;yi:.,<' •>:?• 9Cl ,'t •»r!' '1. .,.|, .,.,.:.„. jy,Ul,„. Jul" ■" . Book \'^^r> vcl. 10 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. ])KVAl!T:\lliK'I Ol' THK iNTEKIOR, ('knsus Office, WA.suiN(irox. I). C, September 24, 1884. Hon. H. M. Thller, Secretary of the Interior. Sir: 1 have the honor to transmit herewith the tenth volnnie of the quarto series comprising the final rejwrt ou tiie Tentli Census. Tlie volume contains three reports, viz: (1) On tlie Production, Technology, and Uses of Petnilenni and its Products, by S. F. Peckham; (2) 07i the JlanniaetiUf of Coke, by Joseph D. Weeks; (3) on the Building Stones of the United States and Statistics of the Quarry Industry, by (feorge W. Hawes et ul. The report ou the building stones of the United States was originall.\ coiitided to the late Dr. George ^^'. IJawes. curator of the de])artnient of mineralogy and litliology in the Nafional Mnycum. wliose regretted dealh ftreventef Mneveh and Babylon to cement bricks and slabs of alabaster, and the grand mosaic pavements and beautifully inscribed slabs used in the palaces and temples of these ancient cities, many of which were of enormous size, were fastened in their places with this material. It was also used to render cisterns and silos for the preservation of grain water-tight, and some of these structures of unknown antiquity are still found intact in the ancient cities of Egypt and Mesopotamia. The naphtha is more highly valued than the solid bitumen, the most fluid varieties being used in lamps. The Persians also manufacture dried dung in long sticks, which are dipped in naphtha and burned for lights, and it is also used for cooking and heating; but in order to avoid the unendurable smell a peculiar kind of chimney is carried into each room. Cotton wicks are also used in naphtha to some extent. The white or colorless naphtha, which is most rare, is used by the apothecaries, (e) Aristotle, Strabo, Plutarch, Pliny, and others describe at some length deposits of bitumen occurring in Albania, on the eastern shores of the Adriatic sea, (/) and similar notices of petroleum springs and gas wells in China occur in the earliest records of that ancient people. Pliny and Dioscorides described the oil of Agrigentum, which was used in lamps, under the name of " Sicilian oil". The soft bitumen in the Euphrates valley is that of which we have the earliest mention, (g) The word translated slime in the English version of Genesis xi, 3, is aafaXro^ in the Septuagint and bitumen in the Vulgate, and this is what is meant. The great abundance of petroleum at Baku, on the Caspian sea, and the remarkable si^ht presented by the flaming streams of oil and discharges of gas, have be6n the subject of many descriptions. The fire temple at Baku has had a special interest in connection with India, not only from its general similarity to that of Jawdlamuhki, near Kangra, in the Punjab, (h) but also from the circumstance that the Baku temple has for a long time and down to the present day been, like the other, a place of Hindoo pilgrimage. The great conflagrations of oil upon the ground have not been constant, and hence many travelers do not mention them. Marco Polo describes the great abundance of the discharges of oil at Baku, and says that people came from a vast distance to collect it. [i) Baku is described by Kaempfer, who was there in 1684. {j) In 1784 it was visited by Forster, on his journey from India to England, who has given an account of the place and of the Hindoo merchants and mendicants residing there. Between Kaempfer and Forster came Jonas Hanway, who gives a description of Baku, the fire temple, and the Hindoos, and the great quantities of oil obtained at that time, chiefly from certain islands in the Caspian sea. Descriptions are given by other travelers, ancient and modern, of this oil region, (A:) of the copious discharges of white and black naphtha, the streams of flaming oil on the hillsides, the gas and the fire temple, and the explosive effects of the ignition of the gas mixed with atmospheric air. (l) A tradition is preserved in Plutarch that a Macedonian who had charge of Alexander's baggage is said to have dug on the banks of the Oxus : " There came out, which difiired nothing from natural oile, having the glosse and fatness so like as there could be discovered no differense between them." (m) a Tome XVI, ch. ii. 6 Tome I L, II., cap. sxix. c Strabo, I, xvi, csii. d Lartet, B. S. G. F., xxiv, p. 12. e Bitter's Erdkunde, II, 578. / Strabo, VI, 763; Pliny, N. H., VII, 13 ; Josephus, B. I., IV, 8, 4 ; Tacitus, Hist., V, 6; Mandeville, Eoohon, etc. Plutarch : Life of SyUa; Dion Cassius, Rom. Hist. c. XLI; .Slian YarJEe Hist., XIII, 16; quoted in B. S. 6. F., xxv, 21. g Herod, I, 179; Philoatr. ApoU. Tyan., I, 17; D'Herbelot, Biblioth. Or. o. v. Hit. h G. T. Vigne, Travels in Cashmir and Little TTiibet, 1842, p. 133. i Book I, ch. Ill (vol. I, p. 46, Col. Yule's ed., 1871), note in Marsden's ed. j Amoenit. Exot., p. 224. Colburn'a Nat. Libr., i, 263. fc Wonders of the East, by Friar Jordanus, p. 50 (Colonel Yule's note) ; Keppel's Journey from India to England, 1824; A Journey from London to Persepolis, by J. Usher, 1865; Morier's Journey ; Kinneir's Persia; Some Years' Travels, by Tho. Herbert, 1638. I I am indebted for many of the preceding facts and references to an excellent article on "Naphtha" by M. C. Cooke, J. S. A., vii, 638; also, Colonel E. Maclagan, on the "Geographical Distribution of Petroleum and Allied Products", P. B. A. A. S., 1871, 180. m Sir Thomas North's translation of Plutarch's Lives, ed. 1631, p. 702. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 5 The occurrence of iietroleum in North America was noticed by the earliest explorers, as the Indians dwelling in the vicinity of the great lakes applied it to several purposes, and thus brought it to the attention of those who went among them; but the earliest mention that has come under my notice is of 1629. A Franciscan missionary, Joseph de la Roche D'Allion, who crossed the Niagara river into what is now the state of New York, wrote a letter, in which he mentions the oil-springs and gives the Indian name of the place, which he explained to mean, " There is plenty there." This letter was published in Sagard's Histoire du Canada, 1032, and subsequently in Le Clerc. Peter Kalm published in Swedish about the middle of the last century a book of travels, in which was a map, on which the springs on Oil creek were properly located. This book has been translated into English, and an edition was published in London in 1772. In the first volume of the Massachusetts Magazine, published in 1789, appears the following notice : (a) lu the northern part of Pennsylvania is a creek called Oil creek, -which empties into the Allegheny river. It issues from a spring, on ■which floats an oil similar to that called Barbadoes tar, and from which one may gather several gallons in a day. The troops sent to guard the western posts halted at this spring, collected some of the oil, and bathed their joints with it. This gave them great relief from the rheumatism with which they were afflicted. The water, of which the troops drank freely, operated as a gentle purge. The earliest records of voyages and travels among the Seneca Indians who occupied northwestern Pennsylvania and southwestern New York contain observations respecting the reverence paid the oil-springs of Oil creek and the contiguous valleys by this people, not only using it for medicinal purposes, but also in religious observances. The French commander of Fort Duquesne in the year 1750 writes as follows to General Montcalm : I would desire to assure you that this is a most delightful land. Some of the most astonishing natural wonders have been discovered by our people. While descending the Allegheny, fifteen leagues below the mouth of the Conewango and three above the Venango, we were invited by the chief of the Senecas to attend a religious ceremony of his tribe. We landed, and drew up our canoes on a point where a small stream entered the river. The tribe appeared unnsually solemn. We marched up the stream about half a league, where the company, a band it appeared, had arrived some days before us. Gigantic hills begirt us on every side. The scene was really sublime. The great chief then recited the conquests and heroism of their ancestors. The surface of the stream was covered with a thick scum, which, upon applying a torch at a given signal, burst into a complete conftagration. At the sight of the flames the Indians gave forth the triumphant shout that made the hills and valleys re-echo again. He^, then, is revived the ancient fire-worship of the East ; here, then, are the children of the Sun. (6) In 1765 the English government sent an embassy to the court of Ava, in Burmah. In the journal of that embassy, by Major Michael Symes, may be found a description of the petroleum wells in the neighborhood of Yenangyoung (Earth-oil creek), a small tributary of the Irrawaddy. For an unknown period the whole of Burmah and portions of India have been supplied with illuminating oil from this source, particularly those regions that are reached by the Irrawaddy and its tributaries. On page 261 of Symes' Journal we read : After passing various lauds and villages, we got to Yenangyoung, or Earth-oil creek, about two hours past noon. We were informed that the celebrated wells of petroleum which supply the whole empire and many parts of India with that useful product were five miles to the east of this place. The mouth of the creek was crowded with large boats waiting to receive a lading of oil, and immense pyramids of earthen jars were raised in and around the village, disposed in the sam^ manner as shot and shell are piled in an arsenal. This is inhabited only by potters, who carry on an extensive manufactory and find full employment. The smell of the oil is extrtmely oft'ensive. We saw several thouss.ud jars filled with it ranged along the bank ; some of these were continually breaking, and the contents, mingling with the sand, formed a very filthy consistence. * Late in the last century springs of petroleum were noticed in West Virginia, in Ohio, and in Kentucky, as explorers and settlers began to penetrate the country west of the Alleghany mountains. Section 2.— HISTORICAL NOTICE OF BITUMEN FROM THE YEAR 1800 TO 1850. In Europe, early in the present century, chemists examined the bitumen of the Val de' Travers. (c) The gas springs of Karamania, noticed by Ctesias more than two thousand years before, again attracted attention, [d) and the asphalt deposits of Albania, mentioned by Strabo and Pliny, were again described by Pouqueville. (e) In 1811 Dr. Nicholas Nugent visited the West Indies, and on his return to England wrote an account of the famous pitch lake of Trinidad, near the mouth of the river Orinoco. {/) He described the wonderful beauty of the tropical island, with its more wonderful lake of solid yet plastic bitumen, on which were jjools of water containing fish and islands of verdure thronged with brilliant birds. From 1820 to 1830 remarkable activity was manifested in the investigation of the nature and occurrence of bituminous substances. The Hon. George Knox read a commirnicatiou. to the Royal Society of Great Britain, in which he noticed the wide distribution of these substances in nature, and the fact that even so-called eruptive rocks a Am. C, iii, 174. d Beaufort: Survey of the Coast of Karamania, 1820, p. 24. 6 Henry's Early and Later History of Petroleum, p. 11. e Voyage en Grece, 1820, 1, 271; B. S. G. F., sxv, 22. c De Saussure, A. C. N. P. (2), Iv, 314, 620, 308. / T. G. S., (1) 1, 63. 6 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. •were rarely found entirely destitute of bitumen as an ingredient. This paper attracted much attention, {a) In 1824 Eeichenbach discovered paraffine in the products of the destructive distillation of wood, (&) and in the following year Gay-Lussac analyzed it. (c) ^ In 1826 the British government sent a second embassy to Ava, and in the journal of that embassy the ambassador, Hon. John Orawfurd, again describes the petroleum wells of Eangoon, and furnishes many details respecting the method of their operation and the amount of their product, (d) Boussingault investigated the bitumen of Pechelbronn, on the lower Ehine, and compared its peculiarities with those of bitumens from other localities. His work on these substances became very celebrated, and has been very widely quoted, (e) These researches created a lively interest in France, and led to much experimenting upon both solid and liquid bitumens, with a view to ascertaining the purposes to which they might be applied. During this period the first well was bored in the United States that produced petroleum in any considerable quantity. As the first well bored or drilled for brine was the legitimate precursor of all the petroleum wells in the country, an historical account of it is introduced here, taken from a paper vreitten by Dr. J. P. Hale, of Charleston, West Virginia, for the volume prepared by Professor M. F. Maury, and issued by the State Centennial Board, on the resources and industries of the state. He says : It was not until 1806 tliat tlie brothers, David and Joseph Kuffner, set to work to ascertain the source of the salt water, to procure,, if possible, a larger supply and of better quality, and to prepare to manufacture salt on a scale commensurate with the growing wants of the couiitry. The Salt Lick, or " the Great Buifalo Lick", as it was called, was just at the river's edge, 12 or 14 rods in extent, on the north side, a few hundred yards above the mouth of Campbell's creek, and just in front of what is now known as the "Thoroughfare Gap", through which, from the north, as well as up and down the river, the buffalo, elk, and other ruminating animals made their way in vast numbers to the lick. » * » In order to reach, if i)ossible, the bottom of the mire and oozy quicksand through which the salt water flowed they (the Euffner brothers) provided a straight, well-formed, hollow sycamore tree, with 4 feet internal diameter, sawed off square at each end. This is- technically called a " gum ". This gum was set upright on the spot selected for sinking, the large end down, and held in its perpendicular position by props or braces on the four sides. A platform, upbh which two men could stand, was fixed about the top ; then a swape was erected, having its fulcrum in a forked post set in the ground oipse by. A large bucket, made from half of a whisky barrel, was attached to the end of the swape by a rope, and a rope was attached to the end of the pole, to pull down on, to raise the bucket. With one man inside the gum, armed with pick, shovel, and crowbar, two men on the jilatform on top to empty and return the bucket, and three or four to work the swape, the crew and outfit were complete. After many unexpected difficulties and delays the gum at last reached what seemed to be rock bottom at 13 feet. Upon cutting it with picks and crowbars, however, it proved to be but a shale or crust about 6 inches thick of conglomerated sand, gravel, and iron. Upon breaking through this crust the water ilowed up into the gum more freely than ever, but with less salt. Discouraged at this result, the Euffner brothers determined to abandon this gum and sink a well out in the bottom, about 100 yards from the river. This was done, encountering, as before, many difficulties and delays. When they had gotten through 45 feet of alluvial deposit they came to the same bed of sand and gravel upon which they had started at the river. To penetrate this they made a 3|-inch tube of a 20-foot oak log by boring through it with a long-shanked auger. This tube, sharpened and shod with iron at the bottom, was driven down, pile-driver fashion, through the sand to the solid rock. Through this tube they then let down a glass vial with a string, to catch the salt water for testing. They were again doomed to disappointment. The water, though slightly brackish, was less salt than that at the river. They now decided to return to the gum at the river, and, if possible, put it down to the bed-rock. This they finally succeeded ia doing, finding the rock at 16 to 17 feet from the surface. As the bottom of the gum was square and the surface of the rock uneven, the rush of outsi'de water in the gum was very troublesome. By dint of cutting and trimming from one side and the other, however, they were at last gotten nearly to a joint, after which they resorted to thin wedges, which were driven here and there as they would " do the most good ". By this means the gum was gotten sufficiently tight to be so bailed out as to determine whether the salt water came up through the- rock. This turned out to be the case. The quantity welling up through the rock was extremely small, but the strength was greater than any yet gotten, and this was encouraging. They were anxious to follow it down, but how? They could not blast a hole down there under water ; but this idea occurred to them : They knew that rock-blasters drilled their powder holes 2 or 3 feet deep, and they concluded they could, with a longer and larger drill, bore a correspondingly deeper and larger hole. They fixed a long iron drill, with a 2J-iuch chisel bit of steel, and attached the upper end to a spring pole with a rope. In this way the boring went on slowly and tediously, till on the 1st of November, 1807, at 17 feet in the rock, a cavity or fissure was struck, which gave an increased flow of stronger brine. This gave new encouragement to bore stiU further ; and so, by welding increasing length of shaft to the drill from time to time, the hole was carried down to 28 feet, where a still larger and stronger supply of salt water was gotten. Having now sufficient salt water to justify it, they decided and commenced to build a salt furnace, but, while building, continued the boring, and on the 15th January, 1808, at 40 feet in the rock and 58 feet from the top of the gum, were rewarded by an ample flow of strong brine for their furnace, .and ceased boring. Now was presented another difficulty: how to get the stronger brine from the bottom of the well, undiluted by the weaker brines and fresh water from above. There was no precedent here ; they had to Invent, contrive, and construct anew. A metal tube would naturally suggest itself to them ; but there were neither metal tubes, nor sheet metal, nor metal workers, save a home-made blacksmith, in all this region, and to bore a wooden tube 40 feet long, and small enough in external diameter to go in the 2i-iuch hole, was impracticable. What they did do was to whittle out of two long strips of wood two long half tubes of the proper size, and, fittiug the edges carefully together, wrap the whole from end to end with small twine. This, with a bag of wrapping near the lower end, to fit as nearly as practicable, water tight, in the 2+-inch hole, was cautiously pressed down to its place, and found to answer the purpose perfectly, the brine flowed up freely through the tube into the gum, which was now provided with a water-tight floor or bottom to hold it, and Irom •which it was raised by the simple swape and bucket. a P. T., 1823 ; A. C. et P. (2), xxv, 178. d Journal of an Emiassy to tlw Court of Ava, 1834. 5 P. M. (2), i, 402. e ConstUiition of BUitmens, P. J. (2), ix, 487. c A. C. etP.'(2), 1, 78. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 7 Thus was bored and tubed, rigged and worked, the first rock-bored salt-well west of the Alleghanies, if not in the United States. The wonder is not that it required eighteen months or more to prepare, bore, and complete this well for use, but, rather, that it was accomplished at all under the circumstances. In these times, when such a work can be accomplished in as many days as it then required months, it is difficult to appreciate the difficulties, doubts, delays, and general troubles that then beset them. Without preliminary study, previons experience, or training, without precedents in what they undertook, in a newly settled country, without, ^teaui-i.owi^r, machine-shops, skilled mechanics, suitable tools or materials, failure rather than success might reasonably have been predicted. • * * For interesting facts in this history of the boring of the first well I am indebted to a MS. by the late Dr. Henry Enffner, and for personal recollections and traditions I am indebted to General Lewis Enffner, Isaac Euftner, W. D. Shrewsberry, Colonel B. H. Smith, Colonel L. I. Woodyard, W. C. Brooks, and others, and my own experiences for the last thirty years. * » » Other important improvements were gradually made in the manner of boring, tubing, and pumping wells, etc. The first progress made in tubing, after Ruftuer's compound wood-and- wrapping-twine tube, was made by a tinner who had located in Charleston. « » « He made tin tubes in convenient lengths, and soldered them together as they were put down the well. The refinement of screw joints had not yet come, but followed shortly after, in connection with copper pipes, which soon took the place of tin, and these are recently giving place to iron. In the manner of bagging the wells, that is, in forming a water-tight joint around the tube to shut off the weaker waters above from the stronger below, a simple arrangement, called a "seed-bag", was fallen upon, which proved very eflective, and which has survived to this d.ay, and has been adopted wherever deep boring is done as one of the standard appliances for the purpose for which it is used. This seed-bag is made of buckskin or soft calfskin, sewed up like the sleeve of a coat or leg of a stocking, made 12 to 1.5 inches long, about the size of the well hole, and open at both ends ; this is slipped over the tube and one end securely wrapped over knots placed on the tube to prevent slipping. Some six or eight inches of the bag is then filled with flaxseed, either alone or mixed with powdered gum tragacanth; the other end of the bag is then wrapped like the first, aud tlie tube is ready for the well. When to their place — and they are put down any depth to hundreds of feet — the seed and gum soon swell from the water they absorb, till a close fit and water- tight joint are made. * » » In 1831 William Morris, or " Billy " Morris, as he was familiarly called, a very ingenious and successful practical well-borer, invented a simple tool, which has done more to render deep boring practicable, simple, and cheap than anything else since the introdnction of steam. This tool has always been called here "slips", but in the oil regions they have given it the name of "jars". It is a long double- Unk, with jaws that fit closely, but slide loosely up and down. They are made of the best steel, are about 30 inches long, and fitted, top and bottom, with pin and socket joint, respectively. For use they are interposed between the heavy iron sinker, with its cutting chisel-bit below, and the line of auger poles above. Its object is to let the heavy sinker aud bit have a clear, quick, cutting fall, unobstructed and unincumbered by the slower motion of the long line of auger poles above. In the case of fast auger or other tools in the well, they are also used to give heavy jars upward or downward, or both, to loosen them. From this use the oil-well people have given them the name of "jars". Billy Morris never patented his invention, and never asked for nor made a dollar out of it ; but as a public benefactor he deserves to rank with the inventors of the sewing-machine, reaping-machine, planing-machine, printing cylinders, cotton-gin, etc. This tool has been adopted into general use wherever deep boring is done, but ont&Ide of Kanawha few have heard of Billy Morris, or know where the slips or jars came from. * • » The Kanawha borings have educated and sent forth a set of skillful well-borers all over the country, who have bored for water for irrigation on the western plains, for artesian wells for city, factory, or private use, for salt water at various places, for oil all over the country, for geological or miueralogical explorations, etc. Nearly all the Kanawha salt-wells have contained more or less petroleum, and some of the deepest wells a considerable flow. Many persons now think, trusting to their recollections, that some of the wells afforded as much as 25 to 50 barrels per day. This was allowed to flow over from the top of the salt cisterns to the river, where, from its specific gravity, it spread over a large surface, and by its beautiful iridescent hues and not very savory odor could be traced for many miles down the stream. It was from this that the river received the nickname of " Old Greasy", by which it was for a long time familiarly known by Kanawha boatmen and others. At that time this oil not only had no value, but was considered a great nuisance, and every effort was made to tube it out and get rid of it. It is now the opinion of some competent geologists, as well as of practical oil men, that very deep borings, say 2,500 feet, would penetrate rich oil-bearing strata, and possibly inexhaustible supplies of gas. In Ohio salt was mauufactnred at the "Old Scioto salt works", iu Jacksou county, as early as 1798, from brine obtained from dug wells. In ISOS, after the successful boring of the Eufiuer well on the Kauawjja, bored wells were substituted for dug wells very successfully, and salt- wells were soon in operation in other localities. The valley of the Muskingum from Zanesville to Marietta soon becauie noted, and the valley of Duck creffli, since the center of the Washington county petroleum fields, was first famous for its salt- wells. The following description is from an article in the American Journal of Science (1), xxiv, 63, by Dr. S. P. Hildreth, of Marietta: , Since the first settlement of the regions west of the Appalachian range the hunters and pioSeers have been acquainted with this oil. Rising in a hidden and mysterious manner from the bowels of the earth, it soon arrested.thelr attention, and acquired great value in the eyes of these simple sons of the forest. Like some miraculous gift from heaven, it was thought to be a sovereign remedy for nearly all the diseases common to those primeval days, and from its success in rheumatism, buries, coughs, sprains, etc., was justly entitled to all its celebrity. It acquired its name of Seneca oil, that by which it is generally known, from having first been found in the vicinity of Seneca lake. New York. From its being found in limited quantities, aud its great and extensive demand, a small vial of it would sell for 40 or 50 cents. It is at this time in general use among the inhabitants of the country for saddle bruises and that complaint called the scratches in horses. It seems to be peculiarly adapted to the flesh of horses, and cures many of their ailments with wonderful certainty and celerity. Flies and other insects have a natural antipathy to its elHuvia, and it is used with much effect in preventing the deposit of eggs by the "blowing fly" in the wounds of domestic animals during ;'the summer months. In neighborhoods where it is abundant it is burned iu lamps iu place of spermaceti oil, aflbrding a brilliant lieht, but filling the room with its own peculiar odor. By filtering it through charcoal, much of this empyreumatic smell is destroySil Sand the oil greatly improved in quality and appearance. It is also well adapted to prevent friction in machinery, for, being free ^£ .gluten, so common to animal and vegetable oils, it preserves the parts to which it is applied for a long time iu free motion; wheVe a^Sieavy vertical .shaft runs in a socket, it is preferable to all or any other articles. This oil rises in greater or less abundance in most*/ the salt- wells of the Kanawha, and, collecting as it rises, in the Lead on the water, is removed from time to time with a ladle. »* 8 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. On tlie Muskingum river the wells afford but little oil, and that only during the time the process of boring is going on ; it ceases soon after the wells are completed, and yet all of them abound more or less in gas. A well on Duck creek, about 30 mUes north of Marietta, owned by Mr. McKee, furnishes the greatest quantity of any in this region. It was dug in the year 1814, and is 475 feet in depth. The rocks passed were similar to those on the Muskingum river above the flint stratum, or like those between the flint and salt deposit at McConnellsville. A bed of coal 2 yards in thickness was found at the depth of 100 feet, and gas at 144 feet, or 41 feet above the salt-rock. The hills are sandstone based on lime, 150 or 200 feet in height, with abundant beds of stone-coal near their feet. The oil from this well is discharged periodically at intervals of from two to four days, and from three to six hours duration at each period. Great quantities of gas accompany the discharges of oil, which for the first few years amoimted to from 30 to 60 gallons at each eruption. The discharges at this time are less frequent, and diminished in quantity, affording only about a barrel per week, which is worth at the well from 50 to 75 cents a gallon. A few years ago, when the oil was most abundant, a large quantity had been collected in a cistern holding 30 or 40 barrels. At night, some one engaged about the works approached the well-head with a lighted caadle. The gas instantly became ignited and communicated the flame to the contents of the cistern, which, giving way, suffered the oil to be discharged down a short declivity into the creek, whose waters pass with a rapid current close to the well. The oil still continued to burn most furiously ; and, spreading itself along the surface of the stream for half a mile in extent, shot its flames to the tops of the highest trees, exhibiting the * * * spectacle of a river actually on fire. It is probable that wells were drilled for salt in the neighborhood of Tarentum, on the Allegheny river, above Pittsburgh, about 1810. These wells were all comparatively shallow, but in many of them small quantities of petroleum often interfered more or less with their successful operation. Salt-wells were bored along the Big Sandy river and its tributaries across Kentucky and into Tennessee, and in many of them petroleum appeared in sufl&cient quantity to be troublesome. In 1818 or 1819 a well was bored on the south fork of the Cumberland river, in Wayne county, Kentucky, that produced petroleum in such quantities that it was abandoned for brine and was almost forgotten for more than thirty years. This well has acquired some notoriety under the name of the Beatty well, and is still yielding small quantities of oil. Farther west, in Barren and Cumberland counties, Kentucky, along the Cumberland river and its tributaries, numerous salt- wells were bored, and in many of them petroleum appeared. In 1829 the famous American well was bored near the bed of Little Eennox creek, near Burkesville, Kentucky. The following account of the phenomena attending its completion is to be found in NiM Register (3), xiii, 4 : Some months since, in the act of boring for salt water on the land of Mr. Lemuel Stockton, situated in the county of Cumberland, Kentucky, a vein of pure oil was struck, fi:om which it is almost incredible what quantities of the substance issued. The discharges were by floods, at intervals of from two to five minutes, at each flow vomiting forth many barrels of pure oil. I witnessed myself, on a shaft that stood upright by the aperture in the rock from which it issued, marks of oil 25 or 30 feet perpendicularly above the rock. These floods continued for three or four weeks, when they subsided to a constant stream, affording many thousand gallons per day. This well is between a quarter and a half mile from the bank of the Cumberland river, on a small rill (creek), down which it runs to the Cumberland river. It was traced as far down the Cumberland as Gallatin, in Sumner county, Tennessee, nearly 100 miles. For many miles it covered the whole surface of the river, and its marks are now found on the rocks on each bank. About 2 miles below the point on which it touched the river it was set on fire by a boy, and the effect was grand beyond description. An old gentleman who witnessed it says he has seen several cities on fire, but that he never beheld anything like the flames which rose from the bosom of the Cumberland to touch the very clouds. Eeferring to this article and the well, a correspondent of the BurTcesville Courier, C. L. S. Mathews, esq., under date October 11, 1876, says : This well, from the long continued yield of oil, is one of the most remarkable wells in America. When first struck, oil flowed from it at the rate of 1,000 barrels per day, and for many years, in fact, until the year 1860, it yielded a plentiful supply of oil. We have been informed by several old citizens, who witnessed the burning of the oil on the surface of the river, that the oil burned down the river about 56 miles, and that for miles all the vegetation and foliage along the river bank was destroyed. Some years after this strike was made several individuals took charge of the well, saved the oil, and put up several hundred thousand bottles, which they sold all through this country and some parts of Europe as the "American Medicinal Oil, Burkesville, Kentucky". During the decade from 1830 to 1840 the attention of the most distinguished French chemists was directed to the investigation of bitumens. Boussingault continued his general researches, and in 1837 published a classical paper on the subject, (a) Virlet d'Oust propounded the first theory regarding the origin of bitumens in 1834, (&) and the asphalt of the Dead sea, (c) of Pyrmont, {d) and near Havana, Cuba, were examined, (e) Hess wrote on the products of dry distillation (/) and was reviewed by Eeichenbach, {g) who, with Laurent, [h) continued his researches upon paraffine. In 1833 Professor Benjamin Silliman, sr., contributed an article to the American Journal of Science (1), xxiii, 97, in which he describes the celebrated oil-spring of the Seneca Indians near Cuba, New York, as follows : The oil-spring, or fountain, rises in the midst of a marshy ground ; it is a muddy and dirty pool of about 18 feet in diameter, and is nearly circular in form. There is no outlet above ground, no stream flowing from it, and it is, of course, a stagnant water, with no other circulation than that which springs from changes of temperature and from the gas and petroleum which are constantly rising through the pool. We are told that the odor of petroleum is perceived at a distance in approaching the spring. This may not improbably be true iu particular states of the wind, but we did not distinguish any peculiar smell until we arrived on the edge of the fountain. Here its a A. C. et P. (2), Ixiv, 141. e Taylor & Clemson, P. M., x, 161. 6 B. S. G. F. (1), iv, 372. / Pog. An., xxxvi, 417, xxxvii, 534. c Journal dea Savanta, 1855, 596. g Jour, fur Olconom. Chem., vlii, 445. d Eozet, B. S. G. F. (1), vii, 138. h Laurent, A. C. et P. (2), liv, 392, Ixiv, 321. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 9 peculiar character Ijeeomes very obvious. The water is covered with a thin layer of petroleum or nilueral oil, giving it a foul appearance, asif coated wiih dirty molasses, having a yellowish-hrown color. Every part of the water was covered by this film, but it bad nowhere the iridescence which I recollect to have observed at Saint Catharine's well, a petroleum fountain near Edinburgh, in Scotland. There the water was pellucid, and the lines produced by the oil were brilliant, giving the whole a beautiful ajipearance. The ditierence is, however, easily accounted for. Saint Catharine's well is a lively, flowing fountain, and the quantity of petroleum is only sufficient to cover it partiallv, while there is nothing to soil the stream; and in the present instance the stagnation of the water, the comparative abundance of the petroleum, and the mixture of leaves and sticks and other productions of a dense forest, preclude any beautiful features. There are, however, upon this water, here and there, spots of what seems to be a purer petroleum, probably recently risen, which is free from mixture, and which has a bright, brownish-yellow appearance, lively and sparkling; and were the fountain covered entirely with this purer production it would be beautiful. They collect the petroleum by skimming It, like cream from a milk-pan. For this purpose they use a broad, flat board, made thin at one edge like a knife; it is moved flat upon and just under the surface of the water, and is soon covered by a coating of the petroleum, which is so thick and adhesive that it does not fall off, but is removed by scraping the instrument upon the lip of a cup. It has then a very foul appearance, like very dirty tar or molasses, but it is purified by heating and straining it while hot through flannel or other woolen stuft'. It is used by the people of the vicinity for sprains and rheumatism and for sores on their horses, it being in both cases rubbed upon the part. It is not monopolized by any one, but is carried away freely by all who care to collect it, .and for this purpose the spring is frequently visited. I could not ascertain bow much is annually obtained; the quantity must be considerable. It is said to rise more abundantly in hot weather than in cold. I cannot learn that any considerable part of the large quantities of petroleum used in the eastern states under the name of Seneca oil comes from the spring now described. I am assured that its source is about 100 miles from Pittsburgh, on Oil creek, which empties into the Allegheny river in the township and county of Venango. It exists there in great abundance, and rises in purity to the surface of the water ; by dams, inclosing certain parts of the river or creek, it is prevented from flowing away, and it is absorbed by the blankets, from which it is wrung. The petroleum sold in the eastern states under the name of Seneca oil is of a dark brown color, between that of tar and molasses, and its degree of consistence is not dissimilar, according to the temperature; its odor is strong and too well known to need description. In an article entitled " Observations on the bituminous coal deposits of the valley of the Ohio " Dr. S. P. Hildreth, in 1836, notices the occurrence of petroleum on the Little Kanawha, (a) The decade from 1840 to 1850 was remarkable for the number of travelers who, in different parts of the world, noticed the occurrence of bitumen, and also for several elaborate researches upon the geological occurrence and chemical constitution of its different varieties. Travelers visited the far east, and even China, (&) and gave glowing descriptions of the naphtha springs of Persia, (c) the fire- worshiiiers of Baku, aud the fire wells of China, (d) The naphtha springs of Persia are nowhere else described in such detail as iu Eitter's Erdkunde, published in 1841. (e) Boussingault (/) continued his researches in France, and in our own country, Percival, {g) in Connecticut, aud Beck, (/() in iJew York, called attention to the fact that bitumen was of frequent occurrence in thin veins traversing the metamorphic and eruptive rocks of Connecticut, Kew York, and New Jersey. In 1842 E. W. Binney first called attention to the occurrence of petroleum in the Down Holland Moss, which may be said to have been the first step toward the great paraffine oil industry of Scotland. (/) "^ Sec:tion 3.— the RISE OF THE PARAFFLN^E OIL INDUSTRY. This decade witnessed the rise of the parafiSneoil industry in Europe and the United States. The success of the manufacture of shale oil at Bathgate, Scotland, by E. W. Binney & Co., from so-called Boghead coal, has been more popularly known through Mr. James Young, one of Mr. Binney's associates. The lessening supply of sperm and whale oils, and their consequent advance in price, led to various attempts to invent or discover a cheaper substitute, and as a consequence the oils manufactured at Bathgate were eagerly sought in the market, especially when lamps were formed that would burn them with complete success. Mr. Binney claims to have first called these oils paraffine oils, but those used for illumination have been more widely known as kerosene, (j) In the United States experimeuts were commenced in the winter of 1850-'51 by Luther and William Atwood near Boston, which resulted in the establishment in 1S53 of the United States Chemical Manufacturing Company at Waltham, Massachusetts. This company manufactured from coal-tar an oil called "Coup oil", which was used, mixed with cheap animal and vegetable oils, for lubricating machinery. In 1854 Mr. Joshua Merrill became connected with this company, but in 1855 he left it and became connected with the Downer Kerosene Oil Company of Boston, with which he has remained to the present time. These three gentlemen were the pioneers in the manufacture of paraffine oils in the United States. In 1857 the Downer Kerosene Oil Company commenced the manufacture of hydrocarbon oils from the Albert coal (a kind of asphaltum), obtained from New Brunswick, and they had works in Boston, Massachusetts, and in Portland, Maine. William Atwood had charge of the works in o A. J. S. (1), xxix, 121. / A. C. et P. (2), Isxiii, 442. ft Pottinger; W. Robinson; Ainsworth. g A. J. S. (:^), xvi, 130. c Kinnier: Persia. ft A. J. S. (1), slv, 335. d Humboldt: Aaie Centrale, ii, 519; Cosmos, 1, 232; Bohn 1, i Papers read before the MaiMjhester (England) Geological 221. Society, 1842-'43. e I>ie Erdkunde von Aaien , vols, vii, viii, ix, x, and xi. j Communication from Mr. Binney to S. F. P. Note. — The claims of Selligue as the original inventor of paraffine oils distilled from shale are stated elsewhere. I think the paraffine-oil industry took its rise at this time. 10 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. Portland, Joshua Merrill of those in Boston, and Luther Atwood of a large establishment belonging to the New York Kerosene Oil Company near Brooklyn, Long Island. Before these gentlemen left Waltham they had " experimented upon bituminous coals, bituminous shales, asphaltum, and petroleums— petroleums and bitumens from nearly all the known sources, and many different varieties of coals and shales. They succeeded in producing what they regarded at that time as a good lubricating oil from each of those sources". («) Previous to going to Portland Mr. "William Atwood spent about eighteen months on the island of Trinidad attempting to produce crude lubricating oils from the asphalt of the celebrated Pitch lake. Meantime, parties in New Bedford, Massachusetts, who had been engaged in the manufacture of whale and sperm oils, commenced the manufacture of paraflne oils from the Boghead mineral of Scotland, which they imported for that purpose. The rich cannel coals of West Virginia and Kentucky soon attracted attention, and works for the manufacture of paraffine oils from them were established at Oloverport, Kentucky, and at Newark, Ohio. On the Allegheny river, in Westmoreland county, Pennsylvania, the Lucesco works were the largest in the country in 1859, having a capacity for producing 6,000 gallons of crude oil per diem. At Oanfleld, Mahoning county, Ohio, was another, and at Cannelton, West Virginia, was another with refining works at Maysville, Kentucky. By 1859 Luther Atwood had introduced his method of downward distillation, in which a tower was filled with 25 tons of coal or Boghead mineral and a fire kindled on the upper surface by means of anthracite coal or pine wood. (&) A downward draft was created by a steam-jet in the pipe leading from the base of the tower, and the heated products of combustion, descending through the coal, expelled the volatile materials at the lowest possible temperature. In a recent letter, Mr. E. W. Binney, of Manchester, England, who, as before stated, was associated with Mr. James Young, at Bathgate, Scotland, tells me that when Mr. Young, in his celebrated patent lawsuit, testified that he obtained paraffine oil from petroleum before he resorted to coal, and it became known on this side of the Atlantic, the American firms licensed under their patent refused to pay any more royalties and went to work manufacturing petroleum. This is doubtless true as a statement of fact, but it conveys a wrong impression. The fact is that an inadequate supply alone prevented the use of petroleum in this country prior to 1859, and really Mr. Young and those on this side of the Atlantic were then in precisely the same situation as regards petroleum ; but at the end of 1859 the situation in America became revolutionized, while that in Scotland remained as before. Section 4.— HISTOEIOAL NOTICE PROM 1850 TO THE COMPLETION OF DRAKE'S WELL (AUGUST, 1859). While Mr. Everett was engaged in making oil from cannel coal at Canfleld, Ohio, Dr. J. S. Newberry sent him some petroleum from Mecca, Ohio, which was pronounced " as good or better than crude oil from coal". Oil had been gathered along Mill creek, in Erie, Pennsylvania, since 1854, and had been sold to druggists for a dollar a gallon. At Oxbow hill, not far from Union City, Erie county, Pennsylvania, Mr. P. G. Stranahan and his brothers dug out a spring about 1845 from which oil has flowed ever since. WOliam C. and Charles Hyde were engaged in lumbering on Oil creek, near the present village of Hydetown, from 1845 to 1850. The former, being well acquainted at that time with the oil-springs near Titusville, went to Pittsburgh and inquired of R. Robinsoa & Co., grocers, for a cheap oil for lighting mills, and got a half-barrel of amber oil, called " rock-oil", which was used in a vessel resembling a tea-kettle, the wick projecting from the nozzle, and burned much better than the green oil of Oil creek. The latter had long been collected from curbed pits, in which the oil arose and floated upon the water. Blankets were spread upon the water, which absorbed the •oil, which was then wrung from them. Mr. J. D. Angler contrived a series of pits, one above another, and allowed the water to flow out from beneath the oil, and in this way he obtained what was then considered a large amount- six gallons a day. From 1845 to 1855 parties were actively engaged in manufacturing salt at Tarentum, on the Allegheny river, above Pittsburgh, among them a Mr. Kier, whose son, Samuel M. Kier, was a druggist in Pittsburgh. Mr. Kier bored a well for brine afTarentum and obtained oil that looked hke brandy with the water, and this was allowed to flow into the canal leading to Pittsburgh. Mr. Samuel M. Kier's wife was sick, as was supposed, with consumption, and her physician prescribed " American oil". It helped her, and her husband was led to compare it with that obtained from his father's well. Concluding, as they possessed the same odor, that they were the same thing, he submitted them to a chemist, who pronounced them identical. Mr. S. M. Kier soon after commenced to bot'.le American oil for sale, and after a few years, supposed to be about 1855, iu company with Mr. McKuen, he first refined petroleum from his father's wells at Tarentum. The oils were treated like the crude oils obtained from coal, and were made into burning oils and heavier oils, that were sold to the woolen factory at Cooperstowu for cleansing wool, for which they were found very valuable. This refinery created a demand for crude petroleum, and led people to reflect upon the possibility of procuring it in larger quantity. While Kier was at work in Pittsburgh, the firm of Brewer & Watson were engaged in a large lumbering and general merchandise business at Titusville, on Oil creek. In the summer of 1854 Dr. F. B. Brewer, whose a Testimony of William Atwood iu case of Merrill vs. Youmans. 6 AntiseU, page 135. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 11 father was at tlie head of this firui, \isited relatives at Hauover, New Hampshire, and carried a bottle of petroleum to Professor Crosby, of Dartmouth College, of which institution the doctor -svas a graduate, and Mr. A. H. Crosby, a son of the professor, and now a physician in Concord, Xew Hampshire, became greatly interested in his representations respecting the petroleum and the oil-springs. At this time 3Ir. George H. Bissell, also a native of Hanover, and a graduate of Dartmouth, was on a visit to his old home, and was induced by the others to join an enterprise for forming a stock company for procuring petroleum ou Oil creek. Mr. Bissell was then engaged in the liractice of law in Kew York as a member of the firm of Eveleth & Bissell. After some time spent in negotiation, during which Dr. Crosby had visited Oil creek and advised boring as a means of obtaining the oil in larger quantities, an arrangement was effected with Messrs. Brewer & Watson, under which Messrs. Eveleth & Bissell proceeded to organize a company. Under date of Xovember 6, 1854, these gentlemen informed Dr. Brewer that they "had forwarded several gallons of the oil to ^Mr. Atwood, of Boston, an eminent chemist, and his report of the qualities of the oil and the uses to which it may be applied was very favorable. Professor Silliman, of Yale College, is giving it a thorough analysis, and he informs us that, so far as he has yet tested it, he is of opinion that it contains a large proportion of benzole and naphtha, and that it will be found more valuable for purposes of application to the arts than as a medicinal, burning, or lubricating fluid". The first deed from Brewer, Watson & Co. was dated November 10, 1854, and conveyed to George H. Bissell and Jonathan G. Eveleth, of ifew Y'^ork city, 105 acres of land on what was known as the "Watson flats''^ embracing the island at the junction of Pine and Oil creeks. It was ou this island that Mr. Angler's pits were dug, and also where the first well was drilled five years later. • As a result of this purchase, the Pennsylvania Eock Oil Company was incorporated on the 30th of December, 1854, under the laws of the state of Kew York. In order to satisfy several residents of New Haven who took an interest in the enterprise in consequence of Professor Silliman's report, which was made in April, 1855, the property of the comijany was jmrchased by Jlessrs. Ives & Pierpout, and was leased bj- them to a new company bearing the same title and organized under the laws of Connecticut, the official residence of the company being transferred to the city of New Haven. By the 23d of March, 1857, the Pennsylvania Eock Oil Company had leased the property on Oil creek to the New Haven stockholders, who organized under the name of "The Seneca Oil Company", and E. L. Drake was engaged the following spring to go out to Titusville and drill an artesian well for oil. Mr. Drake, called Colonel Drake on Oil creek, arrived in Titusville about May 1, 1858. At that time Titusville was a lumbei'ing village, and the nearest point at which tools and machinery could be obtained was Erie, Pennsylvania, nearly 100 miles north, or Pittsburgh, still farther south. Drake commenced operations bj- attempting to sink a shaft in one of the old timbered pits once supposed to be of prehistoric origin, but hatchets of French manufacture have been discovered in or about these pits. His idea appears to have been at first to sink a shaft or ordinary well bj' digging; but water and quicksands continually thwarted him, and he finally resorted to the expedient of driving an iron pipe from the surface to the solid rock. This device is supposed to have been original with Drake ; but if it was, he never attempted to reap any advantage from it, although it has been of great value ever since in artesian boring. He appears to have prepared for boring during the season of 1858 by driving hi.s pipe 36 feet to the rock and getting his engine, tools, and pump-house in order; but the men he had engaged to drill early in the season had secured another job, and the work was suspended until the following season, when Mr. William Smith and his two sons werct engaged, they having had large experience on salt- wells. These men arrived at Titusville about the middle of June, bringing with them all the necessary tools for drilling. After many vexatious delays, they were fairly under way by the middle of August and had drilled 33 feet, when, on the 2Sth of August, 1859, the drill struck a crevice, into which it fell six inches. The following day being Sunday, Smith visited the well in the afternoon and found the drillhole full to within a few feet of the top, and on fishing up a small quantity m a tin cup it was found to be petroleum. Such is the story of the first petroleum well, (a) As soon as Mr. Watson heard the news he sprang upon a horse and hastened down Oil creek to lease the farm on which the McClintock spring was situated; but Drake telegraphed to Mr. Bissell, who thereupon bought up all the .stock of the Pennsylvania Eock Oil Company that he could get hold of, and, immediately vi,siting Oil creek, leased large tracts of land that afterward yielded abundantly. Section 5.— HISTOEICAL NOTICE OF THE PETEOLEUM INDUSTEY IN THE UNITED STATES SINCE THE COMPLETION OF DEAKE'S WELL (AUGUST, 1859). The territory over which operations were conducted was for a long time confined to the valleys of the Allegheny river and its tributaries, on the supposition that the present configuration of surface was related to the strata containing the oil. For this reason wells were drilled in the valley of Oil creek from Titusville to Oil City, on French creek from Union City to Meadville and Franklin, and on the Allegheny at Tidioute. Although the coal-oil manufactories all over the country, with scarcely an exception, commenced to work petroleum instead of a I am indebted to Henry'a Early and Later Eistory of Petroleum, -which is indorsed by Mr. Bissell, and to many conversations with residenta of Titusville and the vicinity, for the facts contained in the above narration. 12 PRODUCTION OF PETEOLEUM. •coal, the production was so enormous, as compared with the demand, that the market was soon ghttted and the price fell to almost nothing. An extended demand, and the partial exhaustion of the territory then being worked, led to better prices in 1865, and the immediate result was the boring of wells over an immense extent of country, from Manitoulin island to Alabama, and from Missouri to central jSTew York. In Europe companies were also formed, and wells were put down wherever an oil-spring existed. In the United States the result was the permanent •development of a small territory in southern Kentucky, another still larger in "West Virginia and in Washington county, Ohio, and another in Trumbull county, Ohio, at Mecca. In Pennsylvania oil was found at Smith's Eerry, •on the Ohio river, in Beaver county, and the hill region lying in the angle formed by Oil creek and the Allegheny river from Tidioute across to Titusville was explored and several localities of great richness were opened up. Henry, in Early and Later History of Petroleum, pages 109 and 110, says: The total daily product of all the •svella in June, lti60, ■was estimated at 200 barrels. By September, 1861, the daily production had reached 700 barrels, and then commenced the flo'vping-'well period, ■with an addition to the production of 6,000 or 7,000 barrels a day. The price fell to 20 cents a barrel, then to 15, and then to 10. Soon it -was impossible to obtain barrels on any terms, for all the coopers in the surrounding country could not make them as fast as the Empire well could fill them. Small producing 'wells were forced to cease operations, and scores of operators became disheartened and abandoned their ■wells. The production during the early part of 186.3 ■was scarcely half that of the beginning of 1862, and that of 1864 -was still less. In May, 1865, the production had declined to less than 4,000 barrels per day. Commencing at Titusville in 1859, the tide of development swept over the valley of Oil creek and along the Allegheny river above .and below Oil City for a considerable distance ; then Cherry run, in 1864. Then came Pithole creek, Benninghoff and Pioneer run ; the Woods and Stevenson farms, on Oil creek, in like succession, in 1865 and 1866 ; Tidioute and Triumph hill in 1867, and in the latter part ■of the same year came Shamburg. In 1868 the Pleasantville oil-iield furnished the chief center of excitemeni. While this great activity was being displayed in Pennsylvania, the old salt and petroleum region in the valley •of the Muskingum, in Ohio, and on the Little Kanawha, in West Virginia, was bored for petroleum, and several wells of great productiveness were obtaioed. In 1860 an old brine well at Burning Springs, West Virginia, that had yielded petroleum, was cleaned out, the water tubed off, and about fifty barrels of oil per day secured. In the following winter the Llewellyn well was struck at about the depth of 100 feet, and it flowed over 1,000 barrels a Abstract of a portion of an article by Bruno Walter on " The chances of a petroleum production in Bukowina". J. K. K. G. K.;^ £, 115 (1880). • THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 17 Section 8.-H1ST0EICAL NOTICE OF THE PETEOLEUM I2fDUSTET OF CAlfADA. The productive oil -fields of Canada lie in the county of Lambertou, in the western part of the province of Ontario, and principally in the township of Enniskillen. From the earliest settlement of the region "a dark oily substance had been observed floating ou the surface of the water in the creeks and swamps. No matter how deep the wells were dug, the water was brackish and ill-smelling, and in some localities totally unfit for use ; while a surface of black, oily slime frequently arose an inch thick, as cream rises on new milk. Here and there iu the forest the ground consisted of a gummy, odoriferous tar-colored mud, of the consistence of putty. These places wore known by the uame of 'gum-beds', and iu two or three instances were of considerable extent". (Henry's IJarly and Later History of Petroleum, p. 130.) Operations were commenced there as early as 1857 by one Shaw, who dug an ordinary well, as for water, and after .several days of digging struck a tremendous flow of oil, which ran in a stream into the creek. The usual phenomena attending such a discovery followed; land was bought and leased, more wells were dug, and oil flowed ; they gathered what they could and wasted the remainder; fortunes were made and lost, and after a time, iu 1864, the town of Oil Springs contained 3,000 inhabitants. Flowing wells were struck here in 1862, and some of them proved the most prolific on record, rivaling those of the region around Baku. These great wells were exceptional, and the average yield has been comparatively small. The region over which borings have proved the existence of oil in paying quantities is about 50 miles north and south by 100 miles east and west, and within this range Petrolia, Bothwell, and Oil Springs have produced nearly all of the oil. The latter had the largest wells, though the former now produces more than nine-tenths of the amount at present obtained. Petrolia is about 16 miles southeast of the outlet of lake Huron, Oil Springs 7 miles south of Petrolia, and Bothwell about 35 miles from Oil Springs. The petroleum of Canada contains sulphur and is difficult to refine, but its production has been fostered, and it supplies a large demand throughout the British provinces. Section 9.— HISTOEICAL NOTICE OF THE JAPANESE PETEOLEUM INDUSTEY. The knowledge of rock-oil in Japan is of great antiquity. In B. S. Lyman's reports (1877) appears the following: It is said in tlie Japanese history called Kokushiriyaku (I am told) that rock-oil (or "burning water") was found in Echigo (in Niphon) in the reigu of Tenjitenno, which was 1,260 years ago, or about A. D. 615; and that was probably at Kusddzu, where there are very old natural exposures as well as dug wells. The name of the place, Kus6dzu, is the name given in the country to rock-oil, and means stinking water ; and the very fact that the word is by contraction so much changed from its original form, Kusai midra, shows of Itself considerable antiquity. In the MiyOhflji and Kus6dzu oil region there are (beside a much larger number of old, abandoned wells) about 178 productive wells, which altogether yield alx)ut 4 J barrels a day, making an average of about 1 gallon a day for each well. The best well is at Machikata, and yields about half a barrel a day. The best of the former wells was at Ritakata, and for fourteen days (in 1871) it yielded a daily average of 19 barrels, but after that only about 8 barrels a day. The deepest productive well of the region is 122 fathoms deep. Reviewing all the Echigo oil-fields, we find that there are in all 522 productive wells, of which the deepest is 122 fathoms (732 feet) deep, the greatest yield is about 1.2 barrels a day, and the total yield about 26 barrels a day, giving an average of about 2 gallons a day for each well. Such a yield, if kept up through the whole year, summer and winter, would amount for all the wells together to 9,500 barrels a year, worth, at 12 gallons to the dollar, $31,650. At Shinano, on the ether hand, the yield is far smaller. There are in that province, in spite of the numerous traces of oil and gas, only 22 productive wells, of which the deepest is 57 fathoms (342 feet) deep, and the best has a yield of 2^ barrels a day ; and the total yield is a little over 5 barrels a day, or an average of 9^ gallons a day to each well ; or, in a year, 1,900 barrels altogether, worth about $6,250. The whole yield of the two provinces, then, is about equal to that of two average Pennsylvania oil-wells. Yet two or three cases have occurred in Echigo of a yield of 15 to 19 barrels a day for a few days when the wells were new. At Miy6h6ji they talk of having had a profit of $70,000 to $80,000 from a single well ; and the general estimate of the yield of that field has been high. Such was Mr. Lyman's (geologist of Japan) estimate of the product of the most fruitful oil-fields of Japan in September, 1876. Many other localities have been explored for petroleum with similar results ; but the introduction of American refined oil at present prices has nearly destroyed the domestic trade, and has completely arrested the production. In the very elaborate report made by Consul-General Van Buren in 1880 no mention is made of any domestic production of petroleum, although Consul Stahel, of Hiogo, shows that the imports of American refined petroleum into Japan have increased from about 1,000,000 gallons in 1872 to nearly 18,000,000 gallons in 1880. Hiogo has been one of the most importaut centers of the native petroleum trade, it having had a refinery. Section 10.— HISTOEICAL NOTICE OF THE PEEUVIAN PETEOLEUM INDUSTEY. Previous to the outbreak of the war between Chili and Peru the prospect of a large development of petroleum in Peru was very flattering. The following statement of operations there has been widely coi)ied, but I cannot vouch for its accuracy, as I have not been able to veiify it : Mr. Prentice, the Pennsylvania oil operator, in 1867, paid Peru a visit. A well was put down near Zorritos. At the depth of 146 feet a volcanic formation was reached by the drill, and oil was found. The well pumped 60 barrels a day. A second well was put down. Oil was reached at a depth of 220 feet. The yield rapidlv declined from 12 barrels to 7 barrels a day. Mr. Prentice was satisfied that the VOL. IX 2 18 PEODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. region would prove productive, but he held his own counsel. In 1876 he succeeded in securing the control of the entire estate for the purpose of producing oil. In that year the second well mentioned above was drilled to the depth of nearly 500 feet. The tools struck a vein of oil-bearing sandstone, and immediately sank 10 feet. This was the first finding of the sandstone. The strike was followed by a column of oil that filled the 6-inch casing and was thrown 70 feet in the air. In attempting to control the great flow by inserting tubing in the well the inexperienced employfe let the tubing drop to the bottom. The side caved in soon afterward and stopped the flow. The well is still plugged. Mr. Prentice says its capacity will be 1,000 barrels a day. Another well of his near the above has been in use for three years. It has never yet been torpedoed or recupped. It yields 600 barrels a day. Mr. Prentice's experiments have proved that the deeper the wells are sunk the larger the yield is. At 600 feet he declares that a well in his Peruvian regions will pump 5,000 barrels a day. Back in the mountains some of his men have struck a vein of petroleum by merely digging a pit 28 feet deep. Several of these pits have been dug. Oil accumulates in them in paying quantities. Mr. Prentice has a refinery at Zorritos. Its capacity is 200 barrels ; this he is now enlarging. There were shipped from the Pennsylvania oil regions in 1870, 1,085,615 gallons of oil to Peru, Chili, and Ecuador. Refined oil brings 25 cents a gallon in Peru and its neighboring states. ^ I have been informed that since the outbreak of the war nothing has been done in reference to this industry. Section 11.— HISTOEICAL NOTICE OF THE ITALIAN AND OTHEE PETROLEUM INDUSTEIES. I am indebted to Professor P. E. DeEerrari, C. E., of Genoa, for the following statement concerning the petroleum interests of Italy. His letter was dated Iglesias, Sardinia, December 22, 1881, and in it he says : There are in Italy two large districts with petroleum-bearing strata : one in the north, on the southern borders of the Po valley ; the other in the south of Italy. Unfortunately, in spite of extensive workings and a considerable amount of money employed in searching for mineral oil, no satisfactory result was obtained. The chief localities where petroleum and its allied products are met with are — Po valley : Rivanazzano, province of Voghera ; Riglio, province of Piacenza ; Miano, in the Caro valley of Parma ; Sapuolo, in the Secchia valley of Modena. South Italy : San Giovanni Incarico of Caserta ; Coco, in the Pesoara vallej' of Chieti. In the first district the oil is of a very good quality, very pure, largely diffused in the rook, but occurs in strata chiefly of clay and argillaceous sand, which, because of their little permeability, do not permit the free exit of the oil when wells are dug in the ground. The geological range of the strata is the Miocene and Pliocene jjeriods. Some geologists believe that below the above-mentioned strata there may be other strata which would yield large quantities of petroleum when pierced through with wells. It must be stated that these strata have not been found, even in those places where borings of 250 and even 400 meters have been opened (820 to 1,312 feet). Six different societies have worked the petroleum springs of North Italy from the year 1866 to 1874, but without success. Several wells reached the depth of 200 meters (656 feet), but no large veins of petroleum were met with, and the works were abandoned. In the valley of Pescara, South Italy, there are also petroleum springs, with bituminous products. At Coco borings of great depth have shown the existence of some oil veins, but of little importance. At San Giovanni Incarico several veins of some hundred liters every twenty-four hours were found, but they have no industrial importance. Lately an Italian and French society, with large capital, and Canadian workman and machinery, explored the ground at Rivanazzano and at Coco. They opened four wells 200 meters deep in the north ; one 400 meters in the south (Coco) ; but the working was given up for deficiency of money. The whole product of petroleum in Italy does not exceed 300 tons a year, and it is chiefly collected in large and shallow wells by the country people, and used on the spot. No machinery worth mentioning, but small pumps, are used, and in most places the work is done simply by hand. At Sapuolo and Salsomaggiori the gas which comes from crevices in the ground is collected and burned for industrial purposes. In the south of Italy bituminous clay is distilled and petroleum condensed in small quantity. The annnal importation of petroleum into Italy is 50,000 tons, and its value is 14,500,000 francs. This letter states the condition of the petroleum industry as related to modern methods of exploitation, and prices as governed by the enormous supply furnished at present by the United States; but petroleum has long been known in the valley of the Po, and many of its smaller towns have been lighted by it. The exceptionally fine quality of the petroleum of that region made it possible to use it without refining. The earliest mention of petroleum from this region is by Frangois Arioste, who cured men and animals afflicted with itch with petroleum which he had discovered in 1460 at Mont-Libio, in the duchy of Modena. (a) Agricola also mentions it in the middle of the sixteenth century. (&) Many other localities will be enumerated in the succeeding chapter as furnishing petroleum, but those mentioned are the only ones that have furnished petroleum to the commerce of civilized nations. The historical development of the petroleum industry may be summed up as follows: In many regions, and for immemorial periods, petroleum gathered from natural springs and dug wells has been used in medicine, and in a rude way as an illuminating agent. In China artesian wells have been bored for brine and for natural gas, and the latter was used to boil brine for centuries before the Christian era. In the United States artesian borings made for brine had furnished petroleum in enormous quantities thirty or forty years before any use was known for snch a supply. The development of the coal-oil industry between 1850 and 1860 led to experiments upon petroleum as a substitute for the crude oil obtained from coal, and with the success of those experiments (1859) came a demand for petroleum that led to Drake's attempt to procure the oil directly by boring. The success attending the oil industry in Pennsylvania during the first four years of its existence led to the organization of companies all over the world for the purpose of drilling test- wells wherever springs of petroleum were accessible. In some localities they were successful; in others only partially so; while in the majority of instances they were failures, or were found inferior to the primitive dug wells. The continuously increasing and enormous production of the United States, and the consequent depreciation in value of all the products manufactured from petroleum, has led to the almost complete control of that trade by American manufacturers, Galicia and the Caucasus at the present time being their only competitors, and they only to quite a limited extent. a His book was published in 1690 by Jacob Oliger; Comptea-Sendiis, ix, 217. b Comptes-Sendus, ix, 217. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 1'9 Chaptee IL— the GEOGEAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PETROLEUM AND OTHER FORMS OF BITUMEN. Section 1.— THE OCCUEEENCE OF BITUMEN IN THE UNITED STATES. The following chapter has been prepared for the purpose of showing the localities upon the earth's surface at which bitumen occurs, and great care has been taken to secure the most accurate information regarding the United States. For this purpose letters of inquiry have been addressed to the state geologists of all the states with which I am uot persoually acquainted, and to the geologist in charge of the geological survey of the United States. • To these official sources of information has been added a large amount of personal inquiry and correspondence. The map of the world (I) has been prepared to show the location of the areas producing bitumen. These areas are unavoidably exaggerated in size, and many localities of minor importance are omitted. The map of the United States (II) shows the localities within the United States that have produced bitumen of any kind. Many of these areas are also unavoidably exaggerated in size. The large map (III) shows the ai-eas in Pennsylvania and New York that have proved commercially valuable. This map has been prepared from actual surveys, many of which were undertaken expressly for parties engaged in producing oil. The areas tinted yellow are believed to be substantially correct as regards both location and outlines. The streams were plotted with every attention to accuracy, and are believed to indicate the water-shed and lines of greatest elevation. The dates beneath the names of towns indicate the period at which the locality was yielding its maximum production. The red lines indicate the main pipe lines, and the broken blue lines indicate in a general way the outline of territory over which wells or natural springs have yielded petroleum or gas, but in most instances not a sufficient amount of petroleum to be profitable. Map IV represents the areas at tbe White Oak district, West Virginia, drawn from actual surveys. Map V shows the location of oil-wells in the valley of the Cumberland river in Kentucky and Tennessee, drawn from actual surveys. Map VI represents in a general manner the localities in southern Ohio, West Virginia, and Kentucky that have produced bitumen. Map VII represents in a general manner the localities in Louisiana and Texas that have produced bitumen. Map VIII represents the localities in Michigan and Canada that have produced bitumen. STATES AND TERRITORIES FROM WHICH NO BITUMEN HAS BEEN REPORTED. Maine. Maryland. Mississippi. Montana. New Hampshire. Virginia. Arkansas. Idaho. Vermont. North Carolina. Iowa. Washington. Massachusetts. South Carolina, Wisconsin. Oregon. Ehode Island. Georgia. Minnesota. Nevada. Delaware. .STATES -tND TERRITORIES IN WHICH SOLID BITUMENS OCCUR. Connecticut. — In the valley of the Connecticut river solid bitumens have been observed filling thin seams and veins in eruptive rocks, (a) New York. — In the eastern portion of the state, in the region of eruptive and metamorphic rocks, veins occur similar to those reported from Connecticut, (b) In some of the cavities of the New York limestones the crystals which Hue them are covered with a substance, black and sMuing, with the fracture and appearance of anthracite. New Jersey. — Veins are reported in the trap of New Jersey filled with a bituminous mineral, (c) West Virginia. — In Eitchie county, West Virginia, on McFarland's run, a small tributary of the south fork of Hughes' river, which enters the Little Kanawha, is found a vein of bituminous material, called asphaltum, whifh is without doubt closely related to petroleum and other forms of bitumen, but in precisely what manner has been a subject of much controversy. This vein cuts the nearly horizontal sandstone almost at right angles and stands vertical to the horizon. Very extensive mining operations were commenced upon the vein, but the mass was soon worked down to the lower level of the sandstones, and was found to pinch out in the shales beneath. It presented all of the appearances of an eruptive mass. The material was found to be exceedingly o J. C. Percival on "Indurated Bitumen", Geol. of Conn., A. J. S. (3), xvi, 130. 6 L. C. Beck, A. J. S. (1), xlv, 335. c J. C. Russell, A. J. S. (3), xvi, 112. 20 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. valuable for enriching gas, for which it was chiefly used ; but a thickness of several hundred feet of shale, in which it was almost entirely wanting, prevented continuous working. Other smaller but otherwise similar veins occur in the neighborhood, (a) Texas. — Near the mouth of the Brazos river and in other parts of Texas beds of asphaltum occur, evidently resulting from the decomposition of petroleum ; but so far as I have been able to learn they have no commercial value. New Mexico and Arizona. — In these territories beds of asphaltum are reported. They have no other than a local value. Utah. — In this territory, in the Sani^ete valley, southeast of Salt lake, is said to be a deposit containing ozokerite similar to that found in Galicia. Also on the banks of the Green river veins are said to occur resembling the grahamite found in West Virginia. Although I have seen specimens which were said to have come from both of these localities, I have never met any detailed description of them. Neither deposit has yet any commercial value. Califoenia. — This state includes a large area which furnishes asphaltum, much the larger proportion being the product of the decomposition of petroleum, while the remainder occurs in veins that are evidently eruptive, (&) the former occurring in beds of greater or less extent on hillsides or gulch slopes below springs of more fluid bitumen. These deposits are scattered over the country between the bay of Monterey and San Diego, but are chiefly observed west and south of the coast ranges between Santa Barbara and the Soledad pass. In the aggregate there are thousands of tons of asphaltum scattered over this region of every possible degree of purity ; but it is so difficult to handle, and so little is concentrated in one place, that little use has thus far been made of it. The case is quite different, however, with the deposit at Hill's ranch, on the coast above Santa Barbara. Here eruptive masses that have been very fully described by Professor J. D. Whitney and myself (see note b] occur in such quantity that it has been obtained in cargoes for use in San Francisco. The asphaltum of this locality is solid and homogeneous in appearance, but it really contains 50 per cent, of sand, so fine and in such complete admixture as to make the material superior for pavement to any artificial mixture that can be produced. I have never been able to obtain even an approximate estimate of the quantity that this locality has furnished. Kentucky. — Asphaltum is reported in Johnson county, on the tributaries of the Big Sandy river. I have never seen any of this asphalt, but I am inclined to think it is also more closely related to the gum beds of Canada, above mentioned. Tennessee. — ^Asphaltum is reported in cavities and prisms in the Trenton limestone in middle Tennessee in small veins rarely an inch in thickness. The amount is insignificant. Othee localities. — Asphaltum is also reported from other localities, in Missouri and Kentucky, but I have never seen any of the material, and from all that I have been able to learn regarding the deposits they resemble the so-called gum beds of Canada, which really consist of a mass of mud or soil saturated with petroleum, rather than of pure and solid asphaltum. Such mixtures of oil and mud are often met around oil-wells in any of the productive districts where the waste oil has soaked the ground about the derricks. STATES AND TEREITOEIES IN WHICH SEMI-SOLID BITUMEN (MALTHA) OCCURS. This material issues from so-called tar-springs, and is found almost or quite exclusively within the southwestern portion of the country. I have seen but a single specimen from one of the interior counties of Texas. A letter of inquiry, addressed to the secretary of state of Texas, was referred to Mr. N. A. Taylor, who replied : The tar-springs in Burnet county discbarge a good deal of petroleum. Tlie wagoners gather it to grease their tvagon wheels. It is prohable that borings there would geb a good supply of oil. It appears on the surface of nearly all the springs at Sour lake. In days past it has evidently exuded from the ground at that place in great quantity, for there are some acres just below the lake almost completely covered with the consolidated stuff, or asphalt, the thickness of which I don't recollect, but no doubt it is very thick in some places. An attempt was made there to bore for the oil, but after penetrating the ground to some distance a great explosion occurred, and the fellow was afraid to try it again. I think some borings have also been made in Nacogdoches county. There is also a small lake in Marion county, where oil covers the water, and where there is also a good deal of asphalt. These counties are in northeast Texas. Burnet county is in the southern central portion of the state. These tar-springs, which yield a semi-fluid maltha, are often called oil or petroleum springs by those who do not understand the difference in the value of these different although in some respects similar substances. In New Mexico, not far from Albuquerque, tar-springs are reported; also in Arizona and southern Utah; but the exact localities I have been unable to learn or verify. In southern California, throughout the same region in which asphalt is found, maltha occurs in great abundance, oozing from springs on the hillsides and in the beds of water-courses in canons, and after exposure to the elements becoming hardened into asphaltum. In consistence it passes by insensible gradations from a material scarcely to be distinguished from heavy petroleum to solid asphalt. It varies in specific gravity from 0.9906 to i.lOO, the heavier material, though heavier than water, still remaining i>lastic like mortar. Springs near the old stage-road between a Lesley, J. P., P. A. P. S., ix. 183; A. J. S. (2), xU, 139 ; H. Wurtz : Report, 1865 ; S. F. Peckham, A. J. S. (2), xlviii, 362, Nov.. 1869; A. G. J., xi, 164. 6 J. D. Whitney : Geology of California. Geology, I, 132 ; S. F. Peckham, A. J. S. (2), xlviii, 368. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 21 the Gaviota pass and the old missiou of San Miguel (if my memory is correct) yield a quicksand cemented by maltha that oozes out and accumulates in great masses upon the side of the hill, becoming rigid as the maltha changes to asphalt. At Rincou point, about half way from Santa Barbara to San Buenaventura, a bed of sand overlying the shales, which there stand at a high angle, is saturated with maltha for about 20 feet in thickness over many hundreds of acres. The formation is exposed in the ocean bluff for at least a mile. Fig. 1 shows the manner in which the sand overlies the shale. («) Early in 1S6G, when trial-borings for petroleum were being conducted upon the San Francisco ranch, in the Santa Clara valley, Ventura county, maltha was found at a depth of 117 feet too dense to pump and without sufficient tenacity to admit of being drawn up with grappling hooks, yet sufficiently firm to clasp the tools and prevent furtber operations. On the plains northwest of Los Angeles an artesian boring that penetrated sandstones interstratified with shale to a depth of 460 feet yielded maltha. In this region there are vast quantities of this matei ial, which has not hitherto been found valuable, but which will no doubt at some future day be found useful in the arts. (6) Maltha is also reported at the Shoshone springs, in Wyoming territory, and in cavities in the limestones of middle Tennessee. In the latter locality it occurs in small quantities, and has no commercial value. STATES AND TERRITORIES IN WHICH LIQUID OR GASEOUS BITUMEN OCCURS. Xew Toek. — In 1S65 Jonathan Watson drilled a well in Ontario county, 5 miles east of Canandaigua lake, and found there a good oil-rock, plenty of gas, and a production of about 5 barrels of oil daily. A line drawn from this point west to lake Erie, and another south to the Pennsylvania line, would include all of the territory in the state of jl!few York over which oil or gas has been obtained by boring (see map III), and along the shores of lake Erie, from the state line to Buftalo, at almost any point natural gas may be obtained from artesian borings. Fredonia, in Chautauqua county, a few miles south of Dunkirk, has been lighted by natural gas for more than forty years. A great many wells have been bored along the lake shore and for some distance inland, and at a number of localities in Chautauqua and Erie counties they are reported to have produced small quantities of oil. In the southeastern portion of Chautauqua county, and that portion of Cattaraugus county north and west of Salamanca, the indications of a productive oil territory become more pronounced, but I have not been able to learn definitely that any wells in that region have yielded oil enough to pay their cost. The larger number of these wells were drilled many years ago, and detailed statements concerning their exact locality and the results afforded by them are now very difBcult to obtain. South and east of Salamanca the Bradford oil-field of Pennsylvania extends into New York, and has proved a very certain and valuable territory. The statements that are made in this report respecting the Bradford field apply equally to that portion lying in Xew York and in Pennsylvania. The field in New York lies south of the Allegheny river. (See map III.) The next county east of Cattaraugus is Allegany, and at Cuba, in the southwestern part of that county, is the oil-spring described in 1833 by Professor Benjamin Silliman, sr. (c) Through the southern townships of this county the Kichburg field has been recently opened with much promise. A few wells have been drilled in the southwestern part of Steuben county, but with what promise of commercial success has not yet been determined. The weUs in this region are from 1,600 to 2,000 feet in depth ; the oil is of a dark amber color and of a specific gravity of 4A° Baum6, very closely resembling that of the Bradford field. Pennsylvania. — A number of test wells have been drilled in the western part of Potter county, Pennsylvania, contiguous to Allegany county, New York, and some are reported to have yielded oil in small quantity, but most of them are understood to have been entirely unproductive. The next county west is McKean county, and the greater portion of the Bradford field occupies that portion of the county embraced in about one-half the townships lying west and north of Smethport. As may be seen from the map (III) accompanying this report, the outline is irregular, with a smaU but detached portion lying to the southwest of the main body. This field has been developed since 1874, and while it has been very completely outlined by dry holes and wells of small production, there are many wells in dtfiferent portions of the county outside the field that have yielded more or less oil. At Smethport a well yielded a "small quantity" of very dense amber- colored oil, while at Kane, in the southwestern part of the county, on the Pittsburgh and Erie railroad, is one of the most remarkable gas- wells on record, {d) The wells here are from 1,600 to 2,000 feet deep. The next county west of McKean is Warren, and in it there are two well-defined productive fields of small extent. These are the Warren field, lying around the town of Warren, and the Clarendon and Stoneham field, lying to the south a short distance, yet entirely distinct from the former. These fields yield an amber oil of a specific gravity of 48° Baum^. The wells are from 800 to 1,100 feet deep. o Report cf Geological Surrey of California : Geology, II. Appendix, p. 51, Fig. 2. b S. F. Peckham, A. J. S. (2), xlviii, 370; Am. C, iv, 6. c A. J. S., (1) xxiii, 97. d C. A. Ashbnruer, J. F. L, cviii, 347 ; P. A. P. S.,xviii, 9, 419 ; T. A. I. M. E., 1879, 1878, 316 ; A. J. S. (3), xvi, 393, xvii, 69, xix, 168; J. F. Carl), P. A. P. S., xvi, 346. 22 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. In the central, southern, "and southwestern portions of "Warren county, from Tidioute, on the Allegheny river, southwest into Venango county, the territory known as Triumph hill was opened in 1868. Some weUs were bored in 1860 by the Economites in the river opposite Tidioute, and later upon the high land on the south side of the river. But this territory is small. On the north and west side of the river (which makes a bend just below Tidioute) a narrow belt of territory that has been very productive extends across the hills into Venango county. Northwest of this belt, in the southwestern corner of the county, a small territory around Enterprise proved very productive. Other noted localities in this section are Fagundus, southeast of Tidioute, and New London and Colorado, southwest of the same pla«e. The wells in the Warren and Stoneham fields are in a horizon which lies in depth between the Bradford and Venango county fields. Those on the island in the Allegheny river, first drilled by the Economites in 1860, were 120 feet deep ; on the hills they are from 560 to 570 feet deep. The oil produced here is dark green by reflected light and of the color of brandy by transmitted light, resembling in this respect the oil of the so-called Oil creek. At Sheffield, in the southeastern part of this county, is another remarkable gas-well. Erie and Crawford counties lie west of Warren county, and have both been pretty well drilled over. At Erie, on the lake shore, a number of gas-wells has for many years furnished gas to dwellings and manufacturing establishments, and a few wells sunk 600 to 700 feet in the shale have yielded a few barrels of heavy green oil, suitable for lubricating machinery. The most successful of these wells (the Demming) did not, so far as I could learn, pay the cost of drilling. The oil has a specific gravity of 26° Baum^. At Union City, in the southeastern part of Erie county, wells have also been drilled in shale which yielded a small quantity of very dense oil for a very long time. The first well was drilled in 1859, soon after Drake struck oil, to a depth of 52 feet, and has yielded a small quantity of oil ever since. Several other wells have been drilled here, but none of them, so far as I could learn, have ever proved profitable. Mr. J. P. Stranahan, of Union, informed me that he and his brothers dug out an oil spring thirty-five years ago at Oxbow hill, a few miles northeast of Union, and that it had flowed oil ever since. The boys set the gas from the spring on fire and boiled eggs in the flame. In 1879 a well was drilled 2 J miles west of Union, that struck oil in "paying quantities" at 18 feet. In going deeper to get more oil the well was spoiled, and was afterward abandoned; but I conclude that at better prices Erie county can be made to produce a considerable amount of heavy oil. At Girard and other points near the lake shore gaswells are productive. Crawford county, excepting in the southeast corner, along the valley of Oil creek, has about the same record as Erie county. Along the valley of French creek and its tributaries, above and below Meadville, many wells have been bored, some of which produced oil, but none in quantities that proved remunerative. Titusville is near the line of Venango county, in the southern part of Crawford county, and north of Titusville is Church run, a locality that for a time proved very productive. This neighborhood has yielded oil from the date of Drake's well (1859) up to the present time. Drake's well was 69^ feet deep, and penetrated only to the first stratum of sandstone yielding oil ; but after the wells were drilled deeper a second and a third sandstone were reached, and a much greater yield was obtained. The valley of Oil creek has been drilled all over, and nearly everywhere south from Church run it has proved productive. The portion, however, that lies in Crawford county is comparatively small. South of Crawford county lie Mercer and Venango counties. Mercer county has been well drilled over with test wells, particularly the eastern portion, but without developing any territory of value. Venango county has proved one of the four most productive counties in the state, and if complete statistics from 1859 were to be had it would probably head the list. Oil creek enters near the middle of its northern boundary and runs a little east of south until it enters the Allegheny river near the center of the county, at Oil City. The Allegheny river enters the county near the middle of its eastern boundary, receives Oil creek at Oil City, and, fiowing southwest, receives French creek at Franklin, from which point it flows southeast, and leaves the county at its southeast corner. The valley of Oil creek, the triangle between that creek and the Allegheny river, and the region below Franklin, on the same river, is crossed at intervals by long and narrow belts of territory, often from an eighth to a quarter of a mile wide and several miles in length, which have produced and are still producing oil in enormous quantities. These belts occuijy long troughs or depressions, level on their upper surface, and curved upward from the center on the under surface from side to side. In a few instances the productive territories have been found to resemble pools in their outline and dimensions, but the major portion of this whole county is crossed by a great number ot these belts which have yielded enormously productive wells in the center and less productive ones on parallel lines along the sides, until at a distance in some instances of 20 rods on either side the drill failed to reveal the presence of either sand or oil. The oil of this section has been quite uniform in character, excepting that ijroduced in the neighborhood of Franklin, a small territory in the angle formed by French creek and the Allegheny river. In color it is for the most part green, although a considerable quantity has been obtained that is decidedly black. The specific gravity has varied from 42° to 48° Baume. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 23 The Franklin district has furnished a lubricating oil of very superior quality from shallow wells. These wells are almost all in Cherrytree township, Venango county; but a few are in Franklin on the high bluffs south of the city. Forest county lies east of Venango county. Here several belts extend from one into the other, and several independent areas of small extent have been developed within its limits. West Hickory, Foxburg, and Balltown have been the principal centers, but the county, on the whole, has not proved to be very important for oil production. The next county east is Elk, but as an oil-field is of less importance than Forest. A few wells have been drilled in its northwest corner, and others in the neighborhood of Wilcox have produced oil; but the production, as a whole, is unimportant. Near Wilcox is a noted gas-well. Jeflerson county, lying south of both Elk and Forest, has received some attention, but is without reputation. I have not learned that any of the wells reported to have been drilled there have yielded oil; they certainly have not in valuable quantity. A glance at map III, accompanying this report, will show a large belt of oil territory having a general northeast and southwest direction lying in Clarion, Armstrong, and Butler counties. This belt begins in the southwest corner of Clarion county, passes through the northern part of Armstrong county, and extends nearly to the center of Butler county. The wells are from 900 to 1,300 feet in depth, becoming deeper as they approach the southwest extremity of the belt. This belt has been exceedingly productive throughout its entire area, and furnished the bulk of the oil production of Pennsylvania from 1869 to 1877. Small areas in each of the three counties have been developed outside the principal belt that have yielded in the aggregate a large amount of oil, but their importance has been so overshadowed by the main Butler and Clarion fields that they have been but little noticed. At Petrolia, in Armstrong county, gas-wells have jiroved very productive, and at Leechburg, on the Kiskiminitas, this gas has been used for manufacturing iron. In the lower part of Armstrong county petroleum was obtained in 1839 in salt-wells, and was used for derrick lights. West of Butler county, in Lawrence county, many wells have been drilled, with varying success. In the southeast corner of this county, on Slippery Rock creek, a belt has been developed that has been moderately prolific ; but outside of this small area the county may be said to possess but little value for oil purposes. South of Lawrence county, in Beaver county, a very valuable field has been opened up in the neighborhood of Smith's Ferry, on the north side of the Ohio river. This territory is between 3 and 4 miles square, and the oil is uniformly different from that produced in other portions of Pennsylvania and the adjoining states of Ohio and West Virginia. Being of a light amber color, resembling pale sherry wine, though not transparenl:, and having a specific gravity of 50° Baumt?, it will burn in a lamp in hot weather without refining. This oil is much more valuable than the average of Pennsylvania oils. Allegheny county lies east of Beaver, and near its center is the city of Pittsburgh. Along the Allegheny river above Pittsburgh, particularly near Tarentum, in the northeast part of the county, petroleum has been observed for 40 or 50 years, and it was here that Mr. Kier obtained the first oil that he refined at Pittsburgh. This county has never been regarded as valuable for oil purposes. Oil suitable for lubrication has been obtained at Greensburg, in Westmoreland county, and many wells have been drilled in Washington county; but the production of oil has been practically nothing. In the southeast corner of Greene county, which is the southwest county of the state, an area on Dunkard's creek has produced a few thousand barrels yearly for several years, but the territory is small, and has been comparatively unimportant. Ohio and West Virginia. — There are three localities in Ohio that have yielded petroleum from an early date. These are the neighborhood of Mecca, in Trumbull county, the neighborhood of Beldeu, in Lorain county, and Washington coauty. Mecca is near the center of Trumbull county, which lies directly west of Mercer county, Pennsylvania. The oil produced here is from shallow wells, less than 100 feet in depth, is of a specific gi-avity of 26° Baum^, and of very superior quality as a lubricator. The territory is about 4 miles in length, north and south, by 2i miles wide, and lies upon the west bank of Mosquito creek, with the village of Power's Corners near its center. Large sums of money have been expended in boring for oil in the valley of the Cuyahoga, where there are numerous springs; but none of the wells proved profitable, although a small quantity of oil was obtained in nearly aU of them. The Belden district, in the southeast part of Lorain county, is of about the same dimensions (4 by 2J miles), but lies with its longer axis east and west. Several varieties of oil are produced here from wells of different depths. The more dense is black, and has a specific gravity of from 26° to 28° Baumd, while the lighter is green, and has a specific gravity of from 28° to 36° Baume. It is supposed that this territory is larger than present developments would indicate, as wells have produced oil at Liverpool and at Medina, in Medina county, both of which are several miles east and southeast of Belden. In the southeast portion of Columbiana county, a short distance west of the Smith's Ferry district, in Pennsylvania, many wells have yielded in the aggregate quite a large quantity of petroleum, although, as compared with other localities, the yield is unimportant. 24 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. The Washington county district extends into Noble, Morgan, and Athens counties, and for the most part lies in the valley of the Muskingum and its tributaries. Petroleum -was obtained here in brine wells as early as 1814, and was noticed by Dr. Hildreth, of Marietta, in 1833, and again in 1836. («) The white oak anticlinal, or so-called " oil-break" of West Virginia, extends from Newell's run, a tributary of the Little Muskingum river, in Newport township,Washington county, Ohio, to Eoane county, West Virginia, passing through Pleasants, Eitcliie, Wood, and Wirt counties, of the latter state, reaching its highest point at Sand Hill, where the axis crosses Walker's creek, the rocks here being raised about 1,500 feet above their normal level. The crest is about one mile wide from side to side (east to west), in which the rocks are practically level, the stratification being as uniform as in the rocks outside of the anticlinal ; but along its axis it is not level, forming there undulations, in which the whole depth of the formation shares. This brings the entire series in three elevations: the first one north at Horse Neck, in Pleasants county; the second at White Oak, in Wood county; and the third at Burning Springs, in Eitchie county. Oil is found under these three elevations, and consequently there are in West Virginia three contiguous districts that yield oil. (h) A few wells have yielded oil at the northern extremity of the uplift on Newell's run, in Ohio. The territory of" Cow run" is situated in Lawrence township, Washington county, Ohio, about 3 miles west of the northern extremity of the white oak anticlinal. Here the rocks for about three-quarters of a mile square are raised 350 feet above their normal level, di])ping off gradually on all sides. The Macksburg territory is of limited extent, and is situated in Aurelius township, in the extreme northern part of Washington county. At Olive, in Noble county, where the brine well of 1814 was located, petroleum has been obtained, and also in the Scioto valley, but not in paying quantities. (See Map VI.) At Blue Eock, southeast of Zanesville, in Muskingum county. Buck run, in Morgan county, and Federal creek, in Athens county, a few wells have proved profitable. At Eutland, near Pomeroy, in Meigs county, near Gallipolis, in Gallia county, and on Tug fork of the Big Sandy river, in Wayne county. West Virginia, oil-springs have been observed. These localities lie in an almost direct line from Blue Eock to Tug fork, and are supposed to indicate a line along which wells will ultimately prove profitable. There are several horizons in this region lying at different depths that yield oil of different specific gravities. The facts relating to this subject will be elucidated in Chapter III. (c) Along the lake shore, at Ashtabula, Painesville, Cleveland, Eocky river, and other localities, gas-wells have yielded profitable supplies for heating and lighting dwellings, (d) At Liverpool, Columbiana county, Ohio, and across the river, at New Cumberland, Hancock county, West Virginia, gas-wells have yielded very large amounts for a long time, (e) the gas from which is used for lighting dwellings and factories and for the manufacture of lampblack. In Knox county some of the most remarkable gas- wells on record have been discovered in boring for oil. This gas is also used for the manufacture of lampblack. A further description of these wells will be given in the chapter devoted to natural gas. (/) At Burning Springs, Eitchie county, West Virginia, the escape of natural gas was noticed by the earliest settlers, {g) At the salines, in the valley of the Great Kanawha, above and below Charleston, petroleum has been observed for at least fifty years, and for a time the natural gas which arose with the brine in nearly all of the wells was largely used for evaporating purposes; but while the aggregate production of this locality has no doubt been many thousands of barrels, it was for the most part obtained before petroleum became an article of large demand, and much of it was doubtless wasted. (See Map VI.) Kentucky and Tennessee. — The oil and burning springs that mark the line from Blue Eock, in Ohio, to the Tug fork of the Sandy river, in West Virginia, is continued in outcrops on Paint creek, Johnson county, Kentucky. This creek is a tributary of the west fork of the Big Sandy, and has been described by J. P. Lesley in his report published in 1865. (h) Springs are also met with near Saylersville, in Magotfin county. In Lincoln, Eockcastle, Pulaski, Casey, Green, Adair, Eussell, and Metcalfe counties oil-springs are found, and oil-wells have been drilled at different times. Some of these wells in Lincoln and Casey counties are old salt-wells, drilled fifty or sixty years ago ; others are oil-wells drilled during the excitement of 1865 and 1878. The oil sand in Lincoln county lies at a depth of about 300 feet. A number of wells have been drilled in this county in the neighborhood of Stanford, all of which are reported to have reached oil, but the wells have not been piped or pumped, and none of the oil has been put upon the market. In Wayne county the oldest well in the country is still flowing oil. It was drilled for brine on the little south fork of the Cumberland river, in the southeast corner of the county, in 1818. The oil is heavy, black lubricating oil. Wells have been drilled near Monticello since 1865 that yield a heavy oil of a dark-green color, specific gravity 25° Baum6, that has a high reputation as a lubricator. ' In Clinton county oil was obtained in 1866 ; in Cumberland county the old American well was bored for brine in 1829 and flowed oil till 1860 ; and in 1865 a large number of wells were drilled along the Cumberland river and the creeks flowing into it, and they probably gave the most a A. J. S. (1), xxiv, 63 ; xxix, 87. d J. S. Newljcrry, Geo. Ohio, i, 161. b See sections, Plates III and IV. e Hid., in, 118. c For many of the facts stated in this report respecting this / Geo. Ohio, 44. region I am indebted to F. W. Minshall, esq., of Parkers- g S. P. Hildreth, A. J. S. (1), xxix, 87, 121. burg, West Virginia. A P. A. P. S., x, 33. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. ^25 certain and largest yield of oil that has ever been obtained for the same cost in any locality. At the same time, probably a larger proportion of the oil produced was wasted than has been the case anywhere else in the United States, as it is supposed that 50,000 barrels from the American well ran down the Cumberland river before any attempt was made to save it. The oil near Burkesville, Cumberland county, has a peculiar, offensive odor and a specific gravity of 37° Baume. Amber oil of a lower specific gravity was obtained from other wells in small quantity, and a larger amount was yielded by wells on Oil fork of Bear creek (east of Burkesville), which was of a black color, with a specific gravity of 26° Baum6. The oil here appears to be in a sort of marble at 90, 190, and 380 feet from the surface. . .^_.- On Boyd's creek, near Glasgow, Barren county, Kentucky, oil has been obtained for several years in commercial quantities, the wells being in the bed of the creek and on the adjoining hills. A few thousand barrels per year are obtained here. Wells have also reached oil on Beaver creek north of Glasgow. A well is also reported to have yielded "considerable quantities" of oil near Bowling Green, Warren county, and another near the Mammoth cave, in Edmonson county. (See Map V.) Directly north of these counties, on the Ohio river, wells have reached oil at Brandensburg, in Meade county, at a depth of 9*00 feet ; but those who drilled them afterward concluded that they were not deep enough. Three wells were also drilled near Cloverport, which yielded a small quantity of oil. Another well is reported in Bourbon county, and still another at Henderson, in Henderson county. This latter well is reported to have yielded a very valuable lubricating oil. Over at least one-third of the state scattering wells have yielded petroleum, some of which have been among the most remarkable in the country. Springs of natural gas are common throughout the region just outlined ; but I have not learned that the gas is anywiiere used for any purpose, or that more than one well has ever been bored for gas, that at Bristow station, Warren county. Cumberland, Clinton, and Wayne counties, Kentucky, border Clay and Fentress counties, Tennessee, which, with Overton, Jackson, and Putnam counties, are drained by the east and west forks of Obey's river and other smaller tributaries, with Eagle and Spring creeks, all of which are tributaries of the Cumberland river. Many oil springs are found in the valleys of these streams, and during 1S67, 1868, and 1877 a number of wells were bored, almost uniformly producing oil, the larger part of which ran to waste for want of means of transportation. Trousdale, Macon, and Sumner counties, lying west of Jackson county and north of Nashville, also have oil-springs along some of their streams. To the west of Nashville about 40 miles another group of counties has oil-springs in the valleys of their streams, the principal field of operations being in Dickson county. Several wells drilled here from lS66-'69 to 1877 to a depth of between 400 and 600 feet yielded oil of a specific gravity of 44° Baume. In Hickman, Montgomery, and Maury counties there are springs, from one of whicb oil has been oozing since 1830, when it was opened by blasting for the foundation of a mill. During the year 1863-'64 McMinnville, in Warren county, was the center of some activity in exploring for oil. A well sunk about forty years before for brine was sunk deeper for stronger brine. Oil flowed upon the creek, which took fire and destroyed the forests for 10 miles along its banks. Mr. M. C. Read visited this region in 1804, and found the agents of a Chicago company putting down five or six wells. These were located by witch-hazel men, at $500 each, to be paid when they struck oil. Mr. Bead asserted that there were several bottomless pits of petroleum beneath an intensely hard, cherty limestone, very difficult to drill. The company spent the first assessment before they got through that stratum, when, the price of oU falling, they pulled out their tools and left. Cannon county, adjoining Warren county on the west, has been examined during the last season and many springs of heavy oil have been discovered. Oil has also been reported in a well near Chattanooga. The counties that I have enumerated cover about one-sixth the area of the state. (See Map V.) Alabama. — Jonathan Watson, esq., of Titusville, Pennsylvania, drilled wells in northern Alabama in 1865 and got oil in two of them. Florida. — It is reported to me that there are no petroleum springs in Florida. A. A. Eobinson, commissioner of the board of immigration, Tallahassee, Florida, in a letter, says : There is in the midst of an impenetrable cypress swamp near the coast, in Jefferson county, and about 35 miles southeast of Tallahassee, a mysterious column of black smoke, which has been rising for twenty years. At night it emits light, fitful and irregular, frequently lighting the sky so as to be seen miles away at sea. It is supposed to be a petroleum spring on fire. Much time, money, and enterprise has been expended to explore the swamp. Xo one has ever succeeded. It must be petroleum or a volcanic eruption. Some data may be found on the subject in the records of the United States coast survey. Michigan. — Oil and gas springs have been noticed on and near the shores of lake Huron and the entrance to the Saint Clair river. They are situated in several townships of Saint Clair county, not far from the city of Port Huron. A number of wells were bored near these springs in 1865, but none of the enterprises proved remunerative. (See Map VIII.) Illinois. — A well was bored at Chicago in 1865 that passed through strata that yielded petroleum both near the surface and at considerable depths, (a) The well was drilled for water. Recently a well has been reported as having been drilled in Montgomery county, a little north of east of Saint Louis, which yields a very heavy black oil, valuable as a lubricator. a A. J. S. (2), xl, 388. 26 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. Indiana. — Wells drilled for water at Terre Haute in 1870-'71 showed petroleum, and afterward a well drilled purposely for oil yielded 25 barrels a day of a heavy green oil. In Crawford county, *' during the oil excitement " from 1864 to 1868, ten wells were bored, and almost every one yielded " a show " of oil ; but in no case could a yield of more than a pint a day be heard of, and in some cases only a few oily drops upon the surface of thousands of Ijarrels of water were found. The oil-supply rocks of this vicinity are so limited that there is hardly a possibility of striking a paying well, and some of the white-sulphur fountains now running from wells bored for oil are more valuable than any oil-well possible in the county. More than 20 oil-springs have been noted in this county, (a) B. T. Cox, in the Geological Survey of Indiana for 1872, page 139, says: Curing the great oil excitement of 1865-'66 quite a number of -w^ells were drilled in the northern part of this (Perry) county, on the -waters of Anderson and Oil creeks. These wells were generally carried to a depth of 700 feet, and in one or two of them was found a little •oil and gas. Though it is extremely doubtful if oil in pa.ying quantities can be found in the county, still I do not believe that these wells were carried to a sufficient depth to reach the comiferous and Niagara limestones, from whence the oil is obtained in the Terre Haute well. Perry county joins Crawford county on its eastern border, and also contains oil-springs. In Lawrence county indications of petroleum have also been noted. Perry and Crawford counties, Indiana, are north of •and opposite Breckinridge and Meade counties, Kentucky. Missouri. — Some wells were drilled in this state about 1865-'68. A letter from Professor G. C. Swallow says : A well was sunk on Mr. Boyd's land in Sec. 21, T. 33, E. 33, Barton county, 130 feet, without obtaining any considerable quantity of oil. Another well was sunk in Sec. 35, T. 34, K. 32, to the depth of 525 feet, principally in sandstone and shale ; very little oil was found. In Barton and Bates counties oil often rises on the water of many springs in small quantities. In La Fayette county a well was sunk to a depth of some 600 feet through sandstone, shale, coal, and limestone. Very little oil was found, and none was saved. It appeared on the surface in a sandstone, and this led to the work upon the well. Another well was sunk in Kay county, from which small quantities were obtained. In Kay county oil often rises with the spring water and consolidates into asphaltum ; in fact, there is no prospect of ever finding any oil in paying quantities in Missouri; though it comes to the surface in springs in hundreds of places in the region of the coal measures. Eay and La Payette counties are on either side of the Missouri river near the western boundary of the state; Bates and Barton counties are farther south, and are drained by the tributaries of the Osage river. Oil-springs are also reported in Cass county, north of Bates, ELiNSAS. — Miami county, Kansas, is west of Bates county, Missouri, and is also drained by the tributaries oi the Osage river. Oil and tar springs abound in this county, and oil was obtained in the salt-wells at Osawatomie, Paola, and other places. I» 1860 a well was bored 275 feet defep on Sec. 15, T. 17, E. 23, and " they got oil all the way down". It is supposed it would yield one barrel a day. Another well was bored in 1865 on Sec. 11, T. 17, E. 24. Oil-springs are also reported in Linn county. The oils are all black and heavy, and are fit only for lubrication, (b) fjOiTisiANA — In the low lands bordering on the Calcasieu a^d Sabine rivers there are numerous springs of petroleum, (c) (See Map YII.) Nebraska. — In a communication to S. P. Peckham from Professor Samuel Aughey appears the following : No petroleum springs, as such, are known in Nebraska. No wells have been drilled purposely for oil. In boring for coal at Ponca, Dixon county, a small amount of oil rose to the surface from a depth of 370 feet. I obtained only about a spoonful by saturating woolen •cloths. Don't amount to anything. The same traces of oil have been obtained this season in boring for coal at Decatur, Burt county. I have observed genuine petroleum floating in the north Platte river above the mouth of Willow creek, in extreme western Nebraska. Thus far 1 have failed in my efforts to trace it to its source. Dixon and Burt counties are on the west bank of the Missouri river, in northeast Nebraska. Montana, Wyoming, Dakota, Colorado, and New Mexico. — A letter addressed to the director of the United States geological survey, July 6, 1881, in which inquiries were made regarding the occurrence of petroleum in the territories, was referred to the different geologists in charge of those regions, and in reference to those named above S. P. Emmons replied as follows : Certain horizons of the cretaceous sandstones in the Eocky mountain region are more or less impregnated with hydrocarbons, and when sufficiently and systematically examined will be very likely, in favored" localities, to yield merchantable petroleum in considerable amount, if the conditions are such as to make it pay. As yet, however, but little has been done, and the returns of my experts, who were instructed to report on any petroleum wells that they could hear of, contain no schedules on this industry. The only information I can give you, therefore, is of the most general description. * « * Actual springs of petroleum I have not seen, though I have occasionally heard of a little oil on the surface of water. Considerable thickness of sandstones was observed by me on the southern slopes of the Uinta mountains, notably in Ashley creek basin, which were black with carbonaceous matter. The weathered surfaces, however, had lost all of their volatile ingredients, and doubtless suffered thereby some chemical change ; so that it was more of an asphaltic material that was left. In the neighborhood of Bear Eiver City, on the Union Pacific railroad, near the boundary of Utah and Wyoming, and also about 15 miles •cast of there, in the hills, wells were sunk, from which a few barrels of petroleum were obtained, but I fancy it never proved a pecuniary success. The sujiply was small, and the product of too little value to pay for working. This was nine or ten years since. I heard of a man who claimed to have a petroleum well somewhere between the south end of the Wind river and the Big Horn mountains from which he was obtaining an excellent lubricating oil, and which he sold at a high price. Some excitement wasspoken of in the papers a, year or two since about petroleum on the west slopes of the Black hills of Dakota ; and there has been talk of some out on the hills to the a Geological Survey of Indiana, 1878, p. 520. 6 Report of Geological Survey of Miami county, Kansas, by G. C. Swallow. 1865. Kansas City, Missouri. c Prefessor William M. Carpenter, A. J. S. (1), xxxv, 345. M. Thor^,L'ann6eSci.et Ind., 1872, p. 251. e Report, October, 1881. c S. P. Pratt, Q. J. G. S., ii, 80. / Dr. L. Meyn, J. S. A., xxi, 12. 32 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. At Nullaberg, in the northwestern district of Wermland, west Sweden, metamorphic strata of gneiss and mica- scliist have been observed. Bituminous matter is distributed everywhere throughout the whole mass of these strata, so as to be present even in the smallest fragment, giving them a black color closely resembling gunpowder, (a) Italy.— Petroleum wells have been dug and bored along the southern borders of the valley of the Po, in the provinces of Voghera, Piacenza, Parma, Modena, and others, and in the provinces of Ohieti, east of Rome, on the Adriatic sea, and of Oaserta, on the gulf of Tarentum. Small quantities of petroleum have been obtained in these localities for centuries ; also in the province of Girgenti, on the island of Sicily. Asphalt occurs at Marsiconnova and in the valley of Pescara, and asphaltic schists or bituminous clay have been observed in many places in southern Italy. Professor Silvestri described, in 1S77, parafflnes and homologous hydrocarbons, which he obtained in lava about 13J miles on a direct line from the great cfentral cone of Etna, (b) The gas-springs of the Apennines have been many times noticed as of scientific interest, but have never been made of economic value. The petroleum interests of Italy have been for many years locally valuable, but do not promise to become of greater importance. Dalmatia and Albania.— On the island of Brazzo, on the coast of Dalmatia, and also at Ragusa, on the mainland south of Brazzo, extensive deposits of asphaltum are reported. This island is nearly opposite the valley of Pescara, on the Italian coast. Farther down the coast of the Adriatic lies the island of Zante, where a petroleum spring occurs in a marsh near Chieri that was mentioned by Herodotus in the fifth century before Christ. One well was drilled 300 English feet, and produced about half a hogshead daily, which progressively diminished ; another was drilled later that at the same depth struck a black, hard, and fetid limestone ; and another was at the side of the marsh, and struck oil at 70 feet, yielding 5,000 liters in seven hours. The latter afterward became completely sterile, and was abandoned, and borings made near the spring in 1865 were not successful, (c) On the mainland east of Zante lies the coast of Albania. There, in the neighborhood of Selenitza, occur some of the most extensive and remarkable asphalt deposits in Europe. Strabo remarks that "in the country of the Apolloniates there is a place called Nymphseum. It is a rock which emits fire, at the foot of which flows a spring of warm bitumen, which probably proceeds from liquefied bitumen, because on a neighboring hill there is a mine of bitumen, where, as related by Posidonius, the earth, from the excavations from which the bitumen has been exhausted, converts itself into that substance", ((i) Vetruvius also mentions the same springs, and says: "Around Dyrrachium and around Apollonia are springs which emit great quantities of pitch with water." (e) Durazzo, in Albania, occupies the site of the ancient Dyrrachium, and the convent of Pollina is built upon the ruins of Apollonia, both of which are found near the emboucheur of the Vojutza (Aous of the ancients), about six hours to the northeast of Avloua. "It appears that the curious phenomena which these springs manifest to-day arrested the attention of the Greek and Roman naturalists, because they are mentioned in the works of Aristotle, Pliny, ^lian, and Dion Oassius." (/) Setting aside some erroneous ideas, due to the ignorance of the ancients regarding natural phenomena, recent studies of the bituminous deposits of Epirus confirm in a remarkable manner the observations made by these early writers, and the testimony of moremodern authors is less abundant and exact than that furnished by the ancient historians. Recently the bitumen from this section has been employed in Trieste, Naples, and Marseilles as a substitute for rosin in calking ships. Between Durazzo and Avlona the coast of Epirus is level, and consists of plains formed by the alluvium of the rivers Usoli Komobln (Senussus of the ancients), Beratino (Apsus), and Vojutza (Aous), which drain Albania throughout its length, and which have their sources in the high mountains of Macedonia. It is in the hills at the foot of these precipitous and almost inaccessible mountains that the deposits of asphalt occur in great variety of detail. M. Coquand, to whose elaborate article I am mainly indebted for the facts here stated, {g) regards the exploitation as very rude and of very great antiquity, probably extending from a period long prior to the Christian era to the present time, but destitute of any general system. This want of method, while compromising the future interests of the deposit, has opened it up at many points, and has admirably exhibited the manner in which the mineral lies in the formation. It is easy to perceive that it does not lie in regular beds or veins, but in irregular masses in the midst of sandstones and conglomerates, of the form of which no general description will give an idea, except that a sort of parallelism may be observed among them, and that each mass consists essentially of a central portion of considerable thickness, which gradually thins out in all directions to zero. In no case does the bitumen penetrate the roof above the mass, but was evidently injected from below. The following illustration (Fig. 2) shows at a glance a deposit that has furnished an enormous quantity of bitumen. A depth of 3 meters (9.84 feet) is not rare a L. J. Englestrom: The Geological Magazine, iv, 160. i Gazetta Chemica Italiana, vii, 1 ; B. D. C. G., 1877, 293 ; C. N., sxxv, 156. c LesMouSes, Octolier, 1865. d B. S. G. F., XXV, 20. Translated from Frenoli rendering. e Ibid. f Thia passage and the others gi-'en above can be found in the original in Bui. Soc. Geo. de France, xxv, 20. g B. S. G. F., xxv, 20. Map showing tlie Disti'il)utioii 50 40 30 Bihuiien tlu-oii^houl tlieANorld. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 33 in the thickest places. Tlie bitumen is almost always of very great purity, and generally consists of compact, very homogeneous masses, very black, brilliant, tarnished upon the surface, very friable, with a resinous fracture, softening by percussion or heat, and with a pronounced asphaltic odor. The ancient workings have caved in, making their exploration no longer possible. It ajipears, to judge bv tradition, and, above all, from the ancient workings, now overgrown with oaks many centuries old, that the exploitation reaches back to a time anterior to Strabo; because we read in that author that, following Posidonius, the bituminous earth, which he calls ampelites, was a remedy against the worms that eat the vines, the worms by this means being destroyed before they had ascended the trunk to the young sprouts. This method appears to have been practiced until lately, and perhaps it is to-day, because the greater part of the bitumen of Albania was exported to Smyrna, where it was used for the preservation of vines, and more frequently for the calking of ships. Some of the springs of water rising from the formation containing the bitumen of Albania are accompanied with maltha, but in insignificant quantity. EoTiMANiA. — The Eoumanian oilfields lie in the northeast part of Wallachia and the southern part of Moldavia, in the vallej'S of the streams that drain the eastern slopes of the Siebenbiirgen. The Wallachian oil district lies on the southern slopes of the Transylvanian Alps, and is more extensive than that of Moldavia. The wells are from 6 to 12 miles north of Plojeschti, a station on the Eoumanian railroad. In Bakoin the inhabitants use the inflammable gas which issues from the ground to cook their meals. The manner of obtaining the oil is very primitive, the wells being dug as for water, the landlord receiving a tenth of the net produce as rent. A part of the crude petroleum is refined at Sarati and Plojeschti, and part is sent by rail to Vienna, Pesth, and Odessa. The Moldavian petroleum fields occupy a triangle bounded by the rivers Taslen and Trotusch, not far from Adschud station, on the Eoumanian railroad. The wells near Morneschti do not exceed 120 meters (.39-4 feet) ; those near Salante and Comonesti .TO to 70 meters (164 feet to 230 feet) in depth. Like the Wallachian wells, they are worked in the most primitive manner, and the proprietors here receive as rent one-third of the gross produce. The cost of the petroleum at the well's mouth does not exceed 4 francs per 100 kilograms (20 cents per 220 pounds). The Moldavian petroleum is darker than that of Galicia, and remains fluid at a temperature of 20° Celsius— 4° F.(a) Galicia. — Petroleum is found in many localities on the Hungarian side of the Carpathians, but its exploitation is of little or no importance. In Galicia there are three principal localities that yield petroleum and ozokerite: the tegion around Sandecer, in west Galicia; that around Bobrka, near Dukla, in middle Galicia; and that around Boryslaw, in east Galicia, and Basco, on the confines of Moldavia. This region is said to be in general outline 400 miles long by 40 miles wide. Although ozokerite is found associated with petroleum wherever it occurs in both Galicia and Eoumania, its production is principally confined to the east Galician district, in the neighborhood of Boryslaw and Stanislow. It appears from statistics that I have met with that the fields of east Galicia were at first much the most important; but while the total production of Galicia has decreased, the relative production of west Galicia has increased. The exploitation has been conducted in a very rude manner, largely by Polish Jews, who occupy that country, and all attempts at innovation by the introduction of machinery, both for boring and for refining, have been resisted with great pertinacity. The development of oil territory by shafts has been encouraged by the amount of ozokerite that almost everywhere accompanies the oil and that cannot be obtained by other methods of exploitation. Wells have been bored, however, which in some instances have been productive and in many others have failed. The great importance of the ozokerite industry, which will be referred to in detail in a subsequent chapter, will prevent the complete substitution of borings for shafts. EussiA. — Petroleum is reported to have been observed in northern Eussia, in the province of Archangel, on a streamlet that runs into the river Betchora; also at "some distance from Orenburg", on the Ural river, but the exact locality was not given. In official reports the Eussian petroleum fields are divided as follows : Government of Tiflis. — Mirsanski, Schirorski, Eldarski. Government of Baku. — Bakinski, Derbentski, Kaitags-Tabarsaranski. Kuban district. — Kadygenski, Kudako. Terel djs^ncf.— Gronenski, Maisha-Kajevski, Karabulakaki, Brajimavski, Benojevski. Baghestan.—E&nk&ki, Djernikentaki, Naflutanski, Bashlinski, Tupsu-Kutanski, Ghiak-Salgav, Kukinski, Napkutanski. A reference to map I will show that these districts are embraced in a triangle, the apex of which is at the mouth of the Kouban river, near the entrance to the sea of Azof, extending eastward to the Caspian sea, and embracing that portion of its western coast lying between the mouths of the rivers Terek and Kura, and embraces the flanks of the Caucasus and the valleys of the principal rivers that drain them. There are also indications of peti'oleum across the Crimea that have attracted some attention. The Kouban oil-fields proper begin at Taman, situated on the strait which connects the Black sea with the sea of Azof, and extends along the foot-hills of the western extremity of the Caucasus mountains to the river Balah, a distance of about 250 miles. o Dr. H. E. Ginth, Oetter.UonaUchrif'tf. d. Orient, 1878; John FretweU, jr., J. S. A., xxvi, 481. 