KWm^Mm THE .. TEACHER X "-N^i-j^ F'^'25^^!SSS! healthful mind in a healthful body. The being in whom you find this union is the only one worthy to be called educated. To make all men such is the object of education." I have dwelt thus fully on this subject, because it is so obvious that egregious mistakes are made in education. How many there are who are called "good scholars" in our schools, of whom we hear nothing after they go forth into the world. Their good scholarship consists in that which gives them no impulse to go on to greater attainments, by themselves. Their learning is either that of reception— as the sponge takes in water— or that of mere memory. Their education is not discipline; it kindles none of those desires which nothing but further progress can satisfy ; it imparts none of that self-reliance which nothing but impossibilities can ever subdue. While these are pointed out by their teachers as the ornaments of their schools, there are others, known as the heav^^ dull, "poor scholars," in no way distin- guished but by their stupidity,— of whom no hopes are enter- tained because of them nothing is expected, — who in after-life fairly outstrip their fellows and strangely astonish their teachers. Almost every teacher of fifteen years' experience has noticed this. Now why is it so ? There must have been somehow in such cases a gross misjudgment of character. Either those pupils who promised so much by their quickness, were educated wrong, and perhaps educated too much, while their teachers unwit- tingly and unintentionally educated their less distinguished com- panions far more judiciously; or else nature in such cases must be said to have been playing such odd pranks that legitimate causes could not produce their legitimate effects. We must charge nature as being extremely capricious, or we must allege that the teachers entirely misunderstood their work, failing where they expected most, and succeeding, as if by chance — almost against their will — where they expected least. I incline to the latter alternative; and hence I infer that there is such a thing 72 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. as teaching a mind naturally active too much— exciting it too much— so that it will prematurely exhaust its energies and gladly settle back into almost imbecility; and that there is such a thing as leaving the mind so much to its own resources, that without dazzling the beholder like the flash of the meteor when it glares upon the startled vision, it may be silently gathering materials to support the more enduring light of the morning-star which anon will arise in majesty and glory. It will be well for our youth when our teachers shall so under- stand human nature, and so comprehend the science and the art of education, that these mistakes shall seldom occur; and when he who tills the nobler soil of the mind, shall with as much faith and as much certainty as he who tills the literal field, rely upon the fulfillment of heaven's unchangeable law: "Whatsoever a man soweth, that shall he also reap." Too much stress cannot be laid upon right views of education. The child is not a block of marble to be carved, not a formless mass of wax to be molded, not a blank canvas upon which the ideal of the artist is to be placed. Each of these views regards the child as something entirely passive, and the end of his edu- cation as the realization of an ideal imposed upon him from without. Such views make education a mechanical process, the product being variable according to the will or the skill of the educator. The child is not a passive subject, but an active agent in the processes of his own culture ; the ideal toward the realization of whicli his education should proceed is not imposed from without, but is germinal within, and the process is not and cannot be, mechanical; it must, in the nature of the case, be organic. In every organic process there is a natural and neces- sary order of development which cannot be essentially varied, nor can the process be materially hastened, without danger to the well-being of the unfolding life within. The work of the teacher, especially the teacher in the common schools, is to guard this growth process, to remove obstacles to its symmetrical progress, and to supply the appropriate stimu- lus in such quantity, at such time, and in such manner as will RIGHT VIEWS OF EDUCATION. 73 promote the healthy and properly related growth of all the germs of power in the child's nature. There is a growing tendency to demand of the public schools the thorough preparation of the boys and girls for some trade or other occupation, and new subjects are added to the course of study with this purpose in view. In the nature of the common school branches they are adapted to aid in this preparation, and the teacher may not forget nor neglect this use of them ; but from his standpoint he should see their chief function to be service as instruments in the educating process ; that is, the development of intellectual and moral power in the boys and girls. It is the teacher's mission to send them from his hand, not as profession- als, artists, or artisans; but as young persons with intellect sharpened and disciplined to consecutive and effective thought ; with judgment trained to quick perception of the right; with conscience sensitive and prompt to respond to the call of duty ; and with will trained for the firm guidance of conduct in accord- ance with the highest ideals of manhood and womanhood. It is upon such a foundation that special preparation for an occupa- tion should be built. A calling or a profession without such a foundation is no more safe than a house that is built upon the sand. CHAPTER VI. RIGHT MODES OF TEACHING. From what has been said of Education, it is very obvious that it is no small thing to be a successful teacher. It is admitted by all that the teacher should be apt to teach. He cannot be use- ful without this. He may have an unimpeachable character; he may ha ve the most liberal and thorough literary acquirements ; he may deeply feel his responsibility, and yet after all he may fail to teach successfully. Aptness to teach has been said to be a native endowment, a sort of instinct, and therefore incapable of being improved by experience or instruction, — an instinct such as that which guides the robin, though hatched in an oven, to build a perfect nest like that of its parent, without ever having seen one. I am of the opinion that such instincts in men are rare; but that.aptness to teach, like aptness to do any thing else, is usually an acquired pow er, based upon a correct knowledge of what is to be done and some accurate estimate of the fitness of the means used for the end. If there are exceptions to this, they are very uncommon; and the safer way, therefore, for the majority of teachers, is, to study carefully the rationale of their processes, and to rely rather upon sound and philosophical principles in their teaching, than upon a very doubtful intuition. One of the most common errors into which young teachers fall (and some old ones too), is that of misjudging of the degree of assistance which the young scholar needs in the pursuit of learning. There are a few who forget the difficulties which impeded their own perception of new truths when learners, and therefore have no sympathy with the perplexities which surround the chil- dren under their charge when they encounter like difficulties. They refuse to lend a helping hand, even w^here it is needed, and (74) RIGHT MODES OF TEACHING. 75 by making light of the child's doubts, perhaps sneering at his unsuccessful struggles, they dishearten him so far that imaginary obstacles become insurmountable, and he gives up in despair. But a far more numerous class tend toward the other extreme. From a mistaken kindness, or a mistaken estimate of the child's ability, or both, they are disposed to do quite too much for him, and thus they diminish his power to help himself. The child that is constantly dandled upon the lap of its nurse, and borne in her arms to whatever point it may desire to go, does not soon learn to walk; and when it at length makes the attempt, it moves not with the firm tread of him who was early taught to use his own limbs. There is a great deal of literary dandling practiced in our schools; and as a consequence, a great many of our children are mere sickly nurslings, relying upon leading strings while in the school, and falling, for very weakness, just as soon as the support- ing hand is withdrawn. This evil is so common, and in some instances so monstrous,* that I shall be pardoned if I dwell upon it a little more fully. In illustrating this subject, I must mention two processes of teaching, not indeed exactly opposite to each other, though widely different, — into one or both of which many of our teachers are very liable to fall. I shall, for the sake of a name, designate the former as the SECTION I.— POURING-IN PROCESS. This consists in lecturingto a class of children upon every sub- ject which occurs to the teacher, it being his chief aim to bring- before them as man^^ facts in a limited time as possible. It is as if he should provide himself with a basket of sweetmeats, and every time he should come within reach of a child, should seize him, and compel him to swallow, regardless of the condition of * Not long since I visited a school, where the teacher with much self-compla- cency requested me to examine the writing of the children. It was indeed very- fair. But when I drew from him the fact that he first wrote each page himself with a lead pencil, and only required his scholars to black his marks over with ink^ and that with unremitting labor he did this week after week for all tlie writers in his school, I knew not which most to wonder at, the docility of the children or the weakness of the teacher. The writing ceased to be wonderful. 76 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. his stomach, whatever trash he shoukl happen first to force into his mouth. Children are indeed fond of sweetmeats, but they do not hke to have them administered, — and every physiologist knows there is such a thing as eating enough even of an agreeable thing to make one sick, and thus produce loathing forever after. Now many teachers are just such misguided caterers for the mind. They are ready to seize upon the victims of their kindness, iorce open their mental gullets, and pour in, without mercy and without discretion, whatever sweet thiug they may have at hand, even though they surfeit and nauseate the poor suf- ferer. The mind, by this process, becomes a mere passive recip- ient, taking in without much resistance whatever is presented till it is full. "A passive recipient! " said one to his friend, "what is a pas- sive recipient?^' "A passive recipient," replied his friend, "is a two-gallon jug. It holds just two gallons, and as it is made of potter's ware, it can never hold but just two gallons." This is not an unfit illustration of what I mean by making the mind a passive recipient. Whenever the teacher does not first excite inquiry, first prepare the mind by waking it up to a desire to know, and if possible to find out by itself, but proceeds to think for the child, and to give him the results, before they are desired, or before they have been sought for, — he makes the mind of the child a two-gallon jug, into which he may pour just two gallons, but no more. And if day after day he should continue to pour in, day after day he may expect that what he pours in will all run over. The mind, so far as retention is concerned, will act like the jug; that is, a part of what is poured in to-day, will be diluted by a part of that which is forced in to-morrow, and that again will be partially displaced and partially mingled with the next day's pouring, till at length there will be nothing character- istic left. But aside from retention, there is a great difference between the jug and the mind. The former is inert material, and may be as good a jug after such use as before. But the mind suffers by every unsuccessful effort to retain. This process of lecturing children into imbecility is altogether EIGHT MODES OF TEACHING. 77 too frequently practiced; and it is to be hoped, that intelligent teachers will pause and inquire before they pursue it further. The other process to which I wish to call attention, is that which, for the sake of distinguishing it from the first, I shall denominate the SECTION 11.— I)KAWING-OUT PROCESS. This consists in asking what the lawyers call leading questions. It is practiced, usually, whenever the teacher desires to help along the pupil. "John," says the teacher when conducting a recitation in Long Division, "John, what is the number to be divided called?" John hesitates. "Is it the dividend?" says the teacher. "Yes, sir — the dividend." "Well, John, what is tha,t which is left after dividing called?— the remainder— is it?" " Yes, sir." A visitor now enters the room, and the teacher desires to show off John's talents. " Well, John, of what denomination is the remainder? " John looks upon the floor. " Isn't it alwa^^s the same as the dividend, John? " " Yes, sir." "Very well, John," says the teacher, soothingly, "what denomination is this dividend? " pointing to the work upon the board. " Dollars, is it not ? " "Yes, sir; dollars." " Very well ; now what is this remainder ? " John hesitates. • " Why dollars, too, isn't it? " says the teacher. "Oh, yes, sir, dollars!'' says John, energetically, while the teacher complacently looks at the visitor to see if he has noticed how correctly John has answered ! A class is called to be examined in History. They have com- mitted the text-book to memory, that is, they have learned the words. They go on finely for a time. At length one hesitates. The teacher adroitly asks a question in the language of the text. Thus: ''Early in the morning, on the 11th of September, what did the whole British army do?'' The pupil, thus timely reas- 78 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. snred, proceeds: ^^ Early in the morning, on the 11th of Sep- tember, the whole British army, drawn up in two divisions, commenced the expected assault." Here again she pauses. The teacher proceeds to inquire: '^ Well,— 'Agreeably to the plan of Howe, the right wing ' did what ? " Pupil. ^' Agreeably to the plan of Howe, the right wing''— Teacher. '' The right wing, commanded by whom ? " Pupil. "Oh! ^Agreeably to the plan of Howe, the right wing, commanded by' Knyphausen, made a feint of crossing the Brandywine at Chad's Ford," etc. This is a very common way of helping a dull pupil out of a difficulty ; and I have seen it done so adroitly, that a company of visitors would agree that it was wonderful to see how thor- oughly the children had been instructed. I may further illustrate this drawing-out process, by describing an occurrence, which, in company with a friend and fellow-laborer, I once witnessed. A teacher whose school we visited, called upon the class in Colburn's First Lessons. They rose, and in single file marched to the usual place, with their books in hand, and stood erect. It was a very good-looking class. ''Where do you begin?" said the teacher, taking the book. Pupils. " On the 80th page, 3d question." Teacher. "Read it, Charles." Charles. [Reads.) " A man being asked how many sheep he had, said that he had them in two pastures; in one pasture he had eight ; that three-fourths of these were just one-third of what he had in the other. How many were there in the other?" Teacher. "Well, Charles, you must first get one-fourth of eight, must you not?" Charles. "Yes, sir." Teacher. " Well, one-fourth of eight is two, isn't it?" Charles. " Yes, sir; one-fourth of eight is two." Teacher. "Well, then, three-fourths will be three times two, won't it?" Charles. "Yes, sir!" Teacher. " Well, three times two are six, eh ? " RIGHT MODES OF TEACHING. 79 Charles, "Yes, sir!" Teacher. " Very well." (A pause.) " Now the book says that this six is just one-third of what he had in the other pasture, don't it?" Charles. " Yes, sir ! " Teacher. '' Then if six is one-third, three-thirds will be — three times six, won't it? " Charles. ' ' Yes, sir ! ' ' Teacher. "And three times six are— eighteen, ain't it? " Charles. ' ' Yes , sir ! " Teacher. "Then he had eighteen sheep in the other pasture, had he?" Charles. "Yes, sir!" Teacher. " Next, take the next one." At this point I interposed, and asked the teacher if he would request Charles to ^o through it alone. "Oh, yes," said the teacher, " Charles, you may do it again." Charles again read the question, and— looked up. " Well," said the teacher, " Y'ou must first get one-fourth of eight, mustn't you?" "Y"es, sir." "And one-fourth of eight is two, isn't it?" "Yes, sir." And so the process went on as before till the final eighteen sheep were drawn out as before. The teacher now looked round, with an air which seemed to say, " Now I suppose you are satisfied." "Shall / ask Charles to do it again?" said I. The teacher assented. Charles again read the question, and again— looked up. I waited, and he waited ;— but the teacher could not wait. " Why, Charles," said he impatiently; "you want one-fourth of eight, don't you?" "Yes, sir," said Charles, promptly ; and I thought best not to insist further at this time upon a repetition of "yes, sir,'^ and the class were allowed to proceed in their own way. This is, indeed, an extreme case, and yet it is but a fair sample of that teacher's method of stupefying mind. This habit of assisting the pupil to some extent, is, however, a very common one, and as deleterious to mind as it is common. The teacher should at once abandon this practice, and require the scholar to 80 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. do the talking at recitation. I need hardly suggest that such a course of extraction at recitation, aside from the waste of time by both parties, and the waste of strength by the teacher, has a direct tendency to make the scholar miserably superficial. For why should he study, if he knows from constant experience that the teacher, by a leading question, will relieve him from all embarrassment? It has often been remarked, that '' the teacher makes the school." Perhaps in no way can he more effectually make an inefficient school, than by this drawing-out process. I look upon the two processes just described, as very promi- nent and prevalent faults in our modern teaching; and if by describing them thus fully, I shall induce any to set a guard upon their practice in this particular, I shall feel amply rewarded. SECTION III.— THE MORE EXCELLENT WAY. It is always a very difficult question for the teacher to settle, " How far shall I help the pupil, and how far shall the pupil be required to help himself?" The teaching of nature would seem to indicate that the pupil should be taught mainly to depend on his own resources. This, too, I think is the teaching of common sense. Whatever is learned should be so thoroughly learned, that the next and higher step may be comparatively easy. And the teacher should always inquire, when he is about to dismiss one subject, whether the class understand it so well that they can go on to the next. He may, indeed, sometimes give a word of suggestion during the preparation of a lesson, and, by a seasonable hint, save the scholar the needless loss of much time. But it is a very great evil if the pupils acquire the habit of running to the teacher as soon as a slight difficulty pre- sents itself, to request him to remove it. Some teachers, when this happens, will send the scholar to his seat with a reproof perhaps, while others, with a mistaken kindness, will answer the question or solve the problem themselves, as the shortest way to get rid of it. Both these courses are, in general, wrong. The inquirer should never be frowned upon; this may discourage him. He should not be relieved from labor, as this will diminish his RIGHT MODES OF TEACHING. 81 self-reliance without enligliteniiig- him ; for whatever is done for a scholar without his having studied closely upon it himself, makes but a feeble impression upon him, and is soon forgotten. The true way is, neither to discourage inquiry nor answer the question. Converse with the scholar a little as to the principles involved in the question; refer him to principles which he has before learned, or has now lost sight of; perhaps call his atten- tion to some rule or expla.nation before given to the class; go just so far as to enlighten him a little, and put him on the scent, then leave him to achieve the victory himself. There is a great satisfaction in discovering a difficult thing for one's self, — and the teacher does the scholar a lasting injury who takes this pleasure from him. The teacher should be simply suggestive, but should never take the glory of a victory from the scholar by doing his work for him, at least, not until he has given it a thorough trial himself. The skill of the teacher, then, will be best manifested, if he can contrive to awaken such a. spirit in the pupil, that he shall be very unwilling to be assisted ; if he can kindle up such a zeal, that the pupil will prefer to try again and again, before he will consent that the teacher shall interpose. I shall never forget a class of boys, some fourteen or fifteen years of age, who in the study of algebra had imbibed this spirit. A difficult question had been before the class a day or two, when I suggested giving them some assistance. '• Not to-day, sir,'' was the spontaneous exclamation of nearly every one. Nor shall I forget the expres- sion that beamed from the countenance of one of them, when elated with his success, he forgot the proprieties of the school and audibly exclaimed, "/'re got it! I've got it!'' It was a great day for him ; he felt, as he never before had felt, his own might. Nor was it less gratifying to me to find that his fellows were still unwilling to know his method of solution. The next day a large number brought a solution of their own, each show- ing evidence of originality. A class that has once attained to a feeling like this, will go on to educate themselves, when they shall have left the school and the living teacher. T. p.— 6 82 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. As to the communication of knowledge, aside from that imme- diately connected with school studies, there is a more excellent way than that of pouring it in by the process already described. It is but just that 1 should give a specimen of the method of doing this. I shall now proceed to do so, under the head of SECTION IV.— WAKING UP MIND. The teacher of any experience knows, that if he will excite a deep and profitable interest in his school, he must teach many things besides book-studies. In our- common schools, there will always be a company of small children, wdio, not yet having learned to read understandingly, will have no means of interest- ing themselves, and must depend mainly upon the teacher for the interest they take in the school. This to them is perhaps the most critical period of their lives. Whatever impression is now made upon them will be enduring. If there they become dis- gusted with the dullness and confinement of school, and associate the idea of pain and repulsiveness with that of learning, who can describe the injury done to their minds? If, on the other hand, the teacher is really skillful, and excites in them a spirit of inquiry, and leads them in suitable ways to observe, to think, and to feel that the school is a happy place even foi- children, it is one great point gained. I may suggest here, then, that it would be well to set apart a few minutes once a day for a general exercise in the school, when it should be required of all to lay by their studies, assume an erect attitude, and give their undivided attention to whatever the teacher may bring before them. Such a course would have its physiological advantages. It would relieve the minds of all for a few minutes. The erect attitude is a healthful one. It w^ould also serve as a short respite from duty, and thus refresh the older scholars for study. I may further add, that, for the benefit of these small children, every general exercise should be conducted with reference to them and such topics should be introduced as they can understand. It is the purpose of the following remarks to give a sped- • RIGHT MODES OF TEACHING. 83 men of the manner of conducting such exercises, for a few days, ^vith reference to waking up mind in the school and also in the district. Let us suppose that the teacher has promised that on the next day, at ten minutes past ten o'clock, he shall request the whole school to give their attention five minutes, while he shall bring something there to which he shall call the attention, especially of the little boys and girls under seven j^ears of age. This very announcement will excite an interest both in school and at home; and when the children come in the morning, they will be more wakeful than usual till the fixed time arrives. It is very impor- tant that this time should be fixed, and that the utmost punctu- ality should be observed, both as to the beginning and ending of the exercise at the precise time. The teacher, it should be supposed, has not made such an announcement without considering what he can do when the time arrives. He should have a well digested plan of operation, and one which he knows beforehand that he can successfully execute. Let us suppose that in preparing for this exercise he looks about him to find some object which he can make his text ; and that he finds upon his study table an ear of corn. He thinks carefully what he can do with it, and then with a smile of satis- faction he puts it in his pocket for the '' general exercise." In the morning he goes through the accustomed duties of the first hour, perhaps more cheerfull}^ than usual, because he finds there is more of animation and wakefulness in the school. At the precise time, he gives the signal agreed upon, and all the pupils drop their studies and sit erect. When there is perfect silence and strict attention by all, he takes from his pocket the ear of corn, and in silence holds it up before the school. The children smile, for it is a familiar object ; and they probably did not suspect they were to be fed with corn. Teacher. "Now, children," addressing himself to the young- est, " I am going to ask you only one question to-day about this ear of corn. If you can answer it I shall be very glad ; if the little boys and girls upon the front seat cannot give the answer, I will 84 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. let those in the next seat tvj; and so on till all have tried, unless our time should expire before the right answer is given. I shall not be surprised if none of you give the answer lam thinking of. As soon as I ask the (juestion, those who are under seven years old, that think they can give an answer, may raise their hand. What is this ear of corn for?" Several of the children raise their hands, and the teacher points to one after another in order, and they rise and give their answers. Mary. " It is to feed the geese with." John. '' Yes, and the hens too, and the pigs." Sarah. "■ My father gives corn to the cows." By this time the hands of the youngest scholars are all down, for having been taken a little by surprise, their knowledge is exhausted. So the teacher says that those between seven and ten years of age may raise their hands. Several instantly appear. The teacher again indicates, by pointing, those who may give the answ-er. Charles. ''My father gives corn to the horses when the oats are all gone." Daniel. '' We give it to the oxen and cows, and we fat the hogs upon corn." Laura. "It is good to eat. They shell it from the cobs and send it to mill, and it is ground into meal. They make bread of the meal, and we eat it." This last pupil has looked a Uttle further into domestic economy than those who answ^ered before her. But, by this time, perhaps before, the five minutes have beennearlyexpended,andyet several hands are up, and the faces of several are beaming with eagerness to tell their thoughts. Let the teacher then say, " We will have no more answers to-day. You may think of this matter till to-morrow, and then I will let you try again. I am sorry to tell you that none of you have mentioned the use I was thinking of^ though I confess I expected it every minute. I shall not be sur- prised if no one of you give this answer to-morrow. I shall now put the ear of corn in my desk, and no one of you must speak to me about it till to-morrow. Y^ou may now take your studies." RIGHT MODES OF TEACHING. 85 The children now breathe more freely, while the older ones take their studies, and the next class is called. In order to success, it is absolutely necessary that the teacher should positively refuse to hold any conversation with the children on the subject till the next time for "general exercise." During- the remainder of the forenoon the teacher will very likely ojbserve some signs of thoughtfulness on the part of those little children who have been habitually dull before. And perhaps 8ome child, eager to impart a new discovery, will seek an oppor- tunity to make it known during the forenoon. " Wait till to-mor- row," should be the teacher's only reply. Now, let us follow these children as they are dismissed, while they bend their steps toward home. They cluster together in groups as they go down the hill, and t\\Qj seem to be earnestly engaged in conversation. "I don't believe it has any other use," says John. <' Oh, yes it has," says Susan; " our teacher would not say so if it had not. Besides, did you not see what a knowing look he had, when he drew up his brow and said heguessedwecouldn't find it out?" "Well, I mean to ask my mother," says little Mary; ^' I guess she can tell." By-and-by as they pass a field of corn, Samuel sees a squirrel running across the street, with both his cheeks distended with "plunder.^^ At home, too, the ear of corn is made the subject of conversation. " What is an ear of corn for, mother?" says little Mary, as soon as they have taken a seat at the dinner-table. Mother. "An ear of corn, child? ^'hj, don't you know? It is to feed the fowls, and the pigs, and the cattle; and we make bread of it too" Mary. " Yes, we told all that, but the teacher says that is not all." Mother. ' ' The teacher ? ' - Mary. " Yes, ma'am ; the teacher had an ear of corn at school, and he asked us what it was for; and after we had told him every- thing we could think of, he said there was another thing still. Now, /want to find out so that I can tell him." 86 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. The consequence of this would be that the family, father, mother, and older brothers and sisters, would resolve themselves into a committee of the whole on the ear of corn. The same, or something like this, would be true in other families in the district; and by the next morning, several children would have something further to communicate on the subject. The hour would this day be awaited with great interest, and the first signal would produce perfect silence. The teacher now takes the ear of corn from the desk, and dis- plays it before the school; and quite a number of hands are instantly raised as if eager to be the first to tell what other use they have discovered for it. The teacher now says pleasantly, '' The use I am thinking of, you have all observed, I have no doubt; it is a very important use, indeed ; but as it is a little out of the common course, I shall not be surprised if you cannot give it. However, you may try." "It is good to boil!''* says little Susan, almost springing from the floor as she speaks. "And it is for squirrels to eat," says little Samuel. "I saw one carry away a whole mouthful yesterday from the cornfield." Others still mention other uses, which they have observed. They mention other animals which feed upon it, or other modes of cooking it. The older pupils begin to be interested, and they add to the list of uses named. Perhaps, however, none will name the one the teacher has in his own mind ; he should cordially wel- *The children themselves will be sure to find some new answers to such ques- tions as the above. In giving in substance this lecture to a gathering of teachers in the autumn of 1845, in one of the busy villages of New York, where also the pupils of one of the district schools were present by invitation, I had described a process similar to that which has been dwelt upon above. I had given the sup- posed answers for the first day, and had described the children as pressing the question at home. When I had proceeded as far as to take up the ear of corn the second day, and had spoken of the possibility that the true answer to the ques- tion might not be given, I turned almost instinctively to the class of children at my right, saying, ''Now what is the ear of corn for ? " A little boy some six years of age, who had swallowed every Avord, and whose face glowed as if there was not room enough for his soul within him, "bounded upon his feet, and forgetting the publicity of the place, and the gravity of the chairman of the meeting, clapping his hands forcibly together, "It's to pop! " he exclaimed emphatically, very much to the amusement of the audience. His mind had been waked up. RIGHT MODES OF TEACHING. 87 come the answer if perchance it is given ; if none siiould give it, he may do as he thinks best about giving it himself on this occasion. Perhaps if there is time he may do so,— after the following manner. "I have told yon that the answer I was seeking was a very simple one; it is something you have all observed, and you may be a little disappointed when I tell you. The use I have been thinking of for the ear of corn is this :—It is to plant. It is for seed, to propagate that species of plant called corn." Here the children may look disappointed, as much as to say, " we knew that before." The teacher continues : "And this is a very important use for the corn; for if for one year none should be planted, and all the ears that grew the year before should be consumed, we should have no more corn. This, then, was the great primary design of the corn, the other uses you have named were merely second- ary. But I mean to make something more of my ear of corn. My next question is :— Do other plants have seeds ? " * Here is a new field of inquiry. Many hands are instantly raised; but as the five minutes by this time have passed, leave them to answer at the next time. '■^ Have other plants seeds? ^^ the children begin to inquire in their own minds, and each begins to think over a list of such plants as he is familiar with. When they are dismissed, they look on the way home at the plants by the roadside, and when they reach home, they run to the garden. At the table they inquire of their parents, or their brothers and sisters. At the next exercise, they will have more than they can tell in five minutes as the results of their own observation and research. When enough has been said by the children as to the plants which have seeds, the next question may be: Do all plants HAVE seeds? This question will lead to much inquiry at home wherever botany is not well understood. There are many who are not aware that all plants have seeds. Very likely the ferns (common brakes) will be noticed by the children themselves. * Plant is here used in the popular sense. 88 PAGE'S THEORY AND PBACTICE. They may also name several other plants which do not exhibit their apparatus for seed-bearing very conspicuously. This will prepare the way for the teacher to impart a little information. Nor is there any harm in his doing so, whenever he is satisfied that the mind has been suitably exercised. The mind is no longer a ''passive recipient;" and he may be sure that by inquiry it has increased its capacity to contain, and nnj fact which now answers inquiry will be most carefully stored up. The next question may be:— Do trees have seeds? As the children next go out, their eyes are directed to the trees above them. The fruit-trees, the walnut, the oak, and perhaps the pine will be selected as those which have seeds. They will, however, mention quite a number which do not, or which, they think do not have seeds. Among these may be the ehn, the birch, and the Lombardy poplar. After hearing their opinions, and the results of their observations, take one of their exceptions, as the subject of the next question: Does the elm have seeds'?^ This will narrow their inquiries down to a specific case, and every elm in the district will be inquired of as to its testimonj'on this point. If the children can any of them collect and give the truth in the matter, so much the better; but if they, after inquiring of their parents and their grandparents, as I have known a whole school to do, come back insisting that the elm has no seeds; after hearing their reasons for their belief, and perhaps the opin- ions of their parents, you may promise to tell them something about it at the next exercise. This will again awaken expecta- tion, not only among the children but among the parents. All will wish to know what you have to bring out. Great care should be taken not to throw any disparagement upon the opinions of parents. Perhaps, after giving the signal for attention, you may proceed as follows:— ''Has the elm-tree any seeds? Perhaps, children, you may recollect after the cold winter has passed away, that, along in * It is a very common opinion in the country that the elm has no seeds. I once knew a man who grew gray under the shade of a large elm, and who insisted that it never bore any seeds. RIGHT MODES OF TEACHING. 89 the latter part of March or the first of April, we sometimes have a warm, sunny day. The birds perhaps appear and begin to sing a little, and as you look up to the elm, you notice that its buds seem to swell, and you think it is going to put out its leaves. Everybody says we are going to have an early spring. But after tliis the cold frosty nights and windy days come on again, and then you think the leaves cannot come out so early. Now, if you observe carefully, the leaves do not come out till about the 20th of May or perhaps the first of June. Did you ever see anything like what I have described?" "Yes, sir, we remember that." " Well, the next time you see the buds begin to open, just break off a twig of a good large tree, and you will find they are not the leaf-buds. But if you will watch them carefully for two or three weeks, you will find that each bud will put out some beauti- ful little fiowers, brightly colored, and slightly fragrant. If you will still continue to w^atch them, you will find as the fiowers fall off, that seed-vessels are formed, shaped very much like the pars- nip seed. These will grow larger and larger every day, and by- and-by they will turn brown, and look as if they were ripe. Just about this time the leaves will come out; and soon after, these seeds, during some windy day or night, will all fall off. The ground will be covered with thousands of them. Perhaps you have seen this." "Yes, sir," says John, "Grandpa calls that elm-dust.^' "Perhaps next year 3^ou can watch this, and ask your parents to examine it with you. But the five minutes are ended." Now, information thus communicated will never be forgotten. The mind, having been put upon the stretch, is no longer a pas- sive recipient. The next question :— How are seeds disseminated ? — (of course explaining the term — '' disseminated).'^ This will bring in a fund of information from the pupils. They will mention that the thistle seed flies and so does the seed of the milkweed; that the burrs of the burdock, and some other seeds are provided with hooks by which they attach themselves 90 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. to the hair of animals or the clothing of men, and ride away to their resting-place, which may be a hundred miles off. Some fall into the water and sail away to another shore. Some, hke the seed of the touch-me-not, are thrown at a distance like the burst- ing of the elastic pericarp ; others, as nuts and acorns, are carried by squirrels, and buried beneath the leaves. These facts would mostly be noticed by children, when once put upon observation. Next question .—Are plants propagated in any other way? This question would call their attention to the various means of natural and artificial propagation, by layers, by offsets, by suckers, by grafting, by inoculation or budding, etc. Again: — Ha ye any plants more ways than one of natural propagation ? Some have one way only, by seeds, as the annual plants; some have two,— by seeds, and by roots, as the potato; some have three,— as the tiger-lily, by side-bulbs from the roots, by stalk-bulbs, and by the seeds. This can be extended indefi- nitely. SECTION v.— REMARKS. Let it be remembered that the above has been given simply as a specimen of what could easily be done by an ingenious teacher, with as common a thing as an ear of corn for the text. Any other thing would answer as well. A chip, a tooth or a bone of an animal, a piece of iron, a feather, or any other object, could be made the text for adroitly bringing in the uses of wood, the food and habits of animals, the use and comparative value of metals, the covering of birds, their migration, the covering of animals, etc., etc. Let the teacher but think what department he will dwell upon, and then he can easily select his text; and if he has any tact, he can keep the children constantly upon inquiry and observation. The advantages of the above course over simpl}^ lecturing to them on certain subjects, that is, over the pouring-in process, are many and great. Some of the most obvious I will briefly state : 1. It immediately puts the minds of the children into a state of vigorous activity.— They feel that they are not longer passive recipients. They are incited to discover and ascertain for them- RIGHT MODES OF TEACHING. 91 selves. They are, therefore, profitably employed both in and out of school, and as a consequence are more easily governed. A habit of observation is cultivated in them ; and what an advan- tage is this for a child ! It is almost unnecessary to remark that many people go through the world without seeing half the objects which are brought within their reach. It would be the same to them if their ej^es were half the time closed. If they travel through a country presenting the most beautiful scenery, or the most interesting geological features, they see nothing. They grow up among all the wonders of God's works, amid all the displays of his wisdom, of his design, to no purpose. They study none of the plans of nature; and by all the millions of arrangements which God has made, to delight the eye, to gratify the taste, to excite the emotions of pleasure instead of pain, they are neither the happier nor the wiser. What a blessing, then, it is to the child, to put his mind upon inquiry; to open his eyes to observe what his creator intended his intelligent creatures should behold, of his goodness, his wisdom, his power. And how far superior is he who teaches a child to see for himself, and to think for himself, to him who sees and thinks for the child, and thus practically invites the pupil to close his own eyes and grope in darkness through the instructive journey of life. 2. It is of great service to the parents in the district to have this waking-up process in operation. — Our children are some- times our best teachers. Parents are apt to grow rusty in their acquirements, and it is no doubt one of the designs of Providence that the inquisitiveness of childhood should preserve them from sinking into mental inactivity. Who can hear the inquiries of his ow^n child after knowledge, without a desire to supply his wants? Now it is right for the teacher to use this instrumentality to wake up mind in his district. Parents, by the course I have recommended, very soon become interested in these daily ques- tions of the teacher; and they are often as eager to know what is the next question as the children are to report it. This course then, will supply profitable topics of conversation at the fireside, and very likely will encourage also the pursuit of useful reading. 92 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. It will moreover soon awaken a deeper interest in the school on the part of the parents. They will begin to inquire of one an- other as to this new measure; and when Xhey find by conference that the feeling in this matter is becoming general, they will desire to visit the school to witness this as well as the other operations of the teacher. This will secure parental cooperation, and thus in every way the influence of the school will be height- ened. It is no small thing for a teacher to enlist the interest of his patrons in the success of his school ; and this is the most hap- pily done, when it is achieved through the medium of the pupils themselves. 3. Itr wakes up the teachers own mi/jd.— This is by no means the least important point to be gained. The teacher, by the very nature of his employment, by daily confinement in an unhealthy atmosphere, by teaching over and over again that with which he is quite familiar, by boarding with people who ai-e inclined to be social, and by the fatigue and languor with which he finds himself oppressed every night, is strongly tempted to neglect his own improvement. There are but few who rise above this accu- mulation of impediments, and go on in spite of them to eminence in the profession. A large proportion of all who teach, rely upon the attainments with which they commence; and in the course of two or three years, finding themselves behind the age, they abandon the employment. This is very natural. Any man who treads in a beaten track, like a horse in a mill, must become w^eary, however valuable the product may be which he grinds out. It is essential that he should keep his own interest awake by some exercise of his ingenuity, and that he should compel him- self to be industrious by undertaking that which will absolutely demand study. The above process will do this; and while he may have the pleasure of seeing the growth of his pupils' minds, he may also have the satisfaction of feeling the growth of his own. I must here add, that it has not been my intention in what I have said, to inculcate the idea that the study of books should in the least degree be abated to make room for this process of waking up mind. The various branches are to be pursued and RIGHT MODES OF TEACHING. 93 as diligently pursued as ever before. The time to be set apart for this exercise should be short,— never probably to exceed five min- utes. It is to come in when the scholars need rest for a moment, and when, if not employed about this, they would probably be doing nothing, or perhaps worse than nothing. It should be man- aged with care, and should never be made a hobby by teachers, as if it w^ere of more importance than anything else. One secret of success in this — as indeed in everything— is, that it should not be continued too long at once. The pupils should be left " longing — not loathing." Let me again remind the reader that I have given the above as a specimen. The choice of the ear of corn was merely acciden- tal ; it happened to lie on my table when I wanted a text. The teacher should look upon this simply as a, specimen, and then choose his own subjects. The main point aimed at is this:— Never ask leading questions which your scholars can hardly fail to answer; and never lecture to your pupils till you have somehow first kindled in them a living desire to know ; that is, avoid alike the "drawing-out"' and the ''pouring-in" process. Rather let it be your object to excite inquiry by a question they cannot answer without thought and observation,— and such a question as they would deem it disgraceful not to be able to answer. This adroitly done is " waking up mind.''' The teacher should not infer from these illustrations that the materials for waking up mind are found only among the objects of nature, and that for this pur- pose books are to be ignored or cast aside; far from it. Let the awakening process be carried into the examination of books them- selves. Revelations as wonderful as those which nature has folded within the seeds and flowers of plants may be found within the stanzas of a poem or the periods of an oration, if only the scales have been removed from the eyes of the beholder. "No magic rune," says Carlyle, " is stranger than a book. All that mankind has done, thought, gained or been : it is lying in magic preserva- tion in the pages of books. They are the chosen possessions of men." Object teaching is good, but it is not the only means of waking up mind. CHAPTER VII. CONDUCTING RECITATIONS. In considering a teacher's qualifications, the power of exciting an interest in the recitations oi his school may not be overlooked. No man can be successful for any length of time without this. This comprises what is usually implied by aptness to teach. All men have not this faculty by nature in an equal degree. Some may talk for an hour upon an interesting topic in the pres- ence of children without commanding their attention; while there are others who can take even a common-place subject and secure for any length of time an all-absorbing interest in every word. This difference is seen in every grade of public speakers, and in all descriptions of writers; but perhaps more strikingly than any- where else it is observable among teachers. Enter one school, and you may notice that the scholars are dull and listless ; indif- ference sits undisturbed upon their brows; or perhaps they are driven by the activity of their own natures to some expedient to interest themselves, while the teacher is with very commendable spirit, laboriously— perhaps learnedly— explaining some principle or fact designed for their edification. The secret is, he has not yet learned to awaken their attention; he fails to excite their interest. Pass to another school. A breathless silence pervades the room; the countenances of the children, upturned towards the teacher, beam with delight. As he kindles into earnestness and eloquence, they kindle into responsive enthusiasm. Whenever his eye meets theirs, he sees— he feels the glow radiated by the fire he is lighting in their souls, and his own gathers new warmth and enthusiasm in return. Such a man is apt to teach; and you could scarcely break the spell by which he holds his class, "though you (94) CONDUCTING RECITATIONS. 95 should give them for playthiDgs, shining fragments broken from off the sun." He who possesses this gift naturally, has very great advantage as a teacher to begin with. The ability to tell well what he knows, is of more consequence to the teacher, than the greatest attain- ments without the power to communicate them. Combine high attainments with the ability to tell, and you have the accom- jjlished teacher. But this power to communicate is not necessarily a natural gift; it comes not always by intuition. It can be acquired. It is founded in philosophy; and he who can understand anything of the workings of his own mind, who can revert to the mental pro- cesses he went through in order to comprehend a principle, who can go back to that state of mind he was in before he compre- hended it, and then by one step more can put himself in the place of the child he is teaching, realizing exactly his perplexities and feeling his precise wants, can become the apt teacher. Those who fail in this are usually those who have forgotten the steps they took to acquire their own knowledge, or perhaps who never noticed what steps they did take. To acquire this rare qualification should be the constant study of the teacher. To this end he should recall, as far as possible, the operations of his own mind in childhood. By studying his own mind, he learns, often most effectually, what he needs to know of others. Whenever he is preparing to teach any principle or fact to others, let him ask himself questions like the following : — What was the dark point in this, when I studied it? Where did my mind labor most? What point did my teacher fail to explain? Such questions will frequently suggest the very difficulty which perplexes every mind in the same process. Again, the following inquiries maybe very useful :— In studying this, what was the first point which appeared clear to me? After this, what was the sec- ond step, and how did that follow the first? The next in order? And the next? Was this the natural order? If not, what is the natural order? The right answers to these questions will suggest the course to be pursued in the instruction of a class. 96 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. The teacher can scarceh- ask a more important qnestion than t\\m:—Whatis the natural order of presenting a given subject? The ability to determine this, is what constitutes in a great degree the ^science of teaching. This inquiry should occupy much thought; because a mistake here is disaslrous, and ever will be, as long as divine wisdom is superior to human. He who can ascertain the order of nature, will be most sure of exciting an interest in the subject he is endeavoring to teach. The natural order of presenting a subject is determined by two things, and if the teacher knows these he needs never make a seri- ous mistake. One is the order of the steps of thought folded in the subject studied, whether it be a seed or a sonnet, an oration or a planet; the other is the law of the mind in knowing the subject, and these two agree; for the law of the human mind in knowing has been made to harmonize with the order of thought wa-apped up in the thing to be known. There is a beautiful philosophy in all this, and it is this harmony of ''the thought in things" with "the law in the mind, ".that makes any science pos- sible. Without it there could certainly be no science of teaching, and without a knowledge of it the teacher must grope in the dark ; with it he walks in the light. Some further suggestions as to conducting school recitations are contained in the following paragraphs : 1. The teacher should thoroughly understand what he attempts to teach.— It is destructive of all life in the exercise, if the teacher is constantly chained down to the text-book. I have no objection, indeed, that he should take his text-book with him to the class, and that he should occasionally refer to it to refresh his own memory, or to settle a doubt. But who does not know that a teacher who is perfectly familiar with what is to be taught, has ten times the vivacity of one who is obliged to follow the very letter of the book? His own enthusiasm glows in his coun- tenance, sparkles in his eye, and leaps from his tongue. He watches the halting of the pupil, perceives his diflaculty, devises his expedient for illustrating the dark point in some new way, and, at the proper moment, renders just the amount of assist- CONDUCTING RECITATIONS. 97 ance which the pupil needs. Not confined to the text, he has the use of his ejes ; and when he speaks or explains, he can accom- pany his remark with a quickening look of intelligence. In this way his class is enlivened. They respect him for his ready attain- ment, and they are fired with a desire to be his equal. How different is it with a teacher who knows nothing of the subject but what is contained in the text before him, and who knows that only as he reads it during the intervals occasioned by the hesitations of the class. Every question he proposes is printed at the bottom of the page; and as soon as he reads the question, without a glance at the pupil, his eye sets out on a chase after the answer in the text. If the scholar has not already been stupefied by such teaching, and happens to give an intelli- gent answer, yet not in the precise language of the book, he is set right by the teacher's reading the very words,— just so much detached from the sentence, as he fancies was intended to answer that one question ! In this way he discourages thought in his pupils, and sets a bounty on mechanical study. In this way, too, he congeals whatever of interest they bring with them to the recitation, and they sink into indifference,— or, following the instincts of their nature, they seek occupation in play or mis- chief, even under the sound of his voice! 2. The teacher should specially prepare himself for each les- son he assigns.— This is naturally suggested by what has just been said. The teacher's memory needs to be refreshed. We all know how difficult it would be to recite a lesson, in geometry for instance, weeks after studying it. It is so in other things. Now the teacher should be so familiar with the lesson which he proposes to hear recited, that he could recite it himself as perfectly as he would desire his scholars to do it. This is seldom the case. I have heard a teacher, with the text-book in his hands, complain of the dullness or inaccuracy of his classes, when, if the tables had been turned, and the pupils allowed to ask the questions, the teacher would scarcely have recited as well. And, I may add, this is no very uncommon thing! If any one is startled at this asser- tion, let him request a friend, in whom he can confide, to ask him T. p.— 7 98 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. the questions of a particular lesson in geography, or history, or gTammar. The teacher should daily studj^ his class lessons. This will enable him the better to assign his lessons judiciously. In this daily study, he should master the text-book upon the subject; and more than this, he should consider what collateral matter he can bring in to illustrate the lesson. He should draw upon the resources of his own mind,— upon the treasures of his common-place book, ^— upon the contents of some encyclopa'dia, upon any source, from whence he can obtain a supply of knowledge for his purpose. This will improve his own mind, and he will be encouraged, as from time to time he teaches the same branch, to find that he is able to do better than ever before, and that, instead of becoming weary with repetition, he is more and more enthusiastic in the subject. Going thus to his class — so full of the subject, that were the text-book annihilated, he could make another and better one— he will have no difficulty to secure attention. As he speaks, his eye accompanies his word, and as his pupils answer, he sees the expression of their countenances; and what a world of meaning- there is in this expression! It betrays, better than words can do, the clearness or obscurity of the mind's perception, when a truth is presented. How different the beaming of the eye when the soul apprehends, from that almost idiotic stare at vacuity when words are used without import. And how necessary it is that *It is an excellent plan for every teacher to keep a common-place book of con- siderable size, different portions of it being set apart for the different subjects upon which he is to give instruction. On the first twenty pages, " Geography" may be the head,— the next twenty pages may be set apart for " History,"— twenty more may be assigned to " Reading,"— and a like number to "Arithmetic," "Gram- mar," " Spelling," " Writing," etc., reserving quite a space for " Miscellaneous Mat- ter." This would make a large book, but when it is remembered that it is to be used for several years, it is well to have it large enough to contain a large amount of matter. Now, whenever the teacher hears a lecture on a peculiar method of teaching either of these branches, let him note the prominent parts of it under the proper head, and especiall)/ the Ulustrations. When he reads or hears an anecdote illustrating Geography, History, or Grammar, let it be copied under the proper head. If it illustrates Geography, let the name of the place stand at its head. When he visits a school, and listens to a new explanation or a new process, let him note it under its head. In this way he may collect a thousand valuable things to be used with judgment in his school. CONDUCTING RECITATIONS. 99 the teacher should be free to observe the inward workings of the soul as indicated upon the countenance. Doctor Arnold, of Rugby, England, was one of the wisest and most successful teachers of any age or any country. The follow- ing anecdote illustrates what he thought of the necessity for daily preparation of lessons by the teacher: At one time some friends were spending the evening at his house. After chatting pleas- antly for an hour, Dr. Arnold asked his guests to excuse him for the preparation of his next day's lessons. One of the gentlemen said, chafEngly, "Why, Doctor, after all your years of experience as a teacher of Latin, you surely do not have to make special preparation for meeting your boys in the class-room!" "Sir," earnestly replied the great teacher, " I prefer that my pupils shall drink from a fresh, lowing fountain, and not from a stagnant pool'' Nature herself teaches the same lesson of special preparation for important work to be done. The rich, Juicy, luscious fruit is not matured on a twig that is many, many years old, but upon one of the very last season's growth. 3. The teacher should he able to use our language fluently and correctly.— In this many are deficient. They hesitate and stammer, and after all, express their ideas in vague terms, and perhaps by the use of inaccurate or inelegant language. A teacher in no way gives so effectual instruction in grammar as by his own use of our language ; and there can be no sight more mortifying than that of a teacher laboring to fix in the minds of his class some rule of syntax, when his own language at the very moment shows an entire disregard of the rule. It is very common to hear teachers talk of ^^sums" to their classes in arithmetic, and even to ask them to do "sums" in subtraction or division! The term ''question'' is often as improperly applied, when no question is asked. The teacher should be accurate in the use of terms. "Question" is sometimes the proper word; sometimes "problem," and sometimes "exercise," or "example," may with more propriety be used ; but "sum " means the amount of several numbers when added, and it should not be applied as 100 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. the name of an exercise. Some teachers use the terms ratio and proportion* interchangeably, as if they were synonyms. Such inaccuracies in the teacher will be sure to be reproduced in the school, and it is a great evil for the scholar to acquire a careless habit in the use of terms. 4. He should have proper animation himself. — Horace Mann describes some of the Scotch teachers as working themselves up into a feverish excitement in the presence of their classes, and the classes in turn as literally bounding from the floor when they answer their hasty questions. Now, while I think these Scotch teachers go quite too far, I do think that many of our own teachers come short of a proper standard of animation. A teacher should be ready, without being rapid; animated, without being boisterous. Children are imitative beings; and it is aston- ishing to observe how very soon they catch the manners of the teacher. If he is heavy and plodding in his movements, they will very soon be dull and drowsy in theirs; then, if he speaks in a sprightly tone, and moves about with an elastic step, they almost realizea resurrection from the dead. If he appears absent-minded, taking but little interest in the lesson which is recited, they will be as inattentive, at least, as he ; while, if all his looks and actions indicate that the subject is of some importance, he will gain their attention. Nor can I refrain in this place from suggesting to the teacher the importance of regarding his manners, while engaged in conducting a recitation. His attitude should not be one of indolence or coarseness,— and when he moves from his seat, and appears at the blackboard to illustrate any point, it should be done gracefully, and with a constant regard to the fact, that every look and every motion teaches. 5. He should never proceed without the attention of the class. — A loss of interest is sure to follow a want of attention. Besides, a habit of inattention, while it is very common, is also *We are reminded by this of the college student who was examined rather closely by his tutor. "What is ratio?" inquired the tutor. " Ratio ?" said the young man, " ratio is proportion." "Well, what is proportion?" "Proportion? proportion is ratio." " Well, then," said the tutor, looking perplexed, " what are both together ? " " Excuse me," said the pupil, " lean define but one at a time ! " CONDUCTING RECITATIONS. 101 a great calamity to the person who falls into it during life. Many a sermon is lost upon a portion of the audience in our churches every Sabbath from this cause. When the attention is aroused, the impression made is enduring; and one idea then communi- cated is worth a hundred at any other time. The teacher should see that, before any exercise begins, the con- ditions for securing attention are the best possible. If the seats are uncomfortable, if the desks are strewn with distracting ob- jects, if the room is too cold or too hot, too light or too dark, or if the air is bad from imperfect ventilation, certainly the con- secutive attention of any single pupil can hardly be expected, much less, but what is much more desirable, that of the class as a whole. Such conditions invite failure for any recitation. Concentration of the class and its proximity to the teacher are further conditions for securing attention. The pupils should bo so seated for the recitation, that to see all the members, the teacher's eye will not be compelled to wander from front to rear, or from side to side of the room. Again, the manner of questioning has much to do with the attention of a class. If the members are called upon in any order that they can foreknow, they feel that the responsibility for continued attention is removed from them. The same result follows if the teacher, before asking a question, calls by name the person who is to answer it. This is equivalent to advertising that the rest of the class, are, for the present, excused. Recitations should be so conducted as to impose upon every member of the class the fullest responsibility for everything required from the beginning to the end of the recitation period. If this concentra- tion and continuity of attention are not secured, a great loss of discipline and of power must be sustained. 6. Avoid a formal routine in teaching.— Children are very apt to imbibe the notion that they study in order to recite. They have but little idea of any purpose of acquirement beyond recita- tion; hence they study their text-book as mere words. The teacher should, as soon as possible, lead them to study the subject, using the book simply as an instrument. "Books are 102 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. but helps"— should become their motto. In order to bring this about, the instructor would do well occasionally to leave entirely the order of the book, and question them on the topic they have studied. If they are pursuing- arithmetic, for instance, and they have carefully prepared a definite number of problems, it might be well to test their ability by giving them at the recitation others of the teacher's own preparing, involving an application of what they have learned to the business of life. This will lead them to study intelligently. Besides, as soon as they begin to see how their knowledge is to be useful to them, they have a new motive to exertion. They should be so taught as to discover that gram- mar will improve their understanding and use of language; that writing will prepare them for business, and by enabling them to communicate with their friends, will add to their enjoy- ment ; and so of reading and the other branches. 7. Be careful to use language which is intelligible to children, whenever an explanation is given —The object of an explanation is to elucidate, to make clearer. How is this object accomplished when the explanation is less intelligible than the thing explained? Suppose a child should ask her teacher to explain the cause of the cold in winter and heat in summer; in other words, the cause of the change of seasons. "Oh, yes," says he, pleasantly. "The annual revolution of the earth around the sun in connection with the obliquity of the ecliptic, occasions the succession of the four seasons." * The child listens to these '' words of learned length," and is astonished at the learning of her teacher, but she has no clearer idea than before of the point she inquired about. Mr. S. R. Hall, in his lectures, gives the following forcible illus- tration of the same point : "Will you please to tell me why I carry one for every ten?" said little Laura to her instructor. "Yes, my dear," said he, kindly. "It is because numbers increase from right to left in a decimal ratio." Laura sat and repeated it to herself two or three times, and then looked very sad. The master, as soon as he had answered, pursued his other business and did not notice * Worcester's Geography. CONDUCTING RECITATIONS. 103 her. But she was disappointed. She understood him no better than if he had used words of another language. ''Decimal" and '•ratio" were words that might have fallen on her ear before, but if so, she understood them none the better for it. She looked in the dictionary and was disappointed again, and after some time, put away her arithmetic. When asked by her teacher why she did so, she replied, "I don't like to study it; I can't understand it. " "Now the injury to little Laura was very great. She had commenced the study with interest; she had learned to answer a great many questions in arithmetic and had been pleased. She was now using a slate and writing her figures on it, and had found the direction to carry one for every ten. This she might have been made to understand. The master loved his scholars and wished to benefit them, but forgot that terms perfectly plain to him would be unintelligible to the child. From that moment Laura disliked arithmetic, and every effort that could be used with her could not efface the impression that it was a hard study, and she could not understand it." While upon this subject, I might urge that teachers should not resort to evasion when they are not able to explain. It is a much more honorable, and far more satisfactory course, for the teacher frankly to confess his inability to explain, than to indulge in some ridiculous mysticism to keep up the show of knowledge. I may never forget the passage I first made through the Eule of Three, and the manner in which my manifold perplexities respecting " direct and inverse " proportion were solved. " Sir," said I, after puzzling a long time over " more requiring more and less requiring less" — " will you tell me why I sometimes multiply the second and third terms together and divide by the first — and at other times multiply the Urst and second and divide by the third ? " "Why, because more requires more sometimes, and sometimes it requires less— to be sure. Haven't you read the rule, my boy?" "Yes, sir ; I can repeat the rule, but I don't understand it." " Why, it is because 'more requires more and less requires less!' " " But why, sir, do I multiply as the rule says?" "Why, because 'more 104 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. requires more and less requires less'— see, the rule says so." "I know the rule says so, but I wished tounderstandTT'ijj."