendency by arms, and to incorporate them with 
 the French republic. .Savoy, Nice, and the Milanese, were thus 
 brought under his dominion, and ultimately erected into distinct, 
 though subordinate republics. 
 
 G. It was at the very commencement of the military career of 
 this extraordinary man, that he adopted a system of plunder, which, 
 lor a long time, engaged the attention of the whole civilized world. 
 in ail the treaties concluded with the Italian princes, he stipulated 
 that French artists should be admitted into their public galleries^ 
 museums, and palaces, to select as many as they might choose, of 
 the choicest performances of the celebrated painters and sculptors 
 of all ages, and cause them to be conveyed to Paris. French sentiment 
 has dwelt upon the circumstance of the immortal Raphael, Titian, 
 and Domenichino, having thus had it in their power, and in such 
 critical moments, to pay the ransom of their native countries, over- 
 looking the sad violation of sentiment occasioned by the removal of 
 these precious pledges of their stupendous talents from the hands 
 which had so long preserved them, and from places of which they 
 had been so justly regarded as the choicest and most valuable 
 ornaments. 
 
 7. The siege of Mantua was attended with many severe conflicts. 
 On the reduction of that important place, Buonaparte is stated to 
 have thus addressed his soldiers : u The capture of Mantua termi- 
 rntes a campaign which has justly entitled you to the everlasting 
 gratitude of your country. You have triumphed over the enemy in 
 three pitched battles, and seventy inferior engagements ; you have 
 taken a hundred thousand prisoners, fifty tield-pieces, two thousand 
 battering cannons. The country you have subdued has nourished, 
 maintained, and paid the army during the whole campaign, and you 
 have remitted thirty millions to the minister of finance, in aid of the 
 public treasury. You have enriched the museum at Paris, with 
 more than three hundred of the choicest and most valuable works of 
 art, both of ancient and modern Italy, and which it had taken thirty 
 ages to produce." 
 
 8. Though we know from subsequent accounts of French victo- 
 ries, that they are not always to be depended upon, yet there can 
 be no doubt, that the above address does pretty fairly describe the 
 extraordinary rapidity and extent of Buonaparte's hrst operations 
 
MO MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 m the field. The years 1,796 and 1,797, were indeed marked by 
 such surprising instances of this nature, that they deserve a place 
 in history, though the prudence and good generalship of such pre- 
 cipitate steps has been reasonably questioned. Mantua capitulated 
 on the 2d of February, 1,797, and Buonaparte pursued his course 
 in the direction of the Austrian capital, leaving Italy behind him, 
 with a view of penetrating to Vienna. Though obliged to tight his 
 way, he succeeded, March 2, 1,797, in taking possession of Gradis- 
 ca, which laid open to him the provinces of Goritz, Carniola, and 
 Carinthia, 
 
 9. The Austrian grand army was commanded by the emperor's 
 brother, the archduke Charles, an able general, a great favourite 
 with the soldiers, and who had combated the French on the Rhine 
 with signal success. He was not, however, strong enough to await 
 the approach of the French, who soon reached Leoben, only thirty 
 miles from Vienna, where great consternation was excited, and the 
 imperial family compelled to retire. As both armies, however, 
 were brought into a very critical position, negotiations were en- 
 tered into at this place, an armistice concluded on the 8th of April, 
 and preliminaries of peace signed on the 15th of the same month, 
 1,797. 
 
 10. Before we notice the celebrated treaty of Campo-Formirv, 
 by which the peace was settled and confirmed, it may be tit to con- 
 sider the state of those countries which Buonaparte had left behind 
 on his march upon Vienna. He had made peace on his own terms 
 (most advantageous ones for France) with Parma, Modena, Rome, 
 and Naples. He had overrun Savoy, obtained possession of tke 
 Milanese, and reduced Mantua. He had erected Genoa into the 
 Ligurian republic, and the Milanese he converted into the Cisalpine 
 renublic, after having first given it the name of Transpadane, in, 
 reterence to the river Po, and in contradistinction to the Cispadane 
 republic, consisting of Modena, Bologna, Reggio, and Ferrara, con- 
 federated in 1,796. He had passed Venice on his way to Trieste, of 
 which he took possession on the 3d of April, 1,797. The Venetians 
 had afforded an asylum to Lewis XVIII., and wavered greatly in 
 taking part either with the Austrians or the French, not being able 
 to calculate upon the issue of the contest. They had also fallen 
 mto domestic broils and dissensions, which gave the FFench command 
 er the opportunity he always sought, of introducing a French army 
 to allay their diilerences. The consequences were, that they im- 
 mediately seized upon the fleet, the Ionian islands, and, in fact, all 
 the Venetian states, which enabled Buonaparte greatly to improve 
 the peace he was making with the Austrians. Albania and the Ioni- 
 an islands he kept to himself; to the Cisalpine republic he assigned 
 the western dependencies of Venice, reserving for A istria, the capi- 
 tal, Istria, Dalmatia, and the island of the Adriatic, in exchange for 
 the Netherlands and the duchy of Luxemburg. He had profess- 
 ed to enter upon the Venetian states, merely to rescue them from 
 the hands of Austria, but by this extraordinary manoeuvre, he not 
 o'dy delivered them over to the very power from whom he under*- 
 took to save them, but he obtained from Austria the very object for 
 the sake of which her English allies had refused to make peace in 
 1,796. Such appears to have been the chief foundation of the cele- 
 brated treaty of Campo-Formio, concluded between the emperor and 
 the French republic, October, 17, 1,797. 
 
 11. Previously to the conclusion of the treaty of Campo-Formio, 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 341 
 
 the allies had lost three of their confederates, the dukes of Wir- 
 temburg and Bavaria, and the Margrave of Baden, all of whom 
 had found it necessary to purchase peace of the directory by heavy 
 contributions. Such great advantages in its external relations 
 were, however, far from contributing to the internal tranquillity of 
 the republic. The first five directors, as might naturally have been 
 expected, were by no means accordant in their views, or of equal 
 talents and abilities ; and provision seemed to have been made 
 for fresh revolutions, by the continual recurrence of new elections, 
 both in the legislative assemblies and directory. One of the five 
 directors was annuall}' to go out, and one third of each of the le- 
 gislative bodies to be renewed. The first event of this kind, as 
 might be expected, revived ail the jealousies of rival parties, and 
 produced an explosion almost as violent as any that had yet occur- 
 red ; the explosion of the 18th of Fructidor, as marked in the short- 
 lived republican calendar. Le Tourneur quitted the directory by 
 lot, and was succeeded by Barthelemi, who soon appeared inclined 
 to join Carnot against Reubel, Barras, and Larevilliere-Lepaux. 
 'Die three latter were for assuming a despotic power ; their oppo- 
 nents were divided, some inclined to the restoration of royalty, 
 others to the emancipation of the councils from the sway of the 
 directors, Reubei and his two associates; but as they formed a mi- 
 nority, and their enemies were prompt in their measures of revenge, 
 and had moreover the command of the military, it was not long be- 
 fore the latter obtained the victory they sought. On the 4th of 
 September, 1,797, the legislative assemblies were surrounded with 
 troops, and at the instance of the three ruling directors, two of their 
 eu|Je agues, (Carnot and Barthelemi) several members of the two 
 councils, many public ministers, and many men of letters, declared 
 guiUy of anti-republican measures and principles, arrested and impri- 
 soned 5 and, on the 5th, sentenced to deportation to the unhealthy 
 and remote settlement of Guiana, in South America. The authors, 
 editors, directors, and proprietors, of no less than forty-two public 
 journals were included in the sentence. Some of the proscribed 
 members found means to escape ; but those who were conveyed to 
 Guiana, suffered dreadfully from the voyage; many died from the 
 unwholesomeness of the place, some found means to return to Europe, 
 particularly general Fichegru and the ex-director, Barthelemi, who 
 were conveyed to England from the Dutch settlement of Surinam. 
 
 12; Buonaparte returned to Paris not long after these disturban- 
 ces, and was received with peculiar honours. The people began 
 to look up to him for deliverance from the tyranny of three direct- 
 ors ; and the latter were as eager to remove him from the metropo- 
 lis. In the midst of the honours paid to him, on account of his vic- 
 tories In Italy and Germany, Barras, with great emphasis, nominat- 
 ed him as the hero destined to place the tri-coloured flag on the 
 tower of London. Troops were actually assembled on the coasts 
 of Flanders and Normandy for the purpose ; but Buonaparte hft»- 
 self, seeing the impracticability of such an attempt, meditated a 
 more distant expedition. 
 
 13. In the course of the year 1,798, the system, began so suc- 
 cessfully in Flanders and Holland, of revolutionizing the countries 
 into which the French armies should penetrate, was carried to a 
 great extent. Watchful to seize upon every opportunity afforded 
 them by internal dissensions, the French this year obtained posses- 
 sion of Rome. Switzerland, the Pays de Vaud, the Grisons, and 
 Ft'2 
 
54f MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 Geneva, under circumstances peculiarly distressing to the existing 
 governments, and commonly attended with heavy exactions, and 
 the plunder of their churches, palaces, and museums. The pope 
 was driven from Rome, partly by his own subjects, and partly 
 through an overweening confidence in his own power and influ- 
 ence. The Roman republic was proclaimed February 15, 1,793; 
 and the finances being found in a bad state, the Vatican and other 
 public buildings stripped of their contents. The Pays de Vaud, 
 wliither the French had been invited, to protect them against the 
 aristocratic despotism of the Bernese, was formed into the Lciacui^ 
 and Switzerland, after many cruel sacrifices, into the Helvetic re- 
 public, or rather into three republics, for that was ultimately the 
 arrangement adopted ; provisional governments being in all places 
 appointed, conformably, in a great degree, to the principles of the 
 French constitution. No remonstrances on the part of the free can- 
 tons could save them from the directorial decrees. An address to 
 this effect, peculiarly pathetic and eloquent, from the cantons of 
 Schwitz, Uri, Appenzel, Glaris, Zng, and Underwalden, had no 
 effect whatever in preserving them from a change of constitution, 
 forced upon them by democratic France. The degenerate Romans 
 had appeared to pride themselves upon emulating their heroic an- 
 cestors, in re-establishing the republic, under the auspice* of Gallic 
 invaders. But the brave Swiss resisted to the utmost the rude dis- 
 turbers of their ancient freedom. The modern republicans of Home 
 chanted a Te Deum, to hallow their deliverance. The Swiss sung 
 their antiquated songs of patriotism and freedom, till the most dire 
 necessity compelled them to surrender their established constitution 
 to the dictates of a French directory. 
 
 14. On the 5th of May, Buonapaite left Paris for Toulon, to take 
 the command of an expedition, the real object of which has scarce- 
 ly been ascertained to this day, though it appears most probable, 
 that he designed to join Tippoo Saib in India, and to subvert the 
 British empire there. He was accompanied by many artists, natu- 
 ralists, and antiquarians, aud a large^ proportion of the army which 
 had served under him in Italy. Malta lying in his way to Egypt, 
 he failed not to take possession of it, partly by force, and partly by 
 intrigue, subjecting that island and its dependencies, Goza and Cumi- 
 no, to the French republic, June 12, 1,798. Its conquest had im 
 some time previously been meditated, bu( it had lately been put 
 under the protection of the emperor of Russia, Paul I. : it was treated 
 by the French as ill as other places, notwithstanding the utmost 
 assurances to the contrary. r I he knights were driven from the 
 island, many of the people compelled to join the French army, 
 and new laws imposed under the authority of the directory. In jjhe 
 month of July, this year, 1798, a triumphant entry into Paris, of 
 all the works of art collected in the several places "subdued by the 
 French arms, took place amid the acclamations of the people. The 
 French fleet had narrowly escaped at Malta the pursuit of an Eng» 
 lish one, under the command of Nelson ; and after the subduction 
 of the island, it was able to proceed, still undiscovered, to Egypt, 
 where the English had already been to look for them in vain. On 
 the 2d of July, Buonaparte took possession of Alexandria, mooukig 
 his fleet in the bay of Aboukir. In less than three weeks from his 
 landing, and after a severe action with the Mamelukes, called the 
 battle of the pyramids, Cairo, and the whole of the Delta fell into 
 his power ; but his triumph was lessened by the Joss of his fleet, oo 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 3*3 
 
 the 1st of August, which, being attacked in the bay Ly Nelson, was 
 almost totally destroyed or taken, the French admiral Brneys being 
 killed and his ship burnt ; four ships only, two of them frigates, wore 
 all that escaped. When Buonaparte left Toulon, his fleet consisted 
 of 400 sail, including thirteen ships of the line, and it was rathe* 
 increased than otherwise by his enterprise at Malta. 
 
 15. The victory of Nelson gave a new turn to the war against 
 the French. On his quitting Egypt, he carried his fleet to Naples, 
 where, the utmost joy was manifested by the court at the blow which 
 had been given to the French preponderance. The queen invoked 
 the Austrian* to renew the war against France: and the expedition 
 to Egypt and attack upon Malta having excited the czar, and even 
 the grand seignior, to resist aggressions so unprovoked and alarming, 
 Francis II. was not insensible to the call made upon him. England 
 was not backward to encourage and aid such movements, in every 
 part of Europe. The king of .Sardinia, and the grand duke of Tus- 
 cany showed themselves willing to join the new confederacy; Inst 
 the king of Prussia was not to be prevailed on to abandon his ueiv 
 trality. 
 
 16. The Neapolitan court, which had been the foremost to ex- 
 cite this new war, were the first sufferers from it. Having invaded 
 the territories of the church, and even obtained possession of Rome, 
 they were suddenly driven back by the French, the capital taken, 
 and the royal family compelled to retire to Palermo, in Sicily. Nip- 
 ples was not taken possession of without a formidable insurrection 
 of elicit extraordinary portion of its population, the Lazzaroni, with 
 whom the king, whose amusements were often unbecoming his high 
 rank, happened to be popular. This resistance provoked reprisal* 
 exceedingly distressing to the inhabitants, and almost ruinous to 
 the city; the tumult, however, was at length appeased, and the 
 kingdom of Naples converted into the ParVienopecai^ or jVeapolilast 
 republic. 
 
 17. The king, of, Sardinia, and the grand duke of Tuscany were 
 also made to pay dear for the renewal of hostilities, both being de- 
 prived of their dominions, as allies of the Neapolitans, and con> 
 pelled to abandon their capitals. The aged pope, who had indeed, 
 by many unwise provocations, irritated the French, a refugee in 
 the Tuscan territories, unwilling to accompany the deposed prince* 
 in their retreat from Florence, and too confidently reiving on the 
 reverence that would be paid to his years and station, was actually 
 arrested in his monastic retirement, and conveyed to Valence, in 
 Dauphiny, a prisoner, where he died broken hearted, August 28, 
 1,799. On the establishment of the consular government, his body 
 was honourably interred, and a monument erected over him. 
 
 1.0. But the directory, in the midst of these arbitrary seizure!-; of 
 states and kingdoms, acted with too little foresight, as to the effects 
 of the formidable confederacy of Russia and Austria. The French 
 armies were widely separated, and many of the most successful 
 generals, through a pernicious jealousy, disgraced and removed 
 from their command. This disheartened the soldiers; and reverses 
 were preparing for them, both in Germany and Italy. The Russian 
 army, under Souvaroff, entered the latter country early in the spring 
 of the year 1,799, and on the 18th of April was at Verona. The 
 character and manners of this northern general, made a great im- 
 pression bcth upon the allied armies, and upon the inhabitants of the 
 countries he invaded. The French, under the celebrated Moreau, 
 
344 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 were obliged to fall back, leaving the Milanese exposed to the coin- 
 bined forces. After various actions, Milan was invested ; and, aftejr 
 a nineteen days : siege, taken May 24. Turin, Alessandria, Mantua, 
 and Tortona, were reduced in the months of June and July ; an 1 
 in most of these places, as well as in other parts of Italy, Tuscany, 
 Naples, and Rome, great indignation was manifested against the 
 French, of whose tyranny they had all tasted, and of whose friend- 
 ship they were already become weary. In a short time the French 
 stained, of all their conquests in those parts, only Genoa and Savoy. 
 
 I. j. While these things were going on, the councils at Paris be- 
 gan to distrust the government of the directors, and to ask why 
 Buonaparte was at such a distance. Inquiries of this kind were 
 often put to his brother Lucien, who had a seat in the council of 
 t\\ •?. hundred. A party was formed against the most obnoxious of 
 the directors, and three found it necessary to retire. Another revo- 
 lution in the government was evidently preparing. Buonaparte'* 
 absence and object seemed equally mysterious. It was supposed 
 uhai he meant to open the old channel of trade between the East 
 ladies and the Mediterranean. After the destruction of his fleet, 
 as though banished from France, he appeared eager to establish a 
 colony in Egypt, which, perhaps, was originally in his view, in 
 carrying thither all that the arts and sciences of Europe could con- 
 tribute of utility or beauty. Alibis works were superintended by 
 persons of known celebrity for talent and knowledge of every de- 
 scription; but he was turned from this object by the jealousy of 
 the Turks, who, alter the battle of Aboukir, (or of the Nile, as it 
 is generally called in England,) were ready enough to join the 
 English in attacking tiie French, confined, as it were, within their 
 territories. Buonaparte, to be beforehand with them, marched into 
 Syria, where the pacha of Acre, a man of most ferocious character, 
 commanded. He succeeded in taking many fortresses, and for 
 three months maintained a war in the very heart of the country, 
 but his artillery having been intercepted by the English, who had 
 also been admitted into Acre, his attempts upon the latter place 
 were frustrated, and, being threatened on all sides, he resolved to 
 return to Egypt ; there he received letters to inform him of the 
 reverses in Italy, and the disorders at Paris, and to press his return ; 
 but the Turks had landed at Aboukir, and taken possession of the 
 fort, and it was judged necessary fur his fame, that he should not 
 quit Egypt without beating them. He hastened to attack them, 
 and succeeded ; but not without many severe conflicts, and an eight 
 days" siege of the fortress of Aboukir. Soon after this success, he 
 embarked clandestinely for France, leaving the army under the com- 
 mand of general Kleber, (who complained greatly of being so duped 
 and abandoned,) and in a very extraordinary manner escaped all the 
 English ships cruising in the "Mediterranean. 
 
 20. Buonaparte arrived just in time to take advantage of the 
 distracted state of the government The legislature was a prey to 
 faction ; the directors divided in opinion ; the jacobins and anarchists 
 extremely troublesome, and not unlikely to recover their sway; 
 while many departments were in a state of insurrection and civil 
 war. Sieyes, the most wise and politic of all that had yet been in 
 the directory, foresaw the necessity of a change, and wanted only 
 Borne military genius to support his measures, and to whom he 
 could confide his designs. Three other important characters ap- 
 peared to rest their hopes on the interference of Buonaparte, 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 346 
 
 Fouche, minister of police ; Cambaceres, minister of justice ; and 
 the ex-minister for foreign affairs, Talleyrand Perigord. 
 
 21. Within a month after the arrival of Buonaparte, a proposal 
 was made in the council of ancients, to remove the legislative bod- 
 ies to St. Cloud, and to confer on Buonaparte the command of the 
 troops at Paris. At the moment the decree was passed, Buonaparte, 
 accompanied by many of the generals who had distinguished them- 
 selves under him, appeared at the bar, denouncing threats against all 
 who should traverse the decree just passed. The council of five 
 hundred, taken by surprise, made some show of resistance ; and Buo- 
 naparte appearing amongst them, gave such offence, that he was m 
 danger of assassination, amidst the cries of "Down with the tyrant ! w 
 "No dictator!" His brother Lucien, at that time president, wa* 
 loudly called upon to pronounce a decree of outlawry against Mm,, 
 which he evaded by throwing aside his official dress, and renouncing 
 his seat in the assembly ; after which, Buonaparte, in some alarm, 
 having joined his troops, the meeting was dissolved, and violently dis- 
 persed by the soldiery. It was allowed however to assemble again 
 under the former presidency, the Jacobinical members being excluded, 
 when a new order of things, approved by the council of elders, wa* 
 brought forward, decreed, and proclaimed. The directory was abol- 
 ished, and three new chief magistrates appointed under the name of- 
 consuls, while committees were formed to prepare a new constiti> 
 lion. Eighty persons were to compose a senate, one hundred a 
 tribunate, arid three hundred a legislative body. 
 
 22. The time seemed now to be arrived when the excesses of tire 
 revolutionary movement had prepared men's minds for a transition 
 from a state of anarchy to one ot despotism. PopnlaF liberty had 
 {alien into disrepute, from the violences of the jacobins^ and a 
 strong executive government seemed indispensably necessary to re- 
 store things to any degree of order and consistency. Though tha 
 Jive directors appeared to be exchanged for three consuls, there 
 was, in the last instance, no correspondent division of power and 
 authority. To the first consul were assigned functions and pre- 
 rogatives exceedingly distinct from those of nis colleagues. "Unity 
 of thought and action was declared to be a fundamental quality m 
 the executive power.' 1 So far they were evidently going back to 
 the first and best principles of monarchy. Hitherto, however, an 
 elective and limited consulate was all that was contemplated. Gen- 
 eral Buonaparte was appointed first consul, Cambaceres the seconds 
 and Le Brun the third ; the first two for ten, the last for only tiva 
 years; Buonaparte, to say the least, having all the power of a king, 
 though not the name, assigned to him, — a power approaching too 
 near to absolute and uncontrollable despotism. 
 
 23. In the first discharge of his new functions, however, he was 
 careful to display a spirit of moderation, forbearance, and conciliation^ 
 in many popular acts at home, and overtures of peace to England* 
 The latter were without effect, and a large subsidy being granted by 
 the British parliament, to enable the emperor to continue the war, 
 no time was lost by the French in endeavouring to recover their 
 footing in Italy. In the month of May, 1,800, the first consul left 
 Paris, to take the command of the army in those parts ; and after a 
 most surprising passage through the mountainous parts of Switzer- 
 land, and the capture of the town of Costa, with the celebrated fori 
 of Bard, succeeded so far as to be able to enter Milan once more in 
 triumph, the Austrians retiring before him, little expecting that he 
 
 44 
 
S46 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 could find a way into Lombardy by the road he had chosen. The 
 Russian army had been withdrawn in disgust, after the proceedings in 
 Switzerland, which had greatly offended the czar. Previously to 
 the entrance of the first consul into Milan, the French, under Masse- 
 na, had been compelled to evacuate Genoa : but the Austrians were 
 doomed to suffer a reverse ; and though in the famous battle of 
 Marengo, which took place on the 14th of June, they fought with 
 the most desperate courage, and sustained an action of fourteen 
 hours with great heroism, and the fairest prospects of success, the 
 enemy received reinforcements at so critical a moment as to enable 
 them to obtain a complete victory, which was soon followed by a sus- 
 pension of hostilities^ solicited by the Austrian general. 
 
 "24. Negotiations lor peace were entered into at Paris, and the 
 preliminaries were signed ; but, through the remonstrances of the 
 English government, (as it is supposed,) the emperor refused lib 
 ratification, and the war was continued, both in Germany and Italy, 
 till the 25th of December, 1,300, when another suspension of hostil- 
 ities being agreed to, at Steyen, a town in Upper Austria, soon led 
 to the treaty of Luneville, between the French republic and the emjyi.rc^ 
 signed February 9, 1301 ; by which the Rhine was made the boun- 
 dary of the French republic, leaving the several princes dispossessed, 
 in part or in wi.oie, of their territories on the left side of the river, 
 to be indemnified in the bosom of the empire ; the Adige, in the 
 same manner, being fixed to be the boundary between the Austriai 
 territories in Italy and the Cisalpine republic. The Grand duke ot 
 Tuscany renounced his dukedom in liivour of the infant duke ol 
 Parma, created king of Etruria ; and the independence of the Bata- 
 vian, Helvetic, and Cisalpine republics, was recognised and guaran- 
 tied by both parties. 
 
 25. The English government had refused to enter into a naval 
 armistice, though in danger of being deserted by the emperors of 
 ■Germany and Russia, and had declined every offer of peace upon 
 such terms, while Malta and Egypt continued in the hands of France. 
 But after the re-capture of the former, and the defeat of the French 
 under Menou, at Alexandria, in September, 1,801, both parties seem- 
 ed more disposed than before to enter into negotiation, with serious 
 views of bringing things to an accommodation. On March 27th, 
 1,802, a definitive treaty was signed at Amiens, more favourable to 
 France that to England, though nothing could exceed the joy ex- 
 pressed in the latter country, on the termination of hostilities with 
 the French republic. It was soon found to be no better than a truce 
 of very short duration. 
 
 2d. The power of the French republic at this moment was enor- 
 mously great. In addition to the iormer possessions of France, it 
 had gained the Netherlands, and a considerable portion of Germany ; 
 Geneva, Piedmont, and Savoy had been incorporated with it; Hol- 
 land and Switzerland were rendered effectually dependent upon it, 
 The Cisalpine republic, including the Milanese, the duchies of Mo 
 dena, Mantua, and Parma, and part of the Venetian and Roman ter* 
 ritories, was placed under the presidency of the first consul, for a 
 term of ten years. Genoa, or the Ligurian republic, had been re- 
 covered by the treaty of Luneville ; Spain was entirely at the com- 
 mand of I ranee, as well as Tuscany, under its new possessor, the 
 vassal king of Etruria. It had recovered also its West Indian settle- 
 ments, and acquired a considerable footing in South America, 
 
MODERN HISTORY 341 
 
 SECTION XVL 
 
 FRANCE, FROM THE PEACE OF AMIENS TO THE TREATY 
 
 OF TILSIT, 1,807. 
 
 1. It has already been observed, that the first steps of the con- 
 sulate were of a conciliatory nature. Endeavours were made to 
 pacify the rebellious departments; the law of hostage, which had 
 oeen in its operation extremely vexatious, was repealed; and the 
 list of emigrants closed. On the first change of the government. 
 measures were taken to repress the violence of the jacobins, and 
 awe the factious ; but the sentences passed on the most obnoxious 
 were afterwards mitigated. 
 
 2. Soon after the conclusion of the peace of Amiens, the first 
 consul gave great satisfaction to the bulk of the nation, by restoring 
 the catholic religion. On Easter-day, 1,802, the peace was ratified 
 in the metropolitan church, with all the sanctions of the ancient 
 religious forms, and a large attendance of new prelates. The basis 
 of the convention with the pope had been settled and arranged in 
 the preceding year, upon the following principles: — That a new 
 iivision of the French dioceses should be made, suited to the re- 
 publican division of the country ; and that the first consul should 
 nominate the new archbishops and bishops, leaving it to the pope, 
 as a matter of course, to confer canonical institutions. The bishop* 
 to appoint the parish priests, subject to the approbation of govenv 
 ment. The pope to procure the ancient bishops to resign, imd to 
 engage not to disturb the alienated property of the church. No 
 bull, rescript, &c, from the court of Rome, no decrees of synods, or 
 general councils, to be received, or promulgated, without the consent 
 of government. No national or diocesan meeting to take place with- 
 out the same authority ; or any nuncio, legate, or vicar, to be allow- 
 ed to exercise his functions. 
 
 3. Such were some of the principal articles of the concordatum 
 of 1,801. The pope seemed to be glad to make any concessions 
 that might recover France from the depths of infidelity ; while the 
 articles themselves plainly show that the first consul, in restoring 
 Catholicism, had no intention to subject the nation, as heretofore, to the 
 dominion of the Roman see, even in spiritual matters. A still strong- 
 er proof!, however, of which, appears in the liberty afforded, at the 
 same time, to the Lutherans and Calvinists, who were placed nearly 
 upon the same footing with the catholics ; and were even allowed to 
 have three seminaries of education ; two in the eastern parts of France, 
 for the Lutherans, and one at Geneva, for the Calvinists. Provision 
 was also made in the new concordatum for the supposed case oi a 
 protestant being chosen chief magistrate of the republic. 
 
 4. On the second of August, 1,802, by an extraordinary expres- 
 sion of the public will, the consulate, the term of which, in the case 
 of Buonaparte and Cambaceres, had been limited to ten years, was 
 conferred on the former for life. The original proposal had been 
 only to extend the term ; but the people in the different convnuna 
 being called upon to give their opinion, voted, almost unanimous- 
 ly, for its being continued to the first consul for life, which was 
 readily sanctioned by the senate. 
 
343 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 5. This appointment was soon followed by a new form of con* 
 stitution, calculated to throw greater power into the hands of the 
 first magistrate, who was permitted, not only to nominate his col- 
 leagues, but to make war, form alliances, conclude peace, pardou 
 criminals, and virtually to choose the members of the legislative 
 body, by means of the senate, which was almost entirely under 
 his influence. He was careful, at the same time, to put the govern- 
 ments of the Cisalpine and Ligurian republics, and other newly ac- 
 quired states, upon a similar footing, reserving to himself, in all cases, 
 the supreme power as first magistrate. All these steps were so art- 
 fully taken, as to appear to be the regular result of popular choice 
 and deliberation. Liberty, equality of civil rights, and national 
 representation, were professed to be the objects in view ; but care 
 was taken to render each dependent on the domineering influence 
 and directions of the first consul. It was at this period that the Cisal- 
 pine was converted into the Italian republic. 
 
 6. Switzerland was not so easily to be brought under the French 
 yoke, though its struggles for liberty and independence were finally 
 unavailing. Many of the cantons displayed an almost invincible at- 
 tachment to their ancient constitution, and resisted, in every way 
 they could, the menaced invasion of their rights and privileges ; but 
 the more they were divided amongst themselves, which unhappily 
 proved to be the case to a high degree, the greater opportunity was 
 afforded to the despotic ruler of France to Interpose his offices to 
 restore peace, nominally as a mediator, but really and effectually to 
 the subjugation of the country, which, when reduced, was in mockery 
 declared to be free and independent. Remonstrances on the part of 
 fhe English court, are supposed to have had some effect in mitigating 
 the rigour of his exactions, and rendering the new constitution pre- 
 pared for them, more congenial to their feelings than might other- 
 wise have been the case. 
 
 7. In 1,802, by the death of the duke of Parma, and in virtue ot 
 a previous convention with Spain, the first consul, in the name of the 
 French republic, took possession of the duchies of Parma, Placentia, 
 and Guastalia, and incorporated them soon after with France. The 
 only son of the deceased duke of Parma, by a Spanish princess, 
 having assigned to him by the treaty of Luneville, the Tuscan state?, 
 under the title of the kingdom of Etruria. 
 
 8. Though, by the above treaty, the indemnification of those 
 princes, whose rights and property had suffered from the progress 
 of the French, seemed to be left chiefly to the decision of the diet 
 of the empire, Buonaparte found means to interfere to his own ad- 
 vantage, favouring those most from whom he had the most to fear, or 
 who were most likely to be subservient to his views. For the duke 
 of Wiriemburgh, the. landgrave of Hesse Cassel, and the margrave 
 of Baden, he secured the electoral dignity ; while the indemnifica- 
 tions were provided for by the secularization of many ecclesiastical 
 states on the right side of the Rhine. 
 
 9. It was soon found that, by the peace of Amiens, little cordiality 
 was produced between the two nations. The first consul professed 
 to be bound by that treaty only to particular specified points, and 
 appeared through his agents, secret or avowed, to be preparing for 
 a renewal of hostilities. He had some reason, it must be confessed, 
 to be offended with the liberties taken with him in some of the pub- 
 lic journals of England at this time ; and though it can scarcely bo 
 supposed that peace could be his object, yet he appears to have 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 349 
 
 been provoked and irritated by the distrust of the British govern- 
 ment and nation. So early as the month of May, 1,803, the two 
 countries may be said to have been again in a state of war with 
 each other. 
 
 10. On this quick renewal of hostilities, the first consul had re- 
 course to a most extraordinary measure, in detaining all the Eng- 
 lish who happened to have come over to France during the peace, 
 for business or pleasure, as a sort of hostages for the future conduct 
 of their country. He also projected a powerful invasion of Eng- 
 land, which had only the effect of rousing the latter country to such 
 vigorous and patriotic exertions as entirely to frustrate all his 
 schemes and intentions. A levy en masse was proposed, subject 
 to the regulations of parliament. As another act of vengeance 
 against England, an army was sent to occupy Hanover, though the 
 king, in his electoral capacity, had determined to remain neuter. 
 
 11. The first consul had now, for some time, exercised not only 
 kingly, but almost despotic power, and artfully placed himself in 
 such a situation of control and influence, with regard to all the 
 public bodies, assemblies, and councils of the nation, that it is not 
 to be wondered that he should have aspired to, and obtained, the 
 highest dignities it is in the power of a nation to bestow ; though, 
 had he acted with less prudence and policy, nothing certainly could 
 have occurred more surprising than the undisturbed elevation of a 
 Corsican adventurer to one of the most splendid thrones of Europe. 
 By an organic senatus consultum of the 18th of May 1,804, Buona- 
 parte was declared Emperor of the French. The title to be he- 
 reditary, as to his immediate descendants, and, in case of failure of 
 male issue, granting him a further power to adopt the children, or 
 grand-children, of his brothers. All laws were to originate with 
 the sovereign, or to be proposed in his name ; and due care was 
 taken, by rendering the legislative body and tribunate dependent on 
 the senate, in the appointment of which the emperor was to have 
 almost the whole power, to prevent the passing of any laws contrary 
 to his will. The imperial title thus conferred on him, was acknowl- 
 edged by most of the states of Europe, though not by England. 
 
 12. This assumption of the imperial title, by Napoleon Buona- 
 parte, and the subsequent confederation of the Rhine, led the em- 
 peror of Germany, Francis II., to abdicate the Germanic empire, and 
 to change his title to that of emperor of Austria, thereby securing 
 the same hereditary honour to the house of Hapsburg, and at the 
 same time, not entirely resigning his political relationship to the 
 states and empire of Germany. 
 
 13. On the 2d of December, 1,804, Napoleon was crowned, m 
 the church of Notre Dame, with extraordinary pomp and splendour, 
 having previously invited, or rather compelled the humbled pontiff 
 of Rome to be present at the ceremony, and to anoint him. 1 lis 
 empress, Josephine Beauharnois, to whom he had been some time 
 married, was crowned at the same time. 
 
 14. One of the first acts of the new emperor was to change the 
 name of the Code civil des Francais, introduced under the consular 
 
 fovernment, for that of the Code Napoleon. His two brothers, 
 oseph and Lewis, and his two colleagues, Le Brun and Cambaceres, 
 were declared grand elector, constable, arch-chancellor, and arch-treas- 
 urer, of the empire ; and the dignity of mareschal was conferred on 
 the most distinguished of his generals. But, in order to give more 
 stability to his throne, or intimidate his enemies, under pretence of a 
 G g 
 
350 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 royalist conspiracy, he had many eminent persons brought to'trial 
 among others, the two celebrated generals, Pichegru and Moreau 
 The former was, soon after, found de;ul in his prison, under circum 
 stances implying little less than a most deliberate murder; the latter, 
 an equal object of dread and alarm, and whose death was probably 
 contemplated, was permitted, however, to retire to North America. 
 It is scarcely credible, though it certainly appears upon record, that 
 the French "minister at Berlin was directed to move the king of Prus- 
 sia to deliver up the unfortunate Lewis XVIII. , then at Warsaw, and 
 to send him to France, to answer for the concern he was stated to 
 have had in this conspiracy. 
 
 15. Having obtained the imperial dignity in France, Napoleon ap- 
 peared dissatisfied to be only president of a republic with regard to 
 his Cisalpine conquests. Means were found to induce the constituted 
 authorities of the new Italian republic to offer to him the crown of 
 !<aly, an offer he was quite prepared to accept, as though the whole 
 of that devoted country had been already subdued. On the 26th of 
 May, 1,805, he repaired to Milan, and taking the famous iron crown 
 from the altar of the cathedral, placed it on his own head, denouncing 
 vengeance against all who should dispute his right to it. Having 
 done this, he appointed the son of the empress Josephine, Beauhar- 
 nois, to be his viceroy, and agreed, that upon his death the two 
 crowns should be separated. Soon after he seized upon Genoa, dis- 
 possessed the doge and senators of their power, and decreed, that 
 henceforth the territories of the Ligurian republic, as it was called, 
 should be annexed to France. These rapacious proceedings at length 
 provoked a fresh confederacy against him, so that before the year 
 was passed, not only England, but Russia, Prussia, and Austria, were 
 in arms to resist his encroachments. Sweden had joined the confed- 
 eracy, but retired in disgust. Such, however, was the dread of the 
 power or vengeance of France, that several of the German princes, 
 particularly the elector of Bavaria, sided with Napoleon, in opposi- 
 tion to the emperor Francis. 
 
 16. By sea, the power of the French and Spaniards combined failed 
 of gaining any advantages over the allies. On the 21st of October, 
 1,805, in the battle of Trafalgar, a complete victory was obtained by 
 the British fleet, under lord Nelson, who perished in the action. 
 There was a disparity in the number of ships, in favour of the French 
 and Spaniards, of thirty-three to twenty-seven. On the continent, 
 the course of the war was very different. The king of Prussia was 
 dilatory in his proceedings, and even treacherous. Sweden had 
 withdrawn. The emperor Francis employed an inefficient com- 
 mander, if not worse, (general Mack,) and the Russians, who were 
 more in earnest, were baffled by the unsteady proceedings of their 
 allies, and distressed by want of provisions, sickness, and fatigue 
 After the battle of Austerlitz, in December, the emperor of Austria, 
 whose capital had been in the hands of the enemy, solicited peace, 
 submitting to surrender what had been allotted to him of the Venetian 
 territories, together with the principalities of Lucca and Piombino ; 
 and to acknowledge Buonaparte as king of Italy. Bavaria acquired 
 a part of the Brisgaw and Tyrol. Such were the terms of the peace 
 ot Presburgh, October, 1,804. 
 
 17. The succession of some of the German states from the empe- 
 ror of Austria, had, in the mean time, produced changes that require 
 to be noticed. The electors of Bavaria and Wirtemburgh were 
 elevated to the rank of kings of their respective countries ; and 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 351 
 
 Eugene Beauharnois, viceroy of Italy, son of the French empress 
 Josephine, obtained in marriage the daughter of the new king of 
 Bavaria, though she had been previously betrothed to the prince of 
 Baden. 
 
 18. The court of Naples, during this war, through the injudi- 
 cious, but natural, resentment of the queen, sister to the late un- 
 fortunate queen of France, had the misfortune to incur the high dis- 
 pleasure of Napoleon, by admitting a British and Russian army to 
 land on its territories. The French despot lost no time in pronounc- 
 ing sentence on the rebellious neutral. He quickly made it known 
 that the Bourbon dynasty had ceased to reign at Naples. The royal 
 family was compelled to retire to Palermo, and in a short time after, 
 Napoleon conferred the Neapolitan crown on his brother Joseph, 
 much to the discontent, however, of the people, who for some time 
 gave him great disturbance. Joseph was proclaimed king, March 
 30, 1,806. 
 
 19. The emperor of the French had another kingdom in view for 
 his brother Lewis, constable of France. Holland had submitted to 
 several forms of government, without obtaining that order and tran- 
 quillity which was supposed to be in the contemplation of those 
 who directed her affairs. It was suggested that a monarchy would 
 remedy all the disorders to which she was exposed ; and it was hint- 
 ed, too plainly to be misunderstood, that it would be agreeable to the 
 emperor, if the leading persons of the state, not the community at 
 large, would give countenance to such a change. So great was the 
 infatuation, or timidity, of the persons to whom these suggestions 
 were made, that they did not scruple to solicit the appointment of 
 the emperor's brother, who declared himself king of Holland ac- 
 cordingly, June 5, 1,806. To the credit of the new king, it should 
 be observed, that he soon fell into disgrace with his imperial brother, 
 by being too lenient to his subjects, and by endeavouring to mitigate 
 the rigour of the French decrees. 
 
 20. In the year 1,806, Napoleon succeeded in subverting the 
 constitution of the German empire, by detaching many of the prin- 
 cipal states, chiefly of the western and southern divisions of Ger- 
 many, to form what was denominated " The Confederation of the 
 Rhine,''' 1 by which the several princes consented to renounce the 
 laws of the empire, to contract a federative alliance with the 
 French emperor, and to supply him with troops whenever he should 
 demand them. In consequence of this gross defection of so many 
 members, the emperor, by a solemn edict, abdicated the govern- 
 ment of the Germanic empire, absolving all the electors, princes, 
 and states, from the obligations by which they stood bound to him, 
 as their legitimate head ; thereby terminating, as it were, a gov- 
 ernment which had subsisted for a thousand years, and been un- 
 interruptedly confided to the house of Hapsburgh from the. year 
 1,438. 
 
 21. It seemed as if every thing, at this time, was doomed to fall 
 Defore the power of the Corsican. Prussia, which had hitherto 
 acted a most unwise part, in neglecting to add its weight to the 
 confederacy of 1,804, and even submitting to be cajoled into ar 
 alliance with France, became, in the course of the year 1,806, sen 
 sible of her error ; but to no good purpose. She now precipitately 
 entered into a war for which she was ill-prepared; with no sup- 
 port but that of Saxony ; and having put her army under the com- 
 mand of the duke of Brunswick, sustained two signal and almost 
 
352 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 fatal defeats, at Jena and Averstadt, laying the capital open to the 
 advance of the enemy, who entered it in triumph ; and, being too 
 well received and entertained by the people, did not fail, as m all 
 other cases, to take due advantage of their willing submission, hi 
 the course of the contest, the Saxons were detached from Prussia, 
 and the duke of Brunswick being wounded, and obliged to quit his 
 dominions on the advance of the French, died miserably at Altona: 
 Napoleon, in resentment, meanly refusing to suffer his body to be 
 buried amongst his ancestors. 
 
 22. It was during his sojournment in Berlin, November, 1,806, 
 that the French emperor dictated that extraordinary decree, de- 
 claring the British islands to be in a state of blockade, though he 
 had no naval force capable of interrupting their commerce in any 
 part of the wond. By this decree, the whole trade of Britain was 
 proscribed ; no intercourse of any sort was allowed to take place ; 
 all British subjects on the continent were threatened with arrest and 
 confiscation of property, and every port shut against English ves- 
 sels, in Prussia, Denmark, the Hanse towns, Holland, Flanders, 
 France, Spain, Italy, &c. 
 
 23. The progress of the French, in the territories of the king of 
 Prussia, occasioned fresh alarm to the emperor of Russia, and to 
 the British government, and procured for Frederick that assistance 
 which his former supineness and intrusion on the Hanoverian states 
 might very reasonably have rendered hopeless. The king of Swe- 
 den was also subsidized by England, to send an army into Pome- 
 rania ; but all the efforts of the allies were insufficient to stop the 
 career of the French. The Russians fought many severe battles, 
 at Eylau, Friedland, &c, but were unable to prevent the French 
 getting possession of Dantzic and Konigsberg ; losses so severely 
 felt by the king of Prussia, as to compel him to conclude a separate 
 peace, as a conquered enemy ; while Napoleon, with consummate art, 
 not only persuaded Alexander to abandon the king of Prussia to his 
 fate, but to form an alliance with himself, for the further spoliation 
 of the Prussian dominions, and to concur in arrangements very 
 adverse to the general interests of Europe, and serviceable only to 
 his own family. By the treaty of Tilsit, July, 1,807, the emperor 
 of Russia agreed to acknowledge the Rhenish confederacy, now 
 consisting of many states, and Joseph and Lewis Buonaparte, as kings 
 of Naples and Holland. He suffered the French emperor to confer 
 on his youngest bruther, Jerome, with the title of king of Westpha- 
 lia, the Prussian provinces between the Elbe and the Rhine, the 
 states of Hanover, and the territories of the duke of Brunswick, and 
 landgrave of Hesse Cassel, while the greater part of Prussian Poland 
 was given to the elector (now king) of Saxony, with the title of duke 
 of Warsaw ; and by secret articles, as it has been alleged, most of 
 the usurpations of the French, in all parts of Europe, were sanc- 
 tioned and confirmed. During the whole of the years 1,806 and 
 1,807, the German states were undergoing continual changes, 
 through the overbearing tyranny of Napoleon. All the princes who 
 joined the Rhenish confederation were rewarded with titles or ter- 
 ritorial possessions; all who favoured the allies, dispossessed of 
 their dominions, and declared enemies of France. To particularize 
 all these revolutions, few of which were permanent, would exceed 
 the limits of the present work. 
 
 24. Among other acquisitions resulting from the treaty of Tilsit, 
 Napoleon recovered the Ionian islands. These islands, subsequent 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 353 
 
 to the treaty of Campo-Formio, had been greatly agitated and dis- 
 turbed, and it seemed difficult to know what to do with them. In 
 March, 1,800, however, by a convention between Russia and the 
 Porte, it was settled that Corfu, Cephalonia, Zante, Ithaca, Cerigo, 
 St. Mauro, and Paxo, should be formed into one state, under the 
 guarantee of the contracting parties, by the name of the Ionian 
 republic. By the treaty of Amiens, 1,802, Napoleon engaged to 
 acknowledge the Septinsular republic ; but, by the treaty of Tilsit, 
 it was restored to him again by Russia. This treaty, in short, ap- 
 peared to be dictated entirely by the despot of France. Prussia, 
 abandoned by her Russian ally, suffered dreadfully. The king of 
 Sweden refused to become a party to this memorable convention, 
 and manifested a determination to resist, to the utmost, the en- 
 croachments of the French ; but he had little judgment or prudence 
 to direct him ; and he had not the means to contend against such an 
 adversary as Buonaparte. After many ineffectual attempts to save 
 Stralsund, and keep his army in Pomerania, he was at length 
 compelled to retire, with the loss both of Stralsund and the isle of 
 Rugen. 
 
 SECTION XVII. 
 SPAIN AND PORTUGAL FROM 1,788 TO 1,814. 
 
 1. These two countries are by nature so connected, that though 
 their interests are, and generally have been, very different, and 
 the people little disposed to friendly associations, yet, with regard 
 to the affairs of Europe, they have very commonly been involved 
 in the same troubles, and never long permitted to enjoy tranquillity, 
 while the leading powers of the continent have been engaged in war. 
 This has been already sufficiently manifested in the history of these 
 two contiguous kingdoms, during the former part of the eighteenth 
 century, but has been rendered still more conspicuous by the events 
 of the subsequent years. 
 
 2. Charles IV. oi Spain, came to the crown in December, 1,788. 
 when the French revolution was just beginning ; and it was not till 
 some few years after, and in the midst of the reign of terror, that 
 his kingdom became involved in the disturbances of that great catas- 
 trophe. The Spaniards, in the year 1 ,793, offended with the vio- 
 lence offered to the royal family of France, had invaded the latter 
 country, and taken the town of Bellgarde, little foreseeing the 
 speedy and severe reprisals to which they were exposing them- 
 selves. Early in the year 1,794, the French, under general Dugom- 
 mier, invaded Spain, and succeeded, not only in beating the Spanish 
 army, but in securing the occupation of many places of importance. 
 These successes were not only available to the restoration of peace 
 with Spain, but procured for the French, by the treaty of 1,795, the 
 Spanish portion of the valuable island of St. Domingo, in the West 
 Indies, and, in 1,796, an alliance with the Spanish monarch against 
 England,— an alliance fatal to Spain in many respects ; her fleet be- 
 ing beaten by the English in battle, off the cape of St. Vincent, the 
 island of Trinidad taken from her, and retained by Great Britain 
 at the peace of Amiens, and her commerce crippled and impeded 
 in all parts of the world. 
 
 3. Though she sought, by a large subsidy to France, to be pe»- 
 
 Gg2 45 
 
354 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 mitted to remain neuter, after the renewal of the war in 1,803, yet 
 she was not long allowed to be at peace. In 1,804, the English, sus- 
 picious of her close connexion with France, seized upon some of her 
 treasure ships, coming from South America, with a suddenness judg- 
 ed by many to be not strictly justifiable ; and, in 1,805, war was form- 
 ally declared against Great "Britain. But in this new war she was 
 again doomed to suffer misfortune, her fleet being totally beaten by 
 lord Nelson, on the 1st of October, 1,805, in the celebrated battle oft 
 cape Trafalgar. (See Sect. XVI., § 16.) 
 
 4. During the year 1,806, Spain appeared disposed to break with 
 France, had any misfortune befallen the latter power ; but her suc- 
 cesses in Prussia seem to have intimidated Spain, and to have in- 
 duced her, in 1,807, through the manoeuvres of Godoy, the Spanish 
 minister, who had a view to the principality of Algarves, to enter 
 into a regular treaty with France, for the partition of Portugal. 
 
 5. Hitherto the latter country, since the elevation of Buonaparte 
 to the chief magistracy, had been suffered to remain neuter. Ihe 
 reigning queen having been declared insane, the power had devolved 
 to the prince of Brazil, crown prince, in 1,799, who, in virtue of his 
 purchased neutrality, had been able to keep his commercial relations 
 with England, unmolested by the French, till the treaty just mention- 
 ed between the latter p6wer and Spain. 
 
 6. France was not long in availing herself of the permission she 
 had obtained to march an army through Spain, for the subjugation of 
 Portugal. Having made demands on the regent of Portugal, with 
 which he could not, in honour, comply, it was declared that the house 
 of Braganza had ceased to reign ; and, shortly afterwards, the French 
 army, under general Junot, passed the frontiers. In these extremi- 
 ties, instigated by the English, the royal family determined to embark 
 for America. They set sail on the 21st of November, 1,807 ; and, 
 on the 30th, Junot, with his army entered Lisbon. 
 
 7. The state of Spain, at this period, was undoubtedly such 
 as to encourage the most ambitious views of the French emperor. 
 Nothing could exceed the weakness of the court of Madrid, or the 
 confusion of the national affairs. At the very moment of the parti- 
 tion treaty, the hereditary prince, Ferdinand, who had refused to 
 marry the minister's sister-in-law, on the suggestion of the court, 
 was arrested, imprisoned, and threatened with a criminal prosecution, 
 for having secretly sought a matrimonial alliance with Buonaparte's 
 family. This was followed by disturbances, and the imprisonment 
 of the obnoxious minister, Godoy, duke of Alcudia, and, since the 
 convention of 1,795, generally called the u prince of peace. 1 * 
 Charles IV., harassed and distressed by these tumults, was induced, 
 on the 19th of March, 1,808, to resign his crown in favour of his 
 son, now become Ferdinand VII. ; but he soon afterwards revoked 
 his abdication, as forced upon him, and extorted by the dread of 
 personal violence. Nothing could be more directly calculated to 
 promote the views of Buonaparte than these divisions, whose con- 
 stant policy it was, in all cases of premeditated conquest, to promote 
 dissension, in order to be called in as an arbitrator or mediator, 
 which was the case in this instance. After Buonaparte had been 
 baffled in his hopes of compelling the king and queen to emigrate, 
 through the resistance of the people of Spain to such a measure, 
 the whole royal family were invited to repair to Bayonne, to confer 
 on the state of affairs ; an invitation the most insidious, but which 
 had its effect. On the 14th of April Buonaparte arrived there ; Fer- 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 355 
 
 dinand on the 20th, and on the 1st of May, Charles IV. and his queen, 
 after the favourite, Godoy, had been released, on their application to 
 Buonaparte. 
 
 8. The transactions at Bayonne exceeded almost every thing to 
 be met with in any preceding history. The persons invited were 
 exactly those whom Buonaparte would have been glad to have seen 
 driven into his toils : in this case they were weak enough to go 
 thither of their own accord. Having the two kings completely in 
 his power, and beyond the frontier of Spain, he compelled Charles 
 to resume his authority, on purpose that he might resign it into the 
 hands of the French, proposing, on the terms of an equivalent else- 
 where, a similar act of renunciation on the part of Ferdinand; 
 which the latter indignantly refusing, was at once declared to be 
 excluded from all he had, and all he might have had, and even 
 threatened with the loss of liberty. This so intimidated the degrad- 
 ed prince, that at length he unconditionally resigned his royal digni- 
 ty, first into the hands of his lather, and through him, into those of 
 Buonaparte, who soon obtained, though in a manner the most extra- 
 ordinary, the consent of most of the principal personages of the state, 
 as well as of the constituted authorities, to the appointment of his 
 brother Joseph, then king of Naples, to the vacant Spanish throne, 
 and to render it hereditary in the family of the usurper. In the 
 mean while, Ferdinand was sent to Valancey, and afterwards to Fon- 
 tainebleau, as a prisoner, and Charles and his queen to Compiegne : 
 their joint abdication of the Spanish crown was publicly announced 
 at Madrid on the 20th of May, to the great disgust of the Spanish 
 people in general, who soon resolved to be revenged for the horrid 
 indignities they were made to undergo. 
 
 9. In the course of the very month in which all the transactions 
 at^ Bayonne took place, and Joseph Buonaparte entered the capital 
 of Spain as king, the national resentment was manifested by a gen- 
 eral rising, and insurrection in all the principal provinces; but it 
 was first in Andalusia that any thing like an organized government 
 was formed for the conduct of the war, on the part of the patriots ; 
 there, a provincial junta, or council of magistrates, inhabitants, 
 and constituted authorities, was formed, at Seville, which led to 
 other conventions of the same nature, in places least molested by 
 the French, and in all of these Ferdinand VII. was proclaimed king, 
 and war openly denounced against the French, accompanied with 
 proclamations and manifestoes, highly creditable to the good sense, 
 spirit, ardour, and patriotism of the Spanish nation, and expressed 
 in terms very different from the language to which the French ty- 
 rant had been accustomed. Joseph Buonaparte entered Spain on 
 the 9th of July, 1,803, escorted by four thousand Italian troops;, and 
 followed by upwards of one hundred carriages, conveying his suite 
 and the members of the junta assembled at Bayonne, to assist at his 
 inauguration. He was ili received, or rather sullenly treated by the 
 inhabitants, on his passage to the capital. Joseph entered Madrid 
 on the 20th of July ; at which very time the Spaniards obtained an 
 important victory over a French army marching upon Cadiz, which 
 were compelled to capitulate to the amount of fourteen thousand 
 men, while the French fleet at Cadiz was seized by the vigilance 
 and activity of don Thomas Morla. These successes on the part 
 of the Spaniards, compelled the new king to retire from the capital 
 to Burgos, after plundering the treasury and securing the crown 
 jewels. 
 
356 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 10. In the mean while, it was soon discovered that the aid of 
 other powers would be wanted, in order to rescue the kingdom and 
 peninsula from the grasp of Napoleon. Application was accordingly 
 made to the court of London, to the Swedes, and to the Portuguese 
 and Austrians. The former paid a ready and willing attention to 
 the call ; and the whole British nation evinced, in an extraordinary 
 manner, the utmost desire to render effectual assistance to Spain, 
 whose cause seemed to be justly interesting to every friend of freedom. 
 
 11. While these things were passing in Spain, a similar spirit 
 had arisen in Portugal, against the tyranny and usurpations of the 
 French ; and the arrival of a British army, in the month of August, 
 under sir Arthur Wellesley, (afterwards duke of Wellington,) gave 
 timely effect to these patriotic movements. The relief of Portugal 
 was sooner accomplished than proved to be the case afterwards 
 with Spain. On the 21st of August a decisive battle took place at 
 Vimiera, between the French and combined armies of English and 
 Portuguese ; in which the former were so entirely beaten as to be 
 obliged to evacuate the country ; and which they were enabled to 
 do, by a convention concluded at Cintra, under circumstances consid- 
 ered far too favourable, by Europe in general, and which was re- 
 sented by the people of England. 
 
 12. The evacuation of Portugal, however, at all events, set an 
 army free for the use of Spain, which, at the latter end of the 
 month of October, to the amount of twenty thousand men, entered 
 that country, under the command of sir John Moore ; the emperor 
 Napoleon having quitted Paris just about the same time, to take 
 the command of the French army there. Unfortunately, the state 
 of Spain at the moment of this first attempt on the part of England, to 
 give aid to the patriots, w r as such as greatly to embarrass the British 
 commander: he had been taught (or rather, the government at home 
 had been so) to expect a strenuous co-operation on the part of the 
 Spaniards; in which he was exceedingly disappointed, while he 
 continually received advice of the augmentation of the French 
 forces, to an amount far exceeding all his calculations : nor did he 
 consider even his own army so well-appointed as to enable him 
 to contend, in the heart of the kingdom, whither he was directed to 
 proceed, with any fair probability of success. He was evidently 
 dispirited with the prospect before him; and though a perfectly 
 brave officer, felt himself so ill-supported by the Spaniards, at least, 
 by those who directed the public affairs, (if not even deceived and 
 betrayed,) and so embarrassed by want of money and other supplies, 
 as to be compelled to retire. The retreat of his army, though un- 
 happily disgraced by many irregularities and disorders amongst the 
 soldiery, was conducted, in the face of the enemy, (Buonaparte him- 
 self being sometimes present,) with singular courage and dexterity, 
 till they reached Corunna, where, at last, the transports not being 
 arrived, an action with the pursuing army took place, which 
 terminated in favour of the English, though with the loss of the gal- 
 lant, but unfortunate, commander, whose death was greatly lamented. 
 After this action, on the arrival of the transports, the English troops 
 embarked without molestation, and on the 13th of January, 1,809, 
 set sail for England. 
 
 13. Before sir John Moore finally determined upon retiring, he 
 had learned that Buonaparte had recovered possession of the capi- 
 tal, which, after the departure of Joseph, the patriots had endeav- 
 oured to fortify and defend ; but it was surrendered to the enemy 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 35T 
 
 early in the month of December, 1,808, by the temporary governor, 
 Don Thomas Morla. Spain was far from being subdued at the close 
 of -the year 1,808, though the aspect of things was alarming, and 
 the French extremely confident of success. Joseph re-entered 
 Madrid, in great pomp, in January, 1,809. In the mean time, Napo- 
 leon had decreed that the inquisition should be abolished, many mon- 
 asteries suppressed, and the feudal privileges abrogated. 
 
 14. After the affair of Corunna, the French army under general 
 Soult, (duke of Dalmatia,) invaded Portugal again, and was able 
 to get possession of Oporto ; while another army, under general 
 Victor, threatened Lisbon. It was at this moment that fresh troops 
 arrived from England, under the command of sir Arthur Wellesley, 
 who quickly recovered Oporto, and then turning against Victor, 
 once more relieved Portugal from the presence of the French. In 
 June he entered Spain, and by the 20th of July was in a situation 
 to threaten Madrid ; on the 27th and 28th, at Talavera del Reyna* 
 he was attacked by the French under Joseph Buonaparte, assisted 
 by four marshals ; but was able, in conjunction with the Spaniards, 
 after a very hard fought battle, to repel them with great loss. 
 Though this victory was not attended with any immediate advan- 
 tages, and would appear to have been rather rashly hazarded, the 
 British general, for his great skill and conduct during the action, 
 was raised to the peerage by the title of yiscount Wellington of 
 Talavera. 
 
 15. Though a central junta had been appointed in 1,808, to gi\*e 
 consistency and strength to the proceedings of the patriots, they 
 were still ill-prepared either to contend against the enemy alone, 
 or conjointly with the British. In the battle of Talavera, and after- 
 wards, their movements had rather embarrassed than assisted the 
 operations of the latter. It would have been well if the Spaniards, 
 from the first, could have been prevailed upon to appoint lord Wel- 
 lington generalissimo of all the forces acting against the French. 
 The latter, however, were much harassed by a sort of desultory 
 war, carried on by guerilla parties, who intercepted their supplies, 
 and without attempting any regular engagement, (for which, indeed, 
 they were unfit,) were continually attacking them in the way of 
 ambuscade and surprise ; for which their superior knowledge of the 
 country evidently gave them great advantages. 
 
 16. It is not to be wondered that the extraordinary situation of 
 Spain should occasion great embarrassment in the management of 
 the war. In the place of the supreme central junta of 1,808, a 
 regency had been appointed, and the cortes assembled, but without 
 sufficient effect. The Spanish armies acted without system, and the 
 nation at large manifested a jealousy of their English allies, which 
 prevented such a co-operation as might have brought the whole under 
 one command, to the evident advantage of the cause, in which they 
 must have been, though with different degrees of zeal and judgment, 
 equally interested. This distrust on the part of the Spaniards ex- 
 posed them also, it is to be feared, to treatment far from conciliatory 
 on the part of the English. The war which was renewed between 
 France and Austria, in 1,809, drew the attention of Napoleon in 
 some degree from Spain : but those differences being soon adjusted, 
 early in the year 1,810, powerful reinforcements were sent from. 
 France to the Peninsula, to reconquer Portugal, and " drive the Eng- 
 lish into the sea." What has been said of Spain is by no means ap- 
 plicable to Portugal- in the latter country, not only a better spirit 
 
353 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 was manifested, but the army being placed under British command 
 and regularly organized, by general lord Beresford, was soon render- 
 ed capable of affording very effectual aid and assistance. 
 
 17. During the whole of the years 1,810 and 1,811, the contend- 
 ing armies were occupied in striving to gain advantages over each 
 other, which called forth all the skill and judgment appertaining 
 to the science of war. The detail, however, of the several actions 
 which took place, of the investment and capture of the strong holds 
 of the two portions of the Peninsula, do not belong to such a work 
 as the present. It was not till the summer of 1,812, and after the 
 victory gained by lord W emr) g ton over tne French under marshal 
 Marmont, in the battle of Salamanca, that the total expulsion of the 
 French, and overthrow of the throne of Joseph, became a matter of 
 little doubt. The battle of Salamanca may be said to have opened 
 the gates of Madrid once more to the patriots and allied army, and 
 restored the Spanish crown to Ferdinand. The battle was fought on 
 the 22d of July. On the 30th, lord Wellington entered Valladolid, 
 the enemy retiring before him; and on the 12th of August, Madrid 
 surrendered to the British arms. Joseph and his suite having pre- 
 viously quitted it. Lord Wellington was received in the capital with 
 the acclamations justly due to the liberator of Spain ; but had the 
 Spaniards themselves used the exertions they might have done, 
 (Napoleon being at this time engaged in Russia,) the Peninsula 
 might probably have been sooner delivered from the French, after 
 the recovery of the capital, than proved to be the case. 
 
 18. The latter made a stand at Burgos, which was invested by 
 the English, but after a siege of more than a month, abandoned with 
 considerable loss ; the British forces being once more obliged to re- 
 tire as far as Ciudad Rodrigo, on the frontiers of Portugal. The 
 Spaniards, however, at length appeared to be roused to a proper 
 sense of their situation, and wisely confided to lord Wellington the 
 termination of this protracted war. In December, 1,812, he was 
 appointed generalissimo, and distinguished by extraordinary powers. 
 
 19. It seemed now to be practicable to end, by a decisive ac- 
 tion, the contest for the possession of Spain.; and lord Wellington 
 lost no time in seeking the opportunity. He took the field in the 
 middle of the month of May, 1,813, and on the 21st of June, brought 
 the enemy to action on the plains of Vittoria. Never was a vic- 
 tory more decisive than the one obtained at this time by the com- 
 bined British, Portuguese, and Spanish armies. Joseph and his 
 troops were compelled to quit the field with such extreme precipi- 
 tation, as to leave behind them fifty pieces of artillery, two thousand 
 carriages of different descriptions, stores, provisions, and an immense 
 booty, consisting chiefly of the plunder of Madrid, fortunately rescued 
 upon this occasion from the usurper, who was present, and very 
 narrowly escaped. 
 
 20. After the battle of Vittoria, and the fall of the strong towns 
 of St. Sebastian and Pampeiuna, the British, Portuguese, and Span 
 ish troops crossed ^ the Bidassoa, and entered France. Early in 
 March, the city of Bordeaux freely opened her gates to general 
 Beresford, in the name of Lewis XVIII., at the same time admitting 
 the king's nephew, the duke of Angouleme. On the 10th of April, 
 the British stormed the French entrenchments near Thoulouse. On 
 the 12th, general Souit filed out of the town, under the muzzles of 
 the British guns. On the 13th, news arrived of the abdication ol 
 Buonaparte, and the entrance of the allied sovereigns into Paris. 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 359 
 
 It is conjectured that the French commander knew of these things 
 before, but in the hope of gaining some advantage over the invaders 
 of France, concealed it. 
 
 21. Before the allies reached Paris, Napoleon had released Feiv 
 dinand VII., whose return to Spain was, however, rendered very 
 unacceptable to many who had espoused his cause in his absence, 
 particularly the members of the regency and existing cortes, with 
 whose proceedings, in regard to the new constitution proposed for 
 his acceptance, he expressed himself extremely displeased ; they 
 had previously refused to acknowledge a treaty concluded by Ferdi- 
 nand with Buonaparte. He threw himself also into the hands of 
 those who were friends to the ancient system, which, with extreme 
 bigotry, he endeavoured to re-establish in its worst forms. From 
 that time to the present the nation has been kept in a state of con- 
 siderable ferment and confusion. By a revolution in March, 1,820, 
 the cortes were restored, and the free constitution of 1,812 pro- 
 claimed and sworn to by the king. The inquisition also was finally 
 abolished: but the effects of these last movements remain to be 
 proved. 
 
 22. The old king, Charles IV., died at Rome, in 1,819. The bat- 
 tle of Vittoria, which relieved Spain from the presence of the 
 French armies, restored Portugal to her former independence. On 
 the 20th of March, 1,816, the queen, Maria Isabella, died ; and was 
 succeeded by the present king, John VI., who had been regent 
 since 1,799, the seat of government being still at Rio de Janeiro, in 
 Brazil. 
 
 SECTION XVIII. 
 
 FRANCE, FROM THE PEACE OF TILSIT, TO THE ABDICATION 
 OF NAPOLEON 1,814. 
 
 1. The treaty of Tilsit left Napoleon at liberty to pursue his career 
 of vengeance and usurpation in other countries. He obtained by it 
 such an influence over Russia, Austria, and Prussia, as to induce 
 them to break with England, without any other reason ; and as soon 
 as he had thus disposed of matters in those quarters, he turned his 
 views to the Spanish peninsula, where a Bourbon dynasty still ex- 
 isted. In three months after the signing of the treaty of Tilsit, he 
 concluded the famous partition-treaty with Spain, already spoken of, 
 in virtue of which, French troops were to be allowed to pass into 
 Portugal, for the sacrifice of that ancient kingdom ; and afterwards, 
 no doubt, in the views and designs of the French emperor, of Spain 
 itself. 
 
 2. Of his subsequent invasion and occupation of both countries, 
 and of the war for several years carried on, before he could be 
 compel* d to renounce his usurped dominion in Spain, an account 
 is given ji the preceding section. On the 17th of December, 1,807. 
 in the Ame spirit of resentment against Great Britain, which had 
 dictatedthe celebrated decree of Berlin, declared the British isles 
 to be in a state of blockade, the French emperor issued another 
 decree, at Milan, (in consequence of the British retaliatory orders 
 of council, November 21st,) by which every ship which should 
 submit to be visited by the English, or consent to any pecuniary 
 
360 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 exactions whatsoever, should be liable to confiscation as a lawful 
 prize; but his vengeance fell hardest upon Portugal, whose com- 
 mercial and political relations with England so exasperated him, 
 that, in an audience given to the foreign ministers at Fontainebleau, 
 he openly declared, that if the regent of Portugal did not within 
 two months conform to the continental system, and totally renounce 
 his connexions with England, the house of Braganza should cease to 
 reign. Such was the haughty language of this extraordinary man, 
 in the face of Europe, after the convention at Tilsit ! 
 
 3. In a few days after this denunciation of the Portuguese dy- 
 nasty, the regent closed his ports against English ships of all descrip- 
 tions, but not in time to stop the French armies, who pressed so 
 closely upon him, that on the 29th of November, (see the preceding 
 section.) he was obliged to quit his European dominions for Rio Ja- 
 neiro, in the Brazils, and on the very next day Lisbon was occupied 
 by French troops under general Junot. 
 
 4. The short-lived kingdom of Etruria was brought to an end 
 about this time; and the queen-regent, late duchess of Parma, 
 with the king, her son, obliged to depart for Spain, her native 
 country. 
 
 5. In March, 1,808, a decree was passed in France, ordaining the 
 renewal of titles of honour, princes, dukes, counts, &c, and cre- 
 ating a new order of hereditary nobility, as essential to an heredi- 
 tary monarch. About the same time, Joseph Buonaparte was re- 
 moved from Naples, and made king of Spain ; and Joachim Murat, 
 grand duke of Berg, married to the sister of Napoleon, was declared 
 king of Naples. 
 
 6. The kingdoms of Naples and Italy being thus entirely in the 
 hands of Buonaparte, in order to prevent their communication from 
 being interrupted by any hostile power, he seized upon the pope's 
 temporalities, for which Pius VI. ventured to excommunicate him. 
 He had the audacity to remind the pope, in thus despoiling him 
 that the kingdom of Christ was not of this world ; though the only 
 reason alleged for what he had done, was, that Pius had refused to 
 declare war against England; a friendly power, and one from which 
 the pope declared he had never received the smallest injury. 
 
 7. On the 9th of April, 1,809, war was renewed with Austria, 
 and so rapid was the progress of the French, that after three severe 
 actions at Abensberg, Eckmuhl, and Ratisbon, Vienna was compelled 
 to capitulate on the 12th of May. The Austrians, afterwards, under 
 the archduke Charles, gained some advantages over Buonaparte 
 but, before the autumn was passed, a peace was concluded, at Vien- 
 na, extremely humilitating to Francis II. To France he was obliged 
 to cede the Illyrian provinces; to Bavaria, Saltzburg; to Saxony, 
 the whole of West Gailicia; and to Russia, East Gallicia; he was, 
 moreover, compelled to accede to the continental system against 
 England, and to acknowledge Joseph Buonaparte as "king of Spain. 
 
 8. But as if these concessions were not sufficient to mortify the 
 pride of the head of the empire, and representative of the r ^sc of 
 Hapsburgh and Lorraine, the French emperor, to the su^r jse of 
 Europe, demanded and obtained in marriage the daughterie,,, Fran- 
 cis II., the archduchess Maria Louisa, having previously beV n, with 
 great form, divorced from the empress Josephine, with her own 
 consent, for the express purpose ot forming a connexion of higher 
 hopes, and affording a prospect of an heir to his newly acquired im- 
 perial dominions. The marriage took place at Paris, ApriL2, 1,810. 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 36 1 
 
 9. Intent upon providing for every branch of his family, the 
 grand duchy of Tuscany was revived by Napoleon, in 1,809, and 
 conferred on his sister Eliza, princess of Lucca and Piombino 
 The grand duchy of Berg, vacated by the removal of his brother- 
 in-law, Joachim Murat, to the throne of Naples, was given to Louis, 
 his nephew, son of the king of Holland ; and on the 17th of May 
 the pope's temporalities were declared to be incorporated with the 
 French dominions, and the title of king of Rome appropriated to the 
 imperial prince, heir to the French empire. The situation of the 
 papal territories, between the kingdoms of Italy and Naples, was 
 such as in hostile hands might be made use of to intercept the com- 
 munication between the two ; and therefore the pope, who appeared 
 friendly to England, was of necessity to be despoiled of his domin- 
 ions, but to receive a revenue of two millions of francs. The new 
 constitutional government was to be in full activity and force on the 
 1st of January, 1,810. On the 14th of January, 1,810, the elector- 
 ate of Hanover was annexed to the dominion of the emperor'* 
 brother, Jerome, king of Westphalia ; and on the 20th o£ March, 
 1,811, Napoleon was gratified with the birth of a son, who, accord- 
 ing to the arrangements already spoken of, was immediately digni- 
 fied with the title of kin* of Rome. 
 
 10. In June, 1,812, Napoleon, offended with some parts of the 
 conduct of the emperor of Russia, who had begun to appreciate 
 more justly the character of the artful and ambitious Coi-sican, 
 once more declared war against him, having influence, besides, to 
 prevail upon Prussia and Austria to join him. His advance toward* 
 the Russian dominions was most rapid ; but, considering the distance 
 to which he was carrying his army, and the inveterate hatred and 
 indignation he had excited by his bold threats against his imperial 
 adversary, his subjects, and his empire, extremely rash. His power, 
 it is true, was immense, 400,000, infantry, 60,000 cavalry, and 1,200 
 pieces of artillery ; Germans, Polanders, Dutch, $wies, Italian*, 
 Spaniards, and Portuguese, being numbered amongst his troops ; 
 but nothing could exceed the anger and resentment of the Rus- 
 sians. 
 
 11. On. the 9th of May the French ruler left St. Cloud; on the 
 24th of June he crossed the INiemen, and on the 14th of September 
 attained his grand object of entering the capital of the Muscovite 
 dominions. But his reception was tar from being such as he ex- 
 pected, or such as he had met with in other capitals. The city was 
 tired by order of the governor, and by the hands of the enraged in- 
 habitants; and the French had only ruins to occupy, in a latitude to 
 which they were totally unaccustomed, and with all the horrort of 
 
 Siberian winter before them. 
 
 12. On the 10th of October, after having solicited an armistice, 
 and proposed peace, both of which were peremptorily refused. 
 Buonaparte and his disappointed army began their dreary and 
 perilous march back to France. Nothing could exceed the diffi- 
 culties and distresses to which they were exposed, from the severi- 
 ties of the weather and climate, and the attacks of the Russians, 
 from Moscow to the capital of Lithuania, where they arrived on 
 the 10th of December. On the 6th, the emperor Napoleon totally 
 abandoned his harassed army to its fate, having quitted it at Smor- 
 gonie in disguise ; destroyed the bridges by which he passed, regard- 
 less of those he left behind; and traversing Poland and Germany, 
 made the best of his way to Paris, where he arrived at midnight. 
 
362 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 December 18, having lost, or rather sacrificed, upwards of 150,000 
 men, including prisoners, 167,500. 
 
 13. It was naturally expected that this total defeat of all hfe 
 
 f>rojects in regard to Russia, together with the miserable condition of 
 lis army when it reached the confines of France, would have termi- 
 nated his giddy career of pride and ambition : but in this the world 
 was deceived. In the following year, he eagerly resumed hostilities, 
 but manifestly to great disadvantage. Though he was readily fur- 
 nished with a fresh army, amounting to 350,000 men, he had soon 
 opposed to him not only Russia, but Austria, Prussia, and Sweden, 
 subsidized by England. Several of the confederates of the Rhine 
 ventured to abandon ' his cause ; and it became very apparent that 
 the allied powers were more in earnest and more united now than 
 on any former occasion, Many battles were fought in the course of 
 the summer, with doubtful success, till, at last, the great " Battle of 
 Nations," as it has fitly enough been called, took place at Leipzig, 
 in which the French sustained so signal a defeat, as seemed evidently 
 to prognosticate the ruin and discomfiture of the great disturber of 
 Europe. This celebrated battle, or succession of engagements, 
 took place on the 16th, 18th, and 19th days of October. Leipzig 
 was taken only two hours after Buonaparte had effected his escape. 
 The king of Saxony and all his court were captured by the allies; 
 a French garrison of 30,000 men, besides 22,000 sick and wounded- 
 with the French magazines, artillery, and stores. The emperor of 
 Russia, the^ king of Prussia, and crown prince of Sweden, each at 
 the head of their respective troops, made their entry into the town 
 at different points, after the engagement of the 19th, and met in the 
 
 ?reat scpiare, amidst the universal acclamations of the people, 
 ust before the battle of Leipzig, the allies derived great advantage 
 from the defection of the kings of Bavaria and YYirtemberg, and tiie 
 grand duke of Baden, from the cause of France, and the consequent 
 junction of 55,000 of the Bavarian troops ; and during the action of 
 the 18th, a party of the Saxons, bringing with them 22 guns, desert- 
 ed io the crown prince of Sweden, and desired to be led directly 
 against the French. So much was the aspect of things changed with 
 regard to the destinies of Buonaparte, who, on his return to Paris, 
 had but too much reason to declare, (as he did in lus speech to the 
 senate on the 14th of November,) "AH Europe was with us a year 
 ago, — all Europe is now against us." 
 
 14. The immediate consequences of the victory at Leipzig were, 
 the dissolution of the new-erected kingdom of Westphalia, and the 
 grand duchies of Berg and Frankfort. The dukes of Brunswick 
 and Hesse Cassel recovered their dominions, and the prince of 
 Orange was not merely restored to his stadtholderate in Plolland, 
 but proclaimed sovereign of the United Netherlands. On the 2d ot 
 December, 1,813, the allies passed the Rhine; the southern frontier 
 of the Pyrenees having been invaded by the British and Portuguese 
 in October preceding. 
 
 15. Though four great armies of the allies were now within ths 
 territories of France, their work was not accomplished. Thu 
 French generals, and Buonaparte himself, who, in a very affecting 
 manner, quitted Paris on the 25th of January, 1,814, interrupted 
 the progress of the Russians, Prussians, and Austrians, endeavoured 
 to prevent, in every way they could, their advance upon the capital; 
 but all their exertions proved vain, though the attainment ot that 
 -pw^bitfrt vras deferred for snjnp months. It was not till the 31st 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 363 
 
 day of March, that their triumph may be said to have been complet- 
 ed : on that day the emperor of Russia and the king of Prussia, at 
 the head of their respective armies, entered Paris in the most solemn 
 and imposing manner. On the 2d of April, Buonaparte was formally 
 deposed by the senate, and on the 11th he was permitted to abdicate, 
 upon terms judged by many to be far too favourable. He was al- 
 lowed to retire to Elba, (a residence of his own choice,) retaining his 
 imperial titles, and having that island and its dependencies assigned to 
 him as sovereign, with a revenue of two millions of francs. The duch- 
 ies of Parma, Guastalla, and Placentia, were at the same time secured 
 to the empress Maria Louisa, and her descendants, and provision 
 made for all his other relations. Buonaparte, having previously had 
 a guard appointed, set out on the 20th for the seat of his new and 
 very reduced dominions, much exposed occasionally on his passage to 
 popular resentment. 
 
 16. On the the entrance of the allies, they were careful in their 
 manifestoes to distinguish between the French people, or nation at 
 large, and the tyrant whom they had conspired to overthrow; and 
 evinced the strongest disposition to bury in oblivion, with becoming 
 snagnanirnity and forbearance, the numberless insults and injuries 
 they had received at the hands of the French, while under the do- 
 minion of their now prostrate foe. They took no steps to force upon 
 them the exiled family, but left the settlement of their government 
 and constitution entirely to the senate and provisional administration. 
 The Bourjons had been proclaimed in the south* and the counl 
 d'Artois appeared at Paris on the 13th of April; but the recal of 
 the king was the work of the French themselves, as we shall have 
 occasion to observe in a subsequent section. 
 
 SECTION XIX. 
 
 POLAND, FROM THE COMMENCEMENT OF THE EIGH- 
 TEENTH-CENTURY TO THE TREATY OF VIENNA, 1,815. 
 
 1. No country in Europe has suffered more from a faulty constitu 
 tion than the kingdom of Poland. No country has afforded more 
 convincing proofs of the mischiefs appertaining to an elective mon 
 archy, the constant source not only of internal commotions, cabal, 
 and intrigue, but the occasion generally, upon every vacancy, of 
 foreign interference. At no era did Poland suffer more, perhaps, 
 from this combination of evils, than towards the commencement 
 of the eighteenth century ; nor has she ever since been able to re- 
 cover her independence. The arbitrary, though not unprovoked, 
 proceedings of Charles XII. of Sweden, in 1,704, when he deposed 
 Augustus, and insisted upon placing Stanislaus on the throne, in despite 
 of Austria and Russia, plainly showed how little power a divided 
 country possesses against the encroachments of an ambitious neigh- 
 bour, and how naturally the interference of one such neighbour 
 exposes the invaded country to similar measures on the part of 
 others; for Augustus himself had been previously forced upon the 
 Poles by Russia. From the above period to the present day Poland 
 has been exposed to a continual recurrence of such events ; and to 
 promote the views of a combination of foreign potentates, kept in a 
 state of internal disunion and distraction, constantly favourable to 
 Uteir ambitious designs. 
 
364 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 2. Augustus, elector of Saxony, who was deposed in 1,704, and 
 compelled formally to abdicate the throne by the treaty of Alt- 
 Ranstadt, in 1,706, was restored by the assistance of Russia, after 
 the battle of Pultawa in 1,709, and reigned for the space of twenty- 
 four years, dying in 1,733. (Sect. I.) His reign was far from being 
 an happy one : he offended the Poles by the introduction of Saxon 
 troops, and by residing too much away from them in his electoral 
 dominions : he lived in the midst of factions and conspiracies, being 
 continually at war with the disside?its or anti-catholics, while he totally 
 failed in his endeavours to render himself absolute, or the crown he- 
 reditary in his family. 
 
 3. The war which arose upon the death of Augustus, has been 
 already noticed. Had the Poles been wise enough to remedy that 
 great defect in their constitution, which rendered the crown elec- 
 tive, they could not have done better, perhaps, than to have made 
 it hereditary in the person and family of Stanislaus Lescinsky, the 
 principal competitor of the house of Saxony, he being a Pole by 
 Oirth, and very amiable in his private character: but they were no 
 longer their own masters; and they were divided amongst them- 
 selves to such a degree as to render the interposition of some foreign 
 power almost necessary to determine their choice. Upon this oc- 
 casion the emperor of Germany, whose niece the young elector of 
 Saxony had married, assisted by the Russians, overcame the French 
 influence which had been exerted in favour of Stanislaus, and, by 
 effectually removing the latter, procured the election to fall on the 
 son of the late king, Augustus 111. 
 
 4. This king of Poland, on the death of the emperor Charles VI., 
 1,740, laid claim to the whole Austrian succession ; and not altogether 
 •without reason, had not the Pragmatic Sanction stood in his way, 
 his wife being the eldest daughter of the emperor Joseph, elder 
 brother of Charles VI. ; the object of the Pragmatic Sanction being 
 to secure the inheritance to the females, in default of male issue ; 
 and on the demise of Charles VI., his daughter becoming his immedi- 
 ate heir and representative, it certainly appeared hard that the 
 daughter of the elder brother, who had been emperor, should be so 
 entirely excluded. The hope of succeeding to some part, at least, 
 of the late emperor's hereditary dominions, induced the king of Po- 
 land to enter into a confederacy with Bavaria, Prussia, and France, 
 against the house of Austria; but he derived no advantage from the 
 alliance : he afterwards changed sides, and at the commencement of 
 the seven years' war, as has been before shown, (Sect. VI.) suffered 
 most severely for having espoused the case of the empress queen, 
 .aid entertained views against Prussia, which the wary sovereign of 
 the latter country found means to detect, and cruelly to revenge. 
 
 5. It was not likely that a king who owed his election so entirely 
 to the interference of foreign powers, should acquire any thing 
 like independence, or authority at home or abroad. During the 
 
 ■eign of Augustus III. great feuds and animosities prevailed among 
 the Magnate, while the king himself was entirely subject to the 
 influence of Russia ; a circumstance so resented by his subjects a9 
 to indjee them to avail themselves of the privilege of the Libenim 
 Feto, to dissolve all the diets he convoked, and thus leave the king- 
 dom almost without any government. Augustus III. died in the year 
 1,763, at a period when the Russian sceptre had passed into hands 
 well fitted to promote, in every way possible, (just or unjust,) its 
 aggrandizement and splendour. Catherine II. is supposed to nave 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 365 
 
 had her eyes upon Poland before the demise of Augustus, and to 
 have been prepared not only to set aside the son of the latter, but to 
 advance to the vacant throne some creature of her own ; she paid no 
 attention therefore to the solicitations of the house of Saxony, and was 
 very shortly relieved, indeed, from all competition in that quarter, 
 by the early death of the new elector. In conjunction with Prussia 
 she succeeded, but not without a spirited opposition on the part of a 
 few Polish patriots, in bestowing the crown of Poland on count Po- 
 niatowski, one of her favourites, and a Pole by birth ; a man of talent, 
 ;md amiable in his disposition, but likely to continue, as well as his 
 predecessor, entirely under her control. 
 
 G. Nothing could be a greater mockery than the care which the 
 czarina and the king of Prussia pretended to take of the liberties ot 
 Poland, at the very moment that they were forcing upon the nation 
 a king of their own choice and nomination. So far from trying 
 to amend their faulty constitution, and eradicate the seeds of future 
 animosities, the}' particularly entered into an agreement to prevent 
 the king rendering the crown hereditary in his family, or becoming 
 absolute ; that is, in fact, independent, or powerful; for this was their 
 great object. And when it was to be .-ubmitted to the diet to ap- 
 prove their nominee, and declare count Pouiatowski king, a Rus- 
 sian army was sent to Warsaw, to support (he freedom of the election, 
 The choice of the diet of course was soon decided to be in favour of 
 the Russian favourite, who became king accordingly, September 7, 
 1,764, under the name and title of Stanislaus Augustus. 
 
 7. From this period, the three neighbouring powers, Russia, 
 Prussia, and Austria, the two former, however, most particularly, 
 may be said to have been interested in the internal dissensions of 
 that unhappy kingdom, which afforded them plausible grounds ol 
 interference, and which they could therefore have no sincere incli- 
 nation to allay or adjust till they had effectually gained their own ends: 
 the object of Russia probably was to maintain her own power and 
 ascendancy over the whole country ; but Prussia meditated a parti- 
 tion, which might put her into possession of Polish or Western Prus 
 sia, a district of much importance in every point of view. 
 
 8. Whatever may have been originally the distinct views of the 
 several parties, it is very certain that they derived peculiar advan- 
 tages from the extremely unsettled state of the country, which was 
 at this time torn to pieces by the contests and disputes between the 
 catholics and dissidents, or dissenters from the established religion: 
 the latter, who since the middle of the sixteenth century had ac- 
 quired many privileges, were supported toy several different foreign 
 powers; those of the Greek church by Russia, and the protestants 
 of all persuasions by Prussia, Denmark, and Great Britain, all of 
 whom were called upon to interpose as guarantees of the famous 
 treaty of Oliva, 1,660. The diet, instigated by the court of Rome 
 and heads of the church, judged it right to uphold the established 
 faith, and Stanislaus, though his principles were more tolerant and 
 liberal, appeared to take the same side, being jealous also of the too 
 great power of Russia, of which he could not fail to be continually 
 reminded, not only by the open favour shown to the dissidents by 
 Catherine, but by the insolent superiority assumed by her general, 
 commanding in Poland, prince Repnin, and the extremely arbitrary 
 and sanguinary manner in which the empress sought to maintain her 
 preponderance. 
 
 9. In the mean while confederacies were forming in all parts ot 
 
 Hh2 
 
*>o6 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 the kingdom to restore, if possible, the independence of their 
 coun'.ry, (such at least was the object of the catholics,) or to pro 
 cure for the protestants all the rights and privileges to which they 
 laid claim, and of some of which they had been unjustly deprived. 
 The latter, under prince Radzivil, supported by Russian troops, 
 compelled the diet of Warsaw, in the year 1,7G7, to accede u> 
 their demands ; this hastened the grand confederacy of the catho- 
 lies at liar, in Podolia, in 1,7(58, whose object was to throw oil ll.o, 
 Russian yoke, with the aid of Turkey, who had been induced by 
 I'rance to declare war against the Russians in that very year; iifn n 
 the occasion of the latter having passed their frontier in pur&«fcg 
 a Polish party, and committed considerable depredations. 
 
 10. Though the confederate catholics had clearly the good rtf 
 their country in view, yet such was the influence of iittssh*, Uriel 
 the king and senate were compelled by Catherine to declare was- 1 
 against the Porte, and so far to counteract, as much, as p osslhi ■■. 
 the efforts that were making to accomplish their own independencr. 
 In Austria, indeed, during this stage of the business, the confede- 
 rates at tear had a friend in Maria Theresa, who espoused V.hh 
 claims of the Saxon family, and who sent them both arms -.;;;. : 
 money, to enable them to check, if possible, the domineering piv> 
 eeedings of the czarina, of which indeed she had good cause lo be 
 jealous. But the time was approaching in which, notwithstanding 
 the most striking and formal declarations to the contrary, Poland 
 was to become a prey to her three more powerful neighbour.-, and 
 when all other feelings were to give way to that of duly apportion* 
 ing and dividing the spoils of that unhappy country. 
 
 11. It seems now to be pretty generally agreed, that the plan 
 ot dismembering this unfortunate kingdom originated with the king 
 of Prussia, or his brother, prince Henry ; and that it was owing to 
 particular circumstances that they were able to bring the two other 
 
 farties so readily to acquiesce in their measures of partition. Had 
 rederick himself been more rapacious, it would probably not have 
 been so easily accomplished, but, in order to gain what he most 
 coveted, for his own snare, he appeared willing to allow the other 
 two partitioning powers to acquire rather more than fell to his lot, 
 both in extent of territory and amount of population. In admitting 
 Austria to any share at all, he made no scruple to assert that his 
 principal motive was, that she should bear her part in the blame 
 that must attach to so arbitrary and rapacious an act. 
 