34 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. The Apscheron oil-fleld as at present worked lies within a radius of 20 miles of the cit^ of Baku ; but the larger portion of the oil has been obtained at Balachany, 12 miles north of Baku, where naphtha has been produced from the most ancient times, and from Sabonutchi, which was explored in 1873. This first part contains (1880) forty-seven wells, of which twenty-eight are productive, yielding 6,192,000 pounds daily of an average specific gravity of 0.8675, while the second part yields 6,622,000 pounds per day of the specific gravity of from 0.820 to 0.860. The specific gravity is very variable in the same well, and in general diminishes with the depth, being greatest near the surface, from loss of gas. The light oil contains volatile products of a specific gravity of 0.62, of which no use is made. The illuminating oil varies from 15 to 85 per cent., the average being between 35 and 40 per cent, (a) On the outskirts of the field a colorless oil is obtained that can be burned without refining. This oil soon thickens and becomes asphalt. The oil seems to lie in a sort of quicksand, irregularly interstratified with clay, as fine, loose sand rises with the oil and collects around the wells so that it has to be shoveled away. This oil has been known to spout from an 8-inch hole from 50 to 60 feet high ; yet there is no regular stratum of sand yielding the oil, and no particular depth at which it may be struck. One well in the Kouban yielded oil of 46° at from 8 to 10 feet in depth. This oil does not contain j)araffine. The Bebeabat field is below Baku on the coast of the Caspian sea, and produces oil resembling that of Baku; but it deteriorates by keeping, and is often run up on a salt lake near by and set on fire. On the island of Tchillekin, or Naphtha island, on the eastern shore of the Caspian sea, a well was drilled which produced a small quantity of oil of a better quality than that of Baku, and one well at about 140 feet yielded oil, and at 200 feet yielded hot water. Ozokerite and "living earth", which is a mixture of soft asphalt and pulverized shells, abounds along this shore, (b) The Caspian sea is dotted with numerous islands, which produce yearly a large quantity of naphtha (petroleum), and it has been no uncommon occurrence for fires to break out in the works and burn for many days before they could be extinguished. In July, 1869, owing to some subterranean disturbances, enormous quantities of petroleum were projected from the wells and spread over the entire surface of the water, and, becoming ignited, notwithstanding every precaution, converted the sea into the semblance of a gigantic flaming punch-bowl many thousands of square miles in extent; but the fire burnt itself out in about forty-eight hours, leaving the surface of the water strewed with the dead bodies of innumerable fishes. Herodotus mentions a tradition that the same phenomenon was once before observed by the tribes inhabiting the shores of the Caspian sea. There is i^ractically no limit to the amount of oil to be obtained at Baku, but with the exception of the Caucaso- Carpathian region the- petroleum production of Europe is only of local importance. The production of maltha is insignificant, but the deposits of asphaltum and asphaltic limestone are of great and increasing importance. ZJTo region except the Caucasus has made any approach to rivalry in European markets with the petroleum products of the United States. Asia Minor. — Many of the localities furnishing bitumen in Asia are extremely difficult to locate with exactness ; but gas-springs are said to occur on the coast of Karamania, {<■) which is that portion of Asia Minor borderiug the northeast portion of the Mediterranean sea. Bitumen is also reported in Armenia near lake Baikal, and in southern Siberia near Derabund ; {d) asphaltum near Iskardo (e) and near Cashmere ; petroleum in Assam (/) and Pegu ; (inerringly traced for miles with an instrument on a certain degree of the compass circle, but only as a convenient term for expressing the general trend of the oil-bearing rocks from point to point, even although interrupted by " diy " and unproductive intervals. a A. J. S. (2), xlvi, 356, el seq. h P. A. P. S., x, 68. c Report I, p. 10. 42 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. The base-line rim from Pleasantville to Tidioute — from the commencement of the Colorado district to the Allegheny river — passes throiT^h what has been one of the best and most continuous oil-producing belts of the region. Along and contiguous to this line, and to the north of it, the deeply-eroded valleys of Pine creek and Dennis run expose the basset edges of the -whole series of slightly-inclined rocks (uplifted toward the north) underlying the Great Conglomerate (No. XII, the base of the productive coal measures) to a (geological) depth of 850 feet, bringing us down to within about 100 feet of the third or lowest oil-bearing sands, (a) This exposure (along Pine creek and Dennis run), taken in connection with the well records along the route, enables us to form a tolerably correct idea of the stratification of the rocks to that depth. The whole series is found to consist of bands of sandstones and conn-lomerates and sandy and muddy shales and slates, varying locally in character, composition, and relative order, when studied in detail, but, as a whole, lying one above another in nearly horizontal parallel planes. The local variability of stratiiicatioii is particularly noticeable (at least in the southeastern part of the district) in the strata next beneath the Conglomerate No. XII, and to a relative depth of from 600 to 650 feet. These strata have never produced oil in Venango county. We may therefore call them the "barren oil- measures" of Venango, or the "mountain-sand group". Beneath the division of mountain sands another series, with a thickness of from 350 to 400 feet, and siniUar to the above in structure, but rather more regular in stratification, will include the three sands of Oil creek ; and, as we believe it can be shown that no oil ha& ever been obtained in the district except from rocks of this series, it may properly be called the "petroleum measures " of Venango, or "division of the three sands". Some of the first wells drilled evidently obtained their oil above the first sand, and the old oil-pits of French and Oil creeks and Hosmer run were above it also. But the oil, without doubt, came really from the first sand, its close proximity to the surface in these places having admitted of the percolation of surface water into its crevices, which, by hydraulic pressure, forced the oil upward. It is a noticeable fact that any first sand below the surface is generally full of water veins, whether it be an oil-bearing or a mountain sand. If the oil sands lie deep, they seldom (especially in new territory, before the water is let down by the drill) contain much water. In the shallow wells at Tidioute, along the Allegheny river, and on French and some parts of Oil creek, considerable water was always pumped with the oil ; but in the deep wells at Pleasantville there was not found at first one per cent, of water, and that, being salt, must have come commonly from the second sand. As the oil was exhausted the water increased. (6) A comparison of records of wells on Oil creek, where the three leading sands of the petroleum measures lie with considerable regularity, both as to their thickness and the intervening distances between them, results in an average record about as follows : First sand, 40 feet thick; interval, 105 feet. Second sand, 25 feet thick; interval, 110 feet. Third sand, 35 feet thick. Total , 315 feet. . In addition to these three regular sands, there is found in many of the wells a fine-grained, muddy, gray sand, known among drillers as the '" stray third ". This lies from 15 to 20 feet above the regular third, and is from 12 to 25 feet thick. In some localities this rock assumes a pebbly character, and produces oil which is always darker than the third-sand oil, sometimes being nearly black. At different points on Oil creek — at East Shamburg and other places — wells inclose proximity to each other have produced, some of them black oil, some green, and some a mixture of both. The "black oil" of the Pleasantville district has all been derived from the " stray third ", which, in this district, is universally called the fourth, or "black-oil sand". But here the character and composition of the two sands (third and stray) are reversed. The stray is a coarse pebble or conglomerate ; the third, a fine, micaceous, muddy, gray sand, only 15 to 20 feet in thickness, but always showing traces of green oil, and sometimes furnishing an abundance of gas. We believe it can be shown also that Pithole, Cashup, and Fagundue, although producing an oil of a lighter color than Pleasantville, drew their supply from the same stray sand, and the proof will be offered farther on. A noticeable peculiarity of these two sands (stray and third) is that on the northwestern outline of the oil-field, where the third shows itself in greatest force, the stray is seldom an oil-producing rock. As we proceed southeastward the stray begins to get its pebbly constitution and to yield oil over broader areas than the third, the latter becoming more fine and compact and gradually thinning away. A marked difference will be noted also on comparison of specimens of the two sands. In the oil-producing stray the pebbles are of a yellowish-brown color, and in shape generally spheroidal. In Ihe third the pebbles are white, often brilliant, and in shape lenticular. These distinguishing characteristics, we believe, hold good universally. On the northwesterly line above mentioned the second sand lies in a massive stratum, 30 feet or more in thickness. Toward the southeast, as in a part of the Pleasantville district, at Bean farm, Pithole, Cashup, and Fagundus^ it is split into two well-defined sands, with from 15 to 30 feet of slates or shales intervening. It is this that has given rise to the erroneous appellation of fourth-sand oil at Pleasantville. The drillers began to number rightly on the first ; and called the split (second) sand next below it second and third, and then called the stray the fourth. This, of course, made the third sand of the Oil creek wells, which was still lower, fifth in the series. In some localities they went still farther in their zeal to prove their territory better than Oil creek, by showing a greater number of sands. Finding the stray and third iii three divisions, instead of two, they announced at once the discovery of a sixth sand. The first sand, as far as we have examined it, appears to lie with more uniformity than the second, but further investigation may show changes of character and of level similar to the others. Little oil has been produced from the first and second sands in the particular field under review. Their best development as oil- bearing rocks is along the Allegheny river from West Hickoi-y to the Cochran farm, and on French creek and Two-mile run, near Franklin, to which our detailed survey of 1874 did not reach. We speak of them above as they are found on the green-oil range, and without a closer knowledge of the peculiar structural differences which they may be found to exhibit in the places above named on the Allegheny river and French creek. Assuming, then, that all the oil from this country has been deduced from the " group of the three oil sands", consisting of the first, second, stray, and third, with their intervening slates, shales, and mud rocks, and that the trend of the oil-producing belt is marked by no surface indications to point out its direction or drift, we will proceed, on the principle of a general parallelism of strata, to trace the sands by means of the levels run, combined with the records of wells, through some of the main oil centers of the district, with a view of ascertaining the direction of the dip of the series and the fall, in feet, per mile. The Venango petroleum district, or "upper oil belt ", as it is now generally called, in contradistinction to the Butler county district, may be said to commence a short distance east of Tidioute. From thence southwestward it is marked by an almost unbroken band of ' wells through Dennis run. Triumph, the^Jlapp farms. New London, the Ware farm, and Colorado, a distance of aboirt 9 miles. Between this, its southwest end, and the commencement of the Shamburg district, near the National wells, no paying third-sand wells are found, except, perhaps, within a limited area on the Benedict farm, west of Enterprise, the exact geological relations of which to the Colorado "lead" has not been fully determined. a Report I, p. 11. J Ibi4., p. 13. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 43 Beneath this unproductive district the third sand is found in all the wells drilled, having a thickness of from 30 to 45 feet, hut apparently too fine-grained and closely compacted with mud to produce oil. Between Shamburg and Petroleum Centre, on Oil creek, occurs another unproductive interval ; but from Petroleum Centre the oil- belt has been traced with considerable continuity, crossing the Allegheny river at Reno, again at Foster's, and terminating at Scrubgrass. This line of development, it will be noted, leaves Tidionte in a direction of about south 80° west, gradually sweeping around toward the south, and ending with a bearing of only about south 20° west. The belt above described, it .should be understood, is the green-oil or third-sand belt. It appears to be much narrower and more sharply defined than others. At many places a distance from the center line toward the north or toward the south of merely a few rods suffices to guarantei; a " dry hole". From levels taken along the surface line above described, combined with such records of wells as were obtained, the elevation of the top of the third sand in the several localities named is ascertained to be as follows : Feet above tide. AtTidioute 995 At Colorado 840 At Pleasantville 755 At Shamburg 710 At Petroleum Centre 640 At Rouseville 545 Distance from Eousevillc to Tidioute, 20.7 miles; diii'erence in elevations, 450 feet; dip per mile, 21.7 feet, (a) lu the report made subsequently, and published in 1880,Mr. Carll continues the discussion of this subject. Want of space forbids my quoting more liberally from this report, but the following extracts present the relation and stratigraphy of these formations : The designations first, second, and third mountain sands, used provisionally in 1874, answered very well for the purposes of that local report ; liut to adhere to the use of these ordinal numbers still, after the comparison of oil-well and surface sections has been extended southwestward to the very borders of the state of Ohio and northeastward into the southern counties of the state of New York, would only perpetuate confusion in our geological nomenclature. The first mountain sand appears to occupy the horizon of the Connoqnenessing sandstone of Butler county and the Kenzua creek sandstone of McKean county, and may as well be spoken of when occasion requires under one of those two names. In the Reports of the Pennsylvania Survey, vol. Ill, page 83, appears the following in relation to this subject: The second mountain sand cannot, indeed, be robbed entirely of its name ; but whenever it is thus spoken of the name must be accounted as a mere synonym for theGarlan(J^conglomerate, and not at all as au index to the numerical position of the rock in relation to other sands in the series. But it will always be the Garland-Olean-Sharon-Ohio conglomerate. The third mountain .sand will receive in this report a new name, the Pithole grit. This rock was first recognized as a persistent sandstone in the Pithole oil-wells, being well developed in all that country, and making conspicuous outcrops along the Allegheny river on the south, and along Oil creek on the west. The term grit sufficiently designates it as a sandstone ; but, what is more important, will serve to associate it in the reader's mind with the Berea grit of Ohio, which seems to have been a contemporaneous formation, although the two rocks have not been traced across the country toward eaeh other to a common place of actual meeting. Neglecting for the present the mountain 6.ands as separate numbers of a small series, and grouping them and their intervals together as a whole, I must now show that they constitute one (and the upper) member of a larger series. The vertical section of rocks in the oil belt, as exhibited by the well records, show these characteristic subdivisions: 1. Mountain sands, so called by the oil- well drillers. 2. Crawford shales, a group of shales and mud rocks, in the midst of which is the Pithole grit. 3. Venango oil-sands, a group of sandstones and shales interleaved. These names will be useful in defining those features of hardness and softness by which the driller classifies the rocks through which his well passes downward ; but they must not be taken by the geologist to signify formations of these successive and distinct ages, plainly and absolutely separated from each other; for such dividing planes cannot be satisfactorily established from the imperfect records of oil- wells alone. It is important to state the fact clearly at the outset that throughout the whole area which has afforded the Venango oil— that is, along the entire length of the oil-producing belt (or belts) of country— the structure of the oil-sand group is virtually the same. On the other hand, the moment we leave the oil-producing area to the right or to the left the internal constitution of the oil-sand group becomes quite different. All the wells that pierce the oil-producing belts exhibit remarkably the .same group of oil sands. All wells put down outside of these belts exhibit quite a different kind of deposits when they reach the plane of the oil sands, (ft) From data too voluminous to quote here, Mr. Carll concludes that "the Venango oil sands as a group not only thin away, but disappear, and are wanting in the Slippery Eock country". Farther to the southwest, in Beaver county, he concludes that " not only is the oil group cut out, and also the red rock over it, but the sandstone deposit occupying the horizon of the Pithole grit is enlarged ; the .shaly interval above the sandstone becomes sandy ; and thus the true base of the mountain-sand series becomes sotnewhat obscure ". He further concludes : It follows from this study of onr sections that the Ohioville (Smith's ferry) amber oil must be derived from the horizon of the Pithole grit, which also furnishes amber oil in small quantities on Slippery Eock creek. It follows as logically, also, that the Slippery Rock heavy- oil is found in one of the lower members of the monntoin-sand series, an horizon which also produces heavy oil in many wells at Smith's ferry, (c) Continuing the discus.sion, Mr. Carll states: No direct connection has yet been discovered between the upper or Tidioute-Bullionoil belt and the lower or Clarion-Butler oil belt. The present southern termination of the line of productive wells on the upper belt is near Clintonville, in Venango county. This is about 12 miles northwest of Columbia hill, in Butler county, which is the nearest point of development in the lewer belt. The lower belt a Rfport Second Geological Surrey Pennsylrania, I. 1874, p. 18. h Ibid., Ill, p. 83. c Reports, III, p. 90. 44 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. is known to extend south-southwesterly from Columbia hill into Summit township, Butler county, some 20 miles, and northeasterly into Elk township, Clarion couuty, some 15 miles. The area of country between the belts has been tested in hundreds of places with results in most cases quite unsatisfactory. Nevertheless several good pools of oil have been discovered. These, however, do not establish a connection between the belts, for the stratification is somewhat irregular throughout all this district as far as is known, and the continuity of the oil-producing rocks seems to be here interrupted. We cannot, therefore, speak of the upper belt as being directly connected by a line of paying wells with the lower; yet the main structural features of the group in the upper belt are observable across the interval) and the rocks themselves reappear with their characteristic aspect as soon as the lower belt is reached. That the deposits of the lower belt have been subjected to more vicissitudes of water level than those of the upper belt, resulting in a greater number of alternating bands of sandstone and shale within the vertical limits of the group, seems evideirt ; yet it cannot be doubted that the deposit in the two belts were being laid down at one and the same time. They occupy the same geological horizon ; they are associated with similar strata ; and they exhibit a like parallelism of structure. Geologically, therefore, the two belts may be viewed as one, and may be studied and described accordingly, (a) Concerning the geological age of the oil-sand group, Mr. Carll remarks : Previous to our present survey the Venango oil-sands were universally regarded as of Chemung age. In the summer of 187.5 evidences began to accumulate pointing strongly toward the probability that they were of more recent date ; hut the idea seemed then so heterodox, and the facta to support it were at first so meager and questionable, that no definite conclusion on the subject could be immediately arrived .at. Even now their relative place in the paleozoic column of eastern Pennsylvania cannot be precisely and positively indicated. We can only say there are reasonable grounds for inferring that they do not belong to the Chemung formation, as represented in New York state and eastern Pennsylvania. (6) A comparison of the structure and depth of sediment belonging to the Catskill, the Pocono, and the Mauch Chunk periods in eastern Pennsylvania with those of the same ages in western . Pennsylvania leaves little room to doubt that the former represent deposits in a much broader and deeper sea than the latter : a sea perhaps whose bottom was undergoing a steady depression in the east while it was alternating between depression and elevation and gradually shallowing, in the west. An elevation of the ocean bottom near the close of t-he Chemung period seems to me to have thrown off the waters from a large portion of its former bed in the west, leaving submerged in that direction only a narrow arm of the sea, representing perhaps some old submarine valley. This comparatively contracted and shallow basin must necessarily, from the very nature of the case, have been the repository of immense deposits of reworked Chemung sediments, rapidly brought into it from the newly emerged mud-land, to be interbedded with the Catskill reds, which were intermittently swept in from the east to greater or less distances as circumstances directed. We might then expect to find in this basin precisely what the drill discloses: alternations of Catskill red and Chemung gray argillaceous shales occupying the deepest part of it, and more sandy deposits lying around its edge.s. (c) Concerning the structure of the oil-sand group, Mr. Carll insists that the integrity of the Venango oil-sand group must be kept in clear view, as it is a group in the strictest sense of the term, and has a well-defined top and bottom, (d) The sandy layers at the top of the Crawford shale are of no moment in the present discussion. The sole fact here insisted on is this : 1. That over the oil-sand group lies a distinct soft formation, 300 or 400 feet thick, in allparts of the oil regions of western Pennsylvania, which, for the present, we call the Crawford shale, in the middle of which appears, in some parts of the region, a massive sand deposit, called in this report the Pithole grit. 2. That the well-sinker will find an abrujjt change of character when he gets through this soft formation and strikes the top of the oil-sand group. The transition from the soft Crawford shales or slates to the first oil sand is sharply defined, and the geologist is obliged to see here the close of one period of deposits of one kind and the beginning of another period of deposits of a very different kind, (e) Mr. Carll continues : Under the oil-sand group again lies a perfectly well-marked different formation. The driller having gone through the Venango oil sands and their separating shales and reached the base of the group, suddenly, by as abrupt a transition as that he encountered at its top, enters a different set of rocks. Wherever the group is normally developed the drill passes at once from sandstone into shale, and continues from that point in the well to go steadily down through shales for hundreds of feet without encountering any sandstone layers like those above. A large majority of oil-wells were never drilled below the third sand or base of the groiip, for experience had convinced operators that it was useless to expect another sand layer below that horizon along the whole line of the Venango and Butler belts. Several hundred wells, however, were put down to depths of from 100 to .'jOO feet bene.ath the lowest Venango oil sand. Their numbers, and the extent of ground over which they lie scattered, afford conclusive evidence that the measures beneath the oil-sand group have everywhere the same clay characters. The universal testimony of their records is, soft drilling and no coarse, massive sand rock after leaving the productive oil measures. Occasionally, indeed, a "sand "has been reported, andsomefiue-grainedsandstonelayers were to be expected, for they are not unknown in the Chemung series; but it is now conceded that such layers do not resemble the oil sands, and that they occurred so rarely, and the reports of them are so vague and questionable, that we are warranted in treating them as mere local variations of some of the beds of the Chemung shales. (/) The Venango oil-sand group itself is a mass of sandstone deposits from 300 to 380 feet thick, with layers of pebbles and many local partings of shale and slate. These figures may be varied somewhat, but it will be found as a general rule that a thickness of 350 feet will, in nearly evgry case, embrace all the sands belonging to the Venango group, even the fourth, fifth, and sixth sands, as the lower members of the group in some localities have been called. It is wonderful how the group maintains its total thickuess with such uniformity for a distance of 62 miles in a straight line from Tidioute, in Warren county, to Herman station, in Butler county. The top sand is sometimes 10 feet thick, and sometimes 85 feet ; the bottom sand may be 5 feet thick, or it may be 120 feet ; and so either one of these members may individually vary in thickness about as much as the whole group is found to vary, (g) a Reports, III, p. 100. e Ibid., p. 130, § 318. b Ibid., p. 119, } 297. / Ibid., p. 132, $ 320. c Ibid. p. 122, § 302. g Ibid., p. 136, } 323. d Ibid., p. 128, J 315. I^ennsyLvama. . Plate FIT. NswUrk Greene Co. ' \ Oil rl — - Wa^mk^lmi Co .Alleghany Co. Pittsburg . J^nan^o Co. % Warren ondM^Entm Coxoi^^^ 3^l^stown.Pet^olia. Far/Cer. Dayton. CoITm\mtjns Creek. Sxonbvtrg. IBhuJcRo^. taro 625 ''^^li^mMfMiliiklkkmat^'--''^ BoydMS Brady >>J.i^n.fA/i{/ . ^Wl'lin&ef: m-U. ITotOk Warren JhtJcvon Sta. Sirams Bell . Erie. Br.A.CK ROOK, CANADA, NEW YORK AND PENNSYLVANIA, AND THEIR RELATIVE POSITIONS IN THE F.A.LCEJOZOIO m'TTB.TTniJL. jVote. Pufojwa undtTTuun^s ofUnvna J^noT^ eUvation ot'H.HJDepots. Figures alavr wells, ch^nota elevation of MU Months. Figures helow wells, denote ilfpth below ocean level. The tcp and hoUant ti^urrs addi^d, qive depth of J^lt. Format3/fns . a-Comiferoas Limestone . h.BroMrd 3^ Sand. l.Warrm on Group. m%7wn^o ^roup indndin^ Sutler, Clariorh and T^ian^o Oil Sands n. Crawford Shales. o. Cmalomeralel&aanres rnclndin^ Oil on SUpperi, RocK andMountain Sands. f. . Lov)erProdadiiy CoalMeaatires . s.Lou'^Bart^^. CoalMeamfres. r. Upper Coal Measures inebidbi^'Pimburt^ CoalJSed." C- Z^p'T Barren , p. Miduminij Sa/tdt^ime Fr AUynmtnr of Section . Black;R(,ck.Eru;Co.,N.Tu,PittslmrgPaJZ5MaesS.20'W. j.iomPimT>wg (oDunJaud Cree/C, Greem Co..Pa..60Maes S. 3'J}. EoruommaI,7'y/oMJLas It /inch =J/ 0560 ft. Scale: f^-lwalSOOOn.Uj-uu-h . BcMo.Horizanud to firtical. about W/ . Newliark Dayton. Cattorcajbgns Creek . Scaribiirg. Slack Moefc. 13T0 636 5S0 'JisWeU. nOe. V7Z Jameefaun ft^H , Steams Well. JErie. 760 Cobam Well. .AJi^nmerti: of Section, . FromMae^Itoc/cSrie Co.,]Sr.YtoPittsbvrqPajr5Maes S.20'"W: FrorriPiJitsbvrgtoJIDunkard CreeK, Greene{)o.,Pa.,50Miles S.3°.E. Sorizam7aaI,7^//oMUes tb lin^ =^0660 ft. ScaJU.T^ticaL2000ft.toJijich. jFta&o,Sarizoraal to J^Uceil, dbovutWi . THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 45 The following table, compiled from those prepared by Mr. Carll, shows the elevation above tide-level, the fall, distance, and rate of fall per mile of the top of the third oil-sand in Warren, Venango, Clarion, and Butler counties. Dogtown is at the same level above tide-water as Clintonville, one mile northeast of Turkey City (see map III): Feet, i 1.008 '' Along axis of VenaBgo Ijelt : Tidioute to — ClintonvUle along line of development Ditto, bee-line Along axis of Butler-Clarion belt : pogtown to — Herman station along line of development. Ditto, bee-line Shippenville to — Herman station — Tidioute to Herman station (*) 42.23 18.42 39.50 19.70 29.83 21.72 28.25 22.94 37.49 21.02 62.00 23.00 * Reports, lU, p. 144. These figures show that the top of the third Veuango oil-sand dips to the southwest in the 62 miles between Tidioute, in Warren county, and Herman station, in Butler county, at the average rate of 23 feet to the mile. The first paying oil--n-ell ou the Butler- Clarion halt was obtained on the Allegheny river at Parker's landing in the fall of 18(18, and operations spread out hut a short distance from that point during the years 1869 and 1870. In 18W the somewhat unexpected measure of success attending the test wells, which were advancing toward the northeast into Clarion county, and also those toward the southwest into Butler county, led to developments in both these directions which resulted in pretty thoroughly outlining within the next three years the main or central belt. Subsequently side lines of development were run, and the district was found to widen out in many places and to contain side belts and pools, with oil sometimes in the fourth sand, sometimes in the third, and in some localities even in rocks above the third sand, all of which aided very materially in augmenting the production. • « * In 1874 the maximum development of this district was reached during the great fourth sand or " cross-belt " excitement, (a) At Parker's landing the oil came from the lowest member of the oil group, the representative of the Oil creek third sand, and so the rock was very properly called, not the fourth sand, but the third. In Clarion county, however, and likewise in Butler, the oil first obtained came from a rock higher in the series. But the drillers of the early wells did not notice the change from one horizon to another, and consequently supposed that they were still getting the oil from the Parker third sand. After the development had reached Modoc and Petrolia, it began to be suspected that there might be two oil horizons, Instead of only one, and then commenced the experiment of deeper drilling at Petrolia and elsewhere, which finally resulted in the development of the "cross-belt", which was also called the "fourth-sand belt". (6) , , , When Bradford first began to give signs of promise as an oil-field, the map of western Pennsylvania being consulted, the embryo development was found to be on a nearly direct continuation of the Clarion county oil belt. Immediately several transit lines were started by difl'erent parties and run through from the old to the new ground. Each surveyor had his own particular angle of deviation from the meridian to run by ; and each one, as far as possible, carefully kept the exact bearing and location of his line a secret. A statement was published at that time and much quoted as a proof of the unerring exactness of this method of tracing an oil belt, provided the bearing of the "lead " had been properly calculated. As the story went, a " belt-line expert " ran one of these lines 65 miles through an almost unbroken forest, employing an engineer who had never been over the country before, and who knew absolutely nothing about the work beyond the bald fact that he was traveling by a designated degree of the compass. Nevertheless the line thus run conducted its fortunate projector out of the woods, down the mountain side, into the valley of Tuuangwant creek, to a station within a few feet of the largest well at that time known in the Bradford district. And this termination of the line was considered by many as a conclusive proof that all the lands through which that line passed were " on the oil belt ". The profile section (Plate VII) and the vertical section (Plate VIII) have been prepared for the purpose of exhibiting the fallacy of such views, and to enable the reader to see at a glance what some of the fundamental features of the sedimentary structure of the oU region especially are. The profile section (Plate VII) follows a line upon the map drawn from Black Rock, on the Niagara river, in Erie county. New York, to Pittsburgh, and thence to Dunkard creek oil-field, in Dunkard township, Greene county, Pennsylvania, close to the West Virginia state line. From Black Eock to Pittsburgh the bearing of this line is S. 20° W.— distance about 17.5 miles. From Pittsburgh to Dunkard creek its bearing is S. 3° E. — distance 50 miles. Starting at Black Eock, the line crosses the foot of lake Erie and strikes the southeasterly shore at Lakeview, in Erie county, New York. Thence it runs through, or very near to, the following places : Jamestown, New York ; Youngsville, on Broken Straw creek, in Warren county, Pennsylvania ; Tidioute, on the Allegheny river, in Warren county ; President, on the Allegheny river, in Venango county ; Foxburg, on the Allegheny, in Clarion cotmty ; Parker's Landing, on the Allegheny, in Armstrong county ; and Petrolia, Millerstown, and Great Belt City (or Summit), in Butler county. Thus it may be said to follow the Butler oil belt very nearly along its line of best development. It is evident that, as this alignment of the profile section coincides geographically so nearly with the trend of the Butler and Venango oil-sands, there can bo no trouble in properly locating upon it the Venango oil-sand group. The Warren oil development, however, lies some 8 miles to the east-southeast of our line, and the Bradford oil development some 30 miles from it, in the same direction. o Reports, III, p. 146, 5 336 and 337. 6 Ibid.f^. 147, ^340. 46 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. Now, it is a remarkable and important fact that in no boring in Pennsylvania has the Wairen group of oil-rocks (mimistakably de\ eloped) been seen directly beneath the Venango group. It is equally a fact that in no boring has the Bradford "third" sand been seen directly below the Warren group. In other words, we have not a single direct oil-well measurement between these several groups, aud therefore we must trust to some pretty nice and difficult calculations when we try to determine the thickness of these intervals ; that is, when we attempt to place the Warren and the Bradford oil-rocks in their proper places in our profile section. But whatever inaccuracies of detail may thus creep into the section, it will still suffice to show the relative positions of such oil horizons as have been profitably worked in different parts of the country. It will certainly demonstrate the folly of drilling on so-called belt lines, run from one producing district to another, regardless of the age or equivalence of the rocks to be connected. The lowest horizon in our country from which oil in paying quantities has been obtained is that of the corniferous limestone formation, the home of the Canadian oil. This rock can be unmistakably identified at Black Eock, in New York ; and therefore Black Kock has been selected as the northern end of our profile section (Plate VII). The nest and only other point at which the elevation of the corniferous limestone can be fixed is in the Coburn gas-well, at Fredonia, Chautauqua county. New York, for in our own state, as far as is known, it has never been reached by the deepest borings. The average pitch of the corniferous limestone toward the southwest can be calculated from its elevation at Black Kock and at Fredonia, allowing us to judge approximately of the thickness of the measures between it and the Venango oil group. At Black Eock, as shown by the quotations below, the exact thickness of the rock is not known. We have assumed the top to lie about 52 feet above the surface of lake Erie, or 625 feet above ocean level, which cannot be far wrong. In the Coburn well at Fredonia it is said to have been struck at a depth of 1,050 feet, which (the elevation of the well mouth being 735 feet) puts it 315 feet below ocean level at that place. The distance from Black Eock to Fredonia is about 38 miles in a direction S. 35° W., and this gives an average slope or dip of about 25 feet per mile. But along our section line (S. 20° W.) the average dip of the limestone ought to be stronger than 25 feet per mile, because the line runs more nearly in the direction of the line of greatest dip, as calculated from other strata which admit of more accurate tracing; and this inference is strengthened by the fact that no limestone is reported in Jonathan Watson's deep well near Titusville. The distance from Black Eock to Watson's well is about 100 miles; direction, S. 20° W.; elevation of well mouth, 1,290 feet above ocean ; depth of well, 3,553 feet. On an average slope of 25 feet per mile the limestone should have been found at 1,875 feet below ocean level, or 3,165 feet from the surface ; but as no limestone was seen in the well, we must conclude either that it is absent in that locality (which is hardly probable), or that it has a greater average dip slope than 25 feet per mile in that direction. As the well stopped at 2,263 feet below ocean level, an average of 29 feet per mile would put the limestone at 2,275 feet, or 12 feet beneath the well. A hard rock was reported, however, just as the utmost limit of drilling cable forced a suspension of the work at a depth of 3,553 feet from the surface. A number of other deep wells are shown on the profile, but it will be seen that none of them have gone deep enough to reach the corniferous limestone. The Watson well is not only the deepest boring ever made in western Pennsylvania, but it is also deeper geologically than any other. It is greatly to be regretted, therefore, that so little can be known of its history. A person unacquainted with the laws of sedimentary deposition and with the methods of preparing a profile section might inadvertently be led to suppose, from an examination of the profile section (Plate VII), that the different strata represented there spread out continuously and universally in every direction under the oil regions ; that a well failing to produce oil in the Venango group might be put down 400 or 500 feet deeper and pump oil from the Warren group, and then 500 feet deeper and renew itself in the Bradford "third" sand ; but such has not been the experience of oil producers. The several groups of oil-producing rocks are locally well defined under certain areas ; but they have their geographical as well as their geological limits, and as far as at present known the geographical limit of one group never overlaps that of another. If we take a map and outline upon it the limits of the Smith's Ferry and Slippery Kock oil-producing district, and then the Butler, Clarion, and Venango, and then the Warren, aud then the Bradford, we shall see that each has its own particular locus, and that the different districts are separated from one another by areas (of greater or less extent) which have been pretty thoroughly tested by the drill and proven to be unproductive. It must have been true in all ages that every deposit of sandstone in one locality must have been represented by contemporaneous deposits of shales in other localities. Hence it happens that in tracing rocks long distances the sandstones disappear and shales come in at the same geological horizou. It may not then be presumed that ejach particular sandstone, or its oil, will be found in every locality where its horizon can be pierced by the drill, or that a measured s'ection of the rocks in one place can be precisely duplicated in detail in another. The vertical section (Plate VIII) is intended to show that oil has been produced from ten or twelve diiferent geological horizons in the earth's crust, ranging through a thickness of about 4,500 feet of sedimentary strata ; and the most skillful oil producer, the most expert geologist, canuot tell how many other oil horizons may exist at intermediate depths beneath the surface (i. e., in the scale of the formations), but which, being good only within certain geographical limits, have as yet escaped the oil-miner's drill (see Plate V). VEETICAL SECTION. Summary sketch of the formations exhibited in the vertical section (Plate VIII). — This generalized section extends from the surface rocks iu the upper barren coal series of Greene county, Pennsylvania, down to the corniferous limestone, the Canadian oil -rock, and will enable any one to distinguish aud locate the several oil horizons thus far discovered and profitably worked in these measures. It is in fact an enlarged representation of the features presented in the profile section. (Plata VII.) GKOUP No. 1. ' Upper barren coal measures B. — " Greene county group ;" fhickness, 600 feet. Vertical range. — From surface to top of Washington upper limestone. Composition. ^Shales, sandstones, thin beds of limestone, and coal. Exposures. — The highlands of central and southwestern Greene county, Pennsylvania. Authority. — Professors J. J. Stevenson, Keport K, p. 35, and White and Fontaine, Report PP, Pennsylvania Survey. Upper barren coal measures A. — "Washington county group;" thidiuess, 350 feet. Vertical range. — From top of Washington upper limestone to top of Waynesburg sandstone. Composition. — Shales, sandstones, limestones, and thin beds of coal ; but carrying also the " Washington coal-bed", from 7 to 10 feet, thick. In Washington county six beds of limestone compose about one-third of the mass, but in Greene the limestones are thin and less, fil^qneut. Exposures. — In the highlands of Washington and Greene counties (see Report K, p. 44, Pennsylvania Survey). Pla^e Vm. W-zshiiif/Ctm uppt^ Lone^ton, 000 ' Ppp^ Barren Coal Mfef / pSO Piiptr Bcirrm Caal Ap„i 't/'S Tapper ProdiicAiv Coal Meafui ■3 poo Loum- Bartfti Ct,„/ Mm, WO Low^ PrcJacOit CmiI Mra.tt. 6 Mtiuntfim fiajui* \S0 lf,..mv» O,/ ,s,»,rf' ri„„, ]ao'y ,«/^/,... .,„,/ 7'/,„, s,„„/^„,.. Wcun-ii 0,l ,J,r,„, OO fl,„U onj ri„„ >„-MtJ S.m.U,.,,^^ y*uudi I/O o •j I ^ I ■g K b S (i !^ tt o !§ ^ i? ^ 2 I 5 ill S (q B, 8 6 t^ THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 49 GROUP No. !•>. Interval between the Bradford "third sand" and the cornifbrous limestone, commencing in the Chemung and including the Portage and Hamilton groups of the New York geological survey. Thickness, 1,600+ feet. Composition. — In the imperfect records of wells that have been sunk into these measuies in various parts of the country we simply find recorded "shales, slates, and soapstone, with occasional sand shells". The upper part for 200 or 300 feet appears to contain considerable sandy material, and some of these sand-beds produce oil along the Tuua valley, in the vicinity of Limestone, Cattarauo-us county. New York. Below this the drillings show principally slate and soft-mud rocks. No important bands of sandstone and no oil hare been reported. The thickness of this interval iQust be left questionable for reasons previously stated. We have no means of tracing the comiferous limestone south of Fredouia, Now York, except approximately by its slope. The distance from Fredonia to Bradford is about 48 miles ; direction about south 45° east. A dip of 20 feet to the mile would be required to place the limestone at Bradford as shown in our section. GROXJP No. 13. The coiiNiFEROUS limestone, probably shown in the vertical section, Plate VIII, in conjunction with the Onondaga limestone. The composition of this group has already been referred to in the quotations given from Geology of New Tork. It is the oil-produciu"' rock of the Canadian oil regions, but at Fredouia, New York, yields neither oil nor gas. We may not presume, therefore, that it will ever be found to be an important oil horizon in Pennsylvania, and even if it should prove to be productive here the great depth at which it lies beneath the surface must be a very serious obstacle in the way of its development, (a) An illustration of the iiersistence of the Venango oil group as a geological formation is found in the circumstances attending the drilling of well No. 1 by the Brady's Bend Iron Works Company in 1865. Professor J. P. Lesley was asked to give an opinion upon the probable depth at which oil would be reached on their property, and as he was familiar with the rocks of that locality, and had made a careful study of their dip and superposition, he readily made the computation and reported that "if the Venango sand extended under ground as far as Brady's bend it ought to lie at 1,100 feet beneath water-level". The well was drilled and struck the oil stratum at 1,120 feet. During 1877 the so-called grasshopper excitement occurred near Titusville, occasioned by the discovery of oil in a layer of superficial gravel beneath a sheet of clay. The wells were simple pits or shafts, from which the oil and water were pumped. The area was comprised within a few acres, but was quite productive for a time, yielding several hundred barrels of oil. The oil evidently arose from deeper sources with water, and accumulated in the gravel beneath the impervious crust of clay. The geology of the ''West Virginia Oil Break" has been recently subjected to a very careful study by F. W. Minshall, esq., of Parkersburg, West Virginia. Mr. Minshall has been connected with the petroleum indu.stry of this region for many years, and has carefully collated the records of many wells located along the line of development in Ohio and West Virginia. His sections are considered accurate by those most familiar with the facts and best qualified to judge of their value, and are found to conform strictly to such observations as I was able to mak-e during a hurried trip through the region. I introduce here in illustration a series of sections compiled and drawn by Mr. Minshall and generously placed at my disposal for use in this report. The section on Plate iii extends along the axis of the anticlinal from the Ohio river opposite Newport, in AVashington county, Ohio, to the Little Kanawha river, in Wirt county. West Virginia. Section 1 on Plate IV crosses section on Plate III at a point on or near the Ohio river in Washington county, Ohio. Section 2, Plate IV, crosses section on Plate III at Horseueck, Pleasants county, West Virginia. Section 3, Plate IV, crosses section on Plate III on the line of the Baltimore and Ohio railroad from Laurel Fork Junction to Petroleum, Wood county. West Virginia. Plate V is a vertical section of the rocks yielding petroleum along the anticlinal. Map IV shows the territory that has produced oil in the White Oak district which lies along the anticlinal between Goose creek and Walker's creek, Wood county. West Virginia. The following description of the occurrence of the formations along the line of the White Oak anticlinal is taken from a series of articles published by Mr. Minshall in the summer of 1881 in the State Journal at Parkersburg, West Virginia : In Wood, Pleasants, Ritchie, and Wirt counties the rocks, from the river level to the tops of the hills, belong to the upper barren measures, excepting only the line of territory known as the "oil break ", which passes through these counties. Although we are very nearly in the center of the great Allegheny coal basin, we have no workable veius of coal above drainage in the above-named counties. The Allegheny basin is a veritable basin in form, which not only contains many valuable veins of coal, ore, and potter's clay, but also vast quantities of natural gas, petroleum, and brine. On account of our situation near the center of the Allegheny basin, all the mineral wealth of its rocks is sunk beneath the river level. Here at Parkersburg, barely above the river, may be seen a thin vein of coal with an underlying vein of gray limestone. This we will call coal No. 11, and take it for our dividing line between the upper barreu and upper productive coal measures. From the river to ;he top of fort Borenian, at the mouth of the Little Kanawha, we have an cxjiosure of about 300 feet of the upper barrens. Examining them in detail, we will find them composed of alternate layers of red shale and compact, fine-grained sand rocks. The sand rock is of considerable value as a building-stone, being the same ledge as that which is extensively quarried between Belpre and Harmar, some parts of it furnishing grindstone grit and others the "Constitution" buiUling-stoue. If, commencing at our coal No. 11 (see Plate V), we should sink a well, we would pass through the following strata: At about 150 feet we would reach the level of coal No. 10, the first vein of the upper productive measures, which has a thickness of from 4 to 6 feet a Reports, III, p. 15G. 50 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. on Duck creek, in Washington county, Oliio ; at 250 feet we should find coal No. 9, the limestone vein of Duck creek, and the equivalent of the Sewickly vein of Pennsylvania; at 350 feet we should pass the level of coal No. 8, the Federal creek vein of Athens county, Ohio,, and the Pittsburgh vein of Pennsylvania, which is the last vein of the upper productive coal measures. "We next pass through the red and variegated shales of the lower barren meaeures, un til at 500 feet we reach the crinoidal limestone. At 600 feet we will pass into a soft, pebbly sand rock, the first oil-rook of Cow run, Ohio ; at 700 feet we should strike a hard, black, flinty limestone, several feet of very black shale, with white fossil shells and coal No. 7 ; at 730 feet, coal No. 6 ; at 800 feet, coal No. 5 ; at 850' feet another oherty limestone, probably the " Putnam hill " of the Ohio survey ; at 880 feet, coal No. 4 ; at 900 feet We find another soft pebbly sand rock, the second oil-rock of Cow run, Ohio ; at 1,000 feet, coal No. 3 ; at 1,070 feet, coal No. 2 ; at 1,200 feet coal No. 1 ; and at 1,300 feet, the top of the carboniferous conglomerate — the oil-rock of Lick fork and Tate run, in the White Oak district, (a) These are the rocks through which we ought to pass in our Parkersburg wells. This prediction is based upon the fact that the uplift of the ' ' oil break " brings this whole ssries of rocks above the level of the Ohio river in su ch a way that any one can examine them at his- leisure and verify the intervals for himself. Going back to our coal No. 11, with its underlying gray limestone, we will cross over into Ohio and trace it up the river on that side. At Marietta we find it coming up from the bed of the Muskingum near the " Children's Home ". Keeping back from the Ohio river about two miles we see it in the bed of Duck creek at the old Eobinson mill, in the bed of the little Muskingum at the mouth of Long run. We find very little change in the level of the stratum we are tracing till we are opposite the mouth of Cow creek. Here we find it gradually rising higher above the river as we go up the Ohio until, at the mouth of Newell run, on the Ohio side, we find it at the summit of the hill. Since it is evident that a farther rise will take it away from us, we must take our barometer and measure down the hill to- coal No. 10 ; but instead of the 6-foot vein of Duck creek, we have here barely 2 feet ; in fact, this vein thins rapidly southward from the maximum thickness at the upper line of Washington county, Ohio. Having at the mouth of Newell's run substituted coal No. 10 for No. 11, we will go a little farther east until, opposite the mouth of French creek, we find coal No. 10 on the summit of mount Dudley. On mount Dudley we are standing on the axis of the anticlinal called the West Virginia oil break. Measuring down the face of the hill 100 feet from coal No. 10, we find coal No. 9, the limestone vein. Measuring again from coal No. 9 down the hill about 100 feet, we will find the proper horizon of coal No. 8, the Pittsburgh vein oi Pennsylvania and the Pomeroy vein of Ohio. It is true that we will not succeed in finding any coal at this point; the overlying sand rock, a little fire-clay, and the underlying gray limestone are all we can find here ; but before reaching the end of our journey we will find the coal putting in an appearance. The horizon of this vein is exposed from the Ohio river to the Little Kanawha along the axis ot this anticlinal for a distance of about 30 miles, in which distance the coal increases from nothing to 20 inches. Measuring down from No. 8,150 feet, we will find the crinoidal limestone of the lower barren measures lying about 40 feet above low-water mark. To show that we are upon the axis of the anticlinal, we will trace the limestone eastward along the face of the hill. For about a quarter of a mile we' will find it running level, then dipping gradually to the. east, until it disappears beneath the river. Eeturning, we trace it westward, and, after running level for the same distance, it dips to the west and goes under the river. At no other point in Washington county can this limestone be seen. (See Section 1, Plate IV.) Having thus satisfied ourselves that we have reached the axis of " the break ", our purpose is to follow this axis to the point where it crosses the Little Kanawha above Burning Springs, West Virginia. Starting out from mount Dudley (see Plate III), we bear several degrees west of south, cross the Ohio a little below French creek, in Pleasants county, cross McElroy run at Ned Hammett's, and strike the north hillside of Cow creek near the residence of Hugh. McTaggart, esq. In a hollow north of the house, and about on a level with it, we find the crinoidal limestone. Continuing our course, but bearing more nearly south, we cross Cow creek below the old " Willard " mill, the head of Calf creek, near William Nash's, and reach a high point on the north side of Horseneck. On the very summit, by searching carefully, we will find, as though it had been placed there for our especial benefit, the crinoidal limestone about 580 feet above the river. To satisfy ourselves that the anticlinal maintains its form, and that we are still upon its axis, we trace the limestone westward till it dips beneath the bed of Calf creek, near the new school-house, and eastward into the bed of Sled fork of Cow creek; and we notice that the dipisgettingsteeperon the sides as the axis rises, but no signs of faulting or displacement of the strata are to be found. (See Section 2, Plate IV.) Our crinoidal limestone, which was 500 feet below the river at Parkersburg, is now-o80 feet above, having risen 1,080 feet, and, like coal No. 11, having reached the summit of the highest hills, will soon be beyond our reach if the axis continues to rise. We will therefore take the precaution to measure down to some of the lower strata. One hundred feet below the crinoidal lime we find another massive sand rook similar to the one which lies over coal No. 10. Like that, it is a true conglomerate, with layers of quartz pebbles somewhat similar and whiter than those of No. 10. It is the first oil-sand of Cow run and Macksburg, in Washington county, of Buck run, in Morgan county, and of Federal creek, in Athens county, Ohio, easily identified by the interval being about 100 feet in all of the above-named places. At its outcrop at the head of Calf creek it forms a bold ledge, which at one point is broken into huge cubical blocks of about 30 feet in thickness, forming a ' ' rock city " similar to the one near Olean , in New York. Below this sand rock, and about 200 feet below the crinoidal lime, we find coal No. 7. Although the coal is only 18 inches thick, this- vein becomes interesting because of its surroundings. Just over the coal is a stratum of very black shale, about 10 feet thick, filled with fossil shells. Over the shells is a black, flinty limestone, which we will find increasing in thickness southward until it becomes the well- known flint vein of Hughes river and Flint run. From Horseneck we resume our course, crossing Bull creek near the celebrated mineral well of Judge Borland. In the bed of the run, a short distance above Judge Borland's well, we find the crinoidal limestone. Careful inspection shows us that we are still following the axis of the anticlinal, and that it has come down on the south of Horseneck even more rapidly than it had risen on the north. This will, when examined, prove to be a regular dip along the axial line, without any indications of faulting, and the dip continues until the gray limestone of No. 8 is brought down to the bed of the run ; then the dip is suddenly reversed, and the axis rises again to the southward. From this point to Sand hill, on Walker's creek, the rise is very rapid, bringing to the surface in regular succession the rocks above described down to the yellow limestone. This we follow in its upward course till it reaches the top of the high point near the Saint Ronan wella of White Oak district. Looking around us from this vantage-ground we will notice that although the distant hills preserve their graceful outlines the surrounding hills are mostly cone-shaped peaks, bristling with an unnatural kind of timber, the rig timber of the oil-seeker. In prosperous times, when clouds of smoke were pouring forth from hundreds of sooty craters and the clang of tools rivaled the din of old Vulcan and his cyclopic helpers, some genius, in a moment of inspiration, christened the place Volcano. On the top of the high peak near Saint Eonan's well we will examine the limestone, which lies within 25 feet of the summit. We have assumed this vein to be the equivalent of the " Putnam hill" vein of the Ohio survey; it is also the only vein we will find whicb might be taken to represent the "Ferriferous limestone" of Pennsylvania; it lies here a few feet above coal No. 4. Examining the- a Also of Johnson county, Kentucky. JPlate V CrirhotdaL J^i?7testoTze ■ cuM^ahoning Sandstone. Yields OilatMac/tshtirg.) {CowMuTL p«-'% rVtl SandLvewe/isJiun) ^° "^ iFeAercUCr^tTvenxCo 6. JPeh He Sa.nd. Z^OilSanAjCowRtirL rWashff iMacKsiTZrfn£raXe I" Oil Sarcd aJ: W)\Tte OaX W.Va e. Vespertine Conc/lomercLte /^'Otl Sana at Sand Bill. } Z" ; r White OaX. J^elUe Sand 2"' Oil Sand, at Sartd Hill.) , ^ (Wh.i.te Oa/t]^^-^" -*' OUSand '^c^cfzshvLT-g . Wo.sKg Co.O. Ou3 Dexter, JTohle. Co.. O. Fj.gu.r-es cLenote CoaZIBeds. Sea.le 300/i.to-the. inch VERTICAL SECTION OF W^ITE q.'\I^ ANTICLINAL ^VEST VTRGmiA. Compiled by KW MirtshalL. Marietta O. MAP OF THE VOLCANO OIL REGION OF WEST VIRGINIA SHOWING THE DEVELOPMENTS UP TO THE YEAR THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 51 structure of the veiu, we find that it is ileposited in large, round bowlders, from one to three feet in diameter. The upper layers are heavily charged with iron, showing, when exposed to the weather, a very rusty yellow. A peculiar feature of the ore-bearing bowlders ia their formation in regular concentric layers. If one of them be broken through the center you may see, from center to circumference the rings as regular as the rings of a cross-section of a tree. As the bowlder becomes oxidized these rings peel ofl' successively leavin" its form unchanged. The identification of this vein as the equivalent of the "Ferriferous" would be of great value to us for the purpose of comparing the geological level of our oil-bearing rocks with those of Pennsylvania. ResTiming our measurements from this limestone downward we will find, 30 feet below it, coal No. 4; 160 feet below the lime coal No. 3 ; and 230 feet below the lime, coal No. 2. With this vein is a hard, black slate, about a foot thick, which is always piled in masses around the mouth of the mine, and is sometimes called " bone-coal". These measurements can be made to the best advantage by goini' down the south side of the hill into the hollow on the Saint Ronan lease, in which coal No. 2 is mined, all the points of exposure being on the central axis and as nearly vertical as is possible to tind them. In order to get a good exposure of the limestone for examination, we came beyond the highest point in the axial line. yVe will therefore retrace our steps for about a mile northward. This will bring us to " Sand hill". Here we find coal No. 2 about 170 feet above Walker's creek, and the horizon of coal No. 1 about 40 feet above the bed of the stream. In lieu of coal we shall have to content ourselves with the thick bed of fire-clay, which is a persistent accompaniment of it in Ohio. Assuming the bed of Walker's creek at this point to be 250 feet above the level of the Ohio river, we have, from the river level up to coal No. 1, 290 feet, plus interval from coal No. 1 to yellow limestone, 360 feet, plus interval from yellow lime to crinoidal lime, 350 feet, plus interval from crinoidal lime to coal No. 11 350 feet equal to 1,500 feet, the total amount of uplift to the highest point. Add to this 500 feet of the upper barren measures, which may be seen in the surrounding hills, and deduct the 250 feet which lie below the bed of Walker's creek, and we have 1,750 feet of coal-measure rocks fairly exposed within an area of a few miles, which any student of geology may study at his leisure. We will now go back to Sand hill and resume our journey southward (see llap IV). Crossing White Oak fork of Walker's creek above Volcano, we keep along the ridge, with Coal Bank run and Rogers gulch on our right .and Oil Spring run, with its branches on our left, till we come to the dividing ridge between Lick fork and Tate run ; here we halt and look around us. From Sand hill to this point we have passed through the center of the White Oak producing territory, a strip along the central axis of the break about four miles long and etrolonm, I started with the first. I made analyses of some ten lots of "natural gas" taken from wells in different parts of the oil-field, and representing diff'erent geological horizons as far as possible. As there was some doubt as to whether the results of eudiometric analysis could indicate the presence of the higher members of the paraffine series, I supplemented these analyses by a series of absorption tests made on the spot. Thus I passed acuiTent of natural gas for a time through absolute alcohol, which, while it does not dissolve hydrogen, absorbs marsh-gas slightly, ethane, propane, and the higher hydrocarbons in increasing amount. The hermetically-sealed flasks of t'le alcohol were then examined in my laboratory, and the gases absorbed driven out by heat and collected over mercury and analyzed. They proved to be chiefly ethane and propane. I also jiassed a current of the gas through bromine, both pure and alcoholic, so as to absorb the olefines. On after examination in my laboratory, by neutralizing the free bromine with soda and diluting, I succeeded in separating out colorless oily drops of etheue dibromide, and presumably, though not certainly, propene dibromide. These results were read in part befois the American Philosophical Society, and were reported in its proceedings. (6) In the study of the liquid crude oils, after classifying the oils from the different geological horizons (with information supplied to me by Mr. John F. Carll), and noting gravities, color, and other physical properties, I proceeded to classify them by filtration (as far as possible in the cold) with anim pentane, hexane, and heptane. Another oil having a higher. boiling point contained heptane, octane, nonane, decane, undecane, and a small quantity of dodecane, and probably cetane (hexdecane), all members of the parafBne series. {(I) Section 3.— THE CHEMICAL ACTIOS" OF EEAGENTS UPOIJ^ PETEOLEUM AND ITS PEODUCTS. In attempting to classify the work that properly falls into this section I find it in a very fragmentary condition. The residues from gas works where petroleum is used have been studied by S. Cabot, jr., and he found them to contain the benzole compounds, but neither phenol nor cresol. (e) A. Leutz notices that the residues from gas, whether it is made from wood, coal, or petroleum, are identical, viz: aromatic hydrocarbons and phenols, naphthaline, anthracene, and phenanthrene, all of which are likewise obtained by passing petroleum through red-hot tubes filled with charcoal. Leutz experimented withEussian petroleum. (/) J. Tuttschew passed the vapor of an American naphtha through a red-hot tube filled with pumice and obtained gas and tar. One gram of the naphtha yielded a liter of gas having the following composition : {g) Per cent. Acetylene 1-77 Elayl and homologues -. 20.51 Marsh-gas and hydrogen 77. 72 The effects of oxidation upon petroleum and its compounds have been quite widely studied. I succeeded in converting California petroleums into asphalts, which were lustrous black and brittle, soluble in carbon disulphide and fusible at 212° F. ; but 1 have never examined either the asphalt or the gaseous products of the decomposition, {li) Walter P. Jenney has very carefally studied the effects of oxidation upon heavy petroleum distillates. He placed these distillates in a metallic still and aspirated a current of air through the oil continuously for from four to six days, maintaining the oil at the same time at a temperature of from 140° to 155° C, and as a result the volume of oil was greatly reduced, not by oxidation into water, but by cracking into lighter oils and gases and the conversion of a portion of the oil into oxidiaed residues, soluble in chloroform, but not in petroleum naphtha. He says: These four substances, formed from one sample of oil, bear a peculiar relation to each other. The resin D, which is in solution in the hot oil, has the composition expressed by the formula C46H4606. Becoming oxidized, it precipitates as the brown powder CwHioOs, and, settling on the bottom of the still, becomes heated to a higher temperature, changing into the solid asphalt CwHsaOs, or by a longer action of air CwHasOv. (i) These interesting and suggestive experiments bear an important relation to the technology of petroleum. Hell and Btendinger oxidized the acid that they obtained from crude Wallachian petroleum by the action of nitric and chromic acids, and obtained acetic acid and a new acid having the formula CgHieOz. (j) Berthelot has shown that the action of chromic acid on ethylene and its homologues at a temperature of 120° produces aldehyde and its homologues. (7;) In 1870 E. Willigk treated parafflne at a high temperature with nitric and sulphuric acids, and obtained products that belonged to the series of the fatty acids. {I) In 1873, M. Champion subjected parafliue for sixty hours to the action of nitro-sulphuric acid, hypouitric acid vapors were given off, and an oil having been formed with an acid reaction, combining readily with alkalies, of which the formula is C26H26NO10, he proposed for it the name parafBnic acid, (wi) In 1874 M. A. G. Pouchet published a paper in relation to the action of nitric acid upou a. For references see page CO et seq. li P. Am. P. S., x, 460 ; Geo. Surv. of California : Geology, b C. Mendus, liv, 387. Appendix II, 86. c M. Am. Acud., N. S., ix, 177; A. J. S. (2), xliii, 250. i Am. Chem., v, 359. d Jour. Pharm. Chem. (4), xxii, 241. j B. S. C. P., 1877-'82, 385 ; B. D. C. G. B., x, 451. e C. N., xxxvi, 140. h J. C. S., xxxvi, 907. / Rus. Chem. Soc, June, 1877. ? B. D. C. G. B., 1870, 138. g J. f. P. C, xciii, 394. in J. de Pharm. et de Chimie, Aug., 1872. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 59 paraffiue aud tbe divers products that result from it. («) He obtained in solution the fatty acids, chiefly caproic, but also butyric, caprylic and capric, and i^araffinic acid insoluble. He regards parafBnic acid as having the formula C48H4,03,HO, and parafiine as a definite comi^ound with the formula C48H50, and not a mixture of diflereut carbides of hydrogen, a conclusion that does not follow, unless he has shown that parafQues from all sources have the same composition and produce the same paraffinic acid. In 1868 M. Grotowski, of Halle on the Saale, studying the effects of sunlight on illuminating oil, (b) exposed various kinds of oils in glass flasks to the rays of the sun for a period of three months, and found that they invariably absorbed oxygen and converted it into ozone. The air was ozonized even in well-corked vessels, the effect being, however, in some degree dependent upon the color of the glass. The respective results of these experiments were noted after a lapse of three months. Americivn kerosene from petroleum, which had been exposed to the light in white uncovered glass balloons, had become so strongly ozonized that it scarcely burned, and the original bluish-white oil had assumed a vivid yellow color, the si)ecific gravity being found to have increased 0.005 ; but American kerosene which had been kept in the dark for three months did not show any ozone at all, and burned satisfactorily. The oils were exposed from April to July, 18G8. Those oils which had become strongly ozonized had also suffere the creek there are in these black slates two distinct beds of coal, 6 feet apart, the upper 10 inches, the lower 24 inches thick ; and oil flows from them continually in small quantities. At Davis, where the road crosses Paint creek, jnst below the mouth of Little Glade run, the conglomerate being here 230 feet thick and the streams flowing from the bottom of it between straight vertical walls, the black petroleum is perpetually welling out, not only from under the conglomerate, but from crevices in the bare faces of the rocks, .accompanied, as elsewhere, by yellow peroxide of iron. It is evident from the description given above — and the same description will answer for a large number of similar siirings in the numerous gorges through which the Licking waters find their way westward into the Blue Grass country of middle Kentucky — that the petroleum of the oil-springs of Paint creek (rf) has had its home in the great conglomerate at the base of the coal measures ; still has, we may say, for it is still issuing in .apparently undiminished quantities from the same. A conglomerate age or horizon of jietroleum exists. This is the main point to be stated, .and must be kept in view, apart from all other ages or horizons of oil, whether later or earlier in order of geological time. The rock itself is full of the remains of coal plants, from the decomposition of which the oil seems to have been made. I noticed in the great rock pavement .at Lyon's well, over which the creek water flows, many sections of tree branches and stems mashed flat, each section being, s.ay, 6 inches long by one-eighth of an inch wide in the middle, and when a jaek-kulfe was thrust down into the slit, so as to clear it of mud, the black tarry oil would immediately exude and spread itself over the water. A pointed hammer spalling off flakes of the rock on each side showed not only that the slit itself was full of thick oil, but that the whole rock was soiiked with it, except along certain belts (an inch or less wide and very irregular), which for some unexplained reason remained free from oil. Some of the great blocks of rock that have fallen from the clifl' too recently to be as yet decomposed are literally full of the marks of the broken macerated driftwood of that period. For hundreds of square miles this vast stratum of ancient sea sand is a thick packed herb.arium of coal-measure plants. If the loose sands of the bank of Paint creek, derived, as they are, from this sand-rock, can at the present day receive and retain vaat quantities of petroleum in spite of the perpetual washings to which they are subjected, we can easily conceive of the wide, flat, sandy shores of the coal islands of the ancient archipelago of the coal era becoming completely charged with the decomposed and decomposable reliquiae of both the plants of the land and the animals of the sea. (e) It is as yet beyond our ability to distiuguish the several original sources of the petroleum obtained at different depths from any one well. The specific gravities of the oil, decreasing with the increase of depth, is a fact which shows conclusively that a chronic evaporation or distillation of the whole mass of oil in the crust of ttie earth (within reasonable reach of the surface) has always been, and is still, going »n, converting the .animal and plant remains into light oils, the light oils into heavy oils, the heavy oils into asphalt or albertite, the process being accompanied at every stage with the liberation of gas. Therefore the quantities of lubricating oil coming out from the a A. J. S. (3), i, 420. d Professor Lesley appears to regard the name "Paint creek", as suggested I Professor Edward Orton in a communication to S. F. by the iridescent film of petroleum floating on the water. Peckham. e P. A. P. S., x, 39. cP. A. P. S., X, 39. 64 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. conglomerate along the valleys of Paint creek prove the existence of immense quantities back from the cliff in the rock itself under all the highlands. And for the same reason the heavy oils obtained first from Lyon's and Donnell's and Warner's wells, followed by Ijchter oils from a greater depth, prove the existence of yetiincalculated quantities of still lighter oils at still greater depths, and of a world of gas-pressure which ought to make its presence known whenever there have been rents in the crusts, down-throws, fallings-in, or serious elopings of the stratification ; in a word, any sort of natural vent, (a.) The paper from which these extracts are taken was read before the American Philosophical Society, April 7, 1865. It expresses the opinion of which Professor Lesley has been one of the strongest advocates, that the petroleum of the Appalachian system is indigenous to the rocks in which it is found. It is to be inferred, however, that his views as related to the origin of the petroleum found in northwestern Pennsylvania have become somewhat modified, although in precisely what manner is not clear. In the introduction to Eeport III of the Second Geological Survey of Pennsylvania, p. xv, Professor Lesley says : The origin of petroleum is still an unsolved problem. That it is in some way connected with the vastly abundant accumulations of Paleozoic sea-weeds, the marks of which are so infinitely numerous iu the rocks, and with the infinitude of coralloid sea animals, the skeletons of which make up a large part of the limestone formations which lie several thousand feet beneath the Venango oil-sand group scarcely admits of dispute, but the exact process of its manufacture, of it* transfer, and of its storage in the gravel beds is utterly unknown. That it ascemled rather than descended into them seems indicated by the fact that the lowest sand holds oil, when those above do not, and that upper sands hold oil when they extend beyocd or overhang the lower. If I understand Professor Lesley, these later statements, as well as that quoted regarding the chronic distillation that has always been, and still is, going on, express his opinion respecting the changes that convert the original petroleum content of the rocks into the different varieties of iietroleura now met with, rather than the origiu of the petroleum itself. Professor T. Ruiiert Jones examined the asphaltic sand or rock of Trinidad, and found that when it is boiled several times in sj)irits of turpentine " it loses its bitumen and resolves itself into loose orbitoides and nummulsnffi, with a few other foraminifera, and (when cleaned by acid) a small proportion of green-black sand and a very few rounded grains of quartz ". (6) In a paper on the "Geology of a part of Venezuela and Trinidad" Mr. G-. P. Wall describes the occurrence of bitumen as follows : The asphalt of Trinidad is almost invariably disseminated in the upper group of the "Newer Parian ".(e) When in situ it is confined to particular strata, which were originally shales containing a certain proportion of vegetable d4bris. The organic matter has undergone a special mineralization, producing bituminous in place of ordinary anthraciferous substances. This operation is not attributable to heat, nor to the nature of distillation, but is due to chemical reaction at the ordinary temperature and under the normal conditions of the climate. The proofs that this is the true mode of generation of the asphalt repose not only on the partial manner in which it is distributed in the strata, but also on numerous specimens of the vegetable matter in process of transformation and with the organic structure more or less obliterated. After the removal by solution of the bituminous material, under the microscope a remarkable alteration and corrosion of the vegetable cells becomes apparent, which is not presented in any other form of the mineralization of wood. A peculiarity attending the formation of the asphalt results from the assximption of a plastic condition, to which property its frequent delivery at the surface is partly referable ; where the latter is hollow or basin-shaped, the bitumen accumulates, forming deposits such as the well known Pitch lake. Sometimes the emission is in the form of a dense oily liquid, from which the volatile e'.ements gradually evaporate, leaving a solid residue. Mineral pitch is also extensively diffused in the province of Maturiu, on the main (the other districts of the llanos were not snfficiently examined to determine its existence, which, however, is generally affirmed), and in still larger quantities near the gulf of Maracaibo, on the northern shores of New Granada and in the valley of the Magdalena, where it probably is a product of the same Tertiary formation, (d) In England petroleum has been observed in a peat bog, and the lower layers of the peat were compacted into a sort of bituminized mass, which has been described by B. W. Binney as follows: The only remarkable feature connected with the upper bed of peat at Down Holland Moss is the western portion of it being covered up with a bed of sand, and being probably sometimes subject to an infiltratiou of sea-water. * * * These circumstances, added to the fact of petroleum being found most plentifully at the edge of the sand, lead to the conclusion that it is produced by the decomposition of the upper bed of peat under the sand. The chemical process by which such singular effects have been produced is a subject more fitted for the consideration of the chemist than the geologist, but the author supposes that petroleum is the result of slow combustion in the i>eat, and has been produced by a process partly analogous to that which takes place in the distillation ef wood iu closed vessels, when, owing to a total absence of oxygen, the combination of hydrogen and carbon in the form of hydrocarbons is effected, (e) Petroleum has also been observed dripping from shales overlying a highly bituminous coal; (/) also in limestone containing remains of Crustacea, {g) Concerning the origin of the petroleum of Shropshire, Arthur Aiken says : The thirty-first and thirty-second strata are coarse-grained sandstone entirely penetrated by petroleum ; are, both together, 15-J- feet thick, and have a bed of sandy slate-clay about 4 feet thick interposed between them. These strata are interesting as furnishing the supply of petroleum that issues from the tar-spring at Coalport. By certain geologists this reservoir of petroleum has been supposed to be sublimed from beds of coal that lie below, an hypothesis not easily reconciled to present appearances, especially as it omits to explain how the a P. A. P. S., X, 53. e Proc. Manchester Lit. and Phil. Soc, iii, 136. J Q. J. G. S., xxii, 592. / T. G. S. L. (2), v, 438. c A South American Tertiary group. g Ibid. (1), ii, 199. d Q. J. G. S., xvi, 467. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 65 petroleum in the uiiper of these Ix-ds eouUl have passed tbrougli tlie interposed bed of claj- so entirely as to leave no trace behind. It is also worthy of remark that the nearest coal is only 6 inches thick, and is separated from the above beds by a mass 9G feet in thickness, consisting of sandstone and clay strata, without any mixture of petroleum. («) The observations of Wall iu Trinidad appear to establish beyond a doubt that the bitumen of tbat locality lias been and is being produced from a peculiar decomposition of woody fiber. Bright and Priestwich both regard the petroleum of England as indigenous in the limestones and shales, and the testimony of Biuuey is conclusive as to its production from the decomposition of peat on Down Holland Moss. Professor A. Wiuchell says : It seems to have become established from recent (1866) researches that the petroleum of the Northwest not only accumulates iu several difl'ereut formatious, but also originates from materials stored up iu rocks of difterent geological ages from the Utica slate to the coal •conglomerate, and perhaps the coal measures. (6) Professor J. D. Whitney has suggested that the infusoria, the remains of which are so abundant iu certain sedimentary rocks, are the original source of the petroleum occurring in them, and says : In conclusion, it may be remarked that the marine infusorial rocks of the Pacific coast, and especially of California, are of great extent ^lud importance. They occur in the coast ranges from Clear lake to Los Angeles. They are of no little economical as well as scientific interest, since, as I conceive, the existence of bituminous materials in this state, in all their forms, from the most liquid to the most dense, is due to the presence of infusoria, (c) Section 4.— THE THEORY THAT BITUMEN IS A DISTILLATE. Humboldt, in 1804, observed a petroleum spring issuing from metamorphic rocks iu the bay of Cumana, and remarked : When it is recollected that farther eastward, near Cariaco, the hot and submarine waters are sufficiently abundant to change the t;emperature of the gulf at its surface, we cannot doubt that the petroleum is the effect of distillation at an immense depth, issuing from those primitive rocks beneath which lie the forces of all volcanic commotion, {d) The researches of Keicheubach led him to suggest, in 1834, that "when we remember that coal is so filled with the remains of plants that its origin has been attributed entirely to the destroyed vegetables of an early period, it must appea-r probable that petroleum was formed from such plants as aftbrd these oils, aud, in one word, that our mineral oil is nothing but turpeutine oil of the pines of former ages; not only the wood, but also the Jieedle-like leaves, may have contributed to this process, which is not a combustion, but is, I believe, simply the result of the action of subterranean heat." (e) French writers generally have expressed their conviction that bitumens have resulted from the action of heat •on strata containing organic matter. In 1835 M.Eozet read a paper before the Societe Geologique de France, in which he discussed the occurrence of a.sphaltic limestone at Pyrmont. He represents it as a mass of limestone not stratified, but crossed with fissures in all directions, aud contains to 10 per cent, of bitumen aud pure carbonate of lime. The limestone is accompanied by a molass or a sort of breccia, consisting of gravel of quartz and schistose rocks cemented with asphalt. The molass contains from 15 to 18 per cent, of asphalt, but the bitumen extracted from the limestone aud molass is identical. He continues : The bituminous matter is found equally iu the calcareous rock aud the molass that covers it. It is evident that the action that introduced it into the two rocksisposterior to the deposition of the latter. The manner in which it disistributed in great masses, which throw their ramifications in all directions, joined in such a-manner that the superior portions contain generally less bitumen than the remainder -of the mass, indicate that the bitumen has been sublimed from the dejrths of the globe. » « • The nature of the bituminous rocks (molass, cretaceous limestone, and calcareous schist) admit jierfectly of this sort of actiou. The molass and the limestone are so porous that they easily absorb water and the calcareous schist sticks to the tongue. Thus these rocks could ha%-e been easily penetrated by the bituminous v.apors. which probably penetrated all three of them at the same time. The epoch of the introduction of the bitumen iuto the preceding rocks being necessarily posterior to the deposition of the molass, it ouay be presumed that it eoiTCspouds to that of the basaltic eruptions which many facts prove to have been often accompanied with bituminous material. • • ■» It may be objected that such basalrtc rock does not appear in all the extent of the Jura. To that I reply that they are found in the neighborhood, in Hurgundy aud iu the Vosges ; and further, that in the changes in the surface of the soil, whether occasioned by fractures or by the disengagement of vapors, the jdutonic rocks do not necessarily appear at the surface. Perhajis in the deep valleys of the Jura the basalts are at a very slight depth. * ' * In the Val de Travers, near Neufchatel, similar phenomena are observed. (/) In 1840 Mr. S. W. Pratt described the occurrence of bitumen at Bastenee, a small village in the south of France, 15 miles north of Orthez. The surrounding country is formed of small conical hills 200 oi 300 feet high, separated by a coarse sandy limestone belonging to the cretaceous system. The upper part consists of variously colored sands and clays from 50 to CO feet thick, the whole covered by gravel and .sand, which in all directions a T. G. S. L. (1), i, 195. h A. J.S. (-2), xli, 176. e Bui. Acatl Set. San Francisco, iii, 324. Dr. J. S. Newberry has latelv erroneously attributed this theory to S. F. Peckham, Ann. X. T. Acad. Sci., ii. No. 9. d HnmboMfs 'Travels, III, 114, Bohn's ed. e Schweijiger SeldeVs Jahrtuch. ix, 133; Ph. Jour., xvi, 376. /B. S. G. F. (I), vii, 138. VOL. IX 5 66 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. extends for many miles. These sands and clays are usually horizontal, but are occasionally disturbed and highly inclined. This is occasioned by the protrusion of igneous matter, which is there found in connection with them. The bitumen is worked in three localities near each other, and occurs in beds from 5 to 15 feet thick, which vary much in character, the upper part consisting of looser and coarser sand, with a less proportion of the bitumen, while the lower part is more compact, containing finer sand, and being chiefly composed of bitumen. The sands and clays contain no fossils except occasional pieces of lignite and bitumen, and are generally free from extraneous matters, except in two localities, where numerous shells are found which may be referred to the Miocene period. In one of these localities, where the bitumen bed is from 10 to 12 feet thick, the shells are disposed in numerous layers a few inches apart, those of the same kind generally forming distinct layers, though sometimes, where the layer is thicker, many species are found together; and where the mass has been cut through vertically the appearance is very striking, bright, white lines appearing on a black bed of bitumen. The shells are neither broken nor disturbed, but are perfectly preserved, nor are the valves separated ; but, owing to the loss of animal matter, on being exposed to the air they fall into powder. Perfect casts may be readily procured, as they easily separate from the sandy mass. The bitumen has evidently been forced into them when in a soft or liquid state, as the smallest cavities are filled, and this must have taken place after their deposition in the sands in which the animals lived.. The date of this formation, as indicated by numerous species, may be referred to the Miocene era ; and as the eruption of bitumen is evidently connected with the appearance of the ophite, an igneous rock which has produced such great changes in the Pyrenees, a limit may thus be obtained for these changes, (a) In a notice upon the occurrence of asphalt in the environs of Alais, published in 1854, M. Parran makes th& following statements : Whatever he the origin of these sulistances, whether they be due to interior emanations from fissures of dislocation or to circumstances exterior and atmospheric, it is eTident that there was during the Tertiary period an asphaltic epoch (^jpoque asplialtique) in relation to "which it is convenient to recall the numerous eruptions of trachytes and hasalts which characterize that period and have- probably acted by distillation upon the masses of combustibles hidden in the bosom of the earth. He further remarks that asphalt occurs between Mens and Auzon, and continues : The lacustrine formation, of which we have studied the bituminiferous part, is deposited in a vast depression of the secondary formation {terrains), represented here by the lower cretaceous and chloritic formations {■niocomienne et chlorite^s). M. Parran concludes as follows : Emanating by distillation from beds of combustible material inclosed in the inferior Cretaceous {n&)comienne) formation or perhaps in. the Carboniferous, if, as is probable, they extend to that place, the bitumen is raised in the midst of the fresh-water limestones {calcaires: d'eau douce); there it is fixed by imbibition. Hot springs and sulphur springs abound in the vicinity. (6) ' In 1868 M. Ch. Knar published an article on "The theory of the formation of asphalt in the Val de Travers,. Switzerland ". His conclusions are : 1. Asphalt (limestone impregnated with bitumen) is due to the decomposition in a deep sea of beds of mollusks, the decomposition taking place under a strong pressure and at a high temperature. 2. The free bitumen is formed also by the decomposition of certain mollusks or crustaceans in a sea of little depth, atahightemperature^ but under an insufficient pressure to make this bitumen impregnate the oyster shells {pour former ce hitume a impr^gner lea coquilles' d'huitre). 3. Petroleum is due to the decomposition under water of mollusks, a decomposition which has taken place at a temperature too low to transform it into bitumen (asphalt), but under a pressure more or less considerable. 4. The beds of white limestone formed also by the accumulation of fossil oysters, and which contain neither asphalt nor petroleum,, have been formed under such conditions that the products of the decomposition of animal organic matter have been evaporated. 5. Finally, combustibles only, or pyroschists {litumes fixes), have been formed by the decomposition of plants, while all the preceding are of animal origin, (c) In 1872 M. Thor6 published a paper on the " Presence of petroleum in the water of Saint Bo6s (Basses- Pyr6n6es)", in which he says "petroleum floats on the water of the springs, and the rocks are saturated with it",. and continues : The comparison of observations seems to indicate in the department of the Basses-Pyr^n^es between the lower and middle Cretaceous, formations a considerable impregnation of petroleum, due probably to igneous action or an eruption of ophite. The more this origin is. examined the more one is convinced, because the greater part of the deposits of petroleum which prove valuable to the countries in which- they are found are evidently related to the rocks of igneous origin, which may be considered as being the principal cause of its formation, or, at least, of the appearance of mineral oil. (d) In 1837 M. Dufrenoy showed that the change from colored to white marble in the Pyrenees was due to the expulsion of bitumen by heat, (e) It is also maintained that jet is a distillate. (/) a Q. J. G. S., ii, 80. b Ann. dee Mines (5), iv, 334. (C„S04)2 -f- Cs = (CoCOa)^ + CO2 + Sj. The hydrogen of the bitumen also becomes oxidized and HjS. is formed. c Man. Sci., 1868, 381. d L'Annee Sci. et Ind., 1872, 251. e B.S.G.F.(l), ix, 238. / Simpson. San Franciso Min. and Sci. Press, 1874, 246. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 67 One of the most noted papers ou petroleum tbat Las appeared in the United States was published by Dr. J &V ISTewberry in 1859. In this paper he s.ays : The precise process hy which iictroleiim is evolved from the carbonaceous matter contaiued in the rocks which furnish it is not yetf fnlly known, because we cannot in ordinary circumstances inspect it. We may fairly infer, however, that it is a distillation, though* generally performed at a low temperature. We know that veget.able matter — and the same maybe said of much animal tissue when the conservative influence of life has ceased' to act — if exposed to the action of moist air, is completely disorganized by a process which we call decay, which is in fact combustion of' oxidation. This change takes place slowly, and without evolution of light and heat, the usual accompaniments of combustion,- ia- a> degree appreciable by our senses. When, however, carbonaceous organic tissue is buried in moist earth or submerged in water oxidation docs not at once ensue, or at least takes place to a limited extent, measured by the amount of oxygen present. In these circumstances bitumiuization takes place. This process consists mainly in the union of hydrogen, from the tissue itself or its surroundings, with a portion of the carbon, to form carbureted hydrogen, which perhaps escapes, and the hydrocarbons constituting the bitumen, which usually remains as a black, pitch- like m.ass, investing the fixed carbon. By this process peat, lignite, and coal are formed, which are solids, and doubtless some liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons which escape. Kow, when we heat these solid bitumens artificially at a sufficiently high temperature, if in contact with oxygen, combustion ensues, and water and carbonic acid are formed from them. At a lower temperature they are converted into gaseous hydrocarbons ; still lower to oils. («) In an article published by Professor E. B. Andrews in 1S61 he calls attention to the fact that the town of Newark, Ohio, has been for several years lighted by the uncondensed gas from the coal-oil manufactories, and infers that in the -spontaneous distillation of bituminous substances a large amount of gas must be generated along with the oil. He refers to the theory which had been recently brought forward by Dr. Xewberry, and says: The chief objection to it is the fact that the coal, cannel and bitnmiuous, in our oil regions gives no evidence of having lost any of Its full an.l normal quantity of bitumen or hydrocarbons. For example, at Petroleum, Kitchie county, Virginia, where strata have been brought up by an uplift from several hundred feet below, seams of canuel and bituminous coal appear, which, if judged by the standard of Nova Scotia or English coals, have lost none of their bituminous properties. » • • The other theory, that the oil was produced at the time of the original bitnminization of the vegetable or animal matter, has many difiicnlties in its way. If the oil were formed with the bitumen of the coal, we should expect that wherever there is bituminous coal there would be corresponding quantities of oil. This is uot so, in fact ; for there is no oil, except in fissures in the rocks overlying the bituminous strata. » » » Again, upon this theory, it will he difficult to explain the large quantities of inflammable gas always accompanying the oil. If it is generated exclusively from the oil, then we should expect to find the quantity of the oil least where the gas-springs have for ages been most active, but at such places the oil, instead of being wasted, is most abundant. (6) The distinguished French geologist, Daubree, had published the previous year his Studies upon Metamorphism, in which he had discussed the relation of bituminous substances to metamori^hism as follows: Bitumens and other carbides of hydrogen, according .as their state is solid, liquid, or gaseous, whether impregnating beds, flowing as petroleum, escaping from the soil, as iu salses, mud volcanoes, burning springs, etc., are in general only the vent-holes (fevents) of deposits of bitumens. The difl'erent deposits of bitumen present as general or at least remarkably frequent ch'aracteristics : 1. Association with saline forniiitious. 2. Being situated in the neighborhood of deposits of combustible minerals, or strata charged with vegetable delris. 3. Being associated with igneous accidents, ancient or modern; that is to say, with volcanoes or irruptive rocks, or with dislocated strata. 4. Frequently accompanying thermal springs, often sulphurous, and deposits of sulphur, (c) Several of my experiments account for these relations. In submitting fragments of wood to the action of superheated steam I have changed it into lignite, coiil, or anthracite, according to the temperature, audi have also obtained liquid and volatile products resembling natural bitumens and possessing the characteristic odor of the petroleum of Pechelbroun. It is thus that the presence of bitumen in certain concretionary metalliferous veins is accounted for; as, e. i/., Derbyshire, Camsdorf, and Raibl, in Carinthia. Finally, bitumens are probably derived from vegetable substances; as it appears uot to be a simple product of dry distillation, but to have been formed with the concurrent action of water, and perhaps under pressure, graphite being only the most exhausted {epuw4) product of these substances. These divers compounds of carbon are incident, then, to certain transformations which take place in the interior of the rocks, apparently under the influence of an elevated temperature. The activity and even the violence, at times capable of producing slight earthquakes, with which carbureted hydrogen has sometimes been associated in the Tauride, on the borders of the Caspian sea, and in the environs of Carthageua, in South America, prove that the action that has sometimes disengaged bitumen continues to the jiresent time, (rf) Section 5.— AN ATTEMPT TO INCLUDE OBSERVED FACTS IN A PEOVISIONAL HYPOTHESIS. The studies which I have made upon petroleum, extending now over a period of more than twenty years, and especially those which I have made iu preparing this report, lead me to the conclusion that as yet very little is known regarding its chemical geology. As no one has studied the chemical properties of different varieties of petroleum in relation to their geological occurrence in any efl'ective manner, it would be extremely rash for any one to dogmatize with reference to the origin of bitumens. I am, however, led to state the conclusions that a careful survey of our available knowledge of the subject has enabled me to reach. I am convinced that all bitumens have, in their present condition, originally been derived from animal or vegetable remains, but that the manner of their derivation has not been uniform. I should therefore exclude both classes of chemical theories ; the first as a Rock Oils of Ohio : OUo Ag. Bep., 1859. b A. J. S. (2), sxxii, 85. c I have omitted the numerous illustrations. d Etudes sur le Milamorphisme, p. 73. M. Daubree adds iu a note : " Graphite and bitumen are associated in Java in proximity to volcanic formations and a Tertiary lignite, from which jets of carbureted hydrogen escape." 68 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. impossible, tlie second as unnecessary. Tliere remains the hypotliesis that bitumen is indigenous in tlie rocks ia which it is found and that which regards all bitumens as distillates, but whichever of these hypotheses be accepted, the modifying fact remains that there are four kinds of bitumen : 1. Those bitumens that form asphaltum and do not contain parafQne. 2. Those bitumens that do not form asphaltum and contain parafftne. 3. Those bitumens that form asphaltum and contain parafflue. 4. Solid bitumens that were originally solid when cold or at ordinary temperatures. The first class includes the bitumens of California and Texas, doubtless indigenous in the shales from which they issue. It is also probable that some of the bitumens of Asia belong to this class. I have described the conditions under which bitumens occur on the Pacific coast of southern California in great detail in the reports that I have made to the geological survey of that state, (a) the forms found there being almost infinite iu gradation, from fluid petroleum to solid asphaltum; but I have been unable to obtain any information from the parties who are operating in Santa Clara county other than that contained in newspaper reports, which are too unreliable to be used in this connection. In Ventura county the petroleum is primarily held in strata of shale, from which it issues as i^etroleum or maltha, according as the shales have been brought into contact with the atmosphere. The asphaltum is produced by further exposure after the bitumen has reached the surface. These shales are interstratified with sandstones of enormous thickness, but I nowhere observed the petroleum saturating them, although it sometimes escaped from crevices in the sandstone; nor was the bitumen held in crevices of large size nor under a high pressure of gas, as the disturbed and broken condition of the strata, folded at very high angles, prechided such a possibility. The relation of the asphaltum to the more fluid materials became a question of great importance to those engaged in prospecting for petroleum in that region in 18C5 and later, and having made the solution of this problem a constant study for months, I finally came to the conclusion expressed above. My opinions were based on the following facts : a quantity of jietroleum from the Cai3ada Laga spring remained iu an open tank for fifteen months fully exposed to the elements, and increased 0.035 in specific gravity. Maltha has been obtained in wells so dense as to lead to their abandonment. Three attempts were made by the Philadelphia and California Petroleum Company to drill a well on the San Francisco ranch, and the greatest de^ith reached was 117 feet ; but at that depth the maltha was so dense that it could not be pumped out, nor could it be drawn out with grappling-hooks, and was so tenacious as to clasp the tools so firmly as to prevent further operations. These wells were located near an asphalt bed on a gently sloping hillside, where the strata were very much broken and easily penetrated by rain-water. The Pico spring, yielding petroleum issuing from shales, overlaid with unbroken bands of thick sandstone, was only a short distance beyond in the same range of hills, and still further were several other localities, all yielding more or less fluid malthafrom natural springs, wells, and tunnels. The density of the bitumen, however, was in every case in direct proportion to the ease with which rain-water could percolate the strata from which it issued. On the plains northwest of Los Angeles an artesian boring that penetrated sandstones interstratified with shale yielded maltha at a depth of 4G0 feet. Perhaps that portion of the sulphur mountain lying between the Hayward Petroleum Company's tunnels in Wheeler's canon and the Big Spring plateau on the Ojai ranch furnishes the most striking illustration of the occurrence of bitumens iu this region. A section of the strata at this point is given in Fig. 6. From this section it will be perceived that there is a synclinal fold in the shale forming the mountain, and that the strata dip into the mountain on both sides. The belt of rock yielding petroleum on the south side, in which the tunnels are driven, is fully protected by from 700 to SOO feet of shale, while the mountain side is nearly perpendicular. On the opposite side, however, the belt comes to the surface, presenting the upturned edges over a nearly horizontal area. These tunnels yielded the lightest petroleum at that time obtained in southern California, while the maltha in the Big Spring that issued from the detritus covering the shale was so dense in December, 1865, that it was gathered and rolled into balls, like dough, and removed in that condition. (&) The topography and stratigraphy of the coast ranges of Santa Barbara, Ventura, and Los Angeles counties are very complex. The Santa Barbara islands are volcanic, and lava-flows are described as having formed cascades over clifl's of sedimentary rocks as they descended into the sea. On the mainland no lava appears to have reached the surface, although between Las Posas and Simi, along the stage-road leading from San Buenaventura to Los Angeles, on an eroded iilateau surrounded by low mountains, fragments of scoriae ai'e scattered over the ground. The coast ranges here appear to have been produced by parallel folds, each successively higher, by which enormously thick beds of sandstone, interstratified with shale, were thrust up at an angle of aboiit 70°, producing parallel anticliuaJs. These anticlinals were subsequently eroded in such a manner as in many instances to produce valleys and plateaus, where the sandstones are broken through to the softer shales beneath. This is the case with the western extremity of the fold which, commencing at point Concepcion, extends eastward to Mount San Beniardiuo. West of the Sesp6 the sandstone crest has been completely removed and the shales cut away, until, at the Eincon, east of Santa Barbara, the erosion reaches the sea-level, and beyond, to the westward, the upturned edges of the shale forin the bed of the ocean. The narrow plain on which Santa Barbara stands, lying between the a lieport Geological Smreij of California: Geology, II. Appendix, pp. 48-90. 1> S. F. Pcckliam, Am. C, iv, G. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM.- 69 Santa Iilez mountains and the sea, consists of Pliocene and Quaternary sands and gravels resting upon the eroded shales. East of the Kincon and mount Hoar the tablelands lying in the trough of the anticlinal gradually ascend until at the Sespe the sandstone caps the high mountain to the eastward, said to be the highest in that region. This range extends eastward, occasionally broken by transverse canons, until, near the headwaters of the Santa Clara river, at the Soledad pass, it becomes merged in the San Rafael range, beyond the Sau Fernando pass. Between point Concepciou and point Eincon, where the stratum of sand occurs saturated with maltha, («) the latter has risen and floated on the sea and attracted the notice of travelers ever since that coast was known to Europeans. At point Riiicon, where the auticliual recedes from the coast, maltha rises and saturates the Quaternary sands. As the ascending plateau passes farther inland, we tind in the line of hills east of mount Hoar and in the Santa Inez mountains a line of outcrop of the bituminous strata on the east and west sides of the basin. East of the San Buenaventura river the local synclinal fold in the shale forming the sulphur mountain gives four liuea of bituminous outcrop, shown on the section. Fig. 06. In the caDons east of the Sespe, wherever the bituminous strata have been reached by erosion, tarsprings and asphalt beds are the result. The deeply eroded narrow valleys which cover the country east of Santa Barbara and south of the coast range present in a distance of a few miles the greatest lithological variations, and expose the bituminous strata under the greatest possible diversity of conditions. For this reason we meet here every possible form of bitumen in every possible degree of admixture, with pure sand, soil, detritus, and animal and vegetable remains. The exceedingly unstable character of these petroleums, considered in connection with the amount of nitrogen that they contain and the vast accumulation of animal remains in the strata from which they issue, together with the fact that the fresh oils soon become filled with the larvaj of insects to such an extent that pools of petroleum become pools of maggots, all lend support to the theory that the oils are of animal origin, {h) The second classof petroleums includes those of New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, and West Virginia. These oils areundoubtedlydistillates, and of vegetable origin. The proof of this statement seems overwhelming. Pennsylvania petroleum was examined in 1805 by Warreu and Storer (c) in this country, and in 1803 by Pelouze and Cahours in France, {d) who found the lighter portion to consist of a certain series of hydrocarbons, identical with those obtained in the destructive distillation of coal, bituminous shales, and wood when the operation was conducted at low temperatures. Messrs. Warren and Storer also discovered that the same series of hydrocarbons could be obtained by distilling a lime soap prepared from fish-oil. (p) The experience of technology has shown that if coals orpyroschisis are distilled at the lowest possible temperature, particularly in the presence of steam, a black tarry distillate is obtained, along with a considerable quantity of marsh-gas and very volatile liquids, that cannot be condensed except at low temperatures. If these distillates are redistilled, the second distillate may be divided into several different materials, beginning with marsh-gas and ending with very dense oils, heavily charged with paraflEine. It is impossible to conduct this primary or secondary distillation without producing marsh-gas, but the amount and the density of the fluid produced will depend on the temperature at which the distillation is carried on and the rapidity of the process. The use of superheated steam is found to increase the quantity of the distillate, and to prevent overheating and the formation of other hyilrocarbons than those belonging to the paraftine series. The section compiled by Mr. Carll shows the Devonian shales above the corniferous limestone and below the Bradford third oil-sand to be 1,000 feet in thickness. This shale outcrops along lake Erie, between Bufl'alo, New York, and Cleveland, Ohio. It is for the most part the surface rock in the neighborhood of Erie, Pennsylvania, and southward to Union City, and no one can examine it without noticing the immense quantity of fucoidal remains that it contains. Professor N. S. Shaler discusses in much detail the extent and character of the Devonian black shale of Kentucky, and estimates it to cover 18,000 square miles at an average depth of 100 feet, and to yield on distillation 15 per cent, of fluid distillate. It is not necessai-y to follow him in his calculations of the enormous bulk of this distillate as represented in barrels; the important point in this connection is that it is a very persistent formation, being revealed by borings over a very wide area, and doubtless extends beyond the boundaries of Kentucky, eastward beneath the coal measures which contain the petroleum. (/) If, however, the Devonian b'ack shales are inadequate, both on account of extent and position, as a source of .Mipply, we may descend still lower in the geological ^eries to the Nashville limestone and other Silurian rocks that underlie that region. Professor Saflbrd, in a recent letter, writes : The Lower Silurian limestone in the basin of middle Tennessee is about 1,000 feet thick. I have divided it in my Geological Reporl into the Lebanon limestone (or division) and the Nashville, each about 500 feet, the Nashville being the upper division. Including, the Upper Silurian limestones, the whole thickness of the limestones, in which are found occasionally little pockets or geodes and cavities of petroleum, is not far from 1,'200 feet. Upper Silurian oqo Lower .Silurian (Trenton) ; Nashville limestones -,00 Lebanon limestones 500 The most of the petroleum has been found in the upper part (the Nashville) of the Lower Silurian, as, for example, the larger cavities near or on the upper Cumberland river, in the neighborhood of the Kentucky line, both within Kentucky and Tennessee. a See page 21. c J/m. Jm. Jcfl(!.N.Si.,ix, 176; A. J. S.,(2),xli, 139. e Mem. A. A. N. S., ix, 177. t S. F. Peckham, P. A. P. S., x, 452. d Ann. C. et P. (4), 1, 5. / Sep. Geo. Survey, Kentucky, N. S., iii, 109. 70 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. These limestones underlie the whole petroleum region of southeastern Kentucky and middle Tennessee. The objection urged by Professor Andrews, that the coals in the measures of West Virginia and Ohio among ■which these oils occur have lost nothing of their Tolatile content, is without force liere. Professor Shaler [Report of the Geological Survey of Kentucky, new series, iii, 171) says : The condition of tlie beds tliat lie below the black shale in the Cincinnati group or in the Niagara section show that there has been no great invasion of heat since the beds were deposited. Clays, which change greatly under a heat of 1,000° F., are apparently exactly as they were left by the sea, and beds retain their marine salts just as when they were deposited. Any great access of temxierature in this deposit of the Ohio shale would have been attended by an almost equal rise of temperature in the coal-beds which lie within a few hundred feet above ; but these coal-beds are free from any evidences of distillation or other consequences of heat. We have already seen reasons for supposing an erosion of some 3,000 or 4,000 feet of strata from this section ; if we could reimpose this section we should probably bring up the temperature of these rocks by the rise in the isogeothermals, or lines of equal internal heat, about 60". * * » We are not able to suppose that the acciimulation of strata would have elevated the temperature above the boiling point of water. The hypothesis which may be found to account for the formation of this coal-oil must take into consideration the impossibility of its generation at another point and its removal to this set of beds and the impossibility of supposing that it has been.in any way the result of high temperatures. The range of temperature between "the boiling point of water" and "1,000° F.", which is here allowed, is ample for all purposes of explanation. Mendeljefi" objects that '• the sandstones impregnated with petroleum have never exhibited the carbonized remains of organisms. In general, petroleum and carbon are never found simultaneously ". These three objections — first, that the supply of organic matter is inadequate ; second, that there are no evidences of the action of heat uj)ou the rocks holding the oil ; third, that there are no residues of fixed carbon observed in the rocks holding the oil — are those which have appeared to satisfj' those who do not accept the hypothesis that regards petroleum as a distillate. I think the first has been already answered. The second and third I shall now examine. It is not the effects of heat, as represented by volcanic action, that have produced petroleum, although in one notable instance i^arafiine and other constituents of petroleum have been found in the lava of Etna, (a) A comparison of the analyses of the gaseous emanations of volcanoes with those of gas and petroleum springs shows that the former consist mainly of carbonic acid and nitrogen, while the latter consist mainly of marsh-gas. Bitumens are not the product of the high temperatures and violent action of volcanoes, but of the slow and gentle changes at low temperature due to metamorphic action upon strata buried at immense depths. The extent of the Paleozoic formations of the Mississippi valley and the general conformation of the bottom of the ancient seas has been fully described by Professor James Hall, who says : (b) In all the Lower Silurian limestones we trace the outcrop to the west and northwest from the base of the Appalachians, in New York or in Canada, to the Mississippi river, and thence still in the same northwesterly direction. * * « Instead of finding the lower Helderberg (Upper Silurian) strata in lines parallel with those of the preceding rocks, the relative direction of the main accumulation and the Ijrincipal line of exposures is diagonally across the others. * * * The line of outcrop and of accumulation has been from northeast to southwest, and they occur in great force far to the northeast in Gaspd, on the gulf of Saint Lawrence. * * * The greatest accumulation of material in the period of the Hamilton, Portage, and Chemung groups (Lower and Middle Devonian) lies in the direction of the Appalachian chain. * « » In Gasp6 there are 7,000 feet of strata, * * * while in western New York the whole together would scarce exceed 3,000 feet. We have therefore the clearest evidence that the strata thin out in a westerly direction. * * * In considering the distribution of the masses of the formations which we have here described we find that the greatest accumulations have been along the direction of the Appalachian chain. The material thus transported would be distributed precisely as in an ocean traversed by a current like our present Gulf Stream, and in the gradual motion of the waters during that period to the west and southwest the finer material would be spread out in gradually diminished quantities, till finally the deposit from that source must cease altogether. * * « j Jiave long since shown that * * * the portion of the Appalachians known as the Green Mountain range is composed of altered sediments of Silurian age. » » * The evidences in regard to the White mountains, to a great extent, are of newer age than those of the Green mountains, or Devonian and Carboniferous. * * * The statements of Sir William Logan in regard to the great accumulation of strata in the peninsula of Gasp^, together with the observations of Professor Eogers in the Axipalachians of Pennsylvania, lead to the inevitable conclusion that the sediments of this age miist everywhere contribute largely to the matter forming the metamorphic portion of the Appalachian chain, as well as to the non-metamorphic zone immediately on the west of it. Eeference to Mai) HI shows the manner in which the outlined areas that have yielded petroleum correspond to the trend of these deposits of sediment as described by Professor Hall. It is not necessary here to discuss the nature or origin of metamorphic action. It is sufficient for our purpose to know that from the Upper Silurian to the close of the Carboniferous periods the currents of the jirimeval ocean were transporting sediments from northeast to southwest, sorting them into gravel, sand, and clay, forming gravel bars and great sand-beds beneath the riffles and clay banks in still water, burying vast accumulations of sea weeds and sea animals far beneath the surface. The alteration, due to the combined action of heat, steam, and i^ressure, that involved .the formations of the Appalachian system from point Gaspe, in Canada, to Lookout mountain, in Tennessee, involving the carboniferous and earlier strata, distorting and folding them, and converting the coal into anthracite and the clays into crystalline schists along their eastern border, coidd not have ceased to act westward along an arbitrary line, but must have gradually died out farther and farther from the surface. a Silvestri, Gaz. Chim. ItaL, vii, 1; Chem. Xews, sxxv, 156; B. D., C. G., 1877, 293. h]fat. Mist. N. Y., Paleontology, iii, 45-60. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 71 The great beds of sliale and limestoue contaiuing fucoids. animal remains, and even indigenous petroleum, must have been invaded by this beat action to a greater or a less degree, and that "chronic evaporation" of Professor Lesley must have been the inevitable consequence. Too little is known about petroleum at this time to enable any one to explain all the phenomena attending the occurrence of petroleum on any hypothesis ; but it seems to me that the different varieties of petroleum, from Franklin dark oil, near the surface, to Bradford and Clarendon amber oil, far beneath the surface, are the products of fractional distillation, and one of the strongest proofs of this hypothesis is found in the large content of paraffins in the Bradford oil under the enormous pressure to which it is subjected. So, too, the great pools of oil in southern Kentucky are without doubt distilled from the geode cavities beneath and concentrated in superficial fissures of the rocks near the surface. The oil of the American well is very different in many respects from Pennsylvania oil ; and that from the Phelps well, on Bear creek, Wayne county, Kentucky, has an odor identical with that of the petroleum of southern California, in that respect totally unlike the petroleum of West Vii-ginia, and evidently an oil of animal origin that has not been subjected to destructive distillation. If this hypothesis, which embraces all the facts that have thus far come within my knowledge, really represents the operations of nature, then we must seek the evidences of heat action at a depth far below the unaltered rocks in which the petroleum is now stored. We ought to expect to find the coal in its normal condition. We should not expect to find the carbonized remains of organisms in the rocks containing petroleum. As the metamorphic action took place subsequent to the carboniferous era, we should expect to find the porous sandstones of that formation in certain localities saturated with petroleum. We should expect a careful observer like General A.J. Warner to write concerning them : Now, while these several sand rocks wheu tbey come to the surface contain calaniites, stigmaria, and other fossil plants of the lower coal measures, they contain nothing from which petrolenm could possibly have been derived, (a) Moreover, we should expect to find these coal-measure sandstones and conglomerates on the western border of the heated area, where the thinning out of the deposits brought down the coal measures nearer the Devonian shales and Silurian limestones, first saturated with petroleum, and then, through ages of repose, gradually cut down by erosion into the canons of Johnson county, Kentucky, and exhibiting all of the ])henomena described by Professor Lesley. The inadequacy of the scattered remains of plants in the coal-measure sandstones as a source of the petroleum that saturates them is shown by the following calculation : Should the Mississippi send down one tree a minute for a century, with an average length of 40 feet and a foot in diameter, and these be laid together side by side at the bottom of the sea in a single stratum, they would only cover a space of 200 acres. Were it possible, which it is not, to compress and crystallize these lignites into one stratum 6 feet thick, they might then constitute a coal-bed covering 20 acres. All the forests of the Mississippi valley could not furnish to the sea from their river spoils during a hundred thousand years one of the anthracite coal-beds of Schuylkill county, (b) M. Coquand gives the following restnne of the geological formations represented iu Eoumania : Tbe Tertiary formation in connection with the clays of the steppes constitutes a continuous and concordant system, in which may be distinguished at the base the nummulite beds representing the great Paris limestone. 1. The Superior Eocene, composed at its base of rock-salt, gypsum, saliferous slates, bituminous schists, and marls with menilites; and above of the "Flysch formation" properly speaking, consisting of alternations of micaiferous sandstones (niacigno). of limestones {albirhe), and of argillaceous schists (gahstri), this superior part being characterized by Chondrites Targioni, intricatus, furcatus, and by alreoliiius, the ensemble corresponding to the fncoidal Flysch of Switzerland, the Apennines, Algeria, Sicily, the gyjisums of Montmartre, and the saline and sulphurous gypsum of Sicily : also the rock-salt of the high plateau of Algeria. 2. The Miocene stage, which is the first level of petroleum in the Carpathians. The inferior part comprises at its base sandstones and saline slates, with Cyreiia convexa and sandstones corresponding to those of Fontaiuebleau, the superior part of sandstones, slates, and limestones corresponding to the molass of Carry and Syracuse ; also to the gypsum and rock-salt of Volterra, in Tuscany, and the province of Saragossa, to Jlnrinen Tegel iitid Sand (neogoeneot'il. Haidinger) ; to the terrain tertiaire miocenemarin of M. Abich ; to the terra in tertiairc inf^rieur of M. de Vemeuil. The superior part comprises slates and the gre's a congeries with lignites, amber, and asphalt, and is characterized by Paliidina, Achati/ormis, Congeria suhcarinata, Cardium, Souri^ti'iS, etc., corresponding to the Congerientschisten of MM. Haidiuger and Hauer (partie supirieiirt de leiir terrain tertiaire neogene), to the terrain tertiaire snpe'rieur of M. de Verneuil, and to the Pliocene of M. Abich. 3. Pliocene stage, which is the second level of petroleum in the Carpathians. It comprises conglomerates and pudding-stones at its base, and above black slates, producing the steppe formation of Moldavia and Wallachia. It corresponds to the superior marine .sub-Apenuine formation, to the steppes of tbe Crimea and the Caucasus, to the desert of Sahara, and the marine deposits of Kertsch with Ostrea lamellosa, Srocclii; Chama grxjphina, Lani ; Cah/ptrea sinensis, and Linni. 4. The recent formations comprising the earthy deposits in the environs of Bus r-f.^^ '":^-'^/i DRAWING OF A PIECE OF THE HURONIAN SHALL ENCLOSING THE A;_SERTiTE VEIN IN HL^ BRUNSWICK, SHOWING THE MANNER IM WHICH THE ALBERTlTE CLEAVES FROM THE ENCLOSING ROCK. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 73- lu I86fl I made the origin of albeitite ami allied substauces thesubjectof a paper, («) iu whicli I discussed the views held by others regarding it and compared them with the observations made in New Brunswick and West Virginia by Jackson, Wetherell, Lesley, Wurtz, aud others, with my own observation of a veiu on the coast of California. This latter vein is exposed on the coast west of Santa Barbara, and stands vertical, cutting the Pliocene and recent sands. With this vein are associated lenticular masses, extending horizontally, from which a sort of talus projects vertically into the sands beneath. The eruptive origin of these deposits is beyond question. Similar deposits are described by M. Coquand as occurring in Albania, as follows: The bitumen at Seleuitza does not lie in regular beds, but in masses, iu the midst of the sandstones and conglomerates that preserve a sort of parallelism, each mass consisting essentially of a central portion of considerable thickness, which gradually thins out in all directions to zero. In no case does the bitumen penetrate the roof above the mass, but was evidently injected from below. Fig. 2 (6) shows a deposit that has furnished an enormous quantity of bitumen. These deposits occur as if during the sedimentation of tba rocks at the bottom of the tertiary area the bitumen in a viscous state had filled the depressions in which it has accumulated, rem.aiuing pnre or being incorporated with the slaty materials with which it is contaminated. A section of the mass corresponds in many cases to a flask filled with solidified water. The aligned basins appear to have been filled successively from the overflow of one into the other. It is evident that the masses, iu spite of their irregularity, are parallel with the stratification. Geuerally the bitumen consists of compact, very homogeneous matters, and next to this variety the bituminous breccia should be mentioned. This consists of beds of gray slate of varyin" thickness, inclosing angular fragments of bitumen, separated from each other, but which are easily obtained by soaking in water the slate which serves to cemeut theiu. This breccia is represented by Fig. 9, often overlying a bed of asphalt, into which it passes by insensible gradations, and seems to form the upper portion of a liquid bath, into which the slate pluuged and afterward regained the surface before its entire solidification. Exactly as in a blast-fnmace, the slag becomes mingled with the metal in the last products of the tapping, producing a species of magma. More rarely the bitumen rolls itself upon itfelf (Fig. 10), thus producing spheres analogous to those which invest viscous matters when rolled in water or dust. The structure of them is concentric, resembling i)ea-stone, but is destitute of any nucleus so far as observed. These envelopes might result from progressive desiccation, the result of which leaves the bitumen divided into thin pellicles, like certain basalts, iu which, on cooling, spheres of variable volume are produced composed of concentric coats. The globules are for the most part isolated in the midst of the slate, and are about one-third of an inch in diameter. Another curious form is shown in Fig. 11. It consists of an infinite number of threads crossing each other iu all directions, producing a sort of Btockwork. Fig. \2 shows a form which difters from the preceding iu that the threads instead of lieing scattered in a cajiricious plexus are vertical and parallel. The contraction of the sandstone having opened these vertical and parallel vents, the bitumen following filled them, but from above downward. Sometimes the liitumen, as indicated by Fig. 13, is molded in cup-like depressions, which are terminated by a capillary tube. At other times ellipsoidal masses are introduced, some of which are as large as a cannon-ball. They are aligned in positions iiarallel to the plane of the beds in which they repose. Masses of sandstone are sometimes met inclosed within the bitumen. Such are sometimes observed in beds of coal. It is to be observed that the threads that sometimes connect the masses of bitumen spring from the side and not from the top of them — a fact that is explained if we assume the ascending mass overflowed horizontally in this particular locality. A great many bivalves, especially C'ardium, were observed filled with bitumen. He also discovered a very large Planorbis aud other species with the interior filled with bitumen. After showing that the material could not have entered the rocks in a fluid state, he says: '"It is then iu the conditionof glutinous bitumen that the maltha primarily entered the formation at Seleuitza. There is no evidence of the phenomena of salses, nor solfataras, nor volcanoes, which distinctively characterize the occurrence of petroleum properly 80 called." M. Coquand states that there exists at present at one point iu the ancient excavations a sort of crater that emits smoke and a great heat, but he assumes that the fire was lighted by the hand of man, which, as in burning collieries, slowly pursue their work of destruction. The clays from which the volatile products are expelled become a sort of brick, sonorous and red, and the sand.stones are converted into porcelainites aud quartzite, and break at the least shock into a thousand fragments. Fig. 14 represents a section of the rocks in which the bituminous strata occur. M. Coquand mentions in connection with the bituminous strata solfataras and mud volcanoes, both active and extinct, with which was associated more or less fluid maltha, which is at first very liquid, but soon becomes sirupy, aud is finally added to the accumulations of the bituminous cone. The volcanic phenomena assume three forms : First, when inflammable gas escapes through the soil ; second, when they escape with water aud petroleum, forming craters of bitumen ; third, volcanoes emitting hot water {rolcan ardent), (c) From the foregoing it will appear that solid bitumen occurs iu great abundance, filling variously -formed cavities iu the Pliocene strata of Albania, and that maltha accompanies the water of springs from deep-seated strata, often in close proximity to active or extinct volcanic action of the mild forms observed as solfataras, mud volcanoes, or salses. The great similarity in the occurrence of intruded tertiary bitumens in Albania and California is very remarkable. No hint is given by Dr. Taylor respecting the age of the rocks inclosing the bitumen vein iu Cuba, as at the time he wrote (1837) all metamorphic rocks were called primary. There is little doubt, however, that the vein in a A. J. S. (2), xlviii, 362. 