— '< Why? why?'^ looking at me as if idiocy itself trembled before him — "why?— whj^ because the rule says so; don't you see it?— S@" More requires more and less requires less!'' — and in the midst of this inexplicable combination of more and less, I shrunk away to my seat blindly to follow the rule because it said so. Such teaching as this is enough to stultify the most inquiring mind; and it is to secure the blessing of relief from such influence to the children of any particular district, that we come to con- sider an occasional change of teachers a mitigated evil. 8. Require prompt and accurate recitation.— 1 know of noth- ing that will abate the interest of a class sooner than dull and dragging recitations. The temptation in such cases is very strong for the teacher to help the class by the "drawing-out process" before described. This, however, only makes the mat- ter worse. The dull recitation calls for the teacher's aid; and his aid reproduces the dull recitation. The only way is to stop at once, and refuse to proceed till the recitation can go alone. It is just as easy to have good lessons as poor; and the teacher should have the energy to insist upon them. Mark the coun- tenances of a class as they go to their seats after a good recitation. They feel that they have done something, and they look as if they valued the teacher's approbation and their own so highly, that they will learn the next lesson still better. It is, moreover, a great saving of time, to have the lessons promptly recited. This saving will afford the opportunity to introduce those additional illustrations I have before suggested, in order to excite a still deeper interest. It may sometimes, though not always, be well to make a prompt and perfect recita- tion the condition of introducing the additional matter. 9. Rely not too much upon simultaneous recitation.— This has become quite too fashionable of late. It had its origin in the large schools established some years since, known as Lancas- terian schools, and perhaps was well enough adapted to schools CONDUCTING RECITATIONS. 105 kept upon that plan in large cities. But when this mode of reciting is adopted in our district and country schools, where the circumstances of large numbers and extreme backwardness are wanting, it is entirely uncalled for, and like other city fashions transferred to the country, is really out of place. Seriously, I look upon this as one of the prominent faults in many of our schools. It destroys all independence in the pupil by taking away his individuality. He moves with the phalanx. Learning to rely on others, he becomes superficial in his lessons. He is tempted to indolence by a knowledge that his deficiencies will not stand out by themselves ; and he comforts himself after a miserable recitation with the consoling reflection, that he has been able to conceal his want of thoroughness from his teacher. It may sometimes be useful. A few questions thus answered may serve to give animation to a class when their interest begins to flag; but that which may serve as a stimulant must not be relied on for nutrition. As an example of its usefulness, I have known a rapid reader tamed into due moderation by being put in companionship with others of slower speech, just as we tame a friskful colt by harnessing him into a team of grave old horses. But aside from some such definite purpose, I have seen no good come of this innovation. I am satisfied its prevalence is an evil, and worthy of the careful consideration of teachers. By the foregoing means and others which will suggest them- selves to the thoughtful teacher's mind, he can arouse the interest of his classes so that study will be more attractive than play. For this object every teacher should labor. It is of course impossible to give specific rules to meet every case; it is not desirable to do it. The teacher, put upon the track, will easily devise his own expedients; and his own, be it remembered, will usually he found the best for him. But it should also be remem- bered that an expedient is only an expedient— only a way of accomplishing a purpose, and its eflSeiency depends upon what 106 PAGE'S THEORY AXD PRACTICE. the teacher puts into it. and not upon the formal expedient itself. He cannot put into it what he does not himself possess. "In the last analysis, the vital element in teaching is the teacher,"' and no dead device, no empirical expedient, no me- chanical method can be safelv substituted for this vital element of the teacher's conscious purpose. As a motive for every teacher to study carefully the art of teaching: well at the recitation, it should be borne in mind that then and there he comes before his pupils in a peculiar and prom- inent manner; it is there his mind comes specially in contact with theirs, and there that he lays in them, for good or for evil, the foundations of their mental habits. It is at the recitation in a peculiar manner, that he makes his mark upon their minds: and as the seal upon the wax, so his mental character upon theirs leaves its impress behind. CHAPTER Till. EXCITING INTEREST IN STUDY. It is ever an interestinor question to the teacher, and one which he should consider with great care — --How can I excite an interest among my pupils in their studies?"' The intelligent teacher feels that this is the great question; for he foresees that, if he fails here, his diflBculty in governing his school will be very much increased. He therefore turns his attention with deep solicitude to the motives he may present, and the meth- ods he may employ to awaken and keep alive the interest of the school. If he has reflected at all upon the subject, he has already arrived at the conviction, that it is necessary for the good of all concerned that the interest awakened should be an abiding one; that it should not only not abate during the term of school, but continue— nay, grow stronger and strouger — even after school- days have passed away. There is probably no greater mistake in education, than that of raising in school an artificial excitement, which may aid perhaps in securing better recitations, but which will do nothing toward putting the mind into such a state, that it will press on in the pursuit of knowledge even after the living teacher has closed his labors. The higher principles of our nature being aroused with diffi- culty, are too apt to be neglected by the teacher, and thus they remain in their original feebleness: while he contents himseK with appealing to our lower characteristics. — thus doing a lasting injury by unduly cultivating and strengthening them, at the same time that he awakens after all but a temporary interest. In view of the importance of the subject, and the difficulty of (107) 108 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. judging aright upon it, I shall make no apology for devoting a few pages to the consideration of SECTION I. —INCENTIVES TO STUDY — EMULATION. The teacher will find in a greater or less degree, in the mind of every child, the principle of Emulation. It is a question very much debated of late, What shall he do with it? Much has been said and written on this question, and the ablest minds, both of past ages and the present, have given us their conclusions respect- ing it; and it often increases the perplexity of the young teacher to find the widest difference of opinion on this subject among men upon whom in other things he would confidingly rely for guidance. Why, asks he, why is this ? Is there no such thing as truth in this matter? or have these men misunderstood each other? When they have written with so much ability and so much earnestness- some zealously recommending emulation as a safe and desirable principle to be encouraged in the young, and others as warmly denouncing it as altogether unworthy and improper,— have they been thinking of the same thing? Thus perplexed with conflicting opinions, he is thrown back upon his own reflection for a decision; or what is more common, he endeavors to find the truth by experimenting upon his pupils. He tries one course for one term, and a different one the next ; repeats both during the third, and still finds himself unsettled as he commences the fourth. Mean- time some of his experiments have wrought out a lasting injury upon the minds of his pupils; for, if every teacher must settle every doubt by new experiments upon his classes, the progress that is made in the science and art of teaching must be at the untold expense of each new set of children; —just as if the young- doctor could take nothing as settled by the experience of his pre- decessors, but must try over again for himself the effect of all the various medical agents, in order to decide whether arsenic does corrode the stomach and produce death, — whether cantharides can be best applied inwardly or outwardly,— whether mercury is most salutary when administered in ounces or grains, or wiiether repletion or abstinence is preferable in a fever! When such is the EXCITING INTEREST IN STUDY. 109 course of a young practitioner in a community, who does not confidently expect the churchyard soon to become the most popu- lous district, and the sexton to be.the most thrifty personage in the village, unless indeed he too should become the subject of experiment ? But is there not a good sense and a bad sense, associated with the term Emulation ;— and have not these eager disputants fallen, into the same error, in this matter, that the two knights com- mitted, when they immolated each other in a contest about the question whether a shield was gold or silver, when each had seen but one side of it? I incline to the opinion that this is the case, — and that those who wax so warm in this contest, would do well to give us at the outset a careful definition of the term Emula- tion, as they intend to use it. This would perhaps save them- selves a great deal of toil, and their readers a great deal of perplexity. Now it seems to me the truth on this question lies within a nutshell. 1. If emulation means a desire for improvement, progress, growth, — an ardent wish to rise above one's present condition or attainments,— or even an aspiration to attain to eminence in the school or in the world, it is a laudable motive. This is self-emu- lation. It presses the individual on to surpass himself. It com- pares his present condition with what he would be— with what he ought to be; and " forgetting those things which are behind, and reaching forth unto those things which are before, he presses towards the mark for the prize." "An ardor kindled by the praiseworthy examples of others, inciting to imitate them, or to equal, or even excell them, without the desire of depressing them,"* is the sense in which the apostle uses the term [Romans xi. 14] when he says: "If by any means I may provoke to emu- lation them which are my flesh, and might save some of them." If this be the meaning of emulation, it is every way a worthy principle to be appealed to in school. This principle exists to a Dr. Webster. 110 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. greater or less extent in the mind of everj- child, and may very safely be strengthened by being called by the teacher into lively exercise; provided always, that the eminence is sought from a desire to be useful, and not from a desire of self-glorification. 2. But if emulation, on the other hand, means a desire of sur- passing others, for the sake of surpassing them ; if it be a dispo- sition that will cause an individual to be as well satisfied with the highest place, whether he has risen above his fellows by his intrinsic well-doing, or they have fallen below him by their neg- lect; if it puts him in such a relation to others that their failures will be as gratifying to him as his own success ; if it be a princi- ple that prompts the secret wish in the child that others may miss their lessons, in order to give him an opportunity to gain applause by a contrast with their abasement,— then, without doubt, it is an unworthy and unholy principle, and should never be encouraged or appealed to by the teacher. It has no simili- tude to that spirit which prompts a man to "love his neighbor as himself." It has none of that generosity which rejoices in the success of others. Carried out in after-life, it becomes ambition, such as fired the breast of a Napoleon, who sought a throne for himself, though he waded through the blood of millions to obtain it. It is to this principle that the apostle, before quoted, alludes, when he classes emulation with the "works of the flesh," which are these: "adultery, fornication, uncleanness, lasciviousness, idolatry, witchcraft, hatred, variance, Emulation, wrath, strife, seditions, etc.,— of the which things, I tell you before, as I have told you in times past, that they which do such things shall not inherit the kingdom of God." It is of this principle that the com- mentator, Scott, remarks :— " This thirst for human applause has caused more horrible violations of the law of love, and done more to desolate the earth, than even the grossest sensuality ever did." Thus, Emulation is a term which indicates a very good or a very bad thing, according to the definition we give it. In one view of it, the warmest aspirings to rise are consistent with a generous wish that others may rise also. It is even compatible EXCITING INTEREST IN STUDY. Ill with a heartfelt satisfaction in its possessor at the progress of others, though they should outstrip him in his upward course. It is the spirit which actuates all true Christians, as they wend their way heavenward, rejoicing the more as they find the way is thronged with those who hope to gain an immortal crown. In the other view of it, we see men actuated by selfishness mingled with pride, inquiring, in the spirit of those mentioned in Scripture, "Who among us shall be the greatest?" We every- where see men violating these sacred injunctions of divine wis- dom: "Let no man seek his own, but every man another's wealth." "Let nothing be done through strife or vainglory; but in lowliness of mind, let each esteem other better than them- selves."— "In honor prefering one another." If such be the true pictures of emulation, in both the good and the bad sense, certainly teachers cannot hesitate a moment as to their duty. They may appeal to the principle first de- scribed,— cultivate and strengthen it; and in so doing, they may be sure they are doing a good work. But unless they intend to violate the teachings of common sense, and the higher teachings of Christianity, I ftnow not how they can appeal to the principle of emulation as defined in the second case. But it may be urged that the teacher will find emulation, even in this latter sense, existing in human nature; that he cannot get rid of it if he will ; that it will be one of the most active prin- ciples to which he can resort in arousing the mind to exertion ; and, furthermore, that it has been appealed to by many of the most eminent teachers time out of mind. To this it is replied, that it is not disputed that children are selfish, and that this selfishness may indeed be made a powerful instrumentality in urging them forward to the attainment of a temporary end. But does the existence of selfishness prove that it needs cultivation in the human character? And will the end, when attained, justify the means? Is the end, whatever it may be, if attained at such a cost, a blessing to be desired ? Will not the heart suffer more than the head will gain ? 112 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. It may be further urged, that the child will find the world full of this principle when he leaves the school ; and why, it is asked, should he at school be throAvn into an unnatural position? I answer that evil is not to be overcome by making evil more prev- alent,— and though there may be too much of self-seeking in the world, that is the very reason why the teacher should not encour- age its growth. The more true Christianity prevails in the world, the less there will be of that spirit which rejoices at another's halting; hence I am convinced the teacher should do nothing to make that spirit more prevalent. Nor is it essential to the progress of the pupil even temporarily, since there are other and worthier principles which can be as suc- cessfully called into action. If we look carefully at the expedi- ency of thus stimulating the mind, we find that after the first trial of strength, many become disheartened and fall behind in despair. It will soon be obvious, in a class of twenty, who are the few that will be likely to surpass all others; and therefore all the others, as a matter of course, fall back into envy, perhaps into hopeless indifference. Who has not seen this in a class in spelling, for instance, where the strife was for the "iieac/" of the class, but where all but two or three were qui^ as well satisfied with being at the " foot?^' It does not then accomplish the pur- pose for which it is employed ; and since those who are aroused by it, are even more injured than those who are indifferent, their undesirable qualities being thus strengthened, the opinion is entertained that those teachers are the most wise who bend their ingenuity to find some other means to awaken the minds of the children under their charge. From what has been said, then, Emulation is to be recognized or repudiated among the incentives of the schoolroom, according to the signification we assign to the term. SECTION II.— PRIZES. It lias for a long time been the custom of teachers to offer some prize as an incentive to exertion in school ; a prize of some pecuniary value, a book, or a medal. In some places beneficent EXCITING INTEREST IN STUDY. 113 individuals have bestowed by legacy the means to purchase annually the prizes thus to be used. Every young teacher is called upon, therefore, to inquire whether such an incentive is a proper one to be employed in the schoolroom. If there is any good to be expected from such an incentive, will it counterbal- ance the evils that spring from the practice? Will the good of the whole school be promoted by such a measure,— and will this be a permanent or a temporaiy good? These are questions which press for an honest answer; and the faithful teacher should not shrink from a careful investigation of the whole matter; and if he finds good reason to differ from time-honored authority, he should abide by the truth rather than by prescriptive usage. In my own case, I may be allowed to say, my mind was early turned to this point; though I confess with a strong bias in favor of the use of prizes. Pretty thoroughly for a series of years did I test their efficacy, but with a growing conviction that the prize was not the proper instrumentality to create a healthy interest in the school. This conviction acquired additional strength by three or four years' trial of other incentives; and it was fully confirmed afterwards by a trial made for the purpose of testing again the efficacy of a prize, at an age when I could more carefully watch the workings of the human mind, and better appreciate the bene- fits or evils resulting from such a measure. I am now free to say that I am satisfied that prizes offered to a school in such a way that all may compete for them and only two or three obtain them, will always be productive of evil consequences, far over- balancing any temporary or partial good that may arise from them, and therefore they ought not to be used as incitements in our schools.* Having expressed an opinion so decidedly upon a measure which claims among its friends and advocates some of the best *It may be well to remind the reader that I have used the term Prizes here in contradistinction from a system of Rewards, by which the teacher proposes to give some token of his regard to everyone who does well,— and the more brilliant suc- cess of a few does not necessarily preclude others from participating in the favor according to their merit. Of such a system of Rewards I shall have something to say presently. T. P.— 8 114 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. minds in the country, I shall be expected to assign some reasons for the faith I entertain. From this I shall not shrink. I pro- ceed therefore to express such objections to the use of prizes, as have been suggested to my mind by my own experience, and confirmed by the experience and observation of others in whom I have great confidence. I. The offer of a prize gives undue prominence to a conipjara- tively unworthy object.— It practically teaches the child to under- value the higher reward of a good conscience, and a love of learning for its own sake. The dazzling medal is placed in the foreground of his field of vision ; and it is very likeh^ to eclipse those less showy but more abiding rewards found in a sense of duty and a desire to be qualified for usefulness. In studying his lesson he thinks of the prize. He studies that he may merely recite well; for it is a good recitation that wins the prize. He thinks not of duty, or of future usefulness; the prize outshines all other objects. II. The pursuit of a prize engenders a spirit of rivalry among the pupi/s.— Rivalry in pursuit of an object which only one can attain, and which all others must lose, must end in exultation on the part of the winner, and disappointment and envy on the part of the losers. It may be said, this ought not to be so; but seldom can it be said, that it is not so. Such is human nature, and such it ever will be. Unpleasant feelings— sometimes concealed, to be sure — but generally expressed in unequivocal terms— grow out of the award of almost every school prize, and sometimes continue to exert their baleful influence through life. Now as long as human nature brings forth unlovely traits almost spontaneously, such direct efforts to cultivate them surely are not called for. It is the part of wisdom, then, to omit such cul- ture and avoid such results, especially when safer means are so accessible. III. The hope of gaining the prize stimulates only a few, while tire many become indifferent.— This is admitted to be true even by the advocates of the prize system. Let a prize be offered in any class as a reward for the best scholarship, and in a very few EXCITING INTEREST IN STUDY. 115 days it becomes perfectly obvious to all who the two or three are that will be likely to outstrip all the others. These two or three will be stimulated to exertion; but the strife is left entirely to them. All others, despairing of success, resolve at once to "let their moderation be known to all men;" and since the prize has been made so prominent an object, they cannot be expected now to look at anything above and beyond it. Feeling that they are not likely to participate in the honors of the class, they have but little disposition to share in its toils. This to be sure is not always so. There are some, who, ceas- ing to strive for the prize, toil for the more substantial bless- ing—a. good education,— and in the end come out the best scholars. This is the way indeed most of our strong men are made; for it has long been remarked that the prize scholars in our schools, and even in our colleges, do not usually become the most distinguished men. On the other hand, many of them are never heard of after receiving their honors. But, though some of the slower scholars do thus hit upon the true path to emin- ence, it is not to be set to the credit of the system; they rise in spite of the system rather than by virtue of it; while the ulti- mate failure of the prize scholars is usually directly attributable to the defect of the system ; for having been unduly stimulated to study solely with reference to recitation, and not with regard to future usefulness, their memories have been developed out of all proportion to the other faculties of their minds; and, though they may have been very good reciters, they have no power to become independent thinkers. Under different training they might have become strong men. But to look no further than the school, the remark holds true in general, that prizes stimulate the few, and the many become indifferent not only to prizes, but to other and better motives. That system of incentives only can be approved, which reaches and influences successfully all the mind subjected to its operation. Nor is this an unimportant consideration. It is not sufficient praise for a teacher that he has a few good scholars in his school. Almost any teacher can call out the talent of the active scholars 116 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. and make them brilliant reciters. The highest merit, however, lies in reaching- all the pupils, the dull as well as the active, and in making the most of them, or rather in leading them to make the most of themselves. It should be remembered of every child, that the present is his only opportunity of being a child, and of receiving the training appropriate to childhood ; and that teacher who rests satisfied with a s^^stem that does not reach the many, while he amuses himself and his visitors with the precocity of a few of his most active scholars, is recreant to his responsible trust. IV. There is much difficulty in awarding the prize so as to do strict justice to a/7.— So many things are to be taken into the account in order to determine the excellence of a performance compared with others, that some particulars are very likely to be overlooked. Those who are called to judge of the results often disagree among themselves. The following anecdote will illus- trate this : Three literary gentlemen were appointed to select the best from several compositions, presented by a class, who had written them in competition for a gold medal. Each of the gen- tlemen carefully read the whole number in private, and conscien- tiously selected the best according to his judgment. When they came together to compare results, it was found that each man had selected the best, but that no two had selected the same! They carefully read and compared the three, and still each insisted that his original choice was the best. After much debate and considerable delay, one of the parties being obliged to go to his business, relieved himself from a painful detention, and his friends from a perplexing doubt, by saying he believed the com- position he had selected was the best, but, as he could not stop to claim its rights, he would yield them in favor of the second best in the hands of one of his associates. This ended the dispute, and the action in favor of the successful one, was declared to be unanimous :f This only proves how difficult it is to decide ; and in the case just cited, it might well be asked, why should oneof these competi- tors be held up to the multitude to be applauded and admired, EXCITING INTEREST IN STUDY. 117 and the others sent back to their classes covered with the shame of a failure? What principle of justice sanctioned this decision? Nor is this a solitary instance. It rarely happens that the case is perfectly clear. There is usually much perplexity about it; and lience one reason why the decision seldom satisfies the friends of the parties either in the school or at home. But other consider- ations besides the intrinsic merits of the performance are to be taken into account in awarding a prize ; as, 1. A difference in the external facilities which the competitors enjoy for getting the lessons.— One pupil ma^^ be the son of poverty, and be compelled to labor during all the hours out of school; another may be in easy circumstances, and have nothing to prevent giving undivided attention to study during the whole day. One may be the child of parents who have no power to render assistance by way of explaining a difficult point; while the other may have all his doubts removed at once by parental aid. One may never even be encouraged by a kind v^ord at home; another is constantly urged to effort, and perhaps not allowed to be idle. One may have access to no books but his school-manuals; the other nmy have at his command a large librarj^ This differ- ence in circumstances should be taken into the account; but it never can be fully understood by those who are called to decide. 2. The improper means which may hare been employed to secure the prize.— Ambition when aroused is not alwa^' s scrupu- lous of its means. One competitor may be high-minded; may enter the arena determined to succeed by an honorable strife; may resolve to succeed by his own exertions, or to fail rather than bring in anything which is not the fruit of his own study. Another, regardless of honor or principle, resolves only to suc- ceed, whatever it may cost; hesitates not to copy from others if possible, or to apply to a brother in college or some friend in the high school to furnish the difficult solution, prepared to order. One young lady spends days and nights in arranging the glow- ing thoughts for her composition, determined if industry, study, good taste, and a careful application of the rules of rhetoric can effect anything, that her production shall be worthy of a prize. 118 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. Another, in no way distinguished for scholarship, industry, or honor, writes a careless letter to a married sister in a distant city, invoking her aid. In due time the mail brings an elegant essay. It is copied with sufficient accuracy to be read, and at the examination takes the prize ! The fair ^^ authoress'' stands forth and is flattered before the multitude,— is perhaps made to believe that she is worthy of praise; she grasps the golden bauble, and, covered with the blushes of modesty, receives the congratulations and caresses of friends, and is afterwards reputed a good scholar. Her competitors meantime become convinced that effort cannot rival genius; they are mortified to think they have presumed to enter the arena with native talent, and become disheartened as to any future attempt. Now where is the justice in all this proceeding? Yet this is not fiction; it is history! If such abuses— abuses that might well make an angel weep, revealing as they do, that woman's heart can be thus sold to deception— are the accompaniments of a prize system, may we not well doubt the utility of that system? Yet who can know either the different facilities enjoyed by the competitors, or the want of principle in some of them? Who can enter the secret chambers of the mind or the heart, and estimate with any accuracy the just amount of merit in any action ? This is God's prerogative; while "man looketh only on the outward appearance." My inference then is : A system can hardly be safe which is so uncertain. V. The prize rewards success, not effort; talent not WORTH.— Everyone knows that in estimating the value and virtue of an action, the motive which prompted it, and the effort it fiecessarily cost, should be taken into the account. Everyone knows, too, that success in study is by no means a criterion by w'hich to judge of the merits of the scholar. Some learn their lessons with great facility and with but little effort; others study long and patiently without any brilliant results. One competi- tor for a prize may bring results which have cost him midnight toil and the most unremitting perseverence ; another with brighter parts, and with but little labor, is able to surpass him, EXCITING INTEREST IN STUDY. 119 and takes the medal. Now the former deserves in a far higher degree the encouragement of the reward ; yet it is given to him who has the talent but who lacks the industry. The rule of Scripture which announces that "to whom much is given, of him shall much be required,'- is violated, and he is rewarded for pro- ducing but little more than the one to whom little is given. It is often urged by those who advocate a system of prizes and rewards, that God rewards; and therefore it is at least justifiable that we should imitate his example. I admit that God, in his government, does reward ; but he rewards effort rather than suc- cess; he "looketh upon the heart" as man cannot do, and rewards worth, not talent. We might, indeed, imitate his example, if we had less frailty, and were not so liable to be imposed upon by the outward appearance. God indeed rewards men; but he estimates the secret intention, seeing the inward springs of thought before they find expression in words or actions. He regards the motive, and holds out for the encour- agement of the humblest child of earth, who does the best he can, as rich a crown of glory, as he does for those whose outward circumstances, in the eyes of mortals, are more auspicious. When man can as wisely and as righteously bestow' his prizes and rewards, there will be far less objection to their use. VI. The pupil who studies for a prize as his chief motive, will seldom continue to study when the prize is withdrawn.— This is so obvious as scarcely to need illustration. If it be necessary to add anything to the mere statement of the fact, an appeal to almost universal experience would confirm it. A teacher who has depended upon prizes in a school, finds it very difficult to awaken an interest there when he withdraws the prize. Hence many have, on trying the experiment of abandoning the prize system, become discouraged, and have returned again to the use of prizes, believ- ing them essential to their success. Thus the very argument which shows most clearly their pernicious tendency, is made a reason for continuing them. As before hinted, the prize scholars in our academies, and even our colleges, are seldom distinguished men in after-life,— a fact that speaks conclusively on this point. 120 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. But it can scarcely be necessary to spend words to prove a truth almost self-evident. VII. By the prize system, the influence of the good example of some of the best pupils, is lost upon the school.— AW who have taught, know how important this influence is to the success of the school. It tells with resistless power upon the other scholars, wherever it exists, unless some unworthy motive can be assigned for it. But under the prize system, let a teacher appeal to the example of his best scholars, and the reply is, "Oh, yes, he behaves well, or he studies diligently, but he is trying to get the prize.'" With this understanding, his example becomes powerless, unless, indeed, there may be a disposition to be unlike him in everything. It is believed this is a consideration of considerable importance. 1 have thus assigned, at some length, the reasons why I should discountenance, among the incentives of the school, the use of Prizes. As to the use of '^ Rewards,'' when they are made so numerous that everyone who is really deserving may receive one, —and when the basis of their distribution is not talent, not suc- cess merely, but good intention and praiseworthy effort,— I have much less to say. As expressions of the teacher's interest in the children, and of his approval of their well-doing, they may serve a good end. Perhaps there is no very strong objection to them in principle ; though if the teacher subjects himself to the necessary outlay in the purchase of them, it may become burdensome to him. I may add, however, that / do not think rewards are necessary to the teacher's success. 1 should prefer to do without them. It is possible to produce such a feeling in the schoolroom, that the approving conscience of the child, and the commenda- tory smile of the teacher, shall be the richest of all rewards. These come without money and without price, and may always be freely and safely bestowed, wherever there is a good intention exhibited by the child. That is the most healthy state of things where these are most prized. As children whose parents begin earl}^ to hire them to do their duty, are seldom ready afterwards to render their cheerful service as an act of filial obligation, when- EXCITING INTEREST IN STUDY. 121 ever the pay is withheld,— so children at school, who have been accustomed to expect a reward, seldom pursue their studies as cheerfully when that expectation is cut off. SECTION III.— PROPER INCENTIVES. In what has already been said, it has been more than hinted that there are higher attributes than emulation, which the teacher should address, and which, if he is successful in calling them into exercise, will be quite sufficient to insure the proper application of his pupils to their studies. They have the merit, moreover, of being* safe. They do not unduly stimulate the intellectual, at the expense of the moral faculties. Their very exercise constitutes a healthy growth of the moral nature. Some of these I may briefly allude to. I. A DESIRE TO GAIN THE APPROBATION OF THEIR PARENTS AND TEACHER.— The love of approbation is as universal in the human mind as emulation. Not one in a thousand can be found who does not possess it. AVithin proper limits, it is a desirable trait in human character. It is, to be sure, one of the selfish propen- sities; but among them all, it is the most innocent. Carried to an extreme, it would lead its possessor to crave the good opinion of the bad as well as of the good, and to become an obsequious seeker after popularity. This, of course, is to be deprecated. But there can be no danger of this extreme, as long as the approba- tion of parents and teachers is the object aimed at. It implies in the child a respect for the opinions, and a confidence in the justice of his parents and teachers; and hence it implies in him a generous desire to please, as a condition of being commended by them. In this sense, the love of approbation may be appealed to by the teacher. He perhaps need not frequently use the language of praise. It will generally be sufficient, if the smile of approval beams forth in his countenance. If he is judicious as well as just, this boon soon becomes a precious one to the child. It is a reward, moreover, which "Is twice blest; It blesseth him who gives and him who takes." 122 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. II. A DESIRE OF ADVANCEMENT.— This is emulation in its good sense. It leads the child, as before remarked, to compare his present standing and attainments with what they should be, and to desire to surpass himself. This is ever commendable. Man was made for progress; and it is no unworthy aspiration, when this desire fires the youthful breast. The teacher, then, may appeal to this desire, may kindle it into a flame even, with safety, — because it is a flame that w^arms without consuming that on which it feeds. III. A DESIRE TO BE USEFUL.— The good teacher should never fail to impress upon the child that the object of his being placed on earth, was that he might be of some use to the world by which he is surrounded. " No man liveth to himself, and no man dieth to himself." He can be thus useful by storing the mind with knowledge and the heart with right affections. He may be reminded of the connection between his present studies, and the pursuits of life to which they may be applied. Some judicious hint at the future application of any branch is always a good preparation of the mind to pursue it. If there is a definite object in view, there will always be more alacrity in the labor of study; and this may be made to influence the young pupil as well as the more advanced. It is no small thing for the child if he can be early made to feel that he is living to some purpose. IV. A DESIRE TO DO RIGHT.— Tliis, in othcr words, is a disposition to obey conscience by conforming to the will of God. This indeed is the highest and holiest of all the motives to human action. In its fullest sense it constitutes the fundamental principle of a re- ligious character. The teacher should most assiduously^ cultivate in the child a regard for this principle. God has implanted the conscience in every child of earth, that it should early be made use of to regulate the conduct. That teacher is either grossly ignorant or madly perverse, who disregards the conscience, while he appeals alone to the selfishness of the young, and thus practi- cally teaches that moral obligation is a nullity; that the law of God — so beautifully expounded by tlie Savior— "Thou shalt EXCITING INTEREST IN STUDY. 123 love the Lord thy God with all thy heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy mind," and "Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself "—is of little consequence; and that the injunction of the apostle — "Whether ye eat or drink, or whatsoever ye do, do all to the glory of God," is as good as obsolete. In early childhood the conscience is most active. It needs, to be sure, at that period to be enlightened ; but if the teachings of Revelation are made plain to the child, he seldom disregards them. The teacher has at this period very much to do, as I have before said, in the chapter on Responsibility of Teachers; and he cannot neglect his duty without the most aggravated culpabil- ity. The point I urge here, is, that he should use these motives as incentives to study. The child can be made to feel that he owes the most diligent efforts for improvement to his teacher, who daily labors for his improvement; to his parents, who have kindly supplied his wants, and have provided the means for his cultivation; to society, whose privileges he may enjoy and to which he is bound to make a return by becoming an intelligent and useful member of it; to himself, as a rational and immortal being, capable of unbounded enjoyment or untold misery, just in proportion as he prepares himself for either; and above all to his Creator, by whose bounty he lives, surrounded with friends and blessed with opportunities, which are denied to millions of his fel- low-beings,— by whose gracious providence he has been endowed with faculties and capabilities making him but little lower than the angels, and which he is bound to cultivate for usefulness and for Heaven, — by whose mercy he has been supplied, as millions have not, with the word of God, to guide his mind to things above, and with the influences of Christian society, to cheer him in his path to Heaven; — above all, I repeat, should the child be taught to feel that he owes to God his best efforts to make the most of all his powers for time and eternity. If this can be done (and I believe to a. great extent it can be done), there will be no need of a resort to those questionable incentives found in exciting children to outstrip their fellows by prizes and rewards; while in this very process the foundation of a good moral training will be 124 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. < laid, without which the perfect structure of a noble character can never be reared in later life. To the motives already alluded to, if it be necessary to add another, 1 would urge, V. The pleasure of acquisition.— This is often underrated by teachers. Our Creator has not more universally bestowed a natural appetite for the food which is necessary for the growth of the body, than he has a mental longing for the food of the mind ; and as he has superadded a sensation of pleasure to the neces- sary act of eating, so he has made it a law of the mind to expe- rience its highest delight while in the act of receiving the mental aliment. Whoever has observed childhood with an attentive eye, must have been impressed with the wisdom of God in this arrange- ment. How much the child acquires within the first three years after its birth! He learns a difficult language with more pre- cision than a well-educated adult foreigner could learn it in the same time; yet language is not his only or his chief study. Daring these same three years, he makes surprising advances in general knowledge. He seeks an intimate acquaintance with all the physical objects by which he is surrounded. The size, form, color, weight, temperature, and use of each are investigated by the test of his own senses, or ascertained by innumerable inquiries. His ideas of height and distance, of light and heat, of motion and velocity, of cause and effect, are all well defined. He has made no mean attainments in morals. He comprehends the law of right and wrong, so that his decisions may well put to the blush his superiors in age; and unless grossly neglected, he has learned the duty of obedience to parents and reverence towards God. Now all this amazing progress has been made, because of the irrepressible curiosity with which God has endowed him, and the unspeakable delight he experiences in acquiring the knowl- edge which gratifies it. All must have noticed the delight with wiiich the child grasps a new idea; but few have been able so eloquently to describe it, as it is done by Mr. Mann. "Mark a child," says he, "when a clear, well-defined vivid conception seizes it. The whole nervous EXCITING INTEREST IN STUDY. 125 tissue vibrates. Every muscle leaps. Every joint plays. The face becomes auroral. The spirit flashes through the body like lightning through a cloud." " Observe, too, the blind, the deaf, and the dumb. So strong is their inborn desire for knowledge,— such are the amazing attractive forces of their minds for it, that although the nat- ural inlets, the eye and the ear, are closed, yet they will draw it inward, through the solid walls and encasements of the body. If the eye be curtained with darkness, it will enter through the ear. If the ear be closed in silence, it will ascend along the nerves of touch. Every new idea that enters into the presence of the sovereign mind, carries offerings of delight with it, to make its coming welcome. Indeed, our Maker created us in blank ignor- ance, for the very purpose of giving us the boundless, endless pleasure of learning new things." It is, of course, not to be expected that the same degree of pleasure will attend the learner in every acquisition as the novelty diminishes, and as he advances in age. The bodily appe- tite is less keen in after-life than in childhood, so that the adult may never realize again to the full extent the delicious flavors which regaled him in his earliest years. Still there will ever be a delight in acquisition; and to carry our illustration a little further,— as the child is soonest cloyed whose stomach is surfeited with dainties, and stimulated with condiments, and pampered with sweetmeats, till his taste has lost its acumen and digestion becomes a burden; so the mental appetite is soonest destroyed, when, under the unskillful teacher, it is overloaded with what it can neither digest nor disgorge. The mind may be surfeited; and then no wonder if it loathes even the wholesome aliment. Arti- ficial stimulants, in the shape of prizes, and honors, and flattery, and fear, and shame, may have impaired its functions, so that it ceases to act except under their excitement. But all must see that these are unnatural conditions, superinduced by erroneous treatment. There is still a delight in acquisition, just as soon as the faculties are aroused to the effort; and the skillful teacher will strive to wake up the mind to find this delight,— and if he 126 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. understands bis ^vork, he will scarcely need a stronger incentive. If he understands the secret of giving just so much instruction as to excite the learner's curiosity, and then to leave him to discover and acquire for himself, he will have no necessity to use any other means as stimulants to exertion. To this might be added that irrepressible curiosity, that all- pervading desire to know, which is found in the mind of every child. The mind, as if conscious of its high destiny, instinctively spreads its unfledged wings in pursuit of knowledge. This, with some children, is an all-sufficient stimulant to the most vigorous exertion. To this the teacher may safely appeal. Indeed, it is a convincing proof of the wisdom as well as the goodness of God, that this desire to know, as well as the delight of acquisition, are the most active at that early period of childhood, when a Just appreciation of the utility of knowledge, and the higher motives already detailed, could scarcely find a lodgment in the tender mind. It seems to be, therefore, an indisputable dictate of our very nature, that both these principles should be early employed as incentives. If, then, the desire of the approval of parents and teachers,— the desireof advancement,— the desire to he useful,— and the desire to do right, can be superadded to the natural lofe in the child for acquisition, and a natural desire to know, there will, as I believe, be but little occasion to look further for incentives to exertion in the pupil; and I may venture to add, as a scholium to what has already been said, that the teacher who has not yet learned to call into exercise these higher motives, and to rely for success mainly upon them, and who dares not abandon the system of exciting stimulants for fear of a failure, has yet much to learn as a true educator of the young. CHAPTER IX. SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. It is not necessary that an^^ space in this work should be occupied in speaking of the importance of order in our schools. Everybody who has written or spoken on this subject, has con- ceded the necessity of obedience on the part of the pupil. '' Order IS heaven's first law ; " and it is scarcely more essential to the harmony of heaven, than it is to the happiness and success of the school. If such be the necessity of order in the school, then the ability to secure and maintain it is no mean part of the qualification of the good teacher. It is lamentable that so many fail in this par- ticular; and yet this frequent failure can in most cases be traced to some defect in the constitutional temperament, or some defi- ciency in the mental or moral culture of the teacher himself. It shall be my first object, then, to point out some of the SECTION I.— REQUISITES IN THE TEACHER FOR GOOD GOVERNMENT. I. Self-government.— It has frequently been said that no man can govern others till he has learned to govern himself. I have no doubt of the truth of this. If an individual is not per- fectly self-possessed, his decisions must fail to command respect. The self-government of the teacher should be complete, in the following particulars : 1. As to the passion of anger.— The exhibition of anger always detracts from the weight of authority. A man under its influence is not capable of doing strict justice to his pupils. Before enter- ing upon teaching, therefore, a man should somehow obtain the mastery over his temper, so that under any provocation he can control it. He should consider that in school his patience will (127) 128 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. often be severely tried. He should not expect, indeed, that thecur- rent of affairs in school will for a single day run perfectly smooth. He should, therefore, prepare for the worst, and firmly resolve that, whatever unpleasant thing shall occur, it shall not take him entirely by surprise. Such forethought will give him self-com- mand. If, however, from his past experience, and from the nature of his temperament, he is satisfied he cannot exercise this self-control, he may be assured he is the wrong man to engage in teaching. A man who has not acquired thorough ascendancy over his own passions, is an unsafe man to be intrusted with the government of children. 2. As to levity and nioroseness of manner. — Either extreme is to be avoided. There are some teachers who exhibit such a frivolity in all their intercourse with their pupils, that they can never command them with authority, or gain their cordial respect. This is a grievous fault; and the teacher should at once find an antidote for it, by serious reflection upon the responsibil- ity of his position. If this will not cure it, nothing else can. There are others who are characterized hy sl perpetual peevish- ness, so that a pleasant word from them is indeed a strange thing. They can never expect to gain the affections of their pupils; and without securing the loveoi children, the government of them will never be of the right kind. This habit of snappish- ness should be broken up at once. There are some very young teachers, who sometimes assume one or the other of these peculiar modes of address, or perhaps both, to be used alternately,— fancying that they will gain popu- larity by the one, or give themselves greater authority by the other. This is a very mistaken notion; for children have more discernment than most men give them credit for, and they usually see directly through such a flimsy disguise,— and the teacher becomes ridiculous rather than great in their estima- tion, whenever he takes any such false position. Mr. Abbot, in his "Teacher," states a fact which well illus- trates this point. "Many years ago," says he, "when I was a child, the teacher of the school where my early studies were per- SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 129 formed, closed his connection with the establishment, and. after a short vacation, another was expected. On the appointed day the boys began to collect, some from curiosity, at an early honr, and many speculations were started as to the character of the new instructor. We were standing near a table with our hats on,— and our position, and the exact appearance of the group is indelibly fixed on ni}^ memory,— wdien a small and youthful look- ing man entered the room and walked up towards us. Supposing him to be some stranger, or rather, not making any supposition at all, we stood looking at him as he approached, and were thunder-struck at hearing him accost us with a stern voice, and sterner brow:— 'Take off your hats! Take off your hats, and go to your seats.' The conviction immediately rushed upon our minds that this must be the new teacher. The first emotion was that of surprise, and the second was that of the ludicrous; though I believe we contrived to smother the laugh until we got out into the open air." The true rule is to act the part which is agreeable to nature. The teacher having gained the self-command just insisted upon, and having in him the spirit of kindness and a desire to be useful, should assume nothing unnatural for effect. His manner should be truly dignified, but courteous. 3. As to his treatment of those pupils that are marked by some peculiarity.— There w^iW usually be some pupils who are very backward, and perhaps very dull,— or who may have some phj^s- ical defect, or some mental eccentricity. The teacher should be able to govern himself in all his remarks concerning such pupils. He should avoid all allusion to such singularities before the school; and it is the height of injustice — I was about tasayof malevolence— for him ever to use those low and degrading epi- thets so often found upon the teacher's tongue,— such as dunce, thickskull, and the like. Is it not misfortune enough for a child to be backward or dull, without having the pain and mortifi- cation increased by the cruelty of an unfeeling teacher? The teacher should take a special interest in such children; he should endeavor to enter into the feehngs of their parents, and T. p.— 9 130 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. to treat them in such a way as to encourage rather than crush them. II. A CONFIDENCE IN HIS ABILITY TO GOVERN.— We cau generally do what we firml3' believe we can do. At any rate, a man is more likely to succeed in any enterprise, when he has the feeling of self- reliance. The teacher, by reflection upon the importance of good government to his success, and by a careful study of the means to be employed and the motives to be presented, should be able to bring himself to the determination to have good order in his school, and so fully to believe he can have it, that his pupils shall detect no misgivings in him on this point. Whenever they dis- cover that he has doubts of his success in governing, they will be far more ready to put his skill to the test. It would be better that a young teacher should decline to take a difficult school, rather than enter it without the full belief of his ability' to suc- ceed. I would not wish to be understood by these remarks to be encouraging an unreasonable and blind presumption. A con- fidence in one's ability should be founded upon a reasonable estinmte of his powers, compared with the difficulties to be over- come. What I recommend is that the teacher should carefully weigh the difficulties, and candidly judge of his own resources, and then undertake nothing which he thinks is beyond his abil- ity. If, after this, he believes he can succeed, other things being equal, success is almost certain. III. Just views of government.— 1. It is not tyranny, exer- cised to please the one who governs, or to promote his own con- venience. The despot commands for the sake of being obeyed. But government in its proper sense, is an arrangement for the gen- eral good,— for the benefit of the governed as well as of the ruler. That is not good judgment which seeks any other object. The teacher should so view the matter; and in establishing any regu- lations in school, he should always inquire whether they are sug- gested by a selfish regard to his own ease, or whether they spring from a sincere and disinterested wish to promote the improve- ment of the school. 2. He should see the necessity of making the government SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 131 uniform: that is, the same from day to day. If he punishes to-day what he tolerates to-morrow, he cannot expect the cordial respect of his pupils. Some teachers, not having- learned the art of self- government, take counsel too much of their own feelings. To-day they are in good health and spirits, and their faces are clothed in sunshine; they can smile at anj^thing. To-morrow, suffering under bad digestion, or the want of exercise, or the want of sleep, the thunder-storm hovers about their brow, readj^ to burst upon the first offender. Woe to the luckless wight who does not season- ably discover this change in the condition of the weather. A teacher cannot long respect himself who is thus capricious; he may be sure his school will not long respect him. 3. He should so view government as to make it equal ; that is, equal in its application to the whole school,— the large as well as small scholars, the males as well as females. This is often a great fault with teachers. They raise up a sort of aristocracy in their schools, a privileged class, a miniature nobility. They will insist that the little boys and girls shall abstain from certain practices,— whispering, for instance,— and most promptl}' punish the offenders, while the^^ tolerate the same thing among the larger pupils. This is cowardly in itself, and as impolitic as it is cow^ardly. The teacher makes a great mistake who begins his government with the small children, in the hope of frightening the larger ones into obedience. He should have the manliness and the justice to begin with the larger pupils; the smaller ones never resist, when authority is established with those above them. Besides this, the very class who are thus indulged, are the very ones w^ho soonest despise, and justly too, the authority of the teacher. He should make his government impartial in every respect. He should have no favorites — no preferences, based upon the outward circumstances of the child, his family, or his personal attractions, and the like. The rich and the poor should be alike to the teacher. He should remember that each child has a soul ; and it is with the soul, and not with the wealth of this world, that he has to do. He should remember that a gem, as bright 132 PAGE'S THEORY AXD PRACTICE. as a sunbeam, is often concealed under a rough exterior. It should be his work, nay his delight — to bring out this gem from its hiding-place, and apply to it the polish of a "workman that needeth not to be ashamed." IV. Just views of the goveened.— Notwithstanding the imperfection of human nature, as developed in the young, they have some redeeming qualities. They are intelligent and reason- able beings. They have more or less love of approbation ; they have affection, and, above all, they have a moral sense. All these qualities are considerably developed before they enter the school. The teacher should remember this, and prepare himself to address, as far as may be, all these. Love of approbation, as we have before seen, is not an unworthy motive to be addressed, and it is well known that many children are very easily controlled by it. It is not the highest motive, to be sure, nor is it the low- est. The affection for a teacher, which many children will exer- cise, is one of the most powerful instrumentalities in governing them with ease. The conscience, early trained, is all-powerful. I allude to these principles of action once more, in order to say that the peculiar character of each should be well studied by the teacher. He should understand the human mind so well as to be able to find the avenues to these better parts of the child's nature, remembering that whenever several ways are presented of doing the same thing, it is always wise to choose the best. V. Decision and firmness.— By decision, I mean a readiness to determine and to act in any event just as duty seems to dic- tate; a willingness to take the responsibihty just as soon as the way is plain. By firmness, is meant that fixedness of purpose which resolutely carries out a righteous decision. Both of these qualities are essential to good government in the teacher. Much time is often lost by a teacher's vacillating when action is more important. Besides, if the pupils discover that the teacher hesi- tates, and dreads to take any responsibility, they very soon lose their respect for him. I would not urge that a teacher should act liastily. He never should decide till he is confident he decides right ; any delay is better than hasty error. But his delay, in all SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 133 matters of government, should have reference to a true knowl- edge of his duty; when that is clearly known, he should be decided. Man}^ teachers suffer in their government, for want of firmness. They act upon the principle of personal convenience, as did the unjust judge mentioned in the parable. "And he would not for awhile ; but afterwards he said within himself. Though I fear not God nor regard man ; yet because this widow troubleth me, I will arise and avenge her, lest by her continual coming she weary me." How often we hear something like this in the schoolroom. ^' May I go and drink? "—says James, in a peculiarly imploring tone. "No,'' says the teacher, promptlj^, and evidently without any reflection as to the decision he has made. James very com- posedly sits dow^n, eyeing the countenance of the teacher expres- sively, as m.uch as to say, " I'll try you again soon." Before long he observes the teacher quite busy with a class, and he again pops the question: "May I go and drink?" Stung at the moment with impatience at the interruption, the teacher answers instantly and emphatically, "No, no, James, sit down." James still watches his teacher's expression, and cannot discover there any signs of a mind seeking the path of duty, and he silently thinks to himself, " The third time never fails." So, after a min- ute or two, when the teacher is somewhat puzzled with a knotty question, and is on the point of nibbing a pen besides, — "Mayl go and drink, Sir?'- again rings upon the teacher's ears. " Yes, yes, yes! do go along; I suppose you'll keep asking till you get it." Now^ James goes to drink, and then returns to philosophize upon this matter, perhaps as follows: — "! don't believe he stopped to think whether I needed drink or not; therefore, here- after I shall never believe he really means 720, when he says it. He acts without thought. I have also found that if I will but ask several times, I shall get it. So I shall know how to proceed next time."— I do not know that any child w^ould express this thought in so many words; but the impression upon his mind is none the less distinct. 134 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. Now the teacher should carefully consider the question addressed to him. How long since this child had water? Can it be necessary for him to drink so often? Then let the answer be given mildly, but decidedly — "No, James." The very man- ner, quite likely, will settle the question, so that James will not ask again. The answer once given should be firmly adhered to. It would even be better that James should suffer for the want of water than for the want of confidence in his teacher's firmness. In this way the teacher would establish his word with the school in a very few days; and his pupils would soon learn that with him "no means no," and "yes means yes" — a matter of no small importance to the teacher of a school. VI. Deep moral principle. — The teacher should ever be a conscientious man ; and in nothing is this more necessary than in the exercise of good government. In this matter the teacher can never respect himself when he acts from caprice or selfishness. His inquiry should be. What is right? What is justice — justice to my pupils — to myself? And if he could add to moral obliga- tion the high sanctions of religious principle, and could habit- ually and sincerely turn his thoughts to his Maker, with the heartfelt inquiry— what wilt thou have me to do? — then he would seldom err in the discharge of this trust. His pupils, seeing that he acted from fixed and deep principle, would respect his honesty, even if he should cross^ their desires. Having now dwelt at some length upon the requisites in the teacher for good government, I shall next proceed to present some of the SECTION II.— MEANS OF SECURING GOOD ORDER. I. Be careful as to the first impression you make.— It is an old proverb, that "what is well begun is half done." This holds true in school-keeping, and particularly in school-government. The young study character very speedily and very accurately. Per- haps no one pupil could express in words an exact estimate of a teacher's character after a week's acquaintance; but yet the whole school has received an impression which is not far from the SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 135 truth. A teacher, then, is very unwise who attempts to assume to be anything which he is not. He should ever be frank; and in commencing- a school he should begin as he can hold out. Any assumption of an authoritative tone is especially ill-judged. The pupils at once put themselves in an attitude of resistance when this is perceived by them . A teacher should ever remember that among children— how- ever it may be among adults— I'e.sp^^c^ always precedes attach- ment. If he would gain the love of the children, he must first be worthy of their respect. He should therefore act deliberately, and always conscientiously. He should be firm but never petulant. It is very important at the outset that he should be truly cour- teous and affable. It is much wiser to request than to command, at least until the request has been disregarded. There are usually two ways of doing a thing,— a gentle and a rough way. '' John, go and shut that door," in a gruff tone, is oneway to have a door closed. John will undoubtedly go and shutthe door— perhaps with a slam, — but he will not thank the teacher for the rough tones used in commanding it. Now it costs no more time or breath to say, "John, I'll thank you if 3^ou will shut that door.*' Most cheer- fully will John comply with the request, and he is grateful that he has heard these tones of kindness. If he could but know the teacher's wishes afterward, he would gladly perform them unasked. I would by no means recommend the adoption of the fawning tone of the sycophant, by the teacher. He should be manly and dignified; but the language of that courtesy which springs from real kindness, and which ever becomes the gentle- man, is always the most suitable as well as most expedient for him. II. Avoid exhibiting or entertaining a suspicious spirit.— It is a maxim of law, that one charged with crime, is always to be presumed innocent until proved guilty. This should be a maxim with the teacher who would govern well. There is no more direct way of making a school vicious, than by showing them that you suspect they are so. A good reputation is dear to all ; and even a bad boy will be restrained from wicked acts as 136 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. long as be thinks you give bim credit for good intentions. But if be finds tliat be bas lost your good opinion, be feels tbat be lias notbing furtber to lose by being as bad as you suspect bim to be. A teacber is wise, therefore, if be tries to see something good even in a vicious pupil. It may be, as it often bas been, the means of saving such a pupil. I have known a very depraved boy entirely reformed in school, by his teacher's letting him know that he had noticed some good traits in his character. He afterwards told his teacher that "he had been so often suspected to be a villain, that he had almost come to the conclusion that he would be one; but that, when be found one man who could do bim the justice to give bim credit for a few good feelings— (for be knew he had them) — be at once determined to show that man tbat his confi- dence had not been misplaced; and that be would sooner die than knowingly offend the only person who ever had understood bim." It is wise sometimes, not onl^' to withhold the expression of suspicion, but to give some token of your confidence to the pupil who is troublesome. Intrust bim with some errand involving responsibility, or assign to bim some duty by way of assistance to yourself, and very likely you will gain his good will ever after. This is founded upon the well-known principle in human nature acted upon by Dr. Franklin, who, when be would gain bis enemy, asked bim to do him a favor. III. As SOON AS POSSIBLE GIVE REGULAR AND FULL EMPLOY- MENT.— It is an old proverb that "idleness is the mother of mis- chief." The nursery hymn also contains a living truth — "And Satan finds some mischief still For idle hands to do." It is the law of a child's nature to be active; and as the' teacber is placed in the school to give direction to such minds, he can hardly complain of their going upon forbidden objects unless he seasonably provides something better for them to do. Very early, then, the teacber should endeavor to classify his school and furnish constant and full employment — either of study, recitation, or relaxation— for every hour in the da3\ The SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 137 teacher should have a plan when he opens the school, and the sooner it is carried into full operation the better.* Besides, when a teacher has given employment, he has a right to insist upon the pupil being engaged in study. Nobody will question this right; and it is far more profitable to require a positive duty than to enjoin a negative,— such as abstinence from whispering or from mischief in general. ly. Make but few rules.