 12. Though the Polish king and nation were compelled to ac- 
 quiesce in these proceedings of the three powers, they did not dc 
 so without remonstrating in terms the most striking and dignified , 
 accompanying their remonstrances and manifestoes with an open 
 appeal to the several states which had guarantied the integrity of 
 Poland; but all in vain. They obtained no assistance from foreign 
 states, no abatement of their demands on the part of the par- 
 titioning powers, and were at length obliged, by a solemn diet, to 
 Sanction this gross dismemberment of their country. In two seve- 
 ral discussions of the case, however, in the senate, and assembly 
 of Nuncios, the minority on the division was most numerous and 
 respectable. In th ; former, the question was carried by a major- 
 ity of six only, in the latter by one. The motive alleged by the 
 partitioning powers, for this extraordinary proceeding was, that they 
 were anxious to a ; nend the constitution, to preserve the liberties 
 of Poland, and to appease the disorders which had for so long a 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 3€7 
 
 space of time disturbed (be country, but they fulfilled none of these 
 pretended purposes. They did nothing to amend the constitution, 
 hut imposed a new one upon them, fraught with those very 
 imperfections, of which they might for ever continue to hike jufc- 
 vantage. They perpetuated the elective monarchy, abridged 
 more than ever the authority of the king, and continued the ££*- 
 rum veto, a sort of tribunilial privilege, exceedingly inimical vo 
 the peace of the country. So far from upholding, they trampled 
 upon their liberties in every way they could, and promoter! the dis- 
 orders they pretended to remove, by encouraging, rather than 
 clucking, the licentious conduct of their soldiery, in fact, >•- 
 greater act of atrocity, or a more barefaced mockery of national 
 feelings, never perhaps took place, or was even attempted, than m 
 the dismemberment Of the kingdom of Poland. Austria and Prus- 
 bia did, indeed, make an attempt to vindicate their claims to th« 
 countries they took possession of; but Russia scarcely judged it 
 necessary to make any declaration to that effect. The archives of 
 Prussia and Hungary were ransacked, and titles revived and in 
 i upon, which, to say the least, had been in abeyance mr manv 
 centuries. How far this measure may justly be said to have aflocul 1 
 the balance of power in Europe, is a distinct case. For a long series 
 of years, if not of ages, Poland had been so ill governed, or so weak, 
 as to have had little influence on that balance, though her situation 
 seemed to point her out, and still appears to do so, as capable of ma- 
 terially influencing or counteracting the. operations of her many pow- 
 erful and ambitious neighbours, Russia, Prussia, Austria, and r i urk< v. 
 The worst consequence, however, arising from the confederacy 
 against Poland, seems to have been the countenance thereby given 
 to the partitioning system in general. 
 
 13. It was in /the year 1,773 that the division was finally agreed 
 to, ana settled, and even sanctioned by the Polish diet. Of some- 
 what more than thirteen thousand square German leagues of terri- 
 tory, the partitioning powers took a good third, taking at the sarin? 
 time rio measures to lessen the evils arising from the detective cot.- 
 stitution of Poland, in the portion allotted to the natives. It must 
 be acknowledged, that tbey bestowed great pains on the improve- 
 ment of their respective shares; but no benefits of this- nature, con- 
 ferred on particular parts of the country, could compensate for the 
 unfeeling depredations committed upon the whole. 
 
 14. The following has been given as a fur representation of the 
 parts allotted to the several powers, by tite delegates appointed to 
 adjust the respective claims. Other accounts, indeed, are extant, 
 winch it would be diiiicult to attempt to reconcile with the one 
 we are about to give ; a very exact statement, however, may net 
 be necessary. The Russian allotment consisted of Polish Livonia, 
 parts of the palatinates of Witepsk, Polotsk, and Minsk, and the 
 whole palatinate of Micislaw, containing a population of 1,500,000 
 souls. The king of Prussia obtained the district called Royal, or 
 Western Prussia, excepting the towns of Dantzic and Thorn, with 
 a population of 860,000 souls. Austria gained a large territory in 
 the south of Poland, comprising Red Russia, Gallicia, and parts of 
 vhe palatinates of Cracow, Sandomir, Lublin, Bezk, Volhynia, and 
 Podolia, containing a population of 2,500,000 souls, and the valuable 
 salt-woks of Vielitzka, which produced an annual revenue of £90,000. 
 This district was annexed to the Austrian territories, under the an- 
 cient appellation of the kingdoms of Gallicia and Lodomeria. Such 
 
36tf MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 were the result- of what is now distinguished by the name of the 
 first partition of Poland. 
 
 15. The little assistance Poland received to ward oil the disgrace 
 an/1 misery of this first partition, the extraordinary apathy with 
 which it seemed to be beheld by the other powers of Europe* left 
 little hopes of her regeneration, or escape from the toils into which 
 she had fallen ; nor indeed has she ever escaped from them, of 
 recovered the smallest degree of independence. After the first 
 partition, the object she had most to dread was some accidental 
 dUunioa of the partitioning powers, who would be sure to wreak 
 their vengeance upon her; and an event of this very nature seems 
 to have been the cause of what has been called the second parti- 
 tion, in 1,793. Russia and Austria, in the years 1,737 and 1,788, by 
 too close an alliance, having given umbrage to the king of Prussia, 
 In- insisted that the constitution formed lor Poland, in 1,773, was 
 void, and otTered to assist the Poles in framing a new one, which 
 was completed under his auspices, May 3, 1,791. Mad this consti- 
 tution been able to keep its ground, Poland, so much oi' it at least 
 as remained to the natives, might have recovered some degree of 
 credit and freedom; it was in a great measure the ivork of real 
 patriots, enlightened and moderate reformers; it abolished ih# 
 liberuui veto, and the elective monarchy, except in the case of the 
 extinction of some hereditary dynasty; it rendered the person if 
 the king inviolable, but gave him responsible ministers ; it provid- 
 ed a representative senate, not much differing from the English 
 house of commons. Unhappily, this good work found enemies 
 amongst the ancient nobles, who did not like to give up their pre- 
 tensions to royalty, ami who had recourse to the old ;md ruinous 
 expedient of inviting foreign help, always at hand to avail itself 
 of the internal commotions of that devoted country. Russia \vas 
 called in, by the confederates of Targovitz, and a renewal of losses 
 and calamities ensued of course. The king of Priissia, .^o far from 
 supporting the new constitution, the diet, or the king, ;i- he seem- 
 ed absolutely bound to do, by his own acts, eagerly seized upon the 
 towns of Dantzic and Thorn, which had been specially excepted 
 in the last partition, joined the czarina, in her efforts against the 
 patriots, under the brave Kosciusko, and finally succeeded in pre- 
 vailing over a country, which, from the enthusiasm and spirit dis- 
 played on this occasion in her defence, deserved a better late. By 
 the second partition, in 1,79.3. Russia is said to have acquired 4,000 
 Germsm square miles of territory, in Volhynia, Lithuania, Podoiia, 
 and the Ukraine ; and Prussia, besides the towns of Danlzic and 
 Thorn, 1,000 square miles in south Prussia, with all the Hausealic 
 towns. A third and last partition soon followed, in the year 1,795, 
 between Russia, Prussia, and Austria, which may be said to have 
 put an end to the kingdom and republic of Poland ; Stanislaus, its 
 unhappy monarch, being removed to Russia, where he soon after 
 died, February 12, 1,798. In this last partition, Cracow was given 
 to Austria, and VVarsaw to Prussia. From the resistance of the 
 natives, who gained greater advantages in many engagements than 
 could have been expected from the nature of their force, the slaugh-' 
 ter accompanying these latter revolutions was dreadful, and on the 
 part of the Russians attended with circumstances of cruelty too 
 much resembling what had taken place in 1,772. 
 
 IG. it would be difficult to describe the 6tate of Poland, from 
 the period of the last partition, in 1,795, to the treaty of Vienna, in 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 369 
 
 1,815. The injuries the natives had experienced at the hands of 
 the three partitioning powers very naturally disposed them to ac- 
 cept any offers from the enemies of their oppressors ; and, as Buo- 
 naparte had frequent opportunities of making such offers, it is not 
 tol)e wondered that he should have obtained their assistance, and 
 subjected them, more or less, to his government and control ; but 
 as he was only at times in opposition to, and as often allied with 
 one or other of the three powers, Russia, Austria, or Prussia, ho 
 Was never able to propose their entire emancipation, even if he had 
 desired it. Thus continually deceived and mortified, they derived 
 no advantage from the aid they gave to France, if we except that ten- 
 dency towards the recovery of a separate existence, (for it can 
 scarcely be called more,) the creation of the grand duchy of War- 
 saw, in 1,807, which, by the treaty of Tilsit, and with the consent 
 of Buonaparte, was consigned to the king of Saxony ; the empen f 
 of Russia at the same time acquiring much of Poland from Prussia. 
 In 1,312, the kingdom was declared by the diet of Warsaw to be re- 
 established; and by the treaty of Vienna, in 1,815, being formally 
 delivered un by the king of Saxony, it became annexe*! to Russb. 
 and was declared to be, u irrevocably attached to it by its constitution, 
 to be possessed by his majesty the emperor of all the Russia*, i i-i 
 heirs and successors in perpetuity." The part assigned to Prussia 
 took the name of the grand duchy of Posen. The salt-mines < 1" 
 Vielitzka were confirmed to the emperor of Austria, and such dis- 
 tricts as had been acquired by the treaty of Vienna, in 1,809. The 
 town of Cracow was declared to be for ever a free, independent, an I 
 strictly neutral city, under the protection of Austria, Russia, iiiui 
 Prussia. The navigation of the rivers and canals, in all parts of an- 
 cient Poland, (as it existed in the year 1,772,) was by particular 
 treaties, between Russia, Austria, and Prussia, declared to be free, 
 so as not to be interdicted to any inhabitant of the Polish provinces, 
 belonging to either of the three powers. 
 
 SECTION XX. 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN, FROM THE PEACE OF AMIENS, 1,802, TO 
 THE DEATH OF GEORGE III., 1,820. 
 
 1. Before one year had passed from the conclusion of the peace 
 of Amiens, circumstances took place which too plainly indicated a 
 strong probability of the renewal of hostilities, and so early as the 
 month of May, 1803, letters of marque and reprisal were again is- 
 sued against the French, by the British government, apparently 
 with the full consent of the people at large, notwithstanding the 
 enthusiastic joy which had been expressed on the termination vt' 
 the war in the year preceding. It was upon this occasion that thp 
 first consul had recourse to a measure, singular in its nature, and 
 which exposed many persons and families to great inconveniencr. 
 He forcibly detained all the English who happened to be in France, 
 not only for purposes of business, but of pleasure or curiosity ; nor, 
 with very few exceptions, were any of them able to return to their 
 native country, for the long space of ten or eleven years. Prepa- 
 rations also were made for the invasion of England, which only ex- 
 cited a stronger disposition, on the part of the latter country, to pie- 
 
 47 
 
370 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 pare against such attempts, in a way well calculated to destroy at 
 once all the enemy's hopes and prospects of success ; in Ireland, 
 indeed, a new conspiracy was set on toot, which was supposed to 
 rest on some promised support from France ; but this was denied by 
 the conspirators themselves, and the disturbance soon quelled, with- 
 out spreading, in fact, beyond the capita!. 
 
 2. Though the king of Great Britain had declared, that, with 
 regard to his electoral states, he should remain neuter, Buonaparte 
 did not neglect such an opportunity of wounding his feelings, by 
 ths speedy occupation of Hanover, under circumstances peculiarly 
 aggravating to the people. Early in the month of June, 1,803, the 
 Hanoverian troops were made to lay down their arms, and engage 
 not to serve against the French without a previous exchange. 
 
 5. Holland was still too much under subjection to France, to he 
 permitted to remain at peace; letters of marque were, therefore, 
 also issued against the Batavian republic, on its refusal to agree to a 
 perfect neutrality. 
 
 4. In 1,304, a change of ministry in England 1 brought Mr. Fitt 
 again into power, at a moment when the affairs of the continent, 
 and the. increased power of the first consul, who, in the course of 
 the same month, assumed the imperial dignity, demanded all his 
 attention. Before the conclusion of the year, the ahl which Spain 
 was compelled to render to the French, together with certain ap 
 pearances of hostile preparations in her ports, exposed her to an 
 attack on the part oi Great Britain, which soon drew from her a 
 declaration of war, very fatal to her interests, though scarcely to 
 be avoided, considering the circumstances in which she had been 
 placed by the extraordinary proceedings and demands of the British 
 government, which was supposed to have violated the strict rules 
 of justice, if not of international law, by arbitrarily and prematurely 
 seizing her treasure-ships, on their passage to her ports, in an action 
 perfectly unforeseen and unexpected, and ki which many lives were 
 lost 
 
 5. But if the character of the British nation or government suf- 
 fered in any respect from errors or mistakes in the commencement 
 of the war, its naval power and credit were nighty advanced l>e- 
 fore a year had passed, by the splendid victory obtained over the 
 Spanish and French fleets combined, off cape Trafalgar, in Octo- 
 ber, 1,805; a victory not achieved, however, without a correspon- 
 dent loss, as has been before stated, in the death of the very cele- 
 brated lord Nelson, commander of the British squadron, who fell 
 early in the action, and whose body, being afterwards brought to 
 England, was buried with very unusual honours in the centre of 
 St Paul's cathedral. 
 
 6. In 1,806 died Mr. Pitt; a minister whose extraordinary talents 
 mid integrity of life attached to him many friends and adherents, 
 by whom he was ably supported through a very arduous contest ; 
 uncontest which, though some thought it might have been avoided, 
 others as confidently regarded as entirely just and necessary, and 
 a timely security against the propagation of revolutionary princi- 
 ples, more threatening and dangerous than any aggressions purely 
 nostile. It is always easy to say, such and such events would -not 
 have happened, had a different course from the one actually adopted 
 been pursued ; but this is at best mere matter of surmise. It is im* 
 possible now to speak decisively of what might or might not have 
 been the consequences of a longer forbearance from war ■ it U ev 
 
MODERN HISTORY 37 
 
 tremely certain that many untoward circumstances prevented ths 
 accomplishment of all that Mr. Pitt had in view, and that the power 
 of the French emperor, instead of being checked, was advancing 
 with rapid strides to a pitch of uncontrollable and extended domin- 
 ion, when the former was seized with that illness which terminated 
 his life, in the forty-seventh year of his age. On his death, a new 
 administration was formed, including his great parliamentary oppo- 
 nent, Mr. Fox, who survived him for tiie short space of only seven 
 months. It is highly creditable to the character of the British nation 
 to record, that these two eminent statesmen, who had been for a long 
 time so much opposed to each other, but whose abilities and sinceri- 
 ty in an opposite line of politics appear to have been duly acknowl- 
 edged and appreciated by all parties at the period of their deaths, 
 were buried at the public expense, in Westminister Abbey, so near 
 to each other, that one stone might have covered the remains of 
 both. 
 
 7. During the short time that Mr. Fox was a member of adminis- 
 tration, fresh attempts were made to terminate the war. by negotia- 
 tion, but in vain. 1 hough the French emperor would nave agreed 
 to many cessions of importance, both to Great Britain and her 
 ally, the emperor of Russia, it was found impossible to detach from 
 his influence and usurped authority some of the most important 
 parts of Europe, particularly Holland, Switzerland, Italy, and Ger- 
 man v. 
 
 3 The system so generally adopted by the tyrant of France, of 
 converting to his own use the resources of ail other countries, 
 which could in any manner be rendered subservient to his purpose., 
 led the administration which succeeded tfiat in which Mr. r ox had 
 a share, to set on foot an expedition which has been judged by 
 many incapable of justification on any principles of political expe- 
 diency, and which was unfortunately attended with more fatal con 
 sequences than were at first perhaps contemplated. Upon what in- 
 formation the ministry proceeded did not fully appear at the time, 
 but it was alleged That they had reason to know that the French ruler 
 designed to occupy llolstein, and convert to the purposes of an in- 
 vasion of the British dominions the Danish marine. 
 
 9. It was determined, in order to prevent such an accession to the 
 naval power of France, to obtain possession of the fleet on which the 
 enemy had thus fixed his view, and though it might perhaps have 
 been both hoped and expected by the British government, that the 
 Danes would be brought peaceably to surrender into their hands 
 for a time a fleet thus devoted to the ruin of a friendly power, yet 
 the result turned out to be far otherwise. The Danes resisted the 
 demand, and though quite unable effectually to defend against the 
 forces opposed to them either their fleet or their capital, did not 
 capitulate till about two thousand persons had lost their lives, and 
 many houses been burnt in a manner that threatened the entire du 
 struction of the city. The end, it is true, was accomplished, of get- 
 ting into the power of the English ail the Danish ships of war. (eighr 
 teen ships of the line and fifteen frigates,) and naval stores ; but it id 
 to be feared that it will be long before the irritation caused by this 
 sudden and unexpected attack on a brave people, not at war with 
 England, will be allayed or forgotten. 
 
 10. In vindication of the suspicions of the British ministry, it was 
 asserted that the Danish marine and arsenals were found in a state 
 which left no doubt of the intrigues and agency of the French, ac- 
 
 government ... _, 
 
 licular, and we trust more impartial auu^.. v ..... .... 
 
372 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 cording to the judgment of the officers and seamen employed in the 
 expedition. The general designs of France seem, indeed, to have 
 been decisively manifested, in the measures they now openly pur- 
 sued, about the same time, of appropriating to themselves the fleet 
 of Portugal, and for similar purposes, but which, fortunately without 
 so melancholy a catastrophe, was rescued from the grasp of the 
 French ruler, by its timelv removal, under the protection of a British 
 armament, to the ports of Brazil. The difference between the two 
 cases seemed to be this ; that in getting possession of the latter fleet 
 we were actually assisting an ally; in the former, we were com- 
 pelling a neutral to adopt a measure judged to be unnecessary on her 
 part, and on suspicions, the grounds of which she disavowed ; but the 
 state of Europe, at that period, appears to have been such, especially 
 with regard to the minor states, as to justify precautions against 
 French power and French intrigue, seldom, if ever, resorted to in 
 other instances : it may also be added, that Portugal unreservedly 
 communicated to England the avowed designs of France ; Denmark, 
 to say the least, acted with a reserve far from friendly, and resisted 
 all negotiation ; the consequences to the latter, however, were cer- 
 tainly deplorable. 
 
 11. It was in the year 1,807, that the royal family of France, 
 whose situation on the continent became every day more alarming 
 and insecure, took refuge in England ; they fixed their residence at 
 Hartwell, in Buckinghamshire, his majesty styling himself the count 
 de Lisle, and modestly declining all honours and attentions, beyond 
 such as might be due to a private nobleman. 
 
 12. The vindictive measures adopted by the French government 
 to ruin the trade and commerce of Great Britain, naturally drew 
 from the latter retaliatory expedients, which were more or less ap- 
 proved, as affecting neutral and friendly powers, but which could 
 scarcely have been avoided, without surrendering her maritime 
 rights, and submitting to a pretence of blockade on the part of a 
 power, whose ships had been fairly driven from the sea by the 
 British fleets. Orders in council were issued in the months of Janua- 
 ry und November, 1,807, not only prohibiting all trade between the 
 ports of France and its allies, but ultimately compelling all neutrals, 
 trading to France, to stop at a British port, and pay a duty in propor- 
 tion to the value of the cargo. These embarrassments to trade in 
 general could not fail to excite great uneasiness in all parts of the 
 world; but the commencement of them is justly to be imputed to the 
 extraordinary decree, issued by the French ruler at Berlin, (the basis 
 Df the tt continental system,") "November, 1,806, an account of which 
 is given in Sect. XVI. : unfortunately the impossibility of satisfactorily 
 exempting other states from the effect of these prohibitory and 
 regulating decrees, on the part of the two rival countries, involved 
 England in a very unpleasant dispute with the United States o! 
 America. 
 
 13. Of the part England took in the affairs of Spain and Portugal, 
 from 1,808 to 1,814, an account is to be tbund elsewhere (See Sect. 
 XVII.) It may be sufficient to say, that, during the whole contest, 
 the emancipation of those two ancient kingdoms from the power of 
 the French seemed to be contemplated by the whole mass of British 
 subjects as their own cause. The people of Great Britain and Ire- 
 land, on the first application for assistance from Spain, appeared 
 ready to rise in a body. They hailed the dawn of liberty on the 
 continent with the most enthusiastic feelings. The deputies from the 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 373 
 
 supreme junta of Seville, did not arrive in England, on their mission 
 to the British government, till the 24th of July, 1,808 ; but long be- 
 fore that, other deputies from the principality of Asturias had been 
 received in London, with the most cordial tokens of esteem and 
 friendship. They were splendidly entertained by the City of Lon- 
 don, the Bank, and other public bodies, as well as by individuals of 
 the highest distinction. Subscriptions were opened in London, Liver- 
 pool, Bristol, Glasgow, Edinburgh, Dublin, Cork, Waterford, and 
 many other places, for supporting the cause of Spain ; and several 
 military corps, militia, and volunteers, offered their services. Govern- 
 ment supplied them immediately with three hundred thousand pounds 
 in dollars, five thousand muskets, thirty thousand pikes, and an im- 
 mense q-antity of powder and balls, with promises of more effectual 
 aid, which were ultimately amply fulfilled. The spirit thus display- 
 ed by the British public, on the first certain intelligence received of 
 the anti-gallican insurrection in Spain, may be said to have continued 
 unabated til!, through the matchless skill and valour of the confede- 
 rate armies under the duke of Wellington, the French were finally 
 driven from the peninsula in 1,814, as related in our account of 
 Spain. 
 
 14. His majesty George III., having, in the month of October, 
 1,809, entered upon the 50th year of his reign, the event was cele- 
 brated throughout the nation in a very striking manner, by services 
 of thanksgiving in all the churches and chapels, with suitable dis- 
 course*, illuminations, feasts, and other testimonies of joy, but parti- 
 cularly by liberal benefactions to the poor. In the month of Novem- 
 ber in the following year, his majesty, much troubled and afflicted by 
 the long illness and death of his daughter the princess Amelia, had 
 an alarming return of his former complaint, which terminated in a 
 second suspension of his regal functions, and from which he never so 
 sufficiently recovered as to be able to transact any business of state. 
 On the 20th of December, his royal highness the prince of Wales 
 was appointed regent, subject for a period to restrictions similar to 
 those which had been proposed in 1,788-9. This plan was violently 
 opposed, as unconstitutional and impolitic, but finally carried in Fel> 
 ruary, 1,811. The bill was completed and presented to his royal 
 highness, who did not hesitate to accept the trust, though not without 
 remonstrating against the limitations and restrictions imposed on him. 
 Early in 1,812, however, these restrictions were to cease. Great 
 changes in administration had been contemplated, and many negotia- 
 tions were carried on to this effect, but without accomplishing that 
 union and coalition of parties, which the regent himself seemed to 
 desire. Not being disposed to withhold his confidence therefore from 
 those who had so long served his royal father, most of them, on the 
 termination of the restrictions, were continued in their places. A 
 most melancholy catastrophe, which occurred in the month of May, 
 1,812, deprived the nation of the services of Mr. Percival, who was 
 assassinated in the lobby of the house of commons, by a person of 
 the name of Belliogham, in revenge, as he himself stated, of a pri- 
 vate injury ; a denial of justice, as he called it, on the part of go , em- 
 inent. It seemed to be accidental that the premier happened to be 
 the individual first presented to his notice on that fatal day. 
 
 [The paragraphs 15 and 16 of Dr. Nares' work, giving a very 
 short account of the differences between the English and American 
 governments in 1,812, 13, 14, and 15, are omitted. For a more par- 
 ticular, and we trust more impartial account of the war between 
 
374 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 Great Britain and the United States, the reader is referred to Section 
 VI. of Part Fourth, near the close of this volume.] 
 
 17. The year 1,814, will ever be memorable in the English histo- 
 ry, for the very extraordinary influence of foreigners of the highest 
 distinction, from the opposite shore, on the dovvnfal of Buonaparte, 
 and the conclusion of a war, which had agitated the whole of Eu- 
 rope. The list of visitors invited to the grand civic feast given by 
 the corporation of London, and all of whom were present, but a 
 very few, whom illness kept away, may convey some idea of the 
 splendid scenes that took place in different parts of the kingdom 
 in honour of these illustrious guests. It was on the 18th of June, 
 that the dinner was given to the following very exalted person- 
 ages : 
 
 The Prince. Regent ; the Emperor of Russia ; his sister, the Grand 
 Duchess of Oldenburgh, (afterwards Queen of Wirtemburg ;) the 
 King of Prussia; the Royal Dukes of England : the Prince Royal of 
 Prussia ; Prince William of Prussia, son of the king ; Prince Freder- 
 ick, nephew of the king ; Prince Henry, brother of the king; Prince 
 William, brother of the king ; Prince Augustus, the king's cousin ; 
 the Prince of Orange ; the Prince Royal of wirtemburg ; the Prince 
 Royal of Bavaria ; the Prince of Oldenburg; the Prince of Cobourg ; 
 Prince Charles of Mecklen burgh; Duke of Saxe Weimar; Prince 
 Gagarina; Prince Czeretorinke ; Prince Radzivil; Marshal Prince 
 Blucher; Prince Hardenburg; Prince Metternich; Prince Lichten- 
 stein; Prince and Princess Volkouske; his highness the Duke of 
 Orleans. 
 
 These illustrious foreigners were entertained, at great cost and ex- 
 pense, during their stay, both by the court and public bodies : the 
 prince regent accompanied them on a visit to the university of Ox- 
 ford ; and to Portsmouth, where they had an opportunity of witness- 
 ing a naval review. 
 
 18. In May, 1,816, the heiress to the British crown, princess Char- 
 lotte, only child of the regent, was married to his serene highness 
 Leopold George Frederic, prince of Cobourg. This marriage was 
 contemplated by the nation as an object of the highest hopes ; and 
 for several months the amiable and exemplary conduct of her royal 
 highness cheered the people with the brightest prospects of future 
 good ; but a very sudden and unexpected disappointment took place 
 in the month of November, 1817 ; the princess was delivered of a 
 still-born male infant, and survived her delivery only a few hours. 
 Nothing could exceed the concern manifssted by the public on this 
 melancholy and distressing occasion. 
 
 In the month of November, in the following year, her majesty 
 queen Charlotte died at Kew, after a long and painful illness ; and on 
 the 29th of January, 1820, was followed by her royal consort king 
 George III. His majesty died at the castle of Windsor, at a very 
 advanced age, and in the sixtieth year of his reign ; greatly beloved 
 6y his subjects, and universally respected for his many amiable and 
 foyal virtues. 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 375 
 
 SECTION XXI. 
 
 FRANCE, FROM THE ENTRANCE OF THE ALLIES INTO PAR- 
 IS, MARCH, 1,814, TO THE FINAL EVACUATION OF IT BY 
 THE FOREIGN TROOPS, 1,818. 
 
 1. Soon after Buonaparte departed for Elba, Louis XVIII was 
 freely recalled to the throne of his ancestors ; he had been resident in 
 many places since his first emigration, and been driven from almost 
 all, by the approach of republican troops, the dread of republican 
 vengeance in those who afforded him a refuge, and not unseldom the 
 fear of poison or assassination. England, at length, afforded him the 
 asylum he sought in vain elsewhere : there he lived secure against 
 French armies, French influence, and, as for as Englishmen could 
 protect him, the poisonous drug, or the sword of the assassin. When 
 the way was opened for him to return to his native country, and re- 
 ceive the crown and the throne, which his people now offered him, 
 but which had been so insulted and abused, it was characteristic of 
 Englishmen to rejoice at his restoration, and at the great change pre^ 
 pared for him, from a state of banishment, outlawry, and dependence, 
 to the recovery of one of the most brilliant thrones of Europe, and 
 from which his unhappy brother had fallen in a way to excite the 
 sympathy of every feeling and generous mind : his departure from 
 England to France was accompanied with the acclamations and sin- 
 cere gratulations of all ranks of people the prince regent personally 
 escorted him not only to London, but from London to Dover; and 
 took leave of him, in sight of the French coast, in a manner the 
 most affecting and impressive. White flags were exhibited on almost 
 all the churches, near which he had to pass, and nothing could ex- 
 ceed the joy expressed upon the overthrow of Buonaparte, and the 
 restoration of the Bourbons, both in England and France. 
 
 2. In the latter country, however, it may be naturally supposed, 
 the joy could not be general, nor much of what was expressed out- 
 wardly, sincere : Louis XVIII. returned to France, not as it was when 
 he left it, but revolutionized ; it had undergone great changes, and a 
 large proportion of the population was deeply interested in those 
 changes ; yet many, who returned with him, were quite as deeply 
 interested, in absolutely reversing what had passed, restoring what 
 had been abolished, reclaiming what had been alienated, if not even 
 punishing and degrading those who had participated in or been ben- 
 efited by such revolutions. 
 
 3. In the mean while the exiled emperor was not quiet ; he was 
 too near to the French coast to be kept in ignorance of what was 
 
 Eassing, and of the sentiments entertained towards him, by those who 
 ad participated in his many glorious and triumphant achievements, 
 and who could ill brook the degradation to which they might be 
 doomed by the restoration of the Bourbons ; the army, in particular, 
 to whom indeed he had behaved not only ill, but cruelly, in his re- 
 treat from Russia and Leipzig, had yet been raised by him to such a 
 pitch of glory and pre-eminence, as, might reasonably account for its 
 feeling both disgust and resentment, at having been compelled to sub- 
 mit to the intrusion of strangers into their country and metropolis ; 
 strangers, whom they had previously been able not only to defy and 
 resist, but in some instances, to triumph over in their own capitals. 
 
S76 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 4. The situation of the king of France, therefore, on his return to 
 his dominions, however acceptable to the greater part of Europe, 
 could scarcely be such as he might himself wish or desire : it was 
 impossible for him to return to the ancient state of things ; and he 
 must have foreseen how difficult it would be to render any new con 
 stitution agreeable or suitable to all parties. The senate, indeed, 
 nad prepared a new constitution before his arrival ; one which bore 
 a considerable analogy to that of England ; the legislative power be- 
 ing placed in the hands of the king, the senate, and the representa- 
 tives of the nation at large ; and the amount, nature, and distribution 
 of the public taxes, left exclusively to the decision of the latter: the 
 deputies were to exercise their functions for the space of five years ; 
 the dignity of senator to be hereditary, and to be conferred by the 
 King, though with a limitation as to numbers, which were not to ex- 
 ceed 200; religious freedom, and the liberty of the press, were duly 
 provided for : this constitution was to be presented to him, to be ac- 
 cepted previously to his inauguration ; but on his arrival at Paris, he 
 Jid not choose to bind himself, further than to promise his people 
 ouch a constitution as they would have no reason to disapprove : his 
 first care was, to arrange matters with the foreign potentates who 
 occupied his capital, so as to be able, as speedily as possible, to get 
 rid of their numerous armies ; whose presence could not fail to be a 
 subject of uneasiness to his own armies, as well as to the people in 
 general : to the credit of the troops themselves, under such extraor- 
 dinary circumstances, it should be observed, that nothing could ex- 
 ceed the order and forbearance with which they conducted them- 
 selves, as victors, in a capital, which, in the way of simple retribu- 
 tion, stood fairly exposed to plunder, exaction, and devastation. 
 
 5. Though it was soon settled to refer to a convention at Vienna 
 the final adjustment of matters, and arrangement of peace ; yet 
 France was quickly made to understand, that her boundaries must be 
 greatly contracted, and that the independence of most of the newly 
 annexed states and territories must be freely acknowledged ; to these 
 terms both the king and his minister, prince Talleyrand, plainly saw 
 the necessity of yielding, though the pride of the French was iikeiy 
 to be wounded by it. 
 
 6. On the 4th of June, the king presented to the senate and legis- 
 lative body his own new constitution, which differed in several pv^us 
 from that submitted to him on his arrival ; it reserved to himself the 
 right of proposing laws, and the assembly could only request to be 
 permitted to discuss particular points; instead of an hereditary 
 senate, peers, chosen by the king for life were to compose that body, 
 without limitation of numbers ; the popular representatives were to 
 consist of 262, not under 40 years of age : they were to be convoked 
 every year, and were to have the power of impeaching the minis- 
 ters for treason or extortion ; the king was to appoint the judges, and 
 trial by jury was to be continued : the press was placed under a cen- 
 sorship, and an order was given for closing the theatres and sheps on 
 the sabbath ; an order not only extremely unpopular at the time, 
 but, as it would seem, ineffectual. In nominating the senate, some of 
 Buonaparte's courtiers and marshals were included, particularly 
 Talleyrand, who became minister for foreign affairs. 
 
 7. The king, who from the first commencement of the revolution 
 had displayed a disposition to favour the rights of the people, mere 
 than others of his family, or the chiefs of the emigrants, was little 
 likely of himself to deviate from the principles of the constitution^ 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 377 
 
 or to disturb unnecessarily the existing state of things, in which so 
 many interests were involved, but he was supposed to have around 
 him persons still bigotted to the ancient system, and anxious to re- 
 cover all that they had forfeited by the course of the revolution. 
 These things, together with the dissatisfied state of the army, paved 
 the way for the return of Buonaparte. 
 
 8. The probability of such an event seems to have been strangely 
 overlooked by those who were most interested in preventing it : the 
 popularity of the deposed emperor had been miscalculated. On the 
 1st of March, 1,815, he landed once more on the shores of France, 
 with only 1,140 attendants; an attempt which many judged to be 
 altogether hopeless, yet, to the utter surprise of those who thought 
 so, his progress towards Paris, though not unmolested, afforded him 
 every hour, from the defection of the troops sent against him, 
 stronger hopes of recovering his authority. On the 20th of March 
 the king was persuaded to retire from Paris ; and on the evening of 
 that very day Buonaparte entered it, being hailed by the populace, 
 which had so lately saluted the return of the Bourbons in the same 
 manner, with the loudest acclamations. 
 
 9. He was soon convinced, however, that he was not returned to 
 his ancient power, and that he, quite as much as Louis XVIII., would 
 now be expected to gratify the people with a free constitution; he 
 speedily therefore, issued some popular decrees, establishing the 
 freedom of the press; abolishing the slave-trade ; and regulating the 
 taxes which weighed most heavily on the people ; he also conde- 
 scended to offer to them the plan of a constitution, very different from 
 the system of despotism upon which he had before acted, and con 
 taming many excellent regulations: he had, however, but little time 
 to spare for legislative measures. A manifesto of expulsion and ex- 
 termination had been issued against him by the congress at Vienna, 
 signed by the plenipotentiaries of Austria, France, Great Britain. 
 Russia, Prussia, Sweden, Spain, and Portugal, and it was indispensably 
 necessary for him to prepare for war. To this manifesto on the part 
 of the allied powers, Buonaparte was not slow in dictating and present 
 ing to Europe a counter manifesto, asserting in the strongest terms 
 the right of the French to adhere to the dynasty they had chosen on 
 the expulsion of the Bourbons ; and declaring that the confederate 
 princes had been the first to violate the treaty of Fontainebleau ; 
 but it is remarkable that, though Buonaparte so peremptorily assert- 
 ed, in his manifesto, the right of the French freely to choose what 
 dynasty they pleased to reign over them, he had inserted in his new 
 constitution an article, totally, and for ever, to exclude the Bourbon 
 family from the succession to the throne. 
 
 10. It was not till June that the several armies were prepared to 
 take the field, and between the 15th and 19th of that month, the fate 
 of Europe seemed once more to become dependent on the decision 
 of the sword. The battle of Waterloo, which took place on the 18th 
 of June, and in which the British and Prussian armies, under the 
 duke of Wellington and marshal Blucher, totally defeated the French,, 
 effectually put an end to all the hopes and prospects of Buonaparte. 
 On the 20th, he arrived at Paris, the first of his fugitive army ; and 
 in a very few days after, was compelled a second time to resign his 
 usurped dominions. On his retirement from Paris, his destination 
 appeared to be a matter of extreme doubt, till on the 15th of July he 
 
 {)ut himself into the hands of the English by going on board the Bel- 
 erophon man of war, and surrendering himself and suit uncondition- 
 12 48 
 
378 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 ally to captain Maitland, the commander of that ship, who sailed in> 
 mediately to Torbay with his prisoners, none of whom were per- 
 mitted to land. 
 
 1 1. On the 3d of July, not however without a struggle on the part 
 of the French army, Paris had formally surrendered to the duke of 
 Wellington and prince Blucher, who took possession of it on the 7th, 
 and on the 8th the king returned, greeted, as before, with the cheer- 
 ing and acclamations of the fickle multitudes who thronged the roads 
 by which he had to pass. By the terms of capitulation, the French 
 troops under Davoust had been made to retire beyond the Loire, 
 which they did with sullen indignation ; but on the arrival of the 
 Austrians and Russians at Paris, came over to the king. It was very 
 obvious, that, having Buonaparte once more in their power, the allies 
 could not fail to provide all possible precautions against his return 
 into any situation which might afford him the means of commu- 
 nicating with his old adherents, and thereby resuming the station he 
 had occupied for so many years, to their extreme annoyance. The 
 small, rocky, and totally detached island of St. Helena, in the Atlantic 
 ocean, seemed the only secure place of abode to which he could be 
 assigned. It was therefore agreed to send him thither, under the 
 custody of the British government, but under the eye, also, of com- 
 missioners appointed to reside there, on the part of the Austrian, 
 Russian, and French governments. On the 17th of October, 1,815, 
 he arrived at his destined residence. 
 
 12. Amongst the measures adopted by the military commanders of 
 the foreign troops at Paris, none seemed more to occupy the atten- 
 tion of Europe than the determination they formed to restore to the 
 places which had been robbed of them the valuable works of art, 
 which the victories of the French armies had put into their posses-' 
 sion, not merely in the way of plunder, but upon a regular system of 
 purloining every thing which could add to the splendour and great- 
 ness of their own capital, however grating to the feelings of those 
 from whom they were taken, and however severely it must have 
 added to the mortifications they had been doomed to suffer from 
 weakness or defeat. The justice of such a step could not be dis- 
 puted, though nothing was more likely to excite the resentment and 
 indignation of the French, in whose hands, it must be acknowledged, 
 had they been properly acquired, they were likely enough to be 
 preserved and exhibited to the world, in a manner the most condu- 
 cive to the glory and immortality of the illustrious artists to whom 
 they owed their origin ; but, as an act of honourable restitution, in 
 many instances, to persons arid places whose claims would otherwise 
 have been mocked and derided, the interposition of the two victori- 
 ous chiefs upon this occasion may be justly admired. Prince Blucher, 
 indeed, had a direct interest in reclaiming the spoils of Berlin and 
 Potzdam, but the duke of Wellington, while he had nothing to re- 
 cover for his own country, freely assisted those whose pretensions re- 
 quired the support of such paramount authority. 
 
 13. By the second general pacification of Paris with the allies, 
 November 20th, 1,815, it was agreed that an army of occupation, 
 amounting to 150,000 men, and to be maintained in a great measure 
 by France, should for the space of five years be put in possession of 
 her frontier fortresses, while her boundary should be farther reduced 
 than on the former occasion ; terms sufficiently mortifying, but justi- 
 fied by the turbulent and unsettled principles of the French nation. 
 Though the period of five years, however, had been specifically 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 379. 
 
 agreed to, the state of things afterwards appearing such as to justify 
 vhe allies in departing from the exact letter of the treaty, in the 
 spring of the year 1,817 they consented to reduce the army of oc- 
 cupation one fifth, and in the autumn of 1,818, it was wholly with- 
 drawn from the French territories, and the fortresses on the frontier 
 restored. 
 
 SECTION XXII. 
 
 NORTHERN STATES OF EUROPE, FROM THE CLOSE OF THE 
 SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 1. Though much has been said of the northern courts in the pre- 
 ceding sections, as bearing a part in the transactions on the continent 
 during the last and present centuries, yet as they have not been 
 mentioned distinctly and particularly, some brief account of them 
 may be necessary, to give a clearer view of the course of events 
 during the period under consideration. 
 
 2. Peter the great, of Russia, who died in 1 ,725, (see Sect. LX VI. 
 § 2.) was succeeded by his widow, Catherine I., who survived him 
 only two years. It is remarkable, that though Peter had taken par 
 ticular care to secure to the reigning monarch a power of naming 
 his successor, he should himself neglect this precaution; and foi 
 such an omission the law had made no provision. Catherine, how- 
 ever, had little or no difficulty to take his place. She was a woman, 
 if not of a superior, yet of rather an extraordinary character ; had 
 attended Peter in his travels and campaigns ; been serviceable to him 
 in his greatest extremities ; often checked the violence of his pas- 
 sions ; and manifested a disposition, during her short reign, to encour 
 age a spirit of liberty amongst her subjects, and to promote, in every 
 way she could, the progress of improvement and civilization. Her 
 death was little expected, and excited some suspicions against the 
 prince Menzicoff, who had just negociated a treaty with Austria, and 
 entered into a stipulation to raise the son of the unfortunate prince 
 Alexis to the throne, upon the condition of his marrying his daughter^ 
 
 3. The empress died in 1,727, and was succeeded by Peter II., 
 grandson of Peter I. Menzicoff, however, seemed to take into his 
 own hands the reins of government, till he was supplanted by one 
 of the Dolgorouki family, and banished to Siberia, with his wife and 
 children. The new favourite designed to marry his sister to the 
 emperor; but on January 29, 1,730, Peter died of the small-pox. 
 In him the male issue of the line becoming extinct, Anne, duchess ot 
 Courland, was called to the throne through the influence of Dolgo 
 rouki, contrary to the order of succession established by Peter I., and 
 in prejudice of her elder sister, the duchess of Mecklenburg. They 
 were both of them the daughters of Iwan, the eldest brother of 
 Peter. 
 
 4. The reign of Anne was prosperous and glorious ; she showed 
 great sagacity and firmness in resisting the intrigues, and balancing 
 the credit of rival statesmen, counsellors, and generals, Russian and 
 foreign ; maintaining her prerogatives against those who sought to 
 invade them, to further their own ambition, particularly Dolgorouki, 
 who, though he had placed her on the throne, was disgraced and 
 banished to Siberia. Anne died in 1,740, leaving the crown, by her 
 will, to her grand-nephew Iwan, son of her niece, Anne, princess of 
 
380 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 Mecklenburg, married to the duke of Brunswick Bevem ; but she 
 appointed her favourite, count Biren, whom she had brought with 
 her from Courland, regent. 
 
 5. This last arrangement threw things into the utmost confusion. 
 Biren was deservedly no favourite with the Russians, more than 
 20,000 of whom he is said to have sent into banishment ; he had, 
 besides, a powerful rival in count Munich, the conqueror of Ocza- 
 kow, a German, and a man of singular bravery and resolution ; the 
 latter succeeded in dispossessing the regent of his authority in favour 
 of the mother of the emperor. Biren was sent to Siberia ; and the 
 princess of Mecklenburg (duchess of Brunswick) assumed the reins 
 of government ; but not attending sufficiently to the duties of her 
 high station, and appearing to give too great encouragement to 
 foreigners, a new revolution was set on foot, to place on the throne 
 the youngest daughter of Peter the great, the princess Elizabeth. 
 This party, supported by French gold, and headed by Lestocq, a 
 physician, quickly becoming strong, seized upon the emperor I wan 
 and his parents, and proclaimed Elizabeth empress of all the Russias. 
 The life of the infant Iwan was preserved by the clemency and ex- 
 press interposition of Elizabeth ; but only to undergo a harder fate. 
 (See below, § 8.) Munich was banished ; and other foreign generals, 
 who had favoured the former government, either shared the same 
 destiny, or contrived to escape from the Russian dominions. The 
 people were well pleased to see the throne rescued from the hands 
 of foreigners in favour of so direct a claimant as the daughter of 
 Peter the great. This revolution took place in the month of No- 
 vember, 1,741. 
 
 6. Russia flourished under the sway of Elizabeth, whose reign ex- 
 hibited an uninterrupted career of glory and success ; her alliance 
 was courted by some of the greatest powers in Europe. Before her 
 death, which happened in 1 ,762, she took care to restore the natural 
 order of succession in her family, by declaring the duke of Holsteiu 
 Gottorp, her heir, son of her eldest sister, and who became emperor, 
 on her demise, by the title of Peter III. 
 
 7. This unfortunate prince was not suffered to reign long ; he had 
 married a princess of Anbalt-Zerbst; a woman of singular character, 
 peculiarly fitted to avail herself of any opportunities that might offer 
 in so unsettled a country, to gratify her ambition, and give scope to 
 her abilities. The prince had not behaved well to her, and many 
 things concurred to render him unpopular, if not hateful to his sub- 
 jects ; particularly an enthusiastic attachment to the king of Prussia, 
 then at war with the Russians, and projected innovations, well-meant 
 but ill-timed, some particularly affecting the clergy. He proposed to 
 circumscribe the power of the nobles, and seemed to prefer the 
 Holstein troops to his Russian guard. As these things rendered his 
 removal probable, according to the ordinary course of proceedings in 
 that semi-barbarous country, the sagacious Catherine willingly gave 
 nerself up to a party who had conspired against her husband. It is 
 generally conjectured that she connived, not only at the deposition, 
 but at the death of Peter, who survived his elevation to the imperial 
 dignity nrnfc many months ; while Catherine, by her superior address 
 and intrepidity, not only succeeded in establishing herself upon the 
 vacant throne, but in emancipating herself from the domination of the 
 party to whom she stood indebted for it, (the Orloffs.) 
 
 8. One competitor still seemed to stand in her way,— the unfortu- 
 nate lwan,— who had been deposed by Elizabeth, and now languished 
 
MODERN HISTORY. S81 
 
 In confinement, at the age of twenty-four. Soon after Catherine's 
 accession he was slain in prison, on a pretence of his attempting to 
 escape, but under circumstances so mysterious as to involve the em- 
 press in suspicion. She reigned under the title of Catherine II. for 
 the long space of upwards of thirty-four years, continually occupied 
 in advancing the glory of her people, in augmenting her dominions, 
 and rewarding merit. She obtained many signal advantages over the 
 Turk?, and succeeded (1,784) in wresting from them the whole dis- 
 trict of the Crimea ; but her designs extended much farther, even to 
 the expulsion of the Ottomans, and restoration of a Grecian empire, 
 having for its capital Athens or Constantinople : she contemplated, in 
 short, the complete triumph of the Cross over the Crescent. An ex 
 pedition was even undertaken for the liberation of the Greeks, in 
 the year 1,770; but it proved ineffectual, though it might have been 
 otherwise, had the Russian commanders consented to follow the ad- 
 vice of the Scotch admiral, Elphinstone, who commanded one of the 
 divisions of the fleet. 
 
 9. Catherine bore a large share in the partition of Poland, and 
 seems to have been restrained by no principles of justice, humanity, 
 morality, or virtue, from furthering the purposes of her ambition and 
 policy : her prodigality was great, her largesses enormous, and her 
 love of magnificence little proportioned to the smallness of the im- 
 perial revenue : her abilities and her resolution were remarkable, 
 and she may be considered as having contributed largely to the im- 
 provement and glory of the country over which she was permitted 
 so long to bear unlimited rule. Her domestic regulations savoured 
 little of the despotism displayed in her foreign enterprises : she miti- 
 gated the rigour of the penal laws, abolished torture and slavery, 
 protected the arts and sciences, and endeavoured to elevate the mid- 
 dle class to a proper degree of importance. 
 
 10. Catherine II. was succeeded in 1,796 by her son Paul I., a 
 strange character, unsettled in his principles, dissolute in his manners, 
 jealous, vindictive, and, in his last days, scarcely in possession of his 
 senses. On his first accession, however, he wisely endeavoured to 
 provide against the evils arising from an unsettled inheritance, by 
 enacting a law to secure the crown to his lineal and direct descen- 
 dants, not absolutely excluding females, but admitting them only into 
 the line of succession on a total failure of male heirs. 
 
 11. The emperor appeared to be extremely eager to secure an 
 entrance into the Mediterranean, and was highly gratified with being 
 chosen patron of the order of Malta, which he consented to take 
 under his protection in the year 1,798. He had been induced to take 
 a part in the war against the French, and succeeded, in conjunction 
 with the Turks, in getting possession, for a short time, of the Ionian 
 islands ; a Russian army was also sent to co-operate with the Austri- 
 ans, under the command of the celebrated Souwarow, (or Souvaroff,) 
 who, after having achieved great victories in Lombardy, seems to 
 have been cruelly abandoned in Swisserland, and to have unjustly in- 
 curred the displeasure of his capricious master. A misunderstanding 
 between the English and Paul on the subject of Malta, entirely 
 alienated the latter from the confederacy. In the mean while, his 
 violent conduct had induced the great officers of state and the nobility 
 to conspire to dethrone him. He was slain in defending himself, 
 during a conflict, in his own chamber, March 24, 1,801 ; and, greatly 
 to the joy of his oppressed people, succeeded by nis son Alexander, 
 
382 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 the present emperor, of whose accession, and share in the continental 
 war, an account has already been given. 
 
 12. Prussia, as a kingdom, is not older than the eighteenth century, 
 and entirely belongs therefore to the period under discussion. Its 
 history, as connected with the electorate of Brandenburgh, ascends 
 as high, perhaps, as that of any sovereignty in Europe. Its present . 
 power may be said to have taken its rise from the wisdom, judgment, 
 and good sense of the elector Frederic-William, commonly called the 
 great elector, who had Ducal Prussia confirmed to him in 1 ,657, and 
 by the convention of Walau and Bromberg, rendered independent or 
 the crown of Poland, of which, till then, it had been a fief. In the 
 time of the great elector, advantage was taken of the unsettled state 
 of Europe, to increase the population, and thereby advance the 
 wealth and improvement of the country in every respect. The 
 revocation of the edict of Nantes in France, 1,685, contributed large- 
 ly to theso ends, the Prussian states being freely set open to the ref- 
 ugees of all descriptions; an act of mere policy, as the elector him- 
 self, though tolerant, was extremely devout and careful of the privi- 
 leges, and even exemptions of the clergy. 
 
 13. The elector, Frederic-William, died in 1,688, and was succeed- 
 ed by his son Frederic, who, through the influence of the protestant 
 states, and the good- will of the emperor Leopold, to whom he had 
 been of service in his contest with France, but who seems to have 
 taken such a step with little judgment or consideration, became king 
 in 1,701, and died in 1,713, at the very period when, by the treaty of 
 Utrecht, his regal title was confirmed and generally acknowledged 
 by the other states of Europe. Frederic I. was generous, but fickle, 
 superstitious, and vain; he founded the University of Hall, the Royal 
 Society of Berlin, and the Academy of Nobles, but without taking 
 much interest in their concerns, and chiefly at the instigation of his 
 more learned consort, the princess Charlotte of Hanover ; he man 
 aged, however, to augment, by many acquisitions, purchases, and 
 exchanges, the extent of his dominions. 
 
 14. His successor, Frederic-William II., is judged to have done 
 much more to raise the credit and character of his new kingdom, by 
 excessive prudence, and good management, and the utmost attention 
 to his army ; whereby he not only repaired the losses occasioned by 
 his father's extravagances, but amassed great treasures, and laid the 
 foundation for those stupendous military achievements, which, in the 
 next reign, advanced Prussia to that high state of glory and eminence 
 which has given it such weight in the political scale of Europe. 
 Frederic abolished, in 1,717, all the fiefs in his kingdom; he invited 
 colonies from all parts to settle in his dominions. Like his great pred- 
 ecessor and namesake, he established military schools and hospitals, 
 but he was no friend to literature ; unpolished in his manners, and 
 implacable in his resentment. He added to the dominions of Prussia, 
 Stettin and the greater part of Swedish Pomerania. 
 
 15. On the death of Fredeiic-William II., in 1,740, his son, (who 
 is sometimes called Frederic 11., to distinguish him from the Frederic- 
 Williams, and sometimes Frederic III.,) came to the throne. Of this 
 monarch so much is known, and so much has already been noticed 
 and recorded in the other sections of this work, that we have little 
 to say here, but that he managed to raise a scattered, ill-sorted, dis- 
 jointed kingdom into the first rank of power and renown ; that he 
 supplied himself incessantly to promote the welfare and improvement 
 
MODERN HISTORY. S83 
 
 of his dominions, to augment the wealth and advance the civilization 
 of his people, though, in many of his regulations and measures to 
 this end, he erred occasionally as his oredecessors had done, for want 
 of a due knowledge of some of the hrst principles of political econ- 
 omy, a science at that period little cultivated. Frederic died August, 
 1,786, in the seventy-fifth year of his age, and forty-seventh of his 
 reign, more admired than esteemed ; more distinguished for bravery 
 in the field, wisdom in the cabinet, and literary attainments, than for 
 any virtues or qualities of a nobler nature. He has had the reputa- 
 tion of being the author of two very important measures, the parti- 
 tion of Poland, and the armed neutrality. The credit of the fiist 
 may probably be very fairly divided between himself and Catherine 
 of Russia ; the second, as a matter of self-defence, and a jealous re 
 gard for the liberty of the seas, reflects no dishonour on his character. 
 It is a point that should be better settled than it seems to be, by the 
 strict rules of international and maritime law. 
 
 16. Frederic was succeeded by his nephew Frederic-William. Of 
 the part taken by this monarch in support of the house of Orange, 
 in 1,787, of his opposition to the French, in 1,792, and of the share 
 he had in the two last partitions of Poland, in 1,793 and 1,795, by 
 which he gained the territories, first of South Prussia, and, secondly 
 of South-eastern Prussia, an account has been given elsewhere. 
 Frederic-William 11. died in 1,797, aged fifty-three, leaving the crown 
 to his son, the present king, Frederic III., who, as he came to the 
 throne at the moment that Buonaparte began his extraordinary c 
 reer, in disturbance of the peace of the continent, was necessarily 
 involved in all the difficulties and confusion of those times, as has 
 been already shown : he joined the armed neutrality in 1,800, caused 
 Hamburgh to be shut against the English, and occupied the states of 
 Hanover, 1,801, which being annexed by France to Prussia, in 1,805, 
 in exchange for a part of the duchy of Cleves, Anspach, Bareuth, 
 Neufchatel, and Valengin, provoked the resentment of England and 
 Sweden. In 1,806, the king rashly engaged in war with France, and 
 was nearly deprived of his kingdom : the losses he sustained by the 
 treaty of Tilsit, have been mentioned. (Sect. XVI.) In 1,812, Fred- 
 eric was compelled by France to furnish an auxiliary force against 
 Russia, but was afterwards, on the retreat of the French from Mos- 
 cow, able to break through this engagement, and conclude a treaty 
 of neutrality with Russia. From this time to the abdication of Na- 
 poleon, Prussia acted in close confederacy with the allies, the king 
 being constantly with his army till their entrance into Paris, March, 
 1,814. On the return of Buonaparte, 1,815, the Prussians were the 
 first to take the field, under their celebrated general, prince Blucher, 
 ■and in the battle of Waterloo, reaped the splendid glories of that day 
 in conjunction with the British. Since that time, Prussia has enjoyed 
 a state of peace, though not undisturbed as to her internal concerns. 
 17. The crown of Sweden, on the demise of Charles XII., 1,718, 
 (see Sect. LXVI. § 9. Part 11.) was conferred on his youngest sister, 
 Ulrica Eleanora, by the free election of the states. On the death of 
 Charles, whose strange proceedings had greatly exhausted the king- 
 dom, and occasioned the actual loss of many provinces, an opportuni- 
 ty was taken, once more, to limit the kingly power, which had been 
 rendered almost absolute in the reign of Charles XL, and to make 
 the crown elective. The new queen, who was married to the hered 
 itary prince of Hesse Cassel, and who had been oifered the crown in 
 prejudice of the son and representative of her elder sister, the 
 
384 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 duchess of Holstein Gottorp, readily submitted to tne conditions pro- 
 posed by the states for limiting the royal authority, but soon after her 
 accession resigned the government to her royal consort, who waa 
 crowned by the title of Frederic I., 1,720. 
 
 18. The new king ruled the nation with little dignity and less spir- 
 it ; submitting to every thing imposed on him by the states, till the 
 government became more republican than monarchical. The Swe- 
 dish territories were also much reduced during the early part cf his 
 reign. In the course of the years 1,719, 1,720, 1,721, Sweden ceded 
 to Hanover, Bremen, and Verden ; to Prussia, the town of Stettin ; 
 and to Russia, Livonia, Esthonia, Ingria, Wiburg, a part of Carelia, 
 and several islands. 
 
 19. It was during this reign that the rival factions of the Hats and 
 Caps had their origin, and which caused great trouble ; the former 
 
 being generally under the influence of France, the latter of Russia. 
 To deter the latter from assisting the queen of Hungary, in the war 
 that took place on the death of Charles VI., France made use of its 
 
 influence with the Hats, to involve Sweden in hostilities with Russia, 
 for which she was ill-prepared, and from which she suffered consid- 
 erably. Her losses were restored to her in some measure by the 
 peace of Abo, 1,743, but upon the positive condition that Frederic 
 should adopt as his heir and successor, at the instance of the czarina, 
 Adolphus-Frederic, bishop of Lubec, uncle to the duke of Holstein 
 Gottorp, presumptive heir to the throne of Russia, and nephew to 
 the queen of Sweden, who would more willingly have had the latter 
 for her successor. 
 
 20. Adolphus-Frederic came to the crown in 1,751. The snme 
 factions which had disturbed the former reign continued to give him 
 trouble, and though he made some endeavours to get the better < I 
 foreign influence, and recover his lost authority, all his efforts were 
 vain. Nothing could exceed the anarchy and confusion that prevail- 
 ed, encouraged and fomented both by Russia and France, to further 
 their private ends. The king is supposed to have ialien a sacrifice 
 to these disturbances, dying wholly dispirited in the year 1,771. 
 
 21. He was succeeded by his eldest son Gustavus 111., twenty-five 
 years old at the time of his accession ; a Swede by birth, and an ac- 
 tive and spirited prince, who was bent upon recovering what his 
 predecessors had too tamely surrendered of their rights and prerog- 
 atives ; in which, being supported by France, he had the good fortune 
 to succeed. Having found means to conciliate the army, and to rec- 
 oncile the people to an attack upon the aristocrats, who were betray- 
 ing the interests of the country, he established a new constitution, 
 1,772, with such good management and address, that the public tran- 
 quillity was scarcely for a moment disturbed. This new arrangement 
 threw great power into the hands of the king, by leaving him the 
 ontion of convening and dissolving the states, with the entire disposal 
 ot the army, navy, and all public appointments, civil, military, and 
 ecclesiastical; some alterations were made in 1,789, but nothing 
 could reconcile the party whom he had superseded ; at least it is 
 probable that this was the occasion of the catastrophe which termi- 
 nated the life of the unfortunate monarch. Towards the commence- 
 ment of the French revolution, in the year 1,792, when he was pre- 
 paring to assist Lewis XVI., (an unpopular undertaking.) he wa« 
 assassinated at a masquerade by a person encouraged, if not directly 
 employed, by the discontented party of 1,772. 
 
 22. Gustavus III. was brave, polite, well-informed, and of a read? 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 386 
 
 eloquence ; but profligate in his habits of life, and careless as to mat» 
 ters of religion. He promoted letters, agriculture, and commerce, 
 as far as his means would enable him to do so. His measures appear 
 to have been more arbitrary than his disposition. 
 
 23. His son Gustavus IV. being only fourteen years old at the time 
 of his father's death, the duke of Sudermania, brother of the deceas- 
 ed king, became regent for a short time. No monarch in Europe 
 manifested a greater zeal in the cause of the French royal family, 
 or disgust at the arbitrary proceedings of Buonaparte, than Gustavus 
 IV., but he was little able to give effect to his wishes; his judgment 
 being weak, and his forces inadequate to contend with the French, 
 especially after the latter, by the treaty of Tilsit, (see Sect. XVI.) 
 had found means to detach and conciliate the emperor Alexander. 
 After this disastrous treaty, Gustavus became not only the object of 
 French resentment, but of Russian rapacity. He was peremptorily 
 forbidden to admit the English into his ports", and Finland was quickly 
 wrested from him. The Danes also attacked him. In this dilemma, 
 England would have assisted him if she could have trusted him, but, 
 in truth, his rashness and incapacity were become too apparent to 
 justify any such confidence. A revolution was almost necessary, nor 
 was it long before a conspiracy was formed, which, in the year 1,809, 
 succeeded so far as to induce him to abdicate His uncle, the duke 
 of Sudermania, being appointed protector, and very soon afterwards 
 king, by the title of Charles XIII., the states carrying their resent- 
 ment against Gustavus IV. so far, as to exclude his posterity also from 
 the throne. 
 
 24. Charles XIII. submitted to new restrictions on the kingly au- 
 thority, and having no issue, left it to the nation to nominate an heir 
 to the crown. Their first choice fell upon the prince of Augusten- 
 burg, a Danish subject, but his death happening soon afterwards, not 
 without suspicion of foul play, Bernadotte, one of Buonaparte's gen- 
 erals, was, in a very extraordinary manner, nominated in his room by 
 the king, and approved by the states. As crown prince of Sweden, 
 tempted by the offer of Norway, he joined the confederacy against 
 Buonaparte in 1,813, and was present at the battle of Leipzig. (See 
 Sect. XX.) On the death of Charles XIII., 1,818, he succeeded to 
 the crown, and still reigns, having, by the treaty of Vienna, 1,815, 
 obtained Norway, and the island of Guadaloupe.. 
 
 25. The history of Denmark during the eighteenth century, and 
 beginning of the nineteenth, is very uninteresting, in a political point 
 of view. Incapable of taking any leading or conspicuous part in the 
 affairs of Europe, all that we know concerning her relates rather to 
 other countries, as Russia, Sweden, Prussia, France, and England ; in 
 whose friendships and hostilities she has been compelled, by circum- 
 stances, to take a part, little advantageous, if not entirely detrimental^ 
 to her own interests. 
 
 26. Five kings have occupied the throne since the close of the 
 seventeenth century, but it will be necessary to say very fettle of 
 them. Frederic IV., who came to :he crown in 1,699, died in 1,730, 
 and was succeeded by Christian VI. ; a monarch who paid great at- 
 tention to the welfare of his subjects, in lightening the taxes, and eo- 
 •euraging trade and manufactures. He reigned sixteen years, and 
 was succeeded by his son Frederic V., in the year 1,746. Frederie 
 trod in the footsteps of his father, by promoting knowledge, encour- 
 aging the manufactures, and extending the commerce of his country. 
 He had nearly been embroiled with Russia during the six montbr 
 
 if k 49 
 
388 MODERN HISTORT. 
 
 reign of the unfortunate Peter III., who, the moment he became en> 
 peror, resolved to revenge on the court of Denmark the injuries 
 which had been committed on his ancestors of the house of Holstein 
 Gottorp. In these attempts he was to be assisted by the king of 
 Prussia. The king of Denmark prepared to resist the attacks with 
 which he was threatened, but the deposition and death of the em- 
 peror fortunately relieved him from all apprehensions, and he was 
 able to compromise matters with Catherine II., by a treaty that was 
 not to take effect till the grand duke Paul came of age. By this coi> 
 vention, the empress ceded to Denmark, in the name of her son, the 
 duchy of Sleswick, and so much of Holstein as appertained to tha 
 Gottorp branch of that family, in exchange for the provinces of OU 
 denburg and Dalmenhorst. 
 
 27. Frederic V. died in 1,766, and was succeeded by his son Chrisr 
 tian VII., who, in 1,768, married the princess Caroline Matilda of 
 England, sister to his majesty king George III. The principal event 
 in this reign was one which involved the unhappy queen in inextric- 
 able ditficuUies, and probably hastened her death ; hut which seems 
 still to be enveloped in considerable mystery. A German physician 
 of the court, (Struensee.) who had risen from rather a low station in 
 fife to be first minister, having rendered himself extremely obnoxious 
 by a most extensive reform in all the public offices of state, civil and 
 military, and which, had they succeeded, might have done him great 
 credit as a statesman, was accused of intriguing with the young 
 queen, and by the violence of his enemies, headed and encouraged 
 by Juliana Maria, the queen-dowager, and her son prince Frederic, 
 brought most ignominiously to the scaffold. The unfortunate queen 
 Caroline, whose life was probably saved only by the spirited inter- 
 position of the British minister, quitted Denmark after the execution 
 of Struensee and his coadjutor Brandt, and having retired to Zel! in 
 Germany, painfully separated from her children, there ended her 
 days, May 10, 1,775, in the twenty-fourth year of her age. 
 
 28. During the latter part of his life, Christian VII., whose unde*> 
 atanding had always been weak, fell into a state of mental derange- 
 ment, and the government was carried on by the queen-dowager aid 
 prince Frederic, as co-regents, with the aid of BarnstorT, an able and 
 patriotic minister. In 1,773, the cession of Ducal Holstein to Dei>- 
 mark by Russia took place, according to the treaty above spoken of* 
 this wa9 a very important acquisition, as giving her the command of 
 the whole Cimbrian peninsula, and enabling her, by forming a canal 
 from Kiel, to connect the Baltic with the German ocean. In tfce 
 continental wars of 1,788, 1793, Denmark remained neuter, bnt by 
 joining the armed neutrality in 1,800, she excited the suspicions and 
 resentment of Great Britain, and, being supposed to favour not only 
 Russia but France, became involved in a contest, which was attended 
 with losses and vexations the most melancholy and deplorable. (See 
 Sect. XX. § 9.) 
 
 29. Christian VII. died in 1,788, and was succeeded by his son 
 Frederic VI., the present monarch, who had, a few years before, on 
 entering the seventeenth year of his age, been admitted to his proper 
 share in the government, having with singular moderation and pru- 
 dence succeeded in taking the administration of affairs out of the 
 hands of the queen-dowager and her party. Denmark appears to 
 haye suffered greatly from the peculiarity of her situation during the 
 struggles arising out of the French revolution, being continually 
 forced into alliances contrary to her own interests, and made at last to 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 38*) 
 
 contribute more largely than almost any state, to the establishment 
 of peace. The cession of Norway to Sweden, which had been held 
 out by the allies as a boon to the latter power, to induce her to join 
 the last confederacy against Prance, being a severe loss to Denmark, 
 and very ill requited by the transfer of Pomerania and the Isle of 
 Uugen, which were all that she received in exchange. 
 
 SECTION XXIII. 
 
 SOUTHERN STATES OF EUROPE, FROM THE CLOSE OF THE 
 SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 1. The southern states of Europe underwent such extraordinary 
 revolutions during the preponderance of the French under Buom*- 
 parte, that what happened (o them during the eighteenth century, 
 previously to these surprising events, seems comparatively of very 
 little consequence ; of the changes and disturbances to which they 
 were subject through the interference of the French, an account is 
 to be found in the sections relating to France. 
 
 2. Switzerland at the beginning of the eighteenth century was in- 
 volved in disputes between the protestanis and catholics, which were 
 attended with very unpleasant circumstances. These differences, 
 however, were brought to an end by a convention in 1,717, which 
 established an equality of religious rights. Things remained very 
 quiet in most of the cantons from this time to the French revolution, 
 with the exception of the towns of Geneva and Berne, and a few 
 other places, where a disposition was manifested to limit and restrain 
 the aristocratical governments, but which only led at that time to 
 suih judicious reforms, as were sufficient to appease the ardour of the 
 people. These disputes, however, may be held to have contributed 
 to the evils which befel the country afterwards. Though the states 
 endeavoured to preserve their neutrality during the progress of the 
 French revolution, it was not possible, while revolutionary principles 
 were afloat, to keep the country so free from internal disputes and 
 commotions, or so united, as to deter the French from interfering. 
 Geneva had already been cajoled out of her independence, but the 
 first decisive occasion afforded' to the French of taking an active part 
 in the affairs of Swisserland, arose out of the disputes, in 1,798, rel- 
 ative to the Pays de V and ; the gentry and citizens of which, not 
 thinking themselves sufficiently favoured by the rulers of Berne and 
 Fribourg, began to be clamorous for a change. The peasantry of 
 Basle also, instigated by an emissary of the French directory, de- 
 manded a new constitution. These disputes opened the way for the 
 introduction of French troops, first under the orders of the directory, 
 and afterwards under Buonaparte, as has been shown in our account 
 of France ; and from that period to the conclusion of the war in 
 1,815, Switzerland can scarcely be said to have known a year of 
 repose. 
 
 3. Of the condition of Venice during the eighteenth century, much 
 may be collected from the foregoing sections. She lost the Morea in 
 1,718, but acquired in exchange some towns in Albania and Dalmatia. 
 Some ecclesiastical reforms took place in the middle of the last ceiv 
 tury, at which period many convents were suppressed, and the Jesuits 
 expelled Venice endeavoured to remain neuter during the first 
 
388 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 movements of the French revolution, but was soon drawn into the 
 vortex when Buonaparte assumed the command of the French army . 
 By the treaty of Campo Formio, 1,797, (see Sect. XV.) her doom 
 was sealed, and this celebrated republic entirely overthrown. 
 
 4. In Rome, since the close of the eighteenth century, there has 
 been a succession of many popes, though the last two have rilled the 
 papal chair longer than might be expected, in a sovereignty where 
 the election is generally made from persons advanced in years. Lit- 
 tle more than the u magni nominis umbra'' remained to the popes at 
 the beginning of the eighteenth century, of that temporal power 
 which at one time or other had shaken every throne in Europe. 
 The clergy of France in particular had effectually asserted that kings 
 and princes, in temporal concerns, were independent of the ecclesi 
 astical authority. Clement XI., who was of the family of the Albani, 
 and assumed the tiara in the year 1,700, opposed the erection of 
 Prussia into a kingdom; an extraordinary measure of interposition, 
 and which had so little weight as almost to expose his court to ridi- 
 cule He espoused the French interests in the contest concerning 
 the Spanish succession, though in 1,708 he was compelled, by the 
 rigorous proceedings of the emperor, to acknowledge Charles III. 
 king of Spain. From this pope the famous bull umgenitus was ex- 
 torted by the Jesuits, to the great disturbance of France, and the 
 whole Romish church ; and the consequences of which, indeed, may 
 be traced even in the present state and circumstances of Europe. 
 
 5. Pope Clement XL died in 1,721, and was succeeded by the car- 
 dinal Michael Angelo Conti, who took the name of Innocent XIII., hut 
 being far advanced in years, lived a very short time, dying en the 3d 
 of March, 1,724, and on the 29th of May following, cardinal Urging 
 Benedict XIII., was chosen his successor. During his papacy* Com- 
 machio, which had been lost to the Roman see in the time of Clew*- 
 ent XL, was recovered; Benedict was zealous for the honour of i\vt 
 bull unigenitus, and in conjunction with cardinal FTeury. succeeded 
 m procuring the cardinal de Noailles, one of the most respectable and 
 zealous opposers of it in France, to subscribe it. He jjad a disposi- 
 tion to unite the Roman, Greek, Lutheran, and reformed churches, 
 hut could not succeed. He died 1,730, more admired for his virtues 
 and talents, than praised for his wisdom in the management of a flairs 
 
 6. Benedict XIII. was succeeded by Clement XII., Laurence Cor*i 
 ni, a Florentine, whose public acts were of little importance. He 
 had disputes with the king of Sardinia, the republic of Venice, with 
 the empire and Spain ; but much of his pontificate was passed in 
 tranquillity. He died on the 6th of February, 1,740. He made con- 
 siderable and valuable additions to the Vatican library. On hi^ 
 death, a struggle arose between the Alirnni and Corsini families, and 
 the conclave was much agitated. The former prevailed, ami sue 
 ceeded in elevating cardinal Prosper Lambertini to the papal chair, 
 who took the title of Benedict XIV. His government of the church 
 was extremely mild, and he was regarded as no favourer of the 
 Jesuits, who, during his pontificate, fell into disrepute in Portugal, 
 the first symptom of their decline and fail. This pope was a man of 
 most amiable manners, a great writer, and possessed of considerable 
 learning. He corrected several abuses, particularly such as had 
 arisen out of the privileges of asylum. He carefully "endeavoured to 
 keep clear of disputes and contests, thinking the times unfavourable 
 to the papal authority. He died in the year 1,758. 
 
 7 The cardinal Rezzonico succeeded Benedict XIV., and took the 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 380 
 
 title of* Clement XIII. His pontificate is memorable for being th* 
 sera of the expulsion of the order of Jesuits, (in some instances un- 
 der circumstances of very unjustifiable precipitation,) from Portugal, 
 France, Spain, Naples, Sicily, Parma, Venice, and Corsica, notwith- 
 standing the utmost efforts of the pope to uphold them ; mnny of 
 them were actually landed from Spain, Portugal, Naples, and Sicily, 
 on the pope's territories, as though it belonged to him to maintain 
 them when abandoned by the catholic sovereigns. The pope re- 
 monstrated, but with little effect. The French seized upon Avignon, 
 and the Neapolitans upon Beneventog lo induce him to abandon the 
 order, but he would not. Clement XIII. died suddenly, on February 
 2, 1,769, and was succeeded by the celeorated Ganganelli, who, in 
 compliment to his predecessor and patron, took the title of 'Clement 
 XIV 7 . This enlightened pontiff was sensible of the decline of the 
 papal authority, and of the prudence of conciliating, if not of 
 humouring, the sovereigns of Europe, against whom, he was accus 
 tomed to observe, the Alps and the Pyrenees were not sufficient pro 
 tection. It \v;is in consequence of this leaning towards the temporal 
 princes, that he secured their concurrence to his being made pope, 
 his freedom of thought and manners being otherwise obnoxious to 
 the court of Rome. The conclave- by which he was elected, was 
 tumultuous; bu'. at length the cardinal de Bernis succeeded in pro- 
 curing him to be chosen pope, May, 1,769. ft is well. known that 
 this accomplished pontiff, in the year 1,773, after much deliberation, 
 suppressed the order of Jesuits; arid, dying in the next year, suspi- 
 cions were raised that he had been poisoned, but, on opening his 
 body, in the presence of the French and Spanish ministers, enemies 
 to the Jesuits, it was pronounced otherwise. There is little douU 
 but that he tegretted, as head of the church, the step he had been 
 compelled to take ; it procured for him, indeed, the restitution of 
 Avignon and Benevento, which had been taken from his predecessor; 
 hut in consenting to the dissolution of an order so essential to the 
 papa! dominion, he must, in all probability, have yielded to the power 
 of irresistible circumstances. He was of an amiable disposition, 
 much given to literature, indefatigable in business, and highly re- 
 spected by foreign nations, plain and simple in his manners, and very 
 disinterested. 
 
 8. Farly in the year 1,775, Angiolo Braschi, a descendant of die 
 noble family of Cesena, was chosen to fill the chair vacated by the 
 death of Ganganelli. The new pope took the title of Pius VI. Me 
 is said to have been elected contrary to the wishes and intentions of 
 most of the members of the conclave, a circumstance not unlikely to 
 happen amidst such a contrariety of interests, and the complicated 
 forms of proceeding. As he had thus risen to supreme power, be 
 acted afterwards more independently of the cardinals, than any ©f 
 his predecessors. 
 
 9. He had taken the name of Pius VI., in acknowledged defiance 
 of a prevailing superstition, expressed in the following verses, and 
 applied to Alexander VI. particularly, if not to others. 
 
 " Sextus Tarquinius, Sextus Nero, sextus et iste 
 Semper sub sextis, perdita Roma fait." 
 
 he Is known to have, in hi* troubles, reflected on this rather 9m- 
 gular circumstance, with sorrow and dismay. Certainly no pope had 
 greater indignities to sustain, nor could any have greater cavuse fe> 
 
390 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 apply 1o themselves the ominous presages conveyed in the lines just 
 cited; for in the year 1,798 his government was overthrown, and 
 Rome lost. The French took possession of it and proclaimed the 
 restoration of the Roman republic. 
 
 10. The pope's troubles began in 1,796, when he was compelled 
 to cede to Buonaparte the cities of Bologna, Urbino, Ferrara, and 
 Ancona, to pay twenty-one millions of francs, and deliver to the 
 French commissioners, sent for the purposes, pictures, busts, statues, 
 and vases, to a large amount. He afterwards endeavoured to raise 
 an army to recover what he had lost; but he had formed a very 
 wrong estimate of the power of his opponent. I ie was soon com- 
 pelled, February 12, 1,797, to sue for peace, and submit to further 
 sacrifices at the will of Buonaparte, whom he had certainly very in- 
 cautiously provoked. By the peace of Tolentino, he renounced ail 
 right to Avignon and the Vanaissin, Bologna, Ferrara, and the Romag- 
 na. On the entrance of the French in 1,798, the Vatican and Quir- 
 mal palaces, and private mansions of the obnoxious amongst the 
 nobility, were stripped of all their ornaments and riches. The peo- 
 ple who had invited the French, fancied themselves free, but had 
 very little cause to thank their deliverers. The pope was forcibly 
 removed from Rome, at the age of eighty, and, by order of the 
 French directory, transferred from place to place, as the course of 
 events dictated, from Rome to Florence, from Florence to Briancon, 
 and from Briancon to Valence. Another removal to Dijon is said to 
 have been in contemplation, had not the decline of his health become 
 too visible to render it necessary. He died at the latter place on the 
 29th of August, 1,799, in the eighty-second year of his age, and 
 twenty-fourth of his pontificate. 
 
 11. Pius VI. was correct in his manners, and a patron of genius, 
 particularly of the fine arts. He spent much money on buildings, 
 notwithstanding the distressed state of the finances, and devoted huge 
 sums to the draining of the Pontine marshes, in which almost im- 
 practicable undertaking, he partly succeeded. He endeavoured to 
 correct the abuses of sanctuary, which had been carried so far as to 
 give impunity to hired assassins, much to the disgrace of those who 
 protected them. It deserves to be recorded of him, that he display- 
 ed great magnanimity, as well as pious resignation, when dragged 
 fV<-:n his dominions ; and though he felt severely the wrongs that had 
 been committed against him by the French and the infatuated Ro- 
 mans, he died tranquilly and serenely. 
 
 12. it is remarkable that he had scarcely been dead a month, when 
 Rome was delivered from the hands of its oppressors, and given up 
 to the British, whose fleet, under commodore Trowbridge, had block- 
 ed up the port of Civita Vecchia. Those who had favoured the re- 
 publican cause were permitted to retire, and the French garrisou 
 marched out with the honours of war. 
 
 13. In the month of March, 1,800, a conclave of cardinals, under 
 the protection of the emperor and other catholic powers, met at 
 Venice to elect a successor to Pius VI., and was not long in fixing 
 upon the cardinal Chiaremonte, bishop of Tivoli, the present pope 
 Pius VII. In a few weeks after his election, he set out for his new 
 dominions, and arrived at Rome on the 9tn of July. In the monftt 
 of September, 1,801, he had the satisfaction of concluding a concor- 
 datum with the French republic, by which, under the auspices of 
 Buonaparte, then first consul, the Roman catholic religion was re- 
 established there. Not only heresy, but infidelity and atheism, had 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 391 
 
 been so openly encouraged and avowed by the French revolutionists, 
 that Pius appears to have thought no concessions t»o great to ac- 
 complish this end ; for the terms of the agreement undoubtedly sub- 
 jected the Gaiiican church entirely to the civil government, canoni- 
 cal institution being almost the only privilege reserved to the pope, 
 and every possible encouragement being, at the same time, given to 
 the protectant churches, Lutheran and Calvinistic. 
 
 13. It was very soon discovered, that the new head of the Roman 
 church, was to be made to bow as low to the authority of Buonaparte 
 as his predecessor, in 1,804 Pius VII. was summoned to Paris to 
 officiate at the coronation of the French emperor; and though in 
 the year following he declined attending a similar ceremony at 
 Milan, as has been already shown, it seems only to have exposed him 
 to greater sacrifices. In 1,808 he was deprived of Urbino, Ancona, 
 Macerata, and Camerino, and soon after his temporal sovereignty 
 was formally dissolved, and the papal territories annexed to France. 
 Rome was declared to be a free and imperial city ; the court of in- 
 quisition, the temporal jurisdiction of the clergy, the right of asylum, 
 and other privileges were abolished, and the title of king of Rome ap- 
 propriated to the heir of the French empire. Pius was conveyed 
 first to Grenoble, afterwards to Savona, and finally, in 1,812, to ton- 
 tainebleau, where, for reasons unknown, he was once more acknowl- 
 edged as a sovereign, till the advance of the allies upon Paris, at last, 
 procured him his liberty; and in 1,814 he was reinstated; he made 
 his solemn entrance into Rome on the 24th of May ; and in 1,8 fa, 
 by the arrangements of the congress of Vienna, his forfeited estates 
 were re-annexed to the papal dominions. His restoration of the 
 order of Jesuits and of the court of inquisition, on his return, occa- 
 sioned some concern to the greater part of Europe; but his holiness 
 has generally had the credit of being a man of sense, prudence, and 
 moderation. 
 
 SECTION XXIV. 
 OF INDIA, OR HINDOOSTAN. 
 
 1. India or Hindoostaft having largely engaged the attention of 
 Europe since the close of the seventeenth century, may deserve 
 some distinct notice, though little is to he added to what has already 
 been related in former sections, of the political events and transac- 
 tions which have occurred in that remote region of the globe, during 
 the period alluded to. 
 
 2. The celebrated Aurungzebe, who occupied the throne of Del- 
 hi, at the commencement of the eighteenth century, lived to the 
 year 1,707. In him the spirit of the great Timur, "from whom he 
 was the eleventh in descent, seemed to revive. He was brave, but 
 cruel. He attained to a great age, being nearly a hundred years 
 old when he died, having succeeded in rendering almost the whole 
 of the peninsula subject to his sway, from the tenth to the thirty-fifth 
 degree of latitude, and nearly as much in longitude. 
 
 3. But if Aurungzebe thus raised in his own person the credit of 
 (lie mogul throne, its glory also perished with him. A sad scene of 
 confusion ensued upon his death. He had himself, indeed, waded to 
 the throne through the blood of his own kindred. After deposiog 
 his father, two of his brothers were slain in contending for the crown. 
 
S93 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 But such was the nature, generally, of the political revolutions of 
 those countries, that had not this been the case, the life of Aurungze- 
 be himself might probably have been sacrificed to similar views and 
 purposes. He is said to have bitterly repented of his misdoings b&- 
 lore he died. 
 
 4. No sooner, however, was he dead, than the most violent con- 
 tests arose between his own sons, two of whom, Azem and Kaum 
 Buksh, perished in their opposition to their elder brother, who be* 
 came emperor, under the title of Bahader Shah. The throne, ht- 
 deed, was such an object of contention, that, in the small space of 
 eleven years, five princes, who attained to the throne, and six, who 
 w^re candidates for it, successively fell victims to the lusts and pa» 
 sinus of their semi-barbarous competitors. It was in the reign oi 
 Feroksere, who was deposed in 1,717, that the English East Incite 
 Company obtained the famous firman or grant, by which their goods 
 of export and import were exempted from duties, and which has been 
 regarded as their commercial charter in India; no other Europcau 
 companies being similarly indulged. 
 
 5. In the time of Ma h mud or Muhammed Shah, who came to the 
 throne in the year 1,718, and who was engaged in disputes with some 
 of his most powerful neighbours and dependents, the celebrated 
 usurper of the Persian throne, Nadir Shah, encouraged, or even it> 
 vited, as it has been said, by some of the discontented princes, particu- 
 larly the subahdar of the Deckan, invaded the dominions of the Mo 
 guhand with such success, as in the year 1,739, to seize upon Delhi, 
 the capital, with all its treasures, and compel the unhappy sultan, to 
 surrender, with the utmost ignominy, his crown and sceptre. lie 
 was, indeed, afterwards restored, but with the Loss of all his domit*- 
 ions west of the Indus, together with jewels and treasures to an in- 
 calculable amount; some indiscreet insult, offered to the Persian*, 
 having been the alleged provocation for delivering the city up to 
 plunder, and the inhabitants to the sword, with every cruelty and in* 
 dignity attendant upon such misfortunes. This miserable capital 
 afierwards underwent a second visitation of the same description^ 
 from one of the followers of Nadir Shah, Abdallah, who had, indeed, 
 been forced into his service, but found means to take advantage of 
 \iU master's victories, by seizing upon the territories west of tine In- 
 dus, ceded to Nadir bv the unfortunate mogul, and erecting a sove- 
 reignty for himself at Gandahar. Nadir Shah was assassinated in his 
 tent, in 1,747. 
 
 0. By the invasion of the Persians, the power and glory of the 
 moguls may be said to have been brought to an end. From that 
 period the subordinate states, princes, and viceroys, began to aspire 
 to a degree of independence, and to acquire a consequence before 
 inknowii ; the mogul himself becoming a mere nominal sovereign. 
 Those who were most raised at this time by the depression of ll*e 
 uiltanic authority, appear to have been — 
 
 The Nizam or Subahdar, of the Deckan ; the Nabot of Arcot, or 
 he Carnatic; the Subahdar of Bengal; the Nabob of Oude; the 
 .\ajahpoote Princes of Agimere ; the Mahrattas ; the Seiks ; the 
 ftohillas, and the Jats. 
 
 The disputes and differences that took place between these several 
 powers, after they had shaken off the yoke of the mogul, opened 
 the door for the interference of the European settlers, towards the 
 tniddle of the eighteenth century. (See Sect. VI. § 2.) The French 
 first, ami afterwards the English, contrived to take advantage of the 
 
304 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 itate of things in India, induced the government at home to claim for 
 the crown all revenues arising from any new acquisitions made by 
 military force, and in order to repress the inordinate proceedings of 
 the company's servants, of which the natives, the public at home, 
 and the company itself, had but too much reason to complain, gov- 
 ernment also insisted upon taking into its own hands the political 
 jurisdiction of India. 
 
 11. These claims and regulations were first proposed in parliament; 
 November, 1,772, and may be said to have laid the foundation for 
 that enlarged system of administration and control which has prevail- 
 ed since, though under different modifications, from lord North's bill 
 in 1,773 to Mr. Pitt's in 1,784. By this latter bill, a board of control, 
 cooiposed of certain commissioners of the rank of privy counsellors, 
 was established, the members of which were to be appointed by the 
 king, and removable at his pleasure. This board was authorized to 
 check, superintend, and control the civil and military government 
 and revenue of the company; a high tribunal also, for the trial of 
 Indian delinquents, was proposed ;tt the same time. The manage* 
 ment of their commercial concerns was left in the hands of the com- 
 pany ; the political and civil authority only transferred to the crown. 
 In 1,786, some alterations were made in the bill; the offices of com- 
 mander-in-chief and governor-general were for the future to be unit- 
 ed in the same person, and a power given to the go\ernor-generai to 
 decide in opposition to the majority of the council. The presidencies 
 of Madras and Bombay had been previously, by lord North's bill, 
 
 graced under the superintendency of the governor and council ol 
 engal, but by this bill that point also was confirmed. 
 
 12. When this bill was passed, it appeared from the preamble, tc 
 be decidedly the opinion ol parliament, of government, as well as of 
 the court of directors, whose orders had tor some time breathed the 
 same spirit, that w to pursue schemes of conquest and extension of 
 dominion in India, were measures repugnant to the wish, the honour.; 
 and the policy of the nation." It had previously been resolved by 
 the house, " that the maintenance of an inviolable character for 
 moderation, good faith, and scrupulous regard to treaty, ought to 
 have been the simple grounds on which the British government 
 should have endeavoured to establish an influence superior to other 
 Europeans, over the minds of the native powers in India ; and that the 
 danger and discredit arising from the forfeiture of this pre-eminence, 
 could not be compensated by the temporary success of any plan of 
 vi< )lence. and injustice." 
 
 13. Such was the tenor of the resolutions of the house of commons 
 in 1,782, recognised as the principle of the bill of 1,781, and farther 
 confirmed by an act passed in 1,793. h\ all we perceive an evident 
 allusion to those mal-practices of the company's servants, which will 
 for ever, it is to be feared, remain on record, to tarnish the lustre of 
 our first victories and territorial acquisitions in India, arid to detract 
 from the reputation of persons, whose names might otherwise have 
 justly stood high on the list of those, from whose pre-eminent Intents 
 and abilities, the nation has derived both glory and advantage. 
 
 14. The English system of jurisprudence had been extended to 
 India by lord North's bill of 1,773, but under disadvantages extreme- 
 ly embarrassing. The difference of manners, habits, customs; the 
 difficulty, if not impossibility, of mingling two codes, so very dissimi- 
 lar as those of Britain and ilindoostan ; the forms and technicalities 
 of the English law, totally unknown to the native courts; the ap- 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 396 
 
 rtVal claims set up by the different native powers, and by rendering 
 them assistance against each other, and it is to be feared greatly fo- 
 menting their quarrels, soon became acquainted with the manifest 
 superiority of their own tactics, and the influence this must give them 
 in such contests. The French went farther, and first hit upon the 
 expedient of training the natives in the European manner, and in- 
 corporating them with their own armies ; these were called Sepoys. 
 