6 See page 32. c IJ. S. Q. F., (1), XXV, 35. The precise volcanic phenomenon designated by M. Coquand as volcan ardent is not clear. In one case it appears to be an ordinary volcano emitting lava, and in the present case a hot- water volcano; but he afterward remarks that the Tertiary formations in the vallej- of the Vojutza do not contain the least trace of volcanic action, nor is there a volcanic or thermal spring iu the whole country. I presume he refers in this latter sentence to outflows of scoriie and lava, and does not include in the phrase volcanic action the mud volcanoes and solfataras, which he describes at some length. 74 PEODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. 2few Brunswick and in "West Virginia originated at nearly the same time and subsequent to the Carboniferous era, and it is certain that subsequent to that era a great convulsion caused an upheaval that in collapse produced the White Oak anticlinal. Very near the southern end of this anticlinal the vein of grahamite occurs, cutting the horizontal sandstones of the coal measures vertically, but those who mined the vein declare that the material must have welled up from beneath into the fissure the instant it was formed, numerous fragments of the wall-rock being found imbedded in the asphaltum only 12 or 15 feet below the cavities from which they fell, with all their •edges and angles sharp and exactly fitting each other. Curious curved lines, resembling those produced when a stone is dropped into mortar, are formed on these horses, suggesting the probability that they fell into a plastic mass that rolled upon them, producing lines of unequal pressure and adhesion that remain after the asphaltum lias cleaved from them or the inclosing walls. Moreover, these walls of porous sandstone have not absorbed the bitumen to the thickness of a piece of paper. The significance of these facts was more forcibly impressed upon my mind when I found among a set of specimens from the albertite vein of New Bru.nswick a piece of the inclosing ^hale, marked with the mineral in forms almost identical with those observed on the sandstone in West Virginia. Plates I and II are very carefully drawn from specimens from the two localities. It should be borne in mind that while this subject is one of speculation, pure and simple, it is one that has its valuable consideration outside the domain of scientific inquiry or curiosity, as affecting the sources and duration ■of supplies of petroleum, its profitable development, and commercial permanence. If petroleum is the product of a purely chemical process, we should not expect to find Paleozoic j)etroleums of a character corresponding with the simple animal and vegetable organisms that flourished at that period, and tertiary i>etroleums containing nitrogen, unstable and corresi^onding with the decomi^osition products of more liighly organized beings, but we should expect to find a general uniformity in the character of the substance, wherever found, all over the earth. A mass of polypi imdergoiug decomposition upon a beacli would doubtless saturate the sand with about the same kind of decomposition products as au eqvial bulk of algie; but when a mass of animal matter, consisting not only of the muscular tissue, but of all the non- nitrogenous substances entering into animal organisms, was thus subjected to decomposition, submerged in water, the product could not fail to be a nitro-hydrocarbon, which upon exposure to atmospheric oxygen would undergo a second decomposition into a greater or less number of the following-named products: carbon, hydrocarbons, ammonia or free nitrogen, carbonic acid, and water. The petroleums of southern California, issuing primarily from Miocene shales, are of precisely this unstable character, {a) The advocates of the chemical theory affirm that they provide for a process the conditions of which are perpetually renewed. It is thus continuous and at present active. On the contrary, if petroleum is the product of metamorphism, its generation is coexistent only with that of metamorphic action ; an action which we have no reason to believe has been prevalent on a large scale during the recent period. If we accept this hypothesis, the generation •of petroleum is then j)ractically ended. M. A. Eiviere has published a paper on the origin of combustible minerals. (6) His opinions are based on his observations of the efi'ect on soil and organic matter in the soil of the leakage of illuminating gas from the pipes in which it is conducted.. The effects which he attributes to marsh-gas are, however, due to the condensation of the tarry matter that is dissolved in the escaping gas, the coal-tar i^roducts produced at a high temperature not being constituents of petroleum to any great extent. The experiments of Professor Sadtler indicate the iwesence of minute quantities of benzole in the Bradford oil of Pennsylvania, (c) but it was not found by Warren and Storer in the Oil creek oils, its presence in the Bradford oil furnishing an additional reason for supposing it to be a fractional ■distillate produced under great pressure, and consequently at a comparatively high temperature. a S. F. Peckham, P. A. P. S., x, 453. J C. E., xlvii, 646. . c Communication to S. F. Peckham. H./I. DRAWING OF A PORTION OF THE SURFACE OF A HORSE OF SANDSTONE FOUND ENCLOSED IN THE 6RAHAMITE VEIN RITCHIE CO. W.V* SHOWING THE MANNER IN WHICH THE GRAHAMITE CLEAVES FROM THE ENCLOSING ROCK. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 75 Chapter VI.— THE DEVELOPMENT OF OIL TERRITORY. In 1858 and 1859, just before Drake obtained oil in liis vrell, the region now known as tbe " oil region" was an ^almost unbroken forest. Here and there along the valleys of the Allegheny and its tributaries the bottom-lands liad been broken into farms, but on the hills, excepting in the neighborhood of the larger towns, there were but few cultivated tracts. The landscape along these winding streams was very beautiful. The towns were but little more than lumbering camps and t-rading stations, with few churches or school-houses, and the stores were for the most part kept by those engaged in the lumbering business, who employed nearly the entire population. This population traded a large proportion of the value of their earnings at the stores, and when the yearly settlements came they found a small balance due them. Those who were not engaged in rafting the lumber to Pittsburgh worked their small farms in summer and raised the small amount of produce required in the country, but in the winter lumbering was the engrossing occupation. Off the valleys of the main streams the roads were few and wretchedly poor. A few farms on the bluff southwest of Titusville had been occupied since 1798, and yet no public road had been built until some time after 1860. After Drake's well was drilled, a demand arose for barrels and teams to haul the oil to points of shipment. This quiet and secluded region was invaded by adventurers from every direction, and the production of oil increased in volume so much more rapidly than the means of gathering and transportation that, although the production for the whole year of 1861 was only 1,035,668 barrels, less than the production of two weeks in 1880, the price fell in the fall of that year to 10 cents per barrel, and sales were reported as low as 6 cents per barrel. The influx of such an immense population into the villages and hamlets of this region taxed its agricultural resources to the utmost, and the construction of countless derricks, and the towns that were springing up Uke mushrooms along Oil creek and ■the Allegheny river, the making of tanks and thousands of barrels for storing and transporting the oil, gave a home market for the lumber of the country and stimulated an activity in business before unknown. Laud along the creek supposed to be favorable for drilling purposes commanded fabulous prices; everybody had an interest in an oil-well ; fortunes were suddenly made in one day and recklessly lost in another; and although railroads were pushed toward Titusville as rapidly as possible, the oil reached the surface faster than it could be disposed of, and was lloated down the Allegheny river to Pittsburgh in bulk barges, many of which were broken up in the accidents •of such navigation and the contents poured upon the stream. The valley of Oil cieek became filled with derricks, and by 1863 the oil territory was supposed to be defined, when a daring prospector, ha\ing drilled a " wild-cat" well on the hills that border the valley, got oil, and wells were then spread over the hill country between Titusville and Tidioute. Meantime trunk hnes had reached the valleys of the Allegheny and Oil creek, and the oil was moved ■out of the country. The development of oil territory had mean time acquired a habit which has become well defined, and has been repeatedly exemplified during the last fifteen years. Commencing with the sinking of test or "wild-cat" wells outside the limits of any proved productive territory, the progress of such wells is eagerly watched, not only by those who pay for them, but also by many others who hope to profit by the experiment. While the experiment is in progress frequently all sorts of devices are resorted to to deceive others, not only to enable those engaged in the experiment to secure all the adjacent territory at favorable prices or leases, but also to prevent others from doing the same thing. The striking of oil in a new well is the signal for a grand rush, as those who have territory to dispose of express extravagant opinions regarding the yield of the wells and the extent of the territory. A quiet country village at once becomes the center of a large business. Teams come pouring in with oil-well supplies, lumber, and provisions ; a narrow-gauge railroad is projected and built with astonishing rapidity; corner lots are sold at fabulous prices; a speculative populatiou floats into the place, the individuals of which come and go ; and a common laborer to-day becomes a month hence a foreman, and in six months the owner of a well, and after a year is a gentleman of fortune. The quiet country town, too, with its modest school-houses and churches, takes on metropolitan airs and vices, and farmers become money-changers, the lucky ones who "sti'ike ile" and do not lose their heads usually gathering together their thousands and leaving the overgrown village for Xew York or some other city. Some few remain and help to permanently improve the home of their childhood. Titusville, Oil City, Tidioute, Franklin, and Bradford are all examples of such towns. After a time the speculative phase is succeeded by that of settled and steady development, and the oil territory becomes outlined, the sagacious having secured control of the profitable tracts, and the floating population having by this time passed on to a new field, while their places have been filled by a more solid element, largely the moderately successful, because less reckless, who have come to stay. The influence of the floating and unsettled class is seldom salutary. In one instance that has been brought to my notice the most a-eckless system of public improvements was undertaken. School-houses greatly larger and more expensive than 76 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. Avere necessary were built, aud instead of beiug paid for by taxes levied on the oil tbat was tlieu being taken from.', the ground, bonds were issued, payable at some future day, and left as a burden upon a community the extraordinary resources of which have long since been removed. The development of the oil territory proceeds, after its existence has been demonstrated, without regard to any other interest. The derrick comes like an army of occupation. In the towns a door-yard or a garden alike surrender its claims. The farms, fields, orchards, or gardens alike are lost to agriculture and given to oil, aud on the forest-covered hills the most beautiful and valuable timber is ruthlessly cut and left to rot in huge heaps wherever a road or a derrick demands room. Pipe- lines are run over the hills and through the valleys, through door-yards, along streets, across streets and railroads, and here and there the vast storage-tanks stand, a per[)etual . menace to everything near them that will burn. Nothing that I ever beheld reminded me so forcibly of the dire destruction of war as the scenes I beheld in and around Bradford at the close of the census year; and nothing else but the necessities of an army commands such a complete sacrifice of every other interest or leaves such a scene of ruin and desolation. But the wave of desoiatiou passes over, and nature chauges the scene in the same manner as she gathers and restores the ruins of battle-fields. Along Oil creek, for the most part, the derricks have disappeared, and the- brambles and the young forest are fast removing even a trace of their former presence. A visit to the famous- Pithole City, which in 1865 was, next to Philadelphia, the largest post-office in Pennsylvania, showed a farmer l^lowing out corn where the famous Shearman well had been, a waving field of timothy where the Homestead well had been, the site of the famous United States well hardly to be found by one who had known it all through its career, and of the city there remained but fifteen or twenty houses, rapidly tumbling to decay, but not an inhabitant. The country around this scene of so much activity fifteen years ago is growing up to forest, and is not now valued at an amount equal to a year's interest on the valuation of that time. Between the period of active development and absolute exhaustion comes the period of decay, when the derricks are rotting and falling to wreck, when property that has ceased to be productive has been sold at an extravagant price, and after accumulating debts has been abandoned. iSTo one dares to claim the engine, boiler, and other tools, for fear he may become liable for the debts. Fine-engines go to ruin, and boilers are eaten with rust; small boys and idle men throw tools and pebbles in the well, and finally the vender of old iron comes along and carries off the junk to the foundery. At other times the owners of the well have made strikes somewhere else; and the well is then " pulled out " and all the machinery is carried to another field. Enormous quantities of material were carried from Oil creek to Clarion and Butler counties, and from there to the Bradford district. The Oil creek region has now returned to the condition of an agricultural and manufacturing community, in which the production of oil is no longer the absorbing topic of conversation and the paramount interest. On the lower Allegheny, in Clarion and Butler counties, the production of oil has become much lessened iu importance, and the wreck of abandoned derricks in many localities presents a dismal picture. The Bradford field is now iu fully developed activity, and the destructive subordination of every other interest, and of all other considerations of ordinary value, is everywhere painfully apparent. With all this there is an evidence that so- called public improvements are only of a temporary character. The towns that are the result of the production of oil are scarcely more substantial than a military camp, and from lack of orderly arrangement, neatness, and sanitary regulations are tar less inviting in their appearance. The railroads remind oue forcibly of those built around Petersburg during the war, although they possess the elements of permanency to a greater degree, and the destruction of so much valuable timber produces a melancholy aspect. The Allegheny district in S"ew York is just opening up around Eichburg, and all the phenomena peculiar to the first stages of an oil excitement are to be observed there. It is not to be inferred, however, that any of the sections into which the oil regions have been divided have ceased to produce oil. There are wells now producing in sight of the spot where Drake drilled the first well; but large tracts of country cease to be the centers of speculative investment, and old wells to be remunerative, and the new wells no longer hold the possibilities of a grand lottery ijrize. It is the opinion that large areas in the Oil creek district will be redrilled and will produce iu the aggregate large quantities of oil if the price ever reaches $2 a barrel. At present prices, the pumping wells of that district cannot successfully compete with the flowing wells-. of McKcau county. ~ THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 77 Chapter VII.— THE PRODUCTION OF OIL. Section 1.— PKIMITIVE METHODS. Oils and malthas appear to have been obtained in Persia from a very early period, but the methods employed were extremely simple. Most frequently the basin of the spring appears to have been surrounded by a stone coping, and sometimes it was covered with some sort of a niche or building, but often the oil was simply skimmed from the surface of the water which it accompanied. Herodotus describes the numner in which, by means of myrtle branches, the bitumen was obtained from the springs in Zacynthus, now Zante. It is, however, by means of dug wi-lls or shafts that petroleum has been usually obtained in regions where the art of drilling artesian wells was unknown. In Japan from a very remote period wells have been dug and tunnels have been run into hillsides for oil. Some of these abandoned drifts have caved in and large trees are growing upon them. In relation to the manner of working these wells, B. S. Lyman, in his Reports on the Geology of Japan, 1877, says: The present mode of working is very simple, a method that has probably grown into its present form m the course of centuries of experience, and is now apparently practiced in all the oil regions with little or no variation. The digging is all done by two men, one of whom digs in the morning from nine o'clock until noon, and the other from noon until three. The one who i» not diggiug works the large blowing machine or bellows that continually sends fresh air to the bottom of the well. The blowing apparatus is nothing but a woodeu box about 6 feet long by o wide and 2 deep, with a board of the same length and widtii turning in it upon a horizontal axis at the middle of each long side of the box, and with a vertical division below the board between the two ends of the box. The workman stands upon the board and walks from one end of it to the other, alternately pressiug down first one end aud then the other. At his first step on each end he gives a smart blow with his foot, so as to close with the jerk a small valve (0. 3 foot square) beneath each end of the board, a valve that opens by irs own weight when the end of the board rises. The air is therefore driven first from one end of the box, then from the other into an air pipe about 0.3 foot square, provided at top, of course, with a small valve for each end of the blowing-box. made of boards in lengths of about 6 feet, and placed in one corner of the well. The well is, besides, timbered with larger pieces at the corners and light cross-pieces, which serve also as a ladder fry going np and down, though at such a time, in addition, a rope is tied around the body under the arms aud held by several men above the month of the well. The earth or rock dug up is brought out of the well in rope nets by means of a rope that passes over a wheel 1 foot in diameter, hung just under the roof of the hut, about 10 feet above the mouth of the well, and is pulled up by three men, one at each corner of one side of the well, and the third in a hole two or three feet deep and a foot and a half wide dug along side of the well. • » • Wells are dug in this manner to a depth of from 600 to 900 feet, a depth at which great difficulty is experienced in securing sufficient light to carry on the work, which is often prosecuted only from nine a. m. to three p. m. These wells are dug about 3+ feet square. One will 900 feet deep is reported to have cost only about $1,000. The oil is skimmed from the surface of the water and drawn up in buckets. In a letter dated Toungoo, British Burmah, September 14, 1881, Rev. J. N. Gushing, D. D., says: At Yenaugyouug the construction of the wells is after the most primitive method. The wells are dug about 5 feet square. A native spade for loosening the soil and a basket for conveying it from the well are the implements used. As fast as the well is sunk it is planked up with split, not sawed, planks. There are generally three or four men engaged in the work of digging, each one taking his turn. A man remains below with a large rope fastened about him. A small rope attached to a basket is used to draw up the earth, which is saturated with oil, and is often quite wami to the touch. Sometimes the gas is so strong as to prevent a person from remaining below more than a couple of minutes, and occasionally a man is drawn up quite insensible The usual time of remaining down is about twenty minutes, when the man gives the signal that he wishes to be drawn up by jerking the rope. The yield is seldom very rapid, as I have never heard of any petrolenm rising to the surface. Still some of the wells yield a large amount and then dry up. A windlass is built upon a frame over the well at a height of about 5 feet from the mouth. Overthis windlass a rope is placed having a bucket at one end. The rope is not much longer than the depth of the well. The other end is fastened around the waist of a uian or a woman, who generally has two or more half-grown boys or girls to help pull. As soon as the bucket fills, these persons start on a run down a well-beaten path until the bucket has come up so that the person standing by the well can empty it. The work is done by a class of people whose families have been allotted this work from time immemorial by the royal law. They are not slaves, but do not have permission to remove, and are considered as bound to work for the production of the royal monopoly. In Galicia wells were dug as for water, and in some instances congeries of wells were united at the bottom by gidleries, into which the petroleum filtered from the rock. The digging of these wells and shafts was frequently attended with considerable danger of suffocation with gas. M. Coquand mentions that at Damanostotin, in Moldavia, the pits or wells were dug iO meters (131.2 feet) deep, and lined with sticks, woven in a manner resembling a military gabion. The petroleum is obtained in a bucket, to which a stone is attached for a sinker. This backet is drawn up by a rope, (a) Petroleum was also obtained for many years iu the valley ot the Po from wells that were dug. In the United States several diflerent methods for obtaining oil were employed before wells were drilled. It is reported that shafts were found in the Mecca (Ohio) oil district, of the sinking of which all record or tradition has been lost. Since the curbed pits on Oil creek, Pithole creek, and other tributaries of the Allegheny have been proved to be of French origin, it is not unlikely that the old shaft at Mecca was also made by the French. An unsuccessful attempt to obtain oil in this way was made at Mecca about 18G4, aud another attempt to sink a shaft to the Venango oil-sand was made iu 18IJ5 in the bend of the AUegheny river, on the east side, below Tidioute. It was about 16 feet square and a little over ](J0 feet in depth. It was a failure in respect to obtaining oil, for just before it was deep enough to reach the third sand, or oil-producing rock, an accident occurred which resulted in its abandonment. The foreman, who was au experienced miner, was seated over the month of the shaft, which was covered, in company with one or two of his laboring men, a B. S. G. F., xxiv, 518. 78 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. eatiug their tlinuer. As tliey lighted their pipes it was suggested that a lighted X)ai)er be dropped into tLe shaft to see if auy gas was there. It was doue, and an explosion followed which killed the foreman and some of his men. It [the well] was immediately closed, and work was never resumed, (a) OtLer shafts were snuk on Oil creek, but as none of them were successful in reaching the Venango third sand, they were abandoned. Professor Silliuian, sr., in 1833, thus described the method em^jloyed for obtaining Seneca oil at the famous spring at Cuba: A broad, flat board, made thin at one edge, like a knife ; it is moved flat upon and just under the surface of the water, and is soon covered by a coating of petroleum, which is so thick and adhesive that it does not fall oft', but is removed by scraping on the edge of a cup. (6) Near Burning Springs,, West Virginia, the oil was collected early in this century "by digging trenches along the margin of the creek down to a bed of gravel a few feet below the surface. By opening aud loosening with a spade or sharpened stick the gravel and saiid, which is only about a foot thick, the oil rises to the surface of the water, with which the trench is partially filled. It is then skimmed off with a tin cup and put up in barrels for sale. In this way from 50 to 100 barrels are collected in a season", (c) Professor J. P. Lesley thus describes the method employed for collecting oil on Paint creek, Johnson county, Kentucky : Here are to be seen (he old "stirring places", where, before the rebellion broke out and put an end to a'l manner of trade in Kentucky, Mr. George aud otliers collected oil from the sands by making shallow canals one or two hundred feet loug, with an upright board and a reservoir at the lower end, from wliicli they obtained as much as 200 barrels per year by stirring tlie sauds with a pole. ((/) J. D. Angier, of Titusville, worked the springs on Oil creek for some years prior to 1859. He found the springs logged up to 8 feet square and as many feet dee]i. He arranged a sort of sluice-bos, with bars, that held the oil while the water tlowed on beneatli. In this way he obtained from 8 to 1(» gallons a day of 36° s])ecific gravity, which he sold at Titusville for medicin • and for lighting saw-mills and the derricks of salt-wells. Seneca oil was obtaiited lor many years and in many localities by saturating blankets with oil and wringing it from them. Section 2.— AKTRSIAJST WELLS— THE DERRICK. AETESIAN "WELLS. The Jesuit- missionaries to China found there artesian i;\ells in full operation. These wells were drilled for brine and natural gas, the latter being frequently accompanied by petroleum. The following extract fi'om L'Abbe Hue's celebrated travels in China describes their method of drilling very deep wells: They [the wells] are usually from 1,500 to 1,SOO (French) feet deep, and only .'') or (^ inches in diameter. The mode of proceeding is this: If there be a depth of 3 or 4 feet of soil on the surface, they plant in this a tube of hollow wood,surnioun1ed by a stone, in which an orifice of the desired size of 4 or 5 inches lias been cuf. Upon this they bring to worlv in the tube a rammer of 300 or 400 pounds weight, which is notched aud made a little c(mcave above and convex below. A strong man, very lightly dressed, then mounts on a acaftblding, and dances all the morning on a kiud of lever that raises this rammer about 2 feet and then lets it fall by its own weight. From time to time a few pails of water are thrown into the hole to soften the mater al of the rock and reduce it to xiulp. The rammer is suspended to a rattan cord not thicker than yourfingei-, but as strong as our ropes of catgut. This cord is fixed to the lever, and a triangular piece of wood is attached to it, by which another man, sitting near, gives it a half-turn, so as to make the rammer fall in another direction. At noon this man mounts on the scaftbld and relieves his comrade till the evening, and at night these two are replaced by another pair of workmen. When they have bored 3 inches they draw up the tube, with all the matter it is loaded v,Uh, by means of a great cylinder, wliich serves to roll the cord on. In this manner these little wells or tubes are made quite perjiendiiMihir and as polished as glass. * » » When the rock is good the work advances at the rate of 2 feet in twenty-four hours, so tliat ;il out tlin e ,\e!irs are required to dig a well, (e) The first artesian well drilled in the United States, in 1809, has already been described, as also the gradual improvements in tubing wells and in stopjjing off the surface water with a seed-bag (i)age 0). Prior to 1858 a great majiy wells had been drilled for brine in the valley of the Ohio and its tributaries, with such additioiitil improvements as rendered them very effective for this purpose. Steam-, horse-, and hand-power had been employed in drilling with equal success, the tools tiiid general manipulation of the well being essentially the same. The drilling of wells with hand-power was accomplished by means of :i spring-i^ole. For this purpose a straight tree, forty or fifty feet in length, was selccti'd. After the branches were removed, the butt was secured in the ground in such a position that the pole extended at an angle of tibout 30° over the spot at wliich the well was to be bored. To the suiaber end the tools were iittached, iind by the elasticity of the pole, as it was alternately ]ndled down and tdlowed to spring back, they were lifted and made to strike at tlie bottom of the well. The drilling of wells for oil has long since outgrown the spring-jiole age, the figures on Plate VI showing the successive steps by which this has been accomi)lished. THE DERRICK. When the location of ti well lias been decided upon a derrick or "rig" is built. This consists of the demck itself and a small hou.se for an engine, with the necessary foundation for both. For this purjiose masonry is not used, but iiisteiul a very lieavy foundation of timber. The owner of the well owns the rig, boiler, and engine. The (iontracttn' who drills tlie well owns the ctible, bit, blacksmith's aud other tools, and supplies fuel for the engine and the blackMiiitli. lanks, placed perpendicularly upon a line drawn through the center of the well at right angles to Hie walking-beam, and 15 or 18 inches apart. They are securely stayed and strengthened by having narrower plank nailed on both sides of them, leaving their eroduction from Burning Springs down the Little Kanawha to Parkersburg. In 1871 the wooden-tank car gave place to the boiler-iron cylinder car of the present time. These are now used in transporting crude, illuminating, and lubricating oils and other petroleum products ; also residuum and spent acid. They are much safer and stronger than wooden tanks, and the railroad companies require shippers to use them. The tanks are of different sizes, holding 3,856, 3,873, 4,568, and 5,000 gallons each. The heads are made of ^^-inch flange iron, the bottom of |-inch, and the top of -j-„-inch tank iron, and they weigh about 4,500 pounds. They are about 24 feet 6 inches long and 66 inches in diameter. Those made at present hold from 4,500 to 5,000 gallons each. Light iron tanks on wheels are used for carting the petroleum from Boyd's creek to Glasgow, Kentucky, where it reaches a railroad. a The baiTels are first thoroughly washed, usually with a jet of steam, dried, and heated. Hot glue is then put in and distributed over the whole surface. Then by a tube a pressure of about 20 pounds per square inch is applied through the bung, and the glue is forced into the pores of the wood. — Chem. News, xvi, 221. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 93 Section 2.— PIPE-LINES. A wonderful revolution has taken place in the transportation of petroleum through the use of pipe-lines. The Bradford Era gives the following account by C. L. Wheeler : He said in substance that the first suggestion of a pipe-line for transporting oil, so far as he knew, was made to him by General .S. D. Karns at Parkersburg, West Virginia, in November, 1860. Mr. Karus said that as soon as he eould raise the money he would lay a six- inch gas-pipe from Burning Springs to Parkersburg and let the oil gravitate to the Ohio river, a distance of 36 miles. For some reason this line was never laid. Some years after, Mr. Wheeler was unable to recall the exact date, a Mr. Hutchinson, iuventorof the rotary pump which bears his name, conceived the idea of forcing oil through pipes, and explained his plan to John Dalzell and the narrator in the latter's office in Titusville. Subsequently Hutchinson's plans became a reality, the first pipe-line being laid from the Sherman -n-ell to the terminus of the railroad at Miller farm, a distance of about 3 miles. The inventor's idea of the hydraulic pressure of a column of that leiigth was certainly very exalted, and he took elaborate pains to prevent the breaking of pipes. At intervals of 50 or 100 feet were air chambers like those on pumps, 10 inches in diameter, for the purpose of equalizing the pressure. These queer protuberances gave the line the appearance of a fence with ornamental posts and excited great curiosity. The weak point, however, was the jointing, which, as the pipes were of cast-iron and imperfectly finished at their ends, was very defective, and the leakage from Ihis cause was so great that little, if any, oil ever reached the end of the line. It was a success theoretically, but a mechanical failure. Thus the expectations of easy and cheap transportation for crude oil raised by the building of the first pipe-line were ruthlessly dashed to the ground and the inventor discontinued his experiments in despair. The first successful pipe-line was put down by Samuel Viiu Syckle, of Titusville, in 1865, and extended from Pithole to Miller's farm, a distance of four miles. In the fall of 1865 Henry Harley began the construction of a pipe- line from Benuinghoff run to Shaffer farm, and finished it the following spring. Meantime the firm of Abbot & Harley had secured control of the Van Syckle line, and they afterward purchased enough of the Western Transportation Company's stock to control the charter and organized under it. The two lines thus consolidated were brought into successful oiieration under the name of the " Allegheny Transportation Company". After the doubters were silenced by the prospect of success, the enterprise met with the most determined opposition from the army of teamsters and roustabouts, who supposed their interests were invaded by the use of pipe-lines. Mr. Harley was threatened with personal violence, his oil-tanks were burned, attempts were made to destroy the pipe-line by breaking the joints, and personal violence was offered to the men employed \\\}0W it. ■ A few detectives, employed as teamsters, soon effected the arrest of the ringleaders, and the opposition ceased, {a) At the present time the pipe-lines not only form a complete network throughout the oil regions, but there are trunk lines which extend from the oil regions to Pittsburgh, Cleveland, Buffalo, New York, and Williamsport. These trunk lines transport the oil of large areas to those cities under a high pressure, delivering thousands of barrels daily. They are laid for miles through the forest-covered hills and valleys of northern Pennsylvania and southern New York, across hills and rivers, on the surface of the ground or only slightly covered. These main lines are 6-inch pipe tested to a i>ressure of 2,000 pounds to the square inch and joined with couplings, into which the lengths of pipe are screwed, as are ordinary gas or water pipes. Each well has a tank, usually of wood, holding an average of perhaps 250 barrels. With these well tanks are connected 2-inch pipes, converging toward a central point, to which there is fall enougli to cause the oil to descend. Occasionally wells are so situated that the oil has to be forced by a pump over a hill. The lines are provided with cocks and gates for opening and closing connections, and the large coriiorations constantly employ a corps of men in laying and taking up pipe as connections are made with new wells or broken with others. It is impossible to compute or estimate accurately the vast length of these 2-inch pipe connections. Wells are connected and left to flow for months or years, with only an occasional visit of the owner or agent. Only that proportion of the producing interest controlled by firms or corporations of strict business habits really know approximately how many miles of pipe they own, and therefore an accurate enumeration was found to be impossible ; but it is safe to say that there are thousands of miles of 2-inch pipe laid for transporting oil not owned by the pipe- line companies. These lines run everywhere through the streets of towns, across fields and door-yards, under and over and beside roads, and terminate at pumping stations, at racks, or in storage-tanks. There are also racks and storage-tanks on the main lines. The pumping stations are located at central points in the valleys. These stations consist of permanent buildings, a boiler-house and a j»ump-house, which contain the necessary steam-power and a steam- and oil-pump combined in one. Many of these pumps are of the Worthington pattern, and are very powerful machines, forcing the oil rapidly through great distances and in vast quantities, not only over the hills that are encountered in the course of the line, but against the friction of the pipe conveying the oil; an element in the problem of vast importance when it is remembered that the friction increases enormously as the flow of the oil is increased in rapidity. The friction on the 108 miles of 6-inch pipe between Eixford and Williamsport, Penn,s}dvania, is found to be equal to a column of oil 700 feet in height ; that is to saj', if the pipe were laid on a uniform descending grade of 700 feet between the two points and filled with oil, the friction or the adhesion between the oil and iron would prevent the oil from flowing For these reasons the pressure carried on these pumps is frequently from 1,200 to 1,500 pounds to the square inch. a Henry's Early and Later Siatory of Petroleum. 94 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. The racks are used for loading oil from pipe-liaes into tank-cars, and are so arranged that any number of cars from one to au entire train, can be loaded at the same time. They are constructed after the following general plan : The line is brought alongside the railroad track, and perpendicular branches are brought up just as far apart as the length of a tank-car. A platform is erected of a convenient height, and each perpendicular branch-jjipe is provided with a stop-cock and an elbow above it. To this elbow is attached an adjustable pipe, usually of tin, long enough to reach the man-hole of the tank-car as it stands upon the track. To load a train it is run upon the track in front of the rack, the man-hole plates are all removed, the adjustable pipes placed in position to discharge the oil into the tanks, and the oil turned on. In this way as many cars as the rack will hold, perhaps 20, holding 2,000 barrels of oil, can be loaded in an hour and a half. The storage-tanks are situated at convenient points for construction and use in filling and emptying. Standing on the hill south of Kendall, and looking north up the Tuna valley toward Limestone, I counted about 60 of these huge storage-tanks in sight. They are placed upon the ground without any foundation, the surface being carefully leveled to receive them. The following table shows the relative capacity, dimensions, and weight of the different sizes : Capacity. Diameter. Height. Weight and value. Sizes of iron. Barrels. Feet. Feet. 37, 065. 66 95.4 29 90 tons; value, $9,000; 5 cents per pound. 54 plates, No. 6, sketch. 34 plates, No. 00, rectangular. 68 plates. No. 0, rectangular. 34 plates, No. 3, rectangulax. 34 plates. No. 4, rectangular. 34 plates, No. 5, rectangular. 200 plates. No. 6, rectangular. 34 plates. No. 7, rectangular. 31,000.00 86.0 30 80 tons; value, $8,000; 5 cents per pound. 48 plates, No. 6, sketch. 32 plates, No. 0, rectangular. 32 plates, No. 1, rectangular. 32 plates. No. 2, rectangular. 32 plates. No. 3, rectangular. 32 plates. No. 4, rectangular. 32 plates, No. 5, rectangular. 165 plates, No. 6, rectangular. 28,000.00 87.0 24ft 66 tonaj value, $7,260; 6| centa per pound. 46 plates. No. 6, sketch. 31 plates, No. 1, rectangu;ar. 31 plates, No. 2, rectangular. 31 plates, No. 3, rectangular. 31 plates. No. 4, rectangular. 31 plates, No. 5, rectangular. 169 plates, No. 6, rectangular. 22,000.60 85.0 22 B3 tons; value, $5,830; 5i cents per pound. 54 plates. No. 7, sketch. 26 plates. No. 2, rectangular. 26 plates, No. 3, rectangular. 26 plates. No. 4, rectangular. 26 plates, No. 5, rectangular. 26 plates. No. 6, rectangular. 156 plates. No. 7, rectangular. 18,000.00 70.0 24 45 tons; value, $5,400; 6 cents per pound. 38 plates, No. 7, sketch. 50 plates. No. 3, rectangular. 25 plates. No. 4, rectangular. 25 plates, No. 5, rectangular. 25 plates, No. 6, rectangular. 82 plates, No. 7, rectangular. 25 plates. No. 8, rectangular. 10, 000. 00 60.0 20ft 38 tons; value, $5,320; 7 cents per pound. 38 plates, No. 6, sketch. 40 plates, No. 4, rectangular. 40 plates. No. 5, rectangular. 80 plates, No. 6, rectangular. 20 plates. No. 7, rectangular. 8,900.00 45.0 20 15 tons; value, $2,100; 7 cents per pound. 20 plates, No. 8, sketch. 15 plates. No. 5, rectangular. 30 plates. No. 6, rectangular. 15 plates. No. 7, rectangular. 44 plates. No. 8, rectangular. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 95 The following specifications, used by the United Lines in making contracts, will give a very good idea of their construction : UNITED PIPE-LINES.— SPECIFICATIOXS FOR :i5,000-BAKREL TANKS. Dimensions. — Tank to he 93 feet iu diameter aud 30 feet high, and be composed of 7 rings. Sheets. — The first ring to be of No. 00 (Birmingham gauge), weighing 13.64 pounds per square foot. The .second ring to be of No. (Birmingham gauge), weighing 1'2.04 pounds per square foot. The third ring to be of No. 1 (Birmingham gauge), weighing 11.40 pounds per square foot. The fourth ring to be of No. 2 (Birmingham gauge), weigliing 10.40 pounds per .square foot. The tifth ring to be of No. 3 (Birmingham gauge), weighing 9.55 pounds per square foot. The sixth ring to be of No. 4 (Birmingham gauge), weighing 8.83 pounds per square foot. The seventh ring to be of No. (3 (Birmingham gauge), -weighing 8.15 pounds per .square foot. The bottom to be of No. G (Birmingham gauge), with 5 sketch plates, weighing 8.15 pounds per square foot. Angle-iron. — The bottom angle-iron to be 4 by 4 by i. The top anglc-irou to be ii by 2 by f. RiVET-s. — The bottom angle-iron aud first ring to be riveted with J-inch rivets; the second and third rings with ^-iuch rivets driven hot, aud the remaining rings with |-inch rivets driven cold. The vertical seams of the first, second, third, and fourth rings to be double- riveted. Roof. — The roof to be conical, with a rise of at least 5 feet 6 inches to the center (1.2 inches to the foot), and to be covered with No. 20 iron, painted on both sides, and riveted to the top angle-iron. The ends of the rafters supporting the roof must not rest on the angle-iron, but upon posts placed next to the shell of the tank inside. Man-hole. — The man-hole to be of wrought-iron throughout, and 20 inches in diameter, and be placed 10 inches from the bottom of the first ring iu the sheet adjoining that in which the outlet-valve is placed. Hatches. — There shall be two hatches in the roof, each 2* by 3 feet, provided with suitable covers. One of the hatches shall be directly over the outlet-valve ; the position of the other to he det«rmined by the superintendent of the United Pipe-Lines. Swing-pipes. — There shall be two swing-pipes, one of 6i-iuch casing, for oil, and one of 1^-inch pipe, for water ; each pipe to bo 30 feet long, and to have 50 feet of chain fastened to it by clamps ; the chain for the (>^inch pipe to be -fVinch, and the chain for the l^-inch pipe to be J-inch. Flanges. — The flange for the pipes to be of wrought-iron, aud securely riveted to the tank; the flange for the 6J-inch pipe to be at least IJ inches thick where the thread is cut. Valves and connections. — The oil-valve to be a 6-inch iron body, braes-mounted, flanged gate-valve. The connections for the oil swing-pipe to consist of one 6-inch nipple (8 threads to inch), with 10 inches of thread on one end and ordinary thread on other end. One 6-inch elbow (8 threads to inch). One 6- inch elbow (8 threads to inch) on one eud, and 6^ casing-thread on other end. One 6-inch nipple 18 inches long, ordinary threads both ends (8 threads to inch). The water-valve to be a l^-inch iron body screwed gate-valve. The water connections to be one l^-inch nipple, with 6 inches of thread on one end and ordinary thread on the other. One IJ nipple 6 inches long, with ordinary thread, both ends. Two li-inch elbows. Windlass. — There shall be a windlass over one of the hatches to raise the swing-pipes. Stairs. — The stairs to be substantially constructed and furnished with a gate. The tank to be carefully painted with red paint, and to be completed in every part in a thorough and workmanlike manner. The Standard tiiuk adopted by the United Pipe-Lines is the .second on the list, practically holding 30,000 barrels of oil, and over 130,000,000 barrels of oil are stored in these tanks of various sizes, (a) The oil is subject to depreciation in value from evaporation and by leakage through the roof of the tank, by which it is converted into an emulsion locally known as " B. S. ", from which the water will not .separate until the emulsion is heated. These tanks are also constantly exposed to danger of fire from lightning aud other accidental causes. Section 3.— CONCERNING IKON-TANK FIRES. The following discussion of the subject of tank fires is maiuly abridged from an elaborate discussion of the subject by William T. Scheide, superintendent of the United Pipe-Lines: A few of the tanks have roofs of No. 12 iron riveted and calked, but the majority have a conical, wooden roof, covered with No. 20 iron. The plate-iron roofs are more expensive, and do not remain water-tight. Iron roofs, when sunken and covered with water, are especially bad, owing to changes in the form of the shell, due to changes in the temperature, and also to filling and emptying the tank. The roof adopted is wooden, with a pitch of 1.2 inches to the foot from the center, si^iported on posts set inside the tank and covered with No. 20 iron, nailed to the wood and securely riveted to the shell. Such a tank, containing 80 tons of iron, and resting upon 5,800 square feet of earth, upon which it is pressed by more than 4,000 tons of oil, would seem to be safe from lightning. The danger comes from the liability of the gas that is continually rising from the oil to be lighted from the bolt. Mr. Scheide thinks the roofs are tight enough to prevent the escape of gas, and that the firing takes place inside ; but this is scarcely possible from the manner of their construction, and it is probable that the tiring is due to the ignition, either within or without the tank, of an > explosive mixture of gas and air. Mr. Scheide considers that the introduction of the spark can take place by following the pipes and leaping across some air .space, as the tanks and pipes of the whole region are connected in a network. These pipes are connected with the tanks in either of two ways : 1. They run up the sides and over the top of the tank, bending into the hatchway, in which case they are held to the shell of the tank by an iron band, fastened to the roof (making a connection), and extending 12 or 15 inches through the hatch into the tank. If such a pipe were struck, and the entire bolt was not conducted to the earth through aud over which it passes, the residue would leap through the mixed air and gases over the oil and a April, 1882, 27,000,000 barrels. 96 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. fire them. To j)rovicle against this sucla pipes are now being bolted to a flange on the shell, and do not project through it. This arrangement is necessary for station tanks, ^yhere it is required to see the flow of oil in order to judge whether the pipe is intact. 2. As the majority of tanks are storage rather than station tanks, they are not so arranged. Oil is pumped into these through a pipe that enters through a flange at the bottom. To provide against the collection and freezing of water which settles from the oil about the outlet valve, the pipe is continued tlirough the shell by what is called a "swing-pipe", the end of which is intended to be constantly above the surface of tlie oil. In this case, as in the other, the residuum of a charge might leap from the pipe to the shell and fire the tank. This swing-pipe is raised and lowered by a chain, one end of which is fastened to the pipe, and the other to a windlass placed above one of the hatches, the chain i^assing through the roof. Mr. Soheide suggests that such tanks be disconnected from the pipes, but remarks that the ground becomes very dry beneath them, and hence they are not in as complete connection as might at first be supposed. At the same time no such isolated tank has ever been burned. Continuing, he says : The great majority of tanks lost by lightning have been station tanks with pipes running over the roof; but there have been tanks burned where the only x^ipe connection was through the shell near the bottom, the spark evidently going from the end of the swing-pipe. Well tanks of wood(usually 16 feet in diameter and S feet high) are quite fre 6 11 5 5 8i 6 9i 7 4 . 14 5 5 10 9i 10 11 6 8i 6 Hi 6 Oi 6 10 6 Hi 7 6i 7 6i 6 lOi 7 5i 6 4 6 4i 7 6 f The small increase and large decrease of < these tanks would seem to indicate a ( leak in tank. Water not drawn. Contained an. excessive amount of water.' Knapps Creek Comp'y. Eixford Dallas Coleville ....do "Water not drawn. Evans & Thompson do Bordell ....do ..do do do do . do do do .. do . do do ....do do ...do .. Tank probably leaked some. do do 1075 do do do do do ....do 0.00085 ITOTE.— The quality of tlie oil doea not appear to be aflfected by steaming. Except in two cases the gravity was not sensibly changed; in one case the gravity was increased from 43 to 40°, in the other decreased from 40 to 42.5° Banmfi. The variation between tho apparent increase and decrease is due to the fact that all oil at temperatures below 40° F. contains varying proportions of water when it comes from the weUs, and will not settle until the temperature is raised. There is also a portion of the oil destroyed by the action of steam, forming so-called B. S. The problems in hydraulics presented in the construction and management of pipe-lines, particularly those lines that may be denominated trunk lines out of the oil regions, are many and intricate, and required great courage on the part of those who projected the first line to meet and surmount them. These men had only the quite different problems and experience met in laying pipes for water to guide them. These problems dealt with a homogeneous THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 101 fluid, flowing through pipes, laid permanentlj' on curves of hirge diameter, flowing slowly under a low pressure and delivered slowly. This water pressure seldom exceeded from 40 to 50 pounds per square inch. The pipeline problems dealt with a fluid varying in density with the temperature, flowing easily in summer and with difficulty in winter through pipes of small diameter, laid hurriedly and frequently changed, often on sharp curves cj: at right angles, for rapid movement and delivery, and at high pressures to compensate in part for the friction due to long distances and rapid transmission and small diameter of pipe, as well as at much greater elevations than are found in water-mains. The pipes used in pipe-lines are all tested to 2,000 pounds per square inch. The small sizes, 2-iuch, 3-inch, and 4-inch, are worked under a pressure of 1,600 pounds, and the 5-inch and 6-inch at 1,000 pounds per square inch. Elaborate governmental and other experiments have been made in Europe with reference to the storage and transportation of petroleum and its products. These have been mainly directed toward storing the oil under water, either in barrels or submerged cisterns, or toward a method of solidifying the petroleum or its products. The most successful plan for storing oil in submerged cisterns appears to be that of Ckiandi, an engineer of Marseilles, and consists of a cistern of masonry, provided with an inverted bell resembling a gasometer, beneath which the oil is held over water, (a) At Saint Ouen, near Paris, floating reservoirs of iron of an approximate capacity of 100 barrels have been nsed for a long time. Fourteen of these reservoirs were constructed in 1877, with a total capacity of 900,000 gallons. They were made of ^- to ^inch iron, and weighed in the aggregate 151 tons, (b) The so-called process for solidifying petroleum has been very widely noticed. It consists in producing with the petroleum a little water and saponaria root, an emulsion which is considered harmless for transportation. To recover the oil a little pure carbolic acid or strong acetic acid is added, and the constituents again separate. As saponaria is a product of the Levant and a drug of considerable value, this and other similar methods are rendered too expensive if their inconvenience was not an insurmountable obstacle to their emjiloyment. Such experiments furnish curious but impracticable results. Concerning the proposed transportation of oil in bulk, the following from the Oil and Drug Netvs presents the latest aspect of the question : The report from Philadelphia that the steamer Vaderlaud, of the Red Star line, had heen purchased by a number of capitalists for the purpose of transporting petroleum in bulk has attracted considerable attention at the various commercial exchanges. The transportation of oil in bulk is not entirely an experiment. A number of sailing vessels have already been fitted up for this purpose, and have, to a certain extent, demonstrated the practicability of the idea. This is the first time, however, that a steamer has been constructed solely with the view of transporting safely large quantities of petroleum in bulk. The advantages of the system are, first, that it enables a steamer to carry a much greater amount of petroleum than it could if stored in barrels ; and, second, it saves the expense of the barrels, each one of which costs exactly as much as the refined oil it contains. Not only this, but it also saves the expense of returning the barrels from Europe for use again. Inquiry among petroleum men and shipping merchants in this city elicited the general opinion that the idea is not considered practicable. Said one well-known oil inspector : " It is my opinion that the system will not work. It has been tried three times on sailing vessels during the past eight years, and e.och time the vessel was lost. The captain of one of them, who was saved from the wreck of his vessel, said to me that the difficulty was that the oil seemed to move quicker than water, and in rough weather, when the vessel was pitched forward, the oil would rush down and force the vessel into the waves much the same as improperly stored bulk grain does sometimes in stormy weather. It may be that by slowing the oil in small compartments it could be transported with safety, but I doubt it. Besides, what is the advantage of the system any way ? The vessel must return in ballast, and it might as well bring back barrels, which under the present system are used over and over again, but under the proposed method would not be needed in the export trade." Messrs. Slocovich&, Co., the well-known shipping merchants, state that about eight years ago one of their vessels was fitted up with tanks for transporting oil in bulk. She proceeded on her journey and was never heard from. Her loss was undoubtedly due to her mode of carrying petroleum. Another shipping merchant stated that he believed the idea to be impracticable. It might be possible to make the tanks strong euongh to prevent the escape of the vapor of the oil, but all previous experiments had proven failures, and there was no reason to suppose that this would succeed. An experiment to transport molasses in bulk has been tried within two or three years, and two vessels were fitted up for the purpose to run between Cuba and Boston. The experiment, however, proved a failure, and the project had been abandoned. The Vaderland is an iron screw steamship, built at Yarrow-on-Tyne, in England, in 1872, and was extensively repaired last year. Her capacity for cargo is 2,001 tons. She is owned in Antwerp. The " oil in bulk" movement does not meet with favor among practical exporters. Theysaythat it cannot be carried out successfully. It would seem, liowever, that oil might be transported in vessels in that way as well as grain, and the day will no doubt come n-hen a means to that end will be devised. Section 5.— STATISTICS OF THE TRANSPORTATIOif OF OIL DURING THE CENSUS YEAR. Statistics have been received from the following-named pipe-lines that were engaged in business during the whole of the census year : United Pipe Lines. Tide- Water Pipe Company, limited. West Virginia Transportation Company. Franklin Pipe Line. Smith's Ferry Transportation Company. Octave Oil Company Pipe Line. a Engineering, xv, 279. i London Inst. Civ. Engineers, 1, 200. Nouv. Ann. de la Construction (3), ii, I 102 PEODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. Fox Farm Pipe Line. Shseft'er and Charley Euns Pipe Line. Tidioute and Titusville Pipe Line. ^ T. C. Joy. There were also four- other pipe-line companies doing business at the beginning of the census year that went out of business during that year, of which such statistics are incorporated with those of the other lines as can be obtained from their printed statements. These lines are : Pennsylvania Transportation Company. Church Euu Pipe Line. Cherry Tree Kun Pipe Line. Emlentou Pipe Line. Beside these lines, there were a number of small private lines, particularly in the lower country, of which no reports are published, and from which it was impossible to obtain statistics, except at an unwarranted expenditure of time and labor, if, indeed, they could be obtained at all. These statistics, if obtained, would not materially change the significance of the figures here presented. The total amount of capital invested in the ten pipe-lines above mentioned was $6,347,930, and the total amount paid in wages during the year was $769,641. The greatest number of hands employed by them during the census year was 1,381 ; the average number 1,107, of whom 1,098 were males above sixteen years, 6 were females above fifteen years, and 3 were children. The hours of labor constituting a day were in general ten, but some of the operations of pipe-lines require constant oversight, and therefore in some instances the labor is performed by men who work in "tours" of twelve hours each, extending from twelve o'clock at midday to twelve o'clock at night, and from twelve o'clock at night to twelve o'clock at midday. The ten lines in operation at the end of the year were in operation throughout the year. The average wages of skilled workmen varied from $1.75 to $3.33 per day and from $70 to $75 per month; that of ordinary laborers from $1.25 to $2.50 per day. A marked difference in the rate of wages is found to exist in different sections of the oil-producing country. This difference is no doubt determined to some extent by the magnitude of the operations of the lines and the responsibility attaching to the labor performed. The total amount expended for fuel by these ten lines (not including the value of a vast quantity of natural gas, of which no account was taken) was $127,058. The total amount received for transporting (piping) oil was $1 ,381,328. The total number of boilers used was 216, having an estimated horse-power of 4,301 ; of pumps on main lines, with a diameter of cylinder varying from 3 to 34 J inches, and a length of stroke varying from 4 to 36 inches, 383; of pumps used in collecting oil (for the most part small portable pumps), 511; of iron tanks, 646, with a total capacity of 12,958,385 barrels; and of wooden tanks, 383, with a total capacity of 239,587 barrels. The total miles of pipe controlled by pipe-lines was : Miles. 12-inch pipe, several hundred feet. 6-inch pipe , 121.66 5-inch pipe 7.75 4-inoh pipe 123.73 3-inch pipe 289.65 aj-inch pipe , 16.00 2-inch pipe 1,716.23 l^nchpipe 2.78 1-inch pipe ,. .. g.pS Total mUes of pipe 2,286.85 Barrels. The stock of oil on hand in tanks and pipes June 1, 1879, was 6,753,909.02 In the other four lines 28,795.33 Total 6,782,704.35 The amount run into these lines during the census year was 22,516,676.27 Into the other four lines 370,110.96 Total 2l>, 886, 787. 23 The stock on hand in tanks and pipes May 31, 1880, was 11,239,555.73 In the other four lines , 18,022. 31 11, 207, 578. 04 The amount transported through the pipes during the year was 18,411,913.54 There were 36 racks belonging to these lines, at which 561 tank-cars could be loaded at one time, and 287 tanks on cars, having an aggregate capacity of 30,230 barrels. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 103 Chapter IX.— PETROLEUM IN COMMERCE. Section 1.— COMMERCIAL VARIETIES. Few persons are aware that there is more than one variety of petroleum, and those who know that some petroleums are relativelj- heavy and are used for lubrication suppose the light oils to be of one definite quality. The petroleum of Oil creek in early days was known to be inferior for many purposes to the amber oil of the lower Allegheny. During the first ten years of its development the oil produced in Pennsylvania was practically one thing, and the light oils of West Virginia and southern Ohio were not particularly different. The wonderful expansion of the lower Allegheny field, which commenced in 1872, was accompanied by a corresponding decline in the Oil Creek district in such a manner that the bulk of the production was shifted from the green oil of Oil creek to the amber oil of Armstrong and Butler counties. It was soon discovered that this amber oil was of superior •quality for refining i)urposes, so superior, in fact, that refiners would secure it if possible. When, in 1876, the iproduction of the Bradford district assumed importance, it was discovered that it was the least valuable variety .of petroleum for refining yet discovered in large quantities. The price of oil from these different sections has, however, been uniformly the same, irrespective of quality, and has "been the ruling i)rice in commerce. At the same time the heavy oil of Mecca has been sold at from ten to twenty times the price obtained for the light oils of other districts. Those of Belden, Ohio, and West Virginia have been graded according to their density and the effects of cold upon them. The Smith's Ferry oils have been sold for about three times the value of the light oils, and the Franklin oil at five to six times the value of the same. The West Virginia Transportation Company divides the oil which it handles, which embraces the larger portion of the j)roduction of West Virginia and a part of that of Washington county, Ohio, into seven grades, as follows : A, 37.1° Baume and lighter. B, 33° to 37° Baume, inclusive. C, 31.6° to 32.9° Baum6, inclusive. D, 30.6° to 31.5° Baume, inclusive. E, 29.6° to 30.5° Baume, inclusive. F, 28.0° to 29.5° Baume, inclusive. G, 28.5° and heavier. Grades from C to G, inclusive, are also separated into "cold-test" and " weak" oils, zero being the standard. In order to establish these grades an inspector is appointed, who stands between the producers and the transportation company or the purchasers. These oils are for the most part quite dense, and their value varies greatly with the density ; the more dense they are the greater the amount of water which they will hold mechanically and the more difHcult it is to separate it. The inspector has an office near the central portion of Volcano, and has there instruments for accurately estimating the specific gravity, the water or other sediment, and the temperature at which it will thicken above zero, Fahrenheit, in accordance with the following directions : In receiving and making delivery of oils shipped l>y the company, the water and sediment contained therein shall be determined by mixing an average sample with an equal quantity of benzine, and subject the mixture to 120° F., in a graduated glass vessel, for not less than G hours ; after which the mixture cools and settl'^s, not less than two hours for light grade, three hours for A grade, fojir hours for B grade, six hours for C grade, eight hours for D grade, and eighteen hours for heavier grades. The inspector certifies to the amount of water in the oil upon the back of the receipt issued by the company. This company has also incurred the expense of a very elaborate research upon the coefficient of dilation of oils of difierent density for each degree of temperature from 0° to 130° F., with the unit at 60°. The compilation was made by Mr. Julius Schubert, of Parkersburg, West Virginia. The tables, through the kind permission of M. C. C. Church, esq., secretary of the company, are given on pages 111-115. In relation to them Mr. Schubert writes: In regard to the expansion table you mentioned in your letter, please let me state that the experiments were made according to a method given by Gay-Lussac, and the formula used for the calculations was also given by the same author. 1 + kt P— p 1 + at P Where — P = weight of the fluid before heating it. p = weight of the fluid after lieating and after the apparent expansion has been removed. t ^ change of temperature. k = coefficient of expansion of the glass=0. 000026. a ^ coefficient of expansion of the fluid. 104 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. The glass used was a liter-bottle with a narrow neck. Instead of finding p, the apparent espausion P — p was directly ascertained by weighing tlie amount of oil taken out of the bottle. A small pipette was used for removing the oil, and in order to avoid cleaning the pipette so often the following expansion was added to the first one : (P — p) -|- (P — pi) + (P — p^) -|- (P — ps), etc. For every 10" of temperature the expansion of the oil was weighed. The heating was done in a large water-bath very slowly, and the temperature of the water held for some time at the point of the test, so as to be sure that the fluid inside the bottle had reached the Bame temperature as the water surroiinding it. In the calculation of the table, as sufficient for all practical purposes, I took the coefiScient of expansion to be equal or the same dn3±ag 10° of temperature. As, for instance, in 30° Baum6 oil the table shows : 0° temperature, 0. 980330 volume, when it should be 0. 980330 volume. 293 287 1° temperature, 0. 980623 volume, when it should be 0. 980617 volume. 293 289 2° temperature, 0. 980916 volume, when it should be 0. 980906 volume. 293 290 3° temperature, 0. 981209 volume, when it should be 0. 981196 volume. 293 291 4° temperature, 0. 981502 volume, when it should be 0. 981487 volume. 293 292 5° temperature, 0. 961795 volume, when it should be 0. 981779 volume. 293 294 6° temperature, 0. 982088 volume, when it should be 0. 982073 volume. 293 295 7° temperature, 0. 982381 volume, when it should be 0. 982368 volume. 293 296 8° temperature, 0. 982674 volume, when it should be 0. 982664 volume. 293 297 9° temperature, 0. 982967 volume, when it should be 0. 982961 volume. 293 299 10° temperature, 0. 983260 volume, when it should be 0. 983260 volume. 306 300 11° temperature, 0. 983566 volume, when it should be 0. 983560 volume. 306 301 12° temperature, 0. 983872 volume, when it should be 0. 983861 volume. I deemed it necessary to call your attention to this fact. From these experiments it appears that the expansions of the oils increase very perceptibly with the rise of the temperature anA also with the decrease of specific gravity ; that is, lighter oils expand more readily than heavier oils. The cold-test oils do not seem tc differ in this respect from oils which do not stand the cold. These tables have been found sufficiently accurate for all practical purposes, and are very valuable in handling, the great variety of oils produced in that region. On pages 116 to 133, inclusive, will be found another set of tables, compiled by Dr. S. A. Lattimore, of the University of Eochester, IsTew York, for the use of the Vacuum Oil Company of Rochester, and kindly furnished by those gentlemen for publication. These tables show first the quantity of oil in gallons corresponding to a given weight of oil of different degrees of Baume's hydrometer, all computed for €0° of temperature. By the use of the^ first set of tables the volume of a gallon of oil at any temperature between zero and 130° F. can be ascertained if the specific gravity is known at 60° F., while by the use of the second set the number of gallons in a barrel or car of petroleum can be ascertained by weighing if the specific gravity is known at 60° F. The temperature at which natural petroleums will congeal or become partially solid is an important item in their value for purposes of lubrication, the oils of the Mecca and Franklin districts being particularly valuable in this respect. Great diversity of quality in this particular is observed in the oils of West Virginia, wells in immediate proximity furnishing oils as unlike as possible. The cause of this difference has never been jyroperly investigated, and is only a matter of conjecture ; at the same time it is one of the most important questions connected Avith the heavy-oil trade. Many of the wells of eastern Kentucky yield heavy oils of remarkable and uniformly excellent quality in this respect. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 105 Section 2.— THE MANAGEMENT OF PIPE-LINES. The bulk of the ijetroleum trade at the present time is conducted through the pipe-lines and their certificates. The entire product of the Belden and the Mecca districts is handled in barrels in small lots. A considerable portion of the Franklin heavy oil and a small part of that of West Virginia is also handled in the same manner. A smaller proportion of the medium apd light oils of West Virginia and southern Ohio, as also of the Smith's Ferry district, is sold by the producers direct to the refiners in barrels, and an insignificant proportion of the product of the Oil creek and upper and lower Allegheny districts finds a market in the same way. Such oil is usually rolled upon a frame over a tank, and is emptied from the barrels into the tank. Hence it is called dump oil. Many thousands of barrels of this oil are gathered in the older and nearly exhausted portions of the oilfields by middlemen, who divide with the producers the cost of piping, paying them about 10 cents per barrel more than the market price. These middlemen dispose of the oil in car-load lots, and usually have a rack for loading one or more cars. A still larger though insignificant portion of the light-oil product is brought out to the railroad by private pipe-lines and is loaded into cars at private racks in small lots of a few car-loads each. This line of business is usually carried on along Oil creek and the AUeghenj' river between Titusville, Tidioute, and Brady's beiKl. The method of handling petroleum by the pipe-lines is substantially the same for all located within the region producing. light oils, with perhaps this exception : that while the smaller companies are incorporated and are legally " common carriers", their business is conducted more like that of private individuals, while that of the United Pipe Lines and the Tide- Water Pipe Company is of a more general public nature and interest. The following description of the method of business adopted by the United Pipe Lines will therefore apply to all of the incorporated pipe-line companies : When oil is received from a well into the lines of the company, the amount is ascertained by a joint measurement made by the representative of the owner of the well and the pipe-line, and is passed to the credit of the former on the books of the company, less 3 per cent., to cover losses to points of delivery. Such oil is held in the custody of the line, subject to the order of the owner, precisely like a deposit in bank, and is transferable on a written order. Upon the signature by the owner of a proper order for the whole or any part of his credit balance, whether such balance is obtained by transfer or production, such order will be marked " accepted " by an authorized agent of the company, and thereafter is known in the trade as an " acceptance" or " certificate", and, like a certified check, is negotiable. As the oil exchanges only deal in certificates of the value of 1,000 barrels, they are, so far as is possible, made of that amount; but those for less amounts are sold to the refiners for immediate use, and do not pass into the speculative trade. All persons holding credit balances are entitled, upon payment of proper charges, to have their oil loaded into cars or barges or delivered into tanks, to bo disconnected from the lines. All oil, when received from the wells, at once loses its identity and becomes part of the common stock of the line; no holder of a credit balance can .therefore claim the identical oil that entered the line from his tank or well. Producers' credit balances are held free of storage for thirty days, after which time, unless the owner have tankage upon the line, they are chargeable at the rate of IJ cents per barrel per month, equal to $12 50 per 1,000 barrels, until removed or transferred. All credit balances obtained by transfer, unless protected by tankage, arc subject to the same storage charge until removed. As all the tankage is now practically owned by the lines, this charge is now substantially uniform on all certificates, equal to $150 on 1,000 barrels for one year. Parties owning iron tanks can have them connected with the line by signing contracts which entitle them to carry oil either in credit balances or certificates, free of-storage, to the capacity of their tank, subject to a shrinkage charge of one-fourth per cent, per month, payable in oil. The capacity of such tank is subject to the owner, and can only be temporarily used by the company. Upon demand by the owner of a credit balance for the delivery of his oil, a pipeage charge of 20 cents per barrel must be paid. The term "shipper" is applied in the trade to parties removing oil from the custody of the line. The Tide- Water Pipe Company insures the oil of its patrons; but the United lines mutually insure, as has been before mentioned, and assess the loss upon the holders of certificates. Since the Tide- Water Pipe Company successfully laid their line ti-om Eixford to Williamsport (now being carried through to Chester, Pennsylvania) another trunk line has been laid to Jersey City. These lines have not made public their charges for conveying oil out of the oil region. The united lines gather oil into tanks and at convenient points of shipment, but do not convey it out of the oil region. The income of these corporations is made up of pipeage fees and storage fees, tbe former being paid when the oil is removed from the line, and the latter at least once in six months. The term "old oil", used in the exchanges, refers to certificates of pipe-lines on which storage charges have not been paid up to date. Thus, if A holds a certificate of the United Pipe Lines on which storage charges had been paid np to any given previous date, and B bought from him on exchange 1,000 barrels of United oil, storage paid, and A should offer him said certificate, B would say, "That is 'old oil', A; you will have to freshen it." So A would go to the pipeline ofiice and pay the storage on the certificate up to the date of the transaction, and it would be termed " fresh oil". The line attaches a slip to the certificate showing the date to which storage has been paid. 106 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. Section 3.— BEOKEEAGE. The issuing of certificates by the pipe companies has made speculation in oil, brokerage, and oil exchanges possible to an extent vastly beyond an actual trade in the oil itself. The broker buys or sells for others and charges about $2 50 per thousand barrels for his services. On a market without much fluctuation he also agrees to deliver to customers at a stipulated price a certain amount of oil either on demand or at a fixed time, and receives therefor an amount somewhat less than the storage fees ; but he does not purchase until the demand for it is made. If oil falls mean time, he profits; if it rises, he loses; and if the price remains unchanged, he profits to the extent of the money paid him in lieu of storage money that would be paid the pipe company if he purchased the oil. The speculator in oil, therefore, who buys "futures" signs a contract with his broker and pays him his brokerage fees as a buyer and some sum less than $150 per year per thousand barrels of oil. The speculator, who buys certificates if he does not own tankage, pays his broker's fees as a buyer, and also $150 per year per thousand barrels, together with whatever sum may be required to purchase oil to pay the assessments for losses bj' fire or other accident, and interest on the amount invested. If he owns tankage, in lieu of the $150 per thousand barrels for storage he pays $30 for evaporation and the interest on $260 (the cost of a thousand barrels of tankage), which should be estimated at not less than 20 per cent., together with the other expenses above mentioned. The fluctuations in the price of petroleum during the census year rendered a speculative investment in the article an object of exciting interest. June 1, 1879, was Sunday, The market opened on the 2d at 74| cents per barrel. It continued to fall, with little disposition to rally, until on the 17th it closed at 64| ; and after fluctuating between 65 and 68 for four days, it reached 75, and dropped to 69f on the 25th. It hovered about 70 until the 9th of August, when it began to fall, reaching 64| on the 27th. A slight rally held it at about 66 until the 7th of September, when an ui^ward movement began, reaching 96| on October 9. It remained near 91 until the 10th of ISTovember, when it again moved upward, reaching $1 27J on the 21st, closing that day at $1 22|^. On the following- day it ranged between $1 22 J and $1 lOf , closing at $1 18 J, from which it rallied, reaching on the 2d of December •$1 28J-. Between the 10th and 18th it ranged between $1 27^ and $1 10, and fluctuated greatly between $1 18 and $1 09 from this time to January 15, 1880, when it went down in three days to $1 05, and steadily declined, with scarce a rally, till, on March 9, it touched 85f . It hovered between 85 and 90 till April 6, when it again commenced to decline, reaching 71^ on the 21st. On the 5th of May it closed at 72J, and by the 26th had again reached the latitude of 933, closing on the 31st at 98|. It will thus be seen that the certificates of oil in tank were worth that year from 641 cents to $1 28J^ per barrel, and this variation of almost 100 per cent, occurred between August 27 and December 2, an interval of only sixty-eight days. If a man wants a quantity of oil for refining the transaction becomes one of the simjilest possible. He buys certificates to the amount required, and calls upon the pipe company to deliver the oil whenever he chooses to provide tanks, cars, or barges to receive it, and after the pipeage of 20 cents per barrel is paid the company delivers the oil. The price of Franklin first-sand oil averaged during the census year $3 82 per barj-el of 42 gallons ; that of second-sand crude for the same time varied very slightly from that of third-sand oil. The price of Mecca oil ranged from $7 to $9 per barrel; Smith's Ferry amber oil averaged $1 50 per barrel. The price of West Virginia oils varied from $1 per barrel for light to $9 per barrel for the heaviest oils produced. The business of the West Virginia Transportation Company, though far smaller in bulk, is much more intricate in detail than that of the large companies controlling th§ vast interests of the Pennsylvania oil regions. As already mentioned, their oil is so variable in character that its quality has to be determined by an inspector. The following is a copy of the certificate used by this company, and the rules of the company printed upon the back of it: Dept. C, No. 2694. The West Virginia Transportation Company, Parkerslurg, W. Va., Augusts, 1881. Eeceived from Excelaior well, West Va. O. & O. L. Co., tract for account of royalty, under and subject to the charges, terms, and conditions on the back of this receipt, as a part thereof. No. barrels (of 40 gallons each) of '32-^g° crude oil, for transportation through pipe-line in bulk with C grade (Sl^ to 32-1% gravity) to our tanks at Volcano, West Virginia, and for delivery by oil of like grade, or gravity, in lots of 500 barrels or over at Parkersburg, West Virginia, (unavoidable delays excepted), to the order of Geo. Washington, at the rate of 35 cents per barrel, including therein all charges for inspecting, grading, and measuring said oil, and certifying in the receipt therefor the amount, grade, and gravity, and liability under and by reason of said certificate. The West Virginia Transportation Co., By M. C. C. CHURCH, Secretari/. Attest: CHAS. A. BUKEY. (Stamped across the face :) Canceled August 1, 1881. (On the margin :) Not negotiable unless signed by the secretary of the company. Form No. 5. The terms and conditions upon which the within mentioned oil is_ held by the West Virginia Transportation Company are as follows : In receiving the within oil, the water and sediment contained therein, as per the following inspector's eertiiicate, have been fii-st deducted, and the following jjercentages of oil have been reserved to cover losses for evaporation and waste in receiving, transporting, THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 107 and delivering the same ; the -within receipt, therefore, covers the net amount only. On light and A grades two and one-half per cent. ; on B and C grades two per cent. ; and on heavier oils one and one-half per cent. (See below for variation in case of local and special shipments. ) I certify that I have inspected the within oil, and that it contained i per cent, of water and sediment at the time of shipment. Henry Caskix, Inspector. The company shall not be responsible or liable for loss by fire or unavoidable accidents ; but any such loss shall be assessed, pro rata, upon the total amount of outstanding certificates of oil, of like grade of the within, held by the company at the time such loss may occur. The company shall have a lien upon all the wi thin mentioned oil for all charges mentioned in this receipt. These charges shall be made upon the net quantity of oil received by the West Virginia Transportation Company (said quantity being mentioned in the face of this receipt), and the computation thereof to be made from the date of this receipt. The following percentages of the net amount of oil received shall be deducted to cover losses by evaporation when held in tankage, to wit : On light and A grades, one per cent, per month or part of a month ; on B and C grades, three-fourths of one per cent, per month or part of a month ; on heavier oils, one-half of one per cent, per month or part of a month. Monthly statements of the company's oil account will be made ; and any gains arising from the above reservations, on account of waste and evaporation, will be returned, p)-o rata, in certificate oil, to shippers, to July 1 of each and every year during the continuance of this arrangement. Freight and other charges are due and payable on receipt of the oil in the company's tankage at Volcano and Cochran's, West A'irginia, and at Petrolia, Ohio. If said charges are not settled within fifteen days from the date of this receipt, storage will be charged at the rate of 2 cents per barrel per month or part of a month from said date. If the oil is not removed within three months from the date aforesaid, the company shall have right to remove and store the same at the expense of the consignee, and the right to sell said oil, or such part thereof as may be necessary, at public auction to the highest bidder, to pay the advances made and charges due to it, together with the costs of sale. Such sale to be made upon the premises of the company upon at least ten days' notice by advertising in newspapers published at Parkersburg, West Virginia, and Marietta, Ohio. In receiving and making delivery of oils shipped by the company, the water and sediment contained therein shall be determined by mixing an average sample with an equal quantity of benzine, and subject the mixture to 120^ F., in a graduated glass vessel, for not less than 6 hours, after which the mixture cools and settles not less than two hours for light grade, 3 hours for A grade, 4 hours for B grade, 6 hours for C grade, 8 hours for D grade, and 18 hours for heavier grades. No allowance made on account of condition in making delivery of the within oil. Xote. — The foregoing applies to regular shipments, to wit : Shipments net by pipe-line to Parkersburg, West Virginia, or to Petroleum, West Virginia, or to Petrolia, Ohio, or to Cochran's, West Virginia. Special shipmexts. — The company will take special shipments of oil, in lots of 500 barrels or over, under the conditions expressed herein, except as modified as follows: First. Tankage shall be furnished at the point of destination and possession retained by the company until the final delivery of the shipment. Second. The company dehvers all the oil, water, and sediment received by it and guarantees that the loss of actual oil shall not exceed the above reservations. Third. Special shipment certificates will be issued and charges will be made upon the gross amount of oil, water, and sediment received for transportation. Note. — Special shipments are shipments by pipe-line, in gross, to Parkersburg, West Virginia, or to Petroleum, West Virginia. Local shipments. — The company will take local, shipments of oil, in lots of not less that 50 barrels, charging therefor at the rate of 10 cents per barrel. Local shipments to be under the same conditions in other respects as expressed above for special shipments. Note. — Local shipments are shipments made in gross, and are confined to points im the Volcano oil district. When regular shipments are stopped in transitu they become local shipments, and charges will be made on the gross amount received at the well, and not on the net amount, as per face of regular shipment certificates. In all such cases said certificates must be surrendered and canceled and local 'shipment certificates issued for the gross amount at the well, as aforesaid; the delivery as to amount to be made, however, according to the terms of the regular shipment certificates surrendered. The acceptance and retention of this receipt shall be regarded as an agreement on the part of the owner of said oil to all its terms and conditions, which shall be equally binding on all subsequent holders hereof. Deliver to the order of . The charges for pipeage from the wells iu Volcano district to Parkersburg, West Virginia, are 35 cents per barrel of 40 gallons each; to the Baltimore and Ohio railroad, 30 cents; to Cochran's Landing, Ohio river, 30 cents; and local shipments to points within the oil districts, 10 cents. From Cow run, Ohio, to Petrolia, on the Ohio river, the rate is 30 cents. If oil remains in their tankage over 1.5 days, tlie charge for storage is ti cents per barrel per mouth or part of a month from date, unless the freight charges are paid when storage is remitted. So far as the principal and general use of the certificates of this company is concerned, they become what they indicate — mere mediums between the consignor and consumer or refiner. Sometimes, however, they are used by the producers as collateral security for their notes in the local banks. In some instances also they have been purchased by investors as a speculation and held for a rising market, but such cases are exceptional. Section 4.— PETROLEUM AS AN ARTICLE OF FOREIGN COMMERCE. The foreign trade in petroleum centers in New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore, with a very large proportion of the whole iu New York. The exports consist of crude petroleum, the different varieties of illuminating oil, naphtha, and residuum. This trade is largely controlled by the New York produce exchange. The foUowiiig rules, which indicate the general methods upon which the business is conducted, are taken from their report for 1879 : CRUDE PETROLEUM. Rule 4. Crude petroleum shaU be understood to be pure, natural oil, neither steamed nor treated, free from water, sediment, or any adulterition, of the gravity of 43° to 48° Banm^. ByLE 5. When crude petroleum is sold in bulk, the quantity shall be ascertained by tank measurement at the time of delivery. 108 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. EuLB 6. Crude petroleum in barrels shall be sold by weiglit at tlie rate of 6| pounds net to the gallon. Rule 7. In the absence of any stipulation, crude petroleum, when sold in barrels, shall be understood to mean, so far as regards packages, such packages as were originally refined petroleum barrels, whose last contents was crude petroleum, refined petroleum, or naphtha. Rule 8. When contracts for crude petroleum call for second-hand refined petroleum barrels (i. e., barrels whose last contents have been refined petroleum or naphtha) the sellers shall have the privilege of substituting new barrels, but they shall be glued. Rule 9. The weighing and verification of crude petroleum shall be governed by the rules applicable thereto under the head of refined petroleum. REFINED PETROLEUM. Rule 10. Refined petroleum shall be standard white, or better, with a burning test of 110° F. or upward, and of a specific gravity not below 45° Baum6. Rule 11. The burning test of refined petroleum shall be determined by the use of the Saybolt electric instrument, and shall be operated in arriving at a result as follows : lu 110° and upward the flashing points, after the first flash (which will generally occur between 90° and 95""), shall be taken at 95°, 100°, 104°, 108°, 110°, 112°, and 115° ; in 120° and upward, after first flash, at 100°, 105°, 110°, 115°, 118°, 120°, 122°, and 125°; in 130° and upward, every 5° until burning point is reached. Rule 12. When refined petroleum is sold in bulk, the quantity shall be ascertained by measurement on the decks of the tankrboate. Rule 13. Refined petroleum shall be delivered in blue, well-painted barrels, with white heads. Barrels shall be well glued and filled within 1 or 2 inches of the bung. Rule 14. Refined petroleum in barrels shall be sold by weight at the rate of 6J pounds net to the gallon. Rule 15. The tares of refined petroleum in barrels shall be weighed by half pounds and gross weight by pounds. Rule 16. The gross weight of packages for refined petroleum shall be not less than 360 pounds nor more than 415 pounds, and the actual gross weight shall be plainly marked thereon. Rule 17. Barrels shall be made of well-seasoned white-oak timber, and shall be hooped not lighter than as follows: Either with six iron hoops, the head hoop IJ inches wide, No. 16 gauge, English standard, the quarter hoop IJ inches wide. No. 17 gauge, and the bilge-hoop If inches wide, No. 16 gauge ; or with eight iron hoops, the head-hoop If inches wide. No. 17 gauge, the collar-hoop 1^ inches wide. No. 17 gauge, the quarter-hoop 1^ inches wide. No. 18 gauge, and the bilge-hoop IJ inches wide, No. 18 gauge. But all old barrels of which the gross weight is less than 395 pounds may be hooped with six iron hoops 1^ inches wide, excepting the chine hoop, which shall be If inches wide. , Rule 18. Buyers may test, at their own expense, the correctness of the gross weight or gauge of the whole or part of any lot delivered, and the average shortage found on a portion of not less than 10 per cent, shall be taken as the average amount to be deducted from the lot. Rule 19. The tare shall be plainly marked upon each barrel before it is filled. Buyers may test the accuracy of the tare so marked to the extent of 5 per cent, of the lot, and the average difference between the tare thus ascertained and the marked tare on the barrels tested shall be accepted as the average difference on the entire lot. Any excess of tare so discovered shall be allowed buyer. NAPHTHA. Rule 20. Naphtha shall be water-white and sweet, and of gravity of from 68° to 73° Baum6. Rule 21. When naphtha is sold in bulk, the quantity shall be ascertained by measurement on the decks of the tank-bo»ts. Rule 22. Naphtha in barrels shall be sold by weight at the rate of 5f pounds net to the gallon. Rule 23. Barrels containing naphtha shall be painted blue, with white heads, and be well glued. RlTLB 24. Naphtha shall be weighed, and may be tested by the buyer, as provided in the foregoing rules relating to refined petroleum. RESIDUUM. Rule 25. Residuum shall be understood to be the refuse from the distillation of crude petroleum, j&ee from cske and water and from any foreign impurities, and of gravity from 16° to 21'^ Baum6. Rule 26. Residuum, when sold in barrels, shall be sold by weight, at the rate of 7i pounds net per gallon. Rule 27. Residuum shall be weighed, and may be tested by the buyer, as provided in the foregoing rules relating to refined petroleum. EMPTY BARRELS. Rule 28. Unless otherwise stipulated, empty barrels shall be understood to have last contained either refined petroleum or naphtha. Rule 29. Barrels shall be classified according to the use for which they are fitted, as follows : First class shall include all barrels which, if properly coopered, would be fit to carry refined petroleum or naphtha. Second class shall include barrels which are unfit for refined petroleum or naphtha, but which would, if properly coopered, be tit for crude petroleum. Thii-d class shall include such barrels as are unfit for either crude, refined petroleum, or naphtha, but which can be used for residuum, if j)roperly coopered. Rule 30. When barrels 'Khich would otherwise be first class have been injured by sand, mold, or water, they shall he placed in the second class. Rule 32. When barrels have been filled with crude petroleum, and steamed out after shipment to Europe and used for refined oil, such packages shall be placed in the second class. Rule 33. All empty barrels must have six hoops, and be delivered in form, shooks or staves not being a good delivery. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 109 CONTRACTS AND DELIVERIES. ECLE 35. All deliveries and contracts for delivery of petroleum and its products under these rules shall be of the production of the United States, unless otherwise specified. , Rule 36. All settlements of contracts for refined petroleum and naphtha shall be on the following basis : lu barrels, on 50 gallons ; in bulk, on 45 gallons. All settlements of contracts for crude petroleum shall be on the following basis : In barrels, on 48 gallons ; iu bulk, ou 42 gallons. Rule 37. All cooperage shall be in prime shipping order. Tar and pitch barrels shall be excluded, except for residuum. Rule Sti. When the capacity of the vessel exceeds or falls short of the amount specified in the contract, including the maigiu, then the specified amount uhall be delivered. In determining the capacity of the vessel, barrels of 50 net gallons capacity in case of refined petroleum and naphtha, barrels of 48 net gallons capacity iu case of crude petroleum, and barrels of 45 net gallons capacity iu case of residuum shall be the basis for settlement. The inspection of petroleum and its products for export is an important business in New York city, Philadelphia, and Baltimore. Mr. A. Bourgougnon has read before the American Chemical Society several papers relating to this iusi>ection. He refers to the fact that the petroleum of the New York market is a mixture of oils from a great many wells, and remarks that the specific gravity of the New York crude oil ranges from 0.790 to 0.800 = 48° to 46° B. at 15° C. The coefiQcienl of expansion of the crude oil varies from 0.00082 to 0.00086, according to the gravity of the oil. For the products of distillation the following can be generally adopted : Under 0.700 gravity at 15° C 0.00090 0.700 to 0.750 gravity at 15° C 0.00085 0.750 to 0.800 gravity at 15° C 0.00080 0.800 gravity at 15° C 0.00070 The knowledge of these coefficients is important, as it aids in calculating the empty space which must be allowed in the vessels containing the oil. This space will be — V. K. 50, V representing the volume of the oil, K the coefficient of expansion, and 50 the number of degrees of temperature through which the oil may change. Generally the inspectors examine the density, the odor, and how the oil feels with the fingers, and make a fractional distillation in tenth parts, giving a report stating that the oil does not contain more than 17 per cent, of naphtha. He states further that the separation of the distillate into hundredths instead of tenths is much to be preferred, as the proportion of naphtha can then be determined with exactness; "and this determination is very imxiortant to the buyer, since the crude oil is taxed in foreign countries according to the quantity of naphtha contained in it." The crude oil of the New Y'ork market will generally furnish from 12 to 15 per cent, of naphtha at 0.700 specific gravity, 9 to 12 per cent, of benzine at 0.730 specific gravity, and about CO per cent, of burning oil at 0.795 specific gravity. The residuum contains 2i per cent, of drj' parafifine, calculated for the quantity of oil submitted to distillation, [a) In another communication he thus describes an ingeniously contrived instrument for determining the amount of naphtha of 0.700 gravity in crude petroleum : I employ an instrument made on the same principle and of the same shape as an hydrometer, which I call a napMliometer. To make the graduation of this instrumeut I proceed as follows : The specific gravity of commercial naphtha being 0.700 at 15° C, it is first necessary to have such naphtha. This naphtha being at a temperature of 15° C, the naphthometer is immersed in it, and on the stem at the point of intersection of the liquid the number 15 is written. The same naphtha is brought to a temperature of 20° C, and on the stem, as above, the number 20 is written ; the temperature of the naphtha is again increased to 25° C, and the number 25 is written on the stem at the point of intersection, and so on, iu order that the temperature indicated by the thermometer (when immersed iu naphtha of 0.700 at 15° C.) will be always in accordance with the figures marked on the stem. For example, if I have a sample of naphtha of which the density is 0.700 at 15° C, but supposing that the actual temperature be 20° C, the naphthometer will indicate 20 both by the thermometer and on the stem at the point of intersection with the liquid. Now, to determine the percentage of naphtha iu crude petroleum, I distill, say 300 c. c, .and collect the distillate in a glass cylinder divided into c. c, iu which glass the naphthometer has been previously placed. The temperature of the distillate, and if, e. g., the temperature be 25^ C., the distillation is continued until the point marked 25 on the stem intersects with the liquid. At this moment the u.aphtha has a specific gravity of 0.700 at 15° C, as I have verified by several experiments. Removing the naphthometer from the jar, cooling to 15° C, and reading the number of c. c. obtained, and dividing by 3, I obtain fiually the percentage of naphtha at 0.700 density and at the temperature of 15° C. contained in the crude oil. (ft) The increase in the bulk of petroleum and of all its products, due to an increase of temperature, occasions a great deal of trouble in measuring these articles in bulk. In barrels and small packages the difficulty is obviated by weighing. Preisser, of Eouen, in 1840, investigated a case in which a certain amount of oil (seed and fish) was stored in winter and measured in summer, when an excess was discovered, and the parties storing were charged with fraud. He found that the oil increased in volume at a certain ratio for each degree of temperature, (c) M. Henri St. Claire Deville first stated that American petroleum increases in bulk 0.01 for every 10° C. Later it has been discovered that the ratio of expansion varies with the specific gravity of the oil and also with the temperature. The table on pages 111 to 115, inclusive, has been computed for the specific gravity of crude oil up to 45° Bi a 7. Am. Chem., vii, 81. 6 lUd., p. 123. c Jour. F. Imt., xxix, 130. 110 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. This does not embrace illuminating oils or naphthas, but is approximately correct for the dense oils below 45°. Mr. GustaTus Pile offers the following suggestion of a method of universal application to crude petroleum and all petroleum products : (a) I was asked a short time ago liy a gentleman in the coal-oil trade to furnish him with some sort of aiiparatus with which he could readily estimate the number of gallons of oil there would he in a tank gauged at any temperature if the temperature were reduced to 60° F. The rate of expansion of most of the petroleum products heing considerable, the diiference in measurement at various temperatures often becomes too great to be unnoticed. In the case of benzine of 68° B., the expansion from 30° to 90° F. amounted to 50 parts in a 1,000. The solution of this problem appears to be best made by observing the specific gravity as it would stand at different temperatures , and calculating from the variation in the gravity the amount of expansion in bulk. If we have gauged a tank holding oil and find it to hold, at 90° temperature, 12,000 gallons, and desire to know how much that would measure if reduced to 60° temperature, we must first note the gravity at the two temperatures, G0° and 90°, and the calculation will then tie as follows: Say the gravity at 90° = 0.7900 and at 60° = 0.8025. The gravity at 90° is to be divided by the gravity at 60°, thus J-J? J, which wiHgive the measure at 60° of one gallon, and by multiplying this by 1 2,000, Jtl z? + 12,000 = 11,812 gallons, we have the measure at 60° of the whole amouflt. The difference of 18S gallons between the measure at 60° and that at 90° expresses the expansion caused by that increase of temperature. In order to obtain correct results by this method, it would be necessary to use hydrometers made with a specific gravity scale and with the degrees sufficiently far apart to be able to read to single degrees, or also to use a specific gravity bottle, which, of course, will always give the best result. I am not acquainted with any method that may be in use among dealers, but the plan here suggested will give accurate conclusions,, and where it is found necessary to be particular can be used with confidence. a Oil and Drug News. NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. Ill TABLE OF EXPANSION OF THE WEST VIRGINIA NATURAL OILS. l01}ArjTIi:S 28° TO 450, FJiOM ZERO TO 130= F., TVITB THE UXIT AT 60° lEMPERATrSJB.] Calculated by Jul. Schubert, Engineer. The expansion of the West Virginian natural oils is, as the following tahle shows, by no means very small, and has in a large number of cases worked to the disadvantage of both producers and dealers. It therefore became desirable to have the expansion of the oils established, and careftilly conducted experiments, according to the rule laid down by Professor Gay-Lussac for testing the expansion of liquids, and calculations made corresponding to the formula of the same author, have furnished the following table. The coefficient of expansion of the glass entering into the calculation has been adopted as being 0.00002t). The expansion of the oils increases with the temperature aud varies with the gravity. The higher oils expand faster than the heavier oilsv.ithin the same change of temperature. It became necessary, therefore, to establish the scale of expansion for each gravity from 26"^ to 45°. As the gravity is measured at C0° temperature, the unit for the volume of the oil has also been taken at 60° F. The quantity of oil at 60° temperature should be the guide iu all business transactions with the West Virginian natural oils. Eui.ES FOR USE OF THE TABLE. — In order to find the quantity of oil at 60° temperature: Divide the quantity of the oil by the figure found in the table corresponding both to gravity and temperature of the.oil. For instance : 75.63 barrels of 35° oil, measured at a temperature of 26°, would be: 75.(i:{ : 76. 59 barrels of 35° oil at 60°. 0.987394 ■ Or, 81.34 barrels of 33° oil, measured at a temperature of 88°, would be: j-QTYrgg = 80.41 barrels of 33° oil at 60° temperature. 112 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. TABLE OF EXPANSION OF THE WEST VIRGINIA NATURAL OILS. Degrees DEGREES or GEAVITY. of tern- peratnre. (F.) 28°. 29°. 30°. 31°. 32°. 33°. 34°. 35°. 30°. Zero. 0. 980810 0.980570 0. 980330 0.980060 0. 979770 0. 979470 0. 979170 e. 978870 0. 976570 1 0. 981095 0.980859 0.980623 0. 980357 0. 980071 0. 979776 0. 979481 0. 979186 0. 876691 2 e. 981380 0.981148 0. 980916 0. 980654 0. 980372 0. 980082 0. 979792 0. 979502 0. 979212 3 0. 981665 0. 981437 0. 981209 0. 980951 0.980673 0. 980388 0. 980103 0. 979818 0.979533 4 0. 981950 0. 981726 0. 981502 0. 981248 0. 980974 0.980694 0. 980414 0. 980134 0. 979854 5 0.982235 0. 982015 0.981795 0. 981545 0. 981275 0. 981000 0.980725 0. 980450 0. 980175 6 0. 982520 0.982304 0.982088 0. 981842 0. 981576 0. 981306 0. 981036 0. 980766 0. 980496 7 0.982805 0.982593 0. 982381 0. 982139 0. 931877 0. 981612 0. 981347 0.981082 0. 980817 8 0. 983090 0.982882 0. 982674 0. 982436 0. 982178 0. 981918 0. 981658 0. 981398 0. 981138 9 0. 983375 0. 983171 0. 982967 0. 982733 0. 982479 0. 982224 0. 981969 0.981714 0. 981459 10 0. 983660 0. 983460 0. 983260 0.983030 0. 982780 0. 982530 0. 982280 0. 982030 0. 981780 11 0. 983958 0.983762 0. 983566 0. 983340 0. 983095 0. 982850 0. 982605 0. 982360 0. 982115 12 0. 984256 0. 984064 0. 983872 0. 983650 0.983410 0. 983170 0. 982930 0. 982690 0. 982450 13 0. 984554 0. 984366 0.984178 0. 983960 0.983725 0.983499 0. 983255 0.583020 0. 982765 14 0. 984852 0. 984668 0.984484 0.984270 0. 984040 0. 983810 0.983580 0. 983350 0. 933129 15 0. 985150 0. 984970 0.984790 0.984580 0.984355 984130 0. 983905 0. 983680 0. 983455 16 0.985448 0. 985272 0. 985096 0. 984890 0. 984670 0.984450 0. 984230 0. 984010 0. 98379S 17 0. 985746 0.985574 0. 985402 0. 985200 0.984985 0. 984770 0. 984555 0. 984340 0. 984125 18 0. 986044 0. 985876 0. 985708 0. 985510 0. 985300 0. 985090 0. 984880 0.984670 0. 984460 19 0. 986342 0. 986178 0. 988014 0. 985820 0. 985615 0. 985410 0.985205 0. 985000 0. 964795 20 0. 936640 0. 986480 0. 986320 0. 986130 0.985930 0. 985730 0.985530 0.985330 0. 963130 21 0.986952 0. 986796 0. 98664* 0. 986454 0. 986259 0. 986064 0.985869 0. 986674 0. 985479 22 0.987264 0. 987112 0. 986960 0. 986778 0.986688 0. 986398 0. 986208 0. 986018 0. 985828 23 0. 987576 0.987428 0. 987280 0. 987102 0. 986917 0.986732 0.986547 0. 986362 0. 936177 24 0. 987888 0.987744 0. 987600 0.967426 0. 987246 0. 987066 0. 986886 0. 986706 0. 986526 25 0. 988200 0. 988060 0. 987920 0. 987750 0. 987575 0. 987400 0. 987225 0. 987050 0. 986675 26 0. 988512 0.988376 0.988240 0. 988074 0. 987904 0. 987734 0. 987564 0. 987394 0. 987224 27 0.988824 0.988682 0. 988560 0. 988398 0.988233 0. 988068 0. 987903 0. 987738 0. 987573 28 0. 989136 0. 989008 0.988880 0. 988722 0.988562 0. 988402 0.988242 0.988082 0. 987922 29 0.989448 0. 989324 0. 989200 0. 989046 0.988891 0. 988736 0. 988581 0. 988426 8. 968271 30 0.989760 0. 989640 0. 989520 0. 989370 0.989220 0.989070 0. 983920 0. 988770 0. 938620 31 0. 990086 0.989970 0.989854 0.989769 0. 989564 0. 989419 0. 989274 0. 989129 0. 988984 32 0.990412 0. 990300 0. 990188 0. 990048 0.989908 0.989768 0. 989628 0.9894S8 0. 989346 33 0. 990738 0. 990630 0.990522 0. 990387 0. 990252 0. 990117 0. 989982 0. 989847 0. 989712 34 0. 981064 0.990960 0. 990856 0.990726 0. 990596 0. 990466 0. 990336 0. 990206 0. 990076 35 0. 991390 0. 991290 0. 991190 0. 991065 0. 990940 0. 990815 0. 990690 0. 990565 0. 990440 36 0. 991716 0. 991620 0. 991524 0.991404 0.991284 0. 991164 0.991044 0. 990924 0. 990604 37 0. 992042 0. 991950 0. 991858 0. 991743 0. 991628 0. 991513 0. 991398 0.991283 0. 991168 38 0. 992368 0.992280 0.992192 0. 992082 0. 991972 0. 991862 0. 991752 0. 991642 0. 991532 39 0. 992694 0. 992610 0. 992520 0. 992421 0. 992316 0. 992211 0.992106 0.992001 0.991896 40 0. 993020 9.992940 0.992860 0. 992768 0.992660 0. 992560 0. 992460 0. 992360 0. 992260 41 0.993361 0.993285 0. 993209 0.993114 0. 993019 0. 992924 0.992829 0.992734 0.992639 42 0. 99S702 0. 993630 0.99355S 0. 993468 0.993378 0. 993288 0.993198 0. 993108 0. 993018 43 0. 994043 0. 993975 0. 993907 0. 993822 0. 993737 0. 993652 0. 993567 0. 993482 0. 993397 44 0. 994384 6. 994320 0. 994256 0.994176 0. 994096 0. 994016 0. 993936 0. 99.')866 0. 993776 45 0. 994725 0. 994665 0. 994605 0. 994530 0. 994455 0. 994380 0. 994805 0. 994230 0. 994155 46 0.995066 0. 995010 0. 994954 0.994884 0.994815 0. 994744 0.984674 0. 994604 0. 994534 47 0. 995407 0. 995355 0. 995303 0. 995238 0. 995173 0. 995108 0. 995073 0. 994878 0. 994913 48 0. 995748 0.995700 0. 995652 0. 995592 0. 995532 0. 995472 0. 995412 0. 995352 0. 995292 49 6.996089 0. 996045 0. 996001 0. 995946 0. 995891 0. 995836 0.995781 0.995726 0. 996671 50 0. 996430 0. 996390 0. 996350 0. 996300 0. 996250 0.996200 0. 996160 0. 996100 0.996050 51 0.996787 0.996751 0.996715 0.996670 0.990625 0.996580 0. 996535 0. 996490 0. 996445 52 0. 997144 0. 997112 0. 997080 0. 997040 0. 997000 ■ 0.996960 0. 996920 0. 996880 0. 996840 53 0. 997501 0.997473 0. 997445 0. 997410 0. 997375 0. 997340 0, 997305 0.997270 0.997235 54 0. 997858 0.997834 0. 997810 0.997780 0. 997750 0. 9977 JO 0.997690 0. 997660 0. 997630 65 0. 998215 0. 998195 0. 998175 0. 993150 0. 998125 0. 998100 0.998075 0. 998050 0. 998025 66 0. 998572 0. 998556 0. 998540 0. 998520 0. 998.i00 0. 998480 0. 998460 0. 998440 0. 998420 57 0. 998929 0. 998917 0.998905 0. 998890 0.998875 0.998860 0. 998845 0. 998830 0. 993815 58 0. 999286 0. 999278 0. 999270 0. 999260 0. 999250 0. 999240 0. 999230 0. 999220 0. 999210 59 0.999643 0. 999639 0. 999635 0. 999630 0. 999625 0. 999620 0. 909615 0. 999610 0. 999605 60 1. 000000 1. 000000 1. 000089 1. 009000 1. 000000 1. 000000 1. 000000 1. 000000 1. OOUOOO 61 1. 000374 1. 000378 1. 000382 1. 000387 1. 000392 1. 000397 1. 000402 1. 000407 1. 000412 62 1. 000748 1.000756 1. 000764 1. 000774 1. 000784 1. 000794 1. OO08C4 1. 000814 1. 000824 63 1. 001122 1. 001134 1. 001146 1. 001161 1. 001176 1. 001191 1. 001206 1. 001221 1.001236 64 1. 001496 1. 001512 1. 001528 1. 001548 1. 001568 1. 001588 1. 001608 1.001628 1. 001648 63 1.001870 1.001890 1. 001910 1. 001935 1. 001960 1.001085 1. 002010 1.002035 1. 002060 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. TABLE OF EXPANSION OF THE WEST VIRGINIA NATURAL OILS— Continued. 113 DBGBBE8 OF GBAVITT. Degrees of tem- perature. 370. 3S°. 3«=. 1 40°. 4|o. 42°. 430. 440. 45°. 0. 978210 0. 977850 0.977490 1 0. 977130 0.976770 0. 976390 0. 976020 0. 975660 0. 975240 Zero. 0. 978537 0. 978183 0.977829 1 0. 977475 0. 977121 0.976747 0.976383 0. 976029 0. 975616 1 0. 978864 0.978516 0.978168 j 0. 977820 0. 977472 0. 977104 0. 976746 0. 976398 0. 975992 2 0. 979191 0.978849 ! 0. 978507 i 0.978165 0. 977823 0. 977461 0. 977109 0. 976767 0.976368 3 0.979518 0. 979182 0. 978846 ' 0. 978510 0.978174 0.977818 0. 977472 0. 977136 0.976744 4 0. 979845 0.979515 1 0. 979185 1 0. 978855 j 0. 978525 0. 978175 0. 977835 0.977505 0. 977120 5 0. 980172 0.979848 ! 0. 979524 0.979200 1 0. 978876 0. 978532 0. 978198 0. 977874 0.977496 6 0. 980499 0. 980181 0. 979863 0. 979545 0. 979227 0. 078889 0. 978561 0. 978243 0. 977872 7 0. 980826 0. 980514 0. 980202 1 0. 979890 ' 0. 979578 0. 979246 0. 978924 0. 978612 0.978248 8 0.981153 0. 980847 0. 980541 0. 980235 1 0. 979929 0. 979603 0. 979287 0.978981 0. 978624 9 0.981480 e. 981180 0. 980880 0. 980580 0. 980280 0. 979960 0. 979650 0. 979350 >0. 979000 10 0. 981821 0. 981527 0. 981233 11. 980939 0. 980645 0. 980331 0. 980027 0. 979733 0.979390 11 0. 982162 0. 981874 0.981.586 , 0. 981298 1 0. 981010 0. 980702 0. 980404 0.980116 0. 979780 12 0. 982503 0. 982221 0. 981939 0.981657 1 0. 981375 0. 981073 0. 980781 0. 980499 0. 980170 13 0.982844 0.982568 0. 982292 0. 98201B 0. 981740 0. 981444 0. 981158 0. 980882 0. 980560 14 0.983185 0. 982915 0. 982645 0.982375 0. 982105 0. 981815 0. 981535 0. 981265 0. 980950 15 0. 983526 0. 983262 0.982998 0.982734 0. 982470 0. 982186 ■ 0. 981912 0.981648 0. 981340 16 0. 983867 0. 983609 0. 983351 0. 983093 0. 982835 0. 982557 0. 982289 0. 982031 0. 981730 17 0.S84208 0.983956 0. 983704 11. 983452 0. 983200 0.982928 0. 982666 0. 982414 0. 982120 18 0.984549 0. 984303 0.984057 0.983811 0. 983565 0. 983299 0. 983043 0. 982797 0. 982510 19 0. 984890 0. 984650 0.984410 0. 984170 0. 983930 e. 983670 0. 983420 0. 983180 0.982900 20 0. 985245 0. 985011 0. 984777 0.984543 0. 984309 0. 984055 0. 983811 0. 9S3577 0. 983304 21 0.985600 0.985372 0. 985144 ' 0. 984916 0. 984688 0. 984440 0. 984202 0. 983974 0.983708 22 0.985955 %. 985733 0.985.511 0. 985269 0. 985067 0. 9S4825 0. 984593 0. 984371 0.984112 23 0. 986310 0. 986094 6.985878 i 0. 985662 0. 985446 0. 985210 0. 984984 0. 984768 0. 984516 24 0. 986665 0. 986455 0. 986215 0. 986035 0. 985825 0. 985595 0. 985375 0. 985165 0. 984920 25 0. 987020 0. 986816 0. 986612 0. 986408 0. 986204 0. 985980 0. 985766 0. 985562 0. 985324 26 0. 987375 0. 987177 0.986979 0. 986781 0. 986.583 0. 986365 0. 986157 0. 985959 0. 985728 27 0. 987730 0. 987538 0. 987346 ^ 0. 987154 0. 986962 0. 986750 0. 986548 0. 986356 0.986132 28 0. 988085 0. 987899 0. 987713 0. 987527 0. 987341 0. 987135 0. 986939 0. 986753 0. 986536 29 0. 988440 0. 98«260 0. 988080 0. 987900 0. 987720 0. 987520 0. 987330 0. 987150 0. 986940 30 0. 988810 0. 988636 0. 988462 0. 988288 0. 988114 0. 987920 0. 987736 0. 987562 0. 987359 31 0. 989180 0. 989012 0.988844 ' 0. 988676 0. 988508 0. 988320 0. 988142 0. 987974 0. 987778 32 0. 989550 0. 989388 0. 989226 0. 989064 0. 988902 0. 988720 0. 988548 0. 988386 0.988197 33 0. 989920 0. 989764 0. 989608 0. 989452 0. 989296 0. 989120 0. 988954 0.988798 0.988616 34 0. 990290 0. 990140 0. 989990 0. 989840 0. 989690 0. 989520 0. 989360 0.989210 0. 989035 35 0. 990660 0. 990516 0. 990372 0. 990228 0.990084 0. 989920 0. 989766 0.989622 0.989454 36 0. 991030 0. 990892 0. 990754 0, 990616 0. 990478 0. 990320 0. 990172 0. 990034 0. 989873 37 0. 991400 0. 991268 0. 991136 0. 991004 0. 990872 0. 990720 0. 990578 0.990446 P. 990292 38 0. 991770 0. 991644 0. 991518 0. 991392 0. 991266 0. 991120 0. 990984 0. 990858 0. 990711 39 0.992140 0. 992020 0. 991900 0. 991780 0. 991660 0. 991520 0. 991390 0. 991270 0. 991130 40 0. 992525 0.992411 0. 992297 0. 992183 0. 992069 0. 991936 0. 991812 0. 991698 0.991565 41 0. 992910 0. 992802 0. 992694 0. 992586 0. 992478 0. 992352 0. 992234 0. 992126 0. 992000 42 0. 993295 0. 993193 0. 993091 0. 992989 0. 992887 0. 992768 0. 992656 0. 992554 0. 992435 43 0. 993680 0. 993.'i84 0. 993488 0. 993392 e. 993296 0. 993184 0. 993078 0. 992982 0. 992870 44 0. 994065 0. 993975 0. 993885 0. 993795 0. 993705 0. 993600 0. 993.500 0. 993410 0. 9E.3305 45 0. 994450 0. 994366 0. 994282 0. 994198 0. 994114 0. 994016 0. 993922 0. 993838 0.993740 46 0. 994835 0. 994757 0. 994679 0. 994601 0. 994523 0. 994432 0. 994344 0. 994266 0. 994175 47 0. 995220 0.995148 0. 995076 0. 995004 0. 994932 0. 994848 0. 994766 0. 994694 0. 994610 48 0. 995605 0. 995539 0. 995473 0. 995407 0. 995341 0. 995264 0. 995188 0. 995122 0. 996045 49 0. 995990 0. 995930 0. 995870 0. 995810 0. 995750 0. 995680 0. 995610 0. 995550 0. 995480 50 0. 996391 0. 996337 0. 996283 0. 996229 0. 996175 0. 996112 0. 996049 0. 995995 0. 995932 51 0. 996792 0. 996744 0. 996696 0. 996648 0. 99G600 0. 996544 0. 906488 0. 996440 0.996384 52 0. 997193 0.997151 0. 997109 0. 997067 0. 997025 0. 996976 0. 996927 11. 996885 0. 996836 53 0. 997594 0. 997558 0. 997.522 0. 997486 0. 997450 0. 997408 0.997366 0. 997330 0. 997288 54 0. 997995 0. 997965 0. 997935 0. 997905 0. 997875 0. 997840 0. 997805 0. 997775 0. 997740 55 0. 998396 0. 998372 0. 998348 0. 998324 0. 998300 0. 998272 1 0. 998244 0. 998220 0. 998192 56 0. 998797 0. 998779 0. 998761 0. 998743 0. 998725 0. 998704 0. 998683 0. 998665 0. 998644 57 0. 999198 0. 999186 0. 999174 0. 999162 0. 999150 0. 999136 ' 0. 999122 0. 999110 0. 999096 58 0. 999599 0. 999593 0. 999587 0. 999581 0. 999.575 0. 999568 0. 999561 0. 999555 0. 999548 59 1. 000000 1. 000000 1. 000000 1. 000000 1. 000000 1. 000000 1. 000000 1. 0( 0000 1. 000000 00 1. 000418 1. 000424 1. 000430 1. 000436 1. 000442 1. 000449 j 1. 000456 1. 000463 1. 000470 61 1. 000836 1. 000848 1. 000860 1. 000872 1. 000884 : 1.000898 , 1. 000912 1. 000926 1. 000940 62 1.001254 1. 001272 1. 001290 1. 001308 1. 001326 1.001347 1. 001368 ' 1. 001389 1. 001410 63 1. 001672 1. 001696 1. 001720 1.001744 1. 001768 1. 001796 1. 001824 1 1. 001852 1. 001880 64 1. 002090 1. 002120 1. 002150 1. 002160 1. 002210 1. 002245 1 1. 002280 1. 002315 1. 002350 66 VOL. ] [X 8 114 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. TABLE OF EXPANSION OF THE WEST VIRGINIA NATUEAL OILS— Continued. Degrees of tem- DKGIIKES OF GEAVITl". perature. 28°. 29°. 30°. 81°. 32°. 33°. 34°. 36°. 36°. 66 1.002244 1. 002288 1. 002292 1. 002322 1. 002352 1. 002382 1. 002412 1. 002442 1.002472 67 1. 002618 1. 002646 1. 002674 1. 002709 1. 002744 1. 002779 1. 002814 1. 002849 1. 002884 68 1. 002992 1. 003024 1. 003056 1. 003096 1. 003136 1. 003176 1. 003216 1. 003256 1. 003296 69 1. 003366 1. 003402 1. 003438 1. 003483 1. 003528 1. 003573 1. 003618 1. 003663 1. 003708 70 1. 003740 1. 003780 1. 003820 1. 003870 1. 003920 1. 003970 1. 004020 1. 004070 1. 004120 71 1. 004131 1. 004175 1. 004219 1. 004274 1. 004329 1. 004384 1. 004439 1.094495 1. 004550 72 1. 004522 1. 004570 1. 004618 1. 004678 1. 004738 1. 004798 1. 004858 1. 004920 1. 004980 73 1. 004913 1. 004965 1. 005017 1. 005082 1. 005147 1. 005212 1. 005277 1. 005345 1.005410 74 1. 005304 1. 005360 1.005416 1. 005486 1. 005656 1. 005626 1. 005696 1. 005770 1. 305840 75 1. 005695 1. 005755 1. 005815 1. 005890 1. 005965 1. 006040 1. 006115 1. 006195 .. 006270 76 1. 006086 1.006150 1. 006214 1. 006294 1. 006374 1. 006454 1. 000534 1. 006620 1. 006700 77 I. 006477 1.006545 1. 006613 1. 006698 1. 006783 1. 006868 1. 006953 1. 007045 1. 007130 78 1. 006868 1.006940 1. 007012 1. 007102 1. 007192 1. 007282 1. 007372 1. 007470 1. 007560 79 1. 007259 1. 007335 1. 007411 1. 007506 1. 007601 1. 007696 1. 007791 1. 007895 1. 007990 80 1. 007650 1. 007730 1. 007810 1. 007919 1. 008010 1. 008110 1. 008210 1. 008320 1. 008420 81 1. 008058 1. 008142 1. 008226 1. 008331 I. 008437 1. 008542 1. 008647 1. 008763 1. 008869 82 1. 008466 1. 008554 1. 008642 1. 008752 1. 008864 1. 808974 1. 009084 1. 009206 1.009318 83 1. 008874 1. 008966 1. 009058 1. 009173 1. 009291 1. 009406 1. 009521 1. 009649 1. 009767 Si 1. 009282 1. 009378 1. 009474 . 1. 009594 1. 009718 1. 009838 1. 009958 1. 010092 1. 010216 85 1. 009690 1. 009790 1. 009890 1. 010015 1. 010145 1. 010270 1. 010393 1.010535 1. 010665 86 1. 910098 1. 010202 1. 010306 1. 010436 1. 010572 1. 010702 1. 010832 1. 010978 1. 011114 ■ 87 1. 010506 1. 010614 1. 010722 1. 010857 1. 010999 1. 011134 1. 011269 1. 011421 1. 011563 88 1. 010914 1. 011026 1. 011138 1. 011278 1. 011426 1. 011566 1. 011706 1.011804 1.012012 89 1. 011322 1. 011438 1. 011554 1. 011699 1. 011853 1. 011998 1.012143 1. 012307 1. 012461 90 1. 011730 1. 011850 1. 011970 1. 012120 1. 012280 1. 612430 1. 012580 1. 012750 1. 012910 91 1. 0121!)5 1. 012279 1. 012404 1. 012359 1. 012725 1. 012880 1. 01S035 1. 013212 1. 013378 92 1. 012580 1. 012708 1. 012838 1. 012998 1. 013170 1. 013330 1. 013490 1. 013674 1. 013846 93 1. 013005 1. 013137 1.013272 1. 013437 1. 013615 1. 013780 1. 013945 1. 014136 1. 014314 94 1. 013430 1. 013566 1. 013706 1. 013876 1. 014060 1. 014230 1. 014400 1. 014598 1. 014782 95 1.013855 1. 013995 1. 014140 1. 014315 1. 014505 1. 014680 1. 014855 1. 015060 1. 015230 96 1. 014280 1. 014424 1. 014574 1. 014754 1. 014930 1.015130 1.015310 1. 015522 1. 015718 97 1. 034705 1. 014853 1. 015008 1.015193 1. 015395 1. 015580 1. 015765 1. 015984 1.016186 98 1. 015130 1. 015282 1. 015442 1. 015632 1. 015840 1. 016030 1. 016220 1. 016446 1.016654 99 1. 015555 1.015711 1. 015876 1. 016071 1. 016285 1. 016480 1. 0M675 1. 016908 1. 017122 100 1. 015960 1. 016140 1. 016310 1. 016510 1. 016730 1. 010930 1. 017130 1. 017370 1.O17590 101 1. 016422 1. 016587 1. 016762 1. 016967 1. 017193 1. 017399 1.017644 1. 017851 1. 018077 102 1. 016864 1. 017034 1. 017214 1. 017424 1. 017650 1. 017868 1. 018078 1. 018332 1. 018564 103 1. 017306 1. 017481 1. 017666 1. 017881 1. 018119 1. 018337 1. 018552 1. 018813 1. 019051 104 1. 017748 1. 017928 1. 018118 1. 018338 1. 018582 1. 018806 1. 019026 1. 019294 1. 019538 105 1.018100 1. 018375 1. 018570 1. 018795 1. 019043 1. 019275 1. 019500 1. 019775 1. 020025 106 1. 018632 1. 018822 1. 019022 1. 019252 1. 019508 1. 019744 1. 019974 1. 020256 1. 020512 107 1.019074 1. 019269 1. 019470 1. 010709 1. 019971 1.020213 1. 020448 1. 020737 1. 020999 108 1. 919516 1. 019716 1. 019926 1. 020106 1. 020434 1. 020682 1. 020922 1. 021218 1. 021486 109 1. 019958 1. 020163 1. 020378 1. 020623 1. 020897 1. 021151 1.021396 1. 021699 1. 021973 110 1. 020400 1. 020610 1. 020830 1. 021080 1. 021360 1. 021620 1. 021870 . 1. 022180 1.022460 111 1. 020860 1. 021075 1. 021300 1. 021556 1. 021842 1. 022108 1. 022363 1. 022680 1. 022967 112 1. 021320 1. 021540 1. 021770 1. 022032 1. 022324 1. 022596 1. 022856 1. 023180 1. 023474 113 1. 021780 1. 022005 1. 022240 1. 022508 1. 022806 1. 023084 1. 023349 1. 023680 1. 023981 114 1. 022240 1. 022470 1. 022710 1. 022984 1. 023288 1. 023372 1. 023842 1. 024180 1.024488 115 1. 022700 1. 022935 1. 023180 1. 023460 1. 023770 1.024060 1. 024335 1. 024680 1. 024995 116 1. 023160 1. 023400 1. 023660 1. 023936 1. 024252 1. 024548 1.024828 1.025180 1. 025502 117 1. 023620 1. 023865 1.024120 1. 024412 1. 024734 1. 025036 1. 025321 1. 0256S0 1. 026009 118 1. 024080 1. 024330 1. 024590 1. 024888 1. 025216 1. 025524 1.025814 1. 026180 1. 026516 119 1. 024540 1. 024795 1. 025060 1. 025364 1. 025098 1. 026012 1. 026307 1. 020680 1. 027023 120 1.025000 1. 025260 1. 025530 1. 025840 1. 026180 1. 026300 1. 026800 1. 027180 1. 027530 121 1. 025478 1. C25743 1. 026019 1. 026335 1. 026681 1. 027007 1. 027313 1. 027700 1. 028057 122 1. 025966 1. 026226 1. 026508 1. 026830 1.027182 1.027514 1. 027826 1. 028220 1. 028584 123 1. 0«6'i34 1. 020709 1. 026097 1. 027325 1. 027683 1. 02S021 1. 028339 1. 028740 1. 029111 124 1. 020912 1. 027192 1. 027486 1. 027820 1. 028184 1.028328 1. 028852 1. 029260 1. 029638 125 1. 027390 1. 027G75 1. 027975 1. 028315 1. 028085 1. 029033 1. 029365 1.029780 1. 030165 126 1. 027868 1. 02S15S 1. 028464 1, 028810 1.029186 1. 029542 1. 029878 1. 030300 1. 030692 127 1. 028346 1. 028641 1. 028953 1. 029305 1. 029087 1. 030049 1. 030391 1. 030820 1. 031219 128 1. 028824 1. 020124 1. 029442 1. 029800 1. 030188 1. 030556 1. 030904 1. 031340 1. 031746 129 1. 029302 1. 029607 1.029931 1. 030295 1. 030689 1.031063 1. 031417 1. 031860 1. 032273 130 1. 029780 1. 030090 1. 030420 1.030790 1. 031190 1. 031570 1. 031930 1. 032380 1. 032800 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. TABLE OF EXPANSION OF THE WEST VIRGINIA NATURAL OILS— Continued. 115 DEOREEB OF GRAVITT. Degrees of tem. peratuiv. 370. 3SO. 3',P. 40°. 41°. 42°. 430. 44°. 45°. 1. 002508 1.002544 1. 002580 1. 002616 1. 002652 1. 002694 1. 002736 1. 002778 1. 002820 66 1. 002926 1. 002968 1. 003010 1. 003052 1. 003OO4 1. 003143 1.003192 1. 003241 1. 003290 67 1. 003344 1. 003392 1. 003440 1. 003488 1. 003536 1. 003592 1. 003648 1. 003704 1. 003760 68 1. 003762 1. 003816 1. 003870 1. 003924 1. 003978 1. 004041 1. 004104 1. 004167 1. 004230 69 1. 004180 1. 004240 1. 004300 1. 004360 1. 004420 1.004490 1. 004560 1. 004630 1. 004700 70 1. 004616 1. 004682 1. 004748 1. 004814 1. 004880 1. 004957 1. 005034 1. 006112 1. 005189 71 1. 005052 1. 001124 1. 005196 1. oo.Kes 1. 005349 1. 005424 1. 005508 1. 005592 1. 005678 72 1. 005488 1. 005566 1. 005644 I. 005722 1. 005800 I. 005891 1. 005982 1. 006076 1. 006167 73 1. 005924 1. 006008 1. 006092 L 006176 1. 006260 1. 006358 1. 006456 1. 006658 1. 006636 74 1. 006360 1. 0064.'iO 1. 006540 1. 006630 1. 006720 1. 000825 1. 006930 1. 007040 1.007145 75 1. 006796 I. 006892 1. 006988 1. 007084 1. 007180 1. 007292 1. 007404 1. 007522 1. 007634 76 1. 007232 1. 007334 1. 007436 1. 007538 1. 007640 1. 007759 1. 007878 1. 008004 1. 008123 77 1. 007C68 1. 007776 1. 007RS4 1. 007992 1. 008100 1. 008226 1. 008352 1. 008486 1. 008612 78 1. 008104 1. 008218 1. 008332 1. 008446 1. 008560 1. 008693 1. 008826 1. 008968 1. 009101 79 1. 008540 1. 008660 1. 008780 1. 008900 1. 009020 1. 009160 1. 009300 1 009460 1. 009590 80 1. 008995 1. 009121 1. 009247 1. 00S373 1. 009499 1. 009646 1. 009793 1. 009951 1. 010099 81 1. 009450 1. 009582 1. 009714 1. 009840 1. 009978 1.010132 1. 010286 1. 010452 1. 010608 82 1. 009905 1. 010043 1. 010181 1.010319 1. 010457 1. 010618 1.010779 1. 010953 1.011117 83 1.010360 1.010504 1. 010648 1. 010792 1. 010936 1.011104 1. 011272 1. 011464 1. 011626 84 1. 010815 1. 010965 1.011115 1. 011265 1. 011415 1.011590 ,1.011765 1.011955 1. 012135 83 1. 011270 1. 011426 1.011582 1. 011738 1. 011894 1. 012076 1. 012258 1. 012456 1. 012644 86 1. 011725 1.011887 1.012049 1.012211 1. 012373 1. 012562 1. 012751 1. 012957 1. 013163 87 1. 012180 1. 012348 1. 012516 1. 012684 1. 012852 1. 013048 1. 013244 1. 013458 1. 013662 88 1. 012635 1. 012809 1. 012983 1. 013157 1. 013331 1. 013534 1. 013737 1. 013959 1. 014171 89 1. 013090 1. 013270 1. 013450 1. 013630 1.013810 1. 014020 1. 014230 1. 014460 1. 014680 90 1. 013564 1. 013750 1. 013937 1. 014123 1. 014309 1. 014526 1. 014743 1. 014981 1. 015209 91 1. 014038 1. 014230 1. 014424 1. 014016 1. 014808 1. 015032 1. 015256 1. «I5.i02 1. 015738 92 1. 014512 1. 014710 1. 014911 1. 015109 1. 015307 1. 015538 1. 015769 1. 016023 1. 016267 93 1. 014986 1. 015190 1. 016398 1. 015602 1. 015806 I. 016044 1. 016283 1. 016544 1. 016796 94 1. 0154«0 1. 015670 1. 015885 1. 016095 1.016305 1. 016550 1. 016795 1. 017066 1. 017326 95 1. 015934 1. 016150 1. 016372 1. 016588 1. 016804 1. 017056 1. 017308 1. 017586 1. 017864 96 1. 016408 1. 016630 1. 016859 1. 017081 1. 017303 1. 017562 1. 017821 1. 018107 1. 018383 97 1. 016882 1. 017110 1. 017346 1. 017574 1. 017802 1. 018068 1. 018334 1. 018628 1. 018912 98 1. 017356 1. 017590 1. 017833 1. 018067 1. 018301 1. 018574 1. 018847 1. 019149 1. 019441 99 1. 017830 1. 018070 1. 018320 1. 018560 1. 018800 1. 019080 1. 019360 1. 019670 1. 019970 100 1. 018324 1.018570 1. 018827 1. 019073 1. 019320 1. 019607 1. 019894 1. 020212 1. 020520 101 1. 018818 1.0J9070 1. 019334 1. 019586 1. 019840 1. 020134 1. 020428 1. 020754 1.021070 102 1. 019312 1. 019570 1. 019841 1. 020099 1. 020360 1. 020061 1. 020962 1. 021296 1. 021620 103 1. 019806 1. 020070 1. 020348 1. 020612 1. 020880 1. 021088 1. 031496 1. 021838 1. 022170 104 1. 020300 1. 020570 1. 020835 1.021125 1.021400 1. 021716 1. 022030 1. 022380 1. 022720 105 1. 020794 L 021070 1.021362 1. 021638 1. 021920 1. 022242 1. 022564 1.022922 1.023270 106 1. 021288 1. 021570 1. 021869 1. 022151 1. 022440 1. 022769 1. 023098 1. 023464 1. 023820 107 1. 021782 1. 022070 1. 022376 1. 022664 1. 022960 1.023296 1. 023632 1. 024006 1. 024370 108 1. 022276 1. 022570 1. 022883 1. 023177 1. 023480 1. 023823 1. 024166 1. 024648 1. 024920 109 1.022770 1. 023070 1. 023390 1. 023690 1. 024000 1. 024350 1. 024700 1. 026090 1. 023470 110 1.023284 1. 023590 1.023017 1. 024224 1. 024541 1. 024899 1. 025256 1. 025654 1. 026042 111 1. 023798 1. 024110 1. 024444 1.024758 1. 0250f2 1. 025448 1. 025812 1. 026218 1. 026614 112 1. 024312 1.024630 1. 024971 1.025292 1. 025623 1. 025997 1. 026368 1. 026782 1. 027186 113 1. 024826 1. 025150 1. 025498 1. 025820 1. 026164 1. 026546 1. 026924 1. 027346 1. 027758 114 1. 025340 1. 025670 1. 026025 1. 026360 1. 026705 1. 027095 1. 027480 1. 027910 1. 028330 115 1. 025854 1. 026190 1. 026552 1. 026894 1. 027246 1. 027644 1. 028036 1. 028474 1. 02S902 116 1.026368 1. 020710 1. 027079 1. 027428 1. 027787 1. 028193 1. 028592 1. 029038 1. 029474 117 1. 026882 1. 027230 1. 027606 1. 027962 1. 028328 1. 028742 1. 029148 1. 020602 1. 030046 118 1, o::7306 1. 027750 1. 028138 1. 028496 1. 02SS69 1. 039291 1. 029704 1. 030166 1. 03001S 119 1.027910 1. 028270 1. 028660 1. 029030 1. 029410 1. 029840 1. 030260 1. 030730 1. 031190 120 1.028444 1. 028811 1. 029208 1. 020585 1. 029973 1.030411 1. 0tU839 1.031317 1. 0317S5 121 l.l''J8978 1. 029352 1. 029756 1. 030140 1. 030536 1. 030982 1. 031418 1. 031904 1. 032380 122 1. U2B512 1. 029893 1. 030304 1. 080695 1. 031099 1. 031553 1. 031997 1. 032491 1. 032973 123 1. 030046 1. 030434 1. 030852 1. 031250 1. 031662 1. 032124 1. 032576 I. 033078 1. 033370 124 1. 0303f 1. 030075 1.031400 1. 031805 1. 032225 1. 032695 1. 033155 1. 033605 1.034163 123 1.031114 1. 031516 1. 031948 1. 032360 1. 032788 1. 033266 1. 033734 1. 034252 1. 034760 126 1. 031648 1. 032057 1. 032496 1. 032915 1. 033351 1.033837, 1. 034313 1. 034839 1. 033363 127 1.032182 1. 033598 1. 033044 1. 033470 1. 033914 1. 034408 1. 034892 1. 035420 1. 035950 128 1. 032716 1.033139 1. 033592 1. 034025 1. 03447T 1. 034979 1. 035471* 1. 036013 1.036543 129 1. 033250 1. 033680 1. 034140 1. 034580 1. 035040 1. 035530 1. 036050 1. 036600 1. 037140 130 116 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. TABLES FOE THE EAPID AND EXACT COMPUTATION OF THE NUMBEfi OF GALLONS CONTAINED IN ANY GIVEN WEIGHT OF OIL OE OTHEE LIQUID LIGHTEE THAN WATEE, WITHOUT MEASUEING OE GAUGING. ABBAJfaED WITM SPEOIAL BEFEBENOE TO THE WANTS OF TBE PETBOLEUM TBADE. By S. A. Lattimore, A. M., Professor of Chemistry in the University of Bochester, Neic York. Instructions for the use of the tables. — Ascertain the net weight of the oil or other fluid by the balance. The gravity is to be next accurately ascectained by means of a correct hydrometer, the temperature of the fluid being 60° F. and the line of the scale just beloTf the surface being taken. Turn to the page on which that gravity is given. In the first column find the number of pounds. OiJposite this number, in the column for the proper gravity, will be found the corresponding number of gallons, tenths and hundredths. If the exact number of pounds does not occur, take the nearest smaller number, then the number next less than the remainder, and so on, until the sum of these several numbers is the exact number of pounds required. Example. In 2,384 pounds of oil of 45° B., how many gallons ? Grallons. 