— It is a very common thing for teachers to embarrass themselves by a long code of requirements and prohibitions. Some go so far as to write out a system of laws, and, annexing to each the penalty for its infringement, post them up in a conspicuous place in the schoolroom. Others con- tent themselves with a verbal announcement of them, and rely upon the memories of the pupils to retain the details of them and to govern themselves accordingly. This, it seems to me is a great mistake. The multiplicit}^ of specific rules for the government of a school, will naturally lead to a multiplicity of offenses. Children will be confused by the varying and sometimes conflicting demands of a formidable code of regulations, and in endeavoring to avoid Scylla will be likely to fall into Charybdis. It is believed by some honest statesmen that "the world has been governed too much;" and it is often alleged in support of this belief that successful compliance with the laws requires far more wisdom than was displayed in making them ; that is, the science of obe- dience is far more abstruse than the science of legislation! Whether this be true in the civil world or not, I shall not attempt to decide ; I will only say that such has too often been the fact in ,the schoolroom. It is in my opinion the part of wisdom, and I think also the teaching of experience, that it is best to make but few rules. The great rule of duty, quoted once before, "Do unto others as you would that they should do to you," comprises quite enough to begin with. The direction— Do right, is a very comprehensive one. There is in children an ability to distinguish between right and wrong, upon which the teacher may ever rely; and by insist- * See Chapter X of this work. 138 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. ing upon this as the standard, he daily brings into exercise the conscience of the child, who is called upon to decide, is this right? Besides, if a school is to be governed by a code of laws, the pupils will act upon the principle that whatever is not proscribed is admissible. Consequently without inquiring whether an act is right, their only inquiry will be, is it forbidden ? Now no teacher was ever yet so wise as to make laws for every case; the conse- quence is, he is daily perplexed with unforeseen troubles, or with some ingenious evasions of his inflexible code. In all this matter the worst feature is the fact, that the child judges of his acts by the law of the teacher rather than by the law of his conscience^ and is thus in danger of perverting and blunting the moral sense. To this it may be added that the teacher will often find himself very much perplexed in attempting to judge the acts of his pupils by fixed laws, and in awarding to all violations of them a prescribed penalty. Cases will frequently occur in which two scholars will offend against a given prohibition, with altogether different intentions,— the one having a good motive and forget- ting the law; the other with the law in his mind and having a wicked design to violate it. Now the written code with its pre- scribed penalty allows the teacher no discretion. He must main- tain his law and punish both offenders, and thus violate his own sense of justice; or he must pass both by, and thus violate his word. He cannot excuse the one and punish the other, as justice would evidently demand, without setting at naught his own laws. An example will illustrate this point. A teacher has made a rule that "any child who whispers without leave shall be fer- uled.'' Now two Httle boys sit side by side. William is an ami- able, obedient, and diligent little boy, who has never violated intentionally any wish of his teacher; while Charles is a sour- tempered, vicious, unprincipled fellow, who a dozen times within a week has sought to make his teacher trouble. Little John, who sits near to William, drops his pencil, and it falls under William's desk. John looks for his pencil on the right and left of his seat, grows anxious and perplexed. William has noticed him, and he carefully picks up the pencil, while he perhaps is looking for it in SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 139 another direction, — and with the kind intention of reheving his neighbor's anxiety and restoring his property, he touclies his elbow, and softly whispers, "Here is yonr pencil, John,'' — then immediately resumes his own studies, and is probably entirely unconscious that he has violated any law. At the same instant the artful Charles, half concealing his face with his hand, with his wary eye turned to the teacher, wdllfully addresses another pupil on some point in no way connected with study or duty. The teacher sees both these cases, and calls the offenders to his desk. The one trembles, and wonders w^hat he has done amiss, while the other perhaps prepares himself to deny his offense, and thus to add falsehood to his other sins. The rule awards to both the ferule. It is applied to Charles with energy, and with the convic- tion that he deserves it; but I ask, can a man with any sense of justice raise his hand to punish William. If so, I see not how he can ever again hold converse with his own conscience. Yet the rule allows him no discretion. He must violate either the rule or his conscience; and too of ten in such cases he chooses the latter alternative. Now my advice is, make but few rules, and never multiply them till circumstances demand it. The rule of right will usually be sufficient without any special legislation; and it has this advantage, that it leaves the teacher the largest discretion. I have been thus full on this point, because so many fail here, and especially young teachers. It has cost many a young teacher much bitter experience to make this discovery for him- self, and I have desired to save others who may hereafter engage in teaching, the pain and perplexity which they may so easily and so safely avoid. For similar reasons, I should also urge that the teacher should avoid the too common practice of threatening in his school. Threatening is usually resorted to as a means of frightening chil- dren into their duty, —and, too often, threats are made without any expectation of a speedy necessity either to execute or disre- gard them. The consequence is, they are usually more extrava- gant than the reality, and the teacher's word soon passes at a 140 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. discount ; his threats are viewed as very much like the barking of a dog who has no intention to bite. As threatening- is moreover the language of impatience, it almost always leads to a loss of respect. V. Wake up mind in the school, and in the district. — There is usually but very little trouble in government where the schol- ars are deeply engaged in their studies or school exercises, and especially if at the same time the feelings of the parents are enlisted. To this end I would recommend that early attention should be given to some efforts to wake up mind, such as have been described in a former section of this work. It will be found, when skillfully conducted, one of the most successful instrumen- talities in aid of good order and good feeling in the school. An ingenious teacher, too, may introduce other varieties into the school exercises, and thus sometimes turn the attention of discontented pupils from some evil design to give him trouble. So long as the teacher keeps steadily the main object of his school in view, namely, progress in the studies, he is excusable if occa- sionally, to break up monotony and excite a deeper interest, he introduces a well-considered new plan of study or of recitation. Indeed, much of his success will depend upon his power to do this, and in nothing will its advantages appear more obviously than in the government of the school. A great portion of the disorder and insubordination in our schools, has its origin in a want of interest in the school exercises. He is the successful teacher, and the successful disciplinarian who can excite and maintain the necessary interest. As one of these varieties, I may mention the exercise of vocal music in school. I have already alluded to it. As a means of keeping alive the interest in a school, it is very important. Music is the language of the heart, and though capable of being grossly perverted (and what gift of God is not?) — its natural tendency is to elevate the affections, to soothe the passions, and to refine the taste. <' The Germans have a proverb," says Bishop Potter, "which has come down from the davs of Luther, that where music is not SCHOOL GOVERyMLXT. 141 the devil enters. As David took his harp, when he would cause the evil spirit to depart from Saul, so the Germans employ it to expel the obduracy from the hearts of the depraved. In their schools for the reformation of juvenile offenders (and the same remark might be applied to those of our own country), music has been found one of the most effectual means of inducing docility among the stubborn and vicious. It would seem that so long as any remains of humanity linger in the heart, it retains its sus- ceptibility to music. And as proof that music is more powerful for good than for evil, is it not worthy of profound consideration that, in all the intimations which the Bible gives us of a future w^orld, music is associated only with the employments and happi- ness of Heaven?" Almost any teacher can introduce music into his school; because if he cannot sing, he will always find that it will only require a little encouragement to induce the scholars to under- take to conduct it themselves. It will consume but very little time, and it is always that time which, if not employed in sing- ing would otherwise be unemplo^^ed or misemployed. It is the united testimony of all who have judiciously introduced sing- ing into their schools, that it is among the best instrumental- ities for the promotion of good feeling and good order. VI. Visit the pareiNts of your scholars.— I shall more particularly enjoin this, when I speak of the teacher's relation to his patrons [chap, xi.], but I cannot forbear in this place to urge it upon the teacher as one of the means of securing good order in school. A great deal of the insubordination in our schools, arises from some misunderstanding, or some dislike entertained by the parent towards the teacher, and spoken of in the presence of the children. Whatever the pupils hear at home, they will be likely to exemplify in school. It should be the teacher's first object to become acquainted with the parent, and to let him understand, by a personal interview, all his plans and aims for the improvement of the school. This can be done best at the parent's own fireside. It has often happened, that by a friendly visit of an hour by the teacher, the parent's heart has been 142 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. softened, his prejudices removed, his co-operation gained, and the cheerful and cordial obedience of his children in school secured. These visits should of course be made in the true spirit of the teacher. They should be made in the honest desire of his heart to render his labors more successful. A visit made in such a spirit seldom fails to make the parents personal friends ever after; and of course, in case of a collision afterwards between him and their children, this is a very important point. VII. Registeks of credits.— Registers of the standing of pupils in their schools and their classes, are very highly recom- mended by some, whose experience is entitled to confidence. I am inclined to place this among the means of securing good order. I would recommend, however, that they should be registers of credits only. Some recommend the use of ''hlack marks,'' that is, the record of prominent faults and perhaps of punishments. My own experience teaches me that this is unwise. The teacher should not show a willingness to record and publish the faults of a pupil. He should, on the contrary, show a tender regard for his reputation. Besides, the child is less likely to be mindful of his duty, when his reputation is already blackened by his teacher. If registers are to be kept at all, they should record the successes and virtues of the child rather than his failures and faults. And if, at the end of a week or a month, he is furnished with an abstract for the inspection of his parents, let it be so much of good character as he has earned for himself during the specified time. I confess I am less sanguine than many others as to the utility of the register, either as an incentive to obedience or diligence; but if used at all, I think the above restriction is highly impor- tant. YHI. Avoid governing too much.— By this I would be under- stood to urge upon the teacher the fact that his main business in school is instruction and not government. Government is a means and not the end of school-keeping. A very judicious and practical teacher— Mr. R. S. Howard — has well remarked: "The SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 143 real object to be accomplished, the real end to be obtained in school, is to assist the pupil in acquiring knowledge — to educate the mind and heart. To effect this, good order is very necessary. But when order is made to take the place of industry, and disci- pline the place of instruction, where the time of both teacher and pupils is mostly spent in w^atching each other, very little good will be accomplished." It is a mistake that many teachers fall into, that they seem to regard government as their chief occupation; and, as we should naturally expect in such cases, it is often very poorly exercised. That is not the best government which is maintained as a mat- ter of formal business. The noiseless under-current is far more efficient. I have always noticed that men govern best when they do not seem to govern; and those who make most effort and bustle about it themselves, are pretty sure to have the most boisterous schools. I once in company with a friend officially visited a school where the teacher, a man of strong frame — six feet high, and with lungs in proportion.— was laboring to keep order. Every word he uttered was in a stentorian voice which would have been painful to the pupils in a quiet room ; hence, they took care to keep up a constant clattering of books, slates, and rulers, mingled with the constant hum of their own voices, as if for self-defense. It seemed to be a mighty effort of eac^h party to rise if possible above the noise of the other. "Silence! Order! I say," was constantly ejaculated in a voice that was almost sufficient, as Shakspeare's Hamlet would say, " to split the ears of the groundlings." One of the most ludicrous scenes I ever witnessed, occurred in this school during an exercise in English grammar. The class occupied the back seats, while the teacher stood b^^ the desk in front of the school. The children between the teacher and his class were variously einployed,— some manufacturing paper fly- boxes, some whittling the benches — (it was in New England); some were trying their skill at a spit-ball warfare; others were making voyages of exploration beneath the seats. The school, consisting of some seventy pupils, were as busy as the occupants 144 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. of an ant-hill. The sentence to be parsed was, "A good boy loves study." No written description can present the scene as it was acted in real life. It should be borne in mind that every word spoken by the teacher, whether to the class or to the school, was in a tone of voice which might have been heard at least an eighth of a mile, and that every exclamation was accompanied by several ener- getic thumps of a large oaken '^rule'' upon the lid of his desk. The language of the teacher is in italics. '' Mary, parse .4." "A is an indefinite "— " Silence! Order there! "— '' article, and is pre- fixed to" — "/o727j/"— "No, sir, it is prefixed to^'—'' Martha, Martha! sit up"— "it is prefixed to— boy."— "i?7^/z^."—" (rood, 72ext." — " Good is an adjective," — " Or^ier, Order, Order!'' — thump, thump, thump!— "(zo on, go on, I hear jou.^"— thump thump! — "and belongs to'' — '^ Speak louder! Sit up there! What are you doing? And belongs to?''—'^ boy."—" The Rule. The Kule! / ,saj."— Here several children looked earnestly at the piece of timber he held in his hand. — "T/ze Rule, sir, the Rule'' — thump, thump! — " You've got it in your hand," vocifer- ated a little harmless-looking fellow on the front seat, while the scholar proceeded to recite the rule. — "Adjectives belong to" — ^'Lazy, lazy fellow! sit up there.''— Here the class smiled, and the scholar completed his rule, asserting, however, that "adjectives belong to nouns," and not to '■dazy fellows," as the class seemed to understand the master to teach. Word after word was parsed in this way (a way of teaching our language, which, if we could know it had been practiced at the erection of Babel, would suffi- ciently account for that memorable confusion of tongues without the intervention of a miracle), till the teacher, nearly exhausted by this strange combination of mental, oral, and manual labor, very much to the relief of all, vociferated ''That'll do!" and the scene was changed. At the close of the afternoon, we were told that " it was a very hard school, that it was almost impossible to keep order, and that he should be discoui'aged were it not that he saw a manifest improvement within a few days past ! " SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 145 Now this teacher made the school what it was, by his own manner. He would have done the same with any school. He taught in the most effectual way the scienceand art of confusion; and notwithstanding the hard name he gave his school, he was emphatically the most disorderly and uoisy member of it. There was a change. On another day, accompanied by the same friend, we presented ourselves at the door of this same room for admittance. We heard no sound as we approached the entrance, and almost began to suspect we should find there was no school within. We knocked; and presently, without our hear- ing the footstep of the person who approached, the door opened, and we passed in. The children looked up a moment as we entered, and then bent their eyes upon their lessons. The teacher softly handed us seats, and then proceeded with the recitation. His manner was quiet and deliberate, and the school was orderly and busy. He had no rule in his hand, no heavy boots on his feet (he had exchanged them for slippers on entering the school), and no other means of giving emphasis to his words. He kindly requested, — never commanded, — and everything seemed to pre- sent the strongest contrast with the former scene. The hour of dismission arrived, and the scholars quietly laid by their books, and as quietly walked out of the house, and all was still. '-'■ How have you secured this good order?" said we to the teacher. "I really do not know," said he with a smile, "I have said nothing about order." "But have you had no difficulty from noisy scholars?" "A little at first; but in a day or two they seemed to become quiet, and we have not been troubled since." Now the secret was that this latter teacher had learned to gov- ern himself. His own manner gave character to the school. So it will ever be. A man will govern more by his manner than in any other way. There is, too, such a thing as keeping a school too still by over-government. A man of firm nerve can, by keeping up a con- stant constraint both in himself and pupils, force a deathlike silence upon his school. You may hear a pin drop at any time, T. P.— 10 146 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. and the figure of every child is as if molded in cast iron. But, be it remembered, this is the stillness of constraint, not the still- ness of activity. It is an unhealthy state both of body and mind, and when attained by the most vigilant care of the teacher, is a condition scarcely to be desired. There should be silence in school, a serene and soothing quiet; but it should if possible be the quiet of cheerfulness and agreeable devotion to study, rather than the "palsy of fear." Thus far I have confined myself to those qualifications in the teacher, and to those means which, under ordinary circumstances and in most districts, would in my opinion secure good order in our schools. With the qualifications I have described in the mental and moral condition of the teacher, and the means and suggestions above detailed — combined, I believe a very large majority of our schools could be most successfully governed without any appeal to fear or force. But as some schools are yet in a very bad state, requiring more than ordinary talents and skill to control them; and as very many of those who must teach for a long time to come have not, and cannot be expected to haA^e all the qualifications desci'ibed, and much less the moral power insisted on, it is unreasonable to expect, taking human nature as it is, and our teachers as they are, that all can govern their schools without some appeals to the lower motives of children, and some resort to coercion as an instrumentality. I should leave this discussion very incom- plete, therefore, were I not to present my views upon the sub- ject of SECTION III. — PUNISHMENTS. As a great deal has been written and spoken upon the subject of school punishments, I deem it important that the term, as I intend to use it, should be defined at the outset. I submit the following definition : Punishment is pain inflicted upon the mind or body of an individual by the authority to which he is subject; with a SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 147 YIEW EITHER TO REFORM HIM, OR TO DETER OTHERS FROM THE COMMISSION OP OFFENSES, OR BOTH. It is deemed essential to the idea of punishment that the inflietor have legitimate authority over the subject of it, — other- wise the act is an act of usurpation. It is also essential that the inflietor should have a legitimate object in view, such as the reformation of the individual or of the community in which his example has exerted an influence, — otherwise the act becomes an abuse of power. Infliction for the purpose of retaliation for an insult or injury, is not punishment ; it is revenge. Whenever, therefore, a teacher resorts to such infliction to gratify his tem- per, or to pay off, as it is expressed in common language, the bad conduct of a pupil, without any regard to his reformation or the prevention of similar offenses in the school, the pain he inflicts is not punishment; it is cruelty. Nerj great importance is to be attached to the motive in this matter; because the same inflic- tion upon the same individual and for the same offense, may either be just and proper punishment, or it may be the most unjustifiable and revengeful abuse, according to the motive of the inflietor. The authority to inflict punishment in general, is either by the constitution of God or of civil society. "The punishment of the faults and offenses of children by the parent," says Dr. Web- ster, "is by virtue of the right of government with which the parent is invested by God himself." The right to punish the offenses of children while at school, is by the common law vested in the teacher, as the representative of the parent for the time being. It is the declaration of this law, as interpreted from time immemorial, that the teacher is in loco parentis — in place of the parent. Some have alleged that fear and shame, the two principles addressed by punishment, are among the lowest in our nature; and have hence endeavored to show that punishment is always inexpedient, if not indeed always wrong. To this I answer, that both fear and shame are incorporated in our nature by God him- self; and hence I infer they are there for a wise purpose. I find, 148 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. moreover, that God himself, in His Avord and in His provi- dence, does appeal to both of these principles; and hence I infer that punishment in the abstract is not wrong:, and after the higher motives have been addressed, not altogether inexpe- dient. Living in a commnnity as we do, where the right of punish- ment in general, is assumed by our government, and the right of teachers to punish is conceded by our laws, 1 do not feel called upon to establish the right by argument ; I shall assume that the teacher has the right to punish in the sense in which I have defined punishment,— and shall therefore proceed to consider the various kinds of punishments used in our schools, and to distin- guish those which are justifiable from those which are not; and also to consider some of the conditions and limitations of their use. In preparing the way to do this, I may remark that punish- ments consist of two classes. 1. Those which address themselves directly to the mind; as privation from privileges, loss of liberty', degradation, some act of humiliation, reproof, and the like. 2. Those which address the mind through the body ; as the imposi- tion of a task— labor, for instance,— requiring the pupil to take some painful attitude, infiicting bodily chastisement, etc. I have mentioned these two classes for the purpose of calling- attention to the fact, that there are those who approve of the first class, and at the same time denounce the second, scouting the idea of reaching the mind through the senses of the body. This seems to me, however, to indicate a want.of attention to the laws of our being; for in the economy of nature we are made at every point sensitive to pain as a means of guarding against injury. Why has the Creator studded the entire surface of our bodies with the extremities of nerves, whose function is to carry to the brain with lightning speed the intelligence of the approach of danger? And why should this intelligence be transmitted, if its object is not to influence the will, either to withdraw the suffering part from immediate danger, or to avoid those objects which cause the pain? The mind, then, by the economy of nature, or SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 149 « rather by the arrangement of God, is capable of being influenced through the bodily sensations ; and those who deny this, either do not observe attentively, or, observing, do not reason fairly as to the laws of our being. With these preliminary observa- tions, I now proceed to consider. 1. Improper punishments. — Some punishments are always wrong, or at least always inexpedient. The infliction of them either implies a wrong feeling on the part of the teacher, or it promises no wholesome result on the part of the pupil. I shall mention in detail : 1. Those that from their nature excite the feel- ing in the pupil, that an indignity has been committed against his person. No man is ready to forgive another for wringing his nose. There is almost a universal sentiment that this organ is specially exempted from such insult. Nearly the same feeling exists as to pinching or pulling the ear, or twisting the hair, or snapping the forehead. Each child feels that these parts of his per- son are not to be trifled with, and the feeling is natural and proper. Now, though it is not common for teachers to wring the noses of their pupils, it is very common for them to do each of the other things enumerated. I have often seen such punishments, but I think I never saw any good come of them. The pupil always looked as if the teacher had done despite toward his person. Whenever I have seen the teacher twist the locks of a child's hair about his finger till the tears would start in the eye, I have sup- posed the feelings called forth were anything but desirable, — anything but favorable to reformation. A pupil must love his teacher very strongly, to be able to keep his temper from rising under such circumstances; and there is great doubt whether either of these punishments does anything to secure cheerful obedience in the child one time in a hundred ; probably in ninety- nine cases in the hundred the evil passions are very much strengthened by them. Besides, these are undignified modes of punishment. They savor so much of a weak and childish impa- tience, that the pupils find it hard to respect a man, much more to love him, who will stoop to so small a way of giving vent to his angry feelings. Snapping the forehead is subject to strong 150 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. physiological objections ; and, as a general rule, the head and its appurtenances should be exempted from penal violence. In this place I may very properly allude to another mode of assailing the ears of children, quite as undignified in itself and quite as unprofitable in its results as pulling them, — and until they are hardened to it by familiarity, probably more painful. I refer, I need not say, to scolding. This is a punishment altogether too common. There is a physiological law, that the exercise of any organ will give it greater strength and generally greater celerity. From this fact, and the additional one, that the more a child is scolded the harder his heart becomes, so that here, as in the Rule of Three " more requires more,"— it follows that those who once begin to scold, are fortunate if they stop short of high attain- ments in the art. There is no enterprise in which the investment yields so small a profit as in the business of scolding. It is really pitiable to wit- ness the teacher given to this practice, making himself and all around him unhappy, without the hope of alleviation. The com- mand of the tongue is a great virtue in a teacher; and it is" to be feared that very many children still suffer in their moral feelings* as well as their ears, because so many teachers do not seasonably learn the right control of the '• unruly member." While upon this subject, I may allude to another very objec- tionable mode of address practiced by some teachers toward their schools. I refer to a mixture of scolding with a species of low wit or cockney blackguardism, that should ever be banished from the schoolroom. Such expressions as, " Sit down, John, or I'll shiver your /^op-^imZ>ers,"— "Attend to your studies, or some of you will be a head shorter,''—'' Keep quiet, or you'll hear thunder,"— and the like. To these I might add those empty and debasing threats which are too often and too thoughtlessly uttered ; as, " I'll skin you alive," or "I'll shake you to pieces," or " I'll use you up "—with * A blacksmith, it is said, who had been accustomed to scold his family, quite too freely, was one day attempting to harden a piece of steel ; but failing after two or three attempts, his little son who had been an observer of this as well as other operations of his father, is said to have exclaimed, "ScoZcZ it, father, scold it; if that won't harden it, nothing else will." SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 151 others of the same character. I perhaps ought to beg pardon for placing these vulgarisms before the general reader ; but they are so frequently employed m our schools, in some of our schools of good repute too, that I thought it to be my duty to quote them (for they are all literal quotations), in order if possible to aid those who have fallen into such a low habit to see themselves as others see them. It is so very easy for a teacher to raise a laugh among his pupils, that he is in danger of being seduced into the use of coarse and quaint expressions by the supposition that they are witty. But the mirth of schoolboys is not a more reliable criterion of wit in the modern teacher than it was in the case of the schoolmaster described by Goldsmith ; and possibly the exercise of a little dis- cernment on his part would convince him that children sometimes laugh, as they did of old, because they think it prudent to do so. " A man severe he was and stern to view, I knew him well, and every truant knew; Well had the boding tremblers learned to trace The day's disasters in his morning face; Full well they laughed, with counterfeited glee, At all his jokes, for many a joke had he!" It is unquestionably true that there are schools and many such, now of high standing, the language of whose teachers, could it be noted down and printed for the parents, would per- fectly astonish them, and such is the force of habit, it would very likely astynish the teachers themselves. Let all who mean to respect themselves, or who desire to be long respected by others, most carefully avoid the first approach to the use of such kind of language. Its influence in school is " only evil, and that continu- ally." 2. Those punishments that from their nature imply in the inHictor a love of prolonged torture.— These are quite numerous, and are resorted to often for the purpose of avoiding what is usually deemed severer punishment. Some of them also have very serious physiological objections. As an instance, I may mention the holding of a weight at arm's length until the 152 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. muscles of the arm become painful from over-exertion and fatigue. Sometimes the Bible, being the largest book at hand, is chosen as the weight ; and thus that book, which should have no asso- ciations connected with it in the minds of the young but those of reverence and love, is made the instrument of torture— the minister of cruelty. Imagine that you see— what I have seen — an offending boy called to the teacher's desk, and, after words of reproach, sen- tenced to hold the large Bible at arm's length for a specified time, or until the teacher is willing to release him. At first it is raised with a smile of triumph, almost a smile of contempt. Soon the muscles thus exerted at disadvantage begin to be weary and to relax. " Hold it up ! " exclaims the vigilant teacher ; and it is again brought to its position. Sooner than before the muscles are fatigued, and they almost refuse to obey the mandate of the will, which itself is half willing to rebel against authority so unreasonable. -'Up with it!"— again brings it to its place, or perhaps a stroke of the rattan repeats the command with more urgency. At this, moment every nerve sympathizes, and the muscles are urged on to their greatest effort. The limb is in agony, — and what agony can surpass that of an overstrained muscle? — and the whole system reels and writhes with suffering. Now look into tliet child's face, and tell me, what is the moral effect of this sort of punishment? Unless he is one of the most amiable of the sons of Adam, he inwardly curses the cruelty that he thinks is delighted with pangs like these, protracted yet intol- erable. He almost curses the blessed book which was given to warm his soul into life and immortality. He cries with pain, but not with penitence. He may submit, indeed, and he may abstain from similar offenses in time to come; but it is the submission of self-preservation, and the abstinence of an eye-servant, — while the stain that has thus been inwrought in his moral sensibilities, may long remain unexpunged. Such a punishment I unhesitat- ingly pronounce to be improper, whatever may be the circum- stances. Akin to this are those other contrivances to give prolonged SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 153 pain, which in different parts of the country have taken a variety of forms, and as great a variety of names. One of these has been termed ^^ holding a nail into the floor.'' It consists in requiring the pupil to bend forward,— and, placing the end of a single finger upon the head of a nail, to remain in that position till the whole system is agonized. Another has by some of its inflictors been termed ''sitting on nothing." The pupil is required to place his back against a wall of the room, and his feet perhaps a foot from its base, and then to slide his body down till the knees ai*e bent at right angles, and his person is in a sit- ting posture without a seat ! The muscles, acting over the knee at the greatest disadvantage, are now made to support the body in that position during the pleasure of the teacher. I have seen another mode of punishment practiced, and as I have heard no name for it, I shall give it the cognomen of "sitting on worse than nothing." The boy in this case was required to sit upon the floor, and then, placing the feet upon a bench or chair, to sup- port the body in an erect position by reversed action of the muscles ! But I gladly turn away from a description of the punishments I have witnessed in the common schools of New England within a quarter of a century, exhibiting as they do so many character- istics of the dark ages. Some of these I have witnessed quite recently; and to what extent any or all of them are now in use, I am unable to say. I only desire to say, that they are all improper,— debasing to the morals of the pupils, and degrading to the profession of the teacher ; and the sooner such punish- ments are entirely banished from our schoolrooms, the sooner will the profession of the teacher rise to its proper level. 3. Ridicule.— 'T\\m is a weapon that should not be wielded as a school punishment. It often cuts deeper than he who uses it im- agines; and it usually gives most pain where it is least merited. Some physical defect, or some mental incapacity or eccentricity, is most frequently made the subject of it; and yet nothing can be more unfeeling or more unjust than its use in such cases. If the designed failings of the indolent, or the premeditated mischief 154 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. of the vicious, could be subjected to its influence, its use would be more allowable,— but even then it would be questionable. But the indolent and the vicious are usually unaffected by ridicule. They sin upon calculation, and not without counting the cost; and they are therefore very willing to risk their reputation, where they have so httle to lose. It is the modest, the conscientious, the Av ell-meaning child, that is most affected by ridicule; yet it is such a one that, for various reasons, is oftenest made the subject of it, though of all others, his feelings should be most tenderly spared. A strong objection to the use of ridicule, is the feeling whicli it induces between the teacher and pupil. The teacher, conscious that he has injured the feelings of the child, will find it hard to love him afterwards; for we seldom love those whom we have injured. The child, on the other hand, loses confidence in his teacher; he feels that his sensibilities have been outraged before his companions, and that the teacher, who should be his best friend in the school, has invited the heartless laugh of his fellow- pupils against him. With a want of love on the one hand, and of confidence on the other, what further usefulness can reasonably be expected ? But the strongest objection of all to the use of ridicule is the fact that it calls forth the worst of feelings in the school. Those who participate in the laugh thus excited, are under the influ- ence of no very amiable motives. And when this is carried so far as to invite, by direct words, some expression from the schooknates, by pointing the finger of shame, and perhaps accom- panying the act by a hiss of scorn, the most deplorable spirit of self-righteousness is cultivated. Little Mary one day was detected in a wrong act by her teacher. "Mary, come here," said the teacher, sternly. Little thinking she had been seen, she obeyed promptly, and stood by the chair of her teacher, who, without giving Mary time to reflect, and thus allow the conscience opportunity to gain the mastery, immediately asked, "What naughty thing did I see you do just now?" " Nothing," said Mary, partly disposed to justify herself, SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 155 and partly doubting whether indeed the teacher had seen her do anything wrong. " Oh, Mary, Mary, who wonld think you would tell me a lie! Did you ever hear of Ananias and Sapphira?" Here a lecture followed on the sin and danger of lying, and particularly the danger of sudden death by the vengeance of God. Mar^^ began to tremble, and then to weep, probably from terror. Now came the second part. "I should think jow would be ashamed to be known to lie. All the children now know that you have lied. I should think they would feel ashamed of such a naughty little girl in the school. I should not wonder," she continued, "if all the little boys and girls should point their fingers at you and hiss." In an instant all the children who were not too old to be disgusted with the management and tone of the teacher, pointed their fingers, and uttered a long succession of hisses, while their faces beamed with all the complacency of self-righteousness, triumph- ing over the fall of a companion, who perhaps was after all as good, and as truthful a child as any of them. The poor child at first turned her back upon them; but soon, feeling that her repu- tation was gone, she turned, as woman ever will when her self- respect is blighted, with a look of indifference, almost a, look of defiance. Fear was first swallowed up in shame, and shame gave place to reckless audacity. The whole scene was rendered still more ruinous to the child, from the fact that it took place in the presence of visitors. When will our teachers learn the human heart well enough to be able to distinguish between a work of devastation and of true culture; betw^een a process of blighting the sensibilities, searing the conscience, freezing up the fountains of sympathy, and of mutual love and confidence, — and a course of training which warms the conscience into activity, inculcates the reverence and love of God, instead of a slavish fear of His power, and instills into the soul a desire to do right, rather than to do that which will avoid the reproach of an unfeeling multitude, more wicked than those they censure? Goldsmith has shown that woman may ''stoop to conquer;" but the above narrative shows how she may stoop, not to conquer, but to lay waste the youthful heart. 156 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. These punishments, and such as these, which I have classed under the list of improper punishments, should all be carefully considered by the teacher. They should be considered before he enters his school. It would be well always for him to determine beforehand what punishments he will not use. It may save him many a serious mistake. I have written what I have under this head, in order to put teachers upon thought believing that men seldom earnestly and honestly inquire, without arriving at the truth in the end. II. Proper punishments. — Every teacher's mind should, if possible, be settled, as to what punishments are proper, so that when they are inflicted, it can be done in good faith, and with an honest conviction of the performance of duty. Among the proper punishments, I may mention, 1. Kind reproof.— This will probably be conceded by all. I say kind reproof, because no other reproof can be useful. I would distinguish it from reproach. Reproof, judiciously administered, is one of the most effectual punishments that can be used. As a general rule, this is best administered privately. The child's spirit of obstinacy is very likely to exhibit itself in the presence of his fellows; but in private, the conscience is free to act, and the child very readily submits. It is always perfectly safe to reprove privately; that is, not in the presence of the school. The child has no motive to misrepresent the teacher; and if the teacher so far spares the reputation of the pupil, as to take him by himself, this very circumstance will often give the teacher access to his better feelings. 2. Loss of privileges.— By abuse of privileges we forfeit them. This is a law of Providence. It is unquestionably proper that this should be a law of our schools. All those offenses, therefore, against propriety in the exercise of any privilege, may be attended with a temporary or permanent deprivation of such privilege. A pupil who is boisterous at the recess, disturbing the quiet of the school or impeding the enjoyment of his playfellows, may be deprived of the recess. A child, who disfigures his seat with his knife, may be deprived of his knife; and so for any other SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 157 similar offense. Some consider it proper to extend this punish- ment to other classes of offenses, as, for example, whispering or idleness. While I would not deny the right or the propriety of do- ing so, I should think it moi-e expedient not thus to extend it. It is well, as far as it can be done, so to punish the child, that he shall see that his conduct naturally leads to its punishment as a con- sequence. And it is moreover very probable that in most schools there will be demand enough for this punishment, in its natural application, without extending it to other cases. 3. Restraint, or confinement.— When liberty is abused, a scholar may be put under restraint. When duty is violated, and the rights of others are wantonly disregarded, confinement will afford time for reflection, and at the same time relieve others from the annoyance and detriment of evil example. Such restraint is often a wholesome discipline ; and confinement, if it be not too far protracted, is always safe. It should be remarked, however, that confinement in a dark apartment should never be resorted to by any teacher. There are insuperable objections to it, growing out of the fears which many children early enter- tain of being alone in the dark, as also the fact that light as well as air is necessary to the vigorous action of the nervous system during the waking hours, especially in the daytime. It is well known that a child shut up in a dark room even in the warmth of summer, speedily undergoes a depression of temperature; and if the confinement is unduly protracted, cold chills come over the system. For these reasons, and others, if confinement is ever used as a punishment, it should be in a room properly lighted and heated. Our prisoners enjoy, as far as may be, both of these favors. 4. Humiliation. — This should be resorted to with great cau- tion. When a fault has been openly committed, and attended with circumstances of peculiar obstinacy, it may sometimes very properly be required of the offender that he should confess the fault in a manner as public as its commission. This may be due to the school. Sometimes when an offensive act is very strongly marked, a confession and a request for the forgiveness of the 158 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. teacher or the individual injured may be made a condition of restoration to favor. This is usually considered a very proper punishment. I would however suggest, that it be used with great care, and never unless the circumstances imperatively demand it. It may be the means of cultivating the grossest hypocrisy, or of inducing open rebellion ; and it sometimes gives the other pupils an advantage over the culprit, which may do him personally much harm. The teacher should be convinced that this is the best thing he can do, before he resorts to it. 5. Actual chastisement with the rod of correction.— 1 have no hesitation (though others have) in placing this among the class of proper punishments. As this involves a great question on the subject of school government, and one that is debated with great zeal and warmth in almost every educational meeting that is held, I shall feel justified in giving a little more space to the consideration of it. SECTION IV.— CORPORAL PUNISHMENT. I am aware that when I enter this field 1 am treading on ground every inch of which has been disputed. I come to the task of writing on this subject, however, 1 think, without prejudice or asperity. Having nothing to conceal, I shall express my own views honestly and frankly,— views which I entertain aftei- dili- gently seeking the truth for some twenty' years, during which time I have listened to a great deal of discussion, and have read carefully and candidly whatever has been written by others. Nor do I expect to give universal satisfaction. There are strongmen, and I believe honest men, who run to the opposite extremes in their doctrine and practice, and who defend the one course or the other as if the existence of the world depended upon the issue. There are those, who not only claim the right to chastise, but who insist that whipping should be the iirst resort of the teacher in establishing his authoi'ity; and to show that this is not a dor- mant article of their faith, they daily and almost hourly demon- strate their efiiciency in the use of the rod, so that their pupils may be living witnesses that they act in accordance with their SCHOOL GOVEIiXMLWT. 159 creed. Again, there are others who as earnestly deny the right of the teacher to resort to the rod at all, and who urge with all their power the efficacy of moral suasion to subdue and control the vicious and the stubborn in our schools ; and who are ready to assert unequivocally that no man is fit to be employed to teach the young, who has not the ability to govern all the vari- ous dispositions he may meet in any school, without the use of corporal punishment. I have no disposition to question the sincerity and honesty of each of these classes, knowing as I do, that different men see with different eyes, even when the circumstances are the same; much more when their circumstances are widely diverse. I have no bit- terness of language to apply to those who go to the extreme of severity; nor any sneer to bestow upon the name of "moral suasionist." But while 1 accord to other men the right of express- ing their own opinions, I claim the same privilege for myself ,— yet wdthout wishing to obtrude my opinions upon other men any further than they will bear the test of reason and experience. It is agreed on all hands that the teacher must establish authority in some way, before he can pursue successfully the objects of his school. I have described the qualifications which the teacher should possess in order to govern well, and I have also given some of the means of securing good order without a resort to severity. Probably in a large majority of our schools, the teacher with these qualifications and the employment of these means, could succeed in establishing and maintaining good order without any such resort. This should in my opinion always be done, if possible,— and no one will rejoice more than myself to see the day, should that day ever come, when teachers shall be so much improved as to be able to do this universally. But in writing on this subject, it is the dictate of common sense to take human nature as it is, and human teachers as they are, and as many of them must be, for some time to come,— and adapt our directions to the circumstances. Human nature, as it is exhib- ited in our children, is far from being perfect; and I am sorry to say that the parents of our children often exhibit it in a still less 160 PAGE'S THEORY AND PEACTICE. flattering light. Perhaps no language of mine can so well repre- sent the eoncurrenee of circumstances making corporal punish- ment necessary in our schools as it has been done by the Hon. Horace Mann in his lecture on " School Punishments." "The first point," says he, "which I shall consider, is, w^hether corporal punishment is ever necessary in our schools. As pre- liminary to a decision of this question, let us take a brief sur- vey of facts. We have in this Commonwealth [Massachusetts], above one hundred and ninety-two thousand children between the ages of four and sixteen years. All these children are not only legally entitled to attend our public schools, but it is our great desire to increase that attendance, and he who increases it is regarded a reformer. All that portion of these children who attend school, enter it from that vast variety of homes which exist in the State. From different households, where the widest diversity of parental and domestic influences prevails, the children enter the schoolroom, where there must be compara- tive uniformity. At home some of these children have been indulged in every wish, flattered and smiled upon for the energies of their low propensities, and even their freaks and whims enacted into household laws. Some have been so rigorously debarred from every innocent amusement and indulgence, that they have opened for themselves away to gratification, through artifice and treach- ery and falsehood. Others, from vicious parental example, and the corrupting influences of vile associates, have been trained to bad habits and contaminated with vicious principles, ever since they were born;— some being taught that honor consists in whip- ping a boy larger than themselves ; others that the chief end of man is to own a box that cannot be opened, and to get money enough to fill it; and others again have been taught, upon their father's knees, to shape their young lips to the utterance of oaths and blasphemy. Now all these dispositions, which do not con- flict with right more than they do with each other, as soon as they cross the threshold of the schoolroom, from the different worlds, as it were, of homes, must be made to obey the same general regulations, to pursue the same studies, and to aim at SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 161 the same results. In addition to these artificial varieties, there are natural differences of temperament and disposition. "Again, there are about three thousand public schools in the State, in which are employed, in the course of the year, about five thousand different persons, as teachers, including both males and females. Excepting a very few cases, these five thousand persons have had no special preparation or training for their employment, and many of them are young and without experience. These five thousand teachers, then, so many of whom are unprepared, are to be placed in authority over the one hundred and ninety-tw^o thousand children, so many of whom have been perverted. With- out passing through any transition state for improvement, these parties meet each other in the schoolroom, where mutiny and insubordination aud disobedience are to be repressed, order maintained, knowledge acquired. He, therefore, who denies the necessity of resorting to punishment, in our schools,— and to cor- poral punishment, too,— virtually affirms two things:— first, that this great number of children, scooped up from all places, taken at all ages and in all conditions, can be deterred from the wrong and attached to the right without punishment; and secondly, he asserts that the five thousand persons whom the towns and dis- tricts employ to keep their respective schools, are now, and in the present condition of things, able to accomplish so glorious a work. Neither of these propositions am I at present prepared to admit. If there are extraordinary individuals — and we know there are such — so singularly gifted with talent and resources, and with the divine quality of love, that they can win the affec- tion, and, by controlling the heart, can control the conduct of children, who, for years, have been addicted to lie, to cheat, to swear, to steal, to fight, still I do not believe there are now five thousand such individuals in the State, whose heavenly services can be obtained for this transforming work. And it is useless, or worse than useless to say, that such or such a thing can be done, and done immediately, without pointing out the agents by whom it can be done. One who affirms thai: a thing can be done, with- out any reference to the persons who can do it, must be thinking T. p.— 11 162 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. of miracles. If the position were, that children may be so edu- cated from their birth, and teachers maj^ be so trained for their calling, as to supersede the necessity of corporal punishment, except in cases decidedly monstrous, then I should have no doubt of its truth; but such a position must have reference to some future period, which we should strive to hasten, but ought not to anticipate." Aside from the causes demanding punishment, so ably por- trayed in the passage just quoted, there is still another, growing out of divisions and quarrels in the district. It is by no means uncommon, in our districts, owing to some local matter, or to some disunion in politics or religion, for the people to be arrayed, the one part against the other. These neighborhood antagonisms sometimes find their way into the school. If a teacher is employed against whom one of the parties has objections, immediately his failure is predicted, and these dark prophecies are uttered by parents, it may be in the presence of their children. The inhabitants of the upper road are jealous of the dwellers on the lower road; the hill por- tion of the district is aggrieved by the influence of the valley portion; the "east end" complains of the selfishness of the " west end," and so of the north and south. Whenever a school- house is to be built, these different interests are aroused, and a protracted and baleful quarrel is the result. One party *' carries the day" by the force of numbers, but the prosperity of the school is impaired for years. At every district meeting there will be the same strife for the mastery. If one division gains the power, the other bends its energies to cripple the school, and to annoy the teacher, who may be employed by the dominant party, however excellent or deserving he may be. "We will see," say those who find themselves in the minority, "we will see whether this man can keep our school as well as it was done last year by our master." This is uttered in presence of their children — per- haps their half-grown sons, who will be very ready to meet their new teacher with prejudice and to act out the misgivings of their parents as to his success. When the teacher first enters the SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 163 school, he is met by opposition, even before he has time to make an impression for good; opposition, which he can scarcely hope to surmount as long as it is thus encouraged at home. Now what shall he do ? Shall he yield the point, abandon the idea of authority, and endeavor to live along from day to day, in the hope of a more comfortable state of things by-and-by ? He may be sure that matters will daily grow worse. Shall he give up in despair, and leave the school to some successor? This will only strengthen the opposition and make it more violent when the successor shall be appointed. It is but putting the diflBculty one step farther off. Besides, if the teacher does thus give up, and leave the school, he loses his own reputation as a man of energy, and, in the eyes of the world, who perhaps may not know — or care to know — all the circumstances, he is held ever after as incompetent for the office. Now it would be very gratifying if the teacher, under any or all of these difficulties, could possess the moral power to quell them all by a look or by the exercise of his ingenuity in interest- ing his pupils in their studies. Undoubtedly there are some men who could do it, and do it most triumphantly, so as to make their most zealous enemies in a few days their warmest friends. But there are not many who can work thus at disadvantage. What then shall be done? Shall the school be injured by being disbanded, and the teacher be stigmatized for a failure, when he has been employed in good faith? I say no. He has the right to estabhsh authority by corporal infliction; and thus to save the school and also save himself. And more than this ; —if there is reasonable ground to believe that by such infliction he can estab- lish order, and thus make himself useful, and save the time and the character of the school, he not only has the right, but he is bound by duty to use it. The lovers of order in the district have a right to expect him to use it, unless by express stipulation beforehand they have exempted him from it. I repeat, then, that it is the teacher's duty to establish authority; "peaceably, indeed, if he may,— forcibly if he must." I ought in fairness here to add, as I have before hinted, that 164 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. not unfrequently the necessity for corporal infliction exists in the teacher himself. This is often proved by a transfer of teachers. One man takes a school, and can only survive his term by the exercise of whipping. He is followed by another who secures good order and the love of the school without any resort to the rod. The first declared that whipping was necessary in his case to secure good order, and truly; but the necessity resided in him and not in the school. So it often does,— and while teachers are zealously defending the rod, they should also feel the necessity of improving themselves as the most effectual way to obviate its frequent use. When authority is once established in a school, it is compara- tively easy to maintain it. There will of course be less necessity for resorting to the rod after the teacher has obtained the ascend- ency, unless it be in the event of taking some new pupil into the school who is disposed to be refractory. I have but little respect for the teacher who is daily obliged to fortify his authority by corporal infliction. Something must be fundamentally wrong in the teacher whose machinery of government, when once well in motion, needs to be so often forcibly wound up. From what has already been said, it will be seen that I do not belong to the number who aflirm that the rod of correction should never be used in schools. Nor am I prepared to advise any teacher to publish beforehand that he will not punish with the rod. It would always be wiser for the teacher to say nothing about it. Very little good ever comes of threatening the use of it. Threat- ening of any sort avails but little. A teacher may enter a school with the determination to govern it if possible without force. Indeed I should advise one always to make this determination in his own mind. But whenever such a determination is published, the probability of success is very much diminished. The true way and the safe way, in my opinion, is to rely mainly on moral means for the government of the school, — to use the rod without much threatening, if driven to it by the force of circumstances, and as soon as authority is established, to allow it again to slumber with the tacit understanding that it can be SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 165 again awakened from its repose if found necessary. The knowl- edge in the school that there is an arm of power, may prevent any necessity of an appeal to it ; and such a knowledge can do no possible harm in itself. But if the teacher has once pledged him- self to the school that he will never use the rod, the necessity may soon come for him to abandon his position or lose his influence over the pupils. As much has been said against the use of the rod in any case in school government, it may be proper to consider briefly some of the substitutes for it, which have been suggested by its opposers. As a substitute for the use of the rod some have urged the ex- pulsion of such scholars as are disobedient. To this it may be replied that it is not quite certain, under existing laws, whether the teacher has the right to expel a scholar from the common schools; and some deny even the right of the school officers to do it. Whether the right exists or not, it is very questionable whether it is ever expedient to expel a scholar for vicious conduct; and especially in cases where there is physical power to control him. The vicious and ignorant scholar is the \ery one who most needs the reforming influence of a good education. Sent away from the fountain of knowledge and virtue at this— the very time of need— and what may we expect for him but utter ruin? Such a pupil most of all needs the restraint and the instruction of a teacher who is capable of exercising the one and affording the other. But suppose he is dismissed, is there any reason to hope that this step will improve the culprit himself, or better the condition of the school? Will he not go on to estabUsh himself in vice, unrestrained by any good influence, and at last become a suitable subject for the severity of the laws, an inmate of our prisons, and perhaps a miserable expiator of his own crimes upon the gallows? How many youth — and youth worth saving, too — have been thus cast out perversely to procure their own ruin, at the very time when they might have been saved by sufficient energy and benev- olence, no mortal tongue can tell ! Nor is the school itself usually 166 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. benefited by this measure. "For all purposes of evil," Mr. Mann justly remarks, ''he continues in the midst of the very children from among whom he was cast out; and when he associates with them out of school, there is no one present to abate or neutralize his vicious influences. If the expelled pupil be driven from the district where he belongs into another, in order to prevent his contamination at home, what better can be expected of the place to which he is sent, than a reciprocation of the deed, by their sending one of their outcasts to supply his place ; and thus open- ing a commerce of evil upon free-trade principles. Nothing is gained while the evil purpose remains in the heart. Keformation is the great desideratum; and can any lover of this country hesitate between the alternative of forcible subjugation and victorious contumacy?" From all that has been said, it will be seen that I do not hesitate to teach that corporal infliction is one of the justifiahle means of establishing authority in the schoolroom. To this con- clusion I have come, after a careful consideration of the subject, modified by the varied experience of nearly twenty years, and by a somewhat attentive observation of the workings of all the plans which have been devised to avoid its use or to supply its place. And although I do not understand the Scriptures, and particularly the writings of Solomon, to recommend a too fre- quent and ill-considered use of it, I do not find anything in the letter or spirit of Christianity inconsistent with its proper appli- cation. It is the abuse, and not the use of the rod, against wiiich our better feeling, as well as the spirit of Christianity, revolts. It is the abuse of the rod, or rather the abuse of chil- dren under the infliction of the rod, that first called forth the discussion referred to, and awakened the general opposition to its use. I am free to admit there has been an egregious abuse in this matter, and that to this day it is unabated in many of our schools. I admit, too, that abuse very naturally accompanies the use of the rod, and that very great caution is necessary in those who resort to it, lest they pervert it. I feel called upon therefore before leaving this subject to throw out for the consid- SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 167 eration of the young teacher particularly, a few hints to regulate the infliction of chastisement, under the head of SECTION v.— LIMITATIONS AND SUGGESTIONS. 1. The teacher should be thoroughly convinced that the rod is the best thing for the specific case, before he determines to use it. Nor should he hastily or capriciously come to this conviction. He should carefully and patiently try other means first. He should study the disposition of the offender and learn the tend- encies of his mind; and only after careful deliberation, should he suffer himself to decide to use this mode of punishment. In order that the punishment should be salutary, the scholar should plainly see that the teacher resorts to it from deep principle, from the full belief that under all the circumstances it is the best thing that can be done. 2. The teacher should never be under the excitement of angry passion when inflicting the punishment.— This is of the utmost importance. Most of the abuses before spoken of, grow out of a violation of this fundamental rule. A teacher should never strike for punishment till he is perfectly self-possessed, and entirely free from the bitterness which perhaps tinctured his mind when he discovered the offense. It was a wise remark of a young Shaker teacher, that ''no teacher should strike a child till he could hold his arm.'' So long as the child discovers that the teacher is under the influence of passion, and that his lip trembles with pent-up rage, and his blood flows into his face as if driven by inward fires of wrath, he looks upon him, not as his friend seeking his welfare, but as his enemy indulging in persecution. This will call forth the evil passions of the child, and while he bears the pain, he feels no real penitence; and very Hkely in the midst of his suffering he resolves to go and do the same again, out of mere spite. It is moreover of great consequence in the infliction of a pun- ishment, that the teacher should be fully sustained by the public opinion of the school. He can never expect this when he loses his 168 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. self-control. If the pupils see that he is angry, they almost instinctively sympathize with the weaker party, and they asso- ciate the idea of injustice with the action of the stronger. A pun- ishment can scarcely be of any good tendency, inflicted under such circumstances. 3. Corporal punishment, as a general rule, should be inflicted in presence of the school. — I have before advised that reproof should be given in private, and assigned reasons for it, which were perhaps satisfactory to the reader. But in case of cor- poral punishment, the offense is of a more public and probably of a more serious nature. If inflicted in private, it will still be known to the school, and therefore the reputation of the scholar is not saved. If inflicted in the proper spirit by the teacher and for proper cause, it always produces a salutary effect upon the school. But a still stronger reason for making the infliction public is, that it puts it beyond the power of the pupil to misrep- resent the teacher, as he is strongly tempted to do if he is alone. He may misstate the degree of severity, and misrepresent the manner of the teacher; and, without witnesses, the teacher is at the mercy of his reports. Sometimes he may ridicule the pun- ishment to his comrades, and lead them to believe that a private infliction is but a small matter; again, he may exaggerate it to his parents, and charge the teacher most unjustly with unprin- cipled cruelty. Under these circumstances, I am of the opinion that the safest and most effectual way, is to do this work in the presence of the school. An honest teacher need not fear the light of day; and if he has the right spirit, he need not fear the effect upon his other pupils. It is only the violent, angrj^ punishment that needs to be concealed from the general eye, and that we have condemned as improper at any rate. 4. Punishment may sometimes be delayed; and always delayed till all anger has subsided in the teacher.