 7. It was not long before the French and English, who had at first 
 only taken the field as auxiliaries, became opposed to each other a* 
 principals; in which conflicts the English succeeded beyond all ex- 
 pectation, and instead of being driven out of the peninsula themselves, 
 which was evidently in the view of the French under Dupleix, in 
 the year 1,751 and 1,752, found means to establish themselves there, 
 through the victories of Give, to the exclusion of all other European 
 nations, except for purposes purely commercial. 
 
 8. Clive has justly been regarded as the founder of the British 
 empire in India ; he was the first to procure for the company grants 
 at" territory and assignments of revenue, which totally changed (lie 
 character of our connexions with that country, and rendered the na- 
 tive princes, even tbe mogul himself, subservient to our purpose--*. 
 The English had received great provocation from the subahdar of 
 Bengal, in an attack upon Calcutta, and Clive was selected by admiral 
 \Vatson to recover from Sourajud Dowlah the town and fort, which 
 had been surrendered to him. At the battle of Plassey, 1,757, he 
 not only succeeded in the recovery of Calcutta, but in the deposition 
 of the. subahdar, and having appointed his general in his room, ob- 
 tained a grant of all the effects and factories of the French in Bengal, 
 Bahar, and Qrissa, and money contributions to the immense amouni 
 of £2,750,000 sterling, exclusive of private gratuities. 
 
 9. It would have been well if these advantages could have been 
 acquired with less loss of credit to the nation than was actually tiro 
 case ; but there was too much in these first steps towards a territorial 
 establishment, to feed the ambition and cupidity of those intrusted 
 with the management of affairs, to render it probable that they would 
 keep clear of abuses. The opportunities that occurred of intermed- 
 dling with the native powers, were eagerly seized upon as occasion* 
 for enriching the servants of the company, (drawn from home in ex- 
 pectation of making rapid fortunes,) at the expense of the company 
 itself, whose affairs were in danger, not only of becoming more em- 
 barrassed by the extraordinary expenses of such interference, but by 
 the alienation of the minds of the natives, under circumstances little 
 short of the most determined plunder and persecution. In the man- 
 agement of the new-acquired territories and inland trade, it is no 
 longer to be doubted that the natives suffered in every possible man- 
 ner, from the most unreasonable monopolies, exorbitant duties im- 
 posed on articles of general consumption, abuses in regard to leases, 
 and fiscal oppressions; so that the British name became dishonoured, 
 and it was found to be absolutely expedient that some change should 
 take place in the administration of affairs so remote from the seat of 
 all rule and direction, and which, from simply commercial, were now 
 clearly become political and military. 
 
 10. The charter of the company being subject to periodical re- 
 newals, afforded opportunities for the interference of the legislature, 
 nor was the company itself backward, under any pressure of pecu- 
 niary embarrassments, to apply to government for assistance. On 
 one of these occasions, the great change that had taken place in the 
 
 50 
 
MODERN HISTORY. S9i 
 
 parent injustice of subjecting a people to laws to which they were 
 no parties, and to which, ot course, they had given no sanction; 
 these, and other difficulties have been acknowledged by those who 
 have had to administer the laws under the new system, in India, 
 as having prevented those happy effects taking place, which might 
 otherwise have been expected from the introduction of the English 
 jurisprudence. Since the passing of Mr. Pitt's bill, however, much 
 benefit has certainly been derived from the residence and superin* 
 tendence of noblemen of the highest rank and abilities, as governors- 
 general, and of judges the most enlightened, to preside in the Indian 
 courts. The first reforms that were attempted under the new system, 
 though not so successful as might he wished, proceeded from those 
 two most amiable and highly respected personages, the marquis 
 Cornwallis, and sir William Jones. 
 
 15. From the conduct of lord Cornwallis, and his successors lord 
 Teignmouth, and lord Mornington, now marquis Wellesley, it i* ex- 
 tremely evident that the system of neutrality and forbearance pre- 
 scribed by the resolutions of parliament, and preamble of the act of 
 1,784, would have been scrupulously adhered to had it been possible, 
 consistently with the security of our settlements; but towards tlte 
 close of the eighteenth century, the English were compelled to de- 
 fend themselves from the most formidable designs of the celebrated 
 Hyder Ally and his son Tippoo Saib, who unquestionably had it in 
 view to exterminate the British, and probably all other European*, 
 from the peninsula of India. 
 
 16. The result of these conflicts, which took place in Mysore, and 
 the Carnatic, was the total overthrow of a Mahomedan dynasty of 
 only two sovereigns, commencing with a mere adventurer of most 
 singular character, who having waded through crimes to his object, 
 succeeded in placing himself and his son on one of the most brilliant 
 thrones of the east, and in a condition to give very considerable 
 trouble to the English government there. 
 
 17. Hyder Ally, the father of Tippoo, was born in 1,722, and died 
 in 1,782. Tippoo was born in 1,753, and lost his life in the celebrat- 
 ed assault of the capital of his new dominions, Seringapatam, in 1,799. 
 They were very different men, having been differently educated 
 The former had strong natural powers, which compensated for his 
 want of acquired knowledge ; the latter was vain of his scanty pro- 
 ficiency in Persian literature, and a few other attainments, to a degrea 
 of absurdity ; fancying himself the greatest philosopher of the age, 
 the wisest, bravest, and handsomest of men. Hyder was tolerant m 
 religious concerns to a degree of indifference ; Tippoo, a bigoted 
 mussulman, to the utmost pitch of intolerance and persecution. The 
 f ormer meddled little with religion. The latter contemplated change* 
 in Islamism, as in every thing tlse, having, as a preliminary, substi- 
 tuted a new era in his coins, dating from the birth instead of the flight 
 of Mahomet. Both father and son were devoid of principle, but the 
 former was much the greatest man. 
 
 18. It was owing to the vigilance and prompt measures of lord 
 Wellesley, that Tippoo was so opportunely overthrown ; though his 
 proceedings were weak, they were carried on with much duplicity 
 and deceit, and upon principles of alliance which in other circunv 
 ttances might have become very alarming. Under the most positive 
 and repeated assurances of peace and amity, he had Intrigued with 
 France, Turkey, the king of Candahar, (a descendant of the eel* 
 brated Affghan chief Abdullah,) the Nizam of the Deckan, and the 
 
396 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 Mahrattas, for the express object of forming a strong confederacy to 
 extirpate the I sh ; in his negotiations with the courts of Canda- 
 har and Constantinople, indeed, he had declared vengeance against 
 the infidels generally., whence it has been reasonably concluded that 
 his schemes of destruction embraced all the European powers, the 
 French not excepted, had his projects but been successful. Fortu- 
 nately, lord Wellesley detected all his plots, and when it became 
 impossible to treat farther with him on any fair grounds, by the 
 most decisive measures, and rapid movements, effectually avert- 
 ed the blow that had been decidedly aimed at the British empire in 
 India. 
 
 19. On the fall of Serinrapatam, the Mysorean dominions were, 
 by allotments to the allies, the British, the Nizam, and the Mahrattas, 
 nearly reduced to the limits by which they were bounded before the 
 usurpation of Hyder, and, a surviving representative of the Hindoo 
 dynasty, a child only five years old, placed on the throne, with an 
 acknowledged dependency on the British government. The de- 
 scendants of Tippoo being, however, liberally provided for. and 
 settled in the Carnatic, disturbances in the northern and north-wester!! 
 parts of the peninsula, among the Mahratta chieftains, occupied the 
 attention of the English army, in the early part of the present cen- 
 tury, when a fresh opportunity" was afforded of triumphing over the 
 intrigues of the French, who headed the adverse forces, and endeav- 
 oured to procure for that government a cession of the districts in- 
 trusted to their care ; but the issue of the contest was entirely in 
 favour of the British. From this time the ascendancy of the British 
 in the peninsula has continued so decidedly established, as to render 
 it needless to say any thing of the other European settlements. 
 
 20. The acquisition of territory in India, together with the new 
 system of government and control, by rendering it necessary for per- 
 sons of learning and talent to reside there, have had the effect of im- 
 proving our knowledge of those remote countries, and opened to us 
 a field of inquiry and research, peculiarly interesting and curious. 
 Among those who may be considered as having most particularly 
 contributed to these ends, we may reckon Mr. Wilkinsand sir William 
 Jones: the former by having first, with any real success, pursued the 
 study of the Sanscrit language, the root of all the vernacular dialects 
 of the peninsula, and thereby opened to the contemplation of the 
 historian, the antiquarian, the philosopher, and the poet, whatever is 
 interesting in the literature of all the nations east of the Indus ; and 
 the latter, by instituting the first philosophical society in those parts, 
 and inviting the learned, in all quarters of the globe, to propose que- 
 ries in every branch of Asiatic history, natural and civil, on the phi- 
 losophy, mathematics, antiquities, and polite literature of Asia, and 
 on eastern arts, both liberal and mechanic, as guides to the investiga- 
 tions of the persons resident in the peninsula, qualified to pursue 
 juch inquiries on the spot, and communicate to the world in general 
 ihe results of their discoveries. 
 
 21. To this learned society, first established in Bengal, under the 
 presidency of sir William Jones, we are indebted for all those curious 
 papers preserved in the several volumes of the Asiatic Researches 
 and the Indian Annual Register, and which have so largely contrib- 
 uted to enlarge the boundaries of oriental literature. To the names 
 already mentioned, as having taken the lead in this curious branch of 
 science, we may add those of our countrymen^ Halhed, Vansittart, 
 Shore, (lord Teignmouth, the second president, on the death of sir 
 
MODERN HISTORY 397 
 
 William, 1,794,) Davie, Colebrook, Wilford,Rcnnell, Hunter, Bentley 
 \larsden, Orme, Carey, Buchanan, Barlow, Harrington, Edmonstone, 
 Kirkpatrick, &c. 
 
 22. At the commencement of '.he present century, it became ob 
 vious to the marqujs of Welle'slcy, then governor-general, that the 
 state- of the British empire in India absolutely required, that the pep- 
 sons tent out to discharge the important functions of magistrates, judges, 
 ambassadors, and governors of provinces, should have some bettei 
 means of qualifying- themselves for such high stations and complicated 
 duties, than were then in existence. His lordship's view of these 
 matters, as recorded in the minute of council, dated August 18, 1,800, 
 is highly deserving of consideration, and his plan for forming and en- 
 dowing a college for these purposes at Calcutta, reflect the highest 
 credit on his wisdom and discernment, though the latter has not been 
 carried into execution in the way his lordship proposed, for want of 
 funds. The East India College, since established in Hertfordshire, 
 may he considered as entirely owing to the adoption by the company 
 of the enlightened principles contained in the minute alluded to. A 
 system tiff oriental education is now effectually established, which, 
 though on a much more contracted scale, and in a great measure con- 
 lined to England, bids fair, it is to be hoped, to accomplish most of 
 the ends contemplated by his lordship in his original design of founding 
 a college at Fort William, in Bengal, namely, M to perpetuate the im- 
 mense advantages derived to the company from their possessions in 
 India, and to establish the British empire in India on the solid founda- 
 tions of ability, integrity, virtue, and religion." 
 
 23. Of the studies to be pursued, according to lord Wellesley's 
 plan, a competent notion may be formed from the following list of 
 professorships and lectures : — Arabic, Persian, Sanscrit, Hindostanee, 
 Bengal, Telinga, Mahratta, Tamula, and Canara, languages ; Mahom- 
 edan law ; Hindoo law ; Ethics, civil jurisprudence, and the law of 
 nations ; English law ; political economy, commercial institutions and 
 interests of the East India Company, geography and mathematics ; 
 modern languages of Europe; Greek, Latin, and English classics j 
 general history, ancient and modern ; the history and antiquities of 
 Hjndoostan and the Deckan ; natural history ; botany, chemistry, and 
 asironomy, 
 
 24. Though the company saw reason to withhold its countenance 
 from the original institution', the studies above chalked out have been, 
 in a great measure, adopted in the Hertfordshire college, and its gen- 
 end success hitherto has been pronounced answerable to the expecta- 
 tions of those who were mos* solicitous in effecting its establishment. 
 The education of the young men, destined to fill the civil offices in 
 India, is now therefore partly European and partly Asiatic; for so 
 much of the collegiate establishment in India mav be said to remain, 
 that there the students, who have been taught in England the elements 
 of Asiatic languages, are enabled to advance to perfection, and to be- 
 come masters of the several dialects prevailing through the peninsula- 
 Though the original plan of the noble founder of the college of Fort 
 W liliam has not ye.t been adopted by the East India Company, yet to 
 apply the words of one of the most distinguished of our orientalists, 
 " Good has been done, which cannot be undone ; sources of usemi 
 knowledge, moral instruction, and political utility, have been opened 
 to the natives of India, which can never be closed." In 1,814, an 
 ecclesiastical establishment, under the immediate auspices of govern 
 raent, was formed for India, the right reverend Dr Thomas I anehaw 
 
 1> I 
 
398 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 Middleton being consecrated at the archiepiscopal palace, at Lanabefh, 
 
 the first bishop of Calcutta. • * 
 
 It must surprise the English reader to be told, that the population 
 
 ©f the British empire in India has been lately estimated at 90,000,000 ! 
 
 STATE OF ARTS, SCIENCES, RELIGION, LAWS, GOVERN. 
 MENT, &c. 
 
 1. The historical events of the eighteenth century have, we must 
 confess, been found to be of such magnitude and importance, as to 
 occupy rather too large a space in a work professing to be merely 
 elementary ; but we should be compelled in a still greater degree to 
 exceed the limits assigned to us, if we were to attempt to enter into 
 the details of the very extraordinary progress that has taken place 
 during the same period, in arts, sciences, and literature; some changes 
 indeed, have occurred, and more been contemplated, in religion, laws, 
 and government, but in regard to the former, almost all things have 
 become new : we have new arts and new sciences ; and in literature, 
 such an overflowing of books upon every subject that could possibly 
 occupy or interest the mind of man, that the most diligent compiler of 
 catalogues would fail in endeavouring barely to enumerate them. 
 
 2. ft is somewhat extraordinary, indeed, that this great and rapid 
 advancement of knowledge has after all been confined to only a Bmall 
 portion of the globe. 'I he great continent of Africa, though betW 
 known than in past times, has made no advances in civilization. Asia, 
 though many parts have been diligently explored during the last ccntu^ 
 ry, and a huge portion of it actually occupied by Europeans, remain* 
 as to the natives, in its original state. The vast empire of China lias 
 made no progress at all. Japan has effectually shut the door against 
 all improvement. South America, indeed, though labouring under 
 difficulties unfriendly to the progress of knowledge, is yet reported tor 
 be making no inconsiderable advances, particularly in Mexico, where 
 both the arts and sciences are cultivated with credit and effect, in 
 North America, also, the arts and sciences and literature may certainly 
 be said to be in a progressive state, but under circumstances of rather 
 slow and partial improvement.* 
 
 3. Civilized Europe is the only part of the world that can claim tho 
 credit of almost all that has been done towards the advancement of 
 Knowledge since the commencement of the eighteenth century, and 
 only a few parts after all of civilized Europe itself. Turkey has stood 
 still, as well as her Grecian dependencies, till very lately. Spain. 
 Portugal, and even the greater part of Italy, have laboured under dif- 
 ficulties and restrictions exceedingly inimical to their advancement, 
 and which have greatly arrested their progress in the career of letters 
 and philosophy. The north and north-eastern parts of Europe havo 
 produced many learned men, have been diligently explored, and ma- 
 terials at least collected for great improvements ; other parts are also 
 upon the advance : but England, France, and Germany, are undoubt* 
 
 [* The writer must be under a mistake. Is it not acknowledged through* 
 out Europe, that the United States of North America are not only farther 
 advanced, but faster advancing, in the discoveries of science, and that 
 their progress in literature is mors rapid, than any other nation of the new 
 world ?] 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 399 
 
 edly the principal countries to which we must look for the most strik- 
 ing progress in every branch of human knowledge. In these three 
 countries, in particular, discoveries have now certainly been made, and 
 principles established, which can never be lost again, and which must, 
 as far as they may extend, be constantly operating to the lasting im- 
 provement of the world at large. 
 
 4. It would be quite unnecessary to go back to the origin, or former 
 state, cither of the arts or sciences, now known and cultivated in Eu- 
 rope. It is pretty generally understood, that, comparative/y with the 
 pge of the world, they have been only very recently submitted to such 
 fm>cesses as bid fair to bring them to the highest state of perfection. 
 One art has helped another, and new sciences been brought to light, 
 that have greatly promoted the advancement of those before under- 
 wood and cultivated. Galvanism has assisted electricity ; and gal- 
 vanism and electricity together been exceedingly serviceable to 
 cIk oiistry ; chemistry to mineralogy, and so tbrth : new systems and 
 arrangements, and new nomenclatures, have contributed greatly to 
 render every step that has been taken more accurate and certain, and 
 to place every object of attention or inquiry more exactly in the rank 
 ;i/-l order it should occupy in the general circle of arts and sciences : 
 rut the thing of most importance of all, in regard to the improvements 
 f?wi1 have taken place since the beginning or middle of the eighteenth 
 century; is. that every thing has been conducted exactly upon those 
 ] ii. . -pies, which the great lord Bacon so strongly recommended, and 
 lifts, therefore, been found conducive to all those great ends, the neg- 
 lect of which, in his own and preceding ages, he so much deplored: 
 t \< it thing has had a tendency to augment the powers, diminish the 
 pains, or increase the happiness of mankind. 
 
 5. Amongst the sciences so cultivated and advanced, since the sev- 
 enteenth century, as justly to be regarded as new, we may rank chem- 
 istrg*, botany, electricity, galvanism, mineralogy, geology, and in many 
 jvs) >ects, geography : every one of these sciences has been placed on so 
 v ;i y different a looting, by the recent manner of treating them, and by 
 new discoveries, that it is better, perhaps, at once to consider them as 
 new sciences, than to advert to former systems, founded on totally er- 
 roneous principles, and which have been, on that account, very rea- 
 sonably exploded. 
 
 6. Chemistry, however, even in the course of the period before us. 
 lias undergone very essential changes ; it is now not only a very differ- 
 ent science from the chemistry that prevailed antecedent to the eigh- 
 teenth century ; but the eighteenth century itself has witnessed a re- 
 •jmi'kable revolution in its leading principles: some, indeed, of the 
 most important changes approach nearer to the nineteenth than the 
 <-• 'ventconth century, if they do not actually belong to the former ; at 
 ; 11 events, it was not till towards the close of the eighteenth centuiy 
 that chemical experiments had been pushed so far as to displace two 
 »f the elements of the old philosophy, and totally supersede the pre- 
 vailing theory of heat, light, and combustion ; a theory which was 
 itself not much more than half a century old. Stahl, the celebrated 
 disciple of Becher, born in 1,660, but who lived to 1,734, has the credit 
 of being the author of the phlogistic system, which began to be attack- 
 id late in the last centuiy, and seems now to be totally exploded. 
 Whether the rival theory will ultimately maintain its ground m all 
 points, may, perhaps, appear still doubtful to some : the French claim 
 to be the authors of the new theory ; but though the experiments they 
 rerv #bly conducted were highly conducive to the establishment of it. 
 
400 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 the way seems to have been more opened to them by others than they 
 are witling to acknowledge, particularly by Engli.h observers. The 
 phlogistic system was a plausible theory in certain respects, but in 
 others totally indefensible ; and, perhaps, a better proof of the utility 
 of repeated experiments could not be produced, than that which as- 
 certained, that, instead of the extrication of a particular substance by 
 combustion, something was undoubtedly added to, or imbibed by, the 
 combustible body, in order to the separation of its parts ; that, in fact, 
 in the actual process of combustion, affinity produces a double decom- 
 position, and that a certain portion of the atmosphere entering into 
 union with the combustible body produces all those appearance.'-, 
 which, under the former system had been attributed to the ex- 
 trication of an unknown principle of inflammability, denominated 
 phlogiston. 
 
 7. The very curious experiments, made to confirm and establish the 
 latter system, have been of the greatest importance in regard to othei 
 matters, particularly to that branch of the new chemistry which hj^s 
 been denominated the pneumatic system. The discoveries in this line 
 of experiment, which has the air for its subject, exceed, perhaps, ail 
 others in importance and interest : the analysis of the common atmos- 
 
 1)here has opened to our view a series of physical operations constant- 
 y going on, the most wonderful and delicate that can possibly be con- 
 ceived : the respiration of animals is of this description. The atmos- 
 phere is now known to be a most curious compound of two sorts of 
 air, or gases, (as they have been named of late,) the one capable of 
 supporting life and name, the other destructive of both r in combus- 
 tion, calcination of metals, and respiration, the process is the same, — 
 a decomposition of the atmosphere : the pure part is imbibed, and the 
 impure part left subject to further contamination, by what is given 
 out by the combustible, calcining, or respiring bodies during the ope- 
 ration ; for, as it was before said, the decomposition in all instances is 
 a double one ; the proportion of the two parts of the atmosphere has 
 been ascertained to be in a hundred, twenty-two of pure or vital) and 
 seventy -eight of impure or azotic gas. 
 
 K. The discovery of the vital air is acknowledged by M. Lavoisier 
 to have been common to himself with two other eminent chemists. Dr. 
 Priestly and Hie celebrated Scheele. Dr. Priestly discovered it in 
 1,774, Scheele in 1,777, M. Lavoisier in 1,775 : the former seems un- 
 doubtedly to have the best claim to tiie discovery, M. Lavoisier, at 
 first, called it " highly respirable air ;" afterwards, as entirely essen- 
 tial to the support of lite, ki vital air:" Dr. Priestly, who lived and 
 died an advocate for the phlogistic system, " dephlogisticated air : w 
 and Scheele called it " empyreal air.''' It at last obtained another 
 name, from its being supposed to b» the cause of acidity, viz. " oxy- 
 gen gas." 
 
 9. Who is justly to be accounted the lather of the pneumatic chem- 
 istry, it would, perhaps, be hazardous to say : Dr. Black of Edinburgh 
 has had the credit of being so, from his experiments on the carbonic 
 acid. It has been claimed for Dr. Priestley, Scheele, and M. Lavoi- 
 sier : the discoveries in this line ceitainly constitute a grand era in 
 chemistry. The many various kinds of gases that have betn now 
 discovered ; the very curious experiments made to ascertain their 
 properties ; the instruments invented to render such experiments cer- 
 tain ; the new compounds that have been detected by their means, 
 and their operation and effects in almost every branch of plrysics, it 
 would far exceed our limits to describe ; but it is impossible not to 
 
MODERi\ T HISTORY. 401 
 
 notice the extraordinaiy discovery of the decomposition of water, 
 which belongs entirely to pneumatic chemistry. 
 
 10. Till within less than half a century ago, -water was esteemed to 
 be so certainly an elementary principle, that but feAV ever dreamed of 
 its being otherwise ; and it was almost by accident that it was at last 
 found to be a compound. In the course of certain pneumatic experi- 
 ments, it was ascertained by Mr. Cavendish, that -water was produced 
 by a combination of two particular gases : both analysis and synthesis 
 were resorted to, to render this curious discovery more certain, and it 
 was at length ascertained, not only that those two gases were constant- 
 ly produced in certain proportions from the decomposition of water, 
 hit that water was as constantly the result of a judicious mixture of 
 those two gases : the gases thus constituting the proper principles of 
 water, wore the vital and inflammable airs of the first chemical nomen- 
 clature of modern days, better known now by the names of oxygen 
 u';'s and hydrogen gas ; the latter evidently so called from its im- 
 portance, as a constituent base or radical of water; we owe the dis- 
 covery of if to our countryman, Mr. Cavendish. The proportion be- 
 tween the two gases in these curious experiments has been found to be 
 eighty-five of oxygen to fifteen of hydrogen ; both oxygen and hydro- 
 gen being combustible, their combination tor experimental purposes 
 is brought about by inflammation, through the means of the electric 
 spark. 
 
 11. Having given this short account of the leading discoveries in 
 pneumatic chemistry ; discoveries which have opened to us totally 
 hew views, of certain physical operations of the first importance, and 
 greatly extended our knowledge of chemical substances and their prop- 
 el ties, simple and compound, visible and invisible, confmeable and 
 unconfineable : we shall be compelled to be much more brief in what 
 further relates to modern chemistry. 
 
 12. Of late years almost all the substances in nature have been ex- 
 amined ; and probably almost all the combinations of them exhausted : 
 new metais to a large amount, new earths, and new acids have been 
 discovered ; the fixed alkalis decomposed, and their nature ascertain- 
 ed ; the whole range of chemical affinities and attractions nicely ar- 
 ranged and determined, as far as experiment can reach ; and many 
 elastic aeriform fluids brought to light, distinguished from each otner 
 1'V their different bases, which were totally unknown before to natural 
 philosophers, under the forms in which they are now obtained ; and 
 
 ^vliich have been thought deserving of being formed into a fourth class 
 or kingdom, amongst the productions of nature : the proper distinction 
 of these elastic fluids, or gases, as they have been denominated, (after 
 a term adopted by Vanhelmont, signifying a spirit or incoercible 
 vapour,) being that of some base, saturated with the cause of heat or 
 expansion, called in the new nomenclature caloric ; by means of some 
 of these gases, so combined with caloric, a power has been obtained 
 of fiwing the most refractory substances in nature. 
 
 13. To render the nice and delicate experiments necessary in this 
 new branch of chemical science more accurate, numerous instruments 
 have been invented, of very curious construction ; such as the eudiom- 
 eter, to measure the purity of any given portion of air ; the gazometer, 
 So measure the quantities, &c. of gases ; the calorimeter, for measures 
 of heat ; to which we may add various descriptions of thermometers 
 and ;?yrometer5,particularly the differential thermometer, invented by 
 Mr. Leslie, of Edinburgh, and its accompaniments ; the pyroscojjc, 
 or measure of radiant heat : the photometer, to ascertain the intensity 
 
 LI 2 51 
 
402 MODElliN HISTORY. 
 
 of light; very curious and delicate balances, some that are said to be 
 capable of ascertaining a weight down to the seven millionth part, 
 deserve to be mentioned, as extraordinary instances of skilful work- 
 manship ; many different sorts of hygrometers also have been con- 
 structed, particularly one by the same ingenious experimentalist 
 already mentioned, Mr. Leslie, calculated to render more correct tire 
 examination of all processes dependant upon evaporation ; but it 
 would be endless to attempt to describe the many instruments ami con- 
 trivances rendered necessary by the extreme delicacy and minuteness 
 of modern chemical and pneumato-chemical experiments ; it is suili 
 cient to state, in a history of the progress of arts and sciences, that 
 in all instances, invention appears to have kept pace with experiment ; 
 and that the world has been almost as much enriched by the new-iiv- 
 rewted means of discovery, as by the discoveries to which they hai e 
 conduced ; while ths skill and judgment requisite to construct the 
 expensive and complicated instruments indispensably necessary for 
 ascertaining the analysis and synthesis of bodies, with such exquisite 
 precision, as to quantity and proportion, have conspired gnatiy to 
 advance the several arts connected with such machinery, as well as to 
 quicken the intelligence and ingenuity of the artists themselves ; iu 
 this line, perhaps, nobody has acquired greater celebrity than the lata 
 Mr. Ramsden, the maker of the balance of the Royal Society, vJiose 
 extraordinary powers have been alluded to above. 
 
 14. Among those who have principally distinguished themselves if) 
 lloe improvement and advancement of chemical science, since the 
 commencement of the eighteenth century, we may justly mention the 
 Barnes of Stahl, Fourcroy, Macquer, Lavoisier, Guytonmoi venu. 
 Berthollet, Klaproth, Vauquelin, Chaptal, Gay-Lussac, Kirwan, Ten- 
 nant, Wollaston, Priestley, Cavendish, Black, Invine, Crawford 
 Leslie, Hall, Thompson, Brande, and Davy. To the last of whom, 
 our illustrious countryman, we stand indebted for some of the most 
 remarkable discoveries, and most laborious analyses of compound 
 substances, which have taken place under the new system ; nor has 
 lie been deficient in applying his scientific attainments to practical 
 purposes, in his elements of chemical agriculture, and above all, tl>e 
 safety-lamp, whereby he may possibly, in combating the fatai effect? 
 at the fire damp in coal mines, have contributed to preserve the live* 
 o[ thousands and thousands of his fellow creatures ; this discovery 
 was the fruit of many most laborious, difficult, and even dangerous ex-, 
 periments. 
 
 15. When we consider the many uses of chemistry, and the im- 
 mense advantages to be derived from every improvement of it in a 
 variety of manufactures, in medicine, in metallurgy, in the arts of 
 dying, painting, brewing, distilling, tanning, making glass, enamels 
 porcelain, and many others, we may easily conceive that the progress 
 and advancement of this one branch of science alone, during the last 
 and present century, must have contributed largely to the improve- 
 ment of many things, on which all the comforts and conveniences, the 
 happiness, the security, the well-being, the prosperity, and even the 
 lives of men, depend. 
 
 BOTANY 
 
 t. Botany is another of the sciences, which, from the changes 
 H has undergone, and the great progress it has made since tJ^e 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 4CK3 
 
 commencement of the eighteenth century, may justly be regarded as 
 new. 
 
 2. Already were the names of Ray, Rivinus, and Tournefort, well 
 known to the lovers of this interesting study, forming: as it were a new 
 era in the history of botany, and imparting a lustre to the close of tl» 
 seventeenth century, for which it will ever be memorable. Their at- 
 tempts at arrangement may be justly considered as the commencement 
 of a career which was destined to acquire its full degree of develop*- 
 ment during the eighteenth century, under the happy auspices of tli# 
 most celebrated botanist the world ever saw ; the great and illustrious 
 Linnams. 
 
 3. This extraordinary man was born at Ra.shult, in the province of 
 Smaland, in Sweden, on the 24th of May, 1,707, and before he waft 
 twenty-one years of age, had made himself so thoroughly acquainted 
 with the study of plants, as well as with the merits and defects of ha 
 predecessors in that line, as to conceive the idea of remodelling tl*e 
 whole fabric of systematic botany, and of placing it on a new found a 
 tion, namely, the sexwility of vegetables. This bold and enteirprisirf 
 undertaking he not only projected, but accomplished with a rapiditj 
 and Success that excited the wonder and astonishment both of h%. 
 friends and enemies. 
 
 4. His first work was published in 1,730, being a brief exposition of 
 •Jie new principle on which his system was to be founded ; and tU 
 method may be said to have been completed in 1,737, when he pub 
 Irshed his Genera Plantation, which contained a description and ?,r 
 rangement of nearly one thousand genera, comprising upwards of 
 eight thousand species, and constituting what has been since known by 
 the name of the sexual system. 
 
 5. At tirst it was either opposed as a fanciful innovation, or received 
 with doubt and distrust ; but its fame soon began to spread, and U: 
 bear down before it all opposition, till it ultimately met with tl»c 
 almost universal reception of botanists in every country in Europe. 
 
 6. In 1,74'2, Linnams was chosen professor of botany at Upsal, arnJ 
 in 1,753 he published his Species Plantarum. His authority was now 
 supreme, and the impulse he communicated to the study of vegetables 
 unprecedented in the annals of botany ; hence the various voyages 
 that were undertaken by his immediate disciples, Kalm, La j pling, 
 Hasselquist, and others, or which have been since undertaken by their 
 successors, aided by the munificence of princes, or the zeal of private 
 individuals, as well as the various societies that were sooner or later 
 
 SPtituted, with a view to the advancement of botanical knowledge ; 
 amongst which the Linnasan society of London, founded in 1,788, stand's 
 pie-eminent, under the presidency of sir James Edward Smith, one 
 of the most distinguished of the followers of Linnaeus, and the pos- 
 sessor of his herbarium, library, and manuscripts. 
 
 7. The acquisitions thus made to the mass of botanical knowledge*, 
 are altogether astonishing. Botanists are now said to be acquainted 
 with upwards of forty thousand species of plants ; and still there are 
 regions of the earth unexplored, and flowers without a name, (" et stmt 
 sine nomine Jlores.") 
 
 8. We cannot, however, refuse to acknowledge that botany has also 
 derived the most important advantages from such cultivators of the 
 science as cannot be ranked amongst the disciples of Linnaeus, though 
 they have equally contributed to the advancements the knowledge of 
 plants, at least in the department of the study of their natural affini 
 ties j the grand and ultimate end of botany, which Linnaeus hiraaen 
 
401 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 know well how to appreciate, and even to improve, as may be seen in 
 his prelections published by Giseke, and in his Fragments of a Natfr 
 rod Method. But it was left for the illustrious Jussieu, the most ac- 
 complished botanist of the present age, to give to that method the 
 comparative perfection which it has actually obtained, and to erect 
 •die noble superstructure of his Genera PI ant arum ; a work exhibiting 
 the most philosophical arrangement of plants, as well as the most 
 complete view oi their natural affinities, that was ever presented to 
 the contemplation of man. 
 
 9 This work was published at Paris in 1,789, and the natural 
 method of Jussieu, which may be regarded as having at all times 
 Stood in opposition to the artificial method of Linnaeus, seems now to 
 bo advancing to a more direct rivalship than ever. Even in tlie 
 works of such botanists as profess to be the disciples of Linnaeus, there 
 seems to be a loaning to the method of Jussieu ; hut whether the 
 natural method of the latter will be suffered ultimately to prevail, or 
 the artificial method of the former, time only can show. 
 
 10. Great, however, as the progress of systematic botany has un- 
 doubtedly been, during the course of the last and beginning of the 
 present century, the progress of physiological botany has perhaps 
 been still greater. In proof of this, it will be sufficient to mention the 
 r-.mos of Hales, Bonnet, Du Hartier, Hedwig, Spallanzani, Grertner, 
 Knight, Keith, and Mirbel ; each of whom has distinguished himself 
 in the field of phytological investigation, and eminently contributed to 
 the advancement* of the science. Above all, we must not fail to men- 
 tion the name of Priestley, as being the first who introduced into tin? 
 study of phytology the aid of pneumatic chemistry, which, under the 
 happy auspices of Ingenhouz, Senobier, Saussnre, Ellis, and Davy, 
 and lastly of Gay-Lussac and Kenard, has done more to elucidate the 
 phenomena of vegetation, than all other means of investigation, and 
 has furnished as the foundation of the physiology of plants a body of 
 the most curious and undoubted facts. 
 
 11. Before we dismiss this part of our subject, it is not unfit that we 
 -hould notice the extraordinary progress that has been made at tire 
 fame time in distinct branches "of the science, as well as in the appli- 
 cation of the arts of drawing, engraving, and colouring, for the pur- 
 poses of illustration, and for exhibiting to the eye, at all times, in all 
 f*taces, and at all seasons, the beautiful and interesting productions of 
 the vegetable kingdom, in such perfection, as, in some degree, to su- 
 persede the necessity of living specimens ; sometimes so rate and in- 
 accessible as to be out of the reach of the most scientific. There is 
 IK) branch of knowledge which has furnished more splendid and elabo- 
 rate works of this nature, than that of botany, or in which the arts have 
 been carried to a greater degree of perfection and delicacy ; and as a 
 study so elegant and agreeable cannot well be rendered too general, 
 it is pleasing to observe, that through the improvements that have thus 
 taken place, and the facilities afforded to such publications, not a 
 month passes in this kingdom without large additions being made to 
 the general stock of botanical knowledge, in works of singular beauty 
 and correctness ; though far from costly, considering the pains bestow- 
 ed upon them. 
 
 12. The lovers of botany stand greatly indebted also, to thos« 
 learned persons who have made it their particular business to collect, 
 examine, and describe the plants of countries and districts, and to 
 supply them with distinct Florce, both foreign and domestic, as tbo 
 Flora Britannica of Smith, the Flora Anglica of Hudson, the Flora 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 40b 
 
 Scotica of Lightfoot, the Flora Cantabrigiensis of Relhan, the Flora 
 Oxoniensis of Sibthorpe, the Flora Londinensis of Curtis, the Flora 
 Grffica, the Flora Peruviana, the Flora Danica, the Flore Francoise, 
 and others much too numerous to mention ; in the same class may be 
 reckoned those works which are still further confined to the descrip- 
 tion or illustration of particular genera of plants, as in our own country ^ 
 the Carices, by Goodenough ; the Grasses, by Stillingfleet ; the 
 Mentha? Britanmcae, by Sole ; the Pines, by Lambert ; the Fuci, by 
 Turner ; and various others. 
 
 ELECTRICITY. 
 
 1. Though the property of excitation existing in -anther t (electron.) 
 appears to have been known to Thales six hundred, and to Theophras- 
 tus three hundred years before Christ, yet electricity (which takes its 
 name from this circumstance) and galvanism, as it is still called, m;iy 
 decidedly be regarded as sciences which have sprung up during, (!•« 
 period to which our present inquiries belong. It was not, indeed, till 
 towards the middle of the eighteenth century that experiments in 
 electricily were pursued with any degree of ardour, success, or r«1« 
 vantage. Mr. flawksbee wrote learnedly upon the subject in 1,7< 9. 
 but it was not till twenty years afterwards that Mr. Grey and M. rlij 
 Faye at Paris, engaged in some experiments which contributed ro 
 throw light upon the subject. Mr. Grey, who resumed his exped- 
 inents in 1,734, saw enough to lead him to suppose that the electric 
 fluid and lightning were the same, which was not, .however-, effectually 
 proved till the year 1,752, when the celebrated Dr. Franklin, m 
 America, with great ingenuity, and no small degree of courage, ascer- 
 tained the fact by decisive experiments ; a discovery which he soon 
 applied to practical purposes, by the invention of metallic conductors 
 for the security ot build ings, ships, &,c, during storms. 
 
 2. As experiments could not be profitably undertaken till a suitable 
 apparatus was provided, it is equally evident, that the improvement 
 of such apparatus must greatly have depended on the progress of the 
 science. The Leydcn phial for the accumulation of the electrical 
 power in glass, was invented about 1,745, and the general apparatus 
 
 fraduallv improved by Van Marum, Cunaeus, Dr. Nooth, Mr. Nairn*, 
 >r. Priestley, Messrs. Head, Lane, and Adams. To professor Volta, 
 ofComo, we stand indebted for two very useful and important electri- 
 cal instruments, the eleetrophorus, and condenser of electricity. Many 
 .-oris of electrometers for measuring the quantity and quality of elec- 
 tricity in an electrified body, have also been invented. 
 ; 3. In 1,747 electricity began to be used for medical purposes, and 
 was supposed to be of efficacy in cases of rheumatism, deafness, palsy, 
 scrofula, cancers, abscesses, gout, &c. : but the progress of medical 
 electricity has not been great, while the want of an apparatus, and the 
 knowledge and skill requisite to apply it properly, must always pie- 
 vent its becoming an}* very common remedy. 
 
 4. Galvanism,' which may be said to have been engrafted on elec- 
 tricity in 1,791, was the discovery of the celebrated Galvani of 
 Bologna ; it has been called animal electricity ; his first experiments 
 having been made on animals, and tending manifestly to prove the 
 identity of the nervous and electric Hinds, though this was tor some 
 time doubted. M. Galvani discovered that, without any artificial 
 electricity, and by merely presenting some conducting substance to 
 
106 MODERN HISTORY 
 
 different part* of the nerve9 or muscles of a dissected frog, violent 
 motions were produced, exactly similar to those which were excited 
 by a discharge of the electrical machine. 
 
 5. The discovery of M. Galvani has since led to very important 
 end?, through the great care and attention of M. Volta, who, improv- 
 ing upon his discovery of the power of conductors, has been enabled 
 to supply the philosophical world with an instrument of very extraor- 
 dinary powers, especially for purposes of chemical decomposition. 
 At first M. Volta was led to suppose that it required only a set of dif- 
 ferent conductors, two metals and a fluid, to collect and distribute i\*i 
 electrical matter ; he considered that, upon these principles, he had 
 produced an artificial imitation of the electrical powers exhibited by 
 the torpedo, the gymnotus, silurus, and tetrodon electricus ; but further 
 discoveries demonstrated that there was a chemical agency going for- 
 ward all the time, and that much depended on the action of the fluid* 
 on the metals, which are all naturally excellent conductors, hut Ik. come 
 ik ^-conductors when oxy dated, some being more easily oxydaUd than 
 cithers. The voltaic pile is a simple galvanic combination : a series 
 of them forms a battery. The most perfect galvanic combination h 
 held to consist in such an arrangement of metals, exposed to the action 
 <ii mi t>xydnting fluid, as are liable to very different changes ; the 
 greatest and the least. In ever3' simple galvanic combination, water 
 is decomposed, the oxygen entering into union with the metal, and tlie 
 hydrogen being evolved. 
 
 6. Since this discovery, many have engaged in electro-chemical re- 
 searches, of the utmost importance, particularly our own countryman, 
 sir Humphrey Davy. His experiments on the alkalis and earths, and 
 discovery oi their metallic nature, being in themselves sufficient to 
 show how wide a range of inquiry is opened to the experimentalist, 
 by this powerful agent ; it being reasonable to suppose, that there is 
 scarcely any substance in nature, either above or below the surface of 
 the earth, that is not subject, more or less, to the chemical agencies 
 otf electricity. Heretofore the observations of the philosopher were 
 chiefly, if not entirely, confined to those sudden and violent changes 
 which take place through any powerful concentration of the electric 
 fluid. These new discoveries seem to afford him a fair chance and 
 Opportunity of tracing some at least of those manifold changes which 
 may be brought about in a more quiet, tranquil, and insensible man- 
 ner ; and which, in all probability, are incessantly operating eftecta, 
 hitherto little known and little suspected. It is obvious that medicine, 
 chemistry, physiology, mineralogy, and geology, may all be greatly 
 assisted by a more perfect knowledge of such curious and hitherto 
 hidden processes of nature. Before the galvanic method of exciting 
 electricity had been discovered, many very curious experiments haa 
 been made, to prove the influence of electricity on the atmosphere, 
 magnetism, vegetation, muscular motion ; in earthquakes, volcanoes, 
 and other natural appearances and operations ; all ot which are likely 
 to become better known, and further illustrated, by the application oi 
 the electro-chemical apparatus, which, since its first invention, has been 
 already greatly improved. It may not be amiss to observe, that meteo- 
 rology, as a particular branch of knowledge, has been greatly aided 
 by all the improvements spoken of above in chemistry and electricity, 
 and in the invention of many instruments, very simple, but chiefly to 
 be referred to the eighteenth century ; as the barometer, the thermonv 
 eter, the hydrometer, the pluviameter, or rain-gauge, the anemometer, 
 and electrometer already mentioned. Amongst the most eminent o/ 
 
MODERN HISTORY 4U7 
 
 those who have applied themselves to this study, we may redcap 
 Messrs. Bouguer, Saussure, De Luc, Gay-Lussac, Van-Marum, Fe» 
 guson, Cavallo, &c. ; Drs. Franklin, Blagden, and Priestley ; Messrs 
 Canton and Beccaria 
 
 MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY. 
 
 1. Mineralogy and geology are reasonably to be regarded as nen 
 sciences since the close of the seventeenth century, ha*ing been cul- 
 tivated from that time in a manner totally new, and greatly advanced 
 Ipy the progress made in other sciences, and the improvement of many 
 arts. They are both, however, still so much in their infancy, that a> 
 very brief account of what has taken place during the last and. present 
 century is the utmost that we can attempt. 
 
 2. It was not till towards the middle of the last century, that the 
 modern scientific arrangements of minerals began to occupy the atten* 
 tion of naturalists. Tnat indefatigable observer, Linnaeus, did -no! 
 overlook this branch of natural history, but introduced into the twelfth 
 edition of his " Systema Naturae," published in 1,768, a systematic 
 view of " The Kegnum Lapideum," which he divided into three 
 classes, petrvb, mineral nndjbssitioe, many orders, and fifty-four gene- 
 ra. In 1,793, Gmelin republished the "Systema Natura-" ofUn- 
 iweus, with alterations and improvements. 
 
 3. Linnaeus did not take the lead in such arrangements : in hi*3 own 
 work he notices the preceding systems of Bromelius, who published 
 in 1,730 ; Wallerius, in 1,747 ; Woltersdorf, in 1,748- Curtheuser, in 
 1,775; Justi, in 1,757: Cronstedt, in 1,758; and Vogel, in 1,762. 
 Linnaeus, however, has the credit of having first reduced the science 
 of mineralogy into classes and orders, and Wallerius and himself ur> 
 dertook the arduous and hazardous task of fixing the specific characters 
 of minerals. WaHerius's second system appeared in 1,772. In 1,781, 
 Veltheim puolishfed his system at Brunswick, and in 1,782, Berga» 
 man's made its first appearance at Leipsic. 
 
 4. Before this time the celebrated Werner, professor of mineralogy 
 at Frey'burg, in Saxony, had published a treatise on the classification 
 of minerals, according to their external characters, which was more 
 fully illustrated in his notes to a translation of Cronstedt, which ap- 
 peared in 1 ,780. Werner has obtained a name amongst mineralogists 
 and geologists, which stands deservedly high; though he seems only 
 to have prepared the way for the observations and experiments of 
 others, by an accumulation and description of facts and appearances, 
 extremely curious and valuable. The fundamental principle in Wer- 
 ner's mineralogical arrangement, is the natural affinity of fossils, of 
 which he enumerates three kinds : the chemical, the oryctognosticah 
 nnd the geognostic. Mr. Kirwin first introduced the Wernerian sy3- 
 tern into Britain, in his treatise on mineralogy, 1,784. 
 
 5. In 1,773, the study of the regular or crystalline forms of minerals 
 seemed to give a new turn to mineralogy. The first work of eminence 
 i» this line was the Crystallographie of the celebrated Rome de I s Isle, 
 which was made the basis of the system of Hauy, published in 1,801, 
 All mineral bodies are supposed by this system to be reducible by 
 mechanical division to an integrant molecule. From the form ana 
 component parts, it has been proposed to deduce the specific charao» 
 ters. The forms of the integrant molecule are found to be three ; the 
 tetrahedron, the triangular prism, and the parallelapiped. Muck 
 
400 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 attention has been paid to this system, and it must be acknowledged 
 that if the tests proposed were easily to be applied, and chemistry 
 had proceeded so far as thoroughly to enable us to distinguish between 
 the accidental and essential ingredients of minerals, as has been done 
 in some remarkable instances with much effect, more direct means of 
 distinguishing minerals could scarcely be devised : but as things stand 
 at present, there seems to be too much geometry and chemistry ne- 
 cessary to render such a system generally useful. In 1,808, however, 
 M. Chevcnix, in the Annales de Chymie, gave great support to the 
 system of Hauy, to the disparagement of that ol Werner, to whom, 
 nevertheless, lie is careful to give due praise. Crystallization will 
 long remain, probably, a subject of most curious research and inquiry 
 among geologists as well as mineralogists ; the appearances of it in 
 primitive rocks, leading immediately to the grand question concerning 
 the operations of tire and water, which have divided the cultivators of 
 this branch of study into the two parties of Platonists, who contend ioi 
 the igneous origin of those rocks, and the J\~cptnnists, who refer them to 
 ctn aqueous origin: of the latter of which, was the celebrated Werner. 
 
 6. Many other systems, more or less connected with Werner's, have 
 been mane public, as Brochart's, Schmekser's, 1,795 ; Babinglon's, 
 1,796 ; Brogniai fs, (a very useful and valuable one,) Kidd\s, 1,809 ; 
 Clarke's, 1,811 ; one by Mr. Arthur Aikin ; and, lastly, that of Ber- 
 fcelins, a Swedish chemist, who has lately attempted to establish a 
 pure scientific system of mineralogy, oy the application of the electro- 
 chemical theory and the chemical proportions : as this system is 
 closely connected with the latest discoveries and improvements that 
 have been made in chemistry and electricity, we shall here close our 
 remarks on mineralogy, as a science by no means perfected, but opeti 
 to further experiments and observations, though very materially ad- 
 vanced since the close of the seventeenth century. 
 
 7. Geology has arisen out of mineralogy ; and though no no»> 
 science as to name, is entirely so according to the principles upon 
 which.it is now conducted. Werner was for giving a new name at 
 once to the new science, which was a judicious step to take, though it 
 ha.s not been generally adopted ; he called it Geognosie : it is lit, in- 
 deed, that it should be distinguished from the geology of old, which 
 only engendered a parcel of fanciful theories of the earth, unfounded 
 on facts. How the globe was formed, is a very different inquiry from 
 that of "what has happened to it since it was formed:" modeip 
 geology is chiefly conversant with the latter ; to examine the interior 
 of the earth, as far as it can be examined, in order to understand the 
 course of the revolutions and changes that have taken place, and of 
 which we perceive the most manifest proofs : already very extraordi- 
 nary circumstances have been discovered, indicative of successive 
 changes, both before and after any organic beings existed, and there- 
 fore both before as well as after the globe became strictly habitable : 
 among the most curious effects plainly to be traced, may be reckoned 
 die extensive operations of fire and water, the extinction of many 
 species of vegetables and animals, and the very extraordinary preser- 
 vation of some of the latter, bespeaking a state of congelation, at the 
 moment of the catastrophe by which they appear to have been over- 
 whelmed ; remains of animals in places where they no longer exist, 
 and the extraordinary absence of human reliquiae. The science of 
 comparative anatomy has been of great use in these researches, ia 
 <vhich nobody has distinguished himself so much as M. Cuvier, §ec*e 
 ;ary of the French Institute. 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 400 
 
 8. Many geological societies are forming, or have been already 
 formed, in different parts of Europe and in America, and professor- 
 ships founded in our universities ; but it will be long, perhaps, before 
 the several observations and discoveries making in all parts of the 
 world, can be so compared, classed, and methodized, as to bring out 
 such results as may be admitted for certain and indisputable truths, in 
 regard to the history of the earth and of man. In the mean while, we 
 should consider that geologists have always a field to work in, abound- 
 ing in materials so applicable to every useful art as to promise con- 
 tinual accessions of knowledge, not merely scientific, but of real 
 practical utility. 
 
 We ought not, perhaps, to dismiss this par| of our subject, without 
 noticing the very curious geological map of England, published by 
 our countryman, Mr. Smith, in 1,815, a work of great merit and 
 originality. 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 1. We have mentioned geography, also, as among those science? 
 which may be regarded as almost new, not only because it is since th* 
 middle of the last century that we have acquired a more correct knowl- 
 edge of the figure of the earth, but from the extraordinary manner to 
 which the whole terraqueous globe has been explored of late, and the 
 additions consequently made to our former knowledge of its parts : 
 the discoveries that have taken place since the close of the seventeenth 
 century, have, according to the French geographers, presented to us 
 two new quarters of the world, and which have been denominated 
 Australasia and Polynesia. The following account may serve to ex- 
 plain these additions to modern geography : 
 
 2. The former is held to contain, 1. New Holland, and all the 
 islands between twenty degrees west, and between twenty and thirty 
 degrees east of it. 2. New Guinea and the islands adjacent. 3. New 
 Britain, New Ireland, and the Solomon Isles. 4. New Caledonia and 
 the New Hebrides. 5. New Zealand. 6. Van Dieman's Land, which 
 is separated from New Holland by Basse's strait or channel, and i* 
 about thirty leagues wide. 
 
 3. The division called Polynesia, consists of, 1. The F'elew Islands. 
 2. The Ladrone or Marian Islands. 3. The Carolines. 4. The 
 Sandwich Islands. 5. The Marquesas, which are very numerous. 
 6. The Society Islands, about sixty or seventy in number. 7. The 
 Friendly Islands. 8. The Navigators' Islands. The largest island 
 in this division is Owhyhee, one of the Sandwich Islands, and the 
 place where the celebrated circumnavigator, Cook, lost his life. 
 
 4. The voyages and travels conducive to these discoveries are too 
 generally known to be much dwelt upon in such a work as the present. 
 it will be sufficient merely to mention the names of those who, since 
 the years 1,735 and 1,736, (when the Spanish and French mathemati- 
 cians undertook their celebrated missions to measure a degree of the 
 meridian under the pole and at the equator,) have been employed by 
 th8 different powers of Europe on voyages of discovery. 
 
 5. Of the English we may enumerate : 
 
 Byron, 1,764—1,766. Mr. Harrison's time-piece applied to the 
 discovery of the longitude. 
 
 Wallis and Carteret, 1,766. Sailed together, but soon separated; 
 Otaheite and other islands discovered. 
 
 Mm 58 
 
410 MODERN HISTORY 
 
 Cook, three voyages . — 
 
 First voyage, 1,768—1,771. The transit of Venus observed *f 
 Watavai, in Otaheite, June, 1,769. New Holland, and New Zealand 
 
 explored. 
 
 Second voyage, 1,772 — 1,775, in search of a southern continent. 
 
 Third voyage, 1,776 — 1,780, to discover a northern passage ; fata) 
 to captain Cook, who was killed at Owhyhee. 
 
 Portloch and Dixon, 1,785 — 1,788 ; principally to establish the fur 
 trade, at Nootka Sound. 
 
 Vancouver, 1,790 — 1,795, to explore the northern passage. Unsuo 
 cessful. 
 
 Phipps, (lord Mulgrave,) north pole, 1,773. 
 
 Lord Macartney. China, 1,792. 
 
 .Lord Amherst, ditto. 1,816, 1,817. 
 
 Of the French we may reckon, 
 
 Bougainville, 1,766 — 1,768. 
 
 La Peyrou.se, 1,785 — 1,788, supposed to have perished. 
 
 D'Entricasteux, in search of La Peyrouse. 
 
 Marchand, 1,790— 1,792. 
 
 The Spaniards appear to have employed Malaspina, an Italten, 
 7,790, to explore distant seas and countries; but his voyage was noJ 
 published. These were all of thera voyages, not merely devoted tfc 
 geographical discoveries, but in which competent persons, in almost 
 ct^ry branch of science, were concerned, to take account of whatever 
 should offer itself to their notice, or be likely to contribute, in any 
 manner whatsoever, to the general advancement of human knowledge ; 
 astronomy, botany, zoology, meteorology, physiology, mineralogy, 
 and geology. Trade and commerce, navigation and the arts, were 
 constantly in the way of receiving illustration or improvement, during 
 these bold attempts to advance the geography of the world, and solv« 
 the difficulties which still seemed to hang about that interesting and 
 important science. The nances of Banks, Solander, Green, Sparrman, 
 Forster, and Anderson, will descend to the remotest posterity, with 
 tliat of Cook. 
 
 6. War often, indeed, interrupted these pursuits, but the eighteenth 
 century has the credit of affording the following strong marks of the 
 progress of civilization and liberal ideas. It was during a continental 
 war, that a combination of learned and scientific persons, English, 
 French, Russians, Danes, and Swedes, in the year 1,761, laying aside 
 their animosities, undertook the arduous task of observing, for astro* 
 nomical and geographical purposes, a transit of Venus over the sun. 
 It was in the miclst of war, that France, in a very public and formal 
 manner, suspended all hostilities that could in any manner affect the 
 orogress or safe return of our English navigator, Cook ; and both the 
 French and English, in the course of their voyages of discovery, are 
 known to have evinced a spirit of philanthropy and humanity very 
 opposite to what had passed on such occasions in former ages. The 
 improvement of every barbarous and savage people they might visit, 
 was among the first thoughts of those who were engaged in these new 
 adventMres. Some remarkable directions to this effect, given by 
 Louis XVI. himself to La Peyrouse, will for ever do honour to the 
 memory of that benign but ill-fated monarch. The English circus> 
 navigators were not less attentive to these things, but continually sought 
 ibe amelioration of the savage condition of the people they visited ; 
 too often, however, quite in vain, or without any lasting effect. 
 
 7. !t would be utterly out of our power to enter into any details of 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 411 
 
 the numerous researches that have been made in all parts of the globe, 
 Since the spirit of discovery was first excited, which has so remarkably 
 distinguished the period of which we are treating. In the north ana 
 south, east and west, of both hemispheres, almost every region has 
 been explored, and every information obtained that can throw light on 
 the history either of the earth or of man. The two peninsulas of 
 India, Persia, Arabia, Egypt, and Abyssinia, the northern and the 
 southern, and, in some instances, the interior parts of Africa ; Syria, 
 Greece, and Turkey ; Norway, Lapland, Siberia, and even the wilds 
 of Tartary and Kamschatka ; New Spain ; the back settlement* of 
 North America, and North America itself ; Iceland, Greenland, &c. 
 have all been visited by persons of science and learning, and are a lino 1 
 as well known now, as the most frequented and civilized parts of Eu- 
 mpe ; all that can be ascertained of their history ; all that the re- 
 mains of antiquity could unfold to the eye of curiosity ; all the animal*, 
 plants, minerals, they produce ; have been so amply examined, de- 
 scribed, classed, and methodized, that it may reasonably be supposed, 
 that in very many instances, all that can be known is known. Among 
 tide travels enumerated, the scholar, in particular, has been in no or- 
 dinary degree gratified by the visits that have been recently paid to 
 modern Greece, and by the able, classical, and scientific descriptions 
 which have been given of that very interesting portion of the conti- 
 nent, by lord Byron, Mr. Hobhouse, major Leake, Dr. Holland, sir 
 William Drummond, Dr. Clark, lord Aberdeen, sir William Gell, and 
 others' of our own countrymen : and by M. Pouqueville, who having 
 accompanied Buonaparte to Egypt, at the close of the last century, 
 vt£s among the first to explore those celebrated regions. 
 
 0. The new means of inquiry and investigation, have so kept pace 
 r\ ith the wide field lately opened to the world, that even individuals 
 have been found competent to bring home with them from the most 
 remote countries, ample ^formation upon all the great points that can 
 possibly interest the curiosity of man ; a greater instance of this, could 
 rot, perhaps, be produced, than in the case of a living traveller and 
 author, the celebrated M. Humboldt, of Prussia, whose multifarious 
 jr- searches, at a very early age, in almost all parts of the globe, have 
 added more to the general stock of knowledge in the compass of a veiy 
 ih\v years, than could have been attained by ages of inquiry in times 
 at ali distant. In speaking of this very celebrated traveller, wl>ose 
 accounts of Spanish America in particular have lately excited so much 
 attention, it is fit also to notice the removal of many restraints and im- 
 pediments in the way of such researches, through the more liberal 
 policy of the mother country ; so far from expressing, as would [raw 
 been the case in former times, any jealousy of such a visit to her colo- 
 nies, M. Humboldt obtained the express approbation and concurrence 
 of the Spanish court. The removal of the court of Portugal to the 
 brazils in the year 1,807, has also proved favourable in no small de- 
 gree to the prosecution of such inquiries ; the king having, with con 
 jriderable liberality, patronised such undertakings. 
 
 9. The sovereigns of Russia, from the time of Peter the great, 
 through a natural desire of acquiring a correct knowledge of their very 
 extended dominions, buried, at the close of the seventeenth century, 
 in profound ignorance and obscurity, were careful to employ propel 
 persons to make such discoveries, who so ably discharged their com- 
 missions, that before the end of the eighteenth century, a very cele- 
 brated German professor declared that they had amassed such a quan- 
 tity of materials, entirely new. for the history of the three kingdoms 
 
41i MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 of nature, for the theory of the earth, for rural economy, and for an 
 infinity of other objects relative to the arts and sciences, as would em- 
 ploy many learned men for several years, in their proper arrangement 
 and. classification. The names of Beering and Spangberg, Fallas, 
 Gmelin, Muller, Chappe D'Auteroche, Georgi, Lepechin, are well 
 known, as among those who have most distinguished themselves in 
 these northern and north-eastern expeditions. Among the improve- 
 ments connected with the science of geography, and its progress, we 
 should be glad if we could do justice to the very learned and eminent 
 persons who have, in a manner unknown before, devoted their time to 
 the more correct delineation of the face of the globe, in the construc- 
 tion of maps and charts, which seem to be advancing rapidly to the 
 highest degree of perfection- M. d'Anville, whose labours in this 
 wi-.y are so well known, may be justly considered perhaps as having 
 given the first stimulus in this line of study, to the geographers of 
 modern times. 
 
 10. As the science of astronomy is in many instances connected with 
 geography, we may here notice the changes that have, taken place in 
 regard to the former, during the last and present centuries ; which, 
 however, being only in the way of addition upon the established prin- 
 ciples of the Copernican and Newtonian systems, are not such as can* 
 be said to have altered the character of the science itself ; and, indeed, 
 the additions that have been made are very easily enumerated, though 
 liiey must Lave cost much pains, and are the results of very curious 
 observations and intricate calculations, on the part of those to whom 
 we stand indebted for them. 
 
 11. We have added five planets to those formerly known as belong- 
 ing to our solar system. The Georgium Sidus, or Uranus, discovered 
 i <y the celebrated sir W. Herschel, 1,781, and its satellites, 1,787* 
 Ceres, by M. Piazzi, at Palermo, 1,801 ; Pallas, by Dr. Olbers, at 
 ttremen, 1,802; Juno, by M. Harding of Lilienthal, in 1,804 ; and 
 VeMa, by Dr. Olbers, 1,807. To the former of these celebrated ob- 
 servers we owe a most enlarged knowledge of the celestial regions, 
 Particularly of the nebulous parts, from the application of his new 
 leU scopevS of most extraordinary powers, which have enabled us to 
 ascertain that the milky-way, and other similar appearances in the 
 heavens, are a congeries of fixed stars, in strata, prodigiously numer- 
 qus, and exhibiting very curious phenomena. Of the immense amount 
 <*' these stars, which may still have beyond them an unfathomable and 
 imexplorable abyss of the same kind, we may form some conjecture 
 !-:om the following statement of sir William himself, who ibund by his 
 gauges, in the year 1,792, that in the small space of forty -one minutes, 
 no less than 238,000 stars, in the via lactea, had passed through the 
 lield of view in his telescope. Sir William places our own system in 
 the via lactea. He has discovered, besides many new stars, double 
 and triple stars, and what he calls changing stars. 
 
 12. We have learned to correct our ideas concerning the substance 
 of the body of the sun, heretofore considered as entirely of an igneous 
 nature. Though its rays contribute largely to the production of heat 
 on the earth's surface, many very obvious appearances ought sooner 
 to have convinced us of what now seems clearly to be understood, that 
 the sun is not a body of fire. 
 
 13. The science of astronomy has been much promoted during the 
 time of which we have been treating, by the improvement or invention 
 of many curious and necessary instruments, and the building and 
 Wtablishment of regular observatories ; and practical astronomy h& 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 413 
 
 been carried to a very high pitch, by the talents and ingenuity of manr 
 very eminent persons in France, Britain, Germany, Italy, &te-. ; as M. 
 Clairault, d'Alembert, De la Caille, La Place, La Grange, Bailly, De 
 la Lande, &c. ; Bradley, Maskelyn, Herschel, Hutton, Robison, 
 Ferguson, Vince, &c. ; Euler, Mayer, Boda, Bianchini, Boscovich, 
 Frisi, Piozzi, &c. 
 
 14. We have spoken elsewhere of the travels, expressly undertaken 
 in 1,753, to measure in the northern and southern parts ot the world, a 
 degree of the meridian, by which the figure of the earth was ascertain- 
 ed to be an oblate spheroid, according to the conjectures of sir Isaac 
 Newton, and contrary to the assertions of the Cassinis and Bernouilli, 
 who had for some time insisted that the polar diameter was longer 
 than the equatorial : all the experiments seemed to concur in proving 
 the reverse. The steps that were taken, in the years 1,761 and 1,769, 
 to determine the parallax of the sun, by observing the transit of Venus, 
 afford another strong proof of the extraordinary zeal and resolution 
 with which science was cultivated during the period of which we have 
 been treating. On the recommendation of Dr. Halley, who had ob- 
 served a transit of Mercury at St. Helena, but who did not expect to 
 live to sec a transit of Venus, and who in fact died in 1,742, mathema- 
 ticians and astronomers were sent out in the years before mentioned, 
 both from France and England. 
 
 15. Among the modern inventions appertaining to astronomy, be- 
 sides the instruments absolutely necessary to correct observation, we 
 may reckon those curious and elegant machines, exhibiting the motions 
 ana phenomena of our solar system and its several parts ; our orreries, 
 planetariums, tellurians, lunariums, &c, all of which may be consider- 
 ed as extremely interesting and ingenious contrivances. 
 
 1. It would be useless to attempt to give any circumstantial account 
 of the progress that has been made in other sciences, during the period 
 of which we have been treating, and vain to seek, by a mere enume- 
 ration of names, to do justice to the many eminent and illustrious per* 
 sons who have distinguished themselves in various parts of the world, 
 in every branch of learning, useful and ornamental, since the com- 
 mencement of the eighteenth century. The numerous biographical 
 works, chronological charts, critical and philosophical journals, which 
 have from time to time been published during tnis period, may supply 
 information much more full and copious than would be at all consistent 
 with the limits of this work, already extended beyond their original 
 design. As, however, the surprising burst of intellect, investigation, 
 and enterprise which has so marked and distinguished the last and 
 present century, appears to have been in a great degree connected 
 with the history ot Europe during the same period, we shall take a 
 brief view of the latter : beginning with England and France ; the 
 two countries which seem in several respects to have had the most 
 considerable share in the changes that have taken place. 
 
 2, At the period of the deaths^ of queen Anne and Lewis XIV 
 (see Sect. LXIV.) England and France appear to have stood in situa- 
 tions diametrically opposite. England had just obtained all that she 
 wanted from a revolution ; France had scarcely begun to feel that she 
 stood in need of one. England had succeeded in placing her civi and 
 religious rights on a sure footing ; France was as yet but little sensible 
 that hers had been greatly violated. England was recovering from a 
 
 Mm2 
 
414 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 state of misrule and licentiousness ; France was declining more than 
 ever into such a condition. In England, Newton had established his 
 new system of philosophy, and Locke illustrated the principles of a 
 Free government ; in France, Descartes still held the minds of men fti 
 a state of fascination and enchantment, and the people knew not what 
 it was to be free. 
 
 3. The French government, by too great severity in political and 
 religious matters, had compelled many of her subjects to take refuge 
 in foreign countries, where they were at liberty to make their own re- 
 flections, to print and to publish their thoughts upon the comparative 
 despotism of the country from which they had been driven, and t!* 
 delusions to which the .subjects of the latter were exposed. 
 
 4. Among those who had been thus banished, or compelled to retire, 
 no one could have done more to unsettle the minds of his countrymen, 
 in regard both to religion and politics, than the celebrated Bayle. 
 His object appears, however, to have been merely to unsettle them : 
 for his whole work is a tissue of doubts and difficulties, which he had 
 no disposition to resolve, but to leave to every man's own judgment to 
 determine, after having very impartially stated all the arauir.ents and 
 all the facts he could possibly collect, on both sides of even question. 
 
 5. The French had been so long" used to submission, that merely to 
 teach them to doubt was a grand step towards a revolution in tneir 
 opinions ; but Bayle did not live to see the seeds he had been sowing 
 come to any perfection. It was not. according to the account of th« 
 French themselves, till Voltaire, partly in a state of exile, had visited 
 England, that they began to ripen. In England, Voltaire became ac- 
 quainted with the philosophy of Newton and Locke, and saw some of 
 the best political principles of the latter established and in action ; 
 but being the guest of Bolingbroke, his deistical principles, which 
 were very early made known b} r a passage in his tragedy of (Edipus, 
 ftnderwcnt no change, or were probably more deeply fixed and con- 
 firmed. 
 
 6. Though Shaftesbury, Wolston. Collins, Toiand, Tindal, and 
 others, had attacked revelation, and either openly or insidiously sought 
 to imbue the minds of the English with their deistical principles ; (lie 
 public in general were little affected by their writings- Men of supe- 
 rior talents, superior credit, and very superior learning, had lived, or 
 were living, capable of giving a different tone to the feelings of the 
 people. Newton, Locke, Addison, Steele, Clarice, Swift, ice, were 
 amply sufficient to support the cause of religion ; and not only to de- 
 fend the very outworks of Christianity, but to avert the shafts of ridi- 
 cule, and set at naught the sarcasms of infidelity. In those admirable 
 periodical papers, the Spectator, the Guardian, the Tattler. kc, we 
 may trace a direct and most benevolent design o{ rescuing the rising 
 generation from the contagion of bad examples, and the influence of 
 lalse principles. 
 
 7. In France it was otherwise : J deism, though weak against the 
 plain evidences of Christianity, was strong against the fanaticism of a 
 bigoted, and the superstition of a corrupted church. The banter of 
 Voltaire soon began to take effect, when aimed at things and persons 
 so vulnerable as the monastic orders, and the controverted points in 
 dispute between the Jesuits and Jansenists. The defence of religion 
 also, in consequence of these disgraceful and puerile conflicts, and the 
 plausibility of the attacks that were made upon it, which struck hard 
 at its abuses, fell into hands little capable ot wielding the weapons so 
 effectually employed in England. The dread of derision too soon 
 
MODERN HISTORY 41ft 
 
 damped the spirit of pulpit eloquence, which had cast such a lusfrs 
 on the names of Saurin, Massillon, &c. ; and converted even the chr»» 
 tian preacher into a philosopher of the modern school. Among those 
 who first appeared in defence of revealed religion against the deisL% 
 the French themselves have particularly mentioned the younger Ra- 
 cine, the cardinal de Polignac, and M. Le Franc de Pompignan*. 
 The first wrote a heavy poem, which few read ; the second a long 
 philosophical poem in Latin, which not many could read ; and th* 
 last published some sacred odes, of which Voltaire found room to say r 
 with his usual wit, " Sacrcs Us sont, car personne tfy foucAe." Though 
 Voltaire might have imbibed his deism in part from Bolingbroke, it 
 was plainly not a plant of English growth ; but it proved to be sadly 
 congenial at that time to the soil ol France. 
 
 8. The regency had wrought a great change in the principles and 
 manners of that lively people. The profligate habits of the duke of 
 Orleans opened a wide field to libertines and freethinkers, and natu- 
 rally encouraged them to speak their minds more freely upon all sub- 
 jects than would otherwise have been consistent with the spirit of tl» 
 government. Religion and morals, indeed, could not have received a 
 greater blow than from the extraordinary elevation of the infamous 
 Dubois to the rank of cardinal, and to the archbishopric of Cambray, 
 so lately filled hy the amiable and virtuous Fenelon. 
 
 9. While the morals of the French were thus becoming daily more 
 depraved, the manners of the English were evidently much improved. 
 The grave and austere character of William III., the correct deport- 
 ment of Mary, and her sister, queen Anne, had effectually checked 
 the licentiousness of the two preceding reigns, and given encourage- 
 ment to a set of writers peculiarly capable of amending the age, of 
 inculcating true piety and sound morality, and giving a better lone to 
 the amusements of the public. Instead of the gross indelicacies which 
 had disgraced the writings and degraded the talents, of Vanburgh, 
 Behn, Congreve, and even Dryden, the taste and manners of the nation 
 derived great improvement and advantages from the more chaste and 
 correct performances of Addison, Steele, Row : e, Prior, Pope, Thomson, 
 Akensicle, kt. The stage underwent a wholesome reformation, ai>d 
 in every department of literature there appeared a manifest leaning 
 towards whatever could conduce to purity of sentiment and delicacy 
 of feeii;;^. 
 
 10. Had Voltaire carried back with him from our shores, as he 
 might have done, a purer form of Christianity, and a better system of 
 morals, as well as a more correct philosophy, and sounder principles of 
 government, he might have conferred a lasting benefit on his country $ 
 a benefit the more timely and critical, as it would possibly have pre- 
 vented some of the worst evils which befel that unhappy nation in her 
 subsequent struggles for liberty. Bayle had taught the French to 
 doubt ; Voltaire, having taken a near, though imperfect view of Eng- 
 land, taught them to think and to inquire ; while a greater man than 
 himself was contributing, though more slowly and quietly, to the 
 same end. 
 
 11. Almost at the very time that Voltaire was in England, Montes- 
 quieu visited the same country ; but appears principally to have con- 
 fined his views to the great object of his researches, the spirit of hei 
 laws, and the leading principles of her admirable constitution. There 
 he learned to admire, in its purest form, a limited monarchy, and a 
 system of jurisprudence, equally adverse to tyranny and licentiousness ' 
 eqwally friendly to the wholesome authority of the magistrate, and the 
 
116 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 *hVI :^?jf.«i of the people. Montesquieu, however, (though in his Per- 
 >-,;- r. LeMers lie had betrayed a leaning towards deism,) moved in a 
 line distinct from that generally taken by the philosophers of the day. 
 White Voltaire very soon manifested a desire of taking the lead of all 
 the wits and freethinkers, however different their talents, their charac- 
 ters, or their principles, Montesquieu was not displeased to be left to 
 himself, and to leave his great work to make its own impressions, how* 
 ever slowly, on sensible and ingenuous minds. Its first effects of any 
 importance may, perhaps, be traced in the remonstrances of the par- 
 liaments, who began to take a higher tone after the publication of 
 {Seiprit des Ijoxs, and to comider themselves more in the light of rep- 
 resentatives of the People. 
 
 1?. A number of very extraordinary men were beginning at tire 
 er<me time to draw upon themselves the attention of the world, and tD 
 employ their talents in different lines, and often upon very different 
 principles, to enlighten the world, and emancipate it from the thral- 
 dom of ancient prejudices and inveterate abuses. Among these, how* 
 ever, none were more extravagantly eccentric than J. J. Rousseau. 
 This extraordinary man was decidedly for new modelling the who}* 
 syyfera of political society, and reducing it to principles which existed 
 </r.ly in his own imagination. Not having ever seen a race of savages, 
 he fancied the}' must be the more perfect the nearer they were to a 
 elate of nature ; and being tormented with the restraints of civilized 
 society, he concluded civilization itself to be an evil. These sophisms 
 served to render him the idol of the equalizing and destroying dema- 
 gogues of the revolution. It was impossible to resist the impressions 
 made by the captivating pictures he drew ; but they seldom had any 
 better effect than that of rendering his votaries as dissatisfied with tlw* 
 world as he himself was, and bewildering their imaginations with 
 doubts and difficulties innumerable. He knew how to appreciate \\iu 
 *ubiime morality of the gospel, though he could not regulate his own 
 actions by it ; and having found in the bible, as in all other cases, 
 something that dissatisfied his restless and irritable mind, and reviling 
 what he could not approve, or did not sufficiently understand, he cer- 
 tainly did as much mischief to the cause of revealed religion, calling 
 himself a christian all the while, as the worst of his deistical contem- 
 poraries. His opinions and his actions, as exhibited in his own 
 writings, will for ever render him an object of admiration mingled 
 -with pity, if not irksome instances with abhorrence ! 
 
 12. But it was, in no long course of time, discovered that the frev 
 opinions that were afloat, and which were as various as the persons 
 who entertained them, and who had as yet no common bond oi union, 
 as Voltaire, Rousseau, Buftbn, Diderot, D'Alembert, Duclos, Helve- 
 Lius, Marmontel, Condillac, Raynal, Volney, (to name but a few,) 
 should by same means or other be embodied and consolidated, that 
 the whole of their several thoughts and observations on different sub- 
 jec's might be presented to the world in a mass. This was the origin 
 of that great and voluminous undertaking, the Encyclopedic, spoken 
 of before, planned by Diderot and D'Alembert • and which, to say 
 the least of it, seemed to be a treasure of universal science, far more 
 comprehensive, at least, than any thing of the kind before attempted, 
 being not confined to what might strictly be called the arts and 
 sciences, but extending to every question of government, civil econo- 
 my, and finance. 
 
 " 14. The Dictionnaire Encyclopedique, amidst many faults and ex* 
 tca?agances, contained undoubtedly much important matter, written in 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 417 
 
 go agreeable a style, as to be admirably fitted to excite and promote 
 a thirst after general knowledge, universal inquiry and investigation, 
 a confidence in private judgment, and a prejudice against every thing 
 that appeared to have no other support than custom and authority. 
 Wheat might be torn up with the tares, and tares often sown instead 
 of corn : but it must be acknowledged that we stand indebted to the 
 projectors of this work for the detection and extirpation of many 
 errors, and the powerful stimulus given by their movements to thie 
 spirit of free inquiry and useful research. 
 
 15. The persons engaged in it have been so generally called philos- 
 ophers, and have been styled such in so many histories of the French 
 revolution, that it is almost necessary to observe that the greater part 
 of them bore little resemblance to those who had heretofore been dig- 
 nified with that title. The regent, duke of Orleans, though dissolute 
 in his habits of life, was a man of taste, talent, and information ; K> 
 that the savans of Fiance, who had heretofore been a retired order of 
 men, became about this period the life of society, and the ornaments 
 of the highest circles in the metropolis. Some tew, indeed, still kejti 
 at a distance from the court, but, generally speaking, such was tl'fe 
 state of things during the regency : and afterwards, when Lewis XV. 
 fell into that disgraceful course of life, Which clouded his latter day**, 
 and subjected him and his mistresses to the censure of the clergy, 
 even Voltaire, whom the king personally disliked, and the Encyclo- 
 pedists, as enemies to the clergy, were taken into favour. They 
 were often indeed dismissed again, but never entirely driven fvoitt 
 court. 
 
 16. This change of public opinion, even in the highest circles, \\> 
 troduced the learned into places where they never appeared befom, 
 qtnd gave them a new character. While the influence which the men 
 of letters thus began to acquire in society, obliged the noblvs*e ftj 
 change their habits also, and to mingle with those who before formed 
 a distinct class ; it obliged them also to cultivate learning themselves 
 and even the females found it necessary to become more or less 
 philosophical. 
 
 17. In the mean while some of these modern philosophers tad other 
 European courts set open to them, particularly in the northern part* 
 of Europe, where a greater degree of liberty in the article of opinfou 
 already prevailed, very different from the bigoted and Machiaveliaa 
 principles of Rome and Italy, which had hitherto borne sway. Cath* 
 erine II. of Russia, and Frederic of Prussia, through a laudable destw* 
 probably of improving and enlightening their semi-barbarous domin- 
 ions, invited thither some of the most busy of the French literati ; bul 
 with little judgment or discrimination. Frederic, besides Voltaire, 
 D'Alembert, and Maupertius, gave free admission, and even encour* 
 agement,to the atheist La Methrie,the marquis D'Argens,and the abb» 
 de Prades ; and Catherine received, and greatly patronised in his 
 latter years, the celebrated Diderot. Thus, with the knowledge and 
 learning which the new philosophers really possessed, scepticism and 
 infidelity were spread far and wide, and there was a sad mixture of 
 darkness and illumination in all, they taught. 
 
 18. The French revolution has been attributed to the literati, o* 
 philosophers of those days ; but we should greatly err, if we were to 
 suppose that they contemplated generally such a dissolution of things 
 as afterwards took place ; many, indeed, were dead before the revo- 
 lution commenced. Neither Voltaire nor Montesquieu were repub- 
 licans j the former had a supreme contempt for the populace ; and* 
 
 53 
 
418 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 by his flattery of Catherine II. and the marchioness de Pompadotm 
 would seem to have had little of the republican spirit in him. Indeed 
 k has been asserted of him, that " he loved kings." Raynal is said 
 to hare shuddered when he saw his own violent imprecations on des* 
 ptftism and tyranny brought into action. Some, however, undoubted- 
 ly threw aside all restraints, openly declared themselves deists, atheists* 
 iuc., and to their abominable blasphemy and infidelity we may rea- 
 sonably impute many of the evils which marked those dreadful times < 
 but, in truth, the history of opinions ceases to be connected after a 
 slhort time with the French revolution. It very soon became a strug-- 
 gle of passions and private interests, and at length terminated in a 
 catastrophe as fatal to the literati as to the throne and the altar. That 
 iatsl instrument, the guillotine, so much spoken of at that time, waft 
 gfained with the blood of gome of those very persons who had corr- 
 tributed most to the advancement of knowledge, and the propagation 
 of liberal ideas. 
 
 19. The impulse, however, was now given to two of the most cur^ 
 aus, ingenious, and inquisitive nations of Europe, and nothing could 
 possibly exceed the rapidity with which every branch of science has 
 unee been cultivated ; in Britain, constantly with more steadiness, 
 gravity, and judgment, than in France, though not with more zeal and 
 iretirity. The Germans, in the mean while, in the northern parti 
 more particularly, seem to have devoted their time to studies of 
 rather a different description, being known chiefly for works of in~ 
 tense research and most profound learning. Experimental philosophy, 
 natural history, and chemistry, have indeed been also cultivated by 
 (hem with considerable success ; but in works of fancy, wit, and 
 humour, they hare not acquired so much credit as their neighbours. 
 A singular disposition to indulge in tales of wonder, chivalry, and 
 knight-errantry, ha» been manifested in most of their works of imagi- 
 nation ; and in metaphysics, they have produced systems, which, white 
 they betray an extraordinary talent for the investigation of such ab- 
 struse subjects, are certainly more to be admired for their ingenuity 
 than their utility. 
 
 £0. No country in Europe, perhaps, can have undergone greater 
 Improvements, during the period of which we have been treating, than 
 Russia ; but her improvement has not been so much progressive as 
 sudden. The mighty genius of Peter the great determined him to 
 introduce his own extensive empire at once into the commonwealth of 
 Europe ; and, instead of waiting to give his subjects a capacity for 
 improving themselves, as other nations had done, he eagerly adopted 
 all that had been discovered elsewhere, and converted his rude peonl© 
 Into a civilized nation, just as far as such methods could reach. Itie 
 taught them to adopt and imitate what they were as yet in no condi- 
 tion to invent, or even improve, and left it to his successors to fill up 
 !h* gaps that might remain unprovided for at the time of his death* 
 His subjects, or rather slaves, obeyed his dictates, and have continued 
 since to learn from their neighbours, till they have attained to such 
 proficiency in the arts of life, as to be no longer regarded as a rude oj 
 ignorant people, though all the other countries of Europe had the stall 
 ojf them till the very close of the seventeenth century. 
 
 21. Peter the great had, in a small compass of time, some very 
 weak and some very wise successors. The former have not beer> 
 suffered to stand long in the way of the latter, and though their re- 
 moral has savoured little of the civilization and improvement of which 
 we have been speaking, it cannot be denied that Russia has been pse* 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 4T9 
 
 ♦Wrted by many singular occurrences from relapsing into her fornxrt 
 rtate of rudeness and barbarity. The extremes of magnificence and 
 rudeness, indeed, are too often found to meet ; and the middle class 
 haa by no means yet acquired that importance in society which is 3D 
 essential to every well-regulated government. The state of things 
 still exhibits too much of the old narrow line of distinction, o( lords 
 and vassals ; nevertheless, Russia has obtained much, and advanced 
 considerably. Where, little more than a century a^o, wolves fed and 
 iought their prey, an immense and magnificent city and metropolis 
 now stands, thronged with inhabitants from all parts of the globe ; bul 
 perhaps it would be well if she would consent to step back and give a 
 solid and more natural base to her acquirements. The system of 
 adoption and imitation has brought her to a, state rather of superficial 
 than of real greatness. She has had her universities before .he* 
 schools ; but it could not well be otherwise in so sudden an improve 
 ment : much remains to be done before the nation at large, in its «e& 
 eral relations, social and political, can be said to be really and effitc&j* 
 ally civilized. 
 
 22. Sweden, during the eighteenth century, produced many eminsrrt 
 men, and contributed largely to the advancement of science. It may 
 be sufficient to mention, in proof of this, the names of Linnaeus, Wal* 
 lerius, Cronstadt, Bergman, Scheele, Thunberg, and Sparrman. 
 
 2S. The Danes have not been idle, but have encouraged in many 
 ways the promotion of literature and philosophy ; mathematics and 
 astronomy, zoology, botany, and other sciences, have been cultivated 
 with good success ; and many splendid works are extant, that reflect 
 great credit on the spirit and ardour of the government, as well as of 
 individuals, and the learned societies instituted and established there. 
 
 DISCOVERIES AND INVENTIONS. 
 
 1. Many new discoveries and inventions of lasting benefit to man* 
 kind, as well as many most essential improvements of old inventions 
 and discoveries, have marked the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries ; 
 some of the most remarkable of which it will be sufficient merely to 
 name, as they are already become too common and familiar to need 
 explanation ; such as inoculation, and much more recently, vaccina- 
 lion ; steam-engines and steam-boats ; printing of linen and cotton 
 clotlis ; paper for rooms ; Jigurcd silks and carpets ; spinning mo 
 ehines ; stereotype printing, and lithographic engraving ; inusical 
 types; porcelain and pottery; particularly Welch and iron-stone china t, 
 Ughining conductors-; time-pieces ; pneumatic, electrical, and galvanic 
 apparatus ; life-boats and life-preservers ; the speaking-trumpet, safe- 
 ty-lamp, telegraphs, gas-lights, panoramas, balloons, reflecting and 
 achromatic telescopes, concave mirrors, with various other optical anil 
 astronomical instruments. 
 
 2. Laws and governments have been advancing towards a greater 
 degree of perfection, though in many countries veiy slowly, and 
 manifestly under difficulties and impediments which time only can 
 remove. The French revolution opened people's eyes to ancient 
 abuses ; but by inducing all the evils and horrors of anarchy, did by 
 do mvians accomplish so much for real liberty, as might have been 
 wished and expected ; like other tumultuary revolutions, it terminated 
 in a military despotism, and its effects on the continent of Europe 
 have been hitherto partial, and apparently of much less importance as 
 
4t0 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 to the actual amelioration of things than many- persons expected. SfiD 
 ifre may justly enumerate among the changes conducive to the future 
 benefit, comfort, and happiness of mankind, the steps taking in se^ 
 end states to restore or establish the representative system ofgoven> 
 ment ; the dissolution of many monastic institutions, and feudal priv- 
 ileges ; the check that has been given to arbitrary imprisonment, 
 torture, the horrors of the inquisition, and the African slave-trade ; 
 the improvements that have taken place, principally through the in- 
 terposition of our benevolent countryman, Mr. Howard, in the man- 
 agement of prisons, and the extraordinary steps lately taken, especial- 
 ly in the British dominions, for the better education of the poor and 
 dieir instruction in religion. 
 
 3. It would be vain indeed to attempt to enumerate the astonishing 
 additions that have been made within these few years, to the public 
 establishments for the promotion of knowledge, the advancement of 
 professional skill, and the relief of the necessities of mankind. Phi!*- 
 ogophical societies of all descriptions have been formed in various 
 parts, under the most favourable circumstances of support and encoui*- 
 agement. The propagation of Christianity has been attended to, and 
 promoted with extraordinary zeal, not only by individuals, but by 
 missionary and Bible-societies, far too numerous to mention. Every 
 description of medical, chirurgical, and other assistance, has been 
 furnished to the poor, by a most extraordinary increase of hospital^ 
 and infirmaries, dispensaries, asylums, and charity-schools. The 
 traval and military professions have had the benefit conferred on them 
 of new and distinct academies, including a charitable provision for the 
 children of those who have perished in either service. The improved 
 state of chemistry and mechanical skill, has advanced many arts to a 
 very high degree of perfection, and much assisted both the manufac- 
 turing and agricultural industry ; nor should we omit to mention, as 
 among the improvements of latter years, by which our own country in 
 particular has been benefited in the highest degree, the amendment 
 of the public roads, the increased means and facilities of public con- 
 veyance and communication, and the advancement of inland navigation. 
 
 RELIGION. 
 
 I . Iff regard to religion, from the close of the seventeenth century 
 to the year 1,820, we may remark that paganism continues to prevail 
 over the greater part of Asia, Africa, and the new discovered islands, 
 ?» well as among the Indians of America, North and South, fin the 
 settlements of the Spaniards and Portuguese, the Roman Catholic re- 
 ligion has been introduced of course.) Mahometanism prevails in 
 some parts of India, in Persia, Arabia, Egypt, the States of Barbary, 
 Syria, afnd Turkey. The Jews continue dispersed over every part of* 
 the world, but in a state and condition far better than was formerly 
 the case ; in Europe they are no' longer exposed to cruel and wanton 
 acts of oppression and persecution, and in some countries they have 
 obtained important privileges. In Abyssinia the majority of the 
 people are said to be christians, and throughout the whole of th<? Eu- 
 ropean settlements of North America, Christianity is the received re*» 
 ligion, though under a variety of denominations, — Congregationalists, 
 Presbyterians, Dutch reformed church, Episcopalians, Baptists, Qua* 
 kers, Methodists, Roman Catholics, German Lutherans, German Cal- 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 411 
 
 rmists, Moravians, Tunkers, Mennonists, Universalist3, Swedenbof- 
 gians, and Shakers. 
 