3, 000 pounds 300.08 300 pounds 45.01 80 pounds 12.00 4 pounds 0. GO 2, 384 pounds 357.69 An additional series of tables is given embracing the more common gravities of petroleum products and the range of the number of gallons ordinarily contained in a single cask. Find the page for the required gravity, and opposite the net weight will be found the exact number of gallons contained in the cask. DEGREES OF BAUMfi'S HYDROMETER. Pounds. 15°. 16°. 17°. 18°. 19°. 20°. 21°. 22°. 23°. 24°. 25°. 26°. 27°. 28°. GaUtms. OaUoTis. QdllonB. Qallom. Gallons. GaUona. Gallons. Gallons. GaUona. Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. 1 0.12 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.14 0.14 2 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.26 0.26 0.26 0.26 0.26 0.26 ,0.27 0.27 0.27 0.27 3 0.37 0.38 0.38 0.38 0.38 0.39 0.39 0.39 0.39 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.41 4 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.51 0.51 0.62 0.62 0.52 0.63 0.53 0.53 0.54 0.64 0.54 5 0.62 0.63 0.63 0.63 0.64 0.64 0.65 0.65 0.66 0.66 0.66 0.67 0.07 0.68 6 0.75 0.76 0.76 0.76 0.77 0.77 0.78 0.78 0.79 0.79 0.60 0.80 0.81 0.81 7 0,87 0.88 0.88 0.89 0.89 0.90 0.91 0.91 0.92 0. 92 0.93 0.94 0.94 0.95 8 1.00 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.04 LOS 1.06 1.06 1.07 1.08 LOS 9 1.12 1.13 1.13 1.14 1.15 1.16 1.17 1.17 1.18 1.20 1.20 L20 1.21 1.22 10 L24 1.25 1.26 1.27 1.28 1.29 1.30 1.30 L31 L32 L33 L34 1.35 1.35 20 2.49 2.50 2.52 2.54 2.56 2.57 2.58 2.61 2.62 2.64 2.66 2.63 2.69 2.71 30 3.73 3.76 3.78 3.81 3.83 3.86 3.88 3.91 3.94 3.96 3.99 4.01 4.04 4.06 40 4.97 5.01 5.04 5.08 5.11 5.16 5.18 5.21 5.25 5.28 5.31 5.35 5.38 6.43 50 6.22 6.26 6.30 6.34 6.39 6.43 6.47 6.52 6.56 6.60 6.64 6.69 6.73 6.77 60 7.46 7.51 7.58 7.61 7.67 7.72 7.77 7.82 7.87 7.92 7.97 8.03 8.08 8.13 70 8.70 8.76 8.82 8.88 8.94 9.00 9.06 9.12 9.18 9.24 9.30 9.36 9.42 9.48 80 9.95 10.01 10.08 10.15 10.22 10.29 10.36 10.43 10.49 10.66 10.63 10.70 10.77 10.84 90 11.19 11.27 11.34 11.42 11.50 11.58 11.65 11.73 U.81 11.98 11.96 12.04 12.12 12.19 100 12.43 12.52 12.61 12.69 12.78 12.86 12.95 13.03 13.12 13.21 13.29 13.38 13.46 13.55 200 24.87 25.04 25.21 25.38 25.55 25.72 25.84 26.07 26.24 26.41 26.67 26.75 26.92 27.10 300 37.30 37.55 37.81 38.07 38.33 38.58 38.84 39.10 39.36 39.62 39.86 40.13 40.38 40.64 400 49.73 30.07 50.42 60.76 5L11 51.45 5L79 52.13 62.47 52.82 53.15 63.60 53.86 54.19 500 62.16 62.59 63.02 03.45 63.88 64.31 64.74 65.16 65.59 , 66. 03 66.45 66.88 67.30 67.74 1,000 124.32 125. 18 126. 05 126. 90 127.76 128. 61 129. 47 130. 33 131. 18 132. 06 132. 87 133. 76 134.61 135. 48 2,000 248.65 250.36 252. 09 253.80 255. 63 257. 22 258. 94 260. 66 262. 37 264. 10 265.73 267. 52 269. 22 270. 96 3,000 372. 97 375. 54 378. 13 380. 69 383.29 385.84 388.42 390. 99 393. 55 396. 15 398. 60 401. 28 403. 83 406. 43 4,000 497. 29 500. 71 504. 18 507. 59 51L 06 514. 45' 617. 89 521. 31 524. 73 528. 20 53L47 635. 03 538. 45 541.91 5,000 621. 61 625. 89 630.23 634.49 638.81 643.06 647. 36 651. 64 655. 92 660. 25 664.34 668.79 673. 06 677. 39 10, 000 1, 243. 22 1, 251. 78 1,260.46 1, 208. 99 1, 277. 63 1, 286. 12 1, 294. 72 1,303.29 1,311.84 1, 320. 50 1,328.67 1. 337. 58 1, 346. 11 1,354.78 20, 000 2, 486. 45 2, 503. 57 2, 520. 92 2, 637. 97 2, 555. 26 2, 672. 24 2, 589. 43 2,600.58 2, 623. 67 2, 641. 00 2, 657. 36 2, 675. 15 2, 693. 22 2, 709. 56 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 117 DEGREES OF BAUME'S HYDROMETER— C'ontiLued. Pounds. 29°. 3(.. 31.. 32=. 3»°. 34=. 35°. 36°. 37". 38=. 30°. 40°. 41°. 42 aaUons. Gallons. Gallons. GaUons. OaOms. Gallons. GaUons. Gallons. GalloTis. Gallons. Gallons. GaUons. Gallons. Gal 1 0.14 0.14 0.J4 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.15 0.15 2 0.27 0.27 0.28 0.28 0.28 0.28 0.28 0.28 0.29 0.29 0.29 0.29 0.29 3 0.41 0.41 0.41 0.42 0.42 0.42 0.43 0.43 0.43 0.43 0.43 0.44 0.44 4 0.55 0.55 0.56 0.56 0.56 0.56 0.57 0.57 0.57 0.58 0.58 0.58 0.59 5 0.68 0.69 0.69 0.69 0.70 0.70 0.71 0.71 0.72 0.72 0.72 0.73 0.73 ei 0.82 0.82 0.83 0.83 0.84 0.84 0.85 0.85 0.86 0.86 0.87 0.88 0.88 7 1 0.95 0.96 0.97 0.97 0.98 0.98 0.99 1.00 1.00 l.Ol 1.01 1.02 1.03 8 1.09 1.10 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.13 1.14 1.15 1.15 1.16 ,1.17 1.17 9 ' 1.23 1.24 1.24 1.25 1.26 1.27 1.27 1.28 1.29 1.30 1.30 1.30 1.32 10 ' 1.36 1.37 1.38 ^ 1.39 1.40 *'1.40 1.41 1.42- 1.43 1.44 1.45 1.46 1.47 20 2.73 2.74 2.76 2.78 2.80 2.81 2.83 2.85 2.87 2.88 2.90 2.92 2.93 30 ' 4.09 4.12 4.14 4.17 4.19 4.22 4.25 4.27 4.30 4.32 4.35 4.37 4.40 40 5.45 5.49 5.52 5.56 5.59 5.63 5.66 5.69 5.73 5.76 5.80 5.83 5.86 50 i 6.82 6.86 6.90 6.94 6.99 7.03 7.07 7.12 7.16 7.20 7.24 7.29 7.33 60 8.18 8.23 8.28 8.33 8.39 8 44 8.49 8.54 8.60 8.64 8.69 8.75 8.80 70 9.53 9.66 9.66 9.72 9.78 9.84 9.91 9.96 10.03 10.08 10.14 10.20 10.26 80 10.91 10.97 11.04 11.11 11.18 11.25 11.33 11.39 11.46 11.52 11.59 11.66 H.73 90 12.27 12.35 12.42 12.50 12.58 12.66 12.73 12.81 12.89 12.96 13.04 13.12 13.20 100 13.63 13.72 13.80 13.89 13.98 14.06 14.15 14.23 14.33 14.40 14.49 14.58 14.66 200 27.27 27.44 27.61 27.78 27.95 28.12 28.30 28.47 28.65 28.81 28.98 29.16 29.32 300 40.90 41.15 41.42 41.67 41.93 42.19 42.45 42.70 42.98 43.21 43.46 43.73 43.98 400 54.53 54.87 55. 22 55.56 55.91 56.25 56.60 56.93 57.30 57.62 57.95 58.31 58.65 500 68.16 68.59 69.02 69.45 69.88 70.31 70.74 71.17 71.63 72.02 72.44 72.89 72.31 1,000 136.33 137. 18 . 138. 05 138.91 139.77 140.62 141. 43 142. 34 143.26 144.04 144.88 145.77 146.61 1 2,000 272.65 274. 36 276. 10 277.81 279.54 281. 24 282. 97 284.67 286. 51 288.09 289. 76 291. 55 293. 23 2 3,000 j 408. 97 411.54 414. 14 416. 71 419. 30 421. 87 424.44 427. 02 429. 78 432. 12 434.64 437. 31 439.84 4 4,000 ! 545.30 548.72 552. 10 555. 62 559. 07 562. 49 565. 92 569. 36 573. 04 576. 16 579. 52 583.09 586.46 5 5, 000 1 681.83 685. 90 690. 24 694.52 098. 84 703. 11 707. 41 711. 68 716. 29 720.24 724.41 728. 86 733.07 7 10, 000 1, 363. 25 1,371.81 1,380.49 1, 389. 05 1, 397. 68 1, 406. 21 1,414 83 1,423.36 1, 432. 58 1, 440. 47 1,448.81 1,457.73 1, 466. 15 1,4 20,006 2, 726. 60 2, 743. 63 2, 760. 98 2, 778. 10 2, 795. 36 2, 812. 42 2, 829. 65 2, 846. 73 2, 865. 16 2,880.93 2, 897. 63 2, 915. 45 2, 932. 29 2,9 Ponnde. 43°. 44°. 45°. 46°. 47°. 48°. 49°. 50°. 51°. 52°. 53°. 54°. 55°. 56°. Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. GaUons. Gallons. 1 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16 2 30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.31 0.31 0.31 0.31 0.31 0.31 0.32 0.32 0.32 3 0.45 0.45 0.45 0.45 0.46 0.46 0.46 0.46 0.47 0.47 0.47 0.47 0.48 0.48 4 0.59 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.61 0.61 0.61 0.62 0.82 0.62 0.63 63 0.04 0.64 5 0.74 0.75 0.75 0.76 0.76 0.76 0.77 0.77 0.78 0.78 0.79 0.79 0.79 0.80 e 0.89 0.89 0.90 0.91 0.91 0.92 0.92 0.93 0.93 0.94 0.94 0.95 95 0.06 7 1.04 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.06 1.07 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.09 1.10 1.10 1.11 1.12 8 1.19 1.19 1.20 1.21 1.21 1.22 1.23 1.24 1.24 1.25 1.26 1.26 1.27 1.28 9 1.34 1.34 1.35 1.36 1.37 1.37 1.S8 1.39 1.40 1.40 1.41 1.42 1.43 1.44 10 1.48 1.49 1.50 1.51 1.52 1.53 1.53 1.54 1.56 1.56 1.67 1.58 1.59 1.59 20 2.97 2.98 3.00 3.02 3.04 3.05 3.07 3.09 3.10 3.12 3.14 3.18 3.17 .3.19 30 4.45 4.47 4.50 4.63 4.55 4.58 4.60 4.63 4.66 4. 08 4.71 4.73 4.76 4.78 40 5.93 5.96 6.00 6.04 6.07 6.11 6.14 6.17 6 21 6.24 6.28 6.31 6.35 6.38 50 7.41 7.45 7.50 7.55 7.59 7.63 7.67 7.72 7.76 7 80 7.85 7.89 7.93 7.97 CO 8.90 8.94 9.00 9.05 9.11 9.18 0.21 9.26 9.31 9.38 9.41 9.47 9.52 9.57 70 10.38 10.43 10.50 10.56 10.62 10.68 10.74 10.80 10.86 10.92 10.98 11.04 11.10 11.16 80 11.87 11.92 12.00 12.07 12.14 12.21 12.28 12.35 12.42 12.48 12.55 12.62 12.69 12.76 90 13.35 13.41 13.50 13.59 13.66 13.74 13.81 13.89 13.97 14.04 14.12 14.20 14.28 14.35 100 14.83 14.91 15.00 15.09 15.18 15.26 15.35 15.43 15.52 16.81 15.69 15.78 15.80 15.95 200 29.67 29.81 30.00 30.18 30.36 30.52 30.70 30.87 31.04 31.21 31.38 31.56 31.73 31.90 300 44.50 44.72 45.01 45.27 45.53 46.79 46.04 46.30 46.68 46.82 47.07 47.33 47.59 47.85 400 69.34 59.62 60.02 60.36 60.71 61.05 61.39 61.74 62.08 62.42 62.76 63.11 63.45 63.80 500 74.17 74.53 75.02 75.45 75.88 76.31 76.74 77.17 77.00 78.03 78.45 78.89 79.31 79.75 1,000 148 34 149.05 150. 04 150. 91 151. 77 152. 62 ' 163.48 154.34 155.20 156.05 156.91 157. 77 158.63 169. 49 2,000 296.67 298.11 300. 08 301. 82 303.56 305.24 306. 95 308. 69 310. 40 312. 10 313. 81 315. 55 317.25 318.98 3,000 445.02 447. 16 450. 13 452.73 455. 30 467.86 460. 43 463. 03 466.60 468.15 470. 72 473. 32 475. 88 478.47 4,000 693. 35 596. 22 600. 17 603.64 607. 07 610. 47 613. 91 617. 38 620. 80 624. 20 627. 63 631. 09 634. 51 637. 96 6,000 741. 60 745. 27 750. 21 754. 55 758. 84 763. 09 707. 38 771. 72 776. 01 780. 25 784.54 78a 87 793. 13 797.45 10,000 1,483.37 1, 490. 53 1, 500. 42 1, 509. 09 1, 617. 68 1, 526. 18 1,534.75 1, 543. 45 1, 652. 02 1, 500. 50 1, 569. 07 1, 677. 74 1, 586. 27 1,594.90 20,000 2,966.74 2, 981. 07 3, 000. 84 3,018.18 3, 035. 56 3,062.36 3, 069. 51 3,086.90 3, 104. OS 3, 121. 00 3, 138. 14 3, 155. 47 3, 172. 63 3,189.70 118 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. DEGREES OF BAUME'S HYDROMETER— Continued. Ponnda. 57°. 58°. 59°. 60°. 61°. 63°. 63°. 64°. fi50. 70°. 75°. 80°. 86°. Gallons. OcUlo7is. Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. GaUons. GaUons. 1 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.18 0.18 0.18 2 0.32 0.32 0.32 0.32 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.34 0.35 0.36 0.37 3 0.48 e.48 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.51 0.53 0.54 0.55 4 0.64 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.66 0.66 0.66 0.67 0.67 0.69 0.70 0.73 0.74 S 0.80 0.81 0.81 0.82 0.82 0.82 0.83 0.83 0.84 0.86 0.88 0.99 0.92 6 0.96 0.97 0.97 0.98 0.98 0.99 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.03 1.66 1.08 1.11 7 1.12 1.13 1.13 1.14 1.15 1.15 1.10 1.16 1.17 1.20 1.23 1.36 1.29 8 1.28 1.29 1.30 1.30 1.31 1.31 1.32 1.33 1.34 1.37 1.41 1.44 1.48 9 1.44 1.45 1.46 1.47 1.47 1.48 1.49 1.50 1.50 1.54 1.58 1.63 1.66 10 1.60 1.61 1.62 1.63 1.64 1.65 1.65 1.66 1.67 1.72 1.76 l.SO 1.84 20 3.21 3.22 3.24 3.24 3.28 3.29 3.31 3.33 3.34 3.43 3.52 3.60 3.69 30 4.81 4.84 4.86 4.89 4.91 4.94 4.0G 4.99 5.02 5.14 5.28 5.40 5.53 40 6.41 6.45 6.48 6.52 0.55 6.59 6.62 6.65 6.69 6. SO 7.03 7.20 7.37 50 8.02 8.06 8.10 8.15 8.19 8.23 8 27 8.33 8.36 8.57 8.79 9.00 9.32 60 9.62 9.67 9.73 9 77 9. SB 9 88 9,93 9.99 10.03 10.29 10.55 10.80 11.06 70 11.22 11.28 11.34 11.40 11.46 11.53 11.58 11.64 11.69 12.00 12.31 12.60 12.90 80 12.83 12.90 12. 9S 13.03 13.10 13.16 13.24 13.31 13.38 13.73 14.07 14.41 14.75 90 14.43 14.51 14.58 14.66 14.74 14.82 14.89 14.97 1.5.05 15.43 15.83 16.21 16.59 100 16.03 16.12 16.21 16.29 16.38 16.47 16.55 16.64 16.72 17.15 17.59 18.01 18.44 200 32.07 32.24 32.41 32.58 32.76 32.93 33.10 33.27 33.44 34.30 35.17 36.01 36.87 300 48.10 48.36 48.61 48.87 49 13 49.40 49 65 49 90 50.16 51.44 52.76 54.02 55.31 400 64.14 64.48 64.82 65.16 65.51 05.86 66.20 60.54 06.88 68.59 70.34 72.03 73.74 500 80.17 80.60 81.03 81.46 81.89 82.33 82.75 83.17 83.60 85.74 87.93 90.04 92.18 1,000 160. 34 161. 21 102. 05 162, 91 103. 78 164. 00 165.49 166. 35 167. 20 171. 48 175. 86 180. 07 184.36 3.000 320.69 322.41 324.11 323. 82 327. 56 329.31 330. 99 332. 69 334.40 342. 95 351. 72 360. 14 368. 71 3,000 48t. 03 483. 60 486. 16 488. 73 491.34 403. 97 496.48 499 03 510. 60 514. 43 527. 58 540. 21 553. 06 4,000 641. 37 644.82 648. 21 651.64 655. 11 658. 62 661. 98 665.38 068. 81 685. 91 703. 44 720. 28 737. 42 5,000 801.72 806. 02 810. 27 814. 56 818. 89 823. 33 827.47 831. 73 836. 01 857. 38 879. 30 900. 35 921. 77 10,000 1,603.44 1, 612. 05 1, 620. 54 1, 629. 13 1, 637. 79 1, 046. 55 1, 654. 94 1, 663. 45 1, 672. 02 1,714.77 1, 758. 59 1, 800. 70 3, 843. 55 20, 000 3, 206. 87 3,224.09 3, 241. 07 3,238.24 3, 275. 67 3, 293. 10 3, 309. 88 3, 326. 90 3, 344. 03 3,429 53 3, 517. 18 3, 601. 40 3, 687. 11 TABLE OF COMPARATIVE WEIGHTS AND MEASURES OF OIL. 15° GEAVITT. Ponnds. Gallons. Pounds. Gallons. 39 5 j Pounds. Gallons. Pounds. GaUons. Pounds. Gallons. 288 35.8 318 348 43.3 378 47.0 408 50.7 289 35.9 319 39.7 349 43.4 379 47.1 409 50.9 290 36.1 320 39 8 1 350 43.5 ' 380 47.3 410 51.0 291 36.3 321 39.9 351 43.6 381 47.4 411 51.1 202 36.3 332 40.0 , 353 43.8 382 47.5 412 51.2 393 36.4 323 40.3 ' 353 43.9 383 47,6 413 61.3 394 36.6 324 40.3 354 44.0 384 47.8 414 51.5 295 36.7 325 40.4 355 44.1 385 47.9 415 61.6 296 36.8 326 40.5 356 44.3 386 48.0 416 51.7 297 36.9 327 40.7 ' 357 44.4 387 48.1 417 51.8 298 37.1 328 40.8 358 44.5 388 48.3 418 52.0 299 37.2 329 40.9 369 44.6 389 48.4 419 52.1 300 37.3 330 41.0 360 44.8 390 48.5 420 52.2 301 37.4 331 41.2 361 44.9 391 48.0 421 52.3 302 37.6 332 41.3 362 45.0 393 48.7 422 52.5 303 37.7 333 41.4 363 45.1 393 4S.9 423 52.6 304 37.8 334 41.5 364 45.3 394 49.0 424 52.7 305 37.9 335 41.7 1 365 45.4 395 49.1 425 52.8 306 38.1 336 41.8 366 45.5 396 49.2 436 .53.0 307 38.2 337 41.9 367 45.6 397 49.4 427 53.1 308 38.3 338 42.0 368 45.8 398 49,5 428 53.2 309 38.4 339 42.2 369 45.9 399 49.0 429 53.3 310 38.5 340 42.3 370 46.0 400 49.7 430 53.5 3U 38.7 341 42.4 371 46.1 401 49.9 431 53.6 312 38.8 342 42.5 372 46.3 402 60.0 432 53,7 313 38.9 343 42.6 373 46.4 403 50.1 433 53.8 314 39 344 42.8 374 46.5 404 50.2 434 53,9 315 39.2 345 42.9 375 46.8 405 50.4 435 54.0 316 39.3 346 43.0 376 46.8 406 50.5 436 64.2 317 39.4 347 43.1 377 46.9 407 60.6 437 54.3 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 119 TABLE OF COMPARATIVE WEIGHTS AND MEASURES OF OIL— Continued. 20» GRAVITY. PoDnds. GolloDS. I] Pounds. Gallons, il Pounds. ' Gallons. ' Ponnds. \ Gallons. | Pounds. Gallons. 36.0 36.1 37.0 37.2 37.3 37.4 37.6 37.7 38.1 i 38.2 38.3 38.5 38.6 38.7 38.8 39.0 i 39.1 i 39.2 39.4 39.5 i 39.6 39.7 40.1 40.3 40.4 40.5 40.6 40.8 40.9 41.0 41.2 41.3 41.4 41.5 41.7 41.8 41.9 42.1 42.2 42.3 42.4 42.6 42.7 42.8 43.0 43.1 43.2 43.3 44.0 44.1 44.3 44.4 44.5 44.6 44.8 44.9 45.0 • 45.1 45.3 45.4 45.5 45.7 45.8 45.9 46.0 46.2 46.3 46.4 46.6 46.7 47.1 47.2 47.6 47.7 47.8 48.0 48.1 48.9 49.0 49.1 49.3 49.4 49.5 49.6 49.8 49.9 .50.0 50.4 50.6 50.7 50.8 50.9 51.1 51.2 51.3 421 I 51.5 51.6 52.0 62.1 52.2 52.4 52.5 52.6 52.7 52.9 53.0 53.1 53.3 53.4 53.5 53.6 53.8 53.9 54.0 54.2 54.3 54.4 54.5 54.7 54.8 54.9 55.1 55.2 21'> GRAVITY. 278 35.9 ' 308 39.9 338 43.8 368 47.7 398 51.5 279 36.1 ^ 309 40.0 339 43.9 369 47.8 399 51.7 280 36.2 310 40.1 340 44.0 370 47.9 400 51.8 281 36.3 311 40.3 341 44.2 371 48.0 401 51.9 282 36.5 ' 312 40.4 342 44.3 372 48.2 402 52.1 283 36.6 313 40.5 343 44.4 373 48.3 403 52.2 284 36.7 314 40.7 344 44.5 374 48.4 404 52.3 285 36.9 1 315 40.8 345 44.7 375 48.6 405 52.4 286 37.0 316 40.9 346 44.8 376 48.7 406 52.6 287 37.1 317 41.1 347 44.9 377 48.8 407 52.7 288 37.2 318 41.2 348 45.1 378 48.9 408 52.8 289 37.4 319 41.3 349 45.2 379 49.1 409 53.0 290 37.5 320 41.4 350 45.3 380 49.2 410 53.1 291 37.6 321 41.6 351 45.4 381 49.3 411 53.2 292 37.8 322 41.7 352 45.6 382 49.5 412 53.4 293 37.9 i 323 41.8 353 45.7 383 49.6 413 53.5 294 38.0 324 41.9 354 45.8 384 49.7 414 53.6 295 38.1 325 42.1 355 46.0 366 49.9 415 53.7 296 38.3 326 42.2 356 46.1 386 50.0 416 53.9 297 38.4 .127 42.3 357 46.2 387 50.1 417 54.0 298 38.5 328 42.5 358 46.4 388 50.2 418 54.1 299 38.7 329 42.6 359 46.5 389 50.4 419 54.3 300 38.8 330 42.7 360 46.6 390 50.5 420 54.4 301 39.0 331 42.9 361 46.7 391 50.6 421 54.5 . 302 39.1 332 43.0 362 46.9 392 50.8 422 54.6 303 39.2 333 43.1 363 47.0 393 50.9 423 54.8 304 39.4 334 43.2 364 47.1 394 51.0 424 54.9 305 39.5 335 43.4 365 47.3 395 .■il.l 425 55.0 306 39.6 336 43.6 366 47.4 396 51.3 426 55.2 307 39.8 337 43.6 367 47.5 397 51.4 427 55.3 120 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. TABLE OF COMPARATIVE WEIGHTS AND MEASURES OF OIL— Continued. 22° GEAVITY. Pounds. Gallons. Founds. Gallons. Pounds. Gallons; Pounds. Gallons. Pounds. Gallons. 275 35.8 305 39.8 335 43.7 365 47.6 395 51.5 276 36.0 306 39.9 336 43.8 366 47.7 396 51.6 277 36.1 307 40.0 337 43.9 367 47.8 397 51.7 278 36.2 308 40.1 338 44.1 J 368 48.0 398 51.9 279 36.4 309 40.3 339 44.2 369 48.1 399 62.0 280 36.5 310 40.4 340 44.3 370 48.2 400 52.1 281 36.6 311 40.5 341 44.4 371 48.4 401 52.3 282 36.8 312 40.7 342 44.6 372 48.5 402 52.4 283 36.9 313 40.8 343 44.7 373 48.6 403 52.5 284 37.0 314 40.9 344 44.8 374 48.7 404 52.7 285 37.2 315 41.1 345 45.0 375 48.9 405 62.8 286 37.3 316 41.2 346 45.1 376 49.0 406 52.9 287 37.4 317 41.3 .347 45.2 377 49.1 407 53.0 288 37.5 318 41.4 348 45.4 378 49.3 408 53.2 289 37.7 319 41.6 349 45.5 379 49.4 409 53.3 290 37.8 320 41.7 350 45.6 380 49.5 410 53.4 291 37.9 321 41.8 351 4.5.8 381 49.7 411 53.6 292 38.1 322 42.0 352 45.9 382 49.8 412 63.7 293 38.2 323 42.1 353 46.0 383 49.9 413 53.8 294 38.3 324 42.2 354 46.1 384 50.1 414 54.0 295 38.5 325 42.4 355 46.3 385 50.2 415 54.1 296 38.6 326 42.5 356 46.4 . 386 50.3 416 54.2 297 38.7 327 42.6 357 46.5 387 50.4 417 54.3 298 38.8 328 42.8 358 46.7 388 50.6 418 54.5 299 39.0 329 42.9 359 46.8 389 50.7 419 54.6 300 39.1 330 43.0 360 46.9 390 50.8 420 54.7 301 39.2 331 43.1 361 47.1 391 51.0 421 54.9 302 39.4 332 43.3 362 47.2 392 51.1 422 55.0 363 39.5 333 43.4 363 47.3 393 51.2 423 55.1 304 39.6 334 43.5 364 47.4 394 51.4 424 55.3 23° GEAVITT. 274 36.0 304 39.9 334 43.8 364 47.8 394 51.7 275 36.1 305 40.0 335 44.0 365 47.9 395 51.8 276 36.2 306 40.2 336 44.1 366 48.0 396 52.0 277 36.3 307 40.3 337 44.2 367 48.2 397 52.1 278 36.5 308 40.4 338 44.4 368 48.3 398 52.2 279 36.6 309 40.5 339 44.5 369 48.4 399 52.4 280 36.7 310 40.7 340 44.6 370 48.5 400 52.5 281 36.9 311 40.8 341 44.7 371 48.7 401 52.6 282 37.0 312 40.9 342 44.9 372 48.8 402 52.7 283 37.1 313 41.1 343 45.0 373 48.9 403 52.9 284 37.3 314 41.2 344 45.1 374 49.1 404 53.0 285 37.4 315 41.3 345 45.3 375 49.2 405 53.1 286 37.5 316 41.5 346 45.4 376 49.3 406 53.3 287 37.7 317 41.6 347 45.5 377 49.5 407 53.4 288 37.8 318 41.7 348 45.7 378 49.6 408 53.5 289 37.9 319 41.0 349 45.8 379 49.7 409 53.7 290 38.1 320 42.0 350 45.9 380 49.9 410 53.8 291 38.2 321 42.1 351 46.1 381 50.0 411 53.9 292 38.3 322 42.2 352 46.2 382 60.1 412 54.1 293 38.4 323 42.4 353 46.3 383 50.2 413 54.2 294 38.6 324 42.5 354 46.5 384 50.4 414 54.3 295 38.7 325 42.6 355 46.6 385 50.6 415 54.4 296 36.8 326 42.8 356 46.7 386 50.6 416 54.6 297 39.0 327 42.9 357 46.8 387 50.8 417 54.7 298 39.1 328 43.0 358 47.0 388 50.9 418 .54.8 299 39.2 329 43.2 359 47.1 389 51.0 419 55.0 300 39.4 330 43.3 360 47.2 390 51.2 420 65.1 301 39.5 331 43.4 361 47.4 391 51.3 421 55.2 302 39.6 332 43.6 362 47.5 392 51.4 422 55.4 303 39.8 333 43.7 363 47.6 393 51.6 423 55.6 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 121 TABLE OF COMPARATIVE WEIGHTS AND MEASURES OF OIL— Continned. 240 GRAVITY. Pounds. GaUons. Pounds. Gallons. Pounds. GaUons. Pounds. Gallons. Pounds. Gallons. 272 35.9 302 39.9 ; 332 43.8 362 47.8 392 51.8 273 36.1 303 40.0 333 44.0 363 47.9 393 51.9 274 36.2 304 40.2 334 44.1 364 48.1 394 52.0 275 36.3 305 40.3 335 44.2 365 48.2 395 52.2 276 36.4 306 40.4 336 44.4 366 48.3 396 52.3 277 36.6 307 40.5 337 44.5 307 48.5 397 52.4 278 36.7 308 40.7 338 44.0 368 48.6 393 52.6 279 36.9 309 40.8 339 44.8 369 48.7 399 52.7 280 37.0 310 40.9 340 44.9 370 48.9 400 52.8 281 37.1 311 41.1 341 45.0 371 49.0 401 53.0 282 37.2 312 41.2 342 45.2 372 49.1 402 53.1 283 37.4 313 41.3 ' 343 45.3 373 49.3 403 53.2 284 37.5 314 41.5 344 45.4 374 49.4 404 53.4 285 37.6 315 41.6 34) 45.6 375 49.5 405 53.5 286 37.8 316 41.7 346 45.7 376 49.7 406 53.6 287 37.9 317 41.9 347 45.8 377 49.8 407 53.7 288 38.0 318 42.0 348 46.0 378 49.9 408 53.9 289 38.2 319 42.1 349 46.1 379 50.1 409 54.0 290 38.3 320 42.3 350 46 2 330 50.2 410 54.1 291 38.4 321 42.4 351 46.4 381 50.3 411 54.3 292 38.6 322 42.5 352 46.5 382 50.4 412 54.4 293 38.7 323 42.7 353 46.6 383 50.6 413 54.5 294 38.8 324 42.8 354 46.8 384 50.7 414 54.7 295 39.0 325 42.9 355 46.9 385 50.8 415 54.8 296 39.1 326 43.1 356 47.0 386 51.0 416 54.9 297 39.2 327 43.2 357 47.1 387 51.1 417 55.1 298 39.4 328 43.3 358 47.3 388 51.2 418 55.2 299 39.5 329 43.5 359 47.4 389 51.4 419 55.3 300 39.6 330 43.6 360 47.5 390 51.5 420 55.5 301 39.8 331 43.7 361 47.7 391 51.6 421 55.6 25° GBATITT. 271 36.0 301 40.0 331 44.0 361 4&0 391 52.0 272 36.1 302 40.1 332 44.1 362 48.1 392 52.1 273 36.3 303 40.3 333 44.3 363 48.2 393 52.2 274 36.4 304 40.4 334 44.4 364 4&4 304 52.4 275 36.5 305 40.5 335 44.5 365 48.5 395 62.5 276 36.7 306 40.7 336 44.7 366 48.6 S96 52.6 277 36.8 307 40.8 337 44.8 367 48.8 397 62.8 278 36.9 308 40.9 338 44.9 368 4a 9 398 52.9 279 37.1 309 41.1 339 45.1 369 49.0 399 63.0 280 37.2 310 4L2 340 45.2 370 49.2 400 53.2 281 37.3 311 41.3 341 45.3 371 49.3 401 53.3 282 37.5 312 41.5 342 45.4 372 49.4 402 53.4 283 37.6 313 41.6 343 45.6 373 49.6 403 53.6 284 37.7 314 41.7 344 45.7 374 49.7 404 63.7 285 37.9 315 41.9 345 45.8 375 49.8 405 53.8 286 38.0 316 42.0 346 40.0 376 50.0 406 54.0 287 38.1 317 42.1 347 46.1 377 50.1 407 54.1 288 38.3 318 42.3 348 46.2 378 50.2 408 54.2 289 38.4 319 42.4 349 46.4 379 50.4 409 54.4 290 38.5 320 42.5 350 46.5 380 60.5 410 54.5 291 38.7 321 42.7 351 46.6 381 50.6 411 54.6 292 38.8 322 42.8 352 46.8 382 50.8 412 54.8 293 38.9 323 42.9 353 46.9 383 50.9 413 54.9 294 39.1 324 43.1 354 47.0 384 51.0 414 55.0 295 39.2 325 43.2 355 47.2 385 51.2 415 55.1 296 39.3 326 43.3 356 47.3 386 51.3 416 55.3 297 39.5 327 43.5 357 47.4 387 51.4 417 55.4 298 30.6 328 43.6 358 47.6 388 51.6 418 55.5 299 39.7 329 43.7 359 47.7 389 51.7 419 55.7 30« 39.9 330 43.9 360 47.8 390 51.8 420 55.8 122 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. TABI.E OF COMPARATIVE WEIGHTS AND MEASURES OF OIL— Continued. 26° GEAVITY. Potmds. Gallons. Pounds. Gallons. Pounds. Gallons. Pounds. Gallons. Pounds. Gallons. 269 36.0 299 40.0 329 44.0 359 48.0 389 52.0 270 36.1 300 40.1 330 44.1 360 48.2 390 52.2 271 36.2 301 40.3 331 44.3 361 48.3 391 52.3 272 36.4 302 40.4 332 44.4 362 48.4 392 .52.4 273 36.6 303 40.5 333 44.5 363 48.6 393 52.6 274 36.7 304 40.7 334 44.7 364 48.7 394 52.7 275 36.8 305 40.8 335 44.8 365 48.8 395 52.8 276 36.9 306 40.9 336 44.9 366 49,0 396 53.0 277 37.1 307 41.1 337 45.1 367 49.1 397 53.1 278 37.2 308 41.3 338 45.2 368 49.2 398 53.2 279 37.3 309 41.3 339 45.3 369 49.4 399 53.4 280 37.5 310 41.5 340 45.5 370 49.5 400 53.5 281 37.6 311 41.6 341 45.6 371 49.6 401 53.6 282 37.7 312 41.7 342 45.8 372 49.8 402 53.8 283 37.9 313 41.9 343 45.9 373 49.9 403 53.9 284 38.0 314 42.0 344 46.0 374 50.0 404 54.0 285 38.1 315 42.1 345 46.2 375 50.2 405 54.2 286 38.3 316 42.3 346 46.3 376 50.3 406 ■ 54.3 287 38.4 317 42.4 347 46.4 377 50.4 407 54.4 288 38.5 318 42.5 348 46.6 378 50.6 408 54.6 289 38.7 319 42.7 349 46.7 ■ 379 50.7 409 54.7 290 38.8 320 42.8 350 46.8 380 50.8 410 54.8 291 38.9 321 42.9 351 47.0 381 51.0 411 55.0 292 39.1 322 43.1 352 47.1 382 51.1 412 55.1 293 39.2 323 43.2 353 47.2 383 61.2 413 55.2 294 39.3 324 43.4 354 47.4 384 51.4 414 55.4 295 39.5 325 43.5 355 47.5 385 51.5 415 55.5 296 39.6 326 43.6 356 47.6 386 51.6 416 55.6 297 39.7 327 43.8 357 47.8 387 51.8 417 55.8 ■ 298 39.9 328 43.9 358 47.9 ,■388 51.9 418 65.9 27° GBAVITT. 267 35.9 297 40.0 327 44.0 357 48,1 387 52,1 268 36.1 298 40.1 328 44.2 358 48.2 388 52.2 269 36.2 299 40,3 329 44.3 359 48.3 389 52.4 270 36.3 300 40.4 330 44.4 360 48.5 390 52,5 271 36.5 301 40.5 331 44.6 361 48,6 391 52,6 27* 36.6 302 40.7 332 44.7 362 48.7 392 52.8 273 36.7 303 40.8 333 44,8 363 48.9 393 52.9 274 36.9 304 40.9 334 45,0 364 49,0 394 53.0 275 37.0 305 41.1 335 45,1 365 49,1 395 63.2 276 37.2 306 41.2 336 45.2 366 49,3 396 63.3 277 37.3 307 41.3 337 45.4 367 49,4 397 53,4 278 37.4 308 41.5 338 45.5 368 49.5 398 53,6 279 37.6 309 41.6 339 45.6 369 49.7 399 53.7 • 280 37.7 310 41.7 340 45,8 370 49.8 400 63,9 281 37.8 311 41.9 341 45,9 371 49,9 401 54.0 282 38.0 312 42.0 342 46,6 372 50,1 402 54.1 283 38.1 313 42.1 343 46.2 376 50,2 403 54.3 284 38.2 314 42.3 344 46.3 374 50,3 404 54.4 285 38.4 31S 42.4 345 46.4 375 50.5 405 54.5 286 38.5 316 42.5 346 46.6 376 50.6 406 54.7 1 287 38. G 317 42.7 347 46.7 377 50,7 407 54.8 288 38.8 318 42,8 348 46.8 378 50,9 408 54.9 289 38.9 319 42.9 349 47.0 379 51.0 409 55.1 290 39.0 320 43.1 350 47.1 380 51.2 410 55.2 291 39.2 321 43.2 351 47.3 381 51.3 411 55.3 292 39.3 322 43,3 352 47.4 382 51.4 412 65.6 293 39.4 323 43.5 353 47.5 383 51,6 413 56.6 294 39.0 324 43,6 354 47.7 384 51.7 414 55.7 295 39.7 325 43.7 355 47.8 385 51,8 415 55,9 296 39.9 326 43.9 356 47,0 386 52,0 416 56,0 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 123 TABLE OF COMPARATIVE WEIGHTS AND MEASURES OF OIL— Continued. 28" GRAVITY. Ponnds. Gallona. FouDds. Gallons. Pounds. Gallons. Pounds. Gallons. 1 Pounds. 1 Gallons. 265 35.9 295 40.0 325 44.0 355 48.1 1 385 1 52.1 266 36.0 296 40.1 1 326 44.2 356 48.2 386 52.3 267 36.2 297 40.2 327 44.3 357 43.4 387 52.4 268 36.3 298 40.4 328 44.4 358 48.5 388 52.6 269 36.5 299 40.5 329 44.6 359 48.6 389 52.7 270 36.6 300 40.6 330 44.7 360 48.8 390 52.8 271 36.7 301 40.8 331 44.8 361 48.9 391 53.0 272 36.9 302 40.9 332 45.0 362 49.0 392 53.1 273 37.0 303 41.1 333 45.1 363 49.2 393 53.2 274 37.1 304 41.2 334 45.2 364 49.3 394 53.4 275 37.3 305 41.3 33,5 45.4 365 49.5 395 53.5 276 37.4 306 41.5 336 45.5 366 49.6 396 53.6 277 37.5 307 41.0 337 45.7 367 49.7 397 53.8 278 37.7 308 41.7 338 1 45.8 368 49.9 398 53.9 279 37.8 309 41.9 339 ; 45.9 369 50.0 399 54.1 280 37.9 310 42.0 340 46.1 370 50.1 400 54.2 281 38.1 ( 311 42.1 341 46.2 371 50.3 401 54.3 282 38.2 312 42.3 342 46.3 378 50.4 402 54.5 283 38.4 313 42.4 343 46.5 373 60.5 403 54.6 284 38.5 314 42.5 344 46.6 374 50.7 404 54.7 285 33.6 315 42.7 345 46.7 375 50.8 405 54.9 286 38.8 316 42.8 346 I 46.9 376 50.9 406 55.0 287 ] 38.9 317 42.9 347 i 47.0 377 51.1 407 55.1 288 39.0 318 43.1 348 47.1 378 51.2 408 55.3 289 1 39.2 ' 319 43.2 349 47.3 379 51.3 409 55.4 290 39.3 320 43.4 350 47.4 380 51.5 410 55.5 291 ! 39.4 1 321 j 43.5 351 47.6 381 51.6 411 55.7 292 39.6 ; 322 43.6 352 47.7 382 51.8 412 55.8 293 39.7 ! 323 1 43.8 353 47.8 383 51.9 413 56.0 294 '. 39.8 1 324 1 1 43.9 i 354 1 48.0 334 52.0 414 56.1 29° GRAVITY. 263 35.9 293 40.0 323 44.0 353 48.1 383 52.2 264 36.0 294 40.1 324 44.2 354 48.3 384 52.4 265 36.1 295 40.2 325 44.3 355 48.4 385 52.5 266 36.3 296 40.4 326 44.5 356 48.5 386 52.6 267 36.4 297 40.5 327 44.6 357 48.7 387 52.8 268 36.5 298 40.6 328 44.7 358 48.8 388 52.9 269 36.7 299 40.8 329 44.9 369 49.0 389 53.0 270 36.8 300 40.9 330 45.0 360 49.1 390 53.2 271 36.9 301 41.0 331 45.1 361 49.2 391 53.3 272 37.1 302 41.2 332 45.3 362 49.4 392 53.4 273 37.2 303 41.3 333 45.4 363 49.5 393 53.6 274 37.4 304 41.5 334 45.5 364 49.6 394 53.7 275 37.5 306 41.6 335 45.7 365 49.8 395 53.9 276 37.6 306 41.7 336 45.8 366 49.9 396 64.0 277 37.8 307 41.9 337 45.9 367 50.0 397 54.1 278 37.9 308 42.0 338 46.1 368 50.2 398 54.3 279 38.0 309 42.1 339 46.2 369 50.3 399 54.4 280 38.2 310 42.3 340 46.4 370 50.4 400 54.5 281 38.3 3U 42.4 341 46.5 371 50.6 401 54.7 282 38.5 312 42.5 342 46.6 372 50.7 402 54.8 283 38.6 ai3 42.7 343 46.8 373 50.8 403 64.9 284 38.7 314 42.8 344 46.9 374 51.0 404 56.1 285 38.9 315 42.9 345 47.0 375 51.1 405 65.2 286 39.0 316 43.1 346 47.2 376 51.3 406 65.4 287 39.1 317 43.2 347 47.3 377 51.4 407 55.5 288 39.3 318 43.4 348 47.4 378 51.5 408 55.6 289 39.4 319 43.5 349 47.6 379 51.7 409 55.8 290 39.5 320 43.6 350 47.7 380 51.8 410 55.9 291 39.7 321 43.8 351 47.9 381 52.0 411 56.0 292 39.8 322 43.9 352 48.0 382 52.1 412 66.2 124 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. TABLE OP COMPARATIVE WEIGHTS AND MEASURES OF OIL— Continued. 30= GRAVITY. Pounds. Gallons. Pounds. GaUons. Pounds. Gallons. Pounds. Gallons. Pounds. GaUons. 262 35.9 292 40.1 322 44.2 352 48.3 383 52.4 263 36.1 293 40.2 323 44.3 353 48.4 383 52.5 264 36.2 294 40.3 324 44.4 354 48.6 384 52.7 265 36.4 295 40.5 325 44.6 355 48.7 385 52.8 266 36.5 296 40.6 326 44.7 356 48.8 386 52.9 267 36.6 297 40.8 327 44.9 357 49.0 387 53.1 268 36.8 298 40.9 328 45.0 358 49.1 388 53.2 269 86.9 299 41.0 329 45.1 359 49.3 389 53.4 270 37.0 300 41.2 330 45.3 360 49.4 390 '63.5 271 .37.2 301 41.3 331 45.4 361 49.5 391 53.6 272 37.3 302 41.4 332 45.5 362 49.7 392 53.8 273 37.5 303 41.6 333 45.7 363 49.8 393 53.9 274 37.6 304 41.7 334 45.8 364 49.9 394 54.1 275 37.7 305 41.8 335 46.0 365 .50.1 395 54.2 276 37.9 306 42.0 336 46.1 366 50.2 396 54.3 277 38.0 307 42.1 337 46.2 367 50.3 397 54.5 278 38.1 308 42.3 338 46.4 368 50.5 393 54.6 279 38.3 309 42.4 339 46.5 369 50.6 399 54.7 280 38.4 310 42.5 340 46.6 370 50.8 400 54.9 281 ■ 38.6 311 42.7 341 46.8 371 50.9 401 65.0 282 38.7 312 42.8 342 46.9 372 51.0 402 55.1 283 3«.8 313 42.9 343 47.1 373 51.2 403 55.3 284 39.0 314 43.1 344 47.2 374 51.3 404 65.4 285 39.1 315 43.2 345 47.3 375 51.4 405 55.6 286 39.2 316 43.3 346 47.5 376 51.6 406 55.7 287 39.4 317 43.5 347 47.6 377 51.7 407 55.8 288 39.5 318 43.6 348 47.7 378 51.9 408 56.0 289 39.7 319 43.8 349 47.9 379 52.0 409 56.1 290 39.8 320 43.9 350 48.0 380 52.1 410 56.2 291 39.9 321 44.0 351 48.2 381 52.3 411 56.4 310 6EAVITT. 260 35.9 200 40.0 320 44.2 350 48.3 380 52.5 261 36.0 291 , 40.2 321 44.3 351 48.5 381 52.6 262 36.2 292 40.3 322 44.5 352 48.6 382 52. 7 263 36.3 293 40.4 323 44.6 353 48.7 383 52.9 264 36.5 294 40.6 324 44.7 354 48.9 384 53.0 265 36.6 . 295 40.7 325 44.9 356 49.0 385 53.2 266 36.7 296 40.9 326 45.0 356 49.2 336 53.3 267 30.9 297 41.0 327 45.2 357 49.3 387 53.4 268 37.0 298 41.1 328 45.3 358 49.4 388 53.6 269 37.1 299 41.3 329 45.4 359 49.6 389 53.7 270 37.3 300 41.4 330 45.6 360 49.7 390 63.8 271 37.4 301 41.6 331 45.7 361 49.8 391 54.0 272 37.6 302 41.7 332 45.8 362 50.0 392 54.1 273 37.7 303 4(.8 333 46.0 363 50.1 393 54.3 274 37.8 304 42.0 334 46.1 364 50.3 394 54.4 275 38.0 305 42.1 335 46.3 365 50.4 395 54.5 276 38.1 306 42.3 336 46.4 366 50.5 396 54.7 277 38.2 307 42.4 337 46.5 367 50.7 397 54.3 278 38.4 308 42.5 338 46.7 368 50.8 398 54.9 279 38.5 309 42.7 339 46.8 369 60.9 399 55.1 280 38.7 310 42.8 340 46.9 370 ■ 51.1 400 65.2 281 38.8 311 42.9 341 47.1 371 51.2 401 55.4 282 38.9 312 43.1 342 47.2 372 5]. 4 402 55.5 283 39.1 313 43.2 343 47.4 373 51.5 403 55.6 284 39.2 314 43.4 344 47.5 374 51.6 404 56.8 285 39.3 315 43.5 345 47.6 375 51.8 405 55.9 286 39.5 316 43.6 346 47.8 376 61.9 406 56.1 287 39.6 317 43.8 347 47.9 377 52.1 407 56.2 288 39.8 318 43.9 348 48.0 378 52.2 408 56.3 289 39.9 319 44.0 34S 48.2 379 52.3 409 56.5 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 125 TABLE OF COMPARATIVE WEIGHTS AND MEASURES OF OIL— Continued. 32° GEAVITT. Ponnds. GalloDS. Ponnds. Gallons. Ponnds. Gallons. Ponnds. Gallons. Ponnds. Gallons. 258 35.8 288 40.0 318 44.2 348 48.3 378 52.5 259 36.0 289 40.1 319 44.3 349 48.5 379 52.6 260 36.1 290 40.3 320 44.5 350 48.6 380 52.8 261 36.3 291 40.4 321 44.6 351 48.8 381 52.9 262 36.4 292 40.6 322 44.7 352 48.9 382 53.1 263 36.5 293 40.7 323 44.9 353 49.0 383 .53.2 2M 36.7 394 40.8 324 45.0 354 49.2 384 53.3 265 36.8 293 41.0 325 45.1 355 49.3 385 53. S 266 36.9 296 41.1 326 45.3 356 49.4 386 53.6 267 37.1 297 41.3 327 45.4 357 49.6 387 .i3.8 268 37.2 298 41.4 328 45.6 358 49.7 388 53.9 269 37.4 299 41.5 329 45.7 259 49.9 389 54.0 270 37.5 300 41.7 330 45.8 360 50.0 390 54.2 271 37.6 301 41.8 331 46.0 361 50.1 391 54.3 272 37.8 302 42.0 332 46.1 362 50.3 392 54.5 273 37.9 303 42.1 333 46.3 363 50.4 393 54.6 274 38.1 304 42.2 334 46.4 364 SO. 6 394 54.7 275 38.2 305 42.4 335 46. S 365 50.7 395 54.9 276 38.3 306 42.5 336 46.7 366 50.8 396 55.0 277 38.5 307 42.6 337 46.8 367 61.0 397 55.1 278 38.6 308 42.8 338 47.0 368 51.1 398 55.3 279 38.8 I 309 42.9 339 47.1 369 51.3 399 65.4 280 38.9 310 43.1 340 47.2 370 51.4 400 56.6 281 39.0 311 43.2 341 47.4 371 51.5 401 55.7 282 39.2 312 43.3 342 47.5 372 51.7 402 55.8 283 39.3 313 43.5 343 47.7 372 51.8 403 56.0 284 39.6 314 43.6 344 47.8 374 52.0 404 56.1 285 39.0 315 43.8 345 ' 47.9 375 52.1 405 56.3 286 39.7 316 43.9 346 ' 48.1 376 52.2 406 56.4 287 39.9 317 44.0 347 1 48.2 377 52.4 407 56.5 33° GRAVITY. 267 35.9 287 40.1 317 44.3 347 4a6 377 S2.7 268 36.1 288 40.3 318 44.5 348 48.6 378 52.8 259 36.2 289 40.4 319 44.6 349 48.8 379 53.0 260 36.3 290 40.5 320 44.7 350 48.9 380 53.1 261 36.6 291 40.7 321 44.9 351 49.1 381 53.3 262 36.6 292 40.8 322 45.0 352 49.2 882 53.4 263 36.8 <, 293 41.0 323 45.2 353 49.3 383 53.5 264 36.9 294 41.1 324 45.3 354 49.3 384 53.7 265 37.0 295 41.2 325 45.4 355 49.6 385 53.8 266 37.2 296 41.4 326 45.6 356 49.8 386 54.0 267 37.3 297 41.5 327 45.7 357 49.9 387 54.1 268 37.5 298 41.7 328 45.9 358 50.0 388 54.2 269 37.6 299 41.8 329 46.0 359 50.2 389 51 4 270 37.7 300 41.9 330 46.1 360 50.3 390 54.5 271 37.9 301 42.1 331 46.3 361 50.5 391 54.7 272 38.0 302 42.2 332 46.4 362 50.6 392 54.8 273 38.2 303 42.4 333 46.5 363 50.7 393 64.9 274 38.3 304 42.5 334 46.7 364 50.9 394 55.1 275 38.4 305 42.6 335 46.8 365 51.0 395 55.2 276 38.6 300 42.8 336 47.0 366 51.2 396 55.4 277 38.7 307 42.9 337 47.1 367 51.3 397 55.5 278 38.9 308 43.1 338 47.2 368 51.4 398 55.6 279 39.0 309 43.2 339 47.4 369 51.6 399 55.8 280 39.1 310 43.3 340 47.5 370 51.7 400 55.9 281 39.3 311 43.5 341 47.7 371 51.9 401 56.1 282 39.4 312 43.6 342 47.8 372 52.0 402 56.2 283 39.6 313 43.8 343 47.9 373 52.1 403 56.3 284 39.7 314 43.9 344 48.1 374 52.3 404 56.5 285 39.8 315 44.0 345 48.2 375 52.4 405 56.6 286 40.0 316 44.2 346 48.4 376 52.6 406 56.8 126 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. TABLE OF COMPARATIVE WEIGHTS AND MEASURES OF OIL— Continued. 34° GRAVITY. Pounds. Gallons. Ponnds. Gallons. Pounds. Gallons. Ponnds. Gallons. Pounds. Gallon^, 255 35.9 285 40.1 315 44.3 345 48.5 375 52.7 256 86.0 286 40.2 316 44.4 346 48.7 376 52.9 257 36.1 287 40.4 317 44.6 347 48.8 377 63.0 258 36.3 269 40.5 318 44.7 348 49.0 378 63.2 259 36.4 289 40.6 319 44.9 349 49.1 379 53.3 260 36.6 290 40.8 320 45.0 350 49.2 380 53.4 261 36.7 291 40.0 331 45.1 351 49.4 381 53.6 262 36.8 293 41.1 322 45.3 352 49.5 382 53.7 263 37.0 293 41.2 323 45.4 353 49.6 383 53.9 264 37.1 294 41.3 324 45.6 354 49.8 384 54.0 265 37.3 295 41.5 325 45.7 365 49.9 385 54.1 266 37.4 296 41.6 326 45.8 366 50.1 386 54.3 267 37.6 297 41.8 327 46.0 357 50.2 387 54.4 368 37.7 298 41.9 328 46.1 358 50.4 388 54.6 269 37.8 299 43.1 329 46.3 359 60.5 389 547 270 38.0 300 42.2 330 46.4 360 50.6 390 54.9 271 38.1 301 42.3 331 46.6 361 50.8 391 55.0 272 38.2 302 42.5 332 46.7 362 50.9 392 65.1 273 38,4 303 42.6 333 46.8 363 61.1 393 55.3 274 38.5 304 42.8 334 47.0 364 51.3 394 55.4 275 38.7 305 42.9 335 47.1 365 51.3 395 55.6 276 38.8 306 43.0 336 47.3 366 51.5 396 55.7 277 38.9 307 43.2 337 47.4 367 51.6 397 55.8 278 39.1 308 43.3 338 47.5 368 61.8 398 56.0 279 39.2 309 43.5 339 47.7 369 51.9 399 56.1 280 39.4 310 43.6 840 47.8 370 52.0 400 56.3 281 39.5 311 43.7 341 48.0 371 52.2 401 56.4 282 39.7 312 43.9 342 48.1 372 62.3 402 66.5 283 39.8 313 44.0 343 48.2 373 52.5 403 56.7 284 39.9 314 44.2 344 48.4 374 62.6 404 56.8 35° GRAVITY. 254 35.9 284 40.2 314 44.4 344 48.7 374 52.9 255 36.1 265 40.3 315 44.6 345 48.8 375 53.1 256 36.2 286 40.5 316 44.7 346 49.0 376 53.2 257 36.4 287 40.6 317 44.9 347 49.1 377 53.4 268 36.5 288 40.8 318 45.0 348 49.2 378 53.5 259 36.6 289 40.9 319 45.1 349 49.4 379 53.6 260 36.8 290 41.0 320 45.3 350 49. 5n 380 53.8 261 36.9 291 41.2 321 45.4 351 49.7 381 53.9 262 37.1 292 41.3 323 45.6 352 49.8 382 54.1 263 37.2 293 41.5 323 45.7 353 60.0 383 64.2 364 37.4 294 41.6 324 * 45.9 354 60.1 384 54.4 265 37.5 295 41.7 325 46.0 355 50.2 386 54.5 266 37.6 296 41.9 326 46.1 356 50.4 386 54.6 267 37.8 297 43.0 327 46.3 367 50.5 387 54.8 268 37.9 298 42.3 328 46.4 358 50.7 388 54.9 269 38.1 299 43.3 339 46.6 359 50.8 389 55.1 270 38.2 300 42.5 330 46.7 360 50.9 390 56.2 271 38.4 301 42.6 331 46.8 361 51.1 391 65.3 272 38.5 302 42.7 332 47.0 362 51.2 392 55.6 273 38.6 303 43.9 333 47.1 363 61.4 39.S 55.6 274 38.8 304 43.0 334 47.3 364 51. 5 394 .■)0.8 275 38.9 305 43.3 335 47.4 365 51.7 395 55.9 276 39.1 30G 43.3 336 47.6 366 51.8 396 56.0 277 39.2 307 43.4 337 47.7 367 51.9 397 56.2 278 39.3 • 308 43.6 338 47.8 368 52.1 398 58.3 279 39.5 309 43.7 339 48.0 369 63.3 399 56.5 280 39 6 310 43.9 340 48.1 370 63.4 400 56.6 281 39.8 311 44.0 341 48.3 371 52.6 401 66.7 282 39.9 312 44.1 342 48.4 372 62.6 402 56.9 283 40.1 313 44.3 343 48.5 373 52.8 403 57.0 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 127 TABLE OF COMPARATIVE WEIGHTS AND MEASURES CI" OIL— Continued. 40° GRAVITY. PoandB. Gallons. Poimds. Gallons. Pounds. Gallons. |, Pounds. Gallons, Founds. , Gallons. 246 1 35.9 276 40.2 306 44.6 336 49.0 366 53.4 247 36.0 277 40.4 307 44.8 j 337 49.1 . 367 53.5 248 36.2 278 40.5 308 44.9 i 338 49.3 : 368 53.7 249 36.3 279 40.7 309 45.0 339 49.4 369 53.8 250 36.5 280 40.8 310 45.2 340 49.6 370 53.9 251 36.6 281 41.0 311 45.3 341 49.7 371 54.1 252 36.7 282 41.1 312 45.5 342 49.9 372 54.2 253 36.9 283 41.3 313 45.6 ; 343 50.0 373 54.4 254 37.0 284 41.4 314 45.8 ! 344 50.1 374 54.5 255 37.2 285 41.6 1 315 45.9 345 60.3 l| 375 54.7 256 37.3 286 41.7 i 316 46.1 346 50.4 j 376 54.8 257 37.5 287 41.8 317 46.2 347 50.6 377 55.0 258 37.6 288 42.0 318 46.4 j 348 50.7 378 55.1 259 37.8 289 42.1 ' 319 46.5 ! 349 50.9 379 55.2 260 37.9 290 42.3 320 46.7 350 51.0 380 55.4 261 38.1 291 43.4 321 46.8 351 51.2 1 381 55.5 262 38.2 292 42.6 322 46.9 352 51.3 1 382 55.7 263 38.4 293 42.7 323 47.1 353 51.5 383 55.8 264 38.5 294 42.9 324 47.2 354 51.6 1 384 56.0 265 38.6 295 , 43.0 325 47.4 355 51.8 385 56.1 266 ; 3&8 j 296 -43.2 326 47.5 356 51.9 386 56.3 267 ' 38.9 297 43.3 327 47.7 357 52.0 387 56.4 268 39.1 298 43.5 328 47.8 358 52.2 388 56.6 269 I 39.2 j 299 43.6 329 48.0 359 52.3 389 56.7 276 39.4 300 43.7 330 48.1 360 52.5 1 390 56.9 271 1 39.5 1 301 43.9 331 48.3 361 52.6 391 57.0 272 39.7 302 44.0 332 48.4 362 52.8 392 57.1 273 39.8 303 44.2 333 48.5 363 52.9 393 ! 57.3 274 1 39.9 304 44.3 334 48.7 364 53.1 394 57.4 275 i '"■' 305 44.5 335 48.8 365 53.2 395 57.6 43= GRAVITY. 242 j 35.9 272 40.4 ' 302 44.8 332 49.3 * 362 53.7 243 36.1 273 40.5 ' 303 43.0 338 49.4 363 53.9 244 36.2 274 40.6 304 43.1 334 49.5 364 54.0 245 36.3 275 40.8 305 45.2 333 49.7 365 54.1 246 36.5 276 40.9 306 45.4 336 49.8 366 54.3 247 36.6 277 41.1 307 43.3 337 50.0 367 54.4 248 36.8 278 41.2 308 45.7 338 50.1 368 54.6 249 36.9 279 41.4 309 45. S 339 50.3 369 54.7 250 37.1 280 41.5 1 310 46.0 340 50.4 370 54.9 251 37.2 281 41.7 ' 311 46.1 341 50.6 371 55.0 252 37.4 282 41.8 '< 312 46.3 342 50.7 372 55.2 253 37.5 283 42.0 313 46.4 343 50.9 373 55.3 254 37.7 284 42.1 314 46.0 344 31.0 374 55.5 255 37.8 285 42.3 315 46.7 343 51.2 375 53.6 256 38.0 286 42.4 310 46.9 346 .nl.3 376 55.8 257 38.1 287 42.6 317 47.0 347 51.5 377 55.9 258 38.3 288 42.7 318 47.2 348 31.0 378 36.1 259 38.4 289 42.9 319 47.3 349 51.8 379 56.2 260 38.6 290 43.0 320 47.5 330 51.9 1 380 56.4 261 38.7 291 43.2 321 47.6 351 52.1 ! 381 36.5 262 3&9 292 43.3 322 47.8 352 52.2 i 382 56.7 263 39.0 293 4.S.5 323 47.9 353 52.4 1 383 56.8 264 39.2 294 43.6 324 48.1 354 52.5 1 384 57.0 265 39.3 295 43.8 325 48.2 353 52.7 ! 385 57.1 266 39.5 296 43.9 326 48.4 356 52.8 386 57.3 267 39.6 297 44.1 327 48.5 357 53.0 387 57.4 268 39.8 298 44.2 328 48.7 358 53.1 388 57.6 269 39.9 299 44.4 329 48.8 359 53.3 389 57.7 270 40.1 300 44.5 330 49.0 360 53.4 390 57.9 271 40.2 301 44.7 331 49.1 361 53.6 391 58.0 128 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. TABLE OF COMPARATIVE WEIGHTS AND MEASUEES OF OIL— Continued. 44° GEATITY. Ponnds, Gallons. Pounds. Gallons. Pounds. Gallons. Pounds. Gallons. Pounds. Gallons. 240 35.8 270 40.2 300 44.7 1 330 49.2 360 53.7 241 35.9 271 40.4 301 44.9 331 49.3 361 53.8 242 36.1 272 40.5 302 45.0 332 49.5 362 54.0 243 36.2 273 40.7 303 45.2 333 49.6 363 54.1 244 36.4 274 40.8 304 45.3 334 49.8 364 54.3 245 36.5 275 41.0 305 45.5 335 49.9 365 54.4 246 36.7 276 41.1 306 45.6 j 336 50.1 366 54.6 247 36.8 277 41.3 307 45.8 337 50.2 367 54.7 248 37.0 278 41.4 308 45.9 338 50.4 368 54.9 249 37.1 279 41.6 309 46.1 339 50.5 369 55.0 259 37.3 280 41.7 310 46.2 340 50.7 370 55.2 261 37.4 281 41.9 311 46.4 341 50.8 371 55.3 252 37.6 282 42.0 312 46.5 342 51.0 372 55.5 253 37.7 283 42.2 313 46.7 343 51.1 373 55.6 254 37.9 284 42.3 314 46.8 344 51.3 374 55.8 255 38.0 285 42.5 315 47.0 345 51.4 375 55.9 256 38.2 286 42.6 316 47.1 346 51.6 376 56.0 257 38.3 287 42.7 317 47.3 347 51.7 377 56.2 258 38.5 288 42.9 318 47.4 348 51.9 378 56.3 259 38.6 289 43.1 319 47.6 349 52.0 379 56.5 260 38.8 290 43.2 320 47.7 350 52.2 380 56.6 261 38.9 291 43.4 321 47.9 351 52.3 381 56.8 262 39.1 ?92 43.5 322 48.0 352 52.5 382 56.9 263 39.2 293 43.7 323 48.2 353 52.6 383 57.1 264 39.4 294 43.8 324 48.3 354 52.8 384 67.2 265 39.5 295 44.0 325 48.5 355 52.9 385 57.4 266^ 39.6 296 44. i 326 48.6 356 53.1 3S6 57.5 267 39.8 297 44.3 327 48.7 357 53.2 387 57.7 268 39.9 293 44.4 328 48.9 358 53.4 338 67.8 269 40.1 209 44.6 329 49.0 359 53.5 389 58.0 45° GKAVITT. 240 36.0 270 40.5 300 45.0 330 49.5 360 54.0 241 36.2 271 40.7 301 45.2 331 49.7 361 64.2 242 36.3 272 40.8 302 45.3 332 49.8 362 54.3 243 36.5 273 41.0 303 45.5 333 60.0 363 54.5 244 36.6 274 41.1 304 45.6 334 60.1 361 54.6 245 36.8 275 41.3 305 45.8 335 50.3 365 64.8 246 36.9 276 41.4 306 45.9 336 50.4 366 54.9 247 37.1 277 • 41.6 307 46.1 837 60.6 367 55,1 248 37.2 278 41.7 308 46.2 338 60.7 368 55.2 249 37.4 279 41.9 309 46.4 339 50.9 369 65.4 250 37.5 280 42.0 310 46.5 340 51.0 370 55.5 251 37.7 281 42.2 311 46.7 341 51.2 371 65.7 252 37.8 282 42.3 312 46.8 342 61.3 372 55.8 263 38.0 283 42.5 313 47.0 343 61.5 373 56.0 254 38.1 234 42.6 314 47.1 344 51.6 374 56.1 255 38.3 285 42.8 315 47.3 345 51.8 375 66.3 256 38.4 286 42.9 316 47.4 346 51.9 376 56.4 257 38.6 287 43.1 317 47.6 347 52.1 377 56.6 258 38.7 288 43.2 318 47.7 348 52.2 378 56.7 269 38.9 289 43.4 319 47.9 349 62.4 379 56.9 260 39.0 290 43.5 320 •48.0 350 52.5 380 57.0 261 39.2 291 43.7 321 48.2 351 52.7 381 57.2 262 39.3 292 43.8 322 48.3 352 52.8 382 57.3 263 39.5 293 44.0 323 48.5 353 53.0 383 57.5 264 39.6 294 44.1 324 48.6 354 63.1 384 87.6 265 39.8 295 44.3 325 48.8 355 53.3 385 67.8 266 39.0 296 44.4 326 48.9 356 63.4 386 57.9 287 40.1 297 44.6 327 49.1 357 53.6 387 58.1 268 40.2 298 44.7 328 49.2 358 63.7 388 68.2 269 40.4 299 44.9 329 49.4 359 53.9 389 58.4 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 129 TABLE OF COMPARATIVE WEIGHTS AND MEASURES OF OIL— Csntiuued. 46° GEA.VITT. Poands. Gallons. Pounds. Gallons. Founds. Gallons. Pounds. Gallons. Pounds. Gallons. 238 35.9 268 40.4 298 45.0 328 49.5 358 64.0 239 36.1 269 40.6 299 45.1 329 49.7 359 64.2 240 36.2 270 40.7 300 45.3 330 49.8 360 54.3 241 36.4 271 40.9 301 45.4 331 50.0 361 64.5 242 36.5 272 41.0 302 45.6 332 50.1 362 54.6 243 30.7 273 41.2 303 45.7 333 50.3 363 54.8 244 36.8 274 41.3 304 45.9 334 50.4 364 54.9 245 37.0 275 41.5 305 46.0 335 50.6 365 55.1 246 37.1 276 41.7 306 46.2 336 .50.7 366 55.2 247 37.3 277 41.8 307 46.3 337 50.9 357 55.4 248 37.4 278 42.0 308 46.5 .■i38 51.0 368 55.5 249 37.6 279 42.1 389 46.6 339 51.2 369 55.7 250 37.7 280 42.3 310 46.8 340 61.3 370 ■55.8 251 37.9 281 42.4 311 46.9 341 51.5 371 66.0 252 38.0 282 42.6 312 47.1 342 51.6 372 56.1 253 38.2 283 42.7 313 47.2 343 51.8 373 56.3 254 38.3 284 42.9 314 47.4 344 51.9 374 !^.i 255 38.5 285 43.0 315 47.5 345 52.1 375 56.6 256 38.6 286 43.2 316 47.7 346 52.2 376 5^7 257 38.8 287 43.3 317 47.8 347 52.4 377 56.9 258 38.9 288 43.5 318 48.0 348 52.5 378 57.0 259 39.1 289 43.6 319 48.1 349 52.7 379 57.2 , 260 39.2 : 290 43.8 320 48.3 350 52.8 380 57.3 261 39.4 291 43.9 321 48.4 351 53.0 381 57.5 262 39.5 292 44.1 322 48.6 352 53.1 382 57.6 263 39.7 293 44.2 323 48.7 353 53.3 383 57.8 264 39.8 294 44.4 324 48.9 354 53.4 384 57.9 265 40.0 295 44.5 325 49.1 355 53.6 385 58.1 266 40.1 296 44.7 326 49.2 356 53.7 386 58.3 267 40.3 297 44.8 i 327 49.4 357 53.9 387 58.4 47° GPlAVITT. 236 35.8 266 40.4 296 44.9 326 49.5 356 54.0 237 36.0 267 40.5 297 45.1 327 49 6 357 54.1 238 36.1 268 40.7 298 45.2 328 49.8 353 54.3 239 36.3 269 40.8 299 45.4 329 49.9 359 54.5 240 36.4 270 41.0 300 45.5 330 50.1 360 54.6 241 36.6 271 41.1 301 45.7 331 50.2 361 54.8 242 36.7 272 41.3 302 45.8 332 .50.4 362 54.9 243 36.9 273 41.4 303 46.0 333 50.5 363 55.1 244 37.0 274 41.6 304 46.1 334 50.7 364 55.2 245 37.2 275 41.7 305 46.3 335 50.8 365 55.4 240 37.3 276 41.9 306 46.4 336 51.0 366 55.6 247 37.5 277 42.0 307 46.6 337 51.1 367 55.7 248 37.0 278 42.2 308 46.7 338 51.3 368 55.8 249 37.8 279 42.4 309 46.9 339 51.5 369 56.0 260 38.0 280 42.5 310 47.1 340 51.6 370 56.2 251 38.1 281 42.7 311 47.2 341 51.8 371 56.3 252 38.3 282 42.8 312 47.4 342 51.9 372 56.5 253 38.4 283 43.0 313 47.5 343 52.1 373 56.6 254 38.6 284 43.1 314 47.7 344 52.2 374 56.8 255 38.7 285 43.3 315 47.8 345 52.4 375 56.9 256 38.9 286 43.4 316 48.0 346 52.5 376 57.1 257 39.0 287 43.6 317 48.1 347 52.7 377 57.2 258 39.2 288 43.7 318 48.3 348 52.8 378 57.4 259 39.3 289 43.9 319 48.4 349 53.0 379 57.5 260 39 5 290 44.0 320 48.6 350 53.1 380 57.7 261 39.6 291 44.2 321 48.7 351 53.3 381 57.8 262 39.8 292 44.3 322 48.9 352 53.4 382 •58.0 263 39 9 293 44.5 323 49.0 353 53.5 383 58.1 264 40.1 294 44.6 324 49.2 354 53.7 384 58.3 265 40.2 295 44.8 325 49 3 355 53.9 385 58.4 130 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. TABLE OF COMPARATIVE WEIGHTS AND MEASURES OF OIL— Continued. 50O GEATITY. Pounds. Gallons. Pounds. Gallons. Pounds. Gallons. Pounds. Gallons. Pounds. Gallons. 234 36.1 264 40.8 294 45.4 324 50.0 364 54.6 235 36.3 265 40.9 295 45.5 325 60.2 365 54.8 236 36.4 266 41.1 296 45,7 326 60.3 366 55.0 237 36.6 267 41.2 297 45.8 327 50.5 367 56.1 238 36.7 268 41.4 298 46.0 328 50.6 358 65.3 239 36.9 269 41.5 299 46.2 329 50,8 359 55.4 240 37,0 270 41.7 300 46.3 330 50,9 360 55.6 241 37.2 271 41.8 301 46.5 331 51.1 361 55.7 242 37.4 272 42.0 302 40,6 332 51.2 362 65.9 243 37.5 273 42.1 303 46.8 333 51.4 363 56.0 244 37.7 274 42.3 304 46.9 334 51.6 364 56.2 245 37.8 275 42.4 305 47.1 335 51.7 365 66.3 246 38.0 276 42,6 306 47.2 336 51.9 368 56.6 247 38.1 277 42.8 307 47.4 337 52.0 367 66.6 248 38.3 278 42.9 308 47.5 338 52.2 368 66.8 249 38.4 279 43.1 309 47.7 339 52.3 369 57.0 250 38.6 280 43.2 310 47.8 340 52,5 370 57.1 251 38.7 281 43.4 311 48.0 341 52.6 371 57.3 252 38.9 282 43.5 312 48.2 342 52.8 372 57.4 253 39.1 283 43.7 313 48.3 343 62.9 373 67.6 254 39.2 284 43.'8 314 48.5 344 63.1 374 57.7 255 39.4 285 44.0 315 48.6 345 53.2 375 57.9 256 39.5 286 44.2 316 48.8 340 53.4 376 58.0 257 39.7 287 44.3 317 48.9 347 53.6 377 58.2 258 39.8 288 44.5 318 49.1 348 53.7 378 58.3 259 40.0 289 44.6 319 49.2 349 53.9 379 58.5 260 40.1 290 44.8 320 49.4 350 64.0 380 58.7 261 40.3 291 44.9 321 49.5 351 54.2 381 58,8 262 40.4 292 45.1 322 49.7 352 54.3 382 59.0 263 40.6 293 45.2 323 49.9 353 54.5 383 59.1 60° GRAYIXT. 220 35.8 250 ■40.7 280 45.6 310 60.5 340 65.4 221 36.0 251 40.9 281 45.8 311 60.7 341 66.6 222 36.1 252 41.1 282 45.9 312 50.8 342 55.7 223 36.3 253 41.2 283 46.1 313 51.0 343 55.9 224 36.5 254 41.4 284 46 3 314 51,2 344 56.0 225 36.6 255 41.6 285 46.4 315 51.3 345 56.2 226 36.8 266 41.7 286 46.6 316 51.5 346 56.4 227 37.0 267 41.9 287 40.8 317 61.6 347 56.5 228 37.1 258 42.0 288 46.9 318 61.8 348 56.7 229 37.3 259 42.2 289 47.1 319 52.0 349 56.9 230 37.5 260 42.4 290 47.2 320 52.1 360 57.0 231 37.6 261 42.5 291 47.4 321 52.3 351 57.2 232 37.8 262 42.7 292 47.0 322 62.4 352 57.3 233 38.0 203 42.8 293 47.7 323 62.6 353 57.5 234 38.1 264 43.0 294 47.9 324 52.8 354 67.7 235 38.3 265 43.2 296 48,1 325 62.9 355 57.8 236 38.5 266 43.3 296 48.2 326 63.1 356 58.0 237 38.6 267 43.5 297 48.4 327 53.3 357 58.2 238 38.8 268 43.7 298 48.5 328 63.4 358 58.3 239 38.9 269 43.8 299 48.7 329 63.6 359 58.5 240 39.1 270 44.0 300 48.9 330 53.8 360 68.6 241 39.3 271 , 44.1 301 49.0 331 63.9 361 ■ 58.8 242 39.4 272 44.3 302 49.2 332 54.1 362 59.0 243 39.6 273 44.5 303 49.4 333 54 3 363 59.1 244 39.8 274 44.6 304 49.5 334 64.4 364 59.3 245 39.9 275 44.8 305 49.7 335 54.6 365 59.5 246 40.1 276 45.0 306 49.9 336 54.7 366 69.6 247 40.2 277 45.1 307 50.0 337 ,64.9 367 59.8 248 40.4 278 45.3 308 50.2 338 55.1 368 59.9 249 40.6 279 4r. 5 309 50.3 339 55.2 369 60.1 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 131 TABLE OF COMPAKATIVE WEIGHTS AND MEASURES OF OIL— Coutiuued. 63° GRAVITY. Ponitds. Gallons. Pounds. Gallons. Ponnda. Gallons. Pounds. Gallons. Pounds. Gallons. 217 35.9 247 40.9 277 45.8 307 50.8 337 55.8 218 36.1 248 41.0 278 46.0 308 51.0 338 55.9 219 36.2 249 41.2 279 46.2 309 51.1 339 ■ 56.1 220 38.4 250 41.4 280 46.3 310 51.3 340 56.3 221 36.6 251 41.5 281 46.5 311 51.5 341 56.4 222 36.7 252 41.7 282 46.7 312 51.6 342 56.6 223 36.9 253 41.9 283 46.8 313 51.8 343 56.8 224 37.1 254 42.0 284 47.0 314 52.0 344 56.9 225 37.2 255 42.2 285 47.2 315 52.1 345 57.1 226 37.4 256 42.4 286 47.3 316 52.3 346 67.3 227 37.6 257 42.5 287 47.5 317 52.5 347 57.4 228 37.7 258 42.7 288 47.7 318 52.6 348 57.6 220 37.9 259 42.9 289 47.8 319 52.8 349 57.8 230 38.1 260 43.0 290 48.0 320 53.0 350 57.9 231 38.2 261 43.2 291 48.2 321 53.1 351 68.1 232 38.4 262 43.4 292 48.3 322 53.3 362 58.3 233 38.6 263 43.5 293 48.5 323 53.5 353 58.4 234 38.7 264 43.7 294 48.7 324 53.6 354 58.6 233 88.9 265 43.9 295 48.8 325 53.8 355 58.8 236 39.1 266 44.0 296 49.0 326 54.0 356 58.9 237 39.3 267 44.2 297 49.2 327 54.1 357 59.1 238 39.4 268 44.4 298 49 3 328 54.3 358 59.2 239 39.6 269 44.5 299 49.5 329 54 5 359 59.4 240 39.7 270. 44.7 300 49.7 330 54.6 360 59.6 241 39 9 271 44.9 301 49.8 331 54.8 361 59.8 242 40.1 272 45.0 302 50.0 332 54.9 362 59.9 243 40.2 273 45.2 303 50.2 333 55.1 363 60.1 244 40.4 274 45.3 304 50.3 334 55.3 364 60.2 245 40.6 275 45.5 305 50.5 335 55.4 365 60.4 246 40.7 276 45.7 306 50.7 336 55.6 366- 60.6 05° GBAVITr. 214 35.8 244 40.8 274 45.8 304 50.8 334 55.9 215 36.0 245 41.0 275 46.0 305 51.0 335 56.0 216 36.1 246 41.1 276 46.1 306 51.2 336 56.2 217 36.3 247 41.3 277 46.3 307 51.3 337 56.4 218 36.5 248 41.5 278 ■ 46.5 308 51.5 338 66.5 219 36.6 249 41.6 279 46.6 309 51.7 339 56. 7 220 36.8 250 41.8 280 46.8 310 51.8 340 56.9 221 37.0 251 42.0 281 47.0 311 52.0 341 57.0 222 37.1 252 42.1 282 47.2 312 52.2 342 57.2 223 37.3 253 42.3 283 47.3 313 62.3 343 57.4 224 37.5 254 42.5 284 47.5 314 52.5 344 57.5 225 37.6 255 42.6 285 47.7 315 52.7 345 57.7 226 37.8 256 4a 8 286 47.8 316 62.8 346 57.9 227 38.0 257 43.0 287 48.0 317 53.0 347 58.0 228 38.1 258 43.1 288 48.2 318 53.2 348 58.2 229 38.3 259 43.3 289 48.3 319 53.3 349 58.4 230 38.5 260 43.5 290 48.5 320 53.5 350 58.5 231 38.6 261 43.6 291 48.7 321 53.7 351 58.7 232 38.8 262 43.8 292 48.8 322 53.8 352 58.9 233 39 263 44.0 293 49.0 323 54.0 353 59.0 234 391 264 44.1 294 49.2 324 54.2 354 59.2 235 39.3 265 44.3 295 49.3 325 54.3 355 59.4 236 39 5 266 44.5 296 49.5 326 54.5 356 69.6 237 39.6 267 44.6 297 49.7 .■!27 54.7 357- 69.7 238 39.8 268 44.8 298 49.8 328 54.8 358 59.9 239 40.0 269 45.0 299 50.0 329 55.0 359 80.0 240 40.1 270 45.1 300 50.2 330 55.2 360 60.2 241 40.3 271 45.3 301 50.3 331 55.4 361 60.4 242 40.5 272 45.5 302 50.5 332 55.5 362 60.5 243 40.6 273 45.6 303 50.7 333 55.7 363 60.7 132 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. TABLE OF COMPAEATIVE WEIGHTS AND MEASUEES OF OIL— Continued. 70° GEATITY. Founds. Gallona. Foands. G-Edlons. Ponnda. Gallons. Ponnda. Gallons. Ponnda. Gallons. 210 36.0 240 41.2 270 46.3 300 51.4 330 56.6 211 36.2 241 41.3 271 46.5 301 51.6 331 56.8 212 36.4 242 41.5 272 46.6 302 51.8 332 56.9 213 36.5 243 41.7 273 46.8 303 52.0 333 57.1 214 36.7 244 41.9 274 47.0 304 52.1 334 57.3 215 30.9 245 42.0 275 47.2 305 S2.3 336 57.4 216 37.1 246 42.2 276 47.3 306 52.5 336 57.6 217 37.2 247 42.4 277 47.6 307 52.6 337 67.8 218 37.4 248 42.5 278 47.7 308 52.8 338 68.0 219 37.6 249 42.7 279 47.8 309 53.0 339 58.1 220 37.7- 250 42.9 280 48.0 310 53.2 340 58.3 221 37.9 251 43.0 281 48.2 311 53.3 341 68.5 222 38.1 262 43.2 282 48.4 312 53.5 342 58.6 223 38.2 253 43.4 283 48.5 313 53.7 343 58.8 224 38.4 254 43.6 284 48.7 314 53.9 344 59.0 225 38.6 255 43.7 285 48.9 315 54.0 346 69.2 226 38.8 256 43.9 286 49.1 316 64.2 346 59.3 227 38.9 257 44.1 287 49.2 317 64.4 347 59.5 228 39.1 268 44.2 288 49.4 318 54.5 348 59.7 229 39.3 259 44.4 289 49.6 319 54.7 349 59.8 230 39.4 260 44.6 290 49.7 320 64.9 360 60.0 231 39.6 261 44.8 291 49.9 321 55.0 351 60.2 232 39.8 262 44.9 292 50.1 322 55.2 362 60.4 233 40.0 263 46.1 293 50.2 323 ■ 55.4 353 60.5 234 40.1 264 46.3 294 50.4 324 55.6 354 60.7 235 40.3 265 46.5 295 50.6 326 55.7 355 60.9 236 40.5 266 45.6 296 60.8 326 65.9 356 61.0 237 40.6 267 45.8 297 50.9 327 56.1 367 61.2 238 40.8 268 46.0 298 51.1 328 56.2 368 61.4 239 41.0 269 46.1 299 51.3 329 56.4 359 61.6 86° GRAVITY. 195 36.0 225 41.5 255 47.0 285 52.5 315 58.1 196 36.1 226 41.7 256 47.2 286 52.7 316 68.3 197 36.3 227 ■ 41.9 257 47.4 287 52.9 317 68.4 198 36.5 228 42.0 258 47.6 288 53.1 318 58.6 199 36.7 229 42.2 259 47.8 289 53.3 319 58.8 200 86.9 230 42.4 260 47.9 290 53.5 320 69.0 201 37.1 231 42.6 261 48.1 291 53.6 321 59.2 202 37.2 232 42.8 262 48.3 292 53.8 322 59.4 203 37.4 233 43.0 263 48.5 293 54.0 323 59.6 204 37.6 234 43.1 264 48.7 294 64.2 324 59.7 205 37.8 235 43.3 265 48.9 296 64.4 325 59.9 206 38.0 236 43.5 266 49.0 296 54.6 326 60.1 207 38.2 237 43.7 267 49.2 297 54.8 327 60.3 208 38.4 238 43.9 268 49.4 298 64.9 328 60.5 209 38.5 239 44.1 269 49.6 299 65.1 329 60.7 210 38.7 240 44.2 270 49.8 300 55.3 330 60.8 2U 38.9 241 44.4 271 50.0 301 65.5 331 61.0 212 39.1 242 44.6 272 60.1 302 55.7 332 61.2 213 39.3 243 44.8 273 50.3 303 55.9 333 61.4 214 39.5 244 45.0 274 50.5, 304 66.1 334 61.6 216 39.6 245 45.2 275 60.7 306 66.2 335 61.8 216 39.8 246 45.4 276 50.9 306 56.4 336 62.0 217 40.0 247 45.6 277 51.1 307 66.6 337 62.1 218 40.2 248 46.7 278 51.3 308 56.8 338 62.3 219 40.4 249 45.9 279 5L4 309 57.0 339 62.5 220 40.6 250 46.1 280 51.6 310 67.2 340 62.7 221 40.7 251 46.3 281 61.8 311 57.3 341 62.9 228 40.9 252 46.6 282 62.0 312 57.5 342 63.1 223 41.1 253 46.6 283 52.2 313 57.7 343 63.2 224 41.3 264 46.8 284 52.4 314 57.9 344 63.4 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 133 TABLE OF THE SPECIFIC GRAVITY CORRESPONDING TO EACH DEGREE OF BAUME'S HYDROMETER; ALSO, THE NUMBER OF POUNDS CONTAINED IN ONE UNITED STATES GALLON AT 60° F. Baam6. Specific gravity. In one gallon. Baiim6. Specific giavity. In one gallon. Deg. Deg. PouTids. Deg. Deg. Pmmda. 10 1.0000 8.33 43 0. 8092 6.74 U 0.9929 8.27 44 0. 8045 6.70 12 0. 9859 8.21 45 0. 8000 6.66 13 0. 9790 8.16 46 0. 7954 6.63 14 0. 9722 8.10 47 0. 7909 6.59 IS 0. 9655 8.04 48 0. 7805 6.55 16 0.9589 7.99 49 0. 7821 6.52 17 0. 9523 7.93 60 0. 7777 6.48 18 0.9459 7.88 51 0. 7734 6.44 19 0. 9395 7.83 52 0. 7692 6.41 20 0. 9333 7.78 53 0. 7650 6.37 21 0. 9271 7.72 54 0.7608 6.34 22 0.9210 7.67 55 0.7567 6.30 23 0.9150 7.62 56 0. 7526 6.27 24 0. 9090 7.57 57 0. 7486 6.24 25 0. 9032 7.53 68 0.7446 6.20 26 0.8974 7.48 59 0.7407 6.17 27 0. 8917 7.43 60 0. 7308 6.14 28 0.8860 7.38 61 0. 7329 6.11 29 0. 8805 7.34 62 0.7290 6.07 30 0. 8750 7.29 63 0. 7253 6.04 31 0.8695 7.24 64 0. 7216 6.01 32 0.8641 7.20 65 0. 7179 5.98 33 0.8588 7.15 66 0.7142 5.95 34 0.8536 7.11 67 0. 7106 5.92 35 0.8484 7.07 68 0. 7070 5.89 36 0.8433 7.03 69 0. 7035 5.80 37 0. 8383 6.98 70 0. 7000 5.83 38 0.8333 6.94 75 0.6829 6.69 39 0.8284 6.90 80 0. 6666 5.55 40 0. 8235 6.86 85 0. 6511 5.42 41 0. 8187 6.82 90 0. 6363 5.30 42 0.8139 6.78 95 0. 6222 5.18 ! MEMORANDA. Jne United States gallou of pure water = 231 cubic inches, coutains 58,318 grains (or 3779.031 grams) = 8.331 iioiuids a mi; id One imperial gallon of pure water — 277.276 cubic inches, contains 70,000 grains (or 4536.029 grams) = 10 pounds avoinluiHii One cubic foot of pure water at 60° F. contains 1,000 ounces = 62.5 pounds avoirdupois. To reduce imperial gallons to United States gallons, divide by 1.2. To reduce United States gallons to imperial gallons, multiply by 1.2. To reduce United States gallons to cubic feet, divide by 7.5. To reduce cubic feet to United States gallons, multiply by 7.5. To find the number of pounds avoirdupois in one cubic foot of any substance, multiply its specific gravity by 62.5. To find the degree Baum€ corresponding to any specific gravity: 140 sp. gr. To find the specific gravity corresponding to any degree Baum^: 140 130 + B.°' ■130 = B.o 134 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. Chapter X.— PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM IN THE DURING THE CENSUS YEAR. UNITED STATES Section L— THE CONDITIONS OF THE PROBLEM. The localities which furnished the petroleum which entered the commerce of the United States during the census year were the region in northwestern Pennsylvania north and east of Pittsburgh; Mecca, in Trumbull county, Grafton, in Lorain county, and Washington county, Ohio ; Pleasants, Wood, and Ritchie counties, West Virginia; Greene county, in southwestern Pennsylvania, and Glasgow, in Barren county, Kentucky. The actual production of petroleum in the United States cannot be accurately given for any period of time; but an approximate estimate has been made up from all available sources of information, which is believed to be as nearly correct as can be made. The reports of the pipe-lines are believed to be correct ; but they do not necessarily represent the i)roduction of oil. The statistics of production are usually made up of the total amount of oil run into the pipe-lines, an estimated amount handled by private lines and tank-cars, and " dump oil" handled in barrels, to be modified by adding or subtracting the amount of oil added to or subtracted from the stock in private and well tanks during the year. The receipts of the incorporated pipe-lines have been reported in accordance with the requirements of a law of the state of Pennsylvania, and are easily accessible. I have received estimates of the oil handled by private lines and "dump oil", verified in some instances from independent sources, and, on the whole, I believe from well- informed and reliable parties. The estimation of the amount of oil held in tanks at wells is at all times a problem of great difEiculty. This difEiculty is due to the fact that the business of producing oil is conducted in such a manner that the owners of the wells themselves do not know how much oil is in their tanks ; and further, that they do not, in the aggregate, care to have the production of their wells known. Again, if the'owners were anxious to have a census of the oil in tanks taken, it would have to be done simultaneously, as the amount in the tanks is constantly changing; and such concerted action as would be necessary would be beset with practical difficulties if it were unanimously agreed upon. Mr. J. C. Welch is in constant communication with a number of those producers who conduct their business in the most systematic manner, and really know from actual measurement how much oil runs into their tanks from day to day. From this exact information, and much other scarcely less reliable in its character, he makes up his daily and monthly reports, whicli are much the most reliable of any furnished in reference to this subject. I shall therefore quote from his reports in reference to this matter. In his report for August, 1879, he writes : There is no accumulation of stocks at wells anywhere except in the Bradford district. In the Bradford district, as is well known, the stocks at wells are very large, generally and prohably rightly estimated in the vicinity of 1,500,000 barrels. By my table, given above, of comparative stocks at wells of the same owners July 1 and August 1, I find on the Bradford stocks my returns show an increase of a little over 3 per cent. Taking this increase on, say, 1,400,000 barrels, and it would make about 45,000 barrels of July production as having gone into stocks at wells. This would be about 1,500 barrels per day, and, added to July Bradford pipe-ruus, would make my estimate of the production of that district saved in July a daily average of 39,556 barrels. In districts other than Bradford I think the pipe-runs of July substantially represent the production. In the light of these facts, and bringing forward my estimate of June, I estimate the production out of the ground, with the exception of what was lost in the Bradford district in July (of which no intelligent estimate can be made), as follows : July. June. Barrele. 6,569 6,034 1,086 3,679 39, 556 Barrels. 7,000 5,100 1,100 3,900 41, 600 55, 924 58, 700 In his September report he says : My returns of the stocks at wells of the same owners in the Bradford district August 1 and September 1 show great uniformity. In his October report he writes : The Bradford stocks at wells October 1, compared with September 1, show a decline of 7 per cent. Taking this percentage from tli" presumed stocks at wells in the Bradford district September 1, 1,500,000 barrels, and it makes a decrease in September of 105,000, or 3,500 barrels a day going into pipe-runs. In November his returns from the owners of the wells showed a gain of over 5 per cent., giving 1,470,000 barrels as the stock November 1. Owing to the loss during that month, the reported stocks December 1 were 1,395,000 barrels, the same as on October 1. Referring to his reports from well owners for December, in that for January, 1880, he says : This shows a decline in the Bradford stocks I received of 17 per cent., and substantially no change in the stocks in Butler and Clarion. Assuming a stock at the Bradford wells, December 1, of 1,400,000 barrels, which in the general estimate is not far from being right, a decline of 17 per cent, would reduce them during December 238,000 barrels. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 135 III his Februai-y report he says : The decline in the Bradford district on the above stocks in January was t> per cent., against a decline in December of the stocks I received of 17 per cent. His returns show a gain in February of 7 per cent., in March of 13 per cent., and in April of H^ per cent. In his May report he states : I have returns of 121,993 barrels of oil at 882 wells. May 1, making an average per well of 138 barrels. Taking tlie Bradford wells, May 1, at 6,600, it would make a total stock at those wells. May 1, of 910,800. » » » Drilling wells finished in May have been very considerable in number, and wiU show a high average of production, as the new territory now being operated upon between Bordell City and the Gray and Van Vleck wells has proved esceptioually rich. In his report for June, which brings up his statistics to June 1, 1880, and closes the census year, he says: I have received returns of 988 Bradford wells, June 1, with stocks at them, exclusive of wells that had their well stocks burned in May. These 9^8 wells had stocks, June 1, of 167,694 barrels, au average of 171 barrels. Taking 7,000 wells as the number in the Bradford district, June 1, and with this average the total Bradford well stocks, June 1, were 1,197,000. The large amount of oil lost in the Bradford district makes estimates on the production there an uncertain thing. The amount lost now is estimated as high as 10,000 and 12,000 barrels daily. Mr. Welch estimated the average number of barrels per well for April as 138, and for May as 171; an increase in average well stocks during May of nearly 24 per cent, per well, and in total well stocks of over 31 per cent. In his report for August, 1880, he says : I have received returns from 1,443 Bradford wells, August 1, showing stock at them of 270,821 barrels. The average per well is 187.6. Of these 1,443 wells, 1,078 belong to companies that have 30 wells or more, with an average per well of 187^ barrels; the other 365 wells, from companies owning less than 30 wells, show an average per well of 1S8J^ barrels. This, I think, shows clearly that my average of 167.6 for the entire number of weUs is not vitiated on account of the returns being mostly from the larger companies. I think this statement is good evidence of the general accuracy of Mr. Welch's conclusions, as the 1,443 wells were about one-fifth of the whole number at that time in the Bradford district. In an editorial article, August 1, 1879, the Oil City Derrick remarks: There is a large extent of territory in the Bradford field, but it has now 4,700 producing well. In an article the following day the same paper remarks : The Derrick is generally able to back up its assertions with figures, and we have prepared a table of all wells completed in the Bradford region since drilling began in 1375, with their production each month. These figures have been carefully compiled from the monthly oil reports, and are as accurate as can possibly be obtained without visiting personally every well in the region. We believe the table below does not vary from the actual producing wells 100. I have completed this table from the tiles of the Derrick to September 1, 1880, and have added a column showing the average initial daily production per well for the productive wells drilled each month. TABLE SHOWING THE NUMBER OF PRODUCTIVE WELLS DRILLED EACH MONTH, AND THEIR AVERAGE INITIAL DAILY PRODUCTION FOR EACH MONTH, FROM JULY I, 1875, TO SEPTEMBER 1, 1880, IN THE BRADFORD DISTRICT. July Auguat September.. October November . . December . . Total. Average. Barrels. 29.00 23.00 31.33 20.00 14.67 23.00 Productive Initial daily . _„.._„ weUs drilled, production. Average. J.anaary February . . . March April ilay June July August September. . October November . . December . . Total. 23 547 23.78 11 155 14.09 11 252 22.91 14 508 36.29 17 286 • 16.82 25 392 15.68 34 544 16.00 31 507 16.35 43 652 14.49 29 412 14.21 52 550 10.58 4G 450 9.78 42 390 9.29 337 5,098 14.28 Januarj' . . February . March April May Jane July August ... October November . . December . . Total . January February . . . March April May June July August September.. October November . . December . . Total. 490 9.24 349 9.43 031 10.34 510 12. 14 514 9. 52 515 9.90 516 15.64 506 10.54 1,158 13.79 2,091 13.06 1,308 12.00 2,502 17.50 Januarj' February ... March April May June July Angust September. . October November . . December . . Total . January February .,. March April May Juue July Auguat Barrels. Barrtls. 1,537 14.64 1,508 15.71 1,758 15.98 3,597 16.35 5,650 16.30 3,264 15.92 2,437 16.14 2,632 18.54 1,938 15.89 2,572 13.83 2,724 12.91 2,575 20.28 2,017 2,525 4,705 3,805 8,539 7,902 7,291 5,939 4,639 4,837 4,065 3,657 15.93 18.33 23.60 23.29 24.91 24.11 25. 66 2710 28.83 27.47 30.09 63,941 Total liiibt moutbs . 5,999 7,542 8,185 10,331 11,554 8,959 7,839 8,587 09, 196 84,141 26.07 27.77 29.46 24.43 25.19 28.25 29.67 25.21 26.42 26.90 27. 32 136 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. GENERAL SUMMARY. Tears. Prodnotive ■wells drilled. Initial daily production. ATerage per Number. 23 357 874 2,021 2,453 2,572 Barrde. 547 5,098 11,150 32, 192 63, 941 69,196 £arrel3. 23.78 14.28 12.76 15.93 26.07 26.90 Total At Ijegiiming of the census yenv 8,300 182. 124 21. 94 4,282 7,362 72, 598 156, 739 16.95 2L29 An examination of this table shows that the 357 wells drilled in 1876 started off with a production of an average of only 11.48 barrels per day. At that time the Butler-Clarion district was at the height of its prosperity, with an occasional well of great value, leaving but little inducement for labor in the northern field. The 874 wells drilled the following year averaged a little better, but only 12.76 barrels per day. The 2,021 new wells of 1878 started off at a daily average of 15.93 barrels. In 1879 only 432 more wells were drilled, but their average initial daily production was 26.07 barrels, an increase of 63 per cent. The 4,282 wells that had been drilled in the four years preceding the beginning of the census year started off with a production of 72,598 barrels ; the 3,080 wells drilled during the census year started off with a production of 84,141 barrels. Allowing the production of all the wells drilled previous to the census year to have been, June 1, 1879, 50 per cent, of their original flow, which is perhaps allowable when we consider that more than half were not twelve months' old, the production must have been increased during the census year 232 per cent. It is true that during this and the previous year the production of other fields had been declining, but the increased production in the Bradford district was beyond all precedent, and was due, first, to an increased number of wells, and, second, to a greatly increased average initial daily production, that average having risen from 19.41 barrels during the twelve months preceding the census year to 27.32 barrels during that year, an increase of 41.78 per cent. Commenting on the monthly report of "oQ operations" for May, 1879, the Oil City Derrick, in its issue of May 31, 1 879, the day before the beginning of the census year, says : As regards production .and consumption, the supply and demand, we cannot discover anything in common between this and preceding years. Not one element of the outlook at the present time has a true conuterpart in any preceding period. In 1874, when the market declined to about 40 cents, the outlook was bright as compared with the present. The daQy production at that time was between 25,000 and 30,000 barrels. It is now not less than 50,000 or 52,000 barrels. The stock held in the oil regions then did not exceed 3,000,000 barrels. It is now not less than 7,000,000 barrels, and constantly augmenting. The decline at that time was attributable to the increased production caused by the striking of the large fourth-sand wells on the Butler county cross-belt. The territory where those wells were found was limited to a small area, and the gushers declined rapidly. Now the territory known to be prolific is almost boundless. * * * Developments in the Cole Creek district are being pushed with a persistence that bodes no good for the future price of the product. The producers are paying extravagant prices for the privilege of drilling. On this day oil opened and closed at 73f cents per barrel. June 28 the DerricTc's special report on the petroleum market says : We are informed by parties who know what they are talking about that the stock at the wells in the Bradford district at the present time is not less than 1,000,000 barrels. August 29 the report for that date says : The condition of tankage in the northern region has not improved, notwithstanding the enormous shipments during this month being full and running over. The matter is further complicated by the necessity the lines are under of emptying two 25,000-barr6l tanks, which have sprung a leak. The status of the wells may be judged of from the fact that the first fifteen days of this month 60,000 barrels of wooden tankage was erected in the Bradford region, all of which is presumably full. September 1 petroleum opened at Oil City at 65f cents. The editor of the Berrick congratulated the trade that the monthly report for August showed fewer wells finished and but little addition to the daily production, and indulged the hope of improved prices. The report of petroleum markets for that date says: If the well reports should show a decline, men will anxiously jump in and buy, to find ultimately th.at there is a sufiSciency of petroleum to spare for all. There onhj needs an advance of a few cents to set the tcalking-beam wagging and producers by the ears again, scrambling after more terriiory. The sagacity of this remark is exemplified in a remarkable manner in the history of the few months following. In the issue of September 12 the Derrick again warns its patrons of the dire effects of overproduction, and implores them to stop drilling, giving figures to show that the production was continually on the increase and stocks accumulating. Again, on the 20th, this paper refers to the quarrel then going on between the owners of tanks and the pipe-lines, and says: It is easy to trace back all these troubles to overproduction. The owners of large tiinks soon fiU the capacity, and then seek means to have it emptied that it can be again filled from their flowing wells. Even if they put up new tanks, it is but a short time before they THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 137 are filled. We hear reports of SojOOO-barrel tauks being built iu many of the districts ; yet how slight is all this new capacity when 2,000,000 barrels and over are backed np at the wells. .Still the production goes on increasing. Our specials every morning give a long list of new ■wells. Consider the millions of stock on hand; the markets abroad nearly glutted with refined; storage capacity in the East nearly or quite filled; every well of the thousands in the Bradford district flowing daily into tanks already full or overflowing; pnmping-wells forced to shut down or pump on the ground; then look at the new rigs going uj) and new wells daily coming in ; the market hanging dead and lifeless at a ruinous figure; and ask yourself what must be the result of all this? Every week the production is greater than the week before; there is no use denying these facts, nor shirking the results they will bring. Agaiu, on the 23d, the editor remarks : The runs on Saturday (20th) and Sunday (ilst) were the largest ever known in the history of the trade. They amounted to over 13-2,000 barrels. Ill the face of this euormous production the price of oil advanced, and on the 30th of September closed at 79^ cents. The next day, in consequence of the decrease of rigs and completed wells in the Bradford district, it advanced to S2i cents. The development of oil territory continued to decrease until December, and the price advanced, with occasional fluctuations, until on December 3 it touched 12Si. The result of this movement was a general advance along the entire line of production and a gradual reduction of prices, culminating iu the spring of 1880 in such an outflow of oil as rendered all attempts to transport it futile. The pipe-lines were taxed beyond their capacity; storage tauks and well tanks were all full, and the oil flowed out upon the ground; but the drilling went on, and the average production kept pace with the unparalleled number of wells. The following statement gives the number of wells finished, the average number of barrels j)er day, and the average price of oil during the census year, divided into quarters: First quarter... Second quarter Third quarter . . Fourth quarter Average number of barrels per day. 26.99 28.51 29.09 26.05 The advance in price beyond $1 in December stimulated production to an extent hitherto unparalleled, and produced, near the close of the year, a reaction in prices that touched 72J cents on the 5th of May. Thus the year opened and closed with oil at nearly the same price. As indicated in the foregoing pages, an estimate of the amount of third-sand oil produced during the census year embraces the following items : 1. Pipe-line runs. 2. Fluctuations in well stocks. 3. Oil wasted. 4. Oil burneil iu tanks outside of pipe-lines. 5. Oil marketed outside the pipe-lines, otherwise known as "dump oil". Section 2.— WELL STOCKS. Mr. Welch's monthly reports of the percentage of gain or loss in well stocks in the Bradford district, and his estimates of the actual stocks per well on May 1 and June 1, 1880, being based upon a suflScient number of reliable returns of individual wells, and carelully made, I think may be taken as substantially correct. They afford the means of revising his estimates of the gi'oss Bradford well stocks for the earlier months of the census year, which' like most published estimates for that period, are excessive. Taking his estimate of the average Bradford stocks on May 1, 1880, 138 barrels per well, and the total number of productive wells which had then been drilled, 6,933, we derive 959,514 barrels as the total Bradford well stocks at that date. In the same manner, applying his average per well on June 1, 1880, 171 barrels, to the total number of productive wells that had been drilled at that date, 7,362, we reach 1,258,902 barrels as the Bradford well stocks at the close of the census year. It is true that some of these wells were doing little or nothing, but the 988 wells upon which the average of 171 barrels per well were based included all classes of wells, and I regard the average as substantially correct. The monthly fluctuations from July 1, 1879, to May 1, 1880, were reported by Mv. Welch as follows: In July a gam of 3 per cent. ; in August no change ; iu September a loss of 7 per cent. ; in October a gain of 5| per cent. ; iu ^STovember a loss equal to the gain in October, so that stocks stood December 1 precisely as they stood October 1 ; in December a loss of 17 per cent. ; in January a loss of 6 per cent. ; in February a gain of 7 per cent. ; in March a gain of 13 per cent. ; in April a gain of 14J i)er cent. This is a net increase for the ten months from July 1, 1879, to May 1, 1880, of S^^Vo pei' cent. But the stocks at the later date, as we have found, were 959,514; consequently the stocks July 1, 1879, were 927,379, instead of 138 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. 1 400.000 which Mr. Welch gave as the general estimate of the actual well stocks at that date, and which he himself adopted. Accepting, therefore, Mr. Welch's rates of the monthly fluctuations, and his conclusions as to the stocks of May and June, 1880, as correct, and taking the increase for June, 1879, as 14|- per cent., which is my judgment of the change for that month, we derive the following tabular statement of the Bradford well stocks for each month of the census year : 1879. Jime Jnly August ... September October — NoTeraber December Whole num- ber of pro- ductive wells drilled prior to the Ist of each month. 5, 225 5,392 ; Total stoclis ut wells on the 1st of ' each month. Number of baiTels per well. Percentage of in- crease or decrease of well stock.s dur- ing each month. 812,067 927,379 955,200 955,200 189. 65 202. 04 196. 58 188. 59 170. 02 173. 01 160. 35 Increase. Decrease. Per cent Per cent. 7 Si 5iV 17 1880. January . Pebruary March - - - April May .' June Whole num- ber of pro- j Total stocks ductive wells i at wella on drilled prior the Istof to the 1st of each month, each month. I 5,728 5,944 6,200 6,535 6,953 7,362 j Percentage of iu crease or decrease Number of ' ^^ vrell stocks dur- barrels ' 'dS "^"^ month. per well. Increase. Decrease. Barrels. 737, 319 693, 080 741, 596 838, 003 959, 514 1, 258, 902 128. 72 116. 60 119. 61 128. 23 138. 00 171. 00 An inspection of this table will show that the well stocks at the close of the year were 446,835 barrels more than at the beginning. Section 3.— OIL THAT WAS WASTED AND BUENED. Of the oil that ran to waste no estimate approaching accuracy can be made. Mr. Welch says, in his report for August, 1879: It is well known a large amount of oil went to waste iu Jnly on account of inability to take care of it. Early in the month there may have been 5,000 or 6,000 barrels per day lost iu this way, and considerable loss continued most of the time during the month. In his report for September he says: I may say that there was scarcely any oil lost in the district in .August, while in July there w.as a large amount, and this month there is some being lost, although probably no great amount. In his report for June, 1880, he says : The large amount of oil being lost iu the Bradford district makes estimates on the production there an uncertain thing. The amount lost now is being estimated as high as 10,000 and 12,000 barrels daily. On comparing these statements with the table given above, it will be seen that the losses that were reported from the unavoidable waste of oil in July, August, and September, 1879, and in May, 1880, corresponded in the first three months with those periods when the average stocks at wells were nearly 200 barrels each, and in the last instance with a sudden increase of those stocks by 31 per cent., which raised that average in one month from 138 to 171 barrels per well. Eeturns from four large corporations owning 296 wells distributed in the Bradford district give a total loss from oil wasted of 13,620 barrels, an average of 46 barrels per well. These losses occurred in July, August, and September, 1879, and in May, 1880. There were nearly 5,000 wells in August, 1879, and nearly 7,000 in May, 1880. Assuming that this loss of 46 barrels per well occurred upon 6,000 wells, a total loss occurred of 276,000 barrels. I have placed this loss at 275,000 barrels, and believe this a conservative estimate, for the reason that this average is based on returns made by gentlemen who took great care to make them correct, and also because this loss occurred on the property of corporations using ample capital, with every means at their disposal to take care of their oil, if it were possible. The estimate made is under rather than over the amount actually lost. On the 6th, 9th, and 12th of May, 1880, three very destructive fires occurred in the Bradford district. The report of operations in the issue of the Oil City Derrick for June 1 of that year says : In addition to the numerous isolated rigs burned in various parts of the field previous to and since May 6, the conflagration on that day, which destroyed Eew City, also burned 54 rigs at that point, and fires in other points in the field on that day destroyed 101 rig along Poster Brook, 19 in Tram Hollow, 6 in Tuna valley, and 2 on the East branch, making a total loss on that day of 182 rigs, beside a large amount of tankage and a considerable amount of oil. But three days intervened between the fires of the 0th and the disastrous conflagration which de.stroyed the village of Eixford, together with 54 rigs, 3 iron tanks, and about 75,000 barrels of oil. After another interval of three days the last and greatest of the series of fires swept through Tram Hollow, totally destroying the hamlets of Otto City, Middaughville, and Oil Center, and burning 300 rig.s, a 25,000-barrcl tank, and a large number of smaller tanks, with nearly 100,000 barrels of oil. This gives a total of 536 rigs destroyed in these three fires, which, together with the isolated rigs burned duriug the mouth, have led to an estimated total of 600 rigs lost by fire in May, 1880. A fair estimate of stocks at these wells would be 150 barrels per well, amounting in the aggregate to 90,000 barrels of oil burned. The THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 139 25,000-barrel tauk belonged to the United Lines. Deducting this 115,000 barrels from the 175,000, there remains 60,000 barrels of oil in small tanks burned. Au editorial in the Derrick for May 13 couceriiiug these fires remarks : The oil region has never suffered so severely from fire within so short a time as the last week. BeginniniT with the couflanratioh which swept away Rew City last Thursday, the flames have crept over Eixford, portions of Summit, Red Rock, Foster Brook, and Four Mile, and are now raging in the vicinity of Duke Center. The disasters caused by these fires are the natural result of peculiar circumstances. For several weeks only a limited quantity of rain has fallen, and the ground is dry and parched, while in the woods which stretch in au unbroken line from one end of the Bradford field to the other the leaves and dried branches are like tinder. Scattered through this forest stand the rigs of the oil-wells, the ground about them saturated with oil and the boilers throwing up sparks day and night. Railroads also traverse some sections of it, and every one who has seen the burned patches of grass or wood each summer by the side of the track know how prolific a source of fire the locomotive is. Add to all these favorable materials for incipient conflagrations a high wind blowing almost a gale, as it has most of the time this spring, and the producers may feel that they have been lucky in escaping so well heretofore. Beside, the operator is careless, and sets his rigs and tanks in the midst of the forest, without clearing up the brash or leaves, or making any effort to escape the consequences if a fire breaks out in his vicinity. The lower oil country escaped such widespread disaster because the land was cleared of its forest. In Butler and Clarion counties more oil was produced in cultivated fields than in woods, while in Bradford there is more wood than cleared land; hence the chances of fire are greatly increased. In the lower country there was no accumulation of stocks at wells ; none wasted nor burned. The pipe-line runs therefore represent the production of that region. I therefore estimate the production of third-sand oil out of the ground during the census year as in section 4. Section 4.— ESTIMATE OF THE PRODUCTION OF THIRD-SAND OIL DURING THE CENSUS YEAR. Barrels. 1. Pipe-line receipts ? 22, 628, 286 2. Gain in well stocks a 446, 855 3. Oil run to waste 275,000 4. Oil burned outside of well stocks and pipe-lines 60, 000 5. "Dump oil" and oil run in private lines 578,670 Total 23,988,791 This oil was produced in — Bazrela. Northwestern Pennsylvania 23,835,982 Greene county, Pennsylvania 3,118 West Virginia and Washington county, Ohio 138,325 Glasgow, Kentucky 5, 376 Total 2.3,988,791 The second-sand oil is produced near Franklin, Pennsylvania, and embraces also the B, C, D, and E grades of West Virginia oils. Of this oil there was produced in — Barrels. West Virginia 68, 392. 88 Near Franklin, Pennsylvania , 105, 600. 00 Grafton, Ohio 2,773.00 Total 170,765.88 Four-fifths of the first-sand oil comes from the first oil sand of the Venango group near Franklin, Pennsylvania. The oils of this class were produced in — Barrels. Franklin, Pennsylvania 86,857.00 West Virginia 12, 536. 00 Grafton, Ohio 1,386.00 Mecca, Ohio 900.00 Erie, Pennsylvania 25. 00 Total 101,704.00 The specific gra\ity of this class of oils is 29.5° B. and lower. A few barrels of oil of this grade were produced on the Cumberland river, in Kentucky, but the actual figures could not be obtained. Probably the amount did not exceed 50 barrels. The production at Smith's Ferry and Slippery Eock creek, Beaver county, Pennsylvania, has been placed by competent persons at 80,80.3 barrels. The following is a summary of these amounts: B.irr.-ls. First-sand oil , 101,704 Second-sand oil 17H^ 7(iO Third-s.and oil 23,98c', 791 Beaver county, Penn.sylvania 86,803 Total 24,3.54,064 a By au inadvertence Professor Peckham, in preparing au abstract of this report for the Compendium, placed the gains in the Bradford well stocks at 327,852 barrels, instead of 446,855 barrels. In consequence, all the numbers into which these stocks enter were understated by 118,983 barrels. 140 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM The following is a summary of the total production of the different localities : Barrels. Norfch-westem Pennsylvania 24, 034, 429 West "Virginia and Washington county, Ohio. Beaver county, Pennsylvania Glasgow, Kentucky Grafton, Lorain county, Ohio Greene county, Pennsylvania Mecca, TrumbuU county, Ohio Erie, Pennsylvania 219, 254 86,803 5,376 4,159 3,118 900 25 Total 24.354,064 I have been unable to visit California recently, and have not received any returns from that locality. A few thousands of barrels were produced there during the census year. A spring in Crook county, Wyoming, yielded 26 barrels of heavy lubricating oil, and others at the petroleum locality at Beaver Creek yielded 428 barrels. This production, while locally valuable, selling in some instances for $1 50 per gallon, is of little importance when considered in relation to the production of the entire country. Section 5.— THE ACCUMULATION OF STOCKS. It is evident from the preceding pages that for some time antecedent to and during the census year the production of petroleum, and especially of third-sand oil, had been in excess of any demand for it, and consequently there had been a gradual accumulation of stocks in excess of the amount required in handling the oil. This process of accumulation did not take place proportionally in all the districts producing petroleum, but took place mainly in the Bradford district of northwestern Pennsylvania. In the Grafton and Mecca districts, Ohio, and at the Glasgow, Kentucky, district the stock of oil in tanks at wells would not probably exceed 150 barrels. The amount remained about constant during the year, as it represents only the stock necessary to the handling of the oil. The constant demand for the entire production of the Smith's Ferry district, including Slippery Eock creek, prevents any accumulation of stocks, and in consequence the well stocks are always low. These stocks, together with that in the hands of the Smith's Ferry Transportation Company, have been estimated by competent persons at 3,200 barrels on June 1, 1879. On the 31st of May, 1880, the same stocks were estimated at 3,000 barrels. In West Virginia and Washington county, Ohio, the well and tank stocks, together with the stocks held by the West Virginia Transportation Company on June 1, 1879, were 79,606 barrels, and the corresponding stocks on the 31st of May, 1880, were estimated at 50,848 barrels. In Greene county, Pennsylvania, the stocks were practically nothing. In the heavy oil district near Franklin, Pennsylvania, there was an accumulation of this quality of oil, the stock at the beginning of the census year, allowing an estimated well stock of 3,000 barrels, being 19,898 barrels, and at the end 27,106 barrels. In northwestern Pennsylvania, exclusive of the Franklin district, the net stocks in the custody of the pipe-lines June 1, 1879, and May 31, 1880, are represented in the following table: June 1, 1879. May 31, 1880. $5. 864, 850 378, 312 189, 767 9,855 1,751 11, 642 4,602 11, 198 29,954 23, 211 13, 215 $9, 851, 885 1, 009, 063 270, 718 3,271 Pennsylvania Transportation Company. . 14, 558 15, 129 19,631 26, 024 15, 022 6,538,357 11,225,301 To this must be added, for stocks outside the pipe-lines in the old territory above and below Oil City, as estimated by Mr. J. C. Welch, the following: May 31, 1880 382,318 Stock in iron tankage unattached to pipe-lines not otherwise given 150, 000 532, 318 Mr. Welch's returns give an average of well stocks in the region outside the Bradford district of 32 barrels per well, an amount that remained practically constant throughout the year. The number of wells in this so-called "lower country" to which this average would apply is much more difilcult to estimate than that of the Bradford THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 141 district. During the year previous to the beginning of the census year the decline of production in the Butler and Clarion districts had been rapid, and producers had been turning their attention to the Bradford district. As the census year advanced, the decreased production of the lower country became more pronounced, and the transfer of property to the Bradford district became almost equal to an hegira. Train after train of cars, loaded with all kinds of material used about an oil-well, even to old derricks in a few instances, went up the Allegheny Yalley and Oil Creek roads to Bradford. No careful record of the wells drilled in the lower country was ever kept, hence the number producing at the beginning of the census year can never be known, nor can the number be known that ceased to produce and were pulled out during that year. Different estimates place the number pidled out at equal to double or treble the number drilled, but such divergent estimates show the worthlessness of all of them. Mr. Stowell puts the number of wells in the different districts of Pennsylvania, outside of Franklin, Bradford, and Beaver, at 6,693, but upon what basis this estimate rests I do not know. The following table from Stowell's Petroleum Reporter will give some idea of the value of this estimate as compared with the well-known changes taking i)lace in the localities named : NUMBER OF WELLS IN THE PENNSYLVANIA OIL-FIELDS, BY DISTRICTS, ON THE DATES GIVEN. Name of district. 31. Aug. Feb. Mar. Apr. : May Bntler I Parker U, 360 Clarion J Scrubgrass 270 Keno 30 Oil City 300 Eoaseville j 200 KyndFami 200 Columbia I 20 Petroleum Centre ] 45 Shamburg , 90 Titnsville I 750 Pithole I 75 Fagundus i 150 Tidioute Warren 4, 3 jO 4, 300 1 4, 260 I 4, 200 4,200 i 4,200 Total . Losses Gains Wells completed. Total losses Total gains Franklin Wells completed. 6,965 4,000 4,000 4,050 272 272 272 30 30 30 350 345 345 200 200 200 200 200 200 20 20 20 40 40 40 6, 485 6, 485 6, 485 These figures show a total loss in the districts producing third-sand oil, due to wells abandoned, of 851 wells during the whole census year. The number of producing wells at the beginning of the census year was 6,693. During the year 480 wells were completed, which, added to the number producing at the beginning of the year, equals 7,173 wells. The number reported producing at the end of the year was 6,322 ; difference, 851. These wells were in most cases plugged with pine plugs or filled with sand. I use these figures, not because I believe them to be correct, but because they are the only approximation to the truth now available; they vary in their subdivisions from any others published, and are not fully consistent with themselves. The Petroleum World gives the names of the parties who completed wells in the lower country as follows : Wells. Production. Dry. Number. BarreU. 564 335 244 2,089 27 1 Number. 16 19 10 1 30 3 In Butler and Armstrong counties In Venango, Forest, and Warren counties . . In Jefferson coanty Near Byrom Center 51 44 ..1 1 ..' 171 Total -on 3,259 79 142 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. In the Franklin district, January 31, 1879, there were reported by Mr. Stowell 357 wells, which were reduced to 352 on May 31, 1879, the day before the census year commenced, and to 350 by June 30, continuing at that number until December 31, 1880, a period of eighteen months, during which period he reports 63 wells as having been completed. In the Reporter for January, 1880, he quotes a local correspondent of the Franklin Spectator as stating that " during the past year there were 123 wells drilled and 16 wells cleaned out and retubed. -~ * * The number of wells pumping January 1, 1879, was about 400, and taking the number of dry wells, 22, and the number abandoned during the year from the number pumping January 1, 1879, and the number drilled and cleaned out, it will leave the pumping wells, January 1, 1880, 475. Taking these figures, the average number of wells pumping for the year 1879 would be about 450 ". Mr. Stowell reports only 80 wells of the 122 completed during 1879, and a total of 350 producing December 31, 1879, against 475 as given by the correspondent whom he quotes. Furthermore, it is highly improbable that in the old and nearly exhausted territory in the neighborhood of Eouseville and Eynd farm there should be for twenty- three months, from January 31, 1879, to December 31, 1880, 400 producing wells, and at the same time 90 at Shamburg, 150 at Fagundus, and 115 in the neighborhood of Tidioute. However, while calling attention to these manifest discrepancies, I repeat that this table furnishes the nearest approximation to the facts that is available, I shall therefore apply Mr. Welch's average of 32 barrels to 6,300 wells, and estimate the well stocks of the lower country at 201,600 barrels. Summarized, the stocks of crude oil in the producing regions June 1, 1879, may be stated as follows : ACCUMULATED STOCKS, JUNE 1, 1879. Barrels. Pipe-line stocks, third sand 6, 538, 357 Well stocks, Bradford district 812,067 "Well stocks, lower country 201,600 Iron-tankage stocks, outside of pi.pe-liues 293, 474 Franklin stocks, heavy oil 19,898 Smith's Ferry 3,200 "West Virginia and southern Ohio , 79, 606 Grafton and Mecca, Ohio, and Glasgow, Kentucky 150 7 948. 352 ACCUMULATED STOCKS, MAY 31, 1880. Barrels. Pipe-line stocks, third sand ■- , 11,225,291 Well stocks, Bradford district 1,258,902 Well stocks, lower country - 201,600 Iron tankage stocks, outside of pipe-lines 532,318 Franklin stocks, heavy oil -^- 27, 106 Smith's Ferry .* 3,000 West Virginia and southern Ohio , 50,848 Grafton and Mecca, Ohio, and Glasgow, Kentucky 150 ' 13, 299, 215 From these summaries it will be seen that the total accumulated stocks in the whole country at the end of the census year was 13,299,215 barrels, and that the accumulation of stocks during the census year was 5,350,863 barrels. The stocks decreased during that year in the West Virginia and southern Ohio district 28,758 barrels ; Smith's Ferry district, 200 barrels. They increased during the year in the Bradford district and lower country 5,372,613 barrels ; Franklin heavy oil district, 7,208 barrrels. Section 6.— STATISTICS OF CAPITAL AND LABOE EMPLOYED TS THE PEODUCTION OF PETEOLEUM DUEING THE CENSUS YEAE. The amount of capital that has been or that is invested in the production of petroleum is a problem involved in the deepest obscurity. Capital has often been ventured in this business legitimately without return, the investment proving a total loss. From such total loss to a return of enormous value the gradation has been by infinite steps. The actual cost of the wells which have been drilled since Drake's first well (1859) could be estimated with tolerable certainty, as the price per foot for drilling has been a well-known though fluctuating factor in investment from year to year ; but what any given oil-well has cost, and upon what sum a dividend of profit or loss should be declared, is often scarcely known to the owners themselves. There are large corporations that have invested monej' systematically for years with uniform success ; but any general estimate for the whole oil region based on the operations of such concerns would be very erroneous, for the business of such corporations has been managed with prudence and sagacity upon territory that has already been proved, and usually without great speculative risks. Producing oil has not been uniformly successful in individual enterprises, although, when taken as a whole, it may have been in a general way. The capital invested in i^roducing oil involves as a THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 143 constant and well-known factor the cost of drilling and equipping wells, and also, as a fluctuating factor, the cost of the land privilege for drilling. This varies from nothing (when the original owner of the land drills his own well or oflsets its cost for an equal share with those who drill it) to a bonus of from 8100 to 8500 an acre, in addition to a royalty of from one-sixteenth to one-fourth of the product. In other cases the fee to the land is purchased outright for large sums before the wells are drilled. Such purchases, made where land is proved, have often been very profitable business enterprises, while on the other hand they have as often proved worthless. A certain tract of land in the Oil Creek region was purchased by A., B. & Co. for 813,000 and sold to C. for 8113,500 within three months. Three months later A., B. & Co. could have bought back the land for less than 810,000, it having in the mean time been proved of little value for oil. Transactions involving the loss of large sums have been so often repeated that those familiar with the oil regions frequentlj- declare that, vast as the wealth may be which the product of petroleum represents, the losses have been fully equal to the gains. The vast number of wells that have produced nothing, the still larger number whose production has never covered the cost of drilling, together with the millions that have been wasted through fraud and reckless speculative risks, involve the loss of a vast sum which can never be accurately estimated. The area of the Bradford field was pretty clearly outlined by the end of the census year, and there were those who were declaring with added emphasis that each month had witnessed the culmination of its production, but it has continued to pour out from 50,000 to 80,000 barrels of oil a day for the last two years. If the fee to the 68,000 acres of the Bradford field was to be .sold to-morrow, the estimated value, as given by different producers, would vary by so many millions of dollars as to make such estimates worthless for statistical purposes. The fact is, the present value of the land franchise of the oil-producing region is an unknown quantity, and must be so until it ceases to have value; then its past value at any given time can be estimated. The men of conservative temperament and those of sanguine temperament differ as widely as the poles are sundered in their estimates of the value of oil property. I shall not, therefore attempt any estimate of the value of the land franchise of the oil-producing country, but shaU confine my estimates to the number of wells drilled, cost of rigs, including engines, cost of casing and tubing, total cost of wells and rigs drilled during the census year, and the number of men employed in drilling wells and in producing oil during the census year. These estimates will be made for the upper or Bradford district, the lower country, the Franklin district, and the Beaver district, Pennsylvania ; the Grafton district and the Mecca district, Ohio ; the West Virginia district and Washington county, Ohio ; and the Glasgow, Kentuckj", district. During the census year there were 3,080 wells completed in the Bradford district, but at the close of the year there were 58 more rigs building and wells drilling than at the beginning. In the last month in the year 536 rigs were burned, about one-half of which were rebuilt immediately, and the rebuilding of the remainder was, on an average, half completed at the close of the census year, making the rebuilding equal to 75 per cent, of the whole number burned, or 402 rigs. It is fair to assume that the 47 rigs building at the end of the year in excess of those building at the beginning were one-half completed, and that the 11 wells drilling at the end of the year in excess of those drilling at the beginning were, with rigs completed, one-half drilled. This estimate would thus place the rigs built during the census year: Rigs for wells completed 3 08O Eigs rebuilt 402 50 per cent, of rigs building at the close in excess of those building at the beginning of the year 23 Rigs to wells drilling at the close of the year in excess of those drilling at the beginning 11 Total 3 51g Each of these rigs required in building forty days of labor, making, for all, an aggregate of 140,640 days, or, estimating 300 working days to the year, equal to the continued labor through the year of 468 men, of whom 75 per cent., or 351 men, were skilled workmen and 117 ordinary laborers. Rigs cost during the census year from $325 to $400 each, according to the cost of placing the material where it was to be used, or an average of 83G2.50. This would give a total investment in rigs during the year of $1,274,550, of which $310,440 represents the cost of labor, estimated at the rate of $2 50 per day for skilled workmen and $1 50 per day for ordinary laborers. Eeturns of the cost of rigs built in the Bradford district dnring the census year from three large corporations are as follows : No. 1 built 25 rigs for $10,000; average cost, $400 each. No. 2 built 50 rigs for $17,500; average cost, 8350 each. No. 3 built 29 rigs for $12,500 ; average cost, $431 each. Average cost of 104 rigs, $384 62 each. Each of the 3,516 rigs built during the census year required for its construction 17,000 feet of lumber, of which 9,000 feet were sawed and 8,000 feet were hewn. This amount represents an aggregate consumption of 59,772,000 feet of lumber, of which probably 30 per cent, was hard wood. It is almost impossible to estimate, with any approximation to accuracy, the capital invested in engines and boilers. There are engines in the oil regions fifteen years old, and some of them are to be found in the Bradford district, moved up there from The lower country. I have conversed with a number of oil producers on this subject, and find their opinions quite divergent. An estimate based on these opinions and my own observations would lead me to think that at least 90 per cent, of the wells in the Bradford region are sujjplied with engines and 60 per cent, with boilers, and an average valuation for these engines would not exceed $100 and $200 each for the 144 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. boilers. 1 have been informed that at least one-half the wells drilled in the Bradford district during the census year were supplied with engines and boilers from wells abandoned in the lower country, for which 1 make no estimate. For the other half, it is fair to assume that a large proportion, if not all, of the engines and boilers were new or nearly new. While the above estimate of valuations of boilers may be fair as applied to the whole field, it is too low by one-half for the engines and boilers purchased for new wells. I place the value, in round numbers, of — Eugiiies (50 per cent, of 90 per cent.) of (3,080 + 11) at $200 $278,200 Boilers (50 per cent, of 60 per cent.) of (3,080 + 11) at $400 370,800 649, 000 This would give an average valuation of $210 per well for all the boilers and engines purchased for the 3,091 ■wells drilled during the census year. That this valuation is not too high is farther proved by returns which I have received from two large corporations with ample capital, both largely interested in the lower country and in the Bradford district. ISTo. 1 drilled 29 wells; the boilers and engines cost $13,000. No. 2 drilled 45 wells; the boilers and engines cost $15,360. The average cost for No. 1 is $448; that for No. 2, $341. I have no doubt that a large percentage of the wells were drilled with poorer machinery than would be used by either of these parties. The rig, boiler, and engine belong to the owner of the well ; but the contractor who drills the well owns the drillers' tools and provides fuel for the engine and coal for the blacksmith. It is estimated that 2 per cent, of the ■wells use gas, which, practically costing nothing, reduces the number supplied with fuel to 3,024. Experienced producers estimate the consumption of fuel at an average of 100 cords of wood per well, amounting in the aggregate to 302,400 cords, and costing for cutting, at 90 cents per cord, $272,160. It is estimated that 500 men are employed in cutting wood in the Bradford district. The wood usually stands upon the land upon which the well is located, and, except for the cost of cutting, is considered of little or no value. Each well requires for drilling two drillers and two tool-dressers, who are men skilled in the work ■which they perform. The tool-dressers are not blacksmiths, but men who are expert in the art of dressing tools. Each well also requires two teams, with teamsters, for hauling' wood and material. From returns received from 104 wells drilled in the Bradford district in the census year, 25 drillers drilled the wells and 18 dressers dressed the tools. These wells were drilled more economically, as regards the amount of labor, than the average, as they were drilled by corporations employing very skillful men at maximum wages, from which I judge that a fair estimate would give a year's labor of a skilled workman to every two wells drilled, or, in round numbers, for the 3,086 wells drilled in the census year, a year's labor of 1,500 men, at an average rate of $3 per day. Estimating 300 working days to the year, the amount earned by them would equal $1,350,000. As many more laborers are employed, at an average compensation of $45 per month, earning an amount equal to $810,000. The outfit for drilling a well is worth $900, and is damaged an average of 25 per cent, by use in drilling one well, representing an investment of $694,350 during the census year. These sums show the cost to the contractor. The average contract price for drilling deep (2,000 feet) wells was 55 cents per foot. At this rate the 3,086 wells would represent an investment by the well- owner of $3,394,600. Such estimates are hardly worth the name of statistics, but are, I believe, as close an approximation to accuracy as can now be made. Each well requires from 30 to 100 feet of 8-inch drive-pipe, which is driven to the bed-rock, and on an average 300 feet of casing, 5f inches in diameter, and 2,000 feet of 2-inch pipe, through which the oil flows. At an average of 50 feet of drive-pipe for each well, there were required during the census year for the 3,086 wells drilled 154,300 feet of 8-inch drive-pipe, 925,800 feet of 5f-inch casing, and 6,172,000 feet of 2-inch pipe. It is extremely difficult to estimate the actual cost of this pipe, as the different manufacturers made bids for large contracts, and a proportion, impossible to ascertain accurately, was old pipe. One large corporation paid an average of $310 60 each for casing 29 wells; another an average of $210 each for 45 wells. In one case it is to be presumed a larger amount of old casing was used than in the other, but just what this difference of one-third signifies with reference to the whole number of wells it is impossible to ascertain. Prudent men, with ample capital, would sell old casing and use new, while men of limited means would purchase and use the old ; but to what extent this was done it is now impossible to determine with accuracy. It is probable, however, that $210 per well is nearer an average price for casing for the entire Bradford district than $310 50. Eeturns from the same firms give an average expenditure of $343 per well for tubing 74 wells. These were firms using ample capital, and the average is no doubt too high for the whole field, $300 per well being without doubt an ample average cost at which to estimate tubing. Assuming that all of the drive-pipe was new and cost $3 per foot, the total cost would be as follows : Drive-pipe $462,900 Casing 648,060 Tubing 925,800 Total 2,036,750 The cost of torpedoes is subject to caiirice. There are those who do not use them at all ; some use small ones, others use very large ones. One firm torpedoed 25 wells at an aggregate cost of $9,982, average cost, $400 ; a second firm 29 wells for $o,0U0, average cost, $103; another firm 45 wells for $9,360, at an average cost of $208. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 145 These firms aud corporations are all managed by judicious, conservative men, of large experience, while a large proportion of the wells are drilled by men who operate recklessly and rely upon torpedoes to produce large and quick results. I regard $300 per well as a low estimate for torpedoes, amounting in the aggregate to $925,800. These estimates foot up as follows : Cost of 3,516 rigs $1,274,550 Engines and boilers for 3,091 wells G49, 000 Drilling 3,0SG wells 3,394,600 Piping 3,086 wells 2,036,760 Torpedoing 3,086 wells 925,800 Total 8,280,710 Returns from eight of the largest firms and corporations doing business in the oil regions, having more than 20,000 acres under development and operating over GOO wells during the census year, give an average of five acres to one well, and assign to the land a value of $300 per acre for oil purposes. Upon this basis they estimate a general average cost of the land at $1,500 per well, and of the well itself from $2,500 to $3,000. At $2,500 ea«h, the cost of the 3,080 wells completed during the census year would be $7,700,000; at $3,000 each the same wells would cost $9,240,000. My estimate of $8,280,710 is therefore a fair average estimate, as based upon that of the owners, of about 10 per cent, of the wells that had been drilled in the Bradford district at the beginning of the census year. The approximate value of labor employed iu building rigs was $316,4:40; in cutting wood, $272,160; in drilling wells, $2,160,000; total, $2,748,600. To this sum must be added the value of labor employed in operating and repairing wells already drilled, a service which requires the labor of a large number of men. Eetitrns from the owners of 590 wells show that they employ 275 men in pumping and gauging, and 34 men as overseers; a total of 309 men. Apply this average to the 4,000 wells in the Bradford district at the beginning of the census year, and it gives, in round numbers, 2,000 men, earning $45 per month, or an aggregate of $1,080,000, which makes up a total labor account for the Bradford field of $3,828,600. The number of wells drilled in the lower country during the census year was 335. Their average depth has been placed at 1,400 feet, and the rigs and tools are the same as those used in the Bradford district, at the same average cost; but their lessened depth reduces thp cost of both drilling and tubing. Three hundred and thirty -five rigs, at the average price of $362 50, would cost $121,437 50, and would require for their construction 5,695,000 feet of lumber, 3,015,000 of which would be sawed soft lumber and 2,680,000 hewn lumber. These wells would require for drilling 33,500 cords of wood, the cutting of which would cost $30,150. I estimate the cost of engines and boilers in this district as averaging $300 per well, which, for 335 wells, would give a valuation of $100,500. Estimating the average of 50 feet of drive-pipe per well at $3 per foot, casing at $210 and tubing at $200 per well for an average depth of 1,400 feet, the cost of casing and tubing the 335 wells drilled in the lower country would be as follows : Drive-pipe, 8-inch, 16,750 feet $50,250 Casing, 5f-inch, 100,500 feet 70,350 Tubing, 2-inch, 469,000 feet 67,000 The drilling of 1,400-foot wells was worth during the census year 60 cents pct foot, and at that rate the drilling of the 335 wells in the lower country cost $281,400. Summarized, these estimates foot up as follows : 335 rigs, at $362 50 each $121,437 Engines and boilers for 335 wells, at an average cost per well of $300 100,500 335 walls, drilled 1,400 feet each, at 60 cents per foot 281,400 Drive-pipe 56,250 Casing 70,350 Tubing 67,000 Total 690,937 The general estimate given by producers of large experience that 1,400-foot wells cost about $2,000 each confirms these detailed estimates ; and at this rate the 335 wells would cost $670,000. The employment of labor in the lower country is divided between drilling wells and caring for those already drilled. Unlike the wells in the Bradford district, nearly all of which were flowing during the census year, those of the lower country were all pumping- wells. The labor required in building 335 rigs, estimating 30 days of skilled labor at $2 50 and 10 days of ordinary labor at $1 50 per day, amounts to the labor of 33 carpenters, $25,125 ; 11 laborers, $5,025. In drilling the wells there were required 175 skilled workmen at $3 per day, and as many more laborers at $45 per month, which would amount in a year as follows: 175 skilled workmen, at -$3 per day, 300 days, $157,500; 175 laborers, $45 per month, $94,500. The investment in drillers' tools, on an average of five wells to a set, amounts to $60,300. VOL. IX 10 146 PRODUCTION OF PETEOLEUM. The employment of labor in the lower country in the care of wells is proportionally greater, for reasons already stated. Three corporations, owning 112 wells, all in the lower country, employed 74 men to care for them, four-fifths of whom were engaged in pumping and gauging. As these wells belonged to corporations having a thoroughly organized business, it is to be presumed that a minimum number of men are employed. Using these numbers as the basis of an average, the G,000 wells that were cared for in the lower country during the census year requii-ed the services of 3,960 men; but I think it is fair to assume that 4,500 men were employed, at an average rate of compensation of $50 per month, which would make the aggregate sum paid in wages $2,700,000. The approximate value of labor employed in the lower country is, therefore — In rig-building ,$30,150 In cutting -wood 30, 150 In drilling wells 252,000 In caring for wells 2,700,000 Total 3,012,300 In estimating the investment in drilling wells and the value of labor employed in the Franklin district entirely different conditions must be considered. The wells are not more than 100 feet deep, and cost, on an average, only about $400 each. As a portion of the productive territory is owned by farmers, who in some instances drill the wells themselves and pump them at intervals as other work may slacken, it will be readily perceived that a much larger number of persons are interested in the production of oil, and find partial occupation in it, than would be necessary to carry on the business if constantly employed. In the most productive portion of the field the wells are constantly pumped six days in the week on the sucker-rod plan, from 12 to 40 wells being by this method pumped by one engine. There were 475 productive wells January 1, 1880, and I shall assume that 450 was the average for the census year, of which 400 were pumped constantly. The rigs used here are only about 30 feet in height. Drilling in this district was comparatively active during the census year, an average of about 10 wells per month having been completed, with an average daily production of about 2 barrels each. The drilling of these wells could not have employed constantly more than 50 men, including the rig-builders, and their care, allowing 5 men to 20 wells, would employ 120 men. Summarized, the items appear as follows : Cost of 120 wells $48,000 Labor of 50 men, at |50 per month 30,000 Labor of 120 men, at $50 per month 72,000 In the Beaver district it is estimated there were 200 wells, 15 weUs being drilled during the year. These wells are about 600 feet deep, and cost about $700 each. The rigs used are low and comparatively inexpensive, and the pumping is done with sucker-rods. Probably 75 men, at $50 per month, is a maximum estimate for the labor employed in this district. Summarized the items appear as follows : Cost of 15 weUs, at |700 each $10,500 Labor of 75 men for one year, at $50 per month 45,000 At Belden and at Grafton, Lorain county, Uhio, 72 j)aying and twice as many more unproductive wells have been drilled, generally from 60 to 250 feet in depth, the deepest yielding the lightest ail, of which about 20 were producing during the census year. Wells cost here from $30 to $40 each, exclusive of the rig and machinery ,^ which are moved about as required. The oil industry here gives employment to about 10 men, and their labor, at $50 per month, for one year, amounts to $6,000. In the Mecca district the cost of operating for oil is reduced to a minimum. The wells are from 40 to 70 feet deep. A rig costs only $20, and is moved about as required. A rig was hired, and three wells were put down at a total expense of $100. Probably 20 wells, at an estimated cost of $40 each, were drilled during the census year. It is estimated that 15 men are fully employed here in producing oil. Very few wells are pumped by machinery, a wooden conductor being carried down to the rock; and after the well is drilled and the production has run down everything is removed but this conductor. The well is then pumped at intervals with a sand pump. There are several hundred wells that are pumped in this manner, but the exact number would be very difftcult to ascertain. Summarized, the items appear as follows : Cost of 20 wells, at $40, $800 ; labor of 15 men, at $50 per month, one year, $9,000. The West Virginia and Washington county (Ohio) oil district is the most peculiar in the country. It has produced oil for a long time, and yields a great variety. The number of wells iu this region is about 600. Some of them, yielding heavy and valuable oil, have been pumped since 1865 and 1866 ; others, yielding lighter oils, have been abandoned, and others still that had been abandoned have been cleaned out and pumping has been resumed. A few wells are being drilled there every year. In the absence of records, it has been estimated that the number of pumping wells has remained about the same for several years, the new ones about equaling those abandoned. I could not ascertain that more than 120 wells were drilled in the district during tb,e census year, the depths THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 147 varying from 150 to 1,500 feet, as the well penetrates the different horizons at which oil is found. Very few wells, however, have been put down to the 1,500-foot level, and perhaps an equally small number have proved remunerative at the 150- to 200-foot level. The average depth is about 750 feet, and the average cost is estimated at 81,000. Both skilled and ordinary labor is cheaper in this section than in northwestern Pennsylvania, skilled labor being reported here to be worth during the census year from S2 to $2 50 per day, against 82 50 to $3 50 in Pennsylvania, and ordinary labor from $1 to SI 50, against 81 75 to $2 in Pennsylvania. A large number of wells are pumped here by one engine, but instead of a sucker-rod connection the pump rod is attached to a wheel, over which passes an endless wire rope. The uneven surface of the country, as well as the greater depth of the wells, renders this method of transmitting power necessary; but while it is more expensive, it is more reliable. From returns received I estimate the average cost of the 120 rigs built during the census year at 8250 each, requiring twenty-four days of skilled and eight days of ordinary Inbor and 12,000 feet of lumber in their construction. Coal is used as fuel in this section, the wells often passing through the veins. I estimate very few, if any, new engines and boilers in use for drilhng these wells. This section has produced oil since 18C1, and some of the machinery used is very old. In drilling the machinery is attached to a gang of wells by an endless rope, and is run without any increase in the expense account. Wooden conductors are used. I estimate an average expense of 8125 as ample to cover the cost of casing, and an average of 500 feet for each would include all of the tubing required. The cost per foot for drilling would not vary much from 60 cents per foot. Summarized, these estimates appear as follows: 120 rigs, at .$250 each S30,000 120- wells drilled .-54,000 Casing, $125 each - 15,000 Tubing 9^ 108, 000 The labor employed for the year is estimated as follows : In rig-building, 10 men, earning $7,200 In rig-building, 3 men,, earning 960 In drilling wells, 25 men, earning 15,000 In earing for wells, 250 men, earning 150, 000 173, 160 On Boyd's creek, near Glasgow, Kentucky, there were five wells in operation during the census year, furnishing employment to seven men, including team.sters, at an average compensation of $35 per month, the wages amounting to $2,940. The following table represents in a tabulated form the statistics of this section: STATISTICS OF THE INVESTMENT OF CAPITAL AND THE EMPLOYMENT OF LABOR IN THE PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM DURING THE YEAR ENDING MAY 31, 1880. Kame of district. No. of Xo. of i No. of wells ' dry riga drilled, i holes, j built. 1 1 Cost of »g3. £?±°I i Cost of aid *""'«■ ' boilers. P'P''- Cost of Cost of casing. , tubing. Cost of tor- pedoes. Cos}, of drilling. Total cost of weUs. Estimated ntmiber of skilled workmen. Average rate of wages. 3,080 335 120 53 79 15 3, 510 !$1, 274, 550 ! 1 648,060 $925,800 70, 350 1 67, 000 $925,800 $3, 394, 600 281, 400 $8, 280, 710 690, 937 1,851 208 $2 50-4 00 Lower country, Pennsylvania . . . 100, 500 50, 250 2 50—4 00 120 15 48, 000 15 1 2 50—4 00 Beaver county, Pennsylvania 10, 500 12 2 50-^ 00 20 120 800 120. 000 120 j 30,000 1 1 15, 000 9, 000 54,000 25 2 00-2 50 1 ' Xame of district. Estimated number of ordinary laborws. Average rate of wages. Estimated ntimber of wood- choppers. Sate paid per cord. Total number of men employed. Total amount of wages paid. Estimated number of ploved in drilllDg weUs. Estimated number of men em- ployed in caring for wells. Estimated ?i'™f n'f amount of T^X „f , ^otal P™" feetof f,°,n°;, ' ductioniu ^T^'^J ind^^imni : •'^^'■'"^■ nsedmngs.; .^ells. $0 90 0,968 1,944 170 10 $3, 828, 600 3, 012, 300 102, 000 45, 000 6,000 9,000 173, 160 2,940 3,000 350 50 10 2,000 4,500 120 60 10 15 250 59,772,000 1 302.400 ) Lower country, Pennsylvania 4, 666 1 CO— 2 00 155 1 1 30—2 00 63 1 50—2 00 50 5, 695, 000 .33, 500 J23,S28,.'i89 86, 857 86, 803 4,159 900 Beaver county, Pennsylvania 225, 000 Mecca Ohio 1 263 1 00—1 50 25 1, 440, 000 219, 254 7 5,370 I 3,118 25 1 Cost of raising oil ; Flowina: vreWfi district, $3 per barrel. 1 the Bradford district, 6 to 8 cents per barrel; pumping wells in tlie lower country, GO to 80 cents; pumping wells inFrankliu 148 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. To this may be added the following table, showing the estimated number of wells at the beginning and the end of the census year in the United States east of the Mississippi river : f Name of district. Estimated number of producing wells ■Tune 1, 1879. Estimated number of producing weUs May 31, 1880. Number completed during census year. Dry holes. 4,282 6,693 400 200 20 t 500 5 7,362 6,322 •600 200 20 ? 60O 5 3,080 335 120 15 20 120 53 79 15 ! r 1 12, 100 15,069 3,690 147 Section 7.— GENERAL STATISTICS RELATING TO THE PEODUCTION OF THIRD-SAND PETROLEUM. In illustration of this section I have been so fortunate as to secure the accompanying diagrams, prepared by Mr. Charles A. Ashburner, of Philadelphia, especially for this work, from the statistical tables of Stowell's Petroleum Beporter. No. I is a graphic representation of the total production by years of the different districts, by which the date of discovery, expansion, and contraction of the production of the different districts is noted ; No. II shows the comparative volume of the total production of the different districts. No. Ill shows the comparative expansion and contraction of the total yearly production, with the total value in greenbacks and gold, from 1859 to 1880, inclusive. On pages 149, 150, and 151 are statistical tables from another source, which vary only slightly from the preceding in the aggregate, and present the matter in detail. On page 150 is a statistical statement, made by the United Pipe Lines, that offers its own explanation. On page 151 is a table giving some comparative miscellaneous pipe-line statistics that are included in the census year, taken from the Titusville Herald of April 11, 1881, except the averages for the census, year. The following estimate of stocks in the oil region on the dates named is given for what it is worth, as the authority is unknown : Barrels. , 534,000 , 264,000 , 340,751 537,000 , 623,048 February, 1873 1,085,435 February, 1868. February, 1869. February, 1870. February, 1871. February, 1872. Barrels. February, .1874 1,248,919 February, 1875 4,250,000 February, 1876 3,585,143 February, 1877 2,604,128 February, 1878 3,555,342 February, 1879 5,385,523 STATEMENT SHOWING THE YEARLY PEODUCTION, AVERAGE YEARLY PRICE, AND VALUE, IN CURRENCY, OF ALL OIL PRODUCED FROM 1860 TO DECEMBER 31, 1880, BOTH INCLUSIVE. Tear. Number of barrels. Average price per barrel. Amount. 156,888,331 $334,871,063 84 1860 500,000 2, 113, 609 3, 056, 690 2, 611, 309 2, 116, 109 2, 497, 700 3, 597, 700 3, 347, 300 3, 646, 117 4, 215, 000 5,260,745 5, 205, 341 5,890,248 9, 890, 964 10,809,852 8,787,506 8, 968, 906 13, 135, 771 15, 163, 462 20, 041, 581 26, 032, 421 $9 60 49 1 05 3 IS 9 87} 6 59 3 74 2 41 3 62i 5 63 3 89i 4 34 3 64 1 83 117 1 35 2 561 2 42 1 19 85J 94i 4, 800, 000 00 1,035,668 41 3, 209, 524 50 8, 225, 623 35 20, 896, 576 37 16,459,843 00 13, 455, 398 00 8,066,993 00 13, 217, 174 12 23, 730, 450 00 20,503,753 63 22, 591, 179 94 21, 440, 502 72 18,100,464 12 12, 647, 526 84 11,863,133 10 22, 982, 821 62 31, 788, 565 82 18, 044, 519 78 17, 210, 707 68 24,600,637 84 1861 1862 1863 1864 1865 1867 1868 1869 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 Average price per barrel for 21 years, $2 1S-|-. CHART SAowing- the annual production of Petroleum ■ JDeveJ^oprnent of the indivi,dzia,l districts in t7ze ■ OIL REG701iv. r^l'leyhen^ Mi'V. Tidz^uteDvv. ^ ^^ ??^#>^ ^z::;^77^?^////^;/;m'/2>/;'/;';';'^^ . ^ . y. 7^<^/yy/yC^??7777,y.,.^ :BulHo-n,JDvv. Thiol prodtoc^-tan of crttat-e, oil in the Oil FHeZds o/Ttnn- Tota2 j>roduction, /&^9 to iddO inclusive /se.sso.3f1 ShZ^. ^ra.afoJ-dJ?Zvisvo»,. 2i£^JCBa,rv a-n(lJSl7c Cou,-rutieG Catta-ratiffus and AHefany S7^.$e/ JBhl^s CHART Proportional production of the Oil Region of JPejrmsylvareia and SoutAern, Newlbrlc aj%d that of the individual distz-icts i7.34a a7B SXls 0-bi CreeT^JDvvfj^ioTt. l^Ticfn^o Co. 3S.St7.a9/ S2>ZS. Z0.381d$aJBJblli. l^^,a.nffo Co. \f2^ a.Bfe.sBssbis. Cenirail.AlleffAe7tyJJivision., 6./Ga.S00£ble 4.674. 34.S.MbZs. JBulhott-DivoEi Ten a. ny oC'o. ^..3f.7.0S)O.BiiS ^rren J)Cvi,3iort.. Jizviscion.. 79&rrenao. Beaver Co. «* 8t3 S2)l.s ^js. 637. ShZx Scale. KarryJGng Jt^ . Comjoiled. hy Chas. A.Ashhurjzer, JvIS. Assistant, Second Geolo^ica.1 ^zirvei/ of Peiznst/lvamc jTbial jDrodu^c^- the OiZ'j^eiiZs of^enn- ^ztllion.JJiv. TaiaZ jirod;ucUo7b MS9 to 16Q0 inclusive /S6.S90.311 SJiZs. Jia.rryJG7tfc. JDai . 3f.?.090.JS7sU. ~R&.Tr6nCo, Beaoer Co. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 149 STATEMENT OF THE NUMBER OF BAKEELS OF OIL PRODUCED FROM AUGUST 26, 1859, TO DECEMBER 31, 1880, BY YEARS AND BY COUNTIES. IN THE OIL REGIONS OF PENNSYLVANIA AND SOUTHERN NEW fORK. I ^'C'/els."' StAte and connty. Total 156, 153, 807 1859 I860 1,000 Venango county, Pennsylvania. Venango, Forest, Crawford, and Warren, Pennsylvania. Do. Do. Do. Do. Venango, with Clarion and Armstrong. Venango, with Cattaraugns connty, New York. Do. Do. Do. Venango, with Butler county, Pennsylvania. Do. Do. Venango, with McKean county, Pennsylvania. Dn 2, 113, 609 2, 050, 690 2, 611, 369 2, 116, 109 2, 497, 700 3, 597, 700 3, 347, 300 1863 1864 1865 1867 1868 3, 715, 700 1869 5, 659, 000 5, 202, 710 5, 985, 635 9, 882, 010 10, 920, 435 1871 1872 1874 1875 . 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 8, 952, 355 13, 129, 780 15, 159, ISO 19, 741, 755 25, 960, 260 Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. TOTAL PRODUCTION OF CRUDE PETROLEUM IN PENNSYLVANIA OIL-FIELDS FROM 1859 TO DECEMBER 31, 1880, BOTH INCLUSIVE, DIVIDED INTO PRODUCING DIVISIONS AND DISTRICTS. Tears. Oil Creek division. Pithole district. Central Allegheny division. Lower Allegheny division. Tidionte district. Clarion division. Bradford division. Bullion district. Warren division. Beaver division. Yearly total of all districts. Total Barrett. 35,517,217 Barrels. 4, 816, 298 Barrels. 6, 482, 900 Barrels. 37, 342, 978 Barrels. 4, 674, 345 Barrels. 20,381,638 Barrels. 44,574,921 Barrels. 2, 312, 190 Barrels. 448,213 Barrels. 339, 631 Barrels. 156,890,331 1859 2,000 500,000 2, 113, 609 3, 056, 690 2,611,309 2, 116, 109 1, 585, 200 2, 502, 700 2,393,300 3, 072, 617 3, 762, 500 3, 039, 528 2, 04O, 263 2,000 500,000 2, 113. 609 3, 056, 690 2,611,309 2, 116, 109 2,497,700 3, 597, 700 3,347,300 3, 646, 117 4,215,000 5,260,745 5,205,341 5,890,248 9, 890, 964 10, 809, 852 8,787,506 8,968,906 13, 135, 771 15,163,462 20, 041, 581 26,032,421 1860 1861 1862 1 1883 ] 1864 1865 912, 500 1, 095, 000 954,900 547,500 365, 000 173, 585 t 1866 1867 1868 26,000 22,000 813. 150 1869 45, 000 918, 644 1, 091, 458 20,500 315, 838 497. 887 1870 1871 162.054 ' l.OM. 386 310,293 1872 1, 529, 685 145. 065 I 881. 140 1. 658, 080 847, 199 1873 1, 094, 369 734, 247 504,639 611,884 834, 858 686,948 389, 400 335, 342 119, 864 55,770 35, 130 37, 450 851,934 564,978 343, 905 333, 640 4, 402, 563 895, 983 j 2, 526, 231 5, 160, 265 373, 325 3, 921, 267 4,712.702 ' 351,407 1 9 851 214 1874 1875 18, 509 382, 768 1, 490, 481 6,208,746 14, 096, 759 22, 377, 658 1876. -•. 4,755,623 354,284 5,431,072 312,700 4,552,815 308,780 2, 876, 787 227, 900 2, 377, 700 3, 012, 120 2, 276, 408 1,438,342 868,984 64,220 1,306,442 505,265 289, 591 146, 672 51,337 151, 371 108, 300 45, 550 91,655 1877 . . . 