— It is often best for all concerned to defer an infliction for a day or more. This gives the teacher an opportunity in his cooler moments to determine more justly the degree of severity to be used. It will SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 169 also give the culprit time to reflect upon the nature of his offense and the degree of punishment he deserves. I may saj that it is generally wise for the teacher after promising a punishment to take some time to consider what it shall he, whether a corporal Infliction or some milder treatment. If after due and careful reflection he comes conscientiously to the conclusion, that bodily pain is the best thing, — while he will be better prepared to inflict, the pupil by similar reflection will be better prepared to receive it and profit by it. 5. A proper instrument should be used and a proper mode of infliction adopted.— No heavy and hurtful weapon should be employed. A light rule for the hand, or a rod for the back or lower extremities, may be preferred. Great care should be exer- cised to avoid injuring any of the joints in the infliction; and on no account should a blow be given upon the head. 6. If possible, the punishment should be made effectual. — A punishment that does not produce thorough submission and penitence in the subject of it, can hardly be said to answer its main design. To be sure, in cases of general insubordination in the school, I have said that punishment may be applied to one, having in view the deterring of others from similar offenses. But such exemplary punishment belongs to extreme cases while disci- plinary punishment, which has mainly for its object the reforma- tion of the individual upon whom it is inflicted, should be most relied on. Taking either view of the case, it should if possible answer its design, or it would be better not to attempt it. The teacher's judgment, therefore, should be very carefully exercised in the matter, and all his knowledge of human nature should be called into requisition. If after careful and conscientious deliberation he comes to the conclusion that the infliction of pain is the best thing, and to the belief that he can so inflict it as to show himself to the school and to the child, in this act as in all others, a true and kind friend to the child,— then he is justifled in making the attempt; and having consider- ately undertaken the case, it should be so thorough as not soon to need repetition. 170 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. I would here take the opportunity to censure the practice of those teachers who punish every little departure from duty with some trifling- appliance of the rod, which the scholar forgets almost as soon as the smarting ceases. Some instructors carry about with them a rattan or stick, in order to have it ready for appliance as soon as they see any departure from their com- mands. The consequence is, they soon come to a frequent and inconsiderate use of it, and the pupils by habit become familiar with it, and of course cease to respect their teacher or to dread his punishments. I have seen so much of this, that whenever I see a teacher thus ''armed and equipped,'' I infer at once that his school is a disorderly one, an inference almost invariably con- firmed by a few minutes' observation. My earnest advice to all young teachers would be, next to the habit of scolding inces- santly, avoid the habit of resorting to the rod on every slight occasion. When that instrument is not demanded for some special exigency, some great occasion and some high purpose, allow it to slumber in a private corner of 3^our desk, not again to be called into activity till some moral convulsion shall disturb its quiet repose. I have a single caution to give in regard to the discussion of this subject, which in all our educational gatherings occupies so much time and talent. It is this: — Do not adopt a general principle from too few inductions. There is an old proverb that declares, "one swallow does not make a summer." Young teach- ers are very prone to rely on the experience of a single term. If they have kept one term without corporal punishment, they are very likely to instruct their seniors with their experience ; and if they have happened to be so situated as to be compelled to save themselves by the rod, why then, too, their experience forever set- tles the question. It requires the experience of more than one, or two, or three schools, to enable a man to speak dogmatically on this subject; and I always smile when I hear men, and sometimes very young men, who have never kept school in their lives, per- haps, or at most but a single term, speaking as with the voice of authority. Experience is indeed one of our safest guides in this SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 171 as in every other matter; but they who tell their experience should at least wait till they have that which is worthy to be told. There is another point. It is quite fashionable at the present day, whenever this subject is to be discussed, to propose the matter in the form of a resolution ; as, "Resolved, that no per- son is fit to be employed as a teacher, who cannot govern his scholars by holier means than bodily chastisement ; " or, ''Resolved, that no limit should be set to the teacher's right to use the 'rod of correction,' and that they who denounce the teachers for resorting to it are unworthy of our confidence in matters of education." Now whoever presents the question in this form, assumes that he has drawn a line through the very core of the truth ; and he undertakes to censure all those who are unwilling to square their opinions by the line thus drawn. In the discussion a man must take one side or the other of the ques- tion as it is proposed, and consequently he may take a false position. The better way would be to present the whole subject as matter of free remark, and thus leave everyone to present his oWn views honestly as they lie in his own mind. In this way no one is pledged to this or that party, but is left unprejudiced to discover and embrace the truth wherever it is found. It should morever be remembered, that resolving by the vote of a meeting in order to force public opinion, can never effect the truth. A few impious. Heaven-daring men in France, at one of their revels, once resolved, "there is no God!"— but did this blasphemous breath efface the impress of Deity on all this fair creation of his power? And when they rose from their vile debauch and sought with tottering step to leave the scene of madness and to court the dim forgetfulness of sleep,— rolled not the shining orbs in heaven's high arch above them as much in duty to His will, as when they sang together to usher in crea- tion's morning? So it will ever be. Men may declare, and resolve as they please; but truth is eternal and unchangeable; and they are the wisest men who modestly seek to find her as she 172 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. is, and not as their perverted imaginations would presume to paint her. Yet after all, in the government of schools, there is a more ex- cellent way. There are usually easier avenues to the heart, than that which is found through the integuments of the body. Happy is that teacher who is so skillful as to find them ; and gladly would I welcome the day when the number of such skilh'ul and devoted teachers should render any further defense of the rod superfluous. Although 1 believe that day has not yet arrived, still in the meantime, I most earnestly urge all teachers to strive to reach the higher motives and the finer feelings of the young, and to rely mainly for success, not upon appeals to fear and force, but upon the power of conscience and the law of reciprocal affection. As I have placed the higher motives and the more desirable means first in order in these remarks on government, so I would always have them first, and perseveringly employed by the teacher; and, if by earnestness in his work, by unfeigned love for the young, by diligence in the study of their natures, and the adaptation of means to ends which true benevolence is sure to suggest, he can govern successfully without corporal punish- ment—as in a large proportion of cases I believe it can be done— none will rejoice more than I at such a desirable result;— and I most cordially subscribe to the principle so happily stated by another, that in the government of schools, if thorough obedi- ence be but secured and order maintained, other things being equal, ''the minimum of punishment is the maximum of excel- lence." School government, like every ofcher phase of school manage- ment, finds its purpose in the immediate purpose of the school. The immediate purpose of the school is conceded to be instruc- tion. It is to promote this purpose that the schoolhouse is built, furniture provided, and fuel supplied. It is for this that the teacher is employed, the school organized, and the pupils classi- fied. The essential condition of success in the accomplishment of this purpose is the organic unity of mind between teacher and SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 178 pupils in the act of instruction. The teacher must think the end to be reached in any lesson or series of lessons ; he must think out the steps by which the child's mind is to reach that end, and he must think out the appropriate means by which the child shall be led to take those steps. His work in the recitation is to apply the means, and see that the child takes the steps and reaches the end. In the use of means, in taking steps, and in apprehend- ing the end, the mind of teacher and pupil must be one ; they must be thinking together. This is what is meant by the organic unity of mind between teacher and pupil in the act of instruction. In this we find the fundamental law, the constitution, if you please, of the school. It inheres in the very nature of the school itself. With this unity broken, instruction must fail. Every act of teacher and pupils,— even of trustees and janitor,— must be judged in the light of this fundamental law. Whatever maintains and promotes the unity accords with the law, and therefore is right; whatever breaks the unity violates the law, and therefore is wrong. A restoration of the unity satisfies the law. In its operation there is no place for spite, vindictiveness, or vengeance. In many a school it is the teacher, quite as fre- quently as the pupils, who severs the bond of unity. It may have been done by the careless assignment of a lesson, by his own failure to prepare the lesson, or by some cross word or inju- dicious act; whatever may have been the cause, he should not attempt to proceed until he has done what he can to satisfy the violated law; that is, to restore the unity. Until this is done no real progress in instruction can be made. If the pupil is at fault, the first thing for the teacher to do is to study the case and find out the real cause of the trouble. In school government, as in the practice of medicine, too much stress cannot be laid upon proper diagnosis. Failure here often leads to fatal misapplica- tion of remedies. It is only by such careful diagnosis that the teacher can be able to determine whether is needed encourage- ment, assistance, gentle reproof, sharp correction, or severe pun- ishment; whether the punishment should be mental or corporal ; 174 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. whether corporal punishment should be remedial or exemplary in character, and whether it should be administered privately or in public. This law of unity comprehends the entire decalogue of school management. The teacher who thoroughly understands and fol- lows it, will find the mass of details in his work quietly slipping into organic relation to the central purpose of the school ; and what before may have seemed a veritable chaos, will grow, more ^.nd more, into a beautiful and harmonious unity. CHAPTER X. SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS. Every teacher before opening; a school should have some general plan in his mind, of what he intends to accomplish. In every enterprise there is great advantage to be derived from fore- thought,— and perhaps nowhere is the advantage greater than in the business of teaching. The day of opening a school is an eventful day to the young teacher. A thousand things crowd upon him at the same time, and each demands a prompt and judicious action on his part. The children to the number of half a hundred all turn their inquiring eyes to him for occupation and direction. They have come full of interest in the prospects of the new school, ready to engage cheerfully in whatever plans the teacher may have to propose; and, I was about to say, just as ready to arrange and carry into effect their own plans of disorder a,nd misrule, if they, unhappily for him and for themselves, find he has no system to introduce. What a critical— what an eventful moment is this first day of the term to all concerned ! The teacher's success and usefulness,- nay, his reputation as an efficient instructor,— now "hang upon the decision of an hour." An hour, too, may almost foretell whether the precious season of childhood and youth now before these immortals, is to be a season of profit and healthful culture under a judicious hand, or a season of wasted— perhaps worse than wasted — existence, under the imbecility or misguidance of one who " knows not what he does or what he deals with." If angels ever visit our earth and hover unseen around the gatherings of mortals to survey their actions and contemplate their destiny as affected by human instrumentality, it seems to me there can be no spectacle so calculated to awaken their (175) 176 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. interest and enkindle their sympathy as when they see the young gathering together from their scattered homes in some rural dis- trict to receive an impress, for weal or woe, from the hand of him who has undertaken to guide them. And, supposing them to have the power to appreciate to the full extent the consequences of human agency, how must they be touched with emotions of joy and gratitude, or shudder with those of horror and dread, as they witness the alternations of wisdom and foll^^, seriousness and indifference, sincerity and duplicity, purity and defilement, exhibited by him who has assumed to be at once the director and exemplar in the formation of human character, at such an impor- tant period. How deplorable is the thought that all the fond hopes of the parents, all the worth}^ aspirings of the children, and all the thrilling interests of higher beings, are so often to be answered by qualifications so scanty, and by a spirit so indifferent in the teacher of the young. How sad the thought that up to this very moment, so pregnant with consequences to all con- cerned, there has been too often so little of preparation for the responsibility. I fain would impress the young teacher with the importance of having a plan for even the first day of the school. It will raise him surprisingly in the estimation of the pupils and also of the parents, if he can make an expeditious and efficient beginning of the school. While the dull teacher is slowl^^ devising the plans he will by and by present for the employment and improvement of his school, the children, taking advantage of their own exemp- tion from labor, very promptly introduce their own plans for amusing themselves or for annoying him ; — whereas if he could but have his own plans already made, and could promptly and efficiently carry them into execution, he would forestall their mischievous designs, and make co-operators out of his opposers. In order to be sure of a successful commencement, I would rec- ommend that the teacher should go into the district a few days before the school is to begin. By careful inquiry of the trustees or the school committee, he can ascertain what is the character SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS. 177 of the district and the wants of the school. This will afford him considerable aid. But he should do more than this. He would do well to call on several of the families of the district whose children are to become members of his school. This he can do without any ceremony, simply saying to them that, as he has been appointed their teacher he is desirous as far as he may to ascertain their wants, in order to be as prompt as possible in the organization of his school. He will of course see the children themselves. From them he can learn what was the organization of the school under his predecessor; how many studied geogra- phy, how many arithmetic, grammar, etc.; and he can also learn whether the former organization was satisfactory to the district or not. The modes of government, and the methods of interest- ing the pupils practiced by the former teacher, would be likely to be detailed to him; and from the manner of both parents and children, he could judge whether similar methods would still be desirable in the district. By caUing on several of the largest families in this way, he would learn beforehand very accurately the state of the school and the state of the district. I will take this occasion to insist that the teacher, in these visits, should heartily discourage any forwardness, so common among children, to disparage a former teacher. It should be his sole object to gain useful information. He should give no signs of pleasure in listening to any unfavorable statements as to his predecessor; and I may add that during the progress of the school, he should ever frown upon any attempt on the part of the pupils to make comparisons derogatory to a former teacher. This is a practice altogether too prevalent in our schools ; and I am sorry to say there are still too many teachers who are mean enough to countenance it. Such a course is unfair, because the absent party may be grossly misrepresented; it is dangerous, because it tends to cultivate a spirit of detraction in the young; and it is mean, because the party is absent and has no opportu- nity of defending himself. Another important advantage of the visits proposed would be, that he would make the acquaintance of many of the children T. P.— 12 178 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. beforehand, and very likely-, too, if he should go in the right spirit and with agreeable manners, he would make a favorable impres- sion upon them, and thus he would have personal friends on his side to begin with. The parents too would see that he took an interest in his employment ; that he had come among them in the spirit of his vocation— in the spirit of earnestness, and they would become interested in his success,~a point of no small importance. I might here caution the teacher against a very common error. He should not confine his visits to the more wealthy and influen- tial families. The poor and the humble should receive his atten- tions as soon as the rich. From the latter class very likely a large portion of his school will come; and it is wrong in principle as well as policy to neglect those who have not been as successful as others in the one item of accumulating property. On the day of opening the school he should be early at the schoolhouse. Mr. Abbot, in his Teacher, has some valuable sug- gestions on this point. "It is desirable,'' he says, "that the young teacher should meet his scholars at first in an unofficial capacity. For this purpose, he should repair to the schoolroom, on the first day, at an early hour, so as to see and become acquainted with the scholars as they come in, one by one. He may take an interest with them in all the little arrangements connected with the opening of the school. The building of the fire, the paths through the snow, the arrangement of seats, call- ing upon them for information or aid, asking their names, and, in a word, entering fully and freely into conversation with them, just as a parent, under similar circumstances, would do with his chil- dren. All the children thus addressed will be pleased with the gentleness and affability of the teacher. Even a rough and ill- natured boy, who has perhaps come to the school with the express determination of attempting to make mischief, will be completely disarmed by being asked pleasantly to help the teacher fix the fire, or alter the position of a desk. Thus by means of the half hour during which the scholars are coming together, the teacher will find, when he calls upon the children to SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS. 179 take their seats, that he has made a large number of them his personal friends. Many of these will have communicated their first impressions to others, so that he will find himself possessed, at the outset, of that which is of vital consequence in opening any administration— a strong party in his favor." It will be well for the teacher, for several days, both in the morning and afternoon, to be early at the schoolroom. He can thus continue his friendly intercourse with the pupils, and effectu- ally prevent any concerted action among them at that hour to embarrass his government. Many a school has been seriously injured, if not broken up, by the scholars' being allowed to assemble early at the school with nothing to occupy them and no one to restrain them. Having so convenient an opportunity for mischief, their youthful activity will be very likely to find egress in an evil direction. Many a tale of roguery could be told founded upon the incidents of the schoolroom before school hours, if those who have good memories would but reveal their own experience ; — roguery that never would have occurred, had the teacher adopted the course here suggested. SECTION I.— PLAN OF THE DAY's WORK. It will be remembered by many of the readers of this volume, that in former times numerous teachers were accustomed to work without a plan, attempting to do their work just as it happened to demand attention, but never taking the precaution to have this demand under their own control. If one scholar or class w^as not ready to recite, another would be called; and there being no particular time for the various exercises, the school would become a scene of mere listlessness; and the teacher would hardly know how to find employment for himself in the school. I shall make this point clearer by an example. Having occa- sion, in an official capacity, to visit a school which had been kept by a young teacher some two weeks, she very naturally asked— " What shall I do first, this afternoon ? " 180 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. "Do precisely as you would if I had not come in," was the reply. She looked a little perplexed. At length she doubtingly asked, •' Is the geography lesson ready ? " "Yes, m'm" — "No, m'm" — "Yes, m'm," was the ambiguous reply from the class. There was so much of veto in the looks of the young geographers, that it amounted to prohibition. " Well, are the scholars in Colburn's arithmetic ready? " This was said with more of hope; but the same equivocal answer was vociferated from all parts of the room. The teacher, placing her finger upon her lip, looked despairingly; but rec- ollecting one more resort, she said,— "Is the grammar class ready?" Again came the changes on "Yes, m'm," and "No, m'm." The teacher gave up, and asked what she should do. She was again told to go on as usual for that afternoon. It was a tedious afternoon to her as it was to her visitor. She at length called one of the classes, unprepared as many of them said they were, and the exercise showed that none but those who said "Yes, m'm," were mistaken. The whole afternoon seemed to be one of pain and mortification to all concerned; and I fancied I could almost read in the knitted brow of the teacher a declaration that that should be her last school. At the close of the afternoon, a single hint was suggested to her,— viz., that she should make out a list of her scholars' duties, and the times when they should be expected to recite their several lessons. She was told that it would be well to explain this plan of her day's work to her school in the morning, and then never again ask whether a class was ready. The hint was taken ; and on subsequent visitations the several classes were ever ready to respond to the call of their instructor. Now this matter is no unimportant one to the teacher. Indeed I judge of a teacher's ability very much by the wisdom and tact with which he apportions his time for his own duties, and divides the time of his scholars between their studies and recitations. SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS. 181 In order to aid the young teacher in forming a plan for himself, I subjoin a scheme of a day's duties, adapted to a school of the simplest grade. Suppose a school to consist of thirty scholars, and that the teacher finds by inquiry and by examination that there may be four grand divisions ; the first, which he designates [A,] may unite in pursuing Reading, Grammar, Mental Arith- metic, Written Arithmetic, and Writing. The second [B,] can pursue Reading, Spelling, Writing, Geography, Mental and Writ- ten Arithmetic. The third [C,] attend to Reading, Spelling, Men- tal Arithmetic, Writing and Geography. The fourth [D,], con- sisting of the small pupils, attend to Reading, Spelling, Tables, and sundry slate exercises. Now it is very desirable that as much time should be devoted to recitation as can be afforded to each class. It may be seen at once that in certain studies, as geography, mental arithmetic, and spelling— the teacher can as well attend to fifteen at once as to seven. In these studies, unless the disparity in age and attain- ment is very great, two divisions can very properly be united. All can be taught writing at once, thus receiving the teacher's undivided attention for the time. Besides, it is necessary to reserve some little time for change of exercises, and also for the interruptions which must necessarily occur. The recesses are to be provided for, and some time may be needed for investigation of violations of duty, and for the punishment of offenders. All this variety of work will occur in every school, even the smallest. Now, if the teacher does not arrange this in accordance with some plan, he will be very much perplexed, even in a small school; and how much more in a large one! He will do well very carefully to consider the relative importance of each exercise to be attended to, and then to write out his scheme somewhat after the following model. It must not be forgotten that studying is also to be pro- vided for, and that it is just as important that the pupils should be regular in this as in recitation. Indeed, without such regu- larity he cannot expect acceptable recitations. 182 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. PROGRAMME. TIME. M. RECITATIONS, ETC. STUDIES, y.OO to 9.15 15 Reading Script, and Pkayer. 9.15 to 9.40 25 D. Reading, Spelling or Tables. A, Read.; B. Arith.: C. Geog. 9.40 to 9.42 2 Rest, Change of Classes, etc. 9.42 to 10.00 18 A. Reading. B.Arith.; C.Geog.; D. Slates. 10.00 to 10.05 5 \ Rest, Singing or Answer- l iNG Questions. 10.05 to 10.25 20 B. Arithmetic. { A. Gram. ; C. Geog. ; D, Books } or Cards. 10.25 to 10.28 3 Rest, etc. 10.28 to 10.48 20 B. and C. Geography, A. Gram,; D, Recess. 10.48 to 11.00 12 Recess. 11.00 to 11.15 11.15 to 11.85 11.35 to 11.50 15 20 15 D. Reading, etc, A. Grammar. B. and C. Spelling. A. Gram. ; B. M. Arith. ; C. Spell. B. Spell.; C. Spell.; D. Slates. A. M. Arith. ; D. Books or Cards. 11.50 to 12.00 10 General Exercise, Intermission. 2.00 to 2.15 2.15 to 2.45 2.45 to 3.10 3.10 to 3.30 15 30 25 20 D. Reading, Spelling, Tables. A. B. and C. Writing. A. and B. Mental Arithmetic. C. Reading. A, Arith.; B. Read.; C. Read. D. Slates. C. M. Arith. ; D. Recess, A. Arith. ; B. Arith. ; D. B'ks,etc. 3.30 to 3.40 10 Recess. 3.40 to 4.00 20 B. Reading, A. Arith. ; C. M. Arith. ; D. Draw. 4.00 to 4.05 5 Rest, or Singing. 4.05 to 4.25 4.25 to 4.55 20 30 C. Mental Arithmetic. A. Arithmetic. S A. Read.: B. Arith, or Draw.; I D. Slates. B. Arith. or Draw.; C, Draw.; I D. Dismissed. 4.55 to 5.00 5 Gen. Exer. and Dismission. SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS. 183 REMARKS. In the foregoing programme, the first column shows t\iQ division of time, and the portion allowed to each exercise. I need not say the teacher should be strictly punctual. To this end a clock is a very desirable article in the school. Both teacher and pupils would be benefited by it. The second column shows the recita- tions, admitting perhaps some variety, especially in case of the younger children ; while the third shows the occupation of those classes which are not engaged in recitation. It will be seen that the classes are studying those lessons which they are soon to recite; and, as in this case, it is supposed that all the lessons will be learned in school, each one has been pro- vided for. It would be well, however, in practice, to require one of the studies to be learned out of school, in which case no time should be allowed to the study of that branch in the pro- gramme. It will be perceived that drawing is placed as the occupation of the younger classes near the close of the afternoon. This is based upon the supposition, that the teacher, during recess, has placed an example on the blackboard, to be copied by the chil- dren upon their slates. This is perhaps the most effectual way to teach drawing to children. Those more advanced, however, may use paper and pencil, and draw from an engraved copy, or from a more finished specimen furnished from the teacher's portfolio. It is essential that the teacher should, if possible, give some speci- mens of his own in this branch. I have seldom known a teacher to excite an interest in drawing who relied altogether upon engravings as models for imitation. It should be remarked further concerning such a programme, that in case of an assista nt in the school two columns under the head oi Recitations should be formed — one for the principal's classes, and one for the assistant's. If there are a few talented scholars, who are able to do more than their class, they can be allowed to join some of the classes out of their division, or they may be pro- vided with an extra study, which will not need daily recitation. 184 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. In case the school is much larger than the one supposed above, and the classes necessarily so numerous as to make the time allowed to each study very short, then the principle of alterna- tion may be introduced; that is, some studies may be recited Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays,— and some other studies, with other classes, take their places on the alternate days. It is decidedly better for the teacher to meet a class, in arithmetic for instance, especially of older pupils, but twice or three times a week, having time enough at each meeting to make thorough work, than to meet them daily, but for a time so short as to ac- complish but little. The same remark may be applied to reading, and indeed almost any other branch. The idea is a mischievous one, that ever^^ class in reading, or in any other branch, must be called out four times a day, or even twice a day,— except in the case of very young children. It may be compared to nibbling at a cracker as many times in a day, without once taking a hearty meal,— a process which would emaciate any child in the course of three months. These scanty nibblings at the table of knowledge, so often and so tenaciously practiced, may perhaps account for the mental emaciation so often discoverable in many of our schools. The difficulty of classifying and arranging the exercises of a school, becomes greater as the number of teachers to be employed increases; and there is much greater inconvenience in allowing any pupils to study out of their own division, when the number of teachers is more than one or two. Few are aware of the diffi- culty of arranging the exercises of a large school, but those who have experienced it. It can be done, however; and it should always be done as soon as possible after commencing the school. If at any time the arrangement when made is not found to be perfect, it is not wise to change it at once. Let it go on a few days, and watch its defects with great care ; and in the meantime study, out of school, to devise a better. When this has been accompUshed, and committed to paper, and perfectly compre- hended by the teacher, it may be posted up in the schoolroom, SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS. 185 and the day announced when it will go into operation. It will soon be understood by the pupils, and the change can thus be made without the loss of time. Time for reviews of the various lessons could be found by set- ting aside the regular lessons for some particular day, once a week, or once in two weeks; and for composition, declamation, etc., a half day should be occasionally or periodically assigned. If I have devoted considerable space to this subject, it is because I deem it of very great importance to the teacher's suc- cess. With one other remark I dismiss it. The model is not given to be servilely copied. It is given to illustrate the great principle. The circumstances of schools will be found to vary so widely, that no model, however perfect in itself, would answer for all. The teacher must exercise his own ingenuity and judgment to meet his own wants; and in general it may be remarked that where a teacher has not the skill to adapt his own plans to his own circumstances, he can hardly be expected to succeed in carry- ing out the plans of another. SECTION II.— INTERRUPTIONS. In every school consisting of pupils of diffei^nt ages and cir- xiumstances, there will be more or less of interruption to the gen- eral order and employment of the school. Some of the pupils have never been trained to system at home; perhaps most of them may have been positively taught to disregard it at school. At any rate, "it must needs be," in this particular, "that offenses come." Nor should the teacher lose his patience though he should be often disturbed by the thoughtlessness of his pupils. He should expect it as a matter of course, and exercise his ingenu- ity as far as possible to prevent it. It may well be one of his sources of enjoyment to witness an improvement in the habits of his pupils in regard to system. These interruptions proceed from various causes,— such as soliciting leave to speak, or to go out ; asking for some assistance in learning lessons, or for leave to drink, or to stand by the fire; 186 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. requesting the teacher to mend pens, or to set copies; disorderly conduct in pupils, making it necessary, in his judgment, to admin- ister reproof or punishment in the midst of other duties,— and sometimes the vociferous and impatient making of complaints by one scholar against another. How many times I have seen a teacher involved in indescribable perplexity, while trying to perform the duty of instruction, an(] to ''get through" in time. While hearing a grammar lesson, a scholar brings up his atlas to have some place pointed out which he had upon one trial failed to find. The teacher, turning to look for the place, is addressed with, ''Please mend my pen," from another quarter. Having the knife in hand, as if such things were to be expected, the obliging teacher takes the pen, and holding it between his eyes and the atlas, endeavors to shape its nib and to discover the city at the same glance. ' ' Jane keeps a pinching me,"— vociferates a little girl who is seated behind the class. "Jane, Jane," says the teacher, turning away from both the nib and the city, " Jane, come to me instantly." Jane with the guilty fingers thrust far into her mouth makes her way sideling towards the teacher. "May I go out?"^says John, who is thinking only of his own convenience. "No, no," — answers the teacher, a little pettishly, as if conscious that in a crisis like this, a request simply to breathe more freely is scarcely justifiable. "Please sir, let me and Charles go out and get a pail of water." This is said by a little, shrewd-looking, round-faced, light-haired boy, who has learned how to select his time, and to place the emphasis upon the '^please, sir.'' The teacher by this time being considerably fretted by such an accumulation of busi- ness on his hands, very naturally thinks of the refreshment con- tained in a pail of cool water, and very good-naturedly answers the little urchin in the atfirmative, who most likely is by this time more than half way out of the door, so confident is he of suc- cess. Just at this juncture a considerate-looking miss in the class earnestly appeals to the teacher, to know if the word next but three to the last, was not a common noun though called a con- junction! This reminds the teacher that several words have been SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS. 187 parsed without his notice, and he asks the class to " stop there.'* Glancing at his watch, he discovers that he has gone three min- utes beyond the time for recess, and he relieves himself by saying, "boys may go out." This grants a truce to all parties. The pen goes back unmended; the atlas with its sought city undis- covered; John ''goes out" now by common law, taking to him- self the credit of this happy release, as he asked only to remind the master that it was time for recess ; Jane takes both thumb and finger from her precious little mouth, and smiling seats her- self by the side of her late challenger, who is by this time more than half repentant of her own impatience; the shrewd-looking urchin and his companion return with the refreshing pail of water,— the hoj^ and girls gather round to obtain the first draught, while the little chubby-faced lad comes forward, clothed in smiles, with a cup filled with the cooling liquid on purpose for the master ; the boon is accepted, the perplexed brow becomes placid, and all is sunshine again.— This is not a very extrava- gant picture of the interruptions in a district school. Those who have been brought up in such a school, will recognize the Sdelity of the likeness, as it has been drawn from nature. Now, whoever has any knowledge of human nature, and of school teaching, will at once see that this is all wrong. It is a law of our being, that we can do w^ell but one thing at a time. He who attempts more, must do what he attempts but very imperfectly. There was a great deal of wisdom embodied in that motto which used to be placed in the old Lancasterian schools: "A TIME FOR EVERYTHING, AND EVERYTHING IN ITS TIME." It should be one of the mottoes of every teacher. In the construc- tion of the plan or programme for the day's duties, great care should be taken to provide for all these little things. If whisper- ing is to be allowed at all in school, let it come into one of the intervals between recitations. If assistance in getting lessons is to be asked and rendered, let it be done at a time assigned for the special purpose. As far as possible, except in extreme cases, let the discipline be attended to at the time of general exercise, or some other period assigned to it, so that there shall not be a 188 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. ludicrous mixture of punishments and instruction during the progress of a class exercise. Here, as everywhere else in school management, the law of unity must be the teacher's guide. It is pleasant to Aisit a school, where everything is done and well done at its proper time. Teaching, under such circum- stances, becomes a delightful employment. But where all is con- fusion, and the teacher allows himself, by the accumulation of irregularities to be oppressed and perplexed, it is one of the most wearing and undesirable vocations on earth. The teacher goes to his lodgings harassed with care, oppressed with a conscious- ness of the imperfection of his labors, and exhausted by the unnatural and unwarrantable tax imposed upon his mental fac- ulties. He groans under the burden incident to his calling, and longs to escape from it, never once dreaming, perhaps, that he has the power of relieving himself by the introduction of system, and thus changing his former babel into a scene of quietness and order. SECTION m. —RECESSES. In speaking of the arrangements of a school, the subject of recesses demands attention. It is the belief of many enlightened instructors, that the confinement in most of our schools is still too protracted, and that more time devoted to relaxation w^ould be profitable both to the physical and the mental constitution of our youth. Some have urged a recess of a few minutes every hour, in order to afford opportunity for a change of position and a change of air. This could better be done in schools composed only of one sex, or where the accommodation of separate yards and play-grounds permits both sexes to take a recess at the same time. Where these accommodations are wanting, and one sex must wait while the other is out, the time required for two recesses, in half a day, for the whole school, could scarcely be afforded. I am of the opinion, as our schools are at present composed, that one recess in the half day for each sex is all that can be allow^ed. The question then is, how can that one SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS. 189 recess be made most conducive to the purposes for which it is designed? 1. As to its duration. — Ten minutes is the least time that should be thought of, if the children are to be kept closely confined to study during the remainder of the three hours' session; that is, ten minutes for each sex. It would be a very desirable thing if our schoolhouses could be so furnished with separate play- grounds and separate out-door accommodations, that both sexes could take recess at the same time. This would save much time to the district in the course of a term, and it would also give opportunity for thoroughly ventilating the room during recess, while it would afford the teacher opportunity to take the air, and overlook the sports of the children to some extent,— a matter of no small importance. Where these facilities are wanting, and the teacher must remain within to preside over the one half of the school while the others are out, he may still give ten minutes at least to each sex, contriving to employ profitably the time within doors. He may reserve this time for settling such ditticulties as may have arisen in the school; he may administer reproofs, inflict his punish- ments if any are necessary, or he may spend the time in giving assistance to the pupils, or in drawing upon the blackboard for the advantage of the younger pupils as they come in. In a large school, where a longer recess is the more necessary on account of the bad air of the schoolroom, he will find the more duty to be done at this time; so that in any event the time need not be lost, even if fifteen minutes be allowed to each sex. 2. As to the proper hour for recess.— It was an old rule to have recess when ^'school was half done.'' Indeed, this expres- sion was often used as synonymous with recess in many districts twenty-five years ago. It is now generally thought better to have the recess occur later, perhaps when the school session is two-thirds past. It is found that children, accustomed to exer- cise all the morning, can better bear the confinement of the first two hours than they can that of the third , even though the recess immediately precedes the third. In a school the half-daily ses- 190 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. sions of which are three hours, I should recommend that the recess be introduced so as to terminate at the close of the second hour. As far as possible, it ^YOuld be well to have all the pupils leave the room at the time recess is given them; and as a general thing they should not ask leave to go out at any other time. A little system in this matter is as desirable as in any other, and it is quite as feasible. In a school composed partly of very young children, there is no difficulty in giving such children two recesses each half dnj. Nor is there any objection to such a course. It is more irksome to young children to bear confinement, than to the adult; especi- ally as they cannot be expected to be constantly' occupied. It w ill relieve the teacher very much to have the children go out of the room as soon as they become fatigued, and, as it will promote their own health and happiness to go, it is very justifiable to grant them the privilege. This may properly and easily be pro- vided for upon the Programme. SECTION IV.— ASSIGNING LESSONS. Many teachers fail in this department. Judging of the difli- culty of the lesson by the ease with w^hich they can acquire it, even in a text-book new to themselves, they not infrequently assign more than can possibly be learned by the children. They forget that by long discipline of mind, and by the aid of much previously acquired knowledge, the lesson becomes comparatively easy to them ; they forget, too, the toil a similar lesson cost them when they were children. Now the effect of poorly learning a les- son is most ruinous to the mind of a child. He, by the habit of missing, comes to think it a small thing to fail at recitation. He loses his self-respect. He loses all regard for his reputation as a scholar. It is truly deplorable to see a child fail in a lesson with indifference. Besides, the attempt to acquire an unreas- onable lesson, induces a superficial habit of study,— a skim- ming over the surface of things. The child studies, that he may live through the recitation; not that he may learn and remember. He passes thus through a book, and thinks himself SCHOOL^ARRANGEMENTS. - 191 wise while he is yet a fool,— a mistake that is no less common than fatal. The motto of the wise teacher should be, "Not how much, but HOW WELL." He should always ask, is it possible that the chird can master this lesson, and probable that he will? It is better that a class should make but very slow progress for several weeks, if they but acquire the habit of careful study and a pride of good scholarship — a dread of failure,— than that they should ramble over a whole field, firing at random, missing oftener than they hit the mark, and acquiring a stupid indifference to their reputa- tion as marksmen, and a prodigal disregard to their waste of ammunition, and their loss of the game. In assigning lessons, the importance of good habits of study should be considered, and the lessons given accordingly. At the commencement of a term, the lessons should always be short, till the ability of the pupils is well understood, and their habits as good students established. As the term progresses, they can be gradually lengthened as the capacity of the class will warrant, or their own desire will demand. It is frequently judicious to consult the class about the length of the lessons, though to be sure their judgment cannot always be relied on, for they are almost always ready to undertake more than they can well per- form. Assigning, however, somewhat less than they propose, will take from them all excuse for failure. When the lesson is given, a failure should be looked upon as a culpable dereliction of duty, as incompatible with a good conscience as it is with good scholarship. This high ground cannot be taken, however, unless the teacher has been very judicious in the assignment of the lesson. For the assignment of lessons, as for the hearing of recitations, the teacher should make special preparation. He can no more be judicious in laying out work for his classes without special study for that purpose, than he can excite and maintain interest in the recitation without having cleared his own knowledge and stirred his own enthusiasm by recent study of the lesson to be recited. If, when preparing the lesson for recitation, he will study 192 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. ahead for the assignment of the next lesson, he may secure a number of very valuable results : 1. He will see the relation of the new lesson to the one preced- ing, and in the assignment of it he can call attention of the mem- bers of the class to such relation; or better, he will be able to ask them to find and state the relation. It is far too frequently the case that teachers assign, and students prepare lessons as though they were utterly independent of everything that has gone before or that is to follow. Each lesson should be seen as a related part of the entire subject. Thus, only, can the subject grow in the mind of the child into an organic unity. Unrelated, unorganized knowledge is of little value, and can do little toward producing a sustained interest in study. 2. By thus studying the work before assigning it, he can decide wisely the proper length of the lesson, in the light of its difficulty and the ability of the class. 3. He will be able to call attention to those parts that will require most careful study, and thus save the energy that might be wasted by devoting it equally to the points of least and those of greatest importance. 4. He can direct attention to references and to collateral read- ings on points of special interest. This is of very great value, not only in exciting interest, but in promoting research and stimulat- ing independent inquiry. 5. He can, if the nature of the work, and the advancement of the pupils will justify it, assign select topics, bearing upon the work in hand, to individual members of the class, and call for special oral or written reports, to be presented at the next recitation or at some other specified time. The other mem- bers of the class should be held responsible for the knowledge thus brought to them, the same as for that acquired from the text assigned. This definite assignment of text, references, collateral readings, and reports, will keep the pupils intelligently, pleasantly, and constantly employed, and will contribute largely toward solving the problem of school government. But, it must be insisted, these SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS. 193 desirable results cannot be relied upon unless the teacher makes special previous preparation for the assignment of lessons. SECTION v.— REVIEWS. In the prosecution of study by any class of students, frequent reviews are necessary. This is so, because the memory is very much aided by repetition and by association. But further, the understanding is often very much improved by a review. Many of the sciences cannot be presented in independent parts, nor can all the terms employed be fully appreciated till these parts are again viewed as a whole. Many things which were but dimly seen the first time they were passed over, become perfectly clear to the mind when viewed afterwards in connection with what follows them. In conducting reviews, regard must be had to the age and character of the pupils, and to the branch pursued. In arith- metic, and indeed in mathematics generally, where so much depends upon every link in the great chain, very frequent reviews are necessary. Indeed, almost daily it is profitable to call up some principle before gone over. In several branches, where the parts have a less intimate connection, as in geography, natural philosophy, and some others, the reviews may be at greater inter- vals. It would be well, I think, in every common school, to have a review at the close of each division of such subjects as are logi- cally divided. This, besides the advantages already indicated, will lead the children to study for something beyond recitation. Nor is it enough, at the review, that the questions of the text- book be again proposed to the children. If this be all, they will only exercise their memories. As far as possible the subject should be called up, and the application of principles to practical life should be dwelt upon. If this course is expected by the learners, they will think during the preparation of lessons, in order to anticipate the examination of the teacher; and this thinking is more profitable to them than the knowledge itself. It is always well, besides the reviews already mentioned, to have a general review at the close of any particular study. This T. p.— 13 194 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. enables the teacher to detect any false conceptions which the pupil has entertained during the first course. He can now pre- sent the subject as a whole, and view one part by the light of another. In natural philosophy, how much better the law of reflected motion can be appreciated after the subject of optics has been studied, in which the doctrine of reflection in general has been fully discussed and illustrated. In physiology, what light is thrown upon the process of growth in the system, by the subse- quent chapters on absorption and secretion. How much clearer is the economy of respiration understood when viewed in connec- tion with the circulation of the blood. A general review then is an enlightening process, and it is always profitable, with, per- haps, one exception. When it is instituted with reference to a public examination, it is very doubtful whether the evil is not greater than the good. It then degenerates into an effort to appear well at a particular time; it is again studying in order to recite; and I look upon it as no small evil, that the mind should have any object in view which comes in between it and the grand desire to know,— to master the subject for its own sake, and not simply for the purpose of being able to talk about it on one great occasion. SECTION VI.— PUBLIC EXAMINATIONS. As the usage still prevails in many localities of having public examinations or exhibitions,— generally at the close of a term or a portion of a term,— in order to test, in some measure, the indus- try and skill of the teacher, and the proficiency of the pupils, a few words may be devoted to their consideration. I am hardly prepared to oppose this usage, because I am inclined to believe examinations are of some utility as a means of awakening an interest in the parents of the children; perhaps they do some- thing to stimulate school oflftcers, and also to excite to greater effort during the term both the teacher and the pupils. Still, public examinations, as frequently conducted, are not without serious objections. 1. They certainly cannot be looked upon as criterions of the SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS. 195 faithfulness or success of teachers. A man with tact, and with- out honesty, may make his school appear to far greater advan- tage than a better man can make a better school appear. This has often happened. It is not the most faithful and thorough teaching that makes the show and attracts the applause at a public exhibition. It is the superficial, mechanical, memoriter exercise that is most imposing. Who has not seen a class, that recited by rote and in concert at a celebration, win the largest approbation, when many of the individuals knew not the import of the words they uttered. Names in geography have been thus *' said or sung," when the things signified were to the children as really terrsB incognitas as the fairy lands of Sinbad the Sailor. 2. Nor can such exhibitions be claimed justly to indicate the proficiency of the pupils. Every experienced teacher knows that the best scholars often fail at a public examination, and the most indolent and superficial often distinguish themselves. The spec- tators, not infrequently, in pointing out the talent of the school, make the teachers smile at their blunders. 3. They present a strong temptation to dishonesty on the part of the teacher. Since so much stress is laid upon the exam- ination, and particularly, in some regions, upon the Celebration, where several schools are brought together to make a show for a few hours, it must be rather an uncommon man who will have sufficient principle to exhibit his school as it is, and refuse to make those efforts so very common to have it appear what it is not. The wish, expressed or implied, of the parents, and the am- bition of the children, all conspire to make the teacher yield to a usage so common. Consequently, several weeks will be spent to prepare the children to appear in public. During this time, they study not for improvement, not for future usefulness, but simply to make a show at the public celebration. An unworthy and unwarrantable motive actuates them during all this process; and, at last, unless strangely benighted, they are conscious of holding up a false appearance to the world. Now, under such circum- stances, whatever of good is effected, by way of enkindling a zeal in the parents, is dearly purchased. The sacrifice of principle in 196 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. a teacher— much more in the children— is a large price to pay for the applause of a few visitors, or even for an increase of interest among them in the cause of popular education. Examinations, however, which are less showy, and which are of such a character as thoroughly to sift the teachings that have been given, and to thwart any ingenious efforts specially to pre- parefor them— examinations that look back to the general teach- ing of the term, or the year, and test the accuracy and thorough- ness of the instructions — are unquestionably very desirable and useful. To make them so in the highest sense, and to exempt them from an evil tendency upon the minds of the young them- selves, the teacher should he strictly honest. Not a lesson should be given with sole reference to the exhibition at the close ; not an exercise should be omitted because the examination approaches. The good teacher should keep those great motives before the mind, which look to future usefulness, and to the discharge of duty. The child should be taught that he is accountable for what he acquires, and what he ma j acquire, and not for what he mayappeaztohave acquired ; and that this accountability is not confined to a single day, soon to pass and be forgotten ; but it runs through all time and all eternity. I know not but the expectation of an examination may stimu- late some to greater exertion, and make them better scholars. If this be so, it may be well enough; and yet I should be slow to pre- sent such a motive to the mind of a child, because a special or secondary accountability always detracts from the general and chief. A strong reason, in addition to those already assigned, why special preparation should not be made for the examination, is, that where such preparation is expected, the pupils become care- less in their ordinary exercises. While, then, I think too much stress is at present placed upon showy exhibitions and celebrations, and that objections and dangers attend examinations, as frequently conducted, I would not recommend altogether their discontinuance. I would rather urge that the teacher, by his inflexible honesty, should make SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS. 197 them fair representations of the actual condition of his school, without relying very much upon them as a means of stimulat- ing the pupils to exertion; that the pupils should be made to feel that the results of their exertion through the term, rather than a few special efforts near its close, would be brought into review; that no hypocrisy or management should ever be tolerated, in order to win the applause of the multitude; that no particular lessons should ever be assigned for the occasion; that it should be remembered, that the moral effect of an occasional failure at examination, will be more salutary upon the school than unbroken success; and that the children are irreparably injured, when they are made in any way the willing instru- ments of f arise pretension. Under such circumstances, examinations may be profitable to all concerned. If teacher and pupils have done well, they have the opportunity of showing it without violence to their own con- sciences. The employers, and patrons too, have some means of forming a correct estimate of the value of their school; and all parties may be encouraged and stimulated. But above all things, LET THE TEACHER BE HONEST. CHAPTER XI. THE teacher's RELATION TO THE PARENTS OF HIS PUPILS. In the choice of a clergyman, after estimating his moral and religious character, and ascertaining the order of his pulpit tal- ents, a third question remains to be answered, viz.:— What are his qualifications as ^pastor? How is he adapted to fulfill the various relations of private friend and counselor; and in the family circle, in his intercourse with the aged and the young, how is he fitted to "Allure to brighter worlds and lead the way?" In that sacred profession everyone knows that nearly as much good is to be done by private intercourse as in the public minis- tration. Many a heart can be reached by a friendly and informal conversation, that would remain unmoved by the most powerful eloquence from the pulpit. Besides, many are prepared to be profited in the public exercises by that intercourse in private which has opened their hearts, removed prejudice, and engendered a feeling of friendly interest in the preacher. The admonitions of the gospel thus have the double power of being truth, and truth uttered by the lips of a valued friend. It is, to some extent, thus with the school teacher. He may be very learned and very apt to teach, and yet fail of success in his district. Hence it is highly important that he should possess and carefully cultivate those social qualities, which will greatly increase his usefulness. The teacher should consider it a part of his duty, whenever he enters a district, to excite a deeper interest there among the patrons of the school than they have ever before felt. He should not be satisfied till he has reached every mind connected with his charge in such a way, that they will cheerfully co-operate with him and sustain his judicious efforts for good. (198) TEACHER'S RELATION TO PARENTS. 199 Being imbued with a deep feeling of importance of his work, he should let them see that he is alive to the interests of their children. To this end, — 1. He should seek frequent opportunities of intercourse with the parents.— Though the advances tow^ard this point, by the strict rules of etiquette, should be made by the parents them- selves— (as by some it is actually and seasonably done)— yet, as a general thing, taking the world as we find it, the teacher must lead the way. He must often introduce himself uninvited to the people among whom he dwells, calling at their homes in the spirit of his vocation, and conversing with them freely about his duty to their children and to themselves. Every parent of course will feel bound to be courteous and civil in his own house; and by such an interview, perhaps a difference of opinion, a prejudice, or a suspicion may be removed, and the foundation of a mutual good understanding be laid which many little troubles can never shake. It may be very useful to have an interview with such parents as have been disturbed by some administration of disci- pline upon members of their families. Let me not be understood, however, to recommend that the teacher should ever go to the parent in a cringing, unmanly spirit. It would probably be far better that the parties should ever remain entire strangers, than that their meeting should necessarily be an occasion of humilia- ting retraction on the part of the teacher. Neither should the parents ever be allowed to expect that the teacher always will as a matter of duty come to their confessional. But it is believed, if there could be a meeting of the parties as men, as gentlemen, as Christians, as coadjutors for the child's welfare, it would always be attended with good results. 2. He should be willing to explain all his plans to the parents of his pupils. — If they had implicit confidence in him, and would readily and fully give him every facility for carrying forward all his designs without explanation, then, perhaps, this direction might not be necessary. But as the world is, he cannot expect spontaneous confidence. They wish to know his designs, and it is best they should be informed of them by himself. The best way 200 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. for the teacher to interest them in the business of education, will be freely to converse with them concerning the measures he intends to adopt. If his plans are judicious, ♦he of course can show good reasons why they should be carried into effect ; and parents are generally willing to listen to reason, especially when it is directed to the benefit of their own children. Many a parent, upon the first announcement of a measure in school, has stoutly opposed it, who upon a little explanatory conversation with the teacher, would entertain a very different opinion, and ever after would be most ready to countenance and support it. It seems to me a teacher may safely encourage inquiry into all his movements in school. There is an old saying— in my opinion a mischievous one,— which enjoins it as a duty upon all, to "tell no tales out of school." I see no objection to the largest liberty in this matter. Why may not everything be told, if told cor- rectly ? Parents frequently entertain a suspicious spirit as to the movements of the teacher. Would not very much of this be done away, if it was understood there was no mystery about the school? The teacher who would thus invite inquiry, would be very careful never to do anything which he would not be willing to have related to the parents, or even to be witnessed by them. I would have no objection, if it were possible, that the walls of our schoolrooms, as you look inward, should be transparent, so that any individual unperceived might view with his own eyes the movements within. The consciousness of such an oversight w^ould work a healthy influence upon those who have too long delighted in mystery. 3. The teacher should encourage parents frequently to visit his school.— There is almost everywhere too great backwardness on the part of parents to do this duty. The teacher should early invite them to come in. It is not enough that he do this in gen- eral terms. He may fix the time, and arrange the party, so that those who would assimilate, should be brought together. It will frequently be wise to begin with the mothers, where visitation has been unusual. They will soon bring in the fathers. As often as they come they will be benefited. W^hen such visits are made, the TEACHER'S RELATION TO PARENTS. 201 teacher should not depart from his usual course of instruction on their account. Let all the recitations and explanations be attended to, all praises and reproofs, all rewards and punish- ments be as faithfully and punctually dispensed as if no person were present. In other words, let the teacher faithfully exhibit the school just as it is, its lights and its shadows, so that they may see all its workings, and understand all its trials as well as its encouragements. Such visitations under such circumstances, it is believed, would ever be highly beneficial. The teacher's difficulties and cares would be better understood, and his efforts to be useful appreciated. But if the teacher makes such visits the occasion for putting a false appearance upon the school; if he takes to himself unusual airs, such as make him ridiculous in the eyes of his pupils, and even in his own estimation; if he attempts to bring before the visitors his best classes, and to impress them with his own skill by showing off his best scholars, they will, sooner or later, dis- cover his hypocrisy, and very likely despise him for an attempt to deceive them. 4. The teacher should be frank in all his representations to parents concerning their children.— This is a point upon which many teachers most lamentably err. In this, as in every other case, "honesty is the best policy." If an instructor inlprms a parent during the term that his son is making rapid progress, or as the phrase is — "doing very well," he excites in him high expectations; and if at the end of the term it tui-ns out other- wise, the parent with much justice may feel that he has been injured, and may be expected to load him with censure instead of praise. Let a particular answer, and a true one, always be given to the inquiry — "How^ does my child get along?" The parent has a right to know, and the teacher has no right to conceal the truth. Sometimes teachers, fearing the loss of a pupil, have used some indefinite expression, which, however, the doting par- ent is usually ready to interpret to his child's advantage. But sooner or later the truth will appear; and when the teacher is once convicted of any misrepresentation in this particular, there 202 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. is rarely any forgiveness for him. For this reason and for his own love of trnth. for his own reputation and for the child's wel- fare, he should keep nothing back. He should tell the whole story plainly and frankly,— and the parent, if he is a gentleman, will thank him for his faithfulness to him; and if he has any sense of justice, he will be ready to co-operate with him for his child's improvement. At any rate such a course will insure the reward of a good conscience. The teacher, as I have before urged, should have the habits and manners of a gentleman. He should strive also to acquire the ability to converse in an easy and agreeable way, so that his society shall never be irksome. He, in other words, should be a man who does not require much entertaining. Modesty, withal, is a great virtue in the teacher; especially in his intercourse with the people of his district. Teachers, from their almost con- stant intercourse with their pupils, are apt to think their own opinions infallible; and they sometimes commit the ridiculous error, of treating others wiser than themselves as children in knowledge. This infirmity, incident to the profession, should be carefully avoided; and while the teacher should ever endeavor to make his conversation instructive, he should assume no airs of superior learning or infallible authority. He should remember the tru^h in human nature, that men are best pleased to learn without being reminded that they are learners. I have known some teachers, who have sneered at what they have termed, the "out-door work" here recommended. They have thrown themselves upon their dignity, and have declared that when they had done their duty within the schoolroom, they had done all that could be expected, and that parents were hound to co-operate with them, and sustain them. But, after all, we must take the world as we find it; and since parents c7o not always feel interested as they should, I hold it to be a part of the teacher's dutj' to excite their interest, and to win them to his aid by all the proper means in his power. In doing this, he will, in the most effectual way secure the progress of his school, and at the same time advance his own personal improvement. CHAPTER XII, No employment is more wearing to the constitution than the business of teaching. So many men falter in this emplo^^nent from ill health, and so many are deterred from entering it, because they have witnessed the early decay and premature old age of those who have before pursued it; so many are still engaged in it who almost literally "drag their slow length along," groaning under complicated forms of disease and loss of spirits, which they know not how to tolerate or cure,— that it has become a serious inquiry among the more intelligent of the profession, "■ Cannot something be known and practiced on this subject, which shall remove the evils complained of?" Is it absolutely necessary that teachers shall be dyspeptics and invalids? Must devotion to a calling so useful, be attended with a penalty so dreadful? A careful survey of the facts, by more than one philanthropist, has led to the conclusion, that the loss of health is not a neces- sary attendant upon the teacher of the young. It is believed, indeed, that the confinement from the air and sunhght, and the engrossing nature of his pursuits, have a strong tendency to bring on an irritability of the nervous system, a depression of spirits, and a prostration of the digestive functions; but it is also believed, that, by following strictly and systematically the known laws of health, this tendency maj be successfully resisted, and the teacher's life and usefulness very much prolonged. The im- portance of the subject, and a desire to render this volume as useful as possible, has induced me to ask leave to transfer to its pages, with slight abbreviation, the very judicious and carefully written chapter on '^Health — Exercise — Diet," contained in the <' School and the Schoolmaster," from the gifted pen of George B. (203) 204 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. Emerson, Esq., of Boston, one of the most enlightened educators of the present age. HEALTH — EXERCISE — DIET. " The teacher should have perfect health. It may seem almos't superfluous to dwell here upon what is admitted to be so essential to all persons; but it becomes necessary, from the fact that nearly all those who engage in teaching, leave other and more active employments to enter upon their new calling. By this change, and b}' the substitution of a more sedentary' life within- doors, for a life of activity abroad, the whole habit of the body is changed, and the health will inevitably suffer, unless precau- tions be taken which have never before been necessary. To all such persons — to all, especially, who are entering upon the work of teaching with a view of making it their occupation through life, a knowledge of the laws of health is of the utmost impor- tance, and to such this chapter is addressed. I shall speak of these laws briefly, under the heads of Exercise, Air, Sleep, Food, and Dress. "Exercise.