 2. In regard to religion or Christianity, on the continent of Europe, 
 it has been already shown what rude attacks it had to sustain, duriDg 
 the course and progress of the French revolution. Deism and even 
 atheism were openly avowed in their national assemblies ; the im- 
 mortality of the soul and resurrection of the body scouted at, and 
 death pronounced to be an eternal sleep. Paganism was in some de- 
 gree revived, the tree of liberty substituted for the cross, and the 
 goddess of reason elevated above the God of Christians. During toe 
 directorial and consular governments, however, Catholicism was m- 
 
 tored, but under very altered circumstances ; without its accompmi- 
 ments of monasteries and nunneries, and very much detached Irom 
 the sway and authority of the papal see. 
 
 3. The protestant churches, ot all sects and denominations, kave 
 done much, as was before observed, by missions in every direction, to 
 spread the knowledge of Christianity, but seldom with that cordi»lity 
 and unanimity that might have been wished, and which could not 
 have failed to have given greater effect to their exertions. Among 
 those who have appeared most zealous, though not most discreet^ we 
 may reckon the Moravians and .Methodists; two sects or patties, 
 whose most avowed object it has been to stem the torrent of vice and 
 corruption, prevailing amongst professed christians. The metho-lista 
 have generally called themselves of the church of England, though ha 
 many material respects they appear to have deviated from it, both in 
 doctrine and discipline, and have for some time been divided amorgst 
 themselves into two great parties, one espousing the Calvinistic, lne 
 other the Arminian, tenets. It is common to refer the origin of 
 Methodism to the year 1,729, when the two brothers, John and Charles 
 Wesley, took the lead of those who adhered to the Arminian doctrine*, 
 Mr. George Whitefield, who joined them in 1,735, became, in 1,7*1, 
 the head of the Calvinistic division. 
 
 4. The modem Moravians take their date from the year 1,789, 
 when they first settled at Hernhut, in Upper Lusatia, on the esjatei 
 of Nicholas Lewis, count of Zinzendorf, who, in 1,735, became their 
 bishop. They profess to receive the Augsburg confession ; are meet 
 and quiet in their habits and principles, but have at times adopted a 
 strange phraseology, which was thought to affect their moral character, 
 and procured them many enemies. As missionaries they have been 
 extremely active, particularly in the West Indies and America : they 
 profess to be the remains of the Hussites. 
 
 5. The emperor Joseph II. relieved his protestant subjects of all 
 denominations from many galling restrictions, and greatiy abridged 
 the power of the pope. Many catholic princes, even the ecclesiasti- 
 cal states, followed his example in various particulars. In favouring, 
 however, an unlimited freedom of opinion at such a moment, he open* 
 ed the door to the introduction of deistical principles, and facilitated 
 the formation of a sect of illuminati, which, during the course and 
 progress of the French revolution, taught and disseminated doctrines 
 adverse in the highest degree to the order of civil society, the rights 
 of property, and the christian faith. 
 
 6. The papal authority, during the latter years of the period undei 
 discussion, has been greatly abridged in all countries heretofore sub- 
 ject to it ; even in Spain, Portugal , Italy, and Sicily ; nor is it likely 
 to be recovered, notwithstanding the attempts lately made to restont 
 partially the order of Jesuits and the inquisition. Of the mdignittefl 
 
 N n 
 
4S* MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 offered to the last and present pope by the French we hare epokCD 
 elsewhere. At one time they so entirely took the reins of government 
 at Rome into their own hands, that the pope and cardinals weis 
 obliged to take flight, in which situation Pius VI. died. His suc- 
 cessor, Pius VII., since the final overthrow of Buonaparte, has lired 
 in peace and quietness, in his capital, exercising, notwithstanding his 
 recall of the Jesuits, a very tolerant and inoffensive sway. It is, how- 
 ever, to be lamented, that, in the instance of the pope, as well as of 
 the king of Naples, and others, their resentment of the French usur- 
 pations on their return to their dominions has been carried so far as to 
 abrogate every ordinance of the French Emperor, however wise or 
 salutary, and even to undo what had been begun, manifestly tending 
 to the improvement of their respective countries. 
 
 HISTORY, POLITE LITERATURE, FINE ARTS, &c. 
 
 1. We fee! ourselves rather at a loss to give any satisfactory account 
 of the progress that has been made in the branches of knowledge 
 pointed out by the title of this section : it would far exceed our limits 
 ■c> attempt to enumerate the many historical works that have been pub- 
 lished during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, or to go into any 
 regular discussion of the particular merits of the several poets, paint- 
 ers, musicians, philosophers, philologists, &c. &c, who may be said to 
 have distinguished themselves in the period of which we have been 
 JjPeating. 'i o do this with any degree of justice, we should be oblig*- 
 ed, perhaps, to divide them into many classes, and assign to the sev- 
 eral individuals of the long list that might be produced, their respec- 
 tive ranks and stations, from the highest degree of perfection to medi- 
 ocrity, or lower ; Ave should have to draw a comparison between them 
 and their predecessors, and consider, in various points of view, every 
 advance they had made in their different callings, studies, and pur- 
 suits : but such a discussion would be quite unsuitable to a work like 
 the present. Many of those, indeed, who have contributed to enlaige 
 the boundaries of knowledge during the eighteenth and nineteenth 
 centuries, have been already mentioned ; but there are still son*; 
 names which almost demand our notice, before >ve entirely close this 
 volume. It should, however, be observed, that many very eminent 
 persons, who lived till long after the commencement of the eighteenth 
 century, belong to a different period, having been the ornaments of 
 what is called the age of Louis XIV. It may be best, perhaps, to 
 arrange the few we feel bound to select from the great mass of au- 
 thors, artists, &c, according to their countries. 
 
 2. In Germany the following may be said to have acquired a high 
 reputation: Mascov, Mosheim, Pieffel, Herder, Muller, in History ; 
 Schiller in History and Tragedy; Klopstock, Gesner, Wieland, 
 Kotzebue, Goethe, in Poetry and Dramatic writing; in Painting:, 
 Mengs ; Ingenhouz in Chemistry, and Bode in Astronmny ; Handel, 
 Gluck, Haydn, and Mozart, in Music; Lavater in the fanciful science 
 of Physiognomy. Even the names of Mesmer, Mainaduc, Gall, and 
 Spurzheim, may require to be mentioned, as having for some time, in 
 an extraordinary manner, amazed the ignorant, and deceived the 
 credulous, by their strange systems of Animal Magnetism and 
 Craniology. 
 
 3. In France, Camlet, Montfaucon, the Count de Caylus, Rollin- 
 Vertot, Rapin, Goguet, Millot, Raynal, Mably, and the Abbe Bar- 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 423 
 
 thelemy, particularly distinguished themselves in the line of History 
 and Antiquities ; to whom we may now add, perhaps with reason and 
 justice, Mad. de Stael, and M. La Cretelle. M.Bailly, one of the 
 victims of the Revolution, rendered himself conspicuous by his very 
 curious History of Astronomy, and other works. Many of his con- 
 temporaries, who applied themselves to other branches of science, 
 have been already mentioned. Some ot them also fell by the hands 
 of the public executioner, during the dreadful period of the Revolu- 
 tion. Their most celebrated painter, however, David, escaped, but 
 with more reputation as an artist than as a man ; for his own proceed- 
 ings as a revolutionist, were base and sanguinary. 
 
 4. In Great Britain, we have to boast, in the line of History, of the 
 names of Robertson, Watson, Hume, Gibbon. Lyttelton, Goldsmith, 
 floscoc, Russell, Gillies, Ferguson, Stuart, Mitford ; in Lara', of Sir 
 William Blackstone, whose Commentaries, for elegance and perspi- 
 cuity of diction, stand unrivalled. Bolingbroke and Swift are justly 
 held to have improved t'.ie English language, in the two main articles 
 erf energy and beauty. The style of Dr. Johnson is less chaste, 
 though, perhaps, equally forcible. The name of Adam Smith will 
 probably descend to the latest posterity, for his masterly work on the 
 wealth of nations, a subject in which he seems almost to have taken 
 the lead, as an original writer. In Painting, the names of Hogarth, 
 Reynalds, and West, stand high for originality, taste, conception, and 
 expression ; in Metaphysics, Hume, Hartley, Berkeley, Reid, Baxter, 
 and Priestley, have distinguished themselves. To the Poets already 
 mentioned we must add Gay, Young, Shenstone, Collins, Gray, Ma- 
 son, Cowper, Crabbe, Scott, Byron ; as Novelists, Richardson, Smol- 
 lett, Fielding, Burney, Edgeworth, &.c. Garp'ck and Siddons have 
 conferred immortal honour on the English Stage. 
 
 5. Italy, though labouring under great disadvantages, has been by 
 no means deficient in learned and scientific persons, since the close of 
 the seventeenth century. In history and antiquities, in poetry, dra- 
 matic works, natural history, drawing, engraving, and sculpture, tl>e 
 following names richly deserve to be delivered dow r n to posterity : 
 Baronius, Giannone, Muratori, Maffei, Metastasio, Goldoni, Algarotti, 
 Gozzi, Tiraboschi,Beccaria, Spallanzani, Alfieri, Bartolozzi, Cipriani, 
 Canova. France and Italy seem to have a joint claim to a living 
 author of considerable fame, M. Simondes de Sismondi. 
 
 TREATY OF VIENNA, 1,815. 
 
 1. As Europe, generally speaking, may be said to continue at this 
 moment in the state in which it was left by the above treaty, we shall 
 conclude with a brief sketch of the changes that took place at that 
 memorable period. The duchy of Warsaw was given to the emperor 
 of Russia, with permission to assume the titles of czar and king of 
 Poland, some parts, however, being secured to Prussia, under the title 
 of grand Duchy of Posen. The town of Cracow, in Little Poland, 
 on the banks of the Vistula, was declared to be for ever a free, in- 
 dependent, and strictly neutral city, under the protection of Austria, 
 Russia, and Prussia. The king of Saxony was confirmed in his regal 
 titles, but at the price of many important cessions to Prussia, princi- 
 pally that of the duchy of Saxony. Prussia, besides, recovered 
 Dantzic, Quedlinburg, and many other places ; yielding, however, to 
 the king of Great Britain, now become king of Hanover also, many 
 
424 UNITED STATES. 
 
 lordships and principalities, in other parts of Germany. A new Ger- 
 manic confederation was established, the members of which were 
 declared to be equal in their rights, and bound to render to each other 
 mutual assistance. Their affairs to be confided, first to a federative 
 diet, amounting to seventeen votes ; and, 2dly, to a general assembly, 
 forming sixty-nine votes : who are to decide upon all regulations 
 touching the fundamental laws of the confederation. The diet to 
 assemble at Frankfort on the Maine, and Austria to preside. The 
 three important fortresses of Landau, Mentz, and Luxembourg, being 
 assigned over to the confederation. 
 
 2. The united provinces of the Netherlands, late the Belgic states, 
 were formed into a kingdom, jointly with those of Holland, in favour 
 of the house of Orange Nassau, late stadtholders ; and to the same 
 sovereign was granted the duchy of Luxembourg, with the title of 
 grand duke. 
 
 3. The integrity of the nineteen cantons of Switzerland was ac- 
 knowledged, and guarantied ; and Geneva, for the first time, consti- 
 tuted a canton ot the Helvetic confederacy. The states of Genoa 
 were annexed to the kingdom of Sardinia, in the place of many re- 
 nunciations on the part of the latter power, principally in favour of 
 Geneva. The grand duchy of Tuscany was settled on the archduke 
 Ferdinand of Austria ; and king Ferdinand the IVth was restored to 
 the sovereignty of the Two Sicilies. 
 
 PART FOURTH. 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 SECTION I, 
 
 DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 
 
 1. It was somewhat natural that the distinguished author of the 
 Elements of History should almost exclusively confine himself to the 
 great events of the old world. It will be observed that the discovery 
 of America by Columbus embraces only a short space, (see Section 
 XLI.) and that North America, the first settlement of the United 
 States, the revolution and severance of those states from the crown of 
 Great Britain, and the more recent dispute of the States with Great 
 Britain, are dismissed by both authors in a few words. (See Sectioi 
 XLIL, and Sections VIII. and XX. of the Continuation.) This con- 
 sideration will suggest the propriety of a more particular narration ol 
 the events which relate to the United States, for whose particular use 
 the present edition of this work is intended. 
 
UNITED STATES. 42b 
 
 2. The honour of accomplishing an exploit so sublime as that of the 
 discovery of this western hemisphere, "was gained by Christopher 
 Columbus. This great man, a native of Genoa, descended from a 
 respectable family, was well qualified by nature and education to be- 
 come distinguished on the ocean. Ardently inclined towards that 
 clement, he went to sea at the age of fourteen. After a variety of 
 adventures serving to enlarge his knowledge more than to increase his 
 fortune, he went to Lisbon. Here, having married the daughter of 
 Perestreilo, a Portuguese navigator of much celebrity, his favourite 
 ; : ssion of making discoveries was rendered more irresistible by read- 
 ing the journals of his father-in-law, which had fallen into his hands. 
 
 3, The attention of the Portuguese was at that time directed to the 
 finding a passage by water to the East Indies ; and they intended to 
 accomplish this purpose by passing to the south until they reached the 
 southern extremity of Africa, and then taking an easterly course. 
 The spherical figure of the earth was then known, and its magnitude 
 had been ascertained with some good degree of accuracy ; and the 
 active mind of Columbus, after having attentively compared the 
 observations of modern navigators with the conjectures of the ancients, 
 at last came to the conclusion, that, by sailing directly to the west 
 
 ],r, countries, which it was likely formed a part of the great continent 
 pf Asia, must be discovered. His opinion was strengthened by the 
 discovery, after a long course of westerly wind, of pieces of carve*, 
 wood, trees, and canes, and dead bodies, the natives of another clime 
 driven on the shores of the Madeira isles and the Azores. 
 
 4, Fully satisfied with the truth of his system, Columbus was im 
 patient to bring it to the test of experiment. He first made applica- 
 T ion to the senate of Genoa for patronage, desirous that his native 
 country should reap the fruits of his labour and ingenuity ; but here 
 his proposals were rejected as the dream of a chimerical projector 
 Mot discouraged by this repulse, he laid his plans before John kinf 
 of Portugal, who basely attempted a fraud on him, by despatching s 
 vessel in pursuit of the discovery, after drawing from Columbus af» 
 
 iniBrmatopn which treachery could devise. The pilot selected foi 
 this purpose, being no less deficient in courage than were his em- 
 ployers in dignity and justice, returned to Lisbon without making an} 
 discover}'. 
 
 5. Disgusted with the treachery, Columbus instantly went to Spain, 
 and laid his plan before Ferdinand and Isabella, at the same time thai 
 he sent his brother Bartholomew to England, for the purpose of nego- 
 tiating for the patronage of Henry Vll. , reported to be one of the 
 most sagacious and opulent princes of the age. Accident deprived 
 England of the renown of this discovery ; the brother of Columbus 
 on his way being captured by pirates, and detained in captivity many 
 years : although arriving in England in great indigence, Henry re- 
 ceived the overtures of Columbus more favourably than any other 
 monarch, and invited him to that country. But it was too late. The 
 great discoverer, after combating many and sore disappointments^ 
 succeeded at length in securing the Spanish court, aided by two rich, 
 generous, and vigilant patrons, Quintanella and Santangel. Ferdinand 
 was still restrained by his characteristic caution and reserve ; but 
 Isabella, alive to the glory which must accrue from the accomplish- 
 ment of so grand an enterprise, declared her resolution to employ 
 Columbus ; and, in the low state of her finances, consequent on a long 
 and serious contest with the Moors, who. had then but just been ex- 
 pelled from Spain, offered to pledge her jewels in order to complete 
 
 Nn2 54 
 
42S UNITED STATES. 
 
 the preparations of the voyage : Santangel however relieved the diffi* 
 culty, by advancing from his private purse the necessary sum. 
 
 6. April 17, 1,492, more than seven years after the date of his first 
 application, an agreement with Columbus was concluded. The ex- 
 pedition was fitted out at Palos, a small town of the province of 
 Andalusia ; but it was badly suited to the service for which it was 
 intended. It consisted of three vessels, the Santa Maria, the Pinta, 
 and the Nigna — the first of inconsiderable burthen commanded by 
 Columbus as admiral ; and the two last, not superior in size to large 
 boats, by two brothers, Martin and Vincent Pinzon : the whole pro- 
 vided with ninety men, and victualled for twelve months. 
 
 7. August 3, Columbus set sail. He touched at the Canary islands, 
 where he refitted his crazy vessels, and departed from Gornera, 
 Sept. 6. Here he took his course due west, leaving the track of all 
 former navigators, and stretched boldly into seas unknown. Very 
 soon his sailors, alarmed at the distance they had proceeded without 
 finding the expected land, began to mutiny, and placed Columbus in a 
 situation in which any other man would have yielded to their entreaties 
 to return. Feitile in expedients, possessing a thorough knowledge of 
 mankind, an insinuating address, and a happy talent at governing, he 
 succeeded day after day in beguiling the discontented seamen far 
 beyond their own determinations, until every succeeding hour present- 
 ed stronger and stronger indications that land could be at no g;cat 
 distance. For some days the sounding line had reached the bottom ; 
 the flocks of birds increased, and some of them of a kind supptHiI to 
 fly not far from shore ; the clouds around the sun assumed a i,cw 
 appearance ; the air was more mild, and, during the night, the w ind 
 became unequal and variable. On the evening of Oct. 11, he ordered 
 the ships to lie to, in the fear of running ashore. That night Colum- 
 bus observed a light, which seemed to be carried about from place to 
 place ; and a little after midnight, was heard from the Pinta the joyful 
 cry of Land ! 
 
 8. When the morning dawned, an island was seen about two league* 
 to the north : its verdant fields were well stored with wood, presentii.-g 
 the aspect of a delightful country. All the boats were immediately 
 manned and armed. The Spaniards rowed towards the shore with 
 their colours displayed. As they approached the beach, they saw it 
 covered with a multitude of people, whose attitudes and gestures dis- 
 covered wonder and amazement. Columbus was the first who set toot 
 on this new world which he had discovered. His men lollowed ; and 
 all kneeling, kissed the ground that they had long desired, but never 
 expected to behold : here he erected a crucifix, returned thanks to 
 God, and with the usual formalities took possession of the countiy. 
 To this island, called by the natives Guanahana, Columbus gave the 
 name of St. Salvador : it is one of the large cluster called the Baha- 
 mas, more than three thousand miles west, but only four degrees south 
 of Gomera, the port of the Canaries which he last left. 
 
 9. After discovering several other islands, amongst which Were 
 Cuba and Hayti ; and using every precaution to secure the benefit of 
 a first discovery, by erecting a fort and leaving a party of men on the 
 island of Hayti ; on the 4th of January, 1,493, Columbus set sail for 
 Europe. The shattered condition of his vessels would have rendered 
 (he voyage at any time unsafe ; but a succession of storms had well 
 nigh committed to the bosom of the deep, and with it the secret of 
 his discovery, his little flotilla. The whole, however, arrived. 
 
 10. At first it was generally supposed, from a similarity in tb* 
 
UNITED STATES. 427 
 
 productions, that tht discovered country was a part of those vast re- 
 gions 6{ Asia, comprehended under the general name of India. The 
 name of India was given to it by Ferdinand and Isabella ; and, after 
 the error which gave rise to the opinion was detected, the name ot 
 West Indies has remained, and the aborigines are called Indians. 
 
 11. In 1,498, Columbus, on his third voyage, reached the continent 
 and landed in several places in the provinces of Paria and Cumana. 
 But he was deprived of the honour of associating hi* name with this 
 vast portion of the earth, being supplanted by Amerigo Vespucci, a 
 native of Florence, who, in 1,499, went on a voyage to America, and 
 who published an account of his adventures so ingeniously framed as 
 to make it appear that he had the glory of hist discovering the conti- 
 nent of the new world. 
 
 12. On the 20th of November, 1,497, Vasco de Gama, employed by 
 the king of Portugal, first doubled the Cape of Good Hope, which 
 opened a passage to the East Indies ; and twenty-three years after 
 the first discovery of America by Columbus, Magellan, a native of 
 Portugal, in the service of Spain, penetrated into the Pacific ocean, 
 by the strait which bears his name, situated at the southern extremity 
 of the American continent. 
 
 SECTION II. 
 DISCOVERIES BY THE ENGLISH. SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIA. 
 
 1. The English were the second people that discovered the new 
 world, and the first that discovered the continent of America. On the 
 24th of June, 1,497, Giovanni Caboto, (or Cabot,) and his son Sebas- 
 tian, who w r ere commissioned by Henry VIII. to sail in quest of new 
 countries, discovered a large island, to which they gave the name ol 
 Prima Vesta, or first seen ; now called Newfoundland. From this, 
 they steered to the north, in search of a passage to India ; but finding 
 no appearance of a passage, they tacked about, and ran as far a» 
 Florida, the island of Cuba, as he relates, being on his left. 
 
 2. On the accession of Elizabeth to the crown of England, a period 
 commenced, highly auspicious tc mercantile extension. The coast of 
 Labrador was explored by Martin Frobisher, under her auspices, in 
 the years 1,576 '7-'8 ; and sir Francis Drake, about this time, accom- 
 plished his celebrated voyage around the globe. 
 
 3. In 1,534, sir Walter Raleigh, a favourite at that time of the 
 queen, despatched two small vessels, under the command of Philip 
 Amidas and Arthur Barlow T , which reached the coast of North Carolina 
 on the 4th of July, making their passage in sixty-seven days by way 
 of the Canary islands and the West Indies. On their return Amidas 
 and Barlow gave a splendid description of the country* ; of its beauty, 
 fertility, mildness of climate, and serenity of atmosphere ; and Eliz- 
 abeth gave to the country the name of Virginia, as a memorial that 
 this happy land was discovered under a maiden queen. 
 
 4. In 1,585, sir Walter Raleigh fitted out a squadron of seven small 
 vessels, with one hundred and eighty adventurers, which sailed from 
 Plymouth, under the command of sir Richard Greenville. This 
 colony was left on the island of Roanoke, under the care of captain 
 Laos ; but through bad management, turning all their attention to the 
 
423 UNITED STATES. 
 
 search for gold and silver, they were soon assailed by a two-fold 
 calamity, the hostility of the natives and the prospect of famine. Sir 
 Francis Drake, on his return from the West Indies, at the unanimous 
 request of the colonists, carried them back to England, and thus ended 
 the. ill-conducted experiment, after a trial of nine months. 
 
 5. Early in the following year, three more vessels arrived at the 
 same spot, with one hundred and fifty settlers. In about one month 
 sifter, the daughter of captain White, who commanded the expeditions, 
 end the wife of Ananias Dare, one of his assistants, gave birth to the 
 first English female child, which was named Virginia. Misfortune 
 putsuefif this infant settlement. The threatened Spanish armada 
 ergrossing the attention of the parent country, the colony received no 
 suj plfes, and the inhabitants perished miserably by famine, or by the 
 hinds of their surrounding enemies. 
 
 6. Sir Walter Raleigh being engaged in other ambitious under- 
 takings, so vast and various as were beyond his power to accomplish. 
 find becoming cold to the unprofitable scheme of effecting settlements 
 id America, assigned his interest in that country to sir Thomas Smith 
 ;:rA a company of merchants in London, in 1,596. These were satid- 
 Gocl for the present to pursue a petty traffic with the natives, and made 
 no attempt to take possession of the soil. 
 
 7. But in the succeeding reign of James, who having concluded an 
 r^micable treaty with Spain, and terminated a tedious war, the period 
 kVas more auspicious for settlements in America. The attention of tire 
 monarch was called to this subject by the efforts of distinguished 
 geographers and men of science. James divided into districts of 
 nearly equal extent, that portion of North America which stretches 
 (Vom the 34th to the 45th degree of north latitude, excep^g the 
 territory of any other christian prince or people already occupied ; 
 one called the First, or South Colony, the other the Second, pi North 
 Colon}' of Virginia. In 1,606, he authorized certain gentlemen, most- 
 ly residents of London, to settle in a limited district of the former ; 
 : n equal extent of the latter he allotted to several gentlemen < 1 
 ftristu.lj Plymouth, and other parts of the west of England. These 
 u::;i;> laid the first foundation of states which in a few centuries wej* 
 iTestined to become rivals to the mother country in wealth, in science, 
 and in power. The supreme government of the colonies was vested 
 iii a council resident in England, to be nominated by the king : the 
 subordinate jurisdiction in a council which was to reside in America, 
 and also to he named by the crown, and act conformably to its in* 
 st ructions. Whatever was required for their sustenance, or for the 
 support of commerce, he permitted to be shipped from England fre« 
 of duty, during the space of seven years ; and as an incitement to in- 
 dustry, granted them the liberty of trading with other nations, appro- 
 priating the duties to be laid on foreign traffic for twenty -one years, a* 
 a fund tor their exclusive benefit. 
 
 v. A vessel of one hundred tons, and two barks, under the command 
 of captain Newport, sailed with one hundred and five men, destined 
 to remain in the country : among these was a Mr. Percy, brother of ths 
 earl of Northumberland, and several officers who had served with rep- 
 utation in the preceding reign. The first land that was discovered was 
 a promontory, the southern"boundary of the Chesapeake, April, 1,607« 
 this was named cape Henry, in honour of the prince of Wales. The 
 gpaoious inlet was entered, and the expedition coasted the southern 
 shore, and up a river sixty miles, called by the natives Powhatan, to 
 which the English gave the name of James river* in honour of their 
 
UNITED STATES. 429 
 
 sovereign. Here a site was fixed for the infant settlement, which wa* 
 Darned James Town. 
 
 9. Imprudent in their conduct towards the natives, this feeble socie- 
 ty was early involved in war. Scarcity of provisions introduced dis»* 
 eases ; and in a few months half their original number was swept away, 
 and the remainder left sickly and dejected. 
 
 10. The government soon devolved on captain John Smith, who 
 was originally one of the council appointed by the king, but who had 
 unjustly been deprived of his authority by the colonists. This gentle- 
 man, who was emphatically the father of Virginia, was a native of 
 Lincolnshire : he had distinguished himself in feats of courage and 
 chivalry, particularly while engaged in the Hungarian army against 
 the Turks. His undaunted temper, deeply tinctured with the ro- 
 mantic spirit of the times, was happily adapted to the present trying 
 situation of the colony. Soon after he had been called as their leader, 
 while hunting in the woods, he was attacked by two hundred Indians, 
 who poured in upon him a continued flight of arrows. After perform- 
 ing wonderful feats, he sunk in the unequal contest, and was made a 
 prisoner. Charmed by his arts and his valour, they released him 
 from captivity. Afterwards he was beset by three hundred more of 
 these ferocious people, pursued into a marsh, and, after he had thrown 
 away his arms, which he could no longer use by reason of the cold, k- 
 was taken and carried in triumph to Powhatan, the principal chieftain 
 of Virginia. Here the doom of death was pronounced upon him, and 
 he was about to receive the fatal blow, when the favourite daughter of 
 Powhatan, interposed in his behalf. This amiable child (not tlreu 
 thirteen years of age) not only prevented the execution of Smith by 
 her entreaties and tears, but caused him to be set at liberty, and seni 
 him, from time to time, seasonable presents of provisions. 
 
 11. The colony was now reduced to thirty-eight persons. Soon 
 after, however, succours arrived from England, and an addition of oije 
 hundred new planters was added to their number. But the culture of 
 the land, and other useful employments, 'were neglected, in the futile 
 idea that gold had been discovered issuing from a small stream which 
 emptied into James river. The effects of the delusion were soor 
 severely felt in the prospect of approaching famine. In the hope of 
 obtaining relief, Smith, in a small open boat, and with a feeble crew, 
 went in search of aid from the Indians. In two different excursions, 
 that occupied upwards of four months, he visited all the countries ori 
 the eastern and western shores of the Chesapeake bay, entering tht. v 
 principal creeks, and tracing the rivers as far as their tails, and ob- 
 tained a supply of food for the suffering colony. In these tours, 1m 
 sailed upwards of three thousand miles, amidst almost incredible 
 hardships, and brought back with him an account of that large tract of 
 country, now comprehended in the two states of Virginia and Mary- 
 land, so full and correct, that his map is the original from which all 
 subsequent delineations have been formed until lately. 
 
 12. Aboutthis reriod, the old charter being found inconvenient and 
 oppressive, a new charter was granted by James, by which the boun- 
 daries of the colony were enlarged ; the council in Virginia was abolish> 
 ed, and the government vested entirely in one residing in London, the 
 members of which were to be chosen by the proprietors, and these to 
 nominate a governor, who was to reside in Virginia and carry their 
 orders into execution. Lord Delaware was at first appointed to thJB 
 office ; but as this nobleman could not immediately leave England, 
 the power was vested in sir Thomas Gates and sir George Somcrt, 
 
430 UNITED STATES. 
 
 ttfco were despatched from England with five hundred planters, A 
 violent hurricane separated the fleet on their way ; and the ships with- 
 out the officers only arrived at James Town. Presently every thin? 
 was reduced to a state of anarchy ; captain Smith, at once the shield 
 and the sword of the colony, being disabled by an accidental explosion 
 of gun-powder, the wretchedness which followed is beyond descrip- 
 tion : and the arrival of Gates and Somers, who had been cast away 
 cm one of the Bermuda islands, although it saved the wretched sur- 
 \ Ivors at James Town from immediate death, was unable to preserve 
 fhein until the autumn. Nothing remained but to seek immediate 
 assistance ; and with only sixteen days' provision, the colony set sail, 
 in hopes of reaching the banks of Newfoundland, and getting relief. 
 But before they had arrived at the mouth of the river, they met lord 
 Delaware, who brought a large supply of sustenance, new settlers, 
 and every thing requisite either for cultivation or defence. Under 
 fi*e skilful administration of this nobleman, the colony began, once 
 more, to assume a promising appearance. He was succeeded by ^ir 
 Thomas Dale, who concluded a treaty of friendship with the PgwIkv 
 tans, one of the most powerful and warlike tribes of Virginia. 
 
 . 1.*. Pocahontas, the amiable female who had preserved the life of 
 captain Smith, frequently visited the English settlements ; and during 
 Shis intercourse, she was betrayed on ooard a vessel, and there im- 
 prisoned. Her father, who loved her with the most ardent affection, 
 wa« obliged to discontinue hostilities on such conditions as were dic- 
 tated by his treacherous enemy. She was afterwards solicited by 
 3ir. Rolfc, a respectable planter, in marriage. Powhatan consented, 
 taid the marriage was celebrated with extraordinary pomp. From 
 this time, the most friendly intercourse subsisted between the colonists 
 rvA the Indians. Rolfe and his wife went to England, where, by tbo 
 Wit reduction of captain Smith, Pocahontas, was received by the court 
 with the respect due to her birth ; she was instructed in the christian 
 religion, and publicly baptized. About returning to America, Poca*- 
 hontas died at Gravesend ; leaving one son, from whom are sprung 
 some of the most respectable families of Virginia. 
 
 14. Hitherto no individual right of property in lands was establish- 
 ed : all was holden and dealt out in common. But the governor, m 
 I. fit 6, divided a considerable extent of land into small lots, and grant- 
 <u\ one of these for ever to each individual ; from which period tlw 
 oyiony rapidly extended. The culture of tobacco, since become tlie 
 great staple of Virginia, was introduced ; but the eager demand for 
 the article in England caused for some time a scarcity of food in i\m 
 ctJony. 
 
 15. About this time, a Dutch ship from the coast of Guinea, having 
 Killed up James river, sold to the planters a part of her negroes: 
 which race has been augmented in Virginia by successive importations 
 fend by natural increase, till it forms more than one third part of the 
 population. 
 
 16. In 1,619, sir George Yeardley, the governor impelled by that 
 popular spirit of freedom which has ever been the characteristic of 
 Americans, called the first general assembly which was held in Vir* 
 ginia. At this time eleven corporations sent representatives to the con- 
 vention, which was permitted to assume legislative power, the natural 
 privilege of man. The supreme authority was lodged partly in the 
 governor, partly in a council of state appointed by the company, and 
 in a general assembly, composed of representatives of the people. A 
 natural effect of the happy change was an increase of agricultuno 
 
UNITED STATES. 431 
 
 The company extended the trade of the colony to Holland and othet 
 countries. This measure produced the first difference of sentiment 
 between the colony and the parent state. Jealous at seeing a com- 
 modity, (tobacco,) for which the demand was daily increasing, con- 
 ducted to foreign ports beyond its control, thereby causing a diminu- 
 tion of revenue, the latter endeavoured to check this colonial enterprise, 
 without considering that the restraint was a breach of the sacred prin- 
 ciples of justice. 
 
 17. The suspicion of the monarch James was soon roused, and the 
 charter, by decision of the king's bench, was declared forfeit, and the 
 company dissolved. Charles 1. adopted all his father's maxims in 
 respect to Virginia, which during a great part of his reign knew no 
 other law than the royal will. But the colonists resisting, Charles 
 yielded to the popular voice : lie recalled Harvey, the obnoxious 
 governor, and appointed sir William Berkeley, a man of great abili- 
 ties, prudent, virtuous, and popular ; whose influence was directed m 
 finally restoring to the people much the same share in the govenimejil 
 as they had enjoyed previously to the revocation of the charter. 
 
 18. After the execution of the king, and the establishment of the 
 commonwealth under Cromwell, through the influence of the govemox, 
 the colonists continued to adhere to their loyalty to the king. In 1,651,, 
 the English commonwealth took vigorous measures to reduce the Vi> 
 ginians to obedience. A numerous squadron, with land forces, was 
 despatched for this purpose. Berkeley resisted, but was unable tr» 
 maintain an unequal contest, and was soon defeated. The pcopk* 
 were, however, allowed to retain the privileges of citizens ; but 
 Berkeley retired a« a private citizen. Cromwell's parliament framed 
 acts prohibiting all intercourse between the colonies and foreign states, 
 and allowing no trade but in English ships. On the death of Mathews, 
 the last governor appointed by Cromwell, the Virginians burst out in 
 new violence. They called sir William Berkeley Irom his retirementj 
 boldly erected the royal standard, and proclaimed Charles II., son oi 
 their late monarch, to be their lawful sovereign. Charles was, hov> 
 erer, soon placed on the throne, and the Virginians were thus saved 
 from the chastisement to which they were exposed by their previous 
 declaration in his favour. But the new king and parliament rewarded 
 their fidelity by increasing the restraints upon colonial commerce ! 
 
 13. The number of inhabitants in Virginia in 1,688, exceeded sixty 
 thousand, and its population in the previous twenty-eight years was 
 doubled. In 1,691, the college of William and Mary was founded. 
 To aid in its erection and support, the sovereigns whose name ft 
 bears, gave nearly two thousand pounds out of their private purse, and 
 granted twenty thousand acres of land, and a duty on tobacco, for i's 
 turther encouragement. 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF MASSACHUSETTS, RHODE ISLAND, COM* 
 NECTICUT, NEW HAMPSHIRE, MAINE, MARYLAND, NORTH 
 AND SOUTH CAROLINA, NEW YORK, NEW JERSEY, PENN- 
 SYLVANIA, DELAWARE, AND GEORGIA. 
 
 1. The partition of the great territory of Virginia into North and 
 South colonies has already been mentioned. Still more feeble were 
 
43t UNITED STATES 
 
 (he operations of the Plymouth company, to whom was assigned the 
 conduct of the northern division, although animated by the zeal of sir 
 John Popham, chief justice of England, sir Ferdinando Gorges, and 
 other public spirited gentlemen of the west. 
 
 2. In the year 1,607, the same in which James Town was founded, 
 a small settlement was commenced on the river Sagadahoc, now called 
 the Kennebec ; but this was soon abandoned. Some fishing vessels 
 visited Cape Cod several times ; among them, one commanded by 
 captain Smith, who returned with a high-wrought description of the 
 coast and country : exhibiting a map of the bays, harbours, &c, on 
 which he inscribed " New England ;" the prince of Wales, delighted 
 with the representations of Smith, immediately confirmed the name. 
 
 3. To the operations of religion, rather than to the desire of pecu- 
 niary emolument, are the various settlements of New England indebt- 
 ed tor their origin. The sacred rights of conscience and of private 
 judgment were not then properly understood; nor was the charity 
 and mutual forbearance taught christians by their divine master prac- 
 tised in any country. Every church employed the hand of power in 
 supporting its own doctrines, and opposing the tenets of another. In 
 reforming the rituals and exterior symbols of the church of England, 
 Elizabeth, lest by too wide a departure from the Romish church she 
 might alarm the populace, had allowed many of the ancient ceremonies 
 to remain unaltered. With several of these a large number of her 
 subjects being dissatisfied, they wished to address their Creator ac- 
 cording to their own opinions, but were subjected to very rigorous 
 penalties. Those who dissented from the established church obtained 
 the general name of Puritans, a term applied to them because they 
 wished for a purer form of discipline and worship. Among the most 
 popular and strenuous declaimers against the established church were 
 the Brownists, a sect formed about 1,581, by Robert Brown, who after- 
 wards renounced his principles of separation, and took orders in the 
 church against which he had so loudly declaimed. The Rev. John 
 Robinson, the father of the first settlement of New England, is said to 
 have been a follower of Brown, but afterwards renounced the principles 
 of the Brownists, and became the founder of a new sect, denominated 
 Independents* Mr. Robinson affirmed that all christian congregations 
 were so many independent religious societies, that had a right to be 
 governed by their own laws, independent of any foreign jurisdiction. 
 Being persecuted in England, he, with many others embracing his 
 opinions, removed to Holland, where they formed churches upon their 
 own principles. Remaining there some years, the society were de- 
 sirous to remove to some other place : they turned their thoughts to 
 America, and applied to James, who though he refused to give them 
 any positive assurance of toleration, seems to have intimated some 
 promise of passive indulgence. 
 
 * Br several respectable historians of this country, the Independent* 
 have neen connected with the Brownists, between the opinions and prao 
 ticee of whom was a wide difference. The Independents excelled the 
 Brownists in the moderation of their sentiments, and in the order of their 
 discipline. They possessed candour and charity, believing- that true re- 
 ligion and solid piety might flourish in those communities under the juris- 
 diction of bishops, or the governments of synods or presbyteries. They 
 approved of a regular ministry. While the Brownists allowed promiscu- 
 ously all ranks and orders of men to teach in public, the Independents ie- 
 qui/sd a proper examination of the capacity and talents of their teachers. 
 
UNITED STATES. 435 
 
 4. They readily procured a tract of land from the Plymouth com- 
 pany. One hundred and twenty persons sailed from Plymouth in 
 1,620, their destination being Hudson's river : by some treachery of 
 the Dutch, who then contemplated and afterwards effected a settlement 
 3| that place, they were carried to the north, and landed on cape Cod, 
 ■ ho eleventh of November of that year. They chose for their resi- 
 dence a place called by the Indians Patuxet, to which they gave the 
 name of New Plymouth. Beibre spring, half their number were cut 
 off by famine or disease. In a few days after they landed, captain 
 Standish was engaged in skirmishing with the Indians ; and the many 
 disasters which followed, together with the implacable hostility of the 
 Indians, which always has subsisted, are perhaps more owing to the 
 imprudence of the first settlers, than to the bad disposition of the 
 natives. 
 
 5. This colony, like that of Virginia, at first held their goods and 
 property in common ; and their progress was retarded as well by this 
 circumstance, as by the impulse of imaginary inspiration, which reg- 
 ulated all their actions. At the end of ten years, these well meaning 
 people, when they became incorporated with their more powerful 
 neighbours of Massachusetts bay, did not exceed three hundred. 
 
 6. In the year 1,629, Mr. White, a non-conformist minister at 
 Dorchester, having formed an association, purchased from the Ply- 
 mouth company a tract extending in length from three miles north of 
 Merrimack river to three miles south of Charles river, and in breadth 
 from the Atlantic to the Southern ocean ; and obtained a charter from 
 Charles, similar to that given to the two Virginian companies by James. 
 Five ships were iitted out, on board qf which were embarked upwards 
 of three hundred souls, amongst whom were several eminent non- 
 conforming ministers. On their arrival, they found the remnant of a 
 small party that had left England the preceding year, under the con- 
 duct of Mr. Endicott, who had been appointed by his companions 
 deputy governor. They were settled at a place called by the Indians 
 Naumkeag, to which he had given the scripture name of Salem. The 
 rsew colonists immediately formed a church, elected a pastor, teacher, 
 and elder, disregarding the intentions of the king. They disencum- 
 bered their public worship of^every superfluous ceremony, and re 
 duced it to the lowest standard of calvinistic simplicity. 
 
 Cut much as we respect that noble spirit which enabled them to part 
 with their native soil, we must condemn the persecuting spirit of the 
 colonists themselves. Some of the colonists, retaining a high venera- 
 tion for the ritual of the church of England, refused to join the colonial 
 state establishment, and assembled separately to worship : Endicott 
 called before him two of the principal offenders, expelled them from 
 the colony, and sent them home in the first, ships returning to England. 
 
 7. The government of the colony was soon transferred to America, 
 and vested in those members of the company who should reside then;. 
 John Winthrop was appointed governor, and Thomas Dudley deputy 
 governor, with eighteen assistants. In the course of the next year, 
 1,630, fifteen hundred persons arrived in Massachusetts from England, 
 amongst whom were several distinguished families, some of them id 
 easy, and others in affluent circumstances ; and Boston, Charlestown, 
 Dorchester, Roxbury, and other towns, were settled. 
 
 8. The first general court, held at Charlestown, ventured to deviate 
 from their charter in a matter of great moment : a law was passed, 
 declaring that none should be freemen, or be entitled to any share ih 
 the government, except those who had been received as membew df 
 
 O o 55 
 
434 UNITED STATES. 
 
 the church*. The fanatical spirit continued to increase. A minister 
 of Salem, named Roger Williams, having conceived an aversion to 
 the cross of St. George, a symbol in the English standard, declaimed 
 against it with great vehemence, as a relic of superstition ; and Endi- 
 cott, in a transport of zeal, cut out the cross from the ensign displayed 
 before the governor's gate. This frivolous matter divided the colony ; 
 but trie matter was at length compromised by retaining the cross in 
 the ensigns of forts and vessels, and erasing- it from the colours oi the 
 militia. 
 
 9. In l,636j Williams was banished from Salem ; and, accompanied 
 by many of his hearers, the exile went south, purchased a tract of 
 land of the natives, to which he gave the name of Providence ; and a 
 Mr. Coddington, with seventy-six others, exiled from Boston, bought 
 a fertile island on Narraganset bay, that acquired the name of Rhode- 
 Island. Mr. Coddington embraced the sentiments of the Quakers, or 
 Friends ; he received a charter from the British parliament, in which 
 it was ordered, that " none were ever to be molested for any difference 
 of opinion in religious matters :" yet, the very first assembly conven- 
 ed under this authority, excluded Roman catholics from voting at 
 elections, and from every office in the government ! 
 
 10. To similar causes the state of Connecticut is indebted for its 
 origin, Mr. Hooker, a favourite minister of Massachusetts, with 
 about one hundred families, after a fatiguing march, settled on the 
 western side of the river Connecticut, and laid the foundation of Hart- 
 ford, Springfield, and Weathersfield. Their right 1o this territory 
 was disputed by the Dutch, who had settled at the mouth of the 
 Hudson, and by the lords Say-and-Seal and Brook, who had com- 
 menced the settlement called Say-Brook. The Dutch were soon ex- 
 pelled ; and the others uniting with the colony, all were incorporated 
 by a royal charter. 
 
 11. New-Hampshire was first settled in the spring of 1,623, under 
 the patronage of sir Ferdinando Gorges, captain John Mason, and 
 sereral others, who sent over David Thompson, a Scot, Edward and 
 William Milton, and a number of people, furnished with the requisite 
 supplies. One company landed at a place called Little Harbour ; the 
 others settled at Dover. " Mr. Wheelwright, a clergyman banished from 
 Massachusetts, founded Exeter, in 1 ,6:38. 
 
 12. Maine was not permanently settled until 1,635. Gorges ob- 
 tained a grant of this territory, which remained under its own govern- 
 ment until 1,652, when its soil and jurisdiction, as far as the middle of 
 Casco hay, was claimed by Massachusetts. 
 
 13. The mutual hostility of the English and Indians commenced 
 with the first settlement ; but it was not until the year 1,637, that a 
 systematic warfare was begun. The Pequods, who brought into the 
 field more than a thousand warriors, were exterminated in a few 
 months by the combined troops of Massachusetts and Connecticut. 
 In the night, the Pequods were attacked, near the head of Mistic, by 
 the Connecticut troops and Narraganset Indians, commanded by cap- 
 tain Mason : in a few moments, five or six hundred lay gasping in 
 their blood, or were silent in the arms of death. " The darkness, of 
 the forest," observes a New-England author, " the blaze of the 
 dwellings, the ghastly looks of the dead, the groans of the dying, the 
 shrieks of the women and children, the yells of the friendly savages, 
 presented a scene of sublimity and terror indescribably dreadful.' 
 
 14. In 1,643, an alliance for mutual defence was formed between trie 
 New-England colonies, excepting Rhode-Island, which Massachusetts 
 
sive pe 
 and Be 
 
 UNITED STATES. 435 
 
 was unwilling to admit. This alliance continued until the charters 
 were annulled by James the second. 
 
 15. Up to 1,638, twenty -one thousand British subjects had settled 
 in New-England ; and the country had begun to extend the fisheries, 
 and to export corn and lumber to the West Indies. In 1,656, the per- 
 secution of the Quakers was at its height. A number of these inoffen- 
 
 people having arrived in the Massachusetts colony, from England 
 >arl)adoes, and given offence to the clergy of the established 
 church by the novelty of their religion, were imprisoned, and by the 
 first opportunity sent away. A law was passed, which prohibited 
 masters of ships from bringing Quakers into Massachusetts, and them- 
 selves from coming there, under a graduated penalty, rising, in case 
 of a return from banishment, to death. In consequence, several were 
 hanged ! These proceedings are still the more reprehensible and re- 
 markable, when contrasted with a previous declaration of their govern- 
 ment, which tendered " hospitality and succour to all christian 
 strangers, flying from wars, famine, or the tyranny of persecution." 
 The anabaptists were also persecuted ; many were disfranchised, and 
 some were banished. 
 
 16. On the accession of James 11.. several of the New-England 
 colonies were deprived of their charters ; but these, with Various un- 
 important modifications, were restored after the revolution. Sir 
 VVil|iarn Phipps, a native of Maine, who rose to wealth and power in 
 a manner the most extraordinary, was the first governor of Massachu- 
 setts under the new charter. With a force of seven hundred men, he 
 wrested from the French, L'Acadie, now called Nova Scotia. He 
 afterwards made an unsuccessful attempt on Quebec, with the loss of 
 one thousand men. The new charter, whilst it curtailed the liberties, 
 extended the territory of Massachusetts ; to it were now annexed New 
 Plymouth, Maine, and Nova Scotia, with all tlie country between the 
 latter and the river St. Lawrence ; also Elizabeth islands, Martha's 
 Vineyard, and Nantucket. The people, however, had just reason to 
 complain that they no longer chose their governor, under whose control 
 was the militia, and who levied taxes without their consent, and tried 
 capita! offences. 
 
 17. About this time the pillars of society were shaken to the foun- 
 dation, in and about Salem, by imaginary witchcraft. The delusion 
 commenced at Salem village, now Danvers, in the family of Rev. 
 S;imuel Paris. Two young girls, one a daughter of Mr. Paris, aged 9 ; 
 the other a niece, aged 11, were affected with singular nervous dis- 
 orders, which, as they baffled the skill of the physician, were thought 
 to proceed from an " evil hand." The children w r ere believed by 
 the neighbours to be bewitched, and the belief, sanctioned by the 
 opinion of the physician, became general throughout the vicinity. 
 The more the girls w r ere noticed and pitied, the more singular and 
 extravagant was their conduct. Upon the advice of the neighbouring 
 ministers, two or three private fasts were first kept ; afterwards a pub- 
 lic one in the village and other congregations; and finally, the general 
 court appointed a fast through the colony. This course gave the 
 occurrences a solemn aspect, and probably contributed to the public 
 credulity, till the supposed witchcraft had extended throughout a great 
 part of the county of Essex. The infatuation prevailed from March 
 to October, 1,692, during which time twenty persons, men and women, 
 
 -.re executed. It was then that suspicion roused from its lethargy ; 
 :ondemnation ceased ; the accusers Avere silent ; those under sentence 
 jyere reprieved, and afterwards pardoned 
 
436 UNITED STATES. 
 
 t 18. In the years 1,627 and '38, '63 and *70, New-England expe- 
 rienced violent earthquakes. In the year 1,638, Harvard college, 
 near Boston, the oldest seminary of learning in the United States, was 
 founded. Four hundred pounds were voted to it by the general court ; 
 and this sum was nearly doubled by a bequest from Mr. John Harvard, 
 a minister of Charlestown. This institution is now the most richly 
 endowed of all the American colleges. Yale college, at New-Haven, 
 was founded in 1,701, ten years after that of William and Mary, in 
 Virginia ; and Dartmouth college, in New-Hampshire, was founded 
 in 1,760. The first printing press established in the British colonies 
 was in 1,639, at Cambridge, superintended by Stephen Daye ; but 
 erected chiefly^ at the expense of Mr. Glover, an English clergyman, 
 who died on his passage to America. 
 
 19. Maryland, the first colony that, from its beginning, was directly 
 governed as a province of the British empire, was founded by sir 
 George Calvert, baron of Baltimore, in Ireland : a Roman catholic 
 nobleman, born in England. He first went to Virginia ; but meeting 
 an unwelcome reception there, on account of his religion, he fixed his 
 attention to the lands north of the Potomac, and obtained a grant of 
 them from Charles 1. This country was called Maryland, in honour 
 of the queen, Henrietta Maria. The religious toleration established 
 by the charter, the first draft of which is said to have been written by 
 sir George himself, is honourable to his memory. The grant was 
 given to his eldest son, Cecilius, who succeeded to his titles ; but 
 Leonard Calvert, brother to Cecilius, was the first governor, and made 
 the first stand, at an island in the Potomac, which he named St. 
 Clements, in 1,633. He made several purchases of the Indians, with 
 whom he cultivated a constant friendship, as web' on the Potomac, as 
 on both shores of the Chesapeake. Never did any people enjoy more 
 happiness than the inhabitants of Maryland. Whilst Virginia harass- 
 ed all who dissented from the English church, and the northern colonies 
 all who dissented from the puritans, the Roman catholics of Maryland, 
 a sect who in the old world never professed the doctrine of toleration, 
 received and protected their brethren of every christian church, and 
 its population was rapidly increased. 
 
 20. About the middle of the seventeenth century, some emigrants, 
 chiefly from Virginia, began a settlement in the county of Albemarle ; 
 and soon afterwards, another establishment was commenced at cape 
 Fear, by adventurers from Massachusetts. These were held together 
 by the laws of nature, without any written code, for some time. But 
 Charles II. compelled the colonists to become subservient to his rule, 
 and granted to lord Clarendon and others the tract of land which now 
 composes North and South Carolina : perfect freedom in religion was 
 granted in the charter. The first settlement was placed under the 
 command of sir William Berkeley, governor of Virginia, who assigned 
 his authority to Mr. Drummond. In 1,761, the proprietors extended 
 their settlements to the banks of Ashley and Cooper rivers, where 
 Charleston now stands ; and eventually this became the separate state 
 of South Carolina. The culture of cotton commenced here in 1,700, 
 and that of indigo in 1,748. 
 
 21. New- York was first settled by the Dutch, and was by them 
 held for about half a century. It was, however, claimed by England 
 as the first discoverer. Peter Stuyvesant, the third and last Dutch 
 governor, began his administration in 1,647, and was distinguished no 
 less for his fidelity than his vigilance. In 1,664 the colony surrendered 
 to the JEnglish ; and the whole territory now comprising New -York j 
 
UNITED STATES 437 
 
 New-Jersey, together with Pennsylvania, Delaware, and a part of 
 Connecticut, was assigned by Charles II. to his brother the duke of 
 York. The Dutch inhabitants remained ; Stuyvesant retained his 
 estate, and died in the colony. The country was governed by the 
 duke's officers until 1,688 ; when representatives of the people were 
 allowed a voice in the legislature. 
 
 22, In 1,664, the duke of York sold that part of his grant now call- 
 ed New-Jersey to lord Berkeley and sir George Carteret. It had 
 previously been settled by Hollanders, Swedes, and Danes. The 
 county of Bergen was the first inhabited ; and very soon the towns of 
 Elizabeth, Newark, Middleton, and Shrewsbury we re settled. The 
 61 lege, originally established at Newark, was, in 1.748, finally fixed 
 Hi Princeton: it? chief benefactor was governor Belched Among the 
 governors of New-Jersey was the celebrated Barclay, aufnor oF'the 
 y for the Quakers, of which sect a large number had establish- 
 inselves there. 
 '23. Pennsylvania was founded by William Penn, son of a extin- 
 guished admiral of the same name. From principle this excellent 
 man joined the Quakers, then an obscure and persecuted seel. As 
 oi the members, and a preacher. Penn was repeatedly imprisoned; 
 : u! be plead his own cause with great boldness, and procured his own 
 uuitlal from an independent jury, who with himselfwere imprisoned 
 until an unjust penally was paid, in 1,681, he purchased of Charles 
 die tract now called Pennsylvania, for an acquittance of sixteen thou* 
 ►unds due to Ins father : and soon after, he obtained from the 
 or'Yoik a conveyance of the town of New-Castle, witii the 
 country which now forms the state of Delaware. The first colony, 
 who were chiefly of his own sect, began their settlement above the 
 e ce of the Schuylkill und Delaware rivers. In August, 1,682, 
 liable man embarked, with about two thousand emigrants, and 
 ; : .■!•, arrived In the Delaware. Besides his own people, he 
 rled in the first settlement by Swedes, Dutch, Finlanders, and 
 English. The first legislative assembly was held at Chester, at 
 that time called Upland. Among the first laws was o nevv hich dfc 
 clared " that none, acknowledging one God, and living peaceably m 
 iiety, should be molested tor his opinions or his practice ; nor be 
 lied to frequent or maintain any ministry whatever." Philadel- 
 phia was begun in 1,683; and in 1,6S9, it contained seven hundred 
 houses, and about lour thousand inhabitants. During the first e 
 years of this settlement, no instance occurred of the Indians killing 
 unarmed people. The wise and good man, Penn, made every exer- 
 tion and sacrifice to promote the peace and prosperity of his favourite 
 colony ; and between the persecution he had to encounter in Englano 
 and the difficulties in Pennsylvania, his life was a continued scene Oi 
 vexation — his private fortune was materially injured by the advances 
 he made — he was harassed by his creditors, and obliged to undergo a 
 temporary deprivation of his personal liberty. He died in London, i« 
 1,718, leaving an inheritance to his children, ultimately of immense 
 value, which they enjoyed until the revolution, when it was assigned 
 to the commonwealth for an equitable sum of money. In the interval 
 between 1,730 and the war of the revolution, in this state, there was a 
 great i»flux of emigrants, principally from Germany and Ireland ; and 
 these people early brought the useml arts and manufactures into Penn- 
 sylvania. To the Germans, she is indebted for the spinning and 
 weaving of linen and woollen cloths ; to the Irish, for various trades 
 indispensable to useful agriculture. 
 Oo2 
 
43C UNITED STATES. 
 
 24. Delaware was first settled in 1,627, by the Swedes and Fin- 
 landers, and the colony bore the name of New-Sweden. It was 
 afterwards conquered by the Dutch from New- York, and remained 
 subservient to that colony until it passed into the hands of tlw» 
 English. 
 
 25. Georgia was the last settled of the thirteen colonies that re- 
 volted from Britain. It received its name from George II. In 
 November, 1,732, one hundred and sixteen persons embarked at 
 Gravesend, under general Oglethorpe ; and early in the ensuing year 
 arrived at Charleston. From this port they proceeded to their destin- 
 ed territory, and laid the foundation of Savannah. The Spaniards 
 laid claim to $his territory, and made extensive preparations to atlack 
 it. But, through the fmes>e of Oglethorpe in practising an innocent 
 deception, their plans were defeated. For many years, this settle- 
 ment languished from a variety of causes. General Oglethorpe was 
 distinguished as a soldier, a statesman, and a philanthropist. At the 
 beginning of the American revolution, he was offered the command of 
 the British army in America, but this from principle he declined. 
 After the contest was decided, he died at the age of ninety-seven 
 years, being the oldest general in the British service. 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 
 WAR, WITH FRANCE, AND CONQUEST OF CANADA. DIS- 
 PUTES WITH GREAT BRITAIN, AND WAR OF THE REVO- 
 LUTION. 
 
 1. Nearly coeval with the first English settlement, at James Town, 
 in Virginia, was the establishment of a French colony at Quebec, t n 
 the great river St. Lawrence. 'The question oi' boundaiy betwei n 
 England and France, had long been a subject of unavailing negotia- 
 tion. France, beside having Canada in the north, had also discovered 
 and settled on Mississippi in the south ; and in 1,753, she strove, by a 
 military chain, the links of which were to be formed by out] est? 
 stretching along the Ohio and the lakes, to connect these two extrem- 
 ities, and thus restrain the British colonists to a small territory on the 
 Atlantic ocean, if not entirely expel them from the country. Tim 
 question of jurisdiction remained lobe decided by the swoid. Re- 
 peated complaints of violence having come to the ears of the governor 
 of Virginia, he determined to semi a suitable person to the French 
 commandant at fort Du Quesne, (now Pittsburgh,) demanding the 
 reason of his hostile proceedings, and insisting that he should evacuate 
 the fort which he had recently erected. For this arduous undertaking- 
 George Washington, a major of militia, then little more than twenty- 
 one years of age, offered his services. The execution of this tajik 
 seems to have been accomplished with all that prudence and courage 
 which were so eminently displayed by this hero in after life. At 
 imminent peril, being waylaid and fired at by Indians, he not only 
 faithfully accomplished the errand on which he had been sent, but 
 gained extensive information of the distances and bearings of places, 
 a/id of the number, size, and strength of nearly all the enemy's 
 fortresses. 
 
 2. The reply of the French commander brought matters to a crisis ; 
 and m 1,754, the Virginian assembly organized a regiment, to support 
 
UNITED STATES. 430 
 
 the claims of the English over the territory in dispute : of this regi- 
 ment a Mr. Fry was appointed colonel, and the young Washington 
 lieutenant colonel. Colonel Fry dying, the command of the whole 
 devolved on Washington. The French having been strongly rein- 
 forced, Washington was obliged to fall back, was attacked in works 
 which he had not time to complete, and, alter a brave defence, w r as 
 obliged to capitulate ; the enemy allowing him to march out with the 
 honours of war, and to retire unmolested to the inhabited parts ol 
 Virginia. 
 
 3" The next year, 1,755, general Braddock was sent from Europe 
 to Virginia, with two regiments, where he was joined by as many 
 provincials as made his ibrce amount to twenty-two hundred. Brad- 
 dock was a brave man, but lacked that courtesy which could conciliate 
 the Americans, and that modesty which should profit from the knowl- 
 edge of those who better knew the ground over which he was to pass, 
 and the mode of French and Indian warfare, than himself. He push- 
 ed on incautiously, until, within a few miles effort Du Quesne, he fell 
 into an ambush of French and Indians. In a short time, Washington, 
 \v\\o acted as aid to Braddock, and whose duty called him to be on 
 horseback, was the only person mounted who was left alive, or not 
 wounded. The van of the army was forced back, and the whole 
 thrown into confusion. The slaughter was dreadful. Braddock was 
 mortally wounded. What was remarkable, the provincial troops pre- 
 served their order,, and covered the retreat under Washington : while 
 the regulars broke their ranks, arid could not be rallied. 
 
 4. Truce successive campaigns procured nothing but expense and 
 disappointment to the English. With an inferior Ibrce, the French, 
 had succeeded in every campaign ; and gloomy apprehensions were 
 entertained as to the destiny of the British colonies. But in 1,756, a 
 change of ministry in England took place. William Tilt was placed 
 at the helm. To despair, succeeded hope; .and to hope, victory- 
 Supplies were granted with liberality, and given without reluctance: 
 soldiers enlisted free!}', and fought with enthusiasm. In a short time, 
 the French were dispossessed, not only of ali the territories in dispute, 
 hut of Quebec, and her ancient province of Canada ; so that all which 
 remained to her of her numerous settlements in North America, was 
 New-Orleans, with a few plantations on the Mississippi. Full of 
 youth and spirit, the gallant general Wolfe, who led the European and 
 colonial troops to victory, fell before the walls (if Quebec, in the 
 moment of success. In 1,762, hostilities having raged nearly eight 
 years, a general peace was concluded : Fiance ceded Canada, and 
 Spnin relinquished^ as the price of recovering Havana, which had 
 been taken by the British, both the Floridas to Great Britain. 
 
 5. Although the American colonies had principally contributed to 
 the great extension of the power of Great Britain, co-operating with 
 the vigilance of more than four hundred cruisers on the sea, ai<<i 
 furnishing more than tw r cnty-four thousand soldiers; yet the latter re- 
 garded her plantations as mere instruments in her hands. On the 
 contraiy, the high sentiments of liberty and independence nurtured in 
 the colonies from their local situation and habits, were increased by 
 the removal of hostile neighbours. Ideas favourable to independence 
 increased; and whilst combustible materials were collecting in the 
 new w r orld, a brand to enkindle them was preparing in the old. 
 
 6. In 1,765, under the auspices of the minister, George Grenville, 
 (he obnoxious stamp act passed in the British parliament ; by which 
 (be instruments of writing in daily use were to be null and yoia, unless 
 
440 UNITED STATES. 
 
 executed on paper or parchment stamped with a specific duty : law 
 documents, leases, deeds, and indenture?, newspapers and advertise- 
 ments, almanacs and pamphlets, executed and printed in America — 
 all must contribute to the British treasury. The bill did not pa.<s 
 without the decided opposition of patriots in the British legislature, 
 who foretold the result, and who declared that, the colonies being 
 planted by British oppression, and having assisted the mother country, 
 that the mother had no claim on the child to derive irom it a revenue 
 ill did not take effect until seven months after its passage ; thus 
 the colonists an opportunity of leisurely examining- and viewing 
 ibjecl on every side. They were struck "with silent consterna- 
 te of opposition was first heard in Virginia. Patrick 
 Henry, en, the '20th of May, brought into the house of burgess* s in 
 thairoion^i number of resolutions, which' were adopted, and which 
 concluded witji declaring, ki That every individual, who, by speaking 
 rf or maintain, that any person or boo.y of men. 
 y of the province, had any right to ii 
 ' crncd an enemy to his majesty's colony." 
 ■ were immediately disseminated through the other 
 provinces ; sj nd the pens of well-informed men laboured 
 
 — thi blazed forth from the press. The 
 
 assemb I a resolution in favour of a 
 
 for its meeting at New- York, in 
 The other colonies, with the exception of four, acceptei 
 lion, and as tinted place. 1 1 
 
 declaration of their rights. There was, however, a i 
 
 ■ sS. Thl I 
 
 pressive :.. :d by Times Qtis ichuseits. 
 
 7. The time arrived for the act to take effect ; and the a\ en 
 
 :s throughout the 
 on consent. were disregarded, and i u; ii . : s 
 
 onducted, in uohance of the parlii i • if • - '- in 
 
 : ■ iations Ave re form< d ; gain 
 
 factures until the law should be i 
 iter! ft oni instituting' any action for money due to an; 
 
 I conduct of th itoj'i sis 
 
 ish merchants, had the desired effect. Warm (Tea; T a.- 
 lace in the British parliament , and the ablest • 
 liousbs denied the justice of taxing the colonics. T! e 
 could -r.i Listood'; and in March, .1,766, the law was repealed, 
 
 aneously, however, with repealing this act, tine i 
 merit passed another, declaring that the British pai 
 a right to make laws binding the colonies in all cases whatever : and 
 •tson after another bill was passed, imposing in the colonies duti 
 [lass, paper, painters' colours, arid tea. The fire of opposition was 
 ;ow rekindled with additional ardour, by the same principle, exhibit* d 
 n its new form. The best talents throughout the colonies were 
 mgaged, in the public prints and in pamphlets, to work up the public 
 deling against the arbitrary measures of the British parliament. New 
 associations were formed to suspend the importation of British manu- 
 factures. The Massachusetts assembly, having passed resolutions to 
 this effect, drew forth the marked. displeasure of the crown ; and, on 
 their refusal to cancel their resolutions, were dissolved. 
 
 9. In l,"/68, Mr. Hancock's sloop Liberty was seized at Boston, for 
 not entering all the wines she had brought from Madeira : this inflamed 
 Uie populace to a high degree of resentment. Soon afterwards, two 
 
UNITED STATES. 441 
 
 British regiments 5 and some armed vessels, were sent to Boston, to 
 assist the revenue officers. The parliament, encouraged by the ex- 
 pectation of quelling the refractory by their arms, continued to dis- 
 solve the opposing assemblies ; but the colonies remained firm in their 
 purposes. 
 
 10. Lord North succeeded the duke of Grafton, as British premier 
 in 1,770 ; and the act was repealed imposing a duty on glass, paper, 
 and painters" colours ; but that on tea was retained. Some slight 
 prospect of allaying the difficulties succeeded. But on the second of 
 March an affra} T took place in Boston, between a private soldier and 
 an inhabitant. This was succeeded, in a few days afterwards, by a 
 mob meeting a party of British soldiers under arms, who were dared 
 to fire, and who at length did fire, and killed five persons. The cap- 
 tain who commanded, and the troops who fired, were afterwards trie! 
 for murder, and acquitted. 
 
 11. Things continued in this mode of partial irritation until 1,773, 
 when the British East India company were authorized to export their 
 tea to al! places, free of duty. As this would enable them to sen thai 
 nrticlc cheaper in America, with the government exactions, than they 
 had before sold it without them, it was confidently calculated that teas 
 might be extensively disposed of in the colonies. Large consignments 
 of tea were sent to various parts, and agents appointed for its disposal. 
 The consignees, in several places, were compelled to relinquish their 
 appointments. Popular vengeance prevented the landing at New-- 
 York or Philadelphia. In Boston it was otherwise. The? tea for lh« 
 supply of that port was consigned to the sons and particular friends of 
 governor Hutchinson. The tea was landed by the strenuous exertions 
 of the governor and consignees. But soon a party of meny dressed :r- 
 Indians, boarded the tea ships, broke open the cargoes, and, threw the 
 contents into the sen. Enraged against the people of Boston, die par* 
 liament resolved to take legislative vengeance on that devoted town.. 
 Disregarding the forms of the British constitution, by which none an; 
 to be punished without trial, they passed a bill, closing, in a commer- 
 cial sense, its port : its custom house and trade were soon after re- 
 moved to Salem. The charter of the colony was new modelled,, so 
 that the whole executive government was taken from the- people;, at:'! 
 the nomination to all important offices vested in the crown;: and it wa^ 
 enacted, that if any person was indicted for any capital olfence com- 
 mitted in aiding the magistrates, he might be sent to Great Britain or 
 another colony for trial. Property, liberty, and life, were thus subject 
 to ministerial caprice. The parliament went still further,, and passed' 
 an act extending the boundaries of Canada, southward to the Ohio,, 
 westward, to the Mississippi, and northward, to the borders of the 
 Hudson's bay company, assimilating its laws with the French, which 
 dispensed with the trial by jury, and rendering the inhabitants passive 
 agents in the hands of power. 
 
 12. The flame was now kindled in every breast ; and associations 
 were formed, and committees of correspondence were established, 
 which produced a unity of thought and action throughout the colonies- 
 General Gage, the British commander-in-chief, arrived in Boston, m 
 1,774, with more troops, with the avowed intention of dragooning the 
 refractory Bostonians into compliance. A general sympathy"" was 
 excited for the suffering inhabitants of Boston : addresses poured in 
 from all quarters ; Marblehead offered to the Boston merchants the 
 use of her wharves, and Salem refused to adopt the trade, the offer of 
 which had been proffered as a temptation to her cupidity. Affair* 
 
 56 
 
412 UNITED STATES 
 
 rapidly approached a crisis. The preparations foi offence and defence, 
 induced general Gage to fortify Boston, and to seize on the powder 
 lodged at the arsenal at Charlestotvn. 
 
 13. In September, deputies from most of the colonies met in con- 
 gress, at Philadelphia. These delegates approved of the conduct of 
 the people of Massachusetts ; wrote a letter to general Gage ; pub- 
 lished a declaration of rights ; formed an association not to import or 
 use British goods ; sent a petition to the king of Great Britain ; an 
 address to the inhabitants of that kingdom ; another to the inhabitants 
 cf Canada ; and another to the inhabitants of the colonies. In the 
 beginning of the next year, (1,775,) was passed the fishery hilU b^ 
 which the northern colonies were forbidden to fish on the banks of 
 Newfoundland for a certain time. This bore hard upon the commerce 
 of these colonies, which was in a great measure supported by the 
 fishery. 
 
 14. Soon after, another bill was passed, which restrained the trade 
 of the middle and southern colonies to Great Britain, Ireland, and the 
 West Indies, except under certain conditions. These repeated acts 
 of oppression on the part of Great Britain, alienated the affections of 
 America from her parent raid sovereign, and produced a combined 
 opposition to the whole system of taxation. Preparations began to be 
 made to oppose by force the execution of these acts of parliament 
 The militia of the country were trained to the use of arms — great 
 encouragement was given to the manufacture of gunpowder, aiid 
 measures were taken to obtain all kinds of military stores. 
 
 15. In February, colonel Leslie was sent with a detachment of 
 troops from Boston, to take possession of some cannon at Salem. But 
 the people had intelligence of the design — took up the drawbridge in 
 that town, and prevented the troops from passing, until the cannon 
 were secured ; so that the expedition failed. In April, colonel Smith 
 and major Pitcaim were sent with a body of troops, to destroy the 
 military stores which had been collected at Concord, about twenty 
 miles from Boston. At Lexington the militia were collected on a 
 green, to oppose the incursion oi the British forces. These were fired 
 upon by the British troops, and eight men killed on the spot. 
 
 16. The militia were dispersed, and the troops proceeded to Con- 
 cord ; where they destroyed a few stores. But on their return they 
 were incessantly harassed by the Americans, who, inflamed with just 
 resentment, fired upon them from houses and fences, and pursued them 
 to Boston. Here was spilt the first blood in the war which severed 
 America from the British empire. Le.ringlon opened the first scefw 
 of the great drama, which, in its progress, exhibited the most illustri- 
 ous characters and events, and closed with a revolution, equally 
 glorious for the actors, and important m its consequences to the human 
 race. This battle roused all America. The militia collected from 
 all quarters, and Boston was in a few days besieged by twenty thou- 
 sand men. A stop was put to all intercourse between the town and 
 country, and the inhabitants were reduced to great want of provisions. 
 General Gage promised to let the people depart, if they would deliver 
 up their arms. The people complied ; but when the general had 
 obtained their arms, the perfidious wretch refused to let the people go. 
 
 .17. In the mean time, a small number of men, under the command 
 of colonel Allen and colonel Easton, without any public orders, sur- 
 prised and took the British garrison at Ticonderoga, without the loss 
 of a man. 
 
 18. In June following, our troops attempted to fortify Bunker's hill, 
 
UNITED STATES. 443 
 
 which lies in Charlestown, and but a mile and a half from Boston. 
 They had, during the night, thrown up a small breastwork, which 
 sheltered them from the fire of the British cannon. But the next 
 morning, the British army was sent to drive them from the hill ; and 
 landing under cover of their cannon, they set lire to Charlestown, which 
 was consumed, and marched to attack our troops in the entrenchments. 
 A severe engagement ensued, in wliich the British suffered a very 
 great loss, both of officers and privates. They were repulsed at first, 
 and thrown into disorder ; but they finally carried the fortification 
 with the point of the bayonet. The Americans suffered a small los9 
 compared with the British ; but the death of the brave general Warren, 
 who fell in the action, a martyr to the cause of his country, was severe- 
 ly felt and universally lamented. 
 
 19. About this time, the continental congress appointed George 
 Washington, Esq. to the chief command of the continental army, 
 This gentleman had been a distinguished and successful officer in the 
 preceding war, and he seemed destined by Heaven to be the saviom 
 of his country. He accepted the appointment with a diffidence which 
 was a proof of his prudence and his greatness. He refused any pay 
 for eight years' laborious and arduous service ; and by his matchless 
 skill, fortitude, and perseverance, conducted America, through inde- 
 scribable difficulties, to independence and peace. While true merit is 
 esteemed, or virtue honoured, mankind will never cease to revere the 
 memory of this hero ; and while gratitude remains in the human 
 breast, the praises of Washington shall dwell on every American 
 tongue. 
 
 20. General Washington, with other officers appointed by congress, 
 arrived at Cambridge, and took command of the American army in 
 July. From this time, the affairs of America began to assume the 
 appearance of a regular and general opposition to the forces of Great 
 Britain. 
 
 21. In autumn, a body of troops, under the command of general 
 Montgomery, besieged and took the garrison at St. John's, which 
 commands the entrance into Canada. The prisoners amounted to 
 about seven hundred. General Montgomery pursued his success, and 
 took Montreal, and designed to push his victories to Quebec. A boeff 
 oi troops, commanded by Arnold, was ordered to march to Canada, 
 by the river Kennebec, and through the wilderness. After suffering 
 every hardship, and the most distressing hunger, they arrived in 
 Canada, and were joined by general Montgomery, before Quebec. 
 This city, which was commanded by governor Carleton, was imme- 
 diately besieged. But there being little hope of taking the town by 
 a siege, it was determined to storm it. The attack was made on the 
 last day of December, but proved unsuccessful, and fatal to the brave 
 general, who, with his aid, was killed in attempting to scale the walls* 
 Of the three divisions which attacked the town, one only entered, and 
 that was compelled to surrender to superior force. Alter this defeat, 
 Arnold, who now commanded the troops, continued some months before 
 Quebec, although his troops suffered incredibly by cold and sickness. 
 But the next spring the Americans were obliged to retreat from Canada. 
 
 22. About this time the large and flourishing town of Norfolk, in 
 Virginia, was wantonly burnt by order of lord Dunmore, the royal 
 governor. General Gage went to England in September, and was 
 succeeded in command by general Howe. Falmouth, a considerable 
 town in the province of Maine, in Massachusetts, shared the fate of 
 Norfolk ; being laid in ashes by order of the British admiral. 
 
444 UNITED STATES. 
 
 23. The British king entered into treaties with s; me of the German 
 princes for about seventeen thousand men, who were to be sent tc 
 America the next year, to assist in subduing the colonies. The British 
 parliament also passed an act. forbidding all intercourse with America ; 
 and while they repealed the Boston port and fishery bills, they declar- 
 ed all American property on the high seas forfeited to the captors. 
 This act induced congress to change the mode of carrying on the war ; 
 and measures were taken to annoy the enemy in Boston. For this 
 purpose, batteries were opened on several hills, from whence shot and 
 bombs were thrown into tfa,e [own. But the batteries which were 
 opened on Dorchester point had the best effect, and soon obliged 
 general Howe to abandon the town. In March, 1,776, the British 
 troops embarked for Halifax, and general Washington entered the 
 town in triumph. 
 
 21. In the ensuing summer, a small squadron of ships, under the 
 command of sir Peter Parker, and a body of troops under the gene 
 rais Clinton and Comwallis, attempted to take Charleston, the capital 
 of South Carolina. The ships made a violent attack upon the fort on 
 Sullivan's island, but were repulsed with great loss, and the expedition 
 was abandoned. 
 
 25. In July, congress published their declaration of independence, 
 which for ever separated America from Great Britain. This great 
 event took place two hundred and eighty-four years after the first dis- 
 covery of America by Columbus — one hundred and seventy from the 
 first effectual settlements in Virginia — and one hundred and fifty-six 
 from the first settlement of Plymouth in Massachusetts, which were 
 the earliest English settlements in America. Just after this declara- 
 tion, genend Howe, with a powerful force, arrived near New-York, 
 and landed the troops upon Staten Island. General Washington was 
 in NYw-York, with about thirteen thousand men, encamped either in 
 the city, or in the neighbouring fortifications. 
 
 26. The operations of the British began by the action on Long 
 Udand, in the month of August. The Americans were defeated, ana 
 general Sullivan and lord Sterling, with a large body of men, "were 
 made prisoners. The night after the engagement, a retreat was 
 brdered, and executed with such silence, that the Americans left the 
 island without alarming their enemies, and without loss. In Septem- 
 ber, the city of New- York was abandoned by the American army, and 
 taken by the British. 
 
 27* in November, fort Washington, on York Island, was taken, and 
 more than two thousand men made prisoners. Fort Lee, opposite to 
 fori Washington, on the Jersey shore, was soon after taken, but the 
 garrison escaped. About the same time, general Clinton was sent, 
 with a body of troops, to take possession of Rhode Island, and suc- 
 caeded. ^ In addition to all these losses and defeats, the American 
 a: my suffered by desertion, and more by sickness, which was epidemic, 
 and very mortal. 
 
 '2'6 The northern army, at Ticonderoga, was in a disagreeable 
 situation, particularly after the battle on lake Champlain, in which the 
 American force, consisting of a few light vessels, under the command 
 of Arnold and general Waterbury, was totally dispersed. But general 
 Carle ton, instead of pursuing his victory, landed at Crown Point, re- 
 connoitered our posts at Ticonderoga and Mount Independence, and 
 returned to winter quarters in Canada. 
 
 29. At the close of this year, the American army was dwindled to a 
 Haadiul of men ; and general Lee was taken prisoner in New-Jersey. 
 
UNITED STATES. 445 
 
 Far from being discouraged at these losses, congress took measures te 
 raise and establish an army. In this critical situation, general Wash- 
 ington surprised and took a large body of Hessians, who were canton*- 
 ed at Trenton ; and soon after, another body of the British troops, a>t 
 Princeton. The address in planning and executing these enterprises, 
 reflected the highest honour on the commander, and the success reviY«- 
 ed the despondinghopes of America. The loss of general Mercer, a 
 gallant officer, at Princeton, was the principal circumstance that allay*- 
 ed the joy of victory. 
 
 30. The following year, (1,777,) was distinguished by very memo- 
 rable events in favour of America. On the opening of the campaign, 
 governor Try on was sent, with a body of troops, to destroy the stores 
 at Danbury, in Connecticut. This plan was executed, and the town 
 mostly burnt. The enemy suffered in their retreat, and the Americam 
 lost general Wooster, a brave and experienced officer. General Pre*- 
 cott was taken from his quarters on Rhode Island, by the address and 
 enterprise of colonel Barton, and conveyed prisoner to the continent. 
 General Burgoyne, who commanded the northern British army, took 
 possession of Ticonderoga, which had been abandoned by the Ameii- 
 cans. He pushed his successes, crossed lake George, and encamped 
 upon the banks of the Hudson, near Saratoga. His progress was 
 however checked by the defeat of colonel Baum, near Bennington, in 
 which the undisciplined militia of Vermont, under general Stark, dis» 
 played unexampled bravery, and captured almost the whole detaci*- 
 Tnent. The militia assembled from all parts of New-England, to stop 
 the progress of general Burgoyne. These, with the regular troops, 
 formed a respectable army, commanded by general Gates. After 
 two severe actions, in which the generals Lincoln and Arnold, behaved 
 with uncommon gallantry, and were wounded, general Burgoyne found 
 himself enclosed with brave troops, and was forced to surrender his 
 whole army, amounting to seven thousand men, into the hands of tkm 
 Americans. This happened in October. This event diffused a uni- 
 versal joy over America, and laid a foundation for the treaty with 
 France. 
 
 31. But before these transactions, the main body of the British 
 forces had embarked at New-York, sailed up the Chesapeake, and 
 landed at the head of Elk river. The army soon began their march 
 for Philadelphia. General Washington had determined to oppose 
 them, and for this purpose made a stand upon the heights near Brandy 
 wine creek. Here the armies engaged, and the Americans were ove*- 
 powered, and suffered great loss. The enemy soon pursued their 
 march, and took possession of Philadelphia towards the close of Sep- 
 tember. Not long after, the two armies were again engaged at Ge*- 
 mantown, and in the beginning of the action the Americans had the 
 advantage ; but by some unlucky accident, the fortune of the day 
 was turned in favour of the British. Both sides suffered considerable 
 loss ; on the side of the Americans was general Nash. 
 
 32. In an attack upon the forts at Mud Island and Red Bank, the 
 Hessians were unsuccessful, and their commander, colonel Donop, 
 killed. The British also lost the Augusta, a ship of the line. But 
 the forts were afterwards taken, and the navigation of the Delawam 
 opened. General Washington was reinforced with part of the troops 
 which had composed the northern army, under general Gates ; aod 
 both armies retired to winter quarters. 
 
 33. In October, the same month in which general Burgqype wis 
 token at Saratoga, general Vaughan, with a small fleet, tailed t|p 
 
446 UNITED STATES. 
 
 Hudson's river, and wantonly burnt Kingston, a beautiful Dutch settle- 
 ment, on the west s'r?e of the river. 
 
 34. The beginning of the next year (1,778) was distinguished by a 
 treaty of alliance bi -een France and America ; by which we obtain- 
 ed a powerful ally. Vhen the English ministry were informed that 
 this treaty was on Set, they despatched commissioners to America, 
 to attempt a reconc on. But America would not now accept their 
 offers. Early in tl spring, count de Estaing, with a fleet of fifteen 
 sail of the line, wa t by the court of France to assist America. 
 
 35. General Ho^ • eft the army, and returned to England ; the 
 command then dev< ; upon sir Henry Clinton. In June, the British 
 army left Philadelpi . and marched for New-York. On their march 
 they were much annoyed by the Americans ; and at Monmouth a very 
 regular action took place between part of the armies ; the enemy were 
 repulsed with great loss ; and had general Lee obeyed his orders, a 
 signal victory must have been obtained. General Lee, for his ill con- 
 duct that day, was suspended, and was never afterwards permitted to 
 join the army. 
 
 36. In August, general Sullivan, with a larg/e body of troops, at- 
 tempted to take possession of Rhode Island, but did not succeed. 
 Soon after, the stores and shipping at Bedford, in Massachusetts, were 
 burnt by a party of British troops. The same year, Savannah, the 
 capital of Georgia, was taken by the British, under the command of 
 colonel Campbell. In the following year, (1,779,) general Lincoln 
 was appointed to the command of the southern army. Governor 
 Tryon and sir George Collier made an incursion into'Connecticut, 
 ana burnt, with wanto i barbarity, the towns of Fairfield and Norwalk. 
 
 37. But the American arms were crowned with success in a bold 
 attack upon Stony Point, which was surprised and taken by general 
 Wayne, in the night of the 15th of July. Five hundred men were 
 made prisoners, with a small loss on either side. A party of British 
 iorces attempted, this summer, to build a fort on Penobscot river, for 
 the purpose of cutting timber in the neighbouring forest?. A plan was 
 mid, by Massachusetts, to dislodge them, and a considerable fleet col' 
 lected for the purpose. Bu!; the'plan failed of success, and the whole 
 marine force fell into the hands of the British, except some Vessels, 
 which were burnt by the Americans themselves. 
 
 38. In October, general Lincoln and count de Estaing made an 
 assault upon Savannah* ; but they were repulsed with considerable 
 loss. In tli is action, the celebrated Polish count Polaski, who had ac- 
 
 Suired the reputation of a brave soldier, was mortally wounded. In 
 lis summer, general Sullivan marched, with a body of troops, into 
 the Indian country, and burnt and destroyed all their provisions and 
 settlements that fell in his way. 
 
 39. On the opening of the campaign, the next year, (1,780,) the 
 British troops left Rhode Island. An expedition under general Clin- 
 ton and lord Cornwallis, was undertaken against Charleston, South 
 Carolina, where general Lincoln commanded. This town, after a close 
 siege of about six weeks, was surrendered to the British commander j 
 and general Lincoln, and the whole American garrison, were made 
 prisoners. 
 
 40. General Gates was appointed to the command in the southern 
 department, and another army collected. In August, lord Cornwallis 
 Jtttacked the American troops at Camden, in South Carolina, and rout- 
 « them with considerable loss. He afterwards marched through the 
 %ttben> states, and supposed them entirely subdued. The 
 
UNITED STATES. 447 
 
 summer, tne British troops made frequent incursions from New- York 
 into the Jerseys ; ravaging and plundering the country. In some of 
 these descents, the Rev. Mr. Caldwell, a respectable clergyman and 
 warm patriot, and his lady, were inhumanly murdered by the savagt 
 soldiery. 
 
 41 In July, a French fleet, under Monsieur de Ternay, with a 
 body of land forces, commanded by count de Rochambeau, arrived at 
 Rhode Island, to the great joy of the Americans. 
 
 42. This 3'ear was also distinguished by the infamous treason of 
 Arnold. General Washington having some business to transact at 
 WeathersBeld, in Connecticut, left Arnold to command the important 
 post of West Point, which guards a pass in Hudson's river, about sixty 
 miles from New- York. Arnold's conduct in the city of Philadelphia, 
 the preceding winter, had been censured, and the treatment he receiv- 
 ed in consequence had given him offence. He determined to have 
 revenge ; and for this purpose he entered into a negotiation with sir 
 Henry Clinton, to deliver West Point and the army into the hands of 
 the British. While general Washington was absent, he dismounted 
 the cannon in some of the forts, and took other steps to render the 
 taking of the post easy for the enemy. But by a providential discov- 
 ery, the whole plan was defeated. Major Andre, aid to general 
 Clinton, a brave officer, who had been up the river as a spy, to con- 
 cert the plan of operations with Arnold, was taken, condemned by a 
 court-martial, and executed. Arnold made his escape by getting on 
 board the Vulture, a British vessel which lay in the river. His con- 
 duct has stamped him with infamy, and, like all traitors, he is despised 
 by all mankind. General Washington arrived in camp just after 
 Arnold had made his escape, and restored order in the garrison. 
 
 43. After the defeat of general Gates, in Carolina, general Green 
 was appointed to the command in the southern department. From 
 this period, things in this quarter wore a more favourable aspect. 
 Colonel Tarleton, the active commander of the British legion, was 
 defeated by general Morgan, the intrepid commander of the riflemen. 
 After a variety of movements, the two armies met at Guilford, in North 
 Carolina. Here was one of the best fought actions during the war. 
 General Greene and lord Cornwallis exerted themselves, at the head 
 of their respective armies, and, although the Americans were obliged 
 to retire from the field of battle, yet the British army suffered an im- 
 mense loss, and could not pursue the victory. This action happened 
 on the 15th of March, 1,781. 
 
 44. In the spring, Arnold, who was made a brigadier-general in the 
 British service, with a small number of troops, sailed for Virginia, and 
 plundered the country. This called the attention of the French fleet 
 to that quarter, and a naval engagement took place, between the 
 English and French, in which some of the English ships were much 
 damaged, and one entirely disabled. 
 
 45. After the battle at Guilford, general Greene moved towards 
 South Carolina, to drive the British from their posts in that state- 
 Here lord Rawdon obtained an inconsiderable advantage over the 
 Americans, near Camden. But general Greene more than recovered 
 this disadvantage, by the brilliant and successful action at the Eutavr 
 springs ; where general Marion distinguished himself, and the brave 
 colonel Washington was wounded and taken prisoner. Lord Corn- 
 wallis finding general Greene successful in Carolina, marched to Vir- 
 ginia, collected his forces, and fortified himself in Yorktown. In the 
 mean time, Arnold made an incursion into Connecticut, burnt a part 
 
448 UNITED STATES. 
 
 of New-London, took fort Griswold by storm, and put the garrison to 
 the sword. The garrison consisted chiefly of men suddenly collected 
 from the little town of Groton, which, by the savage cruelty of the 
 British officer who commanded the attack, lost, in one hour, almost 
 all its heads of families. The brave colonel Ledyard, who command- 
 ed the fort, was slain with his own sword, after he had surrendered. 
 
 46. The marquis de la Fayette, the brave and generous nobleman, 
 whose services command the gratitude of every American, had been 
 despatched from the main army to watch the motions of lord Corn- 
 wallis, in Virginia. About the last of August, count de Grasse arrived 
 with a large fleet in the Chesapeake, and blocked up the British troops 
 at Yorktqwn. Admiral Greaves, with a British fleet, appeared off the 
 Capes, and an action succeeded, but it was not decisive. General 
 Washington had, before this time, moved the main body of his army, 
 together with the French troops, to the southward ; and, as soon as he 
 oeard of the arrival of the French fleet in the Chesapeake, he made 
 rapid marches to the head of the Elk, where embarking, the troops 
 soon arrived at York town. A close siege immediately commenced, 
 and was carried on with such vigour by the combined forces of Amer- 
 ica and France, that lord Cornwallis was obliged to surrender. This 
 glorious event, which took place on the 19th of October, 1,781, de- 
 cided the contest in favour of America, and laid the foundation of a 
 general peace. A few months after the surrender of Cornwallis, the 
 British evacuated all their posts in South Carolina and Georgia, and 
 retired to the main army in Nov- York. 
 