62,085 92,490 82,100 102, 956 60,000 1 363,710 36,500 i 558,652 1880 RECAPITULATION. Barrels. Oil Creek division, includiug Shamburg, Pleasantville, and Enterprise 35, 517, 217 Pithole district, including Holderman, Morey, and Ball farms 4,816,298 Central Allegheny division, including Scrnbgrass to West Hickory 6, 482, 900 Lower Allegheny division, including Butler and Armstrong counties 37,342,978 Tidionte district, including Economite.s, Henderson farm, etc 4,674,345 CLarion district, including Clarion county 20,381, 638 Bradford district, including McKean and Elk counties ; also Cattaraugus and Allegany counties, New York . 44, 574, 921 BuUion Jistrict, including Venango county 2, 312, 190 Warren division, including Stoneham, Clarendon, etc 448,213 Beaver division, including Smith's Ferry, etc ., 339, 631 Total production from all districts 156,890,331 150 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. STATEMENT, BY COXJNTIES, OP THE NUMBER OP ACKES DEVELOPED IN THE OIL-FIELDS OP PENNSYLVANIA AND NEW YORK PROM AUGUST 26, 1859, TO DECEMBER 31, 1880. State and cotmty. Number of acres. Total 156, 380 32, 000 6,400 1,920 6,720 5,120 19, 200 27,520 50, 000 7,500 STATEMENT MADE BY THE UNITED PIPE-LINES FROM THE BEGINNING OF APRIL, 1877, TO JULY 9, 1881. ]^OXltll. Gross stocks. Sediment and surplus. Net stocks. Outstanding acceptances. Credit balances. Eeceipts from aU sources. Total deliveries. 1877. Barrels. 1, 895, 153. 71 1,762,602.64 1, 569, 367. 68 1,482,433.51 1, 489, 052. 53 1, 339, 032. 27 1, 434, 728. 78 1, 691, 399. 52 2, 830, 415. 36 3, 124, 641. 15 3, 439, 526. 93 3, 940, 000. 65 4, 335, 274. 84 4, 609, 681. 45 4, 719, 699. 25 4, 885, 851. 73 4, 571, 658. 59 4, 410, 061. 84 4,073,627.43 4,083,972.43 4, 098, 200. 92 4, 759, 031. 41 5, 157, 646. 15 5, 503, 768. 71 5, 885, 675. 24 6, 180, 843. 53 6, 426, 802. 45 6, 419, 699. 08 6, 380, 606. 63 6, 689, 359. 83 6, 701, 209. 87 6, 951, 133. 67 7, 362, 409. 76 7,735,257.38 8, 187, 012. 49 8,621,097.49 9, 662, 354. 59 10,306,078.79 11,266,771.77 12, 039, 010. 00 12,749,623.28 13, 018, 726. 03 14,020,877.39 14, 036, 891. 65 16, 369, 758. 67 16,291,307.87 17, 355, 485. 31 18,488,476.04 19, 560, 752. 23 20, 591, 117. 33 21, 397, 698. 53 Barrels. 77,386.70 75, 364. 87 81,255.43 81,741.50 81, 144. 63 67, 163. 68 46, 771. 99 39,418.00 68,729.63 72, 453. 43 82, 452. 66 92, 963. 06 133,934.76 150, 117. 76 181, 800. 03 229, 080. 78 217,085.19 225, 088. 86 234,050.89 216, 655. 30 201, 470. 30 182, 707. 80 171, 689. 80 190, 797. 91 211, 957. 06 315,992.98 334, 457. 29 323, 295. 32 303, 345. 15 325, 363. 85 299, 393. 67 303, 641. 17 294,571.37 295, 517. 60 322, 568. 93 361,130.35 388, 558. 16 454, 193. 73 477,431.69 475, 446. 56 462,987.28 382, 398. 71 391, 331. 55 341, 262. 67 361, 184. 8! 360,688.98 391, 616. 47 432, 304. 19 517, 422. 38 040, 662. 03 750, 412. 85 Barrels. I, 817, 767. 01 1,687,237.77 1,488,113.26 1, 400, 692. 01 1,407,907.90 1, 271, 868. 59 1, 387, 956. 79 1, 651, 981. 52 2, 761, 685. 73 3, 052, 187. 72 3,357,074.32 3, 847, 037. 59 4, 301, 340. 08 4, 459, 563. 69 4, 537, 899. 33 4,656,770.94 4, 354, 673. 40 4, 184, 972. 98 3, 838, 576. 64 3, 867, 317. 12 3, 896, 730. 63 4, 576, 323. 61 4, 935, 956. 35 5, 312, 970. 80 5,673,718.18 6, 864, 850. 55 6, 092, 345. 16 6, 090, 403. 76 6,078,261.48 6,264,495.98 6,401,816.20 6, 647, 492. 60 7, 067, 838. 39 7, 439, 739. 78 7, 864, 443. 66 8,269,967.14 9, 273, 796. 43 9, 851, 885. 06 10, 789, 340. 08 II, 563, 563. 44 12, 286, 636. 00 13,230,327.32 13, 629, 545. 84 14, 315, 623. 88 15,008,673.84 15, 930, 618. 89 16, 963, 868. 84 18, 050, 172. 75 19, 043, 329. 86 19, 950, 455. 30 20, 641, 285. 08 Barrels. 449, 640. 14 683, 663. 71 661,786.57 667, 166. 36 643,231.46 552, 676. 26 673, 860. 05 657, 591. 36 754, 338. 25 864,711.41 1,404,292.13 1, 437, 439. 50 1, 615, 791. 19 2, 065, 333. 31 1, 950, 430. 81 2, 078, 469. 56 3,064,590.76 1, 705, 853. 95 1,617,434.37 1, 784, 443. 35 1, 741, 311. 07 2, 153, 763. 83 3,346,338.22 3, 484, 881. 83 2, 644, 301. 36 3, 522, 486. 36 2, 959, 921. 12 3, 323, 575. 39 3, 581, 224. 03 3,783,430.33 3, 788, 155. 65 3, 973, 300. 13 4,335,459.40 4,436,788.55 4,603,386.49 4, 811, 894. 33 5, 846, 536. 60 6, 361, 330. 05 7, 397, 131. 89 8, 125, 241. 25 8, 635, 394. 80 9,287,193.94 9,448,615.77 10, 083, 824. OS 10,913,283.49 11, 672, 583. 61 12,029,594.35 13, 099, 362. 44 13, 846, 385. 30 14,608,124.70 14, 738, 838. 77 Barrels. 1,363,126.87 1, 003, 574. 06 836, 335. 69 733, 535. 66 764, 636. 44 719, 192. 33 714, 106. 74 994, 390. 16 3, 007, 347. 48 2,187,476.31 1, 953, 732. 19 2,359,598.09 2, 585, 548. 39 2,394,330.38 3,587,478.41 2, 573, 301. 33 2, 289, 983. 64 2,479,119.03 2, 331, 093. 37 3, 082, 873. 77 3,155,419.55 3,433,659.78 3, 639, 718. 13 2, 828, 083. 97 3, 029, 416. 82 3, 343, 364. 19 3, 133, 434. 04 3, 772, 828. 47 2,497,037.45 2, 481, 015. 60 2,613,660.65 3, 675, 192. 32 2, 832, 373. 99 3, 003, 951. 23 3, 362, 157. 07 3, 458, 072. 81 3, 427, 359. 83 3,490,565.01 3, 393, 308. 19 3,438,323.19 3,651,241.20 3, 949, 133. 38 4, 180, 930. 07 4,231,804.80 4, 095, 290. 35 4,258,035.28 4, 934, 274. 49 4, 950, 910. 31 5, 197, 044. 65 5, 342, 330. 60 5,902,450.91 Barrels. 200, 570. 31 493, 200. 58 538, 906. 95 616, 145. 46 673, 403. 04 624,225.37 687, 094. 59 913, 644. 16 1,656,150.37 972,681.18 1, 030, 688. 44 1,196,251.26 1,137,359.40 1,104,353.40 1,092,604.02 1, 258, 648. 46 1,196,368.67 1, 183, 113. 57 1,371,174.73 1, 159, 623. 71 972, 338. 83 1, 231, 237. 19 1,056,377.95 1, 363, 613. 17 1, 379, 349. 76 1,488,514.31 1,437,350.90 1,472,651.01 1, 714, 630. 11 1,691,863.41 1, 646, 735, 06 1,600,961.39 1,771,781.24 1, 833, 963. 04 1, 607, 663. 89 1,315,133.31 1,739,297.37 1, 553, 240. 91 1,781,937.29 1,890,161.44 1, 904, 462. 70 2,075,105.26 1, 999, 487. 98 1, 859, 991. 50 1, 987, 283. 54 1,876,526.50 1,823,713.46 2,222,812.39 2, 182, 636. 96 2,278,582.78 2, 318, 445. 18 Barrels. 125, 797. 90 Ma 619, 612. 26 Ju^ 737, 609. 77 699, 476. 18 666, 144. 28 760, 745. 57 570, 092. 71 649, 242. 70 506,333.99 1878. 715,149.78 720, 478. 14 701, 681. 27 773,050.53 843, 081. 33 1,004,474.55 July 1, 108, 074. 33 1, 496, 009. 04 1,318,266.33 1, 564, 984. 43 1, 139, 047. 02 924,035.93 1879. 546, 271. 74 633, 828. 71 1,029,029.70 1, 015, 482. 04 1, 223, 043. 27 1, 204, 757. 54 1, 465, 513. 05 1,728,949.81 1, 455, 811. 45 1, 502, 991. 30 1, 328, 621. 19 1, 331, 822. 12 1880. 1, 455, 194. 93 1, 178, 111. 92 1, 396, 037. 88 April 723,794.73 975, 061. 26 848, 339. 08 July 1, 095, 528. 25 1, 177, 448. 42 1, 115,184. 71 1, 493, 285. 06 1, 064, 146. 39 1, 207, 928. 35 1881. 931, 718. 71 781,747.93 1, 116, 695. 11 1, 183, 7T9. 02 May 1, 356, 683. 23 1, 545, 448. 13 The above figures are in barrels of forty -two gallons each.. VBir Awerigc yearly price Tlltal annual value ii( pcoduction in Greenbacks 1819 20.00 40. OOO.OO leeo 9.60 4.800. 000 .00 1861 .49 1.035,665.41 1802 1.05 3.209.524.50 1863 3.15 8.225.6^3,35 1964 S.87;S 20.896.576.37 1865 6.59 16.459. 843.00 1866 3.74 13.455.398.00 1867 2.4 1 8.066.993.00 1868 3.62;', 13.217. 174.12 1869 5.63 23.730. 450.00 IS70 3.99% 20.503.753.64 IS71 4.34 22-591. 179.94 1S72 3.64 21.440. 502. 72 1973 1.8? IS. 100.464. 12 1874 1.17 12.647.526.84 1875 1.35 12.133. 133. 10 1876 2.56Sli 22.962.821 .62 1977 2.42 3I.768.32_3=.82- 1978 1.19 18.04.:. 519.76 1879 .8 55* 16.953. 151 .38 I8B0 .94* 24.600. 637. 8-, T0TAL*324.920.e65.55 J)rtt^-s well, thejyzon^er weZZ i^n. J^enrLsylva.7zzcL jlTrr'c^ gT crude oil./Oc^j a da-rrel, ?nini7m^?n. t/clCzc Janzcary /863 , g'oZa^ a.t a, jDreTnzicTn. Oil J'ialel Mrad/brd OiZ Sacnd drJscQvere^ J?ecef7tifer ff'/^Z^. £ullion and ^^^rreTzJUvistone coTnmencxd. c^^pradifc^ ; '" ' ■■■•^^-^:, ::^- - J^uxifnuTn iotizl jjaii<.e ^^ of of 789.32 J d^LZoT-^ aedained. paTtxMeZlet^ prow&h. of the .Bro-^ord. fiel^ . CHART Showing the annual pro dizctioTi of I^etroleziTn IN THE OIL REGION ' • of Fenj%si/lvaj% La an d Soizthern JSTewl^rJc Since its discoveri/. zvUK the valzies of tAejorodizetioTo ^7% Currency and i7% Gold. I>ra>c well. tAzont»0r taeZl Ln Pennsyiva^zza. Ooifoier to Zfece7fihfT f>9fi/, uveytive /nQ-rt^hZy price gTcrude oil.gOc6^ a. 6«.rreZ, mtntmum vaCti. January /8€S^g-oZd a,t a, j^r^Mzzcm.. Oil /i'Sld, Aen.ee jtrtct g/* otl ristis mpiaffy, Pithote Diviaion, comrrt'SThGeA dojuft^ucc Gold ai i?te maxifrcuTn. ftr^Tnium, <^ri?t^ /66S. J\£azimujfb productwft ^ J*iihole Divistojt.. Centrtii AIlrg-hsnyDifV. corn.»te/t>caei to prodzuic. ZYdioiUe.Su//arAAr/fM/tn>MJ^ii/.s. oarmrtej^eed ^oproetuce. ^i^iixi7rtum,j>7-oduciion. ^ Oil Cr&eJc Dtyision/. ClarioTb MivL^Cort aoTrtfrtenceeZ ^o produce. Maximum, proditciCoii' o/ C^ntra.^ Al^e^^ftny Dm*. A/azirnunv procfuch'oJi, oj y^idioute JOvvvst'oH' JSrad/orei Oi.^ jSartd df^sOQfJfrae^ J?acfifnJbsr &'M'/4. 2iulli,on and ff&rrenMoui.^ion^ commrnced' t^n pruf/itti^ , J5oavcr Mivisio^ comrr^cncod, io proeZtcae , ' — —*~-^.r,.z^jz, . - - -^ Afojeirnurn totaf, v*t./.fcf! of dr7es.^23 Trice o/ oU faila rajoiMy in eonaefu«n,co o/" the. paraZZmea ^roufdA. of £ke Bradford, /lela. . X.ry>rxCZXX-X7-"T->-^ c>&/aM«C7y / J879 ,tp«citi p»jfm»ais rvatcmoil in M« (fS yyVyy/yV/Y^^ ^ « Ma.Aimunv monthly ecimraffa Wff^ of 1^22Z:^£Z/>VV'V[y^^ iflBO arming X4^f^£ls ^liaineS. The total annual vcU-ue wa.3 olbtazned J^y multiplying the toUl produciiorL jby the av^raye yearly pr^ce- . The cveraye yearly premium on yolA was oUa.i.n.d J>y t^Tcvny an avera,ge of the rnyhest. lowest, openir^ and ciosi^ny pr.ce of i/old in, currency yoT each -moTtth in ea,c?i. year. Compiled 2)if CJias. A.AsT-iLurner JVf.S. As^istcLnt.Second Geological SziTvey of Fennsi/lvanza: | L Sa.7n-j/Xin.s^.2Jel THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 151 MISCELLANEOUS PIPE-LINE STATISTICS FOR 1879 AND 1880. Average for the census year January February March , April May June July August September ! October I November December i Barrels. 32, 377 14, 800 12, 200 27, 700 26, 000 32, 800 49. 000 36, 000 38, 600 47, 300 44, 700 46, 300 31, 300 ISSO. Barrels. 18, 303 20, 822 18,954 18,975 18, 370 36, 735 35, 033 30, 916 33,567 18, 231 21, 730 21,500 Barrels. 61,837 45,719 43, 105 48, 856 50,754 52, 963 53,908 54,061 61, 886 63,504 60, 694 60,278 63, 722 j 67, 330 62, 671 67, 024 67, 921 59, 048 69, 931 71, 072 71, 010 67, 813 70, 861 65, 799 57, 749 STOCKS IX riPE-LlXE TASKS. Barrels. 8, 323, 681 5, 064, 693 5, 541, 683 5, 928, 628 6, 332, 841 6, 665, 454 6, 849, 389 6, 938, 690 6, 998, 046 7, 328, 980 7, 402, 630 7, 675, 193 8, 094, 496 8, 520, 696 8, 930, 508 9, 369, 240 10, 545, 425 11, 230, 883 12,281,711 13, 150, 974 13, 945, 113 14, 713, 346 15, 114, 802 16, 756, 954 16, 616, 628 TIDE-WATEE. Barrels. 203,378 I 65,026 52, 182 ' 55,421 ' 53,477 ' 55,489 j 82,035 I 108,020 107,402 I 121,303 139,883 118, 092i 114,352 1 154, 034 125, 376 167, 564 199, 327 905, 153 230, 089 210, 178 196, 249 169, 147 185, 551 162, 269 173, 125 Shipments. 1880. Barrels, 179, 409 2,585 36, 728 35, 575 24,588 40, 680 58, 054 98,889 97,36» 99,243 118, 400 716, 057 741, 062 34, 162 88,836 94,398 94,095 85, 482 97,493 129, 178 121, 973 110, 659 Section 8.— THE PEODUGTIOJ^ OF THE PACIFIC COAST. Concerning the petroleum production of the Pacific coast, I have to say that I have no official returns from any of the parties interested, no communication addressed to them having elicited any response whatever, and in consequence I have been forced to rely on such other sources of information as were available. My own experience in relation to the petroleum of that region led me to accept all reports published in the newspapers with great caution I addressed a letter of inquiry to the senior member of a fii-m long engaged in trade in refined oils upon the San Francisco market, and received the following reply, dated March 16, 1882 : The consumption of this coast of eastern oils is 4,500,000 gallons of refined. The product of all the refineries of this coast does not exceed 400,000 gallons refined. It is of iuferior quaUty, low test, and is principally sold to the Chinese trade at about 16 cents per gallon in cans, or less, by 6 cents per gallon, than the cheapest eastern oils. In addition, about 400,000 gallons of crude oil is sold here for making gas and fuel. The production seems to be decreasing, the wells being, as a rule, short-lired. The above is, I consider, reliable, and is the best information I can get. My firm sell considerable oil, both high- and low-test eastern. We have no demand for California production. Mr. J. C. Welch, in his report for February, 1880, says: My California correspondent writes, February 2, as follows: "In reference to the Californian production, I would state that since my last letter there has nothing new been developed. It is very expensive and very difficult to drill wells in California, owing to the angle at which the rock stands, causing it to cave from the top to the bottom of the weU. It requires four or five sizes of casing, telescoped from 12 inches to the smallest size that can be drilled through. In this way it requires about as much capital to case a well here as the entire expense of a well in Pennsylvania. The time required to drill is from three months to two years, it being very difficult to get the casing down, the rock caving at every point. However, these obstacles wouldall be overcome if there was a class of men like Pennsylvania producers in this country to driU wells, but, fortunately for the producing interests of the United States, the monopoly in California is in the producing interest in.stead of in the refining and transportation interest, as in Pennsylvania. A syndicate of millionaires, led by C. N. Felton (who was fir.st in the development of the Bonanza mines of Nevada), have been busily engaged for the last two years in purchasing In fee all the lauds that show any indications of being oil territory, which, as the tracts of land in which the oil district is located were originally divided by the old Spanish grants containing hundreds of thousands of acres, it has been a comparatively easy matter for them to do, and they .seem inclined to keep their oil in the ground until such times as PennsJ'lvania shall have exhausted her supplies and the product here is needed for the world's demand. Although the same company have obtained all the necessary machinery, iron, and fixtures for the refinery (of which I wrote you recently), and have land secured in a favorable location, located on the bay and also connected with both systems of railroad, narrow and broad gauge, yet they have not actually commenced the erection of the works. It wiU require about ninety days from the time they break ground until the refinery can be completed. As I .suggested in my former letter to you, these parties at present do not intend to produce more oil than is required for the Pacific coast trade, and for the next two or three years the California territory need have no infliience whatever on the general petroleum market unless some unexpected strike should be made that now seems unlikely, as there are only two or three wells being drilled. I do not know exactly what percentage of refined oil is obtained from California crude; but should not, from my experience, place the procUiction at above 1,000,000 gallons, or 2,500 barrels. Section 9.— THE FOREIGN PEODUCTIOX OF PETEOLETJM IN COMPETITION WITH THE UNITED STATES. From various reports that have received my attention in reference to this subject I select the following as most entitled to confidence. The first which I offer, reviewing all of the European fields upon observations made during the census year, is from the February (1S80) report of Mr. J. C. Welch. The second paper was prepared expressly for this report by William Brough, esq., of Franklin, Pennsylvania, a gentleman of large experience in the Pennsylvania oil regions, whose opiuion.s. are based upon a careful personal inspection of the Russian petroleum fields, they being really the only European fields likely to prove of more than local importance. Mr. ^^>lch, in his report on Russia, says : The various oil territories of the world have, during the past year, been receiving some attention, and the chance of their supplying Oil to meet u^ore or less of the world's needs is of course an important one to those whose interests are principally identified with that 152 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. eupply Ijeing drawn from western Pennsylvania. The Eussian territory on tlie Caspian sea has received the most attention, and it has a prolific yield ; the two things that have militated chiefly against its being a competitor of importance of the Pennsylvania petroleum are in the character of the oil, only yielding about 33 per cent, of illuminating oil, and in the difficulty of getting it to the markets of the world through inadequate means of transportation. The opinion prevails among some that a percentage of illuminating oil can be got from it as great as that obtained from American petroleum, requiring, however, some different process of refining. This plan is to be tested soon by the erection of a refinery in Russia, the owners having sufficient confidence in their process to erect a refinery of sufficient size to be a complete test as to whether the process will be a success or not. Mr. L. Emery, jr., a well-known resident and producer of this region, has just returned from the Baku field, after having taken time to give it a critical examination. He estimates the production there during the past year to have been about 28,000 American barrels per day from 78 wells, showing the extraordinary average of 360 barrels. The depth of the wells is only about 500 feet. There were shipped from Baku last season about 1,930,000 gallons of refined oil. Oil is refined at Baku at 195 refineries, with a charging capacity of 28,000 American barrels. There are now in course of erection stills with a charging capacity of about 2,000 barrels, which will be ready for business with the opening of navigation in the spring. Some of these refineries are very small ; others are owned by independent corporations with large capital. Prom Baku oil is sent east, south, and west by canals and wagons, and by the Volga river to Kisan, and thence by cars it reaches the principal markets of Russia. Mr. Emery says it is estimated there are 25,000,000 poods (about 3,125,000 barrels) of crude oil in the vicinity of Baku held in excavations in the ground or lakes. Pipe-lines are being used from the wells to the refineries in the vicinity of Baku, a distance of 6- miles. Two 3-inoh lines have recently been laid, one with pipes of American and one of English manufacture ; and three more pipe-lines are in process of construction, one of 5 inches diameter, the other two of 3 inches diameter. A railroad also runs through the district. The price paid for pipeage is about 8 cents per American barrel, and oil is now a drug at 6 cents a barrel at the wells. Petroleum is found more or less on both sides of the Caucasian mountains; and oil is produced within the city limits of Tifiis, a city which is rated by the latest census as having 70,591 inhabitants. A railroad is in operation from the Black sea to Tiflis, a distance of ISO- miles, and is in process of construction from Tiflis to Baku. Eighteen miles of this is already built, its construction having commenced last summer. The contract calls for its completion within three years of its commencement, with a forfeiture for every day over that time that it is not completed The contractor, however, states his expectation of completing the road within eighteen months from the- beginning. The Russian government is the chief mover in the construction of the road, and the road is being built by a government contractor of large means. In this railroad, and in the possibility of a process of refining oil by which an increased percentage of illuminating oil can be eliminated, rests an apparent danger to the petroleum business of western Pennsylvania. With this railroad completed the Baku oil' would be placed on tide-water navigation with a railroad htiul of nearly 600 miles. The commerce of the Black sea is already very important, Odessa, located upon it, being one of the great grain markets of the world. Very considerable attention is now being turned toward territory in Europe that presents some aspects of being oil-bearing. The country south of the Caucasian mountains, of which Tiflis is the center, while belonging to Russia, is in Asia. Immediately north of the Caucasian mountains is the Kouban river, emptying into the Black sea. The following is from my New York daily report of March 12 : " I have recently come more fully in contact with people having knowledge of the oil-producing territory on the Caspian sea than I had at the time of writing my February monthly report, and I now find the statement I made in that report is of much too favorable a character in regard to Baku production and getting the Baku oil to market. The railroad I spoke of as being constructed between the Black and Caspian seas has been constructed for some time from the Black sea to Tiflis, and a short piece has been built, say 12 miles- long, on the Baku end, in the vicinity of the oil-wells. It is intended to go to work on the road east of Tiflis soon, but operations have not yet commenced, or had not recently. This distance is between 300 and 400 miles, and there are some uncertainties concerning its construction which may keep it delayed for a long time. I am informed by merchants in this city, who have correspondents in that vicinity, that i^y information is at fault very considerably regarding the amount of production at Baku, and that it is very much less. Taking into consideration what I am recently informed, the matters at Baku are not of a nature, I judge, that require them at present to be taken into account as having a bearing upon the prices of American petroleum." Dr. Tweddle, formerly of Pittsburgh and Franklin, representing a French company, is drilling two wells upon this river, and has a small refinery at Taman, a city located near the mouth of the Kouban. He has secured enormous tracts of territory from the Russian government. Five drillers and experienced well-men recently left Oil City to join Dr. Tweddle on the Kouban river. Mr. James E. Adams, . of Oil City, experienced in oil matters, has been with Dr. TVeddle since last summer, having previously spent a year at Baku. The following is Mr. Welch's report on Galicia and Germany: Galicia, in Austria, has been producing some oil for a considerable time, and has now a production of about 500 barrels per day. This territory has been visited by Americans accustomed to drilling wells and refining oil, who had gone to inspect it, with a view of doing business there, and they came away unfavorably impressed with it as a place to locate in the oil business. Drilling is difficult and expensive there, the strata of the rocks not lying horizontally, but being at an angle that causes them to cave after being drilled through. . Much or most of the oil is taken from near the surface from wells dug down, and the oil then bailed out. The oil is unreliable in gravity even at considerable depths, and the heavier grades are a drug, not being treated in such a way as to make a satisfactory lubricating oil. The Galician field is situated on the north side of the Carpathian mountains, and extends a distance of about 200 miles, with a width of about 10 miles. In Hungary, on the south side of the Carpathian mountains, there are the same indications of oil that there are on the- north side. An English- American company has secured 29 square miles here, and are now taking steps to operate it. There have been numerous cable reports published in the newspapers recently of oil discovered in Hanover, Germany. European petroleum circulars I have received since these reports were circulated make no mention of them, and I have as yet heard nothing from my European correspondents upon the subject, although I cabled Bremen about it, and it consequently appears to me that the European petroleum trade is not taking much notice of these reports. Some petroleum has been found not far from Bremen for the past two hundred years. While I was in Bremen one year ago I took some notes of what gentlemen I met hoped would prove to be an oil district. It is located 128 English miles southeast of Bremen. They had three wells then down, of different depths, as follows : 181, 242, and 680 feet. Of the first two they were getting a small quantity of oil, one yielding 5 and the other 30 per cent, of illuminating oil. The other well they were then beginning to test. I am informed since that it only produces a barrel and a quarter per day, and that it is of heavy gravity. These wells are near the small city of Peine. Wells recently cabled about to the newspapers are near Heide, in the northwestern portion of Holstein. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PETROLEUM. 153 The foUowing is William Brougli's description of the Eussian oil-belt: The Eussian "oil belt" may be traced, at intervals more or less remote, from the island of Schily-Khauy, near the eastern shore of the Caspian sea, westward over the promontory of Apscheron, and following the line of the Caucasian mountains into the valley of the river Kouban, which empties its waters through a lagoon into the Black sea; thence it may be traced in the same general direction across the Crimea and to the oil-fields of Galicia, in Austria. This belt is actively worked in the Crimea, in the valley of the Kouban, and on the promontory of Apscheron, near the city of Baku; it Is only at the latter point, however, that the product is sufficiently large to induce the gathering of statistics. At all other points the petroleum produced, whether gathered from springs or obtained by well- boring, is entirely absorbed by local consumption. The foUowing table gives the shipments of petroleum and its products from Baku for the years named, in barrels of forty gallons each : • Tear. Refined. Kesidunm. Crude. 392, 977 561, 236 750, 218 828, 347 376,736 150, 021 232,782 388, 042 755, 688 427,953 22,137 17, 169 24, 699 38,628 24,470 As the average yield of refined petroleum from Apscheron crude is about one-third, we may estimate the total crude product of that field for the year 1879 at 2,500,000 barrels, or 6,850 barrels per day. This oil is all consumed in Kussia, a very little manufactured for lubricating excepted. The residuum is used for fuel, and is consumed nearly altogether by the steam vessels on the Caspian sea and the Volga river. As shown by the table, the product of the Apscheron field declined about 9 per cent, in the tirst half of the year 1880, and by the end of that year the decline was so serious that the price, which had ruled for two years with little variation at 24 cents per barrel, advanced in the autumn to between |1 and $2 per barrel ; but in 1881 production was so increased that in August the price had fallen to 2 copecks per pood for oil at the wells, equal to 8 cents per barrel of 40 gallons. The Apscheron oil-field as at present worked lies within a radius of 20 miles of the city of Baku, but nine-tenths of the total product has so far been obtained from the deposit at Balachany, which covers an area of from 2,000 to 3,000 acres. This deposit has proved very rich. The oil is found in a loose, open sand, at a depth varying from 120 to 450 feet, and is brought to the surface in balers having check-valves in the bottom similar to the sand-pump used in the Pennsylvanian oil regions, the large amount of loose sand which comes up with the oil preventing the use of the ordinary suction-valve pump used in American wells. The largest well over found in the Balachany district had been producing for sis years in 1879, and had yielded during that time an average of 1,200 barrels per day — sk production much in excess of that of any Pennsylvanian well. The diameter of the wells is from 8 to 12 inches; the capacity of the balers from 20 to 40 gallons. There are about 400 wells m the entire Apscheron district, the largest outside of Balachany giving about 10 barrels per day, and the average yield of the whole number, including Balachany, being about 20 barrels per day. Balachany is situated 12 miles north of Baku, and is connected with it by a railway. There are also two pipe-lines for the transportation of oil to the latter place, where the refineries are mainly situated, and which is the port of shipment. There is one othes pipe-line from Balachany to Soorachany, 5 or 6 miles distant, and 10 miles northeast of Baku. At Soorachany a large refinery is located, in order to utilize as fuel the gas from gas-springs there ; there, too, may stUl bo seen an ancient temple of the fire- worshipers, where- prayers are daily said to a jet of petroleum gas, whose dame is never permitted to expire. The development of the Apscheron oil-field has constantly been restricted by want of transportation facilities, the only outlet for the production from Baku to the markets of Russia being by way of the Caspian sea and the Volga river. Beside this new business of petroleum, now thirteen years established, the general commerce of the Caspian has in the same time been steadily growing, and the number of sea- going vessels, though constantly increasing, is still quite inadequate to supply the demand for transportation. In 1878 there were 30 steamships plying this sea ; and of these 12 were imperial, leaving 18 merchant ships, varying in size from 300 to 500 tons. Eleven more were added in 1879, making 29 merchant steamships in all. There are beside numerous sailing-vessels. The steamships are all of foreiga build, mainly English, and having to pass through the canals connecting the Baltic with the Volga, their size is consequently limited thereby. Some of them have been floated through in two sections. As the depth of water in the delta of the Volga is ordinarily but 2 feet, it is only in the spring of the year, when the water is 9 feet deep there, that these vessels can enter the Caspian. The oil, both crude and refined, is conveyed by these vessels in bulk compartments, as well as in casks and barrels, steamers being used almost exclusively for refined and sailing-vessels for crude and for residuum. The voyage is made from Baku to "nine-foot" water, where the vessels anchor in open roads and deliver their cargoes to barges built expressly for the shallow waters of the delta. These barges convey the oil to Astrakhan, a distance of 330 miles. At Tzaritzin the facilities for unloading the barges, for storing oil, or delivering it to the railroad are modem in character, and are really copied from the American methods. They consist of pipes, pumps, and large iron storage-tanks. The railroad also is equipped with iron tank-cars similar to the American. Farther up the Volga the railway again connects with the river at Saratov, at Syzran, and at Nijni-Novgorod, to all of which oil is shipped, the last named being the most northerly point of river shipment, and 1,400 miles irom Astrakhan. In January, 1880, the Eussian government granted a concession for the building of a railroad between Baku and Tiflis, the capital of the Caucasus, which was already connected by rail with Poti, on the Black sea. When this road shall be completed, it will furnish an outlet for Baku oil to the markets of Europe, and will bring it into direct competition with American oil in those markets The work of building this road is, if measured by the Russian standard, progressing rapidly. In August, 1881, 120 versts (about 80 miles) between Baku and Adji-Kabul was finished and in running order, and it is expected that the whole road will be completed by August, 1882. Its oil-car equipment will have capacity to deliver at the Black sea 1,000,000 barrels per year. As the harbor of Poti is exposed and unsafe, the railway will be extended 60 miles farther south to Batoum, recently ceded by Turkey to Russia, and the best harbor on the Black sea. The whole length of the railway will be 660 miles. The freight rate is uniform on all the railroads of Russia, being prescribed by the imperial government, and in 1879 was for petroleum 1 copeck per pood for 45 versts, or 9J mills for carrying one ton of 2,000 poitnds 1 mile. At this rate the cost of transferring a barrel of petroleum from Baku to Batoum will be 83 cents. As the petroleum product of Apscheron has thus far been so steadily maintained above the carrying capacity of the vessels on the Caspian sea, we need not doubt that, with the opening of the Baku and Tiflis railroad, other deposits will be found along the line indicated. Indeed, the Russian oil man is fully alive to this conception, and is already prospecting along the whole line from Baku to Adji-Kabul, buying and selling, leasing and releasing, oil lands after the manner of his American prototype. But until this railroad is completed the Americans need not fear competition from that quarter. The high rates of freight on the Caspiau, the delays and hazard 154 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. attending tlie clisoliarge of cargo in open sea at "Mne-foot", the double transfer, and the long voyage from "Nine-foot" to Tzaritzin, requiring the service of steam-tugs all the way, these, added to the fact that this only outlet is closed by ice from November until April, form a complete bar to such competition. Indeed, it is doubtful whether the Russian could now hold his place in his own market without the help of the duty imposed for his protection upon American petroleum. This duty is 9 cents per gallon, payable in gold. The gravity of Baku oil ranges from 26° to 36°. B. , there being very little of the latter grade, and the gravity of oil taken from pipe- line tanks, where the product of different wells is mixed, is about 30° B. This mixed oil gives a yield of 33 per cent, illuminating oil, and the residuum is used for fuel. No other fuel is used by steamers on the Caspian sea. Many of the steamers on the Volga also use it. It is also the only fuel used by the locomotives on the railway now building and partly completed from the eastern shore of the Caspian sea into the Turkoman territory recently acquired by Russia. The oil-fields of the Kouban valley and the peninsula of the Taman, on the Black sea, have been worked actively, with some intervals of comparative rest, since 1864. In that year a Russian nobleman, Count Novosiltzoff, leased 1,500,000 acres from the "Cossacks of the Kouban" and began operations on an extensive scale. He employed American workmen, and extended his well-drilling over a stretch of country 150 miles in length. He also built a large refinery at Taman, on the straits of Enikale, near the western end of his territory. It is difficult now to ascertain what success attended his operations. At one point, Kudokko, it is said he obtained a very large well, some Cossack estimates putting it at 10,000 barrels per day; but we may rest assured that this is a greatly exaggerated statement. It may be doubted whether the well produced at any time 1,000 barrels per day, or for any considerable time even a hundred, for Novosiltzoff failed to obtain oil enough from his wells to compensate him for his expenditures, notwithstanding that the price ruled very much higher then than now; and his enterprise finally failed, after sinking his original capital and involving him in an indebtedness of about 1,500,000 rubles. The Kudokko well is still producing; its yield in 1878 was about 23 barrels per day. The well was then four years ■old. It is pumped by steam-power, with a suction-valve pump. The oil is of good quality, olive-green in color, gravity 36° B., and yields when distilled 50 per cent, of illuminating oil. A small refinery on the estate works up the oil into lubricants and illuminauts, and finds ready sale for the entire product in the Cossack community of the neighborhood. Twenty-eight other wells were drilled around this first well without increasing the total product; indeed, the Kudokko oil-field has been shrinking steadily since it was first opened, notwithstanding the occasional drilling of new wells, and its total product is now less than 20 barrels per day. In 1879 a French company, under American management, leased all the Novosiltzoff land except the 25,000 acres which form the Kudokko estate, and began operations in a vigorous manner. This company is still at work; it has in its employ skilled, practical workmen from the oil regions of Pennsylvania, and it has made several large shipments of well machinery from America. It also recently purchased here pipe and pumps for a pipe-line from Ilsky, where its most productive wells are situated, to the port of Novorossisk, on the Black sea, 65 miles west of Ilsky. It is perhaps too soon to determine what success in finding oil will attend its operations; but the total yield of its wells is thus far about 80 barrels per day, and the greater part of this product is of inferior character, being a black bituminous oil. It may, however, be doubted whether any large deposit of petroleum will ever be formed within the limits of this field, taking Ilsky as its eastern boundary and including all the land westward which forms the peninsula of Taman, bounded on the north by the sea of Azov and the straits of Enikale and on the south by the Black sea. There has been a large amount of unsuccessful test-drilling done here in the last sixteen years, but no rock has yet been found which makes a suitable receptacle for petroleum. Wherever found, the oil is diffused through the whole strata of soil and near the surface, so that no mechanical ingenuity is required to reach it, but it can be obtained with the rudest well-boring implements. It is therefore reasonable to conclude that the country has been worked for oil from remote times. The greatest depth at which oil has been found here is 400 feet, and deeper drilling has thus far given no promise of success. These remarks are equally applicable to the Crimean district, which is of the same character. Although illuminating oils manufactured in Russia from the native crude product compare favorably with the American oils, the latter have nevertheless been yearly imported into Russia, though in diminishing quantity ; btit the fact that these imports still continue seems to need some, explanation, in view of the heavy duty of 9 cents per gallon imposed on American oil. A comparison of the burning qualities of the two oils shows that the American gives a slightly whiter flame, and that it is less liable to smoke than the Russian, In odor and color they are equal. The Russian oil burns with undiminished flame until the oil in the lamp is exhausted, while the flame of the American sinks when the oil becomes low in the lamps. The fire-test of the Russian oil is quite as good as of the best American, and the tendency to smoke of the Russian is easily overcome by a proper adjustment of the lamp-chimney. The Russians have lately introduced some new patterns of chimneys. These remarks apply only to standard oils of both countries found in open market at St. Petersburg, rejecting special brands and inferior or defective lots. The following table gives the imports of American refined petroleum into Russia for the years named, the figures being taken from Russian official records and transposed from "poods" into barrels of forty gallons each: Barrels. \' Barrels. 1867 68,316 1868 111,424 1869 158,137 1870 198,386 1871 217,555 Barrels. 1877 261,780 1878 251,227 1879 188,752 1880 143,154 1872 203,901 1873 379,481 1874 310,981 1875 308,225 1876 277,671 In conversation with Mr. Charles H. Trask, of the firm of William Eopes & Co., of 70 Wall street, l^ew York, largely engaged in the Eussian trade, he remarked that transportation from Baku to St. Petersburg was so expensive that a high gold duty, augmented by a depreciated currency, alone rendered the manufacture of Eussian oils in St. Petersburg possible. Without this duty the oils could not compete with American, although the lubricating oils made from Eussian crude do not chill and are superior to American lubricating oils. He said, further, that shipments of low-grade American oils to Eussia had entirely ceased, but that high-test American oils were still sold there. As the tariff may be changed at any time, the business was somewhat uncertain both for those within and those outside Eussia. 1 have not been able to obtain any satisfactory statistics of the Canadian production. So far as I can learn, stocks had accumulated in Canada before 1879, but during that year and subsequently these stocks were drawn down, so that the production of refined during the census year was no indication of the production out of the ground. I have not therefore made anj" a^ttempt to estimate the Canadian production, which is only of local importance, as partially supplying the Dominion markets. P^RT II. THE TECHNOLOGY OF PETROLEUM. PA.RT II. Chapter L— MIXTURES OF PETROLEUM. Section 1.— FILTEEED PETEOLEUM. Petrolenm was prepared for use, particularly in medicine, by filtering, at a very early date in southern Ohio. Dr. Hildreth, as early as 1833, (a) mentions filtering petroleum through charcoal, by which much of its " empyreumatic smell is destroyed and the oil greatly improved in quality and appearance". Since that time petroleum has been filtered through gravel and through both wood and animal charcoal, in order to remove all sediment from it, and at the same time to remove in part both its color and its odor; but since the methods of refining by distillation have been discovered, it is chiefly the more dense oils that have been treated in this way. These dense natural oils are often injured by distUlation in the properties which render them valuable for lubrication, and filtering appears to furnish the only means of removing, even in a partial manner, the color and the often quite disagreeable odor. Section 2.— MIXTUEES OF PETEOLEUM. The mixtures into which petroleum enters are chiefly used for lubrication. They consist of petroleum and heavy products of petroleum mixed mechanically with animal and vegetable oils, tallow, resin, and allied materials, of the same mixed with mineral substances, and also of the same mixed with chemical compounds. The first class of compounds is made in very great variety ; in fact, there is scarcely a wholesale oil house in the country but has some formula of its own for compounding lubricating oils, into which petroleum or the products of petroleum enter -as a constituent. Some of these are sold honestly as mixtures, while others are adulterations pure and simple. Some of these mixtures are prepared in the rudest manner, and are used only for the coarsest purposes ; others are prepared with great care, the mixture being effected by heating and purified by straining or filtering the oil through various materials. The general purijose for which mixtures are prepared is to produce a lubricating material that will be quite as effective as animal or vegetable oils and at the same time be less expensive. A few mixtures are prepared and sold on their merits as preparations of a superior quality, whUe some dealers maintain that the larger the proportion of mineral oil the better. The oils used in preparing these mixtures are sperm, whale, and lard oils to a considerable extent, especially for lubrication. Neat's-foot oil and castor oil are used in mixtures for dressing leather. Lard-oil mixtures have been •used for oiling wool. In Germany a mixture is sold under the name of " Vulcan oil ", which consists of a petroleum •distillate of a specific gravity of from 0.870 to 0.890, treated with about 6 per cent, of sulphuric acid and well washed with water, and then mixed with 5 per cent, of rape oil. Another, called "opal" oil, consists of petroleum distillate of a specific ^avity of from 0.850 to 0.870, similarly treated and washed, and mixed with 10 per cent, of rape oil. The mixture of petroleum products with mineral substances have only been invented quite recently, and are principally the so-called plumbago oils manufactured in Eochester, New York. By a process which has been patented, reduced petroleum is apparently ground with graphite, as paints are ground in oil, resulting in a complete suspension of the graphite in the oil. It is claimed that these oils are very superior lubricators for railroad axles and steam cylinders, the latter becoming coated with a polished coat of graphite soft as silk. The Johnson Graphite Oil Company publishes a certificate showing that a car had made over 13,000 miles of mileage on one application. It has also been proposed to treat heavy reduced oils with powdered pyrophyllite. This mineral resembles talc, and when powdered is especially soft and greasy to the touch. The most striking example of chemical preparations of petroleum is perhaps found in the justly celebrated Galena oils, manufactured at Franklin, Pennsylvania. These oils consist of a lead soap dissolved in petroleum. A lead soap is prepared after the ordinary manner by boiling oxide of lead with a saponifiable oil, and the whole is dissolved in the natural heavy oil of the Franklin district. The oils thus prepared have great tenacity and endurance as lubricators, particularly for car-axles, for which purpose they are principally used. Mixtures of natural oils and tallow, natural oils and residuum, reduced petroleum, residuum from acid-restoring works, containing sulphur, pine tar, etc., are used on car-axles and for other heavy lubrication. a A. J. S. (1), xxiv, 63. 158 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. Ohaptee II.— partial DISTILLATION Section 1.— SUNNED OILS. Tiie thickening by evaporation of oils spilled upon the Allegheny river and its tributaries, by which an ordinary third-sand oil would become converted into a dense oil fit for lubrication, led to experiments upon the lighter first- and second-sand oils around Franklin that were too light for lubricators and too dense for profitable manufacture into illuminating oils. These experiments were first undertaken by Mr. William H. Brige, of Franklin, and consisted in an attempt to imitate the conditions observed on the river as nearly as possible. Mr. Brige first exposed the oil spread on the surface of water in a small pan 3 feet square. This pan was placed in the sun, and the light oils were allowed to evaporate until the desired consistence was reached. The method was found to be entirely successful. The plan, since adopted on a larger scale, is as follows : A wooden tank is provided, sunk in the ground nearly its entire depth, 60 to 70 feet long, 20 to 30 feet wide, and 1 foot deep. A flat steam coil is laid upon the bottom, and water is run in from 8 to 10 inches deep, upon which a layer of oil about an inch thick is placed. The water is heated by the coil to about 110° F., and the oil becomes very limpid. Every description of dirt, particularly minute particles of grit, that was held in suspension ii> the viscid oil is left free to fall to the bottom of the tank, and the specific gravity of the oil is reduced in a few days from 32° to 29° B. The oil loses by this treatment about 12 per cent, of its volume, and is increased in value from $5 to $12 per barrel. Section 2.— EEDUCED OILS. Throughout the entire region the observation has been made repeatedly that oil left in open tanks evaporates and decreases in specific gravity Baum^. Mr. George Allen, of Franklin, acting on such observations, patented a novel method of partially evaporating petroleum which produces a very superior quality of oil. He suspends sheets of loosely woven cloth vertically above troughs in a heated chamber and by a perforated pipe distributes the oil upon the upper border of the curtain in thin streams. The oil is thus distributed over a large surface in the heated atmosphere, and the thin film is rapidly evaporated, the light portion passing into the atmosphere, and the heavy portion dripping from the lower border of the curtain into the troughs, from which it passes into a receptacle. This method of treatment furnishes a bright green, odorless oil, entirely free from sediment of any kind, such impurities remaining attached to the curtain. These methods of partial evaporation are particularly valuable, as they preserve all the qualities of the natural oil, without any danger from the effects of overheating. Many thousands of barrels are reduced every year by partial evaporation in stills, either by direct application of heat or by the use of steam, the evaporation for this purpose being always so carefully conducted as to avoid overheating and " cracking" or any approach to destructive distillation. The different grades of naphtha are usually run off, and then a sufficient amount of distillate is removed to reduce the portion remaining in the still to the required specific gravity. The amount of reduction depends upon the purpose for which the oil is intended, not only with regard to its density, but also with regard to the velocity and temperature at which the machinery is to be run. For use on large journals and those revolving at moderate speed the oil is reduced to a specific gravity of from 29° to 32Jo B., but for use on small journals moving with great velocity, and also in the interior of cylinders, where the temperature is very high, a still greater reduction is found necessary, and the oil is made more dense. At the same time it is made less volatile, having a specific gravity of from 26° to 29° B. A large proportion of the lighter grade oils of West Virginia and Ohio and the entire production of the Smith's Ferry district are treated in this manner. The latter oil is very peculiar, having the color of pale sherry, without its transparency, and when freshly pumped has a specific gravity of 50° B., with a much less pronounced and less disagreeable odor than any other petroleum produced in commercial quantities in the United States. When reduced with the aid of steam the distillate of suitable specific gravity for burning oil requires little or no treatment with acid or alkali, and the reduced oil from the still preserves its amber color and freedom from offensive odor, furnishing a lubricator of very superior quality and attractive appearance. Eeduced oils are often filtered through animal charcoal, and are thereby greatly improved in color and odor. THE TECHNOLOGY OF PETROLEUM. 159 Chapter III.— GENEEAL TECHNOLOGY OF PETEOLEUM BY DISTILLATION. Section 1.— IKTEODUCTION. Oils were first obtained for commercial purposes liy distilling sliales and coal early in the present century, but they had been thus produced in small quantities for experiment more than a century before. Gesner, in Coal, Petrohtm, and Other Distilled Oils, 1S61, page 8, says : As early as 1G94 Eele, Hancock, and Portlock made "pitcli, tar, and oyle out of a kind of stone'', and obtained patents therelbr. ■* * * In I78I the earl of Dundonald obtained oils from coals by submitting them to dry distillation in coke ovens. » * » Laurent, Reichenbach and others distilled the tars obtained from bituminous schists. These tars were purified in some degree by Selligne, and the oils subsequently obtained an extensive sale in Europe for burning in lamps and for lubricating machinery. * < » Patents ivere "ranted in England iu 1847 to Charles Mansfield for "an improvement in the manufacture and purification of spirituous substances and oils applicable to the purposes of artificial light", etc. Mr. Mansfield's operations appear to have been chiefly directed to the coal tar of gas works, from which he obtained benzole. He was perhaps the first to introduce the benzole or atmospheric light, which is- described at length in his specifications. From a letter received from the eminent English geologist, E. W. Biiiney, I extract the following statement concerning the origin of the parafline oil industry of Scotland : In 1847 Mr. James Young came tome to ask for information as to petroleum, behaving agreed to work some at Biddings, near Alfreton. I gave him all the information I possessed. In 1848 I went over with him to Down Holland Moss(o) and showed him the petroleum peat there and brought away samples for him. In the same year I went to Eiddings and descended Mr. Oakes' coal-pit and examined the petroleum as it came from the roof of the coal-seam. I then distinctly told him that the oil could be made from highly bituminous coal, distilled at a low heat in a something similar way as the peat and gas-coal yielded it. In 1850 Mr. Young and I became aware of the discovery of a highly bituminous coal at Boghead, in Scotland. We met at the British association, in Edinburgh, at the end of July. I went over to Bathgate, descended the pit where it was wrought, brought a sample of it, and showed it to Messrs. Young and Meldrum, who said they thought it would not make oil. I said that if they could not make oil from it I could. In a day afterward they asked me to join them in a patent to work the invention. Mr. Young was to take out the patent in his name, aud Mr. Jleldrnm and I were t was nearly as perfect as any lamp of the period. Each one of those tubes produced a light equal to about two tallow candles. In the year 1876 or 1877 the still that was employed in this immense refinery was displayed at the exposition in Allegheny city, and was labeled as the first still ever used to refine petroleum. In its day it supplied the world's demand for that kind of an illumination. The matter of where the first oil was produced I believe is not the question. Any of the old salt manufacturers about Tarentum can corroborate o On the coast north of the Mersey. I A. J. S. (1), xxiii, 101. 160 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. •■what is here stated, and perhaps furnish many interesting detaOs not contained in this brief article. These Tvells were located 18 miles •ifrom Pittsburgh, near the path of the old Pennsylvania canal. Colonel Drake was not the first man to produce petroleum, but he -was xertainly the first person who drilled a well for the express purpose of finding oil. The questions of when and by whom the first oil •was produced and refined can readily be established by indisputable proof. The Mr. Kier mentioned above was Mr. Samuel M. Kier, before mentioned in this report (see page 10), who, with his friend Mr. McKuen, carried on the enterprise as described. This statement is corroborated by a large amount of evidence from independent sources. It was not a lack of knowledge, but a lack of petroleum, that prevented its use by American manufacturers before 1860. Drake sold his oil to McKuen for 75 cents a gallon. The editor of the American Journal of Science and Arts in 1861 reviewed Gesner's Goal, Petroleum, and other Distilled Oils, and says : The author recognizes the intimate relation of the manufacture of coal oils with the production in such increasing abundance of petroleum, destined to become a powerful competitor of the artificial product for economic use. It is instructive in this connection to recall the fact that the natural product (petroleum), which has been well known from the earliest records of human history, should have remained comparatively useless and almost neglected until the modern art of coal-oil distillation has shown its industrial value . ii is quite possible that the future historian of the industrial arts may look iaclc on the coal-oil distillation as only an episode in the history of the development of the use of petroleum, (a) In 1862 Isaiah Warren and his father, being in the lard-oil and candle trade in Wheeling, West Virginia, commenced the distillation of West Yirginia petroleum in three 15-barrel stills, and Mr. Warren, sr., was apprehensive that they would glut the market, the price of refined oil then ruling at from 85 cents to $1 15 per gallon. Section 2.— EARLY METHODS. The stills in general use at this time were made in three parts, bolted or riveted together, and consisted of a cylindrical cast-iron body, to which was attached a boiler-plate bottom and a cast-iron dome and goose-neck. 'They held about 25 barrels, were heated from the bottom and bricked up upon the sides, and were sometimes protected from the direct action of the fire by fire-brick. These stills were charged with crude oil, the charge run off, the still cooled, and the coke put out, often with a cold-chisel. When four-fifths of the oil had been run off the remainder was, when cold, as thick as pitch ; at this point some refiners introduced steam, which mechanically expanded and carried over the last volatile portions of the charge, leaving a compact coke, while others distilled to coke without steam. The use of steam at a high pressure in the distillation of Rangoon petroleum and coal had been patented in England in 1857 by Mr. Bancroft, of Liverpool; and Mr. Wilson, a manufacturer of stearic acid, in 1860 used superheated steam in the distillation of natural petroleums. (6) Steam under moderate pressure was also frequently used throughout the entire distillation, both above the charge and injected through it. In the latter case it becomes superheated as the boiling point of the oils rises above that of water; it was, however, considered preferable with the dense parafBne oils to superheat the steam before it entered the oil. Sometimes, after the charge in the retort was partly run off, it was the practice to allow a stream of fresh oil to enter the still about as fast as the vapors were condensed. In this way about twice the ordinary charge could be distilled and the residue of the whole run down to coke. The light naphthas were first taken off and were used for fuel or were allowed to run to waste, there being at that time little or no sale for these products. The distillate was then run to illuminating oil until the specific gravity reached 36° B. = 0.843, and the remaining charge run down till the distillate became of a greenish color. The illuminating oil was then placed in anViron- or lead- lined tank and agitated for one or two hours with oil of vitriol washed, then with water, and afterward treated in the same manner with caustic soda solution of a specific gravity of 1.400 and again washed with water. Some refiners considered this successive treatment with acid and alkali sufficient ; others subjected the treated oil to a second distillation, sometimes over solid caustic soda : but this distillation had to be conducted with great care. Some of the earliest and most successful refiners of petroleum on the Atlantic coast were formerly manufacturers of whale and sperm oil, and, having been accustomed to expose their animal oils to sunlight under glass roofs in shallow tanks, they adopted with uniform success the same method of treatment for the mineral oils. Both the color and the odor are improved by this exposure. The heavier naphthas and heavy oils were subjected to redistillation, either alone or with more crude petroleum, and all of the distillate of a proper specific gravity for illuminating oil was carefully separated. The remaining heavy distillate was treated with acid and alkali and sold as " paraffine oil ". It was of a dark color and rank odor, and found its way into use very slowly, not only on account of its real inferiority, but on account of violent prejudice against it. * Section 3.— DBSTEUGTIVE DISTILLATION. The general method of manipulation just given was in very general use until about 1865, when the method of cracking or destructive distillation of the heavier oils was generally adopted. A great variety of chemical reagents were used in treating the oils. Solid caustic soda was used in the stills. The oils were washed with nitric acid ; bichromate of potash was added to the sulphuric acid, and the combined action of sulphuric and chromic acids a A. J. S., 1861. h J. F. I., Ixis, 338, 1860; Cosmos, Mar., 1860. THE TECHNOLOGY OF PETROLEUM. 161 ■was thus secured ; aud chloride of lime or bleacLing powder in tbe proportion of 3 onnces to one gallon of oil has been used with hydrochloric acid, the oil finally being treated with lime water. Whatever reagents are used in treatment, it has been found necessary to bring the oil to a uniform temperature above C0° F. In the old form of agitator, when the mixture was effected by machincrj-, the injection of steam during agitation has been found beneficial both for bringing tlie oil to the required temperature and to facilitate the washing and settling of the acid and alkaline solutions. (o) In December, 1SC5, James Young, jr., of Limefield, took out a patent in England for an improvement in treating hydrocarbon oils that was noticed as follows in the Chemical Keics for August 31, 1866: This looks like a very valuable invention. The patentee submits the heavier hydroc.irbon oils to distillation under pressure, and linds that thereby the heavier oils originally operated upon are converted into oils of lower specific gravity, possessing a higher commerciiil value. The process may be carried on in ordinary steam boilers (nottubular), which should be proved to 100 pounds ; but it is not found necessary to operate much beyond a pressure of 20 pounds to the inch. The means of regulating the escape of the vapor, and of condensing it, can be easily imagined. The operation may be carried on with the crude products of the original distillation, or the lighter oils m.ay first be separated by au ordinary rectification, and only the heavy oils submitted to this treatment. (6) At about the time that this invention was patented in England the same results were obtained in the United States by an entirely difl'ercnt method of manipulation. This method consisted in a slow and repeated distillation, which produced destructive distillation of the medium and heavy oils, converting them into oils of a density suitable for illumination with a production of gaseous products and deposition of carbon. In order to accomplish this result the brick casing was removed from the stills, and after that portion of the distillate suitable for illumination had been separated the fires were slackened and the vapors of the heavy oils as they rose into the dome of the still were allowed to condense and drip back upon the hot oil below, which had meanwhile been heated to a temperature above the boiling i)oint of the oil dripping upon it. This practically superheats the vapors of the oils and produces decomposition. The eflect of distillation under pressure is precisely the same : the oils are distilled at a temperature above their normal boiling points. By this method of distillation the petroleum can be converted into naphtha, illuminating oil, and voke, with a certain amount of gas either escaping into the atmosphere or being burned as it escapes. The illuminating oil may be collected in one receptacle and be made of uniform grade, or that portion of the petroleum suitable for jiurposes of illumination can be separated from that produced by destructive distillation, thus furnishing two grades of illuminating oil which are quite different in composition and quality, the light oils in the crude petroleum being superior to those produced by the decomposition of the heavier portions of the oil. This method of distillation had been successfully pursued in treating the distillates from coal before the introduction of petroleum, but it was not generally applied to the treatment of petroleum, especially in very large stills, until about the time here indicated. Its successful introduction and general adoption was, however, the result of an accumulated experience, not only in the distillation, but quite as much in the subsequent treatment of the oil with acids and alkalies, especial regard being had to the temperature while undergoing treatment. The result of the adoption of this method of manipulating the oil by one distillation was the gradual .separation of petroleum refiners, in a general way, into two classes: a small number who continued to manufacture a variety of products from petroleum, and a large number who manufactured principally illuminating oils. While the division thus made is correct in a general sense, it must not be understood as applying strictly to all the parties engaged in manufacturing jietroleum. There are those who reduce petroleum and sell their light distillates ; others who reduce petroleum and treat their own distillates ; others who ))roduce nothing but enormous quantities of crude naphthas, illuminating oils, and residuum, selling their crude nai)htha to parties who redistill ajid fractionate the naphtha into -several products — their illuminating oils to the general trade, and their residuum to manufacturers of lubricating oils ; others who refine and fractionate crude naphtha ; others who manufacture lubricating oils, using both crude petroleum and I'esiduum for the purpose ; others who manufacture in one establishment nearly everything that can be made from petroleum ; and still others who have special processes by which peculiar products are obtained. It is unnecessary to describe in detail all of these different methods of conducting the business of manufacturing petroleum ; it is sufficient for my purpose to describe carefully what may be termed tw o typical establishments, and then to describe a number of processes that are used for special purposes. Section 4.— DESCEIPTION OF THE APPAEATUS USED IN MANUFACTUEING PETEOLEUM. Before describing the process above mentioned, it will be necessary to describe iu detail the apparatus which is in general use ni such establishments. Location. — The largest petroleum refineries in the counti-y are at tide- water at Hunter's Point and Newtown creek. Long Island ; Bayonne, New Jersey ; Point Breeze, below Philadelphia, and at Thurlow, below Chester, on the Delaware ; and near Baltimore, Maryland. At Bayonne, New Jersey, the Standard and Ocean refineries have piers 1,000 feet in length, with sufficient water to float the largest ships and facilities for loading from 6,000 to 7,000 barrels of refined oil daily. In western Pennsylvania and Ohio the refineries are usually located upon the side of a hill, the storage-tanks for crude oil being placed highest and the oil distributed by gra\'ity so far as is possible. a See Cheviical Xetce, vi, 230. b C. N., xiv, 108. -11 162 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. Buildings. — The buildings of relineries are in the greatest variety possible. In the older establishments, particularly in the Atlantic cities, the works are carefully inclosed with substantial buildings of brick and iron, while the other extreme is to be observed in newer establishments, either just going into operation or being rebuilt after destructive fires, when scarcely anything about the place except boilers, engine, and pumps is covered, the receiving-tanks being underground and the stills without any coveriag at all. The works of the Downer Kerosene Oil Company, at South Boston, have always been very carefully inclosed in valuable brick buildings, and no serious loss has occurred there for many years. Some of the immense refineries at and around Hunter's Point, Long Island, are also fully inclosed; but the works of the Tide-Water Pipe Company at Thurlow, Pennsylvania, on the Delaware, only recently constructed, and said to be one of the most complete establishments of the kind, are almost as completely exposed'to the elements as those of the smallest and rudest concerns in the oil regions. The boilers are placed in one building, the pumps in another, the office in another, all of which are of brick ; but the stills and condensers are without any covering whatever. The distillate tanks are all underground; the agitating tank is isolated and uncovered; and the sunning and spraying tanks are in buildings made of rough boards, and are of little value. The works of the Acme Oil Company, at Titusville, Pennsylvania, built to replace those burned during- the census year, appear to be built on a hillside from which fire has removed even the soil, and to be without a building or a covering of any descrii^tion. Tankage. — The oil is received at the refineries either from pipe-lines or frou^ the tank-cars of transportation companies, and in either case it is pumped into vast storage-tanks holding from 10,000 to 36,000 barrels each. The tank-cars are provided with gates or valves on the under side, to which hose may be attached, and connections are made with a large pipe laid beneath the track, into which the oil rushes as soon as the gates are opened. This pipe discharges the oil into a tank, from which it is jiumped to the storage-tanks. In these tanks from one to two per cent, of water settles, and from them the oil is pumped into the stills. Stills. — A great variety of stills are in use for different purposes, and the greater the variety of products produced from the petroleum the greater will be the variety of stills in use as regards both size and form. In some establishments the old cast-iron, upright cylindrical still, with wrought-iron bottom, is still in use. To these have been added plain, horizontal wrought-iron cylinders of various sizes. One of these, as now quite generally used, is represented with the setting in the vertical section in Fig. 37, and a bank of three, as they are usually set, in Fig. 38. From these sections it will be observed that they are 12 feet 6 inches in diameter and 30 feet in length. The vapors rise into a dome 3 feet in diameter, from which they pass to the condenser through a single pipe 15 inches in diameter. No more simple form of still could be devised. The so-called cheese-box still, now in great repute, is shown with the setting in horizontal and vertical section in Figs. 39 and 40. It is 30 feet in diameter and 9 feet high, with a dome-shai^ed top, and works 1,200 barrels of crude oil. The bottom has a double curve, to allow of expansion; the sides are of flve-sixteenths-inch wrought-iron and the bottom of five-sixteenths-inch steel, the whole inclosed in a sheet-iron jacket. The center is supported upon a cylindrical pier of brickwork, through which the products of combustion are led to the stack. The circumference is supported upon seventeen arches, in sixteen of which are fireplaces, the sides of which converge toward the center and discharge over a bridge-wall through four arches into the center of the pier just mentioned. Through the seventeenth arch passes the discharge- pipe from the bottom of the still. The vapors escape from this still through three pipes, two of which may be closed by cocks, into a sort of chest or drum (Fig. 41), from which 40 pipes 3 inches in diameter pass through to the condensing tanks. Steam is introduced into the heated vapors as thej' escape from both the cylindrical and cheese-box stills by j)lacing a curved and perforated pii)e of the form shown in Fig. 42 at the point where the vapors emerge from the still and enter the exit pipe. The use of steam in this manner is found to improve both the color and the odor, especially of "cracked oils". Several attempts have been made to produce continuous distillation ; but I cannot learn that anj' of them have proved commercially successful, although an apparatus of the kind erected in Bufialo has been put in operation and distillates have been produced that were treated and sold. This apparatus was patented by Samuel Van Syckle, of Titusville, Pennsylvania, May 22, 1877, No. 191203. It consists of a series of stills, in which the oil is maintained at a constant level by means of a tank, in which a float on the surface of the oil as it rises and falls automatically controls the flow. The first still is maintained at such a temjjeratute that the naphthas and other light products are removed, and in the other two the illuminating oils are removed so eflectually that residuum may be drawn off from the last still. I think this apparatus should be more thoroughly tested before its merits are finally judged, especially as to how far its value is modified by complexity and expense of manipulation. Another apparatus, evidently much more simple in construction than Vau Syckle's, but at the same time not calculated for handling the enormous quantities of oil refined in this country, has been patented in Germany by Herr Fuhst. (a) The deodorized lubricating oils, of which Mr. Joshua Merrill, of the Downer Kerosene Oil Companj-, was the inventor, have been prepared by him in a still of peculiar construction, especially adapted to the treatment of petroleum and kindred substances. An accident suggested the preparation of these oils to Mr. Merrill. In a Diugler, covii, 293. THE TECHNOLOGY OF PETROLEUM. 163 November, 1867, the condenser to a still, in wbicb a quantity of oil too heavj- lor illumination and too light for lubrication was being fractionated, became obstructed from some accidental cause, and the pressure became so great that the leakage caused the fires to be drawn and the whole thing to cool down. The still was started with 900 gallons, from which 250 gallons was found to be removed bj" the jiartial distillation. On removing the remaining oil, Mr. Merrill was surprised to find it diflerent from any petroleum product he had ever seen before. " It had a bright yellow color, was clear, very nearly odorless, neutral, and dense. Further experiment showed this result to have been 'obtained bj- the removal of all the light odorous hydrocarbons without decompo.siug either the distillate or the oils remaining in the still ; and that this had been accomplished by the moderate fire employed, and its gradual withdrawal.'' (a) This mode of operatiug was immediately applied to other distillations, and in order to accomplish the result most effectually Mr. Merrill invented a method of superheating steam within the body of the oil itself. Within a still of moderate size, holding perhaps 1,000 gallons, he placed a steam coil, which terminated upon the exterior of the dome of the still. After attaching a valve, the steam-pipe is returned into the still and a perforated coil of pipe connected with it, which lies flat upon the bottom. The still is heated by direct heat, and as the temperature rises the steam, as it passes through the first coil, is heated and is distributed through the entire mass of oil as it escapes from the perforations in the second coil. The steam is regarded by Mr. Merrill as an important adjunct in this method of fractional distillation, as it acts mechanically by carrying forward the vapors into the condenser, and also prevents the overheating and " cracking" of either the oils or the vapors. When the destructive distillation of i)etroleum commenced on a large scale, the slow distillation necessary to effect this decomposition led to an increase in the size of the stills until the enormous capacity of 2,000 barrels, or 80,000 gallons, was reached. These immense stills were built without coveiing, were freely exposed upon their sides and tops to the elements, and were heated by numerous fires, placed at ecjual distances from each other upon the circumference of the still, after the manner of the setting of the cheese-box still. These excessively large stills are not now being used. Refineries lately put in operation are equipped with stills holding about 1,200 barrels each. Vacuum stills have been used to some extent, and have been employed especially in the United States by the Vacuum Oil Company, of Eochester, New York, in the preparation of the peculiar products of their manufacture. Of course the evaporation in these stills takes place rapidly and at the lowest temperature possible, insuring a fractional distillation, not a decomposition, of the oils. Condensers. — Large copper worms, similar to those used in distilleries, were at first used for petroleum stills. These were soon replaced by ordinary iron piping coiled in a cistern or tank of water, and still later very long, straight pipes were used with advantage inthe use of water for cooling. Refineries latelj'built are provided with condensers of moderate length, 50 by 20 by 8 feet, in which there are numerous separate pipes, which receive the vapors at one end and discharge the condensed oil at the other. A condenser thus constructed may consist of forty separate 3-inch pipes, each 45 feet in length, giving an aggregate length of 1,800 feet, the oil and vapors, instead of all traversing the entire length of 1,800 feet, being divided into small jiortions, each of which is made to traverse the 15 feet, and is condensed. The ratio of exposed surface to cubical content is very much increased by this arrangement over a shorter pipe of larger diameter. A very convenient arrangement for dividing distillates is shown in the section in Fig. 43. In this section a is the 2-inch pipe leading from the condenser, 6 is a pipe for uncondensed gases leading to the boiler furnace, c is the trap for holding back the gas, d is a wrought-iron box with a glass front i i, through which the flow of oil from the condenser can be observed. The glass front is on hinges, andean be opened for sampling the oils. From this box the oil passes into the pipes below, and is directed into one of the openings g, through which it enters the jiipe h /;, leading to the storage-tanks for distillate; e e are three-way cocks, and// ordinary stop-cocks, by which the oil is directed to one of the six orifices g. By this arrangement, by simply opening or closing the cocks, the distillate can be directed to any one of six receptacles and be divided into as many different portions. Agitators. — The agitators used at first were small tanks lined with lead, in which various mechanical contrivances were used to efl'ect the thorough mixing of the oil with the chemicals. These lead-lined tanks were replaced by wrought-iron ones, and finally the method of agitating by mechanical means has been entirely superseded by agitation by means of injected air. The agitators in use in refineries lately constructed are high wrought-iron tanks of comparatively small diameter, holding several hundred barrels of oil, in which the inost mmjilete agitation is produced by a current of air injected by a blowing apparatus. Pumps. — The pumps used in refineries are many of them very jiowerful. Those used for pumping oil and water are of the Worthiugton or the Drake jjattern, and consist of an engine and a pump combined. Some of these pumps are large enough to handle 2,500 barrels of crude oil an hour, but the majority are smaller. In addition, there are in use small blast-engines or air-pumps to force air into the agitators and into the acid-tanks. The latter are small lead-lined tanks, into which the acid is emptied from carboys or tank-cars. The acid is measured into the agitators by forcing it from the tank into the agitator under pressure of injected air. Packing. — Manufactured oils of all kinds are distributed to wholesale houses all over the country in tank-cars, but for the jobbing and retail trade they are packed in barrels and in tin cans. The barrels used at present hold from o S. D. Hayes, Am. Cliem., ii, 401 ; C. Cbl., 1871, 783; W. B., 1871. 164 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. 48 to 50 gallons, and manufactured oils are estimated at 50 gallons to the barrel. Tlie tiu cans contain 5 gallons eacL, and are packed in wooden cases, each of which liolds two cans. In the larger establishments the packages are filled by weight, as the bulk of the oil vai'ies with the temperature and specific gravity of the oil, as maj^ be seen at a glance at the table accompanying this report (see page H2). The filling of the 5-gallon cans is carried on at a square, revolving table. Ten cans are closely ranged along one side of this table and brought beneath ten funnels, which deliver oil to the cans until their weight stops off the oil by tipping a balance and closing a stop-cock. The ten cans are then swung out by giving the table a quarter revolution. While these cans were being' filled another ten cans were placed upon the adjoining side of the table, and when the first were swung from under the funnels the second were brought into their places. While the second ten cans are being filled a third set are being i)laced upon a third side of the table, and a nozzle, with a cap that screws on and off, is placed in position for soldering over the orifice through which the first ten cans were filled. The table is again swung, the third set of cans are brought into position, and are then filled ; the second set are supplied with nozzles, while the nozzles of the first set are soldered on and the fourth side is supplied with ten cans. Another swing of the table, and the fourth set are filled, the third supi^lied with nozzles, the second soldered, and the first removed, and a fifth set is put in their places. Several thousand cans can be filled in this manner at one of these tables in a single day. Section 5.— DESCRIPTION OF AN ESTABLISHMENT IN WHICH THE PEODUCTS AEE GENERAL. The i>lant consists of storage-tanks for crude material; stills, heated by fire, steam, and superheated steam; agitators; chilling-house for parafSne ; boilers, engines, pumps; a laboratory; cooper and tin shop. The crude oil is delivered in pipes or tank-cars to the general storage-tanks and allowed to settle. Prom one to two per cent, of water separates, [a.) About 300 barrels (12,000 to 13,000 gallons) of this oil are placed in a still and "live steam", i. e., at 212° P., is admitted, and the distillation carried on until the distillate marks 60° B. With crude petroleum of 45° B. the amount of this distillate will be from 12 to 15 per cent., divided as follows: A. Per cent. 1. " Crude gasoline", to 80°, about '. 4 2. "C" uaphtha, 80° to 68°, about • 10 3. "B" naphtha, 68° to 64°, about 2 to 2^ 4. "A" naphtha, 64° to 60°, about 2 to 21 1 is redistilled by dry heat, and yields from 90° to 83° gasoline, which is not treated ; 83° to 80° is returned to crude gasoline. 2 is treated with 4 ounces of oil of vitriol to the gallon and washed with caustic soda, all cold, and then redistilled by steam from an alkali solution. Its average specific gravity is 70°, and it is known in the trade as benzine- naphtha. 3 and 4 are also treated with acid and caustic soda. The average specific gravity of 3 is 65° to 66°, and of 4 62°. There remains in the still from 88 to 85 per cent, below 60°. This is transferred to cylindrical cast-iion stills with meniscus-shaped wrought-iron bottoms and distilled by direct heat, with 2 per cent, of soda solution of 14°. The distillate is thus divided : B. Per cent. 1. Crude burning oil, from 58° to 40°, about 50 2. "B" oil, from 40° to 36°, about 20 3. From 36° downward, about - 25 4. Cokings or residuum 3 5. Loss 2 100 1 is treated with 4 ounces of oil of vitriol to the gallon and is agitated for half an hour. It is then drawn off from the tarry residue, and after being washed with water is again agitated for an hour with 2 per cent, of alkali solution, and is then drawn off and next day washed with a large amount of water, pumped into a fire-still upon a solution of soda equal to 4 per cent, of 14°, and distilled as long as the color is good, the amount usually being about 80 per cent. This distillate is the equivalent of "Downer's standard kerosene", and has a specific gravity of 45° and a fire-test of 125° P. The remaining 20 per cent, is run above 36° to crude burning oil (B 1), and below 36° to "finished machinery oil" C, to chill and press for parafBne. 2. "B" oil is distilled like 1 on soda lye. Of the distillate, above 36° goes to crude I; below 36° to the machinery oil C, to chill and press for paraf&ne. a As high as 13 per cent, of water has been obtained from residuum exported to England. It is not a legitimate mixture. C. N., XXX, 57. THE TECHNOLOGY OF PETROLEUM. 165 3 goes to crude lubricating oil, aud is treated with 4 ouuces of acid to the gallon upon water at 212° F. for oac hour, and is then distilled from a 2 per cent, solution of soda lye. Of this distillate above 40° goes to crude B 1, fioui 40° to 36° to B 2, from 36° downward, as long as the color is good, to machinery oil C, to chill and press for paraffine. 4 goes to coking-tanks. C— MACniNERY OIL, 30^ AXD DOWNWARD. This oil is twice distilled and chilled in bairels packed in an ice-house for a week with ice aud salt at 26° F. The crystalline magma is pressed in an hydraulic press and yields : 1. Crude scale parafBne (E). 2. Pressed lubricating oil of a specific gravity of 32°, which is partly sold as ''spindle oil". 3. The portion not sold as spindle oil is placed in a still provided with coils for distilling with steam superheated within the oil itself. This still is heated with direct heat until the temperature bas reached 250° or 300° F. Steam is then passed into a coil, which is immersed in the body of the oil, and is then allowed to escape into the oil through another coil, which is perforated, thus distributing the steam throughout the oil at the same temperature as the oil itself. Twenty to 30 per cent, of the lighter products, with all those having an offensive odor, ranging in specific gravity from 50° to 32°, are lifted from the still by the steam. Of this distillate, that between 50° and 40° goes to B 1, that between 40° and 32° to "criufe uiiueral sperm" (D), and the oil left in the still is equivalent to "Merrill's deodorized neutral hydrocarbon oil", with a specific gravity of 29°. To remove fluorescence chromic acid is used instead of oil of vitriol. D.— MINERAL SPERM ILLUMINATING OIL. This is the trade-mark of a dense oil of 36° specific gravity, deprived of offensive odor, and adapted especially for light-house and locomotive lights. Any crude distillate from 40° to 32° is first treated with 4 ounces of oil of vitriol to the gallon, then washed with a solution of caustic soda, and distilled by direct heat over soda lye. It has a fire-test of 300° F. and but little odor, with a density of 40° to 34°, averaging 36°. Below 34° goes to machinery oil (O), to chill and press for paraffiue. E.— CRUDE-SCALE PARAFFINE. The pressed scale equals three-quarters of a i)ound per gallon of the crude 32° machinery oil from the chilled mass described in C. To refine this the crude scale is melted in an open tank by live steam, blown in, with 1 per cent, of caustic soda lye, from which it is carefuUj- drawn aud then well mixed with 25 per cent, of " C " naphtha and put aside for three or four days in .shallow metallic pans in a cold place. It is then again cut, bagged, and pressed. No. 1 paraftine stock is remelted in "C" naphtha on alkaline lye, crystallized and pressed three successive times, and yields large crystals of parafline, melting at 130° F. No. 2 paraffiue stock is treated in the same way, furnishing a product of less value in smaller crystals, melting at about 110° F., and is largely used by chewing-gum manufacturers. The oils expressed go to crude "C" naphtha F.— COKINGS, SPECIFIC GRAVITY 28°. These are i edistilled over a 2 per cent, alkali solution, and ftirnish — 20 per cent, above 40° goes to B 1. 15 per cent. 40° to 36°, goes to B 2. 50 per cent. 36° and downward, as long as the color is good, goes to C. 10 per cent, cokings. 5 per cent. Joss. G.— SLUDGE (RESIDUES FROM WASHINGS). The waste "acid sludge", 48° to 50°, is permitted to stand two days, and the oil rising upon it is drawn ofF ("sludge acid oil") aud the acid disposed of. The sludge oil is then washed with the waste alkali and redistilled separately without fractions, yielding 80 per cent, of oil ; coke and loss, 20 per cent. The coke is used as fuel, and the oil redistilled on alkftli and fractioned as crude oil below 60°. H.— AVERAGE PERCENTAGE OF COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS OBTAINED FROM CRUDE PETROLEUM OF 45^ FROM NEW YORK, PENNSYLVANIA, OHIO, OR WEST VIRGINIA. Tf-u cent. Gasoline LO to 1.5 "C" naphtha 10.0 to 10.0 "B" naphtha 'i.o to '2.5 "A" naphtha 2.0 to 2.5 16.5 Illaminating oil 50. to 54. Lnhricating oil 17.5 Paraffine wax := 4^ pounds per barrel 2. Loss 10.0 100.0 166 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. The oils prepared by this process are all of the highest degree of excellence, and have commanded the confidence of consumers both in the United States and in all other civilized countries to a remarkable degree. There are two essential i^articulars in this process as a whole to which I desire to call attention. All destructive distillation is avoided so far as is possible, and great care is taken to render the different products pure as regards each other, and also as regards the effects of treatment. The products are essentially paraffine products, using that word in a generic sense to designate not only the paraffine wax, but the whole series of compounds to which it is related, from marsh-gas upward. The finishing of the burning oil by distillation over caustic soda is claimed, and I believe justly, to remove all of the substitution compounds of sulphuric acid that are only completely removed oven by solution of caustic alkali when the oil is heated to a temperature above the boiling point of water, (a) Section 6.— DBSCEIPTION OF A MANUFACTOEY WHERE NAPHTHAS, ILLUMHSTATING OILS, AND EBSIDUUM ARE PRODUCED. The following description is given after an inspection of one of the most complete establishments in the country, lately constructed and furnished throughout with an equipment of the most improved apparatus : The oil is received in tank-cars, and an entire train is discharged at once into a 12-inch pipe, which runs the length of the siding between the rails and beneath the sleepers, connection being made with cocks underneath the car-tanks by union joints and hose. This 12-inch pipe discharges into a tank, from which the oil is pumped by a Drake steam-pump, handling 2,500 barrels an hour, which throws the oil either to the stills or to the storage-tanks, of which latter there are four, holding 35,000 barrels each. The capacity of this pump is not required for the storing of oil, but for the filling of the stills, of which there are nine, holding 1,200 barrels each. Three of these stills are cheese-box stills, and six are plain cylinder stills, 30 feet by 12 feet 6 inches, the former being set in one group, and the latter on a bench, side by side, like a bench of boilers. These stills are all covered with sheet-iron jackets, but are not otherwise protected or covered in any manner. The condensers are made in the manner described on page 163, with a large number of separate strands of pipe, which are immersed in a tank 50 by 20 by 8 feet. These strands enter a connecting pipe which emerges from the tank and enters a small building, where the discharge pipes from the nine stills are brought together side by side. Each discharge pipe terminates in a U-shaped gas-trap, and enters an iron box with a glass front, through which the flow of the oil from the pipe may be observed. The arrangement of the traps and the form of the boxes are shown in section in Fig. 43. The gas-pipes from the nine traps all connect with furnaces beneath the steam-boilers, where the gas, mixed with air, is burned after the manner of a Bunsen burner. The division of the distillates is effected by means of an arrangement of pipes and cocks shown in section in Fig. 43. Each of the nine boxes d (Fig. 43) discharge through this set of pipes, by which the distillate may be divided into six different qualities. These six different pipes connect under ground with the distillate tanks, which they enter at the bottom, and are sealed by the contents of the tanks. These nine sets of boxes and pipes are placed in a small building, lighted at night by an electric light, placed upon a pole at some distance off on the outside. The petroleum is put into the stills, and the crude naphtha is run off. Then that portion of the petroleum is run off' which is necessary to prepare the distillate for " high-test" oils having a fire test of from 120° to 150°, as may be required, and these latter oils having been run off, the residue in the still is in a condition for "cracking". The fires are then slacked, and the distillation is run more slowly, a large amount of permanent gases being disengaged and burned under the boilers. Until the process of cracking is commenced the amount of gas disengaged is inconsiderable, so small in amount as to be scarcely worth the trouble of burning ; but after cracking commences the gas generated is nearly sufficient to supply the fuel necessary for the boilers. The distillates are pumped into the agitating tank, which stands by itself, supported on a massive base of timber. It is about 40 feet in height and 12 feet in diameter. Twelve hundred barrels of distillate and 6,600 pounds of oil of vitriol are placed in this tank. The carboys of oil of vitriol are emptied iuto an air-tight, lead-lined tank, which is closed, and air is forced into it until a sufficient quantity of acid has been driven by the pressure into the agitator. The agitation is then carried on by forcing air into the agitator under a pressure of from 5 to 7 pounds. The acid being drawn off, the oil is thoroughly washed with water, then with a solution of caustic soda, and lastly with water containing caustic ammonia, the treatment with ammonia being supposed to complete the removal of the compounds of sulphuric acid. The oil is discharged from the agitator into settling and bleaching tanks, 40 by 5 feet, having a capacity of about 1,200 barrels each, through a perforated pijie standing perpendicularly in the center. Bj^ this process, which is called "spraying", the oils, ijarticularly those that have been cracked, are brought up to "test" by the evaporation of the small percentage of very volatile oils that are combustible at a low temxierature. These huge tanks are exposed beneath sky-lights, where the color of the oil is improved by the sunning, every particle of water or sediment settling at the bottom. From them the oil is pumped to storage-tanks in the barreling and canning house, where it is barreled in glued barrels or filled. into 6-gallon cans, two of whicli are packed in a woodeu case for shipment. From the packing-house the barrel-s and cases are put on board ships that lie at the adjoining a I have drawn largely for this description upon Dr. J. Lawrence Smith in his report on iietroleum to tlie Philadelphia Centennial ExMhition. Rep. Judges of Group III. THE TECHNOLOGY OF PETROLEUM. 167 piers. This is the simplest process for mauufacturing petroleum, consisting only of a single distillation ; and the methods employed in the different manutiictories throughout the country are either substantially that just described, or a combination with more or less of the processes described in the preceding section, or one or more of the special methods to be described in the section which follows. Section 7.— MISCELLANEOUS PROCESSES. Eefining crude naphtha. — There are several firms whose business consists mainly in refining crude naphtha, the larger portion of it being divided into gasoline and C, B, and A naphthas. In 1SG6 Dr. Henry J. Bigelow, of Boston, requested Mr. Joshua IMerrill, of the Downer Kerosene Oil Company, to prepare tlie most volatile fluid possible to be obtained from petroleum. Mr. Merrill redistilled gasoline by steam heat, and condensed the iiortions that came over first with a mixture of ice and salt, obtaining 10 per cent, of the gasoline, equal to one-tenth of 1 per cent, of the original petroleum, in the lightest of all known fluids, having a specific gravity of 0.C25 and a boiling point of 65° F. This fluid was named rhigolene by Dr. Digelow. Its evaporation at ordinary temperatures is so rapid that a temperature of 19° F. below zero has been obtained by its use. Five or six hundred gallons have been prepared by the Downer company for use in surgical operations, but none was prepared by them during the census year. A siinilar material, called cymogen, has been prepared in a similar manner by other manufacturers, and has been used as the volatile fluid in ice-machines. The distillate separated as gasoline ranges in specific gravity from 90° to 80° B., and is used for the gas-machines that carburet air. " C " naphtha includes the distillate between 80° and 08° B., and is used for varnishes, sponge lamps, paint, and naphtha street lamps. It is sold under the name of " benzine". "B" naphtha includes the distillate between 08° and 04° B., and is also used for varnishes and paints. "A" naphtha includes the distillate between Gi° and 00°, and is used in the manufacture of floor-cloths and parent leather. Below (KP goes to illuminating oil. Each of the different grades of naphtha is deprived wholly or in part of its disagreeable odor by being filtered through beds of gravel and wood or animal (-hareoal. " Mineral sperm." — This is an illuminating oil prepared originally by Mr. Joshua Merrill, of the Downer Kerosene Oil Company, and now chiefly manufactured by that company, and is obtained by partially cracking paraffine oils and fractionating the lighter from the heavier products in MeiTill's double-coil still or some similar contrivance. It has a fire test of 300° F. and ui)ward, is an illuminating agent of great power, and is as safe from ordinary combustion as sperui oil. This oil is used in mauufacturing establishments and on ocean steamers, and is a very suitable material with which to light steamers and cars designed for the conveyance of passengers. The amount produced during the census year was 16,544: barrels. Neutral lubricating oils. — These oils were also discovered by Mr. Merrill, as before described, and their superior quality soon led to their imitatiou and manufacture by other parties, although that gentleman protected his discoveries and invention by patent. Since the Downer company commenced the manufacture of these oils the general character of all of the mineral lubricating oils in the market has been greatly improved. The paraffine oils manufactui-ed prior to this discovery were dark in color and rank iu odor, but Mr. Merrill produced oils odorless and tasteless. Five per cent, of sperm oil mixed with 95 percent, of Merrill's neutral oil could not be detected by either the odor or taste from pure sperm oil. An inspection of the tables representing the articles manufactured from petroleum during the census year will show that 79,405 barrels of paraffine oil are reported, all of which was greatly superior to the pai-affine oil of 1805 ; of deodorized lubricating oils there were manufactured 70,415 barrels. These really superb oils are now being introduced into many manufactories by order of the insurance companies. The value of having a deodorized lubricating oil can be fully realized when it is stated that experiments have shown tliat when a heavy hydrocarbon containing so little as 1 or .2 per cent, of light oiiensive oil is employed in a warm apartment as a lubricator of machinery the entire atmosphere of the apartment will be impregnated by the pungent and disagreeable odors of these volatile products. Before the employment of these odorless oils this was a great inconvenience iu factories, (a) Mr. Merrill prepares lubricating oils by subjecting an ordinary i)araffine distillate, from which the paraffine has been removed by chilling and pressing, to fractional distillation iu his double-coiled still, but oils may be prepared that are similar, though not fully equal, to his iu an ordinaiy still, provided care is taken not to crack them. Filtered oils.— A very superior quality of lubricating oil is i)repared by reducing jtetroleum and filtering the reduced residue through beds of animal charcoal. The oil is reduced to the proper degree of volatility and specific gravity and then filtered. These oils sustain a very high reputation, but i^reciselj' what relation they bear iii quality to the neutral oils obtained by distillation and treatment I cannot state. a Loc. cit. Kep. of Judges of Group III, ji. 153. 168 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. Vacuum oils and residues. — Vacuum oils are also prepared iu stills for a great variety of purposes. Those most dense and with highest boiling points are prepared for oiling the interior of steam cylinders; those less dense for journals; and a less dense oil is used extensively for oiling harness and harness leather. Very dense residues prepared in vacuum stills are filtered while hot and very fluid through beds of animal charcoal, the resulting product being an amber-colored material of the consistence of butter and nearly destitute of odor. These residues are largely used as unguents under the name of cosmoline, vaseline, petroliiia, etc. The details of their manufacture are difficult to obtain, for the reason that the manufacturers are engaged in suits involving patent rights to jieculiar processes of manufacture and peculiar apparatus for efl'ecting the filtration, which necessarily must be carried on at a sufftciently high temperature to insure complete fluidity of the material. These preparations will be further noticed under the chapter devoted to petroleum iu medicine. It is believed that but few, if any, general methods of any importance pursued in the manufacture of petroleum have been omitted in this chapter. It is a subject, however, embracing multitudinous details and carried on under conditions of great diversity, incident to the location of the business and the peculiar character of the crude oil used or the products which the manufacturer wishes to prepare. Chaptee IV.— PAEAFEINB. Section 1.— HISTORY. Wagner's JBerichte for 1869, in an historical notice upon parafftne, says : The Aerztliche Intelligenzhlait, of Munich, cont.ains the following notice : "The opinion universally held that the chemist Karl Freiherr von Reichenbach, who died in his eighty-first year, of old age, at Leipzig, January 19, 1869, was the first to investigate the paraffines, deserves the following corrections or amendments. In 1809 these bodies were observed by John Nep. Fuchs in Landshut in the petroleum of Tegernsee, and in 1819 Andrew Buchner, sr., produced them in a pure state from the oils. Buchner describes their peculiarities under the name of 'mountain' fats, whose identity with paraflSne was established later (1835) by v. Kobell beyond doubt. Unqualified merit, however, belongs to Reichenbach as having first discovered paraffine in the products of the dry distillation of wood and other organic bodies." Reichenbach remains the discoverer of ijarafliue notwithstanding the fact that, beside Fuchs and Buchner, Saussure and Mitscherlich investigated a fatty body found in certain petroleums and tars which after the discovery of parafflue jiroved to be identical with this body. In all of these conditions the discourse was upon paraffine as an educi, and not as a produol. Technoiogy distinguishes the former from the latter through the name of Belmontin. He who first considered fossil paraiiSue can upon no condition lay claim to the honor of the discovery. In Moldau and in Galicia fossil paraffine has been used for centuries in making candles, as also on the Caspian sea and in the Caucasus. («) It appears from this statement, which is in accord with numerous authorities, that fossil parafiine has been known in Europe from time immemorial, and also that paraffine, as a recognized constituent of certain bodies of organic origin, was discovered bj' Eeicheubach iu 1830, (h) and named by him from paruvi. and affinitas, indicating that parafiine is destitute of chemical afiinity ; in other words, that it is neutral, having neither acid nor alkaline properties. In the following year Christison, of Edinburgh, made known his discovery of paraffine in the petroleum of Eangoon. (c) He at first called it petroline, but after learning of Eeichenbach's discovery he admitted its identity with paraffine. In 1834, Gregory published an article on paraffine and eupion and tlieir occurrence in petroleum, iu which he says : It follows that there are some kinds of naphtha (petroleum) which contain paraffine and eiipion, and are consequently tbe results of destruetive distillation, {d) In 1835, Kobell independently mentions paraffine as a constituent of petroleum, (e) In 1833, Laurent showed that oil distilled from shale in the environs of Autun contained paraffine. (/) Although Eeicheubach distilled coal in considerable quantities, and had at his disposal the resources of the immense establishmeut of " mines, iron furnaces, machine-shops and chemical works, etc.," on the estate of Count Salm at Blansko, Moravia, of which he was superintendent, he cannot be said to have produced paraffine on a commercially successful basis. This work was performed by Selligue, whose inventions formed the foundation upon which the technology of coal-oil and petroleum has been built. The following digest of the labors of Selligue is taken from the review of Dr. Antisell's work on photogenic or hydrocarbon oils by Professor F. H. Storer : {g) In 1834 we find for the first time an arlicle describing the process of Si'Uigue, (/i) although it would appear from the statements of this chemist and of others that his attention had been directed to the subject of distilling bituminous shales several years earlier. o W. B., XV, 709, 1869. e Jour. f. Prak. Chem., v, 213. h Jour, fiir Chem. u. Phys. von Schweigger-Seidel, 1830, hx, 436. / Ann. de Chim. et de Phys., liv, 392. c Trans. Roy. Soc. of Edinburgh, xiii, 118; Repertory of Patent g Am. J. S., xxx, 1860. Inventions, 1835 (N. S ), iii, 300. h Journal des Connaissances Usuelles, Dec, 1834, p. 285; Dingier, d Ibid., xiii, 124; Itid. (N. S.), iv, 109. Ivi, 40. THE TECHNOLOGY OF PETROLEUM. 169 * * * In 1834, '35, antl "36 Selligue was priucipally occupit-d with h'm process for making waler-gas. (a) * * * lu tlie followiug year -we again find Selligue before the academy, requesting that body to appoint a committee to examine the merits of his new system of gas-lighting ; his process of distilling bituminous shales on the great scale by means of apparatus, each one of which furnishes from 1,000 to 1,400 pounds of crude oil per day^this being about 10 per cent, of the weight of the shale employed, and being almost all that exists in the raw material ; also of his process of separating various products from the crude oil, some of which are applicable to the production of gas, others to ordinary purposes of illumination, and others to different uses in the arts, (b) This petition was referred to a committee of three, Th^nard, D'Arcet, and Dumas, who reported in 1840. (c) • » • i„ ig:}^ Selligue obtained a new patent "for the employment of mineral oils for lighting", (rf) which, it should be observed, claims only to be an improvement upon th.at of Blum and Mouense. • » » On the 27th of March, 1839, Selligue specifies certain additions and improvements to the preceding patent. In alluding to the u.se of his oils in the treatment of cutaneous diseases he speaks of the three large establishments for the distillation of bituminous shale which he has erected in the department of Sadui- et Loire, and mentions the fact that the oil (crude) is furnished at the rate of about 2 cents (10 centimes) per pound, (e) • » » The clearest of all Selligue's specifications, however, is that of the patent granted him March 19, 1845, for the distillation of bituminous shales and sandstones. (/) After describing the various forms of apparatus used in distilliu", into one of which superheated steam was introduced, he enumerates the products of distillation as follows: 1. A white, almost odorless, very limpid mineral oil, somewhat soluble in alcohol, which may be used as a solvent, or for purposes of illumination in suitable lamps. II. A sparingly volatile mineral oil of specific gravity 0.84 to 0.87, of a light lemon color, perfectly limpid, almost odorless, never becoming rancid, and susceptible of being burned in ordinary lamps, of constant level (^ rfeervoir supferieur), with double current of air, a slight modification of the form of the chimney and burner being alone necessary. This oil can aho be mixed with the animal or vegetable oils. Oils thus prepared do not readily become rancid, nor do they congeal easily when subjected to cold. III. A fat mineral oil, liquid at the same temperature as olive oil. This oil contains a little paraffine; it is peculiarly adapted for lubricatiDg machinery, and has an advantage over olive and other vegetable oils, or neat's-foot oil, in that it preserves its uuctuosity when in contact with metals and does not dry up. It saponifies easily, and forms several compounds with ammonia. IV. From the oils I, II, and III I extract a red coloring matter which can be used in various arts. V. White crystalline paraftine, which needs but little treatment in order to be fit for making caudles. This substance does not occur in very large proportion in the crude oil, and the proportion varies according to the dift'erent mineral substances upon which I operate. There is but little of it in petroleum and in the oil obtained from bituminous limestone. I often leave a great part of the paraffine in the fat oil and in the grease, in order that these may be of superior qualitj-. VI. Grease. This grease is superior to that of animals for lubricating machinery and for many other purposes, since it does not become rancid, and remains unctuous when iu contact with metals. VII. Perfectly black pitch — very "drying" — suitable for preserving wood, metals, etc. VIII. An alkaline soap obtained by treating the oils with alkalies. IX. Sulphate of ammonia. X. Manure prexjared by mixing the ammoniacal liquor or the blood of animals with the crushed fixed residue (coke) of the shale. XI. Sulphate of alumina from the residue of the shale. In describing the methods of purification proposed by Selligue we shall make no attempt to follow their various details, our limited space compelling us to content ourselves with only the broadest generalities. Selligue sets forth at length two methods: 1st. A cold treatment, which consists in agitating the oils with sulphuric, muriatic, or nitric acid. This agitation should be thorough, he says, and should be continued for a longer or shorter time, according to the nature and quantity of the matter treated. Here follows a description of his agitators. After several hours repose the oil may be decanted, except from muriatic acid, in which case more time and a larger amount of acid is required. After the oil has been thus separated from the deposit of tar, the acid remaining in \t must he neutralized by means of an alkali. "I prefer," says Selligue, "to employ the lye of soap-boilers marking 36° to 38°, since it is easy of application and produces a sure effect. I thus }irecipitate together the coloring matter and the tar, which would otherwise have remained iu the oil. The oil is then decanted ; if it is the first distillation of the crude oil, I do not allow the mixture to subside entirely, preferring to leave a portion of the alkali mixed with the oil and to distill off only three-fourths of the latter. ♦ » » When the soda lye — iu quantity slightly greater than is necessary to neutralize the acid — is added, the licjuid must be agitated violently, in order that each particle of the oil may be brought in contact with the alkali ; .and this agitation must be continued until the color of the oil undergoes change. The oil becomes less odorous and less highly colored after each such ' cold treatment'. After having been allowed to separate from the lye, the oil is decanted off; if it has not lost much of its color the process has been badly conducted. It must be stated that the oil must not he agitated several times with the alkali, for by so doing the dark color of the oil would be restored. " * * As for the residues of the soda treatment", continues Selligue, "they should be allowed to stand at rest during some days beneath a portion of oil, which will protect them from contact with the air. The clear lye at the bottom being then drawn off may be used for other operations, while the remainder is a soap containing excess of alkali. By adding to it a little grease a soap can be made, or by adding water grease may be separated. This grease is similar to that used for wagons." 2d. A warm treatment that follows the cold, and consists of a series of fractional distillations — special operations for the purification of the "light stuff's" being resorted to. For the details of these we must refer to the original sj^ecificatiou of Selligue — a truly classical document — which should be read by every one interested in the manufacture of coal-oils (or petroleum). ( thick, and this would detract from the service of the filtering apparatus. Besiile, the a Litchford and Nation's patent, No. 890, 1872. b Hodges' patent, No. 3241, 1871. THE TECHNOLOGY OF PETROLEUM. 175 arraun-eraent chosen insures a cheaper and simpler constnictiim. Then the greater extent of surface can be made impermeable to milled aDd heated paraffine only with the most extraordinary difficulty (and perhaps not at all); but all loss of paraffiue by incouipactness or insecurity is to be particularly avoided, so the inner filtering chest to serve for the reception of paraftino must be made of cast-iron in one piece. The attachment of the steam-jacket is simple and plainly shown in the drawing. The bottom of the cast-iron filtering chest is inclined toward the front, and at the same time from both sides toward the middle; at the deepest point there is an I'xir tube, with stop-cock for the drainage of the prep.ared parafflue. In the interior the filtering chest has a projecting brim of perhaps iM""^' breadth, which on tho rear wall, and at the same time on both sides, serves for the formation of steam space. Upon this edge rest H pieces of wrought-irou filter supports, each of which is capable of receiving two glass filters ; thus there are 16 filters arranged in ro\<-s always in operation. The funnels are m.nde of glass, because it more easily preserves the absolutely uecessary cleanliness than if they were made of white tin. One need not fear the destruction of the glass if there is the proper amount of foresight shown on the part of the workman. In about twelve years there were scarcely one or two broken by me. In the midst of the filteriug chest, along its length and 50 to 60""" above the glass funnels of the paraffine-distribnting pipe, there is a pipe 40""' wide, closed at both ends, comDiunicating through three supports with the corresponding terminal stop-cocks of the mixing kettles, and connected to both sides with eight small cast-iron stop-cocks of 4"="' width attached to a wrought-iron pipe. The small stop-cocks are screwed on, and for this purpose small pieces of wrought-iron have been placed with hard solder in the proper jdaces on the distributing pipe. The moutbs of the small stop-cocks do not lie perpendicularly over the middle of the filter, but are nearly in the middle of a side, in order to prevent the jierforation of the filter-point by droppings. The paper used for filtering is a thin, but tolerably firm, unsized pressed paper ; it is broken after the manner of bent filters. A sheet 4.j by 37""" (one 40 by 40'""' would be more convenient) makes a a filter that will serve comfortably for the filtration of about a hundred-weight of parafflue. When working day and night I have always had the filters renewed after using twelve hours. The very little paraffin* that remains in the jiaper is recovered. It is recommended to surround the warm, radiating surface of the mixing and filtering apparatus with a simple and appropriate non- conductor. This is attained by inclosing the apparatus, and only the front wall of the filter chest is provided with a wooden jacket for securing an isolated stratum of air. The covering of the apparatus is not shown in the illustration, iu order not to interfere with its clearness ; likewise the conveyance of the water which falls down from the steam in both apparatus (and which forms in the best of steam spaces) is not noted, since their position depends entirely upon local surroundings. Finally, a word concerning the restoration of fresh bone-black and the treatment of that which has been used. It is known that the fresher charcoal is the more energetically it acts. In very large paraffine factories it is used on this account to jirepare it from the coal itself, and by use it settles. Comparatively speaking, very little can be restored with profit, as it is used even iu the largest jjarafflue factories. In a business of le(53 extent one will easily see from this that it is at least unprofitable to buy the powdered preparation of coal from the charcoal factories, because one receives with it in most cases smut and dust from the sifted gi'anulated charcoal, and has not the slightest guarantee for the quality and freshness of the preparation. I have always, on this account, secured from a m-ighboring charcoal factory the small quantity of 100 kilograms of freshly prepared granulated and dust-free charcoal and allowed the pieces of coal to be immediately reduced to a fine powder for use in a simply constructed pulverizing cylinder (.in Figs. 4(5 and 47). If one has not a charcoal factory in the immediate vicinity, and has not the certainty of obtaining the granulated coal entirely fresh at all times, then it is well worth the while to buy the pieces of coal in larger qnantities and to allow the same to be thoroughly heated in kettles agaiu, previous to the use of the coal which lias been just pulverized. The pulverizing cylinder (Figs. 4(i and 47) is made of cast-iron (750"'"' long and .500"'"' in diameter) and revolves with riveted wrought- iron pegs in corresponding metallic holes in the facing ; in the surface of the jacket or cover there is an opening for filling and emptying made close with gum. Tho cylinder is revolved best iu slow revolutions (at most but two turns per minute). Within the cylinder there lies another massive cast-iron cylinder 120""° in diameter, with a length equal to that of the drum. In twelve hours an apparatus of this size will pulverize perhaps 25 kilograms in the finest manner. These dimensions can be considerably increased without disadvantage. The bone-black I have mostly used in quantity, not over :i per cent, of the weight, and the paraffine retained by the same amounts to about the same weight. This silt from the powdered coal and paraffine is first heated together in a thick-w.alled kettle with return ste.am, whereby a greater part of the paraffine is separated into a clear liquid, which is scooped up with a shallow ladle .and placed directly upon the filter papier. The silt which has become thin is put in a large iron kettle, in which it, with the least cpiautity of water (from six to eight pivrts), is thoroughly cooked out over an open fire and under an active stream of steam, which is used from time to time. By tho cooling of the mass almost all of the paraffine separates upon the top of the water as a firm but gray-colored layer, which is taken ott', melted, and filtered through the paper with the other materials. A repeated boiling of the silt is seldom necessary, and this second operation almost never pays, because of the cost of the fuel in obtaining the paraffine. The powdered coal still so obstinately retains a very small percentage of the paraffine that this must be driven off by heating the coal, if the latter is to be again used as a decolorizer, or even if it is to be useful iu the manufacture of acid phosphate of lime — snperphosphate. With this view I cause it to be thoroughly heated in an inclined cast-iron retort of about 2'" to ll™ long and 800""" wide, and cross-cut almost elliptically, which is provided with an appropriate receiver for the condensation of the paraffine vapor. (This vapor uever remains even at the lowest possible melting point of paraffine undecomposed, but yields paraffine of a low-melting point and oil as the product of decomposition ). Tho paraffine that has been boiled out in shallow wrought-iron chests of perhaps 12"'"' height and 1"' length, whose bottom conforms to the form of the retort, and both of whose sides have small and appropriate stop-cocks, is passed into the retort, and after the ensuing evaporation of all the paraffine (which is instantly known by the cooling of the discharge pipe of the retort) during the heating is left therein four to six hours long for the partial cooling. Then the cast-iron chests, of which two are placed behind each other in the retort, are taken out and immediately covered with an appropriate tin cover, which is everywhere made clo.se by a covering of clay, and the heated coal-dust is left standing therein until it has become perfectly cooled. The taking out of the retort, the putting on and sealing of the cover, must take place as quickly as possible, in order to prevent the partial reduction of the coal to ashes, (a) a Dingier, ccxvi, 244. 176 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. Powdered fuller's-earth, marl, clay, or any similar substance, mixed witli melted parafflne and allowed to subside, will deprive it of color, and the paraiflne adhering to the subsided particles may be separated by heating with steam and agitation, (a) The successful use of these natural, insoluble silicates led to experiments upon tlie use of artificial silicates of the alkaline earths. For this purpose silicate of magnesia was found to answer all requirements best. This material is formed by the reaction of solutions of sulphate of magnesia and silicate of soda, the resulting silicate of magnesia being thoroughly washed and dried by steam heat. It is then added to the melted paraffine, and after it has subsided and the parafiine has been drawn off the residue is treated with dilute sulphuric acid. When the parafiine separates and rises to the surface the silica is precipitated, and the solution of sulphate of magnesia lies between them. The parafiine is removed, the solution of sulphate of magnesia is washed from the silica, and the silica is dissolved in caustic soda. It will thus be seen that the material is continually renewed with the addition of sulphuric acid and caustic soda. (6) It is found in using these silicates, whether natural or artificial, that a red heat destroys their action, and also that they must be used at such a temperature that the water of hydration is expelled, the coloring matter apparently taking its i)lace. Hence, if the silicate is applied at a temperature only a few degrees above the melting point of the parafflne, it will have no action upon it until the temperature has been raised above that sufficient to expel the water, (c) Another method which has been suggested for the removal of the oils from the soft parafflnes consists in melting them with from 5 to 10 per cent, of oleine and cooling and pressing. • Paraffine is insoluble in oleine. The mineral oils dissolved in oleine are separated from it by distillation, the former distilling at 220° C. and the latter at 280° 0. (<^) Bisulphide of carbon has also been used for this purpose, (e) Although great efforts are made by all manufacturers of paraffine to prepare the wax of a beautiful pearly whiteness, it is a well-known fact, particularly among the manufacturers of continental Europe, that this freedom from color is not permanent for a long period. It is probable that paraffine obtained through the careful distillation of petroleum is purer and less liable to change than that made from distillation of shale or brown coal. Parafflne is often colored for candles and other purposes. As the beautiful colors produced from aniline are insoluble in parafflne, they are first dissolved in stearine, and the stearine is then melted into the paraffine ; the color can be recovered, however, by melting the mixture and passing it through a filter. Two per cent, of stearine will give a clear pink color, and 5 per cent, a full crimson. Blue may be obtained with indigo, red with logwood, green with the two mixed and also with indigo and saffron, orange with logwood and saftron, and yellow with saffron. These colors may be readily incorporated with the mass by grinding a small piece of the parafflne with the color and then working it into the mass while hot. {/) To color paraffine black it is recommended that the wax be digested with the fruit of the Anacardium orientale, which contains a black fluid vegetable fat that combines with the paraffine and does not injure its illuminating properties. Section 4.— PEOPEETIES OF PAEAFFINE. Crude fossU paraffine from Galicia is brown, greenish, or yellow, translucent at the angles, with a resino* fracture. It is usually brittle, and when softened can be kneaded Mke wax, becoming dark on exposure to air. It becomes negatively electric and exhales an aromatic odor with friction. It melts at 66° C. (149° F.), but its illuminating power is such that 754 ozokerite candles equal 891 of ordinary parafflne, or 1,150 of wax. In 1871 Mr. John Galletly examined a parafflne from Boghead coal which melted at 80° 0. and had a boiling point near the red heat, and which therefore presented great diffleulties in the way of determining its vapor density. Distillation appeared to convert about half of it into liquid hydrocarbons, but the portion that remained solid after crystallization from naphtha retained its melting point unaltered. This specimen followed the general rule that parafflnes from different sources diminish in solubility as the temperature increases at which they melt. The following illustrates this point: Melting point. SolubUityinlOO c. c. of benzole at 18" 0. Beg. 0. Oratm. 35.0 133.0 49.6 6.0 52.8 4.7 65. S 1.4 80.0 0.1 a Pordred, Lamb & Sterry's patent, No. 610, 1868. J Smitli & Field's patent. Frederick Field : On the Paraffine Industry, J. S. A., xxii, 349 ; Am. Chem., y, 169. d P. "Wagerman, Poly. C. Bl., 1859, 7.5. e'E. Allan, Dingier, cxlviii, 317; Poly. C. Bl., 1858, 1033. / Eng. Mech., xxili, 259. THE TECHNOLOGY OF PETROLEUM. 177 AUhougli only one part of the parafline melting at 80°, dissolved in 1,000 of benzole at 18° 0., it mixes with it in all proportions above its melting point. The densities of parafQnes appear to increase with their melting points, but with specimens havingthe same melting points it is somewhat difficult to obtain the same results. The following are numbers obtained with parafSnes from Boghead coal : (a) Melting point. Specific gra-rity. Deg.C. ! 32.0 0.8236 39.0 0.8480 40. S 0.8520 S3. 3 0. Olio 63.3 0.9090 S8.0 0.9243 S9.0 0.9248 80.0 0.9400 In 1878 E. Sauerlaudt examined the relation of the melting ozokerite with the following results : (6) point to the specific gravity of paraffines from Melting point. Specific gravity. Deg. 0. 56 0.912 61 0.922 67 0.927 72 0.935 76 0.939 82 0.043 Sauerlandt separated his paraffines by using solvents. Sulphuric acid attacks all the paraffines, provided the temperature is sufficiently high. It is further obsffved that this acid more readily attacks the parafflues with high boiling points than those the boiling points of which ari' lower. The carbon separated from the parafifine melting at 80° C. by the action of sulphuric acid is iu so line a state of division as to pass through filter paper. Chlorine and nitric acid both jiroduce substitution compounds with many specimens of paraffine, but the products are by no means uniform, (c) It is not an infrequent occurrence to find samples of paraffine mixed with stearic acid and stearic acid containing paraffine. As these mixtures are made legitimately, and also for purposes of adulteration, it therefore becomes necessary to determine their constituents. Any attempt to determine the constituents of such a mixture by determining the density would of course be futile, as the density of neither paraffine nor stearic acid is constant. E. Wagner has proposed the following method, which may be used either qualitatively or quantitatively: Not less than 5 grams of the mixture are taken and treated with a warm solution of hydrate of potash, which must not be too concentrated. A soap is formed with the stearic acid, while the paraffine remains unaltered. Salt is then added until the soap separates as a soda soap and takes down the paraffine with it. The soap is thrown on a filter and is washed with cold water or very dilute ethylic alcohol. The salt is first washed out, and then the soap, finally Iciiviiig the paraffine on the filter, which is dried at a temperature below 35° C, care being taken not to fuse it. The paraffine is then carefully dissolved from the filter with ether by repeated washings and the solution carefully evaporated in a weighed porcelain crucible in the water-bath at a low temperature. The residue, consisting of paraffine, is then weighed, and the stearic acid estimated by difference, {d) E. Douath saponifies the mixture with potassa and precipitates with calcium chloride. The calcium soap is washed ou a filter with hot water and dried at 100° C. Part of it, after powdering, is extracted with petroleum ether, the extract evaporated at 100° and weighed, when the residue represents the paraffine. (e) The most approved method of determining the melting point of paraffine consists in throwing a chip of paraffine on hot water and allowing it to melt. Then the water is slowly cooled, and the temjierature is noted at which the globule of paraffine loses its transparency. It has been found impossible in the amount of time that I have been able to devote to this portion of the subject to call attention to all of the great number of specific investigations that have been made upon paraffine, and the difficulty of attempting an exhaustive discussion of the subject is increased by the obscurity of the J nomenclature. Paraffine in the Unitid States and in the languages of continental Europe is used to signify the solid hydrocarbons obtained in distillates made at low temperatures, but in England the word has been given a crClii-mical Neiva, xxiv, 187. b HUbnei^a Zeitschrift, 1878, 81 ; Diiigler, ccxxxi, 383. Chemical Xmct, xxiv, 187. VOL. IX 12 d Ibid., xKvii, 16. e Dingier, ccviii, No. 2, Am. Chem., iv, 19G. 178 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. mncli wider signification, it having been applied to all of the fluid products of such distillation belonging to the marsh-gas series (OnHjn+z). It appears to me probable, however, that among the solid products to which this name is applied there are to be found the higher members of the series Cnllzn, as well as the series OnHzn+z, the original substance to which Eeichenbach gave this name belonging to the latter series. Among other facts which lend strong support to this opinion is the readiness with which some of the paraffines are attacked by reagents, forming substitution compounds, while others are, true to their name, nearly destitute of affinity. A. G. Pouchet acted on paraffine with fuming nitric acid and obtained an acid which he called paraffinic acid. Analysis of this acid, and also of its salts, showed its composition to be C24H48O2, which indicated that the paraffine had a composition Oj4H5a. (a) The proof seems equally convincing that the paraffine melting at 80° C. examined by Galletly belonged to the series OnH2n. It is therefore to be concluded that the opinion advanced as long ago as 1356 by Philipuzzi, that commercial paraffine may be separated into a number of bodies differing in boiling points, is correct, and that definite knowledge regarding the constitution of paraffines from different sources awaits further investigation. Chapter V.— SUBJECTS OF INTEREST IN CONNECTION WITH THE TECHNOLOGY OF PETROLEUM. Section 1.