— So intimate is the connection between the various parts of our compound nature, that the faculties of the mind cannot be naturally, fully, and effectually exercised, without the health of the body. And the first law of health is, that which imposes the necessity of exercise. "The teacher cannot be well without exercise, and usually a great deal of it. No other pursuit requires so much,— no other is so exhausting to the nerves; and exercise, air, cheerfulness, and sunshine, are necessary to keep them in health. Most other pursuits give exercise of body, sunshine, and air, in the very per- formance of the duties that belong to them. This shuts us up from all. " One of the best, as one of the most natural modes of exercise, is walking. To give all the good effects of which it is susceptible, a walk must be taken either in pleasant company, or, if alone, with pleasant thoughts ; or, still better, with some agreeable end in view, such as gathering plants, or minerals, or observing other TEACHER'S CARE OF HIS HEALTH. 205 natural objects. Many a broken constitution has been built up, and many a valuable life saved and prolonged, by such a love of some branch of natural history as has led to snatch every oppor- tunity for a walk, with the interest of a delightful study, " ' Where living things and things inanimate Do speak, at Heaven's command, to eye and ear.' The distinguished geologist of Massachusetts, President Hitch- cock, was once, when teacher of a school, reduced to so low a state by disease of the nerves, which took the ugly shape of dys- pepsia, that he seemed to be hurrying rapidly towards the grave. Fortunately he became interested in mineralogy, and this gave him a strong motive to spend all his leisure time in the open air, and to take long circuits in every direction. He forgot that he was pursuing health, in the deeper interest of science; and thus aided by some other changes in his habits, but not in his pursuits, he gradually recovered the perfect health which has enabled him to do so much for science, and for the honor of his native State. " Riding on horseback is one of the best modes of exercise pos- sible for a sedentary person. It leads to an erect posture, throws open the chest, gives a fuller breathing, and exercises the muscles of the arms and upper part of the frame. ... In weakness of the digestive organs its eflBcacy is remarkable. . . . "^ garden furnishes many excellent forms of exercise, and the numerous labors of a farm would give every variety, if the teacher could be in a situation to avail himself of them. This is not often the case. When accessible, the rake, the pitchfork, moderately used, cannot be too highly recommended. A. garden is within the reach of most teachers in the country. It has the advantage of supplying exercise suited to every degree of strength, and of being filled with objects always gratifying to the eye and the taste. . . . The flower-garden and shrub- bery commend themselves to the female teacher. To derive every advantage from them, she must be willing to follow 206 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. the example often set by the ladies of England, and use the hoe, the rake, the pruning-hook, and the grafting knife, with her own hands. ''Rowing, when practicable, is a most healthful exercise. It gives play to every muscle and bone in the frame. . . . When the river is frozen, skating may take the place of rowing ; and it is an excellent substitute. . , . Driving a chaise or a sleigh, is a healthful exercise, if sufficient precaution be used to guard against the current which is alw^ays felt, as it is produced by the motion of the vehicle, even in still air. ''Sawing and splitting wood form a valuable exercise, par- ticularly important for those who have left an active life for the occupation of teaching. " Exercise should be taken in the early part of the day. War- ren Colburn, the author of the Arithmetic, whose sagacity in common things was as remarkable as his genius for numbers, used to say, that half an hour's walk before breakfast did him as mu(^h good as an hour's after. Be an early riser. The air of morning is more bracing and invigorating; the sights, and sounds, and odors of morning are more refreshing. A life's expe- rience in teaching declares the morning best. . . . "Exercise must always be taken, if possible, in the open air. Air is as essential as exercise, and often, in warm weather partic- ularly, more so. They belong together. The blood flows not as it should, it fails to give fresh life to the brain, if we breathe not fresh air enough. The spirits cannot enjoy the serene cheerful- ness which the teacher needs, if he breathe not fresh air enough. The brain cannot perform its functions; thought cannot be quick, vigorous, and healthy, without ample supplies of air. Much of the right moral tone, of habitual kindliness and thankful rever- ence, depends on the air of heaven. " Exercise must be taken in the light; and if it may be, in the sunshine. Who has not felt the benignant influence of sunshine? The sun's light seems almost as essential to our well-being as his heat, or the air w^e breathe. It has a great effect on the nerves. A distinguished physician of great experience. Dr. J. C. Warren TEACHER'S CAR?] OF HIS HEALTH. 207 of Boston, tells me that he almost uniformly finds diseases that affect the nerves exasperated by the darkness of night, and miti- gated by the coming on of day. All plants growing in the air lose their strength and color when excluded from li^ht. So in a great degree does man. They lose their fine and delicate quali- ties, and the preciousness of their juices. Man loses the glow of his spirits, and the warmth and natural play of his finer feel- ings. . . . " Next to air and light, water is the most abundant element in nature. It can hardly be requisite to enjoin upon the teacher the freest use of it. The most scrupulous cleanliness is necessary, not only on his own account, but that he may be able always to insist upon it, with authority, in his pupils. The healthy state of the nerves, and of the functions of digestion, depends in so great a degree on the cleanliness of the skin, that its importance can hardly be overstated. . . . " Sleep.— No more fatal mistake in regard to his constitution can be made by a young person given to study than that of sup- posing that Nature can be cheated of the sleep necessary to restore its exhausted, or strengthen its weakened powers. From six to eight hours of sleep are indispensable; and with young persons, oftener eight or more, than six. It is essential to the health of the body, and still more to that of the mind. It acts directly on the nervous system ; and irritability, or what is called nervousness, is the consequence of its loss. This, bad in any person, is worse in the teacher than in anyone else. It is an unfailing source of unhappiness to himself and to all his school. He would be unwise to subject himself to the consequences of the loss of sleep; he has no right to subject others. . . . " Diet.— To no person is an attention to diet more important than to the teacher. For his own guidance, and that he may be able to give proper instructions in regard to this subject to his pupils, the conclusions of experience, or what we may consider the laws of diet, should be familiar to him. Some of these are the following : 208 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. "1. Food should be simple; not of too little nor«too great variety. The structure of the teeth, resembling at once those of animals that naturally subsist on flesh, and of animals that take only vegetable food, and the character and length of the diges- tive organs, holding a medium between the average of these two classes, indicate that a variety of food, animal and vegetable, is natural to man, and in most cases probably necessary. The tendency in most parts of this countr^^, from the great abund- ance of the necessaries of life, is to ^G to excess in the consump- tion of food, particularly of animal food. The striking evils of this course have led many to the opposite extreme — to renounce meats entirely. Experience of the evils of this course also has in most places brought men back to the safe medium. No person needs to be more careful in regard to the quality and nature of his food than the teacher, as his exclusion from air for a great part of the day leaves him in an unfit condition to digest unwholesome food, while the constant use of his lungs renders his appetite unnaturally great, or destroys it altogether. Ani- mal food seems to be necessary, but not in great quantities, nor oftener, usually, than once a day. ... In winter, the food should be nourishing, and maybe more abundant; in summer, less nutritious, less of animal origin, and in more moderate quantity. "2. Food should be taken at sufficiently distant intervals. . . . The operation of digestion is not completed, ordinarily, in less than four hours. Food should not be taken at shorter intervals than this, and intervals of five or six hours are better, as they leave the stomach some time to rest. " 3. It should be taken in moderate quantity. In the activity of common life, excess is less to be dreaded than with the seden- tary habits and wearying pusuits of the teacher. . . . The exhaustion of teaching is that of the nervous power, and would seem to call for hours of quiet, and freedom from care, with cheerful conversation and the refreshment of air and gentle exercise. Probably all the kinds of food in general use are wholesome when partaken of moderately. Those who, from TEACHER'S CARE OF HIS HEALTH. 209 choice or compulsion, pass from an active to a sedentary life, should at the same time restrict themselves to a smaller quan- tity of food. "4. As a general rule /a^ should be avoided. . . . None but a person who uses a great deal of most active exercise, or is much exposed to cold, can long bear its use with impunity. If taken, fat in a solid form is less injurious than liquid fat. " 5. Fruit may be eaten with the recollection of the proverb of fruit-producing countries : 'It is gold in the morning, silver at noon, and lead at night.' Ripe fruit in its season is wholesome, and preferable for a person of sedentary habits, to more nourish- ing and exciting food. But it should be a substitute for other food, not an addition. A bad practice, common in some places, of eating fruit, especially the indigestible dried fruits, raisins, and nuts, in the evening, should be avoided by the teacher. He must have quiet and uninterrupted sleep, and early hours, to be patient^ gentle, and cheerful in school." The drink of a sedentary person should be chiefly water. If taken with meals it should be hot. During the process of diges- tion little or no drink should be taken ; if taken at all, it should not be very cold. After digestion is complete, the system is bene- fited by a reasonable supply of cold water. A cup of cold water an hour before meals tones and cleanses the stomach prepara- tory to receiving a fresh supply of food.* " 7. The last rule to be observed is, that no unnecessary exer- tion of mind or body should be used immediately after a meal. If a walk must be taken it should rather be a Msurely stroll than a hurried walk. "Dress.— The teacher should be no sloven. He should dress well, not over nicely, not extravagantly; neatly, for neatness he must teach by example as well as by precept; and warmly, for so many hours of the day shut in a warm room will make him unusually sensitive to cold. The golden rule of health should never be forgotten: 'Keep the head cool, the feet warm, and the * This paragraph is substituted for that of Mr. Emerson, in the belief that it is more in harmony with the present development of hygienic science, T. P.— ti 210 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. body free.' The dress of the feet is particularly important. Coldness or dampness of the feet causes headache, weakness and inflammation of the eyes, coughs, consumptions, and sometimes fevers. A headaclie is often cured by sitting with the feet long near a fire. Keeping the feet warm and dry alleviates the com- mon affections of the eyes, repels a coming fever, prevents or quiets coughs, and serves as one of the surest safeguards against consumption. Many of our most sensible physicians trace the prevalence of consumption in northern states, not to our climate, but to the almost universal custom of wearing insufficient cloth- ing, especially on the feet. <' There is another subject intimately connected with health, which has been alluded to, but which ought, from its importance, to receive more than a passing remark. It is cheerfulness. This should be one of the ends and measures of health. It ought to be considered the natural condition of a healthy mind ; he who is not cheerful is not in health. If he has not some manifest moral cause of melancholy, there must be something wrong in the body, or in the action of the powers of the mind. "A common cause of low spirits in a teacher, is anxiety in regard to the well-doing of his pupils. This he must feel; but he must endeavor, as far as possible, to banish it from his hours of relaxation. He must leave it behind him when he turns from the schoolhouse door. To prevent it haunting him, he must seek pleasant society. He must forget it among the endearments of home, the cheerful faces and kind voices of friends. This is the best of all resources, and happy is the man who has a pleasant home, in the bosom of which he may rest from labor and from care. If he be among strangers, he must endeavor to find or make friends to supply the place of home. He must seek the company of the parents and friends of his pupils, not only that he may not be oppressed by the loneliness of his situation, but that he may better understand the character of his pupils, and the influences to which they are subjected. The exercise of the social affections is essential to the healthy condition of a well- constii-vited mind. Often he will find good friends and pleasant TEACHER'S CARE OF HIS HEALTH. 211 companions among his pupils. Difference of years disappears before kindliness of feeling, and sympathy may exist between those most remote in age, and pursuit, and cultivation. "A delightful, but somewhat dangerous recreation is offered by music; delightful, as always soothing to the wearied mind; but dangerous, because liable to take to itself too much time. It would be desirable if every instructor could himself sing or play. If he cannot, let him listen to songs or cheerful music from voice or instrument, or to the notes of birds. " ' I'm sick of noise and care, and now mine ear Longs for some air of peace.'" CHAPTER XIII. teacher's relation to his profession. It has long been the opinion of the best minds in our country as well as in the most enlightened countries of Europe that teach- ing should be a profession. It has been alleged, and with much justice, that this calling, which demands for its successful exercise the best of talents, the most persevering energy, and the largest share of self-denial, has never attained an appreciation in the public mind at all commensurate with its importance. It has by no means received the emolument, either of money or honor, which strict justice would award in any other department to the talents and exertions required for this. This having been so long the condition of things, much of the best talent has been attracted at once to the other professions; or if exercised awhile in this, the temptation of more lucrative reward, or of more speedy, if not more lasting honor, has soon diverted it from teaching, where so little of either can be realized, to engage in some other depart- ment of higher promise. So true is this, that scarcely a man can be found, having attained to any considerable eminence as a teacher, who has not been several times solicited— and perhaps strongly tempted— to engage in some more lucrative employ- ment; and while there have always been some strong men, who have preferred teaching to any other calling, — men who would do honor to any profession, and who, while exercising this, have found that highest of all rewards, the consciousness of being use- ful to others, — still it must be confessed that teachers have too often been of just that class which a knowledge of the circum- stances might lead us to predict would engage in teaching; men of capacity too limited for the other professions, of a tempera- ment too sluggish to engage in the labors of active employment, and sometimes of manners too rude to be tolerated except in the (212) TEACHER'S RELATION TO HIS PROFESSION. 213 society of children. Thus two great evils have been mutually strengthening each other. The indifference of the employers to the importance of good teachers, and their parsimony in meting out the rewards of teaching, have called into the field large num- bers, in the strictest sense, unworthy of all reward; while this very unworthiness of the teachers has been made the excuse for further indifference, and if possible for greater meanness on the part of employers. Such has been the state of the case for many years past, and such is, to a great extent, the fact at present. It has been the ardent wish of many philanthropists that this deplorable state of affairs should be exchanged for a better. Hence they have urged that teaching should be constituted a profession ; that none should enter this profession but those who are thoroughly qualified to discharge the high trust; and, as a consequence, that the people should more liberally reward and honor those who are thus qualified and employed. This would indeed be a very desirable change; it would be the educational millennium of the world. For such a period we all may well devoutly pray. But how shall this glorious age — not yet arrived — be ushered in ? By whose agency, and by what happy instrumentality must its approach be hastened? Here, as in all great enterprises, there is some difference of opinion. Some have urged that the establishment of normal schools and other seminaries for the better education of teachers, and the institution of a more vigi- lant system of supervision, by which our schools should be effect- ually guarded against the intrusion of the ignorant and inefficient teacher, is all that is necessary to bring in this brighter day. Others have zealously urged that such preparation and such supervision are entirel}^ superfluous and premature in the present state of the public mind. They say that the public must first become more liberal in its appropriations for schools ; it must at once double the amount it has been accustomed to pay to teach- ers, and thus secure, without further trouble, the best talent to this vocation. To this the former class reply, that the public has seldom been known to raise its price, so long as its wants 214 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. could be supplied at the present rates. They say that the last century has afforded ample opportunity for the exhibition of this voluntary genei'osity of the public, and yet we still wait to see this anomaly in human prudence, of offering- in advance to pay double the price for the same thing ; for until better teachers a re raised up, it must be an advance upon the present stock. So there is a division among them, "for some cry one thing and some another." Now, I believe, in this case as in most others, the truth lies between the extremes. As the evil complained of is a mutual one, as has already been shown — that is, an illiberal public has tolerated incompetent teachers, and the incompetence of teachers has enhanced in turn the parsimony of the public,— so the remedy must be a mutual one; the public must be enlightened and teachers must be improved; the pay of teachers must be raised, but there must be also something to warrant the higher rate. Nor is it easy to determine which shall begin first. We can hardly expect the people to pay more till they find an article worth more; nor, on the other hand, can we expect the teachers to incur any considerable outlay to improve themselves, until better encouragement shall be held out to them by their employ- ers. The two must generally proceed together. Just as in the descending scale, there was a mutual downward tendency, so here, better service will command better pay, and in turn, the liberality of employers will stimulate the emplo^^ed to still higher attainments in knowledge and greater exertions in their labors. In this condition of things, the question recurs. What is the duty of teachers in relation to their calling? I answer, they are bound to do what they can to elevate it. Lord Bacon said, "Every man owes a debt to his profession." Teachers being- supposed to be more intelligent than the mass of the community, may justly take the lead in the work of progress. They should, as a matter of duty, take hold of this work,— a work of sacri- fice and self-denial as it will be, at least for some time,— and heartily do what they can to magnify their office and make it honorable. In the meantime they may do what they can to TEACHER'S RELATION TO HIS PROFESSION. 215 arouse the people to a sense of their duty. The more enlightened are to some extent with them already. The press, the pulpit, the legislative assemblies, all proclaim that something must be done. All admit the faithful teacher has not been duly rewarded, and some are found who are willing to do something for the improve- ment both of the mind and condition of the teacher. This is encouraging; and while we rejoice at the few gleams of light that betoken our dawning, let us inquire, for a little space, how we can hasten the " coming in of the perfect day." SECTION I. —SELF-CULTURE. The teacher should labor diligently to improve himself. —This is a duty incumbent on all persons, but particularly upon the teacher. The very nature of his employment demands that his mind should be frequently replenished from the storehouses of knowledge. To interest children in their studies, how necessary is it that the teacher's mind should be thoroughly furnished with the richest thoughts of the wise ; to inspire them with a desire to learn, how important that he should be a living example of the advantage and enjoyment which learning alone can bestow; to strew the path of knowledge with flowers, and thus make it the path of pleasantness, how desirable that he should abound with the aptest illustrations drawn from all that is wonderful and curious in nature and art; to awaken the young mind to a con- sciousness of its capacities, its wants, its responsibilities, how thoroughly should he know all the workings of the human soul,— how wisely and carefully should he touch the springs of action,— how judiciously should he call to his aid the conscience and the religious feelings! Besides, let it be remembered that in this as in other things, the teacher's example is of great importance. The young will be very likely to judge of the importance of their own improvement by the estimate the teacher practically places upon his; nor can he with any good grace press his pupils to exertion, while they see that he makes none whatever himself. There is great danger, in the midst of the confinement and 216 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. fatigue of the schoolroom, and the pressure of anxiety and care out of school, that the teacher will yield to the temptations of his position, and fall into habits of indolence as to his own improve- ment. Compelled, as he often is, to labor at great disadvantage, by reason of a small and poorly furnished schoolroom ; confined through the day from the sunshine and the fresh breeze; subjected to a constant pressure of duty amid untold trials of his patience, arising from the law that impels children to be active as well as inconsiderate; required to concentrate his powers upon the double duty of governing and teaching at the same instant, and all through the session, — it is not strange, when the hour of release comes, that he should seek rest or recreation at the near- est point, even to the neglect of his own mental or moral culture. I am of the opinion that this accounts for the fact that so many persons enter the work of instruction, and continue in it for a longer or shorter period, without making the slightest progress either in the art of teaching or in their own intellectual growth. Their first school indeed is often their best. This tendency, or temptation, incident to the calling, it is the teacher's duty con- stantly and manfully to resist. He can do it. 1. He has the time to do it.—B.e is usually required to spend but six hours in the day in the schoolroom. Suppose he add two hours more for the purpose of looking over his lessons and devis- ing plans for improving his school,— he will still have sixteen hours for sleep, exercise, recreation, and improvement. Eight hours are sufficient for sleep, especially for a sedentary man (some say less), and four will provide for meals, exercise, and recreation. Four still remain for improvement. Any teacher who is systematic and economical in the use of his time, can reserve for the purpose of his own improvement four hours in every twenty-four, and this without the slightest detriment to his school duties, or to his health. To be sure he must lead a regu- lar life. He must have a plan, and systematically follow it. He must be punctual, at his school, at his meals, at his exercise or recreation, at his hour of retiring and rising, and at his studies. Nor should he ordinarily devote more time than I have mentioned TEACHER'S RELATION TO HIS PROFESSION. 217 directly to his school. He should labor with his whole soul while he does work, and he will the more heartily do this, if he has had time to think of something else during the season of respite from labor. It is a great mistake that teachers make when they think they shall be more successful by devoting all their thoughts to their schools. Very soon the school comes to occupy their sleep- ing as well as waking hours, and troublesome dreams disturb the repose of night. Such men must soon wear out. But according to the laws of our nature, by a change of occu- pation, the jaded faculties find rest. By taking up some new sub- ject of inquiry, the intellect is relieved from the sense of fatigue which before oppressed it, the thoughts play freely again, the animation returns, the eye kindles, and the mind expands. 2. Such labor finds immediate reward.— The consciousness of growth is no small thing towards encouraging the teacher. He feels that he is no longer violating his nature by allowing himself to stagnate. Then he will find every day that he can apply the newly-acquired truth to the illustration of some principle he is attempting to teach. He has encouraging and immediate proof that he is a better teacher and that he has made himself so by timely exertion. He is thus again stimulated to rise above those temptations before described, — this immediate availability of his acquirements being vouchsafed to the teacher, as it is not to most men, in order to prompt him to stem the current which resists his progress. And now, if I have shown that a teacher is bound to improve himself, both from a regard to his own well-being and the influ- ence of his example upon others, —and if I have also shown that he can improve himself, I may be indulged in making a few sug- gestions as to the manner of his doing it. 1. He should have a course of professional reading. — It will do much for his improvement to read the works of those who have written on the subject of education and the art of teaching. If possible he should collect and possess a small educational library. The literature of the teaching profession is becoming quite 218 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. Yoluminons, and much of it is of a highly commendable char- acter. It may be roughly separated into three divisions on the basis of the general purpose it will serve; viz.: 1. The literature of information. 2. The literature of inspiration. 3. The literature of power. The first division contains works on the history of education and of educational systems, such as Compayre's "History of Pedagogy;" Painter's "History of Education;" Boone's " His- tory of Education in the United States;" Hailman's "Lectures on Education;" Quick's "Essays on Educational Reformers;" Gill's "Systems of Education," etc. The importance to the teacher of the history of what has been accomplished in the educational field, can hardly be over-estimated. Without such knowledge he is likely to expend his energies in discovering for himself what had long before been found out for him, or in copy- ing obsolete models that have long since been discarded by the advance guard of the profession. On the other hand, if he thoroughly informs himself ns to the latest and best achieve- ments, he may, on that basis, make improvements or discover something new, and so make some real contribution toward the advancement of the profession. Or, if he can add nothing new, he can, at least, practice and propagate the best that is known. Meanwhile his pupils are saved from much of the damage arising from ignorant experiment, or blind copyism. The second division consists chiefly of educational biography, and contains such works as Laurie's "John Amos Comenius;" Krusi's ''Life of Pestalozzi;" "The Life and Work of Froebel;" the "Life of Thomas Arnold;" the "Life of Horace Mann;" the " Life of Mary Lyon," and others. Surely the teacher, if anyone, needs something to cheer and inspire him in the midst of petty details, and the humdrum of daily routine, and to lift him into the clear atmosphere of high ideals and holy purposes. And what better means for securing such moral elevation can he find than the contemplation of the struggles and triumphs of the heroes and heroines of his own profession? TEACHER'S RELATION TO HIS PROFESSION. 219 In the third division are works on Educational Psychology, the Science of Education, the Science of Teaching, the Science of Method, etc., snch as Dewey's "Psychology;" Sully's "Outlines of Psychology;" Spencer's " Education;" Joseph Payne's "Science and Art of Education;" Rosenkranz's "Philosophy of Educa- tion;" Bain's "Education as a Science;" Hailman's Froebel's "Education of Man;" Greenwood's "Principles of Education Practically Applied;" Horace Mann's "Lectures on Education," and those of D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson; Bain's "Education as a Science;" Thring's "Theory and Practice of Teaching;" Fitch's "Lectures on Teaching;" Landon's "School Manage- ment ;" Thompson's "School Management;" DeGarmo's "Essen- tials of Method," and many others. The teacher, by knowing the nature and laws of the child's mind, the springs that move its powers to action, the proper order of these activities, the appropriate stimulus for the healthy action and growth of each, and the correct method of applying the stimulus, will have, so far as knowledge can give it to him, the elements of teaching power. Besides the works classified in these three lists, there are many, each of which contains more or less that is instructive and valu- able in all lines indicated. Among them may be mentioned Rousseau's "Emile;" Abbott's "The Teacher;" Pestalozzi's " Leonard and Gertrude," and " How Gertrude Teaches Her Chil- dren;" Laurie's "Primary Instruction," and "The Training of Teachers;" Miss Martineau's "Household Education;" Thomp- son's "Day Dreams of a Schoolmaster;" and a single work that sums up the information, inspiration, and power of many others, is "The Teacher in Literature," issued by the publishers of this volume. The teacher should have access, also, to such general works as Kiddle and Schem's " Cycloxjsedia of Education," and the writ- ings of Locke, Wyse, Cousin, Lalor, and Lord Brougham on Education. That he may keep in touch with the educational movements of his own day, the teacher should read some good educational 220 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. journal. The amount of magazine literature devoted to tho profession has become so considerable, and the number of strong educational articles appearing in the metropolitan magazines is so great, that he has ample opportunity for such reading. It is not to be expected that every teacher will possess all these, or that he will read them all in a single term. But it is well to hold converse with other minds, and to have it in our power to review their best thoughts whenever our own need refreshing. I have given a somewhat extended list of books because the inquiry is now so often made by teachers what they shall read. 2. By pursuing systematically a course of general study.— Many teachers who have a desire to improve themselves, still fritter away their time upon little miscellaneous matters, with- out making real progress. It is well in this to have a plan. Let some one study,— it m.ay be geology, or astronomy, or chemis- try, or botany, or the pure mathematics,— let some one study receive constant attention till no mean attainments have been made in it. By taking one thing at a time and diligently pursu- ing it, at the end of a term the teacher feels that he has some- thing to show for his labor,— and he is, by the advance already made, prepared to take the next and more difficult step. In a course of years while a neighbor who began teaching at the same time, has been stagnating, or even retrograding for the want of a plan and a purpose, a diligent man, by sj^stem and persever- ance, may make himself at least equal to many who have en- joyed better advantages in early life, and at the same time have the superadded enjoyment of feeling that he has been his own teacher. 3. Keep a journal or common-place book. — The habit of composing daily is very valuable to the teacher. In this book he may record whatever plans he has devised, with their results in practice. He may enter remarkable cases of discipline, — in short, anything which in the course of his practice he finds interesting. Those valuable suggestions which he receives from others, or hints that he may derive from books, may be epitomized here, TEACHER'S RELATION TO HIS PROFESSION. 221 and thus be treasured up for future reference. Sometimes one's best thoughts fade from his own mind, and he has no power to recall them. Such a book would preserve them, and would more- over show the character of one's thoughts at any particular period, and the progress of thought, from one period to another, better than any other means.* To these means of self-culture I would add the practice of care- fully reading and writing on chosen subjects, more fully described in the chapter on Habits of the Teacher. By all these means and such others as may come within his reach, if a teacher succeeds in his attempts at progress, he does much for his profession. The very fact that he has given practi- cal demonstration that a man may teach and still improve; that the temptations of his profession may be resisted and overcome; that the life of the pedagogue, which has required him to keep the company of small minds, and to be occupied with minute objects, has never prevented his holding communion with the greatest men our earth has known, nor circumscribed in the least the sphere of his grasping research, — I say the very fact that he has thus shown what a man may do under such circumstances, may do much to encourage others to like effort. But there are other and direct duties which he owes to his profession, which I proceed to consider under the head of SECTION II.— MUTUAL AID. Every teacher should be willing to impart as well as to receive good. No one, whatever may be his personal exertions, can monopolize all the wisdom of the world. The French have a proverb that "Everybody is wiser than anybody." Acting on this principle, the teacher should be willing to bring his attain- ments into the common stock, and to diffuse around him as far as he is able the light he possesses. I have no language with which to express my abhorrence of that selfishness, which prompts a man, after attaining to some eminence as a teacher by the free *For further remarks on the Common-place Book, see chap, vii, p. 98, note. 222 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. use of all the means within his reach, self-complacently to stand aloof from his fellow teachers, as if he would say, " Brethren, help yourselves — I have no need of you, and you have no claim upon me. I have toiled hard for my eminence, and the secret is with me. I will enjoy it alone. When you have toiled as long, you may be as wise. Brethren, help yourselves." Such a spirit would perhaps be tolerated by the world in an avaricious man, who had labored to treasure up the shining dust of earth. But no man may innocently monopolize knowledge. The light of the sun is shed in golden refulgence upon, every man, and no one if he would, may separate a portion for his own exclusive use, by clos- ing his shutters about him — for that moment his light becomes darkness. It is thus with the light of knowledge. Like the air we breathe, or like the rain from heaven, it should be free to all. The man who would lock up the treasures of learning from the gaze of the whole world, whether in the tomes of some dusty library, as of old it was done, or in the recesses of his nar- rower soul, is unworthy of the name of man; he certainly has not the spirit of the teacher. An exclusive spirit may be born where meaner things, as houses, and lands, and gold, are at stake; but in education and religion — light and love,— where giving doth not impoverish nor withholding make rich, there is not even the shadow of an excuse for it. The man who is exclusive in these things, would be so, I fear, in heaven. How can teachers encourage each other? 1. By mutual visitation. — Very much maybe done by social intercourse. Two teachers can scarcely converse together an hour without benefiting each other. The advantages of inter- course with friends, as delineated by Dr. Young, may not be denied to teachers. "Hast thou no friend to set thy mind abroach? Good sense will stagnate. Thoughts shut up want air, And spoil Hke bales unopened to the sun. Had thought been all, sweet speech had been denied. TEACHER'S RELATION TO HIS PROFESSION. 223 Thought, too, delivered, is the more possessed; Teaching:, we learn; and giving, we retain The births of intellect; when dumb, forgot Speech ventilates our intellectual fire; Speech burnishes our mental magazine, Brightens for ornament and whets for use." But not only should teachers visit one another,— it is profit- able also for them to visit eaeli other's schools. I have never spent an hour in the school of another without gaining some instruction. Sometimes a new way of illustrating a difficult point, sometimes an exhibition of tact in managing a difficult case in discipline, sometimes an improved method of keeping up the interest in a class, would suggest the means of making my own labors the more successful. And even should one's neighbor be a bad teacher, one may sometimes learn as much from wit- nessing glaring defects as great excellencies. Some of the most profitable lessons I have ever received, have been drawn from the deficiencies of a fellow teacher. We seldom "see ourselves as others see us; " and we are often insensible of our own faults till we have seen them strikingly exhibited by another ; and then by a comparison we correct our own. Besides, by a visitation of a friend's school we may not only receive good, but we may impart it. If there is mutual confi- dence, a few words may aid him to correct his faults, if he has any,— faults which but for such suggestion might grow into confirmed habits, to his permanent injury. So important is this mutual visitation among teachers as a means of improvement, that I doubt not employers would find it for their interest to encourage it by allowing the teachers to set apart an occasional half day for this purpose. It would, moreover, be very useful for the teachers of a town to hold stated meetings, as often as once a month, for the pur- pose of mutual improvement. It would cultivate a fellow-feeling among them, and it would afford them an opportunity to exchange thoughts on most of the difficulties which they meet in their schools, and the best methods of surmounting them. At 224 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. these meetings, a mutnal exchange of books on the subject of teaching, would extend the facilities of each for improving his own mind and his methods of instruction and government. 2. By the use of the pen. — Every teacher should be a ready writer. Nearly every teacher could gain access to the columns of some paper, through which he could impart the results of his experience, or of his reflection. Such a course w^ould benefit him specially, and at the same time it would awaken other minds to thought and action. In this way the attention, not only of teachers, but parents, would be called to the great w^ork of edu- cation. One mind in this w^ay might move a thousand. If a teacher does not feel qualified to instruct, then let him inquire, and thus call out the wisdom of others. This could be done in near] 3^ every village. The press is almost always ready to promote the cause of education. By the use of it, teachers may profitably discuss all the great questions pertaining to their duty, and at the same time enlighten the community in which they live. This is an instrumentality as yet too little employed. 3. By Teachers' Associntions or Institutes.— The purpose of the Teachers' Institute, whether it be the County Institute of one or two weeks, or the Township Institute of one or two days, must not be mistaken. It cannot properly loe regarded as an occasion for greatly extending the teacher's information concerning the history of his profession, nor for increasing, materially, his scho- lastic knowledge of the subjects he is to teach; but rather as "times of refreshing," when new inspiration is received, and teaching power is multiplied. The aim of those who instruct in Institutes should be to state and explicate general principles, and to unfold rational methods, such that the teachers can carry them at once into successful practice in their daily work. The Institute has been, and still continues to be an instrumen- tality of very great value to the profession in generating a pro- fessional spirit and developing teaching power, and no common school teacher who ignores it can hope to long keep his place in the progressive ranks. These are peculiarly adapted to the TEACHER'S RELATION TO HIS PROFESSION. 225 diffusion of the best plans of instruction. Rightly conducted, they can never fail of being useful. Every man who lectures or teaches, is profited by the preparation. If he is a man of wisdom and experience, he will benefit his hearers. If otherwise, the discus- sion, which should ever follow a lecture, will expose its fallacies. It has often happened in such associations, that an honest and experienced man has, in a half hour, given to the younger portion of the members, lessons of wisdom which it would take them years to learn by their own observation. Errors in principle and practice have been exposed, into which many a young teacher was unconsciously falling, and hints have been given to the quicker minds, by which their own modes of teaching and gov- erning have been speedily improved. As far as possible, such meetings should be made strictly prac- tical. The older teachers, who usually have the most to do with the management of them, should bear in mind that they are mainly designed to diffuse practical ideas of teaching, particu- larly among the younger members. Too often, these meetings are made the arena of debate upon questions of very little practical importance to the teacher. I have seen a body of men spend an entire session of a half day, in discussing a series of overwrought resolutions, upon some topic scarcely at all connected with any duty of the teacher, frequently leaving the main question to wrangle about some point of order, or of '' parliamentary usage;" and after the resolutions were passed or rejected, as the case might be— (and it was of very little consequence whether ''car- ried'' or "lost"),— the ladies and younger teachers who had borne no part in the talk, would find it difficult to tell ''where- fore they had come together." Nothing had been said or done by which they could be aided in their schools. Lecturers, too, have frequently mistaken their aim. Ambitious to shine out as literary men, they have given orations instead of practical les- sons. In these meetings, it seems to me, nothing ostentatious, nothing far-fetched is what we need ; but rather the modes and experience of practical men. We need to come down to the schoolroom, to the everyday business of the teacher, and thus T. P.— 15 226 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. prepare him to do his work more successfully on his return to his duties. Another, and no inconsiderable advantage of such associa- tions, is, that the teacher gains encouragement and strength, by being thus brought in contact with others engaged in the same pursuit. Toiling on alone, in his isolated district, sur- rounded by obstacles and discouragements, weighed down by care, and finding none to sympathize with him, he is almost ready to faint in his course, and perhaps to abandon his calling. At this crisis, he reads the notice for the teachers' meeting, and he resolves to go up once more to the gathering of his friends. From the various parts of the county, from the populous and crowded city, and from the byways of the country towns, a goodly number collect together and greet each other. Smile answers to smile, the blood courses more freely through the veins, the spirits, long depressed perhaps, partake of the general glow, and each feels that he is not toiling alone. He feels that a noble brotherhood of kindred spirits are laboring in the same field, under trials and discouragements similar to those which have oppressed him. He derives new strength from the S3^mpa- thy of friends. A professional ieeling is engendered, which will accompany him to his schoolroom ; and when he goes home, it is with renewed vigor and fresh aspirings to be a better man, and a better teacher. He labors with more confidence in himself ; and, enlight- ened by what he has seen and heard, he is far more successful than before. His pupils, too, respond to the new^ life they see enkindling in him, and go to their work more cheerfully. One difficulty after another vanishes, and he begins to think teach- ing, after all, is not the worst employment in the world, but that it has some flowers as well as thorns ; and he concludes to remain in the profession. This has been the history of at least one man. Long may many others have occasion to exercise gratitude like his, for the enjoyment of similar privileges. TEACHER'S RELATION TO HIS PROFESSION. 227 I ouglit not to leave this subject without a word or two of caution. 1. Be honest.— In all your intercourse with your fellow-teach- ers, be careful to use the words of "truth and soberness." In stating your experience, never allow your fancy to embellish your facts. Of this there is great danger. The young are sometimes tempted to tell a good story ; but a deviation from the truth— always perilous, and always wrong— may be peculiarly disastrous here. Experience overstated, may egregiously mislead the unwary inquirer after truth. Never over-color the picture; it is better to err on the other side. So, likewise, in exhibiting your school to fellow-teachers, be strictly honest. They come to learn from your everyday prac- tice, and not from a counterfeit ; and whenever you dress your school in a showy garb, to win the applause of a fellow-teacher, you do him a great injustice. You may not please your friend so much by your ordinary mode, as by something assumed for the occasion; but you may profit him far more; and in the end, you lose nothing by pursuing the line of duty. I well remember, that a somewhat distinguished teacher once vis- ited my own school, who, on going away, expressed himself some- what disappointed, because he did not see anything " extraordi- nary,^' as he said, in my mode of procedure. The truth was, nothing extraordinary was attempted. He saw what I wished to show him, an ordinary day's work ; for I had before that time imbibed the opinion, that a man's reputation will be more firmly established, by sustaining every day a fair mediocrity, than it ever can be by an attempt to outdo himself on a few special occasions. As the value of biographical writing is often very much diminished, because the writer has endeavored to paint his character too perfect to he human,— so these visitations will lose their utility, whenever, by substituting hollow pretension for sober reality, the teacher endeavors to exhibit such a school as he does not daily keep. 2. A void servile imitation of any model.— It is often remarked, that every man's plan is the best for him; and that many besides 228 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE^ David can never fight in Saul's armor. This is generally true. All experience, then, should be considered, in connection with the circumstances under which it was tried, never forgetting the character and genius of the person who relates it. What might succeed in his hand, may fail in yours; particularly, as you will lack the interest of an original inventor. The true secret lies in listening to the views of all, and then in making a judicious combination to meet your own character, and your own circumstances. It is often better to adjust and adapt the plan of another, than to adopt it. Servile imitation precludes thought in the teacher, and reduces him to a mere machine. The most successful teachers I have ever known, were those who would listen attentively to the plans and experience of others, and then strike out a course for themselves, attempting that, and that only, which they were confident they could suc- cessfully execute. 3. Avoid undue self-sutSciencj. — Men usually cease to learn when they think they are wise enough. The teacher is in danger of falling into this error. Moving for the most part among chil- dren, where his decisions are seldom questioned, he is very apt to attach undue importance to his own opinions. Such a man meets his fellows with much self-complacency, and is but poorly pre- pared to be profited by the views of others. But the teacher sliould never cease to be teachable. There are very few men too old, or too wise to learn something; and they are the wisest if not the oldest, who are willing to welcome a real improvement, even though it should come from comparative ' ' babes and suck- lings," out of whose mouths God has sometimes perfected praise. CHAPTER XIV. MUTUAL DUTIES OF PARENTS AND TEACHERS. It is a matter of deep regret, that a profession, which affords so extensive a field for usefuhiess as the teacher's should be so generally crowded with difficulties and discouragements, as to compel a large portion of the talent, which might otherwise be engaged in it to seek employment and distinction elsewhere. In high hopes and with flowing spirits, many a young man enters upon the business of instructing, carrying to the work a well-, furnished mind, and a large share of zeal,— when suddenly and unaccountably to himself, he finds that he is surrounded by trials he had never foreseen,— troubles which have come without his seek- ing, and of such a nature as to render his situation anything but desirable. He does what his ingenuity and his own warm, fresh heart suggest to remove the evils ; but, though he may change the place, he too often still keeps the pain. A few weeks, or per- haps months, pass heavily away in vain attempts to find some mitigation of his difficulties; his days being spent in patience- trying effort, and his nights disturbed by dreams of the future, which are but a literal transcript of the past; or if they take not their form from the finished day, they still can hardly be so extravagant as to be beyond the probability of fulfillment on the morrow. Between his waking and his sleeping labors,— his rest being a toil, and his toil a pain,— finding daily his strength fail- ing him, his flesh wasting away, his health suffering, and his soul sinking, he determines to have relief^ not,, however, by com- mitting suicide, for that would violate the law of nature and the law of God; but by the abandoninent of his profession, which neither violates that instinct, teaching that "self-preservation is the first law of nature," nor that passage of Scripture which declares, that "if any provide not for his own, he hath denied (229) 230 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. the faith, and is worse than an infidel." This probably is in substance the historj^ of more than one half of those who com- mence school - teaching with a view to make it a permanent profession. There are others, however, who have nerve enough to outlive their first six months, and who devote themselves unremittingly to their labors for a longer period ; but very few among these ever become so attached to their chosen employment as to be unwilling to leave it for some other occupation, which may offer; an expedient which, we believe, almost every professional teacher has taken into his calculations for the future, and to which he looks forward with no very particular reluctance. The profession of the teacher is certainly an important one; it should be a happy one. The adverse influences should be removed, and the teacher should be left free to devise his own plans, and to find his enjoyment in witnessing the success attend- ant upon their execution. We would not ask for greater emolu- ment,— though considering the fact, that a teacher's best years are spent in his duties, and when his best years are passed away, an enlightened community usually judges him not only unfit for school-keeping, but for everything else, we are constrained to believe, that the matter of compensation has been little enough thought of. We would not ask for greater respect and attention; we believe, that in general, the in- structor has received his share of these, in proportion to his merits. But we should ask for sympathy; for soul-cheering sympathy on the part of the parents of those we are called to instruct; we would plead for their aid as far as the}^ can assist us, and then we could go to the work at least with some gleam- ings of encouragement. We have spoken of the difficulties of the school-teacher. It is not our purpose to 'enter into a detailed enumei*ation of these; it is sufficient, perhaps, for us to allege, that n hirge part of them have their origin in the want of co-operation, or the wis- directed influence of the parentis. Nor shall we on this occasion labor to arrange proofs of this MUTUAL DUTIES OF PARENTS AND TEACHERS. 231 position. It is a remark among teachers, as common as house- hold words, that "school-keeping might be a delightful employ- ment, if one could take his pupils entirely out of the reach of their parents." The experience of those who have had charge of acade- mies in the country, where the pupils chiefly were away from their own homes, goes to establish the same point; and any one, who has attentively watched the course of events in one of those impor- tant communities which we call a school district, cannot have failed to draw the conclusion to which we have come. We would not, however, advocate the removal of the young from their parents for the purposes of education, except in extreme cases. We believe that our Creator has wisely established the family relation, and that it is our duty to draw out and render available its uses, rather than by extinction of the relation to destroy its abuses. We believe, indeed, that the child can be best educated among those of his own kindred, provided parents and teachers can by any means be made to understand one another's relative duties and obligations. Between parties, who are so often brought into collision, it is highly desirable there should exist some well defined mutual understanding. In many of our public schools the usefulness of one teacher after another is effectually destroyed; the youth not only suffering from the interruption of their studies, but also from the angry looks and harsh words witnessed at home, the parents meantime working themselves up into the exercise of bad feeling, where, perhaps nothing is designed but good. There are often parents, who feel sufficiently the importance of education, whose impulses are sufficiently powerful, if only moved in the right direction, to carry them into the performance of every good word and work. They make, it may be, liberal appropriations for the support of their schools,— but after all, the atmosphere is unhealthy. One sun after another rises upon them, only to raise the vapor and the mildew,— and shorn of their beams and robbed of their warmth, they go down in clouds and tempests, w'hile the district over which they have passed is left in still greater dark- ness, and the chill and the gloom of a winter's midnight yet hang 232 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. over them, perhaps only to be again made more visible by the rising of another luckless luminary. But why is this? Why all this waste of strength, of money, and of talent? Why so often must the teacher on the one hand, and the parent on the other, row in opposite directions? Let us inquire into the causes of the difficulty, and then we may hope the better to adopt a prevention or devise a remedy. What, then, are some of the causes of misunderstanding between parents and teachers? 1. Parents do not sufficiently feel the importance of schools. — After all that has been said in our halls of legislation, in our political assemblies, in oui* public journals, and in our pulpits, upon the importance to a free and independent people, of a good education, there are many, very many, who have no ade- quate notion of its value. This lack of appreciation will show itself in many ways, to make the duties of the teacher more arduous. One man keeps his son from the school on the slight- est occasion; another, by the same spirit, refuses to furnish the various facilities, which the teacher may deem necessary for the prosecution of study. Now while such is the state of feeling in the parent's mind, the business of instructing his child, who will most assuredly partake of his fathei*'s spirit, will be more arduous than the making of bricks and furnishing the straw under the taskmasters of the Egyptian monarch. 2. A false standard of excellence and attainment for our schools in the minds of parents, is another source of much diffi- culty and inconvenience to the teacher. The standard of their own attainments and of the school of their boyhood is put, by many parents, for the youth and schools of the present day. They seem not to reflect that a child, in order to maintain his comparative standing in society now, must know more than if he had lived fifty years ago, — because the progress in education, without claiming much for the "march of intellect," having kept pace in some ratio with other things, the whole body of the people are more advanced. Having in view a standard so low, the parent grudgingly furnishes the books and apparatus, which MUTUAL DUTIES OF PARENTS AND TEACHERS. 233 may be needed to carry his son beyond his own level, — and he sees no beauty or fitness in the plans and measures of the teacher, so unlike the instructor of his own early years. He has serious objection to all classification in the school, because, as he says, he studied "single-handed,"' — and he is unwilling his child should be compelled, by any such "machinery," to go beyond the limits prescribed in his own mind. 3. A suspicious spirit on the part of the parents, is another cause of misunderstanding. So universally does this operate on the minds of parents — induced, perhaps, by some failure or deception in a former teacher — that, for some weeks, in many districts, they seem to stand on the opposite side, to watch for the appearance of some fault. It would seem to be their motto — " we will believe no good till we see it." The children, always ready imitators and quick of discernment, catch the same spirit, and watch for some imperfection, which they feel encour- aged to report at home as soon as they see it, or think they see it. Faults, then, and not excellencies, make the first impression both at school and at home; and that teacher, under such cir- cumstances, must be a wonderful man and wonderfully fortunate, if he can ever attain to a good degree of their confidence, — which, if gained, must be gained after long trial, patient effort, yet so as by fire. 4. A disposition to dictate, is another cause of the diflSculty. In New England, men often have some adroitness in various kinds of business. The farmer, for instance, if he be a true Yankee, may at the same time be a carpenter, a wheelwright, a shoemaker, and a blacksmith — for all his own purposes. If he do not operate in all these departments, he feels perfectly at liberty to direct how the work shall be performed for him. So most parents feel disposed to give lessons to the schoolmaster. If they call a physician, he may administer to his patient either calomel or lobelia, as he chooses ; but the teacher must first hear their direction in his profession. And the most unfortunate part of it is, that the dictation usually comes to the teacher through the pupil, who, by the time he delivers his message, has pretty 234 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. thoroughly imbibed the spirit of it, — and what part of it might be yielded by the parent, is sure to be insisted on as a matter of right by the child. 5. A want of personal acquaintance between the parties.— Teachers, in many of our schools, spend months, and in some instances years with youth, whose parents they have never known. The parents during this time, have probably formed their opinion of the teacher, perhaps have expressed it freely either for or against him, and yet, have never spoken a word with him, and very likely may not even know him by sight. They can understand but little of his character, of his temper, or of his interest in his school. All they can know of him is derived through their children,— a knowledge which, to say the most for it, may be right or it may be wrong. Let us not, however, be understood to place all the causes of these evils at the door of the parents. We say it with sorrow- teachers have too often rendered themselves unworthy of the con- fidence and co-operation of parents. It must be admitted, how^- ever humbling the fact, that the otfice of the teacher has not unfrequently been filled with the personification of indolence, selfishness and imbecility. Men have sometimes entered upon the business of teaching from no higher motive than their inca- pacity to gain a livelihood in any other way. Through the supineness of school committees, and the misdirected sympathy of some of their influential friends, there have been not a few men, who have gained their situations by the paper qualifications which they carried in their pocket-books, and who, so far as use- fulness in their schools was concerned, might as well have been themselves paper men. The regular teacher, too, may have his faults. He may have but little in his character which is attractive or conciliatory. He may be too self-sufficient, too pedantic, or too haughty. He may announce his plans without any apparent wish to explain them, should he be reasonably requested to do so. He may be an off-sided man. If the people among whom he resides put the wheel in motion and excite the electric fluid, he may refuse to MUTUAL DUTIES OF PARENTS AND TEACHERS. 235 hold the conductor, and 8o no spark would be kindled. Should they bow in the street, he may " set his face like flint" and "let his course be right onward," and thus chill all their good feelings in the very bud, and seal up by a relentless frost all the fountains of mutual sociality. Where the foregoing causes exist they must always produce a most unhappy state of things ; and the teacher who attempts to go forwai'd while they operate, will most certainly " rue the day " when he first set his face upon school-keeping. It is desirable all should understand the means of avoiding these evils, if they do not exist, or of removing them where they have gained a place. In education, as in all other things, prevention is more valua- ble than cure. The teacher will, therefore, spare himself many pangs, and secure the foundation of much usefulness, if he can so conduct matters, as to prevent the existence of any cause of difficulty between himself and the parents of his pupils. This business of prevention lies partly with the teacher, and partly wuth the parents themselves. We are now prepared, in consideration of these mutual defi- ciencies, to enter more particularly into the subject. We shall, for the sake of arrangement, treat of the duties of each party separatel3", and shall commence with the DUTIES OF THE TEACHER. 1. He should imbue himself with a feeling of the importance of his work. — If he would gain the confidence of his employers, he must be prepared to show to them evidence of a living interest in his profession. But this cannot be shown unless it be deeply felt. In contemplating his duty, the teacher should form elevated conceptions of his sphere of action, and he should aim at nothing less than such an ascendency over the minds of his pupils, as will enable him to govern, to instruct, and to elevate them as mortal beings, as these several acts should be done.* * The reader is referred to sections i,ii, iii and iv, of chapter xi,for wliat is here omitted. 236 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. He should study faithfully and feelingly the relations he sus- tains to his pupils and their friends ; he should carefully perform every known duty in its time and after its manner, according to the dictates of his own conscience. Let him do this, and he can be happy in his own mind. Yet, when he has done all he can do, the question of his success will depend very much upon the parents of the scholars. They must come forward and crown the work, or very much will, after all, be wanting. Let us, then, devote a few pages to the consideration of the DUTIES OF PARENTS. On entering this part of the subject, we feel an impulse to speak plainly and feelingly. We have had years of feeling on this sub- ject, and, if we have not always felt right, w^e certainly have, at times, felt intensely. It will be difficult to define all the duties of parents. It will be our object to speak of such as most strongly suggest themselves to our mind. 1. Parents should reciprocate the attempts of the teacher toward a mutual understanding. — \t will discourage the most faithful instructor, if at the outset, he meets with coldness and unconcern. The parents should never forget, that the teacher is their appointed coadjutor for the time being, to educate their children, — and as they love their offspring and desire their ad- vantage, so they should be ready to encourage all the advances which he may make toward the better understanding of their wishes and intentions, and the explanation of his plans. 2. Parents should candidly listen to the plans of the teacher, and, unless they are manifestly wrong, should do all in their power to aid him in the execution of them. — We say unless they are manifestly wrong. Many parents suppose, if a teacher's modes and plans are not the best, in their opinion the very best, they are under no obligation to help them forward. But we say, every teacher may not have the wisdom to devise abstractly the best plans (for all teachers are not alike), yet most likely such as he will devise, will be the best for him. He has taken much time, and after long solicitude and many desires to be useful, he MUTUAL DUTIES OF PARENTS AND TEACHERS. 