 47. The next spring (l,782) sir Guy Carlton arrived in New-York, 
 and took command of the British army in America. Immediately 
 after his arrival, he acquainted general Washington and congress, tha^t 
 negotiations for a peace had been commenced at Paris. On the 30th 
 of November, 1,782, the provisional articles of peace were signed at 
 Paris, by which Great Britain acknowledged the independence and 
 sovereignty of the United States of America. 
 
 48. Thus ended a long and arduous conflict, in which Great Britain 
 expended near a hundred millions of money, with a hundred thousand 
 lives, and won nothing. America endured every cruelty and distress 
 from her enemies ; lost many lives, and much treasure — but delivered 
 herself from a foreign dominion, and gained a rank among the nations 
 of the earth. 
 
 SECTION V. 
 
 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE STATE AND NATIONAL GOVERN- 
 MENTS. WARS WITH TRIPOLI AND THE INDIANS, &c 
 
 1. The important revolution, as regarding the dependance of the 
 colonies on Great Britain, required a corresponding alteration in their 
 governments. Conventions were assembled in' the several states, 
 which formed new constitutions, agreeably to the strictest principles 
 of republicanism ; retaining whatever was desirable in the original 
 institutions, and at the same time providing additional security against 
 tyranny or corruption. The statute and common laws of England, 
 formerly observed in the provincial courts of justice, remain in prac- 
 
 tice as before. The inestimable privilege, of British origin, a trial 
 bv jury ; the freedom of the press, with the additional right, in cas$ 
 ot prosecuting for a libel, of giving the truth in evidence ; are de* 
 
UNITED STATES. 449 
 
 dared to be fundamental principles. The governments resemble, in 
 their principal organization, the frame of the new federal constitution : 
 they consist of three branches — a governor, a senate, and a lower 
 house of representatives. The elections recur frequently, in which, 
 in most of the states, every freeman has a right to participate. 
 
 2. As yet the general government was not established on a solid 
 foundation. The articles of union, formed under the pressure of com- 
 mon danger, were found inadequate to the efficient management of the 
 same country in the selfish periods of peace and security. No efficient 
 fund had been provided to pay the interest of the national debt, and 
 tile public securities fell to one tenth of their nominal value. An open 
 resistance to the government was made in Massachusetts, headed by a 
 ]»ei>on of the name of Shays. Danger increased, and the friends of 
 rational liberty became alarmed. 
 
 3. The Virginia legislature, in 1,787, in accordance with a motion 
 made by Jair.cs Madison, made a proposal to the other states to meet 
 in convention for the purpose of digesting a system of government 
 eqri'al to tiie exigencies of the union. The convention met at Phila- 
 delphia, May 25. 1.787., and chose general Washington president; 
 ..!:!, after deliberating with closed doors until the 17th of Septenter, 
 agreed on a new plan of national government : this was afterwards 
 ratified by the several states. This new constitution not only fixes the 
 national government on a republican basis, but guaranties to each state 
 of the family a republican form of government, and binds the whole 
 to protect each against foreign invasion or domestic violence. Gen- 
 eral Washington was unanimously chosen first president under th€ new 
 constitution-. March 4, 1,789, the first congress under the new consti- 
 tution assembled at New-York ; and, in 1,790, duties were levied on 
 imported merchandise, to replenish an empty treasury. The public 
 debt incurred during the revolutionary war' was funded, and brought 
 at once to its par value. A national bank was established, not how- 
 ever without opposition. An excise duty laid on domestic spirits, pro- 
 duc£(t an insurrection in the western part of Pennsylvania ; but the 
 laws were executed, and on the intervention of an armed force, tran- 
 quillity was restored without bloodshed. 
 
 4. Two new states were admitted into the confederacy, viz.: Ver- 
 m< »nt in 1,791; and Kentucky in 1 ,792. A war with the Creek Indians, 
 Whose fighting men amounted to about six bundled, some time existed 
 on the frontier of Georgia : peace, however, was restored there in 
 "i ,790. A sanguinary warfare, with various success, was for some time 
 kept up with the north-western Indians. In 1,791, general Mannar 
 was defeated, in the Ohio country, with the loss of three bundled and 
 sixty men killed. General St. Clair, at the head of two thousand 
 militia and regulars, was subsequently worsted, near the Indian villages 
 on the Miami, with the loss of thirty-eight officers* and nearly "six 
 hundred privates. St. Clair Was succeeded by general Wayne, who 
 completely routed the savage foe, and drove the Indians out of the 
 country. In the year after, Wayne negotiated a satisfactory treaty 
 of peace with the hostile Indians ; and at this time commenced a 
 humane system for ameliorating their condition. 
 
 5. Whilst the United States were employed in quelling the refrac- 
 tory, and restraining the inroads of a subtle enemy within their own 
 bosom, new sources of difficulty discovered themselves in the great 
 convulsions of Europe. The French revolution had commenced, and 
 that nation was under the wild misrule of its directory. Claims for 
 assistance were made on the United States. Genet, the French* envoy, 
 
 PpS 57 « 
 
160 UNITED STATES. 
 
 having trrived at Charleston, undertook to authorize the arming* of 
 vessels in that port, and the enlisting of men ; giving commissions, in 
 the name of the French government^ to cruise at sea, and commit hos- 
 tilities on land, against nations with whom the United States were at 
 peace. '' The British minister remonstrated. The president issued 
 orders for defeating the unwarrantable interference of the French am- 
 bassador. Genet threatened an appeal to the people, but was soon 
 after recalled. Afterwards, the French directory authorized the in- 
 discriminate capture of all vessels sailing under the flag of the United 
 States ; and ordered the American envoys to leave France. Two 
 severe actions occurred in the West Indies, between the j^merican 
 frigate Constellation, of thirty-eight guns, and the French frigate 
 L'lnsurgente, of forty, and the same frigate and the La Vengeance, of 
 fifty guns, in which L'lnsurgente was captured, and La Vengeance 
 worsted. 
 
 6. In 1,797, John Adams was chosen president ; and in the year 
 after, Washington was called to the head of the army, in the prospect 
 of a protracted war with France. But speedily after the overthrow 
 of the directory government, all the disputes between France and the 
 United States were amicably arranged. 
 
 7. Although, since the definitive treaty of Paris, there occurred no 
 open hostilities between England and the United States, yet they were 
 far from being on terms of amity and conciliation. On various pre- 
 texts, the English retained possession of the forts on the south side oj 
 the lakes, forming the northern boundary of the United States ; and 
 irritation was continually excited by the English insisting on the right 
 of searching American ships for enemy's property. Mr. Jay was de- 
 puted envoy to London, and negotiated a treaty, in 1,795, which set- 
 tled the differences between the two nations, but the terms of which 
 were much opposed in the United States. 
 
 8. December 14, 1,799, died the illustrious Washington, of an in- 
 flammatory sore throat and fever, contracted from a slight exposure to 
 the wet weather, after an illness of only about twenty-four hours. 
 
 9. The seat of government had been removed from New-York to 
 Philadelphia, both of which places being deemed inconvenient, pro- 
 vision was made, at the second session after the formation of govern- 
 ment, for the removal of the government to a district on the Potomac, 
 which was ceded to the United States by Virginia and Maryland ; and, 
 in 1,800, the public offices were removed to the infant capital, on 
 which magnificent buildings had been erected. This city bears the 
 .name of Washington, and the district that of Columbia. 
 
 10. The war with Tripoli commenced in 1,801, by an engagement 
 of the Enterprise, captain Sterrett, with a Tripolitan corsair, off Malta, 
 in which the American was victorious. Commodore Murray, the 
 following year, in the frigate Constellation, was attacked, while cruis- 
 ing off Tripoli, by a formidable number of gun boats, but obliged 
 them to retire in confusion. In 1,803, the Philadelphia frigate, cap- 
 lain Bainbridge, ran upon a rock, in the very jaws of the pirates ; was 
 obliged to strike, ana her officers and crew, amounting to three hun- 
 dred, were made prisoners. This vessel was, however, recaptured 
 and burnt, while lying in the harbour of Tripoli, February 16, 1,80*1, 
 by captain Stephen Decatur, jr., and seventy men — one of the most 
 daring and gallant exploits on record. From the 3d to the 29th of 
 August following, commodore Preble made three general attacks upon 
 the Tripolitan batteries. The barbarian enemy continued to treat 
 the American prisoners with the most atrocious cruelty. Another 
 
UNITED STATES. 431 
 
 expedient was tried by the American government. General Eaton 
 was despatched to co-operate with Hamet, who had been driven from 
 the government of Tripoli by the usurpation of his brother. Travel- 
 ling to Egypt, he found the exile, and proceeding iifty-two days 
 through a hideous desert, he arrived before Derne, a city in the 
 regency of Tripoli, and carried the town at the point of the bayoneL 
 Twice did the enemy attempt to retake the town ; but, against fearful 
 odds, they were repulsed by Eaton. This brought the reigning 
 bashaw to terms ; a peace was concluded by colonel Lear, and the 
 prisoners long detained in captivity, were released. 
 
 11. Tennessee in 1,796, and Ohio in 1,000, were added to the states 
 of the union. In 1,803, Louisiana was purchased from the French 
 government, for the sum of fifteen millions of dollars ; and in 1,812, a 
 
 gartion of this extended territory was erected into a state by that name* 
 y this cession, the United States have acquired a territory of vast 
 magnitude, and extraordinary fertility, from which new states will 
 continue to be incorporated. 
 
 12. In the autumn of 1,806, Aaron Burr was detected in an enter* 
 prise of great moment, the separation of + he western states from the 
 union, and the subjugation of New-Orleans : his plan was defeated by 
 the vigilance of the government ; Burr was arrested on a charge of 
 high treason — but no overt act being proved on him, he was released* 
 
 SECTION VI. 
 WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN, &c, 
 
 1. We come now to treat of those interesting events which brought 
 •on a second contest between Great Britain and the United Stale*. 
 The custom of searching American vessels on the ocean, and impress- 
 ing from them British seamen, had long been practised by the Englisl*. 
 But hitherto the custom had been confined to private vessels : now, ii 
 was extended in some instances to public armed vessels. Four seamen, 
 deserte:.? from the British navy, were reported to have entered the 
 service of the United States, and to have been received on board the 
 frigate Chesapeake, at the time lying at Hampton roads, preparing foi 
 the Mediterranean. Admiral Berkeley ordered captain Humphries, 
 of the Leopard, to follow the Chesapeake beyond the Waters of the 
 United State?, and demand the deserters : this he did, and, after 
 demanding the seamen, fired a broadside upon the American frigate. 
 This unexpected attack so disconcerted captain Barron, that he im- 
 mediately struck the colours of the Chesapeake, and permitted the 
 four seamen to be taken without resistance. The Leopard carried 
 fifty, the Chesapeake only thirty-six guns. On board the latter, four 
 men were killed and sixteen wounded. One of the impressed seamen 
 was afterwards hanged, and one died in prison : and there was reason 
 for supposing that three of them were native Americans. Captain 
 Barron, for neglect of duty, was suspended from command for five 
 years. This tragical occurrence produced a general indignation. 
 The British, however, disavowed admiral Berkeley's orders, and re- 
 moved him from the station, but soon after appointed him to a more 
 important one. 
 
 2. New systems of blockade were invented by the bellifferenta* 
 eommencing with the French decree of Berlin, of November 21, 
 
452 UNITED STATES 
 
 1,806 : January 7, 1,807, came the British order prohibiting coasting 
 trade, November 11, the celebrated British orders in council > ana 
 December 7, the French Milan decree. December 22, of the same 
 year, congress, on the recommendation of Mr. Jefferson, then presi- 
 dent, ordered an embargo, prohibiting the exportation of every article 
 from the United States. March 4, 1,809, the embargo was removed, 
 arid non-intercourse substituted. April 19, an arrangement was made 
 With Mr. Erskine, which induced the American government to renew 
 the trade with England ; this arrangement was-subsequently disavow* 
 ( d by the British government. The insulting deportment of the suc- 
 ceeding negotiator, Mr. Jackson, heightened the resentment of the 
 republic; and a rencounter between the American and British ships 
 of war, President and Little Belt, increased the unfriendly sentiments 
 of England. 
 
 3. Mr. Foster, a new British minister, offered honourable reparation 
 for the indignity on the Chesapeake ; but no change could be procur- 
 ed in the systems practised by Great Britain and France against 
 American trade. The United States now offered to either of the 
 belligerent-, or both, as soon as they ceased to violate the neutral 
 commerce Of the republic, that the non-intercourse arrangement 
 should be discontinued. The French artfully embraced the offer, by 
 information that the French Berlin and Milan decrees had been r&~ 
 voked ; and non-intercourse with France was discontinued b}' procla- 
 mation of the president. 
 
 4. War was declared by the United States against Great Britain. 
 June 13, 1,812, too late to avail themselves of the retraction of the 
 British orders n council, which followed the repeal of the Berlin and 
 Milan decrees. The congress voted an addition to the regular army, 
 of twenty-five thousand men ; authorized a loan of eleven millions ; 
 and nearly doubled the duties on imports. 
 
 C>. Previous to the declaration of war, indications oi hostility had 
 appeared among the Indians on the frontiers bordering on Canada.. 
 A body ot 'troops, under governor Harrison, was attacked on the 7tfe 
 of November, 1,811, near a branch of the Wabash, by a larger bony 
 of Indians, who were defeated, not without considerable loss to tta 
 American?-. 
 
 6. On the 12th of July, general Hull, governor of the Micfiigaf] 
 territory, crossed from Detroit into the province of Canada, with n 
 considerable force. Tn this situation, he soon received intelligence of 
 the enptui'e of the American post at Michillimackinac. On the 8th 
 of August, he returned to Detroit, followed by the British general 
 Brock, with his regulars and Indians ; and he soon surrendered to the 
 British,, not only his army, but included the whole territory of Michi- 
 gan in the articles of capitulation. He was afterwards tried, and 
 found guilty of cowardice and neglect of duty, and sentenced to be 
 shot : Tout, in consideration of his revolutionary services, and his age, 
 the court recommended him to mercy, and the president withdrew the 
 punishment of death. He has since endeavoured, by letters address- 
 ed to the people of this country, to justify his conduct ; and with many 
 persons his endeavours have been successful. 
 
 7. On the 19th of August, the Constitution frigate, captain Hull, 
 captured the British frigate Guerriere, captain Dacres, after an actioD 
 of thirty minutes : loss of the Guerriere, fifteen killed, sixty-four 
 wounded, and twenty-one missing — that of the Constitution, seven 
 killed and seven wounded. October 25, the frigate United States, 
 captain Decatur, met the British frigate Macedonian, off the western 
 
UNITED STATES. 4&J 
 
 hies, and captured her after an action of one hour and a half : British 
 loss, thirty-six filled and sixty-eight wounded — American loss, seven 
 killed, five wounded. The next naval achievement was the capture 
 of the British brig Frolic by the American sloop Wasp, commanded 
 by captain Jones : British loss, thirty killed and fifty wounded — 
 American, five killed, five wounded. In December, the Constitution, 
 captain Bainbridge, again met the enemy, and the frigate Java was 
 captured : British loss, sixty killed, and one hundred and one wound- 
 ed — American, nine killed, twenty-five wounded. Besides these vic- 
 tories of public ships, numerous privateers swarmed the ocean, and 
 before the meeting of congress, in November, nearly two hundred and 
 fifty vessels were captured from the enemy. 
 
 8. In November, general Van Rensselaer, with about one thousand 
 troops, crossed the Niagara river into Upper Canada, and attack ed 
 the British at Queenstown ; and, after an obstinate engagement, was 
 obliged to surrender, with a loss of sixty killed, and about one huHdred 
 wounded. In this engagement the British general Brock was killed. 
 
 9. Early in 1,813, an action was fought at the river Raisin, between 
 an American detachment, under general Winchester, and a British and 
 Indian force under colonel Proctor. The Americans were defeated, and 
 the greater part of five hundred prisoners were immediately massacred, 
 Proctor being unable or unwilling to protect them, as he had expressly 
 stipulated ! Soon after, general Harrison was attacked and besieged, 
 by the combined British and Indians at fort Meigs. A desultory wax 
 was kept up for some time. Colonel Dudley was detached from tb* 
 fort, to attack the enemy's battery on the opposite side of the river. 
 He succeeded in capturing the battery, but his troops, imprudently 
 pursuing the enemy, were soon surrounded by an Indian army, three 
 times their number, headed by th« Indian general Tecumseh ; a de»- 
 
 f>erate fight, and a scene ol slaughter almost as terrible as that at 
 laisin, ensued. Of ei^ht hundred meu composing the detachment,, 
 only about one hundred and fifty escaped. 
 
 10. On the 21st of February, the British attacked Ogdensburgh, ob 
 the river St. Lawrence, with a force of twelve hundred, and compelled 
 the Americans to evacuate the place. In April, the Americans, under 
 general Pike, landed at York, in Upper Canada ; and, after some «€>- 
 vere fighting, succeeded in capturing or destroying a large amount of 
 public stores. The British lost seven hundred and fifty men, in killed, 
 wounded, and captured. The brave Pike was mortally wounded, by 
 the explosion of a magazine, which had been purposely set on fisau 
 The object of the expedition being gained, the American forces evao- 
 uated \ork on the 1st of May, and re-embarked. 
 
 11. Fort George, commanded by general Vincent, was taken by 
 the American forces, under general Boyd # and colonel Miller, May 27, 
 after a sharp conflict. The British lost, i'n killed and wounded, about 
 two hundred and fifty men, besides six hundred prisoners — their an- 
 tagonists, thirty-nine killed and one hundred and eight wounded, 
 Soon afterwards, generals Chandler and Winder, who had advanced 
 with a considerable force, were attacked in the night, by genera) 
 Vincent, who had been reinforced, between fort George ana Burling- 
 ton bay, and, in a scene of confusion, were both made prisoners ; theh 
 troops retired to fort George. 
 
 12. Captain James Lawrence, of the Hornet, fell in with, and cap- 
 tured, the British sloop of war Peacock, February 24. The actios 
 lasted eight minutes ; and the British captain and several others wer* 
 killed, and twenty-nine wounded — the Hornet had three wounded* 
 
454 UNITED STATES. 
 
 The Peacock sunk soon after the action, and thirteen British sailors 
 went down with her. Captain Lawrence was afterwards appointed to 
 the command of the ill-fated Chesapeake, then lying in Boston harbour. 
 The British frigate Shannon, commanded by captain Broke, had been 
 for some time in the bay, seeking an engagement with an American 
 frigate. Lawrence, burning with impatience to meet the enemy, did 
 not wait to inquire into the relative condition of the vessels. The 
 Shannon had a picked crew, and was accoutred for the express pur- 
 pose of engaging an American frigate of the largest size. The Ches- 
 apeake, not of the largest description of frigates, had recently dis- 
 charged a part of her crew, and enlisted others : several of her officers 
 were sick. Lawrence sailed on the first of June ; and when he came 
 within sight of the Shannon, addressed his crew, but they listened with 
 no enthusiasm : some complained that they had not received their 
 prize money — murmurs and dissatisfaction were general ; in fact the 
 crew Were almost in a state of mutiny. The Chesapeake closed with 
 the enemy and gave the first broadside ; and at the first fire of the 
 Shannon, captain Lawrence was mortally wounded. A second and a 
 third broadside gave the British a decided advantage, which was fol- 
 lowed up by boarding the Chesapeake. A scene of carnage ensued ; 
 captain Lawrence was carried below, exclaiming, as he left the deck, 
 " Don't give up the ship." Every officer qualified for command in 
 the Chesapeake, was either killed or disabled : about eight}' were 
 killed, and as many wounded. Of the British, twenty-three were 
 killed and fifty-six wounded. The captured frigate was carried in 
 triumph to Halifax. The brilliant achievements of Wellington and 
 Nelson scarcely called forth more lively expressions of exultation in 
 England, than did the capture of the Chesapeake. The tower guns 
 at London were fired on reception of the news, and the prince regent 
 conferred on captain Broke the order of knighthood. 
 
 13. On the 4th of August, the American sloop of war Argus was 
 captured by the Pelican, a vessel of her own class, but said to be two 
 guns superior. Captain Allen, commander of the Argus, was mortally 
 wounded at the first broadside of the en^my. In the following month, 
 the American brig Enterprize captured the Boxer, a vessel superior 
 in effective force. The only person killed on board the Enterprize 
 was her gallant commander, lieutenant Burroughs, and thirteen were 
 wounded. The British loss was greater : among the slain was captain 
 Blythe, who commanded the Boxer, and who was buried by the side 
 of his antagonist in the town of Portland, off whose harbour the action 
 was fought. 
 
 14. But the most brilliant achievement this year was that of the 
 youthful Peny on lake Erie. The British force consisted of six ves- 
 sels, having sixty-three guns ; that of the Americans, of nine vessels 
 and fifty-six guns. The conflict was tremendous. The flag ship of 
 Peny suffered dreadfully in the loss of men, and was on the point of 
 sinking : he left the ship in the midst of the hottest fire, and proceed- 
 ed to another vessel ; and after three hours conflict, the laurel of 
 victory was assigned to Perry ; the triumph was complete — not a single 
 vessel of the enemy escaped. This action took place on the 10th of 
 September, and made the Americans masters of the lake. The gallant 
 Perry announced this victory in the following laconic epistle to general 
 Harrison : " We have met the enemy and they are ours — two ships, 
 two brigs, one schooner, and one sloop." 
 
 15. Chesapeake bay was blockaded by the British during the spring 
 of this year, and several predatory incursions by their troops were 
 
UNITED STATES 45b 
 
 made. Much property was plundered and destroyed, and many dish 
 graceful scenes occurred, particularly at Hampton and Havre de 
 urace. 
 
 16. An attack was made, May 29, on Sackett's harbour by about one 
 thousand British, who were repulsed with Considerable loss. General 
 Brown commanded the American, and sir George Prevost the British 
 troops. About the same time the British attacked Craney Island, 
 near Norfolk, and were defeated with loss. 
 
 17. General Dearborn, the American commander, retired from ser- 
 vice this year. Fort Sandusky was invested by a large force of British 
 and Indians ; and ihe exploit of major Croghan in repulsing the assail- 
 ants with great loss, sailed iorth general admiration. In October, 
 Detroit was abandoned by the British, on die approach of a large 
 army under general Harrison ; who, soon after, defeated the enemy 
 under the command of general Proctor, in Upper Canada ; in this 
 battle the celebrated T ecrmseh was killed. 
 
 18. Little was done tbis year towards the conquest of Canada. 
 General Wilkinson descended tja? St. Lawrence from lake Ontario in 
 November ; and an engagement took place at Williamsburgh, in 
 which the Americans wc;c repulsed with the loss of three hundred 
 killed, wounded, and prisoners. A disagreement between the general? 
 Hampton and Wilkinson, prevented that concert which was necessary 
 to secure success ; the design of attacking Montreal was relinquished, 
 and the army retired to winter quarters. Fort George was evacuated 
 in the month of December ; and misconceiving his instructions, general 
 M'Clure, who commanded the fortress, set fire to the village of New- 
 ark. Niagara was afterwards surprised, and retaken by the British. — 
 The British crossed over to the American side, and in resentment for the 
 destruction of Newark, burnt Buffalo and some other villages, and laid 
 waste the whole frontier. 
 
 19. The Creek Indians, who had been for some time in open hos- 
 tilities with the United States, were completely subdued this season 
 and the succeeding spring, principally by troops commanded by gen- 
 eral Andrew Jackson. 
 
 20. In January, 1,314, prepositions having been made by the prince 
 regent for a negotiation, Messrs. IluGsell and Clay were appointed to 
 join Messrs. Adams, Bayard, and Gallatin, already in Europe, a* 
 commissioners to meet such as the British government might appoint; 
 and Messrs. Gambier, Golbourn, and William Adams were appointed 
 to meet them. The place of assembling was first fixed at Gottenburg, 
 but afterwards changed to Ghent in Flanders ; where the commission- 
 ers met in August. 
 
 21. The frigate Essex, captain David Torter, after having long 
 cruised in the Pacific and captured a great number of British vessels, 
 was herself captured in the harbour of Valparaiso, by the British 
 frigate Phebe and the sloop Cherub. The Peacock captured the 
 British brig Epervier, April 29, after an action of forty-two minutes. 
 The Hornet sloop of war captured the English national brig Penguin : 
 and the old Constitution, under captain Stewart, overcame the united 
 forces of the Cyane and Levant. 
 
 22. In the beginning of July, fort Erie was taken by the Americans. 
 On the 4th of July, a brilliant victory was gained by general Brown 
 at Chippewa. On the 25th, one of the most sanguinary battles on rec* 
 ord took place at Bridgewater : in this action the American general* 
 Scott, Ripley, and Porter, with colonel Miller, majors Hindman, Jes- 
 i»p t Leavenworth, and M'Neil, distinguished themselve*. Tbe 
 
466 UNITED STATES. 
 
 British forces were led by generals Drummond and Rial. The battle 
 lasted from four o'clock, P. M. until midnight. The British lost nine 
 hundred, killed, wounded, and prisoners : the American loss was less. 
 The latter maintained their ground ; while the former retired. 
 
 23. The town of Eastport in the bay of Passamaquoddy, was this 
 year taken by a British naval force ; and soon after the British took 
 possession of Castine and all that part of the new state of Maine, lying 
 between that place and Penobscot river, and compelled many of the 
 inhabitants to take the oath of allegiance to Great Britain. The 
 British this year landed marauding parties, at Saybrook, Wareham, 
 Scituate, and other places, and destroyed much shipping : in an at- 
 tempt on Stonington, they were beaten oft* by the gallant inhabitants 
 with loss. 
 
 24. From the 16th to the 20th of August, about sixty sail of the 
 British arrived in the Chesapeake, intending to invade the States in 
 earnest. More than fifty of them landed at Benedict, on the Patuxent, 
 about forty miles from Washington. On the 22d the British flanker* 
 reached Wood Yard, fourteen miles from Washington. Commodore 
 Barney here blew up a flotilla of gun boats to prevent their falling into 
 the hands of the enemy. On the 23d the British forces, estimated at 
 six thousand, reached bladensburgh, about six miles from Washington- 
 Here a short engagement took place ; but the greater part of the 
 American militia fled. Commodore Barney, with a few eighteen 
 pounders and about four hundred men, made a gallant resistance from 
 Bladensburg to the city ; but he was wounded and taken prisoner. 
 The British here destroyed the capitol, the president's house, and 
 several other public buildings, mutilated the monument in the navy 
 yard, and committed many excesses. In the night of the 25th, the 
 British retired, gained their shipping by rapid marches, and ernbarkr 
 ed on board their ships on the 27th. Several British ships under cap- 
 tain Gordon, at the same time, ascended the Potomac, appeared b&~ 
 fore Alexandria, robbed the defenceless inhabitants of a vast quantity 
 of flour and other plunder ; and escaped down the river without mo- 
 lestation. 
 
 25. August 14, General Drummond was repulsed in an attack o* 
 fort Erie, after a severe conflict, with a loss of five hundred and eighty 
 two in killed, wounded, and prisoners, two hundred and twenty-one 
 being killed ; American loss in killed and wounded, two hundred and 
 forty-five. 
 
 26. On Sunday, the 11th of September, admiral Cochrane appeared 
 off Baltimore with about fifty sail. The larger vessels landed at 
 North Point, ten miles from the city, about seven thousand troop* 
 under general Ross and admiral Cockburn. The next day, as they 
 advanced towards the city, they were met by general Strieker with 
 about three thousand militia, and a severe engagement took place, in 
 which the British general was killed. The Americans were however 
 repulsed by superior numbers ; and on Tuesday evening, the British 
 advanced to within about two miles of the American entrenchments. 
 But so strong was the American force, and so valiantly had they fought 
 Ae preceding day, that the British retreated before morning, and 
 hastily re-embarked. A grand attack wa9 made on Tuesday on fort 
 M'Henry, on the other side of the city and commanding the watez 
 passage to it, from frigates, bomb, and rocket vessels, which lasted the 
 whole day and a part of the night, doing but little damage. In the 
 night about a thousand of the enemy landed between the fort and the 
 eity , but were soon repulsed. The loss of the American* m killed* 
 
UNITED STATES. 487 
 
 wounded, and prisoners, was two hundred and thirteen : that of the 
 British is not known. The enemy, thus discomfited, moved down the 
 bay. 
 
 27. The governor-general of Canada, sir George Prevost, with 
 from twelve lo fourteen thousand men, made ar attack on Plattsburgh, 
 September 11. At the same time a naval engagement, on lake Cham- 
 plain, took place in sight of the land forces. The American fleet 
 having eighty-six guns and eight hundred and twenty-six men, was 
 commanded by captain M'Donough ; the British, consisting of ninety- 
 five guns and. one thousand and fifty men, was commanded by com- 
 modore Downie. The action ended in the surrender of the "British 
 vessels, viz. one frigate, one brig, and two sloops of war. Some of 
 their gallies were sunk ; others escaped. American loss, fifty-twc 
 killed, fifty-eight wounded : British loss, eighty-four killed, on& 
 hundred and ten wounded. At the same time that the fleets were 
 engaged, governor Prevost attacked the forts at Plattsburgh with his 
 land forces, throwing shells, balls, and rockets : he attempted to cross 
 the Saranac, but was repulsed at three different places. So effectual 
 was the fire of the Americans, that, before sunset, the batteries he had 
 erected were all silenced; and at nine o'clock in the evening his 
 whole army began a rapid retreat, leaving many wounded, and much 
 ammunition, provision, and baggage. The American loss this day, 
 and in skirmishes previous on land, was thirty-nine killed, sixty-two 
 wounded, and twenty missing: the loss of the British, in killed* 
 wounded, and deserters, besides those on board the fleet, was estimat- 
 ed at two thousand five hundred. General Alexander Macomb com- 
 manded the American land forces. 
 
 28. As on Erie and Champlain, so on the lake Ontario, each party 
 strove for a naval ascendency. Several large ships were built by thfc 
 Americans at Sackett's harbour, and by the British at Kingston. The 
 American fleet was commanded by captain Chauncey, and the British- 
 by commodore Yeo. A.s at no time, one side equalled the other in 
 strength, so at all times one avoided as the other sought for aaengage- 
 me/it. A partial action once took place ; but the British commander, 
 at that time supposing his force inferior, took the advantage of di- 
 cujnstances to make his port. One of the British vessels ready for 
 se& at the close of the war manned nearly one hundred guns ; and two 
 of the largest class of vessels in the world were at the same tim*» 
 erecting at Sackett's harbour. 
 
 29. In a sortie from fort Erie, under the command of general 
 Brown, after a severe engagement, the British were defeated with the 
 loss of nearly a thousand, in killed, wounded, and prisoners : the 
 American loss exceeded five hundred. 
 
 30. The frigate President, commodore Decatur, sailed from New- 
 York, January 14, 1,815, and was the next day pursued by four frigates 
 and a brig of the enemy. An engagement took place between the 
 foremost of the pursuing vessels, the Endymion and the President . 
 after a severe action of two hours, the Endymion was silenced and 
 beaten off. The Pamone and Tenedos in one hour coming up, the 
 President was obliged to surrender. 
 
 31. One of the most splendid events on the part of the Americans 
 closed the late war : it was the discomfiture and repulse of the British 
 at New-Orleans. A very large BritisL force entered lake Pontchar- 
 train, near New-Orleans, aarly in December, 1,814, defeating after 
 an obstinate conflict the small Amenon naval force stationed there. 
 The British were commanded by genetr.l ickenham, cne of Wellmr- 
 
 <4q ** 
 
458 UNITED STATES. 
 
 ton's invincibles who had conquered the great Napoleon : the Air*r> 
 can army was led by general Andrew Jackson. Several skirmishes 
 took place, in which the British were almost the exclusive sufferers. 
 On Sunday morning' early, January 8, a grand attack was made by 
 tiie British on the American troops in their entrenchments. After an 
 engagement of more than an hour, the enemy were cut to pieces to a 
 degree almost beyond example, and fled in confusion, leaving on the 
 field of battle their dead 2nd wounded. The British loss was sevep 
 hundred killed, fourteen hundred wounded, and live hundred prisoners : 
 the generals Packenham and Keane, were among the slain, and gen* 
 eral Cobb was dangerously wounded. The American loss was said to 
 be only seven killed and six wounded ! The attack was not renewed, 
 and in a short time after, the British left the west. 
 
 32. Up to the close of 1,814, the British ministry, calculating tp 
 bring the Americans to their terms, had discovered an indisposition to 
 treat with the commissioners of the United States ; but the defeat of 
 the British before Pittsburgh, gave a new turn to the negotiation, and 
 a treaty of peace was signed at Ghent, December 24, 1,814. Both 
 nations agreed to appoint commissioners to settle disputed boundaries* 
 No allusion was made in the treaty to the causes of the war. Security 
 against their recurrence rests, however, on a much firmer basis than 
 the provisions of the most solemn treaty. Britain has been taught to 
 appreciate the strength of the republic. By this war the public debt 
 of the United States was increased a hundred millions of dollars. 
 
 33. It would too much extend this sketch of the history of the it- 
 public, to trace to its source the origin of parties which have divided 
 the country into two great sections with different appellations. The 
 distinction was unknown until subsequent to Mr. Jay's treaty with 
 Great Britain in 1,795. George Washington was elected president in 
 1,788, and re-elected in 1,792. He was succeeded by John Adams, 
 elected in 1,796, between whom and Thomas Jefferson the parties 
 divided in 1,800: the latter was chosen at that time, not however 
 until he had been balloted for thirty-six times by the house of repre- 
 sentatives in congress, the vote by states being at each balloting 
 tcquaily divided between Mr. Jefferson and Aaron Burr. In 1,804, 
 Mr. Jefferson was re-elected. Declining an election in 1,808, Mr. 
 Jefferson gave place to James Madison. The latter continuing eight 
 vears, James Monroe was elected to the presidency in 1,816 ; and so 
 rcnerai was the satisfaction with the administration, that in 1,820, he 
 had all the electoral votes save one for the same office. 
 
 34. Since the peace the attention of the country has been called to 
 the propriety of augmenting the national defence. Congress having 
 made appropriations for the purpose, extensive fortifications have been 
 irfid continue to be erected for the security of the commercial towns- 
 One million of dollars annually is likewise appropriated for the grad- 
 ual augmentation of the navy, to which, independent of smaller 
 vessels, nine ships of the line, twelve frigates, and three floating batte- 
 ries are to be added. 
 
 35. By an act of congress in the year 1,818, a yearly pension, suffi- 
 eient for their decent maintenance, having been granted to those officers 
 rwd privates who served more than nine months at any one time in the 
 war of the revolution, more than thirty thousand individuals made ap- 
 plication for relief. The sum required much exceeded general ex* 
 ©ectation ; and the following year an additional act was passed which 
 ««iv«mscribed the applicants to a narrow space. Importations haying 
 te«ened, the amount received into the treasury from duties became 
 
UNIT13D STA1ES. 469 
 
 lew than the calculations ; and in 1,821, the standing military fore* 
 was reduced from ten to six thousand, and the building of ships of war 
 was, in some deg-ee, suspended. 
 
 3b. Since the admission of Louisiana in 1,812, six other states have 
 been admitted into the Union — Indiana in 1,816, Mississippi in 1,817 
 Illinois in 1,818. Alabama in 1,819, Maine in 1,820, and Missouri in 
 1,821. Indiana and Illinois are sections of the same territory from 
 which Ohio was made a state. Mississippi and Alabama belonged to 
 Georgia and Louisiana : Maine was separated from Massachusetts, and 
 Missouri from the vast tract ceded by the French, under the name of 
 Jx-uisiana. 
 
 37. A treaty was concluded at Washington in 1,819, by which Spain 
 redid to the United States that portion of her territory, known by the 
 name of Florida. Five millions of dollars was the price ; and the 
 sum, in pursuance of the treaty, has been paid as indemnity to Amer- 
 ican citizens for illegal seizures of their property in Spanish ports. 
 
 38. Besides the different state governments, territorial governments, 
 with magistrates appointed by the president and senate, exist in 
 Michigan, Arkansas, and Florida. 
 
 39. In the year 1,820, the fourth authorized census of the inhabitants 
 was recorded. The progress of population has been rapid almost 
 beyond a parallel. In 1,790, the population was three millions nine 
 hundred and twenty-one thousand : in 1,800, five millions three 
 hundred and twenty thousand : in 1,810, seven millions two hundred 
 and forty thousand ; and in " ,820, nine millions sir hundred and thirty - 
 eight tliousand. 
 
PART FIFTH. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 ADDITIONAL FACTS, BRINGING DOWN THE GENERAL HIS 
 TORY TO THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 1.1x1 ,820. some commotion was caused in France by the assassina- 
 tion of the Duke of Berri ; nephew of Louis XVIII. and son of the 
 present king. He was stabbed at the door of the opera house by an 
 obscure person named Louvel. It appeared that the assassin was 
 instigated to this horrid deed merely by a thirst for revenging an al- 
 leged injury, which he suffered many years previous. * 
 
 2. Napoleon Bonaparte died at St. Helena, May 5lh 1,821, aged 52. 
 He was a man of talents which few other men are competent to esti- 
 mate : of astonishing foresight and intrepidity : of insatiable ambition. 
 His career was marked by the most splendid achievements. He was 
 destined by Providence to humble the pride of the Princes of the 
 earth, to shake the foundations of arbitrary power, and then, to be 
 himself humbled and debased. To France he gave a code of laws, 
 (he influence of which has been felt throughout Europe, and will ex- 
 tend through the world. He gave to the lower classes of the commu- 
 nity, an activity and importance, which they had never felt ; but which, 
 having been once appreciated, they are not likely to surrender. His 
 political maxims, however selfish in their ends, were utterly at vari- 
 ance with that baser love of arbitrary dominion, which is regardless 
 of the welfare of its subjects. He loved to govern ; but his ambition 
 made him wish to govern an industrious, enlightened, and happy 
 world ; and wherever he extended his conquests, he endeavoured to 
 relieve the oppressed, and break the shackles under which humanity 
 groaned. The efforts which are now making by the lower classes in 
 almost every arbitrary government, to obtain free constitutions which 
 shall elevate them from the rank of slaves to that of citizens, are to 
 be ascribed, in a great measure, to the influence of his institutions, and 
 his example. We can mark no limits to the blessings which, under 
 Heaven, he dispensed while he lived, and bequeathed to posterity. 
 If we judge him by the effects of his conquests, his institutions and his 
 administration of government, he will appear one of the greatest bene- 
 factors of mankind : but if as Christians, we estimate his character by 
 the motives which he manifested throughout his career, we shall find 
 ittle in it to applaud, but much to condemn. Although it was a part 
 of his policy to ameliorate the condition of men, a wish to extend and 
 to secure his own sovereignty over them appears to have been his 
 ruling motive. An all-wise Providence converted his deeds into 
 blessings, but they cannot entitle him to the praise of Christian virtue 
 If his rise and reign was all that men call glorious, his downfall ex- 
 hibited a reverse no less signal. Confined on one of the most barren 
 and dismal islands in the world, — guarded and controlled by gaolers, 
 who exercised towards him a petty tyranny, which denied not unfre> 
 quently the common civilities of life, — wasted by a long and painful 
 disease, — all the circumstances about him combined to mock his for- 
 mer greatness, and to witness to an ambitious world, that he T»k9 
 exaileth himself shall be abased. 
 
ADDITIONAL FACTS, kc. 4*1 
 
 3. In 1,823, France obtained permission from the Congress of Allied 
 Sovereigns, held at Verona, to invade Spain, and re-establish the king 
 in his former authority. It was expected that the friends of the new 
 constitution would have been able to make a powerful resistance to 
 this invasion ; but the conquest proved easy ; and this revolution, 
 like that of 1,820, was accomplished with very little bloodshed. On 
 the 16th day of Sept. 1,824, Louis XVIII. died of the dropsy: his 
 brother succeeded to the throne and took the title of Charles X. 
 
 4. A revolution similar in its character to that in Spain took place 
 in Portugal in 1,820. In 1,821, the Royal Family, with the exception 
 of the Prince Royal, the king's son, returned from Brazil. The king 
 swore to the free" constitution, and the kingdom enjoyed a good de- 
 gree of tranquillity until May 1,823, when a counter-revolution was 
 commenced, and on the 3d of June the king issued his proclamation 
 announcing the restoration of the Ancient Monarchy. 
 
 5. In England, George IV. succeeded to the throne upon the death 
 of his father George III. He had for many years been Prince 
 Regent. The year was distinguished by domestic commotions, of 
 which the disturbances among the labouring classes in Manchester 
 and other manufacturing towns, were the most alarming. The al- 
 leged cause of complaint was the low price of wages, which was 
 declared to be quite disproportionate to their services. Large meet- 
 ings were held in many places, and very riotous proceedings passed, 
 and the nation was much alarmed by the prospects of a civil war. 
 The malecontents found several able leaders, among whom Hunt and 
 Thistlewood were prominent. The commotions were, however, 
 quelled without their objects being obtained. Hunt suffered a long 
 imprisonment ; Thistlewood and lour others were executed, and five 
 were transported. 
 
 6. But this year was principally memorable for the trial of the 
 Queen on a charge of adultery. This affair produced a remarkable 
 degree of excitement not only throughout that kingdom, but also on 
 the continent and in America. 
 
 7. Since the termination of these difficulties the nation has enjoyed 
 tranquillity and a high degree of prosperity. 
 
 8. The summer of 1,821, was remarkable for the scantiness of the 
 crops in Ireland. The following winter brought a most distressing 
 famine, of which great numbers perished. 
 
 9. Since the establishment of peace in 1,815, the Northern States 
 of Europe have enjoyed a good degree of tranquillity. Few events 
 have Occurred, to serve as items of general history. By a decree of 
 the Emperor of Russia in 1,811, the government of that empire was 
 declared to be a constitutional monarchy. Little was done till after 
 the peace to limit its despotic character, but since that period some 
 constitutional privileges have been granted to the subjects. Similar 
 improvements have been made, and are making, in the governments 
 .of most of these States. Prussia has established assemblies, which 
 bear a representative character. 
 
 10. In 1,815, the Confess of Vienna, composed of the authorities of 
 Austria, France, Great-Brjtain, Prussia, and Russia, made a solemn 
 declaration of their resolution to put a stop to the African Slave Trade. 
 This wicked traffic was not, however, diminished by this measure, be 
 cause France was totally unfaithful to her promise. At the Congrea 
 oi Verona in 1,823, the same powers, with the exception of France, 
 declared that this crime ought to be assimilated with that of piracy, 
 and hence punishable with death. 
 
 Qq2 
 
46* HISTORY OF NEW SPAIN. 
 
 11. In 1,C16, the Jesuits were expelled from Moscow and Peters* 
 
 burgh, and in 1,820, from the whole Russian empire, and forbidden 
 ever to return. 
 
 12. Pope Pius VII. died Aug - . 20, 1,823, in the eighty-second year 
 of his age, and the twenty-fourth of his pontificate, rfe Avas succeed- 
 ed by the Cardinal Delia Genga, who assumed the title of Leo XIL 
 The present Pope, was bom on the 2d of Aug. 1 ,760; He was Nun- 
 cio fourteen years in the electorates of the Rhine. At the period of 
 the persecutions exercised by Bonaparte against the Catholic Cfaiirch, 
 he was obliged to quit Rome with the other prelates and cardinals. 
 At the restoration, he was the cardinal selected by Pius Yil. to 
 congratulate Louis XVIII. on his return. The commencement of his 
 pontificate has been signalized by his refusal to restore the Inquisition 
 in Spain, declaring it inconsistent with the liberal spirit of the age. 
 
 13. In the summer of 1,820, an insurrection broke out in Naples 
 and Sicily, and so feeble was the established government, that the 
 insurgents soon compelled the king to grant them a free constitution. 
 The Allied Sovereigns of Europe at their session at Troppau, near the 
 close of the same year, made a formal declaration of irreconcilable 
 "hostility to this new government. In 1,821, they decided at the Con/ 
 rress of Laybach, that a portion of the Austrian army should occupy 
 Naples, to restore the authority of the king. This was readily ac- 
 complished, and with little opposition. The Spanisfi constitution of 
 1,812, was granted to Naples and Sicily, and tranquillity was restored. 
 Similar disturbances took place at the same period in some of the 
 Sardinian States, but they were quieted by the result of those in Na- 
 ples and Sicily 
 
 14. Turkey has enjoyed little tranquillity for many years. Till 
 Greeks revolted from flie Ottoman power in 1J-21.; and from thai 
 period to the present a bloody war has been carried on between them 
 and the Turks. The latter have committed frequent and horrihk 
 massacres of the Christians in Constantinople, Scio, and oilier places i 
 and have endeavoured to reduce their revolted subjects by every act 
 of cruelty and oppression. The Greeks have maintained their strug- 
 gle for independence with much bravery and spirit, which has some- 
 times become ferocity ; but they are neither sufficiently virtuous nor 
 civilized to act in full concert in resisting oppression. It is impossible 
 to judge how far they have been really successful, and what are their 
 prospects of ultimate success, owing to the want of authentic channels 
 of information ; but at this moment the existing probability is decid- 
 edly in favour of their success. 
 
 SECTION SECOND. 
 HISTORY OF NEW SPAIN. 
 
 COMPILED PRINCIPALIS FROM POINSETT'S NOTES ON MEXICO. 
 
 1. When this country was first visited by the Spaniards in 1,519, 
 ft had attained a high degree of civilization. Of this we may judge 
 by the form of its government, its laws, and its civil institutions. 
 
 2. The monarch was chosen from among the members of the reign- 
 ing family by six electors, chosen from among the thirty princes of 
 the first rank. The political system was feudal. The first class of 
 nobles, consisting of thirty families had each one hundred thousand 
 
HISTORY OF NEW SPAIN. <£3 
 
 rassals. The second class consisted of more than three thousand 
 families. The lords exercised the right of life and death over their 
 vassals. All the lands were divided into allodial, hereditary, and 
 contingent estates, — the latter depending upon places in the gift of the 
 crown. 
 
 3. The priests were charged with the education of youth ; and on 
 their testimony of the merit of their scholars, depended their future- 
 rank. Under Montezuma, the emperor at this period, the government 
 was despotic, but he was subject to the high priest. Each province 
 was subject to a tribute ; but certain nobles were excepted, who were 
 compelled to take the held in case of a war, with a stated number ol 
 followers. The tribute was paid in kind, and was fixed at one thir- 
 tieth part of the crop. The governors of provinces also vied with 
 each other in the magnificence of their presents to the emperor. 
 
 4. Sacrilege, murder, and treason, were punished with death ; and 
 the laws of the empire were generally as much respected as in the 
 most civilized European nations of that age. The attention of the 
 government was principally directed towards the internal commerce, 
 so as to secure an abundant supply to the people. Posts were estab- 
 lished between the capital and the remotest provinces. A court of 
 ten magistrates determined the validity of contracts ; and officers were 
 constantly employed to examine the measure? and the quality of good* 
 exposed for sale. 
 
 5. Besides the empire of the Mexicans, of which we have Wen 
 speaking, there were other powerful states, whose form of government 
 was republican. The most powerful of these was Tlascala, the gov- 
 ernment of which continued for some time after the conquest of 
 Mexico. It was a thickly settled, fertile, and populous country, di- 
 vided into districts, each under the authority of a chief. These chiefs 
 administered justice, levied the tribute, and commanded the military 
 forces, but their decrees were not valid, or of force, until confirmed by 
 the senate of Tlascala, which was the true sovereign. A certain num- 
 ber of citizens, chosen from the different districts by popular assem- 
 blies, formed this legislative body. The senate elected its own chief. 
 The laws were strictly and impartially executed ; and the people are 
 represented as numerous, wealthy, and powerful. 
 
 6. The Mexicans possessed some knowledge of Astronomy, and 
 their calendar was constructed with more exactness than that of thg 
 Greeks, the Romans, or the Egyptians. Their hierogl3 r phics, drawings, 
 and maps — their cities and artificial roads, causeways, canals, and im- 
 mense pyramids — their government and hierarchy, and administration 
 of laws — their knowledge of the art of mining, and of preparing metal* 
 for ornament and use — their skill in carving "images out of thehardes* 
 stone — in manufacturing and dying cloths, "and the perfection of their 
 agriculture, afford ample evidence of the high degree of civilization 
 attained by the Mexicans. If we recollect that at this period, the art 
 of printing was not used in Europe, — that the Reformation had not 
 taken place, — that most of the great improvements in arts and science 
 are of more modern date, we shall see no reason to call the Mexicans 
 barbarous, compared with their proud invaders, or with other nation? 
 of that period. Their religion was disgraced by gross superstition ; 
 and the sacrifice of human victims was not unfrequent. But, still, 
 when compared with other nations, they were not deficient in practi- 
 cal virtue. Indeed nothing in their character appears to have been 
 half so gross and antichristian, as the merciless conduct of their inva 
 ders. We cannot estimate them by the degraded state of the remain- 
 
464 HISTORY OF. NEW SPAIN. 
 
 mg natives ; for when the country was conquered, its aits, and sciences, 
 and civil and religious institutions ceased, because those classes in thft 
 community by whom knowledge was possessed and transmitted, wer§ 
 utterly exterminated. 
 
 7. Shortly after the Spaniards under Cortez landed at Vera Crui, 
 he received messengers from Montezuma, bringing with them presents 
 to a considerable amount, and entreating Cortez not to advance far- 
 ther into the country. But the sight of this display of wealth stimu- 
 lated the cupidity of the Spaniards, and confirmed their resolution to 
 penetrate to the capital, in their route they had to contend against 
 the republic of Tlascala, a riation continually at war with the empire 
 o{ Mexico. Cortez vanquished them in two battles, and found no 
 difficulty in enlisting them against Montezuma. Six thousand Tlasca- 
 lans were added, as auxiliaries^ to his European troops, and he con- 
 tinued his march upon the capital of the empire under the guise of 
 friendship. As he advanced, he continued to augment his forces by 
 treaties with other nations and tribes which were inimical to Monte- 
 zuma : and with a European force of five hundred infantry and fifteen 
 horsemen, arid a large army of Indians, he reached the city of Tenoch- 
 titlan on the 8th of' Nov. 1,519. The emperor received him with a 
 degree of magnificence that excited the astonishment of the Spaniards. 
 The whole army was lodged and entertained sumptuously, and Cortez 
 received presents to a great amount. 
 
 8. Montezuma soon found that by admitting an armed and power- 
 ful friend into his capital, he had delivered himself and his people 
 into the hands of a ferocious enemy. Cortez demanded that th* 
 Mexican general, Qualpopoca, who had committed some hostilities on 
 the colony left al Vera Cruz, should be delivered up io him, bound 
 hand and foot, and he caused him to be burnt alive. He next got 
 possession of the person of the emperor and detained him prisoner. But 
 the indignation of the people was most excited by the contempt with 
 which their religious rites and idols were treated by the Spaniards. 
 
 9. Cortez was now compelled to leave the force at Tenochtitlan 
 the capital, in the command of Alvarado, and march against Narvaez 
 who had arrived on the coast to deprive him of his command. Having 
 vanquished Narvaez and obtained a considerable accession of force, 
 he returned to Tenochtitlan, and found that the Mexicans had burnt the 
 vessels which hje had constructed on the Lake, and had just laid siege 
 to the building in which the Spaniards were lodged. The siege was 
 prosecuted with vigour by the natives, and the place defended with 
 obstinacy by the Spaniards. Montezuma having ascended a terrace 
 was killed by a stone or arrow, and his brother Quetlavaca proclaimed 
 his successor. This gave such vigour to the Mexicans, that the Span- 
 iards were obliged to retreat with great loss. At Otumba, Cortez was 
 obliged to turn and give them battle. He was victorious, and pro- 
 ceeded to Tlascala without further trouble. To secure his ascenden- 
 cy over th^ republic, he made frequent incursions into the territories 
 of neighbouring nations, and with uniform success. 
 
 10. In December 1,521, he returned to the vale of Tezcuco, and 
 from this place continued to carry on the war against the Mexicans 
 and their allies. He ordered to be constructed at Tlascala the frames 
 of thirteen vessels, and they were brought by an immense number of 
 Indians to the Lake Tezcuco. When these vessels' were ready, he 
 sent for his allies, amounting to fifty thousand troops, who soon arrived. 
 After a siege of seventy-five days the city was captured, Aug. 13th. 
 i ? 521. The captured Mexicans were divided among the conquerors 
 
HISTORY OF NEW SPAIN. 46S 
 
 — one fifth being reserved for the king of Spain ; and they continued 
 fo be treated as slaves for centuries, notwithstanding the humane lawi 
 passed in Spain for their relief. This conquest was completed in the 
 reign of Guatimozin son of Montezuma, who had succeeded to th» 
 throne after the death of Quetlavaca. 
 
 11. There is little interesting- in the history of Mexico from thts 
 period till the commencement oi the Revolution in 1,810. Almost the 
 only bright spot in the page of its history during this period, is the 
 administration of the viceroy Revillagigedo. Good roads, leading 
 from the capital to different parts of the kingdom, were made by hi* 
 orders ; the streets of the principal cities were paved and lighted, 
 and good police regulations established. An authentic statistical 
 account of the country was made, and almost every salutary law and 
 regulation, now in existence, may be traced to his administration, 
 
 12. To understand the nature of the authority which Spain exer- 
 cised over her American Colonies, it is necessary to remark that nU 
 acquisitions in America were considered as belonging to the crown, 
 rather than 'to the state. Pope Alexander VI. first bestowed them .& 
 a free gift, upon Ferdinand and Isabella. They and their successors 
 were to be held as the universal proprietors of the regions which had 
 been, or should be discovered. All officers in the colonies, whether 
 Civil or ecclesiastic, were appointed by their authority, and remova- 
 ble at their pleasure. The Spanish possessions Avere, at first, divided 
 into two viceroyalties, New Spain and Peru ; but subsequently, u 
 third was established at Santa Fe de Bogota, the jurisdiction of tvhicb 
 extended over Terra Firrna and the province of Quito. 
 
 13. The authority of the viceroys was supreme in every depart" 
 ment of government, civil, military, and criminal. To aid them in trte 
 administration of government in provinces remote from their residence^, 
 magistrates of various orders were appointed, subject to the viceroy ; 
 and courts, called Audiences, were established, whose decisions were, 
 in most cases, final. Upon the death of a viceroy without any pro- 
 vision of a successor by the king, the supreme power was vested hi 
 the court of Audience resident in the capital of the viceroyalty, a*d 
 the senior judge, assisted by his brethren, exercised all the functions- 
 of the viceroy, while the ollice continued vacant. 
 
 14. The supreme government of all the Spanish possessions to 
 America was, however, vested in the Council of the Indies. This 
 Council was first established by Ferdinand in 1,511. Its jurisdiction 
 extended to every department, ecclesiastical, civil, military, and conv 
 mercial. All laws and ordinances relative to the government ar*5 
 police of the colonies originated there, and must be approved by tvw? 
 thirds of the members, before being issued in the name of the kino. 
 To it each person employed in America, from the viceroy downwards* 
 was accountable. Before it was laid all intelligence public or secret, 
 received from the colonies, and every scheme of improving the ad- 
 ministration, police, or commerce, was submitted to its considefi*- 
 tion. 
 
 15. Another tribunal was established at Seville in 1,501, called 
 Casa de la Contratacion, or the house of trade. It was designed tp 
 regulate such commercial affairs as required the immediate and pe>- 
 fvonal inspection of those appointed to superintend them. Such is an 
 outline of the system of government which Spain established it her 
 American colonies. 
 
 16. In 1,808, the viceroy of Mexico, Don Jose Iturrigaray, received 
 »>uch contradictory orders from the supreme authorities in Spain, as 
 
 59 
 
46S HISTORY OF NEW SPAIN. 
 
 to render it necessary to call a Junta composed of a representative 
 from each province. This measure excited the jealousy of the Eu- 
 ropeans in the capital, as it was calculated to place the Creoles on an 
 equal footing with themselves in the g-overnment. They therefore 
 conspired against the viceroy, surprised him, and sent him and his 
 family prisoners to Spain. Shortly after the arrival of the next vice- 
 roy, Vanegas, the Creoles formed a conspiracy to overthrow hit 
 power. 7 hey collected a large force under Hidalgo a priest of some 
 distinction, and for several months their success seemed almost cer- 
 tain. But Hidalgo, by a most unaccountable mismanagement suffered 
 bis army to be defeated with great slaughter in Oct. 1,009, and their 
 total defeat followed in January 1,811. 
 
 17. Another attempt was soon made by the Creoles and Indians 
 under Ra} r on, a lawyer of great influence, but the revolt was sup* 
 pressed. A more formidable army was gathered by Morelos in 1,814 
 — 15, and the contest for independence again appeared more hopeful ; 
 but he was defeated, taken prisoner, ana executed. In Nov. 1,816, 
 the Patriots were cheered by the arrival of General Mina with a small 
 force from Englaml. Uniting himself with the army already in ope- 
 ration, he sustained the conflict with great bravery for one year, but 
 was then defeated and executed. The Independent army was now 
 too feeble for offensive operation, and little was done until the revo- 
 lution of Spain in 1,821. The decrees of the Cortez confiscating the 
 estates, and reducing and reforming some of the higher orders of tire 
 clergy, excited the indignation of the church in Mexico, and from 
 'hat time, the priests used their influence in favour of a separation 
 .from Spain. Although their influence had been somewhat diminished, 
 ;t was still sufficient to produce the adoption of almost any measure 
 which the} r should recommend. They were aided by the wealthy 
 Europeans who were anxious to preserve the country in the pureness 
 of despotism, that it might serve as a refuge for t^ie king of Spain 
 ■from the persecutions of the Cortez, and from the new" constitution. 
 
 18. Don Augustin Iturbide was fixed upon as a proper agent to 
 -carry' their plans into effect. He had distinguished himself in the 
 previous contests as an enemy to the patriots, and the clergy little an- 
 ticipated that his love of tyranny would soon be exercised at the cost 
 of their dearest plans. He at this time commanded a considerable 
 army, and on receiving money to proceed into the southern provinces* 
 he united himself with Guerrero, one of the patriot chiefs, and offeree 
 pardon to all who would unite themselves to his standard, From the 
 very energetic operations of the revolutionists in the capital, the whole 
 nation was soon roused in favour of independence. The viceroy was 
 deposed ; Iturbide was made admiral of the navy, generalissimo of 
 the army, and president of the Regency which was established by the 
 new Junta. His ambitious designs now became manifest, and he found 
 little difficulty in raising himself above the established authorities, and 
 securing the reins of government. The Cortez were decidedly op- 
 posed to him, but the soldiery were his friends, and they compelled 
 4he Cortez to declare him emperor on the 19th of May 1,822. After 
 having attained this object of his ambition, he sought by every means 
 to render his authority absolute, and elevated the members oi his own 
 family to offices of state. Many of the clergy were far from being 
 satisfied with the elevation of Iturbide. The archbishop of Mexico 
 refused to crown him, and retired from the capital. 
 
 19. The emperor did not long enjoy his despotic reign. Santana, 
 fce governor of Vera Cruz could not brook the control of a sup*- 
 
HISTORY OF THE WEST INDIES. m 
 
 rior. Enjoying an independent command, and possessing the confi- 
 dence of a great part of the community, he found no difficulty in raising 
 a formidable force. He was soon joined by Guadalupe Victoria, who 
 had from the commencement of the revolution been a most faithful 
 friend to the cause of liberty, but had been obliged, under the exist' 
 ing despotism', to conceal himself in the mountains. Santana found 
 that the great popularity of Guadalupe Victoria made it necessary 
 to yield to him the supreme command. This being readily granted, 
 they possessed each others confidence, and the confidence of the em- 
 pire. The army in all part's declared for the republican principles 
 of Santana, and the commander in chief, and Iturbide found it neces- 
 sary first to summon the Cortez which he had forcibly dissolved, and 
 afterwards, on the eighth of March 1,823, to abdicate the throne. He 
 was permitted to leave the empire, and he sailed with his family for 
 Leghorn on the 11th of May. He returned in the summer of 1,824. 
 but was received by republicans who justly appreciated him. An 
 order had been passed by the Congress for his immediate execution 
 in case of his arrival ; and as soon as he was identified, he was inv- 
 prisoned, and, a iew days after, was brought forth by public order 
 and shot. 
 
 20. Immediately after his abdication the nation declared for a re- 
 publican government, and on the 2d of February 1,824, a federal 
 constitution was adopted, amidst the shouts of the people ; and it is 
 obviously the form of government best suited to the interests and wishes 
 of a majority of the community. The principal defect in their con- 
 stitution is the establishment of the Catholic religion. The nation 
 cannot expect to enjoy the real freedom of republican institutions, 
 while their minds are subjected under the real despotism of a national 
 religion. In other respects the Constitution of this republic very near- 
 ly resembles that of the United States. 
 
 21. The iormej-' Captain-Generalship of Guatimala, with the ex- 
 ception of Chiapa, declared its independence at the same time with 
 Mexico, but refused to unite with that government. It has establish- 
 ed an independent, federal government, under the title of the Confed- 
 erated States of the Centre of America. The Roman Catholic religion 
 is established here also, to the exclusion of all others ; and in moat 
 respects their constitution agrees with, that of the Mexican Republic. 
 
 SECTION THIRD. 
 HISTORY OF THE WEST INDIES. 
 
 V. The Bahamas were the first land discovered by Columbus,— 
 Oct 12th 1,492. The first settlement was made at Nassau in Ne>* 
 Providence by the English, 1,672. These islands soon after became 
 the resort of pirates. Their leader was John Teach, called Black 
 Beard, who tor about ten years was the sovereign of these islands^ 
 and the terror of the North American coast. He was killed off the 
 coast of N. Carolina in 1,718. During most of the remaining period 
 the English have quietly possessed the Bahamas, but they have con- 
 stantly served as lurking places for some pirates. These have multi- 
 plied greatly in all the West Indies within the last ten years, and no 
 effectual means have been devised for exterminating them. 
 
 2. When the Bahamas were discovered, the population was esti- 
 mated at about 40,000. The inhabitants called themsebea Lucayana- 
 
*68 HISTORY OF THE WEST INDIES. 
 
 They were mostly devoted to maritime life, and subsisted principal- 
 ly upon fish. They were ignorant of the use of iron, but made soma 
 use of cotton and of gold. They were a kind, friendly people, 
 averse to war. Scarcely 20 years, however, had elapsed, before the 
 rapacious Spaniards transported them all by force or artifice, to dig 
 ki the mines of Hispaniola. Being remarkably expert divers, soma 
 of them were afterwards transported to the coast of Cumana, and era- 
 ployed in the pearl fishery. 
 
 5. The Greater Antilles when first discovered, were inhabited 
 by a race called Arrowauks. They also possessed a great part of 
 Trinidad. It appears that they were descended from the Arrowauks 
 of Guiana. All of this name spoke one language, and had the same 
 institutions. They believed in an invisible, omnipotent Creator 
 named Jocahuna, but admitted a plurality of subordinate deities, and 
 Eke the American Indians generally, they believed in a future state 
 of r«tribution. Their children were entirely naked, but the adulU 
 wore a slight covering of cotton cloth round the waist. They were 
 a mild and hospitable people, but effeminate and sensual. The cli- 
 mate, and fertility of the soil naturally made them indolent. From 
 evening till dawn they were much engaged in dancing, and as many 
 an 50,000 sometimes joined at once in this favourite amusement. 
 
 4. These islands were divided into great kingdoms, subject to 
 caciques or hereditary monarchs. Each kingdom was subdivided 
 into numerous principalities. The regal authority was absolute, but 
 was administered with great mildness. The aboriginal population 
 has been estimated at 3,000,000 : but within 20 years after the dis- 
 covery by Columbus, the great body of them were exterminated. A 
 very few only remain in the island of Cuba ; but the Arrowauks in 
 Guiana are still a distinct tribe. 
 
 5. There is little in the history of colonial governments that is inter- 
 esting and valuable ; and none of the West India islands, except St 
 Domingo, have become independent. The Spaniards have lost many 
 of the islands to which they first laid claim ; but the present posses- 
 sors are well known from common geographies, and the time when 
 these trifling revolutions took place is of little consequence, while the 
 effects produced, were so unimportant. One fact is worthy of record 
 m favour of the Spaniards — whose rapacity and cruelty has been 
 equalled by no other nation in modern times, and who have, of late 
 Tears, been suffering a natural and just retribution of their enormities. 
 But to their credit be it said, — their treatment of negro slaves has 
 been more humane than that of other nations ; and the Spanish laws 
 enacted in their favour, have had a powerful influence to enlighten the 
 English and French in this cause of humanity. 
 
 6. The Buccaniers, who were the forefathers of the present pirates, 
 deserve some notice. They consisted originally of a body of French 
 and English planters expelled by the Spaniards from the island of St. 
 Christophers in 1,629, with circumstances of outrageous barbarity. 
 They first established themselves on the small island of Tortuga, near 
 the N. W. part of St. Domingo. They were here joined by some 
 Dutch emigrants, who had been expelled in the same manner from 
 Santa Cruz. Their first occupation was hunting wild cattle on the 
 plains of St. Domingo, which they buccaned and brought to the place 
 •f their retreat. The word buccan signified a grate or hurdle on 
 which meat was prepared before the fire ; and from their abundant 
 •seof it, these people were called buccaniers, buccaners, or buccaneer*. 
 A few years after their establishment here, a Spanish armament. 
 
HISTORY OF THE WEST INDIES. 4GSr 
 
 without any provocation, invaded them, and barbarously murdered 
 all their women and children. This roused the Buccaniefs to re- 
 venge ; and they soon became the most terrible antagonists the 
 Spaniards ever encountered. Many others joined them, and they 
 became formidable both from their numbers and their desperate brave- 
 ry. By their means the Spaniards lost the western part of St. Do- 
 mingo, and the whole island oFJarrYaica, besides an almost incredible 
 amount of property, and a great number of human lives. Their most 
 renowned leaders were Montbars, a native of Languedoc, and Henry 
 Morgan; a Welshman. The war between England and France in 
 1,608, occasioned a disunion of the English and French Buccaniers, 
 and greatly weakened their force, and they possessed little power 
 after the year 1,700. 
 
 7. St. Domingo or Hayti furnishes the most important items in 
 the history of the West Indies. Spain ceded the western half of the 
 island to France by the treaty of Ryswick in 1,697. It did not be- 
 come a prosperous colony till thirty years after. In 1,791 an alarm- 
 ing insurrection of the negroes broke out in th* French colony, which 
 deluged half of the northern province in blood. The* next year, the 
 national assembly proclaimed the political equality of the whites, 
 and free people of colour. The commissioners of the French govern- 
 ment, in 1,79.3, decreed the emancipation of all the slaves in the colo- 
 ny. On the 21st of June of the same year, Mocaya, a black, at the 
 head of 3,000 negroes, began an indiscriminate slaughter of the whites 
 at cape Francois, and multitudes were massacred. 
 
 8. An expedition from Jamaica in 1794-5-6, attempted to reduce 
 the island, but was, each year, driven off by the yellow fever. The 
 eastern half was ceded to France in 1,795, but it was of little import- 
 ance to that country. In 1,801, July 1st, the blacks rose and declared 
 themselves independent, but its independer.ee was not well established 
 till 1,804, The first sovereign assumed the title of Jaqjejes I. Empe- 
 ror of Hayti. i le enjoyed his power but a short time, being killed 
 in a conspiracy ; and was succeeded by Christophe under the title of 
 Henry I. King of Hayti. His dominions were on the north part of 
 the island : the southern was occupied by a republican party, most- 
 ly mulattoes, under Potion who assumed the title of President 
 of Hayti. Frequent and bloody conflicts occurred between these 
 two parties. On the death of'Petion in 1,817, Boyer was appointed 
 President; and. on the death of Christophe, the two parties united 
 under President Boyer, and have now established a very efficient 
 government. He is an intelligent, energetic, and humane sovereign ; 
 and his administration is highly calculated to promote the happiness 
 of his subjects. !n 1,808, the Spaniards; aided by the English, re- 
 took the eastern part of the island, but their colony has little force, 
 and lives on friendly terms with the blacks. 
 
 9. The Caribbean Islands, when discovered, were inhabited by a 
 numerous, cultivated, and powerful nation, called Caraihes or Carib- 
 bees. They were more warlike than the Arrowauks. Towards each 
 other they were faithful, friendly, and affectionate ; but regarded all 
 strangers as enemies. They Avere well skilled in most of the arts of 
 life ; and their religion acknowledged one supreme, independent 
 Deity; and taught a futuie state of retribution. Nearly all of this 
 race have been exterminated on these islands, but they St II remain 
 on the continent of South America a very powerful nation. 
 
 10. There is little else that is interesting in the history of the West 
 Indies, except to those who wish to learn more of the aborigines, and 
 
 Rr 
 
470 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 of the merciless treatment they received from tne Spaniards. A very 
 minute history of these islands has been written by Edwards. 
 
 SECTION FOURTH. 
 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 UNITED PROVINCES. 
 
 1. The river La Plata was discovered in 1,516. Buenos Ayrea 
 was settled in 1,535. From the settlement of the country until 1,773 
 its history comprises only a series of vexations from the despotism of 
 viceroys, of privations from monopolies, and commercial restrictions, 
 and of sufferings from wars foreign to its interests. From this period 
 to 1,781, the Indians from the upper country continually harassed 
 the provinces, burnt many towns, and destroyed many of the inhabi- 
 tants ; but they were at length defeated by the combined armies of 
 Buenos Ay res and Lima. 
 
 2. In 1,806, the country was invaded by the British, and Buenos 
 Ayres was taken without opposition. An army from the interior soon 
 expelled them. A second attempt was made in 1,807, but the people 
 beginning to acquire confidence in their own strength, attacked the 
 army while in the city, and were completely successful. 
 
 3. On the 25th of May 1,810, in consequence of the renunciation 
 of Ferdinand VII. in favour of Napoleon, and the deranged state of 
 affairs in Spain, a junta was convened at Buenos Ayres to take the 
 government into their own hands, still administering it, however, in 
 the name of Ferdinand. This was the commencement of a revolu- 
 tion which delivered them from the slavery they had suffered for 
 nearly 300 years. Since that period, they Lave been in reality inde- 
 pendent. 
 
 4. Since 1,810, there have been four revolutions, each of which has 
 changed the government, but there has constantly been a representa- 
 tive assembly. On the 9th of July 1,816, the congress made, and 
 promulgated a declaration of absolute independence. In December 
 of the same year the country was invaded by the Portuguese, and a 
 considerable part was conquered. It has, however, reclaimed its 
 possessions, and its government has become so well established, that its 
 independence has been acknowledged by other nations. 
 
 BRAZIL. 
 
 1. This country was discovered by Pedro Alvarez Cabral, a Por- 
 tuguese, in 1,500. As little gold or silver was found near the coast, 
 it was for a while wholly neglected, and none but criminals and aban- 
 doned women were sent hither. In 1,548, the inquisition, after plun- 
 dering the Jews of their property, banished them to Brazil. A 
 governor was sent over the following year, who immediately built 
 St. Salvador. It was reduced in 1,624, by the Dutch, and taken 
 from them in 1,625, by the Spaniards. Portugal reclaimed it in 
 about 1,645, and remained in undisturbed possession of the whole 
 country till the late revolutions throughout South America. 
 
 2. in the latter part of 1,806, in consequence of the invasion of 
 Portugal by the French, the royal family embarked for Brazil, u»der 
 protection of an English squadron. Rio de Janeiro continued to be 
 their residence from 1,807 tiU 1,821. When they left Brazil, the 
 
HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA. 471 
 
 prince royal, the king's eldest son, remained at the head of the 
 government. The unsettled state of the government of the mother 
 country, soon excited a revolutionary spirit in most of these provin- 
 ces, and they declared for independence. The crown was offered to 
 the prince royal, and accepted under the title of emperor. 
 
 GUIANA. 
 
 The history of these colonies presents little worth relating. They 
 have frequently changed masters, but with little detriment or advan- 
 tage. Their present situation is well known from common geogra- 
 phies. A great part of the country is occupied by Indians. Of these, 
 the Caraibes are the most numerous, brave, warlike, and industrious. 
 
 REPUBLIC OF COLOMBIA. 
 
 1. New-Granada originally constituted a part of Peru. Two au- 
 diences were erected in 1,547, the one at Panama, the other at Santa 
 Fe de Bogota, and the territories under the jurisdiction of both, con- 
 stituted a captain-generalship; Quito was made the seat of an audi- 
 ence in 1,563, but the territories belonging to it, still remained attached 
 to Peru. In 1,718, New-Granada was erected into a viceroyalty ; 
 Quito and Venezuela were annexed to it, and the audiences of Pana- 
 ma and Quito were abolished. These were afterwards restored, and 
 in 1,739, the territories dependent on the three audiences of Panama, 
 Santa Fc, and Quito, were again erected into a viceroyalty. A con- 
 gress assembled at Carthagena in Nov. 1,811, and declared the coun- 
 try independent, but it was afterwards reclaimed by the royalists. 
 
 2. Venezuela was discovered by Columbus in 1,498. After several 
 ineffectual attempts to settle it by missionaries, it was finally reduced 
 by force, and assigned by Charles V. to the Welsers, a German mer- 
 cantile house. Their administration was so tyrannical, that they 
 were dispossessed in 1,550, and a supreme governor was appointed 
 by the king of Spain. From this period till 1,806, it remained in 
 quiet subjection to the mother country. 
 
 3. In 1,806, general Miranda, a native of Caraccas, placed himself 
 at the head of an expedition, fitted out partly at St. Domingo, and part- 
 ly at New- York, with the design of liberating this country from the 
 Spanish yoke. Finding his force inadequate, he abandoned his men 
 to the mercy of the provincial government. 
 
 4. In 1,811, the inhabitants revolted from the Spanish yoke, and 
 declared themselves independent. The declaration bears date July 
 5th. 1,811, exactly 35 years and one day after that of the United 
 States. This revolution, like that of the United Provinces, was 
 caused by the disorders in Spain. This country and New-Granada, 
 continued in a revolutionary state till 1,819, when they both achieved 
 their independence under the renowned Bolivar. 
 
 5. On the 17th of Dec. 1,819, the congress of Venezuela, at St. 
 Thomas of Angostura, made a declaration of the fundamental law of 
 union of the Republic of Colombia. On the 17th of July 1,821, the 
 representatives of New-Granada and Venezuela, in general congress 
 at the city of Rosario de Cucuta, declared the following amon^ others, 
 fundamental laws of the union of the people of Colombia ; That the 
 people of New-Granada and Venezuela be united in one body as a 
 nation, under the name of the Republic of Colombia ; That the govern- 
 ment be popular and representative ; The nation free, and indepen- 
 dent of the Spanish monarchy, as well as of all other powers ; That 
 
472 HiS TORY OF SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 the government consist of legislative, executive, and judiciary au- 
 thorities ; That the territory be divided into six departments. Having 
 an administration dependent on the national government ; That when 
 the state of the nation shall admit, a new city shall be founded, as the 
 capital of the Republic, which shall bear the name of the liberator 
 Bolivar, the site to be determined by congress ; That there be an 
 annual festival of three clays on the 25th, 26th, and 27th of Dec. 
 The constitution resembles 'that of the United States. Since its adop- 
 tion the country has been prosperous, and its independence seems to 
 be firmly established. 
 
 PERU. 
 
 1. A few tribes inhabiting this country had made considerable ad- 
 vances in civilization when it was first visited by the Spaniards. 
 Being destitute of the art of writing, the early history of the Ameri- 
 can Indians exists only in tradition. There were indeed some 
 records preserved by the Mexicans and Peruvians, but these were 
 mostly destroyed by their conquerors, and the few that remained 
 were not very intelligible to the Spaniards. Some credit however 
 must be given to the tradition of the kingdom established at Cuzco, 
 m order to account for its great superiority over others. 
 
 2. The story is as follows : — Peru was originally possessed by small 
 independent tribes, all of which were strangers to almost every sf)g- 
 cies of cultivation orregular industry, without any fixed residence, 
 and roamed about naked in the forests. After they had struggled for 
 several ages with the hardships and calamities which are inevitable 
 in such a stale, and when no circumstance seemed to indicate the ap- 
 proach of any uncommon effort towards improvement, there is said 
 to have appeared on the banks of the lake Titicaca, a man and wo- 
 man of majestic form, and clothed in decent garments. They de- 
 clared themselves children of the Sun, sent by their beneficent parent, 
 who beheld with pity the miseries of the human race, to instruct and 
 to reclaim them. The Peruvians worshipped the Sun ; and, there- 
 fore, the commands of these strangers were regarded as heavenly in- 
 junctions. Several of the dispersed savages united together, and 
 followed their guides to Cuzco, where they settled and began to lay 
 the foundation of a city. 
 
 3. Manco Capac and Mama Ocollo, lor such were the names of 
 those extraordinary personages, having thus united some wandering 
 tribes, formed that social union, which by multiplying the desires, 
 and uniting the efforts of the human species, excites industry, and 
 leads to improvement. Manco Capac instructed the men in agricul- 
 ture, and other useful arts ; M;mia Ocollo taught the women to spin 
 and weave. The blessings of civilized life Avere gradually extended 
 to neighbouring tribes, and the dominions of succeeding chiefs, called 
 Incas, or Children of the Sun, comprised all the regions west of the 
 Andes from Chili to Quito. 
 
 4. To preserve the succession of the Incas pure and unpolluted by 
 mixture with less noble blood, the sons of Manco Capac married 
 their own sisters. As these Incas assumed the rank not only of legis- 
 lators, but messengers from Heaven, the whole system of civil policy 
 was founded on religion. Their precepts were received as mandates 
 of the Deity. Hence their authority was unlimited and absolute 
 in the most extensive meaning of the words, Al! crimes were con- 
 sidered not only as violations of civil dutj", but as insults offered to 
 
HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA. 473 
 
 the Deity ; and they were all punished capitally. But so great was 
 the veneration for the Incas, that the number of offender? was ex- 
 tremely small. The genius of their religion v. as excr-^rl.Yigly mild, 
 and as divine authority was ascribed to the Incas, the minds of the 
 people were not humbled and depressed by a forced subjection to 
 the will of a superior ; and obedience implied no degradation. 
 
 5. Thus during twelve successive reigns this happy nation ad- 
 vanced in knowledge and virtue, in wealth and power, and in all the 
 essential arts of civilized life. Agriculture was in a state of high 
 improvement ; architecture was advanced to a state ^qual to theii 
 wants ; their roads, bridges, and manufactures ; their use of gold and 
 silver for utensils and works of ornament, all bear testimony that they 
 had advanced far above the common state of savage life. But there 
 was no very distinct arrangement of professions ; no cities were es- 
 tablished except Cuzco, to give activity to commerce ; they knew 
 not the use of iron, and hence were little qualified to work in wood 
 and stone ; they appear to have had no good method for lighting theii 
 houses, — to have been ignorant of the construction of arches, — of eveiy 
 convenient method of recording events, and of perpetuating the 
 knowledge they possessed. 
 
 6. When the Spaniards first visited Peru in 1,526, Huana Capac 
 the twelfth Inca, was seated on the throne. He is represented as 
 eminent for his virtues, his knowledge, and his military talents. He 
 had subjected the kingdom of Quito and added it to his dominions. 
 He was fond of residing in the capital of that province ; and contrary 
 to the fundamental law of the monarchy, he married the daughter of 
 the vanquished monarch of Quito. She bore him a son named Ata- 
 hualpa, whom at his death, which seems to have occurred about the 
 year 1,529, he appointed his successor in Quito, leaving the rest of his 
 dominions to Huascar, his eldest son. This was no sooner known at 
 Cuzco, than it excited general disgust. The Peruvians were shocked 
 at this violation of a fundamental law, coeval with the empire, and 
 founded on sacred authority. Huascar was hence encouraged 'to re- 
 quire of his brother to renounce the government of Quito ; but Ata- 
 hualpa had a large part of the Peruvian army under his control, and 
 was little inclined to yield to the demand. Hence arose a civil 
 war, which continued to rage until Pizarro with his cruel and per- 
 fidious band, came among them in 1,532. 
 
 7. The Spaniards, availing themselves of the existing dissensions, 
 found the conquest easily attainable. Both the Incas were put to 
 death under circumstances of most awful barbarity. No language 
 can describe the detestable cruelties of these graceless invaders. A 
 few, indeed, among them were found to protest against it, but in the 
 heart of Pizarro, the common feelings of humanity had been absolute- 
 ly annihilated by his avarice. Cuzco furnished more valuable sjtoil 
 than was ever found in any other city. The whole country was soor, 
 subjected ; and its mines were seized in the name of the king of Spain. 
 
 8. Since 1,533, Peru has remained a Spanish province, subject to a 
 viceroy. For the form of government in all the Spanish provinces in 
 America, see Sec. I. Part V. The country is now much smaller 
 than when governed by the Incas. In 1,718, Quito on the north as 
 far as the river Tumbez, was annexed to New-Granada ; and in 1,778, 
 Potosi and other rich districts on the southeast were annexed to Bue- 
 nos Ayres. 
 
 9. For several years Peru has been in a revolutionary state. The 
 leader of the patriots is Jose San Martin. The capital has several 
 
 Kr2 60 
 
474 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 times fallen into their hands, but has been retaken by the royalists. 
 Their prospect for independence is yearly increasing, and the royal- 
 ists now possess only a small part ot Upper Peru. This is the only 
 territory now possessed by the Spaniards on the continent of America. 
 It cannot be many years before the New World which they discovered, 
 and which has suffered so much from their rapacity and tyranny, will 
 be completely wrested from their cruel despotism. 
 
 CHILI. 
 
 1. We know nothing of the history of Chili previous to the middk? 
 of the fifteenth century. From the Peruvian annals it appears that 
 Yupanqui, the tenth Inca, made an attempt to subject the Chflese* 
 He met with little opposition till he arrived as far as the river Repel. 
 Beyond this was a. formidable nation named Promaucians or free dan- 
 cers. In a long- battle they were successful, completely routed the 
 Peruvians, and drove them from their territories. The Inca imposed 
 an annual tribute of gold on the conquered tribes, but no innovation 
 was attempted, either in their customs, manners, or government. 
 
 2. The country was invaded by the Spaniards under Almagro in 
 1,535. He left Cuzco with 570 Spaniards and 15,000 Peruvian aux- 
 iliaries. Disregarding the remonstrances of his confederates, be 
 preferred passing the Cordilleras, to the entrance, less dangerous at 
 that season, by the desert of Atacama. Winter had commenced 
 when they reached the Cordillera Nevada, and the snow fell in such 
 abundance, and the cold was so intense, that not less than 10,000 Pe- 
 ruvians and 150" Spaniards perished. In a second expedition Alma- 
 gro found the natives exceedingly friendly. They looked up to the 
 Spaniards as beings of a superior order, and were ready to yield sub- 
 mission. But when they arrived among tne Promaucians, they met 
 with such powerful resistance, as determined them to abandon the 
 enterprise. 
 
 3. Returning to Cuzco a contest ensued between Almagro z^nd 
 Pizarro, in which the former was slain. Pizarro, now sole master of 
 Peruf determined on the conquest of Chili. He entrusted the expe- 
 dition to Valdivia, one of the ablest generals among the Spanish ad- 
 venturers. He met with very inveterate animosity from all the tribes, 
 but their opposition was too -feeble to arrest the progress of 2,000 
 Spaniards, under such a. leader. Having overcome the Mapochinians 
 who resided on the river Mapocho, he laid the foundation of St. Jago 
 and erected a strong citadel for protection. The natives continued 
 for six years their feeble attempts to regain their beautiful plain, but 
 finding their object hopeless, the few that remained destroyed their 
 crops, and retired to the mountains. Valdivia, having received a 
 reinforcement from Peru, invaded and conquered the Promaucians, 
 and established colonies in many places. Endeavouring to penetrate 
 still farther southward, he encountered the most formidable enemy 
 which the Spaniards ever met with in America. This was the na- 
 tion of the Araucanians. He gained some victories over them, but 
 was frequently repulsed, and at lengtk was completely defeated, him- 
 self taken prisoner, and his whole army slain, with the exception of 
 two Promaucian auxiliaries. Villagran, the successor of Valdivia, 
 made a desperate attempt to revenge the death of that favourite 
 general, but was repulsed with great slaughter. He was, how- 
 ever, successful in a very important subsequent engagement, in which 
 Lautaro, the Araucanian general, was slain. 
 
 4. The contest continued for several years with various success? 
 
HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA. 475 
 
 till the Anuicanians were much enfeebled. They have not, however, 
 been conquered, and they retain to this day a considerable part of 
 their ancient territories. They preserve their ancient customs and 
 language in a considerable degree of purity. There are few lan- 
 guages so regular in their structure, or so copious in their inflection*, 
 as the Araucanian. They had made considerable advancement in 
 civilization, were remarkably active and energetic in their bodily and 
 mental habits, generous and dignified in their disposition and deport- 
 ment. Connected with the perfection of their language, was their 
 habit of cultivating the art of oratory ; and we know very few civilized 
 nations that have so faithfully observed the common duties of charity. 
 
 5. From the poriod of the conquest of Chili till its revolution hi 
 1,510, few occurrences of much interest are recorded. At this time 
 the Chilcse, finding the same embarrassments which were suffered by- 
 other provinces on account of the disorders in Spain, took the govern- 
 ment into their own hands, — still holding out the idea, however, of a 
 reunion with the mother country when circumstances would permit. 
 In 1,814, the royal troops from Peru invaded Chili, entirely defeated 
 the patriots at Itaneagua, and reconquered the country. A remnant 
 of the patriot forces fled over the Andes, where, with other Chilian 
 refugees and two regiments of negroes, and some officers, they wen? 
 reorganized by general San Martin under the name of the United Army 
 of the Andes. In 1,817, they re-entered Chili, entirely vanquished 
 the royal troops at Chacabuco, and restored independence to the 
 country. The passage of this army over the Andes with its artillery, 
 deserves to be ranked among the most celebrated achievements re- 
 corded in history. It was effected with the loss of about 5,000 horses 
 and mules, and a small number of men who perished with the cold. 
 
 6. On the 12th of February 1,818, the nation made a formal declara- 
 tion of absolute independence. The royal troops who escaped from 
 the battle of Chacabuco being reinforced by all the royal forces in 
 Peru, about 5,000 in number, renewed the contest with the patriots ; 
 but after a temporary success, they were finally defeated in the de- 
 cisive battle of Maypo, April 5th, 1,818. This event is celebrated 
 by the ChiLese in their songs, festivals, and histories, with the most 
 enthusiastic expressions of gratitude and admiration. 
 
 7. The government established in Chili is republican. Education 
 is making considerable progress, and every ray of light confirms th* 
 people more absolutely in the love of liberty. Their independence 
 is acknowledged by other nations. They live in amity with the 
 Araucanians, who have a minister at the capital. Were they exempt 
 fi»m the tyranny of the Catholic religion, we might regard them as 
 destined to become a great and happy nation ; but while this exists?, 
 they will make slow progress in that real knowledge which can result 
 only from the free use of the faculties, with which Heaven has en- 
 dowed the children of men. 
 
 8. Too much can hardly be said in praise of the disinterestedness, 
 ■prudence, bravery, and steady perseverance of Don Jose San Martin. 
 
 in maintaining the cause of South American independence. Fond ol 
 the retirement of private life, he has uniformly laid aside the high digni- 
 ties with which the grateful patriots of Chili, Buenos Ayres, and 
 Peru, have repeatedly invested him, whenever the good of their cause 
 would permit it ; and, although in times of such public excitement, 
 the best men are sabject to suspicion, envy, and slander, we have 
 good reaSctn for ranking this distinguished Veteran among those, wfco 
 regard not their own, but the public good. «. ' 
 
4'6 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 9. Nor is that distinguished hero and statesman, Bolivar, entitled 
 to less renown. To him the Republic of Colombia principally owes 
 its independence, and he has been one of its most efficient agents in 
 organizing the new government. He is now President of the Re- 
 public • and, his career not being closed, we cannot decide on the 
 rank to which his whole life will entitle him ; but he has hitherto trod 
 in the footsteps of the Leader of the first American Revolution, and 
 if he persist in this course to the end, his name will be ranked by pos- 
 terity with that of Washington. 1825. 
 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 
 EXPLANATION OF THE TABLE OF CHRONOLOGY. 
 
 To give a distinct view of the succession of princes in the chief empires 
 or kingdoms; without employing different columns, (which distracts the 
 attention, and occupies too much space,) the series of the sovereigns of 
 different nations is distinguished in this table by different typographical 
 characters. By this method the succession of the sovereigns in (he; different 
 kingdoms is immediately distinguishable, and also the duration of their 
 reigns. In the intervals of time between every two successive reigns arv 
 recorded the remarkable events which occurred in those periods, in all parta 
 of the world ; and thus the connexion of general history is preserved un- 
 broken. 
 