— "CEAOKING." The importance of that reaction which has been technically termed " cracking" scarcely admits of exaggeration.. To assert that it is essentially destructive distillation, and that the results of its action are oils of decreased density,, the decrease dependent upon the extent to which it obtains action, explains neither the nature of the reaction nor the importance of its effects. In the elaborate report upon petroleum made bj' Dr. J. Lawrence Smith to the- judges of the Centennial Exposition he claims that the phenomena attending the destructive distillation Of petroleum were first observed by Professor B. Silliman, jr., and noted by him in his famous report of 1855. {b) Professor Silliman says : The UDcertainty of the boiling points indicates that the products obtained at the temperatures named above were still mixtures of others, and the question forces itself npon us -whether these several oils are to be regarded as educts {i. e., bodies previously existing and simply separated by the process of distillation), or -whether they are not rather produced by the heat and chemical change in the process of distillation. The continued application of an elevated temperature alone is sufficient to effect changes in the constitution of many organic products evolving new bodies not before existing in the original substance. When consideration is had of the knowledge possessed by chemists concerning petroleum and similar substances at the time Professor Silliman made this unique and original investigation the above paragraph is properly regarded as remarkably sagacious and suggestive. ITo one in 1855 knew whether native petroleum was a homogeneous fluid decomposed by distillation, as are fixed oils, or a mixture of a great number of fluids separated by distillation,, as it really is. Professor Silliman's question remained unanswered until Pelouze and Cahours, and later Warren and Storer, attempted to ascertain what manner of substance petroleum really is. Warren and Storer published their results in 1865, (c) and showed that they had succeeded in isolating, in a state of purity, portions of the member* of three homologous series of hydrocarbons. Two of these series were isomeric, but the boiling points of the corresponding members of the two groups were about 8° 0. apart. Professor J. D. Dana has regarded these hydrocarbons as educts, and has placed them in his system of mineralogy in their proper place as natural, not artificial substances. The fact that they have been isolated in such a degree of purity that considerable quantities have been obtained haying a constant boUing point, a constant chemical composition, and furnishing accurate results on the determination of their vapor densities, furnishes all the testimony that chemists can reasonably ask regarding the question whether they are educts or products. The analogy found to obtain between these constituents of petroleum and those of the distillates from albertite, Boghead mineral, cannel coal, and lime soap made from menhaden oil has been considered by some cliemists to indicate that, whereas the constituents of these distillates are the constituents of products of destructive distillation, petroleum must be destructively distilled in order to furnish them. Might not these unquestioned facts be so interpreted as to regard petroleum itself as a product of destructive distillation, and the similarity of these fractional distillates be also regarded as an additional proof that all of these products of a similar process, acting on similar materials, are very complex mixtures of compound* o C. R., Ixxix, 320; J. C. S., xxviii, 50. b Am. Cheni., ii, 18. c Mem. A. A. (N. S.), ix, 135; see alse page M. THE TECHNOLOGY OF PETROLEUM. 179 of carbon and hydrogen that are related to the petroleum as educts, and not as products f I think all of the phenomena connected with this subject are most satisfactorily explained upon this hypothesis. I quote the following paragraph from the paper read by A. Bourgougnon at the meeting of the American Chemical Society, held September 7, 1876: («) During the distillation the products are more aud more heavy until the heat produced decomposea the oil in the still ; then the oil is dissociated, and by this dissociation, or "cracking", lighter and also more inflammable products are obtained. At the same time this decomposition is accompanied by a formation of carbon, which is deposited in the still, and gases of a very offensive odor pass off with the oil. This is the first instance that has come under my notice in which this very proper term (dissociation) is applied to this reaction. The phenomena of dissociation are constantly observed throughout the entire range of technical and scientific operations. Even marsh-gas, by a sufficiently high temperature, is resolved into hydrogen and the carbon of the gas retorts; the coal is resolved by dissociation, at a red heat, mainly into marsh-gas, coal-tar, and coke; at a less elevated temperature into those hydrocarbons homologous with marsh-gas, ranging through all of the paraffine series from marsh-gas to solid parafflne wax, leaving a residue of coke. At the temperature required for this last operation a small percentage of another series of hydrocarbons homologous with ethylene appears, but none of the benzole series that characterize coal-tar. "It has been observed that the schistoils of Buxiere-la-grue and of Cordesn do not contain benzole and naphthaline, because the distiller purposely works at too low a temperature", (b) Antisell, in Photogenic Oils, page 45, says: The tendency of destructive distillation is to produce compounds possess'ng more simplicity of composition than the original substance, and capable of sustaining the higher temperatures at which they form unaltered ; so that, under the range of temperature indicated (300^ to 2732° F.), liquids will be formed when the temperature is least, as at the commencement, and gases when the heat has arisen to the high point set down ; and as in the lower ranges, where liquids are produced, the effect of this augmented heat within this lower range is to lessen the complexity of the compound by dropping or reducing its amount of carbon or of hydrogen, it is at the very lowest temperatures that the liquids containing the highest number of atoms of carbon and hydrogen will be found ; and when the temijerature arises to that essential to the formation of gas, this gas (a carbide of hydrogen) is produced at the expense of the complex liquids formed at first, which give off some carbide of hydrogen, aud thus have their proportions simplified. If then, as has been assumed in these pages, petroleum is the product of the destructive distillation of pyroschists at the lowest temperature possible, it naturally follows that the paraflBne series, from marsh gas up to solid paraffine, would form the bulk of the educts of petroleum. This opinion is confirmed by all that is known either by technologists or chemists concerning the proximate principles that are the normal constituents of the Paleozoic petroleums found on the western slope of the Alleyhanies ; and it is doubtless to this fact that they owe in large part their great superiority over the petroleums of other localities, because the paraffine series of compounds contain the largest proportion of hydrogen as compared with the carbon of any series known to chemists. Now, when these compounds of the paraffine gTOup are subjected to temperatures above their boiling points, they are dissociated, and the researches of Thorpe and Young upon the distillates of paraffine wax under pressure have shown that they are not decomposed into the lower members of the same series, but into the oleflne series, the proportion of the paraffine series being comparatively small. The significance of this discovery lies in the fact that the olefines contain less hydrogen in proportion to the carbon than the paraffine group, and in combustion produce a less brilUant and luminous flame; hence it is to be inferred that while "cracking" will convert a large percentage of petroleum into illuminating oil, the oil will be inferior in quality just in proportion as it consists of cracked oils. The statement that has been made that the present process of manufacture " takes the heart out of the petroleum " for high test-oils and leaves au inferior residue for the ordinary 110° oil is not without some foundation in fact ; but it is not true as a general statement, for the amount of material existing in ordinary petroleum suitable for the production of high test-oil is estimated at 10 per cent., while the whole amount of illuminating oil is about 70 per cent. Manifestly, then, the manipulation of the petroleum is a matter of great importance to the consumer of these oils. The manufacturers of reduced petroleum and of high test-oils prepare a strictly paraffine oil from the educts of the petroleum, and convert the remainder either into an 110° oil by " cracking " or into paraffine oils and wax by careful fractional condensation. The 110° oil produced by cracking alone would be much inferior to the same grade of oil produced in an establishment where the bulk of the petroleum was converted into an oil that consists of both educts and products of the distillation. Illuminating oils are classed and sold as "Water White", "Standard," and "Prime", according to their color. The oils belonging to the paraffine series are neutral, inert oils, not readily acted upon by chemical reagents, and not readily forming substitution compounds. Sulphuric acid removes from such oils the small percentage of unstable oils which they contain and leaves them colorless and limpid or "Water White". With the standard and prime oils, consisting largely of "cracked" oils, the case is wholly different, as they contain members of the oleflne group which form substitution compounds with sulphuric acid with great readiness. These compounds are not readily destroyed by solutions of caustic alkali, and therefore remain in the oil. These oils blacken when heated to 200° F., and discharge sulphurous acid (SO2). When burned, they cause the wick to coat and discharge a Am. Chem., vii, 81. b Chemical News, xxviii, 22. 180 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. sulphurous acid with the products of combustion. This is abundantly demonstrated by the researches of the German chemist, J. Biel, [a) in which he compared oUs manufactured from Russian and American petroleum with results shown in the following table : Specific gravity at 16=6. Tension of vapor at 35° C. Flashing point. Inflaming point. Essence or naphtha. Burning oil. Heavy oil. THE COMPARATIVE ILLUMIKATING POWER AT— e^n. g™. 12=». 14«». 0.795 0.783 0.789 0.803 0.817 0.822 0.821 MUlimeteTi. 160 5 13 201 73 45 .95 Deg. 0. 26 43 44 26 28 30 25 Deg. C. 39 51 46 29 30 35 26 Per cent. . 14.40 2.20 5.50 33.50 15.40 12.80 15.25 Per cent. 45.90 87.80 80.00 66.60 73.20 78.30 71.25 Per cent 39.7 10.0 14.0 3.35 4.50 6.00 6.25 5.20 5.70 1.36 3.00 3.00 4.45 4.00 3.20 0.80 1.36 3.70 10.5 8.4 13.5 1.65 I presume the Imperial oil is an oil manufactured in Germany from crude American petroleum. A comparison of these results shows the great superiority of the Astral and Imperial oils over the Standard. (6) Because these oils, cracked by one distillation and necessarily imperfectly cracked and finished by treatment, are of inferior quality, it is not, however, to be concluded that cracked oils cannot be made of superior grade. The earliest practical application of destructive distillation to the manufacture of illuminating oil was made by the late Luther Atwood, of Boston, Massachusetts. He patented the product and apparatus for obtaining it in 1859, and the process was placed in operation by Mr. Joshua Merrill, of the Downer Kerosene Oil Company, before petroleum became an article of commerce. Mr. Merrill treated thousands of barrels of heavy oil, purchased from those who could not work them often at as low a price as 10 cents a gallon, and cracked them into burning oil of 45°, which, at that time, was readily sold at from 90 cents to $1 40 per gallon. The Downer company have worked this process ever since and have made more or less cracked oil, but they work at low temperatures with steam, and have never made their burning oil with one distillation. Their oils are highly finished x^roducts, and the very high reputation that they have always borne is a sufficient guarantee of their excellence. There is really upon the market a great variety of illuminating oils prepared from petroipum, some of which at double the price are cheaper than others, without regard to either their appearance or their safety. An experiment was made in Boston some years since, which, while without results of practical value, confirmed the views stated above. It was assumed that by cracking naphtha permanent gases would be obtained, and the iitteinpt was made to convert the naphtha into a mixture of marsh-gas and hydrogen by injecting steam into a •vessel filled with the volatile liquid. The result was so far successful as to produce a considerable amount of permanent gases, and on evaporating the naphtha remaining a residue of heavy lubricating oil was obtained, (c) Paraffine oil has been frequently converted into illuminating gas by allowing it to drip upon red-hot coke and by other similar processes. An analysis of such a gas in one instance showed it to consist of — Per cent. CH4, marsli-gas 54. 92 CaH^, ethylene a8.9l H, hydrogen 5.65 CO, carbonic oxide 8.94 CO3, carbonic acid 0.82 The presence of ethylene in such large proportion with free hydrogen indicates that at a lower temijerature the homologues of that gas would probably be found in still larger proportion, [d) Section 2.—" TEEATMENT." Next to the distillation of oils no question is of more importance than the chemical treatment which the distillates receive. It has always been claimed by the Downer company that the proper treatment for illuminating oil is washing with oil of vitriol, to which is sometimes added bichromate of potash, from which the sulphuric a(dd sets free chromic acid, and then washing with solution of caustic soda, and, finally, distillation over caustic soda. This treatment at one time produced oils that were unrivaled in the markets of the United States, and tliey have always held a very high reputation. It is, however, claimed by manufacturers of equally high a Dingier, ccxxxii, 354 ; Indus. Z., 1879, p. 204 ; Chem. Z., 1879, p. 285. h This is a general trade-mark, and not the exclusive property of the Standard Oil Company. e S. Dana Hayes, A. J. S. (3), ii, 184. I accept the coDclusione reached by Mr. Hayes ; but the experiment -was not conducted so aa to escluae the possibility that the heavy oils were dissolved in small quantity in the several thousand gallons of crude naphtha used. d Archiv der Pharmacie, June, 1874 ; Am. Chem., v, 431. THE TECHNOLOGY OF PETROLEUM. 181 reputation that the finishing of oils by distillation is wholly unnecessary, if not positively detrimental. Judging from all that I can learn in reference to this subject, I conclude that the treatment that distillates should receive depends upon what they are. There are: 1. Distillates produced by reducing petroleum. 2. Distillates taken off before cracking commences. 3. Distillates that are wholly cracked. 4. Distillates that are mixtures of 2 and 3. The first and second classes would consist almost wholly of the paraffine series (OnH2n+2) of hydrocarbons; that is, inert and neutral to chemicals. Consequently they would be easily treated, and would yield colorless and neutral oils, especially when more or less caustic ammonia is used along with or after the soda treatment. Classes three and four, however, are quite different. These consist of more or less of the olefines (CnH2n) that are not chemically inert, but form substitution compounds with readiness with such an active reagent as oil of vitriol. In these substitution compounds SOj takes the place of two atoms of hydrogen in the hydrocarbon, and the hydrogen unites with the atom of oxygen to form water. It is claimed by those who finish oil by distillation that these substitution compounds are not destroyed by agitation with caustic alkali. Others admit that they are not destroyed by caustic soda, but claim that they are removed by caustic ammonia. I am inclined to think that neither of the caustic alkalies will remove them. I have examined a large number of illuminating oils during the last twenty years, and I have found that a large proportion of them blacken on being heated to 200° F. and yield sulphurous acid fumes. I have never attempted to estimate this quantitatively, but the amount yielded by half a pint has in several instances been such as to be very apparent in the atmosphere about the apparatus. Such oils have not been properly treated. Half a pint is no unusuiil amount to consume on a winter's evening, and while in the experiments to which I have referred the sulphurous acid was disengaged suddenly and almost instantaneously, the fact that when the oil was burned it would be thrown off slowly would not lessen its quantity nor its effect upon those exposed to its iuflueuce. My own conviction is that all oils that will blacken and give off sulphurous acid should be finished by distillation over caustic soda. The following abstract of an elaborate research undertaken by royal command, and published in Dingler's Polytechnic Journal and many other German scientific periodicals, has not before been translated so far as I have learned. Its importance demands for it a wider circulation. The author, H. Vohl, appears to use the term "Eoh- petrolenm" to designate American refined oils imported into Germany. He asks "if by the burning of petroleum there is not danger of producing unhealthful gases, and whether crude (Eoh) petroleum does not itself contain injurious compounds which are kindled by its burning that are removed when it is purified?" and then continues: The only element of crude petroleum which liberates unwholesome gases when it is bumed is sulphur. No petroleum is free from it. In many cases the petroleum is polluted, iu the so-called "cold treatment" with sulphuric acid, by sulphur compounds. It is particularly so wh. n an appreciable quantity of paraffine is left in lamp oil, and because of its dark color is subjected to an additional treatment of sulphuric acid. In this way refined oil often contains or retains so much sulphuric acid that its burning develops unwholesome influences. Suljihuric acid in part forms a compound with the heavy paraffine oil which is soluble in the remaining oil, and neither through treatment by water nor by alkalies is it decomposed, so that a subsequent treatment with these substances offers no guarantee for the absence of sulphur. When oil so treated is subjected to distillation, first a clear burning oil passes over, then a rapid development of sulphurous acid gas, often accompanied with coloration of the contents of the retort. Finally, alter a limited separation of sulphur has taken place in the nick of the retort, sulphureted hydrogen comes over, and a carbonaceous mass with acid reaction remains. An erroneous opinion is held iu many places that a strong blue reflection possessedby many kinds of petroleum is an indication of its superior quality and usefulness Petroleum has this peculiarity when it contains an appreciable quantity of paraffine oil. Most hydrocarbons resembling retinols have these blue reflections, with a high melting point. None of the ditferent kinds of petroleum investigated were free from sulphur or sulphuric acid, and therefore it can be assumed with justice that petroleum hurning-oil free from sulphur belongs to the exceptions. . Petroleum, wherever a tranquil light is necessary, has superseded illuminating gas; besides, it is cheaper than coal-gas, so that it is entirely out of the question that the consumption of petroleum should decrease to any important extent, and therefore so much-the more necessary in order to direct attention to these sulphur contents, that the removal of the injurious contents must he provided for. Among those who make use of petroleum for illuminating purposes inflammation of the eyes and catarrhal troubles often appear, for which physicians can never aft'ord relief, because the source of the trouble is unknown to them. The series of experiments embraced the following determinations, beside the sulphuric acid: (a) The specific gravity of the oil at 15° R. water =1.000. (6) The temperature (R.) at which the oil gives ofi' inflammable vapors. (c) The contents in oils of specific gravity 0.740. (d) The contents in paraffine oils of specific gravity, 0.850, solidifying at + 15° R. (e) The consumption of the oil, iu grams, per hour iu a lamp with a plain burner, with a wick IS"" broad and 2"™ thick, having a capillary attraction of 8'=°'. In order to determine whether the sulphur is contained as sulphuric acid or as a substitution compound of sulphuric acid with an hydrocarbon, he heated the oil a long time at the boiling point in a glass retort with a piece of sodium or potassium. The bright surface of the alkaline metal is soon covered by a yellowish layer, so that one can safely conclude upon a sulphureted compound iu the oil. After cooling add distilled water drop by drop until the excess of alkaline metal becomes oxidized and the sulphur, as sulphide of potassium, passes into solution. Then stir the fluid with a glass rod that has been immersed In a solution of nitro-prnsside of sodium. The presence of the smallest quantity of sulphur will immediately color the solution a beautiful violet-blue, (a) o Dingier, ccxvi, 47; W. B., xxi, 1053. ^ 182 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. TABULAR STATEMENT OF EXAMINATION OF OILS BY H. VOHL. No. Specific gravity. Temperature at which infiammable vapora are given off. Per cent, contained in oils of spe- cific ffravity 0. 740. Per cent, contained in oils of spe- cific gravity 0. 850. Hourly con- sumption of oil in grams. Per cent, of sulphnric acid con- tained. Deg. R. 1 0.780 23.0 24.964 14 195 16.78 0.994 2 0.790 28.0 18. 330 19. 519 15.46 2.001 3 0.790 28.0 3.050 5.022 15.00 1.884 4 0.780 27.0 19. 889 U. 987 16.50 0.946 5 0.805 24.0 22. 133 28. 666 17.11 1.560 6 0.790 23.0 25.950 9.669 17.20 0.876 7 0.800 27.0 25. 345 11.500 14.88 0.998 8 0.790 22.0 35.460 11. 590 17.90 1.014 9 0.795 23.5 25. 203 12. 100 17.12 0.914 10 0.795 27.0 15.233 5.410 14.50 0.348 11 0.800 24.0 23. 575 35.769 16.00 3.114 12 0.790 19.0 32. 440 19.711 1614 1.440 13 0.790 19.5 29. 580 28. 711 17.25 2.100 14 0.790 19.0 33. 216 26.461 10.89 1.210 15 0.785 18.0 34.706 3.506 17.98 0.346 16 0. 779 8.0 48. 051 20. 512 19.38 1.950 17 0.790 19.0 38. 193 23.367 18.25 2.146 18 0.800 27.5 20. 950 32. 550 16.50 2.200 19 0.798 25.5 20.600 26 480 17.33 0.216 20 0.795 23.0 21.400 27. 140 17.50 0.220 21 0.790 23.0 25. 400 35.440 14 20 0.389 22 0.795 24.0 24. 116 38. 880 14.29 0.401 23 0.790 22.0 36. 118 13. 400 17.55 0.991 24 0.790 19.0 35. 6G1 14. 014 17.24 0.973 25 0.800 27.0 16. 033 6.880 15.36 0.310 26 0.795 26.0 18. 000 8.446 16.03 0.300 27 0.795 26.0 17.880 9.001 15.98 0.310 28 0.780 9.0 48.336 20.330 19.66 1.977 The amount of sulphur indicated by this table is surprisingly large, but I think it should have been computed as sulphur rather than as sulphuric acid. As sulphuric acid it is alieady oxidized and would not decompose at 200° F. and appear as sulphurous acid. It is compounds that will burn into sulphurous acid gas, and not sulphuric acid, that render these oils noxious. No examination that I have ever made has led me to think sulphuric acid (SO3) is present in illuminating oil. Section 3.—" SLUDGE." " Sludge" is the name applied to the refuse acid and alkali solutions from the agitators. When petroleum first began to be extensively manufactured, many attempts were made to recover both the acid and the alkaU from these spent solutions. The acid forms a black, tarry mass, and the alkali a sort of soapy curd, that forms flocks of a rusty color, and also compounds that pass into solution, as well as sulphate of soda. By evaporating the soda sludge to dryness and calcining to burn out the organic matter an impure carbonate of soda is obtained that can be converted into caustic soda by the ordinary process. . The sulphate of soda and other impurities thus accumulate in the soda solution and finally render its action imperfect. As this simple process for recovering the soda has never been used to any considerable extent, I infer that it has never, on the whole, been considered profitable. There was used during the census year an amount of soda crystals, soda-ash, and caustic soda estimated to be equivalent to 3,500 tons of soda-ash, all of which ran to waste. The sludge acid is recovered by first heating it, when it separates into an oily superficial layer and a heavy layer beneath containing the acid. This acid liquid is drawn off and evaporated and concentrated like chamber acid, the black carbonaceous matter being destroyed at the high temperature required for concentration. This process is also very simple, but it produces abundant suffocating fumes and disagreeable odors, and in the neighborhood of dense populations is justly considered a great nuisance. At Cleveland, Ohio, and near Titusville, Pennsylvania, there are establishments for recovering spent acid, to which the acid sludge is carried in tank-cars. The manufacturers of petroleum are paid an amount sufBcient to induce them to put their sludge into tank-cars rather than to allow it to run to waste, and the recovered acid is returned to them at the ruling price for sulphuric acid. Sludge acid is sold to the manufacturers of commercial fertilizers in localities where the refineries are convenient to such establishments. Much, however, is allowed to run to waste ; it is run into rivers and lakes, and, in the neighborhood of New York, is conveyed in barges outside of New York hiirbor and emptied into the sea. The amount of this material that has been thrown into Oil creek and the Allegheny river is enormous. It has lodged upon the rocks and on the gravel along the creek and stained them black; and it floats upon the river continually, THE TECHNOLOGY OF PETROLEUM. 183 often communicating its peculiar odor to the atmosphere above. I have also noticed it from the deck of a Sound steamer floating on the East river, its peculiar odor being perceptible at the level of the deck nearly all of the distance from Blackwell's island to the Battery. During the census year 45,819.5 tons of sulphuric acid were used in the manufacture of petroleum products. Of this vast quantity 21,158.75 tons were recovered, 22,163.5 tons were sold to manufacturers of fertilizers, and 2,498-J- tons were " run to waste ", which phrase means discharged into lake Erie, the tributaries of the Ohio river, the Delaware river, Chespeake bay, or the ocean. The effect of both acid and alkaline sludge upon fish was investigated by Dr. Stevenson Macadam, and the results were communicated in 1866 to the British Association for the Advancement of Science. He made dilute solutions of different strengths and immersed fish in them with the following results: 1, a fish placed in the acid sludge died iu five minutes; 2, in one part sludge and three of water, it died in ten minnt.e8; 3, in one part sludge and twenty of water, it died iu fifteen minutes ; 4, in one part sludge and one hundred of water, it died iu fifteen minutes ; 5, in one part sludge and one thousand of water, it died in two hours ; while in one part sludge to ten thousand parts of water the fish were not killed for twenty-four hours, but were api^arently sick and prostrate. The spent-soda liquor which has been employed in treating oil which has been previously acted upon by acid is decidedly alkaliue and caustic in its nature. It has extracted from the oil and holds iu solution more or less carbolic acid and its Uomologues, and the poisonous nature of the spent-soda liquor is doubtless augmented by the presence of these acids. A sample of this soda liquor which was flowing from a paraffiue oil manufactory, and which contained extra water, proved destructive to fish in ten minutes ; with three parts of water it killed fish in twenty minutes ; with twenty parts of water, the fish were dead in twenty-five minutes; with one hundred parts of water, the fish were dead in thirty minutes; diluted with oue thousand times its volume of water, the soda liquor proved destructive to fish in twenty hours; while with ten thousand parts of water the fish were not killed, but were apparently slightly sick, (a) He also found that shale oil, Pennsylvania petrolenm, and their manufactured products, were all deleterious to fish; but the shale oil was more injurious than petroleum. If these sludge solutions were mixed, and as a result sulphate of soda insteatl of free sulphuric acid and caustic soda were discharged into the streams, the injurious eflects upon animal life would without doubt be lessened; but even in that case the discharge of such vast quantities of mineral and organic poisons into streams the waters of which are used by thousands of the inhabitants of the towns upon their banks cannot be viewed as anything less than a public misfortune, if no regard whatever is had to the fish with which the streams are stocked. The extent of such injury as a problem in public health, as compared with other interests, is properly a subject of inquiry for the physician. Section 4.— EIEES. The attention of the public was called to the great danger of allowing large quantities of either crude or refined oil to be stored within the limits of large cities by the disastrous fires that occurred in Philadelphia in March, 1865. A quantity of oil, amounting to what would now be considered only a few thousand barrels, was stored in some open sheds on a lot that was not otherwise occupied. This oil was set on fire, as was supposed by an incendiary, very early on a cold morning early in March. Tlie flames spread rapidly, and as the barrels burst the contents accumulated in a pool of burning oil that soon overflowed the lot, and, filling the frozen gutters, ran down a narrow street iu the neighborhood in a rivulet of flame as high as two-story houses. Houses were set on fire, and their occupants, fleeing for life, were overtaken by the stream of fire and burned before they could escape. In this way several lives were lost. This catastrophe led to the enactment of laws forbidding the storage of petroleum within the limits of large cities, and in the case of Philadelphia the railroad carried a branch track to tide- water below the city lor its delivery and shipment. Petroleum refineries have been considered especially liable to destruction by fire, yet some of the oldest establishments in the country have received very little injury from that source. The amount of capital invested in the manufacture of petroleum during the census year was $27,325,746. Of this, $21,196,246 was used twelve months, $31S,00U eleven months, $2,315,000 ten months, $2,019,000 nine months, $727,000 eight months, $100,000 seven months, $510,000 .six months, $100,000 five months, $36,000 four months, and $4,500 three months, equal to $25,781,327 used for twelve months. During the same time the losses from fire in the refineries of the country amounted to $104,631, or less than one-half of 1 per cent. When to this invested capital is added the total value of manufactured products that passed through these establishments, equal to $43,705,218, the total being $71,100,964, these losses are insignificant. The refineries lately constructed are for the most part uncovered, and the material about them that can burn is reduced to a minimum; but the older refineries that have not burned are inclosed in very substantial buildings, provided with ample means for completely filling them with steam in case of any accidental ignition ol the oil. Eeally tlio danger from fire depends upon the want of care exercised by those who have charge of the refineries more than upon any especial appliances for preventing or extinguishing them. The great fire in Titusville in June, 1880, and caused by lightning. Against the occasional destruction of property by the elements no amount of foresight or precaution will prevail. a Chemical Xeios, xiv, 110. 184 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. " Section 5.— THE SPECIAL TECHNOLOGY OF CALIPOENIA PETEOLEUM. The earliest attempts to manufacture the petroleum of southern California were made by Mr. Gilbert, of San Buenaventura, about I860, who distilled the malthas of the Ojai ranch and obtained from them a small quantity of oil of inferior quality that could be used for illumination. When I commenced my experiments in 1865 upon the same material I was soon convinced that it was quite different from the petroleum with which I was familiar on the Atlantic coast. The yield of oil of a specific gravity suitable for illuminating purposes was small in quantity, and burned in the lamps in use for Pennsylvania oils with a dull and smoky flame. The proportion of oil of medium specific gravity was very large, and the heavy oils, while of very low specific gravity, were not unctuous, and were destitute of lubricating properties. One of these denser distillates, with a specific gravity of 16° B., was a mobile fluid-like water or an essential oil. When the Hay ward Petroleum Company and Stanford Brothers commenced the manufacture of petroleum from their springs and tunnels in San Francisco they encountered the same difficulties on a large scale. The oUs were all of inferior quality, and the " middlings ", as they were called, were so large a proportion of the distillate as to prove a very great obstacle to the success of the enterprise. Professor Silliman secured a barrel of the Ojai malthas and carried it to Boston, where he worked it in the experimental apparatus of the Downer company. Prom the report of his results I make the following abstract : The crude oil is very dark. At ordinary temperatures (60° F. ) it is a thick, viscid liquid, resembling coal-tar, but witli only a very sliglit odor, and with a density of 0.980 or 13^° B. It retains, mechanically entangled, a considerable quantity of water. The tar froths at the commencement of distillation from the escape of watery vapor. It yields by a primary distillation no product having a less density than 0.844, or 37° B. at 52° P. Distillation to dryness gave : Per cent. Of oil having a density of 0.890 to 0.900 69.82 Coke, water, and loss 30.18 10./. no This first distillate, having a density of about 0.890 at 60° F., gave, when subjected to slow distillation, a product having a density of 0.885, which, after treatment with oil of vitriol and soda lye and redistillation from soda, had a density of 0.880. Tliis distillate was thou fractionated, and yielded : Per cent. Lightoilof specific gravity 0.835 at 60° F 21.58 Heavy oil of specific gravity 0.880 at 66° F 37.41 Heavy oil of specific gravity 0.916 at 64° F 34. 53 Coke 6.48 100.00 In another experiment, undertaken with a view to " cracking", treating, and redistilling with soda, the products were expressed in percentages of the whole amount operated upon as follows : Per cent. Naphtha of specific gravity 0.760 at 60° F , 11. 33 Oil ofspecific gravity 0.836 at 60° F 66.22 Oil of specific gravity 0.893 at 60° F 12.67 Oil of specific gravity 0.921 at 60° F 3.56 Loss 0.22 100. 00 Further experiments by distillation under pressure gave : , Per cent. Light oil, specific gravity 0.825 at 60° F 19.20 Heavy oil, specific gravity 0.885 at 60° F 2.5.86 Heavy oil, specific gravity 0.918 at 60° F 38.14 Coke and loss 16.80 100. 00 No paraffine could be detected by refrigerating any of these heavy oils in salt and ice. (a) On returning from California to New England, in 1866, I brought with me a few gallons of several of the petroleums and malthas of the neighborhood of San Buenaventura, It was my intention to treat these samples in an ajiparatus similar to that used by Mr. Merrill, but the small quantity of each specimen at my disposal rendered that operation very difficult, and I subsequently determined to distill them under pressure, after the manner patented by Young. I contrived a small retort, with a valve of peculiar construction, described in the American Journal of Science for September, 1867. (6) These specimens of petroleum, numbered I, II, and III, were subjected to this treatment. No. I came from a tunnel in the Sulphur mountain (see Fig. 6), with a specific gravity 0.9023 ; No. II, from the Pico spring, with a specific gravity 0.8932 ; and No. Ill, from the Canada Laga spring, with a specific gravity 0.9184. They were first subjected to distillation under a pressure of about 30 pounds per square inch in a a A. J. S., xliii, 242; C. N., xvii, 257; B. S. C. P., 1868, 77. 6 A. J. S. (2), xliv, 230; C. N., xvi, 199; W. B., 1867, 725. THE TECHNOLOGY OF PETROLEUM. 185 measured quantity of 1,500 c.c. The distillate obtained was then fractionated until the specific gravity of the distillate averaged 0.810 or 43° B. The heavy residue in the retort was again distilled under pressure and fractionated to a distillate of specific gravity 0.810. The heavy residue in the retort was then treated for lubricating oil. The results tabulated as follows : 1,500 0. c. of erode oil for 3 •3 1 11 *M s ■S5 ■|m .a s 1 g ■p. 3 H .3 S at •E .a ii ■a 11 tx i each experiment. e2 43 O 1; 1 r U 1° i 11= H E.a ■a 3 S-9 £ a 3 s 1 Cubic centimeters: 1,365 1,315 1,240 135 185 260 630. 00 850.80 605. 00 735. 00 464.20 635. 00 681. 00 408. 78 571. 50 184.00 102. 19 142.87 814, 00 952. 99 747. 87 24.42 28.69 22.43 769. 58 924.40 725.44 497. OO 306. 59 428.63 14.01 9.19 12. 8S 462. 09 297. 40 415.78 789.58 924. 40 726. 44 482. 09 297. 40 415. 78 39.33 37.78 35.28 189.09 240.42 in 323.50 Percentages : 91.00 87.66 82.66 9.00 12.34 17.34 42.00 56.72 40.33 49.00 30.94 42.33 45.40 27.25 38.10 12.27 6.81 9.52 54.27 63.53 49.85 1.63 1.91 1.49 52.64 61.62 48.36 33.13 20.44 28.68 0.99 0.61 0.86 32.14 19.83 27.72 52.64 61.62 48.36 32.14 19.83 27.72 2.62 2.52 2.35 12.60 n 16.03 ni 21.57 Cubic centimeters: 1080. 00 232. 50 250. 00 830. 00 747. 00 186.75 436. 75 13.10 423.65 560. 25 16.80 543.45 423.65 543.45 29.90 503.00 Percentages : IV 72.00 15.50 16.70 55.30 49.80 12.40 29.10 0.90 28.20 37.40 1.10 36.30 28.20 36.30 2.00 33.50 The specimen of maltha (IV) examined was taken, it is supposed, from the same pool on the Ojai ranch as that examined by Professor Silliman. Its specific gravity was 0.9906. The air, hydrogen sulphide, and water was removed by allowing the maltha to flow slowly from one vessel through a second vessel, in which it was heated sufficiently to expel these impurities, and from which it flowed into a receiver. The loss by this treatment was 12J per cent. The purified maltha was then treated precisely like the oils, with the results as given above. As these results, both with malthas and 'oils, were conducted on a small scale, the percentage of loss is much greater than would be experienced on a commercial scale. A comp.arison of the results of the distillation of the malthas and oils appear at first sight to give the latter great preponderance in value over the former; but it should be borne in mind that the malthas contain 12| per cent, of volatile impurity not contained in the oils. After making due allowance for this fact, it will be ob.served that the total amount of crude distillate is in all cases very nearly in the same proportion to the pure bitumen contained in the crude materials. These crude distillates yield easily to treatment with the ordinary amount of sulphuric acid and soda lye. The purified oil is very transparent and the most free from color of any that I have seen. Indeed, were it not for its opalescent properties, and the peculiar manner in which light is refracted by it, this oil could not be distinguished by the eye from pure water. I do not claim to have produced oils the burning qualities of which are superior to other CaUfomia oils, but I think them in no way inferior to the best that have been produced from unadulterated California petroleum. The best refined California petroleum that I have made, as also the best that I have seen from other sources, fails to produce a light of such intense whiteness as the best refined Pennsylvania oils, although they are quite equal to the average upon the market. It is my opinion that this difference is due to admixture of some series of hydrocarbons, containing a large amount of carbon in proportion to the hydrogen, in such quantity as to render the combustion incomplete, and thus give rise to a yelloxc flame, (o) An examination of Eussian petroleum in 1881 by Kurbatow and Beilstein has shown the presence of an homologous series such as was here predicted, which contains more hydrogen than the benzole series and less hydrogen than the paraffine series. There is a great similarity between these Tertiary Eussian petroleums and the California petroleums of the same geological age, and it is altogether probable that they both contain these "additive compounds of the benzole series". I am informed that during the last ten years or more there have been a number of thousands of barrels of petroleum refined in Santa Barbara and Ventura counties which has been sent into Arizona and Mexico, but was not of such a quality as to compete in the San Francisco market with oils manufactured on the Atlantic coast. On the whole, so far as I can learn, the oils manufactured from crude California petroleum are uniformly of inferior quality. a S. F. Peckham, Geo. Surv. of California : Geology II, Appendix, page 73. PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. ^OhapterVL— STATISTICS OF THE MANUFACTURE OF PETROLEUM DURING THE CENSUS YEAR. Section I.— INTEODUOTION. The statistics that form the subject of this chapter Trere obtained by means of a schedule of questions which were placed in the hands of the different manufacturers, and the answers have been consolidated into the totals as here given. Great care has been taken to include all parties engaged in the manufacture during the whole or any part of the census year, and it is believed that the list is complete. It is further believed that the schedules have been filled with as much care and regard to accuracy as could be expected under the circumstances. Several firms had gone out of the business at the time the statistics were compiled, and others had kept their books in such a manner as to render the compilation of such statistics difficult. It is believed, however, that in those instances where absolute accuracy was found to be impossible approximately correct estimates have been given. These instances constituted but a small percentage of the bulk of the business, which is carried on by large corporations and firms, who conduct their business systematically. The statistics furnished by these concerns have been compiled at much labor and expense, and in many instances are careful transcripts of annual or biennial balances and records kept in the regular course of conducting the business. As statistics of this character constitute a large proportion of the whole number, and as the remainder are carefully computed and estimated, the totals are believed to represent in a practically accurate manner the details of the business of the country for the census year. ITie following-named firms and corporations have furnished statistics : Portland Kerosene Oil Company. Downer Kerosene Oil Company.. •Oriental Oil Company... Maverick Oil Company . Pierce & Cant'Orbnry . .. ■ S. Jenney & Sons ' G. F. Gregory Charles Pratt & Co Empire Reftninfi Company ^Sone & Flemming '.... •James Donald &.Co Wilson & Anderson .Bush & Denslow ■FrantlinOil Works Devoe Manufacturing Company McGoey & King ■Queens County Oil Refining Company. . James A . Bostwick Iiong Island Oil Works Lombard, Ayres & Co ■Cheesboro' Manufacturing Company .. Xeonard & EUis A. C. Bnnce & Co Hndson itiver Oil Works Bayonne Refining Company Pennsylvania Refining Company .Malcom, Loyd & Co William L. Elkina &Co Harkness Refining Company Webster Bros. & Wilson Atlantic Refining Company Excelsior Oil Company United Oil Company J. Parkburst, jr., & Co 'Camden Consolidated Oil Company Solar Oil Company S.Bailey &Co Reading Oil Company Bingbaraton Oil Company . Vacuum Oil Company Buffalo Oil Worlts ;Standard Oil Company Portland, Maine. Boston, Massachusetts, and Corry, Pennsylvania. Boston, Massachusetts, Brooklyn, Kew York. Do. Do. Do. Brooklyn, INew York. Do. Now York city. Do. Do. Do. Bergen county, New Jersey. Bayonne, New Jersey. Philadelphia, PennsyWania. Do. Do. Do. Baltimore, Maryland. Do. Baltimore, Maryland, and P^- kersburg, West Virginia. Williamsport, Pennsylvania. Danville, Pennsylvania. Reading, Pennsylvania. Bingbamton, New York. Rochester, New York. Buffalo, New York. Cleveland, Ohio. Pioneer Oil Company Merriam &. Morgan li.D.Mis American Lubricating Oil Company Republic Refining Company Backus Oil Company William H. Doan Schofiold, Schurmer & Teagle Forest City Varnish, Oil, and Naphtha Co. J. H.Heisol&Co J. R. Timmins & Co Acme Oil Company Keystone Oil Company White Star Oil Company Crystal Oil Works Imperial Refining Company , Mutual Refining Company Empire Oil Works Eclipse OU Company Relief OU Works -. Franklin Oil Works German Refining Company William Bi-adin : Holdship (felrwiue Standard Oil Company Paine, Ahlett & Co E. J. Waring A. D. Miller J. A. McKee & Sons Central Refining Company D. P. Reighard ^Andrew Lyons & Co Wallover Oil Company Samuel Hodkinson Marietta Refining Company Ohio Oil Works Argand Oil Company Richard Patton O. M.Lovell Isaiah Warren & Co L. D. Crafts SweetzcrOil Company S. P.Wells &Co Chess, Carley & Co Cleveland, Ohio. Do. Do. Do. Titnsville, Pennsylvania. Do. Do. Miller's farm, Pennsylvania. Oil City, Pennsylvania. Reno, Pennsylvania. Do. Franklin, Pennsylvania. Do. Do. Brady's Bend, Pennsylvania. Milleratown, Pennsylvania. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Do. Do. Do. Smith's Ferry, Pennsylvania. Steubenville, Ohio. Marietta, Ohio. Do. Do. Do. Do. Wheeling, West Virginia. Parkersburg, West Virginia. Louisville, Kentucky. THE TECHNOLOGY OF PETROLEUM. 187 • Section 2.— CAPITAL, LABOE, AND WAGES. The total amount of capital invested in the manufacture of petroleum during the census year was $27,325,746. Of this amount, $21,196,246 was employed the entire year and $6,129,500 for periods varying from one to eleven months, averaging $4,585,081 for twelve months. The total average amount of capital employed throughout the year was $25,781,327. (See page 183.) The total number of hands employed was 12,231. The average number was : Men, 9,498; women, 25; children, 346 ; total, 9,869. Some of these men were employed in establishments that were in operation less than twelve months. The average number of men employed for twelve months was 8,032. Of the 9,498 men, 8,818 were employed by day and 680 by night. This latter number does not represent all of the labor employed at night, as in many establishments the work was not performed by men who worked constantly at night, but by men who were divided into sets and alternated, one set working during the day for one week, and at night the following week. In other establishments the work was divided from twelve at noon to twelve at night. The wages paid for skilled labor varied from $1 60 to $3 per day, averaging about $2 25, and in general no difference was made in the wages of those who worked by day from those who worked at night. Ordinary laborers were paid from $1 25 to $2 per day, averaging about $1 50; coopers from $1 50 to $2 50, averaging about $2 25, and tinsmiths from $1 30 to $2 25, averaging about $2. The highest wages were paid on the Atlantic coast and the lowest on the Ohio river. The total amount paid in wages during the census year was $4,381,572. Section 3.— MATERIALS EMPLOYED IN MANUFACTUEING PETEOLEUM. The total amount of crude petroleum manafaetured during the census year was 731,533,127 gallons, equal to 17,417,455 barrels of 42 gallonseach. This crudeoil was valued at $16,340,581, equal to 92.9 cents per barrel. During the year there was received by the manufacturers in — Gallons. Barrels 20,363,918 Barges 42,433,388 Tank-cars 437,740,951 Pipe-lines 227,941,728 This oil is estimated to contain on an average 1 per cent, of water, and was mainly third-sand oil ; but it includes also nearly all of the second-sand oil, and a portion of the first-sand. It does not include any of the heavy oils that are used as natural oil, and but a small portion, if any, of the mixed oils. In the manufacture of this oil there was consumed the following kinds and amounts of fuel : Anthracite coal tons Bitumiuous coal tons Wood cords Coke bushels Naphtha gallons Residuum gallons Value. 179,997 $446,922 504,667 580,983 1,471 6,355 303, 596 13,218 2, 892, 164 42,315 11, 765, 705 229,215 Total valuation of fuel nsed 1,319,008 Anthracite coal was very generally used in the Atlantic cities, but not to the exclusion of bituminous coal. Naphtha and residuum do not appear to have been used as fuel except in special cases. This fuel was used in the distillation of the oil and in the production of steam for use both as power and in distillation. In the treatment of the distillates there were used of — Valoe. Sulphur tons 3 $180 Sulphuric acid do 45,813i 1,206,052 Hydrochloric acid • pounds 3,424 68 Total value of acids 1,206,200 Of this vast quantity of sulphuric acid the "sludge" of 22,162 J tons was sold to fertilizer and chemical manufacturers, that of 21,1585 tons was returned to the manufacturers to be restored, and that of 2,498^ tons ran to waste. Of this amount, 1,389 tons of the 2,498^ tons that ran to waste were thrown into the Atlantic ocean and rivers and bays that enter it, 839§ tons were thrown into the Ohio river and its tributaries, and 269J tons into lake Erie. The proportion of sulphuric acid that is thrown to waste is now much less than it was formerly, but the nearly 5,000,000 pounds wasted during the census year is a large quantity with which to pollute our rivers and bays. The 1,078,000 pounds thrown into the tributaries of the Ohio river is a large contamination in the waters of even so large a river, and in addition to the acid the sladge oils cannot fail to increase its deleterious effects. The alkali treatment was effected by means of — Soda-ash tons... Caustic soda do Sal-soda pounds Aqua ammonia do Lime bushels Total value of alkalies 105,770 Value. 410.9 $10, 427 772. 3 85,064 96, 643. 1,423 160, 100. 8,697 797.0 159 188 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. The sludge of all of this alkali was run to waste on the Atlantic coast, into the Ohio and its tributaries, and into lake Erie. The filtered oils and residues required the use of 1,990 tons of bone-black, valued at $62,815. The packages used were in part manufactured and in part purchased by the petroleum refiners, and were as follows : Value. Barrels: Made 3,292,698 |4, 040, 502 PurohaBed 6,424,608 7,577,805 Total 9,717,306 11,618,307 Tin cans: Made 23,496,916 2,700,630 Purchased 344,173 93,367 Total '. 23,841,089 2,793,997 Packing cases : Made 1,607,297 189,511 Purchased 4,845,504 717,400 Total 6,452,801 906,911 The total number of all packages and their value was as follows : Barrels 9,717,306 $11,618,307 Cans 23,841,089 2,793,997 Cases 6,452,801 906,911 Total packages 40,011,196 15,319,215 Where barrels are not made they are being continually repaired. The number of coopers employed was 2,062, and of tinsmiths, 353. The following is the total cost of materials : Value. Crude oil, 17,417,455 barrels |16 340 581 Fiel 1,319,' 008 -A-cid 1,206,200 Alkali 105,770 Bone-black 62,815 Packages 15,319,215 Bungs, paint, hoops, glue, etc 645,412 Total 34,999,001 Section 4.— THE PEODUCTS OP MANTJEACTUEE. There were manufactured of the volatile products of the distillation of petroleum of a specific gravity above 87° Baum6 293,423 gallons, valued at $29,117. This material was first called rhigolene, but a similar product has been called cymogene, and has been used in ice-machines. It is to be presumed that this material was used for that purpose. Of gasoline there was manufactured 289,555 barrels, valued at $1,128,166; of naphthas the following- named qualities and quantities : Specific gravity. Quantity in barrel's. Value. Degrees. 60 1,200 $3, 600 62 109, 472 225, 609 63 18,945 43, 039 65 6,148 17, 339 68 7,300 20, 075 70 918, 374 1,188,201 71 1,017 4,657 71-72 6,899 18, 110 72 6.048 3,931 73 38, 777 45, 945 li ID, 665 54,110 76 8,100 34, 425 76 11, 609 39,315 68-70 12, 525 16, 282 65-70 260 780 60-72 42, 302 109, 417 C8-78 3,400 8,500 65-76 Total .... 85 60 1, 212, 626 1,833,395 THE TECHNOLOGY OF PETROLEUM. 189 Au iuspectiou of the table ou page 188 shows that the different grades of naphtha, as determined by the specific gravity, command very different prices. The following table shows the fire-test and quantities of illuminating oils manufactured: Fire-test. Quantity in barrels. Value. Beg.F. 100 2,059 $6, 435 110 6,083,026 19, 035, 913 112 913, 979 2,621,777 115 90, 814 313, 560 120 2, 107, 220 7, 096, 218 110-120 5,948 10,844 130 510, 522 1, 507, 884 J35 2,036 11, 233 140 15, 000 85,000 150 1, 170, 725 5, 494, 833 110-150 28,270 108, 557 155 1,960 7,350 160 1,627 9,949 175 22,843 164, 914 150-175 Total.... 46, 220 359, 144 11,002,249 36, 839, 6U It will be noticed that the three grades of 110°, 120°, and 150° include the larger proportion of the illuminating oils. The specific gravity of these oils varies from 45° to 50° Baum6, the high-tfist oils having usually the highest specific gravity. But a comparatively small quantity of oils having a fire-test above 200° F. was produced. Kre-test. Barrels. Value. Beg. F. . 260 285 300 Total.... 1,940 300 14,304 $8,245 3,000 191, 480 16,544 1 202,725 These oils are of a specific gravity of 36° to 39° Baum6. The lubricating oils are prepared by various parties of different specific gravities. Petroleums reduced especially for cylinders are made very den.se, and vary from 25° to 28° Baum^. Of these oils there were produced L'(),01S barrels, valued at $371,020. Petroleums reduced for journals are prepared in greater variety. Of these there were : Specific gravity. Bmrela. i Value. Degrees. 28 28-30 29 29-34 38 Total.... 8,184 105, 095 63, 705 26, 657 1,200 $30, 327 506,957 30«, 203 179, 510 7,020 201,841 1,024,017 The distilled lubricating oils are in equally large variety. Of the deodorized lubricating oils there were iliiced: Specific gravity. Barrels. Value. Degrees. 25 26 28 39 28-33 Total.... 16, 460 2,017 68 12,440 39, 430 $148, 140 9,580 340 149, 280 304, 232 70, 415 611, 572 1 190 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. The paraffine oils reported are in still greater variety of specific gravity aud price, ranging from about $2 to nearly $12 per barrel; the latter value being assigned to an exceptionally dense oil of specific gravity 20° Baum6. Of these oils there were produced: Specific gravity. Barrels. Value. Degrees. 20 20-27 24 25 26-28 27 28 33 Total.... 2,524 8,733 552 26, 293 6,000 3,187 31,462 714 $24, 230 33, 297 4,668 165, 555 45, 000 6,055 124, 077 5,141 79,465 408, 023 Of paraffine wax there was produced 7,889,626 pounds, valued at $631,944, an average valuation of about 8 cents per pound, of which 900,000 pounds were made into candles by one firm. Of residuum there was produced and sold 229,133 barrels, valued at $297,529. The products of ipanufacture other than those already enumerated were chiefly petroleum ointment, harness oil, and other vacuum products, as follows : The paraffine ointment manufactured hafl a value of more than $100, 000 Harness oil 34,513 Other products 193,584 328, 097 SUMMARY OF PRODUCTS OF THE MANUFACTURE OF PETROLEUM AND THEIR VALUE. Ehigolene GaBoUDe Naplitha nimninating oil Mineral sperm Reduced petroleum, for cylinders. Reduced petroleum, for journals. . Deodorized lubricating oils Paraffine oil Residuum Paraffine wax Miscellaneous products.. Total 289, 555 1, 212, 626 11, 002, 249 16, 544 26, 018 204, 841 70, 415 79, 465 229, 133 13, 136, 714 $29, 117 1, 128, 166 1,833,395 36, 839, 613 202, 725 371, 020 1, 024, 017 611, 672 408, 023 297, 529 631, 044 328, 097 Section 5.— BUILDINGS, MAOHINEEY, ETC. There were in use daring the census year 374 boilers, of an aggregate capacity of 12,744 horse-power. The machinery was driven by 285 steam-engines, in addition to which there were 200 steam-pumps. These pumps were of very varied capacity and construction. Many of them were small, requiring only a few horse-power to run them, while others were very powerful machines, capable of handling hundreds of barrels of oil per hour. The number of buildings in use were reported at 866, and varied in character from rude sheds to substantial brick buildings, their aggregate value being $1,899,288, while the machinery was valued at $3,737,998. The losses reported as occasioned by fire and other acccidents aggregate $104,631 43, a loss on the capital in use in the business during the year of four-tenths of 1 per cent. An attempt was made to ascertain the quantities of the different products packed by the manufacturers for export, but a number of the returns contained so many errors that the results were worthless. THE TECHNOLOGY OF PETROLEUM. 191 SUMMAEY OF STATISTICS OF THE MANUFACTURE OF PETROLEUM DURING THE YEAR ENDING MAY Jl, 1880. Capital invested a|l27,325,746 Capital in nso for twelve months $25, 779, C88 Total number of hands employed 12, 231 Average number of men employed 9, 498 Average number of women employed ■- 25 Average number of children employed 346 Total average number of hands employed 9, 869 Total amount paid in wages $4,381,572 Value of em de material $34,999,001 Value of manufactured products $43, 705, 218 Boilers iuuse 374 Horse-power of same 12,744 Engines in use 285 Pumps in use 200 Number of buildings 866 Value of buildings $1,899,288 Value of machinery 3,737,998 Loss during the census year from fire, etc , 104,631 STATISTICS OF PETROLEUM REFINING DURING THE YEAR ENDING MAY 31, 1880. Establishments : Number of iirms and corporations 86 Capital : Amount of capital invested ; $27,325,746 Hands employed : Average number of men 9, 498 Average number of ■women 25 Average number of children 346 Total 9,869 Wages : Total amount paid $4,381,572 Materials : Oil. Qnantitiee. Valne. Crude oil used (6) gaUons.. 731,533,127 $16,340,581 Fuel. Anthracite coal tons... 179,997 446,922 Bituminous coal do 504,667 580,983 "Wood cords.. 1,471 6,355 Coke bushels.. 303,596 13,218 Naphtha gallons.. 2,892,164 42,315 Residuum do.... 11,765,705 229,215 Chemicals. Sulphur tons... 3.0 180 Sulphuric acid do.... 45,813.5 1,206,052 Hydrochloric acid pounds . . 3, 424. 68 Soda-ash tons... 410.9 10,427 Caustic eoda do 772.3 85,064 Sal-soda pounds.. 96,643.0 1,423 Aqua ammonia .• do 160,160.0 8,697 Lime bushels.. 797.0 159 Bone-black tons... 1,990.0 62,815 a This differs from the sum given in the Compendium ($27,395,746), an error of $70,000 having been detected after that Vfas printed. b The 731,533,127 gallons of crude oil used are equal to 17,417,455 barrel^ of 42 gallons each. 192 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. PaciagiS. QnflDtities. Value. Barrels number.. 9,717,306 |11,618,307 Tin cans do.... 23,841,089 2,793,997 Cases do.... 6,452,801 906,911 Bungs, paint, glue, etc - 645,412 Total value of raw material 34,999,101 Products : Khigolene barrels.. 5,668 $29,117 Gasoline do 289,555 1,128,166 Naplitha do.... 1,212,626 1,833.395 Illuminating oil do.... 11,002,249 36,839,613 Mineralsperm do.... 16,544 202,725 Reduced petroleum, for cylinders .^do 26,018 371,020 Reduced petroleum, for journals do 204,841 1,024,017 Deodorized lubricating oils do 70,415 611,572 ParafSneoil do.... 79,465 408,023 Residuum - do.... 229,133 297,529 ParafSnewax pounds.. 7,889,626 631,944 Petroleum ointment, harness oil, etc 328, 097 Total value of manufactured products 43,705,218 MlSCELLANBOTJS STATISTICS : Boilers in use - 374 Horse-power of same 12, 744 Engines in use 385 Pumps in use 200 Number of buildings 866 Value of same $1,899,288 Value of machinery 3,737,998 Loss during the census year from fire and other accidents 104,631 P^RT III. THE USES OF PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS. VOL. IX 13 P^IIT III. Chapter I.— THE USE OF MINERAL OILS FOE LUBEICATION. Section 1 INTEODUCTION. "Wagner's Berichte for 1879 contains a very full discussion of the subject of lubrication and lubricating oils. It is there remarked : A mineral oil which, without admixture of another oil or body, as a lubricator is of unquestionable advantage. It must possess the following characteaistics : 1st, it must possess the necessary consistence ; 2d, it must not harden ; 3d, it must not contain any mineral or organic acid (creosote) ; 4th, it must begin to evaporate and inflame at a high temperature (not less than 150° C); 5th, it must also, at a low degree of cold, show no separation of paraflEne ; 6th, it should possess only a faint odor. He further says : American lubricating oils are sold under the names of " Lubricating oil", " Eclipse oil," " Globe oil," "Valvoline;" also so-called " Natural lubricating oil", which is natural West Virginia oil reduced in a vacuum, together with complex mixtures and material produced by patent processes from residuum. The lighter and clearer oils are spindle oils, those more heavy are machine oils, and the specifically heaviest iu consistence and evaporating point are used for cylinders under the name of cylinder oil. The higher the specific gravity of these oils the less their fluidity and the higher their evaporating point. The specific gravity of the American lubricating oils varies from 0.8G5 to 0.915 at 1.5° C. They stiffen according to quality between — 6° and — 30° C, most of them between —10° and 12° C. With the exception of the West Virginia Globe oils, which are sometimes found to evaporate at200° C, they inflame between 250° and 360° C, and boil mostly above 360^ C. (a) This may be taken as a fair representation of the subject as presented in the United States as well as in Germany. Although there have been those who have advocated the use of mineral lubricators for many years, it is only quite recently that any general admission of their claims to superiority has found expression. The whole question of lubrication is under discussion, and has been made the subject of a large number of memoirs during the last few years. Among these may be mentioned a very full discussion of the subject that appeared in Le Tfchnologiste in 18G8, two works that appeared in Germany in 1879, one by E. Donath {h) and the other by M. Albrecht, (c) and a work that was issued the same year by Professor E. H. Thurston, of the Stevens Institute of Technology, at Hoboken, Xew Jersey, published by Trlibner & Co., of London, (d) During the year 1878 the Boston Manufacturers' Mutual Fire Insurance Company commenced a general research upon oils and their relation to losses by fire, the results of which, as made public by the company, are embraced in alecture given before the New England Cotton Manufacturers' Association at their semi-annual meeting held October 30, 1878, by Professor J. M. Ordway, of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, (e) and iu a paper presented by Mr. C. J. H. Woodbury to the American Association for the Advancement of Science at their meeting in Boston in 1880, and published in their proceedings for that year. From these two papers as embodying the latest results obtained, which are emphasized by the test of actual experience, I shall quote liberally. The contract under which Professor Ordway undertook this research required that the investigation should have reference to — 1. The power of the oils to diminish friction under various pressures and at various rates of speed. 2. The tendency of the oils to oxidize while in u.se for lubrication, and their consequent deterioriition in efficiency. 3. Their tendency to rapid oxidation when l.irgely extended by absorbent fibrous substances, and their consequent liability to induce spontaneous combustion. a W. B., 1879, 1139. b Die Prii/ung der Schmiermalerialin , Ed. Donath, Lcoben, 1M79, Otto Protz. c Die Priifuvg von Sc}imifrolen,TA. Albrecht, Riga, 1879, G. Deubner. Hiibner'sZeitsft., 1879, 67. d Friction and Lubrication. Determination of the laws and coefficients of friction by new methods and new apparatus, by K. H. Thurston : London, 1879. Triibner & Co. e Proceedings of the semi-annual meetiag, hold at Boston, October 30, 1878. 195 196 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. 4. Their proneness to emit combustible vapors -when rubbed or moderately heated, or kept long in partially-filled reeervoixs. 5. Their tendency to corrode metallic bearings. 6. Their specific heat, or relative rapidity of heating and cooling when exposed to the same heating or cooling influence. 7. The relative length of time that a pint of each will last in doing a given kind of lubricating work. 8. Their relative fluidity or the thickness of layers retained between two surfaces subjected to a given pressure. 9. Their compatibility with each other when successively used on the same bearing. 10. Liability to separate into constituent parts by long standing or by freezing. ■ 11. Their freedom from non-lubricating sedimentary matter. 12. Ease of removal from bearings after becoming thickened by floating dust or abraded particles of metal, or by accidental over- heating. 13. Their tendency to diffuse unpleasant or unwholesome odors. 14. Ease of ignition and rapidity of combustion when they are inflamed. 15. The probability of perfect uniformity in successive lots supplied by the manufacturer. 16. The possibility of securing an unlimited supply at moderate prices. 17. Suitableness for oiling wool before weaving and spinning. 18. Ease of removal from yarn or cloth in the operations of scouring. 19. Their suitableness for the manufacture of soaps. 20. Their effect on leather and wool. Professor Ordway remarked that the report he had to make referred particularly " to certain chemical properties and the facUity of oxidation of different oils ". His samples were procured directly from the mills using them, and were referred to him marked with numbers ; the examination, therefore, was entirely unprejudiced. A few additional samples were procured from reliable manufacturers, and samples were imported from Paris, France. These were used in comparison. After the examination was well under way a list of names was furnished him, so that in his report he was able to give the oils the names by which they were known in commerce. Of the one hundred and eighteen oils in the list twenty-four were designated "spindle" oil, some of which were called "light" and some "heavy", fourteen as sperm, eleven as lard, nine as paralfine, five as machinery, three as olive, three as stainless, two as neat's-foot, six as wool oils, . five as mixtures of paraflQne and sperm, three as mixtures of parafflne and neat's-foot, and two as mixtures of sperm and spindle. Section 2.— SPECIFIC GRAVITY. Sections 2, 3, 4, and 5 are largely quotations from an extemporaneous lecture by Professor Ordway, which constitutes the best statement of the subject that has yet been made public. A simple test of oils, but one of exceedingly limited value, is the specific gravity. We have determined the density of nearly all by cooling to 60° F. and weighing in a flask of known capacity. The results are as follows : "SPINDLE" OILS. No. 17 = 0.840 No. 21 = 0.880 No. 71 = 0.890 51 = 0.848 9 = 0,886 16 = 0.890 76 = 0.848 52 = 0.887 79 = 0.893 74 = 0.850 31 = 0.887 80 = 0.894 4 = 0.850 47 == 0.890 87 = 0.898 66 = 0.870 49 = 0.890 38 = 0.913 68 = 0.880 53 = 0.890 48 = 0.916 "SPERM" OILS. No. 11 = 0.880 No. 44 = 0.886 26 = 0.880 75 = 0.886 28 = 0.880 77 = 0.886 32 = 0.880 35 = 0.887 54 = 0.880 40 = 0.890 • 56 = 0.880 34 = 0.890 58 = 0.886 36 = 0.896 These agree very closely with the true sperm oils which were procured from disinterested persons or from the shops. I got several specimens from cargoes newly arrived, taken from the casks before the vessels were unloaded, and these varied in specific gravity from 0.877 to 0.888, the latter being crude head oil, rich in spermaceti. So, if specific gravity is any indication, the oils sold as sperms are very much like genuine sperm. "PARAPFINE" OILS. No. 65 = 0.880 No. 27 = 0.905 59 = 0.884 45 =• 0.905 85 = 0.888 69 = 0.905 63 = 0.890 2 = 0.910 43 = 0.894 THE USES OF PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS. 197 "LAKD" OILS. No. 10 = 0.914 No. IV = 0.918 19 = 0.91C VII = 0.918 13 = 0.917 VI = 0.920 61 = 0.917 Pure lard = 0.919 "STAINLESS" OILS. No. 3 = 0.860 No. 1 = 0.890 70 = 0.874 "NEAT'S-FOOT" OILS. No. 50 = 0.910 No. 6 = 0.914 Pure neat'e-foot = 0.920 MACHINERY OILS. No. 86 = 0.878 No. 61 = 0.895 39 = 0.878 24 = 0.899 33 = 0.887 ■With regard to other oils than sperm, specific gravity gives uo definite indication, because mineral oils may be mixed, and in that way -we may get an oil of high density, yet containing oil of low specific gravity. All I can say at present is that sperm oil is very light, of abont specific gravity 0.880 ; and lard oil should have a specific gravity of about 0.920. Lard oils are pretty thick, and petroleum oils of about the same specific gravity are also thick, and neither density nor thickness would betray an admixture. Though a great many people rely on the specific-gravity test, it is not to be depended on by itself, though it may occasionally be useful in connection with other tests. Section 3.— COIS'TENT OF VOLATILE MATEEIAL. As to the mineral oils, we soon observed that they are some of them volatile at the ordinary temperature of the air. It is somewhat the same with petroleum oils as with water. Water evaporates at all temperatures, from the freezing point up, and so do the petroleum oils. Those that have a high boiling point do so very little, indeed ; but those having a low boiliug point, if left in the air in the latter part of June or July, evaporate completely in two weeks. This was rather a striking thing, as showing that it is unsafe to leave these oils exposed to the air, where there is much surface exposed, in a warm room, for we may get an explosive vapor over the whole, and if any one goes near it with a lamp there will be trouble. But this was carried further. What takes jilaee at the ordinary summer temperature will take place more rapidly at higher temperatures; and in making our experiments we must exaggerate a little, in order to get quickly at results. Therefore we put some of these oils into an oven and observed how much they lost in twelve hours. This, I believe, is a somewhat new line of investigation, and the results are rather striking. Some of them were left for four hours, some for eight hours, and some for twelve hours ; but we have finally settled upon twelve hours and 140° F., which is not a very high temperature, and which we may often have near a steam-pipe ; and, in order to prevent one trouble which occurs in testing oils in this manner, we were obliged to suck up the oil in filtering paper. If you pour some oil into a watch-glass it will in time creep over the edge, and a little will be lost, and we suflered somewhat from that circumstance. We found it better to take a small watch-glass, which had been weighed carefully, and pour in oil enough to saturate a bit of paper ; the paper prevents the creeping. So, in making these experiments, we took a watch-glass, put into it a piece of dry filtering jiaper about two-thirds as large, weighed the whole, dropjied in some oil, weighed it, and put the glass into a hot oven at 140°, and observed the loss. All of the oils have been tried in this manner, and some of them give results which, to say the least, are very striking. • » » xhe first one was a spindle oil, at 50 cents per gallon ; it lost only 1.3 per cent. The next was a spindle oil that lost 1.5 per cent., and the amount gradually increases, so that in the 43d of the table we come to an oil that lost 10 per cent. » ♦ • ^Vnd again, the percentage rises to the last, a so-called "spindle oil", at 48 cents per gallon, which lost nearly 25 per cent. What would you think of an oil which lost, by exposure to a heat which is not very great, 24.6 per cent, in twelve hours? It seemed as though all the oils which lost over 10 per cent, must be oils not to be recommended, to say the least. I thiuk the insurance companies would say they ought to be condemned; and there is a pretty large number of such oils among those which were examined. There are twenty out of the one hundred and eighteen which lost over 10 per cent, by exposure to this moderate temperature. When the temperature is carried up to abont 200° the loss in some cases was about 37 per cent. Of course it is a matter of judgment which of these should be considered safe and which should not. For my own part, I should rather not use any oil which evaporated over 5 per cent, under such circumstances. This matter has some connection with the flashing point, as one would suppose, and the flashing l)oint is the test which has been most relied on in regard to iietroleum oils. I should say, in speaking of these oils, that those that are marked sperm and lard and neat's-foot, instead of losing, gained at most 2| per cent. — they gained all the way from nothing to 2| per cent. All the oils of animal and vegetable origin (I mean those which were so marked) lost nothing, liut gained a little. In some cases they may have been mixed with a small quantity of petroleum oil. We find that, in the case of a heavy petroleum oil mixed with a light petroleum oil, we may expose the mixture to the boiling point of the latter oil without evaporating much. The heavy oil has a power of holding back. Section i.— THE FLASHING POINT. Now the flashing point is a matter which is determined in the case of ordinary kerosene very easily by heating the oil in a water- bath. In the case of these lubricating oils we must resort to a higher temperature and jnit them in an oil-batli. In this case we take a beaker, * * * hang it in oil, and expose it to a gradually raised temperature, until when we wave a small flame over the surface there will be a slight explosion. The flashing point of all the oils under examination is considerably above the boiling point of water, but some of them are not above the point to which oils might get in contact wiih the steam-iiipe, or pretty near a i)ipe heated by high-pressure steam ; and we all know that in factories, and in various other places, there is a possibility of oils, as well as other things, dropping upon the steam-pipe, or coming very close to the pipe itself. Of course such an oil, with such a flashing point, would be liable under such circumstances to difiuse an explosive vapor in the room. Perhaps, under any ordinary circumstances, it would not take fire, but under 198 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. some circumstances it is liable to particular danger; for it so happens in a great many of these experiments, when we want to get an accident we cannot do it, and we have to wait until nature takes its own course. I remember some years ago trying to get an esi)losiou with ordinary kerosene, and we found it extremely difficult, and with kerosenes which are of low flashing point it is difficult to get a condition of things in which an explosion will take place ; but we know that these explosions are happening every day. With regard to the flashino- points, wo have tried all ; we have tried, by way of comparison, a great many of those which we procured directly from the manufacturer and which we suppose we know something about. The flashing points vary from 239° to 450° F., but on putting the fio-ures side by side with those that represent the loss by evaporation we find the flashing point does not indicate the loss we should expect by evaporation. There is a wonderful ditference. I find there is one which lost by evaporation 4.6 per cent., and it had the same flashing- point as one that lost by evaporation 13.8 per cent. We find another one which lost 9.4 per cent., and yet it flashed at the same heat as one that lost 24.6 per cent, by evaporation. This would seem to show that the flashing point is not to be so much relied upon. I place a good deal more reliance on the other experiments, to long exposure in contact with the air at a given temperature; and the flashin"- point I should set down as one of the things that may give uncertain results. If any oil has a low flashing point it ought to be rejected ; but, at the same time, an oil bearing a high flashing point may be mixed with a certain amount of a lighter oil, which will freely evaporate when exposed to the air more rapidly than another oil with a low flashing point. Section 5.— SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION. Of course those oils, which, on being exposed twelve hours to a high temperature (140°) gain something, gain it from the air oa oxidation ; and they are found to be, as a general thing, either of animal or vegetable origin. » » * i believe the sperms gain rather more than tl^e lard or neat's-foot. Of course this oxidation is a matter which is of considerable importance with reference to spontaneous combustion ; and we have attempted to make experiments on spontaneous combustion, which is a matter depending on the oxidation of oil when spread out over a great surface. We imbibe fibers with the oil in such a way that they are not dripping with the oil, but simply dampened with it, and then expose them to hot air, and in the course of time, whether the fiber is cotton, or jute, or wool — in time they will all take fire when we have used an animal or vegetable oil. It is rather difficult to carry out these experiments on a small scale because we use only a handful ; but when you have a large basketful of waste there is no difficulty. In order to make up for the tendency to loss it was necessary, of course, to heat the soaked waste to a temperature which might be considered rather high. We have made experiments at 140° F., and we have made them at 190°, and we have made them above the boiling point of water ; in all cases it was below the igniting point of the oils. To make experiments on spontaneous combustion we took a given weight of cotton- waste, about a handful, and imbibed it with its own weight of the oil to be tried ; for it is quite an important matter that the experiments should be made with the same quantity of oil, and that the oil should be spread out in the same way throughout. When the waste is imbibed with its own weight it does not appear very greasy. It is not in a dripping condition, but in a state where it is still ready to imbibe. It is said by those who have made such experiments in Europe that equal weights of cotton and oil are the beat ; and I should suppose that to be the case, as then the air has the freest access to a large surface of the oil. The cotton, of course, is only matter which serves to spread out the oil, and to act as a non-conductor to prevent the heat from being radiated. We made experiments on spontaneous combustion at 200° and at 220°, but not as many of them as could be desired. One of the important things was to determine the accuracy of the trials made in Europe a few years ago. There were some experiments, published in the BuUetin of the Industrial Society of Mtdhovse, in 1875 and 1876, experiments made by Mr. Coleman, of Glasgow, and by Dolfus, in Alsace. The experiments of these gentlemen show that when an animal or a vegetable oil is mixed with a small percentage of petroleum oil the tendency to spontaneous combustion is diminished very much, and if with a large quantity of mineral oil the spontaneous combustion refuses to take place. There is, however, in this latter case an oxidation. They found in their experiments, when they took an oil which consisted of thirty parts of petroleum and seventy parts of an animal or vegetable oil, that the oil would heat up when exposed to steam heat, but when it arrived at a certain point it would go down. There is an oxidation, therefore, in such a case ; but the petroleum prevents its oxidizing so fast as to allow the heat to accumulate and set the mass on fire. This, of course, is a very important point ; and it was important to determine whether their results apply to the oils we have as well as those commonly met with in Europe. They use more vegetable oil, whereas sperm oil does not seem to be so common there as it is here. They found that all the oils tried by themselves would undergo spontaneous combustion, but when they contained from 30 to 50 per cent, of a miueral oil spontaneous combustion would no longer take place under the circumstances to which they exposed them. We have made experiments with cotton- waste and cottonseed oil mixed with petroleum oil, and have found that cottonseed oil mixed to the amount of 25 per cent, with 75 per cent of petroleum oil will take fire spontaneously ; so it seems that although spontaneous combustion is retarded in a great degree, it is not entirely prevented, even by a pretty large admixture of petroleum oil in the case of such oils as cottonseed and linseed, which are peculiarly prone to oxidation. When we came to takelard oil a careful experiment was made, which showed that 33 per cent, of petroleum oil (for this purpose what is commonly called spindle oil was taken) mixed with 67 per cent. of lard oil would not undergo apoutaueons combustion at the temperature at which the experiment was made ; whereas with 32 per cent, it did undergo spontaneous combustion. It would be very desirable to carry out these experiments to that degree of nicety in all cases, but you can easily see, when we are obliged to expose these oils to long-continued heat, and have an apparatus which must be isolated from the wood work around, we cannot have a great many of them going on at a time, and an experiment lasts from six to eight hours. Generally it takes to finish up one of these experiments on spontaneous combustion six hours. Some of them will take fire in three hours, but the heat does not accumulate enough with most until they have been kept in the oven for five or six hours. A great deal remains to be done in this line. * » * \fe all know cottonseed oil is one of those oils we have to fear, and it happens to be one of those whose spontaneous combustion cannot be prevented by a slight admixture of petroleum oil. But the experiments of Dolfus (a) and Coleman (&)were correct, it aeems. We had no reason to doubt they were correct, but the experiments we made were made at a little higher temperature ; and although the oil, mixed in the proportion of 70 parts of oil and 30 of petroleum oil, may not take fire spontaneously when the temperature is maintained at 110° F., yet it may when it is maintained at 190° F. ; and, of course, cotton-waste is liable to be exposed sometimes to a steam heat, and a steam heat may range up to 300° F., so that even when the oils are mixed with petroleum oil there is danger. Still, it is a fact that the admixture of even 10 per cent, of one of the heavy petroleum oils does diminish very much the tendency to oxidation or to spontaneous combustion, and that is a fact, of course, of immense importance. « * * We have tried the different animal and vegetable oils, some of them mixed with larger or smaller proportions of petroleum, but that investigation is Btill unfinished. a Bull. Soc. Ind. de Mulhouse, 1876. i C. N.,,xxx, 147; W. B., 1871, 1874, 1875. THE USES OF PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS. 199 Section 6.— FLUIDITY. There is another matter which might be of some importance, but we have not been able to deduce from our trials any data of practical value ; that is, the relative fluidity of the oils. There is a wonderful difference in this respect, and we found all the lighter oils, that is, the lighter paraffine and spindle oils, are very much more fluid than the sperms of corresponding specific gravity. The specific gravity and fluidity have little relation to each other ; there is some, but no exact correspondence, (a) The mode of experiment for this purpose is to take a small pipette, of which the globe holds about a cubic inch. The globe is filled by sucking the oil up to the neck, and the liquid is then allowed to flow out through a very small aperture thirty-seven thousandths of an inch in diameter, and the time of flow is noted. The experiments must be made in a room which is kept at a uniform temperature. In this way ran out — Min. Sec. Sperm , 3 43 Linseed 5 42 Poppy 6 49 Cottonseed 7 31 Sesame 8 14 Lard 9 24 Olive (mere goutte) 9 26 Neat's-foot 9 29 Eape 9 55 Navette 10 9 Colza 10 Castor, over two hours. There is another point which we would like to draw some deductions from if we could, but so far we have not found any particular law. If we immerse wicks in these oils, or filtering paper, which amounts to the same thing, of course, the distance which the oils will ascend or be carried up by capillary attraction is a matter depending on the fluidity of the oil, and this does not seem to have any exact relation to the flowing out through a small aperture. It is contrary to what I should have expected. » » • Section 7.— CHEMICAL TESTS. There have been various chemical tests proposed from time to time for oils, but in our investigation we were obliged to go on the supposition that almost nothing had been done, from the simple fact that the oils which have been experimented on in former times, in France particularly, have been mixed, and oils which are no longer in use. (T>) We have experiments relating to the adulterations of olive oil and linseed oil and rape, but those adulterations are out of fashion, and they used certain tests which give comparative indications only; there is nothing absolute about them. One of these tests is nitrate of mercury, which acts simply from containing in solution a certain quantity of nitrous acid. Another test is strong oil of vitriol, .and another is caustic soda, and another is chloride of zinc. We oan get very little aid or comfort from these old experiments. The nitrate of mercury test is of some trouble to carry out. And finally a very much better fluid has been invented by Jules Both. He used a fluid which absorbs nitrous acid in considerably larger quantities than nitrate of mercury, and which could be kept for a considerable length of time. It is made by passing nitrous fumes, formed by acting -on lumps of iron with nitric acid, into sulphuric acid at 40'^ B. The ch.argo up of the acid takes some eight, ten, or twelve days. It is a slow operation, but when it Is well carried out you get a greenish or bluish liquid, which has a wonderful eft'ect on some oils, and although there is nothing absolute to be learned by this, it gives comparative indications of great value. It seems that all those oils that oxidize readily are not effected by this test, whereas those that keep better, that are not so prone to grow rancid, will thicken and become quite hard when tested with it. In making these experiments we generally take a small wine glass and put in a little of the liquid and about the same amount of the oil th.at is to be examined, and then they are whipped together and allowed to stand for some time. If the oil is a good one, one that doesn't oxidize readily, we shall find that the product is very stifl"; even if you turn it upside down very little liquid will come out, and it is more like wax or tallow than the original oil. The sample I have in my hand is olive ; this is good olive oil, and you may see from the appearance of this that I find considerable difiiculty in pushing a rod into it; it is as stiff as beef tallow. Good olive oil will do this, but if adulterated with even 1 per cent, of these other oils the product is softer. Olive oil hardens very readily indeed, and good lard oil also hardens with promptness. This is a sjiecimen of lard oil ; I can push the rod through this without very much trouble. Here is one that is mixed with 5 per cent, of petroleum. You will observe on comparing these two that the petroleum oil has undergone such a change that it is colored yellow. The color indicates something. Here the lard oil is thoroughly white and will remain so ; whereas if there is an admixture of petroleum oil, however little, it will be pretty sure to turn yellow, and the product is softer than the other. I have here another which is a mixture of cottonseed and olive oil. Here you see a perfectly fluid oil ; there is a little thickening from the acid below, but it still remains in a fluid condition ; and this contains one-third of cottonseed and two-thirds of olive. By taking great pains we can distinguish 5 per cent, of admixture very well. These, of course, for illustration, have been exaggerated a little bit. That is, I have taken larger quantities than would be necessary if I were going to make an exact trial to determine how much can be used without interfering with the fluidity. I have here a mixture of lard oil with 20 per cent, of cottonseed that has thickened, but not very much. Now, when we take this same test and apply it to rape- seed oil, it remains perfectly fluid. Of course rape-seed oil, were it mixed with olive or lard oil, would diminish the consistency of the product very much indeed. Here is neat's-foot oil. One would suppose it would be very much like lard, but it is not ; it remains fluid without the oxidation surface or crust. This hardening usually takes place in the course of six or eight hours. The best way is to let them stand and watch them and see at what rate the hardening goes on. If you find one hardens in four hours, you will find that it is a pretty good eUve or lard oil ; if it is six hours, it may be mixed ; if it is eight hours, it is more likely to be mixed, and sometimes it is necessary a An oil distilled from California malthas of a specific gravity of 16° B. flowed like an essential oil. — S. F. P. b This statement of Professor Ordway explains why the investigations that have been made prior to the last few years are of so little value at present. 200 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. to let them stand until the next day; then we have a little hardening, (a) In the case of petroleum oils -we have a very peculiar effect. Here is one of them : it has become very highly colored ; the petroleum oil itself becomes colored, and the fluid below becomes colored, and we can distinguish it by this discoloration. And there is another test, too. Whenever you have whipped up a petroleum oil with this liquid, and have let it stand for some hours, ten or twelve hours, there will be a matter like this sticking to the rod ; a waxy, sticky substance, something that is neither oil nor wax; it is not parafifine ; precisely what it is I don't know ; it is a matter which still remains to be investigated. All of the petroleum oils that we have examined, without exception, I think contain more or less of the matter which gives this precipitate, and the heavier the oil the greater the amount of the precipitate ; but even the light spindle oils and kerosene itself will show a definite coating on the rod or else a definite coating on the surface of the liquid itself. We have here a test in Roth's liquid, which is a very good indication of something. We cannot say positively when we have an oil hardened in this way what the oil is, but we can say what it is not, and that sometimes is a very important thing. If it purports to be so and so, we can see whether it is so and so or something else. # • » Mr. Atkinson. I should like to put one question at this point to Professor Ordway that I think is important. I believe you have reached the conclusion in respect to the amount of that gummy substance in a petroleum oil that it largely depends on the point to which the distUlation has been carried, and that the double distilled and refined oils contained the least ? » * * Professor Okdwat. That is so ; there are specimens here to show that. There is one here which has been distilled once, and another which has been distilled twice. It cannot be seen across the room ; but if any one examined these closely he wiU see that the precipitate on the surface of the liquid below is greater in one case than in the other, and the discoloration is about the same. Mr. Atkinson. I think I am also right in asking you whether or not that is not the substance which probably causes the staining: of the cloth and the varnishing of the windows and of the polished parts of the machinery ? Professor Ordway. It may be that substance. I should not be willing to say positively it is until we have made further experiments. This is a subject which has not been investigated, I believe ; and it is quite important that we should spend time aud find out what it is. It is something objectionable, it seems to me. It is said by some of the manufacturers of paraffiue oil that a little of this in an oil does no harm ; but that is not a point we should take for granted. While it may not do any harm in respect to lubrication, it may have something to do with the staining. Here is a substance which is got on oxidation. It has kept on turning brown, and that brownnesa may go on to a certain point where it will effect a permanent stain on the cloth. I am reasoning theoretically, but I think there are good grounds for saying, if an article of this sort is allowed to stain cotton or wool, and allowed to remain for sometime, this substance will become precipitated and go on oxidizing and make a permanent defect. This is a point which it is very desirable to have further light on ; and we can only get at it by a long series of trials, for the amount which we get of this is not very great. This is a body which is carried forward by the vapor ; for all vapors have a great carrying power, and although the boiling point of this substance is probably very high when oils are distilled, a little is carried forward even by kerosene itself. There are other chemical tests which so far we haven't had the time really to carry out. • • * Among other things it would be desirable to find out something by saponification, and experiments in saponification are slow. We generally have to boil for ten, twelve,. or even fifteen hours; and, when you undertake to saponify a dozen oils, you see it would take a good many individuals to carry on those experiments in a short time. » » * There has one thing turned up which I was not aware of before : that sperm oil does not saponify readily. We have taken pure sperm oil, and we find it is exceedingly difficult to saponify more than 47 or 48 per cent, of it. I mention this because some might be tempted, after making an experiment of this sort on an oil of an unknown origin, to think it was not a sperm oil. This peculiarity arises, I suppose, from a difference in the composition of sperm from other oils. Precisely what it is I don't know, because there has been very little written on the subject of sperm oil; and it opens up, unexpectedly to me, a new field for investigation, audi think the character and quality of sperm oil ought to be investigated by scientific men. Here is this fact which is admitted by a great many people : that sperm oil, of all the animal and vegetable oils, is the best lubricator. It is not because it contains more oleine, but it is something in the character of the oleine. After we have eliminated all the spermaceti, we get a peculiar oil which is different from the other animal oils, but I think it is sui generis. We have saponified a great many of the oils. Those which saponify with most ease are lard oils. Neat's-foot saponifies pretty readily. When'we take those that are mixed with petroleum, we can saponify all the way from 5 per cent, up, according to the proportion of the petroleum. I am not able at present to give any particular directions about saponification, for this is a matter which requires to be understood so as to present it to people in ordinary life, and I think it can be made a very good test of the character of oils, but in order to do it there must be a great deal of experiment. * » * At present all I can say is, a good many of the oils we have examined saponify very readily ; and these turn out to be, according to the descriptive lists, lard oil or something similar to lard oil. There are a good many of them which didn't saponify at all ; and, on reference to descriptive lists, they are found to be paraffines. When the oils are poured on a brass plate and allowed to run slowly down for a length of time some of them get quite green ; they color the brass ; they are decidedly acid in their character. In looking over these results I noticed that all the oils which are acid are either sperm or neat's-foot, and all of the sperm — I mean all those that purport to be sperm and neat's-foot — are acid in their character, whereas the other (the petroleum oils) don't show any acid reaction. (6) Following the close of Professor Ordway's remarks, Mr. Edward Atkinson and the professor engaged in a discussion of the practical value of the flashing and evaporation tests as applied to lubricating oils. The following is a summary of their conclusions : The flashing point is no indication of the lubricating power of an oil, but has an important bearing on insurance. No oil should be used about a manufacturing establishment that " can diffuse from the bearings an explosive vapor into the atmosphere". While there are some manufacturers of oils that can be depended upon, it is found that oils purporting to come from some others differ widely in quality. Several specimens of oil having the same name differ greatly in flashing point and other characteristics, yet the price remained about the same, and was evidently intended for the same article. While it appears to bedifficult for unskillful manufacture) s to prepare oils of uniform quality, there are others whose product varies but slightly, and it was somewhat remarkable that some of them having the low flashing point were high-priced, while others having a low flashing point were a I have quoted Professor Ordway fully, although the text does not relate to petroleum, because of the great value of his experi- ments. i This long quotation, reported from an extemporaneous lecture, and consequently somewhat diffuse in style, has been introduced here as the best statement of the subject treated that has yet been made public. — S. F. P. THE USES OF PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS. 201 among the lowest-priced oils on the market. It was found that many of the best managed corporations, ignorant of their true character, were using oils with a high flashing point. But, in addition to the element of safety from the use of these oils, which rapidly evaporate, is found the question of profit. The cost of oil per 1,000 pouuds of cloth of about No. 33 yarn, in mills iu which there is no reason in the character or kind of machinery for a variation exceeding 25 per cent., appears to vary from 68 cents to .f2 58 per thousand, while the quantity used varies from 1.03 to 3.36 gallons per 1,000 pounds. It does not appear that this variation has any particular connection with the price of the oil. • » » But since we have begun to compare the results of the tests of evaporation and flashing point a very distinct relation of these tests to the actual cost of oil per 1,000 pounds of cloth is foreshadowed, and if we can establish this rule a great point will have been gained. The following striking illustration is given of the probable effects of the use of a lubricating oil from which the volatile material had not been completely removed: (o) The fire caught in the basement and communicated with striking rapidity with a weaving-room up one flight of stairs in which woolen fabrics were being woven and in which there were " no peculiarly combustible conditions ". The flames flashed instantly from one end of the room to the other, striking like a stroke of lightning the gas-meter, placed on a shelf some six or eight feet from the floor at the farther end of the i-oom, melting all the solder, and dropping the connecting pipes from the meter, while a towel that was hanging 2 feet under it was not scorched. The wool oil and the lubricating oil being both examined, the former was found to be pure lard oil, while the latter was one which had evaporated from the evaporation plate completely in five days. There was an oil on those bearings in that woolen weaving-room that did evaporate with extreme rapidity ; there was a fire that flashed through the room giving the appearance of flames. Of course evaporation is waste, and is not only injurious, but unprofitable. The following paper, upon the "Separation of Hydrocarbon Oils from Fat Oils", by Alfred H. Allen, is given here as the latest and best English contribution to the literature of this subject: [b) The extensive production of various hydrocarbon oils suitable for lubricating purposes, together with their low price, has resulted in their being largely employed for the adulteration of animal and vegetable oils. The hydrocarbons most commonly employed for such purposes are : 1. Oils produced by the distillation of petroleum and bituminous shale, having a density usually ranging between 0.870 and 0.915. 2. Oils produced by the distillation of common rosin, haviug a density of 0.965 and upward. 3. Neutral coal-oil, being the portion of the products of distillation of coal-tar boiling at about 200° C, and freed from xihenols by treatment with soda. 4. Solid parafline, used for the adulteration of beeswax and spermaceti, and employed in admixture with stearic acid for making caudles. The methods for the detection of hydrocarbon oils in fat oils are based on the density of the sample, the lowered flashing and boiling points, the fluorescent characters of the oils of the first two classes, and the incomplete saponification of the oil by alkalies. The taste of the oil and its odor on heating are also useful indications. If undoubtedly fluorescent, an oil certainly contains a mixture of some hydrocarbon, but the converse is not strictly true, as the fluorescence of some varieties of mineral oil can be destroyed by chemical treatment, and in other cases fluorescence is wholly wanting. Still, by far the greater number of hydrocarbon oils employed for lubricating purposes are strongly fluorescent, and the remainder usually become so on treatment with an equal measure of strong sulphuric acid. If strongly marked, the fluorescence of a hydrocarbon oil may be observed in presence of a very large pronortiou of fixed oil, but if any doubt exists the hydrocarbon oil may be isolated. As a rule, the fluorescence may be seen by holdiug a test-tube filled with the oil in a vertical position in front of a window, when a bluish "bloom" will be perceived on looking at the sides of the test-tube from above. A better method is to lay a glass rod, previously dipped in the oil, dowi on a table in front of a window, so that the oily end of the rod shall project over the edge and be seen against the dark background of the floor. Another excellent plan is to make a thick streak of the oil on a piece of black marble or glass smoked at the back, and to place the streaked surface iu a horizontal point in front of and at right angles to a well-lighted window, (c) Examined in this manner, a very slight fluorescence is readily perceptible. If at all turbid, the oil should be filtered before applying the test, as the reflection of light from minute particles is apt to be mistaken for true fluorescence. In some cases it is desirable to dilute the oil with ether and examine the resultant liquid for fluorescence. An exceedingly small amount of mineral oil suffices to impart a strong blue fluorescence to ether. The quantitative analysis of mixtures of fat oils with hydrocarbon oils has till recently been very uncertain, the published methods professing to solve the problem being for the most part of very limited applicability, and in some cases wholly untrustworthy. When the hydrocarbon oil in admixture happens to be of comparatively low boiling point, it may often be driven ofi' by exposing the sample to a temperature of about 150° C, but the estimation thus eti'ected is generally too low, and often quite untrustworthy. When it is merely desired to estimate approximately the proportion of hydrocarbon oil present, and not to isolate it or examine its exact character, Kcettstorfer's titration i>rocess may be used, as suggested by Messrs. Stoddart. But the best and most accurate method of detecting hydrocarbon oils in, and quantitatively separating them from, fat oils, is to saponify the sample, and then agitate the aqueous- solution of the soap with ether, (d) On separating the ethereal layer and evaporating it at or below a steam heat the hydrocarbon oil is recovered in a state of purity. Either caustic potash or soda may be employed for the saponification, but the former alkali is i>referable, owing to its greater solubility in alcohol and the more fusible character of the soaps formed. A convenient proportion to work with consists of 5 grms. of the sample of oil and 25 c. c. of a solution of caustic potash in methylated spirit, containing about 80 grms. of KHO jier liter. Complete saponification a In this case the volatile oils appeared to constitute the bulk of the lubricator used. 6 Oil and Drug News, October 18, 1881. Read at the 1881 meeting of the British Association. c "Either of these plans is infinitely superior to the jiolished tin-plate usually recommended. In short, the background should he black, not white. "' d "According to my experience, treatment of the dry soap with ether, petroleum spirit, or other solvent is liable to cause error from, solution of the soap itself, if much hydrocarbon oil be present. " 202 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. may usually be effected by boiling down the mixture in a porcelain dish, -with frequent stirring, until it froths strongly. In the case of butter, cod-liver oil, and other fats which undergo saponification with difficulty, it is preferable to precede this treatment by digestion of the mixture for half an hour at 100° C. in a closed bottle. After evaporating oft" the alcohol, the soap is dissolved in water, brought to a volume of 70 to SO c. c, and agitated with ether. The ethereal solution is separated, washed with a little water, and carefully evaporated The agitation with ether must be repeated several times to effect a complete extraction of the hydrocarbon oil from the soap solution. The foregoing process has been proved to be accurate on numerous mixtures of fat oils with the hydrocarbon oils. The results obtained are correct io within about 1 per cent, in all ordinary cases. In cases where extreme accuracy is desired, it is necessary to remember that most, if not all, animal and vegetable oils contain traces of matter wholly unacted on by alkalies. In certain cases, as butter and cod-liver oil, this consists largely of cholesterin, C26H44O. (a) The proportion of unsaponifiable matter soluble in ether, which is naturally present in fixed oils and fats, rarely exceeds l-J per cent. , and is usually much less. Sperm oil, however, constitutes an exception, yielding by the process about 40 per cent, of matter soluble in ether. (6) This peculiarity has no practical effect on the applicability of the process, as sperm oil, being the most valuable of commercial fixed oils, is never present without due acknowledgment of the fact. Spermaceti and the other waxes yield, after saponification, large percentages of matter to ether, and hence the process is not available for the determination of paraffine wax in admixture with tkese bodies, though it gives accurate results with the mixtures of paraffine and stearic acid so largely employed for mating candles. The following figures, obtalued iu my laboratory by the analysis of substances of known purity and of mixtures of known composition, show the accuracy of which the process is capable. The process was ia each case on about 5 grms. of the sample in the manner already described. The results are expressed in percentages : Composition of Bubst^nces taken. TJnsaponiflable matter found. Fat oil. Eesults. Hydrocarbon oiL Results. Per cent. 40 80 40 80 86 60 60 60 70 48 60 20 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 . 100 100 100 Per cent. 60 20 60 20 16 40 40 40 30 52 40 80 Per_cent. 58.03 19.37 59.42 19.61 15.95 39.74 39.32 38.88 30.80 53.60 39.54 80.09 *1.14 *1.00 0.71 1.82 0.S4 0.46 41.49 49.68 1.14 *0.23 0.22 C dlV r Sperm Spermaceti * These experiments "were not made strictly by tbe same process as the majority. The following table indicates the general behavior of the constituents of complex fats, oils, and waxes when the aqueous solution of the saponified substance is shaken with ether : Eemaining in the aqueous liquid. Fatty acids. Eesin acids. Carbolic and c Cresylic acids. In combination with the alkalies used. Glycerol (glycerine). Dissolved by tbe etber. Hydrocarbon oils ; including — Shale and petroleum oils. Eosin oil. Coal-tar oil. Paraffine wax and ozokerite. Vaseline. Neutral rosins. XJusaponified fat or oil. Unsaponifiable matter ; as cholesterin. Spermyl alcohol ; from sperm oil. Cetyl alcohol ; from spermaceti. Myricyl alcohol ; from beeswax. The hydrocarbon oil having been duly isolated by saponifying the sample and agitating the solution of theresultant soap with ether, its nature may be ascertained by observing its density, taste and smell, behavior with acids, etc. a "The process affords a very rapid and simple means of isolating cholesterin. Thus, on dissolving the traces of unsaponifiable matter left by butter in a little hot alcohol, and allowing the liquid to cool, abundant crystals are deposited, which may be identified as cholesterin by their microscopic and chemical characters. A sample of butterine gave no cholesterin." 1) " I am investigating this interesting fact, and have obtained fuU confirmation of Chevreul's observation that sperm oil when saponified yields a peculiar solid alcohol instead of glycerine. It is distinct from cetyl alcohol, and distills, apparently without decomposition, at a very high temperature." c " In a previous research I found that carbolic and creslyic acids were whoUy removed from their ethereal solutions by agitation with caustic soda." THE USES OF PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS. 203 Section S.— PEACTICAL EESULTS OF THE INVESTIGATIONS OF PROFESSOR OEDWAY. In a circular issued iu 1S80 Mr. Edward Atkiuson treats the subject of oil as follows : lu the two years and little more that have elapsed since the question was taken up for the mere purpose of abating some of the •dangers of fire the following changes have occurred. ♦ " » In 1878 a request made for information was responded to by the managers •of one hundred mills, who gave the quantity and price of the oils used for lubrication, the pounds of cotton goods manufactored in preceding periods of six or twelvemonths, and other data. These returns were compiled, and it appeared that in fifty-five mills, operated on about the same fabric, and among which there was no good reason for a variation of over 20 per cent, either in cost or quantity of oil used, the actual variation was about 350 per cent. It will also be remembered that a large portion of the waste of oil consisted iu evaporation, whereby the atmosphere was sometimes charged with combustible vapors, by which some fires that might otherwise have been easily subdued were made very dangerous. It was for the special purpose of discovering the facts in this particular matter and applying the remedy that the inquest was first entered upon. It is a great satisfaction to be able to state that within the first year after we agitated this subject a settlement was made iu a patent lawsuit, the principal manufacturers of lubricating oil agreeing to pay a royalty for the right to use superheated steam in their preparation, and by that or other methods a great change for the better was made. The volatile and dangerous oils do not now appear to be upon the market, or, at any rate, are apparently no longer offered to members of our company to any extent. They are very easily detected and avoided ; and we still stand ready to examine any and all samples, and to inform all our members of the names of dangerous oils, and to warn them against the vendors. Very soon after the change in the process of manufacture a sharp competition ensued in the sale of good oil, and a considerable reduction of prices followed. The change in practice has been very great during the last two years. We have lately called upon the same mUls that gave ns data in 1878 to make a similar return for six or twelve months ending in 1880, and have received answers from 78. From the 78 returns we get the following results: The product of cotton goods in these mills for a period averaging 8^ months prior to June 30, 1878, was 102,874,748 pounds, or 12,653,720 pounds per month. For a period averaging Sfi, months prior to June 30, 1880, it was 110,166,595 pounds, or 13,550,620 pounds per month. Increase in product, 7.09 per cent. The quantity of oil used in the first period was 176,766 gallons, or 1.72 gallons to each 10,000 pounds cloth. In the second period, 173,481 gallons, or 1.57 gallons to each 10,000 pounds cloth. Decrease in the consumption of oil, 8.72 per cent. The cost of oil and grease for lubrication in the first period was $103,162 25, or §10 03 to each 10,000 pounds cloth. -In the second period, $73,4fc2 71, or S6 67 to each 10,000 pounds cloth. Pecrease in the cost of lubrication, 33 per cent. If the cost of lubrication had been §10 03 for each 10,000 pounds in 1880, the gross sum would have been . $110,497 19 The actual cost was 73,482 71 Difference for 8 ^ months 37, 014 48 or, for 12 months, in round figures 55,000 00 The above seventy-eight mills represent an annual consumption of 400,000 bales of cotton, which constitutes about 30 per cent, of the consumption of the cotton factories insured in this or in other mutual companies. If the decrease of cost in these mills represents an average of the whole, the lubrication of machinery in cotton-mills insured by us costs §180,000 less annually than it did at the time this investigation was entered upon. The change has been computed first on fifty-three, then on sixty-five, and last on seventy-eight mills, with substantially uniform results. We may therefore infer a general rule. Of course vre cannot claim all this saving as the direct result of our work, because there has been a great decline iu the prices of ■oils, ranging from 10 to 40 per cent., except so far as that reduction may be attributed to this investigation. One of the laigest dealers to whom these figures have been submitted attributes two-fifths to the reduction of price, and the remainder to the saving of waste and to the more general use of a uniform quality of fine mineral, or so-called paraffine oil, at a substantially uniform range of prices, in place of a considerable use of mixed oils under fancy names, and at all sorts of prices. In comparing particiUar cases, we find this view confirmed; but, if we may not assume so much of the savings as would amount to three-fifths, or $100,000 a year, yet we may fairly claim, as the direct result of changes made in consequence of this investigation, a sum equal to all the losses and expenses of this company for the two years that have elapsed since our work began to have an influence, especially an influence on the manufacture of oil. • Section 9.— DETERMINATION OF THE VALUE OF LUBRICATING OILS BY MECHANICAL TESTS. During tlie discussion that followed the lecture given by Professor Ordway, previously quoted, Mr. Edward Atkinson remarked as follows : I will now say, also, that inasmuch as we have obtained three frictional machines^two American and one English — all of which may prove unsuitable, it has occurred to us to establish the rule of lubricating power on spinning-frames actually in operation by the application of thermometers to every spindle. • • • Three small frames have been provided, which are to be started and operated with full bobbins, and with thermometers applied to the steps and bolsters ; we will Then use the difl'erent oils upon them, and see if we can establish by the ratio of heat evolved any rule as to the lubricating power of each oil. In a rough-and-ready way we have applied that test to the shaft of the elevator iu our office building, and there are several results that have been obtained that prove that there is a, very simple method available to almost anybody. I caused some thermometers to be prepared, and mounted them iu copper cartridges filled with water, and then had the journal-box of the shaft bored, and one of these thermometers phiced so as to rest against the shaft as it is iu use, and then hung another one in precisely the same way alongside. The first shaft that we tried was belted both ways, and had no serious bearing upon its journal. The second shaft is the principal shaft operating about four hundred turns, and working the elevator with the belt bearing down upon it. Under the first oil we tried the shaft heated about 3U^ F. In hot days, when the atmosphere of that room was at 100^, the shaft showed 128"^ to 130^. We then tried some light spindle oil which we didn't think fit for a heavy-bearing oil, yet that carried the heat down about 10^. We then tried some plumbago mixed with paraffiue by Mr. Toppan ; it was very difficult to get it on, but that worked it 10° cooler than the first oil. We then tried another oil, which heated so rapidly that we took it off at once ; we didn't dare to run it. We then tried another and got down to 17° above the temperature of the room. It is a very simple matter; * » ♦ audi think it will prove a good way for testing oils on a bad 'bearing, which almost every man has somewhere in his mill. 204 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. The management of the further mechanical tests was placed in the hands of Mr. C. J. H. "Woodbury, of Boston^ who embodied his results in a paper read before the annual meetings of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers and the American Association for the Advancement of Science for 18S0. The following abstract of this paper, which presents results which " have been accepted as a long step in advance of anything ever attained before", is introduced here with the permission of the author: (a) The resistance existing between bodies of fixed matter, moving with different velocities or directions, presents Itself in the form oi a passive force, which results in the diminution or the destruction of apparent motion. Modern science has demonstrated that this destruction is only apparent, being merely the conversion of the force of the moving body into the oscillation of the resisting obstacle, or into that molecular vibration which is recognized as heat. Direct friction refers to the case where the two bodies are in actual contact, and mediate friction where a film of lubricant is interposed between the surfaces, and it is this which applies to nearly every motion in mechanics where bodies slide upon each other. The coefficient of friction is the relation which the pressure upon moving surfaces bears to resistance. * * » In this report of my work upon the measurement of friction of lubricating oils I shall restrict myself to a description of the apparatus designed especially for the purpose, the method of its use, and the results obtained with a number of oils in our market which are used for lubricating spindles. Previous trials of nine different oil-testing machines in use showed that none of them could yield consistent duplicate results in furnishing the coefficient of friction. The operation of these machined, by their failure to obtain correct data, adduced certain negative evidence, which established positive conditions as indispensable in the construction of a machine capable of measuring the friction of oils. The following circumstances must be known or preserved constant : Temperature, velocity, pressure, area of the frictional surfaces, thickness of the film of oil between the surfaces, and the mechanical effect of the friction. In addition to the foregoing conditions, the radiation of the heat generated by friction must be reduced to a minimum, and the arrangement of the frictional surfaces must be of such a nature that no oil can escape until subjected to attrition. To measure the frictional resistance at the instant of a given temperature, and at a time when both temperature and friction arc varying, requires a dynamometer which is instantaneous and automatic in its action. The apparatus consists of an iron frame supporting an upright shaft, surmounted by an annular disc made of hardened tool steel. Upon the steel disc rests one of hard bronze (composed of the following alloy; copper thirty-two parts, lead two parts, tin two parts, zinc one part) in the form of a cylindrical box. Water is fed in at one side, and a diaphragm extending nearly across the interior produces a uniform circulation before discharge. Although this use of water is original with the writer in the method of its application, its first employment to control the temperature of the bearing surfaces of oil-testing machines is due to Monsieur G. Adolphus Him, and is described Diagram 1.— COEFFICIENT OF FEICTION AT DIPFEEENT PEESSUKES. l\ \ 100 \ \ \ \ \ •h\ ■•\-\ tA y \ \ Ul\ \ ■ \ ' so V c < V\\ \riVs^ ^WyC^ \ w \ 60 \ \ N \ \. ^ \ "\ .10 .20 .30 .40 -50 .60 .70 .SO .90 1.00 Coefficient of friction. by him in a paper on the subject of friction, read before the Soci6t6 Industrielle do Mulhouse, June 26, 1854. M. Hirn, however, confined^ his attention chiefly to the determination of the mechanical equivalent of heat, as measured by the amount of heat imparted to the- circulating water, expressed in the work of friction. His investigations of lubrication with this apparatus were confined to the frictioni of lard and olive oils at the light pressure of about l-jV pounds to the square inch. Mr. Charles N. Waite, of Manchester, New Hampshire, has independently, and I believe originally, made use of water in a friction machine, and has performed good work in the limit of his- exiJeriments. A protection of wool batting and flannel, to guard the discs .against loss of heat by radiation, diminishes the escape of heat to about two degrees per hour, which loss is not appreciable when observations are taken within a few seconds' interval. A thin copper tube, closed at the lo-n-er end. reaching through the cover, extends to the bottom of the disc ; the bulb of a thermometer is inserted iu this tube, and measures the fernperature of the discs; an oil tube runs to the center of the disc, and a glass tube at the upper end indicates the supply and its rate of consumption, and also serves to maintain a uniform head of oil fed to the bearing surfaces. The rubbing surfaces of both discs were made to coincide with the standard surface plates in the physical laboratory of the Institute of Technology (Bosron, Massachusetts), and their contact with each other is considered perfect. a The tables which accompany this iiaper are not introduced here. .4ssociation for the Advancement of Science for 1880, pages 197-221. They may be found in the proceedings of the American THE USES OF PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS. 205 After this surface was finished the bronze disc was treated with biehioride of platinum, which deposited a thin film of platinum •upon the surface. Upon the application of the discs to each other the steel disc rubbed off the platinum from all parts of the surface, -showing the perfection of contact. This nicety of construction enables a film of oil of uniform thickness to exist between the surfaces, and the resistances are not vitiated by the collision of projecting portions of the disc with each other. The rounded end of the upper shaft fits into a corresponding depression in the top of the upper disc. This method of connection retains the disc over the proper center, ■yet it is allowed to sway enough to correct any irregularity of motion caused by imperfection of construction or wear of the lower disc. To obtain the desired condition of pressure, weights are placed directly upon the upper spindle. The axes of the upper and lower spindles do not lie in the same straight line, but are parallel, being about one-eighth of an inch out of line with each other. Such construction, giving a discoid motion, prevent-s the disc from wearing in rings and assists in the uniform distribution of the oil. An arm is keyed through the lower part of the upper spindle and engages with projections upon the upper disc. Upon this arm, which is turned to the arc of a circle, whose development is two and one-half feet, a thin brass wire is wrapped and reaches to the dynamometer, so that the tension of the dynamometer is tangential and the leverage is constant for aU positions of the upper disc within its range of motion. The dynamometer consists of a simple bar of spring steel fastened at one end and bent by the pull applied at the other. Its dedeetion is indicated by a pointer upon a circular dial, the motion of the spring being multiplied about eighty times by a segment and pinion. The whole is inclosed in a steam-gauge case. When completed, the machine was subjected to a long series of tests with the same oil, to determine the accuracy of the results and the best method of procuring them. The operation of the machine under equal conditions with the same oil gives results which are as closely consistent with each other as could be expected from such physical measurements. As an example, four tests of the Downer Oil Company LightSpindleatl00°F.,audondiiferentdays,gave0.1145,0.1094, 0.1118, 0.1094: mean, 0.1113. • • • Much of the irregularity, slight as it is, is due to the variable speed of the engine. Concurrent results were obtained under equal circumstances, but the coefficient of friction varied, not merely with the lubricants used, but also with the temperature, pressure, and velocity. The results of my own experiments on mediate friction do not agree with the laws of friction as given in works on mechanics, but the coefficient of friction ■varies in an inverse ratio with the pressure, as shown graphically in the diagram (page 204). These curves belong to the hyperbolic class of a high degree ; but I have not been able to deduce an equation which will answer to the conditions of more than one, because the law of the curves is modified by a constant, dependent upon the individual sample of oil used. A little difference in the sample would cause a difference in the line of curve. Reference is made to diagram 2, showing the •coefficient of friction under equal ranges of temperature and velocity, but with a difierent series of pressures. DIACEAM 2.-CUEVES SHOWING CHANGES OF COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION tJNDEB VARYING CONDITIONS. \\\ \\\ \\ \\ \ \ ^ ■>o^ .10 .30 .30 .40 .30 .60 Coefl&cient of friction. Coefficient of friction at 100° and 500 revolutions per minute : Pressure per square inch. Coefficient of friction. 1 pound 0.3818 2 pounds 0.2686 3 pounds 0.2171 4 pounds 0.1849 5 pounds 0.1743 The ratio of the changing coefficient varies with the temperature at which the range of results is taken. Friction varies with the area, because the adhesiveness of the lubricant is proportional to the area, and the resistance due to this ■cause is a larger fraction of the total mechanical effect with light than it is with heavy pressures. The limit of pressure permitting free lubrication varies with the conditions ; for constant pressures and slew motion it is believed to be about 500 pounds per square inch, while for intermittent pressures, like the wrist-pin of a locomotive, the pressure amounts to 3,000 ■pounds per square inch. It has been stated that about 4,000-foot pounds of frictional resistance per square inch is the maximum limit ef -safe friction under ordinary circumstances. 206 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. As the results of this preliminary work indicated that the coefficient of friction varied Tvith all the circumstances, it was necessary- to simulate the conditions of specific practical applications to determine the value of a lubricant for such purposes. It was decided to begin these investigations with spindle oils, and therefore the machine was loaded with 5 pounds to the square inch and run at about 500 revolutions per minute, as the oil is then submitted to conditions of attrition corresponding to those met with in extremes of velocity and pressure, in the case of a Sawyer spindle running at 7,600 revolutions per minute, with a band tension of 4 pounds, and the results subsequently given refer only to the friction under these conditions, except when definitely stated to the contrary. This particular spindle was selected because, of the 5,000,000 ring spindles in the United States, about 1,500,000 are of this- manufacture, and in a large number of the remainder the conditions of lubrication are quite similar. In a Sawyer spindle the step measures f by -^u inch, and receives J of the pull due to the band. If that tension is 4 pounds, 3^ pounds are transmitted to the step, whose projected area is -^g square inch. The pressure per square inch is, therefore, 5J (say 5) pounds. The diameter of the spindle at bolster is 0.28", or 0.8976" in circumference. At 7,600 revolutions per minute its velocity amounts to 6,685", or 557 feet, per minute ; and the mean area of the discs of the oil machine must revolve at this speed. To illustrate, let — K = outer radius of disc = 2.656 inches. r = inner radius of disc := 1.435 inches. n = radius of circle bisecting the area. Fractional area of annular disc = 7r(E^ — r') (1) area of outer half = 7r(E^ — n') - (2) 27r(R2 — »') = ■n-(E2 — j-2) (3) 27rRi' — 2irtt2= ttE^— ttj-^ (4) 2R'' — 2n2= Rs — r« (5) — 27i2== — R2 — r2 (6) 2n== R2 + r2 (7) R= + r» (8) ^^ (9) /4jr'(R2+r2) „., Length of line bisecting the area = 2 TT » = Ay ....... (10) 2 = v'27r=^(R2+»-=y . . . ■ . . . . (11) = -/2x 9.87(7.05+2.11) (12) = -/l9.74X9.16 (13) = 1/180.8184 (14) = 13.45 inches. ....... = 1.12 feet. To give a desired fractional velocity of 6.685 inches per minute the discs must revolve at 6,685 divided by 13.45 = 497 (say) 50» revolutions per minute. To recapitulate: By revolving the disc at 500 revolutions per minute, with a pressure of 5 pounds per square inch, the oil is submitted to conditions of attrition corresponding to those in the extremes of velocity and pressure met with in a Sawyer spindle revolving at 7,600 revolutions with a band tension of 4 pounds. My reason for giving such a detailed statement is, because the value of investigations upon this subject must be measured by the precision with which all the conditions are observed. The apparatus is used in the following manner to measure the coefiScient of friction of oil : After cleaning with gasoline and wiping; carefully with wash leather, the discs are oiled and run for about five hours, being kept cool by a stream of water circulating through the upper disc. From time to time they are taken apart, cleaned, and oiled again. After using any oil, even if the discs are afterward cleaned, the results with the oil subsequently used give the characteristics of the previous oil, and it is only after thirty -five to forty-five miles of attrition that these results become consistent with each other, each succeeding result, meantime, approaching the final series. This seems to indicate that friction exists at the surface of the two discs, between the film of oil acting as a washer and the globules of oil partially embedded within the pores of the metal. If the dense bronze and steel retain the oil despite attempts to remove it, how much longer must it require to replace the oil in machinery with a new variety whose merits are to be tested f These experiments confirm^ the wisdom of the increasing use of cast-iron for journals, as its porosity enables it to contain and distribute the lubricant. When the discs are ready to test the oil the apparatus is cooled by the circulation of water, the flow of which is stopped when the- machine is started. At every degree of temperature the corresponding resistance is read on the dynamometer. When the thermometer- indicates a temperature of sixty degrees, the counter is thrown in gear and the time noted. When one hundred and thirty degrees is- reached, the counter is thrown out of gear and the time noted. This not only gives the velocity of the rubbing surfaces, but the number- of revolutions required to raise the temperature a stated number of degrees, and is a close criterion of the oil. The coefficient of friction, is the ratio of the pressure to the resistance, and is deduced in the following manner : P = Weight on discs. R = Outer radius of frictional contact. r = Inner radius of frictional contract. N = Number of revolutions per minute. W= Reading on dynamometer.