237 has fixed upon a course — one, which, under all the circumstances, may seem to bini the best. Now suppose this course should chance to strike the parents' minds unfavorably ; shall they at once aban- don the teacher, give up all hope of benefit from the school, and withdraw their co-operation? Is it not rather their duty, either to suggest a ''more excellent way," which they may ever do, if they have a right spirit, or to give their co-operation in carrying out his plans— such as they are? The teacher, be it remembered, is appointed to conduct the school for the time, and unless his services and his plans, however inferior they may be, are ren- dered useful, the youth are, for the time, to be the losers. Parents may be as particular as they please in the choice of their teacher, and in requiring the highest rate of qualifications ; but after they have appointed him their teacher, they cannot, without a breach of contract, withhold from him their co-operation. If they have been imposed upon — if the incumbent is found to be absolutely incompetent for his office, they may decently dismiss him, and employ another, — but to continue a teacher in office, in whom they have no confidence, and whom, they refuse to aid, is a breach of good faith; it is a violation of the axiom that "two wrongs can never make a right." As a general rule, we repeat it, the teacher's own plans will be found decidedly the best for him, — and it is no good policy for parents, upon slight causes, to attempt an obtrusive interfer- ence. The right of adopting his own measures, as a general thing, should be conceded to the teacher; and all parents will find their own interest promoted and their children's advance- ment accelerated, in cheerfully aiding him. 3. They should thank full j listen to the teacher ^s faithful account of their children, even if that account be not a flattering one. — We have before said, that the teacher should be frank, always telling the parents the whole truth, and nothing but the truth. This must sometimes of itself, be an unpleasant duty. It is self- denying enough for the teacher to make an unfavorable state- ment demanded by his dutj^, under the best circumstances, — and the trial is peculiarly severe when the parent receives it with 238 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE, expressions of displeasure, or perhaps, of undisguised reproach. Nothing should deter the teacher, however, from the faithful dis- charge of this duty, — but we do say, he has a just right to expect cordiality and gratitude on the part of the parent for his faithfulness, whether his tale be bright or dark, — and the good and wise parent will always exhibit them. 4. Parents should visit the schools where their children attend. Without this, they can have no very correct idea of the state of things in the schoolroom. Common report concerning the affairs of a school, is not always correct. By visiting the school, parents can at once see, if the teacher is honest, the comparative standing of their children ; they will become more interested in the objects and business of the school, and, what will be of infin- ite worth both to teacher and pupils, it will convince them all, that the parents have some sense of the importance of the 'im- provement made there. The pupils will be quickened to diligence, and the teacher to activity and faithfulness, — and is not the rate of purchase very low, when the advantage is so great? 5. Parents should promptly and cheerfully supply the required books and apparatus for the school. — The teacher cannot work without tools ; the parent ought not to expect it. If a parent has any doubt about the propriety of a call for a new book, he should at once see the teacher,— but never should he send an uncivil or angry message by the child. An interview of five minutes may put the matter peaceably at rest, and save both parties much unpleasant feeling. Besides, school books are now less expensive than formerly. The parent in most cases can better afford to buy a book, than to spend his time in talk about it. Often the pupil loses more by delay in one week, than the value of the book many times told, — for there is no estimating improvement by dollars and cents. We grant, the multiplication and frequent change of school books are a great and sore evil, — but this at least is not the fault of the instructor; and no good can possibly come of disputing a question with him, which in reality, has been settled already by the school committee. 6. Parents should see that their children are decently clothed, MUTUAL DUTIES OF PARENTS AND TEACHERS. 239 and clennly in their persons. — This duty belongs mainly to the mother,— and her character may very readily be seen, as reflected in the persons of her children. The teacher has a right to expect of the parents the faithful performance of this duty. He ought not to be insulted with filthiness, and surely he need not, so long as soft water falls in rich abundance from the heavens,— and a pair of scissors and a comb are possessed by every family. He can have no heart to come in contact with pupils, who are sometimes so sadly neglected in this jjarticular. This point, however, is so obvious, that we need not waste words upon it. 7. Parents are bound to secure the constant attendance of their children.— This is no trifling article of their duty. Perhaps there is no one thing to be named, which contributes so largely to the perplexities of the teacher and to the injury of our public schools, as irregular attendance. Downright sickness of the child is a good excuse for absence from school,— and perhaps we may add, in some instances, illness in the family. But beyond these, it seems there can be no good reason for keeping a scholar from his school. It is heart-sickening to witness for what trifling causes many of the children are kept away from our schools. Fre- quently it happens, that some unimportant errand, as trifling — if we may be allowed to be specific— as the purchase of a cent's w^orth of yeast, is made the occasion of a half day's absence from school — an injury done to the child's mind, which cannot be esti- mated in dollars and cents. Who can compute the amount of idle habits of study, having their foundation in that indifference to education, which, for some trifling errand amounting, per- haps, to the value of a c7ime— oftener, however, to less than a cent, permits the child to be away from his class, and thus prac- tically teaches him to consider his school as a very cheap affair. Every school, if the teacher would lay out his strength to advantage, should, to a considerable extent, be classified. His mind, as far as practicable, must act upon masses of mind. But irregularity of attendance is most ruinous to classification. A scholar, by being absent one half the time, it may be demon- strated, is, to all the intents and purposes of the school, absent 240 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. all the time. One day he is absent, and of course, loses all that day's lessons; the next day he is present, but is still defi- cient in his lessons, because, as he says to his teacher,— "I was absent yesterday, and not knowing where to study, I have not studied at all." Again he is absent — again he is present; the same result follows, and at the week's end he has learned nothing as it should be learned. Such is the effect upon the pupil himself. But the difficulty is not yet half told. He is a member of the school — the teacher must consider him such; and as the parents of such pupils often make fair promises for the future, the teacher feels bound, if possible, to keep him along with his class. To effect this, the class must be often put back on his account, which operates as a severe discouragement to them. Sometimes the instructor is obliged to devote particular attention to this scholar singl}^, by which the other pupils are robbed of the pro- portion of his time which is their due, and they are obliged to suffer an injury the most of all unpleasant, — for when scholars, who are always at their post, have learned their lessons well, it is cruel in the last degree, that they should be deprived of the pleasure of showing their faithfulness — the pleasure of a good recitation. Nor is this all. The teacher— the unthought-of teacher— is not made of iron or brass. His patience being so frequently, so thought- lessly, and so unnecessarily taxed, and his best efforts being so ill requited, he may— unless he is superhuman, he most certainly must, relax his exertions. He will find it next to impossible for a series of weeks or months, after having labored faithfully without success, to maintain his interest and his efficiency under all the discourag- ing circumstances of the case. As soon as his spirits flag, the whole school will imperceptibly catch the feeling, and they all are the sufferers. This is not an extreme case; it is not a fancy pic- ture; it is not speculation. It is history ; and I am sorry to be obliged to add, it is the exact history of most of our public schools. Can any wonder, then, that we should earnestly urge, that MUTUAL DUTIES OF PARENTS AND TEACHERS. 241 parents should co-operate with the teacher in this particular? And shall it ever be, that for some trifling "errand,"— (we have often wished the word were "expunged" from our language), which, by early rising, might as well be done long before school hours; or for some pretext originating in the imbecility or lack of forethought of our children's natural guardmns— must it ever be, that the teacher's life shall be a life of perplexity, and the design of our public school system be so far frustrated? What has been said of irregular attendance will apply with equal force to want of punctuality to the hour of opening the school. The reasons for tardiness, if possible, are often more futile than those for entire absences. The effects upon the school are nearly the same ; for the current proverb, "better late than never," will hardly hold in this case. He is allowed to be his own teacher of a most deleterious lesson. Let it never be forgotten, it is just as easy to be strictly punctual as otherwise; and the parent, who will not lay the foundation of a habit so valuable in the child, when it can be done without cost, deserves not the privilege of being a parent. He betrays his trust; he injures his own child. 8. Parents should be slow in condemning the teacher for sup- posed faults.— This is a point on which many are very apt to act wrong. Too often is it the case, that a teacher is tried, con- demned and publicly executed, without even a hearing. Some troublesome, precocious youth, who has, it may be very justly, received some proportionate reward for his dark deeds, deter- mines on revenge. He immediately tells his story to any one who will hear it. If his parents are inconsiderate, and encourage him to go on, he is tempted to overreach the truth on the one hand, and to stop short of it on the other, till he succeeds in hav- ing the combustible materials around him lighted into a flame. Such a fire is seldom kindled without most severely scathing somebody; and it sometimes happens, that those most burned, are they who apply the match and fan the flame. The truth is, few parents are capable of judging at the first blush upon the merits of the case, which they have not witnessed. T. p.— 16 242 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. They have strong partialities in favor of the complainant ; and then they have but very inadequate views of the difficulties, the untold and untellable difficulties, with which the teacher must daily contend. We undertake to say, that parents often expect more of a teacher, than he can possibly accomplish. They expect him to advance their children in learning, without making the proper allowance for the difference of abilities which his pupils possess. Every parent wishes his son to be foremost in improvement, and he expects it, because he wishes it. At the same time he expects the school to be a perfect pattern of good order, because in his family, where, perhaps, he has but one child, he has never known any insurmountable outrage. He forgets, that probably fifty other parents are expecting for their children, as much as he for his,— and that the teacher is laboring in laudable ambition to do faithfully, all that can be expected of him, with some three or four scores of individuals, whose tempers and capacities and habits are as different as their countenances. In judging of the teacher's government, the parent commonly compares it with his own family discipline, — because the family is the only community with which he is acquainted, at all analo- gous to the school. He forgets, perhaps, his own recent fit of impatience, even among his little circle of some half a dozen ; and wonders at the unrestrained and unrestrainable temper of the schoolmaster, who, it is said, was not quite self-possessed in his school of a hundred. But the analogy does not hold between the family and the school. The parent has authority in the premises, from which, to all intents, there is no appeal; and his children know it. Moreover, he has the advantage of knowing perfectly, the dispo- sition of each subject of his authority, and may always proceed advisedly in the adoption of his discipline. He has ample leisure for the purpose; for, if his business be pressing during the day, he can postpone the whole matter till the calm and silent hour of evening, when, unexcited and undisturbed, he may pursue his steady purpose. With all these advantages it would be strange, MUTUAL DUTIES OF PARENTS AND TEACHERS. 243 if a parent could not govern his own household well. The parent may well wonder at himself, if he have not good discipline. But the case is not thus with the teacher. His authority in these latter days, is somewhat questionable. He cannot, unless his discernment is supernatural, have a perfect knowledge of the disposition of each pupil, and hence he is, from the nature of the case, liable to misjudge in the adaptation of his means. He has no leisure. He must work all the time; for his reputation depends upon his success in teaching. He is expected to advance each pupil daily. He has not the time to adjust all his measures by deliberate reflection. He cannot always put off the case. His community probably may need the immediate check his punish- ment will give,— and if he should neglect to work the pump, the ship would probably sink, and bury him and his in the waves of Insufferable confusion. Consider well the life of the teacher. He must apply himself constantly, and often to numberless things at the same time. We have been told, I know, that the teacher ''should never do but one thingat the same time." But this is impossible. Two things he must always do at once ; he must govern and instruct. He can never do the latter without having his mind on the former. It is this double attention which makes his life a weary one. He might govern with comparative ease, if his duty ended there. The instruction would be dehghtful, if that could be pursued alone. But they must go together. With respect to the one, not a mis- take must pass unnoticed. Every error in declension or conjuga- tion, in orthography or calculation, in matter or manner, must be detected and set right;— and at the same time, the stolen whisper must be heard, the clandestine plaything must be cap- tured, the incipient plot must be discovered, the arch trick must be anticipated, the idler must be watched, the wayward reproved and set right, and the stubborn and the impudent— the coarse and the turbulent— must be subdued. All these things must go together; they cannot be separated. Then, in ordinary schools, unforeseen perplexities will arise. The boy has lost his book ; another has left his at home; another makes a clamorous com- 244 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. plaint of some injury done him by his next neighbor ; a fourth is too warm and opens a window; a fifth is too cold and imme- diately shuts it, or applies to the teacher for liberty to do so. Add to these the perplexities occasioned by late attendance and frequent absence to which w^e have before referred, and many other things literally ''too numerous to mention," and who can wonder that the teacher should sometimes be a little in doubt as to the best mode of procedure in his discipline? We name not these things to complain of our lot as a teacher. That after all is the profession of our choice. But we name them to show why the parent should be slow in condemning the teacher for supposed faults. It seems to us, if parents would but reflect, they would be exceedingly slow to decide against the instructor without a hearing, " as the manner of some is." 9. When the teacher is known to do wrong, parents should possess a forgiving spirit.— It is a duty enjoined by the Great Teacher, that we should love our enemies, and that we should forgive men their trespasses as we hope to be forgiven. But how rarely is there any such thing as forgiveness for the faults of a teacher. ^^He has done wrong— turn him out,'^ is the gratui- tous decision of almost all who have any cause of complaint against the schoolmaster. Is he their enemy ? Then they should forgive. But he is not their enemy. In nine cases of ten, he has erred in the midst of well-meaning; he has erred because he was perplexed beyond the sustaining power of humanity. Surely then he deserves your compassion rather than your rebuke. Show to him the kind spirit, give to him the support he needs, second his reproofs, if need be, his punishments, give no countenance to the offending and offended pupil, no occasion for others to expect your sympathy if they offend and find the way of the trans- gressor is hard,— and you do that for the teacher, which he has a right, as your fellow-citizen and your fellow-christian, to expect from you, and that for the school which its best interest demands. We add but one thing more. Parents should give to teachers their sympathy. Some parents, ready to meet and defray the requisite expenses of their children's tuition, ready to co-operate MUTUAL DUTIES OF PARENTS AND TEACHERS. 245 with the teacher in all laudable plans and aims for the welfare of his pupils are still lamentably deficient in this one Christian grace and virtue. They seem to have no conception that he wants like other men, that time which with its free use and unfettered enjoy- ment is also to him a blessed commodity; that confinement within the four walls of a schoolroom, month after month, does not necessarily leave him no tastes to gratify beyond. They seem not to realize, that the teacher has nerves that need relaxa- tion, languid pulses to be revived, and wasting strength to be renewed; and they can, and not unfrequently do, grudge the limited vacations, which are absolutely necessary to recruit his crippled energies and exhausted body. We can repeat it, we claim thesympath3^,the spontaneous grateful sympathy of the parents, sympathy for the perplexities, the toils, the nameless trials that overtask the mind, unnerve the frame, and wear down the strength of the studious, faithful, devoted teacher. It must be admitted, that many parents estimate the services of the schoolmaster, in very much the same way, that they esti- mate the services of the day laborer in their employ. The man of business pays the clerk in his counting-room, and the cartman on his wharf, and the term bill of his child's teacher, and in each case feels, in his own mind, alike absolved from all further obliga- tion. Obligation! Obligation from a parent toward a teacher; we have heard the word sneered at, the idea treated with con- tempt. But as there is no estimating the amount of good or evil influence upon the ductile mind of a child, extending as it does through his boyhood, felt in his riper years, operating unseen upon the principles and habits of all after-life, running into eternity even — so there can be no estimating, in mere dol- lars and cents, the unspeakable value of a good teacher's serv- ices; and no pecuniary emolument can ever cancel the obliga- tion, unfelt and unacknowledged though it be, which the parent comes under to the teacher, while he sees the germs of fair prom- ise in his boy, shooting into active usefulness as that boy becomes the man. Yes, the parent witnesses the expansion of the bud, the beautifying of the flower; but the genial influences, which 246 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. operate upon these as the gentle dew and the blessed sunshine of heaven, are wholly forgotten and overlooked. A hand is atwork behind the scenes, and the light of eternity can only reveal to the astonished parent, that the sun, the shade, the imperceptible dew on the mind of his child were to be found in the unobtrusive work- ings, the judicious, persevering, faithful training of the neglected teacher. There is something cheering and animating in the cordiality of soul, which it is in the parents' power to exercise toward the in- structor. If they have not the time for the visitation of the school, or the supposed qualifications for the examination of their children in their studies, they certainly have it in their power to do much to make the teacher's life a pleasanter one; they can give to him some token of a kindly interest in his suc- cess, and of a willingness to cheer him along the toilsome way. And let the teacher see that his labors are appreciated, his duties and difficulties properly estimated, his plans cordially acquiesced in and promoted, his acts candidly judged, his faults (and it will be very wonderful after all, if he have not many of these), fairly considered and heartily overlooked — and he would be an ungrateful, soulless piece of humanity, who would not be willing to devote his strength to the last remnant of energy, to requite the confidence, and answer the just expectations of those for whom he labors. Let parents give their sympathy and co-operation to the teachers of their children, and the profession would soon be filled with devoted and talented men, who would be wilhng to live and die in their work ; and when from their last pillow they should cast back a lingering look to the scene of their labors, the roses would amply conceal the sharpest thorns. CHAPTER XV. MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. On looking over the notes which I have at various times made of my own experience and observation, during twenty years of practical teaching, I find there are several thoughts which maybe of some service to the young teacher, and which have not been introduced under any of the general topics of this volume. I have therefore thought best to introduce a special chapter, with the above title, where I might lawfully bring together, without much regard to method, such varied hints as may convey to some reader a useful lesson. Some of these hints will refer to faults which should be carefully avoided, while others will point out some duties to be performed. SECTION I.— THINGS TO BE AVOIDED. 1. Guard against prejudice on entering a school.— It is not always safe to rely upon first impressions as to character. At the opening of a school, perhaps fifty individuals for the first time are brought before the teacher. Some of them are from humble life, and perhaps bear upon them the marks of parental neglecfc. Their persons and their clothing may present nothing to attract and gratify the eye of a stranger. Little accustomed to society, they exhibit an awkward bashfulness, or an imperti- nent forwardness, in their manner. Contrasted with these, others appear who have been the children of indulgence, and who have seen much more of the world. A more expensive garb attracts the eye; a more easy and familiar address, conforming to the artificial modes of society, is very likely to win the heart. The teacher is very prone to find his feelings committed in favor of the latter class, and against the former. But this is all wrong. A judgment thus hastily formed is extremely hazardous, — as a few (247) 248 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. days' acquaintance will usually show. The child of blunt or shy demeanor often has the truest heart,— a heart whose sentiments go out by the shortest course, — a heart that has never learned the artificial forms of the world, because it has never felt the need of them. And how unjust to the child is a prejudice founded on the circumstance of dress! Must the inability or neglect of his parent be doubly visited on him ? Is it not enough that he daily feels the inward mortification of a contrast with his more favored school-fellows? Must he be painfully reminded of it by discover- ing that his teacher repels him on that account, and bestows his kindliest smiles upon those who are <'the brightest and best clad?" And yet such unjust prejudice is common; wrong and unfeeling as it isj it is too common. A fine dress, and a clean face, and a graceful manner, I know are attractive; but the teacher has to do with the mind and the heart ;— and he should never be deterred by anything exterior, from making a diligent and patient search for good qualities which have their home behind the surface,— and he should ever possess a smile as cordial and a tone as parental for the neglected child of poverty and ignorance, as for the more favored son of wealth and ease. 2. Do not allow your pupils to direct their own studies.— Wliat- ever their age may be, they are seldom capable of doing this. It is the aim of the young to get over a long course of study. They are usually pleased to belong to higher classes before they have mastered the branches taught in the lower. If children are suf- fered to direct their own studies, they usually make themselves very poor scholars. This is the bane of many of our select schools and academies, where the teacher yields this right in order to secure pupils and a salary. But no one, not even the parent, is as competent as the teacher ought to be, to direct in this matter. He has the best opportunity daily to fathom the pupil's attainments, and to understand his deficiencies. He may claim the right to direct. In case the pupil withstands his deci- sion, the teacher should appeal to the parent, and endeavor there to sustain his point, a thing generally within his power, if indeed MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 249 he is right. If the parent too is obstinate, and firmly insists upon the wrong course, the teacher may perhaps submit, though he cannot submit without the consciousness that his province has been invaded. It is too frequently the case that the teacher at the first yields all this ground voluntarily, by asking the children what they wish to study. When he has once made them a party in this question, he need not wonder if they claim to be heard. This he should not do. He should first be sure that he is qualified to direct aright, and then, as a matter of course, proceed to do it, just as the physician would prescribe for the physical malady of such a child. The latter is not more the rightful duty of the physician, than the former is of the school teacher. Neither has the power to enforce his prescription against the parents' con- sent,— but that consent may be taken for granted by both, till informed that it is withheld. I may here remark that in all my intercourse with the young, wiiether in the common or the higher school, I have found no greater evil than that of proceeding to the more difficult branches before the elementary studies have been mastered. It is no uncommon thing to find those who have "attended" to the higher mathematics — algebra, geometry, and the like — whose reading and waiting are wretched in the extreme, and whose spelling is absolutely intolerable! They have been pursuing quadratics, but are unable to explain why they "carry one for every ten;" they have wandered among the stars in search of other worlds, by the science of astronomy, without knowing the most simple points in the geography of our own; they have studied logarithms and infinite series, but cannot be safely trusted to add a column of figures, or to compute the simple interest upon a common note! In short, they have studied everything, except what is most useful to be known in practical life, and have really learned— nothing! Now if this evil— grievous and extensive as it is at present — is destined ever to be abated, it is to be accomplished by the instru- mentality of the teacher, acting, in his appropriate sphere, in the 250 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. capacity of a director as to the course of study for the young. He must not be a man who can merely teach,\)\xt one who under- stands the high import of a true education, and knows how to prescribe the order of its progress ; one, in short, who will never attempt to erect a showy superstructure upon an insufficient foundation. 3. Do not attempt to teach too many things. — Theve is a tendency at present to introduce too many things into all our schools. Nothing is more common than to hear our public lec- turers declare, as they become a little enthusiastic in any given department, that "this branch should at once be made a study in our common schools." This is heard of almost the whole round of the natural sciences. But it seems to me to be dictated by overwrought enthusiasm. Everything cannot he well taught in our schools; nor should too much be attempted. It is the province of our schools — particularly our common schools— to afford thorough instruction in a few things, and to awaken a desire for more extended attainment. The instruction given should, as far as possible, be complete in itself, — while it should afford the means of making further advancement; but that instruction which, being merely superficial, neither itself informs the mind nor imparts the desire and the means of future self- improvement, is worse than useless ; it is positively injurious. A few branches thoroughly possessed are worth more than a thou- sand merely glanced at, — and the idea of changing our common schools to universities, where our children, before they pass from the years of their babyhood, are to grasp the whole range of the sciences, is one of the most preposterous that has grown up even in this age of follies. The teacher, then, should not undertake too much ; he should be sure that he can accomplish what he under- takes. The mark he makes upon the young should be no uncertain sign. 4. Never attend to extraneous business in school hours.— This is a common fault. Many teachers neglect their duties in school to write letters, or transact such other business as should be done at home. This is always wrong. There is no time for it in any MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 251 school; for a diligent teacher can always find full employment even with a small number. Besides, he has engaged to devote himself to the school; and any departure from this is a violation of his contract. The children will so view it, and thus lose much of their respect for the teacher. Moreover, if they see him neglect his business for some other, they will be very likely to neglect theirs, and thus disorder will be introduced. I hold that the teacher is bound to devote every moment of school hours to active labor for the school. 5. Avoid making excuses to visitors for the defects of jour school. — Franklin, I think, said that "a man who is good for making excuses is good for nothing else." I have often thought of this as I have visited the schools of persons given to this fail- ing. It is sometimes quite amusing to hear such a teacher keep up a sort of running apology for the various pupils. A class is called to read. The teacher remarks, "This class have but just commenced reading in this book." Stephen finishes the first paragraph, and the teacher adds, "Stephen has not attended school very regularly lately." William reads the second. "This boy," says the teacher, " was very backward when I came here— he has but just joined this class." Charles executes the third. "That boy has an impediment in his speech." Reuben follows. " It is almost impossible to make a good reader of Reuben; he never seems to pay the least attention. I have bestowed unwear- ied pains upon him.'* Mary takes her turn. " This girl has lost her book, and her father refuses to buy her another." Mary here blushes to the eyes, — for though she could bear his reproof, she still has some sense of family pride; she bursts into tears, while Martha reads the next paragraph. "I have tried all along," says the teacher, "to make this girl raise her voice, but still she will almost stifie her words." Martha looks dejected, and the next in order makes an attempt. Now the teacher in all this has no malicious design to wound the feelings of every child in the class,— and yet he as effectually accomplishes that result as if he had premeditated it. Every scholar is interested to read as well as possible in the presence of 252 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. strangers ; everyone makes the effort to do so ; yet everyone is practically pronounced to have failed. The visitors pity the poor pupils for the pain they are made thus needlessly to suffer, and they pity also the weakness of the poor teacher, whose love of approbation has so blinded his own perception that he is regard- less of the feelings of others, and thinks of nothing but his own. This over-anxiety for the good opinion of others shows itself in a still less amiable light, when the teacher frequently makes unfavorable allusions to his predecessor. "When 7 came Aere," says the teacher significantly, ''I found them all poor readers." Or, if a little disorder occurs in school, he takes care to add, "I found the school in perfect confusion," — or, " The former teacher, as near as I can learn, used to allow the children to talk and play as much as they pleased." Now, whatever view w^e take of such a course, it is impossible to pronounce it anything better than despicable meanness. For if the charge is true, it is by no means magnanimous to publish the faults of another ; and if it is untrue in whole or in part, as most likely it is, none but a con- temptible person would magnif}^ another's failings to mitigate his own. There is still another w-ay in which this love of personal applause exhibits itself. I have seen teachers call upon their brightest scholars to recite, and then ask them to tell their age, in order to remind the visitor that they were very young to do so well; and then insinuate that their older pupils could of course do much better. All these arts, however, recoil upon the teacher who uses them. A visitor of any discernment sees through them at once, and immediately suspects the teacher of conscious incompetency or willful deception. The pupils lose their respect for a man whom they all perceive to be acting a dishonorable part. I repeat, then, never attempt to cover the defects of your schools by making ridiculous excuses. 6. Never compare one child with another. — It is a poor w^ay of stimulating a dull pupil to compare him with a better scholar. It is the direct way to engender hatred in the mind of the one, MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 253 and the most consummate self-complacency in the other. Not one child in a thousand can be publicly held up to the school as a pattern of excellence, without becoming excessively vain ; at the same time, all the other scholars will be more or less excited to envy. Such a course is always unsafe; almost always injurious. 7. Avoid wounding the sensibilities of a, dull child. — There will always be those in every school who are slow to comprehend. After their classmates have grasped an idea during the teacher's explanation, they still have the vacant stare, the unintelligent expression. This may be so after a second or a third explana- tion. The teacher is now strongly tempted to indulge in expres- sions of impatience, if not of opprobrium. This temptation he should resist. Such children are to be pitied for their dullness, but never to be censured for it. It is an unfeeling thing to sting the soul that is already benighted. He should cheer and encourage such a slow mind to greater effort, by the sunshine of kind looks, and the warm breath of sympathy, rather than freeze up the feeble current of vivacity which yet remains there by a forbidding frown or a blast of reproach. A dull child is almost always affectionate; and it is through the medium of kindness and patience that such a one is most effectually stimulated. 8. Never lose your patience when parents unreasonably inter- fere with your plans.— It must be expected that some of the parents will wish to dictate to the teacher what course he shall pursue, at least in relation to their own children. This will some- times bring them to the schoolroom, perhaps in a tone of com- plaint, to set the teacher right. Whenever a parent thus steps beyond the bounds of propriety, the teacher should never lose his self-possession. He should always speak the language of courtesy, in frankness, but in firmness. He should reason with the parent, and if possible convince him,— but he should never insult or abuse him. It may be well to propose to see him at his own house, in order to talk over the matter more at his leisure. I recollect once a parent sent a hasty refusal to purchase a necessary book for his son,— a refusal clothed in no very respectful language. I gave the lad a courteous note directed to his father. 254 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. in which I intimated my desire to have an interview with him at his house at such time as he might appoint. In half an hour the boy came bounding back with the desired book, informing me that his father said, "he guessed he might as well get the book, and have done with it." My intercourse with that parent was ever afterwards of the most pleasant kind. A supercilious parent can never gain an advantage over a teacher, unless he can first provoke him to impatience or anger. As long as the teacher is perfectly self-possessed he is impregnable. 9. Never make the study of the Bible a punishment.— I have known a teacher to assign sundry passages of the Bible, condem- natory of a particular sin, to be committed to memory as a pun- ishment. I have also known the idle scholar to be detained after school to study passages of Scripture, because he had failed to learn his other lessons in due time. I believe this to be bad policy, as well as doubtful religion. The lessons that a child thus learns, are always connected in his mind with unpleasant associations. His heart is not made better by truths thus learned. The Bible indeed should be studied by the young, but they should be attracted to it by the spirit of love, rather than driven to it by the spirit of vindictiveness. They who suppose that children can be made to love the Bible by being thus driA^en to the study of it, have sadly mistaken the human heart. 10. Ride no '^hobbies^^ in teaching. — Almost every man, in whatever vocation, has some hobby, some '^ one idea,^' which he pushes forward on all occasions, no matter what may be the con- sequences. It is not strange that it is often thus with the teacher. If the teacher has any independence of mind, any originality, he will at some period in his life naturally incline to try some experi- ments in teaching. Partly on account of the novelty of the plan, and partly on account of the teacher's interest in the success of his own measure, he finds it works well in the class where it was first tried ; and he rejoices that he has made a discovery. Teach- ing now possesses a new interest for him, and he very likely becomes enthusiastic. He applies his new measure to other classes, and loudly recommends it to other teachers. For a time MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 255 it succeeds, and it becomes his hobbr. Whenever a stranger visits his school, he shows off his new measure. Whenever he attends a teachers' meeting, he describes it, and perhaps presents a class of his pupils to verify its excellency. He abandons his old and long-tried plans, and persists in the new one. By and by the novelty has worn away and his pupils become dull under its operation, and reason suggests that a return to the former methods woald be advisable. Still, because it is his invention, he persists. Others try the experiment. Some succeed; some fail. Some of them by a public speech commit themselves to it, and then persist in it to preserve their consistency. In this way a great many objectionable modes of teaching have gained cur- rency and still hold their sway in many of our schools. Among these I might mention concert recitation and oral instruction when made a substitute for study. Of the origin and tendency of the former I have spoken more at length in the chapter on "Conducting Recitations." Of the latter a word or two may be said in this place. It was found years ago, in the earlier attempts to teach the blind, that they made very rapid strides in acquiring knowledge through the sole medium of oral instruction. As might have been foreseen, they became intensely interested in hearing about things which had surrounded them all their days, but which they had never seen. Shut in as they were from the privilege of sight, there was nothing to distract their attention from whatever was communicated to them through the sense of hearing; and as they had been blind from their birth, this discipline of attention had been going on from infancy. Under these circumstances their progress in knowledge by mere oral teaching was astonishing. This was all well. But soon some one conceived the idea of sub- stituting oral instruction for study among seeing children. Immediately there was an oral mania. Infant schools grew up in every village,— infant school manuals were prepared, filled with scientiSc baby-talk, for the use of the worthy dames who were to drive the hobby, and the nineteenth century bade fair to do more towards lighting up the fires of science than all time 256 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. before had accomplished ! It was truly wonderful for a time to listen to the learned volubility of these same infant schools. The wonders of astronomy, chemistry, botany, and zoology with the terms of Cuvier's classification, and a thousand other things, were all detailed with astonishing familiarity by pupils under five years of age ! Some eminent teachers sagely took the hint, and adopted the oral system with their older classes. The sciences were taught by lectures. The pupils of this happy day had noth- ing to do but to sit and receive. To be sure sometimes they would become inattentive, and it would be discovered by their teachers that they did not retain quite all that was told to them. This, however, was no fault of the system, it was urged; the sys- tem was well enough, but unfortunately the pupils had eyes, and their attention was frequently diverted by the unlucky use of these worthless organs. A royal road, sure enough, was found to the temple of science, too long beyond mortal reach by reason of the rugged footpath over which the student was compelled to climb. Happy, glorious day! No more must toil and thought be the price of success ! No more must the midnight oil be con- sumed, and the brain be puzzled, in search of the wisdom of ages! No more must the eyes be pained — (they are hereafter to be con- sidered encumbrances)— in searching the classic page; the ear is to be the easy inlet to the soul! Such was the hobby oi 1829 to 1831 in our own country. Dur- ing sixteen years past, those babes of the infant schools have grown into " young men and maidens," in no way distinguished, after all, unless they have since achieved distinction by actual study. The pupils of those higher schools have obtained what- ever they now value in their education, mainly by the use of their eyes, notwithstanding at one time their worthy guides would have almost deemed it a blessing to have had their eyes put out. It has been found that God was indeed wise in the bestowment of sight,— and some at least have acknowledged that a method that is well suited to the instruction of those who are blind, because it is the only possible one for them, may not be the best for those who can see. At the present time the sentiment begins to pre- MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 257 vail, that oral instruction can never supply the place of study; that the lecturing or "pouring-in process," cannot long secure the attention ; that the mind by merely receiving, gains no vigor of its own; and that scholars must be made, if made at all, mainly by their own exertions in the use of books. It would be easy to mention other examples of hobbies which have been ridden by teachers very much to the injury of their schools. Those already given may, however, suffice for the pur- pose of illustration. Let it be remembered, then, that no one method of instruction comprises all the excellencies and avoids all the defects of good teaching; and that he is the wisest teacher who introduces a judicious variety into his modes of instruction, profiting by the suggestions of others, but relying mainly upon his own careful observation, eschewing all "patent methods,'* and never losing his common sense. Under the head of hobbies, I may add one other remark. Many teachers have some favorite branch of study, in which, because they excel, they take special delight. One man is a good mathematician, another an expert accountant, a third a skillful grammarian. Now the danger is, that the favorite branch of study may become the hobby,— and that the other branches will be neglected. This is indeed not infrequently the case. Again, some teachers are more interested in the higher branches generally, because the^^ were the last pursued in their college course, or for some other reason. They therefore neglect the lower studies, to the great detriment of the youth under their charge. Against all such partial views the teacher should take great pains to guard himself. He may fall unconsciously and almost imperceptibly into some of these errors. Let me add the caution, then, — never allow your partiality for one study, or a class of studies, to divert your attention from all those other branches which are necessary to constitute a good education. SECTION II. —THINGS TO BE PERFORMED. I. Convince your scholars by your conduct that you are their friend.— It is all-important that you should gain complete ascend- T. p.— 17 258 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. ancy over the minds of your pupils. In no way is this point so successfully gained as by leading them to feel that you are their true friend. When they feel this, all their sentiments of gen- erosity, gratitude, and love, conspire to lead them to render cheerful obedience to your wishes. Government then becomes easy; instruction is no longer irksome; and you can most cor- dially respond to the poet, in that beautiful sentiment too seldom fully realized : — "Delightful task! to rear the tender thought, And teach the young idea how to shoot, To pour the fresh instruction o'er the mind. To breathe the enhvening spirit, and to fix The generous purpose in the glowing breast." But effectually to convince them that you are thus their friend, is not the work of a moment. Words alone can never do it. You may make professions of interest in them, but it is all to no purpose. Your actions, your looks, your whole spirit must show it. In order thus to exhibit it, you must feel a deep, an all-per- vading interest in the welfare of every child. You must love jour profession, and you must love— sincerely love— those whom you are called to teach. If you do not love the work of teaching, and cannot bring yourself to love the children of your charge, you may not expect success. It was long ago declared that "Love only is the loan for love," — and this is specially true with the love of children. Their souls spontaneously go out after those who love them. Strive, then, to gain this point with them, not by empty pretensions, always quickly read and as quickly despised by the young; but by that full, frank, cordial expression of kindness in your manner towards them, which, being based upon deep principle in yourself, is sure at once to win their affection, and their ready compliance w4th all your reasonable requisitions. II. Take special care that the schoolhouse and its appendages are kept in good order.— Thm is a part of every teacher's duty. He should have an eye that is constantly on the alert to perceive MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 259 the smallest beginnings of injury to any part of the premises. It is often painful to see a new schoolhouse, that has with much care and expense been put in perfect order, very soon cut and otherwise disfigured by the pupils,— the glass broken, the ceiling soiled, the desks and floors stained with ink, and everything bearing the marks of youthful destructiveness. The teacher should be held accountable for such results, for he can by proper vigilance prevent them. Some of his first lessons to his pupils should be upon the sub- ject of practical neatness, in regard to everything that pertains to the school. They should be impressed with the belief that he holds neatness as a cardinal virtue. Daily should he watch to discover the first violation of propriety upon the premises. This first violation should be promptly met. There is great wisdom in the adage which enjoins us to " resist the beginnings.^' So, too, he should exercise an oversight of the books belonging to the pupils. Many books are speedily destroyed by children for the want of a little care of the teacher, — probably more than are worn out by use. He should also occasionally inspect the desks, with a view to promote a commendable neatness there. The teacher has an undoubted right to inspect any part of the prem- ises, — but by a little adroitness he can interest the children in a reform of this kind, and then they will desire that he should witness their carefulness. I may add further, that the children should not only be taught to respect the schoolhouse and its appendages, but they should be taught to regard the sacredness of all property either public or private. The neighboring garden or orchard should be held to be inviolable. The teacher may not have the authority to compel compliance with his direction or advice beyond school hours, but he should endeavor to exercise a moral influence in the school which will be more powerful even than compulsion. So in regard to public buildings, such as churches and court- houses; and all public grounds, as parks, commons, and ceme- teries,— the teacher should inculcate not only the duty to abstain from injuring them, but a commendable desire to see them im- 260 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. proved and beautified. In America, it is remarked by foreigners, there is a strange tendency to destructiveness. In our public buildings, the walls are usually disfigured bynames and drawings, and even our cemeteries do not escape the violence of the knives of visitors, the trees being cut and marked with names, and the flowers plucked off and carried away. It is to be hoped that our teachers will so exercise a reforming influence, that the next gen- eration shall exercise a higher principle as well as a better taste in all these matters, which, small as they are, make up no mean part of the manners and morals of a people. III. When scholars do wrong, it is sometimes best to with- hold immediate reproof, but to describe a similar case in general instruction. — This is one of the most effectual modes of curing the evil in the wrong-doer himself. It, moreover, gives the teacher a valuable text for a lesson on morals before the whole school. Care should generally be taken not to lead the school to suspect the individual in your mind, while at the same time the parable should so fit the case as to preclude the necessity of say- ing to the offender, as Nathan did to David: "Thou art the man." A case will illustrate this. I recollect once to have found, among a large number of compositions presented by a class, one that I knew to have been copied. No notice was taken of it at the time; but some days afterwards a ca,S'e was described to the class, resembling the one that had actually occurred. After exciting considerable interest in the case, they were told that such a thing had happened among their own number; that I did not choose to expose the individual; but, if any of them thought it would be honorable for them to confess such an offense to me in case they had committed it, they might seek a private opportunity to do so. In less than twenty-four hours no less than four made such a confession, detailing freely the extent and the circumstances of their offending. In this way four were reformed, where by direct reproof only one could have been reached. It was a frank, not a forced confession ; and I was thus easily made to know the extent of this sin in the school. By this MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 261 simple expedient, I have reason to believe, plagiarism was effect- ually eradicated for that term at least, in the whole class, and that too without the loss of any pupil's good will. It is generally wiser to endeavor to reach the evil in its whole extent, than to expend one's strength upon a single instance of wrong-doing. The conscience of the whole school may sometimes be profitably aroused, while the partic-ular individual is quite as effectively corrected as he would be by a direct reproof. IV. Be accurate.— This is necessary in order to secure the respect of your pupils. What the teacher professes to know he should be sure of. Approximations to the truth are not enough to satisfy the young mind. Whenever a teacher makes a blunder by stating what is not true in regard to any fact or principle in science, any event in history, or any item of statistics, he lowers himself very much in the estimation of all those who are capable 9f detecting his error. If he does not know, he may frankl^^ say so, and incur no just censure, provided the point be one about which he has not had the opportunity to gain the requisite Information. But when he attempts to speak with the authority of a teacher, he "should know that whereof he affirms." "The character of the teacher," says Professor Olmsted, "is sullied by frequent mistakes, like that of a bookkeeper or banker. It is surprising to see how soon even the youngest learner will lose his confidence and respect for his teacher, when he has detected in him occasional mistakes. At every such discovery he rises in his own estimation, and the teacher proportionally^ sinks. The very character of the pupil is injured by such an incident. He rapidly loses the docility and modesty so essential to the scholar, and becomes uplifted with pride and self-importance." The super- ciliousness thus induced becomes a sore vexation to the teacher. He finds that his pupils are watching for his halting, — and he fre- quently fails, from this very circumstance, to do as well as he might. I know of no more pitiable condition on earth than that of a teacher, who is attempting to teach what he does not fully understand, while he is conscious that his pupils doubt his ability, from a frequent detection of his mistakes. 262 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. V. Cultivate a pleasant countenance.— Frowns and scowls always sit with ill grace upon the teacher's brow. I know that the trials and perplexities incident to his daily life are eminently fitted "to chafe his mood'' and to provoke his impatience. I know, too, that protra^cted confinement from the pure air and the bright sunlight, will almost necessarily render the nervous system morbidly sensitive, and the temper of course extremely irritable. The outward exponent of all this is a dejected, and perhaps an angry, countenance. The eyebrows are drawn up so that the fore- head is deeply and prematurely furrowed, while the angles of the mouth are suffered to drop downward as if in token of utter despair. By and by the roguishness of some unlucky urchin dis- turbs the current of his thoughts,— and suddenly the brow is firmly knitted with transverse channels, the nostrils are distended, the jaws are firmly closed, the lips are compressed, the cheeks are flushed, and the eyes almost emit sparks from the pent-up fire within him. For the next half-hour he frowns on all about him. The children at first are awed by such a threatening aspect,— but soon they become accustomed to it, and the terrible very natur- ally gives place to the ridiculous. No man has a moral right to render those uncomfortable who surround him, by habitually covering his face with the looks of discontent and moroseness. It is peculiarly wrong for the teacher to do it. It is for him to present an example of self-government under all circumstances, so that he can consistently enforce the duty of self-control upon the young. It is for him to show him- self a man of principle, of benevolence, of cheerful devotion to his duty, however full of trials that duty may be ; and in no way can he do this more effectually than by an amiable and engaging countenance. A peevish, frow^ning teacher is very likely to pro- duce petulance and sullenness in his pupils; while a cordial smile, like the genial beam of the spring-day sun, not only sheds a wel- come light on all around, but it imparts a blessed heat, which penetrates the frigidity of the heart, dissipates the cheerless mists that hover there, and warms the generous affections into life and beauty. MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 263 We are so constituted that the inward and the outward sym- patTiize with each other. Solomon says, " a merry heart maketh a cheerful countenance," — and I may venture to add, and with almost as much truth, a cheerful countenance maketh a merry heart. An honest attempt to bless others with the sight of a countenance that is expressive of content and patience, is an act so praiseworthy in itself, that it will never go unrewarded. The gratifying response which such a countenance is sure to call forth from others, brings with it a rich revenue of inward enjoyment. He, therefore, who habitually bears about with him a sad or an angry countenance, while he constantly impairs the happiness of others, lacks at the same time an important instrumentality for securing his own. But the question will arise,— can a man gain such ascendency over himself as to control the expression of his countenance ? I answer, without hesitation, yes. "Whatever ought to be done, can be done." It is not jjerfectly easy to do it, especially for the teacher. Still, self-control — full, complete self-control— is his appropriate duty as well as privilege. He must, as Carlyle quaintly enjoins, ''learn to devour the chagrins of his lot.'' He must calculate beforehand that every day will bring its cares and its trials ; but he should daily resolve that they shall never take him by surprise, nor betray him into sudden impatience. Each morning as he walks to the scene of his labors, he should fortify himself against sudden anger or habitual moroseness on this wise: "No doubt this day some untoward occurrence will trans- pire, calculated to try my patience and to provoke me to fretful words and angry looks. All my past experience leads me to expect this. But this day I will try to resist the temptation to this weakness. I will try to be self-possessed. If any child is vicious, or fretful, or dull, or even impudent, I will endeavor to show that I can command myself. If I feel some angry passion enkindling within me, I will stop and think, and I will endeavor to smile before I speak. If I can to-day gain the victory over impatience, and can maintain an even and cheerful temper, and 264 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. express it constantly in my countenance, it will be easier to do it to-morrow. At all events, 111 try.'' Taking hold thus in earnest, any man may soon be his own master. He can gain the victory. If he can do it, he ought to do it. Hence I urge it as a duty. Nor is it merely a duty. It is a high privilege. A complete victory for a single day will bring its own reward. A man who feels that he has risen above his temp- tation can return to his rest with a light and happy heart. Sleep to him will be sweet, and he will arise on the morrow with renewed strength for the fresh conflict,— and in the moral as well as in the literal warfare, every contest which ends in victory, gives additional strength to the victor, while it weakens and disheartens his enemy. VI. Study to acquire the art of aptly illustrating a difficult subject. — Some teachers content themselves with answering in the precise language of the book whenever a question for infor- mation is propounded. This, however, is by no means sufficient, even when the language of the book is strictly accurate; much less, when the language is so vague as to convey no definite idea to the mind, either of the learner or the teacher. On the other hand, a man who is apt to teach, will devise some ingenious method of enlightening the mind of his pupil, so that he shall lay hold of the idea as with a manly grasp, and make it his own forever. This point, will, perhaps, be best illustrated by an example. A young man was employed to take charge of a school for a few days during a temporary illness of the regular instructor. He was a good scholar, as the world would say, and was really desirous to answer the expectation of his employers. After the regular teacher had so far recovered his health as to be able to leave his room, he walked one pleasant day to the school, to see what success attended the labors of the new incumbent. A class was reciting in natural philosophy. The subject under considera- tion was — the obstacles which impede the motion of machinery. The attraction of gravity, as one of these, was pretty easily dis- posed of; for the class had before been instructed on that point. MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 265 Friction came next. Here, too, the pupils, having had some practical experience of their own, in dragging their sleds, in skat- ing, or perhaps in turning a grindstone, found no great difficulty. The book spoke in language sufficiently clear to be understood. Next came the "resistance of the various media," to use the lan- guage of the text-book, "Yes," said the teacher, as one of the pupils gravely quoted this language, "that has no inconsiderable effect." "The 'resistance of the various media? '"—repeated one of the boys inquiringly; "I do not know as I understand what media means." "A medium is that in which a body moves," was the ready reply which the teacher read from the book. Pupil "Am edium ? ' ' Teacher. "Yes; we s'a,j medium when we mean but one, and media when we mean more than one." Pupil. " When we mean but one? " Teacher. "Yes; medium is singular — zTjecZia is plural." After this discussion, which began in philosophy but ended in grammar, the teacher was about to proceed with the next ques- tion of the book. But the scholar was not yet satisfied, and he ventured to press his inquiries a little further. Pupil " Is this room a medium ? " Teacher. " This room ? " Pupil " Yes, sir; you said that a medium was 'that in which anybody moves,' and we all move in this room." Teacher. " Yes, but medium does not mean a room ; it is the substance in which a body moves." Here the lad looked perplexed and unsatisfied. He had no clear idea of the meaning of this new term. The teacher looked at his watch, and then glanced at the remaining pages of the les- son and seemed impatient to proceed,— so the pupil forbore to Inquire further. The regular teacher, who had listened to the discussion with no ordinary interest, both because he admired the inquisitiveness of the bo}^ and because he was curious to discover how far the 266 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. new incumbent possessed the power of illustration, here inter- posed. "John,"— taking his w^atch in his hand— "would this watch continue to go, if I should drop it into a pail of water? " ' "I should think it would not long," said John, after a little reflection. "Why not ? " said his teacher, as he opened his watch. "Because the water would get round the wheels and stop it, I should think," said John. " How would it be if I should drop it into a quart of molasses?" The boys laughed. "Or into a barrel of tar ? " The boys still smiled. "Suppose I should force it, while open, into a quantity of lard?" Here the boys laughed heartily, while John said, "the watch would not go in any of these articles." '^Articles? '^ said his teacher, " w^hy not say media? '^ John's eye glistened as he caught the idea. " Oh, I understand it now." His teacher then said, that many machines worked in air, — then the air was the medium. A fish swims in w^ater,— water is his medium. A fish could hardly swim in molasses or tar. "Now," inquired he, " why not ? " "Because of the resistance of the medium," said John with a look of satisfaction. " Now why will the watch go in air and not in water? " " Because the water is more dense," said John promptly. " Then upon what does the resistance of a medium depend?" Here the new teacher interposed, and said that was the next question in the book, and he was just going to ask it himself. The regular teacher put his watch into his pocket and became a spectator again, and the lesson proceeded with unwonted vivaci- ty. The difference between these two teachers mainly consisted in the fact, that one had the ingenuity to devise an expedient to meet a difficulty whenever occasion required,— the other had not. MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 267 Now, in order to teach well, a man should diligently seek for expedients. He should endeavor to foresee the very points where the learner will stumble, and provide himself with the means of rendering timely aid. If an object cannot be described in words, let it be compared with what it resembles, or with what it con- trasts. If it be an object of sense, and words and comparisons fail to describe it,— in the absence of apparatus to represent it, let the teacher spring to the blackboard and execute a hasty drawing of it. In this way the construction or the working of a machine, the form of a bone or the action of a joint, the shape of a town or the plan of a building,— in short, almost every subject that involves the relation of form, size, proportion, quantity, or number, will admit of visible illustration. He is the successful teacher who is able at the moment to seize upon the best expedi- ent, and render it subservient to his purpose. VII. Take advantage of unusual occurrences to make a moral or religious impression.— Innjiovmer chapter I have urged it as a part of the teacher's work, to cultivate and strengthen both the moral sentiments and the religious feelings of the members of his school. This is not most effectually done by a formal mode of speaking to them on these subjects. If a particular hour is set apart for formal lectures on their duty to their fellow-men and their obligations to God, they are very apt to fortify their sensi- bilities against the most faithful appeals, and thus render them powerless. The wise teacher will watch for the fit opportunity, and, just at the moment when the heart is prepared by some suit- able occurrence,— when by some exhibition of the Creator's power it is awed into reverence, or softened into submission ; or by some display of his goodness it is warmed into gratitude, or animated with delight,— with a few words, seasonably and "fitly spoken," he fixes the impression forever. Speaking at the right time, every ear listens, and every heart feels. Perhaps many of my readers can revert to some season in their childhood, endeared to them by a precious recollection of golden words thus opportunely uttered, — words fraught with truth which in after-life has had an unspeakable influence in the forma- 268 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. tion of their character. One or two examples connected with my own experience, may be presented, more fully to illustrate my meaning; while at the same time they may afford, it is hoped, some valuable hints for the encouragement and guidance of such young teachers as desire in this way to make themselves the instruments of lasting benefit to the young. Example I.