 The series of the kings and emperors of Rome is printed in a larger Ro- 
 man type than the rest of the table : as, 
 
 14 Tiberius, Emperor of Rome. 
 
 The series of the popes is distinguishable by this character tf prefixed to 
 each name; as, 
 
 J 513 ? Pope Leo X. 
 The names of the emperors of Germany are printed in Italic capitals; a* 
 
 887 ARNOLD, Emperor of Germany. 
 The kings of England are designated by the black Saxon type ; as, 
 
 10C6 TOtiltam (the Conqueror) king of England. 
 
 The kings of Scotland are denoted by a larger capital beginning tli* 
 word ; as, 
 
 1390 Robert III., king of Scotland. 
 The kings of France are distinguished by the Italic type ; as, 
 1498 Lewis XII., king of France. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 
 G C 
 
 4O04 The Creation of the World, according to the Hebrew text of the 
 
 Scriptures, 
 v According to the version of the Septuagint 5872. 
 
 Acording to the Samaritan version 4700. 
 
 2348 The Universal Deluge. 
 
 2247 The Building of Babel ; the Dispersion of Mankind ; and the Confu- 
 sion of Languages. 
 
 2217 Nimrod supposed to have built Babylon, and founded the Babylonish 
 Monarchy; and Assur to have built Nineveh, and founded the 
 Monarchy of Assy»a. 
 
 2183 Menes (in Scripture Misraim) founds the Monarchy of Egypt. 
 
 2084 The Shepherd Kings conquer Egypt. 
 
 2040 Moeris King of Thebes and Memphis in Egypt. 
 
 1996 The Birth of Abram. 
 
 1897 Sodom and Gomorrah destroyed by fire from Heaven. 
 
 1896 Isaac born. 
 
 1856 Inachus founds the Kingdom of Argos in Greece. 
 
 1836 Jacob and Esau born. 
 
 1825 The Shepherd Kings abandon Egypt. 
 
 1823 Death of Abraham. 
 
 1796 The Deluge of Ogyges in Attica. 
 
 1722 Sesostris Or Rameses King of Egypt. 
 
 1635 Joseph dies in Egypt. 
 
 J 582 The Chronology of the Anindelian Marbles begina with thie year. 
 
 1571 Moses born in Egypt. 
 
 1556 Cecrops founds the kingdom of Athens. 
 
 1546 Scamander founds the Kingdom of Troy. 
 
 1532 Judgment of the Areopagus between Mars and Neptune, two princes 
 of Thessaly. 
 
 1529 The Deluge of Deucalion in Thessaly. 
 
 1522 Th« Council of the Ampliictyons instituted. 
 
 1520 "Corinth built. 
 
 1506 Erectheus or Erycthonius institutes the Panathena?an Games. 
 
 1493 Cadmus builds Thebes, and introduces Letters into Greece. 
 
 1491 Moses brings the Israelites out of Egypt. 
 
 1453 The first Olympic Games celebrated in Greece. 
 
 1452 The Pentateuch, or five Books of Moses, written. 
 
 1451 The Israelites led into the land of Canaan by Joshua 
 
 1438 Pandion King of Athena. 
 
 1406 Minos reigns in Crete, and gives laws to the Cretans. 
 
 1376 Sethos reigns in Egypt. 
 
 1322 Belus reigns in Babylon. 
 
 1207 Ninus reigns in Assyria. 
 
 1266 Oedipus marries his Mother Jocasta, and reigns in Thebes. 
 
 1263 The Argonautic Expedition. According to the Newtonian ChroDol» 
 ogy 937. 
 
 1257 Theseus unites the Cities of Attica. 
 
 1252 Tyre, the capital of Phoenicia, built. 
 
 1225 Siege of Thebes War between Eteo«le« and Polynioes. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 4T9 
 
 B. C 
 
 1225 Eurysthenes and Procles Kings of Lacedsemon. 
 
 1215 Second War of Thebes, or War of the Epigonoi. 
 
 — — Semiramis supposed to have reigned at Babylon. 
 
 1207 Gideon Judge of Israel. 
 
 1202 Teuccr built Salainis. 
 
 1193 The Trojan War begins. 
 
 1184 Troy taken and burnt by the Greeks. According to the Arundftli«E 
 
 Marbles 1209. 
 1182 vEneas lands in Italy. 
 1155 Samson born. 
 
 1104 Return of the Heraclidoe into Peloponnesus. 
 1099 Samuel delivers Israel. 
 10/9 Saul King of Israel. 
 1070 Medon first Archon of Athens. 
 
 1069 Codrus King of Athens devotes himself for his country. 
 1055 David King of Israel. 
 1004 Dedication of Solomon's Temple. 
 
 980 Rehoboam King of Israel. 
 
 889 Athaliah, wife of Jehoram, usurps the throne of Judah. 
 
 886 Homer's Poems brought from Asia into Greece. 
 
 884 Lycurgus reforms the Constitution of Lacedsemon. 
 
 869 The city of Carthage built by Dido. 
 
 820 Nineveh taken by Arbaces and Belesis, which finishes that kingdom. 
 
 776 The first Olympiad begins in this year. 
 
 769 Syracuse built by Archias of Corinth. 
 
 767 Sardanapalus King of Assyria. 
 
 """60 The Ephori, popular Magistrates, instituted at Lacedsomon. 
 
 757 Halyattes Kingof Lydia. 
 
 754 Decennial Archons elected at Athens. 
 
 752 The foundation of Rome by Romulus. 
 
 748 Rape of the Sabine Women. 
 
 747 The Era of Nabonassar made use of by Ptolemy. 
 "•38 Cahdjaules King of Lydia. 
 ,"24 Hezekiah tenth King of Judah. 
 721 Salmanazar lakes Samaria, and carries the Ten Tribes into captivily 
 
 which puts an end-to the Israelitish Kingdom. 
 71© Numa PompiliuS second King of Rome. 
 711 Sennacherib, King of Assyria, invades Judea. 
 710 Dejoces King of Media. 
 708 Habakkdk prophesied. 
 703 Corcyra founded by the Corinthians. 
 696 Manasseh sixteenth King of Judah. 
 6-88 Judith kills Holofernes the Assyrian General. 
 034 Annual Archons elected at Athens. 
 
 681 Esarhaddon unites the Kingdoms of Babylon and Assyria. 
 672 TullllS Hostilius third King of Rome. 
 670 Psammeticus King of Egypt. 
 667 The Combat between the Horatii and Curiatii. 
 658 Byzantium founded by Pausanias King of Sparta. 
 
 Phraortes King of Media. 
 
 040 AnCUS Mai'tius fourth King of Rome. 
 027 The Forty Years of Ezekiel began. 
 626 Periander Tyrant of Corinth. 
 
 Nabopolassar, farther of Nebuchadnezzar, begins to reign at Babylon 
 
 624 Draco Archon and Legislator of Athens. 
 
 016 Tarquinius Priscus fifth King of Rome. 
 
 006 Nebuchadnezzar takes Jerusalem, and carries the Jews into captivity. 
 601 Battle between the Medes and Lydians, who are separated by a great 
 eclipse of the sun, predicted by Thales. (Newton. Chron. 585.) 
 
48S CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 
 B.C. 
 
 601 End of the Assyrian Empire. Nineveh taken by Nebuchadnenwr. 
 
 COO Jeremiah prophesied. 
 
 59!) Birth of Cyrus the Great. 
 
 504 Solon Archon and Legislator of Athens. 
 
 578 ScTYillS TulliuS sixth King of Rome. 
 
 57:2 Nebuchadnezzar subdues Egypt. 
 
 571 Ph'ala'ris Tyrant of Agrigentum. 
 
 502 Comedies hrst exhibited at Athens by Thcspis. 
 
 CrcBsns reigns in Lydia. 
 
 551 Confucius, the Chinese Philosopher, born. 
 
 550 Pisistratus Tyrant of Athens. 
 
 548 The Ancient Temple of Delphos burnt by the Pisistratidaj. 
 
 538 Babylon taken by Cyrus. End of the Babylonian Empire. 
 
 536 Cyrus ascends the throne of Persia. He puts an end to the Jewish 
 
 captivity, which had lasted seventy years. 
 534 TarquinillS Superbus seventh King of Rome. 
 
 Daniel prophesied. 
 
 529 Death of Cyrus the Great. Can.byses King of Persia. 
 
 Death of Pisistratus Tyrant of Athens. 
 
 522 Darius, son of Hystaspes, King of Persia. 
 
 520 The Jews begin to build the second Temple, which is finished in four 
 years. 
 
 510 The Pisistratidae expelled from Athens, and the Democracy restored. 
 
 Statues erected at Athens to Harmodius and Aristogiton. 
 
 509 The Tarquins expelled from Rome and the Regal Government abol- 
 ished. 
 
 ^{■6 The first Alliance between the Romans and Carthaginians. 
 
 504 Sardis taken and burnt by the Athenians. 
 
 49S The first. Dictator created at Rome (Lartius.) 
 
 -i' ; 7 Institution of the Saturnalia at Rome 
 
 The port of Piraeus built by 'lie Athenians. 
 
 490 The Battle of Marathon, ir which Miltiades defeats the Persians. 
 
 468 The first Tribunes of the People created at Rome. According Co 
 Blair 493. 
 
 Miltiades dies in prison. 
 
 186 Xerxes succeeds his father Darius in the kingdom of Persia. 
 135 Coriolanus banished from Rome. 
 Quaestors instituted at Rome. 
 
 A list ides banished from Athens by the Ostracism. 
 
 tSfl The Spartans, under Lconidas, slain at Thermopylae. 
 
 Naval Victory gained by the Greeks over the Persians at Salamis. 
 
 479 Attica laid waste and Athens burnt by Mardonius. 
 
 Victories over the Persians at Plata?a and Mycale. 
 
 Xerxes leaves Greece. 
 
 477 300 Fabii killed by the Veientes. 
 
 470 Themistoeles rebuilds Athens. 
 
 Valerius triumphs over the Veientes and Sabines. 
 
 The Roman Citizens numbered at 103,000. 
 
 A great. Eruption of /Etna. 
 
 * Hiero King of Syracuse. 
 
 471 Volero, the Roman Tribune, obtains a law for the election of magis. 
 
 trates in the comitia held by tribes. 
 470 Cimon, son of Miltiades, defeats the Persian array and fleet in one 
 
 day, at the mouth of the river Eurymedon 
 1*469 Capua founded by the Tuscans. 
 '-464 Artaxerxes (Longimanus) King of Persia. 
 
 Cimon banished by the Ostracism. 
 
 1 463 Egypt revolts from the Persians. 
 
 ' 462 The Terentian Law proposed at Rome. 
 456 Cincinnatus Dictator at Rome 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 46s 
 
 B.C. 
 
 456 The Ludi Saeculares first instituted at Rome. 
 
 455 Commencement of the Seventy Prophetical Weeks of Daniel 
 
 453 The number of the Tribunes of the people at Rome increased from 
 
 Five to Ten. 
 •152 The two Books of Chronicles supposed to have been written at this 
 
 time by Ezra. 
 451 Creation of the Decemviri at Rome, and Compilation of the Laws of 
 
 the Twelve Tables. 
 . -14!) Peace between the Greeks and Persians concluded by Cimon, glorious 
 
 for Greece. 
 
 Deatli of Virginia, and Abolition of the Decemvirate. 
 
 445 The Law of Canuleius for the Intermarriage of the Patricians and 
 
 Plebeians at Rome. 
 
 Military Tribunes created. 
 
 437 The Censorship first instituted at Rome. 
 
 430 Pericles in high power at Athens. 
 
 4322 Melon's Cycle of the Moon of nineteen years. 
 
 131 The Peloponnesian War begins, which lasted twenty-seven years. 
 
 430 The History of the Old Testament ends about this time. 
 
 e Great Plague at Athens, eloquently described by Thucydides, 
 
 Malachi the last of the Prophets. 
 
 £28 Death of Pericles. 
 
 423 Darius Nethus King of Persia. 
 
 418 Disturbances at Rome on account of the Agrarian Law. 
 
 414 The Athenians defeated before Syracuse. 
 
 413 Alcibiades, accused at Athens, flies to the Lacedaemonians. 
 
 412 A Council of 400 governs Athens. 
 
 405 Lysander defeats the Athenians at iEgos Potamos. 
 
 404 Artaxerxes II. (Mnemon) King of Persia. 
 
 End of the Peloponnesian War. 
 
 403 Lysander takes Athens. Government of the Thirty Tyrants. 
 401 The younger Cyrus defeated by his brother Artaxerxes, and killed 
 
 Retreat of the Ten Thousand Greeks. 
 
 Persecution and Death of Socrates. 
 
 Thrasybulus drives out the Thirty Tyrants, and delivers Athene. 
 
 3D9 A Lectisternium first celebrated at Rome. 
 
 397 The Lake of Alba drained by the Romans. 
 
 396 Syracuse unsuccessfully besieged by the Carthaginians. 
 
 391 Marcus Furius Camillus Dictator at Rome. Veii taken. 
 
 387 Dishonourable Peace of Antalcidas between the Spartans and Per^ 
 
 sians. 
 335 Rome taken by the Gauls under Brennus. 
 382 Phsebidas, the Spartan, seizes the Citadel of Thebes. 
 '580 Pelopidas and Epaminondas deliver Thebes from the Lacedaemonian*. 
 371 Battle of Leuctra, in which the Lacedcemonians are defeated by the 
 
 Thebans under Epaminondas. 
 364 Pelopidas defeats the Tyrant of Phereea, but is killed in battle. 
 363 Battle of Matinea, in which Epaminondas is killed. 
 362 Curtius leaps into a Gulf in the Forum at Rome. 
 361 Darius Ochus (or Artaxerxes III.) King of Persia. According to 
 
 Blair, 358. 
 358 War of the Allies against Athens. 
 
 Philip of Macedon takes Amphipolis, Pydna, and Potidea. 
 
 357 Dion overcomes the party of Dionysius at Syracuse. 
 
 356 Alexander the Great born at Pella in Macedonia. 
 
 The Temple of Diana, at Ephesus, burnt by Erostratn*. 
 
 The Phocian or Sacred War begins in Greece. 
 
 Philip conquers the Thracians, Pasoniana and Illyru 
 
 350 Darius Ochus subdues Egypt 
 
 348 Philip of Macedon takes Oiynthus. 
 
 s» «1 
 
482 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 
 B C 
 
 348 End of the Sacred War. 
 
 347 Dionysi 1 :. restored at Syracuse, after an exile of ten years. 
 346 Philip admitted a Member of the Amphictyonic Council. 
 343 Syracuse taken by Timoleon, and Dionysius the Tyrant Anally Van- 
 ished. 
 
 - The War between the Romans and Samnites, which led to the con- 
 
 quest of all Italy. 
 340 The Carthaginians defeated near Agrigentum. 
 
 P. Decius devotes himself for his country. 
 
 338 Battle of Cheromva gained by Philip over the Athenians and Thebana 
 337 Philip chosen Generalissimo of the Greeks. 
 33*3 Philip murdered by Pausanias. 
 
 Alexander the Great King of Macedon. 
 
 Alexander the Great destroys Thebes. 
 
 335 Darius III. (Codomannus) King of Persia. 
 
 Alexander chosen Generalissimo by the States of Greece. 
 
 334 Alexander defeats the Persians on "the banks of the Granieus* 
 333 The Persians defeated by Alexander at Issus. 
 
 332 Alexander conquers Egypt, and takes Tyre. 
 
 331 Darius defeated by Alexander at Arbc-la. 
 
 330 Darius Codomannus killed. End of the Persian Empire. 
 
 Alexander takes possession of Susa, and sets fire to the Palace of 
 
 Persepolis. 
 
 323 Alexander passes into India, defeats Porus. founds several citi^. 
 
 penetrates to the Ganges. 
 
 The Voyage of Nearchus from the Indus to the Euphrates. 
 
 3*25 Papirius Cursor, Dictator at Rome, triumphs over the Samnites. 
 
 324 Alexander the Great dies at Babylon, at the age of thirty-three. 
 
 321 The Samnites make the Roman Army pass under the yoke ;tt 
 
 Caudium. 
 320 Ptolemy carries 100.000 Jews captives into Egypt. 
 317 Agathoeles Tyrant of Syracuse. 
 312 Era of the Selucidae. 
 311 Cassander, Lysimachus, and Ptolemy, conclude a peace with Antig- 
 
 onus. 
 304 Demetrius besieges Rhodes. 
 
 303 Demetrius restores the Greek Cities to their liberty. 
 301 Battle of Ipsus in Phrygia, in which Antigonus is defeated and slam 
 
 Fabius Maximus and Valerius Corvus Dictators. 
 
 300 Seleucus founds Antioch, Edessa, and Laodicea. 
 
 -298 Athens taken by Demetrius Poliorcetes. 
 294 Seleucus resigns his Wife Stratonice to his son Antiochus. 
 236 Law of Hortcnsius, by which the decrees of ihe people were allowed 
 
 the same force as those of the senate. 
 285 The Astronomical Era of Dionysius of Alexandria. 
 284 Ptolemy Philadelphia King of Egypt. 
 283 The Library of Alexandria founded. 
 281 Commencement of the Achaean Len; e. 
 280 Pyrrhus invades Italy. 
 
 ( Antiochus Soter King of Syria. 
 
 277 The Translation of the Septuagint made by order of Ptolemy Ph2a- 
 
 delphus. Playfair, 285. 
 Antigonos Gonatus reigned in Macedon thirty-six years. 
 275 Pyrrhus unsuccessful against the Carthaginians in Sicily. 
 274 Pyrrhus, totally defeated by the Romans near Beneventum, evacuates 
 
 Italy. 
 272 The Samnites finally subdued by the Romans. 
 266 Silver Money is coined at Rome for the first time. 
 265 The Citizens of Rome numbered at 292,224. 
 264 The first Punic War begins. The Chronicle of Paros composed 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 488 
 
 BO. 
 
 260 Provincial Quaestors instituted at Rome. 
 
 First Naval Victory obtained by the Romans under the Consul Duiliu*. 
 
 255 Regulus defeated" and taken prisoner by the Carthaginians under 
 
 Xantippus. 
 253 Manasseh chosen High Priest of the Jews. 
 251 Great Vidorv of Metellus over Asdrubal. 
 250 The Romans besiege Lilybceum ; are defeated by Hamilcar. 
 211 End of the first Punic War. 
 
 Attains King of Pergamus succeeds Eumencs. 
 
 240 Comedies are first acted at Rome. 
 
 £35 The Temple of Janus shut the first time since the reign of Numa. 
 
 228 Hamilcar killed in Spain. 
 
 223 Great Victory of the Romans over the Gauls, 
 
 219 Hannibal takes Sagimtum. 
 
 218 The second Punic War begins. 
 
 217 Hannibal defeats the Romans under Flaminius. 
 
 Fabius Maximus Dictator. 
 
 216 Battle of Canna;, in which the Romans are totally defeated by Han 
 
 nibal. 
 2.12 Philip II. of Slacedon defeats the ^Etolians. 
 - — Marcellus takes Syracuse, after a siege of two years. 
 211 Capua surrenders to the Romans. 
 . — _ Antiochus the Great conquers Judsea. 
 210 Asdrubal vanquished in Spain by the Scipios. 
 
 Publius Scipio, sent into Spain, takes New-Carthage. 
 
 200 Philopcemen Praetor of the Achaeans. 
 
 203 The Carthaginians recall Hannibal to Africa. 
 
 Sophonisba poisoned by Mas-sinissa. 
 
 201 riyphax led in triumph to Rome by P. Scipio. 
 197 Philip defeated by the Romans at Cynocephale. 
 
 196 The Battle of Zama, and end of the second Punic War. 
 
 300 The Romans enter Asia, and defeat Antigonus at Magnesia. 
 
 1h:> The elder Cato Censor at Rome. 
 
 173 War between the Romans and Perseus King of Macedon 
 
 172 Antiochus defeats the generals of Ptolerffy in Egypt. 
 
 170 Antiochus Epiphanes takes and plunders Jerusalem. 
 
 169 Terence's Comedies performed at Rome. 
 
 107 Perseus defeated by paulus yEmilius, and brought prisoner to Rome 
 
 End of the kingdom of Macedon. 
 166 Judas Maccabeus drives the Syrians out of Judea. 
 164 The Roman Citizens numbered at 327,032. 
 149 The third Punic AVar begins. 
 147 Metellus defeats the Achaeans. 
 j 46 Corinth taken by the Consul Mummius. 
 
 . Carthage taken and destroyed by the Romans. 
 
 137 The Romans shamefully defeated by the Numantines. 
 ]35 The History of the Apocrypha ends. 
 
 Antiochus besieges Jerusalem. 
 
 133 Tiberius Gracchus put to death. 
 
 Numantia taken. Pergamus becomes a Roman Province. 
 
 121 Caius Gracchus killed. 
 
 113 Carbo the Consul drives the Cimbri and Teutones out of Italy. 
 
 Ill The Jugurthine War begins. 
 
 108 Marius defeats Jugurtha. 
 
 103 Jugurtha starved to death at Rome. 
 
 102 Marius defeats the Teutones and Cimbri. 
 
 91 The War of the Allies against the Romans. 
 
 90 Sylla defeats the Marsi, Peligni, Samnites, &c 
 
 89 The Mithridatic War begins. 
 
 88 Civil War between Marius and Sylla, Sylla takes possession of Roane* 
 
484 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 
 B C. 
 
 86 Mithridates King of Pontus defeated by Sylla. 
 83 Sylla defeats Norbanus. The Capitol burnt. 
 82 Sylla perpetual Dictator. His horrible Proscription 
 80 Julius Caesar makes his first Campaign. 
 79 Cicero's first Oration for Roscius. 
 78 Sylla resigns all power, and dies. 
 77 The War of Sertorius. 
 
 72 Lucullus repeatedly defeats Mithridates, and reduces Pontua to a 
 * Roman province. 
 
 70 Crassus and Pompey chosen Consuls at Rome. 
 
 03 Victories of Pompey. He takes Jerusalem, and restores Hyrcanua to 
 
 the government of Judea. 
 C2 Catiline's Conspiracy quelled at Rome by Cicero. 
 61 Pompey enters Rome in triumph. 
 59 The first Triumvirate ; Pompey, Crassus, and Caasar. 
 
 — Caesar proposes a new Agrarian Law. 
 
 68 Clodius the Tribune procures the Banishment of Cicero. 
 . 57 Caesar defeats Ariovistus in Gaul. 
 
 — Cicero brought back from Exile with high honour. 
 55 Caesar lands in Britain, and makes a short campaign. 
 
 54 Casar invades Britain a second time, aid conquers part of it. 
 
 53 Crassus killed in Mesopotamia. 
 
 52 Milo defended by Cicero for the slaughter of Clodius. 
 
 49 Ca?sar passes the Rubicon, and marches to Rome. 
 
 — Commencement of the Era of Antioch, October, 49 A. C. 
 48 Battle of Pharsalia, in which Pompey is defeated. 
 
 — Pompey slain in Egypt. 
 
 — The Alexandrian Library of 400,000 volumes burnt. 
 4() Gato besieged in Utica, kills himself. 
 
 45 The Kalendar reformed by Julius Csssar, by introducing the Solar 
 Year instead of the Lunar. The first Julian Year began January 1, 
 45 A. C. 
 
 44 Julius Caesar killed in the Senate-House. 
 
 — Octavius, grand-nephew and heir of Julius Caesar, comes to Rome, 
 
 and is opposed at first by Antony. 
 43 Second Triumvirate; Octavius, Mark Antony, and Lepidus. 
 42 Battle of Philippi, in which Brutus and Cassius are defeated. 
 40 Herod marries Mariamne, daughter of Hyrcanus, and obtains from the 
 
 Romans the Government of Judaea. 
 34 Antony divides Armenia among the children of Cleopatra. 
 33 Mauritania reduced into a Roman Province. 
 32 War declared by the Senate against Antony and Cleopatra. 
 31 Battle of Actium and end of the Roman Commonwealth. 
 
 — Octavius Emperor of Rome. 
 
 30 Death of Mark Antony and Cleopatra. Alexandria taken by Octa- 
 vius. 
 Octavius receives the title of Augustus. 
 23 Death of Marcellus. Agrippa in Spain. 
 20 Porus King of India sends an Embassy to Augustus. 
 17 Agustus revives tiie Secular Games. 
 15 The Rhreti and Vindelenci defeated by Drusus. 
 10 The Temple of Janus shut by Augustus for a short time. 
 
 8 Augustus corrects an Error of the Roman Kalendar. 
 
 - Death of Maecenas. 
 
 5 Augustus ordains a Census of all the people in the Roman Empire. 
 4 JESUS CHRIST is bom four years before the commencement of the 
 vulgar era. 
 \ D. 
 
 9 The Roman Legions under Varus, destroyed in Germany- 
 
 - Ovid the Poet banished to Tomos. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE, 4» 
 
 A,D. 
 
 14 TiberiUS Emperor of Rome. 
 19 Germanicus dies at Antioch. 
 
 — Tiberius banishes the Jews from Rome. 
 
 26 John the Baptist preaches in Judoea the Coming of the Messiah. 
 
 27 Tiberius retires to the island of Capreje. 
 
 — Pilate made Governor of Judrea. 
 
 31 Sejanus disgraced, and put to death by Tiberius. 
 33 IF St. Peter first Pope. 
 
 — JESUS CHRIST is crucified. 
 35 The Conversion of St. Paul. 
 37 Caligula Emperor of Rome. 
 ','VJ St. Matthew writes his Gospel. 
 
 •10 The name of Christians first given to the Disciples of Christ at An- 
 tioch. 
 
 41 Claudius Emperor of Rome. 
 
 — Herod persecutes the Christians, and imprisons Peter. 
 
 42 Seririus Paulus, proconsul, converted by St. Paul. 
 
 43 Expedition of Claudius into Britain. 
 
 44 St. Mark writes his Gospel. 
 
 45 Vespasum in Britain. 
 
 47 The Liuli Scccularcs (secular games) performed at. Rome. 
 
 46 Messalina put to death by Claudius, who marries Agrippina tk« 
 
 mother of Nero. 
 
 50 St. Paul preaches in the Areopagus at Athens. 
 
 51 Caractacus, the British King, is carried prisoner to Rome. 
 
 54 Nei'O Emperor of Rome. 
 
 55 Britannicus poisoned by Nero. 
 
 59 Nero puts to death his mother Agrippina. 
 
 GO Suetonius Paulinus defeats the Britons. 
 
 01 The Britons, under Queen Boadicea, defeat the Romans. 
 
 04 The first Persecution of the Christians raised by Nero. 
 
 — Rpme set on fire by Nero. 
 
 06 Rareas Soranus and Thrasea Partus put to death by Nero. 
 
 — IT Pope Linus. 
 
 07 Massacre of the Jews by Florus, at CaBsarea, Ptolemais, and A tea* 
 
 andria. 
 
 — St. Peter and St. Paul put to de*h. 
 
 — Josephus, the Jewish historian, governor of Galilee. 
 
 — H Pope St. Clement. 
 
 05 Galba Emperor of Rome. 
 tiO OtllO Emperor of Rome. 
 
 — Vitellius Emperor of Rome. 
 70 Vespasian Emperor of Rome. 
 
 — Jerusalem taken and destroyed by Titua. 
 
 77 IF Pope St. Cletus. 
 
 78 A great Pestilence at Rome, *0,000 dying in one day. 
 
 79 TitUS Emperor of Rome. 
 
 — Herculaneum and Pompeii destroyed by an Eruption of Vtmivfew. 
 
 80 Conquests of Agricola in Britain. 
 
 81 Domitian Emperor of Rome. 
 83 1T Pope Anacletus. 
 
 89 Apollonius of Tyanea defends himself before Domitian against »■ 
 
 accusation of Treason. 
 55 Dreadful Persecution of the Christians at Rome, and m th« prov- 
 inces. 
 
 — St. John writes his Apocalypse, and his Gospel 
 
 90 Nerva Emperor of Rome. 
 
 Ss2 
 
486 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 
 
 AD 
 
 96 1f Pope Evaristus. 
 98 Trajan Emperor of Rome. 
 -- Trajan forbids the Christian Assemblies. 
 100 
 103 The Dacians subdued by Trajan. 
 
 107 Trajan's Victories in Asia. 
 
 108 Si. Ignatius devoured by wild Beasts at Rome. 
 If Pope Alexander I. 
 
 115 The Jews in Cyreno murder 200,000 Greeks and Roman*. 
 117 If Pope Sixtus I. 
 ' 118 Adrian Emperor of Rome. 
 
 Persecution of the Christians renewed by Adrian, but afterward 
 
 suspended. 
 120 Adrian's Wall built across Britain. 
 127 If Pope Telesphorus. 
 
 131 Adrian visits Egypt and Syria. 
 
 132 Adrian publishes his perpetual Edict or Code of the La^rs. 
 135 The Romans destroyed 580,000 Jews in Judaea. 
 
 137 Adrian rebuilds Jerusalem by the name of iElia Capitolina. 
 
 138 IT Pope Hyginus. 
 
 Antonius PJUS Emperor of Rome. 
 
 142 If Pope Pius I. 
 
 150 If Pcpe Anicetus. 
 
 154 Justin Martyr publishes his Apology for the Christians. 
 
 1(31 Marcus Aurclius Antoninus and Lucius Yerus Emperors of 
 
 Rome. 
 162 1f Pope Soter. 
 
 107 Polycarp and Pionices suffered Martyrdom in Asia. 
 169 War with the Marcomanni. 
 
 171 Death of Verus. Marcus Aurelius sole Emperor. 
 — - £ Pope Eleutherius. 
 177 Persecution of the Christians at Lyons. 
 180 CommodliS Emperor of Rome. 
 185 If Pope Victor I. 
 189 The Saracens defeat the Romans. This people first mentioned in 
 
 history. 
 
 193 Pertinax Emperor of Rome. DidlUS JulianUS purchases ths 
 
 Empire. 
 _ _ PescennhlS Niger declared Emperor in the East. 
 SeptimiUS S eveTUS Emperor of Rome. 
 
 194 Niger defeated by Severus, and put to death. 
 
 195 Byzantium besieged, surrenders to Severus. 
 
 196 Albino 'aimed Emperor in Britain. 
 
 197 Albinus, defeated by Severus, kills himself 
 
 % Pope Zephyririus. 
 
 too 
 
 202 The fifth Persecution against the Christians, principally in Egypt. 
 
 208 Severus. with his sons Caracalla and Geta, in Britain. 
 
 209 The Caledc ni ma repulsed, and a Wall built between the rivers Fortti 
 
 and Clyde. 
 
 811 Caracalla and Geta Empercrs of Rome. 
 
 212 Caracalla murders Geta. 
 
 217 Caracalla put to death. 
 
 Macriiras Emperor of Rome. 
 
 H Pope Calixtus I. 
 
 218 Helios: u IS Emperor of Rome. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 4fiF 
 
 AD. 
 
 222 Alexander Sevei'US Emperor of Rome. 
 
 A Tribute paid by the Romans to the Goths 
 
 IT Pope Urban I. 
 
 226 The Persians totally defeated by Alexander Severus 
 230 ft Pope Pontianus. 
 
 235 ft Pope Anterus. 
 
 Maximums assassinates Alexander Severus, and if proclaimed Em- 
 peror of Rome. 
 
 236 The sixth Persecution of the Christians. 
 
 - ft Pope Fabianus. 
 
 237 Maximinus defeats the Dacians and Sarmatians. 
 233 Maximus and Balbinus Emperors of Rome. 
 
 Goi'dian Emperor of Rome. 
 
 242 Gordian defeats the Persians under Sapor. 
 244 Philip the Arabian Emperor of Rome. 
 
 248 The Secular Games celebrated at Rome. Pompey'g Theatre biuret 
 
 St. Cyprian elected Bishop of Carthage. 
 
 249 DeClUS Emperor of Rome. 
 
 250 The seventh Persecution of the Christians under Deciu*. 
 
 ft Pope St. Cornelius. 
 
 251 VibillS VolusianUS Emperor of Rome,. 
 
 G alius Emperor of Rome. 
 
 252 ft Pope Lucius I. 
 
 253 The Goths, Burgundiuns, &c. make an Irruption into Mo&afci ami 
 
 Pannonia. 
 
 254 Valerianus Emperor of Rome. 
 
 ft Pope Stephen I. 
 
 257 The eighth Persecution of the Christian* 
 
 ft Pope Sixtus II. 
 
 259 The Persians ravage Syria. 
 ■ If Pope Dionysius. 
 
 260 GallieilUS Emptor of Rome. 
 
 The Temple of Diana at Ephesus burnt. 
 
 261 Sapor, the Persian, takes Antioch, Tarsus, and Ceesarea. 
 
 267 The Heruli invade and ravage Greece. 
 
 268 Claudius II. Emperor of Rome. 
 
 269 The Goths and Heruli, to the number of 320,000, def*a*»d k-y 
 
 Claudius. 
 
 ft Pope Felix I. 
 
 270 Aurelian Emperor of Rome. 
 
 271 The Alemanni and Marcomanni ravage the Empire. 
 
 272 The ninth Persecution of the Christians. 
 
 273 Zenobia Queen of Palmyra defeated by Aurelian at Edj^sm 
 
 274 ft Pope Eutychianus. 
 
 275 Tacitus Emperor of Rome. 
 
 276 Florianus Emperor of Rome 
 
 277 Probus Emperor of Rome. 
 
 282 Cams Emperor of Rome defeats the Quadi and Sannatlam. 
 282 CariilUS. Numerianus, Emperors of Rome. 
 233 ft Pope Caius. 
 
 Fingal King of Morven died. 
 
 284 Diocletian Emperor of Rome. 
 
 286 The Empire attacked by the Northern Nations. 
 
 - Carausiua usurps the government of Britain, and wignt mtor y«a«. 
 
436 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 
 A. D. 
 
 290 The Gregorian and Hermogenian Codes published. 
 
 292 Partition of the Empire by Diocletian between two Emperors and two 
 
 Ciesars. 
 295 TI Pope Marcellinus. 
 
 Alexandria in Egypt taken by Diocletian. 
 
 300 
 
 302 The tenth Persecution of the Christians. 
 
 304 fl Pope Marcellus. 
 
 Resignation of Diocletian and Maximian 
 
 Galerius and Constantius Emperors of Rome. 
 
 305 Maximinus Emperor of Rome. 
 
 306 Constantine the Great Emperor of Rome. He stops the Per- 
 
 secution of the Christians. 
 310 IT Pope Eusebius. 
 
 IT Pope Melchiades. 
 
 314 If Pope Sylvester. 
 
 325 Constantine abolishes the Combats of Gladiators. 
 
 - He assembles the first General Council at Nice, where the Doctrines 
 
 of Arius are condemned. 
 3-2U St. Athanasius, Bishop of Alexandria, introduces Monarchism in tht 
 Roman Empire. 
 
 329 Constantine removes the Seat of Empire to Constantinople. 
 
 330 If Pope Marcus. 
 337 IT Pope Julius I. 
 
 Death of Constantine. The Empire divided among his three Sons. 
 
 - Constantine II.. Constans. and Constantius, Emperors of 
 
 Rome. 
 
 352 1\ Pope Liberius. 
 
 356 IT Pope Felix I. 
 
 357 The Germans defeated by Julian at Strasbunj, 
 35S If Pope Felix II. 
 
 361 Julian Emperor of Rome. He abjures Christianity, is elected Pon- 
 tifex Maximus, and attempts fruitlessly to rebuild the Temple «>f 
 Jerusalem. 
 
 363 Jovian Emperor of Rome. 
 
 354 Valentinian Emperor of the West, 
 
 Valens Emperer of the East. 
 
 'S66 IF Pope Damasus. 
 
 367 Gratiail Emperor of the West. 
 
 375 Valentinian II. Emperor of the West. 
 
 376 Valens allows the Goths to settle in Thrace. 
 
 378 The Goths advance to the Gates of Constantinople. Death of Valens. 
 
 379 Theodosius the Great Emperor of the East. <- 
 
 331 Second General Council held at Constantinople. 
 
 353 The Huns overrun Mesopotamia ; are defeated by the Goths. 
 
 384 Symmachus pleads the cause of Paganism against St. Ambrose in the 
 
 Senate. 
 
 385 IT Pope Syriciua. 
 
 392 Theodosius Emperor of the West and East. 
 
 395 Arcadius Emperor of the East, and HonorhlS of the West. 
 
 The Huns invade the Eastern Provinces. 
 
 397 St. Chrysostom chosen Patriarch of Constantinople. 
 399 !f Pope Anastasitw. 
 — Gainaa the Goth obtains Honours from Arcadius. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. m 
 
 A. a 
 
 400 
 
 • Alaric the Goth ravages Italy. 
 
 401 IT Pope Innocent I. 
 
 403 Stiliclio, General of Honorius, defeats Alaric near Pollentia. 
 
 404 h ergus I. King of Scotland, supposed to have begun his reign. 
 406 The Vandals, Alans, &c. invade France and Spain. 
 
 408 Theodosius II. Emperor of the East. 
 
 4 10 Rome sacked and burnt by Alaric. Death of Alaric 
 
 411 The Vandals settled in Spain. 
 
 410 The Secular Games celebrated at Rome. 
 
 The Pelagian Heresy condemned by the Bishops of Africa. 
 
 417 IT Pope Zozimus. 
 
 418 IT Pope Boniface I. 
 
 420 Pharamond first King of the Franks supposed to hav« begun Jti* 
 
 reign. 
 422 IT Pope Cielestinus. 
 
 424 Valentiniail III. Emperor of the West. 
 426 The Remans withdraw finally from Britain. 
 i2S iEtius, the Roman General, defeats the Franks and Goth*. 
 
 431 The third General Council held at Ephesus. 
 
 432 IT Pope Sixtus III. 
 
 435 The Theodosian Code published. 
 
 439 Generic the Vandal invades and plunders Italy. 
 
 — i Eudocia the Empress, wife of Theodosius, retires to Jerusalem. 
 
 Carthage taken bv the Vandals. Kingdom of the Vandals in Africa 
 
 440 IT Pope Leo the Great. 
 
 442 Theodosius forced to make a disgraceful Peace with Attila the Hon. 
 
 - — Altila causes his brother Blcda to be murdered. 
 
 445 The Britons in vain solicit the Romans to assist them against the Pieta 
 
 and Scots. 
 445 Attila the Hun overruns Illyrium, Thrace, Dacia, Mcesia, and Scythis 
 
 448 The Romans engage to pay a heavy Tribute of Gold to Attila. 
 
 449 Mcrovmus King of the Franks. 
 
 450 Martian Emperor of the East. 
 
 — Attila ravages Germany and France. 
 
 151 Theodoric King of the Visigoths killed in battle. The Huns defeated 
 
 by ^Etius. 
 
 — The Saxons arrive in Britain under Hcngist and Horsa. 
 
 — The fourth General Council held at Chalcedon. 
 
 152 Foundation of the city of Venice. 
 
 (55 PetromillS Maximus Emperor of the West. 
 
 — AvitUS Emperor of the West. 
 
 Rome taken and plundered by Genseric the Vandal. 
 
 450 Childeric King of the Franks. 
 
 457 Leo the Great Emperor of the East. 
 
 I — Majorianus Emperor of the West. 
 
 461 Severus Emperor of the West, raised by Ricimer. 
 
 11 Pope Hilarius. 
 
 467 Anthemius Emperor of the West. 
 
 468 Eric King of the Visigoths drives the Romans out of Spain. 
 . — IT Pope Simplicius. 
 
 470 ^lla the Saxon takes possession of the Kingdom of Sussex. 
 
 471 jElla defeats all the British Princes. 
 
 472 Great Eruption of Mount Vesuvius, seen from Constantinople. 
 
 - Olyb'lUS Emperor of the West. 
 
 «2 
 
490 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 
 A.D. 
 
 473 Glycerius, Emperor of the West, degraded and stripped by 
 
 474 Julius NepOS Emperor of the West. 
 
 Zero Emperor of the East. 
 
 AugllStulus Romulus Emperor of the West, raised by hia faihw 
 
 Orestes, General of Nepos. 
 47G Orestes put to death by Odoacer King of the Heruli. 
 Rome taken by Odoacer now king of Italy. 
 
 Extisctiox of the Western Empire of the Romans, 507 years 
 
 from the battle of Actium, and 1224 from the building of Rome. 
 481 Clovis King of the Franks. 
 
 Zeno makes Theodoric, the Ostrogoth, his General, and creates him 
 
 Consul. 
 433 II Pope Felix III. 
 485 Battle of Soissons gained by Clovis. 
 483 Theodoric, the Ostrogoth, entirely defeats Odoacer, and is acknowl- 
 
 edged King of Italy by the Emperor Zeno. 
 
 490 The Burgundians, under Gondebald, ravage Italy. 
 
 Ireland, called the Isle of Saints, famous for its Schools. 
 
 491 AliastaSlUS Emperor of the East. 
 403 Odoacer put to death by Theodoric. 
 49'6 H Pope Anastasius II. 
 
 497 Clovis and the Franks converted to Christianity. 
 
 498 IT Pope Symmachus. 
 
 499 Alliance between Clovis and Theodoric the Great 
 500 
 
 Gondebald, the Burgundian, becomes tributary to Clovis. 
 
 501 The Burgundian Laws published by Gondebald. 
 
 502 Cabades King of Persia ravages part of the Eastern Empire. 
 504 The Eastern Empire makes peace with Cabades. 
 
 507 Clovis defeats Alaric the Visigoth, and receives a congratulatory em- 
 
 bassy, with a diadem, from Anastasius. 
 
 508 Theodoric the Great defeats Clovis in the battle of Aries, and then 
 
 makes peace with him. 
 
 510 Clovis makes Paris the capital of the kingdom of the Franks. 
 
 511 Death of Clovis. Division of his kingdom among his four sons, 
 
 Childcbert, Thierry, Clotaire, and Clodomir, Kings of the Franks. 
 
 512 The iTeniJi allowed by Anastasius to settle in Thrace. 
 
 514 II Pope Hormisdas. 
 
 515 Arthur king of the Britons supposed to have begun his reign. 
 
 510 The Computation of Time by the Christian ^Era introduced by Dio- 
 nysius the Monk. 
 
 517 The Getas ravage Illyrium, Macedonia, and Epirus. 
 
 518 Justin I. Emperor of the East raised from obscurity. 
 
 519 Justin restores the Orthodox Bishops, and condemns the Eutychians. 
 
 Cabades King of Persia proposes that Justin should adopt his son 
 
 Cosroes, and makes war on a refusal. 
 523 IT Pope John I. 
 
 525 The Arian Bishops deposed by Justin, and this act highly resented by 
 
 Theodoric. 
 
 Antioch and many other cities almost destroyed by an earthquake, and 
 
 rebuilt by Justin, who adopts his nephew Justinian. 
 
 526 Theodoric puts to death Boethius and Symmachus. 
 
 ff Pope Felix IV. 
 
 527 Justinian I. Emperor of the East. 
 
 529 Belisarius, General of Justinian, defeats the Persians. 
 
 The Books of the Civil Law published by Justinian. 
 
 530 H Pope Boniface II. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 491 
 
 AD. 
 
 532 Justinian congratulates Cosroes on succeeding to the throne of Persia 
 
 and concludes a perpetual peace with him. 
 
 Great Insurrection at Constantinople quelled with prodigious slaughter 
 
 by Belisarius. 
 
 533 Athalaric King of the Ostrogorns dies, and is succeeded by his motheT 
 
 Amalasonta. 
 
 IT Pope John II. 
 
 534 Theodobert King of Metz. 
 
 Belisarius defeats Gelimer and the Vandals in Africa. 
 
 535 IT Pope Agapetus. 
 
 536 IT Pope Sylvester. 
 
 537 Belisarius subdues the Ostrogoths in Italy, and takes Rome. 
 
 538 IT Pope Vigilius. 
 
 540 Belisarius refuses to accept the crown of Italy. 
 543 Totila, the Goth, recovers Italy from the Romans, 
 
 547 Totila takes and plunders Rome. 
 
 548 Theobald King of Metz. 
 
 549 Rome retaken by Belisarius. 
 
 550 Commencement of the kingdom of Poland under Lechus. 
 
 Rome recovered by Totila. 
 
 551 The manufacture of Silk introduced into Europe. 
 
 553 Totila defeated by Narse-s the Eunuch, and put to death. 
 555 IT Pope Pelagius I. 
 
 558 The Huns, breaking into Thrace, are defeated by Belisarius. 
 
 559 Belisarius degraded, and ungratefully treated by Justinian. 
 
 Clotaire sole King of France. 
 
 560 IT Pope John III. 
 
 Belisarius restored to his Honours and Command. 
 
 562 Caribert, Gontran Sigebert, and Chilperic, Kings of France. 
 
 565 Justin 11. Emperor of Rome. 
 
 566 Narses, recalled from Italy, invites the Lombards to take possession 
 
 of the country. 
 5G8 Italy conquered by the Lombards. 
 571 Birth of Mahomet the false Prophet. 
 574 Mi Pope Benedict I. 
 578 Tiberius II. Emperor of the East. 
 
 V Pope Pelagius II. 
 
 580 The Latin Tongue ceases to be spoken in Italy about this time. 
 
 582 Maurice Emperor of the East. 
 
 584 Clotaire II. King of Soissons. 
 
 590 Antioch again destroyed, with 30,000 inhabitants, by an Earthquake 
 
 Mi Pope Gregory the Great. 
 
 596 Thierry II. and Theodobert II. Kings of Paris and Atistrasia. 
 
 Augustine the Monk converts the Saxons to Christianity. 
 
 600 
 
 602 Phocas Emperor of the East acknowledges the Supremacy c-f the 
 
 Popes. 
 604 Mi Pope Sabinianus. 
 
 607 M Pope Boniface IV. 
 
 The Pantheon at Rome Dedicated to God, the Virgin, and the Saftrts. 
 
 608 ft Pope Boniface IV. 
 
 609 The Jews of Antiocn massacre the Christians. 
 611 HeracllUS Emperor of the East. 
 
 613 The French Maires du Palais first introduced by Clotaire as Regents 
 
 614 Clotaire II. sole King of France. 
 
 — Queen Brunechilda, accused of Humberless crimes, is put to death by 
 Clotaire II. 
 
492 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 
 AD. 
 
 615 ff Pope Deusdedit. 
 
 616 Jerusalem taken by the Persians under Cosroes II. 
 
 618 IT Pope Boniface V. 
 
 622 Era of the Hegyra, or Flight of Mahomet from Mecsa to Medina. 
 625 f Pope Honorius I. 
 
 The Persians under Cosroes II., with the Huns, Abari, and Sclavo- 
 
 nians, besiege Constantinople. 
 
 623 Dagobcrt and Charibert Kings of France. 
 
 6:32 Death of Mahomet. Abubeker succeeds him as Caliph of the Sara 
 
 cens. 
 633 Abubeker dies, and is succeeded by Omar in the Caliphate. 
 636 Jerusalem taken by Omar and the Saracens, who keep possession of it 
 
 463 years. 
 638 Sigebert II. and Clovis II. Kings of France. 
 
 640 H Pope Severinus. 
 
 V Pope John IV. 
 
 The Library of Alexandria, founded by Ptolemy Philadelphus, is 
 
 burnt by the Saracens. 
 
 641 Constaritine, Emperor of the East for a few months, poisoned by 
 
 his step-mother. 
 
 Heraclionas and Tiberius III. Emperors of the East. 
 
 642 Constans, son of Constantine, Emperor of the East. 
 
 IT Pope Theodorus. 
 
 645 Otman succeeds Omar in the Caliphate. 
 
 643 Cyprus tak°.n by the Saracens under Mawia. 
 649 If' Pope Martini. 
 
 653 The Saracens take Rhodes, and destroy the Colossus. 
 
 654 Childeric II. King of Austrasia. 
 
 TT Pope Eugenius I. 
 
 C55 Ali Caliph of Arabia. Mawia Caliph of Egypt. 
 (5-37 IT Pope Vitalianus. 
 
 653 The Saracens obtain Peace of the Emperor Constans, and agTeo to 
 pay a yearly tribute. 
 
 668 Constantius V. (Pogonatus) Emperor of the East. 
 
 669 Sicily ravaged by the Saracens. 
 672 IT Pope Adeodatus. 
 
 The Saracens ineffectually besiege Constantinople. Their fleet de- 
 
 stroyed by the Greek Fire used by Callinicus. 
 
 675 The Saracens attempt to land in Spain, but are repulsed by Wamba 
 
 King of the Visgoths. 
 
 676 IT Pope Donus. 
 
 679 Thierry IV. King of all France. 
 
 V Pope Agatho. 
 
 630 The sixth General or CEcumenical Council of Constantinople. 
 682 V Pope Leo II. 
 
 684 U Pope Benedict II. 
 
 685 U Pope John V. 
 
 Justinian II. Emperor of the East. 
 
 The Britons, totally subdued by the Saxons, retreat into Wolea ani 
 
 Cornwall. 
 
 686 1f Pope Canon. 
 
 686 Ceadwalla King of Wessex subdues Sussex and Kent. 
 
 687 IT Pope Sergius. 
 
 600 Pepin Heristel, Moire du Palais, defeats Thierry, and acquire* ti» 
 
 chief power in France. 
 692 Clovis III. King of France. 
 
 694 Justinian II. dethroned, mutilated, and banished by Leontiua. 
 <85 GUdtbejt HI. King of Franc*. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 4a3 
 
 AD. 
 
 695 LeontlUS Emperor of the East. Dethroned and mutilated by 
 697 Apsimar or Tiberius Emperor of the East. 
 699 The Saracens defeated by John the Patrician. 
 700 
 
 The Saracens again defeated with great slaughter by Heraclius, brother 
 
 of Tiberius. 
 701 IT Pope John VI. 
 704 Justinian escapes from prison, defeats Tiberius, and is restored to tho 
 
 throne. 
 
 707 Justinian II. defeated by the Bulgarians. 
 
 708 IT Pope Sisinnius. 
 
 IT Pope Constantine. 
 
 711 Philippicus Bardanes Emperor of the East. 
 
 Dagobert HI. King of France. 
 
 713 Aliastasius II. Emperor of the East. 
 
 Spain conquered by the Saracens under Muca, the general of ihe 
 
 Caliph Walid. 
 
 714 11 Pope Gregory II. 
 
 TheodosillS Emperor of the East. 
 
 Charles Martel, Maire du Palais, governs all France for 26 years. 
 
 71 G Childeric II. King of France. 
 
 LiCO (the Isurian) Emperor of the East. 
 
 720 Omar II. besieges Constantinople without success. 
 
 Thierry IV. King of France. 
 
 726 Leo forbids the Worship of Images, which occasions a great rebellion 
 of his subjects. The Pope defends the practice. 
 
 728 Leo orders Pope Gregory to be seized and sent to Constantinople; 
 
 but the order is frustrated, and Leo confiscates the Imperial Do- 
 mains of Sicily and Calabria. 
 
 729 The Saracens ravage Gallia Narbonnensis. 
 
 731 IT Pope Gregory III. 
 
 732 Charles Martel defeats the Saracens between Tours and Poictiers. 
 
 736 Leo persecutes the Monks. 
 
 737 Death of Pelagius, who preserved the Christian Monarchy in Asturia 
 .740 The Duchy of Spoleto seized by the Normans. Recovered by the 
 
 Pope. 
 
 741 TT Pope Zachary. 
 
 742 Childeric III. King of France 
 
 Constantine (Copronymus) Emperor of the East. An enemy to 
 
 images and saint worship. 
 
 743 He defeats and puts to death Artabazdus, who had seized Constan- 
 
 tinople. 
 745 He destroys the fleet of the Saracens. 
 749 The Race of the Abassidse become Caliphs of the Saraoens. 
 
 751 Pepin (le Bref) King of France, founder of the second or Carlovin- 
 
 gian Ract 
 
 752 If Pope Stephen III. 
 
 753 Astolphus King of the Lombards erects the Dukedom of Ravenna, 
 
 and claims from the Pope the Dukedom of Rome. 
 
 754 Pope Stephen requests the assistance of Pepin against the Lombards. 
 
 Pepin invades Italy, and strips Astolphus of' his new possessions, con- 
 
 ferring them on the Pope as a temporal sovereignty. 
 
 Almanzor Caliph of the Saracens, a great encourager of learning. 
 
 756 Desiderius, or Dider, proclaimed King of the Lombards, wiut the 
 
 Pope's consent. 
 
 - Abdalrahman I. takes the title of King of Cordova, and is the founder 
 
 of the splendid dominion of the Moors in Spain. 
 
 Tt 
 
404 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 
 A. D 
 
 757 tf Pope Paul I. renews the alliance with Desiderius. 
 
 759 tf Pope Stephen III. quarrels with Desiderius. 
 
 762 Almanzor builds Bagdat, and makes it the seat of the Empire <jf the 
 
 Caliphs. 
 
 767 The Turks ravage Asia Minor. 
 
 768 Charles {the Great) and Carloman, Kings of France. 
 
 H Pope Stephen IV. 
 
 770 Constantino dissolves the Monasteries in the East. 
 
 772 Charlemagne sole Monarch of France. 
 ■ He makes war against the Saxons. 
 
 H Pope Adrian I. 
 
 774 Charlemagne defeats Desiderius, and puts an end to the kingdom of 
 
 the Lombards, which had subsisted 206 years. 
 
 775 Leo IV. Emperor o<" the East. 
 
 773 Battle of Roneezvalles between the Christians and Moors in Spam, 
 
 where Rolando is killed. 
 779 Charlemagne conquers Navarre and Sardinia. 
 781 Constahtine (Porphyrogenitus) Emperor of the East. 
 
 Irene, Empress, is Regent in her son's minority, and keeps him m 
 
 entire subjection. 
 She re-establishes the worship of images. 
 
 785 Charlemagne subdues the Saxons. 
 
 Haroun Alrasehid Caliph of the Saracens. 
 
 He invades and ravages a part of the Empire. 
 
 786 Constantine assumes the government of the Empire, and imprisons 
 
 his mother. 
 
 787 The Danes first land in England. 
 
 The seventh General Council, or second of Nice. 
 
 788 Irene puts to death her son Constantine, and is proclaimed sole Em- 
 
 press. 
 
 793 Irene proposes to marry Charlemagne, which being disapproved by 
 
 her subjects, she is dethroned, and confined to a monastery. 
 
 NicephorilS Emperor of the East. 
 
 794 Charlemagne defeats and extirpates the Huns. 
 
 H Pope Leo III. 
 
 797 The Saracens ravage Cappadocia, Cyprus, Rhodes, &c. 
 
 Nicephorus associates his son Saturacius in the Empire. 
 
 aoo 
 
 New Empire of the West. Charlemagne crowned Emperor at 
 
 Rome. 
 
 807 Haroun Alrasehid courts the alliance of Charlemagne. 
 811 Michael (Curopalates) Emperor of the East. 
 
 813 Leo (the Armenian) Emperor of the East. 
 
 Almamon, Caliph of the Saracens, a great encourager of learning. 
 
 814 Lewis {le Debonnaire) Emperor of France. 
 
 816 The Eastern Empire ravaged by Earthquakes, Famine, Conflagra- 
 tions, &c. 
 
 816 tf Pope Stephen V. 
 
 817 1T Pope Pascal I. 
 
 Lewis (le Deb.) divides the Empire among his sons. 
 821 Michael (Balbus of the Stammerer) Emperor of the East. 
 824 H Pope Eugene II. 
 
 837 2d0t)£tt unites the kingdoms of the Saxon Heptarchy, 
 of the kingdom of England. 
 
 f Pope Valentino 
 
 808 Gregory IV. 
 880 Theophilus Emperor of the East 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 40b 
 
 AD. 
 
 838 25ti)dtoOlt King of England. 
 — The Scots under Kenneth entirely subdue the Picta. 
 
 840 LOTHARIUS Emperor of Germany. 
 
 Charles {the Bald) King of France. 
 
 841 Lotharius defeated by his two brothers in the battle of Fontenai, aad 
 
 deposed. 
 
 842 LEWIS (of Bavaria) Emperor of Germany. 
 Michael III. Emperor of the East. 
 
 843 The Normans plunder the city of Rouen. 
 
 844 U" Pope Sergius III. 
 
 845 The Normans plunder Plamburgh, and penetrate into Germany. 
 
 847 IT Pope Leo IV. 
 
 848 The Venetian Fleet destroyed by the Saracens. 
 
 851 11 Pope Joan supposed to have filled the Papal chair for two year* 
 
 BasillUS associated Emperor of the East. 
 
 855 LE WIS II. Emperor of Germany. 
 
 857 SStlJClfcaUr and l£tf)tH)trt Kings of England. 
 
 858 TT Pope Nicholas I. 
 
 866 IHtljeirCTr King of England. 
 
 867 The Danes ravage England. 
 
 Basilius sole Emperor of the East. 
 
 TT Pope Adrian II. 
 
 Potius, Patriarch of Constantinople, excommunicates Pope Adrian. 
 
 872 SClftCtr (the Great) King of England. 
 
 ft Pope John VIII. 
 
 875 CHARLES (the Bald) Emperor of Germany. 
 
 877 LEWIS (the Stammerer) Emperor of Germany and King of France 
 
 879 Lewis HI. and Carloman, Kings of France, 
 
 The kingdom of Aries begins. 
 
 880 CHARLES (the Gross) Emperor of Germany and King of France. 
 
 Ravagers of the Normans in France. 
 
 882 IT Pope Marinus. 
 
 884 IT Pope Adrian III. 
 
 886 Leo (the Philosopher) Emperor of .the East. 
 
 The University of Oxford founded by Alfred. 
 
 887 ARNOLD, Emperor of Germany. 
 
 The Normans besiege Paris, which is gallantly defended by Bishop 
 
 Goselin and Count Eudes. 
 
 888 Eudes or Odo King of France. 
 
 890 Alfred the Great composes his Code of Laws, and divides England 
 
 into Counties, Hundreds, and Tithings. 
 
 891 T\ Pope Formosus. 
 89C IT Pope Stephen VII. 
 
 897 IT Pope John IX. 
 
 898 Charles III. (the Simple) King of France. 
 900 
 
 TT Pope Benedict IV. 
 
 LEWIS IV. Emperor of Germany. 
 
 . 901 ISTrtoartr (the Elder) succeeds Alfred as King of England. 
 
 904 IT Pope Leo V. 
 
 905 IT Pope Sergius III. 
 
 911 CONRAD I. Emperor of Germany. 
 
 Constantine IX. Emperor of the East. 
 
 912 The Normans are established in Normandy under Rollo. 
 
 913 IT Pope Anastasiug. 
 
 914 IT Pope Landon. 
 
 915 Constantine and Romanus Emperors of the East. 
 
496 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 
 AD. 
 
 915 IT Pope John X. 
 
 The University of Cambridge founded by Edward the Elder. 
 
 920 HENRY (the Fowler) Emperor of Germany. 
 
 923 Rodolph King of France. 
 
 925 &tt)tlntm King of England. 
 
 928 1T Pope Leo VI. 
 
 929 IT Pope Stephen VIII. 
 931 TT Pope John XL 
 
 936 OTHO (the Sreat) Emperor of Germany. 
 
 IT Pope Leo VII. 
 
 Lewis IV. (d'Outremer) King of France. 
 
 939 IT Pope Stephen IX. 
 
 940 Howel-Dha, King of Wales, an eminent Lawyer. 
 
 941 IStJlUUtttr I. King of England. 
 943 IT Pope Marinus XIII. 
 
 946 IT Pope Agapet. 
 
 948 fStrtCtr King of England. 
 
 954 Lotharius King of France. 
 
 955 IStrto^ King of England. 
 
 956 IT Pope John XII. 
 
 959 RomariUS II. Emperor of the East. 
 
 25ttgar King of England. 
 
 963 IT Pope Leo VIII. 
 
 Nicephoi'US FllOCUS Emperor of the EasL 
 
 964 Otho the Great conquers Italy. 
 
 965 IT Pope John XIII. 
 
 967 Antioch recovered from the Saracens by Nicephorua. 
 969 John Zemisses Emperor of the East. 
 
 972 IT Pope Benedict VI. 
 
 973 OTHO II. Emperor of Germany. 
 
 974 Y\ Pope Boniface VII. 
 
 975 IT Pope Benedict VII., 
 
 - Basitius and Constantine X. Emperors of the Ea*t 
 
 976 2£fr&arft II. King of England. 
 978 lEtijelretT H. King of England. 
 
 983 OTHO III. Emperor of Germany. 
 
 984 1T Pope John XIV. 
 986 IT Pope John XV. 
 
 Lewis V. (le Faineant) King of France. 
 
 Hugh Capet, King of France, founder of the Third Race of the 
 
 Kings. 
 991 The Arabic numeral Ciphers first introduced into Europe. 
 996 Robert (the Wise) King of France. 
 
 ft Pope Gregory V. 
 
 999 IT Pope Sylvester II. 
 
 1000 
 
 1002 HENRY II. Emperor of Germany. 
 
 — — Great Massacre of the Danes by Ethelred King of England. 
 
 1003 IT Pope John XVI. 
 IT Pope John XVII. 
 
 1004 IT Pope John XVIII. 
 
 1005 Churches first built in the Gothic style. 
 1009 IT Pope Sergius IV. 
 
 J012 H Pope Benedict VIII. 
 
 1013 The Danes, under Sueno, get possession of England. 
 
 1015 The Manichean Doctrines prevalent in France and Italy 
 
 1016 25tttmm& II. (Ironside) King of England. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 4^7 
 
 A. n 
 
 1016 Six Battles fought with the Danes under Canute in England 
 
 1017 <£amttt the Dane (the Great) King of England. 
 
 1018 The Normans invade Italy. 
 
 1024 IT Pope John XIX. or XX. 
 
 — CONRAD II. (the Salic) Emperor of Germany. 
 
 1025 Musical Characters invented by Guido Aretino. 
 1028 Romanus Argyrus Emoerorofthe East. 
 1031 Henry I. King of France 
 
 1033 1T Pope Benedict IX. 
 
 1034 Michael IV. Emperor of the East. 
 
 1036 J£? 31*0 fit II. (Harefoot) King of England. 
 
 1039 HENRY III. Emperor of Germany. 
 
 ®anUtC II. or ?2f arfctCaUUtl King of England. 
 
 1040 Macbeth usurps the Throne of Scotland by the murder of Duncan, 
 
 1041 2£tlU3artf HI- (the Confessor) King of England, restores the Sax- 
 
 on line. 
 Michael (Calaphales) Emperor of the East. 
 
 1042 Constantine (Monomachus) Emperor of the East. 
 
 1043 The Turks, under Tangrolipix, subdue Persia. 
 
 1045 If Pope Gregory VI. 
 
 1046 IT Pope Clement II. 
 
 1048 II Pope Damasus II. 
 
 1049 H Pope Leo IX. the first Pope who maintained a regular army. 
 
 1054 Theodora Emperor of the East. 
 
 Pope Leo IX. taken prisoner by the Normans. 
 
 1055 II Pope Victor II. 
 
 The Turks take Bagdat, and overturn the Empire of the Caliph' 
 
 1056 HENRY IV. Emperor of Germany. 
 
 1057 Malcolm ill. (Canmore) King of Scotland. 
 
 Isaac (Comnenus) Emperor of the East. 
 
 IT Pope Stephen X. 
 
 1056 T Pope Nicholas II. 
 
 The Saracens driven out of Sicily by Robert Guiscard the Norman. 
 
 1059 Constantine XII. (Ducas) Emperor of the East. 
 
 1060 Philip I. King of France. 
 
 1061 IT Pope Alexander II. 
 
 1005 The Turks take Jerusalem from the Saracens. 
 1QG6 pfa£0lH II. King of England reigned nine months. 
 - — ©fetiltflltt (the Conqueror) King of England. 
 1068 Romanus Diogenes Emperor of the East. 
 
 'Edgar Atheling seeks refuge in Scotland. 
 
 1068 Margaret, sister of Edgar Atheling, married to Malcolm King of Scot- 
 land. 
 
 1070 The Feudal Law introduced into England. 
 
 1071 Michael Ducas Emperor of the East. 
 1073 IT Pope Gregory VII. 
 
 1076 The Emperor Henry IV. excommunicated and deposed by the Pope. 
 
 1078 Nicephorus (Boton) Emperor of the East. 
 
 1079 Doomsday-book begun by William the Conqueror. 
 1081 Alexius I. (Comnenus) Emperor of the East. 
 
 Henry IV. Emperor besieges Rome. 
 
 10S4 He is re-crowned Emperor of Germany. 
 
 1086 V Pope Victor III 
 
 1087 IT Pope Urban II. 
 
496 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 
 
 A.D 
 
 1037 WLI Matn II. (Rufus) King of England. 
 
 1093 St. Margaret Queen of Scotland died. 
 
 Donald Bane King of Scotland. 
 
 1095 Duncan II. King of Scotland. 
 
 The first Crusade to the Holy Land. Peter the Hermit. 
 
 1098 The Crusaders take Antioch. 
 
 ■ lirfdgar King of Scotland. 
 
 1099 Jerusalem taken by Godfrey of Boulogne. The Knights of St. John 
 
 instituted. 
 
 U Pope Pascal II. 
 
 1100 
 
 , ffytXWg I. (Beauclerc) King of England. 
 
 U02 Guiscarcfof Normandy takes the title of King of Naples. 
 
 U04 Baldwin King of Jerusalem takes Ptolemais. 
 
 1106 HENRY V. Emperor of Germany. 
 
 1107 Alexander I. King of Scotland. 
 
 1108 Leiois VI. (le Gros) King of France. 
 
 1118 IT Pope Gelasius II. 
 
 , The order of Knights Templars instituted. 
 John (Comnenus) Emperor of the East. 
 
 1119 IF Pope Calixtus II. 
 
 1124 David I. King of Scotland. 
 
 H Pope Honorius II. 
 
 1125 LOTHARWS II. Emperor of Germany. 
 1130 H Pope Innocent II. 
 
 1135 j&t?Pj)lH King of England. 
 
 1137 Lewis VII. (le Jeune) King of France. Married to Eleanor of Gwi- 
 
 enne. 
 
 The Pandects of the Roman Law discovered at Amalphi. 
 
 1138 CONRAD III. Emperor of Germany. 
 
 The Scots, under David I., defeated by the English in the battle of the 
 
 Standard. 
 
 1139 Alphonso I. King of Portugal rescues his kingdom from the Saracens. 
 
 1140 The Canon Law first introduced into England. 
 
 1141 Stephen King of England taken prisoner in the battle of Lincoln by 
 
 the troops of Matilda. 
 
 1143 He recovers his kingdom. 
 . H Pope Cadestinus II. 
 
 Manuel (Comnenus) Emperor of the East. 
 
 1144 IT Pope Lucius II. 
 
 1145 H Pope Eugene III. 
 
 1147 The second Crusade excited by St. Bernard. 
 
 1150 The study of the Civil Law revived at Bologna. 
 
 1151 The Canon Law is collected by Gratian. a Monk of Bologna. 
 
 1152 FREDERICK I. (Barbarossa)' Emperor of Germany. 
 
 1153 Malcolm IV. King of Scotland. 
 
 - • If Pope Anastasius IV. 
 
 ■ ■■ ■ Treaty of Winchester. Compromise between King Stephen and 
 Prince Henry. 
 
 1154 ffyttXVg II. (Plantagenet) King of England. 
 
 IT Pope Adrian IV. 
 
 •— — The parties of the Guelphs and Ghibellines disturb Italy. 
 1157 The Bank of Venice instituted. 
 
 1153 Interview between Henry II. and Malcolm IV. at Carlisle. 
 1159 TT Pope Alexander III. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 40S> 
 
 A.D. 
 
 1160 The Ubigenses maintain heretical doctrines. 
 
 1164 Institution of the order of the Teutonic Knights In Germany 
 . T. Becket condemned by the Council of Clarendon. 
 
 1165 W illiam (the Lion) King of Scotland. 
 
 1171 T. Becket murdered at Canterbury. 
 
 1172 Conquest of Ireland by Henry II 
 
 1180 Philip Augustus King of France. 
 
 1181 Alexius II. (Comnenus) Emperor of the East. 
 1183 IT Pope Lucius III. 
 
 AndroniCUS (Comnenus) Emperor of the East. 
 
 1185 IT Pope Urban III. 
 
 Isaac AngelllS Emperor of the East. 
 
 1187 IT Pope Gregory VIII. 
 
 The citv of Jerusalem taken by Saladin. 
 
 1188 If Pope* Clement ill. 
 
 1189 littljarU I. (Coeur de Lion) King of England. 
 
 The third Crusade under Richard I. and Philip Augusta*. 
 
 1190 HEjYRY VI. Emperor of Germany. 
 
 1191 IT Pope Cadestinus III. 
 
 1192 Richard I. defeats Saladin in the battle of Ascalon. 
 
 Guy of Lusignan King of Jerusalem. 
 
 1195 Alexius Angelus (the Tyrant) Emperor of the East. 
 
 1198 PHILIP Emperor of Germany. 
 
 ft Pope Innocent III. 
 
 1199 $0htl King. of England. 
 1200 
 
 1202 The fourth Crusade sets out from Venice. 
 
 Constantinople taken by the French and Venetians. 
 
 1203 Alexius and Mur%)ZUphlu$ Emperors of the East. 
 
 1204 Baldwin I. Emperor of Constantinople, and Theodore I. 
 
 caris) Emperor of Niceea. 
 
 - The Inquisition established by Pope Innocent III. 
 
 1206 Henry Emperor of Constantinople. 
 1208 OTHO IF. Emperor of Germany. 
 
 London incorporated, obtains a charter for electing a Mayor aoti 
 
 Magistrates. 
 1210 Crusade against the Albicenses, under Simon de Montfbrt. 
 1212 FREDERICK II. Emperor of Germany. 
 
 1214 Alexander II. King of Scotland. 
 
 1215 Magna Charta signed by King John. 
 
 1216 fl?lttt*£ HI. King of England. 
 
 Peter and John Ducas Emperors of the East. 
 
 1219 Robert Emperor of the East. 
 
 Damietta taken by the Crusaders 
 
 1223 Lewis VIII. King of France. 
 
 1226 TI Pope Honorius III. 
 
 St. Lewis IX. King of France. 
 
 1227 tf Pope Gregory IX. 
 
 Gengi^kan and the Tartars overrun the Empire of the Saraoc** 
 
 1228 Baldwin II. French Emperor of Constantinople. 
 1234 The Inquisition committed to the Dominican Monks. 
 1237 Russia brought under subjection by the Tartars. 
 
 1241 IT Pope Ccelestinus IV. ' j> 
 
 1243 IT Pope Innocent IV. 
 
 1348 The fifth Crusade under St. Lewis. 
 
500 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 
 A.D. 
 
 1249 Alexander III. King of Scotland. 
 1251 CONRAD IV. Emperor of Germany. 
 
 1254 IT Pope Alexander IV. 
 
 Interregnum in the Empire of Germany, from the death of Conrad IV 
 
 in 1254, to the election of Rodolph in 1273. 
 
 1255 Theodore II. (Lascaris) Emperor of Nicaea. 
 
 1256 Bagdat taken by the Tartars. End of the Empire of the Saracens. 
 1251) John (Lascaris) Emperor of Nicaea. 
 
 1260 Michael (Palasologus) Emperor of Nicaea. 
 
 The Flagellants preach Baptism by Brood. 
 
 1261 IT Pope Urban IV. 
 
 The Greek Emperors recover Constantinople from the French. 
 
 126:3 The Norwegians invade Scotland, and are defeated by Alexander III. 
 in the battle of Largs. 
 
 1264 TT Pope Clement IV. 
 
 The Deputies of Boroughs first summoned to Parliament in England. 
 
 Henry III. of England taken prisoner in the battle of Lewes. 
 
 1265 Charles Count of Anjou King of Sicily. 
 
 1270 Philip III. (the Bold) King of France. 
 
 1271 U Pope Gregory X. 
 
 1272 2!n$UjarTJ I- (Longshanks) King of England. 
 
 1273 RODOLPH (of Hapsburg) Emperor of Germany, first of the Austri- 
 
 an Family. 
 
 1276 II Pope Innocent V. 
 
 IT Pope Adrian V. 
 
 IT Pope John XXI. 
 
 1277 IT Pope Nicholas III. 
 
 1281 H Pope Martin IV. 
 
 1282 The Sicilian Vespers, when 8,000 French were massacred. 
 
 1283 Andronicus I. (Pakeologus) Emperor of the East. 
 
 The conquest of Wales by Edward I. 
 
 1285 IT Pope Honorius IV. 
 
 Philip IV. (the Fair) King of France. 
 
 I2S6 Margaret (of Norway) Gjteen of Scotland. 
 
 1288 IT Pope Nicholas IV. " 
 
 1200 Interregnum in Scotland for two years. Competition between Bruce 
 
 and Baliol for the crown, decided by Edward I. 
 1291#Ptolemais taken by the Turks. End of the Crusades. 
 
 1292 John Baliol King of Scotland. 
 
 ADOLPHUS (of Nassau) Emperor of Germany. 
 
 TT Pope Caelestinus V. 
 
 1203 From this year there is a regular succession of English Parliament*. 
 
 1294 IT Pope Boniface VIII. 
 
 1295 Michael Andronicus Emperor of the East. 
 
 1296 Interregnum in Scotland for eight years. Sir William Wallace nobly 
 
 supports the liberty of his country, defeats the English at Sterling, 
 and drives them out of the kingdom. 
 1298 Wallace chosen Regent of Scotland, defeated at Falkirk. 
 
 ALBERT I. (of Austria) Emperor of Germany. 
 
 The present Turkish Empire begins under Ottoman in Bithynia. 
 
 1300 
 
 1301 Quarrel between Philip the Fair and Pope Boniface VIII. 
 1£02 Corny n and Frascr defeat the English thrice in one day. 
 
 The Mariner's Compass said to be discovered at Naples. 
 
 >304 Wallace betrayed, delivered up, and put to death by Edward L 
 
 1336 Robert I. (Bruce) King of Scotland, 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 501 
 
 A. D. 
 
 1307 The Establishment of the Swiss Republics. 
 
 jSfctoartt II. King of England. 
 
 1308 HEXRY VII. Emperor of Germany. 
 
 IT Pope Clement V. 
 
 The seat of the Popes transferred to Avignon for seventy years. 
 
 1310 Rhodes taken by the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem. 
 
 1 311 Pierce Gaveston, favourite of Edward II., put to death. 
 
 1312 The Knights Templars suppressed by Philip the Fair. 
 
 1314 The Scots under Robert Bruce defeat the English under Edward 1/ 
 
 at Bannockburn. 
 
 LEWIS J r . (of Bavaria) Emperor of Germany. 
 
 Lewis X. (Hut in) King of France. 
 
 1315 John King cf France. 
 
 1316 IT Pope John XXII. 
 
 Philip V. (the Long) King of France. 
 
 13-20 -AndronicilS II. (Palseologus) Emperor of the East. 
 1321 Charles IV. (the Fair) King of France. 
 
 1327 25tttoaCft HI- King of England. 
 
 1328 Philip VI. (of Valois) King of > France. 
 
 1320 David II. King of Scotland. Randolph Earl of Murray Regent. 
 
 1331 The Teutonic Knights settle in Prussia. 
 
 1332 Edward Baliol, assisted by Edward III., is crowned at Scone Kingo: 
 
 Scots, but is soon driven out of the kingdom. 
 
 1333 CasimirUI. (the Great) King of Poland.^ 
 
 1334 If Pope Benedict XII. 
 
 1340 Gunpowder invented by Swartz. a Monk of Cologne. 
 
 Oil Painting invented by John Van Eyke. 
 
 1341 John V. (Pakeologus) Emperor of the East. 
 
 John Cantacuzenos, his governor, usurps the throne. 
 
 1342 IT Pope Clement VI. 
 
 1340 Battle of Cressy won by Edward III. and the Black Prince over the 
 French. 
 
 Battle of Durham, in which David II. of Scotland is taken prisoner. 
 
 1347 CHARLES IV. Emperor of Germany. 
 
 ■ Cola Rienzi assumes the Government of Rome. 
 
 1330 The Order of the Garter instituted by Edward III. 
 — — Peter (the Cruel) King of Castile. 
 
 1351 John 1 1. King of France. 
 
 1352 U Pope Innocent VI. 
 
 The Turks first enter Europe 
 
 1356 The Battle of Poictiers, in which John II. King of France is takes 
 
 prisoner, and afterwards brought to London. 
 1362 IT Pope Urban V. 
 
 The Law-pleadings in England changed from French to English... 
 
 1346 Charles V. King of France. 
 1370 fi Pope Gregory XL 
 
 tf'Sobert II. King of Scotland. 
 
 1377 The Seat of the Popes removed back from Avignon to Rome. 
 Hid) aCtf II. King of England. 
 
 WicklifiVs Doctrines propagated in England. 
 
 1373 The Schism of the double Popes at Rome and Avignon b egins and 
 continues thirty-eight years. 
 
 IT Pope Urban VI. of Rome. 
 
 IT Pope Clement VII. of Avignon. 
 
 1378 WENCESLJ1US Emperor of -Germany, deposed in 1400. 
 
 1380 Charles VI. King of France. 
 
 • — — Tamerlane invades and subdues Chorassar. 
 
 1381 Wat Tyler's and Jack Straw's -Insurrection in England. 
 
502 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 
 A D. 
 
 1381 Peace between Venice and Genoa. 
 
 Bills of Exchange first used in England. 
 
 1383 Cannon first used by the English in the defence of Calais. 
 
 1384 Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, succeeds to the Earldom of 
 
 Flanders. 
 J 386 Tamerlane subdues Georgia. 
 
 1388 Battle of Otterburn between Percy (Hotspur) and Douglas. 
 
 1389 If Pope Boniface IX. 
 
 1390 Robert III. king of Scotland 
 
 1391 Manuel II. (Pakeologus) Emperor of the East. 
 
 1392 The Cape of Good Hope discovered by the Portuguese. 
 
 1394 The Jews banished from France by Charles VL 
 
 U Pope Benedict XIII. 
 
 1395 Sigismund King of Hungary defeated by Bajazet I. 
 
 1398 Tamerlane subdues part of Hindoostan, and takes Delhi. 
 
 1399 fL)Z\\V£ IV. King of England. 
 1400 
 
 1402 Bajazet is taken prisoner by Tamerlane in the battle of Angoria. 
 
 Battle of Halidoun Hill, in which the Scots are defeated. 
 
 1403 Battle of Shrewsbury, in which Hotspur is killed. 
 
 1404 IT Pope Innocent VII. 
 
 1405 Death of Tamerlane. 
 
 1406 *y ames I. King of Scotland. 
 
 If Pope Gregory XII. 
 
 1409 Council of Pisa, where Pope Gregory is deposed. 
 
 11 Pope Alexander V. 
 
 1410 JOSSE (Marquis of Brandenburgh) Emperor of Germany. 
 
 If Pope John XXIII. 
 
 1411 SIGISMUND Emperor of Germany. 
 
 The University of St. Andrews in Scotland founded. 
 
 1413 pjeittg V - King of England. 
 
 1414 Council of Constance, in which two Popes were deposed, and Pope- 
 
 dom remained vacant near three years. 
 
 1415 Henry V. defeats the French at Agincourt. 
 
 John Huss condemned by the Council of Constance for Heresy and 
 
 burnt. 
 
 1416 Jerome of Prague condemned by the same Council, and burnt. 
 
 1417 If Pope Martin V. 
 
 Paper first made from linen rags. 
 
 1420 The Island of Madeira discovered by the Portuguese. 
 
 1421 John VI. (Palaeologus) Emperor of the East. 
 
 1422 Amurath besieges Constantinople. 
 
 fltntrg VI. King of England. 
 
 Charles VII. King of France. 
 
 James I. King of Scots liberated from captivity by the English. 
 
 1425 The Court of Session in Scotland instituted by James I. 
 
 1428 Joan of Arc, the Maid of Orleans, compels the English to raise like 
 
 siege of that town. 
 1431 1f Pope Eugene IV. 
 
 Rise of the Medici family at Florence. 
 
 1436 Paris recovered by the French from the English. 
 
 1437 *J ames II. King of Scotland. 
 
 1438 ALBERT II. Emperor of Germany. 
 
 1439 Reunion of the Greek and Latin Churches. 
 
 The Pragmatic Sanction established in France. 
 
 1440 FREDERICK III. Emperor of Germany. 
 
 Invention of the art of Printing by John Guttenberg at Strasburg. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLii. 5QT. 
 
 AD 
 
 1444 Ladislaus King of Hungary killed in battle with the Turks. 
 
 1445 Constantine (Palaeologus) Emperor of the East. 
 
 1446 Great Inundation of the sea in Holland. 
 
 1447 H Pope Nicholas V. 
 
 Rise of the Sforza Family at Milan. 
 
 1453 Constantinople taken by the Turks- Extinction of the Ea.»tk(V9 
 Empire of the Romans. 
 
 End of the English government in France. 
 
 1455 11 Pope Calixtus III. 
 
 Battle of St. Albans, where Henrv VI. is taken prisoner bv the Duke 
 
 of York. 
 
 1458 IT Pope Pius II. (.Eneas Sylvius.) 
 
 1459 The art of Engraving on copper invented. 
 
 I4G0 %j ames III. King of Scotland. 
 
 Battle of Wakefield, in which the Duke of York is killed. 
 
 1461 IStttoartt IV. King of England. 
 
 Lewis XI. King of France. 
 
 1470 Henry VI. restored to the throne of England. 
 
 1471 Battle of Barnet, where Warwick is killed. Battle of Tewksbury, 
 
 where the Lancastrians are totally defeated. 
 
 Edward IV. restored. Prince Edward of Lancaster basely murdered 
 
 by Clarence and Gloucester. Death of Henry VI. 
 
 If Pope Sixtus IV. 
 
 1474 The Cape de Verd Islands discovered by the Portuguese. 
 
 1475 Edward IV. invades France. Peace of Pecquigni purchased by the 
 
 French. 
 1479 Ferdinand and Isabella unite the kingdoms of Arragon and CastUe. 
 
 Russia freed from subjection to the Tartars by John Basilwitz. 
 
 1483 Charles VIII. King of France. 
 
 IStffrJatU V. King of England. Duke of Gloucester Protector. 
 
 Edward V. and his brother murdered. 
 
 litCQarl? III. King of England. 
 
 1484 IT Pope Innocent VIII. 
 
 1485 Battle of Bos worth, in which Richard III. is killed. 
 
 f^tlirg VII. King of England, first of the house of Tudor. Union 
 
 of the houses of York and Lancaster. 
 
 1488 «l ames IV. King of Scotland. 
 
 1491 Granada taken by Ferdinand and Isabella. End of the kingdom of 
 
 the Moors in Spain. 
 
 1492 IT Pope Alexander VI. (Borgia.) 
 
 Hispaniola and Cuba discovered bv Christopher Columbus. 
 
 1493 MAXIMILIAN I. Emperor of Germany. 
 
 1494 Expedition of Charles VIII. into Naples. 
 Algebra first known in Europe. 
 
 America discovered by Columbus. 
 
 1497 The Portuguese, under Vasco de Gama, double the Cape of Good 
 
 Hope and sail to the East Indies. 
 
 1498 Leiois XII. king of France. 
 
 Savanorala burnt by Pope Alexander VL for preaching against the 
 
 vices of the clergy. 
 
 1499 Lewis XII. takes possession of the Milanese. 
 
 Sebastian Cabot lands in North America. 
 
 1500 
 
 -" Brazil discovered by the Portuguese. 
 
 Maximilian divides Germany into six Circles, and add* fa 
 
 1512. 
 1503 ? Pope Pius III. * 
 
5^4 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 
 AD. 
 
 1503 1T Pope Julius II. 
 
 Battle of Cerizoles. in which the Frencli lose Naples 
 
 J 50-1 Philip I. King of Spain. — 1506 Jane his Queen. 
 
 1 507 Madagascar discovered by the Portuguese. 
 1503 League of Cambray against the Venetians. 
 1503 fl^HCg VIII. King of England. 
 
 Battle oi Agnadello, May 14. 
 
 1511 Cuba conquered by the Spaniards. 
 1513 Battle of Flodden, fatal to the Scots 
 
 «> ames V. King of Scotland. 
 
 fl Pope Leo X. 
 
 1515 Francis I. King of France. 
 
 1516 Charles I. (Empeuor Charles V.) King of Spain. 
 
 Barbarossa seizes the Kingdom of Algiers. 
 
 1517 The Reformation in Germany begun by Luther. 
 
 The Turks put an end to the reign of the Mamelukes in Egypt. 
 
 1518 Leo X. condemns Luther's Doctrines. , 
 
 1519 CHARLES V. Emperor of Germany. 
 
 Fernando Cortez engages in the conquest of Mexico. 
 
 1520 Sweden and Denmark united. 
 
 Massacre at Stockholm by Christiern II. and Archbishop Trollo. 
 
 1521 H Pope Adrian VI. 
 
 Gustavus Vasa King of Sweden. 
 
 Cortez completes the conquest of Mexico. 
 
 1522 The first Voyage round the World performed by a ship of Magellan's 
 
 squadron. 
 
 1523 Solyman the Magnificent takes Belgrade. 
 
 11 Pope Clement VII. 
 
 1524 Sweden and Denmark embrace the Protestant faith. 
 
 1525 Battle of Pavia. in which Francis I. is taken prisoner by Charles V. 
 
 1526 Treaty of Madrid between Charles V. and Francis I., when the latter 
 
 is set at liberty. 
 
 1527 Rome taken and plundered by Charles V. 
 
 Pizarro and Dahnagro invade the Empire of Peru. 
 
 1528 Revolution of Genoa by Andrea Doria. 
 
 Gustavus Eriscon crowned King of Sweden. 
 
 1529 Diet of Spires against the Huguenots, then first termed Protestants. 
 
 Peace of Cambray, August 5. 
 
 1530 The League of Smalcald between the Protestants. 
 
 1531 Michael Servetus burnt for heresy at Geneva. 
 
 1532 The Treaty of Nuremberg. August 2. 
 
 The Court of Session in Scotland new modeled by James V. 
 
 1534 The Reformation in England. 
 
 11 Pope Paul III. 
 
 Barbarossa seizes the Kingdom of Tunis. 
 
 Jack of Leyden heads the Anabaptists at Munster. 
 
 1535 The Society of the Jesuits instituted by Ignatius Loyola. 
 Expedition of Charles V. against Tunis. 
 
 1538 Treaty of Nice between Charles V. and Francis I. 
 540 Dissolution of the Monasteries in England by Henry VIII. 
 
 1542 iVlary Queen of Scotland. 
 
 1644 The French defeat the troops of Charles V. in the battle of Cerizoles. 
 The treaty of Crepi. * 
 
 1545 The Council of Trent begins, which continued eighteen years. 
 
 1546 Cardinal Beaton, of St. Andrew's, assassinated. 
 
 1547 Fiesco's Conspiracy at Genoa. 
 
 - The Battle of Mulberg, in which the Protestants are defeated, and the 
 
 Elector of Saxony taken prisoner. 
 
 - SSfatoartr VI. King of England. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 
 505 
 
 AD. 
 
 1547 Henry 77. King of France. 
 
 1548 The Interim granted by Charles V. to the Protestants. 
 1550 IF Pope Julius III. 
 
 1552 The Treaty of Passau between Charles V. and the Elector of Saxony, 
 
 for the Establishment of Lutheranism 
 
 1553 Warg Queen of England. 
 
 Lady Jane Grey beheaded. 
 
 '1555 IT Pope Marcellus II. 
 
 IT Pope Paul IV. 
 
 Many Bishops burnt in England by Mary. 
 
 1556 FERDINAND I. Emperor of Germany. 
 
 Philip II. King of Spain. 
 
 1557 Philip II. defeats the French at St. Quintin. 
 
 1558 SSltfafcCtf) Queen of England. 
 
 1559 H Pope Pius IV. 
 
 . Francis II. King of France. 
 
 Treaty of Catteau-Cambresis. 
 
 1560 Charles IX. King of France. 
 
 Conspiracy of Amboise formed by the party of Conde against that of 
 
 Guise. Beginning of the Civil Wars in France. 
 
 Tbe Reformation completed in Scotland by John Knox. 
 
 1561 Mary Queen of Scots arrives in Scotland from France. 
 
 1562 Battle of Dreux. Victory of the Guises over Conde. 
 1564 MAXIMILIAN II. Emperor of Germany. 
 
 1566 IT Pope Pius VI. 
 
 Revolt of the Netherlands from Philip II. 
 