Substituting the limits R'- R3— )-3 ' 3~~ and calling the work of friction = tpP Statical moment of friction of disc = 47rmP(R'— jJ) Mechanical effect = — 3(R=— r^) Foot pounds at any velocity = — ....... 3(R^ — r^ As previously stated, the dynamometer exerts a pull at the end of a lever whose development is 2J feet. 5W Resistance of dynamometer^ —g- .... (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) {') (8) (■J) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) Resistance of dynamometer in foot pounds at aay velocity 5WN " 2 Then as the total friction = the resistance of the djinamometer, Eq. 13 = Eq. 15 '• «• ' 47ryPN(R^ — r") _ 5WN Simplifying we have (R' — r2) Pff9>PN(R'- 87t-2) ^ 15 W(R= — >-°) '^ 8irP(R:' — r3) + ■*! , . 15( R- — )-' )W Separating the constants,

= 0.00906, log. 7.9r)712.SJ n =3.1416, log. 0.4971499 8 " 0.9030900 m = 0.0489 r*= 0.0146 R^ — r' = 0.0343, log. 8.5:352491 (R^ — i'-)log. 8.5352491 15 log. 1.1760913 9.3573681 9.7113104 0. 3539723 = 2.2."i9 2.259\V

\ \ .\ N \, «n K \ \ s ,>^ t V K \ > s. \ \ \, f\ < "N s Pounds resistance. These results seem to be intimately relevant to the most desirahle limit of tension to the spindle-band methods of operating cotton- spinning machinery. By weighing the band tension in various mills it was found that the practice of tying bands lacked uniformity. As sm example of this variation : in one mill the bands of a single coarse frame are reported to vary from 1 to 16 pounds. In another mill, on finer -work, a number of spindles had a range of from -J to 2-} pounds, and in a third mill the band tension was between the limits of i to 5 pounds. The effect of atmospheric changes upon the fiber of textile bands renders it impossible, with the present method of constructing frames, to keep them at a uniform tension, but this variation can be reduced by a little care. Is it not worth wliile for each spinner to learu the proper band tension required for his special work, and then keep within those limits ? The whole power required to run the frame would not vary in direct proportion to the varying resistance due to the friction of spindles at various pressures, because the resistance of the friction in other parts of the frame connected with the spindles, the actual spinning of cotton fibers, and the alternate contraction and expansion of the bands, are conditions which are more nearly constant, and in no case do they vary in proportion with the friction of the spindle, yet the variation is large, as shown by the following experiment made with the frame: Mr. George Draper, in a communication to the Industrial Beeord of June 1, 1879, gives the following valuable data on this subject: A frame of Sawyer spindles was taken spinning No. 30 yarn, ordinary twist, the front rolls running 95 revolutions per minute. The rings were of If inches diameter, and the traverse of the yam on the bobbins 5J inches. The dynamometer was applied, and the power required to drive the spindles, with a side pull of the bands averaging 2 pounds to a spindle, was ascertained. The bands were then cut and a new set put on with a side pull of 3 pounds per spindle, and the fi-ame tested again, all things remaining as before. The operation was then repeated at 4, 5, 6, 7, i<, and 9 pounds side pull per spindle, with the result shown in the following table. Calling the amount of power required to drive the sj)inning frame with — 2 pounds tension on the bands... = 100 3 pounds tension on the bands = 117 4 pounds tension on the bands = 131 5 pounds tension on the bands - = 144 6 pounds tension on the bands - ^ 159 7 pounds tension on the bands ..-- ^ 177 8 pounds tension on the bands =■" 197 9 pounds tension, considerably more than double. The lubricant used is one of the most important factors in the cost of power. In the present condition of engineering science it is impossible to state what exact proportion of the power used by a mill is lost in sliding friction, but in a print-cloth mill only abojit 25 per cent, of the power is utilized in the actual processes of carding, spinning, and weaving the fiber, not including the machinery engaged in the operation, leaving T5 per cent, of the power as absorbed by the rigidity of belts, the resistance of the air, and friction. The cocfHcicnt of friction, under the conditions submitted by my oil-tester, varies, at 100°, 500 revolutions from 7.5S per THE USES OF PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS. 209 cent, in the ease of '.i-i° Ex. machinery oil manufactnred by the Downer Oil Company, to 24.27 per cent, in the case of neats'-foot oil ; and the result of this investigation confirms me in the opinion that the successful operation of a spinning frame is far more closely dependent upon the individual management in respect to the conditions of band tension, lubrication, and temperature of the spinning-room than all other causes combiued. Not that some forms of spindle are not superior to others, but that, without wise supervision, the most desirable forms of spindle must fail to show the merits due to the skill of their promoters. It may be stated that, within a close approximation, the lubricating qualities of an oil are inversely proportional to its viscosity ; that is, the friction decreases with the cohesion of the globules of the oil for'each other. The endurance of a lubricant is in some degree proportional to its adhesion to the surfaces forming the journal. An ideal lubricant in these respects would be a fluid whose molecules had a minimum cohesion for each other and a maximum adhesion for metallic surfaces. The viscous oils will also adhere more strongly to metals, and hence, under the conditions of heavy bearings, it is obligatory to use such thick lubricants, knowing that the employment of an oil with great frictioual resistance is infinitely preferable to the attempt to use au oil so limpid that it could not be retained between the bearings. With light pressures the more fluid oils are admissible, and in all cases the oils should be as limpid as the circumstances will permit. Oils with great endurance are aptto give great frictional resistance, and in the endeavor to save gallons of oil many a manager has wasted tons of coal. The true solution of solving the problem of lubricating the machinery of an' establishment is to ascertain the consumption of oil and the expenditure of power, both Iveiug measured by the same unit, viz, dollars. The fluidity of the oils was measured by the loUowing apparatus: A pipette was placed within a glass water-jacket, where the temperature was controlled and kept constant by circulation from a reservoir kept at the desired temperature. The capacity of the bulb is twenty-eight cubic centimeters and the orifice measures three and a half inches long and 0.039 of an inch in diameter. The oil was drawn into the bulb of the pipette, and after the whole was brought to the desired tempeXature the time required for its discharge was accurately noted by a stop watch. These observations were made on each of the oils for a series of temperatures varying from 50° to 150° F. If the fluidity of au oil is the measure of its lubricating qualities, these observations would not be identical with the frictional results, because the pressure in this case was that due to ahead of about five inches of oil, or about one-sixth of a pound to the square inch and rubbing against a glass surface ; while with the frictional machine the pressure was five pounds to the square inch, and the surfaces bronze and steel. In both cases, however, the character of the surfaces and the pressures were uniform conditions, and therefore they would not aifect the relations of either set of experiments in their consistency with each other. If the lubrication and fluidity of oils followed the same law of variation with the temperature, the results of one would be directly proportional to those in the other, provided that all other conditioLS were preserved constant. Such comparisons showed that the relations of the fluidity to the lubricating qualities did not follow any uniform ratio. At a low rate of temperatures the fluidity increased faster than the lubricating quality of the oil; between about 70° and 110° the coincidence was quite close ; at higher temperatures the fluidity does not increase so fast as the lubrication. There was not a very close correspondence between the fluidity of oils at the same coefficient of friction. The result of these investigations upon the relation of fluidity to lubrication seems to indicate that fluidity is a concomitant rather than a cause of the anti-frictional qualities of a lubricant. In the case of mining drills operated by condensed air, an intense cold is produced at the liberation of air, and on some such bearings kerosene oil is the only lubricant which can be used. I think it extremely probable that at these low temperatures the viscosity of kerosene oil is equal to that of lubricating oils at the average temperature of bearings in general use. On the other hand, only the most viscous oils can be used in such extremely high temperatures as the cylinder and steam-chest of steam-engines. According to the results which 1 have obtained, the coefficient of friction at 50° is about 75 per cent, in excess of that at 7.'>°, and it seems to me that the manager of every mill which is run by steam ought to consider the question of the temperature of the mill in early morning during the winter months, whether, as a maKer of economy, it is cheaper to warm a mill by increased friction on Monday morning, or to keep the mill and machinery warm during the interval from the preceding week. The humidity of the atmosphere is an important factor in the mechanical operation of textile machinery, as well as in the fabrication of cotton. A year ago I submitted to the New England Cotton Manufacturers' Association measurements showing the effects of humidity on textile bands, and I am also of the opinion that there is a difference of friction in machinery due to atmospheric influences upon the lubricant. Possibly the moisture condensed upon the cold metal from the atmosphere becomes commingled with the oil and thereby reduces its viscosity, diminishing the friction. ■ The question of endurance of oils has not been given in these experiments, because the consumption of oil varies with the temperature, and it is proposed to investigate the matter subsequently by running the machine and controlling the temperature of the discs to 100° by the circulation of water. The amount of oil constuned could be very easily measured by the difference in the level of the glass feeding-tube or the weight of the oil required to preserve it at that level during the experiment. In the detailed results the friction is given for the whole range of temperatures, but in the following summary 100° has been selected as the temperature which most nearly corresponds to the heat of spindle bearings. To ascertain these temperatures, holes were drilled in the rails of a spinning frame, passiug as near the bolsters and steps as possible ; the bulbs of thermometers were inserted in these holes, and while the frame was in operation 2,586 readings were taken, covering a period of four weeks. The temperature of the air was noted from a thermometer placed in the middle of the frame. The mean temperature of the bolsters was 8.10° F., and of the steps 6.74° F., above the temperature of the room. Other experiments were made to learn the temperature of the bearings of the shafting. Holes about half an inch in diameter were bored in the upper cap of such journals, and .a thin copper tube, closed at the lower end, inserted and extended nearly to the shaft. This tube contained water, and the temperature was measured by a thermometer placed therein. The temperature of the room was measured by a thermometer hung near the bearing. There were journals in good running order whose temperature at the frictional surfaces was 140° F. This method of using thermometers was first suggested by Mr. Edward Atkinson, and I consider it the most accurate test of the anti-frictional qualities of a lubricant at the service of those in charge of machinery. Great pains have been taken to procure pure samples of the oils experimented with, and they were obtained directly from the manufacturers; and to the courtesy of Mr. Thomas Bennett, jr., I am indebted tor a large number of samples of sperm oils which were procured by him directly from the whale-ships or refiners. -14 210 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. The following table gives the coefficient of friction at 100^ F. and 500 revolutions, with a pressure of 5 pounds to the square inch : Mineral c Mineral c Mineral c Mineral ci Mineral c Mineral c Mineral c Mineral c Mineral c Mineral c Mineral c Mineral c Mineral c Mineral c Mineral c Mineral c Mineral c Mineral c Coefficient of friction at 100°. 0. 1635 0. 1732 0. 1187 0. 1233 0. 1208 0. 1113 0. 1133 0. 075G 0. 1476 0. 1493 0. 1201 0.2243 0. 0973 0.0950 0. 1190 0. 1103 0. 1360 0. 1189 Mineral oil Lard Bleached "winter sperm A Bleached winter sperm B .' Bleached winter sperm C Bleached winter sperm D Bleached winter sperm E Unbleached winter sperm Seal oil Neat's-foot Mixed animal and mineral oil Mixed animal and mineral oil Mised animal and mineral oil Paraffine Paraffine mixed with one-fifth sperm Paraffine mised with one-third neat'a-foot, Unknown sperm , Chemical esaminatioas of these oils by Mrs. Ellen H. Richards, of the Women's Laboratory, Institute of Technology : No. of sample. Flash of vapor. Loss of evaporation in 12 liours at 140° F. Nitro-sulpliuric acid test. 10 Degrees. 338 Fer cent. 1.3 Dark yellow, with mucli cake. 7 314 2.7 Dark yellow, some cake. 8 284 5.5 Slightly yellow, only a few flakes of cake. 2 316 3.7 Dark yellow, thin layer of cake. 11 324 3.9 Slightly yellow, not on brown specks. 12 318 3.3 Yellow, not a single flake, no solid matter. 15 286 7.2 Turned dark, gives a black layer of gum. 13 322 1.9 Quito an amount of cake. 16 282 5.0 Do. + 0.4 + 0.3 Hardened with much acid to a white solid mass. Thickened up a little, like jelly. With castor oil the friction Tvas so great as to throw off the belt driving the machine; and as the time alloted for this work expired on that day, other arrangements for a wider helt conld not be made, and it can only be said that its friction exceeds that of any other oil given in these tables. » » » The anti-frictional properties of these oils under the conditions of these experiments are expressed in the following order : Mineral Bleached winter sperm Mineral Mineral Bleached sperm Unbleached sperm Mineral Mineral Mineral Mineral Seal Mineral Lard Mineral Neat'a-foot Coefficient of friction at 100°. 0. 0756 0. 0956 0. 1103 0.1113 0. 1141 0. 1147 0. 1190 0. 1201 0.1208 0. 1476 0. 1608 0. 1732 0. 2181 0. 2243 0. 2427 It is no disparagement to the qualities of an oil that it is low in the foregoing list, except so far as it relates to the resistance of friction under these conditions. For circumstances of great pressure and slow motion, I am of the opinion that the order of the list would be varied; and if the question of endurance were only to be considered, still another change in the order would'be necessary. A portion of a lot of unbleached sperm oil (sample 17) was bleached expressly for these tests (sample 18), but the results of the two are so nearly uniform as to be practically identical. The result of bleaching does not affect the anti-frictional properties of the oil, althongh it undoubtedly reduces its gumming qualities. The friction of sperm oil is subject to sadden variations, which occur at THE USP:S of petroleum and its products. 211 certain teraperaturee for thi; same sample of oil. Tho explanation of tl-is lies in the fact that sperm oil consists of a large number of varieties of spermaceti, each of which is liciuetied at certain temperatures, at which the oil is relieved of waxy, or at least gelatinous particles, and hecomes a more perfect lubricant. * » » • The friction of lard oil for high temperatures exceeds that of any other lubricant in the list ; and this adhesive quality enables it to rumain on tools used for cutting iron. In conclusion, it may be stated that the data necessary to determine the safety and efficiency of a lubricant comprise: 1. Th« flashing point of its vapor, which is ascertained by slowly heating a sample over an oil bath, quickly passing a small flame over the oil and noting the temperature at which the vapor first fl.ashes. The danger from an oil does not arise from the point at which the oil actually ignites, but at the lower temperature, when the inflammable vapor bursts into flames, which communicate tire to a distance limited only by the extent of tho vapor. 2. The quantity of such volatile matter is imjjortant both as respects safety and value. The heat of friction liberates that i)ortion of the oil which is volatile at the temperature of the bearings, filling the mill with ,1 dangerous noxious vapor, and also dissipates in the air a portion of the oil which is paid for by the gallon, but does not serve to give any return of value in lubrication. The quantity of matter volatile under 140° F. is measured by heating a known weight of oil in a watch-glass and maintaining a constant temperature of 140^ F. for 12 hours. This simulates the conditions of the temperature of the bearings mentioned previously and the maximum time that it would be consecutively heated. In the case of mineral oils the loss from evaporation varied from less than 1 up to 30 per cent. With auimal and vegetable oils there is a slight gain in weight, due to oxidation. 3. The tendency to spontaneous combustien is estimated by a uniform .amount of cotton-waste fmeared with a certain quantity of oil. A thermometer whose bulb extends to the center of the mass indicates any rise of temperature due to oxidation. Any gain of weight during the preceding evaporation test shows .a liability to spontaneous ignition. 4. Freedom from acid is an important factor in oil, because acid is a cause of corrosion of metals, and will tend to remove the oil from the frictional surfaces when aiihesion is indispensable. The presence of acids is shown by corrosion of copper. 5. The anti-frictional properties of an oil can be measured only by direct tri.iJ under the desired conditions of pressure, velocity, aud temperature. The results of these experiments show that a lubricant must have !i certain adhesion to the frictional surfaces to maintain free lubrication, but beyond that point the adhesiveness of the oil resists the motion of the surfaces, increasing the friction. A thick oil gives greater frictional resistance than a thin one; and when ease in running is the object tho most limpid oil should be used consistent with the specific circumstances of the be.iring. In general terms, the specific gravity of an oil gives no indications of its value as a lubricant iu qualities of viscosity, body, or endurance. • • • When thi.s paper was read at the meeting of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Professor E. H. Thurston spoke as follows : Mr. Woodbury in his paper made some reference to the fact that the coefficients of friction, as ordinarily stated, are not found to be strictly correct j in other words, that there are no such losses in ordinary practice. Then he has shown you here how seriously the temperature of the lubricant aftects the coefficient of friction. Yiju will notice that the work done is all at extremely light pressures. It is simply due to the pull of tho baud, aud the resultant of that and the resistance of the work of the spindle. It is exceedingly light, and it is for that reason that we get what api)eared to be extremely high coefficients of friction. In the table exhibited you will see that the coefficients run from 7^ up to about 20 per cent., the highest figure being lard oil and a speoial grade of machinery oil, which are each about 22 per cent. Now, a fact which was not brought out so strongly by tho paper as it might have been is, that this coefficient is also affected very largely by the pressure per square inch put upon the joninal, and what I intended specially to remark upon was the fact that these coefficients do not represent the values of the coefficients obtained in ordinary engine work, but are the coefficients obtained iu extremely light work, as in the spinning-frames of cotton-mills. If we use the same lubricating material, and the same surface pressure, rising above that to fifty pounds, we will find the coefficients come down in value to a fraction of the figures given on the scale. Carrying the pressure up to a very common figure, such as we might get with any machine work, of 100 or 200 pounds, we will find tliat the coefficient is reduced. I have had occasion to make tests of various kinds of oil between various sorts of surfaces, and, under varying pressures aud temperatures, up to pressures of 1,500 pounds to the square inch, and for a very short period of time 2,000 pounds to the square inch, .and at temperatures which ran from the ordinary .atmospheric temperature to above the boiling point of water, aud I find that upon the crank-pins of steam-engines, such as are sometimes used on the North River boats, carrying the pressure of a thousand pounds to the square inch, instead of a coefficient of friction of 5 per cent, we get one-tenth of 5 per cent. — one-half of 1 per cent, for the coefficient of frictioo— so that the field explored by Mr. Woodbury is limited to these extremely low temperatures. They do not represent the results as ordinarily obtained, or exceptional results obtained by putting on tremendously high pressures, so that if we take the very best of lubricating materials — sperm oil is the best I have ever found for heavy pressures — and put a pressure upon it of a thousand pounds to the square inch, then, instead of the text-book coefficients of friction, all the way from 4 to 7 per cent., we get figures that run to oue-tenth of that amount. I have obtained coefficients of friction with sperm oil as low as one-fonrth of 1 per cent. The pressure, therefore, at which you .are working is one of the very important elements in determining what is to be the coefficient of friction to be assumed iu deaign. Now, I spoke of this partly as a commentary on this paper and partly as a commentary on that of Mr. Hoadley. Mr. Hoadley shows ns that we may divide the circumference described by the crank-pin by horizontal and vertical lines, and he calls the upper and lower of the two sections of his circumference the work-doing parts of the traverse of the crank-pin, and the end sections he calls the work-using sections. Now he shows us what is the effect of friction in reducing the efficiency of engines where we put full pressure on the crank-pin at either end of the stroke ; but it must be observed, as a commentary upon that statement, that these figures are very much smaller than we have been accustomed to assume. The friction of the crank-pin in a well-made engine, with a good bronze box, running on good steel journals, ought to come down to a fraction of 1 per cent. That being the case, we get the result that Mr. Porter indicated, that the loss of power at the two ends of the stroke becomes insignificant, more insignificant than I presume he had supposed. A remark was also made by another member of the society upon our determinations of the value of lubricating oils for steam- cylinders. In a long series of experiments, which I have had occasion to make on lubricating oils to be used in steanVcylindcrs, I have taken oils furnished in the market for that purpose and tested them at the temperature of the steam-cylinder, bringing them up to a temperature of 250° or 300°, and some cases 350°, and I fonnd that the value of the oil for lubricating purposes within the steam-cylinders is by no means the samo as its value for lubricating on the crauk-pin and other external parts not subjected to high temperatures, and that the oil giving the best results on the crank-pin may give poor results in the cylinder. In several cases I have found that oils that were among the best for ordinary use were among the poorest for cylinder work, while other oils that were not nearly so good for external use were among the very best for use within the steam-cylinder. So no one can tell what is the value of an oil fw the purpose to which he applies it until he subjects it to a test under precisely those conditions. 212 • PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. Mr. Woodljury presented us ■n'itli the results of work done under the precise conditions of actual use. He runs the spindles at the ordinary speed, and runs them as in ordinary spinning frames, and then measures the friction, and the data he gives are of course absolutely reliable as determining the results to he met with uuder that set of conditions. That is one reason why we may rely so absolutely, I presume, upon his results. He has determined under these conditions what is the comparative value of a large number of oils ; but I wish to renew his caution that we are not to tate these results, which represent the relative value of oils for spindles, as representing the relative value of those oils for crank-pins or the lubrication of steam-cylinders. Another remark was made in the paper, apparently incidentally, that a man may save a considerable amount of money in the purchase of his oils, while losing at the same time a vastly greater amount in paying his coal bills, and that leads to the question how are we to determine the money value of these oils? It is evident that the value to the dealer is not at all likely to be just its value to the purchaser. The money value of the oil to the consumer is something less than the money value of the work that it is going to save him in friction, or the money value of the work that it is going to save him in friction added to the money value of the work it is going to save him in repairs and incidental expenses. If you will take the trouble to determine the cost of the power in any mill or machine-shop in the country, and then assume a change in the coefficient of friction from an average of, we will say, 2 or 3 per cent, to an average of 5 per cent., and see what you can afford to pay for oil that will avoid that increase of friction, you will find probably in every case in which you make the calculation that you can better aiford to pay the highest prices in the market for the best oils than to take as a gift the oils which give you the highest coefficients of friction. I took occasion some time ago to work that up in a speciiied case — that of Mr. Sellers' shop — I don't remember now what the figures were, but the result was such as to show that we could better pay a good many times the value of the best sperm oil in the market to reduce losses by friction than to take the cheapest oils in the market with the increase of those losses. The difference between the lowest coefficients and the highest coefficients is about 1 to 3. But when you are calculating the cost of the power required to overcome this friction, you will find that even slight diiferences are sufficient to justify you in making your estimate of costs in taking the very highest-priced oil, even if it gives you a very little decrease in the coefficient of friction. In a circular issued near the close of the year 1880 by Mr. Atkinson, he gives a summary of the results obtained in the research conducted by Mr. Woodbury, and remarks : Another result of this work has been the invention of the machine on which we can now ascertain the anti-frictional properties of any oil with absolute certainty, and by the use of which we have obtained measurements of the coefficient of friction with an accuracy and uniformity that have never been approached before. * * * Our machine having been adjusted in velocity and other conditions to those of a Sawyer spindle operating at 7,600 turns per minute under a band tension of 4 pounds, it appeared that the difference in power required to overcome the resistance of the parts varied as follows : The resistance or power required to operate the frictional machine at 100° F., when lubricated with Downer Oil Co. 32 extra machinery oil, amounted to 756, and under the same conditions, with the exception of the substitution of neat's-foot oil as a lubricant, the resistance amounted to 2,427, or three and twenty one-hundredths times as much. In respect to the same oil at different degrees of temperature in the bearing, the resistance at SC^ is about 75 per cent, in excess of that at 75° F. In respect to the best oil and poorest lubricant at 100° F., the difference is 321 per cent. In respect to a difference of pressure varying from 1 pound to 5 pounds, the difference is 229 per cent. By means of experiments applied to a small Sawyer spindle-frame, which could not be reduced to such precise accuracy, but which marked the great variations in power according to the greater or less tension of the bauds, other results were reached of the same general character, fully confirming the above conclusions. The general conclusions reached are, therefore, that although, as a matter of course, there must be a marked difference in power needed between a well-planned and constructed and a badly-constructed spinning-frame, yet, when it is a question between two well- constructed frames, * * * the greatest differences in details (of construction) do not make as much difference in the power required as may be made in the adjustment and tension of the bands or in the quality and condition of the oil, and hardly as much as may be made by variations in the temperature and condition of the atmosphere and of the machine, or in the quality and condition of the stock in use. The uniform tension of the band appears to be the factor of the greatest importance, and the structure of the bobbin of the least, provided the spindle is long enough and heavy or stiff enough to keep the bobbin true and to prevent it from springing under the varying conditions of the atmosphere. In respect to the best quality of oil to be used on spindles^that is to say, the best oil to be used on light bearings at very high velocity — a few simple rules may now be laid down dogmatically, so far as rules are to be made by experiments ou a single machine or from laboratory experiments. 1. A mineral oil that flashes at less than 300° F. does not possess the best qualities for lubrication, and is unsafe in proportion to the lesser degree at which it flashes. 2. A mineral oil that evaporates more than 5 per cent, in ten hours at a heat of 140° F. is hazardous in proportion to the increased percentage of volatile matter, and is also more unfit to be used as a lubricant the more rapidly it evaporates, because the remainder will either become thick and viscous, requiring a high heat in the bearing to make it operate at all, or else, if the oil does not contain such a residuum liable to become thick and heavy, it will leave the bearing dry. 3. All the mineral oils — and also sperm, lard, and neat's-foot oils — appear to reach a nearly uniform coefficient of friction at very greatly different degrees of heat in the bearings. Several kinds of the best mineral oils and sperm and lard oils show a uniform coefficient of friction at the following degrees of heat : TEMPERATUEE AT WHICH THE COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION IS THE SAME. Deg. F. 32° machinery (an exceedingly tiuid oil) 76 Light spindle 105 Heavy sjiindle 125 Various samples of sperms 96 to 114 Valvoline spindle 127 White valvoline spindle 122 . White loom Ill German spindle 112 A spindle 107 Neat's-foot 170 Lard oil ISO THE USES OF PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS. 213 4. Lubrication seems to be effective in adverse ratio to viscosity, i. e., the most fiuid oil tbat will stay in its place is tlio best to use. Lartl oil heated to 130^ lubricates as well as sperm at 70° or the best mineral oil at 50°. But of coarse it is a great waste of machinery to work oil of any kind up to an excessive heat, and there must be the least wear in the use of oil that shows the least coefficient of friction at the lowest degree of heat. 5. The quantity of oil used is a matter of much less importance than the quality. The mill that saves gallons of oil at the cost of tons of coal or dollars of repairs plays a losing game. Mr. Waite's experiments on very heavy bearings at Manchester go far to prove that a considerable quantity of thin fine oil keeps the bearings much cooler and requires lees power than a smaller quantity of thick viscous oil. Here let it be observed that a superstition that prevails in'favor of using castor oil to cool a hot bearing is without any warrant. No veaetable oil is fit to use as a lubricant ; and castor oil is the worst of all, because the most viscous. If used, it will surely set the mill on tire, as it did in the ouly case of which we have a record. H. The rule of best lubrication is to use an oil that has the greatest adhesiveness to metal surfaces and the least adherence as to its own particles. Fine mineral oils stand first iu this respect, sperm second, neat's-foot thii-d, lard fourth. 7. Cast-iron holds oil better than any other metal or any alloy, and is the best metal to use for light bearings, perhaps for heavy. 8. It has been proved by Mr. Waite's experiments that a highly-polished bearing is more liable to friction than a surface finely lined by filing. The lines left by the file serve as reservoirs for the oil, while the high polish leaves no room for the particles between the metal surfaces. So far as laboratory experiments may serve as a guide in practice, it therefore appears that tine mineral oils may be made to serve all the purposes of a cotton-mill, and such is the practice in some of the mills that show the very best results in point of economy ; next, that the best animal oil to mix with a fine mineral oil, in order to give it more body, is sperm oil; this again accords with the practice of many of the mills in which the greatest economy is attained. Lard and neat's-foot oil are used to give body to mineral oil in some of the best mills; but the results of our work seem not to warrant this practice, unless there is some peculiarity in the machinery that makes it more difficult to keep a less viscous or tenacious oil on the bearings. All the mixed oils sold under fancy names we believe must, of necessity, consist of certain proportions of the oils heretofore named, as none of the vegetable or tish oils are tit to be used, and there are no other animal oils that can be had in any quantity. It appears that all varieties of mineral oils are or have been used in print-cloth mills', and are all removed in the process of bleaching, as practiced in print-works. All miueral oils stain more or less, and give more or less difficulty to the bleacher when dropped upon thick cloth or cloth of a close texture. On this point we have been able to establish no positive rule ; but as very many kinds are and have been used in mills working on such cloths and are removed we are inclined to the belief that this question is not of as great importance as it has been assumed to bo. These exact results have been obtained under conditions of great velocity and low pressure. Professor Thurston's remarks, quoted on a previous page, apply to the conditions of friction under great pressures and slow motion. We have not, however, yet subjected the lubrication of heavy bearings to so exhaustive a research. Dr. C. B. Dudley, chemist to the Pennsylvania Railroad Company, has been devoting much time recently to the investigation of lubricants for railroads. His results liave not been made public. This road and other leading railroads of the country are among the heaviest purchasers of natural lubricating oils that will not thicken at a low temperature. Oils of this quality, as well as reduced oils, are very largely used on railroads, as also some of the petroleum mixtures, such as the " pine-tar compound", the '■ galena oils", and the "plumbago oils". A report of a committee of the Railway Master Mechanics' Association of the United States, appointed to examine into and report on the subject of lubricants, recommended a good quality of natural earth oils as the best to use for lubricating machinery and journal boxes. It is less expensive and of a better quality than other oils. When treated so as to reach 28° of gravity, it was found to work with perfect success. It had been reported favorably on from Canada in the north to Kentucky iu the south. A test of various oils had been made with the oil-tester on the Lake Shore road ; sperm, lard, and tallow were used, and none of them were found to possess qualities which render their use advisable. In their experiments the committee used a machine the size of a regular axle-box, and 50 drops were poured in at a temperature of 60°, and the wheel was allowed to revolve at a rate of speed equaling 35 miles per hour until a temperature of 200° was reached. The length of time, number of revolutions, and amount of friction were all noted. Attention was called to the result obtained from tests with paraffine oil which costs from 25 to 30 cents per gallon, and which has been used on railroads in preference to lard oil. Parafline oil costing 25 cents, with which sis experiments had been made, showed that twenty-four minutes were required to reach the maximum temperature, during which time it gave 11,685 revolutions; castor oil, costing $1 25, which required twenty-eight minutes to reach the temperature allowed, gave 12,946 revolutions ; manufactured oils — A, B, and C — costing 35 cents, 90 cents and 25 cents, respectively, required nineteen and one-half minutes, giving from 9,285 to 9,653 revolutions; sperm and tallow required only seventeen minutes to reach 200° temperature, with less than 8,000 revolutions, (a) ParafUne oil that does not boil under 370° C. has been considered the best material for lubricating cylinders at high temperatures. Mineral oil, purified by being shaken with chlorinated soda, from which it is decanted and then shaken repeatedly with milk of lime, and again decanted and then distilled with one-third its volume of solution of caustic soda, is used for the lubrication of watches, [b) a Iron Monger, Supplement, Dec. 13, 1879. * Poly. Cbl. 1859, 575. 214 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. Ohaptee II.— the uses OF PETROLEUM AND ITS PEODUOTS FOE ILLUMINATION. Section 1.— UsTTEODUOTION. Crude petroleum has been used in Japan and Burmah for purposes of illumination from an immemorial period. In Burmah the Eangoou tar or oil was burned in earthen lamps. In Persia pencils of dried dung were saturated with the oil and burned, the pencil serving as a wick. In Parma and Modena and other towns in the upper valley of the Po the native petroleum, which is quite fluid and of a light color, has been burned for years both in sti-eet lamps and in dwellings. In the valley of Oil creek, and in the salt region of the lower Allegheny and Kiskiminetas, the petroleum obtained from springs and from the salt-wells was used in a contrivance resembling a tea-kettle, often with two spouts (see Fig. 19), for lighting saw-mills and derricks. For these purposes the amber oils of the lower Allegheny were considered superior to the dark oil of Oil creek. Since the manufacture of petroleum by distillation was commenced there have been several separate products used for illuminating purposes. Most of the illuminating oils have been called "kerosene", a name which was originally adopted as a trade-mark by some firm engaged in the manufacture of coal-oils, but which soon afterward became a common designation applied to a certain class of oils used in common lamps. This word, however, has not been uniformly applied to a substance of uniform kind and quality, but has been used to designate a class of substances prepared in a similar manner from a common crude material, but which in certain respects present a very wide variation. The varieties known to the trade are " Water White", " Standard," and " Prime", the distinctions on which the classification is based relating chiefly to color. There are, however, wide differences between the oils as manufactured by difierent methods that exist independently of color. The oils may contain too large a proportion of the volatile products of the petroleum ; they may contain too large a proportion of the heavy products ; they may contain too large a proportion of cracked material ; and yet in either case they may, by judicious manipulation, be made to appear of good color while otherwise of inferior quality — a fact which in this country has been almost overlooked, but which has lately attracted some attention in Germany, and will doubtless be more carefully regarded in future. " Color" and "test" have hitherto determined the quality of competitive illuminating oils, but a more careful regard for the quality of such oils would lead to the determination of the relative proportion of light and heavy constituents and the condition of the oil with reference to the presence and amount of sulphur compounds. The quality of oils with reference to these two particulars is not determined by either the color or the test, but a disregard of them seriously affects the quality of the oil as an illuminator, [a) A few years since legislation was obtained in Minnesota which excluded low-test oils from the markets of that state. The following season those markets were stocked with oils, which, to use the English phrase, were mixtures of "tops and bottoms". They were up to the legal test, and were satisfactoiy in color, but they would become solid at — 20° F., and were so heavily charged with sulphur compounds that they blackened at a temperature of 200° F. They were of very inferior quality, and were very successfully used in securing the repeal of the legislation of the preceding winter. In addition to the ordinary illuminating oils which vary in the manner stated above, the naphthas of different grades have been used in lamps of different kinds. The best lamp in all respects for burning naphtha is that known as the sponge lamp. This lamp is made in a variety of forms, and is filled with sponge, which, on being saturated with the fluid, yields it to the wick and prevents either the spilling of the contents of the lamp or an explosion when the fluid is consumed and air becomes mingled with the vapor. Naphtha is also used in lamps of peculiar construction which have been found especially useful for lighting streets. These lamps are so constructed that the heat of the flame vaporizes the naphtha as it passes through a tube from a reservoir to the burner, where the vapor is burned as if it were a gas jet. This form of lantern is very extensively used, especially in the environs of cities. Another oil is "mineral sperm", which is distilled from the crude parafliue oils in the pseparation of lubricating oils. This oil has a very high boiling point, and flashes at a temperature above 275° F. It is chiefly used iu lighting mills, steamboats, and railroad cars, where more easily inflammable oils would be objectionable. Section 2.— SAFE OILS. While the color of oils is to some extent an indication of their quality, the flash or fire test is the principal guarantee upon which the general public relies for both quality and safety ; yet, as has been already stated, the burning qualities are not represented by them. The discussion of the subject of safe oils was commenced at a very early date. Among the earliest papers connected with this subject is one published in the Report of the a See Vohl's Ileiearch, page 181. THE USES OF PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS. 215 Smithsonian Institution for 1802 by the Hon. Zachariah Allen, of Providence, Rhode Island. In this i)aper Mr. Allen states that the exi)eriments therein described were undertaken at the instance of the Rhode Island Mutual Fire Insurance Company. The experiments were too simple to be deserving of particular notice here, but the discussion of the subject not only exhibits the acat«ness with which the author was accustomed to treat technological questions, but also shows how few facts have been added to the sum of human knowledge concerning the products distilled from petroleum during the twenty years that have elapsed since his paper was written. He says : To ascertain the comparative qualities of the keroseue oil made in different parts of this country samples were procured and tested by the simple process of pouring some of each kind of oil into a cup by itself, and by placing them all afloat together in a basin of water heated by a spirit lamp, and with a thermometer immersed in the water to indicate the temperature while gradually rising from &P to 21"2°. During the progress of the increase of temperature blazing matches were passed over the surface of the oil in each cup successively at short iutervals of time, until the increased heat caused sufficient gaseous vapors to arise from each to take fire, which they all finally did, at degrees of temperature varying from 80^ to l&i^, exhibiting faint flames quivering over the surface of the oil, precisely like those hovering over the surface of spirits of wine or alcohol when similarly kindled. The flames are quite as readily extinguished by a blast of the breath, and not the least symptom of any explosive character became manifest when each one took fire. Until the evaporative point of each sample of oil was produced by the increase of heat applied, and until lambent flames were kindled, burning matches were extinguished when plunged iuto the coal-oil as eft'ectually as if they had been similarly plunged into water. The average heat at which all the samples emitted suflBcieut vapor to admit of being kindled was about 125° of Fahrenheit's scale. After ascertaining the temperature requisite to kindle the several samples of coal-oil, it next becomes an interesting subject of investigation to ascertain the heat to which coal-oil is ordinarily elevated while burning in lamps. The results of actual experiments showed that in glass lamps the temperature is increased about G° and iu metallic lamps but 10'=' or 12° above that of the apartment, which, being 67", produced a heat in the oil of about 71° to 79°, leaving a considerable range of temperature below the average of 125° above stated. Finding by actual observation that only gaseous vapors arising from the heated oil exhibit the phenomenou of flame whilst ascending and combining chemically with the oxygen of the air, it became manifest that no explosive action could be anticipated to take place from auy kind of oil or inflammable spirits unless these gaseous vapors were first evolved by a previous increase of temperature, aud then brought into contact with the atmospheric air before applying a match thereto. There being no room left for either the gaseous vapor of the oil or for atmospheric air to combine therewith in the chamber of any lamp entirely filled with oil, every attempt to produce explosive action with a full lamp, at all temperatures up to the boiling point of water, utterly failed when lighted matches were applied to the open orifice of the lamp. The only result produced by increasing the heat of the coal-oil was an increase iu the evaporation of the gas, and a higher jet of flame steadily rising, as from the jet of a gas burner. So long as lamps are kept FULL of oil, or even of explosive campheue or "burning fluid", there can be no explosive action whatever. For this Sjiecial reason it may be adopted as a safe rule to eatise all lamps containing highly inflammable liquids to be kept as full as practicable by being daily replenished. As the dangerous inflammability of coal-oil appeared to be ascribable to the naphtha not separated therefrom, the following experiments were made to ascertain the extent of the inflamm.able properties of pure u.aphtha. Finding that the liquid naphtha evolved sufficient vapors at the ordinary temperature of the atmosphere to become instantaneously kindled iuto flashing flames, the cup containing it was immersed iu a freezing mixture of snow and salt to reduce the temperature to the zero of Fahrenheit's scale. At this low temperature the naphtha appeared to blaze with equal violence. Then a quantity of snow was mixed with the liquid naphtha and thoroughly stirred, for still further reducing the temperature. Even at this extreme degree of cold the naphtha continued to flame so furiously that it was necessarily thrown from the cup upon the ice covering the ground where the experiment was made, in the open air, whilst the thermometer indicated an atmospheric temperature of 19° below the freezing point. The naphtha still continuing to burn upon the surface of the ice, a covering of snow was thrown over it to extinguish the flame. Through this covering of white snow the bright flames still coutin ued to shoot up, presenting to view the extraordinary spectacle of burning snow. On repeating similar experiments on the comparative combustibility of spirits of wiue or alcohol, campheue, and burning fluid, they did not emit sufficient gaseous vapors at the freezing point, or 32°, to become kindled into flame when burning matches were plunged therein, but with a little increase of temperature they all became kindled. The preceding experiments seem to exhibit impressively the extraordinary inflammability of naphtha, arising from the facility with which it emits gaseous vapors; the utmost caution is requisite to prevent not only unexpected explosions, but also the almost unextiuguishable violence of its conflagration, for practically the application of water does not subdue the conflagration of naphtha in quantity, and only the exclusion of atmospheric air appears to quench the fury of its flames. ' ' • Petroleum contains a considerable percentage of naphtha, and consequently partakes in a degree of its dangerous properties. * * * In makiug experiments with the tin vessel of the capacity of a common lamp a single drop of naphtha was found to yield sufficient vapor to produce as much explosive action as could be produced by the most inflammable coal-oil for sale in the market when similarly experimented ■with; and after every experiment failed to exhibit the slightest explosive tendency of the best kerosene oil, a single drop mingled therewith rarely failed to yield sufficient vapor to manifest its presence by a slight explosive puff' when kindled by a lighted match, (a) These experiments, made in 1862, satisfied Mr. Allen, as a representative of very large manufacturing and insurance interests, that "coal-oil" {(. e., mineral illuminating oil), when properly manufactured by responsible parties, was a safe material for use ; and they also established these fundamental facts, which have lieen made the basis of all the action that has since been taken with reference to this question, viz: That the volatile constituents of petroleum are extremely inflammable liquids ; that they mingle with the air with great readiness and form mixtures that explode with great violence ; that illuminating oil prepared from coal or petroleum, from which these oils, volatile at a low temperature, are carefully excluded, is a safe illuminating material for ordinary use, while the presence of a very small percentage of the naphtha, added to an oil of unquestioned excellence, produces a dangerous mixture, from the use of which explosions and condagrations are liable to ensue. The continued agitation of this subject led to legislation by states, cities, and towns, and also to the manufacture of such oils as would satisfy the requirements of the various laws enacted. The result has been the establishment of different tests, that is, different degrees of temperature at which the oils might produce an explosive a Sep. Smithsonian Inst, 1802, p. 330. The name is here errojieously given T. Allen. 216 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. vapor or burst into flame. The tests were therefore classified as flash tests and fire tests, and both classes include a range of temperatures between 7oo and 175° F. Both the classes of tests have had their advocates ; and to meet the requirements of law with most profit on the one hand, and to protect the public in the use of these oils on the other, a large number of apparatus and a variety of methods for their use have been devised. The conclusions reached by Mr. Allen, that an oil properly manufactured is safe, while one containing naphtha is dangerous, suggests the further conclusion that there must be two standards : one of relative and the other of absolute safety. The object of establishing any test is simjply to determine at what temperature a given sample of illuminating oil, in quantity sufficient to Jill a lamp of ordinary size, gives off enough vapor, ivhich, tchen mingled with air, can form an explosive mixture. It therefore becomes a matter of merely secondary importance at what temperature such an oil will take fire, as all experience has shown that an explosion has been followed by fire in so many instances that the question of the temperature at which an explosive oil will take fire becomes eliminated as worthless; because the temperature at which an oil will take fire is acknowledged by all parties at all acquainted with the facts to be no indication whatever of the temperature at which such an oil will flash. It is immediately asked, if such is the case, why is a fire test ever used? It is sufficient to answer, that it is much less difficult to manufacture oils of a uniform fire test than of a uniform flash test ; hence the efforts of some manufacturers have always bpen used to secure legislation requiring a fire test rather than a flash test, and legislators have listened to the presentation of practical difficulties rather than to the objections presented by physicists and philanthropists who have urged the claims of the flash test. As illustrating the inadequacy of the fire test to protect life and property by detecting dangerous oils, of seven hundred and thirty-six samples of oil examined for the New York city health department more than haK did not take fire below 110°, while only twenty-three failed to evolve inflammable vapors below 100°. Eeturning to the question of absolute safety, we immediately seek to follow Mr. Allen in his inquiries respecting the temperature attained by the oil while burning in lamps under ordinary conditions. The most elaborate research on record is that undertaken by Dr.O. F. Chandler and published in 1871 in his celebrated report on petroleum as an illuminator. («) The following extract from this report gives the conclusion reached: THE TEMPERATURE OF OIL IN BURNING LAMPS. First Series.— TEMPERATUKE OF THE ROOM, 73° TO 74° F. Kind of lamp. Brass hand-lamp . . Brass hand-lamp . . Glass stand-lamp . Glass etand-lamp . Glass stand-lamp . Glass stand-lamp . Glass stand-lamp . Glass hand-lamp Glass hand-lamp — Brass student-lamp . Glass stand-lamp ... Brass stand-lamp ... Tin lantern Glass bracket-lamp . Glass atand-lamp Brass student-lamp. Brass stand-lamp . . . Brass stand-lamp Metal stand-lamp Brass stand-lamp Bronze stand-lamp... Glass hand-lamp Capacity of lamp. Deg.F. TEMPERATUKE OP THE OIL. Average for seven hours. Deg. F. 84.5 81.0 79.0 82.75 84.0 81.75 83.75 79.0 82.25 79.75 88.75 87.5 82.75 81.5 84.0 85.75 95.75 84.75 89.0 80.75 80.75 a Am. C, ii, 409, 446; iii, 20, 41; Men. Sci., 1872, 676, Dingier, ccv, 587; D. Ind. Z., 1872, 376; W. B., 1872 THE USES OF PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS. 217 With the air of the room at from 73° to 74° F. the temperature of the oil in the burning lamps ranged from 76° to 100° F., the hit^hcst temperature of 100° having been reached in a metal lamp at the eud of one hour. That this was an exceptionally high temperature is shown by the fact that the highest temperature reached in any other lamp was 92° F. The following is a synopsis of the observatious: Iq 23 lamps. In 11 metal lamps. In 12 glass lamps. Deff. F. Highest temperatnre reached | 100 Lowest temperature reached 76 Average temperature 83 Deg. F. 100 76 86 Deg. F. 86 76 81 Second Series.— TEMPERATURE OF THE ROOM, 82^ TO 84° F. Brass hand-lamp — Brass hand-lamp Glass stand-lamp — Glass stand-lamp Glass stand-lamp Glass stand-lamp . . . Glass stand-lamp Glass hand-lamp Glass hand-lamp Glass hand-lamp Brass stadent-lamp . . Glass stand-lamp Brass stand-lamp .... Tin lantern Glass bracket-lamp . , Brass stand-lamp Brass student-lamp . Brass stndent-Iamp . Brass stand-lamp Metal stand-lamp . . . Brass stand-lamp Bronze stand-lamp . . Glass hand-lamp Brass stadent-lamp . Brass student-lamp . TEMPERATURE OF THE OIL. Average for four "hours. 94.50 92.25 85.50 85.00 86.00 87.25 88.00 89.25 88.50 85.00 87.50 85.50 102. 25 95.25 84.25 84.25 86.25 91.75 98.75 92.00 94.00 86.75 84.75 119. 50 115. 00 With the air of the room at from 8*2° to 84° F, the temperature of the oil in the burning lamps ranged from 82"^ to 120° F. The temperatnre ISO*^ was exceptional, being confined to one lamp. SYNOPSIS OF THE OBSERVATIONS. In 25 lamps. In 13 metal lamps. In 12 glass lamps. Highest temperature reached Deg. F. 120 82 914 Deg. F. 120 82 96i Deg.F. 91 81 86 218 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. Third Series.— TEMPERATURE OF ROOM, 90° TO 92° F. Kind of lamp. Ca.pacit.y of lamp. TEMPERATURE OF THE OIL. Brass hand-lamp Brass band-lamp Glass stand-lamp — Glass stand-lamp — Glass stand-lamp — Glass staud-lamp GLiss stand-lamp Glass hand-lamp Glass hand-laitfp ... Glass hand-lamp Brass stndent-lamp . Glass stand-lamp — Brass stand-lamp . . . Tin lantei-n Glass hracket-lamp Glass stand-lamp Brass student-lamp . Brass student-lamp . Brass stand-lamp . . . Metal stand-lamp — Brass stand-lamp . . . Bronze stand-lamp... Glass hand-lamp Brass student lamp . , Brass stndent-lamp -. Deg. F. Beg. F. Deg. F. 7 I Average for four hours. 97.25 91.25 S3. 00 01.25 93.25 94. 50 94.75 94.25 91.75 98.25 91.50 111.50 104. 25 100 98.50 107 109.75 99 90.50 loe 107. 00 98 91.75 94 93.50 128 127. 50 127 125. 00 Witli the air of the room at from 90° to 92° F. the temperature of the oil iu the burning lamps ranged from 84° to 129° F., the highest temperature being exceptional. SYNOPSIS OF THE OBSERVATIONS. Iu 25 lamps. Iu 13 metal lamps. In 12 glass lamps. Highest temperature observed Lowest temperature observed Average temj)eratur6 observed Deg. F. 129 84 985 Deg. F. 129 84 104J Deg.F. 98 85 924 By these results it appear.s that the temperature of the oil in lamps often rises much above 100° F., thus reaching a temperature at which oil, iohioh does not emit a comhiistible vapor below 100° jF., would be dangerous. It is apparent that 100° F. is too low a standard for safety; 120° F. would not be too high a standard, and its adoption would not add three cents per gallon to the cost of the oil. . An analysis of these tables shows that when the temperature of the room was 73° to 74° (a comfortable temperature) only one lamp in twenty-three reached a temperature of 100°, and no glass lamp reached a temperature of 90°, and that the average temperature of the twenty-three lamps was only 83° F. The average temperature of the eleven metal lamps was 5° higher than that of the twelve glass lamps. When the temi^erature of the room was 82° to 84° (quite warm for comfort) only one lamp in twenty-five reached a temperature of 120°, and only two glass lamps reached a temperature of 90°, the highest reaching 91°. The average temperature of the twenty-five lamps was 91^° F. The average temperature of the thirteen metal lamps was 10^° higher than that of the twelve glass lamps. When the temperature of the room was 90° to 92° F. (an uncomfortably high temperature) only two lamps out of twenty- five reached a temperature of 120°, and no glass lamp reached a temperature of 100°, and the average temperature of the twenty-five lamps was only 98f° F. The average temperature of the thirteen metal lamps was 12JrO higher tlian that of the twelve glass lamps. Moreover, in the seventy-three lamps tested, but twelve reached a temperature above 100°, and but six above 110°. A series of experiments were described by H. B. Cornwall, («) in 1876, which were made with the design of showing how much naphtha must be removed from a low-test oil to bring it up to safety. His results are tabulated on page 219. a Am. Chem., vi, 458. THE USES OF PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS. 219 No. Sp.gr. Time. ^^^l^ Time. Burmng , 1 2 3 4 S 6 7 8 9 10 Deg. B. 49.7 Minutes. 21 25 Deg. F. Minutes. 86 7 96 8 Beg. F. 107 112 124 100 138 113 135 125 ! 120 48.7 47.1 45.3 110 80 121 98 15 23 12 23 12 23 23 I SO. 4 45.8 118 104 104 81 6 5 5 No. 1 was an oil flashing at 86° and burning at 107°. He distilled ofl' 4 per cent., and the residue (No. 2) flashed at 96° and burned at 112°. He then distilled off of another portion of the same oil 10.6 percent., and the residue (No. 3) flashed at 110° and burned at 121o. On mixing the distillate and the residue in proper proportions the mixture flashed at 89° and burned at 307°, almost at the identical temperatures with the original oil No. 1. An oil worse than No. 1 (No. 4) was then distilled until, 12.7 per cent, of distillate was secured with 2.7 per cent, of loss. The residue (No. 5), which was very dark, flashed at 121° and burned at 138°. Five per cent, of distillate was removed from another portion of the same sample, and the residue, after treatment with sulphuric acid and soda, gave No. 6, which flashed at 98° and burned at 113°. The following table embraces some experiments made with mixtures of oils and naphtha, and includes some results obtained by Dr.C. B.White, of New Orleans, Louisiana: Oils. riashiog point. Difference. Bnming point. Difference. No. 7. Table I: 2)eg. F. 118 Deg. F. Beg. F. 135 129 123 116 102 133 105 125 120 107 Beg. F. 6.0 4.0 3.8 3.3 2.0 6.0 103 i a a 96 83 107 Below 70 104 96 76 113 103 92 83 59 4.4 3.5 11.0 No. 8. Table I: -|- 2 per cent, naphtha of 65° B 4.0 2.8 2.5 1.08 Dr. White's oil : 10.0 10.5 6.9 5.4 50 The naphtha of specific gravity 65° B. is termed benzine, the commercial naphtha having a specific gravity of 70° to 76°. The columns marked " Difference" show the average difierence for each per cent, of naphtha added. The naphtha used by Dr. White was lighter than 65° B. A series of experiments was undertaken to show the dift'ereuce in two consecutive tests for flashing point made upon the same sample of oil, after allowing the oil to cool between the tests. The difference was found to be from 3° to 4°. Probably the greatest danger from kerosene lamps arises from the risk of overturning and breaking the lamp, although undoubtedly explosions sometimes break lamps. A series of experiments were undertaken with a view to ascertaining the action of oils of different quality under conditions similar to those attending a broken lamp. Thin glass flasks were i>rovided witb corks, through which passed tubes holding wicks. The oil in each flask was then heated in a water bath to 95° F., and the wick lighted, after which the flask was dropped ou a brick floor near a steam boOer, the bricks having a temperature of about 93° F. The results are given In the following table. No. 8 was a mixture of No. 1 with 5 per cent, of naphtha of 65° B., and No. 9 of No. 1 with 5 per cent, of naphtha of 71.7° B. ; the others were bought from dealers. No. Flashing point. Burning point. Remarks. 1 2 Beg. F. 118 10+ Beg.F. 135 120 The wick coutinuetl to bum quietly without igniting the spilled oil. Like No. I. 3 100 112 Do. 4 5 98 96 lie 111 Part of tlio oil was slowly ignited. All of the nil at once took fire. 6 SO 100 Lilci. Xo. ^. 7 83 08 llo. 1 8 US 116 Do. » Below 70 105 Ignited with a flash. 220 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. From tlie aljore experiments the following conclusions may be drawn, as applying at least to these oils : 1. The naphthas distilled were comparatively heavy, 59° to 64° B., technically known as benzines. 2. The removal of about 10 per cent, of these naphthas from an average unsafe oil raised the flashing point 2.27° and the burning point 1.60° F. for each per cent, removed ; the addition of the same proportion of naphtha of equal specific gravity lowered the flashing point in very nearly the same ratio. 3. The second table shows that a paying amount of a light naphtha above 70° B. could not be added to even a very high grade oil TVithout making it conspicuously bad, while as much as 10 per cent, of a heavier naphtha (benzine) of 65° B. could be added to an oil of a little above 100° F. flashing test, and make it no worse than much of the oil now in the market. 4. When a small amount of naphtha of above 70° B. is added to a good oil the flashing point is lowered much more rapidly^ than the burning point; if the oil is of very high grade and the naphtha moderately heavy, 65° B., the burning point of the oil is lowered almost as rapidly as the flashing point, while the addition of a naphtha of 65° B. to a moderately good oil, flashing at 104° F., lowers the flashing point 35 to 40 per cent, more rapidly than the burning point. 5. The burning point is not a reliable test of the safety of an oil, since oils, when spilled, will ignite instantly on the approach of a flame when heated a degree or two above their flashing point, even although the burning jjoint is 10° or 20° F. higher, (a) 6. The first two tables show that an oil flashing at 86° and burning at 107° F. can be made to flash at 100° by removing 6 or 7 per cent, by distillation. This corresponds nearly with the estimate * * * that average petroleum yielding 75 per cent, of 110° F. " fire test" (burning test) oil would probably yield 69 per cent, of 100° "flash oil"; in other words, 8 per cent, of the 110° "fire test" oil would have to be removed to make a 100° "flash" oil. The average flashing point of eight oils given in Dr. Chandler's report as bilrning at 110° F. was 89°. (5) These conclusions were stated with equal emphasis by Dr. Chandler in his report, from which I have already quoted. He says : There are two distinct tests for oil: (1) the flashing test, (2) the burning test, which are often confounded; and when the law or ordinance specifies thence test there is a doubt as to which of the two tests is intended. The flashing test determines the flashing point of the oil, or the lowest temperature at which it gives oif an inflammable vapor. This is by far the most important test, as it is the inflammable vapor, evolved at atmospheric temperatures, that causes most of the accidents. Moreover, an oil having a high flashing test is sure to have a high burning test, while the reverse is not true. The burning test fixes the burning point of the oil, or the lowest temperature at which it takes fire. The burning point of an oil is from 10° to 50° F. higher than the flashing point. The two points are quite independent of each other ; the flashingpoint depends upon the amount of the most volatile constituents present, naphtha, etc., while the burning point depends upon rhe general character of the whole oil. Two per cent, of naphtha will lower the flashing point of an oil 10° without materially affecting the burning test. The burning test does not determine the real safety of the oil ; that is, the absence of naphtha. The standard which has been generally adoi)ted as a safe one fixes the flashing point at 100° F. or higher, and the burning point at 110° or higher. In the English act and some of * * * the laws of the states of the American Union the burning test has been very j adiciously omitted, as two distinct tests are often confusing, and, moreover, the burning test or point is not an index of the safety of the oil. More than half of all the samples of oil which have been tested for the health department (of New York city) did not take fire below 110° F. ; consequently they were safe according to the burning test ; but only twenty-eight of seven hundred and thirty-six samples w really safe, all the rest evolving inflammable vapors below 100° F. The flashing test should therefore be the only test mentioned in laws framed to prevent the sale of dangerous oils, (c) In 1873 a committee of the Franklin Institute, of Philadelphia, reported "On the causes of conflagrations and the methods of their prevention". This committee reported that in 1872 the number of fires occurring in Philadelphia was 41^ per cent, greater than in the previous year. Of these fires, 59 (the largest number originating from any one source) were caused by explosions of coal-oil and fluid lamps. The report further states : The number of deaths in the United States from the explosions of coal-oil and fluid lamps in 1871 was, by the account kept by an insurance paper (the Chronicle), 3,500. If the death rate for 1872 kept pace with the increase of conflagrations, which was about 50 per cent. , it would give for the past year (1872) 5,250 "deaths, and the maiming of probably 20,000 persons within the jurisdiction of the United States. Statistics of this character could be extended indefinitely. Eegarding the nature of petroleum j^roducts, this committee report : We find by actual experiments that all the light forms of petroleum (products) constantly generate. vapor or gas even at the low temperature of 12° above zero. » * * Any oil or burning fluid that evaporates rapidly or generates gas below 100° Is exceedingly unsafe. * * * It is not the oil or fluid that explodes, but the vapor mixed with air. * * * When the mixture goes on so that there is one part of gas and four parts of atmospheric air inside the lamp, or when these proportions exist in a room or any other apartment, they form a fearfully explosive mixture. « » * Volatile oils and combination burning fluids generate vapor inside the lamp, hence the less the oil the greater the vacant space filled with vapor and atmospheric air and the greater the danger, and hence it is apparent that to fill a lamp nearly empty while burning is almost certain to result in a terrific explosion. This report was accompanied by another, in which the subject was discussed by the then secretary of the institute, William H. Wahl,esq. In this report Dr. Wahl reviews the subject in great detail, and reaches the same conclusions as Dr. Chandler, above quoted, (d) I have already referred to the elaborate research of Dr. J. Biel, of Saint Petersburg, upon the comparative value of American and Eussian petroleum, published in Dingier in 1879. (e) After reviewing the comparative production of America and Russia, in which he shows that the average yearly yield of a Caucasian well is three times as great as that of an American well, he refers to the "special general meeting of the Petroleum Association" held in London on the 14th of January, 1879, at which Mr. F. W. Lockwood, of New York, was present, and the representations there made, that the illuminating oils produced from the petroleum of the Bradford district were not of the same a See in this connection Chandlei-'s report. Am. Chem., iii, 42. d Jour. Frank. Inst., xcv, 267. b Am. Chem., vi, 458. e Dingier, ccxxxii, 354. eAm. Chem., iii, 42; Mon. SeL, 1872; Dingier, ccv; W. B., 1872. THE USES OF PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS. 221 quality as those exported from the United States iu previous years and manufactured from the petroleum of the Parker (Butler and Clarion) district. He then goes on to say that the American oils offered for sale were very inflammable and were deficient iu illuminating power; that they burned well for a few hours, and that during the succeeding hours, in order to maintain the illumination, it was necessary to raise the wick at short intervals, the result of which was finally the accumulation of carbon npou the wick. In order to determine the cause of this trouble Dr. Biel selected three American kerosenes, Pratt's astral oil, aud several specimens of Russian kerosene, and subjected them to fractional distillation in a glass retort with a thermometer immersed in the oil. That portion distilling below 1.50° C. (302° F.) he called essence (essenzen); that portion coming over between 150° and 270° (518° F.) he called burning oil (breunole) ; and that above 270° he called Iteam/ oil (schwere Oele). The three American kerosenes were Carbon oil of the Standard Oil company, of Cleveland, Ohio; Standard oil of the Imperial Eeliuing Company, of Oil City, Pennsylvania; aud Standard White, of unknown manufacture. The three oils gave practically the same results, as follows : 1. Standard oil, specific gravity 0.705, flash point 26° C. (78° F.), burning point 30° C. (86° F.) ; concentrated sulphuric acid in equal parts with the oil is colored blackish brown upon- being shaken with it. Tension of vapor according to Salleron, IGO"™ at 35° C. The distilled products were: Temperature. Per cent. Specific grarity. Bnruing point. Dr,,. F. la) 125 to 150 14.4 Deg.B. 0.741 = 39 Deg. 0. 16 (162) 1 • (») 150 to 170 9.8 0. 760 = 54 29 (85) , (c) 170 to 190 8.3 0. 770 = 52 43 (110) 1 (d) 190 to 210 6.0 0. 778 = 50 59 (140) («) 210 to 230 5.6 0. 786 = 48 75 (167) (/) 230 to 250 8.6 0. 796 = 46 100 (212) ig) 250 to 270 7.6 0. 808 = 43 112 (233) (A) 270 to 290 (t) Residue . 33.9 0. 840 = 37J I have given the equivalents of the specific gravity and temperatures in degrees of Baum6 and Fahrenheit. The distillation was accompanied with a copious evolution of sulphurous acid and the distilled products that come over between 190° and 230° C. (374° to 530° F.) are also strongly impregnated with it. This is produced by the decomposition of the suljihur compounds in the kerosene, which are produced by the reaction of the crude distillate with the concentrated sulphuric acid, with which the American kerosene is imperfectly purified. He summarizes his results obtained from the three Standard oils as follows: 14.4 per cent, light inflammable essence. 45.9 per cent, really good burning oil. 39.7 per cent, heavy oil. ' 2. Astral oil or so called, " 150° fire test," specific gravity 0.783, flashing point 48° C. (118° F.), burning point 51° C. (124° F.). Shaken with an equal quantity of concentrated .sulphuric acid it is colored a golden yellow. Tension of vapor after Salleron, 5""° at 35°. The distilled products were : Temperature. Per cent. Specific gr.avity. BuTniog point Deg. F. Oeg. B. Deg. C. 16 Deg.F. (62) (i>) 150 to 170 13.5 0. 758 = 55J 29 (85) (c) 170 to 190 21.3 0. 768 = 52 43 (110) (d) ISO to 210 18.8 0. 777 = 50 57 (133) «■) 210 to 230 15.0 0. 786 = 48 7.i (167) (/) 230 to 250 10.0 0. 795 = 46 99 (210) , (g) 250 to 270 9.2 0. 806 = 44J HI (231) (h) 270 to 290 (i) Keaidue 5.2 0.834 = 38 1 The distillation was entirely destitute of any deleterious odor, and the distillate was normal throughout. He summarizes his results as follows : 2.2 per cent, light inflammable essence. 87.8 ])er cent, good normal burning oil. 10 per cent, heavy oil. The results that he obtained from the examination of the Imperial oil (Kaiserol) of Aug. Korff of Bremen, were nearly identical with those obtained from the astral oil, and his examination of the several samples of Eussian oil showed them to be of very fair average quality. («) a See page 180. A better method of conducting a research of this character is to use alembics instead of retorts ; 200 cubic centimeters in an 8-ounce alembic will yield 1 per cent, for every 2 cubic centimeters of distillate. If the distillate is received into a narrow measuring jar graduated to one-half cubic centimeters, the measuring can be made to one-fourth per cent, withont difficulty. 222 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. The point in this discussion emphasized by this research is to be sought in the character of the 14.4 per cent, of distillate obtained from the American kerosenes below loOo, having a specific gravity of 59° B. and burning at 62° F. This naphtha, more dense than average benzine, when mixed with a residue containing oils more dense than those found in t-he astral oil, produces an oil flashing at 78° and burning at 8Q°, an extremely dangerous oil if no consideration were made of the large content of sulphur compounds revealed upon distillation. These kerosenes were cracked oils, not mixed " tops and bottoms"-, as the English oil merchants have styled them, but a cracked product that was run for a given specific gravity (0.795, equal to 46° B.) and color, without much regard to test, and none at all for other considerations. While there are, no doubt, occasional instances in which retail dealers have mixed naphtha with good kerosene for purposes of fraudulent adulteration, I do not believe that oils are thus prepared by either wholesale dealers or manufacturers. It is, however, not to be denied that the temptation is very great for manufacturers to allow too large a proportion of benzine for safety to run into an oil designed for a market where there are no laws prohibiting the sale of such substances. It is more probable that these kerosenes were made, as Dr. Biel received them, by cracking the heavy residue from which the normal burning oil had been previously removed,, a part of which had been cracked too much and the remainder too little, than that the heavy and light residues, once separated, had been mixed together. Dr. Chandler is at some pains to show that a cost of a few cents per gallon will remove the naphtha from dangerous kerosene. When kerosene sells at wholesale for less than seven cents a gallon, a few cents a gallon would be a large per cent, of its value. What per cent, of the present price of refined petroleum would be required to place all of the oils sold at a flash test of 100° F., and of good quality as regards color and sulphur compounds, I am not able to say. I have not the least doubt, however, that it is quite impossible to convert Bradford oil, with all its parafQne, into illuminating oil of good quality in all respects by one distillation and one treatment unless the whole distillate below 60° B. is run into burning oil. I am quite certain that it is impossible to crack the heavy residue from which the normal burning oil that exists in the petroleum has been run off and produce a good oil by one distillation and one treatment, nor do I believe that such an oil can be made safe, that is, with a flash test of 100°. The question of how much additional expense would be involved in rendering oils prepared by one distillation safe involves quite a radical change in the manufacture of these oils; a change that would, of necessity, increase the cost of the oils, and would, therefore, have to become universal, but which would not necessarily render the manufacturer's profit less certain. At the same time it would improve the quality of the oils to the manifest advantage of the consumer in respect to safety, health, and economy. That poor oils are not safe has been fully proved ; that they are not healthful is as clearly proved by the vapors of sulphurous acid and the products of imperfect combustion from crusted wicks and imperfect flow of the oil. Dr. Beil says, when commenting upon the three samples of American kerosene examined by him : It is apparent that a kerosene containing such a quantity of iieavy oil, and that in addition to this is contaminated by tarry substances containing sulphur, cannot possibly satisfy the demands of the public. While the heavy oils are not in a condition to ascend to the flame in sufficient quantity, the carbonized tarry substances obstruct the wick and prevent the further ascent of the kerosene to the flame, {a) That they are not economical is further shown by the research of Dr. Beil, in which the illuminating power of these common oils is compared with astral oil with the following result : ILLUMINATING POWER AT A LEVEL DISTANCE OF— 6=". 9=». 12™. 14<". 7 7 7 (0) 7 (a) 7 (6) 7 (c) 7 3.35 4.50 6.00 6.25 5.20 5.70 1.36 3.00 3.00 4.45 4.00 3.20 0.80 1.30 1.36 3.70 3.00 1.65 Rns.^inn 1 At 6""" the oils are equal ; at 9"™ the astral oil is 34 per cent, better thau the kerosene; at 12"" the astral is 120 per cent, better thau the kerosene; and at 14™. the astral is 70 per cent, better than the kerosene. The average value of the astral for that distance above that of the kerosene is 27J per cent. In addition to the inferior illuminating power of these inferior oils we have the fact that they are consumed more rapidly. I am not aware that any exact determinations have been made respecting the comparative rapidity with which equal quantities of these oils are consumed, but it is undoubtedly a fact that oils containing a large proportion of benzine are consumed much more rapidly than those that consist of what Dr. Biel calls " normal burning oils ". I am informed that the demand for " high-test" oils is not equal to the amount that can be made from the petroleum manufactured. Manufacturers the world over can only make what they cau sell, and the ignorant and a Dingier, ccxxxii,357. THE USES OF PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS. 223 reckless buj- the cheapest oil, regardless of all other considerations, encouraging the production of these cheap oils. It is here that intelligent legislation is required, to protect the ignorant purchaser on the one hand, and the honest manufacturer from un^jrincipled competition on the other, as well as the innocent public, especially prominent as women and children, from the consequences that follow the use of dangerous oils; not safe even with patent " safety lamps". As Dr. Chandler said ten years ago : It 13 not possible to make ijasoUne, naphtha, or hensine safe iij any addition that can be made to if. Xor ia any oil safe that can be set on fire at the ordinary lempcralure of the air. » ♦ » Even when the "safety lamp" has an ally in the form of a "safety can", it still fails to make naphtha safe. It is an axiom that no lamp is safe with dangerous oil, and every lamp is safe tvith safe oil. • » » What we want is safe oil; with it all lamps iviU be safe, (a) This axiom expresses a permanent truth. The legitimate use of naphtha for illuminating purposes will be further discussed in Chapter III. Referring to page 218, it will be observed that Dr. Chandler concludes, from his experiments upon the temperature of the oil iu burning lamps, that " it is apparent that 100° F. is too low a standard for safety ; 120° F. would not be too high a standard ". While it cannot be denied that these conclusions are correct as indicating a standard of absolute safety, it will be observed that in these experiments the extreme temperature of oil in glass lamps was 98°, being never over 8° above the temperature of the room. The higher temperatures were in metallic lamps, in which the oil reached 27°, and in one instance 39° above the temperature of the room, the exceptional temperature being reached by student-lamp No. 24. Metallic lamps are widely but not generally used, and student-lamps are so constructed as to reduce the danger of explosion to a minimum. It therefore appears to me that if legislation strictly required all oil to be brought to a fla-sh test of 100° F. the general public would be fairly protected in the legitimate use of such oils, so far as mere legislation alone can aflbrd protection. Such legislation should rigidly exclude all forms of naphtha from use in households, in lamps or in stoves of any pattern wliatever, as always, under all circumstances and under whatever name or guise, more dangerous than gunpowder. An oil that will not take fire when thrown from a lamp broken upon a brick floor heated to a temperature of 93° is a safe oil for legitimate use. Floors are rarely heated to that temperature. A temperature to which oil is heated in lamps of ordinary construction in a room the atmosphere of which stands at 93° is a safe temperature. An oil that did not reach 100° under the last conditions stated, and that did not take fire under the first conditions stated, flashed at 100°. I therefore conclude that an oil that flashes at 100° F. is a safe oil, and while oils that flash at a higher temperature, and that cannot be prepared by cracking petroleum by one distillation, are more safe, healthful, and economical, legislation can hardly require anything further than a reasonable limit of public safety. Section 3.— METHODS OF TESTING PETROLEUM. I have not been able to ascertain where, when, and by whom the question of safe oils was first agitated. Early in ISGl, when I was engaged iu examining petroleum in the laboratory of Brown University, Professor N. P. Hill (now Senator HiU, of Colorado) was interested in this subject, and it was with his assistance, if not at his suggestion, that the experiments described in Mr. Allen's paper, previously quoted, were undertaken. The method of conducting the test, as described by Mr. Allen, was at that time supposed to be sufficient, and it is my belief that when undertaken by a careful manipulator, accustomed to the use of apparatus, it is ; but it soon after became apparent that in untrained hands this method of manipulating was in many respects deficient. As a result, a large variety of apparatus and of methods have been contrived for testing oils, both in America and in Europe. The following descriptions of several testers, that represent the classes to which they belong, are taken from an elaborate article in the Sanitary Engineer, abridged from the article of Messrs. Engler and Haas in the Zeitschrift fiir Analytische Ghemie, 1881 : (&) Petroleum testers maybe divided into two classes, according to the principle upon which they are constructed. In the first class, the vapor expansion of the petroleum is measured at a stated temperature, and from this its combustibility ascertained ; while in the second class the temperature is determined at which the oil evolves inHammable vapor. To the first class belongs the apparatus of Salleron-Urbain, which is the most accurate of its kind, ?nd the only one to be described. Most testers belong to the second class, and are known as " opened " or " closed", the latter because the surface of the oil is more or less protected from the atmosphere. In some countries two points are determined in testing petroleum: the first is that of the temperature at which the liquid begins to give oft' an inflammable vapor, and is known as the "flashing point"; while the second, or "burning point", is the temperature at which the liquid continues to burn when ignited. Most forms of apparatus are constructed with reference to the determination of the flashing point only, and, as an oil becomes dangerous at the temperature of its flashing point, there is no necessity for a further test. The flashing point of a petroleum will be found to vary according as the vessel is partly or entirely filled with petroleum, is open or closed, the petroleum is quiet or agitated, whether the air above it is in a large or small volume iu relation to the quantity of oil, whether quiet or in motion, whether charged more or less with the vapor evolved from the petroleum, and, above all, as to the distance of the torch from the surface of the oil. It is also necessary to consider the kind and size of the taper used, the length of time it is allowed to remain near the surface of the oil in applying a test, the dimensions and material of the oil-bolder, and the raijidity and uniformity of heating. As these conditions vary in dift'orent forms of apparatus, the flashing point will be found higher or lower ; and even in the same apparatus this may happen, according to the care given to the manipulation in the above respects. Salleron-Urbaiu's apparatus, in which the expansion of the vapor of petroleum is determined, is used principally in France. It consists of & copper vessel. A, Fig. 48, in which is fixed the conical pillar D, and which is covered by the plate dd fitting on its upper edge. C is a movable plate turning on the pillar D, and held in place by the screw n. In this movable plate is the cylindrical chamber a Jm. Chem., iii, 24. b Oil and Drug News, 1881. 224 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. B closed at the top by the screw-plug j), while its lower opeuing can he placed in communication with the vessel A by means of the openino- o, or by turning the plate C it can be sealed by the upper surface of d. There are also in the plate d a thermometer, a graduated tube m 35=™ long, and the regulating apparatus I, which consists of the screw r, so arranged that b y raising or lowering it the ^Kjater level in VI is made to stand at zero. Fifty cubic centimeters of water are put in the vessel A, the plate d d and the sliding piece C are screwed down tight by n and so placed that the chamber B does not communicate with A. B is nearly filled with the petroleum to he tested, the screw j) replaced, and the whole placed in warm water until the temperature has become constant. The water level in m is placed at zero, and then the plate C is moved until the opeuing of B comes over the opening o. The petroleum spreads upon the surface of the -water in A, and by the expansion of its vapor causes the water to rise in the tube m, when its height is read. By a comparison of this number with the known expansion of the vapor of normal petroleum at a corresponding temperature the combustibility of the oil is determined. For this purpose a table accompanies the apparatus which gives the obtained vapor expansion of normal petroleum in m for different temperatures sought. This method depends upon the supposition that the numbers which express the expansion of the petroleum vapor run parallel with the temperature of the inflammability of all kinds of petroleum. It has been found, however, that this supposition is not correct for all cases, inasmuch as the presence of a small quantity of a very volatile hydrocarbon occasions, by increased temperature, a correspondingly greater pressure in the tube m, without its being sufficient to form an explosive mixture with air. Experiments were made on samples of petroleum prepared by mixing in varying proportions oils of low and high boiling points, and from these experiments it is concluded that a small percentage of a volatile constituent, notwithstanding the equal inflammability of the oils, occasions an uncorresponding increase of the vapor expansion. From this it is evident that while this form of apparatus would give accurate results in some cases, it could not be depended upon in others. They have concluded that oils are to be considered safe that exhibit a tension of 64"" of water at 35° C. The second class of petroleum testers are designed for the determination of the "flashing point", or temperature at which the oil gives off an inflammable vapor. The majority of testers, and those found most reliable, belong to this class. The older forms consisted of an open vessel partly or entirely filled with petroleum, and heated until inflammable vapors were formed upon the surface of the oil. These have been improved by placing the petroleum in a closed vessel, by wltich the conditions of the actual use of the oil in lamps is more nearly attained. Of the open testers the Tagliabue, the Danish, and the Saybolt are the most important. Tagliabue's open tester, Fig. 49, was employed in the official testing of petroleum in this country until 1879, and even now it is used in Germany with immaterial changes and under various names. It consists of abrass water-bath A upon the stand B, heated by the lamp C. D is the glass petroleum-holder, in which is immersed the thermometer E. The bath is nearly filled with cold water, allowing for the displacement by the oil-holder. D is filled to the top with the petroleum to be tested, care being taken not to wet the rim, the thermometer placed in position, and the lamp lighted. The heating should be gradual, and, if necessary, the lamp be occasionally removed. When the oil has reached the temperature at which you wish to begin the testing, a small flame, either from a wooden splinter or a gas jet, is slowly and carefully passed over the petroleum, about 12"" (nearly half an inch) from its surface. If no flashing takes place, this is repeated as the temperature rises until the flashing point is reached. During testing the apparatus should be protected from draughts of air. The Danish tester differs from Tagliabue's only in having the petroleum vessel of copper instead of glass, and in being but partly filled with oil. The Saybolt tester was, in 1879, adopted by the produce exchange of this city in the testing of refined petroleum. It resembles the open tester of Tagliabue, differing only in the use of the electric spark for the burning splinter. It is represented in Fig. 50, and consists of the copper water-bath F, containing the petroleum-holder, which, with the other parts of the apparatus, are placed on the tray C, and for transportation can be inclosed in the box A. D D are the covers of two b.ittery elements. H is a current breaker, E an induction coil, and ee the conducting wires for producing the spark over the surface of the petroleum, a is the thermometer of the oil-holder, and a} that of the water-bath. In using this apparatus the bath is filled with water and heated to 100° F., after which the lamp is removed. The oil-cup, filled to within 3"" (J of an inch) of the top with the petroleum to be tested, Is placed in the bath and the thermometer immersed in the oil until the bulb is just covered. As the temperature of the oil is raised to 90° F., produce a spark by the key H, and after replacing the lamp repeat this operation every two or three degrees until the flashing point is reached. The apparatus of Abel, represented in Fig. 51, is employed in England in determining the flashing point of petrolevun. It consists of the copper cylindrical vessel D, in which is the water-bath, composed of the two copper cylinders B B and C C, the latter resting on the ring g g and covered by the plate K K ; / is a funnel for filling the water-bath, and e is the thermometer placed In It. The brass petroleum-holder A rests in an ebony ring fixed in the plate K, and hangs in the air-filled space H of the water-bath. It Is provided with a closely-fitting cover, through which passes the thermometer 6, and upon which is placed the small oil-lamp c, movable upon the horizontal axis. There are also in the cover three rectangular openings, which can be opened and closed by the sliding bar d, by the movement of which the lamp is so tipped that its nose comes opposite to the opening in the middle of the cover. The oil-lamp can be replaced by a gas flame, which is much cleaner, and was used in the experiments with this apparatus. The water-bath is filled and heated to 54° C. A is then filled to the mark a with the petroleum to be tested, covered and placed in the space H. The wick of the lamp is arranged to give a flame 4"" long. When the temperature, by the thermometer i, has risen to 19° C, the tests are commenced, and repeated every degree or two until the flashing point is reached. In testing very volatile oils the air- space H should be filled with cold water, and in the testing of oils of high flashing point this water should be heated to about 50° C. In closed petroleum testers the oil is heated in a closed vessel until Inflammable vapors rise from the oil into the empty part of the holder. There are a large number of these testers ; among them those of Tagliabue, Abel, Sintenls, Parrish, Bernstein, and others. The Tagliabue closed tester is represented in Fig. 52, and consists of the water-bath A and the petroleum holder B, berth of brass. The latter Is provided with a cover, upon which are fixed the hood C, containing a rectangular opening a, the sliding bar h, for opening or closing the aperture beneath it, and lastly the thermometer D. There is also an improved form of this tester differing from the first in the arrangement of the cover, which is shown in Fig. 53. In this a a is the cover, with openings under the movable bar B h, by which they are closed ; // are small openings in 6 6, closed by the piece e, held up by the spring beneath it. By pressing upon the knob c the apertures // are opened, and the bar b b can be moved by the handle g. In using the apparatus, the water-bath and oil-holder are filled and the bath gradually heated by the spirit-lamp. When the thermometer reaches a definite temperature a small flame is introduced through the opening a into the hood C ; and at the same time the bar 6, in Fig. 52, is moved to one side, or, as represented in Fig. 53, the knob c is pressed down, in order to establish communication with the air by openings b or//. This testing Is repeated as the temperature rises until the flashing point is reached. The next petroleum tester to be noticed Is the Parrish naphthometer. It is used chiefly in Holland, and differs from those already described in that the inflammable mixture is carried out of the petroleum holder to a stationary flame. It Is represented in Fig. 54, in THE USES OF PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS. 225 ■which A is the tin oil-holder, C the water-hath, D the support, and E the lamp. The holder is provided with a projecting cover, in which is the cylinder d, having in its asis a small tube, with a wick running into the petroleum, e is a screen, against whose base rests theglass plate flbr protecting the thermometer from the heat of the wick flame, and lastly B is a chamber commuuicatiug with the air, in which are the opeuiugs a and 6 I, the former for the circulation of the air throusjh the petroleum-holder, and the latter to allow the passage of the oil from B into A. The tbermometer c is placed in the vessel B. The bath is tilled with cold water, and the oil-holder with the petroleum to be tested, to a point l''" below the rim. The heating must bo slow and effected by the spirit-lamp, whose flam~e is only 1 to l.S"^™ high. The small wick in d is then lighted, care being taken that the flame is not more than 6 to 7"'™ high. The heat of this flame produces a current of air, which, coming in through the opening a, spreads over the surface of the oil and passes out by the tube d, taking with it the vapors evolved from the heated oil. AVhen the oil vapors are suflicient in amount to produce an inflammable mixture, they are ignited by the flame in d, the flame being extinguished by the sudden motion of the air. At this moment the flashing temperature is read. The apparatus devised by Engler is of the closed form, to which is added an electric mechanism simil.ar to that of the Say bolt tester. It is shown in Figs. 55 and 50, and consists of the copper water-bath A, heated by the spirit-lamjj B. C C is a glass vessel for water, which has a tilling mark etched npon it; m m is the cover, and ii the thermometer. In the cover is the glass petroleum vessel D, also provided with a filling mark, and to which is fitted the bra,ss cover o o. The latter is shown in Fig. 5G, in which will be noticed the following details : s 8 are two movable covers, tt the conducting wires, insulated by the ebony rings n u, »• the thermometer, and q the handle of the stirrer j), seen in Fig. 55. The conducting wires terminate in platinum points in the vessel D, from J to f"" above the surface of the oil, and at a distance of 1"'" from each other. For the production of the electric spark a chromate cell is used, with an induction apparatus which gives a spark at least 2 to 3""" long. The electric apparatus of the Saybolt tester answers very well. In using this tester the baths A and C are filled with water, and D is tilled to the mark with the oil to be tested. When the petroleum vessel is in place the water in C should stand 1"" below the rim. The wires are connected with the iuductiou coil and the lamp lighted. 'As the temperature rises to the testing point the spark is passed every degree, care being taken that the spark continues fi-om one-half to one second. After each passage of the spark the oil is gently agitated by the stirrer. The operation is continued in this way until an explosion occurs, by which the covers « s are thrown open. The diflBculties that have been found to attend the construction of an apparatus that in every one's hands shoukl give uniform results have been considerable. In the experiments of Engler and Haas three kinds of petroleum were emi>loyed in testing the various forms of apparatus, and at the start the tiashing point of each oil was carefull}" determined in a closed apparatus. Sample A flashed at 22° C.= 71.6° F. Sample B flashed at 29° C. = 84.2° F. Sample C flashed at 40° C. = 104°F. The following table shows the temperatures at which they flashed in the testers named : Tester. A. B. C. Deg.O. Deg.C. Tagliabue, open 22.7 to 38.8 32.2 to 48.8 Danish 19. 5 to 21. ; 29.0 to 31.0 Saybolt 30.6 to 31.7 | 36. 1 to 36. 6 Tagliabue, closed \ 24.0 to 39.4 Abel 1 16.0 to 17.1 22. 2 to 23. 8 Parrish 20.7 to 23.0 ; 25. 6 to 30. 7 Beg. 0. 45. 5 to 57. 2 42. to 45. 48. 8 to 52. 7 32. 4 to 33. 8 36.5 to 39.0 39. 3 to 39. 7 The average of the several tests with the different instruments on the same samples are given in the following table : Tagliabue, open. Saybolt, open . Tafiliabue, closed . Parrisb, closed . A 5 B 15 li 19 C 2 Average. Dtg. 0. 30.99 42.00 52.20 20.80 30.00 43. 25 31.30 36.35 50.75 31.68 16.60 22.64 32.96 21.40 27.30 37.70 21.95 29.40 39.60 Deg. O. 16.1 18.6 13.3 3.5 2.0 -15 226 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. The great variation in the results given by Tagliabue's open tester were due to a variation in the height at ■which the flame was passed above the oil, and the temperatures indicate different heights, from 1™™ (0.04 of an inch) to 12'"'" (0.47 of an inch). The uniformity of the results furnished by Engler's apparatus upon sample B, where eleven out of nineteen tests were within a variation of 1° 0. and sixteen out of nineteen tests were within 1.5° 0., is quite remarkable, and shows that this apparatus is greatly superior to most of the others in this respect. By the use of the double water-bath and the stirrer the heating is slow and regular, and, so far as possible, is independent of the size of the heating flame. Moreover, by the use of the electric spark, the size, intensity, and distance of the igniting agent is always the same, and in consequence of its short duration no vapor formation is noticeable. Finally, the form of this tester is such that the conditions maintained in its use closely resemble those which are found to exist in petroleum lamps. Herr Victor Meyer is of the opinion that, in the use of the ordinary petroleum testers, the true or absolute flashing temperature of the oil is not found, but a temperature higher or lower than the one sought, depending upon the ca]iacity of the various forms of apparatus and the quantity of petroleum employed. The progress recommended consists in putting about 40 cubic centimeters of the petroleum in a glass cylinder of about 200 cubic centimeters capacity, and placing this in a vessel of warm water until the petroleum has reached the testing temperature. The cylinder is then removed, and the oil well shaken ; after which a test is made bj' means of a gas flame, to see if the oil can be lighted. It is clear that in this process we obtain a constant maximum of the saturation of the oil with petroleum vapor corresponding to the prevailing temperature. In this country the open tester of Tagliabue was at first in general use, and later his closed tester. The 'Sew York produce exchange has, within a few years, adopted Saybolt's. In England and Canada Abel's has been adopted ; in France both open and closed testers, particularly the tester of M. Granier, has been used, as well as the apparatus of Salleron Urbain ; in Holland the naphthometer of Parrish ; and in Russia, and also in Germany, some of the open testers have been employed. It is manifest that the great difference in the results given by these instruments, included between 22.64° 0. and 42° C, when made by the same person on the sarae oil, indicates that a decision should first be had in respeet to the instrument used before the temperature should be determined at which an oil is considered safe. I think that more attention has been paid to this subject in England than in this country, or it would perhaps be more proper to say that in England the subject has received consideration in a manner that has produced more satisfactory results. There legislation has been national ; here it has been local. There the subject was placed in the hands of eminent scientific men, and legislation was had in 1868 based upon the results of their labors. This legislation described the instrument and the manner of testing, and fixed the test at a flash at 100° P. After a trial of two j'ears, during which numerous criticisms were found to lie against the provisions of the law, Professor P. Grace Calvert subjected the working of the apparatus under the act to very careful examination, and concluded (a) that— These results show the influence of time in raising six samples of petroleiim spirits from 52° F. to their flashing points. Thus, when fifteen or twenty minutes are employed, the whole of the six samples tested could not be called "petroleum", according to the act of 1868; the owner would be liable to a penalty and the loss of the fluids, whilst if the time employed to heat the liquid is half an houi'' they would all be considered petroleums, their flashing points being above 100° F. His results are given below : , FLASHING POINT. No. of sample. Time, 15 minutes. Timo, 20 minutes. Time, 30 minutes. Deg.F. 96 92 Deg. F. 98 99 Deg. F. 102 101 2 3 90 94 98 96 101 104 4 5 96 98 110 6 1 93 99 108 He further remarks on this point: I am therefore of opinion that as the act has been made to protect the public from fire and explosions resulting from the employment of too highly inflammable hydrocarbons, the chemist or person called upon to test liquids of this class should raise the temperature of the fluids as quickly as possible; otherwise they favor the vendor and manufacturer, to the detriment of the consumer. The next series of experiments was made with a view of corroborating a statement made by Mr. Norman Tate, viz, if two thermometers are placed in the petroleum spirit, one, as indicated in the act, If inches below the surface of the liquid, the other being only one-half inch below the surface, a diflerence of several degrees will be noticed between them at the time the vapors will flash. « • * The following results confirm Mr. Tate's observations : Flashed .at — Flashed at — No. 4 940F. 1| inches. 99°F. 4 inch. No. 5 94°F. Uinches. 98°F. i inch. No. 6 95° F. H inches. 99° F. ^ inch. This curious and unusual fact is due, in my opinion, to this : that petroleum not being a homogeneous liquid, but a mixture of several hydrocarbons, the highest products being first expelled, the heat rises toward the surface, and in this way the difference in temperature referred to is produced. a Jour. Soc. Arts, xviii, 290. THE USES OF PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS. 227 After suggesting a remedy for these diflficiilties Professor Calvert closes his article as follows : From the above experiments the Ibllowiug coDclusions may he drawn, viz, that the petroleum act of 1868 does not give BufiScient and precise instruction for testing petroleum spirit; therefore it is to he hoped that government will take the matter in hand and do away with the objections to the present act, substituting more clearly defined rules and instructions, so as to enable the operator to determine the llashing point of petroleum spirit with greater accuracy. This subject ■was agaiu Terj- fully discussed by Mr. Boverton Eedwood, secretary of the Petroleum Association .of London, in 1875, (a) in a letter to the English Mechanic and World of Science, iu which he gives a very excellent popular description of the manner of testing petroleum under the petroleum act then in force. In July, 1875, the Secretary of State for the Home Department requested Professor F. A. Abel, chemist to the War Department, to report on certain points relating to the method of testing petroleum as prescribed in Schedule 1 of the petroleum act, 1871. In accordance with this request he submitted his report, dated August 12, 1876. Before commencing his investigations he consulted, among others, the late Dr. H. Letheby, Dr. J. Attfield, Dr. B, H. Paul, and Mr. Boverton Redwood, representing with himself an unsurpassed array of talent and experience with reference to this subject. I quote here this report entire as representing the most complete and intelligent discussion of this subject extant, based upon a most exhaustive .scientific research, and confirmed by comparative tests in such a manner as to make it a model for a basis of intelligent legislation. REPORT TO THE SECRETARY OF STATE FOR THE HOME DEPARTMENT ON THE SUBJECT OF THE TESTING OF PETROLEUM. In compliance with the request of the Secretary of State for the Home Department, as conveyed by Home OiBce letter, dated July 7, IS/.'), 1,386, 61 a. Appendix V, that I should report on certain points relating to the method of testing petroleum as prescribed in Schedule 1 of the Petroleum Act, 1871, 1 now submit the following statements and the conclusions at which I have arrived respecting the points specially submitted for my consideration in the letter above referred to: I. With reference to the merits of the method of t-esting petroleum at present prescribed. In the evidence taken before a Select Committee of the House of Lords in 1872, the relative merits of and the relation existing between the open flashing test which is prescribed in the existing petroleum act and a modified flashing test, called the "close test", which it was proposed to substitute for the former, were discussed by a number of witnesses. The opinions expressed and the experimental data upon which the opinions wore based were in several respects very conflicting. The statements of a great majority of the witnesses were, however, in accord with regard to the unsatisfactory or fallacious nature of the open flashing test as laid down iu the existing Petroleum Act. The important objection raised against the open test is, that it is liable to " manipulation ", i. c, that in consequence of certain very readily variable elements in the details of the test (added to the interfering action of even slight currents of air) the flashing point of one and the same sample of oil may be made to differ many degrees iu the hands of different operators (or of one and the same operator at ditt'erent times). The majority of witnesses also were agreed in the opinion that the proposed "close test" was decidedly more reliable in itself and much less open to manipulation than the open test. The differences of opinion with regard to it were almost entirely confined to the necessity for some modifications in its details and to the relation which the results furnished by it bear to those obtained with the open test, or, in other words, the particular temperature which in dealing with the " close test" should be held to correspond to the standard or "flashing point " (100^ Fahrenheit), fixed in the existing act as applied to the open test prescribed. On the latter point a very considerable difference of opinion existed between two sections of witnesses ; on the one hand, the results of a number of experiments made by several witnesses with the close and open tests were adduced iu support of the conclusion that a flashing point of 85° given by the close test should be accepted as equivalent to 100° by the open test, while on the other hand similarly strong testimony and extensive experiment supported the view that the standard flashing point for the close test (equivalent to 100°) sliould not be higher than 75°. These differences of opinion were obviously ascribable, in great measure, to the unreliableness of the present fopen) test, and also to certain variable points in the details of the "close test", which tend to allow of the results furnished by this test being also regulated (though not nearly to the same extent as with the open test) by small variationo in the modus operandi adopted by different experimenters. The opinion which I myself had formed from the results of practical experience in the employment of the flashing test, as prescribed iu the schedule of the existing act, was quite in accordance with the general opinion of the witnesses examined before the House of Lords committee as to its untnistworthiness. Moreover, after careful consideration of the subject, it appeared to me, to say the least, very doubtfnl whether certain sources of errror could by any modification of the arrangements and directions laid down in the schedule of the existing act be eliminated to such an extent as greatly to reduce the liability of the test to furnish results not fairly cornparative with each other, and its susceptibility to " manipulation " or regulation iu the hands of difi'erent experimenters. Before proceeding to examine into the merits and defects of the proposed " close test ", and to endeavor to supply the want of a generally satisfactory test (either by a modification of one of the known tests or by elaboration of some new methorl of experimenting), I considered it desirable to ascertain whether the additional experience of the last three years had led some of the principal witnesses and others who had given attention to this subject to modify the views expressed at that time or to form any decided opinion as to the direction in which a satisfactory solution of the difficulties connected with the present system of testing might be sought. I therefore addressed circular letters (Appendix I) to the following : Mr. T. W. Keates, consulting chemist of the Metropolitan Board of Works. The late Dr. H. Letheby. Dr. J. Attfield. Mr. Dugald Campbell. Dr. B. H. Paul. a English iledianic and World of Science, xxii, 35.5. 228 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. The secretary of tlie Petroleum Association. The secretary of the Scottish Mineral Oil Association. The local authorities under the act at Liverpool and Bristol. As the replies to my communications, Tvhich I received from several of the above, embody the present views entertained with regard to the test prescribed by the existing act and the points -which require consideration in the attempt to provide a satisfactory test, I consider it advisable to give the following precis of such rei)lies. Mr. Keatessays: "The present test fails by the nature of the test itself; it is not possible to preclude sources of inaccuracy in its use." He proceeds to point out that a considerable diiference in results may arise with different operators, working with the utmost honesty of purpose according to the interpretation put upon the directions of the schedule of the act (as to rate of heating, application of test flame, etc.), but that " such differences are trifliug as compared with those which can be obtained when there is a desire to get away from the truth ", such differences being always in one direction, viz, in postponing the time at which the ignition of the vapor takes place. He proceeds : " I think it is conceded that the present open test is fallacious, and that it can be made to give different results by diiierent operators, according to the wish or intention of such operator." Mr. Keates then dwells upon the merits of the close test, the adaptation of which he had advocated in 1872, and says : " With a proper regulation as to the application of the light to the vapor chamber very close agreement can be obtained, and I do not think the test is capable of manipulation." He expresses his belief that the close test is not objected to per se, but that the point upon which great difi'erence of opinion exists is the difl'ereuce to be made in the parliamentary standard of temperature if the close test be substituted for the open test, which was the main point of dispute in 1872. The late Dr. Letheby stated that the difSculties in the way of obtaining trustworthy results with the present (open) test, applied "according to the spirit " of the instructions laid down, are manifold, arising in some cases from the faulty construction of the apparatus, in others from the erroneous method of working, and in others from the indefinite nature of the instructions." After discussing the difficulties included under these three heads, and pointing out that the instructions originally laid down by him. Dr. Attfield and myself, in 1869, embody most of the improvements and alterations required to make the present test more certain and satisfactory. Dr. Letheby proceeds to say that, "considering an open test must, under any circumstances, be uncertain, because of the diffusion of the petroleum vapor into the atmosphere," he thinks "a closed test would be more satisfactory", and that the only difficulty is the point at which the legal standard of temperature should be fixed. As regards this standard, he differs considerably from Mr. Keates, and in support of his view refers to experiments made by himseU and Mr. Dugald Campbell (and confirmed by Mr. Norman Tate and Dr. Robinson), which were quoted in the evidence given before the House of Lords committee. Dr. Attfield simjjly expresses the opinion that nothing short of an original investigation will lead to a satisfactory solution of the difficulties connected with the test. Mr. Dugald Campbell discusses in detail the defects In the instructions laid down for the use of the present test, and which he regards as giving rise to the discrepancies occurring in the application of the test. He considers, from the results of his own experience, that if certain points, which he details in connection with the application of the open test, be adhered to, " independent experimenters would not materially difl'er in their results." Mr. Campbell's experience with the close test does not lead him to form so favorable an oxiinion of it as is entertainad by Mr. Keates, but he considers that " with strictly defined rules for applying the test", which o.re carefully carried out, the results furnished by it "are likely, on the whole, to be rather more uniform than with the open test". He considers that some modifications in the construction of and mode of working with the close test as described in 1872 are necessary, and is in accordance with Dr. Letheby regarding the standard temperature which should be adopted with the close test (as equivaleut to 100° with the open test). Mr. B. Redwood, the secretary of the committee of the Petroleum Association, in expressing the views of that committee, considers that the difiiculties which have arisen in the application of the present test arc due to a " want of detail in the parliamentary directions for applying the test, and to the delicacy of the test or liability to uncertainty in the hands of unskillful operators ". The committee consider that if directions with regard to the rate and uniformity of heating the apparatus, and of the size and character of the flame «ised for testing, had been strictly laid down, " the results of different operators would have approximated more closely, and that with skilled j)ereons the results would have been sufficiently uniform to have given satisfaction. Inasmirch, however, as the inspectors under the act are men whose training has not qualified them to perform operations involving close details of manipulation, the committee are driven to the conclusion that the present test, even with such amended instructions for its use as have been instanced, would be found too delicate." In discussing the directions which should be taken for providing a better test, stress is laid upon the desirability of adopting a system of testing which would preserve the existing standard of 100°, as the public, having been "educated in the belief that anything over 100° Fahrenheit means safety and below 100° danger, might associate any lowering of the standard with increased risk to themselves even if such lower standard were explained to be equivalent to an equally stringent and more certain test ". Mr. Redwood proceeds to consider the directions in which, failing the possibility of an efiScient modification of the existing open test, another test might possibly be sought, and considers, with reference to these, that — (a) The American or fire test (which consists in determining the temperature at which the surface of the heated petroleum takes fixe permanently) is as open to discrepancies as the present legal test. (6) The automatic tests which have been proposed (depending for their actiou upon the vapor traveling to a fixed distance and there becoming ignited) are too complicated for general use, and have not given encouraging results. (c) The close test involves a lowering of the standard flashing point, and is therefore objectionable. The committee of the Petroleum Association state their opinion throiigh Mr. Redwood, that if it should not be possible to modify the open test so as, while preserving the present standard, to reduce its delicacy sufficiently to allow of its satisfactory employment " by an iuspector of average intelligence", "the closed test would ajipear to be the best substitute, but would, of course, necessitate a reduction of the standard," in consequence of which "the prejudice created in the mind of the public would have to be combated". In the event of my deciding in favor of the close test, the commi ttee refer me to Mr. Redwood's evidence before the House of Lords committee in 1872, in which he agrees with Dr. Letheby and Mr. Dugald Campbell regarding the standard temperature to be adopted in connection with this tost as equivalent to the present legal standard of 100°. In conclusion, the committee request that Mr. Redwood may be allowed to exhibit to me the precise method adopted by the Petroleum Association in testing the petroleum imported into London. The Liverijool Petroleum Association expresses their concurrence in the statements submitted by Mr. B. Redwood, as secretary of the Petroleum Association. The Local Government Board of Bristol adopt the views expressed by the representative of the petroleum trade in Bristol, Mr. F. F. Fox, to whom they referred my letter of inquiry, and who suggests that, "following the example" of the Petroleum Association of London, the object aimed at should be " such an improvement of the existing test as shall take away (if possible) its present imijerfections, or, failing this, the adoption of the closed vessel, provided an equivalent standard be fixed". THE USES OF PETEOLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS. 229 The secretary of the Scottish Mineral Oil Association is Vict., cap. 105), is not of such a nature as "uniformly to insure reliable and satisfactory results". (6) That the "close test", which it was proposed in 1872 to substitute for the existing "open test", and which was discussed in the evidence taken before a select committee of the House of Lords in session in 1872, though more satisfactory, is open to objection on several grounds, and is liable to furnish different results in the hands of different operators. II. With reference to the alterations in method of testing petroleum which should be adopted to secure reliable and satisfactory results. In addressing myself to the preparation of a reply to the second point submitted for my consideration in the letter addressed to me by the Under Secretary of State for the Home Department, I proceeded, in the first instance, to consider whether it was possible to devise some method of testing differing entirely from either of those which have been referred to, and which would be likely to prove satisfactory, .as being sufficiently siraxde, certain, and free from liability to involuntary or intentional modification in the hands of different operators. My examination into the merits of some automatic tests which have been proposed, and a trial of one or two other plans which suggested themselves, for comparing the volatility of samiiles of petroleum by operations placed more or less beyond power of control by the manipulator were not attended by promising results. The possibility of modifying the present legal test (the open test), so as to reduce within satisfactory limits the existing sources of discrepancy, next received a most careful consideration by me ; but I came to the conclusion that, supposing directions could be laid down or arrangements contrived for securing uniformity in the rate of heating the oil to be tested, in the temperature at which the operation of testing is commenced, and in the niiture and mode of applying the test flame, one great source of uncertainty inherent in the test^naraely, the free exposure to the air of the surface of the oil from which the vapor is evolved — would still remain. At tlie suggestion of Mr. Boverton Redwood I witnessed some testing operations conducted with the open test, but with the employment, in place of the ordinary thermometer, of an ingenious combination of a thermometer and clockwork, devised by Mr. R. P. Wilson (n) (and called by him a chrono-thermometer), the stem of the thermometer being made, with its scale, to form a circular frame, surrounding ,a dial with clockwork. The object attained by this arrangement is to ascertain readily that the rate of heating is in accordance with any prescribed regulation, the hands of the clock being made to keep time with the rise of the thermometer. The same result is, of course, attainable in ordinary practice by havinga timepiece in close proximity to the test appariitus, so that it maybe watched at the same time as the thermometer and the rate of rise of the latter regulated accordingly. The employment of Mr. Wilson's .arrangement is certainly more convenient than having to wiitch the thermometer and timepiece separately ; but it adds a somewhat expensive item to the app.aratus, and, supposing that by its employment uniformity in the rate of heating could be secured, only one element, of uncertainty in the existing test would then be avoided. The general concurrence in the comparatively satisfactory nature of the " close test " led me to consider next whether it might not be possible to remove the points of uncertainty involved in the employment of that test by different operators. The chief variable pointa connected with it are — (1.) The rate of heating of the apparatus. (2.) The nature of the test flame to be used. (;i.) The precise position in which the test flame is to be applied, and the duration and frequency of its application. Considerable differences of opinion were expressed by experts in their examination before the House of Lords committee as to the rate of heating which should be adopted in the application of the open test, differences of opinion which apply equally to the " close test ". Having carefully considered this point, I have come to the conclusion that it is unimportant whether the rate of heating be 1^ or C per minute or 20° in fifteen minutes (the three rates insisted upon by different witnesses in the evidence), or whether a decidedly ditferent r.ate of heating be adopted, provided the source of heat and amount of heat employed, and the mode of applying it, be the same in all cases, such definite rules being laid down with respect to this, and snch precautions being taken in the construction of the apparatus, as to render the attainment of uniformity by ditt'erent operators simple and certain. The suggestion to apply hot water as the source of heat in connection with a flashing test was made by one of the House of Lords committee in 1872, and Mr. Keates stated that this subject had received consideration, but that decided objections had been advanced against this mode of heating. Being strongly of opinion that hot water presented the only simple means of securing uniformity in the a Described in EiiiiVik'.i }fechanic and World of Science, xxii, 496. 