— I can never forget — nor would I if I could — a lesson impressed upon my own youthful mind, conveying the truth that we are constantly dependent upon our Heavenly Father for protection. In a plain country schoolhouse, some twenty-five children, including myself, were assembled with our teacher on the afternoon of a summer's day. We had been as happy and as thoughtless as the sportive lambs that cropped the clover of the neighboring hill-side. Engrossed Avith study or play, — for at this distance of time it is impossible to tell which, — we had not noticed the low rumbling of the distant thunder, till a sudden flash of lightning arrested our attention. Immediately the sun was veiled by the cloud, and the corresponding gloom set- tled upon every face within. The elder girls, with the characteris- tic though tfulness of woman, hastily inquired whether they should not make the attempt to lead their younger brothers and sisters to the paternal roof before the bursting of the storm. For a moment our little community was thrown into utter confusion. The teacher stepped hastily to the door to survey more perfectly the aspect of the western heavens. Immediately retui'uing, he signified to the children that there would not be time for them to reach their homes before the tempest would be upon them. Op- pressed with dread, — for it is no uncommon thing for children in the country to be terrified by lightning,— some of the youngest of us clung to our older brothers or sisters, while others, being the sole representatives of their family in the school, for the first time felt their utter loneliness in the midst of strangers, and gave utterance to their feelings in audible sighs or unequiv- ocal sobs. The teacher, meanwhile, with an exemplary calmness and self- possession, closed the windows and doors, and then seated him- MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 269 self quite near the younger pupils, to await the result. The thick darkness gathered about us, as if to make the glare of the light- ning, by contrast, more startling to our vision ; while the loud thunder almost instantly followed, as it were the voice of God. The wind howled through the branches of a venerable tree near by, bending its sturdy trunk, and threatening to break asunder the cords which bound it to its mother earth. An angry gust assailed the humble building where we were sheltered ; it roared down the capacious chimney, violently closed a shutter that lacked a fastening, breaking the glass by its concussion, and almost forced in the frail window sashes on the westerly side of the room. Quicker and more wild the lightnings glared— flash after flash — as if the heavens were on fire; louder and nearer the thunder broke above our heads, while the inmates of the room, save the teacher, were pale with terror. At this moment there was a sudden cessation of the war of elements,— a hush — almost a prophetic pause! It was that brief interval which precedes the falling torrent. A dread stillness reigned within the room. Every heart beat hurriedly, and every countenance told the consternation that was reigning within. It was an awful moment ! With a calm voice, breathing a subdued and confiding spirit, the teacher improved this opportunity to impress upon our young minds a great truth. "Fear not, children," said he, "it is your Heavenly Father that sends the storm as well as the sun- shine and the gentle breeze. You have been just as much in his power all day, as you are at this moment. He has been as near you, supporting you, supplying you with breath, with life, all through the pleasant morning; but then you did not see him. He is just as able to protect you now, for 'not a sparrow falls to the ground without his notice,'— and he ruleth the storm and ' rideth upon the wings of the wind.' We should ever feel willing to trust him; for he is ever able to grant us deliverance from all our dangers. God is here now to protect us." Just as he had finished these words the rain began to fall. First the drops were few and scattered ; but soon the windows of 270 PAGE'S THEORY AND PliACTlCE. Heaven were opened, and the thirsty ground was abundantly satisfied. The sound of the thunder became fainter and fainter as the cloud passed aw^ay; the sun burst out again in renewed splendor; the full drops glittered in his beams upon the grass; the birds began their songs; the rainbow^ spanned the eastern hills; and our hearts, taught by the timely instructions of a good man, began to expand with eager gratitude for our preservation by the hand of our Heavenly Father. The remainder of the afternoon passed happily away; and when our books were laid aside, and we were ready to burst out of the room to enjoy the refreshing air and participate in the general joy, the teacher, taking the Bible from the desk, asked us to remain quiet a moment while he would read a few words that he hoped we should never forget. The passage was the following, from the 65th Psalm : — By terrible things in righteousness wilt thou answer us, O God of our salvation; who art the confidence of all the ends of the earth, and of them that are afar off upon the sea. Which by his strength setteth fast the mountains; being girded with power; which stilleth the noise of the seas, the noi.st of their waves, and the tumult of the people. They also that dwell in the uttermost parts are afraid at thy tokens; thou makest the outgoings of the morning and evening to rejoice. Thou visitest the earth and waterest it; thou greatly enrichest it with the river of God, which is full of water; thou preparest them corn, when thou hast so provided for it. Thou waterest the ridges thereof abundantly: thou settlest the fur- rows thereof: thou makest it soft with showers: thou blessest the spring- ing thereof. Thou crownest the year with thy goodness; and thy paths drop fat- ness. They drop upon the pastures of the wilderness: and the little hills rejoice on every side. The pastures are clothed with flocks; the valleys also arecovered over with corn; they shout for joy, they also sing. After closing the book, the teacher said, "Go out now, chil- dren, and witness how perfectly these words have been fulfilled toward us this afternoon,— and from this day's mercies, learn hereafter to trust God as confidently in the storm, when he dis- plays his power by his outward 'tokens,' as when he kindly smiles MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 271 upon 3"ou in the beams of the glorious sun, or gently breathes upon you in the morning breeze." We went forth bounding in gladness and gratitude, and saw the " outgoings of the evening to rejoice, "—"the pastures clothed with flocks,"—" the valleys covered over with corn,"— "the little hills rejoicing on every side;"— we heard also the general shout for joy; — and we felt as we never before had felt, a deep, thorough, abiding conviction of the truth that God is our father and our friend ; the God of our salvation. I know not how soon these impressions faded from the minds of the other children,— but for myself I can say, that from that time to the present, whenever I have been exposed to apparent danger from the impending tempest, the warring elements, or the ravages of disease, the teachings of that hour have always revived in my mind to soothe my troubled spirit, and to reassure my faith and confidence in the presence of an all-sufficient and merciful Preserver. A thousand times have I devoutly blessed the memory of that faithful teacher, for having so early and so happily turned my thoughts upward to Him, in whom "we live, and move, and have our being." Example II.— It was in the afternoon of a gloomy day in the latter part of November, when the pupils, consisting of some fifty boys, belonging to a school in a pleasant seaport town in New England, were told by their teacher, a few minutes before the usual hour, that they might lay aside their studies, and prepare for dismission. During the early part of the day there had been one of those violent southeast rain-storms, so common upon the seacoast at that season of the year. It is w^ell known to the observing mariner, that a storm from the so^utheast never con- tinues beyond twelve or fifteen hours; and when the violence of the storm abates, it is a common remark of the sailor, that "the northwester is not long in debt to the southeaster." Previous to this change of wind, however, there is what is expressively termed the "lull of the storm,"— a period when the rain ceases to fall, the wind dies away to a perfect calm, the barometer is suddenly depressed, the clouds hover almost upon the face of the 272 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. earth, shutting out the light of the sun, and causing a cheerless damp to settle upon everything terrestrial, and a "dreary gloom to enshroud the mind itself. When the wind changes, these clouds are not gradually dissolved and broken up, so that the eye can catch transient glimpses of the blue sky beyond, as after a snow- storm in winter; but the dark drapery is suddenly lifted up, as if by an unseen hand, and the western sky, from the horizon up- wards, is left more bright and more charming than ever, to refresh the eye and reanimate the soul. It was such a day, as before remarked, when the pupils of this school — partly because of the darkness in the schoolroom, and partly because of their protracted confinement within a close apartment during a gloomy afternoon— were, a little earlier than usual, about to be dismissed. The pupils all seemed to welcome the happy release that awaited them,— and in their eagerness to escape from confinement, the^" very naturally neglected to observe their accustomed regard for quiet and order in laying aside their books. It was, however, a fixed habit with the teacher, never to give the signal for leaving the room till all the pupils had taken the proper attitude for passing out with regularity, and then had composed themselves to perfect silence. On this occasion perhaps two minutes passed away while the boys were gradually, almost impatiently, bringing themselves to a compliance with this rule of the teacher. During this interval of waiting, the cloud, unperceived by the teaclier, had been slowly raised up from the western horizon, just in time to allow the setting sun to bestow a farewell glance upon the sorrowing world at his leave taking. Through the Venetian blinds that guarded the windows toward the west, the celestial light gleamed athwart the apartment, and painted the opposite wall, in front of the pupils, with streaks of burnished gold! In an instant every countenance was changed. A smile now jo^^ously played where before sadness and discontent had held their moody reign. The teacher was reminded, by all these circumstances, of the beautiful language of the prophet, which promised the gift of "the garment of praise for the spirit of heaviness.'" What could MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 273 be more appropriate on this occasion than a song of praise? Without speaking: a single word, the teacher commencecl one of the little songs already familiar to the whole school :— Lo the heavens are breaking, Pure and bright above; Life and light awaking. Murmur — God is love. God is love. Bound yon pine-clad mountain, Flows a golden flood ; Hear the sparkling fountain, Whisper — God is good. God is good. Wake, my heart, and springing. Spread thy wings above, — Soaring still and singing, God is ever good. God is good. Instantly every voice that had ever sung, now uttered heart- felt praise. The attendant circumstances, taken at the happy moment, furnished such an impressive commentary upon the import of the words, that they were felt, as they never before had been felt to be the words of precious truth. Every heart throbbed in unison with the sentiment. At the close of the song, there was profound silence in the room. After a moment's pause, during which the truth that God is good seemed to pervade each mind and hold it in silent reverence,— the signal for departure was given. One after another the boys passed from their seats with a light and careful step, as if noise and haste would be a desecra- tion both of the time and place,— and when they reached the open air, refreshing and exhilarating as it was, there w^as no boister- ous shout, no rude mirth; each took his homeward course, appar- ently with a new and lively conviction that God is good. It has always been a source of pleasure to that teacher to recall from the ''buried past" the associations connected with that delightful hour and that charming song ; and it has been among T. P.— 18 274 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. the most gratifying incidents of his experience as a teacher, to hear more than one of those pupils in later life recur to the mem- ory of that day, and acknowledge with thankfulness the lasting impressions which then and there were made upon their minds. It would be easy to furnish examples to almost any extent, of the manner in which this principle has been, or may be carried out in practice. The degradation of an intoxicated person who may pass the school,— the pitiable condition of the man who may wander through the streets bereft of his reason,— any instance of sudden death in the neighborhood, particularly of a young person,— the passing of a funeral procession,— in short, any occurrence that arrests the attention of the young and enlists their feeling, may be seized upon as the means of making upon their minds an impression for good. The facts developed in many of their lessons, too, afford opportunities for incidental moral instruction. The adaptation of means to ends,— the evi- dence of design and intelligence displayed in the works of crea- tion,— the existence of constant and uniform laws as developed in the sciences, :all furnish the means of leading the young mind to God. That teacher will enjoy the richest satisfaction in the evening of life, who, in looking back upon his past experience, shall be conscious that he has improved every opportunity, which God has given him, to turn the youthful affections away from the things of earth to seek a worthier object in things above. CHAPTER XVI. THE REWARDS OF THE TEACHER. It is proverbial that the pecuniary compensation of the teacher is, in most places, far below the proper standard. It is very much to be regretted that an employment so important in all its bearings, should be so poorly rewarded. In New England there are many young women who, having spent some time in teaching, have left that occupation to go into the large manufac- turing establishments as laborers, simply because they could receive a higher compensation. I have known several instances in which young ladies, in humble circumstances, have left teach- ing to become domestics, thus performing the most ordinary manual labor, because they could receive better pay ; that is, the farmers and mechanics of the district could afford to pay more liberally for washing and ironing, for making butter and cheese, for sweeping floors and cleaning paint, than they could for educat- ing the immortal minds of their children ! Nor is this confined to the female sex. Young mechanics and farmers, as well as those employed in manufacturing, frequently receive higher wages than the common-school teacher in the same district. Many a young man who has only genius enough to drive the pegs of a shoe in a regular row, and skill enough to black the surface of the article when it is completed, having spent but a few weeks in learning his trade, receives more money for his work than he who, after having spent months, or even years, in gaining the requisite qualifications, labors to polish that nobler material, the human soul. The injustice of this becomes more apparent when we bear in mind that public opinion demands, and justly too, that the teacher should be not only gentlemanly in his manners, but better clad than the mere laborer, — thus throwing upon him a (275) 276 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. greater burden without affording- him the means of sustaining it. The female teacher of a district school, in order to be respectable, must be much more expensively dressed than the domestic in the family where she boards, and is thus compelled to consume most of her receipts upon her wardrobe,— while the domestic is able to place surplus money at interest in the savings bank. This injus- tice has so often been laid before the people, and yet has been so long continued, that many have given up in despair, and aban- doned an employment that has yielded so little, choosing rather to engage in that lower service which is so much better paid. This sufficiently explains why so many unqualified teachers have been found in our common schools. Men of talents and ability being tempted to other employments, have left the field unoccupied; and those men who have failed to gain a comforta- ble living by their hands, have been allowed to try the experi- ment of supporting life by their wits,— that is, by becoming teachers ! Such has been the case for a long time past; and, though in many quarters the people are beginning to open their eyes to their true interest, and are gradually and commendably coming up to their duty, yet, for some time to come, the pecuniary com- pensation will not constitute the chief reward of the teacher. If he will go cheerfully to his work, and find his daily enjoyment in his daily toil, he must have a higher object, some more elevating, inspiring motive, than mere money-getting. The chief encourage- ments of the faithful teacher \i€ in another direction. It is the object of the following paragraphs to point out some of these encouragements; for, having in the preceding pages required very much at his hands, I feel that it is but just that he should be invited to look at the brighter side of the picture, so that w^hen he is ready to sink under the responsibilities of his position, or to yield to the obstacles that oppose his progress, he may have something to animate his soul, and to nerve him anew for the noble confiict. I. The teacher's employment affords the means of intellectual growth.— \i a man teaches as he should teach he must of neces- THE REWARDS OF THE TEACHER. 277 sity improve himself. Teaching, imderstandingly pursued, gives accuracy. I know it is possiV)le for a man to be a mere school- master—a pedagogue, without any self-improvement. But I am speaking of the faithful, devoted teacher, —the man who studies, reflects, invents. Such a man learns more than his pupils. Every time he takes a class through any branch of study, he does it more skillfully, more thoroughly than before. He brings some fresh illustration of it, presents some new view of it, and hence takes a lively interest in it himself, and awakens a new zeal among his pupils. Measuring himself by his new success, he feels a consciousness of growth, of progress. This consciousness is a precious reward. II. The teacher's employment affords the means of moral ^roT*^'^/^.— Brought constantly in contact with those who need a careful guidance, he feels impelled to earnest effort in order to obtain the mastery over himself, as the best means of gaining complete influence over others. Studying the weak points in their character, he is constantly reminded of those in his own, and self- knowledge is the first step toward self-improvement. Beginning in the feebleness of inexperience, he bolsters up his authority at first by a frequent resort to force; but, as he goes on, he finds himself gradually gaining such ascendency over the vicious as to control them quite as effectually by milder means. At first, easily excited to anger or impatience, he frequently indulged in severe language when it was unnecessary,— but by careful discipline he has learned to "set a watch before his mouth and to keep the door of his lips." Encouraged by one victory over himself, he is prepared for another. Having learned by self-discipline to con- trol his outward acts, he next attempts the mastery of his thoughts. He soon finds that his moral power over others is very much increased. Somehow — though perhaps he cannot yet tell the reason why— he finds he can secure obedience with half the effort formerly required, — he gains the love of his pupils more readily, — and, with the exception, now and then, of an extreme case, he finds that he excites a deeper interest than ever before in the whole round of duty among the scholars. Why is 278 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. this? he asks,— and the conseiousiiess of increased moral power rising up within him, is a source of the highest satisfaction. Pecuniary emohiment sinks into nothing considered as a reward, when compared with a conscious victory over himself. III. A consciousness of improvement in the art of teaching is another reward. — Such improvement will follow^ as a matter of course from his self-improvement in the particulars just named. As his own mind expands, he feels a new impulse to exert himself to interest others in the subjects he teaches. He soon comes to look upon the work of instruction, not as a mere mechanical business, to be done in a formal way, but as a noble art, based upon certain great principles that are capable of being under- stood and applied. He employs all his ingenuity to discover the natural order of presenting truth to the mind,— to ascertain the precise degree of aid the learner needs, and the point w^here the teacher should stop. He studies carefully the proper motives to be presented as incentives to exertion. Interested in his labor as a great work, looking upon his influence as telling upon all future time, he devotes himself daily with new zeal, and is rewarded^ith the consciousness of new success. TV. The teacher is permitted also to witness the constant growth of mind among his pupils.— I say constant, because the teacher is not obliged to labor without seeing immediate results. The minister of religion may sometimes sow the seed of the good word, while the fruit does not appear for a long season. Some- times a spiritual apathy prevails, so that the most faithful warn- ings and the most earnest appeals seem to fall powerless upon the conscience; and he is led almost to despair of ever being able to break the deathlike slumber. It is not thus with the teacher. His labor tells immediately upon the young mind. Even while he is yet speaking, he is gratified with observing the soul's expan- sion as it grasps and assimilates some new idea which he pre- sents. From day to day, as he meets his classes, he sees how they go on from strength to strength,— at first, indeed, with the halting, tottering step of the feeble babe, but soon with the firm and confident tread of the vigorous youth. TEE REWARDS OF THE TEACHER. 279 A teacher who is for several years employed in his vocation, is often astonished at the rapidity with which the young, who come to him as mere children, grow into men and women, and take their places on the stage of life as prominent actors. Some of them distinguish themselves in the arts; some become noted for their attainments in science; some receive the honors of office and become leaders in civil affairs; some gain eminence as pro- fessional men; and very likely a large portion of them are engaged in the various departments of honorable industry. Wherever they are, and whatever they are, they are now exerting a powerful influence in the community. They have groAvn up under his eye, and have been essentially shaped by his plastic hand. He looks upon them almost with the interest and pride of a father. He counts them as his jewels; and when he hears of their success, their usefulness, and their honors, his heart leaps within him, as he thinks, " they were my pupils J ^ Even though he may have wasted the strength of his best days in the service, what a, reward is this for the teacher! V. The teacher has the consciousness of being engaged in a useful and honorable calling. — What though he may not become rich in this world's goods? Who would not prefer above houses and lands,— infinitely above all the wealth of earth, the conscious- ness of being engaged in a work of usefulness? Man was made for usefulness, — and who would not desire to answer the design of his creation ? My pen is too feeble to attempt to portray the usefulness of the faithful teacher. He educates the immortal mind,— wakes it to thought,— trains it to discipline— self-discipline,— moves it to truth and virtue,— fills it with longings for a more perfect state, and sends it forth to exert its power for good through all coming time! "To this end," in the glowing language of Professor Agnew, "he communicates a knowledge of letters, opens out gradually before the child the book of nature and the literature of the world; he disciplines his mind and teaches him how to gather knowledge from every source; he endeavors to impart quickness and retentiveness of memory, to cultivate a refined and 280 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. well regulated imagination, to task, and thus to give vigor to his reasoning powers. He points out the appropriate objects of the several affections, and the proper exercise of the passions; he gives lessons to conscience, derived from the pure fountain of God's own revelation, and teaches him to subject his own will to the Highest AVill. He instructs him in the various sciences, and thus displays before him worlds of wondrous interest, and invests him with the sources and means of pure enjoyment. He trains him for the sweet sympathies of social life; and unfolds before him the high behests of duty— duty to himself, his fellow-creatures, his family, his God. "Under such a tuition, behold the helpless infant grown to manhood's prime,— a body well developed, strong and active; a mind symmetrically unfolded, and powers of intellection closely allied to those of the spirits in celestial spheres. He becomes a husband and a father; in these, and in all the relations of life, he performs well his part. Above all he is a Christian, with well- trained affections and a tender conscience, supremely loving God, maintaining a constant warfare with the world, the flesh, and the devil,— growing up into the stature of a perfect man in Christ, and anticipating the fullness of joy and pleasure for evermore which are at God's right hand. The time of his departure at length arrives ; he has fought the good fight, he has finished his course, and he goes to obtain his crown and to attune his harp, and forever to dwell on the hills of light and love, where angels gather immortality. Oh, what a transit; from the dependent helplessne.ss of infancy to the glory of a seraph; from mind scarcely manifested, to mind ranging over the immensity of Jehovah's empire, and rising in the loftiest exercises of reason and affection! And how much has the faithful teacher had to do in fitting him for the blissful mansions of the skies! " If such be tlie teacher's work, where is the limit to his useful- ness? Yet he ma}^ do this not for one merely, but for scores, or even hundreds. Eternity alone can display the immeasurable, inconceivable usefulness of one devoted teacher. And is not the teacher's calling honorable? It is,— for its THE REWARDS OF THE TEACHER. 281 usefulness makes it honorable. To scatter the light of truth is always honorable. So some of the greatest and best men the world ever saw have believed, and have illustrated their faith by their pi-actice. Confucius, Socrates, Seneca, Aristotle, and Plato were specimens of the teachers of ancient date. Roger Ascham, John Milton, Francke, Pestalozzi, iVrnold, and a host of others, have adorned the profession in later times. Yet these are men who have taught the world to think. Their works live after them, — and will continue to live, when the proud fame of the mighty warriors, who have marked their course in blood, shall have perished from the earth. If it were necessary and not invidious, how many distinguished men in our own country could be mentioned, who have been teachers of the young, or who are still engaged as such. Besides those who have made teaching the business of their lives, how many have been temporarily employed in this calling. Some of our presidents, many of our governors, most of our jurists and divines, — indeed, some of every profession, "and of the chief women not a /eTi^"— have first distinguished themselves as school- teachers. Well may teachers, then, regard their profession as an honorable one; always remembering, however, that "it is not the position which makes the man honorable, but the man the position." VI. The teacher enjoys the grateful remembrance of his pupils and of their friends.— When a distinguished writer said, " God be thanked for the gift of mothers and schoolmasters," he expressed but the common sentiment of the human heart. The name of parent justly enkindles the warmest emotions in the heart of him who has gone out from his native home to engage in the busy scenes of the work-day world; and when sometimes he retires from the companionship of new-made friends to recall the picture of the past and the loved of other days,— to think "Of chiMi.sh joys when bounding boyhood knew No grief, but chased the gorgeous butterfly, And gambol'd with the breeze, that tossed about His silken curls — " 282 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. how sweetly do the gentle influences of home and childhood, with all their tender and hallowed associations, come stealing over the soul ! The world is forgotten ; care may not intrude upon this sacred hour; objects of sense are unheeded; the call to pleasure is disregarded ;— while the rapt soul introverted — transported— dwells with unspeakable delight upon its consecrated recollection of all that is venerable, all that is sacred in the name of parent. At this favored hour, how the heart swells at the thought of a mother's love! The smiles, the kind words, the sympathy, the counsels, the prayers, the tears, — how fondly the memory treas- ures them all up, and claims them for its own! And though Death may have long since intruded, and consigned that gentle form to the cold earth, rudely sundering the cherished bonds of affection, and leaving the hearthstone desolate,— though Change may have brought strangers to fell the favorite tree, to remove the ancient landmarks, to lay waste the pleasant places, and even to tread thoughtlessly by the humble mound that marks the revered spot where " departed worth is laid," though Time, "with his effacing fingers," may have been busy in obliterating the impressions of childhood from the mind, or in burying them deeply beneath the rubbish of perplexing cares, — still the true heart never tires with the thought of a fond parent, nor ever ceases to "thank God ujDon every remembrance" of a pious, devoted mother ! Thus it should ever be. Nothing on earth should be allowed to claim the gratitude which is justly due to judicious parents. But the faithful, devoted teacher, the former of youthful character and the guide of youthful study, will be sure to have the next place in the grateful heart. Whether the young man treads the deck of the noble ship, in his lonely watch, as she proudly walks the waters by night, — or journeys among strangers in foreign lands ; — wherever he goes, or however employed,— as often as his thoughts revisit the scenes of his childhood, and dwell with interest upon the events that marked his youthful progress, he will recur to the old familiar schoolhouse, call up its well remembered inci- dents—its joys and its sorrows— its trials and its triumphs— its THE REWARDS OF THE TEACHER. 283 all-pervading and ever-abiding influences, and devoutly thank God for the gift of a faithful, self-denying, patient teacher. But the teacher is rewarded also by the gratitude of parents and friends. Some of the sweetest moments a teacher ever expe- riences ^re those when a parent takes him by the hand, and with cordial sincerity and deep emotion, thanks him for what he has done for his child. It may have been a w^ayward, thoughtless, perhaps a vicious boy, whom kind words and a warm heart, on the part of the teacher, have won back to the path of rectitude and virtue. I have seen an old lady — and I shall never forget the sight — bending under the infirmities of age,— blind, and yet dependent mainly upon her labor for support, invoking the richest of heaven's blessings upon the head of a teacher, who, by kindness and perseverance, had won back her wayward grandson to obedi- ence and duty. How her full soul labored as she described the change that had taken place ! Her emotion— too deep for utter- ance in words — found expression only in tears that streamed from her sightless eyes ! She felt that her boy was again a child of hope and promise, and that he might yet be a virtuous and a useful man. The world may raise its empty acclamation to honor the man of power and of fame,— it may applaud the statesman and weave the chaplet for the conqueror's brow;— but the teacher, humble and obscure though he may be, who is the object of the widow's gratitude for being the orphan's friend, with the consciousness of deserving it, is a happier, I had almost said a greater man. Surely he receives a greater reward. Vn. The faithful teacher enjoys the approval of Heaven.— He is employed, if he has a right spirit, in a heavenly mission. He is doing his Heavenly Father's business. That man should be made wiser and happier, is the will of Heaven. To this end, the Son of God — the Great Teacher — came to bless our race. So far as the schoolmaster has the spirit of Jesus, he is engaged in the same great work. Heaven regards with complacency the humble efforts of the faithful teacher to raise his fellow-beings from the darkness of ignorance and the slavery of superstition; 284 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. and if a more glorious crown is held in reserve for one rather than another, it is for him who, uncheered by worldly applause, and without the prospect of adequate reward from his fellow- men, cheerfully practices the self-denial of his master, spending his strength, and doing with diligence and patience ''whatsoever his hand findeth to do," towards raising his fellow-beings to happiness and heaven. It is such a teacher that the eloquent and gifted Lord Brougham describes in the following beautiful language: "He meditates and prepares, in secret, the plans which are to bless mankind ; he slowly gathers around him those who are to further their execution, — he quietly, though firmly, advances in his humble path, laboring steadily, but calmly, till he has opened to the light all the recesses of ignorance, and torn up by the roots the weeds of vice. His progress is not to be compared with any- thing like the march of the conqueror, — but it leads to a far more brilliant triumph and to laurels more imperishable than the destroyer of his species, the scourge of the world, ever won. Each one of these great teachers of the world, possessing his soul in peace, performs his appointed course, awaits in patience the ful- fillment of the promises, and resting from his labors, bequeaths his memory to the generation whom his works have blessed, and sleeps under the humble, but not inglorious epitaph, commemo- rating 'one in whom mankind lost ii friend, and no man got rid of an enemy.' " In view of what has been said, let the teacher cease to repine at his hard lot. Let him cast an occasional glance at the bright prospect before him. He deserves, to be sure, a higher pecuniary reward than he receives; and he should never cease to press this truth upon the community, till talent in teaching is as well com- pensated as talent in any other calling. But whether he gains this or not, let him dwell upon the privileges and rewards to be found in the calling itself, and take fresh encouragement. The apostle, Paul, exhibited great wisdom when he said, "/ magnify mine office.'' If the foregoing views respecting the im- THE REWARDS OF THE TEACHER. 285 portance of the teacher's calling are correct, he may safely follow the apostle's example. This is not, however, to be done merely by boastful words. No man can elevate himself, or magnify his office in public estimation, by indulging in empty declamation, or by passing inflated resolutions. He must feeJ the dignity of his profession, and show that he feels it by unremitted exertions to attain to the highest excellence of which he is capable,— animated, in the midst of his toil, chiefly by the great moral recompense which every faithful teacher may hope to receive. Let every teacher, then, study to improve himself intellectually and morally; let him strive to advance in the art of teaching; let him watch the growth of mind under his culture and take the encouragement which that affords; let him consider the useful- ness he may effect and the circumstances which make his calling honorable; let him prize the gratitude of his pupils and of their parents and friends; and above all, let him. value the approval of Heaven, and set a proper estimate upon the rewards which another world will unfold to him, — and thus be encouraged to toil on in faithfulness and in hope,— till, having finished his course, and being gathered to the home of the righteous, he shall meet multitudes, instructed by his wise precept, and profited by his pure example, who " shall rise up and call him blessed." CHAPTER XVII. THE SCHOOLMASTER— A DIALOGUE.* Dramatis Personap. The Schoolmaster. Patrons of the School. Squire Snyder. Mr. O'Clary. Mr. Fosdick. Mr. LeCompte. Pupils of the School. Jonas Snyder. . Jacques LeCompte. William Fosdick. Isaac. Patrick O'Clary. And others. Scene. Interior of a Village Schoolroom. — The Schoolmaster alone. Master. {Setting copies.) Well, so here I am again, after an- other night's sleep. But, sleep or no sleep, I feel about as much fatigued in the morning as I do at night. It is impossible to get the cares and anxieties of my profession out of my mind. It does seem to me that the parents of some of my pupils are very unfeeling ; for I know I have done my very best to keep a good school, and, however I may have failed in some instances, I have the satisfaction of feeling, in my conscience, that my best endeavors have been devoted to my work. A merry lot of copies here, to be set before school time. [Looking at his watch.) But "a diligent hand will accomplish much;" by the way, that will do for a copy for Jonas Snyder— little culprit! he was very idle yesterday. (Thinking and busy.) What can that story mean, *This dialogue was hastily written for an entertainment at Newburyport, and, although it contains expressions not strictly in accord with the prevailing ideas of school discipline, it is nevertheless given as originally published, as the present volume would be incomplete without it. It illustrates the true teacher with all his strength of character, his earnestness, self-control and solicitude for his charge— the portrait, in fact, unconsciously self-drawn, of its author. (286) THE SCHOOLMASTER— A DIALOGUE. 287 which Mr. Truetell told me this morning? Five or six! who could they be? — five or six of the parents of my scholars dreadfully offended ! Let me see; what have I done? Nothing, very lately, that I recollect. Let's see; yesterday? no, there was nothing yesterday, except that I detained the class in geography till they got their lessons. Oh, yes, Jonas Snyder was punished for idle- ness. But I spoke to him four or five times, and he would do nothing but whisper, and whittle his bench ; and when at last he half eat up an apple, and threw the rest at Jacob Readslow, I thought he deserved it. Let's see; I gave him six claps— three on each hand; well, he did not get more than his desserts. {Enter one of the scholars, with his books under his arm, walking slowly, and eyeing the Master, to his seat. Master still busy, and thinking, by and by says,) Isaac, you may come to me. [He walks along and says,) Sir! Master. Do you remember (placing his pen over bis ear, and turning earnestly and portentiously round), whether I punished any scholars yesterday? Isaac. Yes, sir; you feruled Jone Snyder for playing and laughing. Master. Did 1 punish anyone else ? Isaac. Not as I recollect. Master. Think, Isaac; think carefully. Isaac. You kept a lot of us after school for not saying our lessons— Master. [Quickly.) You mean, Isaac, rather, I kept you to get your lessons, which you had neglected ? Isaac. Yes, sir ; and you made Patrick O'Clary stop and sVeep, because he stayed out too late after recess. Master. Oh, yes, I remember that. Isaac. He was as mad as a hop about it ; he said he meant to tell his mother that you made him sweep for nothing. Master. Hush! hush! you shouldn't tell tales! Do you remember any other punishments ? Isaac. No, sir; not yesterday. You hit Jake LeCompte a clip across the knuckles, with the cowskin, day before yesterday; 288 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. don't you remember? just as he stretched out his hand to hook that old rag upon Tom WilHs' collar, you came along behind him, and clip went the old whip, right across his fingers, and down went the old rag. There, I never was more glad to see any thing in my life! Little, dirty, mean fellow!— he's always stick- ing things upon fellows; — I saw him once pin an old dirty rag upon a man's coat, just as he was putting a letter into the post- office ; — I never saw such a fellow ! [The other boys coming in gradually, the Master rings his little bell, and says,) Boys, come to order, and take your books. Now, boys, I wish to see if we can't have a good school to-day. Let's see; are we all here? Boys. No, sir! No, sir! Master. Who is absent? Boys. Jone Snyder! Jake LeCompte! Patrick OTlary ! and— Master. Speak one at a time, my boys. Don't make confusion, to begin with ;— and [looking around them),— oh ! Will Fosdick,— only four! One of the Boys. Pat 'Clary is late. I saw him down in Baker street, poking along !— he always comes late- Master. Did he say he was coming ? Same Boy. I asked him if he was coming to school, and he shook his head, and muttered out something about his mother, and I ran along and left him. Master. Well, boys; now let us try to have a still school and close study to-day, and see if it is not more pleasant to learn than to play. [Rises and walks to and fro on the stage.) Take the geography lesson, James and Samuel, first thing this morning; and Isaac, I don't wish to detain you again to-day. [Loud knock at the door.) [Enter William Fosdick, walking consequentially up to the Master, saying,) Here! father wants to see you at the door! (Master turns to go to the door, followed Z)j William, who wishes to hear all that's said, and Mr. Fosdick, looking quite savage, steps right inside,— the Master politely bowing, with a ' * good-morning. ' ' ) THE SCHOOLMASTER-A DIALOGUE, 289 Mr. Fosdick. Here, sir ; I want to see you about my boy ! I don't like to have you keep him after school every day ; I want him at home,— and I should like to have you dismiss him when school is done. If he wants lickin', lick him— that's all; but don't you keep him here an hour or two every day after school,— I don't send him here for that! Master. But, my good sir, I have not often detained him ; not more than twice within a fort — Mr. Fosdick. Well, don't you do it again,— that's all! Master. But, sir, I have only detained him to learn the les- sons which he might learn in school; and surely, if — Mr. Fosdick. Well, well, sir! don't you do it again!— that's all I have to say! If he behaves bad, you lick him,— only do it in reason;— but when school is done, I want him dismissed ! Master. Sir, I do what I conceive to be my duty; and I serve all my scholars alike; and while I would be willing to accommo- date you, I shall do what I think is my duty. (Gathering spirit and gravity, and advancing.) Sir, do I understand you to wish me to whip your son for not getting his lesson ? Mr. Fosdick. Yes — no — yes— in reason; I don't want my children's bones broke! Master. (Taking from the desk a cowhide.) Do you prefer your son should be whipped to being detained ? Fosdick. I don't think not getting hislessons is such a dread- ful crime. I never used to get my lessons, and old Master Pep- permint never used to lick me, and I am sure he never kept me after school; but we used to have schools good for sumfin' in them days. Bill, go to your seat, and behave yourself; and when school is done, you come home ! That's all I have to say ! Master. But stop, my boy ! (Speaking to William, decidedly. ) There happen to be two sides to this question ! There is some- thing further to be said, before you go to your seat in this school. Fosdick. What ! you don't mean to turn him out of school, do ye? (Somebody knocks.) T. p.— 19 290 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. (A boy steps to the door, and in steps Mr. O'Clary, who, approaching Mr. Fosdick, says,) Is it you that's the school- master sure ? It's I that's after spaking to the schoolmaster. (Bowing.) Fosdick. No; I'm no schoolmaster. Master. What is your wish, sir? Mr. O^Clary. I wants to spake with the schoolmaster, I do, sir. {Bows.) Master. Well, sir {rapping to keep the boys still, who are dis- posed to laugh), I am the schoolmaster. What is your wish? Mr. O'Clary. Why, sir, my little spalpeen of a son goes to this school, he does; and he says he's made to swape every day, he is; and it's all for nothing, he tells me; and sure I don't like it, I don't; and I'm kim to complain to ye, I have! It's Patrick O'Clary that I'm spaking uv; and it's I that's his father, I be; his father, Paddy O'Clary from Cork, it is. Master. Well, sir, he has never swept but once, I believe; and that, surely, was not without a good reason. Mr. O'Clary. But he tills a different story, he does; and I never knew him till but one lie in my life, I didn't ; and that was as good as none. But the little spalpeen shall be after tilling his own stowry, he shall; for it's he that's waiting in the entry, and will till ye no lie, at all, at all— upon that ye may depind; though it's his father that says it, and sure!— (Ca 77s.)— Patrick! Pat- rick !! Patrick !!! My dear, here's your father wants ye to come in, and till Master how it's you that's kept to swape ivry day, and it's all for nothing, it is! Come in, I say, in a jiffy! (Pat- rick, scratching his head, enters.) Here's your father, dear! now till your Master,— and till the truth — didn't ye till your mither that ye had to swape ivery day, for a month to come, and sure? Master. Now tell the truth, Patrick. Patrick. {Looking at his father.) No; I niver said no such words, and sure! I said how I's kept to swape yisterday, for staying out too late; and that's all I said 'bout it, at all, at all. Mr. O'Clary. " Cush la mac ree ! " Little sonny, how you talk I THE SCHOOLMASTER- A DIALOGUE. • 291 He's frightened, he is, and sure ! ( Turning to Mr. Fosdick.) He's always bashful before company, he is. But, Master, it's I that don't like to have him made to swape the school, indade, and if you can do nothing else, I shall be in sad taking, I shall, and sure! If you should be after bating him, I should make no com- plaint: for I bates him myself, wheniver he lies to his mither— a little spalpeen that he is ! But I can't bear to have him made to do the humbling work of swaping, at all, at all; and it's I that shall make a "clish ma claver," an' it's not stopped— indade I shall ! (Somebody knocks. ) (Isaac steps to the door, and returning says,) Esq. Snyder wishes to see you, sir. Master. (Smiling.) Well, ask Mr. Snyder to step in ; we may as well have a regular court of it! (Isaac waits upon him in, leading Jonas, with his hands poul- ticed.) Master. (Smiling.) Good morning, Mr. Snyder; walk in, sir! Mr. Snyder. (Rather gentlemanly.) I hope you will excuse my interrupting your school; but I called to inquire what Jonas, here, could have done, that you bruised him up at such a rate. Poor little fellow ! he came home, taking on as if his heart would break ! and both his hands swelled up bigger than mine ! and he said you had been beating him, for nothing! I thought I'd come up and inquire into it; for I don't hold to this banging and abusing children, and especially when they haven't done any- thing; though I'm a friend to good order. Master. I was not aware that I punished him very severely, sir. Mr. Snyder. Oh ! it was dreadfully severe ! Why, the poor lit- tle fellow's hands pained him so that his mother had to poultice them, and sit up with him all night! and this morning she wanted to come up to school with him herself; but I told her I guessed she better let me come. Jonas, do your hands ache now, dear? Jonas. [Holding them both out together.) Oh! dreadfully! They feel as if they were in the fire ! 292 • PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. Mr. Snyder. Well, dear, keep composed ; don't cry, dear. Now, sir [addressing the Master), this was all for nothing! Master. No, sir! It was for something, I am thinking! Jonas. I say I did not do nothing! So there now ! (Somebody knocks.) Master. Gentlemen, sit down. [Looking perplexed.) Sit down, sir. Give me a little time, and I'll endeavor to set the matter right. [All sitting down but the boys.) Mr. Snyder. Why, I don't wish to make a serious matter of it. I shan't prosecute you. I was only going to ask if you couldn't devise some other kind of punishment than pommeling. If you'd made him stop after school, or set him to sweeping the house, or scouring the benches, or even whipped him with a cow- hide or switch-stick, I should not have complained; but I don't like this beating boys. [Knocking again.) Master. Isaac, go and see who is at the door. [Exit Isaac; enter Mr. LeCompte and Jacques.) Mr. LeCompte. Ha ! Monsieur Tutor. I have one ver leetle complainte to make against your vot you call him — your discip- leen? Master. Ah! indeed, and what is that, sir? Mr. LeCompte. Why mys boy have not dse right in-cli-na- tshon for dse shastisement vot you give him. Master. Very likely, sir. Very few boys have an inclination for a chastisement. Mr. LeCompte. You see, Monsieur, de— vot you call his name -de furule vot you use on him wizout ceremunie, is for certain- ment not so good for my boy as a leetle parswashon would be. Master. But, sir, I cannot spend tinie in persuading boys to do right. I find it necessary to make them afraid to do wrong; and as your son is so full of mischievous pranks, I find that I only can restrain him by a free use of proper punishment. Mr. LeCompte. I has not seen de mischeeve in him vot you speak of. He is von [scratches his head to think of the word) — von— vot you call a man vot has not drank dse wine? THE SCHOOLMASTER-A DIALOGUE. 293 Master. Sober, I suppose you mean. Mr. LeCompte. Ah, dat's ze word— von ver sobar boy, and zerefore does not deserve de cas-ti-ga-tshon vot you gives him for mischeeve. (Jacques pins an old rag upon the father^ s coat and steps back and laughs. The other boys point to the Frenchman and laugh.) Mr. Fosdick. Mr. LeCompte, what's that you have pinned to your coat? Mr. LeCompte. On me coat? [Looks round.) On detail of my coat, von ver bad boy pinned him dere. Who vas it ? Fosdick. Your hopeful son, Jacques. Mr. LeCompte. Jacques, you be von grand leetle scoundrel and deserve all the shastisement vot the tutor gives you. ( To the Master.) If you will lend me de instrument vot you shastise with, I'll teach him to have respect for his father. Master. Be calm, sir; be good enough to sit down and I'll endeavor to define my position. And now, gentlemen [bowing), I think we may each of us begin to see the beauty of variety, especially in the matter of opinion. That you may all understand the whole case, I will state in a few words the facts, as they actu- ally occurred. Day before yesterday, our young friend Jacques [pointing to him) was playing his favorite trick of hanging his rag signal upon a schoolmate, after the fashion in which he has here so filially served his father within a few minutes; and stand- ing near him at the time, with my whip in hand, I could not resist the temptation to salute his mischievous knuckles with a well- directed stroke, which, however effectually it may have cut his own fingers and his father's sensibilities, it seems has not cut off his ruling propensity. Yesterday was emphatically a day of sin- ning on my part. Jonas Snyder, whose little hands have swelled to such enormous magnitude, was often reproved for constant idleness; and after all this, when he threw a portion of an apple at a more industrious boy, thus disturbing many of those well- disposed boys, he was called and feruled, receiving six strokes- three on each hand— with the rule I now show you. Little Pat- rick O'Clary was required to sweep the schoolroom floor for a 294 PAGE'S THkVRY AND PRACTICE. strong instance of tardiness at recess; and this punishment was given, because I did not wish to inflict a severer one upon so small a lad. And last, this little fellow (pointing to William Fosdick) was detained, in common with seven others, to learn a lesson w^hich he neglected to learn at the proper time. Such are the facts. And yet each of you has assured me that I have incurred your displeasure by using a punishment you dis- approve, and "all for nothing." You have each one taken the trouble to come to this room, to render my task— already suffi- ciently perplexing— still more so, by giving parental support to childish complaints, and imparting your censure, in no measured terms, upon the instructor of your children. But this is a most interesting case. You all happen to be here together, and you thus give me the opportunity I have long wished to show you your own inconsistencies. It is easy to complain of your teacher ; but perhaps either of you, in your wisdom, would find it not quite so easy to take my place and escape censure. How would either of you have got along in the present instance? Mr. Fosdick, who is displeased with detention after school, would have, according to his own recommendation, resorted to "licking," either with ferule or whip. In this case, he would have incurred the censure of his friends, Esq. Snyder and Mr. LeCompte. The " 'Squire," in turn, would have raised the displeasure of both his friends, by resort- ing to his favorite mode of detaining and cowhiding. Mr. O'Clary would give the "spalpeens" a "bating," as he says, after his own peculiar fashion, with which the 'Squire and Mr. LeCompte could not have been over-much pleased ; — and Mr. LeCompte — a}^, Mr. LeCompte — if we may judge from the exhibition he has just given us, w^ould have displeased even himself, by proving to be what he most of all things detests— a champion of the cow- hide. But what is a little curious, as it appears, is, that while I have not carried out the favorite scheme of either of you,— which, we have already seen, w^ould be objectionable to each of the others,— but have adopted a variety of punishments, and the very variety which your own collective suffrage would fix upon, I THE SCHOOL MASTER-A DIALOGUE. 295 have got myself equally deep into hot water; and the grand question is now, what shall I do ? If I take the course suggested by you collectively, the result is the same. I see no other way but to take my own course, performing conscientiously my duties, in their time and after their manner, and then to demand of you, and all others, the right of being sustained ! Mr. Snyder. Well, gentlemen, my opinion is, that we have been tried and condemned by our own testimony, and there is no appeal. My judgment approves the Master; and hereafter 1 shall neither hear nor make any more complaints. Jonas (turning to Jonas), my son, if the master is willing, you may go home and tell your mother to take off those poultices, and then do you come to school and do as you are told ; and if I hear of any more of your complaints, I will double the dose you may receive at school. Mr. O'Clary. And sure, Master, Paddy O'Clary is not the man to resist authority in the new country; and bless your sowl, if you'll make my little spalpeen but a good boy, it's I that will kindly remember the favor, though ye make him swape until nixt Christmas! Here, Patrick, down upon the little knees of your own, and crave the Master's forgiveness. Master. No, sir; that I shall not allow. I ask no one to kneel to me. I shall only require that he correct his past faults, and obey me in future. Mr. O'Clary. It's an ungrateful child he would be, if ever again he should be after troubling so kind a master. St. Patrick bless ye! ( Taking little Pat by the hand, they go out. ) Mr. Fosdick. (Taking the Master by the hand, pleasantly.) Sir, 1 hope I shall profit by this day's lesson. I have only to say, that I am perfectly satisfied we are all wrong; and that is, per- haps, the best assurance I can give you, that I think you are right. That's all I have to say. (Exeunt.) CHAPTER XVIII. THE LEGAL STATUS OF THE TEACHER. [From Circular of Information of the Bureau of Education, compiled by Lyndon A. Smith, A.B.,LL.M.] License prerequisite to a valid contract.— A contract to employ a person to teach who has not a certificate or license is void in Illinois,* Indiana,! and Minnesota ;$ and procuring a cer- tificate after entering into such an agreement does not render it a valid contract. In Ohio it has been decided that a statutory provision similar to the one prohibiting the employment of unli- censed teachers in the States above mentioned does not render invalid a contract of employment entered into with a teacher before he obtains a certificate, provided he obtains it before com- mencing to teach. The court said :ll "The law forbids the employ- ment of a teacher who has not a certificate. The teacher is not 'employed,' within the meaning and intent of this provision, until he engages in the discharge of his duties as teacher. The mischief intended to be guarded against was the teaching of a school by an incompetent person, and not the making of the con- tract by an incompetent person." In Vermont, if a person com- mences teaching without a certificate and continues to teach after obtaining one, he is considered to have made a new contract, commencing at the time when the certificate was obtained and having the same terms as the one under which teaching was begun. § In Minnesota a person commenced teaching under a verbal contract. He taught three weeks, then obtained a certiti- * Wells V. People, 71 111., 532; Stevenson r. School Directors, 87 111., 255; School Directors v. Jennings, 10 111. App., 643. + Putnam v. Town of Irvington, 69 Ind., 80 ; Butler v. Haines, 79 Ind., 575. I Ryan v. School District 13, 27 Minn., 433. See Blondon v. Moses, 29 Hun (N, Y.), 606. (I School District 2 of Oxford v. Dilman, 22 Ohio St., 194. \S Scott V. School District 2 of Fairfax, 46 Vt., 452. (296) THE LEGAL STATUS OF THE TEACHER. 297 cate and made a written contract to run three months from the time he commenced teaching. It was held that he was entitled to wages at the stipulated rate after the certificate was obtained and the written contract made, and to no remuneration for the previous three weeks.* In an Illinois case a certificate was not obtained until the middle of the term. A new contract was entered into at that time to pay the teacher double wages for the remainder of the term. This was considered an attempt to do indirectly what there was no power to do directly; and therefore the contract was held void, as w^as the original contract.! Contracts.— A contract is to be construed in reference to con- temporaneous laws and usages. For example, in Michigan the law directs that a contract of hiring to teach " shall require the teacher to keep a correct list of the pupils and the age of each attending the school, and the number of days each pupil is pres- ent, and to furnish the director with a correct copy of the same at the close of school." The court thought that it could not be doubted these requirements, though not mentioned in his con- tract, imposed upon the teacher of every public district school the duty of compliance with them, and that they become a part of a teacher's contract, whether inserted in it or not.$ The con- tract of a teacher is for his own personal services.il The nature and quality of those- services were admirably described by Judge Worden in an Indiana case. In giving the opinion of the court, he said:§ "A teacher doubtless, like a lawyer, surgeon or phj^si- cian, when he undertakes an employment, impliedly agrees that he will bestow upon the service a reasonable degree of learning, skill, and care. When he accepts an employment as teacher in any given school, he agrees by implication that he has the learning necessary to enable him to teach the branches that are to be taught therein, as well as that he has the capacity in a reasonable degree of imparting that learning to others. He * McKinney v. School District 45 of Dakota Co., 20 Minn., 72. f Wells V. People, 71 111., 532. X Everett v. School District 2 of Cannon, 30 Mich., 249, 252. II School Directors v. Hudson, 88 111., 563. §City of Crawfordsville v. Hays. 42 Ind., 209, 210. 298 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. agrees, also, that he will exercise a reasonable degree of care and diligence in the advancement of his pupils in their studies, in pre- serving harmony, order, and discipline in the school, and that he will himself conform as near as may be to such reasonable rules and regulations as may be established by competent authority for the government of the school. He also agrees, as we think, by a necessary implication, that while he continues in such employment his moral conduct shall be in all respects exemplary and beyond just reproach." The hiring of a substitute by a teacher under any ordinary circumstances is a breach of contract, though the competency of the substitute is unquestioned.* A teacher may not ordinarily absent himself by leave of individual members of the school board.! A teacher's contract is oftentimes binding upon a district though it is irregular in some respect, as when it was made with part of a board,? or was verbally made with a subcommittee instructed by the board to employ a teacher. || The law implies a contract from the doing and accepting of work, and a district cannot, on the ground that he has not complied with the law requiring a written contract,! have the benefit of a teacher's services without remunerating him. Where there is a written con- tract it cannot be orally contradicted.il A contract with a town- ship board to teach in a subdistrict over which a lower court has decided that the board has control,* is not invalidated by the reversal of that decision by the supreme court.** Contracts with cle facto officers are binding upon the body they represent ;tt but * School Directors v. Hudson, 88 111., 5G3. + state V. Leonard, 3 Teun. Chan., 177. JAdkins I'. Mitchell, 67 111., 511. II Wilson V. Board of Education. G3 Mo., 1G7. $ Jones V. School District 47 of Neosho County, 8 Kans.,362; Mouaghan v. School District, 38 Wis., 100. IT Mann v. Independent School District of Le Grand, 52 Iowa, 130. ** Hall & Julius V. District Township of Pleasant Valley, 41 Iowa, 494. -hi School District 25 of Hall County v. Cowee, 9 Nebr.,53; Woodbury v. Knox, 74 Me., 462; Burditt ?'. Barry,6 Hun (N.Y.), 657. " The doctrine is every where declared that the acts of de facto officers as distinguished from the acts of mere usurpers, are valid." 1 Dillon's Municipal Corporations, $ 276. THE LEGAL STATUS OF THE TEACHER. 299 contracts entered into with a number of persons acting as a board are not binding upon the school district when there is in existence at the same time another acting board w^ho are so de jure and who have notified the persons contracting with the other board not to carry out their contracts. Which of the boards is such of right is a question for the courts to decide.* The part performance of an oral contract, in a case where the law requires a written one, is a ratification of it and renders a district liable for any breach of it.t There is no contract, express or implied, between a teacher and a pupil, and, in the absence of trespass, the latter cannot sue the former for refusing to hear his recitations. The teacher's 'contract is with the directors alone. t A minor who possesses the essential qualifications in regard to moral character, learning, and ability, and who has obtained the requisite certificate, may, with the assent of his parents, enter into a valid contract to teach school. A father is charged with certain duties as respects his child, as education, support, and protection, and, as some compensation for these duties, he has a right to claim the earnings of his child in the absence of proof of relinquishment, II Recovery of wages. When impossible. — A teacher cannot recover for services rendered after the appropriation out of which * Genesee Township v. McDonald, 98 Pa. St.. 444. i Cook ('. Independent School District of North McGregor, 40 Iowa, 444. A dis- senting opinion by Beck, J., held that a verbal contract, being unauthorized by- law, was a nullity and could not be made of effect by subsequent ratification. I Stuckey v. Churchman, 2 111. App., 584. II Monaghan v. School District 1 of Randall, 38 Wis., 100. The following notes will be of value in connection with this decision : (1) " In general, when a contract is not manifestly for the benefit of an infant, he may avoid it as well in equity as at law, and when it can never be for his benefit it is utterly void." Schouler's Domestic Relations, $ 401. (2) "All other things being equal, the father is actually entitled to the value of his child's labor and services until the latter becomes of age." Ibid, $ 252. (3) "The parent may emancipate his child, and this may be done by refusing him support, or denying him a home, or compelling him to labor abroad for his own living." Taylor on Infancy and Coverture, p. 200. (4) "And if the parent authorize a third person to employ and pay the child, payment to the child and not to the parent will be a sufficient discharge. Such an agreement may be in express terms or it may be implied from circumstances." Schouler's Domestic Relations. *S 252a. 300 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. payment of them must be made is exhausted when the law of the place "is clear that no contract or debt can be created without the authority of the councils and an appropriation to meet it . "* \y ages cannot be recovered on avoid contract. In Iowa a contract must be approved by the president of the school board ; and where he refused to do so a teacher was not allowed to recover although she proceeded to teach under control of the subdirector hiring her and completed her term of instruction. f If a teacher is discharged on the ground of incompetency he must use all proper means for his vindication and reinstatement before the courts will entertain a suit for the recovery of wages.$ Then the question of compe- tency will be one for the jury.ll Of course he cannot recover if found incompetent ; for, "if a teacher, although he has been em- ployed for a definite length of time, proves to be incompetent and unable to teach the branches of instruction he has been employed to teach, either from a lack of learning or from an utter want of capacity to impart his learning to others, or if in any other respect he fails to perform the obligations resting upon him as such teacher, whether arising from the express terms of his con- tract, or by necessary implication, he has broken the agreement on his part."§ For teaching done in defiance of a decision of removal no right whatever accrues to compensation out of the public fund. II In a Mississippi case a teacher recovered wages for services rendered after the revocation of his license by the county superintendent in opposition to the wishes of the contracting board of trustees, the court saying that "after the vacation of the certificate the relator was not competent to make a new engagement to teach, but could continue to execute an existing * Perrott v. Philadelphia, 83 Pa. St., 479. + Place r. District Township of Colfax, 56 Iowa, 573. Adams, C. J., dissented on the grounds that it was the ministerial duty of the president of the board to approve the contract and that the district, by receiving the teacher's services, became liable for her wages. t Kirkpatrick V. Independent School District of Liberty, 53 Iowa, 585; Pierce t'. Beck, 61 Ga.,413. II McCutcheon v. Windsor, 55 Mo., 149; Ewing v. School Directors, 2 111. App.,458. $City of Crawfordsville v. Hays, 42 Ind., 210. IT Pierce v. Beck, 61 Ga., 413. THE LEGAL STATUS OF THE TEACHER. 301 contract, unless the local trustees co-operated with the superin- tendent to vacate the contract."* The failure to make required reports destroys the right to recover wages, and a statute requiring teachers to make specified entries in a register applies to a principal of a number of schools, although he has done no actual teaching.! If the omission of entries is through no fault of the teacher, it will not prevent the recovery of wages. This rule was stated as follows in a case in which a teacher did not complete her school and made none of the entries required by statute to be made at the close of a school :$ "The close of school there meant must be the close of the term of school ; for the answers to the inquiries required to be entered relate to the whole term, and could not be answered till the close of it. If the school stopped before the close of the term through the fault of the teacher, then the plaintiff would not be entitled to recover, whether she made the necessary entries in the register or not; but if the prudential committee, by his own conduct, without her fault, prevented the close of the term being reached by her, so she could make the entries, then the want of them would not prevent the recovery of the wages." When possible. — A teacher can recover wages for services rendered while he holds a certificate irregularly given. The cer- tificate is in the nature of a commission, and cannot be attacked collaterally, though it does not correspond to the form in which the statute says it may be drawn and was given without an examination of the candidate.il In a Nebraska case a teacher was without a certificate three months during a term of nine months and recovered wages. " It * Jamison v. Senter, 56 Miss., 194. This decision was under a law providing that a county superintendent alone might revoke a license but could annul a contract only Avith the concurrence of the trustees. f School Commissioners of Alleghany Co. v. Adams, 43 Md., 349. I Scott I'. School District 2 of Fairfax, 46 Vt., 452, 457. Under an indictment charging a school teacher with perjury in swearing to his monthly report to the county superintendent, which represented that certain named pupils each attended school a certain number of days, whereas none attended as stated, he can be convicted on evidence that one did not attend. Page v. State, 59 Miss., 474. II School District v. Sterricker, 86 111., 595. In Missouri the forging of a teacher's certificate is a penal offense. State v. Grant, 74 Mo., 33. 302 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. is true," said the court, ''that the statute prohibits the school board from paying from the school fund any but qualified teachers and makes a certificate or diploma, issued in the manner directed, the only evidence of such qualification. The prohibition of the statutejs, however, upon the district board and not upon the teacher."* If a teacher lawfully employed is dismissed without just cause, he may recover wages for the whole time for which he was em- ployed. The court in Wisconsin laid down the rule as follows: "Unless the discharge of the teacher be justified by proof of the fact that he is not properly performing his contract on his part, the district becomes liable to the teacher for such damages as he may sustain by such discharge in the loss of wages for the residue of his term."t Where a teacher was kept from rendering services by the burning of the schoolhouse, but was ready to teach when- ever a place should be provided and filled out her register at the end of the time specified, it was held that full wages could be recovered.! A teacher can recover wages for time included in legal holidays. Chief Justice Campbell, of Michigan, said in a recent case:|| "In regard to deductions for holidays w^e are of opinion that school management should always conform to those decent usages which recognize the propriety of omitting to hold public exercises on recognized holidays, and that it is not lawful to impose forfei- tures or deductions for such proper suspension of labor. Schools should conform to what may fairly be expected of all institutions in civilized communities. All contracts for teaching during peri- ods mentioned must be construed of necessity as subject to such days of vacation, and public policy as well as usage requires that there should be no penalty laid on such observances." If a * School District v. Estes, 13 Nebr,, 52. f Scott V. Joint School District, 51 Wis., 554, 557. A teacher can only recover as damages the difference between the stipulated wages and what he earned, or might have earned, at a similar employment in his own vicinity during the time covered by his contract. See 2 Greenleaf on Evidence, $ 161a; 2 Chitty on Con- tracts, 11th Am. ed,, p. 855, note. t Cashen v. School District 12 of Berlin, 50 Vt., 30. II School District 4 of Marathon v. Gage, 39 Mich., 480. THE LEGAL STATUS OF THE TEACHER. 303 teacher is employed for a definite time, and during the period of his employment the district officers close the schools on account of the prevalence of contagious disease, and keep them closed for a time, the teacher continuing ready to perform his contract, he is entitled to full wages during such period.* Wages have been recovered by a teacher who stipulated in the contract of employ- ment that she would not instruct certain children in the district,! and by a teacher who was obliged to give up her school because the committee insisted on her allowing a disobedient and unman- ageable boy to attend. $ The court said : "The teacher could not perform the duties of her employment without maintaining proper and necessary discipline in the school, and when all her other means for doing so failed in respect to the boy it was her right, and might be her duty, to expel him, to save the rest of the school from being injured by his presence. It was not the duty of the teacher, under the contract, to teach the school with- out maintaining proper and necessary discipline in it; and if the committee insisted that she should have the boy there, when she could not have him there and have the discipline too, it was equivalent to insisting that she should teach the school without the discipline, which she was not bound to do." Dismissal.