 1567 The Duke of Alva sent by Philip to the Netherlands. 
 
 ■ cl ames VI. King of Scotland. 
 
 1568 Mary Queen of Scots flees to England for protection. 
 Philip II. puts to death his son Don Carlos. 
 
 1569 The Earl of Murray, Regent of Scotland, assassinated by Hamilton. 
 
 The battles of Jarnac and Moncontour in France, in which the Prot- 
 
 estants are defeated. 
 
 1571 Naval Victory at Lepanto, where the Turks are defeated by Don Ji •; 
 
 of Austria. 
 
 1572 IT Pope Gregory XIII. 
 
 The Massacre of St. Bartholomew, August 24. 
 
 1574 Henry HI. King of France. 
 
 Socinus propagates his opinions. 
 
 Don Sebastian King of Portugal invades Africa. 
 
 1576 RODOLPHUS II. Emperor of Germany. 
 
 The League in France formed against the Protestants. 
 
 1579 Commencement of the Republic of Holland, by the union of Utrecht. 
 
 1580 Philip II. takes possession of Portugal. 
 
 The World circumnavigated by Sir Francis Drake. 
 
 1582 The New Style introduced into Italy by Pope Gregory XIII., the 5*h 
 of October being counted the 15th. 
 
 1584 William I. Prince of Orange murdered at Delft. 
 
 Virginia discovered by Sir Walter Raleigh. 
 
 1585 IT Pope Sixtus V. 
 
 1587 Mary Queen of Scots beheaded at Fotheringay. 
 
 1588 Destruction of the Spanish Armada by the English. 
 
 1589 Henry III. of France murdered by Jaquez Clement. 
 
 Henry IV. {the Great) King of France. 
 
 1590 The battle of Ivry, which ruins the league in France. 
 
 IT Pope Urban VII. 
 
 - IT Pope Gregory XIV. 
 
 1591 The University of Dublin erected. 
 - ■ ■ - TT Pope Innocent IX. 
 
 Uu 64 
 
506 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 
 AD. 
 
 1592 Presbyterian Church Government established in Scotland. 
 
 II Pope Clement VIII. 
 
 1594 The Bank of England incorporated. 
 
 1598 Edict of Nantes, tolerating the Protestants in France. 
 
 Peace of Verins concluded between France and Spain. 
 
 Philip III. King of Spain. 
 
 Tyrone's rebellion in Ireland. 
 
 1600 
 
 Gowrie's Conspiracy in Scotland. 
 
 The Earl of Essex beheaded. 
 
 The English East India Company established. 
 
 1602 Decimal Arithmetic invented at Bruges. 
 
 1603 jJftlttltS !• King of Great Britain. Union of the crowrna of Englaad 
 
 and Scotland. 
 3605 The Gunpowder Plot discovered. 
 
 11 Pope Paul V. 
 
 1608 Galileo discovers the Satellites of Jupiter. 
 
 Arminius propagates his opinions. 
 
 1610 Henry IV. of France murdered by Ravaillac. 
 
 Lewis III. King of France. 
 
 The Moors expelled from Spain by Philip III. 
 
 Hudson's Bay discovered. 
 
 1611 Baronets first created in England by James I. 
 
 1612 MATT HUH Emperor of Germany. 
 1614 Logarithms invented by Napier. 
 
 1616 Settlement of Virginia by Sir Walter Raleigh. 
 
 1618 The Syncd of Dort in Holland. 
 
 1019 Discoverv of the Circulation of the Blood by Dr. Harvey. 
 
 FERDLXAND II. Emperor of Germany. 
 
 Vanini burnt at Thoulouse for Atheism. 
 
 1620 The Battle of Prague, by which the Elector Palatine loses hi» Elec- 
 
 torate. 
 
 The English make a settlement at Madras. 
 
 Navarre united to France. 
 
 1621 Philip IV. King of Spain. 
 
 Batavia, in the Island of Java, built and settled by the Dutch. 
 
 H Pope Gregory XV. 
 
 1623 H Pope Urban VIII. 
 
 1625 <£i)arlCS I. King of Great Britain. 
 
 The Island of Barbadoes the first English settlement in the W«*t 
 
 Indies. 
 
 1626 League of the Protestant Princes against the Emperor. 
 1632 Gustavus Adolphus killed in the battle of Lutzen. 
 
 Christina Queen of Sweden. 
 
 lf>35 The French Academy instituted. 
 
 1637 FERDLV.ijXD III. Emperor of Germany. 
 
 1638 Bagdat taken by the Turks. 
 
 The Solemn League and Covenant established in Scotland. 
 
 1610 John Duke of Braganza recovers the kingdom of Portugal. 
 
 1641 The Irish Rebellion, and Massacre of the Protestants, October 23. 
 
 The Earl of Strafford beheaded. 
 
 1642 Beginning of the Civil War in England. The battle of EdgeJuW, 
 
 October 23. 
 
 1643 Lewis XIV. King of France 
 
 Ann of Austria Regent of France. 
 
 Archbishop Laud condemned by the Commons, and beheaded. 
 
 1644 If Pope Innocent X. 
 
 Revolution in Ch'oa by the Tartars. 
 
 tC>45 Chailes I. defeated in the battle of Nasebj. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 607 
 
 A. D. 
 
 1648 The Peace of Westphalia. The Civil War of the Fronde at Pari* 
 
 1649 Charles I. of England beheaded. 
 — — Commonwealth of England begins. 
 
 1650 The Marquis of Montrose put to death. 
 
 Battle of Dunbar. Covenanters defeated by Cromwell. 
 
 1651 The battle of Worcester won by Cromwell. 
 1(352 The first War between the English and Dutch. 
 
 1<>54 End of the Commonwealth of England. Oliver Cromwell Lord Pro 
 tector. 
 
 The English, under Admiral Penn, take possession of Jamaica. 
 
 Christina Queen of Sweden resigns the Crown to Charles X. 
 
 1655 IT Pope Alexander VII. 
 
 1658 LEOPOLD I. Emperor of Germany. 
 
 Richard Cromwell Lord Protector of England. 
 
 1659 The Peace of the Pyrenees between France and Spain. 
 
 1660 (£Jjati£ 3 II. King of Great Britain. Restoration of Monarchy. 
 
 The Peace of Oliva between Sweden, Denmark, and Poland. 
 
 1662 The Royal Society instituted in England. 
 
 1663 Charter of Carolina, and a colony settled soon alter. 
 
 The French Academy of Inscriptions instituted. 
 
 1664 The second Dutch War begins. 
 
 1665 Charles II. King of Spain. 
 Great Plague iu London. 
 
 1666 Great Fire in London. 
 
 The Academy of Science instituted in France. 
 
 Sabatei Levi, in Turkey, pretends to be the Messiah. 
 
 1667 The Peace of Breda, which confirms to the English Pennsylvania, 
 
 New- York, and New-Jersey. 
 
 IT Pope Clement IX. 
 
 1668 The Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. 
 
 1669 The Island of Candia taken by the Turks. 
 
 1670 II Pope Clement X. 
 
 1672 Lewis XIV. conquers great part of Holland. 
 
 The De Witts put to death in Holland. 
 
 1674 John Sobieski King of Poland. 
 
 1676 IT Pope Innocent XL 
 
 1678 The Peace of Nimeguen, July 31. 
 
 The Habeas Corpus act passed in England. 
 
 1679 The Long Parliament of Charles II. dissolved. 
 1681 Peter the Great Czar of Muscovy. 
 
 1683 Execution of Lord Russel, July 21. 
 
 Execution of Algernon Sydney, December 7. 
 
 The Siege of Vienna by the Turks raised by John Sobieski. 
 
 1685 JJaWeS II. King of Great Britain. 
 
 Revocation of the Edict of Nantes by Lewis XIV. 
 
 Duke of Monmouth beheaded. 
 
 1686 The Newtonian Philosophy first published in England. 
 
 The League of Augsburg against France. 
 
 1688 Revolution in Britain. King James abdicates the throne, Decem- 
 
 ber 23. 
 
 1689 S&ltllttUTI and ;$&arg King and Queen of Great Britain, 
 
 Episcopacy abolished in Scotland by King William. 
 
 U Pope Alexander VIII. 
 
 1690 Battle of the Boyne, July 1. 
 
 1691 IT Pope Innocent XII. 
 
 1692 Battle of La Hogue, May 19. 
 
 ~ The Massacre of Glencoe in Scotland, January 31. 0. 8. 
 
 Battle of Steedkirk. King William defeated by Luxemburg, July 24. 
 
 - — - Hanover made the ninth Electorate of the Empire. 
 
508 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 
 AD. 
 
 1695 Namur taken by King William, June 25. 
 1697 Peace of Risvvick concluded, September 11. 
 
 Charles XII. King of Sweden. 
 
 J6!)9 Peace of Carlovitz concluded, January 26. 
 1 700 
 
 Philip V. King of Spain. 
 
 IT Pope Clement XI. 
 
 1701 Death of James II. at St. Germain's. 
 
 1702 HUKt Queen of Great Britain. Wai against France and Spain. 
 
 The English and Dutch destroy the French Fleet at Vigo. 
 
 The French send colonies to the Mississippi. 
 
 1703 Gibraltar taken by Admiral Rooke, July 24. 
 
 1704 Battle of Blenheim. The French defeated by Marlborough and 
 
 Prince Eugene, August 2. 
 
 Peter the Great founds St. Petersburgh. 
 
 1705 The English take Barcelona. 
 
 JOSEPH I. Emperor of Germany. 
 
 1/06 Battle of llamilies. The French defeated by the Duke of Marlbo- 
 rough, May 12. 
 The Treaty of Union between England and Scotland, signed July 22. 
 
 1707 The battle of Almanza. The French and Spaniards, under the Duke 
 
 of Berwick, defeat the allies, April 14. 
 
 1708 Battle of Oudenarde. The French defeated by Marlborough and 
 
 Eugene, June 30. 
 
 Minorca taken by General Stanhope, September 18. 
 
 1709 Battle of Pultowa. Charles XII. defeated by Czar Peter, June 30. 
 
 Battle of Malplaquet. The French defeated by Marlborough and 
 
 Eugene, September 11. 
 1711 CHARLES VI. Emperor of Germany. 
 
 1713 The Peace of Utrecht signed March 30. 
 
 1714 ^epl*0t I- Elector of Hanover, King of Great Britain. 
 
 1715 Lewis XV. King of France. 
 
 The Rebellion of Scotland". Battle of SherirT-muir, November 13. 
 
 1716 Prince Eugene defeats the Turks at Peterwaradin. 
 
 1713 Charles XII. of Sweden killed at the siege of Frederickshall. 
 1721 fl Pope Innocent XIII. 
 17-24 IT Pope Benedict XIII. 
 
 1725 Death of Peter the Great, Czar of Muscovy. Catharine Empress. 
 
 1726 Great Earthquake at Palermo, August 21. 
 
 1727 d&tSrCJC II- King of Great Britain. 
 
 1727 Treaty of Copenhagen between Great Britain and Denmark. 
 
 The Spaniards besiege Gibraltar, May 20. 
 
 1728 Treaty between Great Britain and Holland, May 27. 
 
 The Congress of Soissons, June 14. 
 
 1729 Treaty of Seville between Great Britain, France, and Spain, Novem- 
 
 ber 9. 
 
 1730 «[ Pope Clement XII. 
 
 Christian VI. King of Denmark. 
 
 The Persians under Kouli-Khan defeat the Turks. 
 
 1731 Treaty between Great Britain, the Emperor, and King of Spain, 
 
 July 22. 
 
 1733 The Jesuits expelled from Paraguay, January. 
 
 Frederick HI. King of Poland. 
 
 1734 Commercial Treaty between Great Britain and, Russia, December 2 
 
 1735 The French defeat the Imperialists in Italy. 
 
 1736 Peace between Spain and Austria. 
 
 Kouli-Khan (N.adir-Schah) proclaimed King of Persia, September 29 
 
 1737 War declared between the Emperor and the Turks, July 2. 
 
 1738 The Russians iuvadt the Crimea. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 509 
 
 A. D. 
 
 1739 Nadir-Schah conquers the greater part of the Mogul Empire. 
 
 Treaty between Great Britain and Denmark. 
 
 Peace between the Emperor and the Turks, August 21. 
 
 Peace between Russia and the Turks, November. 
 
 1740 Frederick III. (the Great) King of Prussia. 
 . H Pope Benedict XIV. 
 
 War between Poland and Hungary. 
 
 1741 War declared between Russia and Sweden. 
 
 The Prussians masters of Silesia, October 20. 
 
 1742 Peace between Austria and Prussia, June 11. 
 
 Defensive Alliance between Great Britain and Prussia, November 18. 
 
 CHARLES VII. (of Bavaria) Emperor of Germany. 
 
 1743 Defensive Alliance between Great Britain and Russia, February. 
 
 War in Germany between the British, Hungarians, French, and 
 
 Austrians. 
 
 The French defeated by the allies at Dettingen, June 6. 
 
 1744 War declared in Great Britain against France, March 31. 
 
 The King of Prussia takes Prague. 
 
 Commodore Anson completes his Voyage round the World. 
 
 1745 FRANCIS I. (of Lorraine) Emperor of Germany. 
 
 Quadruple Alliance between Britain, Austria, Holland, and Poland, 
 
 January 3. 
 
 The allied army defeated by the French at Fontenoy, April 30. 
 
 Louisburg and Cape Breton taken by the British troops, June b'. 
 
 The Rebellion breaks out in Scotland, July. 
 
 Treaty of Dresden between Prussia, Poland, Austria, and Saxony, 
 
 December 25. 
 
 1746 Ferdinand VI. King of Spain. 
 
 Frederick V. King of Denmark. 
 
 Count Saxe takes Brussels and Antwerp. 
 
 Victory of Culloden, which puts an end to the Rebellion in Scotland, 
 
 ' April! 6. 
 — — Lords Balmerino and Kilmarnock beheaded, August 18. 
 
 Count Saxe defeats the allies at Raucoux, October 11. 
 
 Dreadful Earthquake at Lima in Peru, October 17. 
 
 1747 Kouli-Khan murdered. Revolution in Persia. 
 
 1748 Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle between Great Britain, France, Spain, Aus- 
 
 tria, Sardinia, and Holland, October 7. 
 
 1750 Joseph King of Portugal. 
 
 Academy of Sciences founded at Stockholm. 
 
 1751 Adolphus of Holstein King of Sweden. 
 
 Peace between Spain and Portugal. 
 
 1752 New Style introduced in Britain, September, 3 reckoned 14. 
 
 1753 The British Museum established in Montague house. 
 
 1754 Great Eruption of ^Etna. 
 
 Great Earthquake at Constantinople and Cairo, September 2. 
 
 1755 Lisbon destroyed by an Earthquake, November 1. 
 
 1756 War declared between Great Britain and France, May 18. 
 
 1757 The King of Prussia conquers Sile^iu. 
 
 1758 11 Pope Clement XIII. 
 
 1759 The French defeated by the allied army at Minden, Augus! 1. 
 Charles III. King of Spain. 
 
 The Jesuits expelled from Portugal, September 3. 
 
 General Wolfe takes Quebec in Canada, September 17. 
 
 1760 Montreal and Canada taken by the British, September 8. 
 
 <&C0rgC HI. King of Great Britain, October 25. 
 
 1762 Peter III. Emperor of Russia. 
 
 The Jesuits banished from France, August. 
 
 Peace between Great Britain and France at Fonlainebleau, Novera 
 
 ber3. tt 
 
 Uu2 
 
 
610 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 
 AD. 
 
 17G3 Peace between Great Britain, France, and Spain, at Paris, February 10 
 
 ■ Catharine II. Empress of Russia. 
 
 17C4 Stanislaus II. King of Poland. 
 
 Byron's Discoveries in the South Seas. 
 
 1765 JOSEPH II. Emperor of Germany. 
 
 1706 The Jesuits expelled from Bohemia and Denmark. 
 
 Christian VII. King of Denmark. 
 
 1767 The Jesuits expelled from Spain, Genoa, and Venice. 
 
 Discoveries of Wallis and Carteret in the South Seas. 
 
 1768 Royal Academy of Arts established at London. 
 
 The Jesuits expelled from Naples, Malta, and Parma. 
 
 Bougainville's Discoveries in the South Seas. 
 
 1769 fl Pope Clement XIV. 
 
 Cook's first Discoveries in the South Seas. 
 
 Corsica taken by the French, June 13. 
 
 1770 Earthquake at St. Domingo. 
 
 1771 Gustavus III. King of Sweden. 
 
 1772 Revolution in Sweden, August 19. 
 
 Poland dismembered by Russia, Prussia, and Austria. 
 
 1773 Cook's second Voyage and Discoveries. 
 
 The Society of Jesuits suppressed by Ae Pope's bull, August 25* 
 
 1774 Lewis XVI. King of France. 
 
 1775 Battle of Bunker's Hill in North America, June 17. 
 
 1776 IF Pope Pius VI. 
 
 The Americans declare their Independence, July 4. 
 
 1777 Mary Queen of Portugal. 
 
 Surrender of the British Army under Burgoyne at Saratoga, in tb* 
 
 state of New- York, October 17. 
 
 1778 League between the French and Americans, October 30. 
 
 1779 Peace between the Imperialists and Prussians, May 13. 
 
 Great Eruption of Vesuvius, August 8. 
 
 Siege of Gibraltar by the Spaniards, July. 
 
 Captain Cook killed in the Island of Owyhee. 
 
 1780 Great Riuts in London on account of the Popish Bill, June 2. 
 
 War declared between Great Britain and Holland, December 20. 
 
 1781 Surrender of the British Army under Cornwallis to the Americans and 
 
 French at Yorktown in Virginia, October 18. 
 
 1782 Sir G. Rodney defeats the French fleet off Dominica, April 12. 
 
 1783 Peace between Great Britain, France, and Spain, and the Independ- 
 
 ence of America declared, January 20. 
 
 1784 Peace between Great Britain and Holland, May 24. 
 
 1785 Treaty of Alliance between Austria, France, and Holland, Novem- 
 
 ber !). 
 
 1786 Frederick IV. King of Prussia. 
 
 1788 Defensive Alliance between England and Holland, April 25. 
 17»9 Selim III. Grand Seignior, April. 
 
 George Washington first President of the United States, April. 
 
 The Bastille at Paris taken and destroyed, and the Governor massa- 
 cred, July 14. 
 1790 Monastic Establishments suppressed in France, February 13. 
 
 War commenced in India with Tippoo Sultan, May 1. 
 
 LEOPOLD II. Emperor of Germany. 
 
 1792 FRANCIS II. Emperor of Germany. 
 
 Gustavus III. King of Sweden assassinated by Ankerstrom, March 29. 
 
 Gustavus IV. King of Sweden. Duke of Sudcrmania Regent in his 
 
 minority. 
 
 The Thuilleries attacked. The Kin? and Queen of France take 
 
 refuge in the National Assembly. The Swiss guards massacred by 
 the populace, August 10. 
 — — The Royal Family of France imprisoned in the Temple, August 14 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 5H 
 
 A.D. 
 
 1792 A dreadful massacre of the state-prisoners at Paris, September 2, 3. 
 
 The National Convention is constituted, the King deposed, and France 
 
 declared a Republic, September 21. 
 
 Savoy incorporated with the French Republic, November 27. 
 
 Lewis XVI. is brought to trial, and answers each article of accusation, 
 
 December 14. 
 
 1793 Lewis XVI. condemned to death by a majority of five voices, Janua- 
 
 ry 17, and beheaded, January 21. 
 
 Russia declares war against France, January 31. 
 
 The French Convention declares war against England and Holland, 
 
 February 1. 
 
 Queen of Fiance condemned to death and beheaded, October 15. 
 
 1794 Robespierre, with his chief partisans, guillotined, July 28. 
 
 1795 The Stadtholder takes refuge in England. Holland overrun by the 
 
 French, January. 
 
 Lyons bombarded, laid in ruins, and all its loyal inhabitants massacred, 
 
 May. 
 
 Lewis XVII. died in prison at Paris, June 8. 
 
 The Cape of Good Hope taken by the British, September 16. 
 
 Belgium incorporated with the French Republic, September 30. 
 
 — — Stanislaus II. resigns the Crown of Poland. The kingdom divided 
 between Russia, Austria, and Prussia, November 25. 
 
 1796 The French overrun and plunder Italy. 
 
 — — Deatli of 'Catharine II. Paul Emperor of Russia, November 17. 
 
 1797 John Adams President of the United States, March 4. 
 
 The Dutch Fleet beaten and captured by Admiral Duncan, Octo 
 
 ber 11. 
 
 1798 The Papal Government suppressed by the French. The Pope quitt 
 
 Rome, February 26. 
 
 Ireland in open rebellion, May, June, &c. 
 
 ■ Admiral Nelson destroys the French Fleet in the battle of the Nile, 
 
 August 1. 
 
 The Swiss finally defeated, and their Independence abolished, Sep- 
 
 tember 19. 
 
 1799 Seringapatam taken by General Harris, and Tippoo Sultan killed. 
 
 May 4. 
 
 Death of Pope Pius VI., September. 
 
 A Revolution at Paris. Bonaparte declared First Consul, Decem- 
 
 ber 25. 
 1800 
 
 Union of Britain and Ireland. 
 
 Bonaparte defeats the Austrians in the battle of Marengo in Italy, 
 
 June 14. 
 
 Armistice between the French and Austrians in Germany, July 15. 
 
 The new Pope, Pius VII., restored to his government by the Emperor, 
 
 July 25. 
 
 Malta taken by the British, September 5. 
 
 1801 First meeting of the Imperial Parliament of Britain and Ireland, 
 
 January. 
 
 Thomas Jefferson President of the United States, March 4. 
 
 Death of Paul. Alexander I. Emperor of Russia, March 23. 
 
 Battle of Copenhagen, in which the Danes are defeated by Lord Nel 
 
 son, April 3. 
 
 1802 The Catholic Religion re-established ir France, March. 
 
 Treaty of peace between Britain and France. 
 
 The King of Sardinia resigns his crown to his brother, July. 
 
 Bonaparte declared Chief Consul for life, July. 
 
 War between France, and Germany, and Russia, in which the Fronck 
 
 are successful. 
 
 1803 War between Britain and France. 
 
512 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 
 AD. 
 
 1804 Emperor of Germany assumes the title of Emperor of Austria Au- 
 
 gust 11. 
 
 Bonaparte crowned Emperor of France, December 2. 
 
 1805 Bonaparte King of Italy, March. 
 
 Lord Nelson defeats the combined fleets of France and Spain off Cape 
 
 Trafalgar, takes or destroys 19 ships of the line, and is killed in the 
 battle, October 81. 
 
 War between England and Spain. 
 
 1806 Louis Bonaparte crowned King of Holland, June. 
 
 The British Parliament vote the Abolition of the Slave Trade, June 10. 
 
 Francis II. resigns the office of Emperor of Germany, August 2. 
 
 War between France and Prussia. 
 
 Battle of Jena, and total defeat of the Prussians, October 14. 
 
 1807 War between France and Russia, in which the French are successful. 
 
 Copenhagen taken by the British, and the Danish fleet carried to Eng- 
 
 land. 
 
 Treaty of Peace between France, and Russia, and Prussia. 
 
 1808 Abolition of the Slave Trade in the United States of America, Janua- 
 
 ry 1. 
 
 War between Russia and Sweden. 
 
 Bonaparte seizes Portugal, and the Royal Family flee to Brazil. 
 
 Bonaparte seizes the Royal Family of Spain. War between France 
 
 and Spain. 
 
 1809 Battle of Corunna, January 16. 
 
 Fall of Saragossa, February 21. 
 
 James Madison President of the United States. March 4. 
 
 — — Gustavus IV. King of Sweden deposed, and Charles XIII. proclaimed, 
 March 13. 
 
 War between France and Austria, April 6. 
 
 French enter Vienna, May 12. 
 
 War between Russia and Austria, May 22. 
 
 The Papal States united to France, June 1. 
 
 Battle of Talavera, July 24. 
 
 Peace of Vienna between Austria and France, October 14. 
 
 1810 Bonaparte divorces the Empress Josephine, January 16. 
 
 He marries tiie Arch-Duchess Maria Louisa of Austria, April 1. 
 
 Louis Bonaparte abdicates the throne of Holland, July 1. 
 
 Holland annexed to the French. 
 
 Population of the United States, 7,239,903. 
 
 1811 Prince of Walt s appointed Regent, February 8. 
 
 Two hundred buildings and large quantities of goods burnt in New- 
 
 buryport, Mass. 
 
 Massacre in Cairo, when about 1,000 Mamelukes lost their lives, 
 
 March 1. 
 
 A Son born to Napoleon Bonaparte, styled King of Rome, March 20. 
 
 Batavia captured by the English, August 8. 
 
 An unusually large comet appeared, September 1. 
 
 Richmond Theatre burnt, December 26. 
 
 1812 Great Earthquake at Carraccas, March 26. 
 
 -« — Perceval, Priniv' Minister of England, assassinated, May 11. 
 War against Great Britain declared by the United States, June 18. 
 
 - General Hi ill and his army taken prisoners in Canada, August 16. 
 
 Battle of Smolensko, August 17. 
 
 Battle of Moskwa, September 7. 
 
 The French army enter Moscow, 14th September. 
 
 Briti.su Frigate Guerriere captured, August 29. 
 
 do, do. Macedonia captured, October 25. 
 do. do. Java captured, December 29. 
 181^ Lewis XVIII. publishes an Address to the people of France, Feb- 
 ruary 1. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 513 
 
 AD. 
 
 1813 Treaty between Great Britain and Sweden, March 3. 
 
 Sweden declares War against France, March 3. 
 
 The Russian troops enter Hamburgh, March 18. 
 
 Prussia joins Russia against France, March. 
 
 Spanish Inquisition abolished by the Cortes, April. 
 
 Battle of Vittoria, in Spain, June 2. 
 
 Austria declares War against France, August 11. 
 
 General Moreau killed, August 28. 
 
 Commodore Perry captures the British squadron, on lake Erie, Sep- 
 
 tember 10. ' 
 
 Battle of Leipsic, October 19. 
 
 The Prince of Orange assumes the title of Sovereign Prince of the 
 
 Netherlands, December 2. 
 
 The Russians and their Allies enter France, December 23. 
 
 1814 The Pope released by Bonaparte, January 23. 
 
 Lord Wellington took possession of Bordeaux, February 13. 
 
 Paris capitulates to the Allies, March 30. 
 
 The Allies enter Paris, April 1. 
 
 Napoleon Bonaparte dethroned, April 4, and banished to the Island of 
 
 Elba, for which he sails, April 28. 
 
 Louis XV HI., being called to the throne of France, made his entry 
 
 into Paris, May 3. 
 
 General Peace in Europe, May 30. 
 
 The Allied Sovereigns visit London, June 8. 
 
 Inquisition restored in Spain, July 18. 
 
 Norway annexed to Sweden, August 14. 
 
 City of Washington taken by the British, August 24. 
 
 British Squadron on Lake Champlain captured by Commodore M'Don- 
 
 ough, September 11. 
 • General Congress of Vienna, November 7. 
 
 Pensacola taken by General Jackson, November 7. 
 
 Treaty of Peace between the United States and Great Britain signed 
 
 at Ghent, December 24. 
 
 The British repulsed at New-Orleans, December 28. 
 
 1815 The British completely defeated and General Packenham slain at 
 
 New-Orleans, January 8. 
 
 United States Frigate President taken by a British squadron, Janua- 
 
 ry 15. 
 Peace between Great Britain and the United States ratified Februa- 
 ry 24. 
 
 Bonaparte sailed from Elba, February 26 — lands in France, March 1— 
 
 enters Paris, March 26. 
 
 Bonaparte left Paris to meet the Allies, May 2. 
 
 Battle of Waterloo, June 17 and 18. 
 
 — — Bonaparte surrenders himself to the British, July 15. 
 
 Joachim Murat, King of Naples, shot for High Treason, October 13. 
 
 Bonaparte landed at St. Helena, October 13. 
 
 Marshal Ney shot for High Treason, December 7. 
 
 1816 Jesuits expelled from Petersburgh and Moscow, January 2. 
 
 St. Johns, Newfoundland, destroyed by fire, February 18. 
 
 Princess Charlotte of Wales married to Prince Leopold, May 2. 
 
 Lord Cochrane tried for breaking out of Prison, August 17. 
 
 ■ He is released by a penny subscription, December 7. 
 
 Indiana admitted into the Union as a State, December. 
 
 1817 United States Bank opened for business at Philadelphia, January 1. 
 
 American Colonization Society for free Blacks organized, January 1 
 
 James Monroe President of the United States, March 4. 
 
 — — Pernambuco declared itself Independent, April 5. 
 
 ■ Portuguese authority established at Pernambuco, May 18. 
 
 — — Dey of Algiers assassinated, September. 
 
 65 
 
R14 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 
 A. D. 
 
 1817 Death of Princess Caroline, November 6. 
 
 Mississippi admitted into the Union as a State, December 11 
 
 1818 Queen of England dies. 
 
 Charles XIII. of Sweden dies, and is succeeded by Prince Bernadotte. 
 
 France evacuated by the Allies, October. 
 
 Illinois admitted into the Union as a State, December 4. 
 
 Commercial Treaties concluded between the United States on one 
 
 part and Great Britain and Sweden on the other. 
 — — Alleghany College established. 
 
 1819 A Treaty for the cession of Florida to the United States signed al 
 
 Washington, February 23. 
 
 First Steam Ship sails for Europe, May. 
 
 Commodore Perry dies in the West Indies, August 23. 
 
 Alabama admitted into the Union as a State, December. 
 
 1820 George III., King of England, dies January 29. 
 
 (S*t0t*JJC IV. succeeds to the throne of Great Britain and Ireland 
 
 The Duke of Berry assassinated, February 14. 
 
 Maine admitted into the Union as a State. 
 
 Queen Caroline of England prosecuted for Adultery. 
 
 Another Revolution, which gives a Free Constitution to the Spanish 
 
 nation. 
 
 Population of the United States, 9,625,734. 
 
 1821 Missouri admitted into the Union as a State. 
 
 An attempt to destroy the Royal Family of France, January 27. 
 
 British Government issue a Manifesto respecting the Holy Alliance, 
 
 February. 
 
 Napoleon Bonaparte dies at St. Helena, May 5, 1821, aged 52. 
 
 Queen Caroline of England dies, August 7, 1821. 
 
 Elias Boudinot, President of the American Bible Society, dies. 
 
 1822 William Pinckuey dies, February 26. 
 
 Iturbide declared himself Emperor of Mexico. 
 
 • Columbian College established. 
 
 Massacre of Greeks at Scio. 
 
 Revolution in Portugal with a Cortes and Free Constitution. 
 
 Don Pedro, son of the King of Portugal, declared Emperor of Brazils. 
 
 1823 Iturbide dethroned and banished to Italy. 
 
 France declares War against Spain, and invades it with a large array. 
 
 Counter Revolution in Portugal. 
 
 Treaty of Peace between Spain and Buenos Ayres, July 4. 
 
COMPARATIVE VIEW 
 
 ANCIENT 
 
 AND OF 
 
 MODERN GEOGRAPHY 
 
 tn the fohcwing Tables the Countries unknown to Ancients, or of whiefc 
 the Names are uncertain, are left blank. 
 
 The same numbers in the two adjacent columns on each page indicate the 
 ancient and modern names of Lie same countries or places. 
 
 MODERN EUROPE. 
 
 ANCIENT EUROPE. 
 
 GREENLAND, or the Arctic Conti- 
 
 SPITSBERGEN (Island.) 
 
 
 ICELAND, (Island,) belonging to 
 Norway. 
 
 NORWAY. 
 
 
 SCANDINAVIA, SCANDIA, 
 
 1. Wardhuis, or Norwegian Lap- 
 
 land. 
 
 2. Drontheim. 
 
 BALTIA. 
 
 2. Nerigon. 
 
 3. Bergen. 
 
 3. Sitones. 
 
 4. Aggerhuis, or Christiana. 
 
 
 SWEDEN. 
 
 
 1. Lapland and West Bothnia. 
 
 1. Scritofinni. 
 
 2. Sweden Proper. 
 
 2. Suiones. 
 
 3. Gothland. 
 
 3. Gutae et Hilleviones. 
 
 4. Finland. 
 
 4. Fimiingia. 
 
 5. Islands of Gothland — Oeland, 
 
 5. Insulae Sinus Cedani, 
 
 Aland, Rugen. 
 
 
 DENMARK. 
 
 
 Jutland. 
 
 Chersonesus Cimbri** 
 
 1. Alburg. 
 
 1. Cimbri. 
 
 % Wyburg. 
 
 
S16 COMPARATIVE VIEW OF 
 
 MODERN EUROPE. ANCIENT EUROPE. 
 
 3. Aarhusen. 
 
 4. Rypen. 
 
 5. Sleswick. 
 
 Islands in the Baltic. 
 
 1. Zealand. 
 
 2. Funen. 
 
 3. Falster. 
 
 4. Longeland. 
 
 5. Laland. 
 
 6. Feneren. 
 
 7. Alsen. 
 
 8. Moen. 
 
 9. Bornholm. 
 
 RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 
 
 1. Livonia and Estonia. 
 
 2. Ingria, or the Government of 
 
 Petersburg. 
 
 3. Carelia, or the Government of 
 
 Wiburg. 
 
 4. Novogrod. 
 
 5. Archangel, Samoiedia. 
 
 6. Moscow. 
 
 7. Nishnei Novogrod. 
 
 8. Smolenski. 
 
 9. Kiew. 
 
 10. Bielgorod. 
 
 11. Woronesk. 
 
 12. Azoff. 
 
 FRANCE 
 
 1. Picardy. 
 
 2. Isle of France. 
 
 3. Champagne. 
 
 4. Normandy. 
 
 5. Bretany. 
 
 6. Orleannois. 
 
 7. Lionnois. 
 
 8. Provence. 
 
 9. Languedoc 
 
 10. Guienne. 
 
 11. Gascoigne. 
 
 12. Dauphine. 
 
 13. Burgundy and Franche-comte. 
 
 14. Lorraine and Alsace. 
 
 UNITED PROVINCES, OR KING- 
 DOM OF HOLLAND 
 
 1. Holland. 
 
 2. Friesland. 
 
 3. Zealand. 
 
 4. Groningen. 
 
 5. Overyssel. 
 
 3. Harudes. 
 
 4. Phundusii, Sigulones. 
 
 5. Sabalingii. 
 
 Insula Sinus Codani. 
 1,2 Teutones. 
 
 SARMATIA EUROPiEA. 
 
 1. Hirri et ^Estii vel Ostionea. 
 
 4. Budini. 
 6. Basilici. 
 8. Cariones. 
 
 10 &4. Budini. 
 
 11. Roxolani. 
 
 12. lazyges. 
 
 GALLIA. 
 
 1. Ambiani. 
 
 2. Bellovaci, Parisii, Suessones. 
 
 3. Remi, Catalauni, Tricasses, 13 
 
 Lingones. 
 
 4. Unelli vel Veneti, Saii, Lex- 
 
 ovii, Velioeasses. 
 
 5. Osismii, Veneti, Namnetes, 
 
 Andes, Redones. 
 
 6. Aureliani, Carnutes, Seno- 
 
 nes, Turones, Pictones, 
 Bituriges. 
 
 7. ^Edui, Segusiani 
 
 8. Salves, Cavares. 
 
 9. Volca?, Arecomici, Helvii, To- 
 
 losates. 
 
 10. Petrocorii, Bituriges, Cadurci, 
 
 Ruteni. 
 
 11. Aquitani. 
 
 12. Allobroges. Centrones. 
 
 13. Lingones, JEdni, Sequani. 
 
 14. Leuci, Mediomatrici, Triboci, 
 
 Nemetes. 
 
 SAXONES. 
 
 1,2. Frisii. 
 
 4. Cauci vel Chauci. 
 
 5. Franci. 
 
ANCIENT AND MODERN GEOGRAPHY. 6)7 
 
 MODERN EUROPE. ANCIENT EUROPE. 
 
 6. Guclderland and Zutphen. 
 
 7. Utrecht. 
 
 NETHERLANDS, 
 
 BELONGING TO FRANCE AND HOLLAND. 
 
 1. Brabant. 
 
 2. Antwerp. 
 
 3. Mechlen or Malines. 
 
 4. Limburgh. 
 
 5. Luxemburgh. 
 
 6. Namur. 
 
 . 7. Hainault. 
 
 8. Cambresis. 
 
 9. Artois. 
 10. Flanders. 
 
 GERMANY. 
 
 1. Upper Saxony. 
 
 2. Lower Saxony. 
 
 3. Westphalia, 
 
 4. Upper Rhine. 
 
 5. Lower Rhine. 
 
 6. Franconia. 
 
 7. Austria. 
 
 8. Bavaria. 
 
 9. Suabia. 
 
 BOHEMIA 
 
 1. Bobemia Proper. 
 
 2. Silesia. 
 
 3. Moravia. 
 
 POLAND. 
 
 1. Greater Poland. 
 
 2. Less Poland. 
 
 3. Prussia Royal. 
 
 4. Prussia Ducal. 
 
 5. Samogitia. 
 
 6. Courland. 
 
 7. Lithuania. 
 
 8. Warsovia. 
 
 9. Polachia 
 
 10. Polesia 
 
 11. Red Russia. 
 
 12. Podolia. 
 
 13. Volhinia. 
 
 SPAIN. 
 
 1. Gallicia. 
 
 2. Asturia. 
 
 3. Biscay. 
 
 4. Navarre. 
 
 5. Arragon. 
 
 6. Catalonia, 
 
 7. Valentia. 
 
 8. Murcia. 
 
 9. Granada. 
 10 Andalusia, 
 
 Xi 
 
 6. Bructeri, Catti, Sicambri. 
 
 7. Batavi. 
 
 BELGiE, &c. 
 
 1. Menapii, Tungrii. 
 
 2. Toxandri. 
 
 4, 5. AlemannL 
 
 6. Treveri. 
 
 7. Remi. 
 
 9. Atrebates, Veromandui. 
 10. Belgae, Morini. 
 
 NATIONES GERMANICiE 
 
 1. Seuvi, Lingse, &c. 
 
 2. Saxones, Longobardi, Gam- 
 
 brivii. 
 
 3. Cherusci, Chamavi, Gauchi, 
 
 Germania Inferior. 
 
 4. Germania Superior. 
 
 5. Marci, Tincteri. 
 
 6. Marcomanni, HermondurL 
 
 7. Noricum. 
 
 8. Rhaetia. 
 
 9. Vindelicia. 
 
 1. Boiohoemum. 
 
 2. Corconti. 
 
 3. Quadi. 
 
 GERMANOSARMATjE. 
 
 1. Peucini. 
 
 2. Lugii. 
 
 3. 4. Burgundiones, Eugii, Qt*. 
 
 thones. 
 
 5. Ombroges. 
 
 6. Scyri. 
 
 7. 8. Germano-Sarmatia, 
 
 S 
 
 c 
 
 > 6 
 
 11, 12, 13. Bastarna. 
 
 HISPANIA, yel IBERIA. 
 1, 2, 3. Galhecia — Cantabri, Ai 
 
 4, 5, 6. Tarraconensii — Vnaoon**, 
 Valetani. 
 
 7, 8. Carthaginensie— iCdituni, 
 
 Contestani 
 0, 10. Bsetica — Bastiani, Bnstufe 
 
 Turdetani, drc 
 
618 COMPARATIVE VIEW OF 
 
 MODERN EUROPE. ANCIENT EUROPE. 
 
 11. Old Castile. 
 
 12. New Castile. 
 
 13. Leon. 
 
 14. Estremadura. 
 
 SPANISH ISLANDS. 
 
 Ivica. 
 
 Majorca. 
 
 Minorca. 
 
 PORTUGAL. 
 Entre Minho e Douro. 
 Tralos Montes. 
 Beira. 
 
 Estremadura. 
 Entre Tajo. 
 Alentajo. 
 Algarva. 
 
 SWITZERLAND. 
 
 1. Bern. 
 
 2. Friburg. 
 
 3. Basil or Bale. 
 
 4. Lucern. 
 
 5. Soloturn. 
 
 6. Schaffhausen. 
 
 7. Zurick. 
 
 8- Appenzel. 
 
 9. Zug. 
 JO. Schweitz. 
 11. Glaris. 
 
 12 Uri. 
 
 13 Underwald. 
 
 11. Gallaeciae pars — Accaei, Arevaci. 
 
 12. Tarraconensis pars — Carpetani, 
 
 Oretani 
 
 13. Gallaeciae pars — Vettones. 
 
 14. Lusitaniae pars — Baeturia. 
 
 INSULA HISPANIC^E. 
 Baleares. 
 
 LUSITANIA. 
 
 Calliaci. Lusitani, Celtici. 
 
 HELVETIA. 
 1, 2, 3, 4. Ambrones. 
 
 6, 7, 8, 9, 10. Tigurini. 
 
 14 Geneva. 
 
 14. Nantuates. 
 
 
 15. Grisons, &c 
 
 15. Veragri, Vallis Pennina, Le- 
 
 
 pontii. 
 
 ITALY 
 
 ITALIA. 
 
 I. Savoy. 
 
 1. Lepontii, Segusini, Taa- 
 
 
 2. Piedmont 
 
 2. Orobi. \ 
 
 > 
 
 3. Montferrat. 
 
 4. Insubre*. / L] > ria - 
 
 m 
 
 4. Milan 
 
 *S-5 
 
 %. Genoa. 
 
 5. ) 
 
 .13 « 
 
 6. Parma. 
 
 6. Anamani. 
 
 it 
 
 7. Modena. 
 
 7. Boii. 
 
 8. Mantua. 
 
 8. Cenomani. 
 
 3 
 
 9. Venice. 
 
 9. Venetia. 
 
 at 
 
 o 
 
 10. Trent. 
 
 10. Tridentini, J 
 
 
 11. The Popedom. 
 
 11. Lingones, Senones, Picnum, Um- 
 
 
 bria, Sabini, Pars Latii. 
 
 12. Tuscany. 
 
 12. Tuscia vel Etruria. 
 
 13. Lucca. 
 
 13. Pars Tuscia?. 
 
 1 4. San Marino. 
 
 14. Pars Umbriae 
 
 15. Kingdom of Naples. 
 
 15. Samnium, Pars Latii, Apulia, 
 
 
 Campania, Lucania, Bruttium, 
 
 ITALIAN ISLANDS 
 
 INSULA ITALICS. 
 
 1. Sicily. 
 
 1. Sicilia, Sicania, vel Trinacria. 
 
 2. Sardinia. 
 
 2. Sardo, vel Sardinia. 
 
 3. Corsica. 
 
 3. Cyrnus, vel Corsica. 
 
 4. Malta. 
 
 4. Melita. 
 
 
ANCIENT AND MODERN GEOGRAPHY. M9 
 
 MODERN EUROPE. ANCIENT EUROPE. 
 
 5. Lipari Islands. 
 
 (3. Capri, Ischia, &.c. 
 
 HUNGARY. 
 
 TRANSYLVANIA. 
 
 SCLAVONIA. 
 
 CROATIA. 
 
 TURKEY IN EUROPE- 
 
 1. Dalmatia. 
 
 2. Bosnia. 
 
 3. Servia. 
 
 4. Wallachia. 
 
 5. Moldavia and Bessarabia. 
 
 6. Balgaria. 
 
 7. Albania. 
 
 8. Macedonia. 
 
 9. Romania. 
 
 10. Livadia. 
 
 11. Morea. 
 
 12. Budziac Tartary or Bessarabia. 
 
 13. Little Tartary. 
 
 14. Crimea. 
 
 GREEK ISLANDS. 
 
 1. Corfu. 
 
 2. Cephalonia. 
 
 3. Zante. 
 
 4. Ithace, Tliiace, &c. 
 GREEK ISLANDS IN THE 
 
 ARCHIPELAGO. 
 
 1. Candia. 
 
 2. Negrdpont. 
 
 3. Stalimene. 
 
 4. Scyro, &c. 
 
 5. Lipariae Insula;. 
 
 6. Capreje, Ischia, &c. 
 
 DACIA. 
 
 PANNONIA. 
 
 ILLYRICUM. 
 
 1 Dalmatia. 
 
 2 Maesia Superior 
 
 3. Dacia Ripensis. 
 
 4. Getae. 
 
 5. Pars Dacise. 
 
 6. Maesia Inferior. 
 
 7. Epirus. 
 
 8. Macedonia. 
 
 9. Thracia. 
 10. Thessalia. 
 
 & \ 11. Peloponnesus. 
 
 6 12. Scythia et pars Dacise. 
 
 13. Parva Scythia. 
 
 14. Taurica Chersonesus. 
 INSULA MARH6 IONII. 
 
 1. Corey ra. _ 
 
 2. Cephalenia. 
 
 3. Zacynthus. 
 
 4. Ithaca, &c. 
 
 INSULA MARIS JEGMl. 
 
 1. Creta. 
 
 2. Euboea 
 
 3. Lemnos. 
 
 4. Scyros, &c. 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 SCOTLAND. 
 J. Edinburgh. 
 
 2. Haddington. 
 
 3. Berwick. 
 
 4. Roxburgh. 
 
 5. Selkirk. 
 
 6. Dumfries. 
 
 7. Kircudbright. 
 
 8. Peebles. 
 
 9. Wigton. 
 30. Lanerk. 
 
 11. Air. 
 
 12. Dumbarton. 
 
 13. Bute. 
 
 14. Renfrew. 
 
 15. Stirling. 
 
 16. Linlithgow. 
 37. Fife. 
 
 18. Clackmannaa 
 
 19. Kinross. 
 
 20. Perth. 
 
 21. Argyle. 
 
 SCOTIA. 
 
 *• SDamnii. 
 
 "ot 
 
 Vecturiones. 
 
 Picti. 
 
 ]l' > Caledonii. > Picti. 
 
 20*. ) } n 
 
 21. Epidii, Gadem, Ceronea. 
 
690 COMPARATIVE VIEW OF 
 
 MODERN EUROPE. ANCIENT EUROPE. 
 
 22. Kincardine. 
 
 23. Forfar. 
 
 24. Aberdeen. 
 
 25. Banff. 
 
 26. Elgin. 
 
 27. Nairn. 
 
 28. Inverness. 
 
 29. Ross. 
 
 30. Cromarty. 
 
 31. Southerland. 
 
 32. Caithness. 
 
 33. Orkney. 
 
 34. Shetland. 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 1. Cornwall. 
 
 2. Devonshire. 
 
 3. Dorsetshire. 
 
 4. Hampshire. 
 
 5. Somersetshire. 
 
 6. Wiltshire. 
 
 7. Berkshire. 
 
 8. Oxfordshire. 
 
 9. Gloucestershire. 
 
 10. Monmouthshire. 
 
 11. Herefordshire. 
 
 12. Worcestershire. 
 
 13. Staffordshire. 
 
 14. Shropshire. 
 
 15. Essex. 
 
 16. Hartfordshire. 
 
 17. Kent. 
 
 18. Surry. 
 
 19. Sussex. 
 
 20. Norfolk. 
 
 21. Suffolk. 
 
 22. Cambridgeshire. 
 
 23. Huntingdonshire. 
 
 24. Bedfordshire. 
 
 25. Buckinghamshire. 
 
 26. Lincolnshire. 
 
 27 Nottinghamshire. 
 
 28. Derbyshire. 
 
 29. Rutlandshire. 
 
 30. Leicestershire. 
 
 31. Warwickshire. 
 
 32. Northamptonshire. 
 
 33. Northumberland. 
 
 34. Durham. 
 
 35. Yorkshire. 
 
 36. Lancashire. 
 
 37. Westmoreland. 
 
 38. Cumberland. 
 
 39. Cheshire. 
 40 Middlesex. 
 
 Vacomagi. 
 
 Scoti. 
 
 22. Vernicones. ^ 
 
 23. Horestae. 
 
 24. ) >Altacoti. 
 
 25. >Taezali. 
 26. 
 27. 
 28. 
 29. 
 
 30. >Cantae. 
 31. 
 
 32. Mertae 
 
 33. Orcades. 
 
 34. Thule. 
 
 ANGLIA. 
 
 2* > Damnonii. 
 
 3. Durotriges. 
 
 4 ' ) 
 
 5. > Belgfe. 
 
 Attrebatii. 
 Dobuni. 
 
 Silures. 
 
 18. 
 19. 
 
 Regni. 
 
 20 ) 
 
 o. * S Simeni, vel Iceni. 
 
 22! ) 
 
 23. { Catieuchlani. 
 
 24. ) 
 
 25. Attrebatu 
 26, 
 27 
 
 28. >Coritani. 
 29 
 30 
 
 31. Cornavi. 
 
 32. Catieuchlani. 
 
 :o. ivt 
 !6. } 
 
 !7. > 
 18. V 
 59. i 
 
 33. 
 34. 
 35. 
 
 36. 
 37. 
 38. 
 
 39. Corna\ii. 
 
 40. Attrebates et Catieuchlani 
 
 Otadeni. 
 
 Brigantes. 
 
ANCIENT AND MODERN GEOGRAPHY. 881 
 
 MODERN EUROPE. ANCIENT EUROPE 
 
 WALES. 
 
 1. Anglesey 
 
 2. Flintshire. 
 
 3. Montgomery. 
 
 4. Denbighshire. 
 
 5. Carnarvonshire. 
 
 6. Merioneth. 
 
 /'. Cardiganshire. 
 
 8. Carmarthenshire. 
 
 9. Pembrokeshire. 
 
 10. Radnorshire. 
 
 11. Brecknockshire. 
 
 12. Glamorganshire. 
 
 1. Mona Insula. 
 
 2. -a 
 
 3. f 
 
 4. > Ordovices. 
 
 Silures. 
 
 IRELAND. 
 
 1. Louth. 
 
 2. Meath East. 
 
 3. Meath West. 
 
 4. Longford. 
 
 5. Dublin. 
 
 6. Kildare. 
 
 7. King's County. 
 
 8. Queen's County. 
 
 9. Wicklow. 
 
 10. Carlow. 
 
 11. Wexford. 
 
 12. Kilkenny. 
 
 r 13. Donnegal or Tyrconnel. 
 
 14. Londonderry. 
 
 15. Antrim. 
 
 16. Tyrone. 
 
 17. Fermanagh. 
 
 18. Armagh. 
 
 19. Down. 
 
 20. Monaghan. 
 
 21. Cavan. 
 
 HIBERNIA, vel IRENE, 
 
 Voluntii. 
 S Cauci. 
 Auteri. 
 
 Blanii. 
 
 f22. Cork County. 
 
 23. Waterford. 
 
 24. Tipperpry. 
 
 25. Limerick.- 
 
 26. Kerry. 
 
 27. Clare. 
 
 ~ f28. Gal way. 
 
 &P I 29. Roscommon. 
 
 g <( 30. Mayo. 
 ' 31. Sliffoc. 
 
 a 31. 
 $ 132. 
 
 22. Vodise, WrnL 
 23. 
 
 Brigantes 
 Velabori. 
 
 Leitrim. 
 
 24. 
 25. 
 26. 
 27. r 
 
 Gangani 
 28. 
 
 29. Auteri. 
 
 30. ) 
 
 31. VNagnatae. 
 
 32. S 
 
 BRITANNIC ISLANDS. 
 
 1. Shetland and Orkney. 
 
 2. Western Isles of Scotland. 
 
 3. Man. 
 
 4. Anglesey. 
 
 5. Wight. 
 
 X x 2 
 
 INSULA BRITANNICiE. 
 
 1. Thule. 
 
 2. Ebudes Insulse. 
 
 3. Monaeda vel Mona. 
 
 4. Mona. 
 
 5. Vectis. 
 
 66 
 
522 COMPARATIVE VIEW OF 
 
 MODERN ASIA. ANCIENT ASIA. 
 
 TURKEY IN ASIA. 
 1. Natolia. 
 
 2. Amasia or Siwas. 
 
 3. Alatiulia. 
 
 4. Caramania. 
 
 5. Irak. 
 
 6. Diarbeck. 
 
 7. Curdistan. 
 
 8. Turcomania. 
 
 9. Georgia. 
 
 10. Syria and Palestine. 
 
 ARABIA. 
 
 Arabia Peticea. 
 Arabia Deserta. 
 Arabia Felix. 
 
 PERSIA. 
 
 1. Chorassan. 
 
 2. Balk, Sablustan, Candahar. 
 
 3. Sigistan. 
 
 4. Makeran. * 
 
 5. Kerman. 
 
 6. Farsistan. 
 
 7. Chusestan. 
 
 8. Irak Agem. 
 
 9. Curdestan. 
 
 10. Aderbeitzen. 
 
 11. Georgia. 
 
 12. Gangea. 
 
 13. Dagestan. 
 
 14. Mazanderam. 
 
 15. Gilan Taberistan. 
 
 16. Chirvan. , 
 
 INDIA. 
 Mogol. 
 Delhi. 
 Agra. 
 Cambaia, 
 Bengal. 
 
 India within the Ganges. 
 Decan. 
 Gulconda. 
 Bisnagar. 
 Malabar. 
 
 Island of Ceylon. 
 
 India beyond the Ganges. 
 Pegu 
 Tonquin 
 Cochinchiaa 
 Siani. 
 
 Niuehc. 
 Corea. 
 
 ASIA MINOR. 
 
 1. Mysia, Lydia, Caria, Phrygia, 
 
 Bitbynia, Galatia, Paphlago- 
 nia. 
 
 2. Pontus. 
 
 3. Armenia. 
 
 4. Cappadocia, Cilicia, &c. 
 
 5. Babylonia, Chaldea. 
 
 6. Mesopotamia. 
 
 7. Assyria. 
 
 q" > Armenia Major. 
 
 10. Syria, Palmyrene, Phoenicia. Ju- 
 daea. 
 
 ARABIA. 
 Arabia Petroea. 
 Arabia Deserta. 
 Arabia Felix. 
 
 PERSIA. 
 Pars Hyrcaniae et Sogdianoe. 
 Bactrania. 
 Drangiana. 
 
 Gedrosia. 
 
 Persis. 
 
 Susiana. 
 
 Parthia. 
 
 Pars Assyria?. 
 
 Media. 
 
 > Iberia, Colchis ; et Albania.. 
 
 15. Pars Hyreanise. 
 
 16. Pars Albaniae. 
 
 INDIA. 
 
 India intra Gangein 
 Palibothra. 
 Agora. 
 Re<ma Pori et Taxilis. 
 
 Daehanos. 
 
 Prasii vel Gangaridae. 
 
 Male. 
 
 Taprobana Insula vel Salice. 
 India extra Gangem. 
 
 Sinarum Regio. 
 CHINA. 
 
ANCIENT AND MODERN GEOGRAPHY. 
 MODERN ASIA- ANCIENT ASIA. 
 
 Laotong. 
 
 Pekin. 
 
 Xansi. 
 
 Xensi. 
 
 Xantum, 
 
 Nanking. 
 
 Chekiam. 
 
 Honan. 
 
 Huquam. 
 
 Kiamsi. 
 
 Fokien. 
 
 Canton. 
 
 Suchuen. 
 
 Quecheu. 
 
 Yunam. 
 
 Formosa. 
 A in an. 
 Macao. 
 Bashee Islands. 
 
 Sinae. 
 
 Serica. 
 
 Cathaea 
 
 CHINESE ISLANDS. 
 
 RUSSIA IN ASIA. 
 
 1. Astracan. 
 
 2. Orenburg. 
 
 3. Casan. 
 
 4. Siberia — Tobolsk, Jeniseia, Ir- 
 
 kutsk, Kamschatka. 
 
 1. Sarmatia Asiatica. 
 
 2. } 
 
 3 f 
 
 / > Scythia intra Imauro. 
 
 1. Great Bucharia. 
 
 2. Karasm. 
 
 ALUTH TARTARS. 
 
 1. Little Bucharia. 
 
 2. Casgar. 
 
 3. Turkestan. 
 
 4. Kalruac Tartars. 
 
 5. Thibet. 
 
 6. Little Thibet. 
 
 CHINESE TARTARY. 
 Kalkas. 
 
 Mongol Tartars. 
 Mantchou Tartars. 
 Corea. 
 
 ISLANDS OF CHINESE TAR- 
 TARY. 
 
 Sagalien-UIa-hata. 
 Jedso. 
 
 ISLANDS 01* JAPAN. 
 
 Japan or Niphon. 
 
 Xicoco. 
 
 Ximo. 
 
 PHILIPPINE ISLES. 
 
 Lucon or Manilla. 
 Mindanao, &c. 
 
 MARIAN OR LADRONE. 
 ISLANDS. 
 
 Tinian. 
 
 INDEPENDENT TARTARY. 
 
 1. Bactriana, Sogdiana 
 
 2. Aria. 
 
 SCYTHIA extra IMAUM 
 
 SIN;!* 
 
6Qi COMPARATIVE VIEW OF 
 
 MODERN ASIA. ANCIENT ASIA. 
 
 ISLES OF SUNDA. 
 
 Borneo. 
 Sumatra. 
 Java, &c. 
 
 MOLUCCA ISLES. 
 
 Celebes. ' 
 
 Amboyna. 
 
 Ceram 
 
 Timor. 
 
 Flores, &c. 
 
 MALDIVA ISLES. 
 
 MODERN AFRICA. 
 
 ANCIENT AFRICA. 
 
 BARBARY. 
 
 1. Morocco. 
 
 2. Algiers. 
 
 3. Tunis. 
 
 4. Tripoli. 
 
 5. Barca. 
 
 Egypt. 
 
 BlLDULGERID. 
 
 Zaara, or the Desert 
 
 Negroland. 
 
 Guinea. 
 
 Upper Ethiopia 
 
 Nubia, Abyssinia, Abex. 
 
 Lower Ethiopia 
 
 Lower Guinea 
 
 Loango, Congo, Angola, Ben- 
 
 guela, Matanan. 
 Ajan. 
 
 Zanguebar. 
 monomotapa. 
 Monoemugi. 
 
 SOFOLA. 
 
 Terra de Natal. 
 Cafraria, or country of the 
 Hottentots. 
 
 1. Mauritania Tingitana. 
 
 2. Mauritania Caesariensis. 
 
 3. Numidia, Africa Propria. 
 
 4. Tripolitana. 
 
 5. Cyrenaica, Libya Superior. 
 
 1. ^Egyptus. 
 
 2. Libya Inferior, Gjetulia 
 
 3. SoLITUDlNES. 
 
 4. AuTOLOLES. 
 
 6. JEthiqpim et Libya para 
 
 7. ^Ethiopia pars. 
 
 NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 BRITISH AMERICA. 
 
 1. The countries on the east and west side of Baffin's and Hudson's Bay* 
 
 2. Labrador, or New Britain. 
 
 3. Canada. 
 
 4. Nova Scotia. 
 
 Newfoundland, Cape Breton. 
 
 Islands. 
 
 British Islands in the West Indies. 
 
 Bermudas, Bahama Islands, Jamaica, St. Christopher's, Nevis, MontserraJ, 
 Antigua, Dominica, St. Vincent, Tobago, Grenada, Barbadoes, &c. &o» 
 
ANCIENT AND MODERN GEOGRAPHY. fiSfi 
 
 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 
 
 New England— Maine, New-Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Connect- 
 icut, and Rhode-Island. 
 
 State of New- York, New-Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Vir- 
 ginia, North-Carolina, South-Carolina, Georgia, Tennessee, Kentucky, 
 Ohio, Indiana, Louisiana, Alabama, Missouri, Mississippi, Illinois* 
 
 The district of Columbia, the territories of Michigan, Arkansas. 
 
 SPANISH AMERICA. 
 Mexico or New Spain, New Mexico. 
 
 NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 Spanish Islands in the West Indies. 
 
 Cuba, Porto Rico, west part of St. Domingo, Trinidad, Margarita, Cub*- 
 gua, &c. 
 
 Dutch Islands in the West Indies. 
 Part of St. Martin's Isle, Eustatius, Aves, Buenos Ayres, Curacoa, Arub*. 
 
 French Islands in the West Indies. 
 Miquelon, St. Pierre, part of St. Martin's Isle, St. Bartholomew, Martinio©». 
 Guadaloupe, Desiada, Mariegalant, St. Lucia, part of St. Domingo. 
 
 Danish Islands in the West Indies. 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 FRENCH. 
 Part of the Province of Guiana, Cayenne, &c. 
 
 SPANISH. 
 
 Terra Firma, Country of the Amazons, Peru, Chili, Terra MageJlaatct, 
 Paraguay, Tucuman. 
 
 DUTCH. 
 Part of Guiana, Surinam, &c. 
 
 PORTUGUESE. 
 Brazil, and many Islands on the coast, part of Guiana. 
 
 
 ANCIENT EMPIRES. 
 
 The Empire of Assyria, under Ninus and Semiramis, about 2200 before 
 J C, comprehended, Asia Minor, Colchis, Assyria, Media ChaLdea, 
 Egypt. 
 
526 COMPARATIVE VIEW OF 
 
 The Empire of Assyria, as divided about 820 before J. C, formed three 
 Kingdoms, Media, Babylo-Chaldea, (Syria and Chaldea,) Lydia, (all 
 Asia Minor.) % 
 
 The Empire of the Persians, under Darius Hystaspes, 522 before J. C. ; 
 comprehended, Persis, Susiana, Chaldea, Assyria, Media, Bactviana, 
 Armenia, Asia, Parthia, Iberia, Albania, Colchis, Asia Minor, Egypt, 
 part of Ethiopia, part of Scythia. 
 
 The Empire of Alexander the great, 330 before J. C, consisted of, 
 1, all Macedonia and Greece, except Peloponnesus ; 2, all the Persian 
 Empire, as above described ; 3, India to the banks of the Indus on the 
 east, and the Iaxartes or Tanais on the north. 
 
 The Empire of Alexander was thus divided, 306 before J. C, between 
 Ptolemy Cassander, Lysimachus, and Seleucus 
 
 Empire of Ptolemtj. 
 Lybia, Arabia, Ccelosyria, Palestine. 
 
 Empire of Cassander. 
 Macedonia, Greece. 
 
 Empire of Lysimachus. 
 Thrace, Bithynia. 
 
 Empire of Seleucus. 
 
 Syria, and all the rest of Alexander's Empire. 
 
 The Empire of the Parthians, 140 before J. C, comprehended Parthia, 
 Hyrcania, Media, Persis, Bactriana, Babylonia, Mesopotamia, India to 
 the Indus. 
 
 The Roman Empire, under the Kings, was confined to the city of Rome, 
 and a few miles round it. 
 
 The Roman Empire, at the end of the Republic, comprehended all Italy, 
 great part of Gaul, pant of Britain, Africa Proper, great part of Spain, 
 Illyria, Istria, Liburnia, Dalmatia, Achaia, Macedonia, Dardania, Mcesia, 
 Thracia, Pontus, Armenia, Judaea, Cilicia, Syria, Egypt. 
 
 Under the Emperors the following countries were reduced into Roman 
 Provinces. 
 
 All Spain, the Alpes Maritimae, Piedmont, &c. Rhaetia, Noricum, Panno- 
 nia, and Mcesia, Pontus, Armenia, Assyria, Arabia, Egypt. 
 
 Constantius Chlorus and Galerius divided the Empire into Eastern and 
 Western; and under Constantine each Empire had a distinct capital or 
 seat of government 
 
 The extent of each division was fluctuating from time to time ; but, in gen- 
 eral, the Western Empire comprehended Italy, Illyria, Africa, Spain, 
 the Gauls, Britain. 
 
 The Eastern Empire comprehended Asia Minor, Pontus, Armenia, Assyria, 
 Media, &c. Egypt, Thrace, Dacia, Macedonia. 
 
ANCIENT AND MODERN GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 527 
 
 The Empire of ChaeIemagne, A. D. 800, comprehended France, Marca, 
 Hispanica, (or Navarre and Catalonia,) Majorca, Minorca, and Ivica, 
 Corsica, Italy as far south as Naples, Istria, Liburnia, Dalmatia Rhaetia, 
 Vindelica, Noricum, Germany, from the Rhine to the Oder, and to the 
 banks of the Baltic. 
 
 France contained, 1, Neustria, comprehending Bretany, Normandy, Isle of 
 France, Orleannois; 2, Austria, comprehending Picardy, and Cham- 
 pagne ; 3, Aojuitania, comprehending Guienne, and Gascony ; 4, Burgun- 
 dia, comprehending Burgundy, Lionnois, Languedoc, Dauphine, Provenoo. 
 
 NAMES OF THE PRINCIPAL RIVERS IN EUROPE. 
 
 ANCIENT. 
 
 
 MODERN 
 
 I. Rha. 
 
 1. 
 
 Wolga. 
 
 2. Tanais. 
 
 2. 
 
 Don. 
 
 -3. Borystenes. 
 
 3. 
 
 Nieper. 
 
 4. Tyras. 
 
 4. 
 
 Niester. 
 
 5. Danubius or Ister. 
 
 5. 
 
 Danube. 
 
 6. Padus. 
 
 6. 
 
 Po. 
 
 7. Rhodanus. 
 
 7. 
 
 Rhone. 
 
 8. Iberus. 
 
 8. 
 
 Ebro. 
 
 9. Bcetis. 
 
 9. 
 
 Guadalquiver. 
 
 10. Anas. 
 
 10. 
 
 Guadiana. 
 
 11. Ta-us. 
 
 11. 
 
 Tayo. 
 
 12. Durius. 
 
 12. 
 
 Douro. 
 
 13. Garumna. 
 
 13. 
 
 Garonne. 
 
 14. Liger. 
 
 14. 
 
 Loire. 
 
 15. Sequana. 
 
 15. 
 
 Seine. 
 
 16. Samara. 
 
 16. 
 
 Somme. 
 
 1.7. Scaldis. 
 
 17. 
 
 Scheldt. 
 
 18. Mosa. 
 
 18. 
 
 Maese. 
 
 19. Rhenus. 
 
 19. 
 
 Rhine. 
 
 20. Visurgis. 
 
 20. 
 
 Weser. 
 
 21. A Ibis. 
 
 21. 
 
 Elbe. 
 
 22. Viadrus. 
 
 22. 
 
 Oder. 
 
 The Vistula, the Dwina at Riga, and the Dwina at Archangel 
 
 END. 
 
QUESTIONS 
 
 FOR THE 
 
 EXAMINATION OF SCHOLARS 
 
 IN, 
 
 TYTLER'S ELEMENTS 
 
 or 
 
 ISOM OSffiOffi^ 
 
 BY AN EXPERIENCED TEACHER. 
 
 CONCORD, JV. H. 
 
 PRINTED BY ISAAC HILL. 
 
 1825. 
 
DISTRICT OF NEW-HAMPSHIRE, to wit . 
 
 District Clerk's office. 
 
 BE IT REMEMBERED, that on the fourth day of September, A. D. 
 1,823, and in the forty-eighth year of the Independence of the United 
 States of America, ISAAC HILL, of the said District, hath deposited in 
 this office the title of a book, the right whereof he claims as proprietor, in 
 the words following, to xait : — 
 
 " Elements of General History, ancient and modern. By Alexander 
 Eraser Tytler, F. R. S E. Professor of History in the University of Edin- 
 burgh. With a continuation, terminating at the demise of King George III., 
 1 ,820. By Rev. JKffevard Nares, D. D. Professor of Modern History in the 
 University of Oxford. To which are added, a succinct History of the Unit- 
 ed States ; an improved Table of Chronology ; a comparative view of 
 Ancient and Modern Geography ; and Questions on each section. Adapted 
 for the use of Schools and Academies. By an experienced Teacher." 
 
 In conformity to the act of the Congress of the United States, entitled, 
 t; An act for the encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of maps, 
 charts, and books, to the authors and proprietors of such copies, during 
 the times therein mentioned;*' and also an act, entitled, " An act supple- 
 mentary to an act, entitled an act for the encouragement of learning, by 
 securing the copies of maps, charts, and books, to the authors and pro- 
 prietors of such copies during the times therein mentioned, and extending 
 the benefits thereof to the arts of designing, engraving, and etching historical 
 and other prints." 
 
 WILLIAM CLAGGETT, Clerk 
 
 of the District of jYeio- Hampshire. 
 A true copy of Record. 
 
 Attest WILLIAM CLAGGETT, Clerk, 
 
QUESTIONS* 
 
 PART FIRST. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 1. What books afford the earliest authentic history of the ages imme- 
 
 diately following; the deluge ? 
 
 2. When were Babylon and Nineveh built ? 
 
 3. By whom were they built ? • 
 
 4. Who are said to have raised Assyria to a high degree of splendour ? 
 
 5. What is the condition of the early parts of Egyptian history? 
 f>. Who was the first king of Egypt? 
 
 7. How was Egypt divided? 
 
 SECTION It 
 
 8. What is the earliest mode of government ? 
 
 9. Of what description were the first monarchies? 
 1G. What was the rank of the kings of Scripture ? 
 
 11. What was the character of the first penal laws in human society? 
 
 12. What were the earliest laws formed for the benefit of society ? 
 
 13. What singular usages prevailed among the ancient nations relating 
 
 to matrimony ? 
 1 1. W r hat laws next succeeded in order to those of marriage ? 
 
 15. What were the earliest methods of authenticating contracts ? 
 
 16. What nation used hieroglyphics, and for what purpose were they 
 
 used ? 
 
 17. What were the methods for recording historical facts, and publishing 
 
 them among the ancients ? 
 10. What are among the earliest institutions that have existed? 
 
 19. How was the priesthood anciently exercised ? 
 
 20. Of what are useful arts the offspring ? 
 
 SI. Of what are some of the earliest of them? 
 
 22. What were the first sciences cultivated ? 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 23. To what nation is most of the knowledge of ancient nations to be 
 
 traced ? 
 
 24. How did that knowledge descend to modern nations ? 
 
 25. What presumption does the country afford of the antiquity of the 
 
 Egyptian empire ? 
 2G. To what are the inundations of the river Nile owing ? 
 
 27. What was the government of Egypt ? 
 
 28. What was the character of their penal laws ? 
 
 29. What was the manner of conferring funeral rites in Egypt? 
 
 30. What regulation was there concerning the borrowing of money ? 
 
 31. In the knowledge and cultivation of what useful arts and sciences 
 
 were the Egyptians distinguished ? 
 
 32. What samples of their architecture still remain ? 
 
 33. When were the pyramids built ? 
 
 34. Eor wha,t were they probably built ? 
 
4 QUESTIONS. 
 
 35. What was the national character of the Egyptians? 
 
 36. What circumstances served to debase them in the opinion of contem- 
 
 porary nations ? 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 
 37. By what name were the Phoenicians known in Scripture I 
 
 38. For what are we indebted to them ? 
 
 39. What is said of them in the time of Abraham ? 
 
 40. What is the antiquity of their writings ? 
 
 SECTION V. 
 
 41. To what early nations were the Grecians indebted for their first rudi- 
 
 ments of civilization ? 
 
 42. Who were the ancient inhabitants of Greece ? 
 
 43. What colony settled in the country about the time of Moses ? 
 
 44. Who settled Attica and at what time ? 
 
 45. Who established the court of Areopagus ? 
 
 46. Who established the Amphictyonic Council ? 
 
 47. Who introduced into Greece, and at what time, alphabetic writing ? 
 
 48. How many letters did the alphabet then contain? 
 4*9. What was then the mode of writing ? 
 
 SECTION VI. 
 
 50. What is said of the Pelasgi, of Ancient Greece ? 
 
 51. What was a predominant characteristic of the early Greeks ? 
 
 52. What were the name3 of their four solemn Games, as they were 
 
 termed ? 
 
 53. Of Avhat did they consist ? 
 
 54. What good political effects did these games have ? 
 
 SECTION VII. 
 
 55. Who instituted the Eleusinian mysteries? 
 
 56. What was the nature of these mysteries ? 
 
 57. Who laid the foundation of the grandeur of Attica ? 
 
 58. When and how did he do it ? 
 
 59. What was the object of the Argonautic expedition ? 
 
 80. W 7 hat was the character of the attack and defence in the sieges of 
 
 Thebes and Troy ? 
 61. On whose authority restJ the detail of the war of Troy ? 
 62> What are the principal facts recorded of that war by Homer ? 
 
 63. How were military expeditions then conducted ? 
 
 SECTION VIII. 
 
 64. When di* the Greeks begin to colonize ? 
 
 65. Who was elected the first chief magistrate of the Athenian republic ? 
 
 66. What caused the Greeks to seek refuge in other countries by estab- 
 
 lishing colonies ? 
 
 67. What caused Greece to abolish the regal and establish a republican 
 
 government ? 
 
 68. What distinguished civilians arose in Sparta and Athens at this time ? 
 
 SECTION IX. 
 
 69. What period was Lycurgus invested with the power of reforming and 
 
 new-modelling the constitution of his country ? 
 •JO. What was the government of Sparta as new-modelled by Lycur»us ? 
 
 71. To what did he particularly bend his attention? 
 
 72. How did he divide the territory ? 
 
QUESTIONS. 5 
 
 73. What regulation did 1il j make concerning- the use of money ? 
 
 74. By whom were the necessary arts practised? 
 
 75. What was the course of Spartan education? 
 
 76. By what was the general excellence oi the institutions of Lycurgus 
 
 impaired ? 
 
 77. Kow were the slaves treated ? 
 
 ■78. What was the end of fhe institutions of Lycurgus? 
 
 SECTION X. 
 
 79. What was the nature of the change in the Athenian constitution 
 
 when the regal office was abolished? 
 
 80. What was the tenure by which the Archonship was held ? 
 
 81. Who attempted a reform in the constitution, 624 B. C. ? 
 ,';>. When did Solon attain the Archonship? 
 
 83. What was his character? 
 
 84. liow did he divide the citizens? 
 
 85. HW d'<A he counterbalance the weight of the popular asseml lies? 
 
 86. I low did the particular laws of Athens compare with her form <.'! 
 
 government.? 
 
 87. W hat was the nature of the laws relating: to debtors and slaves ? 
 
 88. What, was the condition of women at this tii/.f. in Athens ? 
 
 89. What was one of the most iniquitous and ah surd peculiarities of the 
 
 Athenian and some of the otiu r C a cian governJU«nts ? 
 Pi). How were the arts viewed in Athens ? 
 
 91. How did the character of the Athenians compare with that of the 
 
 Spartans ? 
 
 92. To whom were the liberties of Athens surrendered, 550 B. C. ? 
 
 93. Who afterwards restored the democracy ? 
 
 SECTION XL 
 
 94. Under whom did the first empire of the Assyrians terminate? 
 
 95. What three mon archies airose. from its ruins : 
 
 96. What king of Assyria, led the Jews into captivity, took Jerusalem 
 
 and Tyre, and suhrfued Egypt? 
 
 97. Who was the succ, s.-or of Cambyses in the throne of Persia ? 
 
 98. What countries, did Cyrus annex to his empire? 
 09. Whit was the government of Persia? 
 
 100. To whose care was the children and youth of Persia committed for 
 
 education ? 
 
 101. What was the nature of the laws in Persia ? 
 302. What was the religion of Persia? 
 
 803. What was the sacred hook of the Persians called ? 
 
 104. On what is the theology of the Zendavesta founded ? 
 
 SECTION XII. 
 
 105. What king of Persia invaded Greece ? 
 
 106. Where was the Persian army defeated ? 
 
 107. Who commanded the Greeks in the battle of Marathon? 
 
 108. What reward did Miltiades receive for his eminent services from the 
 
 Athenians ? 
 
 109. Who were the successors of Miltiades in the war with the Persians ? 
 1 10. Who sueceeded Darius in the command of the Persians? 
 
 111. With what force did Xerxes attempt the conquest of Greece ? 
 
 112. Who was Leonidas ? 
 
 113. With what force did Leonidas contend with the vast army of 
 
 Xerxes ? 
 
 114. At what place was it? 
 
 115. What was the result? 
 
 Xx 
 
6 QUESTIONS. 
 
 116. What was the success of Xerxes with his fleet at sea ? 
 
 117. Where were the Persians totally defeated on land, by the combin«d 
 
 army of the Athenians and Lacedemonians ? 
 
 118. What was the end of Xerxes? 
 
 119. What was the national character of the Greeks at this time ? 
 
 SECTION XIII. 
 
 120. Who governed Athens after the Persian war ? 
 
 121. In what manner did he govern it? 
 
 122. What gave rise to the war during the reign of Pericles between 
 
 Athens and Lacedrcmon ? 
 
 123. Ou what account was Alcibiades condemned to death for treason? 
 
 124. By whom did the Lacedaemonians reduce the power of the Athe- 
 
 nians ? 
 1 25. What eminent philosopher was then in Athens at this time? 
 106. What was particularly disgraceful to the Athenians in regard to 
 
 him ? 
 
 127. What is the subject of the history written by Xenophon ? 
 
 SECTION XIV. 
 
 128. On the decline of Athens and Sparta, what other Grecian Republic 
 
 rose to a high degree of eminence among the contemporary states ? 
 K9. What led to the war between Thebes and Sparta? 
 
 130. What two distinguished Generals did Thebes employ in conducting 
 
 this war ? 
 
 131. How did this war terminate? 
 
 SECTION XV. 
 
 122. Who at this time attempted to bring the whole of Greece under his 
 
 dominion ? 
 J33. What cauw d what was called the Sacred War of this period ? 
 
 134. V*hat distinguished Grecian orator exposed the artful designs of 
 
 Philip ? 
 
 1 35. In what battle was the fate of Greece, so that all her states became 
 
 subject to Philip ? 
 !:>;";. What great enterprise did he attempt ? 
 137. Hid he complete it? 
 i 38. VS hy not ? 
 
 SECTION XVI. 
 1-39. Who was the successor of Philip ? 
 ! •! ■•'». At what age did Alexander ascend the throne of Mace don ? 
 
 141. How large was his army at this time ? 
 
 142, What whs his first enterprise? 
 
 I •:.{. Who was king of Persia at this time ? 
 
 U •■]. Willi what force did Darius meet Alexander? 
 
 1 15. V* hero did they meet ? 
 
 14.6. What was the result of the battle of Granicus ? 
 
 147; What were the respective losses of the Greeks and Persians in the 
 
 battle oflssus? 
 
 i 18. What opportunity did Alexander have for th display of generosity 
 
 alter (he battle of Issus ? 
 
 149. What was the consequence of the battle of Issus ? 
 
 )f*). What caused Alexander to storm and subject the city of Tyre ? 
 
 15 1. What tfas the fate of its inhabitants ? 
 
 »52. What was disgraceful to Alexander in his capture of Gaza? 
 
 [53, What opened Egypt to Alexander's victorious arms? 
 
 '. What '~ky did he baild in his return from Egypt? 
 
QUESTIONS. 7 
 
 155. Who met Alexander at Arbela with an array of 700,000 men ? 
 
 156. What was the result of the ba«le at Arbela? 
 
 157. When was Persia conquered by Alexander? 
 
 158. What project did he attempt after the conquest of Persia? 
 
 159. What prevented his conque st of India ? 
 
 160. What became of Alexander on finding; a limit to his victories ? 
 
 SECTION XVII 
 
 161. What wish did Alexander express as to a successor? 
 
 162. What became of his family ? 
 
 163. Which were the most powerful monarchies formed from his vast 
 
 empires ? 
 
 SECTION XVIII. 
 
 164. What distinguished orator of Greece attempted to arouse his coun- 
 
 trvmen, to shake off the yoke of Macedon, on the death of Alexan- 
 der? 
 
 165. What empire arose in Europe on the decline of the Macedonian 
 
 power ? 
 h66. How was Greece added to the Roman empire f 
 
 167. When was the conquest of Greece completed? 
 
 SECTION XIX. 
 
 168. What is said of the nature of the Republican government of Greece ? 
 
 169. What was the condition of the people under them ? 
 
 170. In what periods of the Grecian history are we to look for splendid 
 
 examples of patriotism ? 
 
 171. What is the most remarkable circumstance that strikes us on com- 
 
 paring the latter with the more early peri-avis of the history of the 
 Greeks? 
 
 SECTION XX. 
 
 17?. In what description of the arts did the Grecians excel? 
 
 173. Which of the Fine Arts did they carry to the greatest decree of per- 
 
 fection ? 
 
 174. In whose reign did the Fine Arts flourish most? 
 i75. What were their three orders of architecture ? 
 17tf. What other orders of architecture are there ? 
 177. What was*the state, of sculpture in Greece? 
 
 ITS. How did the painting's and music of the Grecians compare with 
 those of the moderns ? 
 
 SECTION XXI. 
 
 179. How does poetry compare, with prose as to antiquity? 
 
 180. When did Homer flourish ? 
 
 181. Who are some of the other principal poets of ancient Greece ? 
 382, When was the origin of dramatic composition among the Greeks? 
 
 SECTION XXII. 
 
 183. What eminent historians of Greece were contemporaries? 
 
 184. When did they flourish ? 
 
 185. Who were some of the latter di. r ting'ii. B hed historians of Greece? 
 
 186. What is said of Plutarch's Lives of Illustrious Men ? 
 
 SECTION XX HI. 
 
 187. W T hat was the most ancient school of philosophy in Greece? 
 
8 QUESTIONS. 
 
 188. Who founded the Italian sect of philosophers in Greece ? 
 
 189. When did Socrates flourish > ? 
 
 190. Who founded the Academic sect ? 
 
 191. Who founded the Peripatetic s,.ct ? 
 
 192. Who are sovie of the oiher Greek philosophers ? 
 
 193. What is the effect of the Greek philosophy on morality and the prog- 
 
 ress of useful kuowledge ? 
 
 SECTION XXIV. 
 
 194. After the -onquest of Greece what Power became an object of par- 
 
 ticular importance ? 
 19>. What was the character of the first inhabitants of Italy ? 
 196. Who were they? 
 i:*7. V\ hat is the opinion of Dionysius concerning 1 the origin of Rome ? 
 
 198. What is the vulgar account of the origin of Uie city built by Rom- 
 
 II ill; ? 
 
 199. At what time was it founded ? 
 
 200. Who were the most formidable enemies of the early Romans ? 
 201; Who was the second king of Rome ? 
 
 202. Who added 100 Plebeians to the Roman Senate? 
 
 203. Who removed the poorer citizens from all share in the government of 
 
 Rome ? 
 
 204. What became of Servius Tullius ? 
 
 205. Who succeeded him on the throne ? 
 
 2uG. What caused the expulsion of Tarquinius ? 
 
 207. .What was the first retrenchment in the power of the Roman Sen- 
 
 ate? 
 
 208. What use did the early Romans make of their victories ? 
 
 209. Mow long did the regal govt rnnient of Rome continue ? 
 ilO. How many kings were there ? 
 
 21 1. What is said oi the wars in which Rome was almost continually en- 
 gaged : 
 
 SECTION XXV. 
 0! : 2. What g-overnment succeeded the r- gal one in R.ome ?. 
 213. Who were the two fust consuls ? 
 
 214- What law is mentioned that was made under the direction of Vale- 
 rius ? 
 215. What gave rise to the office of Dictator ? 
 c 21'6. What was the power of the Dictator ? * 
 
 217. What gave rise to the office of Tribune ; and what were the powers 
 
 of that office ? 
 
 SECTION XXVI. 
 
 218. What effect had the office of Tribune on the powers of the Senate > 
 2 19. Under .what circumstances was Valero made Tribune ? 
 
 220. Whon did the Roman constitution become a complete democracy ? 
 
 SECTION XXVII. 
 
 221. For what purpose were the Decemviri chosen ? 
 
 222. What were the laws called, which they framed ? 
 
 223. At what time w< re they made ? 
 
 224. With what powers were the Decemviri invested ? 
 
 225. V\ ho was at the head of the Decemvirate r 
 
 226. What caused the abolition of this office ? 
 287. flow k 
 
QUESTIONS. 9 
 
 SECTION XXVIII. 
 
 228. What two barriers separated the patricians and plebeians ? 
 
 229. What two offices were created, 437 B. C. ? 
 
 230. What successful expedient did the senate adopt for filling the Ro- 
 
 man armies ? 
 
 231. What city was taken by Camillus ? 
 
 232. At what'period and after how long a siege ? 
 
 233. To what event do the Roman writers attribute the loss of all the rec- 
 
 ords and monuments of their early history ? 
 
 234. What is there singular in regard to most of the revolutions in 
 
 Rome ? 
 
 SECTION XXIX. 
 
 235. How long after the foundation of their city did Rome become mistress 
 
 of all Italy ? 
 p&. What was the policy observed by the Romans with respect to the 
 nations they had conquered ? 
 
 237. W T hat gave rise to the Funic wars ? 
 
 SECTION XXX.' ?V 
 
 238. By whom and when was Carthage founded ? 
 
 239. How many smaller cities were under the dominion of Carthage at 
 the time of the Punic war3 ? 
 
 240. What was the form of government ? 
 
 241. To what was the wealth and splendour of Carthage owing ? 
 
 SECTION XXXI. 
 
 242. Who founded Syracuse ? ._,..- ^ 
 
 243. What was the government of it ? ^ 
 
 SECTION XXXII. 
 
 244. Where did the war between Rome and Carthage commence ? 
 
 245. What Roman consul was taken by the Carthaginians in the first 
 
 Punic war ? 
 
 246. What patriotic act. did Regul us perform when a prisoner to tke 
 
 Carthaginians ? 
 
 247. How did the first Punic war terminate ? 
 
 248. How long did the peace between Rome and Carthage continue ? 
 
 249. How did tne second Punic war begin ? 
 
 250. Who was the Carthaginian general in this war ? 
 
 251. How did Hannibal conduct this war ? 
 
 252. Where did the Romans meet with complete defeat ? 
 
 253. How many were slain in the battle of Canae ? 
 
 254. What is supposed would have been the consequence had Hannibal 
 
 improved this victory ? 
 
 255. In what way did the Romans compel the Carthaginians to sue fo$ 
 
 peace ? 
 
 256. What Roman general carried war to the gates of Carthage ? 
 
 257. At what time did the second Punic war close ? 
 
 258. When did the third commence ? 
 
 259. What was the issue of this war ? 
 
 260. When was Carthage destroyed ? 
 
 261. What other success attended the Romans this year? 
 
 SECTION XXXIII. 
 
 : 262. What two persons, at this time, undertook to reform the corruption! 
 ef the Romans ? 
 
 S 
 
JO QUESTIONS. 
 
 263. What circumstances attending the war of Jugurtha gave decisive 
 
 proof of the corruption of the Roman manners ? 
 
 264. What became of J ugurtha? 
 
 265. Between vuhat two rivals did a civil war now break out in Rome? 
 
 266. What became of Marius ? 
 
 267. To what offxe was Sylla afterwards elected ? 
 
 268. What magnanimous act characterized the latter part of his life ? 
 2o9. Between whom was the civil war revived after the death of Sylla? 
 
 270. What conspiracy, at this time, threatened the destruction 6t 
 
 Rome ? 
 
 271. By whose provident zeal and patriotism was it extinguished ? 
 
 272. What distinguished individual now rose into notice ? 
 
 273. Undtr what circumstances was the first Triumvirate formed ? 
 
 274. What Roman general invaded and conquered Britain, 54 B. C, 
 
 275. Who procured the banishment of Cicero ? 
 
 276. Who effected his recall from exile ? 
 
 277. What dissolved the Triumvirate ? 
 
 : 
 
 SECTION XXXIV. 
 
 278. What proposition was made at this time by Caesar ? 
 
 279. Did Pompey accede to it? 
 
 280. Did war ensue between them ? 
 
 281. What decree did the senate pronounce ? 
 
 282. Where was a decisive battle fought? 
 
 283. What became of Pompey ? 
 
 284. In what war was the famous library of Alexandria bumf ? 
 
 285. What was the character of Caesar's administration of the govern- 
 m meut ' after * ne COI «plete overthrow of Pompey's partisans? 
 
 £8o. io what offices was he appointed ? 
 237. What was the end of Csegar ? 
 
 288. Under what circumstances was the second Triumvirate formed? 
 
 289. For what did Antony summon Cleopatra to appear before him ? 
 
 290. What caused the overthrow of Antony? 
 
 291. What became of him ? 
 
 292. What induced Cleopatra to destroy herself? 
 
 SECTION XXXV. 
 '2^3. What power was given to every head of a family ? 
 
 294. What were reckoned the highest points of female merit? 
 
 295. What qualifications contributed most to elevate persona to the high- 
 
 est offices and dignities of the state ? 
 
 SECTION XXXVI. 
 
 296. What was the state of literature in the early ages of the Roman re- 
 
 public ? 
 
 297. Who wtre the principal Roman historians ? 
 
 298. Who were the principal Ptoman poets ? 
 
 SECTION XXXVII, 
 
 299. Was much attention paid to the study of philosophy in the early 
 
 periods of Rome ? 
 