230 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. rate of lieatiiio-, I made many experiments, with a view of attaining, by simple arrangements, a satisfactory rate of heating hy its means, ■which should he uniform with different apparatus of uniform construction and dimensions. By inclosing the hot-water vessel in an air chamber (or a jacket with intervening air-space), and by interposing an air-space between the, hot water and the receptacle for the petroleum I succeeded, on the one hand, in satisfactorily retarding loss of heat by radiation, and, on the other hand, in securing a sufficiently irradual transmission of heat to the petroleum, The rate of transmission of heat is not uniform throughout all periods of one single operation, but it is uniform at the same periods in different operations, and the average rate of heating is uniform. At the commencement, when the petroleum is cold and the water at its maximum heat, the rate of heating is necessarily most rapid, while as the temperature approaches the flashing point the rise of temperature, which for some time previously has been very uniform, becomes somewhat slower. The comparatively rapid heating at the commencement of the operation is decidedly advantageous, and the diminution toward the close is not sufficiently great to increase the legitimate severity of the test. The temperature of 130° Fahrenlieit has been fixed upon as a convenient one for the water to have at the commencement of the experiment; this temperature gives, with the apparatus of the dimensions adopted, a mean rate of heating of about 2° per minute during an exi)eriraent. The only operation which is to be performed in preparing for the heating of the petroleum to be tested is, at starting, to fill the beating vessel entirely with water at 130° Fahrenheit. The supply of water of the required temperature may be prepared by adding hot to cold water or the reverse, iu a jug, and watching the thermometer, which is moved about ia the water until the desired temperature is indicated. When the heating vessel is tilled with the properly warmed water, the petroleum cup being immediately afterward placed in position, the operator has not to concern himself any further with regard to the heating, and has only to attend to the rise of temperature in the cup and to the test flame. When the next test has to be performed, the water in the bath may be again raised to the proper temperature by the application of a spirit-lamp flame, and this is readily accomplished while the test vessel is being emptied and refilled ■with a fresh sample of the petroleum to be tested. That the rate of heating must be rendered uniform by this mode of operation when the temperature of different samples of petroleum to be tested does not differ greatly is self-evident, and experiment has shown that, even if considerable differences exist between the temperatures of different specimens, the extra time required to raise the colder oil to the temperature approaching that of the minimum flashing point does not seriously affect the uniformity of the rate of heatiog at that part of the operation when this uniformity is of importance. There is, however, no difficulty whatever in avoiding any great variations in the temperatures of the samples tested at different times ; thus, the warmth of the hand will soon raise a cold oil to a normal temperature, and a warm oil is easily cooled down to such a temperature by immersing the bottle containing it in water. As long as the temperature of the samples at the time of testing rano-es between 55° and 65° the uniformity in their rate of heating will not be affected to an extent to influence the results furnished by the test. As illustrating the uniformity in the rate of heating, it may be stated that in two experiments made with one and the same oil, the temperature of which at the time of starting the test was 04° iu one experiment and 70.5° in another, the average rate of heating durio" the rise of temperature from 75° to 85° was almost identical, being, during that portion of the test, 1.04° per minute. The only difference in regard to the heating in the two experiments was that with the oil at the lower temperature a period of six minutes was required to raise the temperature to 75°, while with the warmer oil only four minutes were required to attain the same result. The illustrations of results furnished by the proposed test apparatus given at page 224 show conclusively that they are not affected by differences even greater than the above in the temperatures of the oils at the commencement of the test. The nature of the test flame to be used, and the mode of using it, were next considered by me, and very much time and labor have been expended upon the endeavor to provide a test flame which, with little care, could be maintained for some time of uniform size, and which might be allowed to remain throughout the testing operation or during the greater part of the time in a fixed position over the vapor chamber of the jietroleum cup, my desire being, if possible, to render the actual operation of testing perfectly automatic. Having satisfied myself that with the petroleum cup filled to a definite height there is no objection to keeping a small aperture in the lid of the cup (similar to that which exists in the lid of the close-test apparatus) constantly open, a very small oil-lamp was contrived, capable of maintaining a flame of the size of the test flames (furnished by a small gas jet or by twine) used in connection with the present test, and the lamp was so attached to the apparatus that when the testing was proceeded with the position occupied by the test flame over the opening in the cup was inevitably the same in all instances. Tlie variations in the length of time for which the flame was applied, in the rapidity of its movement iu and out of the opening and in the frequency of its application, all constituted sources of discrepancy between the results obtained by different operators with the two tests hitherto used, which I proposed to set aside in the manner above indicated, i. e., by keeping the small lamp in a fixed position from the time when the rise of temperature indicated an approach to the lowest attainable flashing point until the completion of the operation. This result was attained after numerous modifications of the small test lamp, and the form of the latter which I eventually adopted permitted of the attainment of uniformity in the size of the test flame by a very simple trimming operation. The position in which the thermometer was fixed into the lid of the petroleum cup was modified so as to allow of the reading of the temperature simultaneously with the watching of the test flame being much more conveniently performed than in the present apparatus. Although verj' satisfactory results were obtained by the arrangements just referred to, some difficulties were experienced in keeping the flame of the test lamp of uniform size throughout a consecutive series of test operations, and slight currents of air were found to affect the results obtained too greatly to render the test thoroughly reliable. After a long series of experiments, carried out with the view of overcoming these difficulties, I was eventually led to return to a method of operation very similar to that adopted in the original " close test", biTt with this important difference, that uniformity was secured in the nature of the test flame, the mode of applying it, and the position in which it is applied. The application of the flame is in fact rendered quite automatic iu the proposed form of test apparatus, the mode of operation being as follows : The top of the petroleum cup has an aperture, as in the case of the old close-test apparatus, but in the center of the lid; this aperture is kept closed by means of a metal slide, working in grooves, and having two small uprights. These uprights support the little test lamp, which for this purpose is fitted at the upper part with small trunnions. When the temperature of the petroleum approaches that of the miuiinum flashing point, the slide is slowly drawn out of the grooves to the full extent permitted by a check ; ■n-hen this point is just reaclii'd, a very siiuple contrivance causes the test lamp to be tilted, so that the flame is alwayslowered into the opening in exactly the same position. Two seconds of time are allowed for withdrawing the slide, and thus the test flame is applied iu all instances for the same period, (a) This operation is repeated at the termination of every degree indicated by the thermometer until the flashing point is attained. a A small weight, suspended iu front of the operator from a string 2 feet in length, answers the purpose of regulating the opening and shutting of the aperture. The slide is gradually drawn open during three oscillations of the pendulum, and is then rapidly closed during the fourth. THE USES OF PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS. 231 In this, as in the old close-test apparatus, each time the aperture is reopened and the test flame is applied a small portion of the mixture of air and petroleum vapor necessarily escapes from the chamber, in consequence of the outward current established, and hence the proportion of air in the mixture of vapor and air formed in the chamber must become reduced each time the test is applied, and thus the ready esplosiveuess of the mixture is liable to some variation. A simple contrivance has been apidicd in conjunction with what may be called the " testing slide" for remedying this possible source of discrepancy iu the test. The opening which the withdrawal of the slide exposes for the application of the test flame is in the center of the upper surface of the chamber. Just before it becomes open to the full extent, and the test flame is lowered into place, two smaller openings, one on either side of it, become also uncovered by the drawing back of the slide and serve to admit air to replace that part of the mixture of air and vapor which is withdrawn from the chamber by the current which sets in the direction of the test flame ; as the slide is pushed back again, these two openings are closed the instant before the central opening is closed again. The description of oil and wick most suitable for the little test lamp are given in Appendix II. When coal-gas is available, it may be substituted for oil in the production of the test flame, as being decidedly more convenient, and for this purpose an arrangement which can be used in place of the lamp, and which admits of a small gas frame being applied automatically iu exactly the same manner as the oil flame, has been devised as an alternative adjunct to the apparatus. Even with a strict adherence to the prescribed method of heating the petroleum to be tested, and with the employment of the automatic test arrangement constructed precisely in accordance with the instructions laid down in the appendix, uniform results would not be obtained iu the application of the test unless the petroleum cup be filled iu all instances up to to the same height, and, indeed, up to a hei<'-ht which a long series of experiments (varied iu many ways) has demonstrated to bo the one which best insures the attainment of uniform results. A simple gauge, consisting of a small bracket, terminating in a point, is fixed within the cup, and indicates the precise height up to which this is to be tilled with the liquid, which has simply to be poured iu gradually until its level just reaches the point of the gauge. The thermometer which serves to indicate the flashing point is rigidly fixed into the lid of the petroleum cup in a sloping position, so that it enters the liquid at the center of the surface. The length of that part of the thermometer which is inclosed in the cup is so adjusted that when the latter is filled to the prescribed height the surface of the liquid is 0.-2 inch above the bulb. The precautions combine to render the readings obtained with the thermometer reliable indications of the actual temperature of the petroleum during the testing operation. The sloping position of the thermometer scale enables readings to be very conveniently taken. Detailed instructions with regard to the application of the proposed method for testing are given in Appendix II, and Appendix IV gives the details of the proposed test apparatus. The method of testing, arranged as described, is so simple in its nature that any person of ordinary intelligence, after carefully readin" the instructions, or after having been once shown the operation, can carry it out readily, and no experience is required for the attainment of uniform results with it. The following results, not selected, which have been obtained with the pattern apparatus sent with this report, illustrate the uniformity in the working of the test as now elaborated, and it should be particularly noted with respect to these results that in experiments with one and the same sample considerable variations in the temperature of the oil at the commencement of the experiment did not afi'ect the accuracy of the results obtained: Sample. No. of experiment. Temperature of batlint commeDce- Temperature of oil whon •placed in bath. Temperatare at wbicb testing was commenced. Flashing point. Sample. Temperatuii- Xo of of bath at esperhueut. , coranience- Temperature Temperature of oil when , at which placed in ' testing was bath. j commenced. Fla.sbiug point. Xifc;. F. Deg.F. Veg.F. Deg.F. Deg.F. Deg. F. 1 Deg. F. Dffl. F. A. 1 1 130 66.0 68 77 K. 2 130 63.0 71 82 2 130 68.5 70 77 3 130 66.0 69 82 3 130 09.5 71 77 L. 1 1 130 54.0 68 75 IS. 1 130 70.0 71 80 130 53.5 64 75 2 130 71.0 71 80 M. 130 W.O 66 81 C. 1 130 68.0 70 82 130 67.0 69 81 2 130 69.0 70 82 N. 130 57.0 63 73 3 130 70.5 71 81 130 59.0 60 72 D. 1 130 59.0 63 75 130 57. \ 63 73 130 63.5 67 76 0. 130 02. 67 79 3 130 70.0 71 76 130 57. ' 63 79 E. 1 130 57.0 65 72 P. 130 60. , 65 79 2 130 59.0 62 71 Q- 130 59. 1 65 74 3 130 61.0 62 72 130 57.0 67 75 4 130 68.5 69 72 130 67.0 67 75 F. 1 130 03.0 65 78 E. 130 06.0 69 78 2 130 65.0 70 78 130 64.0 67 78 3 130 CO. 07 78 S. 130 64.0 65 70 O. 1 130 70.0 70 84 130 63. 64 70 2 130 74.8 75 84 T. 130 63. 66 80 H. 1 130 74.0 75 80 130 64. 75 79 2 130 \ 65.0 66 80 3 ' 130 65. 5 i 73 SO I. 1 130 68.0 68 78 U. 1 130 66. 1 67 73 2 130 65.0 67 78 2 130 64.0 1 69 74 J. 1 130 39.0 68 79 3 130 67. 1 08 74 2 130 58. 69 79 1 '^■ 1 130 67. 1 69 80 K. 1 130 67.0 61 El 2 ISO 70. j 70 80 It will be seen that the foregoing table embraces a considerable range of flashing points ; the samples which gave the results there recorded had flashing i)oints ranging from 93° to l:.'li", as determiued by the present legal test. All these were examined with equal facility and with equal accuracy (as shown by the results obtained with one and the same sample), the temperature of the water in the heating vessel having been in all instances 130° at starting. But with oils of much higher flashing points than the highest in the above 232 PEODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. series the supply of lieat furnislied by the amount of water contained in the heating vessel, raised to a temperature of 130°, would not he sufficient; and even if in such cases the water in the hath he raised to a much higher temperature, the intervention of the air space between the petroleum cup and the source of heat (which plays an important part in regulating the source of heat in the ordinary use of the test) prevents the very high flashing oil from being raised to its flashing point within any reasonable period. If, therefore, the first experiment made in the ordinary prescribed manner with a sample of oil indicates a very high flashing point (about 100° or upward), the following modified mode of proceeding must be adopted for determining its flashing point. The air chamber which surrounds the cup is filled with cold water to a depth of li inches, and the heating vessel or water-bath is filled as usual, hut also with cold water. The lamp is then placed under the apparatus and kept there during the entire operation, (a) With this simple modification of the ordinary mode of working concordant results will be obtained with oils of the highest flashing points. It need hardly be stated that the greater majority of petroleum oils have flashing points within a smaller range than that represented by the annexed tabulated results, and that the application of the mode of proceeding last described will be limited to comparatively heavy paraffine oils, of which it is desired to determine the flashing points. Having satisfied myself of the satisfactory working of the proposed test apparatus, I invited Mr. Keates, the consulting chemist to the Metropolitan Board of Works, and Mr. B. Eedwood, the secretary of the Petrbleum Association, to inspect it, and to witness the operation of testing with it. The appended extracts of letters (Appendix III) from those gentlemen show that they concur in considering that the difficulties which existed in connection with the present legal test, and also, though to a less extent, with the close test in the form in which it was proposed by Mr. Keates, are removed by the mode of operating which has been elaborated. At the instance of Mr. Peter McLagan, M. P., the apparatus was also inspected by a representative of the Scottish Mineral Oil Association, Mr. John Calderwood, whose unqualified approval of it is recorded in the appended extract of a letter from him (Appendix III). III. With reference to the "flashing point", which, with the proposed test, should be fixed as equivalent to that of 100° Fahrenheit obtained with the present legal (open)test, and to the question whether the flashing point of 100°, or its equivalent, is "calculated to afford efficient protection to the public without unduly interfering with or restricting the trade". With the view to establish the relation existing between the results furnished by the proposed test and by the present legal test experiments were made with a series of samples of petroleum, the flashing points of which had been determined by the test as prescribed in the act. Among these samples there was a considerable number for which I am indebted to the kindness of the secretary of the Petroleum Association. As Mr. Bovertou Redwood has had great experience in the testing of petroleum, both by the open test and by the close test, which it was at one time proposed to adopt, I requested him to attend at my office and test a number of the samples with which he was so good as to provide me. In the first instance, however, I convinced myself that the results which that gentleman obtained by operating according to the directions laid down in the act, and also by applying the original close test, agreed very well with those obtained by Mr. T. W. Keates and by an experienced assistant in my establishment. Mr. Eedwood and Mr. Keates were so good as to attend at my department to exhibit to me their ordinary mode of operating in applying the test, and the flashing points ascribed by those gentlemen (operating on different days) to particular samples were sufficiently in accordance to warrant my accepting the numbers obtained by Mr. Eedwood in testing the series of samjjles referred to as representing the flashing points which would generally be obtained by experienced persons operating according to the methods hitherto practiced. There is no doubt that the flashing points which one and the same operator, of such experience as Mr. Keates and Mr. Eedwood, obtains with different samples of oil, using one and the same open test or close test apparatus, bear very generally a correct relation to each other ; occasions will, however, unavoidably arise, even under the above very favorable conditions, when the defects inherent in those methods of testing will give rise to irregular and discordant results. Hence it is not to be expected that flashing points famished by the comparatively accurate method of testing now proposed should present anything approaching absolute uniformity of relation to all those furnished by either of the other tests. Thus, as might have been anticipated, among the samples of oil which have been tested with the new apparatus there are several which, though they gave flashing points identical or nearly so with each other when examined by the present legal teat (the open test), were found to differ several degrees from each other as regards their flashing points when examined by means of the new test. In the examination of a number of samples by the new test and by the proposed close test the relation between the flashing points famished by the two tests varied somewhat ; the " new test " flashing points ranging from two to five degrees lower than the results famished by the close test. Of 26 samples, ten gave flashing points with the new test 4'^ lower than the results obtained with the old close test, six gave results 5° lower, five 3° lower, and five 2° lower. o With oils of very high flashing points the rate of heating does not affect the accuracy of the results obtained. Therefore, if it is known to the operator that he is dealing with oils of very low volatility, he may save time by starting with the w.ater raised to a temperature of about 120°. The following results are given in illustration of this : Description of samples. No. of experiment. Temperature of bath at commence- ment. Temperature of oil -when placed in bath. • Flashing point. I, Beg. F. Veg.F. Beg. F. f 1 78 78.0 147 Tonng's patent lubricating oil ' 110 74.0 146 I 3 120 80.0 147 II. (- \ 74 74.0 131 Tonng's patent lubricating oil 2 1 ^ 100 100 68.0 72.5 130 131 i. 4 111 72.0 131 THE USES OF PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS. 233 In applying the new test to 29 samples whieli had been examined by the present legal (open) test the following results were obtained: bomber of sample. Flaaliingpoints by opeu test. Flaahins points by new test. Difference. 2>eff.F. Dfg. F. Beg. F. 1 98 70 28 2 100 71 29 3 100 72 28 4 100 74 26 5 100 75 25 6 101 73 28 7 101 78 23 8 101 74 27 9 102 75 27 10 103 75 28 11 104 75 29 12 104 76 28 13 104 77 27 14 104 78 26 15 104 78 26 16 105 80 as 17 106 79 27 18 106 80 26 19 106 81 25 20 108 82 26 21 108 83 25 22 108 80 28 23 109 84 25 24 110 83 27 25 110 82 28 26 110 81 29 27 110 81 29 28 113 87 26 29 1-JB 100 26 t will be seen from an examination of these numbers that one among the samples gave a flashing point with the new test only 93° lower than that given by it when examined by the open test, while with four others there was as great a difference as 29^= between the flashing points furnished by the new test and the present legal test. Excluding the single sample which showed the comparatively small difference above specified between the two tests the following is a synopsis of the observed differences between the two tests: Differences between the flasbin;: points Deg.F. It would appear, therefore, from the results of these experiments, that the difference between the flashing points furnished by the- present legal test and those obtained with the proposed new test ranges from 25^ to 29° inclusive, and it should be borne in mind that the "new test" flashing points which have indicated this range of differences are all the results of two or three concordant experiments. Taking samples of oil which by the "open test" gave flashing points of 100° and 101° (of which there are seven in the above series), the flashing points of these samples, determined by the "new test ", ranged from 71° to 78° inclusive. Again, the flashing points of five samples, which were all shown to be 104° by the open test, ranged with the new test from 75° to 7ri° inclusive. Three samples, having all a flashing point of 106°, as determined by the open test, gave flashing points ranging from 80° to 82° inclusive by the new test ; three, all flashing at 108° ( open test), ranged from 80° to 83°, and four, flashing at 110° (open test), ranged from 81° to 83° inclusive. Oils of flashing points between 98° and 106° inclusive (open test) gave flashing points ranging between 70° and 80° by the new test, and those which with the open test ranged from 106° to 110° inclusive gave results with the new test ranging from 80° to 84° inclusive. While the open test (the present legal test), and even the close test which has been proposed as its substitute, give what may be termed broad results, the new test, which appears to be as nearly absolute as a test of this kind can be made, gives precise results. For this reason, I am of opinion, so far as the results which have hitherto been obtained with the new test warrant my speaking decisively on the subject, that it will be necessary with the new test to adopt a range of 4 or 5 degrees to correspond to what has hitherto been reg.arded as the minimum flashing point which petroleum oils supplied to the public should have; in other words, I consider that the diflerence- between the results furnished by the new test and the present legal test cannot be expressed by one figure, but must be represented by a range of figures (say, from 25° to 29°). It need hardly be pointed out that great difficulties have arisen in connection with the present regulations respecting the testing of petroleum oils, consequent upon the legalized acceptance of oils as safe, or their condemnation as dangerous, upon a difference of even one degree in their flashing points, as determined by a test which may give differences of several degrees with one and the same oil in the- hands of different operators. 234 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. Witli the adoption of a comparatively precise test, suoli as there is good reason for believing the proposed one to be, these difficulties ■should cease to exist, and I consider that a minimum flashing point may be adopted and strictly enforced with the employment of the new test without creating an opening for justifiable differences of opinion, such as have arisen in connection with the ijresent legal test. Having given my earnest attention to the evidence brought before the House of Lords committee in 1872, and to the questions which have arisen from time to time respecting the occurrence and causes of explosions or other accidents with petroleum, I have come to the following conclusions: ( 1. ) The present legal ' ' flashing point " of 100° Fahrenheit by no means limits the acceptance of oils of that su^jposed flashing point to such as have ouly one particular degree of volatility, but indeed may admit oils as being just within the prescribed limitswhich really -dift'er decidedly from each other as regards volatility. (2.) There iippear, on the other hand, to be no well-established grounds for considering that "adequate protection to the public" has not been aftorded by adopting the flashing point of 100^ Fahrenheit as the limit with the present legal test, or that the general results which that tost has furnished iu its application to determine whether oils imported have flashing points below the prescribed limit have been productive of risk to the safety of the public, even though there may be reason to believe that occasionally oils submitted as just witliiu the limit have had decidedly lower flashing points than those of other oils which have been recorded as identical with them in this respect. It may therefore be considered that the minimum flashing point to be adopted in connection with the new test may, without danger to the public, be fixed at that point which corresponds to the lowest results (not exceptional) which are furnished by applying the new test to a series of oils having a common flashing point of 100° when examined by the present legal test. It may also be considered that the fairest course would be to base the equivalent, with the new test for 100° (furnished by the open test), upon the mean of the differences between the two tests applied to a large number of oils (with possibly the exclusion of a completely •exceptionally extreme result). The objection would probably be raised against this course by importers of petroleum oUs that it would have the effect of excluding from the market some oils which, under the present act, might be admitted as having a flashing point of 100°, and which past experience has failed to prove dangerous. Thus, if the mean difference between the flashing points given by the two tests in the results shown in the foregoing table be accepted as determining the equivalent for the present leg.al minimum flashing point (100°), then that difference being 27°, the equivalent for 100° would, with the new tost, be 73° ; but if that be adopted as the minimum legal iiashiug point with the now test, two out of 28 samples which the present legal test might have admitted would have been excluded from the market if the new test were in force. Looking to the fact that these two particular samples, though found to have a flashing point of 100°, gave lower results than others ■of the same flashing point, not only with the new tost, but also with the close test, it does appear as if they were oils of just that class which has given rise to occasional disputes, namely, oils which in the hands of some operators would have had flashing points below 100° assigned to them, and which might, therefore, even under the present conditions of testing petroleum, be excluded from the market by the balance of conflicting opinions. After carefully considering this question, I have come to the conclusion that 27° Fahrenheit might, without injustice to the trade, bo accepted as the differeuce between the results to be furnished by the new test and the present legal test; or, in other words, that 73° might with the new tost be accepted as the equivalent for the present legal minimum flashing i)oint of 100°. It appears to me, however, that it would be much more satisfactory if, before a final decision is arrived at on this point, a very •considerably larger number of experimental data than those which I have been enabled to obtain with the means at my command were procured with the new apparatus and by several operators experienced in theemployment of the old tests. It would unquestionably much facilitate and expedite further action iu the matter of modification of the existing law with reference to the testing of petroleum, etc., if Mr. Keates, of the Metropolitan Board of Works, Mr. Redwood, of the Petroleum Association, and an experienced operator selected by the Scottish Mineral Oil Association were invited to obtain test apparatus made in exact accordance with the pattern apparatus now submitted and to apply it to the testing of a number of samples of petroleum, the flashing points of which had also been determined by the present legal test. If portinns of those samples, with the results obtained, were then forwarded to me by those gentlemen, apparent discrepancies could be examined into, and the " equivalent flashing point " of the new test be established upon a large number of results to the satisfaction of all interested in the adoption of a uniform system of testing. If this suggestion be acted upon, I would recommend that the same persen who, under my direction, has constructed the pattern jipparatus, should make the apparatus required by those gentlemen, and that those apparatus should, in the first instance, be compared by me with the pattern now submitted. In the event of the adoption of the new test, the apparatus submitted with this report (and of which photographs, (a) measurements, and specification are appended) should be preserved as a standard apparatus and placed in charge of some competent and suitable authority (e. d by one liguro, but may bo considered as rtnging from 2.'')'-' to ii',1'-' I'"ahninlieit (^inclnsivi'). (^(1.) The results of a number of thoroughly concordant experiments with tho now test, and a comparison of these results with those furui.shed by the present legal test, and also with those obtained by employment of the close tost, which it was proposed to adopt in 1872, indicate that a mean dill'erenco of '27"^ Fahreuhoit may bo legitimately aooopted as the mean dill'eronoo between t ho present test and now test, and that therefore a Hashing point of 73^^, furnished by tho new test, may be acceptod as equivalent to tho niiuiuunn Hashing point of 100-' adopted in connection with the present test. (7.) Although the conclusions giveu in the preceding paragraph aro based upon tho results of a number of carefully conducted and controlled experiments, it appears desirable that the minimum Hashing point to be adopted in oonnoctiou with the now test should be deduced from the results of a much larger number of experiments, and that those should bo carried out with the proposed ttwt apparatus by several independent operators of acknowledged experience in tho testing of petroleum according to the methods hitherto praotioed. (8.) It is therefore propused that several test apparatus, precisely similar iu construction to that submitted with this report, be prepared, and that, after having been fouud by me to furnish identical results, they should be employed l>y the cheniisl of t he Mi'tropolitau Board of Works, the secretary of tho Petroleum Association, aud a duly (lualilled representative of the Scottish Mineral Oil Association for the testing of aunmbor of samples of petroleum, tho results, together with portions of tho samples tested, being forwarded to mo, with the view of their forming a basis for Hual report to the Secretary of State for the Homo Department x>i\ that particular point. (!).) In thoovont of the adoptiouof the test apparatus submitted with this report, it is important that tho staudard apparatus, with drawing and spcciHcation, should be deposited with some gov(>rnniont authority, whose duty it would bo to oxamiuo aud certify to the correctness of all apparatU'S made for the purpose of testing petroleum under tho new legalized regulations. V. A. AllFI-, AuouST 12, 187G. Chemist of the War llrimrtinnil. luj mediately upon roceiviuo- this report from rrofossor Abel, tlic Secretary of State for the IJoiiie I)ei)artiimiit requested Mr. Boverton Kedwood to subject ti larse number of sauii)les of oil toeomi)arativo tests, in order liiat (ho relation between the temperatures at whieii oils Hashed when tested under tho act of 1.S71 iind wIkmi (esled by tho apparatus contrived by Professor Abel mij^ht bo accurately " 208 sauijiles showed a diller. uce between the two tests of 2(i" 225 sauiples showed a diti'eronco between tho two tests of 27'-' 281 .samples showed a ditt'erence between tho two tests of !W^ 102 sauiples showed a ditVerence between the two tests of 29^ 968 Therefore, tho whole of those samples all'orded results within tho rauge of figures given iu Professor Abel's roport. On tho other hand, it will be noted that the majority of the last 32 samples gave diil'oroucos smaller than the minimum ligures of Professor Abel's results, the ditterenco being as follows : 9 samples showed a diftereuco between the two tests of 20" 1 sample showed a diftereuco between the two tests of 21° 9 samples showed a ditt'erouce between the two tests of 82° 1 sample showed a dift'orenco between tho two tests of 23° 4 samples showed a diftereuco hetwccu the two tests of 24" 8 samples showed a ditforonce between the two tests of 25° 32 Those, however, all consisted not of ordinary petroleum oil, but of tlu! special kind which is known in the trade under the name of "water- white" oil, and therefore the exceptional results aU'orded by them do not affect the question at issue, and aro of intoresl only as showing that samples may bo selected or specially jireparcd having Hashing points by the two systems more closely approximating than those of tho ordinary petroleum oil of commerce. This water-white oil, as is well understood, possesses tho distinctive feature of low specific gravity iu addition to that of high Hashing point, being, in fact, produced at a considerably enhanced cost, by rejecting, in tho process of distilling tho crude oil, an unusually large |)roportion of tho heavier as well as of the lighter hydrocarbons; and it is possible that this peculiarity may account for the smaller dift'orenco between tho two tests, though I can suggest no explanation of its occurrouco only with Home i)arcel8 of water-white oil, unless it bo that the spoc'al mode of inanufacturo referred to is more carefully carried out iu some cases than iu others. («) On- the whole, the results which I have obtained alford a complete corroboration of those given in Professor Abel's report. The selection of a mean dirterence of 27°, or, in other words, of a staudard of 73° with tho new test, would undoubtedly, as is evidenced by my figures, lead to the condemnation by tho cominittee of the Petroleum Association of a somewhat larger iiercentage of the oil ini|>ortod, and would thus place the trade iu a more uufavorable position ; but, on the other band, the adoption of a precise inolliod of testing would reduce to a minimum those diH'orencos of opinion which, under the present system, may, as Prolmsor Abel points out, loail in certain cases to tho legal condemnation of oils which the trade inspection has shown not to come within the provisious of the petroleum uot. (i) a These "water-white" oils were not cracked oils. — S. F. P. h Ri'port of Jlr. Koverton IJedwciod to thi' Fnglish Secretary of State for the Home Ueiiartinent. 236 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. It is not my intention in this report to advocate the claims of either the Saybolt, the Abel, or the Engler apparatus for testing oils, which are doubtless superior to all the others, but simply to present the subject as it actually exists, with all the dififlculties attending it, and also such attempts as have been made to meet them. Section 4.— PETEOLEUM LEGISLATION IN THE UNITED STATES. In order to secure full information regarding legislation regulating the sale of petroleum products a schedule of questions was prepared and sent to the executive officer of each of the cities and towns having a population of 10,000 and upward, as represented in Census Bulletin No. 45. Some of these schedules were filled with very great care, others were carelessly filled, others were returned with an indorsement of " no legislation " or something equivalent, and in some cases no return was made. The same schedule was also addressed to the secretaries of the different states and the secretaries of the dift'ereut state boards of health, from nearly all of whom returns were received. I was present in April, 1881, at a meeting of the committee of the New York legislature having in charge the legislation then pending relating to the sale of petroleum products, and was also frequentlj^ consulted by committees of the Minnesota legislature during the successive years in which the subject was agitated in that state. From these several sources of information, of both a negative and a positive character, it appears that at the close of the census year seventeen out of the thirty eight states of the Union were without other legislation relating to petroleum than that provided by the United States statute of 1867 (a) regarding mixing oils and prescribing a test of 110° (not given in the Revised Statutes), and an act regarding dangerous freight or stores on passenger steamers, (b) except that within those states there was a large number of cities having ordinances providing some test. Even the District of Columbia, whose laws are directly prescribed by Congress, has no other petroleum laws than the United States laws indicated above. Since the close of the census year a number of these seventeen states have i)assed laws relating to petroleum. It was found to be impossible to compile any general statistics as to laws even from the schedules that were most carefully filled; but the returns exhibited the confused condition of legislation regarding petroleum enacted by so many difi'erent legislative bodies more or less influenced by a great variety of opinions and interests. On the one hand there are advocates of extremely high test laws who have made their influence dominant in certain localities, and that influence has produced legislation that has either been openly disregarded or strenuously opposed until the repeal of the obnoxious laws had weakened the cause they were intended to strengthen. On the other hand, while there are lionoi'able manufacturers of petroleum who make and sell safe oils and desire to be relieved from competition with the manufacturers of unsafe products, there are others who, without regard for the welfare of the public, desire to be allowed to make what they can sell, leaving the question of responsibility with the purchaser, and who therefore oppose all legislation, using their influence to secure the lowest test possible when legislation is inevitable. When the United States law of 1867 was passed the proportion of cracked oils in the market was much smaller ihan at present. That law required a fire test of 110° F. I have been unable to ascertain upon what basis the adoption of this test and the temperature rested. Several years subsequent to the enactment of this law the board of health of the city of New York made the whole question of dangerous petroleum products the subject of a most elaborate research by Dr. 0. F. Chandler, and in consequence rejected the " fire test " as worthless and recommended to the city government the enactment of an ordinance that required a " flash test " as the only one of any value. The wisdom of this action has been indorsed by the whole course of English petroleum legislation. Some of the most able scientific men of this generation, after careful investigation of the subject, have shown that a And he it further enacted, That no person shall mix for sale naphtha and illuminating oils, or shall knowingly sell or keep for sale or offer for sale such mixtures, or shall sell or offer for sale oil made from petroleum for illuminating purposes inflammahle at leas temperature or fire test than one hundred ami ten degrees Fahrenheit, and any person so doing shall ho held to he guilty of a misdemeanor, and on conviction thereof, hy indictment or presentment in any court of the United States having competent jurisdiction, shall ho punished by a fine of not less than one hundred dollars, nor more than five huudred dollars, and hy imprisonment of not less than six months nor more than three years. (U. S. Stat, at Large, Thirty-ninth Congress, second session, 1867, chap. 169, sec. 29.) As this section is a part of an act relating to internal revenue, the other sections of which have no relation whatever to petroleum legislation, it is an open question if, in the repeated revisions to which the internal revenue laws have been subjected, section 29 has not been long ago repealed. — S. F. P. b Sec. 4472. No loose hay, loose cotton, or loose hemp, camphene, nitro-glyeerine, naphtha, benzine, benzole, coal-oil, crude or refined petroleum, or other like explosive burning fluids or like dangerous articles, shall be carried as freight or used as stores on any steamer carrying passengers. » » » Refined petroleum which will not ignite at a temperature less than one hundred and terr degrees of Fahrenheit thermometer may he carried on board such steamers upon routes where there is no other practical [practicable] mode of transporting it, and under such regulations as shall be prescribed by the board of supervising inspectors with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury. » • » Sec. 4174. The Secretary of the Treasury may grant permission to the owner of any steam vessel to use any invention or process for the utilization of petroleum or other mineral oils or substances in the production of motive power, and m,ay make and enforce regulations concerning the application and use of the same forsuch purpose. » » » Sec 4475 prescribes the packing and m.arkingof such oils, and Sec. 4476 proscribes thepcn.'ilties for violation of the law. (Revised Statutes, U. S. Ed., 187;-'.) THE USES OF PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS. 237 a "fire test" is uusatisfactory, aud also that a "flash test", at a temperature equivalent to that of 100° F. in an open tester, is a satisfactory test to insure public safet.y. Oils that will sustain a " fire test" of 110° often flash at 70° to 80°. While the overwhelming mass of evidence goes to show that a flash test of 100° is conclusive as regards public safety, there are large areas of the country with flash tests fluctuating between 120° and 150° as successive legislatures deal with the question, and other large areas where there is no state legislation. Under both these conditions the number of "kerosene accidents" is very large, while that portion of the country over which petroleum legislation is really eftective is comparatively small. The acts that have jjroved most eftective in aftbrding protection to the public have provided that a state inspector, authorized to appoint de])uties, shall be chosen by the governor, county judges, or state board of health, who shall inspect oils by testiug each for either Its flashing or its burning point, or for both, at a specified temperature. Provision is usually made for the payment of the inspector and deputies. In some instances this couiiieiisation is made too low to compensate a competent person for doing the work properly. The instrument with which the test shall be made is in many cases carefully described. Then the bonds of the inspector and of the deputies are fixed, and the penalties for violation of the provisions of the law are prescribed. There are two sources of danger against which legislation should be directed. The first is the manufacture of unsafe oils; the second is the preparation of unsafe oils by mixture. The machinery of state inspection is cumbersome as related to the manufacturers, and inoperative as regards the dishonest, who will mix safe oils with benzine. The expense of an analysis or inspection of every barrel of oil sold in this country in such a manner as to be of any value is unnecessary, as these oils are transported in tank cars that hold on an average 100 barrels. The inspection of the contents of a car is of just as much value as the inspection of each particular barrel. The idea that one part or stratum of a tank of oil will test difierently from another has no foundation in fact. Having conversed with a large number of persons connected with the petroleum trade, I am convinced that legislation embodying the following provisions would reduce the number of petroleum accidents to a minimum, aud would meet the approval of all honorable men. To determine, as a first step, what method of testing, what instrument, aud what temperature should be adopted as a standard of legislation, the President might be authorized by Congress to appoint a commission, in which the boards of health, scientific experts, and manufacturers of i)etroleum should be repi'esented equally. It would be well to ask the governments of foreign countries, with which the trade in jietroleum is large, to join in the consideration of this question through special commissioners. A small percentage of the losses of the country during a single year would pay all of the expenses of this commission. Upon the report of such a commission, laws could be based making the selling of a dangerous oil a misdemeanor in all cases, and numslaughter when death is occasioned by its use, as already provided when death results from illegal transportation of "nitric oils" aud powder, and also providing for the recovery of damages in a civil suit for all losses to either persons or ]noperty occasioned by the use of such oil —the retailer to be able to recover from the jobber, the jobber from the manufacturer, etc., until the responsible party is reached. One competent person, who should be authorized to enter jjremises and demand samples of oil for inspection, could do all of the necessary work for a large state, and he should be paid an adequate salary, not paid by fees. The examination of oils should not be confined to the flashing point alone, but should regard the percentage of suli)liur, of benzine, aud of heavy oil as well. This suggestion has met the approval of persons representing the producing, the manufacturing, and the selling interests as one which would make the manufacture of unsafe oils unprofitable, and, in addition, would prescribe peiudties for the man who would willfully mix benzine with a good oil, tending to stamp out that nefarious business. In addition to a standard of testing for ordinary illuminating oils, another and much higher standard should be determined for oils to be used on steamboats aud railroad cars in interstate commerce. Under i)resent legislation, a car running over a thousand miles of road may start in a state in which a 110° oil is legal, and, passing through another in which a 300° oil is required, finish the run in a third state in which there has been no state legislation. As a further illustration of the results of such variable legislation, I may state that while engaged in collecting the statistics for this report I saw in the testing room of a large refinery a large table, on which were no less than seven difl'erent instruments that were in daily use for testiug oils to fill orders from ditt'ereut localities. Tliese instruments included Abel's for the Canada market, Saybolt's for the Xew York city export market, the Ohio tester for the Ohio market, and a number of others. I doubt if the legislative regulation of any other substance presents such anomalous and contradictory characteristics. Tliere is but one temperature at which illuminating oils manufactured from petroleum can, when iiroperly tested, give oft" an amount of vapor sufiicient to produce an explosive mixture within the limits of public safety. That temperature alone should be made the subject of legislation, and the testing should be made with whatever instrument gives results that may be repeated with the greatest accuracy. The question of absolute safety has already been discussed ; that of comparative economy is outside the domain of legislation. 238 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. Section 5.— BUENERS. One other subject deserves consideration in this connection. It is frequently maintained that with proT)er burners oils are safe that under other conditions are unsafe. While it cannot be denied that some burners are to be preferred to others, it is my belief that all burners are safe icith safe oil. There is no doubt, however, that very considerable differences obtain between different burners in point of illuminating power, and hence of economy. This was made a subject of research by Mr. G. J. H. Woodbury in 1873. (a) In his report he says : The comparative worthlessness of the lighter product of petroleum tempts the unprincipled manufacturer to add them to kerosene, makinn- a product which, on account of its extreme Tolatility, is cleaner than pure kerosene; the flame is of greater brilliancy, and, on these grounds, it recommends itself over the pure oil to those who have not been able to give attention to this subject. Many of these compounds are quite as dangerous as gunpowder. As kerosene has been in use only a few years, a sufficient interval has not elapsed to enable us to burn it with the greatest possible economy. » • * The writer, in the following series of experiments upon various kerosene burners, has endeavored to ascertain the most favorable forms of burner for an economical expenditure of oil compared to the light given. The results given for each lamp are the mean of from 150 to 250 observations. FLAT WICKS. No. CLimDcy. Wick. Candle power. Hours required to consume 1 g.illon. 1 Candle power to g.allou. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Bulge .... Inch, i 1 i 1 i 1 1 1 i 8.469 0. 420 6.587 5.138 4.829 4.810 7.398 7,371 5.997 ID. 754 »19. 480 *10. 030 99.06 127. 53 125. 35 163. 93 171. 89 174. 87 115. 23 131. 19 188. 57 113.17 594 815 823 829 830 835 887 964 1,110 1,209 Sun ' A3 tlie^e lamps were made to burn mineral sperm oil, we do not give the results. ■ CIRCULAR WICKS. No. Chimney. Wicks. Candle power. Hours required to consume 1 gallon. Candle power to 1 gallon. 13 14 15 Circular. . CircuLir.. Circular.. 8.387 8.824 10. 905 101. 20 103. 68 123. 68 833 911 1,347 Circular The list could have been made much longer, but it would serve our purpose no better. The oil used was Downer's kerosene, specific gravity 0.801. One gallon, at 62° F., weighing 3,025.3 grams. The first column of results shows the candle power given by the lamp when burning with a full flame, but below the smoking point. The second gives the number of hours required to consume 1 g.allon of oil. The object of the third column is (o give the economy of the lamp, by a unit, which is the candle power given by an ideal lamp, exactly similar to the one under observation, with the exception that it shall consume precisely 1 gallon an hour. This result is constant for all except extremely high or low flames. Such a unit is very empirical, but no more so than the modulus of elasticity, or absolute zero. » * » A simple inspection of the above lamps shows their economical results to be in the direct ratio to the facilities afforded the air for approaching the base of the flame. Where the air cannot enter freely, much of the oil seems to be volatilized without combustion. The best example is given by cases 5, 8, 9, and 10. The lamps are all similar, except in the difference noted below, and are of the pattern generally known as "sun-burners". In the first example, the air must pass through two horizontal brass diaphragms at the base of the chimney ; one is pierced with holes | inch in di.ameter, the other .about -jV inch ; case 8, one fine diaphragm at base of chimney ; cases 9 and TO, the base of the chimney is open ; a diaphragm is near the base of the flame. Although the two lamps are different in size, they are identical in principle, the following being the cause of difference in the result : a certain portion of the light is shaded by the top of the burner. This conceals an equal amount (not proportion) of the fl.ame, whether it is high or low. Also, a large flame makes a much more powerful draft than a smaller one. If wo have two similar lamps, the larger one will give the best results. In the fuur lauips just cited, if we remove the coarse diaphragm from the first lamp we increase its efficiency 16 per cent. ; in addition, taking .away the fine one, we increase it 18 per cent, more; make the draft more powerful by a bulge chimney, we have a further increase of 12 per cent. Lamps like 9 and 10, from their open construction, are extremely sensitive to currents of air. Lamp No. 3 is ai metallic lamp, and very thoroughly constructed. The air is supplied from the base of the lamp, the burner being closed ; it is not sensitive to currents of air, and gives the most steady and agreeable flame of any that have come under observation. If the entrance to the air passage was made larger, and the diaphragms in the burner were pierced with larger holes, the efiiciency of the burner would be increased greatly, while it would probably retain its steadiness of flame. In lamp No. 15 the air is introduced into the center of the flame with less obstruction than in the two previous cases, and this lamp gave the most economical results. a Jonr. Franh. Institute, xcvi, 115. The names of the burners and their manufacturers are given in the original memoir. THE USES OF PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS. 23& The results here given show that in the question of the economical combustion of illuminating mineral oils much depends upon the burner. At the special general meeting of the London Petroleum Association, held on January 14, 1S79, it was generally admitted that not only the burner, but the wick, played an important part in the successful combustion of petroleum oils. It was also shown on that occasion that a loosely woven wick was preferable to a more solid one, but that with any form of wick or burner oils of inferior quality produced a crusted wick with a smoky flame and heated burner. Judging from the discussion that took place on that occasion^ together with my own experience, I conclude that oils that are prepared from petroleum without destructive distillation may be burned with a very slow consumption of the wick, but that the wick used with these oils, in time, through some physical or chemical action which has not yet been investigated, suffers impaired capillarity and becomes unfit for use, although it ma3- still be of sufiflcient length to reach the oil. Such wicks should be discarded as soon as they give trouble. Burners also should be discarded as soon as they become worn and do not act satisfactorily. The primary question, however, rests with the oil. Cracked oils containing much heavy oil and a comparatively large content of sulphur very soon convert a wick into a charred mass saturated with a gummy substance that partially destroys its capillarity and produces an imperfect combustion and inferior flame. To secure the best results the best oil should be burned in lamps supplied with fresh burners and wicks carefully trimmed* The fact has been established- beyond all controversy that no combination of lamp, burner, and icicle that has ever been invented or can be invented will make an inferior or unsafe oil either satisfactory, economical, or safe. Dr. Thomas Cattell writes as follows to an English journal: It is two years since tlie first intimation of danger from sophisticated candle-wiclc was forced on my attention. The candle, a thick dipX^ed one, was placed lighted upon a table, and after a period of about twenty minutes it guttered so violently that the tallow flowed down on to the table around the bottom of the candle-stick, followed in a few seconds by a collapse of the wick, bared of tallow, on to the table, setting fire to the melted tallow. If I had not been present serious consequences would have ensued. When this incident occurred I had not thought the fault lay primarily with the candle-wick ; I held the tallow to blame. A recent accident, however, with a large paraffine lamp has brought to light the fact that the medium or wick through which the tallow and the oil are used as sources of light is unsuitable for its object, as well as fraught with considerable danger. Experience has taught that cotton is the one peculiar and valuable medium for supplying the sources of light here referred to. Spuriods cotton-wick I believe to be a mixture of cotton and flax waste, or a combination of jute, hemp waste, and cotton. Such wick, or at least the alien portion of it, becomes quickly carbonized both in candles and lamps. With the first, the carbonized particles as they form dart out with a flash or drop on the melted tallow undergoing absorption by the wick, giving rise to guttering and a great waste of tallow. In the other, the ignited portion soon carbonizes, which more and more increases in depth, until a point is reached when further capillarity in the direction of the fl.ame ceases and ignition of the lower part of the wick takes place, followed by that of the oil in the receiver, with explosion or other mishap. I believe it will be found that the danger to which I here allude will afford an explanation of many fires and accidents that, but for these observations, had ever remained involved in mystery. Pure cotton-wick is slow to carbonize, and its consumption is uniform, unaccompanied by sudden little ejections and explosions, as occur in the burning of spurious cotton-wicks previously alluded to. If ordinary paraffine oil be not of the required combustion standard, such wick would greatly increase its danger. Microscopically, flax fiber consists of jointed cylindrical tubes. Cotton consists of flattened twisted tubes without joints. Chemical analysis would give us more or less of the nitrates, nitrites, and binitrites of cellulose, (a) a Oil and Drug Netus, January 31, 1882. 240 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. Chapter 111.— NATURAL GAS AND THE CAEBUEETING OF GAS AND AIR. Section 1.— OCCCTEEEJS'CE AND COMPOSITIOaST OF NATUEAL GAS. The occurrence of springs of water accompanied with gas have been noted from a very early period. The number of localities named "burning springs" in different parts of the country attest the wide distribution of this phenomenon. It is, however, very erroneously supposed by some 'writers that these burning springs are immediately related to volcanoes. Dr. Ansted appears to think that they are closely related to mud volcanoes ; but in the United States, east of the Mississippi river, where mud volcanoes are unknown, it appears that gas springs are the product of the same kind of action that has produced petroleum, and they often accompany petroleum. Wall observed in his researches uj)on Trinidad that — The phenomena of salses or mud volcanoes, consisting of the solution of inflammable gas, accompanied by the discharge of a muddy fluid and asphaltic oil, is, perhaps, closely related to the activity just described, as carbureted hydrogen may be disengaged in the direct formation of asphalt. Several of them occur in Trinidad, also in the " Newer Parian ". They were likewise observed in the province of Maturin, presenting similar characters. At Turbaoo, near Carthagena, precisely the same action is manifested, but on a much larger scale. This is further confirmatory of a great extension of the above formation to the westward. The thermal waters of Trincheras, near Valencia, issuing from mica-schist, contain merely traces of silica, sulphureted hydrogen, and nitrogen, and possess a variable temperature, as shown by the following determinations: Humboldt, in 1800 194"^ Boussingault, in 1823 206° The author, in 1859 198° The hot springs of Chaquaranal, near Pilar, in a limestone of the "Older Parian", present the rare phenomena of water discharged at and even above the boiling point. Sometimes the fluid is delivered under pressure, rising in a jet, continuing in a state of ebullition for several feet from the point of discharge, accompanied by a forcible evolution of steam, and depositing abundance of calcareous matter. The fissures of the adjacent rock are lined with spathose crystallizations and the acicular forms of sulphur. The vapors escaping from these fissures consLst principally of steam, {a) Professor Ansted observed copious discharges of gas, petroleum, and mud from the mud volcanoes of the valley of Pescara, in Italy, and also in the Crimea. I do not, however, interpret these phenomena as volcanic, or as in any manner an association of cause and effect, but rather as associated incidents of the dying out of the metamorphic action which has in most cases by invasion of strata containing organic matter distilled all of the forms of bitumen, including inflammable gas. The observations of Wall confirm this hypothesis in the most striking manner. In the great petroleum region of the Appalachian system the accumulations of gas are often found upon the anticlinals in the pebble conglomerates and sandstones that hold the petroleum, while at a still lower level in the troughs of the synclinals salt water occurs. In a general manner, with the sea-level as a datum line, the Venango and Bradford oil-sands lie sloping at a gentle inclination, the southwestern edges submerged in salt watei', and the northeastern edge saturated with gas under an enormous pressure. Not the slightest evidence that volcanic action ever has obtained in that region has been observed; but all the geological features, which have already been so fully discussed on previous pages of this report, lead to the conclusion that petroleum and natural gas have been produced by the same cause. That volcanic action is not that cause is further shown by a comparison of the analyses that have been made of natural gases from various localities. In 1876 Professor S. P. Sadtler, of the University of Pennsylvania, examined with great care the gas from four different wells in northwestern Pennsylvania, which was used in all cases for technological purposes. I quote from his paper read before the American Philosophical Society, February 18, 1876, as follows : Having had occasion lately to analyze some of the gases issuing from wells in western Pennsylvania, I have obtained some results which axe given as a contribution to our knowledge of these important natural products. There have been almost no analyses whatever made of these gases. In 1886 a French geologist, M. Pouoou, visited a number of these gas-wells and collected specimens of the gases. These were afterward analyzed by M. Fonqu(5, and the results published in CompiesBendus, Ixvii, p. 104.5. The localities were Pioneer run, Venango county, Pennsylvania ; Fredonia, New York ; Eogei-'s gulch, Wirt county. West Virginia ; Burning Springs, on the Niagara river below the cataract; and Petrolia, Enniskillen district, Canada West. These points are certainly widely enough removed to make the series comprehensive from a geological standpoint. The analyses do not appear to have been complete ones, as M. Fowqu^ determined the exact amounts of only a few of the constitueuts. In general, the gases were composed of the marsh-gas series of hydrocarbons. Thus the gas from Pioneer run he found to have essentially the composition of propyl hydride (CgHs), with small quantities of carbonic acid and of nitrogen ; the Fredonia gas .appeared to be a mixture of marsh-gas (CHj), and ethyl hydride (CaHs), with a small quantity of carbonic acid and L.'iS per cent, of nitrogen ; the Roger's gulch gas was CHj almost exclusively, with 15.80 per cent, of carbonic acid and a small quantity of nitrogen; the Burning Springs gas almost pure CH, with a little COij the Petrolia gas a mixture of marsh-gas a Q. J. G. S., xvi, 467. THE USES OF PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS. 241 (CH,) and ethyl hydride (CsHo), with a small amount of carbonic acid. However, the composition as given was only a,pparent, as in the case of the Pioneer run gas, for on passing the gas through alcohol a part was absorbed, which was afterw.ard shown to be butyl liydride (C4Hio), while the part unabsorbed showed nearly the composition of marsh-gas (CH4). It was evident, therefore, that what appeared to be propyl hydride (C3H3) was in reality a mixture of marsh-gas (CH4) and butyl hydride (C4H,o). In 1870 Professor Heary Wurtz made an analysis of the gas from a well 500 feet deep in West Bloomfield, Ontario county. New York. He found ; Per cent. Marsh-gas CH4 82.41 Carbonic acidCOj 10.11 NitrogeuN 4. 31 Oxygen O 0.23 Illuminating hydrocarbons 2.94 100.00 The specific gravity of the gas was 0.693 Professor S. A. Lattimore, of Rochester University, New York, examined this gas in 1871, and estimated its flow to be 800,000 cubic feet in twenty-four hours of 14.42 candle power. The gases which I collected and analyzed were: First, the gas of the Burns well, in Butler county ; secondly, that of the Harvey well, in the same county ; thirdly, that from the Leechburg well, across the Kiskeminitis river from Leechburg, in Westmoreland county ; and fourthly, the gas babbling from a spring at Cherry Tree, in Indiana county. He obtained the following results : (a) COMPOSITION OF THE GAS OF CERTAIN WELLS. Name of well. Carbonic acid. Carbonic oxide. Illuminating hydrocarbons (CHa+ri. Oxygen. Nitrogen. Specific gravity. Heating power. Pyromotric heating power. Hydrogen. Per cent. 6.10 0.56 13.50 22.50 Marsh-gas. Ethyl hy- dride. Propyl hydride. Per cent. 0.34 0.35 0.6G 2.28 Per cent. Trace. 0.26 Trace. Per cent. 75.44 89.65 80.11 60.27 Per cent. 18.13 4.39 5.72 6.80 Trace. Trace. Trace. Per cent. Per cent. Percent. 0. 6148 0.5580 0. 5119 Per cent. 14, 214 14, 105 15,597 Deg. 2,745 2,746 2,763 Cherry Tree gas-spring 0.83 7.32 The following results were obtained from the analysis of the gas escaping from a well in Belfast, Ireland. It passed through 33 feet of silt and 7 feet of gravel containing organic debris. The gas escaped from the gravel. Its density was 0,661, air^l, inodorous, and contained no compounds of carbon and hydrogen, except CII4. Its composition was found to be — Per cent. CH. 83.75 CO, 2.44 1.06 N 612.75 An analysis is here given of the gas of the Burning Spring of Saint Barthelemy (Isfere) : (e) Per cent. CH< 98.81 COj 0.58 N 0.48 0.10 Loss 0.03 100. 00 The results of several analyses of the gases escaping from the solfataras and fumaroles, given below, will be found to exhibit a strikingly different composition. The first is an analysis of the gases rising through the Lago di Naftia in the Val del Bove of Etna : I. II. Per cent. Per cent. COj 94.23 84.58 HjS 6.17 CH4 1.82 2.42 0.28 4.52 N 3.79 1.89 Neither acetylene nor olefines were present, (d) The next is an analysis of the gases evolved from fumaroles on the island of Saint Paul. The temperature was 780-80°: (e) Per cent. CO,i 14.24 Oi 17.01 Ni - 68.75 a American Chemist, vii, 97; W. B., 1876, p. 1134. d Gas. Chim. Itah, ix, 404 ; J. C. S., xxxviii, 345. i C. N.,xxx, 136; J. C. Soc, xxviii, 242. e C. Bendus, 1875, No. 7. c Mont. Sci., 1870, p. 550; W. B., 1870, p. 704. VOL. IX IG 242 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. The gas from Campi Flegrei, Vesuvius, is not constant in composition, but is mainly CO. H2S is about 5 per cent., O less than 1 per cent., N 5 to 10 per cent., sometimes as high as 50 to 60 per cent., with occasionally a small quantity of CH4. The Grotto del Cane yields pure GO. {a) No combustible gases are evolved by the Caldeira de Furnas, San Miguel, Azores, differing in this respect from the geysers of Iceland and the Suffoni of Tuscany, both of which invariably contain H and GH4. (6) The gases from Santorin, after the eruption of 1866, contained CO2, O and N" in constantly varying proportions, with traces of H, H2S, and GH4. In 1870 HOL and SO2 were present. (0) The gases evolved from solfataras contain GO2, H2S, O, and N. Two of them yielded wholly CO2. The Great Solfatara yields steam, HjS, CO2, O, and N. {d) A comparison of these results of analysis shows the great difference between the constituents of the gases from these two sources. In the gases from Burning Springs CH4 predominates, accompanied by other products of distillation; in the gases from solfataras GO2 predominates, accompanied by other products of the combustion of. carbon. The distillation of strata rich in organic remains, when invaded by metamorphic action, has doubtless produced the inflammable gases of burning springs and gas-wells in a manner analogous to and often simultaneous with the production of petroleum. In the United States the phenomena of burning springs were observed by the earliest settlers west of the AUeghanies. Dr. Hildreth described these springs as they occur in the valleys of the Little and the Great Kanawha,, in West Virginia, in 1833, and later in the vallej^ of the Big Sandy, in Kentucky. The volume of gas escaping from these springs is often remarkable, but no attempt was ever made, so far as I can learn, in any manner to utilize this material. The boring of wells for salt and petroleum led to the frequent penetration of strata heavily charged with gas that was destitute of petroleum. This was most frequently the case on the borders of petroleum fields in rocks that were, relative to the sea-level, higher than those yielding oil. The localities that have been and are most noted for their gas- wells are: Fredonia, Ghautauqua county, Kew York; Wilcox, Elk county, Pennsylvania; Eochester, Beaver county, Pennsylvania; Burns well and Harvey well, Butler county, Pennsylvania; Leechburg, Westmoreland county, Pennsylvania; ShefBeld, Warren county, Pennsylvania; Allegheny county, Pennsylvania; Erie, Erie county, Pennsylvania; Painesville, Lake county, Ohio; East Liverpool, Columbiana county, Ohio; Gambler, Knox county, Ohio; New Cumberland, Hancock county. West Virginia; Burning Springs, Wirt county. West Virginia. The gas from wells at several of these localities has been made very valuable for technological purposes : The use of natural gas at Fredonia was begun in 1821, and was introduced into a few public places, among -wliicli a hotel was illuminated when General Lafayette passed through the village. The gas from this well, which was sufficient for about thirty burners, was used alone until about 1858, when another well was drilled, which supplied some two hundred burners. Another well was drilled iu 1871 with better success. The average monthly supply of the three combined is about 110,000 cubic feet, of which an average of 80,000 cubic feet per month is consumed for lights. Seven other wells, varying from 50 to 800 feet deep, have been made without success. The area covered by these wells is about one mile in length by ono-half mile in width. The supply has not perceptibly diminished since the opening of the wells, (e) At Erie, Pennsylvania, gas-wells have been bored along Mill creek. Some of the deepest of these wells have yielded a dense oil. The Demming well struck gas at about 440 feet under such a pressure that it blew oil to the top of the derrick for twenty-four hours. Many gas-wells have been drilled for private dwellings and manufacturing establishments. For the latter purpose, where large quantities are used, the yield of the wells runs down in a few years. At Painesville, Ohio, gas-wells are bored for private dwellings, and the gas is used often for heating as well as for illuminating purposes. At Eochester, Pennsylvania, and East Liverpool, Ohio, the gas is burned in enormous quantities in glass houses. At Gambler, Ohio, and New Cumberland, West Virginia, the gas is burned in a manner to produce lampblack. The gas of the Burns, Harvey, and Leechburg wells is or has been used in puddling iron. The latter was found particularly valuable in the preparation of the quality of i^ure rolled iron used for tin plate. The Sheffield well was bored for oil, but instead of oil it has discharged a jet of gas that has burned continuously for five years. In the oil regions the gas from these wells is frequently burned in the open air for no other purpose than to prevent the formation of dangerous explosive mixtures of gas and air. Bradford and other towns in the oil regions are mainly heated and lighted with natural gas from the oil-wells, and in some instances from wells drilled on purpose to obtain gas. If no oil accompanies the gas, the flame is clear and white, but if oil is present it is red and smoky. Benzine often condenses in the pipes from natural gas, and it is not unreasonable to suppose that, at the enormous pressure under which this gas is held in the oil-sand, the gas is condensed to a liquid. In the Bradford region especially this pressure is much too great to be ascertained by pressure gauges, and has often been made a subject of conjecture, rather than of estimate, as equaling from 2,000 to 4,000 pounds per square inch. Any attempt to ascertain the pressure would be attended with the risk of having the casing and tubing thrown out of the well. The evaporation due to the removal of this pressure produces an extraordinary reduction of temperature. At ShefBeld the temperatiire fell so low that ice formed in the well pipe and finally closed it. The ice was then drilled through 100 feet in depth. When it was pierced, the pressure threw a C. Send., Isxv, 154; J. C. Soc, xxv, 884. d Ann. de Ch. et de PJtys. (4), xxv, 559 ; J. C. Soc, xxv, 469. 6 Ibid., Ixsv, 115 ; lUd., xxv, 885. e Letter of E. J. Crissey, secretary of the Fredonia Natural Gas-light Company, to S. F. P. c Hid., Ixxv, 270 ; liid., xxv, 885. THE USES OF PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS. 243 the tools and well casing out of the top of the derrick. "When a stratum yielding gas is struck in boring, the force of the escaping gas prevents water from reaching the bottom of the well if poured down the side, or even, in some cases, if introduced from a tank through a pipe reaching to the bottom. In most cases by this latter arrangement (which gives the weight of a column of water several hundred feet in height) the gas is " stopped off". The gas has been used in several instances to work an engine for pumping without water or heat by introducing it into the cylinder, precisely like high-pressure steam. In drilling the Eoy well, near Kane, Pennsylvania, the gas from a well more than one-fourth of a mile distant was used in this manner. It is very frequently used as a fuel for making steam, and, when there is a surplus, that is burned at the end of a pipe to prevent explosions. The greatest gas- well on record in the oil regions is the Newton well on the Nelson farm, 6 miles north of Titusville. There the gas raised a column of water 100 feet high with a noise that could be heard 2 miles, and when the column burst it threw the water l.j rods each way. The Bradford Gas-light and Heating Company receive gas into a gasometer from wells near the city. Two sets of pipes pass through the city. One set passes from the wells to the gasometer, and has the same pressure as that on the wells ; the other set passes from the gasometer, and delivers the gas under a pressure of about G inches of water. Gas is delivered from both sets of pipe ; from the high pressure for boilers, etc., and from the other set for use iu dwellmgs. The mains attached to the wells will deliver through the same orifice about ten times the amount delivered from ordinary street mains. The wells are so deep that the friction on the escaping gas is very great, and retards the motion and lowers the pressure as it escapes. The pressure at the wells gradually diminishes. In one case it ran down from an estimated pressure of 1,000 pounds to G pounds in five years. When first struck the gas would easily have lifted the casing out of the well, requiring a force of at least 500 pounds per square inch. It was estimated that during the month of January, 1S81, 7,500,000 cubic feet of gas reduced t9 ordinary . pressure were delivered in Bradford, where it is almost universally used for heating as well as for illumination. The burning of the superfluous gas at nearly all the wells forms at night great flaming torches, that glare in the darkness from the surrounding hillsides. Mr. Charles A. Ashburuer, of Philadelphia, has described a well which has received the name of the " Kane geyser well". It is situated -1 miles southeast of Kane, on the Philadelphia and Erie railroad. While driUiug Fresh " water-veins" Tvere encountered do-nn to a depth of 364 feet, which was the limit of the casing. At a depth of 1,415 feet a very heavy "gas vein" was struck. This gas was permitted a free escape during the time the drilling was continued to 2,C00 feet. When the -well was abandoned, from failure to find oil, and the easing drawn, the fresh water flowed in, and the contlict between the water and the gas commenced, rendering the well an object of great interest. The water flows into the well on top of the gas until the pressure of the confined gas becomes greater than the weight of the suiierincumbent water, when au explosion takes place and a column of water and gas & thrown to a great height. This occurs at present at regular intervals of thirteen minutes, and the spouting continues for cue and a half minutes. On July 31 (1679) Jlr. Sheafer measured two columns, -which went to a height respectively of liiO feet and 128 feet. On the evening of August 2 I measured four columns iu succession, and the water was thrown to the following heights : 108 feet, 132 feet, 120 feet, and 138 feet. The columns are composed of mingled water and gas, the latter being readily ignited. After nightfiiU the spectacle is grand. The antagonistic elements of fire and water are so promiscuously blended that each seems to be fightiun- for the masterv. At one moment the flame is almost entirely extinguished, only to burst forth at the next instant with increased energy and greater brilliancy. During sunshine the sprays form an artificial rainbow, and in winter the columns become encased in huge transparent ice chimneys. A number of wells in the oil regions have thrown water geysers similar to the Kane well, but none have attracted such attention, (n) Some of the most remarkable gas- wells that have ever been drilled outside the oil region are the Xeff gas- wells near Gambier, Knox county, Ohio. These wells are located on the Kokosing river, a tributary of the Walhonding river, which empties into the JIuskiugum above Zanesville. No. 1 well is sunk not tar from the liue of Knox and Coshocton counties. Such a powerful vein of rich illuminating gas was struck as to cause suspension of all work. From this well immense floods of water, in paroxysms of about one minute interval, are thrown up to a height of 80 to 100 feet. The vein of water was struck, fortunately, at a depth of only about 66 feet, where a large stream was tapped, produciug no inconvenience in boring until the gas was struck, when suddenly it was all discharged at regular intervals of not more than one minute. The boring throughout its whole length of 600 feet is filled aud discharged, making a most magnificent hydraulic display. It is, however, .at night that the grand phenomena of this well are best exhibited. The enormous amount of water, perhaps 10,000 barrels per day, keep the derrick and floor so wetted that the gas can be fired with safety. When this is done, at the instant of paroxysm a sudden roar is heard, and at night the flame is seen shooting up 15 to 20 feet above the derrick, which is 53 feet high. It is a grand sight to see the flame leaping fiercely amid the rushing waters, darting out its fiery tongues on every side; now rolling above the most powerful part of the jet like balls dauciug on a fountain, and now, with au intensely bright flame, leaping suddenly down the column and running along the floor, and illuminating, as with buruiug liquid naphtha, which is undoubtedly thrown out with the water, the whole forest scenery around as a magnificent spectacle. When the derrick was covered with ice the gas escaping from the well was frequently ignited, and the effect, especially at night, of this fountain of mingled fire and water shooting up to the height of 120 feet through a great transparent and illuminated chimney is said to have been indescribably magnificent. (6) A phenomenon (called a gas volcano) that has been observed in the valley of the Cumberland, in southern Kentucky, near Burkesville, is thus described. In a private communication Dr. J. S. Newberry writes : This name is given to explosions of gas accumulated under the flaggy rocks of the Hudson Eiver group m the valley of the Cumberland and its tributaries. I have visited localities where explosions have occurred, but have never witnessed one myself. They result from the confinement of gas generated below under impervious strata of rook, the pressure ultimately becoming sufficient to throw oft" the superincumbent mass of rock, earth, water, etc. These explosions are not very uncommon in the valley of the Cumberland, and they are well known to the inhabitants. a Jour. Frank. Inst., cviii, 347. 6 Prospectus of the Neflf Petrolenm Company, 1866. 244 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. Section 2.— USE OF NATUEAL GAS IN THE MANUFACTUEE OF LAMPBLACK, ETC. The gas of the Neff and other wells is largely utilized for the production of lampblack. This black is of very superior quality, and when .first produced and thrown upon the market commanded as high a price as 75 cents per pound, but the production was very soon increased so largely in comparison with the demand that the price is now only about 15 to 20 cents per pound. Concerning the production of lampblack from natural carbureted hydrogen, a writer in Dingier observes as follows : {a) It is known that gaaes escaping from tlie soil of some of the oil districts of Pennsylvania (compare 1878, 228, 534) is prepared for illumination and heating purposes (1877, 224, 552). P. Neif now produces from the same hy imperfect comhustion an excellent lampblack, which he brings into market under the name of " diamond Uack". This gas flows from two wells which are bored at Gambler (Knox county, Ohio), in the vicinity of the mouth of the Kokosing. According to J. E. Santos {Chemical News, 38, 94, 1878), it has the following composition : Per cent. Marsh-gas 81. 4 Ethylene 12.2 Nitrogen 4.8 Oxygen - 0.8 CO 0.5 COj 0.3 100.0 Neflf burns daily with 1,800 burners of peculiar construction almost 8,000 cubic meters of gas and obtains from it 16 per cent, of ' lampblack. The specific gravity of this lampblack is, according to Santos, 1,729 at 17° C. Dried at 200° an elementary analysis gives : I. II. Per cent. Per cent. C 96.041 96.011 H 0.736 0.747 By means of Sprengel's air-pump the gas is pumped out, having the following composition : CO — 1.387 COj 1.386 N... 0.776 H2O 0.682 Besides, 0.024 per cent, of a bright yellow hydrocarbon soluble in alcohol, and which boils at from 215° to 225°, is obtained, which is probably impure naphthaline. The small quantity of ashes consisting of the oxides of iron and copper comes from the burners. The united composition of diamond black is accordingly as follows : Per cent. C.. 95.057 H 0.665 N 0.776 CO 1.378 COs 1-386 HjO 0.682 Ashes 0.056 100. 000 The black is consequently very pure, and in any case is well adapted for fine printers' ink and the like. It is also used in the preparation of lithographic ink. At New Cumberland, Hancock county. West Virginia, Messrs. Smith, Porter & Co. use natural gas for burning fire-brick. The gas from one well furnishes fuel for nine brick kilns, three engines, and ten furnaces in the drying house, with fuel and lights for several dwellings, besides a large excess that is burned at the end of an escape pipe. They produce 55,000 brick daily. Section 3.— GAS FEOM CEUDE PETEOLEUM, PAEAFFINE OIL, AND EESIDUUM. A large number of patents have been taken out for processes and apparatus for the manufacture of illuminating gas from crude petroleum and the dense products of its manufacture. The general principle upon which all of these processes depend for operation consists in a distillation of the materials at a temperature sufiiciently elevated to crack the petroleum compounds into gaseous products. The " gas oil ", which is petroleum deprived of its naphtha, is conducted into a retort previously heated to a red heat. The method of heating the retort, the manner of distributing the fluids, and the purification of the gas from the undecomposed petroleum and tarry matters, are all subject in the different patents to differences of arrangement, but the underlying principle of destructive distillation is fundamental in all of them. This method of preparing illuminating gas is quite extensively used for lighting large manufactories and villages and small towns. It is especially valuable for these j)urposes on account of the comparative simplicitj^ of the apparatus and process of manufucture and the purity of the product. The gas prepared by this method is particularly free from the ammonia and sulphur compounds that contaminate gas prepared from coal. a Dingier, ccxxxi, 177. THE USES OF PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS. 245 Section 4.— GAS FEOIM NAPHTHA. Gas is also prepared by tbe destructive distillation of petroleum uaphtlias aud benzine. One of the methods of operating this process is thus described : A still holding 40 barrels of naphtha contains a coil of 2-inch pipe ; steam passes through thei coil, Tolatilizing the naphtha, the pressure carried on the still bein^ on an average about one-half inch. The vapor jjasses to three benches, of three retorts each, by a 3-inch pipe ; li-inch branches to each retort are tapped into the side of this mouth-piece, connecting with a 0-inch cast-iron pipe, which lies inside of the retort to within 1 foot of the back, and is open at the back end, but plugged in front with a clayed stoi)per. The vapors circulate through the C-inch pipe to the back end of the retort and return forward and up the stand-pipes, which are G inches in diameter. These retorts are heated to dull redness. During this transit the vapors of naphtha are converted into gas and pass through a submerged U-shaped condenser, IS inches in diameter, lying in a tank with sufficient inclination for a drip. An air-pump is used to preserve an exhaust of about 3 inches, from which the gas passes to a station meter and " mixer". At every revolution of the station meter 42 per cent, of air is drawn in by a reverse drum on the same spindle, and is mixed with the gas, which thence passes to the holder. The introduction of air is not necessary, as the gas can be burned with a suitable burner; but the gas thus prepared is very rich, and the air is introduced to reduce its quality to the average standard of 15 or 20 candle-power. It will be observed that all apparatus for purifying the gas is dispensed with, the gas being entirely free from all deleterious sulphur and ammonia compounds. The only residue in this process is a small quantity of heavy oil, apparently a residue from the cracking of the benzine. Section 5.— CAEBUEETORS. The idea of saturating illuminating gas with the vapors of volatile hydrocarbons for the purj>ose of increasing its illuminating power was entertained long before the discovery of petroleum in commercial quantities. Lowe patented a process in 1841, and alluded to it in a general way in a previous patent of 1832, tbe claim in which is so comprehensive that, if valid, it would render doubtful all subsef|ueut patents, (a) Mansfield also claimed tbe .application of atmospheric air as a vehicle for the vapor of very volatile hydrocarbons in such a manner that tbe "vaporized ,air" might be burnt like ordinary coal-gas. (b) As early as ISoC Longbottom attempted to prepare illuminating gas by passing air through benzole, ether, or oil of turpentine, (c) These appear to be the earliest attempts at carburation. These machines were never made a practical success, however, until the distillation of petroleum furnished volatile hydrocarbons in commercial quantities. The low price at which these products could be obtained after petroleum became extensively jiroduced led to the invention of a large number of machines in a great variety of form and principle of construction. The number patented in England, France, Germany, and the United States prior to ISSO must be in the neighborhood of 1,000. The first patents that were issued were for inventions that produced a partial or a complete saturation of the gas or air without in any mauner controlling the evai>oration or the temperature. The result of the operation of these machines was invariably an overcharging with vapor in warm weather or when the apparatus was first put in action, causing subsequent condensation of the vapor, followed by undercharging as the naphtha was distilled and tlie residue became less volatile, and as it also was rendered more dense in consequence of the reduction of temperature resulting from the evaporation. Evaporation was induced and rendered more constant and rajiid by the construction of a sort of labyrinth through which the gas or air was forced. The tank containing the naphtha was made shallow and of large diameter, and curtains of flannel were so arranged that the upper border of the curtain was securely fastened to the under surface of the cover of the tank and allowed to hang freely, dipping into the naphtha below. As a result, the gas was forced to pass through the spaces between these curtains, and a great evaporation and absorption of the naphtha vapor by the gas followed. This method of carburation, while very effectual, was still open to the objections above made, and did not furnish uniform results ; but the difficulty was removed by an invention by which the tank in which the naphtha was being distilled was submerged in a wooden tank of water. The great latent heat of water caused it to give out heat, equalizing the temperature^ producing a uniform distillation, and consequently a uniform partial saturation of the gas or air. This contrivance may be said to have rendered the carbureting of air a success, and a large number of machines have been constructed upon this principle. The general arrangement of the apparatus has been a wooden tank, sunk in the ground outside the building and below the frost. In this tank the receptacle for the gasoline is placed, arid the intervening space is nearly filled with water. At this depth the water preserves nearly a uniform temperature at all seasons, and from its large volume it compensates the gasoline for its loss of heat due to evaporation, and keeps both the temperature and the distillation uniform ; consequently the amount of combustible material supplied the current of air is uniform. This current is forced through the labyrinth by an air-pump worked bj' a heavy weight, aud placed in the basement of the building to be lighted. This form of carburetor is entirely free from the grave defect of starting at the beginning of the evening with an excessive evaporation and ending at 10 or 12 o'clock with an insufficient evaporation. The distillation proceeds itniformly, and changes in quantity gradually, the difference being perceptible only after the machine has been in operation several weeks or months. The gradual fractional distillation results in the accumulation of a residue in the labyrinth too dense for evaporation with a Jour. Soc. Arts, ii, 503. 6 Ibid., 520. c Jahresbericbt, 18.56, p. 422. 246 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. sufficient rapidity to properly carburet tlie air, and is, consequently, attended with diminished illumination. Many attempts have been made to remedy this defect, in which great success has been attained by a remarkable invention of very recent date. This machine is called the metrical carburetor, and is used for carbureting either gas or air. The name designates a peculiar feature of the instriiment — that it measures the amount of carbureting fluid to either the gas or the air ; hence there is never an excess of carburatiou, no fractional evaporation, and no condensation of liquid in pipes. One and one-half to 2 gallons of light naphtha are measured to 1,000 cubic feet of ordinary street gas, or 3 to 6 gallons of gasoline to 1,000 cubic feet of air, according to the purpose for which the gas is to be used. The carburatiou of gas and air has been made the subject of many elaborate researches. Prominent among those who have conducted them is the late Dr. Henry Letheby, medical officer of health to the city of London, who, as early as 1861, reported that — With regard to the carburetiug process we are of opinion, from the datii obtained hy the laboratory experiments quoted in the report to the commission of the 30th of July last and the experiments made on the public lamps in Moorgate street during the months of June and July last, that the process of carburatiou appears to be capable of economizing the use of gas in the public lamps to the extent of from 40 to 50 per cent. This conclusion is founded on the assumption that the best quality of naphtha is to be used, namely, a naphtha which will give to the gas continuously a proportion of about 10 grains of volatile hydrocarbon to each cubic foot of gas, these being the average results of the laboratory experiments, (a) The following comparative tests were published in 1879 in Engineering, but the author is not mentioned : Pbaotical test. — Barometer, 29.8 ; temperature, 56° ; the weight of gasoline, 655 grains to water 1,000 grains; therefore one gallon of o-asoline = 45.850 grains. The air was simply aspirated at the rate of 6 cubic feet per hour through an ordinary chemist's wash-bottle, and each cubic foot took up 735 grains, illuminating gas of 17.10 candles taking 585 grains. Grains. 1,000 cubic feet of air = 735.000 ,„ „ ,, „ ,. , „„„,--. ^ - . 1 gallon of gasoline ="T5l50 = ^^'^ Sallons of gasoline per 1,000 cubic feet of air. 1,000 cubic feet, 17.10 gas = 585^ ^ ^^^ ^jj^^^ ^^ ^^^^.^^ ^^^,^.^ ^^^^ ^^ 1 gallon of gasoline = 45.850 o o j. > & One thousand cubic feet of air, after being carbureted, = 1,320 cubic feet; and 1,000 cubic feet of 17.10 gas, after being carbureted, = 1,370 cubic feet. Specific gravity test. — The time required to pass equal volumes of air, gas, carbureted gas, and carbureted air, under equal pressure, through the same aperture (Shilling's test), was: air, 88 seconds; gas, 58 seconds; carbureted gas, 90 seconds; carbureted air, 104 seconds. Gas, ^ = 434 to air 1,000. 90" Carbureted gas, r^ = 1,045 to air 1,000. Carbureted air, -rsr. = 1,396 to air 1,000. Photometric test. — Test on Hartley's improved photometer, 15-hole argand burner (old standard), 7-inch by 2-inch chimney, consuming 2.4 cubic feet per hour of carbureted gas, = 14.59 standard candles ; reduced to the standard of 5 cubic feet, = 37.78 standard candles. Also, with No. 1 steatite bat-wing, consuming 2.40 cubic feet per hour, = 18.63 standard candles; reduced to the standard of 5 cubic feet, = 38.83 standard candles ; 3.48 cubic feet per hour of carbureted air consumed through argand burner = 16.52 candles; reduced to the standard of 5 cubic feet, = 23.70 candles. Durability test. — The durability of 1.10 cubic feet 4-inch flame : Min. Sec. Gas 5 45 Carbureted gas 16 38 Carbureted air 11 24 Various forms of machines were experimented on, viz, cylinders containing laiuii cotton, sponge, felt, and wood carbon. They are all useless and obstructive, nor do they yield so high or regular a light as air aspirated or exhausted through gasoline and charged into a gas-holder, from which it is supplied ready for use at the burner when required. Upon this the editor of the Journal of the Franldin Institute comments as follows: Two great objections still exist to the use of these machines, viz, the impossibility of storing large quantities of gasoline without the ri.sk from fire to property in the neighborhood ; and, secondly, that if the pressure becomes excessive the flame from the burner will be blown; out, and terriljle explosions, resulting in loss of life, have followed in consequence. Tlie increase in the illnmin.iting property of coal-gas as ordinarily furnished, when passed through these machines, is very great, and the flame, also, is not liable to be blown out with increased pressure ; and a wide field seems to be open in this direction if all danger from fire in the carbureting of the gas could be done away with. (6) The value of the metrical carburetor will be appreciated when it is understood that it gives a degree of carburatiou perfectly satisfactory for gas with IJ to 2 gallons of light naphtha to 1,000 cubic feet of gas, and for air with 3 to 6 gallons of gasoline to 1,000 cubic feet of air. Moreover, this quantity is measured to the gas or air with great accuracy, is all immediately absorbed, and, as no supersaturation ever occurs, no condensation ever takes place in the pipes, and uo "runuing down of the light" is ever due to cold nights or distillation of the gasoline. In regard to economy, safety, and perfect operation this metrical carburetor far excels all others hitherto invented. a Jour. Soc.Jrts, x, 87. 1> Jour. Frmdlin IiisiUutc, cvii, 404, 1879 THE USES OF PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS. 247 Chapter IV.— THE USE OF PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS AS FUEL. Section 1.— THEORETICAL CONSmERATIONS. The excessive production of petroleum in some localities, and the scarcity of coal and wood in others vrhere petroleum abounds, has led to a large number of experiments in the use of petroleum as fuel. The theoretical consideration of its value as fuel was made the subject of elaborate investigations at an early date. In ]S64 R. Mallett stated that— The theoretical eraporatiug power of Americau petroleum may be ascertaiued as follows : C S6 For- rt A Of? v^ Q nSA aoA a n 77'> = Id. 06 Regnaulfs formula is 65.2 beat units for the eraporatiou of 1 kilogram of water at 0= to steam at 150^. (a) Li 1S69 Henri St. Claire Ue Ville conducted an elaborate research upon the calorific power and physical peculiarities of petroleum. His results are given in the following table : = 18. 06 kilograms. 100 C 0. 86 X 8. 030 = 6948 1177- H 0.14 X 34.462= 4824 652 11772 heat units. Locality of the oils. Specific gravity. Calorific power. Locality of the oils. Specific gi-avity. Calorific power. 1. HeavT oU from White Oak. West Virginia ; well, 135 meters deep ; lubricatii^ oil. 2. Light oil, from Burning Springs, West Virginia ; well, 220 meters deep ; illuminating oil. 3. Light oU, from Oil creek, Pennsylvania ; -well, 200 meters deep; illinuinatingoil. 0.873 0.8412 0.816 0.887 0.8SC 0.820 1.044 0.786 923 10. 180 10. 223 9.963 10. 399 10. 672 8.771 8.916 10. 121 10.831 10. 11. 12. 13. U. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19 Oil from Java, commune Tjibodas-Fanggab, district Madja, residency Cherihon. Oil from Java, commune Gogor, district Kendong, residency Karab.^ya. 0.823 0.972 0.912 0.893 0.861 0.870 0.8S5 0.911 0.870 0.983 9.593 10. 183 9.708 Oil from Bechelbronn, uppe 10. 020 5. He.ivv oil, from the Plummer farm, Franklin, Penn- sylvania ; well, 200 meters deep ; lubricating oil. Oil from castGalicia 10. 005 10.231 6. American petroleum, as offered for sale m Paris, probably from Pennsylvania. 7. Heavy coal-oil, from the Paris Gas Association 8. Petroleum from Parma, near Salo 9. Oil from Java, commune Daudang-Llo, district TLma- acon, residency Pembang. 9.046 Raw schist oil, from Antun, manufactured by Cham- peaus, Bazm &^ lladary. Heavy Kiefemharz oil, from Mount de ilarzan 9.950 ♦10.081 • C. Rendui, Ixvi, 442; Irviii, 349; C. N., 1869, 237. In 1S71 he examined the petroleums of the Russian empire from the neighborhood of Baku, on the Caspian sea, and obtained the following results : Xo. 1 was crude naphtha from the Balchany wells, specific gravity at 0°, 0.S82 ; 2^0. 2 was residuum from the Baku stills, specific gravity 0.928 ; Xo. 3 was black oil from the Weyser refinery at Baku, specific gravity 0.897; Xo. 4 was light oil of Baku, specific gravity 0.SS4; No. 5 was heavy oil of Baku, specific gravity 0.938. On distillation they afiorded : Temperature. { 1. 1 2. 1 3. | 4. 1 5. Per cent. \ Per cent Per cent. ' Per cent. Per cent. 1 1 1.0 1.3 1.7 3.9 VolatUeat240°C ' ' 1.0 ' 8.0 ' 23.3 6.0 9.7 COMPOSITION AS GIVEN BY ANALYSIS. 12.5 11.7 i 12.0 13.6 86.3 0.1 12.3 ! 87.4 0.1 87. 1 86. 5 1.2 1.5 86.6 LI 100.0 100. 100. 100.0 100. a Pract. Mech. Jour., March, 1S64, p. 314; Dingier, clxxii, 71. 248 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. From these data their calorific power was calculated and compared with that obtained by experiment in the petroleums marked 4 and 5. The results are thus given in calorics : 1. 3. 3. 4. 5. Calorific power, calculated 11.370 11.000 11.060 11.660 11.200 Calorific power, observed (11.070) (10.700) (10.760) 11.460 10.800 Numbers 1, 2, and 3 were calculated from the results in 4 and 5. These results show the Baku oils to be superior to those of America and Europe for heating purposes. («) In 1877 K. Lissenko stated that — Some forms of petroleum that yield a less amount of heat on comhustion than tliat calculated are regarded as containing hydrocarbons of the series CnH.;n + ;, accompanied by small quantities of non-saturated hydrocarbons. (6) Later, M. Berthelot has shown in a research upon the gaseous hydrocarbons that the heat of combustion of an hydrocarbon is not always equal to that of its elements. The variation is least in the case of the saturated hydrocarbons OnHjn + 2- (c) As no two petroleums from different localities are alike in composition, these researches indicate that considerable variation exists in the heating power of different petroleums, and that practically their heating power is considerably less than would be calculated from their elementary composition. Section 2.— PETROLEUM AS A STEAM FUEL. The employment of petroleum as a steam fuel has been the subject of many experiments and much controversy. From a careful survey of the subject I conclude that no important practical difficulty has been anywhere encountered where for any reason petroleum has been a more desirable fuel than other material. Petroleum has always been burned for steam fuel more or less in the oil regions of Pennsylvania. All sorts of experiments have been made there to burn the crude oil, both pure and mixed, with steam. Mr. D. A. Wray, on Oil creek, filled with crude oil, at 50 cents per barrel, an 8-horse boiler, with safety-valve attached. He fired up under it as if it was filled with water, and burned the vapor as if it were gas. The arrangement worked well until the spaces between the boiler tubes became choked with coke. This deposit of coke from distillation of the oil has been found to be the chief practical difSculty, and has usually been avoided by injecting steam through the escaping oil in such a manner as to completely volatilize it. Another practical difficulty observed by Mr. Wray was explained by him as in accord with an observation of Tyndall that the flame of a Bunsen lamp is intensely hot to objects immersed in it, but that it radiates comparatively little heat. Mr. Wray has observed that all successful contrivances for burning petroleum must distribute the flame upon the surface to be heated, and not beneath it. Inattention to this condition is the cause of many unsuccessful attempts to generate steam by the use of crude petroleum. It is impossible that I should attempt to describe the great number of apparatus devised for burning the crude oil, many of which are entirely adequate. The successful use of the oil for years in stationary engine boilers has demonstrated the absence of all serious practical difficulties. The questions of economy and safety appear to have determined that for general use it is not a desirable fuel, while in special cases its use has been attended with complete satisfaction. Mr. William T. Scheide has communicated to me the following results obtained by the United Pipe-lines : The oil was burned with a steam jet under four stationary boilers (60-inch shells 14 feet long, with 83 .3-inch tubes), and the steam furnished a Worthington compound duplex pump doing an actual work of .about 200 horse-power. (The indicated horse-power would probably be about 225 to 250 horse-power. ) These boilers and this pump use as nearly as possible 4.54 pounds of bituminous coal per horse- power of work done per hour. Using this average, which is pretty well determined, as a basis, 1 ton of 2,000 pounds of this coal is equal as fuel to either 3.94 or 4.13 barrels of 42 gallons each of oil. The experiment was not conducted as it should have been, and there is a question as to the pressure against which the pump worked, which accounts for the difference in the estimate. I think it may be stated, however, that 4 barrels of oil would be required to furnish the equivalent of a ton of good bituminous coal if the oil is burned with a steam jet. With an air jet I look for better results. It has also been very thoroughly tested for use on steam vessels. In 1868 the then Secretary of the Navy reported that the appropriation of $5,000 for testing petroleum as a fuel on steam vessels had been expended on a series of elaborate experiments at the New York and Boston navy- yards. The conclusion arrived at is, that convenience, comfort, health, and safety are against the use of petroleum in steam vessels, and that the only advantage thus far shown is a not very important reduction in bulk and weight of fuel carried. At Woolwich experiments were made with naphthaline, creosote, residuum, tar, and grease, but nothing ijroved satisfactory except pure American petroleum and "clear British shale oil". Comparative tests showed the — Per cent. Highest evaporation of water per pound of coal 7. 33 Lowest evaporation of petroleum - 12. 02 Highest evaporation of petroleum 13. 00 On July 31, 1869, a train arrived safely in Katschujan, 81 versts from Charkoff, whose engine was heated with raw naphtha (petroleum) instead of coals. The honor of the invention is ascribed to the mining engineer, Portski. a C. licndus, Ixxii, 191 ; Ixxiii, 491. 6 Russian Chem. Soc, June, 1877; C. N., xxxv, 180; J. C. S., xxiv, 453. G C. Eetidiis, xc, 1240; J. C. S., xxxviii, 786. THE USES OF PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS. 249 Two engines on the Strasbourg line, fitted in 1870 with M. Deville's furnaces, burn from 3J to 5 kilograms of oil to every kilometer traversed, or say S — 12 pounds to two-thirds of a mile. The oil is completely burned, and no sulphiu' is observed in the atmosphere of the tunnels. Petroleum has also been used with entire success upon steamers and locomotives in the United States. While all of these experiments and practical tests show that petroleum can be used on locomotives without difficulty, and perliaps with some elements of superiority over other kinds of fuel, it cannot be affirmed that it is as yet so economical as to lead to its use in the face of the very grave and unquestioned elements of danger attending it. Coal in the United States is cheap, plentiful, and safe, but on the Caspian sea it is rare and costly. This fact constitutes a sufficient reason why persistent and successful efforts to burn petroleum and residuum on the steam vessels that traverse that sea should have led to its almost exclusive use for steam purposes. The following concise statement explains the method of its use : An apparatus has been devised for the utilization ol; i)etroleum as fuel in steam navigation, and its application for this purpose in central Asia has, it is reported, been attended -with results that are considered very satisfactory, such fuel also occupying much less space than the amount of coal necessary to produce a similar etfect. With the old-fashioned boilers iu use — with a central opening running longitudiually— no modification, it is stated, is necessary for the emjiloyment of the fuel iu question. A reservoir containing some hundred pounds' weight of the refuse, " astalki," is furnished with a small tube, bearing another at its extremity, a few inches long and at right angles with the conduit. From this latter it trickles slowly. Close by is the mouth of another tube connected with the boiler. A pan containing tow or wood saturated with astalki is first introduced to heat the water, and on the slightest steam pressure being produced a jet of vapor is thrown upon the dropping bituminous fluid, which is thus converted into spray ; a light is applied, and then a roaring deluge of fire inundates the central opening of the boiler. It is a kind of self-acting blow-pipe. The volume of fire can, it is stated, be controlled by one man, by means of the two stop-cocks, as easily as the flame of an ordinary gas jet. Mention is made of a steamer of 450 tons and 120 horse-power on this principle, 30 pood per hour of astalki being burned to obtain a speed of I'.i nautical miles in that time ; and as 1 pood is about 33 pounds, and costs on an average about 10 to 12 cents, or about $60 for a twenty hours voyage at full speed. The use of petroleum in Eussia for steam fuel on both locomotives and steam vessels has been very fully discussed by T. Gulichambarofl' in the Gornii Journal for 1880. He says that — In the Caucasus the refuse of the distilleries is used as fuel, which in 1874 could be had for nothing. In 1875 the price was Zd. per barrel of 20 poods (720 pounds) ; in 1876 it rose to Is., and 1877 to 2«. ; in 1879 the price had reached Ss. 3d., while raw petroleum at the same time was 10s. Attention is now being directed to the nse of raw petroleum, against which there is a standing prejudice on account of the possibility of explosions. Any liability to explosion is easily removed by exposure to the air for a few days. On the Balachauskoi railroad the locomotives are fired with raw petroleum, which is poured into the tender direct from the springs; yet there has never been an accident. The author has seen burning logs quenched with petroleum without setting it on fire, and spontaneous combustion is impossible, as the oils do not absorb oxygen. At present all the steamers on the Caspian sea use liquid fuel, 4.5 to 4.9 pounds per horse- power; 1,080 pounds of naphtha (petroleum) is found to be equal to 343 cubic feet of oak wood. The use of petroleum by iujectors and its freedom from sulphur present great advantages over any other form of fuel, (n) The action of hydrocarbons at a red heat with steam has been investigated by M. Coquillion. He shows that steam assists the dissociation of the hydrocarbons, producing at the same time a fall of temperature which is added to that produced by the reduction of CO2 to CO. (b) As already stated, the use of petroleum for steam fuel is determined by its cost relative to other kinds of fuel. With the low price of petroleum at Baku and the absence of wood and coal on the steppes of Eussia and the shores of the Caspian sea, there can be no question that petroleum is the cheapest and best steam fuel to be had in that region. But in the United States the question lies between petroleum and anthracite coal for ocean steamers and bituminous coal on the western rivers. I think no one would now question the ease and efficiency with which petroleum can be burned iu several forms of apparatus lately invented, nor can it be denied that it is less bulky than coal and more conveniently handled ; but that it is a safe material to use on ocean passenger steamers as comi>ared with coal cannot be maintained. Moreover, the claim that is made that much less stowage is required is not found to hold to any extent against anthracite coal. A ton of anthracite requii'es iS cubic feet and a ton of petroleum requires 44: cubic feet. The difference is inconsiderable. As the question is at present stated, I do not look for any considerable increase in the use of petroleum for steam purposes in the United States. Section 3.— PETEOLEUM AND ITS PEODUCTS IK THE MAXUFACTUEE OF lEON. The natural gas of the oil-wells has been successfully used in the manufacture of iron in the vicinity of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Messrs. Spang, Chalfant & Co., whose works are at Sharpsburg, brought the gas in a 6-inch pipe to their works from wells near Saxouburg, Butler county, a distance of 17 miles. They use it for puddling and heating and for making steam. Messrs. Eogers & Burchfleld placed their works at the wells on the Kiskimenitas, a tributary of the Allegheny river. They use it in an ordinary reverberatory furnace by bricking up the bridge and introducing the gas in pipes with a blast. It has been remarked that the quality of the iron is somethiug wonderful; with ordinary gray coke pig-iron sheets for tin-plate equal to those from the best charcoal iron are made at a cost of $30 per ton less. a Proc. Loudon lust. Civil Engineers, Ixiii, 408. 6 C. Jiendiis, So. 19, 1878: C. N., sx.^^vii. 262. 250 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. A large uutnber of processes have been invented and ijatented for using raw petroleum in the manufacture of iron. Of these the Eames process appears to have been the most successful, and to have had the most satisfactory trial. At the Laclede iron works, in Saint Louis, experiments have been instituted under what was known as the " Whipple andDickerson", or "Ambler process". These experiments were unsatisfactory, but in what respect I have not been able to ascertain. Experiments were also made at the Chatham dockyard, in England, which were in many respects highly successful, particularly with reference to the fine quality of iron produced. The Eames i^rocess has been put into practical operation both in Titusville, Pennsylvania, and in Jersey City, opposite New York. Why it has not proven a commercial success I have not been able to learn. Competent judges having an interest in the success of the establishment at Titusville bear testimony to the extraordinarily flue quality of the iron i^roduced from scrap and refuse of the most forbidding character. The process has been made the subject of a most careful and exhaustive examination by Professor Henry Wurtz, of New York, and Professor E. H. Thurston, of the Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, New Jersey. The cut, Pig. 57, . represents the apparatus in section. It consists of an ordinary reheating furnace with the "generator" and steam, boiler attached. The generator, which is the peculiar feature of the apparatus, is shown at A. It consist of a cast- iron vessel, from the sides of which shelves project alternately. The oil, entering from a reservoir at D, trickles over these shelves, from which it is swept by a jet of steam sui^erheated to incandescence, entering the generator at B from the coil B. The amount of oil required for this furnace, which is capable of working charges of 3,000 pounds and making steam for the rollers besides, is a maximum of 30 gallons or 200 pounds per hour. The trickling oil is met by the jet of steam moving in the opposite direction, and is at once completely vaporized under a pressure of about 10 pounds and is carried into the furnace C. Air enters at P, and, mingling with the mingled vapor and steam, passes through the former bridge at H, and burns within the furnace in a long solid sweeg of flame, which escapes from the furnace at I, and returns, after passing beneath the boiler, through the boiler flue to the stack. The old bridge of the furnace is completely bricked up excepting at H, where a space extends across the furnace, closed only by flre-bricks placed on end, and it is found that if this "combustion chamber" has a horizontal thickness of more than 18 inches the fire-bricks are fused. I quote the language of Professor Wurtz's memoir respecting the working of the apparatus described : It is quite easy to determine witli precision -svitli the arrangements at Jersey City the relations of consumption of oil to iron produced, and time, labor, and material occupied in any special case. The oil was fed from a tank, sunk in the ground, which had a horizontal section throughout of 4 feet square. Each inch in depth, therefore, corresponded to 2,304 cubic inches, or closely enough to 10 United States gallons of "231 cubic inches. By gauging with a graduated rod each hour, therefore, the hourly consumption of oil was readily followed up. It was thus determined by me that, starting with a cold furnace and boiler full of cold water, 45 minutes was a maximum time, with oil fed at the rate of30 gallons per hour, or 22.5 gallons in this time, to bring thewhole fire space to a dazzling white heat. Six piles of boiler scrap, averaging 500 pounds, or 3,000 pounds in all, being then introduced, 35 minutes more at the same rate of consumption not only brought the piles to a high welding heat, but raised the steam in the boiler to 90 pounds pressure, being that required to operate the rolls. The time required after the furnace was heated and steam up for each charge of 3,000 pounds averaged at most 80 minutes, and as the brick-work became heated throughout it was apparent that the feed of oil might be somewhat diminished. Thus in a working day of ten hours just seven such charges could be worked off, averaging 2,500 pounds of rolled iron each ; total, 8 tons per day of boiler-sheet from one such furnace, with an average consumption, as a maximum, of 30 gallons (200 pounds) of oil per hour, or 300 gallons (2,000 pounds) in all. To this must be added, however, the fuel used under the generator and small supplementary boiler, which together was 500 pounds per day. It is admissible that one generator and one small boiler will operate several furnaces, the inventor says 5 ; if we say 4, it will diminish the small addendum of cost. As to working this furnace with coal, it was ascertained from the testimony of the operators that, by keeping up the fire all night, so that a heat could be had at a reasonable time in the morning, the maximum product of finished sheet might be, with superior work, allowing 90 minutes for each heat, 6 tons, with a consumption of at least 5| tons of coal = 12,320 pounds, or 2,053 pounds of coal per ton. (a) I have omitted Professor Wurtz's estimates of comi^arative cost, as any one interested can readily make them to suit the prices of coal and crude oil in his own locality. Section 4.— STOVES. During the last few years stoves in great variety have been contrived in which some of the products of petroleum are consumed as fuel. Practically they may be divided into naphtha and kerosene stoves. In reference to the use of the naphtha stoves I have nothing to say, excepting that their manufacture, sale, and use ought to be prohibited by law. I need not repeat here the facts and arguments already brought forward to show why they are dangei'ous to persons who use them and to the communities in which those persons live. In si)ite of all that has been written and spoken on this subject, a vast number of them is sold every year. The apparent apathy of the public in reference to this matter is shown by the fact that after the terrible fire in the New York tenement houses in January, 1881, caused by the careless use of gasoline in some sort of plumbers' apparatus, Commissioner Gorman said to a Neio Yorlc Herald reporter — That he had examined the law regarding the use of gasoline, and he found no statute that could prevent its being used as a heating and illuminating agent. Section I, chapter 584, of the laws of 1S71 provided th.at " no refined petroleum, kerosene or other burning fluiil shall be used for heating or illiiminatiug purjioses in any dwelling, house, store, ^hop, restaurant, car, coach or other vehicle, which a Am. Chem., vi, 94. THE USES OF PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS. 251 shall evolve combustible vapor at a temperature below 100^ Fahrenheit". Now, had the law not been repealed, it would have prevented plumbers usin"- gasoliue for heating purposes. The law, as I have read it to you, was, however, repealed by section 4, chapter 742, of the laws of 1871 which reads "that no refined petroleum, kerosene, coal or similar oil, or product thereof, shall be used for illuminating or heatin"- purposes which shall emit an inflammable vapor at a temperature below 100° F., or shall be kept for sale or stored within the corjiorate limits of the city of New York". («) Ou the 1st of June followiug 27 barrels of gasoline lying on the platform of tbe Consolidated Eailroad freight- bouse in Springfield, Massachusetts, took fire from some accidental cause, and after a part of them -were supposed to be extinguished several of the remainder exploded and injured about iO persons more or less seriously. December 27 following the steamer West Point exploded and burned at West Point, Virginia. Nineteen persons were killed and a number badly injured. Her "cargo was made up of miscellaneous freight, among which were several hundred barrels of oil, sixty of which were gasoline ". These are some of the gasoline accidents for one year, and yet there is no general legislation to prevent gasoline from being used in lamps and stoves and from being carried as common freight except section 4472 of the Eevised Statutes of the United States, quoted on page 236. The kerosene stoves are being brought to a great degree of perfection, and are found to be very useful. Of the several different manufacturers who are seeking the patronage of the public I am not disposed to select any as making in all respects an article superior to all others. These stoves act best with high-test oil, and are therefore .safe. Their healthfulness depends upon the manner in which they are used. It is claimed that one of these stoves with two burners discharges an amount of carbonic acid into the atmosphere of a room equal to the respiration of 2h persons. I have not examined the merits of this statement ; but, assuming the statement to be correct, it is a sufficient reason why the most thorough ventilation should be urged upon those using these stoves. Very few are used under circumstances that admit of the removal of the products of combustion from the apartment, and when one is used in a small room occupied by two persons the contamination of the air amounts to that caused by the constant occupation of the room by from four to five persons. When to this unavoidable source of impure air is added the sulphurous acid and half-burned products of the combustion of poor and cheap oil, the use of petroleum stoves cannot be recommended as conducive to health. Yet they are cheap and convenient, are used by tens of thousands, and their use is increasing. Section 5.— MISCELLAJN^EOUS APPLICATIONS OF PETROLEUM PRODUCTS FOE HEATING PURPOSES. Petroleum and nearly all of its products and natural gas are used in glass houses for producing high temperatures and flames free from soot and other materials that would injure the glass. At Wheeling, West Virginia, one of the largest glass houses uses benzine for producing the intense heat of the " glory holes ", and other hou.ses use natural gas for the same purpose. Throughout the oil regions natural gas is largely consumed in the towns for heating dwellings and cubuary purposes. It is used with a large Bunsen burner, from which the flame is projected into an ordinary stove. Another method, and much the best, is to introduce the Bunsen flame into the back of an ordinary portable grate. The grate is filled with fragments of fire-brick, which become bright red in the gas-flame, and radiate as much heat as glowing anthracite, which, in fact, they much resemble. A novel application of petroleum to the production of motive power has been made successful in Hock's petroleum motor, in which vapor of petroleum is exploded behind the piston of an engine and the expansive force made available as a motor. It claims to possess the following advantages over other similar engines: 1. Perfect safety; neither incompetence nor malice can produce a destructive explosion. 2. No particular attention needs to be given it. 3. The facility with which the engine can be started and stopped, no complex preparations being necessary. 4. Its almost noiseless operation, {h) At Mosul, Persia, in the valley of the Euphrates, the crude peti'oleum and maltha from the springs of Hit is tised for burning lime, and proves an invaluable fuel in a country nearly destitute of wood. a yew York Herald, January 0, ISSl ; Ibid., June 1, 1831. h Jour. Frank. Inst. (3), Ixviii, 87. 252 PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. Chapter V.— THE USES OF PETROLEUM IN MEDICINE. Section 1.— THE PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF PETEOLBCTM AND ITS PEODUCTS. Although crude petroleum has been used as a remedial agent from the earliest times, both in the Old World and in the New, I have not met with any recorded attempt at a careful study of its physiological effects. The few notes that I have made in reference to this subject are therefore fragmentary and inconclusive. While in the oil regions I was told several stories relating to the experiences of persons who had breathed natural gas or the vapors of the very volatile fluids that escape from the oil as it flows from the wells. From these several experiences I conclude that the natural gas from the wells intoxicates like laughing gas. Persons leaning over the edge of a well tank experience at first an agreeable sensation, which is followed by unconsciousness. On recovering consciousness the person is very talkative, exceedingly witty, with a vivid imagination. These effects do not disappear for several days, and are described as resembling somewhat those of a prolonged spree. Death results from the prolonged action of the gas. In March, 1880, a man was found dead at the top of a ladder at the man-hole of a tank. He was supposed to have become asphyxiated while watching the flow of oil into the tank, from breathing the gas which was escaping into the air through the man-hole. Ehigolene, which is the most volatile fluid ever condensed from petroleum, and the lightest liquid known, is an effective anaesthetic agent, and has been used as a substitute for ether in a few instances. Professor Simpson used naphtha (specific gravity not stated) as an anaesthetic during the extraction of necrosed bones. The insensibility was deep and tranquil, and the breathing was less stertorous than when chloroform is used. Its effect on the heart's action, however, was much greater, the pulse becoming more rapid and fluttering, {a) Dr. French, of the Liverpool, England, board of health, investigated the subject on a memorial of citizens, and reported that petroleum had an offensive odor, but was not injurious to health, {h) Landerer relates a case, but does not say whether the petroleum was crude or refined. It is presumed the material was illuminating oil. A quantity was swallowed, the greater part of which was vomited. It produced a strong, burning sensation in the tongue and throat, both of which became reddened and swollen. The stomach and bowels were also affected with strong symptoms of gastro- enteritis. Both the urine and the sweat smelled strongly of the oil for several days, and the odor was especially strong under the armpits. The patient became very weak, but recovered. In 1864 M. E. Georges published a memoir upon the physiological effects of petroleum ether, of which the following is a summary : 1. The essence of petroleum acts in a peculiar manner upon the "creative faculties (sens g^nesique), and also under peculiar circumstances upon the temperament. 2. It occasions violent headache with nervous persons. 3. That action appears to be due to a peculiar principle, which may be separated from it, and which acts principallj' upon the brain and upon the heart. 4. The ether of petroleum can be employed with advantage to produce cold upon the exterior in operations, because it does not produce pain upon the parts where the blood flows, (c) The term petroleum ether evidently designates a substance similar to rhigolene. The neutral parafSne oils and parafSne itself appear to be without action upon the human system. The extensive use of parafQne for chewing-gum shows it to be without deleterious effects. Petroleum is generally destructive of animal life, and particularly of insect life. Hildebrant, an African traveler, advises smearing the face and hands with petroleum to protect them from mosquitoes. He also advises the use of petroleum upon horses and cattle as a protection against the deadly Dondorobo gad-fly. By its use natural history collections are also preserved from the invasion of moths and ants in the tropics, {d) Petroleum has been used in France to destroy insects on plants and walls, also on dogs. In the latter case it is applied either before or with soap. An agriculturist of Aube is reported to have said that rats and mice left his cellar when petroleum was stored there, and slugs left a garden that had been watered with the rinsings of petroleum casks. Its use has been recommended upon plants to kill lice, and also to kill mange and scab on dogs and sheep, for which purpose 10 parts of benzine, 5 parts of soap, and 85 parts of water are recommended. It must be used with great caution upon animals. Those who have used it recommend that it be diluted with benzine. The use of crude petroleum and maltha for ridding vines of parasites has already been mentioned, the product of the Albanian springs having been sent to Smyrna and the Levant for that purpose. Moths are destroyed in furniture and garments by immersing them in baths of benzine. One great obstacle, however, to the frequent use of petroleum products is their disagreeable odor, which to many people is particularly offensive. a An. Scl. lJia.,\BaO. hlbkl, I86i. c Ann. da Genie Cinl, 1864, p. 52o. d Nature, :^vni, 373. THE USES OF PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS. 253 Section 2.— PETROLEUM AND ITS PEODUCTS AS THERAPEUTICS. Ci'ude petroleum lias been used as a remedial agent iu both external and liAernal administration. Its use as a liniment dates from a very remote antiquity. In 1S39 M. Fouruel addressed a letter to the French Academy, in which he discussed the employment of petroleum by the ancients in the treatment of itch, [a) He says : Pliny (Nat. Hist., Book XXXV, chap. 15), speaking of the petroleum of Agrigentum, that was called Sicilian oil, says: "They make use of it for lamps instead of oil ; also for the scab iu draught cattle." Before him Vitruvlus (Ten Books of Architecture, Book VIII, chap. 3) had mentioned the custom among the Africans of plunging their beasts into the waters of a bituminous spring near Carthage; :and after him Solinus (Poly. Hist., chap. II), speaking still of the springs of Agrigentum, says : " It [the oil] is used as a medical ointment in the diseases of draught cattle." All the authors of the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries have indicated the same remedy, notably among them Frangois Arioste, who cured men and animals afflicted with itch with the petroleum which he had