 300. At what time did philosophy become an object of attention with the 
 
 Romans ? 
 
 301. Who first diffused a taste for the study of philosophy among the 
 
 Romans ? 
 
 302. Who may be reckoned their most eminent philosopher? 
 
SECTION XXXVIII. 
 
 303. What were some of the most distinguishing traits of character in tfc* 
 
 early Romans ? 
 
 304. What contributed chiefly to their change of character and man- 
 
 ners ? 
 
 305. What were some of the amusements of the Romans ? 
 
 . SECTION XXXIX. 
 
 306. To what may be ascribed the extensive conquests of the Romans? 
 
 307. What was the number of soldiers in a Roman legion ? 
 
 308. When is it supposed that the tactic of the Romans was at its height 
 . of excellence ? 
 
 309. By whom was the art of entrenchment carried to great perfection ? 
 
 310. When was the naval military art first known among the Romans ? 
 
 SECTION XL. 
 
 311. When did the most material change for the worse in the national 
 
 character of the Romans take place ? 
 
 312. What were the morals of the Romans in the last ages of the com- 
 
 monwealth ? 
 
 313. From what circumstances did Roman virtue so rapidly decline ? 
 
 314. To what did the Roman republic owe its dissolution ? 
 
 SECTION XLI. 
 
 315. What battle decided the fate of the commonwealth and made Ocla- 
 
 vius master of Rome ? 
 
 316. By what name was he now called ? 
 
 317. What event said to be productive of universal joy distinguished his 
 
 reign ? 
 313. What methods did he practice to keep himself in the favour of the 
 people ? 
 
 319. When did Augustus die and at what age ? 
 
 320. How long did he reign? 
 
 321. Who succeeded him ? 
 
 322. What was the character of Tiberius ? 
 
 323. In what manner was he related to Augustus ? 
 
 324. What was the end of Tiberius ? 
 
 325. In what year of his reign was Jesus Christ crucified ? 
 
 326. Who was the successor of Tiberius ? 
 
 327. What was his character ? 
 
 328. What became of him ? 
 
 329. Who succeeded Caligula? 
 
 SECTION XLII. 
 
 330. By what acts of violence was the reign of Nero, the successor of Clau- 
 
 dius, characterised ? 
 
 331. Who were the three next Roman emperors? 
 
 332. Under which of the emperors was Jerusalem taken? 
 
 333. Who succeeded Vespasian ? 
 
 334. What was the character of Titus ? 
 
 335. flow was it suspected Titus came to his death ? 
 
 336. What three emperors next in order succeeded Domitian ? 
 
 337. What was the character of Trajan and Adrian ? 
 
 SECTION XLIII. 
 
 338. For what length of time did the Antonines reign ? 
 
 339. What v,as their character? 
 
12 QUESTIONS 
 
 340. What length of time was there from the death of the Antonines to ! 
 
 the accession of Diocletian ? 
 
 341. What was the character of the emperors that reigned in this period? 
 
 342. What change in the government did Diocletian introduce ? 
 
 343. Under whom was the seat of the Roman empire removed and when ? 
 
 344. What was his religion ? 
 
 SECTION XLIV. 
 
 345. What was the general character of the government of Rome under 
 Constantine ? 
 
 346. In what way did he injure the army ? 
 
 347. What was the policy pursued by the emperor Julian towards Chris- 
 
 tianity ? 
 
 348. Who were the three emperors that succeeded in order to Julian ? 
 
 SECTION XLV. 
 
 349. In whose reign did Christianity become the established religion of the 
 Roman empire ? 
 
 350. Why were the Romans less tolerant towards the Christian than they 
 
 were towards the different pagan religions of other nations ? 
 
 351. When were the books of the New Testament collected into a vol- 
 
 ume ? 
 
 352. When was the Old Testament translated into Greek from the origi- 
 
 nal Hebrew ? 
 
 353. In what way did Christianity suffer in the third century ? 
 
 354. Did Christianity become more or less pure as it received favour 
 
 from the civil powers ? 
 
 SECTION XL VI. 
 
 455. When and by whom was the city of Rome sacked and plundered ? 
 
 356. What is the length of time from the building of Rome to the extinc- 
 
 tion of the empire ? 
 
 357. What may be considered the ultimate cause of the ruin of the Ro- 
 
 man Empire ? 
 
 358. "Who was the last emperor of Rome ? 
 
 359. When was he compelled to resign the throne ? 
 
 360. By whom was he compelled to do it ? 
 
 SECTION XLVII. 
 
 361. From what country is it supposed that the Goths were originally de- 
 
 rived ? 
 
 362. What was the character of the ancient Scythians ? 
 
 363. Of what nation were the Germans a branch? 
 
 364. What effect had the religion of the Goths upon them, as a warlike 
 
 people ? 
 
 SECTION XL VIII. 
 
 365. Were the Roman laws retained after Italy was conquered by the 
 
 Goths ? 
 
 366. What character does Tytler give the conquerors of Italy? 
 
 367. What government did the Goths establish in Italy after its conquest ? 
 
 368. Was it elective or hereditary? 
 
 SECTION XLIX. 
 
 369. What are the most ancient books of history in existence ? 
 
 370. Who are some of the earliest writers of profane history whose work« 
 
 are still extant ? 
 
QUESTIONS. 
 
 571 What modern histories of Greece and Rome are most worthy of pe- 
 rusal to the person who has attended to original works named ? 
 
 372. What may be considered the greatest magazine of historical knowl- 
 edge ever collected ? 
 
 573. What are esteemed the lights of history ? 
 
 PART SECOND. 
 
 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 374. At what aera is the commencement of profane history dated ? 
 
 375. What new and powerful dominion arose in the latter part of the sixth 
 
 century ? 
 
 376. To whom do the Arabians trace their descent? 
 
 377. When and where was Mahomet born ? 
 
 378. What was his descent and education ? 
 
 379. What is the sacred book of the Mahometan religion called ? 
 
 380. By whom and under what circumstances was it written ? 
 
 381. What are the nature and substance of Mahometan religion? 
 
 382. What caused the banishment of Mahomet from Mecca ? 
 
 383. What is his flight called ? 
 
 384. When did it take place ? 
 
 385. Did the Mahometan religion have a rapid increase ? 
 
 386. What was the title of the head of this empire? 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 387. Who were the Franks ? 
 
 388. From what did they receive this name ? 
 
 389. Under whom and what circumstances were the Franks converted to 
 
 Christianity ? 
 
 390. Who delivered France from the ravages of the Saracens? 
 
 391. At what time did this take place ? 
 
 392. With whom and under what circumstances commenced the second 
 
 race of kings in France ? 
 
 393. Who succeeded Pepin in the sovereignty of France ? 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 394. How was the power of the government divided and exercised in the 
 
 early parts of the French monarchy ? 
 
 395. What was the religious character of the ancient Germans? 
 
 396. What new system of policy arose at this time among the united 
 
 Germans and Franks, which extended itself over most nation* of 
 Europe ? 
 
 397. What is to be understood by the Feudal System ? 
 
 398. What effect had the Feudal System on the power of the sovereign ? 
 
 399. By what name is the second race of French kings called ? 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 
 400. How came Charlemagne into possession of the undivided sovereignty 
 
 of France ? 
 
 401. What was his private character ? 
 
 402. When did he die ? 
 
 403. Who was hie successor ? « 
 
14 QUESTIONS 
 
 SECTION V. 
 
 404. What is said of Charlemagne in relation to commerce ? 
 
 405. How did he view literature ? 
 
 406. What style of architecture was successfully studied and cultivated 
 
 in that age ? 
 
 407. What sanguinary and most iniquitous custom of the present time 
 
 may be traced to the age of Charlemagne? 
 
 SECTION VI. 
 
 408. What great heresies existed in the Christian church about this 
 
 time ? 
 
 409. By whom and when was the Arian heresy condemned ? 
 
 410. What was a source of the most obstinate controversy in those ages ? 
 
 411. What e^ave rise to penances and other religious voluntary suffering ? 
 
 412. What effect had the conquests of Charlemagne on Christianity ? 
 
 SECTION VII. 
 
 413. Who was the immediate successor of Charlemagne ? 
 
 414. Did his empire remain entire under his successors ? 
 
 415. What was the character of his successors? 
 
 SECTION VIII. 
 
 416. What was the condition of the Eastern empire during the eighth and 
 
 ninth centuries ? 
 
 417. What was the character of the emperors ? 
 
 418. What religious dispute prevailed at this time ? 
 
 SECTION IX. 
 
 419. Under whom did the Pope begin to acquire temporal power? 
 
 420. What is said of the religious character of the temporal princes of this 
 
 period ? 
 
 421. What check was there, at this time, to the increasing power of thw 
 
 church of Rome ? 
 
 422. What is the character of the clergy of this period ? 
 
 SECTION X. 
 
 423. By whom was the empire of Morocco founded ? 
 
 424. When did the Saracens overrun and conquer Spain ? 
 
 425. Was the Mahometan religion extensively professed ? 
 
 426. What prevented the Saracens from raising an extensive empire ? 
 
 SECTION XI. 
 
 427. What had become the condition of the empire founded by Charle- 
 
 magne, in the tenth and eleventh centuries ? 
 458. How were the emperors at this time elected ? 
 
 429. Who were some of the most distinguished monarchs of Germany in 
 
 the middle ages ? 
 
 430. Were there frequent disputes between the Popes of Rome and Ger- 
 
 man emperors ? 
 
 SECTION XII. 
 
 431. From whom is it probable the British isles derived their first inhabit 
 
 tants ? 
 
 482. What was the condition of the country when invaded by the Ro- 
 mans? 
 
 4$3. When did Julius Caesar enter Britain ? 
 
QUESTIONS. 16 
 
 434. When did a complete reduction of the island take place, and put K 
 
 under the Roman power ? 
 
 435. When did the Romans abandon the country ? 
 
 436. What led the Saxons into Britain ? 
 
 437. How long- were the Saxons in conquering' the Britons? 
 
 438. What was the government called, established by the Saxons? 
 
 439. When aud by whom was the Saxon Heptarchy brought under one 
 
 sovereign ? 
 
 440. What piratical people for a long period subsequent to this, desolated 
 
 the coasts of Britain ? 
 
 441. What relationship was there between Alfred the Great and Egbert? 
 
 442. What is the character of Alfred ? 
 •1 13. When did he die ? 
 
 444. Who were the immediate successors of Alfred? 
 
 445. What people invaded and obtained the government of England sub- 
 
 sequent to the time of Alfred ? 
 
 446. When was William duke of Normandy put in possession of the throne 
 
 of England? 
 
 SECTION XIII. 
 
 447. What was the character of the Anglo-Saxon government ? 
 
 448. How many ranks of people were there ? 
 
 449. How did the Anglo-Saxons compare with the Normans in point of 
 
 civilization ? 
 
 SECTION XIV. 
 
 450. Who was elected to the throne of France, A. D. 907? 
 
 451. What was the prevailing passion among the nations of Europe dur- 
 
 ing the tenth and eleventh centuries ? 
 
 452. What was the state of the Northern powers of Europe in point of civ- 
 
 ilization, at this time ? 
 
 453. What was a subject of dispute between the Popes and the Emperors ? 
 
 y> SECTION XV. 
 
 45^. What was the consequence of the battle of Hastings ? 
 
 455. What was the end of William the conqueror ? 
 ■ 456. What important law did he introduce into England ? 
 \ 457. Which part of his subjects were treated with most favour? 
 
 458. Who were some of the immediate successors of William the conquer- 
 
 or ? 
 
 459. Who effected the conquest of Ireland ? 
 
 460. What clouded the latter part of the reign of Henry II. ? 
 
 461. What was the character of this monarch? 
 
 462. Who succeeded him on the throne ? 
 
 463. How came Richard I. to be imprisoned in Germany? 
 
 464. Under what sovereign was the Magna Charta produced ? 
 
 SECTION XVI. 
 
 465. What two factions were there in Italy in the thirteenth century ? 
 
 466. What occasioned them ? 
 
 467. What was the political state of Europe at this time ? 
 
 SECTION XVII. 
 
 468. W 7 ho was the first promoter of the Crusades ? 
 
 469. What was the object of the Crusades ? 
 
 470. What was the number of Peter's army, and when did he commoDCC 
 
 his crusade tc the Holv Land ? 
 
16 QUESTIONS. 
 
 471. What became of this army ? 
 
 472. When was a second crusade undertaken and bow many engaged hi 
 
 it? 
 
 473. What was the fate of this expedition? 
 
 474. Who headed the third crusade ? 
 
 475. When was the fourth fitted out ? 
 
 476. What particular success attended one, and what was its issue ? 
 
 477. Who undertook the last crusade into the East? 
 
 478. What became of Lewis IX. ? 
 
 479. How many, is it supposed, of the persons who engaged in the cru- 
 
 sades, perished ? 
 400. What benefit resulted from the crusades ? 
 
 SECTION XVIII. 
 
 i81. How was the profession of arms esteemed among the Germans ? 
 
 482. What is said to have been characteristic of the G othic manners ? 
 
 483. When did chivalry attain its perfection ? 
 
 484. What writings accompanied the adventures of chivalry ? 
 
 485. Are works of fiction capable of producing good moral effects? 
 
 SECTION XIX. 
 
 486. When did the crusaders take Constantinople ? 
 
 487. How long did the French emperors govern it ? 
 
 488. When may the rise of the house of Austria be dated ? 
 
 489. How did the states of Italy compare at this time with most of the 
 
 other countries of Europe ? 
 
 490. What severe and bloody measure was adopted in relation to the 
 
 Knights Templars ? 
 
 SECTION XX. 
 
 491. When did Switzerland become independent ? 
 
 492. By what name was it then called ? 
 
 493. To what government had it been subject ? 
 
 494. What was the number of battles fought before it became indepen- 
 
 dent : 
 
 SECTION XXI. 
 
 495. What prince imposed a tribute on all the Italian states ? 
 
 496. In whose time was the I>opedom removed to Avignon ? 
 
 497. How long did it remain there ? 
 
 498. What act distinguished the reign of Charles IV. ? 
 
 499. Who summoned the council of Constance, 1414 ? 
 
 500. What martyrdoms were the consequence of this council ? 
 
 501. By whom was the wealth of the Germanic stales possessed? 
 
 SECTION XXII. 
 
 502. What character is given of Henry III. ? 
 
 503. By whom was he made a prisoner ? 
 
 504. Who succeeded Henry III. on the throne of England ? 
 
 505. When and by whom was Wales conquered ? 
 
 SECTION XXIII. 
 
 506. What is the state of the Scottish history before the time of Malcokn 
 
 III. ? 
 
 507. "Who were the two next succeeding kings of Scotland? 
 
 508. Who became competitors to the crown, 1285. 
 
 509. How was the dispute decided ? 
 
QUESTIONS. 17 
 
 510. What distinguished warrior arose, at this time, to assert the liberties 
 
 of his country ? 
 
 511. What became of Wallace ? 
 
 512. Who finally succeeded in delivering Scotland from the English and 
 
 was crowned sovereign of it, 1306 ? 
 
 SECTION XXIV. 
 
 513. What statute was passed by Edward I. which related to taxes and 
 
 imposts ? 
 
 514. How many times in his reign is he said to have ratified the Magna 
 
 Chart a ? 
 
 515. With how large an army did he invade Scotland? 
 
 516. With what force did Bruce meet him? 
 
 517. Who dethroned Edward II. and under what circumstances? 
 
 518. In what manner did Edward III. revenge the murder of his father? 
 
 519. On what did he found his claim to the throne of France ? 
 
 520. When are the English said for the first time to have used artillery in 
 
 battle ? 
 
 521. What king of France was carried captive to England, and by whom ? 
 
 522. What became of the captive king of France ? 
 
 523. Who succeeded John in France and Edward III. in England ? 
 
 SECTION XXV. 
 
 524. What became of Richard II. and who succeeded him ? 
 
 525. What was the origin of the quarrels between the houses of Lancas- 
 
 ter and York ? 
 
 526. What induced Henry V. to invade France ? 
 
 527. What was the result of this expedition? 
 
 528. On what terms did Henry V. receive a right to the throne of France 
 
 during the life of Charles VI. ? 
 
 529. By what aid was Charles VII. enabled to secure the throne of France 
 
 to himself? 
 
 530. What became of the Maid of Orleans ? 
 
 531. What was the state of society in Europe at this period? 
 
 532. What circumstances show that it was in a low state? 
 
 SECTION XXVI. 
 
 533. At what time did the Turks cross over into Europe ? 
 
 534. What Asiatic conqueror arose in the 14th century, who for a time 
 
 checked the Turks in their career of conquest and oppression ? 
 
 535. What effect did the death of Tamerlane have on the Turks ? 
 
 536. What prince subjected Constantinople to the power of the Turks? 
 
 537. When did this take place, and how long had the eastern empire 
 
 then subsisted ? 
 
 538. Did this terminate the empire of the East, as it was termed ? 
 
 SECTION XXVII. 
 
 539. What is the government of Turkey ? 
 
 540. What limits and restraints are there upon a Turkish Sultan ? 
 
 541. What is the character of the people ? 
 
 542. With what officer are the principal functions of the government en- 
 
 trusted ? 
 
 543. How are the revenues of the government obtained ? 
 
 SECTION XXVIII. 
 
 6-14, What greatly increased the power of the French crown in the 15lb 
 century ? 2* 
 
18 QUESTIONS. 
 
 545. What was the character of Lewis XI. ? 
 
 546. Who were the two immediate successors of Lewis XL, onthethron* 
 
 of France ? 
 
 547. In what foreign enterprise did Charles VIII. of France engage ? 
 
 SECTION XXIX. 
 
 548. What circumstance united the kingdoms of Arragon and Castile 
 
 under the same sovereigns ? 
 
 549. What institutions were formed in this period for the discovery and 
 
 punishment of crimes ? 
 
 550. When did Ferdinand take the title, king of Spain ? 
 
 551. How long time did the dominion of the Moors continue in Spain ? 
 
 552. On what account and when did Ferdinand expel the Jews from 
 
 Spain ? 
 
 553. How numerous were they ? 
 
 554. What memorable discovery was made in this reign? 
 
 SECTION XXX. 
 
 555. What was the character of pope Alexander VI. ? 
 
 556. What became of him ? 
 
 557. Who conspired to deprive Lewis XII. of Navarre ? 
 
 558. When did he die ? 
 
 SECTION XXXI. 
 
 559. How did the partisans of York and Lancaster distinguish themselves 
 
 from each other ? 
 
 560. Which party triumphed? 
 
 661. How many of the Lancastrians were slain in the battle near Touton ? 
 
 562. To whom was Edward IV 7 . in the first instance indebted for his 
 
 throne ? 
 
 563. What caused Warwick to turn against Edward ? 
 
 564. What epithet was given to Warwick ? 
 
 565. Who was the queen of Henry VI. and what is said of her character? 
 
 566. What of Henry VI. — of his queen Margaret — and of the Prince, 
 
 their son ? 
 
 567. Who was Richard III ? 
 
 568. How did he come to the throne ? 
 
 569. What became of him? 
 
 670. What became of Edward V. ? 
 
 571. How were the Houses of York and Lancaster united, which put a 
 
 period to the civil wars between them ? 
 
 572. What is said of the government of Henry VII. ? 
 
 SECTION XXXII. 
 
 573. What was the state of the feudal system in Scotland ? 
 
 574. W 7 hat was a constant policy of the Scottish kings ? 
 
 575. What Scottish king was prisoner in London in company with John, 
 
 king of France ? 
 
 576. How long was he held in captivity there ? 
 
 577. How leng was James I. held in captivity by the English ? 
 
 578. What advantage did he derive from this captivity ? 
 
 579. To what end did the five Jameses come ? 
 
 580. With what English sovereign was James V. contemporary, and en- 
 
 gaged in war ? 
 
 SECTION XXXIII. 
 
 581. What was the constant policy of the Scottish kings? 
 
QUESTIONS. 1* 
 
 582. What rendered this policy necessary ? 
 
 583. In whom resided the legislative power? 
 
 584. Of what did the revenue of the sovereign consist? 
 
 SECTION XXXIV. 
 
 585. Who were the first restorers of learning in Europe ? 
 
 536. What sovereigns in this age encouraged the revival of learning; irr 
 
 Europe ? 
 
 537. What distinguished genius appeared in the middle of the thirteenth. 
 
 century ? 
 588. In what did the genius of Bacon discover itself? 
 5S9. What led to a discovery of many of the ancient author during the 
 
 fifteenth century ? 
 
 590. What contributed most to the dissemination of knowledge at thi* 
 
 period ? 
 
 591. To what is to be traced modern dramatic composition ? 
 
 SECTION XXXV. 
 
 ■>9Q. What was the boldest naval enterprise of the ancients 1 
 
 593. What parts of Europe were unknown to the ancients? 
 
 594. To what sea was the commerce of the ancients mostly confined ? 
 
 595. What cities of modern Europe first became commercial ? 
 
 596. When and where was first established a national bank ? 
 
 597. V\ hat were the Italian merchants called in the middle ages? 
 
 598. Va hat give rise to bills of Exchange ? 
 
 599. When did commerce extend itself to the north of Europe? 
 
 600. For what purpose was the League of the Hanse towns formed ? 
 
 601. When did the woollen manufactures of England become important? 
 
 602. What English sovereigns in these ages particularly encouraged com- 
 
 merce and the useful arts ? 
 
 SECTION XXXVI. 
 
 603. When was the mariner's compass first used ? 
 
 604. Wha,t nation became particularly distinguished in the fifteenth cen- 
 
 tury for naval enterprise? 
 
 605. When and by whom was the Cape of Good Hope doubled? 
 
 606. How extensive did the Portuguese possessions in India become at 
 
 this time ? 
 
 607. What effect had these discoveries on the commerce of Europe ? 
 
 608. Who made repeated attempts to destroy the trade of the Portuguese ? 
 
 609. What besides the Portuguese discoveries produced a spirit of suc- 
 
 cessful enterprise in England ? 
 
 610. What has been the increase of population in Britain since the reign 
 
 of Elizabeth? 
 
 611. What proportion of the population is supposed to be employed in 
 
 manufactures and commerce ? 
 f/\2. How does it appear that there has been a great increase of national 
 wealth in Britain ? 
 
 SECTION XXXVII. 
 C 13. Who were the parents of Charles V. ? 
 
 614. When did he come to the throne of Spain ? 
 
 615. Who was the competitor of Charles V. for the throne of Austria an 
 
 the death of Maximilian ? 
 
 616. Who was king of England at this time ? 
 
 617. How did the war terminate between Charles and Francis ? 
 
 f>18. With whom did Henry VIII. take part on the renewal of the war? 
 6 19. What induced Charles to conclude a treaty with Francis, in 1544 ? 
 
JO QUESTIONS. 
 
 620. When and by whom was the order of Jesuits founded ? 
 
 621. What was the principle of the order ? 
 
 622. What gave Charles perpetual disquiet in Germany ? 
 
 623. At what age and where did he resign his dominions? 
 
 SECTION XXXVIII. 
 
 624. What was the condition of the Germanic empire previous to the reign 
 
 of Maximilian 1. ? 
 
 625. What emperor acquired the greatest power in Germany ? 
 
 SECTION XXXIX. 
 
 626. What important events distinguished the age of Charles V. ? 
 
 627. Who was a leading character in producing the Reformation ? 
 
 628. Who was Roman Pontiff at this time ? 
 
 629. What practice of the Romish church did Luther first attack? 
 
 630. What procured Henry VIII. the title of Defender of the Faith ? 
 
 631. What distinguished reformer arose in Switzerland? 
 
 632. What sovereign at this time was upon the thrones of Sweden, Den- 
 
 mark, and Norway ? 
 
 633. Who was Gustavus Vasa ? 
 
 634. What act of Leo X. and of Christiern II. contributed to the reforma- 
 
 tion in the north ? 
 
 635. From what circumstance did the Lutherans derive the name of Prot- 
 
 estants ? 
 
 636. Who became a distinguished convert to the doctrines of the refor- 
 
 mation in Geneva? 
 637> What is said of the character of Calvin ? 
 
 SECTION XL. 
 
 638. W hat reformer arose in England in the middle of the fourteenth cen- 
 
 tury? 
 
 639. In what way had WicklifFe prepared the minds of the people of Eng- 
 
 land for the reformation ? 
 340. Who was the immediate cause of it ? 
 
 641. What led Henry VIII. to declare himself head of the church in Eng- 
 
 land ? 
 
 642. When did he die, and by whom was he succeeded ? 
 
 643. What checked the progress of reformation in England, in the year 
 
 1553? 
 
 644. How many Protestants suffered martyrdom during the reign of Mary, 
 
 in England ? 
 615. In whose reign did the Protestant religion become established accord- 
 ing to its present form in England ? 
 
 SECTION XLI. 
 
 646. W r ho discovered America? 
 
 647. To whom did he apply in vain for aid in making- discoveries ? 
 
 648. Who finally furnished him for the voyage ? 
 
 649. How long after Columbus left the Canaries, before he discovered 
 
 land ? 
 
 650. In which of his voyages did he discover the continent of America ? 
 
 651. From whom was the name of America received? 
 
 652. How did the Spaniards treat the inhabitants of the newly discovered 
 
 countries ? 
 
 653. When and by whom was the continent of America explored ? 
 
 654. How long had the Mexican empire been founded at this time ? 
 055. Who was the sovereign of it ? 
 
QUESTIONS. 21 
 
 656. What was the result of the expedition against the Mexicans ? 
 
 657. Who and with what success attempted to supersede Cortez? 
 
 658. What became of Montezuma? 
 
 659. Who was his successor, and what became of him ? 
 
 660. When and by whom was an expedition undertaken against Peru ? 
 
 661. What are some of the most important circumstances that attended 
 
 this expedition ? 
 
 662. What became of D 1 Almagro and Pizarro ? 
 What constituted the principal value of the American Spanish pos- 
 sessions ? 
 
 663. 
 
 SECTION XLII. 
 
 '364. What effect had the success of the Spaniards on the other nations of 
 Europe ? 
 
 665. Who first settled Brazil, Florida, and Canada ? 
 
 666. From what did England derive her right to her American settle- 
 
 ments ? 
 
 667. Who first planted an English colony in America ? 
 
 668. How do those parts of America at first settled by British colonists 
 
 compare in natural richness with the Spanish possessions ? 
 
 SECTION XLIII. 
 
 669. What was the state of the fine arts in Europe in the time of Leo X. T 
 
 670. What was their progress ? 
 
 671. In what arts did the Italians excel ? 
 
 672. Who were some of the most distinguished Italian painters ? 
 
 673. Who were some of the most distinguished Italian sculptors ? 
 
 674. When is the invention of engraving on copper dated ? 
 
 SECTION XLIV. 
 
 675. What is the character of the Turks in the fifteenth century ? 
 
 676. From whom did the Turks take the island of Rhodes ? 
 
 677. From what ancient nation are derived the principles of maritime ju- 
 
 risprudence existing among modern nations ? 
 
 678. What conquests did the Turks make in the sixteenth century? 
 
 SECTION XLV. 
 
 679. What occasioned a revolution in Persia in the latter part of the fif- 
 
 teenth century ? 
 
 680. What is the government of Persia ? 
 
 681. From what country have proceeded the conquerors who occasioned 
 
 the principal revolutions of Asia ? 
 
 682. What singular phenomenon does the kingdom of Thibet exhibit ? 
 
 SECTION XLVI. 
 
 683. Who has furnished the earliest accounts of India ? 
 
 684. How do those accounts compare with the present condition of the 
 
 Hindoos ? 
 
 685. When did the Mahometans begin an establishment in India? 
 
 686. What was the condition of the Mogul empire m the beginning of th« 
 
 eighteenth century ? 
 
 687. Who conquered and obtained possession of the Mogul empire about 
 
 the middle of the eighteenth century ? 
 
 SECTION XL VII. 
 
 688. How have the remains of the ancient knowledge of the Hindoos bee© 
 
 preserved ? 
 
28 QUESTIONS. 
 
 689. How has the boily of Hindoo people been divided ? 
 
 690. What inference is to be drawn from this classification of the Hindoos, 
 
 as to their early civilization ? 
 
 691. What was the civil policy of the Hindoos in the time of Alexander 
 
 the great? 
 
 B92. What is the antiquity of some Hindoo compositions lately trans- 
 lated f 
 
 693. What is the antiquity of seme numerical tables lately obtained front 
 the Bramins by M. Gentil ? 
 
 6*94- What do the writings of the Hindoo priests demonstrate ? 
 
 695. What is the religion of India generall}- ? 
 
 SECTION XLVIII. 
 
 £96. What is said of the laws and system of government in China? 
 
 697. When did the Tartars establish themselves permanently in the sov- 
 
 ereignty of China ? 
 
 698. When and by whom was the empire of Japan discovered? 
 399. Who carried on a beneficial trade with the people of Japan? 
 
 700. What caused this trade to be broken off? 
 
 701. Why is i± that the Dutch are still allowed to trade with the Japa- 
 
 SECTION XLIX. 
 
 "702. To whom does Sir William Jones trace the origin of the Chinese? 
 
 703. What is the government of China ? 
 
 704. ITow are honours bestowed in China? 
 
 705. What is the state of the sciences in China at this time ? 
 
 706. What arts in China are carried to great perfection ? 
 T'07. What are the morals of the Chinese ? 
 
 708. What Chinese writer is said to have produced a good system of mo- 
 
 rality ? 
 
 709. What is the religion of the emperor and the higher mandarins ? 
 
 SECTION L. 
 
 710. What was the opinion of Mr. Bailly concerning the arts and sciences 
 
 among the nations of the east ? 
 
 711. How long have they been stationary Avith the Chinese? 
 
 712. At how early a period are the Chaldeans represented to have been 
 
 an enlightened people ? 
 
 713. Is the opinion of Mr. Bailly well founded ? 
 
 SECTION LI. 
 
 714. Who took Calais from the English for the French ? 
 
 715. How long had it been in possession of the English? 
 
 716. What was the character of Philip II. ? 
 
 717. The government did he confer on the Prince of Orange? 
 
 718. For what purpose did he establish the Inquisition in those provinces.' 
 
 719. What led to the establishment of the republic of the seven united 
 
 provinces ? 
 
 720. What is the chief magistrate called ? 
 
 721 . What became of the Prince of Orange ? 
 
 722. Who aided this republic in obtaining independence ? 
 
 SECTION LIE 
 
 723. What was the government of the seven united provinces ? 
 
 724. What important evil is there in the constitution of the government ? 
 
 725. What was the authority of the chief magistrate ? 
 
QUESTIONS. 23 
 
 726. Who almost annihilated the republic ? 
 
 727. When was the Stadtholdership made hereditary? 
 
 SECTION LIII. 
 
 728. How was the loss of the Netherlands compensated to Philip II. ? 
 
 729. When did he take possession of Portugal ? 
 
 730. What naval enterprise engaged the attention of Philip? 
 
 731. What was the result of it? 
 
 732. What is the character of Philip ? 
 
 SECTION LIV. 
 
 733. What accelerated the progress of reformation in France ? 
 
 734. What two parties were engaged in a civil war in the latter part of 
 
 the sixteenth century ? 
 
 735. When was the massacre of St. Bartholomew ? 
 
 736. What was the character of Charles IX. of France ? 
 
 737. Who were his two immediate successors ? 
 
 738. What became of them ? 
 
 739. What great project was Henry IV. meditating, when assassinated ? 
 
 SECTION LV. 
 
 740. When did Elizabeth come to the throne of England ? 
 
 741. What was the state of the kingdom during her reign ? 
 
 742. What fixed a stain on Elizabeth's character ? 
 
 743. Under what pretence did Mary of Scots assume the arms and title of 
 
 queen of England ? 
 
 744. What form of religion became established in Scotland, in the reign of 
 
 Elizabeth ? 
 
 745. Who was a distinguished reformer in Scotland ? 
 
 746. Who were the two husbands of Mary? 
 
 747. How came Mary in the hands of Elizabeth ? 
 
 748. Under what pretence was Mary condemned and executed ? 
 
 749. How long wa| she a captive in England ? 
 
 750. At what age and when did Elizabeth die ? 
 
 SECTION LVI. 
 
 751. Who succeeded Elizabeth on the throne of England? 
 
 752. What rendered James unpopular with his subjects ? 
 
 753. What was the object of the gunpowder treason ? 
 
 754. By whom was the conspiracy formed ? 
 
 755. What was a favourite object with James ? 
 
 756. Who was his successor ? , 
 
 757. What were some of the principal subjects of dispute between Charles 
 
 and his parliaments ? 
 
 758. What caused the Scots to rebel and take up arms against the govern- 
 
 ment of Charles ? 
 
 759. What two distinguished individuals at this time were impeached by 
 
 the commons and beheaded? 
 
 760. What important occurrence was there at this time in Ireland ? 
 
 761. When the civil war commenced, who were on the side of the king, 
 
 and who on that of the parliament ? 
 
 762. Who directed the measures of the army of parliament ? 
 
 763. In what way was Cromwell able to procure the death of Charlet ? 
 
 764. When was he beheaded ? 
 
 765. How far were the proceedings of the commons jnstifiabl*? 
 
34 QUESTIONS. 
 
 SECTION LVII. 
 
 766. What part did the parliament of Scotland take in regard to the king ? 
 
 767. On what condition was Charles II. proclaimed king of Scotland ? 
 
 768. Who were the Covenanters of Scotland ? 
 
 769. What became of Charles II. when overcome by Cromwell? 
 
 770. What was the title of Cromwell ? 
 
 771. What was the character of his government? 
 
 772. At what age did he die, and who was his successor? 
 
 773. What was the parliament called that put to death king Charlei? 
 
 774. Under what circumstances and when was Charles II. restored ? 
 
 SECTION LVIII. 
 
 775. What was the character of Charles II. ? 
 
 776. When were the epithets of Whig and Tory first known, and how 
 
 were they applied? * 
 
 777. Who was the successor of Charles II. ? 
 
 778. What made him unpopular with his subjects ? 
 
 779. By what means was Charles removed from the throne ? 
 
 780. On whom was the crown then settled ? 
 
 781. What became of James ? 
 
 SECTION LIX. 
 
 782. To what period may the rudiments of the English constitution be 
 
 traced ? 
 78S. In whose reign was instituted the trial by jury ? 
 
 784. In whose reign did the Magna Charta originate ? 
 
 785. In whose reign was the act of Habeas Corpus passed ? 
 
 786. Of what does the parliament of Great Britain consist ? 
 
 787. Of what does the house of lords consist ? 
 
 788. Of what does the house of commons consist ? 
 
 789. What is the act of Habeas Corpus ? 
 
 SECTION LX. 
 
 790. How are the pecuniary supplies of the sovereign obtained ? 
 
 791. When did the English national debt arise? 
 792* What constitutes the Sinking Fund ? 
 
 793. Is it probable the debt will ever become extinct ? 
 
 SECTION LXI. 
 
 794. To what minister was France indebted for much of her good succew 
 
 in the reign of Lewis XIII. ? 
 
 795. What was the character of Lewis XIII. ? 
 
 796. What became the condition of the Protestants in the reigm of Lewis 
 
 XTII. ? 
 
 797. W 7 hen did he die ? 
 
 SECTION LXII. 
 
 798. What weak and despicable act did Philip III. commit ? 
 
 799. When did Portugal become an independent sovereignty ? 
 
 800. Who became her first king ? 
 
 801. What is said of Spain in the reigns of Philip III. and IV. ? 
 
 SECTION LXIII. 
 
 802. What was the condition of Germany when Charles V. abdicated th« 
 
 throne ? 
 
 803. What was then and for a long period afterwards a subject of conteo- 
 
 tton in Germany ? 
 
QUESTIONS. 25 
 
 804. What peace put a period to this contention ? 
 
 805. When did the peace of Westphalia take place ? 
 
 SECTION LXIV. 
 
 806. When did Lewis XIV. ccme to the throne of France? 
 
 807. At what a?e ? 
 
 808. V hat led to a civil war in the early part of his reign ? 
 
 809. V- hen did Mazarin die ? 
 
 810. What change took place in the affairs of France at this lime ? 
 
 611. What was reckoned one of the weakest and most impolitic measures 
 of Lewis XIV. ? 
 
 812. What was the state of the finances of France in the latter part of 
 
 the reign of Lewis XIV T . ? 
 
 813. What character is given of Lewis XIV. ? 
 
 814. At what age and when did he die ? 
 
 SECTION LXV. 
 
 815. What change took place iu the government of France, under the 
 
 Capet an race of kings ? 
 
 816. What power arose to limit and check the royal prerogative, in and 
 
 from the reign of Lewis XIII. $■ 
 
 817. What made the powers of parliament a constant subject of dispute ? 
 
 818. In what way was the crown of France to descend ? 
 
 819. What w s the established religion of France ? 
 
 820. What took place in the assembly of the Gallican church, in 1682? 
 
 SECTION LXVI. 
 
 821. What two distinguished characters in the north of Europe were 
 
 contemporary with Lewis XIV. ? 
 
 822. When is Russia said to have received Christianity ? 
 
 823. What sovereign first published a code of laws in Russia? 
 
 824. When was Siberia added to the Russian empire ? 
 
 825. When and how did Peter become master of the Russian empire? 
 
 826. How was (he early part of his life spent ? 
 
 827. What method did he adopt to improve himself in the sciences and 
 
 useful arts ? 
 
 828. When and at what age did Charles XII. come to the throne of Sweden? 
 
 829. At what age and with what success was his first campaign made ? 
 £30. What change did he effect in the government of Poland ? 
 
 821. By whom was he defeated? 
 
 832. Low many of his army remained to hiin after this defeat? 
 
 833. To what means did Charles then resort to regain his lost power ? 
 
 834. What became of Charles XII. ?' 
 
 835. W hen did Peter the Great die ? 
 
 SECTION LXVH. 
 
 836. Who were the principal philosophers in the seventeenth century ? 
 
 837. For what was Galileo imprisoned ? 
 
 838. What institutions were formed which contributed to the advance- 
 
 ment of science and the arts ? 
 
 839. What work of Newton contains the elements of all philosophy ? 
 
 840. What was Locke's theory concerning the human mind ? 
 
 841. What are some of the most distinguished poetical productions of 
 
 modern times ? 
 
 84 2. Who are some of the most eminent English Poets ? 
 
 843. Who were distinguished writers in history during the 16th and 17th 
 
 centuries ? 
 
 4 
 
26 QUESTIONS. 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 544. What constitutes the basis of the first historical records ? 
 
 845. How can we account for the fabulous relations of the first histo- 
 
 rians ? 
 
 846. From what period are the details in profane history to be received 
 
 as facts ? 
 
 847. What historical records are the most ancient as well as the most ra- 
 
 tional ? 
 
 848. What historical facts do they contain r not found in other history? 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 849. Who were the Israelites ? 
 
 850. Why were they suffered to be subdued by the Romans ? 
 
 851. In what condition do their descendants exist? 
 
 852. What circumstance illustrates the truth and inspiration of the pro- 
 
 phetic writings ? 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 853. How long before Herodotus did Moses live ? 
 
 854. What acknowledgment did Porphyry make as to the antiquity of 
 
 the writings of Moses ? 
 
 855. What pagan traditions confirm the truth of the Pentateuch ? 
 
 856. What is said of Zoroaster ? 
 
 857. What Jewish historian successfully vindicates the authority of the 
 
 Jewish scriptures ? 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 
 858. What are the principal facts recorded in the book of Genesis ? 
 
 859. What remarkable prophecy of Isaiah is there concernimg Cyrus? 
 
 860. And what one concerning Babylon? 
 
 861. What was the length of time from the giving of the law to Moses to 
 
 the reformation in worship and government of the Jews by N*he- 
 miah ? 
 
 862. What hereditary distinction of rank existed among the Jews? 
 
 863. What is said of Moses, El:sha, and Gideon ? 
 
 864. What internal undoubted characteristic of truth is therein the scrip- 
 
 tures ? 
 
 SECTION V. 
 
 865. When was the creation of the world accomplished ? 
 
 866. What was one of the most remarkable circumstances of the antedi- 
 
 luvians ? 
 
 867. How long did some of the oldest of them live ? 
 
 868. Why did the Almighty destroy the world by a deluge of water ? 
 86?>. Who were saved from it and by what means ? 
 
 870. Who were some of the first inventeTs of the useful arts? 
 
 SECTION VI. 
 
 871. What is said of the three sons of Noah? 
 
QUESTIONS. 27 
 
 872. What is the most important event between the deluge and the tail 
 
 of Abraham ? 
 
 873. Of what city was Babel the beginning ? 
 
 SECTION VII. 
 
 874. From whom do the Jews derive theii origin? 
 
 875. What relationship was there between Jacob and Abraham? 
 
 876. How came Joseph, the son of Jacob, to be in Egypt? 
 
 877. By what means was he made governor of Egypt ? 
 873. How came his father and brethren to remove thither? 
 
 879. How long did the Israelites remain in Egypt ? 
 
 880. What were some of the circumstances connected with their leaving 
 
 it? 
 
 881. How long after leaving Egypt did Moses die ? 
 
 SECTION VIII. 
 
 882. What caused a league to be formed between the Syrian chiefs? 
 
 883. Who was the successor of Moses in the government of Israel ? 
 8H4. How were the Israelites governed alter the death of Joshua? 
 
 885. Who were the two last Judges of Israel ? 
 
 886. What change took place in the government on the death of Samuel ? 
 
 SECTION IX. 
 
 887. What was the original government of Israel called ? 
 
 888. What moral and political change took place on the death of Joshua^ 
 
 in the condition of Israel ? 
 
 889. Why was the regal government introduced ? 
 
 SECTION X. 
 
 890. How long did Saul reign over Israel? 
 
 891. By what means was David raised to the throne as his successor? 
 
 892. What prosperous events characterized the reign of David? 
 
 893. What adverse ones characterized it ? 
 
 894. How long did David reign, and who succeeded him ? 
 
 895. What is the most remarkable event in the reign of Solomon ? 
 
 896. What books are ascribed to him ? 
 
 897. Under what circumstances was the kingdom divided? 
 
 898. By what names were, the two kingdoms subsequently to this division 
 
 called ? 
 
 899. What became of the ten tribes who constituted the kingdom of Is- 
 
 rael ? 
 
 900. Whence sprang the Samaritans? 
 
 901. When and in what manner ended the kingdom of Judah? 
 
 SECTION XI. 
 
 902. How long were the Jews held captive in Babylon ? 
 
 903. By whom were they released ? 
 
 904. From what time and circumstance were the Israelites called Jews ? 
 
 905. What caused Alexander the great to march to Jerusalem with hos- 
 
 tile intentions ? 
 
 906. By what means was he appeased ? 
 
 907. What favours did he then bestow on them ? 
 
 908. What advantage did Ptolemy take of the regard which the Jewspaic! 
 
 to the Sabbath ? * 
 
 909. In what manner did the five brothers named Maccabeus become dis- 
 
 tinguished ? 
 
 910. Who was their father ? 
 
28 QUESTIONS. 
 
 911. When and by whom were the Jews subjected to the Romans ? 
 
 912. Who was then placed on the throne of David under the protection 
 
 of the Romans ? 
 
 913. By what memorable event was the reign of Herod distinguished ? 
 9 b). By whom and when was the Jewish nation extinguished ? 
 
 915. How many Jews are supposed to have perished in their last war 
 with the Romans ? 
 
 SECTION XII. 
 
 91b\ What is the period of scriptural history ? 
 
 917. Where is it supposed that the Jews obtained their knowledge of the 
 
 arts and sciences ? 
 913. What was the state of commerce among; the Jews? 
 919. With what inference does Tytler conclude his. work on history? 
 
 CONTINUATION, OR PART THIRD. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 920. What was the age of Lewi* XV. when the crown of France descend- 
 
 ed to him ? 
 
 921. When and what heirs to the crown of France, died within a few 
 
 mouths ? 
 
 922. What made it necessary for France on the death of Lewis XIV. to 
 
 preserve .peace with foreign states? 
 
 923. Who was regent of France during the minority of Lewis XV. ? 
 
 924. What distinguished minister was at the court of Spain, in this 
 
 period ? 
 
 925. What was the character of the duke of Orleans, the regent of 
 
 Fiance ? 
 920. By what means were the duchies of Lorrain and Bar made to revert 
 to France ? 
 
 SECTION II. 
 927. Who succeeded queen Anne on the throne of Britain ? 
 920. What acts o[ parliament had passed connected with the accession 
 of G-eorge I. concerning religion ? 
 
 929. When did he enter his new dominions ? 
 
 930. How did the rebellion of 1715 in Scotland, terminate? 
 
 931. By what name were the adherents to the Pretender called ? 
 
 932. By what name was the party called to which George I. committed 
 
 the government of the realm ? 
 
 933. Who was king of Sweden at this time ? 
 
 934. For what purpose and by whom was he nearly instigated to invade 
 
 Britain ? 
 
 935. What ruined the prospects of Alberoni ? 
 
 936. In what way did he attempt obtaining revenge ? 
 
 937. Why did he not succeed ? 
 
 933. At what age and when did George I. die ? 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 939. When did Charles VI. become emperor of Austria and Germany ? 
 
 940. Who was the Austrian commander in the first war of Charles VI, 
 
 with the Turks ? 
 
QUESTIONS. 29 
 
 941. What arrangement did he make for the descent of the Austrian 
 
 crown ? 
 
 942. What was this arrangement or his act in making it called ? 
 
 943. When did Charles VI. die, and who succeeded him ? 
 
 944. Was she permitted to enjoy unmolested the dominions descended to 
 
 her ? 
 
 945. What circumstances were calculated to raise up competitors for dif- 
 
 ferent parts of her estates ? 
 
 946. Who was the most forward and active of the queen's opponents? 
 
 947. What prevented the competitors of the queen from succeeding in 
 
 obtaining their claims ? 
 940. Which one of them succeeded in obtaining the imperial crown in 
 1741 ? 
 
 949. How long after this did he live ? 
 
 950. On his death who obtained the imperial crown ? 
 
 951. When did the peace of Aix-ia-Chapelle take place ? 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 
 952. At what time and age did George II. come to the throne of Fug- 
 
 land ? 
 
 953. Who was his queen ? 
 
 954. Who was prime minis* er of England at this time ? 
 
 955. What caused him to r< sign? 
 
 956. Upon what two occasions had his views been thwarted ? 
 
 957. When did he die ? 
 
 958. What interesting event occurred in Scotland the same year? 
 
 959. What was the object of the insurrection in Scotland ? 
 
 960. In what battle were the hopes of the Stuart family for ever blasted ? 
 96 V. What became of the heir of this family after that buttle? 
 
 962. What is considered the most melancholy circumstance attending 
 
 the Scottish rebellion ? 
 90". What singular art of parliament was passed in the year 1751 ? 
 
 964. When and at what age did George II. die ? 
 
 SECTION V. 
 
 965. By what treaty wag the house of Hanover .effectually established 
 
 on the British throne ? 
 
 966. How was the British naval force 1. ft by tins treaty compared with 
 
 the naval forces of other Euraptan nations? 
 
 967. What did Austria lose by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapi lie ? 
 
 968. What did Prussia gain by it ? 
 
 969. How did it effect Holland ? 
 
 970. By what means was Russia introduced into the southern states of 
 
 Europe ? 
 
 SECTION VI. 
 
 971. What became a subject of jealousy and future warfare, after the 
 
 peace of Aix-Ia-Ohapelle, between France and England ? 
 
 972. In what respect did the peace of Europe, in 1748, extend to Asia 
 
 and America ? 
 
 973. W 7 hat French governor in the East. Indies attempted to bring the 
 
 Mogul empire under the dominion of France? 
 
 974. In what way did the French in America gain an advantage over the 
 
 English ? 
 
 975. When did the French war in America commence ? 
 
 976. What number of French merchant vessels was captured and car- 
 
 ried into the English ports the first year of the war? 
 
30 QUESTIONS. 
 
 977. When the war was extended to Europe, what powers arranged 
 
 themselves against each other ? 
 973. Who was king of Prussia at this time ? 
 
 979. What is his character ? 
 
 980. What has this war been termed ? 
 
 981. How many men have been supposed to have perished annually in 
 
 the campaigns of it ? 
 
 982. 'What advantage did the English gain in America? 
 
 983. What new ally did France obtain in the year of 1761 ? 
 
 984. What induced him to join the league against England? 
 
 985. What advantages did England gain by this war ? 
 
 986. What change in the ministry of England contributed to the peace ? 
 
 SECTION VII. 
 
 987. When did George III. succeed to the throne of Britain ? 
 
 988. What was one of his first acts which showed him to be the friend 
 
 of liberty ? 
 939. What gave rise to distressing tumults in the year 1762? 
 
 990. How did the measures of lord Bute differ from those of Mr. Pitt? 
 
 991. What contributed to make the first years of George III. unquiet? 
 
 992. What besides public addresses and remonstrances contributed to the 
 
 popular fervour and agitation of public feeling at this period? 
 
 993. What constitutional question came under discussion at this time? 
 
 994. For what is the year 1764 remarkable ? 
 
 SECTION VIII. 
 
 99. r >. What was the pretence for taxing the American colonies ? 
 
 996. What was the first instance of imposing direct taxes without their 
 
 consent ? 
 
 997. When was this imposed ? 
 
 993. When was it formally repealed ? 
 
 999. What reason is there for supposing that the Americans did not con- 
 template independence when they first made opposition to the 
 British government ? 
 
 1000. How long was it after the passing of the stamp act before the com- 
 
 mencement of hostilities ? 
 
 1001. When and where was American independence declared? 
 
 1002. Who were sent to France, and when, to solicit aid for the Ameri- 
 
 cans ? 
 
 1003. What other powers besides that of France, united against England ? 
 
 1004. When did Great Britain ratify the treaty which admitted the Amer- 
 
 ican independence ? 
 
 SECTION IX. 
 
 1005. Who laid the foundation for the French revolution ? 
 
 lO'Jo. Why were the Jesuits banished from Portugal in the year 1750 ? 
 
 1007. What charge was attempted to be fixed on them at Paris, subse- 
 
 quent to this ? 
 
 1008. When was the order of Jesuits abolished in France ? 
 
 1009. Fpbai what other countries were they expelled, and when? 
 
 1010. Whom did the dauphin of France, afterwards Lewis XIV. marry? 
 
 10 11. When did he come to the throne ? 
 
 10 J 2. When was an alliance formed between the court of Versailles and 
 America? 
 
 1013. Who were the most eminent friends of liberty in the British parlia- 
 
 ment? 
 
 1014. What, at this time, produced an extraordinary crTVct on the Pari- 
 
 sians, affainst the extravagance of the French court ? 
 
atTESTIONS. 31 
 
 1015. What particular difficulties had the king to encounter ? 
 
 1016. What, in the year 1733, tended to hasten the French revolution 
 
 and bring 1 matters to a crisis ? 
 
 1017. Who first called for the states-general ? 
 
 10113. Who was in the French ministry when the states-general was call- 
 ed? 
 
 SECTION X. 
 
 1019. What inconsistency was there in the conduct of Maria Theresa con- 
 
 cerning Poland ? 
 
 1020. What led to a war between Austria and Prussia, in the year 1778? 
 
 1021. What part did Austria take in regard to the war for American in- 
 
 dependence ? 
 
 1022. When and at what asre did Maria Theresa die ? 
 
 SECTION XI. 
 
 1023. How long before the death of his mother, Maria Theresa, did Jo- 
 
 seph II. come to the imperial throne of Austria? 
 
 1024. In what manner did he labour to acquire the information needful to 
 
 his subjects ? 
 
 1025. What was the population of his dominions ? 
 
 1020. What important edict was passed by him, October 31, 1781 ? 
 
 1027. When did the Netherlands declare themselves independent of Aus- 
 
 tria ? 
 
 1028. When did Joseph II. die, and by whom was he succeeded? 
 
 1029. How long did Leopold reign ? 
 
 1030. Who succeeded him and when ? 
 
 1031. What evil did he experience from taking part against the French 
 
 revolutionists ? 
 K)32. By whom were the Austrians assisted against the French in the 
 war of 1799 ? 
 
 SECTION XII. 
 
 1033. When was the states-general assembled ? 
 
 1034. What was the French state prison called ? 
 
 1035. What became of it ? 
 
 1036. How many families were there at this time in France of the ancient 
 
 hereditary nobility ? 
 
 1037. In what way did the king attempt to rescue himself from the re- 
 
 straints imposed on him ? 
 
 1038. When was the national assembly dissolved ? 
 
 1039. What prevented Sweden and Russia from engaging in hostilities 
 
 against the French ? 
 
 1040. What furnished the demagogues with opportunity for charging the 
 
 king with makinsr war upon his people ? 
 
 1041. What has this period of the French history been called ? 
 
 1042. Who was at the head of affairs in France ? 
 
 1043. How many, suspected of being aristocrats, were assassinated on the 
 
 second of September? 
 
 1044. When was the king brought to trial ? 
 
 1045. When was he executed ? 
 
 1046. Into how many factions were the revolutionists divided, and what 
 
 were they called ? 
 
 1047. Which one triumphed ? 
 
 1048. What became of the qy,een of France ? 
 
3^ QUESTIONS. 
 
 SECTION XIII. 
 
 1049. What change took place in the ministry of Great Britain after the 
 
 peace with America? 
 K>50. Who succeeded Mr. Fox in the British ministry? 
 
 1051. What is the Sinking: Fund of Great Britain? 
 
 1052. What important prosecution was undertaken at this time by the 
 
 British parliament ? 
 
 1053. Kovv long did it last, and -what was its result ? 
 
 1054. When wa? the attention of the house of commons first called to the 
 
 slave trade ? 
 
 1055. When was it abolished ? 
 
 1056. What event compelled the British parliament to meet on the 20th 
 
 of November, 1780? 
 t057. What occurrence arose to threaten war between England and 
 Spain, in the year 1790? 
 
 1058. What led to the declaration of war against the king of Great 
 
 Britain, by France, in the year 1793? 
 
 1059. Y\ ith what success was the war prosecuted ? 
 
 1060. V\ h;.t important occurrence took place in Ireland, 1798 ? 
 
 1061. What important event to Ireland succeeded the suppression of the 
 
 rebellion ? 
 
 1062. What took place in India during the last year of the eighteenth 
 
 century ? 
 
 1063. What led to the peace of Amiens, between France and England, 
 
 October 1st, 1801 ? 
 
 SECTION XIV. 
 
 1064. What was the situation of France towards the close of the vear 
 
 1793? 
 
 1065. What took place on the 17th of November, 1793? 
 1060. What alteration was there made in the calendar? 
 
 1067. When and where did Napoleon Bonaparte first distinguish himself? 
 
 1068. What 1 ecame of Robespierre ? 
 
 1069. What was the government of France, established and proclaimed 
 
 in 1795? 
 
 1070. What were the affairs of France externally at this time ? 
 
 1071. W ho were some other most distinguished generals? • 
 1* -7 2. What territories were add< d to the French republic? 
 1,073. What became of Lewis XV ii. ? 
 
 SECTION XV. 
 
 1074. When did Bonaparte receive the chief command of the French 
 
 army in Italy? 
 10F75. What was his age at that time ? 
 
 1076. On the. reduction of Mantua, what did he state to his soldiers had 
 
 be< is their success ? 
 
 1077. Why were the Venetians unwilling to take part either with the 
 
 Austrians or French"? 
 
 1078. Of what dishonourable conduct was Bonaparte guilty, in relation 
 
 to the \\ netians ? 
 
 1079. What took place on the 4th and 5th of September, 1797? 
 
 1080. Upon what expedition did Bonaparte enter, in the year 1798? 
 
 1081. V\ hat success i id he have in this expedition ? 
 
 1032. W hat lessened his triumph and gave a new torn to the war? 
 1083. What change tooic place in the French government on Bonaparte's 
 return from Egrynt? 
 
I QUESTIONS. S3 
 
 1084. When, by whom and with what result was the battle of Mareu»- 
 fought ? 6 
 
 35. When and between whom was the treaty of Luneville signed ? 
 86. When and between whom was the treaty of Amiens signed ? 
 1087. What was the French power, and what were her possessions at this 
 time ? 
 
 SECTION XVI. 
 33. What regulation did Bonaparte make for religion in France ? 
 !9. What took place on the 2d of August, 1802? 
 X). What led to a renewal of hostilities between France and Fn°dand 
 
 1803? 
 H, On the renewal of hostilities, what security did Bonaparte take for 
 
 the future good conduct of England ? 
 
 1092. What military enterprise did he projject? 
 
 1093. What took place on the 18th of May, and the 2d of December 
 
 1804? 
 
 1094. Why did general Moreau come to America ? 
 
 1095. What induced Russia, Prussia, and Austria, to unite in hostilities 
 
 against Napoleon ? 
 
 1096. What veok place on the 21st of October, 1805? 
 
 1097. After what battle did the emperor of Austria solicit peace ? 
 
 1098. What appeared to lead to the exaltation of Joseph Bonaparte to 
 
 the throne of Naples ? 
 
 1099. What change took place in the government of Holland, in 1806? 
 
 1 100. What change took place, in the same year, in the political condition 
 
 of Germany ? 
 
 1101. How came Bonaparte to be in Berlin, in November, of this year? 
 VfDS, What extraordinary decree did he dictate, while there? 
 
 1103. What concessions did the enapetor of Russia make to the French 
 
 emperor in the treaty of Tilsit? 
 
 SECTION XVII. 
 
 1104. When did Charles IV. come to the th'-one of France ? 
 
 3 1**5- What caused the Spaniards, in 1798, to invade France? 
 1 106. V hat was Jhe consequerfce of this invasion to Spain? 
 
 1105. By what means did St.. Domingo fall into the hands of the French ? 
 
 1108. What led to the war between England and Rpain in 1805? 
 
 1 109. Why did the royal family of Portugal remove to Vmerica, and when ? 
 
 1110. On what account was Ferdinand arrested and imprisoned by the 
 
 Spanish authorities ? 
 
 1111. By what means was the Spanish throne declared vacant and 
 
 Jos. J h Bonaparte proclaimed king of Spain ? 
 
 1112. What foreign power aided Spain and Portugal, against the French? 
 
 1113. In what battle were the French beaten and compelled to evacuate 
 
 Portugal ? 
 
 1114. When and under whom did the British army enter Spain ? 
 
 1115. What became of Sir John Moore ? 
 
 1116. When did Sir Arthur Weilesley, with fresh troops from England 
 
 enter Spain ? 
 
 1117. For what service was he raised to a peerage ? 
 
 1118. What battle caused the gates of Madrid to be thrown open to the 
 
 Spanish patriots in 1812? 
 
 1119. When was the battle of Vittoria fought? 
 
 1120. What were the consequences of it to the French? 
 
 SECTION XVIII 
 
 1121. What was the partition treaty between France and Spain ? 
 
 Zz2 5 
 
34 QUESTIONS. 
 
 112-2. What was the Milan decree? 
 
 1 123. Who was created king of Naples when Joseph Bonaparte removed 
 
 to Spain ? 
 
 1124. How long did the war of Austria last, which commenced in 1809? 
 
 1125. On what condition was Austria ablp to obtain pence ? 
 
 1 126. When did Bonaparte's second marriage take place ? 
 
 1 127. When was the war renewed with Russia ? 
 
 1128. With how large an army did Bonaparte invade Russia, in 1812? 
 
 1129. What was the success of this expedition ? 
 
 1130. With what force did he commence hostilities in 1813? 
 
 ! 131. What battle completely discomfited the French emperor? 
 
 1132. When did the allies pass the Rhine ? 
 
 1133. When did they reach Paris ? 
 
 1134. On what conditions was Bonaparte permitted to abdicate the French 
 
 throne ? 
 4135. When did the Bourbons return to Paris? 
 
 SECTION XIX. 
 
 1130. From what cause had Poland suffered much ? 
 
 1 137. What change did Charles XII. make in the state of Poland ? 
 
 1138. By the aid of whose power was the family of Augustus kept upon 
 
 the throne of Poland during the first half of the eighteenth cen- 
 tury ? 
 
 1139. Who succeeded Augustus III. and when ? 
 
 1 140. What interna' dispute greatly distracted Poland at this time ? 
 
 1141. With whom did the plan of dismembering Poland, originate ? 
 
 1142. What reasons were given by the partitioning powers for the dis- 
 
 memberment of Poland ? 
 
 1143. Did the Poles willingly acquiesce in the measure ? 
 
 1144. When was the division actually agreed upon and sanctioned by the 
 
 Polish diet ? 
 
 1145. When did a second partition take place, and when a third? 
 
 1 146. What became of Stanislaus, the last king of Poland ? 
 
 1147. When and by whom was the kingdom declared re-established? 
 
 1148. What is the present political condition of it? 
 
 SECTION XX. 
 
 1149. When were hostilities renewed by England against France? 
 
 1150. What caused Spain also to be involved with Great Britain ? 
 
 1151. How did the English violate the rules of justice in regard to Spain ? 
 What splendid victory did the English obtain over the French 
 and Spanish, in 1805 ? 
 
 1 152. Of what act of injustice were the English judged guilty towards the 
 Danes ? 
 
 1153. What caused the royal family of France to take refuge in England, 
 in 1307? 
 
 1154. What were the English orders in council issued in January and No- 
 vember, 1807? 
 
 1155. When was the prince of Wales appointed regent of Great Britain? 
 
 1156. Why was he appointed? 
 
 1 157. What distinguished personage was assassinated in the month of May, 
 1812? 
 
 1158. What interesting event took place in England, in May, 1816 ? 
 
 1159. By what melancholy event was it succeeded in November of the 
 following year ? 
 
 U60. When did George III. die? 
 
QUESTIONS. 3* 
 
 SECTION XXI. 
 
 1161. How did the French army feel toward the emperor Napoleon, after 
 
 he was exiled ? 
 
 1162. When did Bonaparte land in. France, on his return from Elba? 
 
 1163. When did he enter Paris? 
 
 1164. Whem was the battle of Waterloo fought, which for ever terminat- 
 
 ed his prospects ? 
 
 1165. When did he arrive at St. Helena, to which he was banished? 
 
 1166. What resolution was adopted by the allied military commanders in 
 
 relation to the works of art, which the French had collected in 
 former victories ? 
 
 1167. What precaution did the allies adopt to prevent future revolutions 
 
 in that country ? 
 
 SECTION XXII. 
 
 1168. Who were the three immediate successors of Peter I. upon the 
 
 throne of Russia? 
 
 1169. How long after the death of her father did the princess Elizabeth 
 
 come to the throne ? 
 
 1 170. How long did she reign, and who succeeded her ? 
 
 1171. What became of Peter III. ? 
 
 1172. What was the character of Catharine II. his widow, who succeed- 
 
 ed ? 
 
 1173. When did Alexander, the present emperor of Russia, come to the 
 
 throne ? 
 
 1174. What became of his predecessor ? 
 
 1175. How long has Prussia existed as a kingdom? 
 
 1176. How many kings have reigned over it? 
 
 1177. Which of them did most toward raising the kingdom to the first 
 
 degree of power and renown ? 
 
 1178. What two factions were there in Sweden in the reign of Frederick? 
 
 1179. How long did Gustavus III. reign? 
 
 1180. How did he come by his death ? 
 
 1181. Why did Gustavus IV. abdicate the throne ? 
 
 1 182. Who is the present king of Sweden ? 
 
 1183. When did he come to the throne ? 
 
 1184. How many kings have reigned in Denmark since the close of the 
 
 seventeenth century ? 
 
 1185. In what war was Christian VII. connected with George III. of Eng- 
 
 land ? 
 
 1186. Why did his queen, Caroline Matilda, retire to, and end her days 
 
 in Germany ? 
 
 1187. Who is the present king of Denmark ? 
 
 SECTION XXIII. 
 
 1188. In what disputes was Switzerland involved during the first part of 
 
 the 18th century ? 
 
 1189. Which of the popes of Rome suppressed the order of Jesuits? 
 
 1190. Who was rasied to the papal chair in 1775? 
 
 1191. At what age, when, and where did he die? 
 
 1192. How came he at Valence ? 
 
 1193. When was hi3 successor chosen, and by what name is he called? 
 
 1194. When did he aid in establishing the catholic religion in France ? 
 
 1195. What injury did he afterwards receive from France ? 
 
 SECTION XXIV. 
 
 1196. WTio was the reigning prince of India in the beginning of the 18th 
 
 century ? 
 
36 QUESTIONS. 
 
 1197. To what age did he live? 
 
 1 198. In what manner did he come to the throne ? 
 
 1199. What singular fact is mentioned as evidence of the contention! 
 
 common for the throne, with. that semi-barbarous people? 
 
 1200. What chartered privilege has the English East India Company 
 
 with this people ? 
 
 1201. When did the Company receive this privilege? 
 
 1202. What description of this people is called Sepoys ? 
 
 1203. Who is regarded as the founder of the British empire in India? 
 
 1204. When did the British parliament make provision to prevent abuses 
 
 of power in India ? 
 
 1205. What distinguished individuals were instrumental in the first re- 
 
 forms under the new system ? 
 
 1206. What is the reason why this system was not scrupulously adhered 
 
 to ? 
 
 1207. What was the object of Tippoo in regard to the English ? 
 
 1208. Eor what object was the East India College established? 
 
 1209. What is the population of British India? 
 
 STATE OF ARTS, SCIENCES, RELIGION, LAWS, GOVERN- 
 MENT, kc. 
 
 1210. W T hat countries have been particularly distinguished in literature, 
 
 arts, and science, in the 18th century ? 
 
 1211. Which of the sciences in particular have been much cultivated and 
 
 advanced in that time ? 
 
 1212. In what particulars has chemistry undergone important changes ia 
 
 the latter part of the 18th century ? 
 
 1213. Who claim to be the authors of the new theory of chemistry ? 
 
 1214. What is now ascertained to be the nature of atmospheric air? 
 
 1215. By whom was the discovery of vital air, or oxygen gas, made ? 
 
 1216. To what branch of chemistry is the discovery of the decomposition 
 
 of water owing ? 
 
 1217. W r ho discovered the constituent parts or principles of water? 
 
 1218. What are they called ? 
 
 1219. Who are some of the most distinguished chemists of the 18th cen- 
 
 tury ? 
 
 BOTANY. 
 
 1220. W T here and when was Linnaeus born ? 
 
 1221. What is the foundation of his systematic botany ? 
 
 1222. With how many species of plants are botanists now said to be ac- 
 
 quainted ? 
 
 1223. What French botanist has done much for the benefit of the science ? 
 
 1224. What is the. difference between the system of Linnaeus and that of 
 
 Jussieu ? 
 
 ELECTRICITY. 
 
 1225. Who were some of the persons who first wrote learnedly on the 
 
 subject of electricity? 
 
 1226. Who proved that the electric fluid and lightning are the same 
 
 thing ? 
 
 1227. To what practical purposes did he apply this ? 
 
 1228. Of whom was Galvanism the discovery ? 
 
 1229. What is Galvanism called? 
 
 1230. What English philoeopherhas become much celebrated for his elec- 
 
 tro-chemical researches ? 
 
question ar 
 
 MINERALOGY ANI; GEOLOGY; 
 
 1231. When did the modern scientific arrangements of minerals begin to 
 
 occupy the attention of naturalists ? 
 
 1232. Who has the credit of reducing- the science into classes and orders* 
 
 1233. From what did geology arise ? 
 
 1234. What is geology ? 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 1235. What two new quarters of the world have been presented to us, t« 
 
 the last century, according to the French geographers ? 
 
 1236. What does Australasia include ? 
 
 1237. What does Polynesia include ? 
 
 1233. What took place in 1761, in evidence of the improvements in civili- 
 zation ? 
 
 1239. What eminent Prussian traveller has contributed to the perfection 
 
 of geographical knowledge ? 
 
 1240. From what period have the Russian sovereigns made laudable ef- 
 
 forts to obtain correct geographical information ? 
 
 1241. Has the science of astronomy undergone as great changes as the 
 
 other sciences named during the last century ? 
 
 1242. How many planets have been discovered in that time ? 
 
 1243. What fact is stated from which we can form some conjecture of the 
 
 number of fixed stars ? 
 
 1244. What French writer did much to unsettle the minds of his country- 
 
 men on religion and politics ? 
 
 1245. From whom has it been supposed that Voltaire imbibed his deistical 
 
 sentiments ? 
 
 1246. Who were the principal deistical writers of England ? 
 
 1247. What counteracted the tendency of their writings ? 
 
 1248. W T hat other eminent French philosopher visited England, besides 
 
 Voltaire, about the same time ? 
 
 1249. To what did he principally confine his views ? 
 
 1250. What were the political opinions of Rousseau ? 
 
 1251. What was the origin of the French Encyclopedia ? 
 
 1252,. What courts of Europe were thrown open to the French philoso- 
 phers ? 
 
 1253. Is it to be supposed that the French philosophers, to whom the rev- 
 
 olution has been imputed, contemplated the awful catastrophe 
 of that event? 
 
 1254. Who was chieily instrumental in introducing the improvements of 
 
 the 18th century into Russia ? 
 
 DISCOVERIES AND INVENTIONS. 
 
 1255. What are the principal discoveries and inventions of modern times ? 
 
 1256. What effect had the French revolution on the people of other coun- 
 
 tries ? 
 
 1257. What moral improvements have taken place in the condition of va- 
 
 rious civilized nations ? 
 
 RELIGION. 
 
 1258. In what countries does paganism prevail ? 
 
 1259. What is the present condition of the Jews ? 
 
 1260. Where does Mahometanism prevail ? 
 
 1261. What are the principal sects of the Christian religion ? 
 1202. What sects have been mo** active as missionaries? 
 
 4 
 
38 QUESTIONS. 
 
 1263. What change has the papal authority experienced in the time un- 
 
 der consideration ? 
 
 HISTORY, POLITE LITERATURE, FINE ARTS, &c. 
 
 1264. What Germans have been distinguished in literature, and the fioe 
 
 arts ? 
 
 1265. Who in France ? 
 
 1266. Who in Great Britain ? 
 
 1267. Who ;u Italy ? 
 
 TREATY OF VIENNA, 1815. 
 1263. What addition of territory was given to Russia, and what new ti- 
 tle to the Czar ? 
 
 1269. What is to be the condition of Cracow? 
 
 1270. How did this treaty affect Saxony ? 
 T271. How did it affect Prussia? 
 
 1272. What change took place in the Netherlands^ 
 
 PART FOURTH. 
 
 UNITED STATES. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 1273. When and by whom was America discovered ? 
 
 1274. Under whose patronage was it discovered ? 
 
 1275. What part of it was discovered first? 
 
 1276. Why were the islands first discovered called the West Indies ? 
 
 1277. Why was the continent called America? 
 
 1278. How long time after Columbus sailed from the Canaries - before be* 
 
 reached St. Salvador ? 
 
 1279. To what governments did he apply for patronage without success ? 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 1280. By whom and when was the continent of North America discover 
 
 ed? 
 
 1281. On what account did Virginia derive its name? 
 
 1282. Who made the first attempt to colonize this part of the continent? 
 
 1283. To whom did Sir Walter Raleigh afterward assign his interest in 
 
 the country ? 
 
 1284. F'om what did James river take its name ? 
 
 1285. On what account did capt. John Smith obtain his first release from 
 
 the Indians ? 
 K286. Who effected his second release from them ? 
 
 1287. On what account was the cultivation of the soil neglected by thfi 
 
 first colonists ? 
 
 1288. What is the history of Pocahontas subsequent to- saving the life of 
 
 capt. Smith ? 
 
 1289. Who first brought the African negroes into this part of the country i 
 
 1290. What part did the Virginians take in relation to the revolution of 
 
 • the mother country under Cromwell ? 
 KX9\. 1 Tiat was thft population of Virginia, in 1686 > 
 
QUESTIONS. 89 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 1292. What was the origin of the Plymouth colony ? 
 
 1293. When was the settlement made ? 
 
 1294. Of how many persons did the colony at first consist? 
 
 1295. Of how many did it consist ten years afterwards ? 
 
 1296. How many emigrants came to Massachusetts, in the year 1630 ? 
 
 1297. What led to the first settlement of Rhode Island and Provideoo* 
 
 plantations ? 
 
 1298. Who laid the foundation of Hartford, Springfield, and Weathers- 
 
 field ? 
 
 1299. When and by whom was New-Hampshire first settled ? 
 
 1300. When did a systematic warfare commence between the Englisfc 
 
 and Indians ? 
 
 1301. What number of British subjects had settled in New-England, np 
 
 to 1633? 
 
 1302. What instances of religious persecution took place in Massachusetts, 
 
 about the middle of the 17th century? 
 
 1303. When and what were the particulars of the Salem witchcraft ? 
 
 1304. When was Harvard college founded? 
 
 1305. From whom did Maryland derive its name, and by whom was ft 
 
 first settled ? 
 
 1306. By whom was New-York first settled ? 
 
 1307. When was it surrendered to the English ? 
 
 1308. By whom and under what circumstances was Pennsylvania settled? 
 
 1309. When and by whom was Georgia settled ? 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 
 1310. What settlements had the French in America? 
 
 1311. In what way did France endeavour to confine the English witfrki 
 
 narrow limits, or to drive them from the continent? 
 
 1312. When, and what method did the Virginia assembly adopt to sup-* 
 
 port the English claims, over the disputed territory ? 
 
 1313. When and with what force was general Braddock sent over to sup- 
 
 port these claims ? 
 
 1314. What was the success of Braddock's expedition ? 
 
 1315. How many campaigns were attended only with expense and disap- 
 
 pointment to the English ? 
 
 1316. What led to a change in English prospects ? 
 
 1317. What celebrated English general was killed in the capture oi 
 
 Quebec ? 
 
 1318. How many soldiers did the colonies furnish in the French war? 
 
 1319. When was the British stamp act passed? 
 
 1320. Where in the colonies was it first opposed ? 
 
 1321. Which of the colonies proposed a continental congress to be hoklea 
 
 at New- York ? 
 
 1322. When was the law repealed ? 
 
 3323. What bill was passed on the repeal of this ? 
 
 1324. What disturbances took place at Boston, in 1763 ? 
 
 1825. What change took place on the elevation of Lord North? 
 
 1326. What disturbances took place in Boston, in March 1770? 
 
 1327. What took place in 1773 ? 
 
 1328. What resistance was made, 1773, in Boston, to the British govern- 
 
 ment in relation to tea ? 
 
 1329. Who was the British commander-in-chief in Boston, at this time? 
 
 1330. What took place at the congress of 1774, holden in Philadelphia ? 
 
 1331. Where and under what circumstances was spilt the first blood of 
 
 the revolutionary war ? 
 1332- What led to the burning of Charlestown ? 
 
40 QUESTIONS. 
 
 1333. Who Leaded an expedition into Canada? 
 
 1334. With what success was it made ? 
 
 1335. By whom was general Cage superseded ? 
 
 1336. When did the British evacuate Boston? 
 
 1337. When was published the declaration of American Independence? 
 
 1338. What tended much to raise the desponding hopes of America in 
 
 the latter part of 1776 ? 
 
 1339. What splendid advantages did the Americans gain in 1777 ? 
 
 1340. When was a treaty of alliance formed between the French and 
 
 Americans ? 
 
 1341. Who took the command of the English army on the return of gen- 
 
 eral Howe ?- 
 
 1342. Why was general Lee suspended ? 
 
 1343. What took place on the 15th July, 1779? 
 
 1344. Where, and under what circumstances was count Polaski mortally 
 
 wounded ? 
 
 1345. What prevented West Point from falling into the possession of the 
 
 English? 
 
 1346. What distinguished French military and naval commanders were 
 
 sent to the aid of America? 
 
 1347. What event is reckoned to have decided the contest between Eng- 
 
 land and America ? 
 
 1348. How much money did England expend, and how many lives did 
 
 she sacrifice in this war ? 
 
 SECTION V. 
 
 1349. When did the convention meet to form a new constitution? 
 
 1350. When and where did the first congress meet under the new consti- 
 
 tution ? 
 
 1351. What produced an insurrection in the western part of Pennsylva- 
 
 nia ? 
 
 1352. What was the state of affairs between the United States and France, 
 
 during the revolution in the latter? 
 
 1353. When did congress first nice* in the city of Washington ? 
 
 1354. What are the principal particulars of the war with Tripoli? 
 
 1355. When and for how much was Louisiana purchased ? 
 
 SECTION VI. 
 J 356. What were the particulars that led to the suspension of commodore 
 Barron ? 
 
 1357. What led to the declaration of war on the 18th of June, 1812, be- 
 
 tween the United States and Great Britain? 
 
 1358. What were some of the principal disasters on land, which the 
 
 Americans experienced during the war? 
 
 1359. What were their principal and most brilliant successes on land? 
 
 1360. What naval victories did they obtain ? 
 
 1361. What naval losses did they experience ? 
 
 1362. What American officers were killed during the war ? 
 
 1363. What British officers were killed during it ? 
 
 1364. When and where was a treaty of peace signed ? 
 
 1365. Who were the commissioners? 
 
 1366. What states, since the admission of Louisiana in 1812, have been 
 
 admitted into the union ? 
 
 1367. What accession of territory did the United States receive in 1819 ? 
 
 1368. What was the population of the 1 Inked States in 1820 ? 
 
:?•; 
 
 Ql T OPTIONS. 
 
 PART FIFTH. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 What circumstance agitated France in 1820? 
 
 Win ii <!iil Bonaparte die, and at what age *■ 
 
 What is said of him ? 
 
 What war occurred in 1623, and what were its effects ? 
 I'M'',. When did Louis XVIII. die, and who succeeded him? 
 1374, What circumstances occurred in Portugal in 1820, in 1821, and in 
 
 1823 ? 
 if?/,'. Who succeeded George III.? 
 137(5. What remarkable events occurred in England in 1820 ? 
 
 1377. For what was the Summer of 1821 remarkable, and what were its 
 
 consequences ? 
 
 1378. What important decree was issued by the Emperor of Russia in 1811 ? 
 
 1379. What change has since taken place in the constitution of that 
 
 Empire ? 
 13S0. What was the declaration of the Congress of Vienna in 1815, with 
 regard to the slave trade ? 
 
 1381. How far were their purposes in this respect carried into effect? 
 
 1382. What circumstances occurred with regard to the Jesuits in 1816 and 
 
 in 1820? 
 
 1383. When did Pope Pius VII. die, and who succeeded him ? 
 
 1384. What were the principal events in the life of the present pope, pre- 
 
 vious to his elevation to the papal throne ? 
 
 1385. What occurred in Naples and Sicily in 1820 and 1821. 
 
 1386. When did the Greeks revolt against the Turks ? 
 
 1387. What is said of this war ? 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 1388. From what must we estimate the degree of civilization to which the 
 
 ancient Mexicans had attained ? 
 
 1389. What is said of the political system ? 
 
 1390. What of the ecclesiastical ? 
 
 1391. What crimes were made capital ? 
 
 1392. To what was the attention of government principally directed ? 
 
 1393. What is said of the other governments in the country ? 
 
 1394. What of the arts and sciences known to them ? 
 
 1395. Do they appear to have been less civilized than European nations of 
 
 the same period ? 
 
 1396. What occurred when the Spaniards first landed, and how were they 
 
 affected by it ? 
 
 1397. What occurred in their route to Tenochtitlan or Mexico ? 
 
 1398. When did they arrive at the capital ? 
 
 1399. What force had Cortez at this time ? 
 
 1400. How were they received ? 
 
 1401. What was the first act of aggression ? 
 
 J402. What most excited the indignation of the Mexmun t 
 
 1403. On what account did Cortez leave the city ? 
 
 1404. In what state did he find things on his retain? 
 
 1405. How was Montezuma killed ? 
 
 1406. Who was his successor ? 
 
 4* 
 
48 QUESTIONS. 
 
 1407. Where did the first battle occur, and what was its result ? 
 
 1408. What measures did Cortcz adopt to strengthen his force? 
 
 1'409. When did he return to the neighbourhood of Tenochtitlan, and what 
 measures did he pursue to conquer the city ? 
 
 1410. What number of allies did he receive? 
 
 1411. When was the city conquered? 
 
 1412. How did Cortez dispose of his captives ? 
 J 413. In whose reign did the conquest occur? 
 
 1414. What is said of the history of New Spain from this period till the 
 
 revolution ? 
 
 1415. Whose property were these colonies ? 
 
 1416. How were they divided ? 
 
 14J7. What was the authority of the viceroy ? 
 
 1418. What aids had the viceroys in the administration of government? 
 
 1419. On whom did the supreme authority devolve when a viceroy died? 
 
 1420. When was the Council of the Indies established, and what were its 
 
 functions? 
 
 1421. What other tribunal was there? 
 
 1422. What occurred in 1808? 
 
 .1423. How did this affect the European part of the population, and what 
 did they do ? 
 
 1424. Who was the next viceroy ? 
 
 1425. What conspiracy was formed, and how did it terminate I 
 
 1426. What other revolts are mentioned ? 
 
 1427. When did general Mina arrive ? 
 
 1428. When was he defeated ? 
 
 1429. When, and from what cause, did the last revolt from the authority o/ 
 
 Spain occur ? 
 
 1430. Who now united their influence in favour of a revolution f 
 
 1431. Who was selected to execute their plans? 
 
 1432. What measures did he adopt to raise himself to the supreme w 
 
 thority ? 
 
 1433. Who were his friends, and who his opponents? 
 
 1434. When was he declared emperor? 
 
 1435. How were the clergy affected ? 
 
 1436. Who now arose to produce a new revolution, and what were hkt 
 
 measures ? 
 
 1437. By whom was Santana assisted ? 
 
 1438. When was this revolution completed ? 
 
 1439. What became of Iturbide ? 
 
 1440. What form of government was established * 
 
 1441. When was their constitution adopted? 
 
 1442. What is its principal defect? 
 
 1443. What other federal government was formed at the saoM period? 
 
 1444. What title does it assume ? 
 
 1445. What religion is established? 
 
 SECTION HI. 
 
 1446. When were the Bahamas discovered ? 
 
 1447. When was the first settlement made ? 
 
 1448. By whom were they soon after possessed ? 
 
 1449. Who was their leader ? 
 
 1450. Who have since possessed the Bahamas? 
 
 1451. What is said of the pirates? 
 
 1452. What is said of the Aborigines ? 
 
 1453. What of the Arrowauks ? 
 
 1454. How were the Great Antilles divided? 
 
 1455. What was the authority of the cacique*? 
 
 1456. How populous were these islands ? 
 
QUESTIONS. 
 
 1457 What became of the inhabitants ? 
 
 1458. What fact is worthy of record in favour of the Spaniards? 
 
 1459. Who were the Buccaniers ? 
 
 1460. Whence their name ? 
 
 1461. Give the rest of their history ? 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 
 1462. When was this country discovered and settled ? 
 
 1463. Character of its history till 1773' 
 
 1464. What events followed ? 
 
 1465. When was the country invaded ; by whom ; and with what i 
 
 1466. Where did the revolution commence, and what was its cause? 
 
 1467. What is the date of its declaration of Independence ? 
 
 1468. By whom was it afterwards invaded ? 
 146!). What is its present state ? 
 
 1470. What, is the early history of Brazil ? 
 
 1471. When did the royal family arrive, and how long remain i 
 
 1472. How was the government then left? 
 {473. What circumstances followed ? 
 
 1474. Who is the Emperor of Brazil ? 
 
 1475. What is said of the history of Guiana ? 
 
 1476. What is the principal tribe of Indians in Guiana? 
 
 1477. Of what was New-Granada originally a part? 
 
 1478. What changes have taken place in the audiences and viceroy allia*? 
 1470. What occurred in 1811 ? 
 
 1480. Histoty of Venezuela from 1408 to 1806 ? 
 
 1481. What is said of Miranda's expedition ? 
 
 1482. What occurred in 1811 ? 
 
 1483. When were Venezuela and New-Granada united ? 
 
 1484. What fundamental laws of the Republic are mentioned ? 
 
 1485. What is said of the constitution ? 
 
 1486. Why is the early history of Peru uncertain ? 
 
 1487. Former state of the Peruvian tribes ? 
 
 1488. Who appeared among them, and with what pretensions ? 
 
 1489. What city was founded ? 
 
 1490. What did these extraordinary persons teach ? 
 
 1491. How extensive were their dominions ? 
 
 1492. What were they called ? 
 
 1493. How was the succession of Incas preserved pure? 
 
 1494. What is said of their religion and civil policy ? 
 
 1495. How many Incas were there ? 
 
 1496. How far did they advance in civilization ? 
 
 1497. When did the Spaniards first visit Peru? 
 
 1498. What is the history of Huana Capac ? 
 
 1499. What is the history of liuascar and Atahualpa ? 
 
 1500. What is said of the Spanish invaders ? 
 
 1501. What were their measures? 
 
 15Q2. What is the subsequent history of Peru ? 
 
 1503. What is its present condition ? 
 
 1504. What possessions on the American continent do the Spaniards eGD 
 
 hold ? 
 
 1505. What is the history of Chili before the invasion ? 
 
 1506. Describe the first expedition and its result ? 
 
 1507. Describe the second expedition ? 
 
 1508. What occurred on the return of Almagro to Peru? 
 
 1509. Who was entrusted with the third expedition ? 
 
 1510. What is said of the subsequent contests ? 
 
 1511. Give an account of the Araucanians ? 
 1612. What occurred in 1810 ? 
 
4 4 HOT-STiOWtt 
 
 1513. What in 1814 and in 1817 ? 
 
 l. r )14. How was the patriot army re-organized 
 
 1515. What is said of their passage over the Andes ? 
 
 1516. What were the events of 1818 ? 
 
 1517. What government is established? 
 
 1518. Why wil! their progress in real knowledge bo a'.o-. 
 
 1519. What is said of Don Jose San Martin ? 
 1520 What is said of Bolivar ? 
 
 EHI> 
 
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 EMERSON'S SPELLING-BOOK. . 
 
 The following is from John Frost, Abraham Andrews, Cornelius Walker, 
 H. K. G. Oliver, Charles Fox, Wm. Adams, Barnum Field, Masters in 
 the Department of Reading and Grammar in the Publick Schools in 
 Boston. — " This Spelling-Book bears every made of having been complin 
 with strict reference to the actual purposes of instruction. Great pains 
 have evidently been taken to render it highly superior in character, and 
 worthy of becoming a National Work." [Jour, of Educa.] 
 
 It is also recommended by Ebenezer Bailey, Principal of the Young La- 
 flies' High School, Boston. — JohnPierpont, Compiler of the American First 
 Class Book, National Reader, &c. — John Pierce, D. D. Brookline. — Ben- 
 jamin Greenleaf, Bradford Academy. — Andrew Yates, Pres. of the Poly- 
 techny Instit. Chittenango, N. Y. — Jno. M. Brewer, S. C. Walker, SamL 
 Jones, Jos. R. Eastburn, J. H. Brown. — B. B. Wisner, D. D. and Wm*. 
 Jenks, D. D. Boston. — Jeremiah Evarts, Cor. Sec. to the Am. Board of 
 Com. for For. Mis. — Francis Wayland, Jr. D. D. Brown University. — B. 
 F. Famsworth, Academical and Theolog. Ins. N. Hampton, N. H. — Rev. 
 S. C. Loveland, Reading, N. H. Au. of a Greek and En. Lex. of the N. 
 T. — Daniel Adams, M. D. Auth. of the Scholars' Arithmetick, School G&- 
 og. &c— Rev. N. Bouton, and Rev. N. W. Williams, Concord,N. H.— J. 
 I. Hitchcock, Instructer, Baltimore. — Walter R. Johnson, Princ. of the 
 High School Franklin Ins. Phila. — L. Coleman, M. Lawrence, M. Shaw, 
 School Committee of Belcherlown. — Capt. Patridge, Sci. & Military Acad- 
 emy, Middletown. — John Richardson, Leicester Academy. — R. G. Parkee. 
 Roxbury. 
 
 QCf=The School Committee of the city of Boston, after a very critical ex- 
 amination, have ordered its introduction into all the public schools of this 
 city. And the Vermont Commissioners, appointed by the Legislature, have 
 recommended this Spelling-Book as one of the best, for use in all the pub- 
 lic schools of that State. 
 
 THE NEW-HAMPSHIRE JUSTICE OF THE PEACE. 
 By Wm. M. Richardson. Price $1,25. 
 THE TOWN OFFICER. By Wm. M. Richardson. PriceSl,25. 
 
 THE PROBATE DIRECTORY, for use in the states of Massa- 
 chusetts, New-Hampshire, and Vermont. Price $1,50. 
 
 PIKE'S ARITHMETICK SIMPLIFIED. ByDudley Leavitl. 
 Price 62 1-2 cents. 
 
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