— If a teacher in a public school, although employed for a definite time, fails to perform the obligations resting upon him , he has broken the agreement on his part, and the trustees are clearly authorized to dismiss him from such employment.il When the school law empowers a city board of education to em- ploy teachers and remove them at pleasure, the provision enters into and forms a part of the contract with a teacher for his serv- ices for a specified period; he may be discharged before its expira- tion, notwithstanding the terms of his employment. § But where the powder of discharge is limited it ought not to be exercised until * Dewey v. Union District of Alpena, 43 Mich., 480. f State V. Blain, 36 Ohio St., 429. Johnson, J., dissented. X Scott V. School District 2 of Fairfax, 46 Vt,,452; contra, Parker v. School Dis- trict, 5 Lea (Tenn.), 525. II City of Crawfordsville v. Hays, 42 lud., 200 ; Bays v. State, 6 Nebr,, 167. $ Jones V. Nebraska City,! Nebr., 176. 304 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. notice has been given the teacher and proper testimony heard against him.* If, at a hearing, he does not object to the suffi- ciency of the notice, he will not be allowed to do so afterward. t It has been held, generally, that the power to discharge teachers could not be enlarged by stipulations introduced into the con- tract of hiring.t A school board in Wisconsin included in such a contract the clause "We reserve the right to close the school at any time if not satisfactory to us." The court, in commenting on it, said: II "We think the good order and usefulness of the schools would be greatly prejudiced by holding that the boards had such power. If the power claimed for the board in this case exists and may be enforced, then the public schools must be taught to suit the whims, caprices, and peculiar notions of the hiring board, and not as the teacher, in the conscientious dis- charge of his duty, should teach the same." In New York the State superintendent has general supervision and direction of the normal schools, and it is one of his discre- tionary duties to approve the hiring of teachers for them. It has been decided that these powers do not authorize him to qualify his approval with the words "To continue in force during the pleasure of the board and the superintendent;" for "it is not within the power of the superintendent, by annexing conditions to his approval of the employment, to change the law regulating the discharge of the teachers of these schools. "§ In Kansas a school district board employed a school teacher, and the contract of employment contained, among others, a stipulation that, if by the inability or neglect of the said A (the teacher) the interests of the school shall suffer, the district board shall have full power to annul this contract after one month's written notice. The court, the chief justice dissenting, held that the stipulation was valid, notwithstanding a clause in the school * Morley v. Power, 5 Lea (Tenn.), 691. + Woodbury v. Knox, 74 Me., 462. I Tripp V. School District, 50 Wis., 651; People i-. Hyde, 89 N. Y. App.,11; Arm- strong V. School District, 28 Kans., 345; Horton, C. J., dissenting. II Tripp V. School District, 50 Wis., 651. § People ex rel. Gilmour v. Hyde et al., 89 N. Y, App., 11. THE LEGAL STATUS OF THE TEACHER. 305 law providing that the district board in conjunction with the county superintendent may dismiss a teacher for incompetency, cruelty, negligence, or immorality, and that under the contract the school district board might alone, without any formal trial, and not in conjunction with the county superintendent, dismiss the teacher for incompetence and negligence from which the inter- ests of the school suffer. "The object of the statutes,'' says the court,* "was simply to provide that the school district should not so bind itself by contract that a school teacher could not be discharged at any time by the school board acting in conjunction with the county superintendent, for incompetency, cruelty, negli- gence, or immorality; and it was not intended to prohibit the school board from making other provisions for the discharge of an incompetent, cruel, negligent, or immoral teacher." Complaints against candidates for teachers' positions. — A communication made by persons interested in a particular school to the superintendent having jurisdiction over it for the sole purpose of preventing him from issuing a license to teach the school to a particular individual on the ground that he was of bad moral character and wholly unfit to teach and have the care of a district school, is a privileged communication, and was abundantly justified by proof that he was an habitual blas- phemer and profane person and an open violater of the Sabbath. f The court said :$ " We do not think any superintendent would need vindication for being dissatisfied with the moral character of a teacher who has the faults complained of by these parties who opposed the licensing of plaintiff. A superintendent who should subject young children to such influences would be very censurable." The right to remonstrate must not be made the means of gratifying malice and enmity, and inquiry may be made as to the motives and private purposes of petitioners.il Rules and regulations.— Every student upon his admission * Armstrong v. School District, 28 Kans,,345; following School District v. Col- Vin, 10 Kaus., 283. + Weiman v. Mabee, 45 Mich., 484. t Ibid, p. 486. II Van Arsdale v. Laverty, 69 Pa. St., 103. T. p.— 20 306 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. into an institution of learning impliedly or expressly promises to submit to and be governed by all the necessary and proper rules and regulations which have been or thereafter may be adopted for the government of the institution.* Rules for the good con- duct of a school are not invalidated because the board making them (though it must record votes, orders, and proceedings) does not adopt them formally and record them.f Courts will interfere to prevent the enforcement by a school board of any rule which manifestly reaches beyond their sphere of action, and relates to subjects in nowise connected with the management or successful operation of the school, or which is plainly calculated to retard the leading objects of legislation on educational affairs ;$ or, as another court expressed it, which is found to be unauthorized, against common right, or palpably unreasonable.il Regulations respecting studies.— Under the power to pre- scribe necessary rules and regulations for the management and government of schools, directors (or trustees) may require of pupils prompt attendance, diligence in study, proper deportment, and classification with respect to the branches of study they are respectively pursuing, and with respect to proficiency or degree of advancement in those branches. § The following quotation is from an exposition of this doctrine in an Illinois caseiH "In the performance of their duty in carrying the law into effect the directors may prescribe proper rules and regulations for the gov- ernment of the schools of their district and enforce them. They may, no doubt, classify the scholars, regulate their studies aiid their deportment, the hours to be taught, besides the perform- * state ex rel. Stallard v. White ct ah, 82 lud., 286: s. c, 42 Am. Rep., 496, + Russell V. Lyimfield, 116 Mass., 365. t King V. Jefferson City School Board, 71 Mo., 628; s. c.,36 Am. Rep., 499. II State V.White, 82 Ind., 286; s. c, 42 Am. Rep., 496. $ Trustees of Schools v. People, 87 111. ,303; s.c.,29 Am. Rep., 55. In Illinois, town- ship high school trustees and district directors have power to adopt and enforce all necessary rules and regulations for the management and government of the schools; to direct what branches of study shall be taught, etc. Rev. Stat. 1880, p. 1377. IT Rulison V. Post, 79 111., 567, 570. This case and the preceding one decided that a rule compelling a pupil to pursue a study against the will of his father was not reasonable. THE LEGAL STATUS OF THE TEACHER. 307 ance of other duties necessary to promote the success and secure the well being of such schools. But all such rules and regula- tions must be reasonable and calculated to promote the objects of the law: the conferring of such an education [one which in- cludes the branches required by law] npon all, free of charge. The law having conferred upon each child of proper age the right to be taught the enumerated branches, any rule or regula- tion which, by its enforcement, would tend to hinder or deprive the child of this right cannot be sustained." In Ohio it has been decided that authority to make and enforce- all necessary rules and regulations for schools, and to determine "the various studies and parts of studies" in which instruction shall be given in the departments of the schools, included the power in a board of education to adopt a rule that if any pupil, unless excused, should fail to be prepared with a rhetorical exercise at the time appointed he should be immediately suspended.* Regulations respecting attendance.— Regulations discrim- inating against the attendance of a certain class of inhabitants entitled to the privileges of the schools are unauthorized and cannot be sustained.! Rules requiring regularity of attendance are reasonable. Suspension for six half-days' absense in four consecutive weeks has been upheld in Missouri ;$ for six half-days' absence and two instances of tardiness in the same time, in Iowa;ii and for a single day's unexcusecl absence to attend a religious service, in Vermont. § Judge Beck, in giving the opinion of the court in Iowa, said i "It requires but little experience in the instruction of children and youth to convince any one that the only means which will assure progress in their studies is to secure their attendance, the application of the powers of their minds to the studies in which they are instructed. Unless the pupil's mind is open to receive instruction, vain will be the effort of the teacher *Se\vell V. Board of Education of Defiance, 29 Ohio St., 89. + State V. White, 82 lud., 278 ; s. C, 42 Am. Rep., 496. I King V. Jefferson City School Board, 71 Mo., 628 ; s. c, 36 Am. Rep., 499. II Burdick v. Babcock,-31 Iowa, 562, Miller, J., dissenting. § Ferriter v. Tyler, 48 Vt., 444 ; s. c, 21 Am. Rep., 133. II Burdick v. Babcock, 31 Iowa, 566. 308 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. ' to lead him forward in learning. This application of the mind in children is secured by interesting them in their studies. But this cannot be done if they are at school one day and at home the next, if a recitation is omitted or a lesson left unlearned at the whim or convenience of parents. In order to interest a child he must be able to understand the subject in which he is instructed. If he has fajled to prepare previous lessons he will not understand the one which the teacher explains to him. If he is required to do double duty, and prepare a previous lesson, omitted in order to make a visit or do an errand at home, with the lesson of the day, he will fail to master them and become discouraged. The inevitable consequence is that his interest flags and he is unable to apply the powers of his mind to the studies before him. The rule requiring constant and prompt attendance is for the good of the pupil and to secure the very objects the law had in view in establishing public schools. It is therefore reasonable and proper. "In another view it is required by the best interests of all the pupils of the school. Irregular attendance of pupils not only retards their own progress, but interferes with the progress of those pupils who may be regular and prompt. The whole class may be annoyed and hindered by the imperfect recitations of one who has failed to prepare his lessons on account of absence. The class must endure and suffer the blunders, promptings, and reproofs of the irregular pupil, all resulting from failure to pre- pare lessons which should have been studied when the child's time was occupied by direction of the parent in work or visiting. "Tardiness, that is, arriving late, is a direct injury to the whole school. The confusion of hurrying to seats, gathering together of books, etc., by tardy ones, at a time when all should be at study, cannot fail to greatly impede the progress of those who are regular and prompt in attendance. The rule requiring prompt and regular attendance is demanded for the good of the whole school." In the Vermont decision it w^as said that in case of casual sick- ness of the scholar; of sickness or death in the family of the THE LEGAL STATUS OF THE TEACHER. 309 scholar; of some impediment, like fire or flood; and in case of various incidents of current life, giving occasion for temporary detention, the enforcement of the penalty of exclusion for unex- cused absence would be adjudged to be unauthorized.* A rule which excludes from school a pupil for failure to pay for injuries accidentally done the schoolhouse is not authorized by a clause permitting suspension of a pupil for a breach of discipline or an offence against good order. The court said : f " The State does not deprive its citizens of their property, or their liberty, or any of their rights except as a punishment for a crime. It would be very harsh and obviously unjust to deprive a child of educa- tion for the reason that through accident and without intention of wrong he destroyed property of the school district. Doubt- less a child may be expelled from school as a punishment for breach of discipline or for offences against good morals, but not for innocent acts." A rule that would bar the doors of a school- house against little children, who come a great distance in cold, winter weather, for no other reason than that they are a few minutes tardy, is unreasonable and therefore unlawful. $ Suspension of pupils in the absence of rules.— The law gov- erning the suspension of pupils by a teacher in cases where no rule requiring it exists has been clearly stated recently in Wis- consin in an opinion by Judge L^^on, from which the following- extended quotation is taken : || " While the principal or teacher in charge of a public school is subordinate to the school board or board of education of his district or city, and must enforce rules and regulations adopted by the board for the government of the school, and execute all its lawful orders in that behalf, he does not derive all his power and authority in the school and over his pupils from the aflSrmative action of the board. He stands for the time being in loco parentis to his pupils, and, because of that * Ferriter v. Tyler, 48 Vt., 444, 477 ; s. c, 21 Am. Rep., 133. f Perkins ('.Directors of Independent School District of West Des Moines, 56 Iowa, 476, 479. I Thompson v. Beaver. 63 111., 353, 357. II State V. Burton, 45 Wis., 150, 155; s.c.,30 Am. Rep., 706. See also Parker i'. School District, 5 Lea (Tenn.), 528. 310 PAGE'S THEORY AND PBACTICE. relation, he nnist necessarily exercise authority over them m many things concerning' which the board may have remained silent. In the school, as in the family, there exist on the part of the pupils the obligations of obedience to lawful commands, sub- ordination, civil deportment, respect for the rights of other pupils, and fidelity to duty. These obligations are inherent in any proper school system, and constitute, so to speak, the common law of the school. Every pupil is presumed to know this law, and is subject to it whether it has or has not been re-enacted by the district board in the form of written rules and regulations. Indeed, it would seem impossible to frame rules which would cover all cases of insubordination and all acts of vicious tendency which the teacher is liable to encounter daily and hourly. " The teacher *is responsible for the discipline of his school and for the progress, conduct, and deportment of his pupils. It is his imperative duty to maintain good order and to require of his pupils a faithful performance of their duties. If he fails in this he is unfit for his position. To enable him to discharge these duties effectually he must necessarily^ have the power to enforce prompt obedience to his lawful commands. For this reason the law gives him the power, in proper cases, to inflict corporal punishment upon refractory pupils. But there are cases of misconduct for which such punishment is an inadequate remedy. If the offender is incorrigible, suspension or expulsion is the only adequate remedy. In general, no doubt, the teacher should report a case of that kind to the proper board for its action in the first instance, if no delay will necessarily result from that course prejudicial to the best interests of the school. But the conduct of the recusant pupil may be such that his presence in the school for a day or an hour may be disastrous to the discipline of the school and even to the morals of the other pupils. In such a case it seems abso- lutely essential to the welfare of the school that the teacher should have the power to suspend the offender at once from the privileges of the school; and he must necessaril3^ decide for himself whether the case requires that remedy." Persons having the general charge and superintendence of THE LEGAL STATUS OF THE TEACHER. 311 public schools have power to exclude a child for sufficient cause, as, for example, that his conduct, not in violation of prescribed rules, tended to injure the discipline and impair the usefulness of the school.* The view that acts, to be within the authority of the school board and teachers for discipline and correction, must be done within school hours is narrow and without regard to the spirit of the law and the best interest of common schools. t But the publication of an article ridiculing school officers and tending to create insubordination in a school cannot be punished by the expulsion of the offender, when the statute only authorizes dis- missals for gross immorality and persistent violation of school regulations. $ If a person would recover damages for exclusion from a school he must first appeal to school officers who have authority to reinstate him,|| if there be such, and, if the case come to trial, prove the action of the officers excluding him to have been wanton and malicious. § Corporal Punishment.— In the absence of statutory enact- ments, the authorities upon the right of a teacher to inflict rea- sonable chastisement upon a pupil are not numerous, but they are sufficient to prove its existence.il The law is well settled that the teacher has the right to exact from his pupils obedience to his lawful and reasonable commands, and to punish disobedience, with "kindness, prudence, and propriety."** * Hodgkins v. Rockport, 105 Mass., 475. f Burdick v. Babcock,31 Iowa, 5G7. See Lander r. Seaver,32 Vt., 114. t Murphy v. Board of Directors of Independent District of Marengo, 30 Iowa, 429. II Davis V. Boston, 133 Mass., 103. $McCormick v. Burt, 95 111., 263; S. C.,35Am. Rep., 163. IT State r. Mizner, 45 Iowa, 248. **Danenhofler v. State, 69 Ind., 295; s. c, 35 Am. Rep., 216. CHAPTER XIX. OUTLINES OF PAGE's THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING; FOR THE USE OF READING CIRCLES AND TO AID THE INDIVIDUAL TEACHER IN REVIEW AS WELL AS IN A MORE SYSTEMATIC AND COMPREHENSIVE STUDY OF THE BOOK. FIRST MONTH. Pages 11-19. Biographical sketch of David Perkins Page. Born July 4th, 1810, Died January 1st, 1848. 1. Early Years. 2. Life at Newburyport. 3. The N. Y. State Normal School. 4. Character and Influence. 1. Page's place among educators. 2. Educational leaders of his time (Frederick Froebel, Victor Cousin, Horace Mann, Joseph Payne). 3. Boyhood life on the farm. 4. His entry at Hamp- ton Academy. 5. A teacher in his "teens." 6. Adoption of the profession. 7. Careful preparation of all his work. 8. Public lecturer and orator. 9. Life at Newburyport. 10. Selection as the leader to establish the New York State Normal School. 11. Horace Mann's injunction to Page, "Succeed or Die!" 12. The Governor's opposition. 13. Page's last Christmas, and his departure. 14. Page's legacy—" The Teacher's Blackstone." SECOND MONTH. Page 21-51. 1. Spirit of the Teacher. 2. The Lessons of the Pear Tree. The Teacher is Responsible. 3. Moral Training. The Lesson of the Prison. 4. Personal Habits of the Teacher. In Page's Theory and Practice the author begins at the true beginning. It is not assumed that all persons are alike fitted by nature for the teacher's work. The reader is shown at the outset that if he be lacking in the spirit of the teacher, no mere study of (312) OUTLINES. 31 3 pedagogical science will suffice for the full accomplishment of the teacher's mission; that the want of natural adaptation cannot be supplied with a mere knowledge of work and methods. The causes which have hindered the success and delayed the recogni- tion of the profession, which seeks now to be admitted even as a " new profession," are set forth clearly and forcibly. The mirror is held up, and teachers can see in the reflection reasons for the lower rank which their calling has so long held. The teacher's responsibility is stated in the spirit of one who felt that responsi- bility in its fullest weight. Of the nature of that responsibility, the writer takes a broad and liberal view. It is not the mind alone that is to be trained, guarded and developed. The physi- cal and moral welfare of the pupil is to be secured. Taking for an illustration a homely incident of Page's life in Newburyport — his experience with a pear tree — he states epi- gram matically four facts which lie at the base of the science of teaching; and in relating another incident — his visit to the prison at Auburn — he impresses the necessity for moral training. Outlining, then, briefly, the true order of intellectual development, he presents a basis for the arrangement of studies in a course. Few teachers have ever illustrated in their own persons what a teacher should be in manner, appearance and character more faithfully than Page. All the elements of his strength were neces- sary in the great work which he was called upon to perform. Nor can any teacher afford to neglect any means of influence for good which it is possible for him to possess and to use. The need of a more extended knowledge of the branches to be pursued than is contained in text-books, the need of a knowledge of sciences which are not to be taught specifically in the district schools — the need, in short, of a generous culture, should be impressed upon the minds of all who would undertake the training of youth. The habits and the acquirements of the teacher are discussed in the work of this month, and form a subject of special interest and value. First Week. — 1. The spirit of the teacher. Something more than mental power requisite. A conscientious, inquiring, reverent, 314 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. zealous spirit. 2. The teacher's motives. The work peculiarly open to those who are not animated by the highest motives. Teaching as a secondary object. Teaching as a stepping-stone to "something higher." The result of a wrong estimate of the dignit}^ of the work. 3. The harmful results of such teaching visited on the pupils rather than on the teacher himself. Igno- rance no excuse. Second Week. — 1. The four lessons of the pear tree. 2. The teacher responsible <\like forwdiat he does and for what he fails to do. 3. The physical health of pupils. Over-excitement; over- study; impure air; wrong temperature; want of exercise. What evil should the teacher especially aim to avert? 4. A natural order in the education of a child. The order of nature in teach- ing reading. 5. Earliest lessons in arithmetic. Earliest lessons in geography. The first map drawn. 6. History connected with geography. A common mistake. 7. Writing on the slate should be commenced early. The use of the pen at the age of ten years. 8. The relation of written arithmetic to mental. 9. Practical grammar may be early acquired by means of language lessons. Exercises in description. 10. The study of grammar should not be commenced too early. It cannot be depended upon to do the work of language lessons. Maturit^^ of mind necessary to its comprehension. 11. Wrong manner of studying. Studying for the recitation. Studying the book rather than the subject. The results of such study. 12. Right manner of studying. A motto for pupils. Mental discipline, rather than knowledge mechani- cally acquired. 13. Two pictures of school children. NOTES ON SCHOOL HYGIENE. 1. The size of the school building should be such as to allow twenty- five square feet of floor space and 300 cubic feet of air space for each pupil. On this standard a room to accommodate forty pupils .should not be less than 40x25x12 feet. 2. The grounds should include from one to three acres, and should be supplied with suitable walks. The community should unite in the work of Arbor Days, and render these grounds tasteful and beautiful. 3. The minimum of window space should be one-sixth of the floor area. The most comfortable and wholesome light is that coming from OUTLINES. 315 but one side of the room; sufficient light, however, is difficult to obtain from one side. Cross-light from opposite sides is a far less evil than cross-light at right angles. Windows should be supplied with suitable blinds that undesirable light may be excluded. 4. The amount of fresh air admitted per hour should be about 1,000 feet for each pupil. It must be remembered that children are far more susceptible to atmospheric poisoning than adults, and yet reveal less quickly the disorganization of system arising therefrom. The windows should be thrown up at recesses and at noon in all weathers, and the atmosphere of the room purified. During much of the year some of the windows should be left open at the top. In the use of various arrange- ments for ventilation both ingress and egress of the air should be facili- tated. 5. The normal temperature of a healthy room is seventy degrees. The most approved of ventilating stoves should be used, and the conditions of their adaptation should be carefully observed. Third Week.— 1. Knowledge without moral training not always a blessing. Teaching by precept alone not sufficient. 2. The moral nature strengthened by exercise, and capable of system- atic and successful cultivation. 3. Pupils should be taught the danger of silencing conscience. Appeals to the moral sense. The wrong that may be done by a teacher possessing the love and confidence of his pupils. "Feeling is not co-ordinate with intelligence and will. Intelligence and will are co-ordinate powers which condition feeling. Feeling must be cultivated through intellect and will. The school has to do with sepa- rating these powers and subordinating them." — Dr. William T. Harris. "The opinion prevails among many teachers that intellectual devel- opment is, by its nature, separate and distinct from moral training. Of all the evils in our schools this terrible mistake is productive of the greatest."— Frazjci-s W. Parker. 4. Our debt of gratitude to the Christian religion, Rehgion as opposed to sectarianism. 5. How much and what of religion may be taught? In what w^ays may it be inculcated? 6. The danger of cultivating a spirit of skepticism. 7. A high standard for the teacher. What teachers have nothing to fear from their responsibility as to religious influence. 8. The lesson of the prison. 316 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. "God help lis to realize that there is something else to be accom- plished in our schoolrooms besides intellectual acquirements and mental discipline." — Eva D. Kellogg. " Oh, thank God, all who see it, for that older fashion yet, of immor- tality. And look upon us, angels of young children, with regards not quite estranged, when the swift river bears us to the ocean." — Dickens. Fourth Week.— 1. The characteristics of the teacher are sub- jects of observation and imitation by pupils. His teaching by example is not limited to his association with them in the school- room. 2. Neatness. The importance of little things. Frequent bathing peculiarly needful to the teacher. Care of the teeth. Care of the nails. The teacher's dress. 3. The use of tobacco. 4. Order. Its observance in the school, at the boarding house, and in the teacher's room. 5. The language of the teacher should be pure and accurate. Things which are to be avoided. 6. Courtesy. It does not consist in simply complying with rules of etiquette in the fashionable world. The influence of the teacher's courtesy upon the pupils. 7. Punctuality. The effect of a single tardiness of the teacher per month. Questionable hours. Punctuality, as a habit, should be observable in every- thing. Why is it necessary? 8. The teacher should pursue a regular course of reading and study. How^ time may be found for the work. 9. Knowing the characteristics of the true teacher, all should endeavor not to lower the standard. THIRD MONTH. Page 52-73. 1. A Teacher's Curriculum. 2. Self Culture. 3. What Education is Not. 4. Right Views. First Week.— 1. The statutes prescribe the minimum of attain- ments of the teacher. It is not desirable that the minimum be taken as the standard. In the advancement of the profession, more will be required in the way of educational culture. 2. The teacher needs more than a text-book knowledge of the subjects he is to teach, and also a knowledge of more branches than he will probably be required to teach specifically. 3. Orthography more OUTLINES. 317 than spelling. Our alphabet imperfect. A correct knowledge and use of the elementary sounds. 4. A startling fact— there is but one good reader in one hundred teachers. The remarkable results of Horace Mann's investigation of the subje(.t. Pupils should comprehend, think, and feel all they read. 5. For what reasons is a knowledge of Latin and Greek desirable? 6. It is not respectable for a teacher to be a poor writer. 7. An esti- mate of what a teacher should know of the geography of all lands. 8. The value of mental arithmetic. Clear and concise statement of each process. The use of punctuation, it must be remembered, is to make clear the construction of sentences and the relations of words, and not to guide the voice except by indicating the meaning of the language used. There may be commas which do not indicate pauses of the voice, and rhetorical pauses which are not indicated by commas. Nature, and not punctua- tion, must determine how a passage is to be read. It should be read as it would be naturally spoken. Second Week. — 1. Arithmetic should be known by principles, rather than rules. Page's estimate of what a teacher should know of written arithmetic. 2. Peculiar facts concerning gram- mar. Few^ teachers have a, liberal acquaintance with it. It is a science in which the mind naturally runs to bigotry. 3. Gram- mar the philosophy of language. To appreciate the characteris- tics of his own tongue, the teacher should know something of other tongues. 4. Where he does not possess such acquirements he should study the subject of grammar in works other than text-books. 5. The advantages of a knowledge of algebra, even where the teacher does not have to teach it. 6. The value of a knowledge of geometry, of trigonometry, and of surveying. 7. Natural philosophy not generally taught in the district schools. This a reason why the teacher should have a special knowledge of the subject. 8. Some acquaintance with chemistry desirable. "That the leading obgect of the study of English grammar is to teach the correct use of the English language is, in my opinion, an error, and one which is gradually becoming removed. One must be a reflective user of language to amend even here and there a point by grammatical 318 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. reasons. No one ever changed from a bad speaker to a good one by- applying rules of grammar to what he said." — Professor Whitney. Third Week. — 1. The teacher should well understand the sub- ject of phj^siology. Practical instruction needed in the science. 2. Statistics of mortality. Dr. Woodworth's estimate. Horace Mann's comment on quackery. 3. Intellectual and moral phi- losophy; rhetoric and logic. How useful. 4. Book-keeping. Common ignorance of the subject and of business usages, among teachers. The wide extent of its usefulness. 5. Federal and State constitutions. Special need of an acquaintance with the supreme law. 6. Drawing, and its practical value to the teacher. 7. Music as a safety-valve. Other reasons in its favor. 8. The habit of acquiring general knowledge. The temptation to which the teacher is liable, to limit his attainments to the branches he expects to teach. 9. Page's plnn for the study of special subjects (a plan well adapted to a system of county and township insti- tutes or associations). "I have seen teachers conducting lessons on the need of ventilation, the atmosphere of the recitation rooms being at the same time almost suffocating. I have seen teachers teaching from the book the care of the teeth, their own teeth being at the same time carious, discolored, neg- lected and offensive. Of what good is teaching without practice?"" — Remark of a Superintendent. Fourth Week. — 1. AVithout a definite idea as to what consti- tutes education, the teacher may accomplish little good. 2. In other occupations of life the need of competent workers is recog- nized by society. Is the work of the teacher less difficult, less important, less needful of natural and acquired qualifications? 3. Evils resulting from the indifference of communities and from the teacher's want of a correct idea of education. 4. Imparting knowledge does not constitute education. 5. The cultivation of the intellectual powers is not education, nor is it always a benefit. It may be a positive evil. 6. The first thing necessary is for the teacher to form a true ideal of human excellence— mental, moral, and physical. 7. Next is the question. How is this ideal to be realized? The question requires time, study and meditation. OUTLINES. 311) 8. Authors to be consulted. (For some of those mentioned may be substituted Pestalozzi, Froebel, Payne, Spencer and others.) 9. Etymology of the word education. Education is inspira- tion and discipline. It is arousing the child's mind to think for itself. "An educator is therefore a trainer, whose function it is to draw forth persistently, habitually, and permanently the powers of a child; and education is the process which he employs for this purpose."— /o.sep72 Payne. "p]ducation is the development of the faculties, or germs of power, in man, and the training of them into harmonious action in obedience to the laws of reason and morality." — Dv. Hewett. "The practical farmer, the ingenious mechanic, the talented artist, the upright legislator or judge, the accomi)]ished teacher, are only modi- fications or varieties of the original man. The man is the trunk; the occupations and professions are only different qualities of the fruit it yields. The development of the common nature, the cultivation of the germs of intelligence, uprightness, benevolence, truth, that belongs to all — these are the principle, the aim, the end; while special preparation for the field or the shop, for the forum or the desk, for the land or the sea, are but incidents."— iiforace Mann. BRIEF NOTES OF EDUCATIONAL AUTHORS. 1. John Milton. 1608-74.— From 1640 to 1660 the poet Milton was "carried out of art into politics, and out of poetry into prose." His pamphlets, written within this period, are inconceivably bold and power- ful. He defended liberty against the crown, the prelates, the canon laws. His dictation was majestic, the force of his argument at times over- whelming. Among these noted prose writings was his "Tractate on Education." Despising precedent, and living in the revolutionary age, he condemns the whole system of schools and colleges of his time, as con- taining more of evil than of good, and proposes a new system of national education modeled chiefly after the schools of ancient Athens and Sparta. "Grand, noble, colossal, but at the same time (as our readers need hardly be cautioned) totally impracticable and Utopian, Milton's plan of education embraces, like that of ancient Greeks, as may be collected from the half fabulous accounts of the antique philosophers and histo- rians, the physical no less than the moral and intellectual development of the human powers. The bodies of the English youths were to be trained in all kinds of corporal and gymnastic exercises, while their minds were to be occupied with the whole cycle of human knowledge, in which the arts, particularly music, were by no means to be neglected. The 320 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. whole scheme reminds the reader of nothing so strongly as of the half burlesque description of the education of Pantagruel in the immortal romance of Rabelais. In si)ite, however, of the fantastical character of the education pro- posed by Milton, his famous tract is replete with utterances of profound wisdom. It has exerted a vast influence for good, and continues to be recognized as* an educational classic, and to be quoted in discussions of educational topics. "I call, therefore, a complete, generous education, that which fits a man to perform justly, skillfully and magnanimously all the offices, both public and private, of peace and of war." — John Milton. II. John Locke. 1632-90. — This celebrated English metaph3\sician commenced his great work, the "Essay on the Human Understanding," in 1670, and completed it after seventeen years of labor. By stating with luminous clearness the workings of the mind, he guards against errors in the search after truth. He turned the attention of teachers to nature as a true guide in educational matters. He was the avowed foe of all manner of scholasticism and mysticism, and practically taught clearness of thought and the use of plain, simple forms of expression. His " Essay on Education," a later work, contains, as Hallam says, more good sense on the subject than can be found in any preceding writer. He contem- plates the education of the whole man — intellectual, moral and ])hysical. Useful and customary accomplishments as well as book-learning are required by his system. It is held that he overstates the influence of habit in molding character, and also that his idea of discipline is harsh and severe. ///. Jean Jacques Roussenu. 1712-78.— A French writer of brilliant genius but of loose morals. He sent his children at birth to the hos- pital for foundlings. He published a famous work entitled "Emile," setting forth his ideas of education of youth. It contains much that is good, with much that is false. He was, of course, a mere theorist. He claimed to follow nature, and thus led others to a truer study of natural principles. The style of the work is very felicitous and captivating. IV. Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi. 1745-1827. — A Swiss teacher, the greatest of modern educational reformers. He established in his coun- try-seat at Neu Hof, in Aargau, an industrial school for the poor— the first ever founded. It failed. Following the French massacres in the Canton of Nidwalden, he maintained in an old convent at Stanz, a school for the starving and homeless victims of the war. For a time he conducted a school in Burgdorf, and afterward established a famous institute of learning in the old castle of Yverdon, in the Canton of Yaud. He wrote ''Leonard and Gertrude" and some minor works. The Pesta- lozzian system is now in use in all the more advanced nations of th? OUTLINES. 321 world. No other man has influenced primary education so much as Festal ozzi. V. Frieclrkh Froebel. 1782-1852.— K very noted German educator, the author of the kindergarten, a training-place for young children. It embraces the training from infancy— a development of both the physical and the mental powers in accordance with the order of nature. The materials used are called "gifts," and each successive gift is adai)ted to the development and needs of the child nature. The first kinder- garten was established at Blankenburg in 1840. Froebel was a disciple of Pestalozzi, having studied with him at Yverdon. The kindergarten system is now very popular in America and in several of the nations of Europe, and receives a large share of public attention. Yl. Victor Cousin. 1792-1867.— Owe of the most notable French writers of this century, and one of the greatest of modern philosophers. He was made member of the French council of education on the forma- tion of the Guizot ministry in 1830. Three years later, thirty-five thousand public primary schools were established in France. M. Cousin was subsequently director of the French National Normal School. His reports are of great value and interest. He reformed the elementary education of France, and reviewed philosophically the educational sys- tem of other nations, with which he had become familiar by travel and observation as well as by a study of authorities. YII. Horace Mann. 1796-1859.— The most eminent of American educators. Distinguished also as a statesman and lawyer. Was secre- tary of the State Board of Education of Massachusetts from 1837 to 1848. During all this time he worked fifteen hours a day, conducting an immense correspondence, delivering addresses, holding institutes and conventions, and laboring in every way for the advancement of educa- tion in America. His education reports are of the greatest value. YIII. Joseph Payne. 1808-76.— An English teacher and educational author, was the firfet to hold a chair of the science and art of education in a reputable college of the English-speaking world, being elected to that position in the English College of Preceptors. Was an earnest advocate of the systems of Pestalozzi and Froebel, and of the higher education of women. He was distinguished for his attainments in philology. He was the author of valuable lectures on the art of teaching. IX. Herbert Spencer. 1820.— An English essayist and critic of the highest rank. His "Psychology" appeared in 1855, and his "Educa- tion" in 1862. His fame rests chiefly upon the former work, but the latter has exerted a deep influence upon the people of England and America. He is regarded as one of the most eminent philosophers of his time. <# T. P.— 21. 322 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. FOURTH MONTH. Pages 74-106. 1. Right and Wrong Modes of Teaching. 2. Waking Up the Mind. 3. How to Conduct Recitations. 4. How Not to Conduct Them. In the work of this month the manner of conducting recita- tions and the means to be used in awakening interest are dis- cussed". Much that is stated will be in the nature of a surprise to the teacher, since the author strongly objects to the use of means which teachers very generally employ without hesitation or ques- tion. In the words of Socrates, it is making the worse appear the better reason, against which Page enters protest. It will be well to weigh carefully his arguments, and to remember that he records the results of personal experience and careful observa- tion. First Week.— 1. Should the education of the mental, moral and physical powers be commenced simultaneously, or at different times? What is the teaching of nature on this question? 2. The life failures of many "good scholars." The success of many "poor scholars." Are these instances of freaks of nature, or are they the results of education received ? 3. Page's explanation of the facts. The peril of exciting the mind too much. 4. Aptness to teach. The teacher cannot be successful without it. Is it an instinct or an acquired power? 5. Too much, not too little assistance rendered to pupils the more common error. (Here is where Pestalozzi himself was at fault in his teaching.) 6. The pouring-in process described. The mind injured by unsuccessful efforts to retain. 7. The drawing-out process described. (It must be remembered that this expression is often used in a different sense from that in which Page uses it here. ) The evils resulting from this kind of drawing-out process. 8. Two things the teacher should not do when appealed to for assistance. 9. The satisfaction of the pupil in mastering a difficult subject for himself. • OUTLINES. 323 "In fact, Dr. Bliinber's establishment was a great hot-house, in which there was a forcing- apparatus incessantly at work. All the boys blew before their time. Mental green peas were produced at Christmas, and intellectual asparagus all the year round. Mathematical gooseberries (very sour ones, too), were common at untimely seasons, and from mere sprouts of bushes, under Dr. Blimber's cultivation. Every description of Greek and Latin vegetable was got off the dryest twigs of boys, under the frostiest circumstances. Nature was of no consequence at all. No matter what a young gentleman was intended to bear, Dr. Blimber made him to bear a pattern, some how or other." — Dickens. " Questioning is not the best method of instruction, nor can it safely be adopted as the only method. Yet the method has a place, and may be useful ; first, to direct the attention of the pupil to special topics, or thoughts which have been omitted in the recitation; second, it is useful in conducting reviews and examinations." — Hiram Orcutt. Second Week.— 1. How is the skill of the teacher best mani- fested? 2. Something more than the stated branches should be taught in the schools. The school age the most critical period of the pupil's life. Many things useful and necessary to be taught not given in the prescribed text-books. 3. The uses of general exercises. They rest the body and mind. They afford the only opportunity for presenting many important subjects not in the line of required work. 4. The lesson on the ear of corn. 5. The lesson on seeds. 6. Other subjects for oral lessons. 7. The effect of such lessons on the pupils. 8. The effect on parents. 9. The effect on the teacher himself. 10. Things necessary to success in this work. The exercises should be short. They should be oppor- tune. They should not be made a " hobby." The " Flowerless Plants" of the earlier botanists are produced from spores, which correspond to the seeds of the " Flowering Plants." Heaps (sori) of these spores may be seen on the back of a fern frond, presenting the appearance of reddish brown spots. The edges of the brake are rolled over, covering up a line of spore cases. In many county schools there are small cabinets for simple apparatus and for collections of leaves, woods, rocks, fossils, arrow-heads, etc. These collections are used for object lessons. Thus valuable instruction is combined with recreation. Interesting collections of this kind, made by pupils, received marked attention at a recent national educational exhibition. 324 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. Third Week.— 1. A difference observable in writers, speakers, and teachers — a corresponding difference in schools. 2. What constitutes the accomplished teacher? 3. The natural gift of ability to interest and instruct — can this faculty be acquired? 4. The teacher should recall the operations of his own mind in childhood. 5. The importance of ascertaining the natural order. 6. Keasons why a mastery of the subjects is necessary to the teacher. 7. The necessity for a special preparation for each recitation. The teacher's ''Common-place Book." 8. Fluency and correctness of speech necessary to the teacher. Examples of misused words. " It is said, one loses this enthusiasm after awhile. Then he ought to stop teaching. If he cannot grow enthusiastic presenting the plainest rules of arithmetic and Latin for the fiftieth time to a new mind, he is unfit for his work, and should spend his strength on stone or clay, which can only yield to force, but never take form at a mere glow of enthusiasm in the worker."— P/^esir/ewt Chadhourne. Fourth Week.— 1. The importance of the teacher's manner, tone, attitude, animation— in its influence upon the class. 2. The attention of the pupils must be secured and held. 3. The recitation erroneously considered by pupils the object of study. The evil results of this idea. How they may be prevented. 4. The frequency of the use of unintelligible words in explanations by the teacher. What is the result of this? 5. It is as easy to have good lessons as to have poor lessons. Promptness and accuracy in recitations. 6. The evils of recitations in concert. Are such recitations ever useful? 7. Individuality in method. ''When poor Paul had spelt out (book) number two, he found he had no idea of number one ; fragments afterwards obtruded themselves into number three, which shded into number four, which grafted itself on to number two. So that whether twenty Romuluses made a Remus, or hie haec hoc was Troy weight, or a verb always agreed with an ancient Briton, or three times four was Taurus, a bull, were open questions with him. ** * Oh, Dombey, Dombey ! ' said Miss Bhmber, ' this is shocking !' " " ' If you please,' said Paul, 'I think if I might sometimes talk a little with old Glubb, I should be able to do better.'"— i>icA'ez2«. OUTLINES. 325 FIFTH MONTH. Pages 107-134. 1. Incentives to Study and Good Conduct. 2. Prizes. 3. Proper Incentives. 4. A Tetichefs Requisites for Good Government. If the motives first discussed are less worthy, the higher incen- tives are not wanting in the nature of children, nor are they less potent in their influence when called out. Since it is in government that most teachers fail, it is highly essential that the conditions and qualities of good government be well understood, and especially that the teacher should know the legal and moral status of his authorit3^ Here, it is true, is debatable ground. Yet, while the field is not wholly free from controversy, the main points are well established by clear and forcible arguments. First Week.— 1. Motives to be employed in exciting interest in study. An artificial stimulus harmful. The higher principles to be aroused. The greater ease of securing a temporary interest by appealing to lower considerations. 2. The long controversy as to the wisdom of appealing to a spirit of emulation. The contro- vers3' turns somewhat upon the meaning of the word. 3. The emulation of which St. Paul speaks, which is unquestionably right. 4. The emulation of which St. Paul gives warning. 5. Since a wrong or questionable spirit of emulation does exist in the character of pupils, and will be found to characterize the world with which they mingle in after life, should the teacher attempt to utilize it for good in the schoolroom? 6. Page's view. This spirit should not be encouraged. It is not even expedient to encourage it. The evil of •' head-marks." "The judicious exercise of approbation is of the first importance in promoting obedience, and in cultivating in the bosom of the child affec- tionate and cheerful feehngs. Let your smiles animate Iiis heart and cheer him on in duty." — /. S. C. Abbott. Second Week. — 1. The question of prizes. Page's experience and conclusions. 2. Prize seeking a lower and less worthy mo- tive. 3. The danger of an ungenerous rivalry . 4. It is inexpedient 326 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. for the same reason that a system of "head-marks" is inexpe- dient. 5. Prize scholars or " honor men," not usually the most distinguished in after life. 6. The liability to injustice in making the award. 7. Pupils are not all upon an equal footing as to facilities for work. 8. Improper means often used to secure the prize. 9. Success not always a true criterion of merit. 10. The reaction when the stimulus is withdrawn. "The marking of class recitations does not determine the ability of the man in future life. The brilliant scholar who has spent his time in comparative idleness, and looked with contempt upon the laborious student who stumbles in recitation, has often been compelled to step aside and see his less scholarly, but more industrious, companion come up to occupy positions which he (the former) could not fill. Good schol- arship is desirable, but it sometimes happens that the brilliant scholar is sadly deficient in those manly qualities which are the only guarantee of success in life — common sense, untiring industry, energy and perseverance. Treat the dull scholar with stimulants, the timid with encouragement, the self-sufficient with hard questions and severity ; task the apt scholar, and give him but little assistance/' — Hiram Orcutt. Third Week.— 1. The love of approbation of parents and friends a proper motive. 2. The desire to advance. 3. The desire to be useful. 4. The desire to do right. 5. The marvelous acquisitions of the first three years of life. The cause of this amazing progress. 6. Observations concerning children, the deaf and dumb and the blind. 7. The delight in acquisition is a natural incentive. 8. The superiority of natural to artificial stimulation in the pupil's work. 9. This incentive destroyed by surfeiting. Fourth Week. — 1. Self-government the first requisite of a teacher in governing a school. 2. The exhibition of anger by a teacher. 3. Extremes of levity and moroseness. 4. Pupils marked by physical or mental defects must not be the subjects of cutting remarks. 5. A teacher must not doubt his own ability to govern. Bravery and self-confidence in the right. 6. The only object of government. 7. The teacher must not govern according to his feelings, but with uniformity. 8. School govern- ment must be equal and impartial. 9. Elements of character OUTLINES. 327 which a teacher may use in governing. 10. The evils of vacilla- tion. 11. Conscientiousness essential to good government. '' Hartsook's first day in school was hurried and unsatisfactory. He was not master of himseh', and consequently was not master of anybody else. When evening came there were symptoms of insubordination through the whole school. Poor Ralph was sick at heart. Half that night the young man lay awake. At last comfort came to him. A reminiscence of the death of the raccoon flashed on him like a vision. He remembered Bud's certificate that ' Ef Bull once takes a holt, heaven and yarth can't make him let go.' He thought that what Flat Creek needed was a bull- dog. He would be a bull-dog, quiet, but invincible. He would take hold in such a way that nothing should make him let go, and then he went to sleep." —E'd'jvard Eggleston. SIXTH MONTH. Pages 134-174. 1. Means of Securing Good Order. 2. Proper and Improper Punishments. 3. Corporal Punishment. 4. Limitations and Suggestions. First Week.— 1. A teacher's frankness and freedom from assumption disarms resistance on the part of the pupil. 2. Courtesy mingled with firmness. 3. The evils which result from a suspicious spirit. Dr. Franklin's rule. 4. The school must be kept employed. How this may be accomplished. A stated time for the study of each lesson. 5. The evil of numerous rules. A comprehensive rule. 6. The evil of announcing penalties in advance. 7. Want of interest a frequent cause for disorder. Variety in the work. 8. The value of vocal music in a school. 9. Acquaintance with the parents of the pupils an aid to govern- ment. 10. Page's system of credits. The evils of '^ black- marks." An estimate of the value of a register. 11. Govern- ment is a means rather than an end. 12. The mistake of too much government. Who govern best? Can a school be kept too quiet? 13. Many schools can be governed without resort to fear or force. "Children are very much creatures of sympathy. They form their characters from those around them. And we must cherish in our bosoms those virtues we would foster in theirs. If we would give them calm, 828 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. gentle and friendly feelings, we must first show them by our example how valuable those feelings are."— J. S. C. Abbott. Second Week. — 1. A definition of punishment; the importance of the motive in punishing. 2. The authority to punish; the legal status of the teacher — in loco parentis. 3. The argument against punishment; the argument in its favor. 4. Two general classes of punishment. Is it consistent to favor the first class and not the second? 5. Improper punishments; indignities. 6. Scolding; the use of slang and low wit. 7. Cruel punishments. 8. Ridicule; objections to its use. "In reality it will be found that any valid arguments against corporal punishments are valid against all punishments. To punish is to inflict pain — an operation from which every right feeling person shrinks, but an operation which should never be abolished until the offenses cease which make punishment proper. Proper punishment is not cruelty; taking far-reaching consequences into account, it may be the bitterest cruelty to withhold it." — Dr. Hewett. Third Week.— 1. The subject of corporal punishment a debata- ble field. 2. Extremists pro and con. 3. What is agreed upon by all at the outset. 4. Great dissimilarity in the home training of children, as well as in temperament and disposition. 5. Two implied propositions which Horace Mann does not admit. 6. What may be in the future, still liable to exceptions. 7. Divi- sions in the community, and their influence on the school. 8. The effect of failure on the teacher's reputation and on the school. 9. Corporal punishment sometimes a duty, as well as a right. 10. The necessity for a resort to corporal punishment sometimes exists in the teacher himself. Proof of this. 11. The difference in degree of difficulty between establishing and maintaining authority. 12. The discretion of silence on the part of the teacher as to his intentions. Holding that he has no power to punish diminishes the probability of success. Little good comes from threatening to punish. 13. Expulsion and its results. Horace Mann's views on the subject. 14. The conclusion of the argument. The abuse of corporal punishment. " The view which sees in the rod the panacea for all the teacher's embarrassments is censurable; but equally undesirable is the false OUTLINES. 329 sentimentality which assumes, that the dignity of humanity is affected by a blow given to a child." Dr. Rosenkranz. Fourth Week.— 1. The disposition of the pupil to be consid- ered, and the infliction of bodily pain to be the last resort. 2. Self-possession and freedom from anger of the utmost impor- tance to the teacher. 3. Should corporal punishment be inflicted in the presence of the school? Reasons why it should. 4. The good results of a delay of punishment. 5. How corporal pun- ishment should not be administered. 6. Punishment should be effectual, and should be administered neither for trifling causes nor in a trifling manner. 7. Pupils should not become familiar with scenes of punishment or with the sight of the instrument used. 8. Conclusions on the subject of corporal punishment should not be drawn hastily or without the knowledge of experi- ence. 9. Sweeping statements of theory should be avoided. Opposing resolutions that leave no middle ground. 10. The main reliance of the teacher should not be upon appeals to fear and force. What means are best employed. 11. When is the minimum of punishment the maximum of excellence? " 'Don't believe he'll do,' was Mr. Pete Jones' comment to Mr. Means. 'Don't thrash enough. Boys won't larn 'less you thrash 'em,' says I. ' Leastways mine won't. Lay it on good,' is what I says to a master. ' Lay it on good. Don't do no harm. Lickin' and larnin' goes together. No lickin', no larnin',' says I. Lickin' and larnin' — lickin' and larnin' is the good ole way." — Edward Eggleston. SEVENTH MONTH. Pages 175-202. 1. Plan of Work. 2. The Dafs Regime. 3. Reviews and Examination. 4. The Teacher's Relations to the Parents of Pupils. Under the head of school arrangements our author now dis- cusses a variety of topics relative to school administration. There is a world of wisdom, not to say a Yankee-like shrewdness, in his suggestions. Nothing is small, nothing is of little moment, if it can conduce to success. Every statement tells its story of the actual experience of the writer. 330 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. The recess has been, of late, a topic of earnest discussion in all the larger gatherings of educators. So also has the exami- nation. These matters continue to receive a large share of atten- tion in the educational world, and not infrequently are the themes of spirited canvass in school elections and appoint- ments. Their discussion in these pages is as opportune as though the work were written but yesterday. First Week.— 1. The opening of school a critical moment for the teacher. Plans should be made beforehand. The result of want of forethought. 2. The teacher should become acquainted with the district in advance, in order to consult with the officers and to meet the parents. 3. Cautions to be observed in visita- tion. Things not to be encouraged. Whom he should not neglect to visit ? 4. Valuable suggestions of Abbott as to the first inter- view with pupils in the school. Second Week. — 1. The evils of working without a plan. 2. A scheme of recitations and study. (In this. Page seems to antici- pate the very important matter of '' grading" the district schools — a work now happily accomplished in many States.) 3. The necessity for punctuality. 4. In the scheme of study, one branch may be omitted to be studied at home. 5. Instruc- tion in drawing. Methods. A suggestion as to original teach- ing. 6. Alternation of studies as a remedy against too short recitations. 7. Changes of plan should be made slowly and carefully. 8. Arrangements for reviews and for oratorical exer- cises. 9. Interruptions, and how they may be anticipated and avoided. 10. How frequent should be the recesses? 11. What should be their duration ? How may the time be employed advan- tageously by the teacher. 12. The middle of the session is not the proper time for recess. The best time and reasons for the choice. 13. Is it advisable that all pupils leave the room ? 14. More frequent rests or recesses for the younger pupils. 15. The effects of a poorly learned lesson. 16. Slow progress at first better than attempts to secure too much. 17. A careful and judicious assignment of work necessary. For suggestions concerning the first day's work, for a discus- OUTLINES. 331 sion of plans of organization and of various means of improve- ment in the work of country schools, as well as for much other valuable information, the teacher is referred to Circular of Infor- mation No. 6, 1884, of the Bureau of Education. ''No person not familiar with the practice can have any idea of the extraordinary rapidity with which children learn to draw and design, when tliey are confined to simple outline patterns for decorative work, under the stimulus of invention. It is because there is no shading 'effects" or 'picturesque,' mingled with their drawing to bewilder their brains, that they advance so quickly. As a rule, with very rare excep- tions, or in ray experience with almost none, the child from twelve to fourteen years of age, who can draw a clean, light, free-hand line, can be taught in a few weeks — at the utmost in a few months — to design beau- tiful original patterns." — 673a7-7es G. Leland. " If there is anything in the moral argument against recess, it holds with stronger force against association at noon, and in coming and going to and from school. But it may be inquired, ought this hmited association to be prevented? Is not the school valuable in this very feature that it brings together young people under such limitations and restraints as to permit and encourage reaction against evil influences? But even were the influence of the recess an immoral and dan- gerous one, stiU there would be no choice in the matter, for the physio- logical reasons for its existence are imperative and final." — Z>r. Wm. T. Harris. Third Week. — 1. The uses of reviews; periodic and general reviews. 2. The good results of public examinations; are they overbalanced by attendant evils. 3. They are not criteria of faithfulness nor of success of teachers. How the public may be misled by them. 4. They do not indicate accurately the profi- ciency of pupils; a proof of this. 5. They present great tempta- tions to dishonesty. 6. Examinations of a proper kind are desirable and useful. What is the true object of examinations? 7. Things that are essential to the honesty of examinations. 8. Page would reform the examinations and restrict them to their true purpose, rather than discard them altogether. 9. They should not be used as a temporary stimulant; to give promi- nence to a lesser motive is to obscure the greater. " That the importance commonly attached to examinations is a mis- take, is a conviction slowly making itself felt among a large number of 332 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. teachers. That they are not, and cannot be to any great extent, a means of estimating mind growth, is clear; and certainly the formation of right habits of thinking and acting is not the least result for which the teacher labors. On the other hand, the diverse tendencies of individual minds, faulty recitation work, the relatively small amount of written work done in our schools, the periodicity of examinations where such practice exists, and faulty questioning — one and all — are active agents in lessening the value commonly ascribed to examinations as measures of intellectual attainments; and to determine either the class standing or the promo- tion by them alone, is certainly an injustice to pupils." — Mar^arei Lawrence. Fourth Week. — 1. Important qualifications of ministers and teachers, which are apt to be overlooked. 2. Etiquette should not stand in the way of intercourse with parents. 3. Inquiry as to the plans and purposes of the teacher should not be discour- aged, but rather invited. 4. Parents should be encouraged to visit the school. A danger to be avoided. 5. Disingenuousness in reporting progress and conduct bi pupils is impolitic as well as wrong. 6. A didactic manner toward the community an infirmity incident to teachers. 7. "Out-door work," so fre- quently despised, really of great value in enhancing success, "Teachers can easily interest their pupils in adorning the school grounds. With proper arrangements as to the selection and procuring of trees, vines or shrubs. Arbor Day may accomplish wonders. Many hands will make work merry, as well as light. Such a holiday will be an attractive occasion of social enjoyment and improvement. The parents should be persuaded to approve and patronize the plan. It tends to fraternize the people of a district when they thus meet on common grounds and young and old work together for a common object, where all differences of rank or sect or party are forgotten." — Dr. Northrup. EIGHTH MONTH. Pages 203-228. 1. Care of Health. 2. Professional Considerations. 3. Means ot Self-Culture. 4. Associations. First Week, —1. The teacher's work renders him peculiarly- liable to ill-health and depression of spirits. 2. This liability may be resisted, if anticipated and properly met. 3. Precautions hitherto unnecessary become imperative when the teacher enters OUTLINES. 333 upon his work. 4. The need of exercise. The case of Hitchcock. Walking, driving, rowing. 5. Early rising. Air and light. Bath- ing. Sleep. 6. Proper food. Time of eating. Drink. 7. The importance of dress. The golden rule of health. Cheerfulness an attendant of health. The oppression of loneliness to be avoided. 8. Music, and its influence. 9. A special caution. Second Week. — 1. A peculiarity of the teacher's profession. Two great evils which strengthen each other. 2. The desire of philanthropists to elevate the profession. Means proposed to this end. Division of sentiment in Page's time. 3. A mutual evil. The improvement of work and wages must progress together. 4. The teacher's duty to the profession. Third Week. — 1. Self-improvement especially the duty of the teacher. 2. Why the first school is the best, in the case of msiwy teachers. The peculiar temptation to neglect of personal improve- ment. 3. The cares of school should be dismissed with the school. A judicious division of time. 4. Improvement brings its own reward. " The remarkable success of the Chautauqua course of home reading and study has encouraged effort in the direction of special courses of reading adapted to the peculiar needs of the teacher. While this home study never can be to the individual what personal contact with the live teacher is, still much useful knowledge and inspiration as well may come through carefully selected reading. ... It need not be replied that some teachers have neither money nor leisure to pursue a course of read- ing which shall the better fit them for their work. It must be, as it has ever been, that present sacrifice must be made for future good. There ought to be years of preparation in hope of doing better work and of receiving better compensation. All over the world, uotably in our own country, there is an intellectual awakening. People are thinking, investigating, getting abreast of the age. Teachers must not be left behind. The times demand broader culture, more exact training, and a higher manliness." — Emma M. McRae. Fourth Week. — 1. The value of a course of professional read- ing. 2. The value of a journal. 3. Teachers should aid one another. Visitation of other schools. Monthly meetings of the teachers of a town (township). The township institute antici- pated. 4. Teachers as contributors to the press. 5. Errors in 334 PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE, the way of institutes. The social advantage of institutes. Pro- fessional advantages. 6. A caution relative to institutes. The extraordinary not to be sought after. 7. Individuality should not be destroyed by servile copying. NINTH MONTH. Pages 229-311. First Week. — 1. Mutual duties of parents and teachers. 2. The importance of teaching as a profession. 3. A greater appreciation of the schools by parents. 4. More frequent visita- tion of the schools needed. Second Week. — 1. Prejudice to be avoided. 2. Pupils not to direct their own course of study. 3. Unnecessary apologies. 4. Comparisons are odious. 5. Unkind remarks to be avoided. 6. The Bible not a fit instrument for punishment. 7. Teachers of one idea. The oral-training hobby of 1829-31. 8. Partiality for certain studies objectionable. Third Week. — 1. Friendship of teacher for pupils. 2. Good order in the schoolhouse. 3. Correction in general exercises. 4. A pleasant spirit in the school. 5. The art of apt illustration. 6. Special occasions for moral teachings. Fourth Week. — 1. Opportunities for intellectual and moral growth. 2. Professional advancement. 3. The fruits of the teacher's labor manifest. 4. Appreciation of the teacher's work. 5. The legal status of the teacher. lE'DEX. Abbott, Jacob, 128, 178, 219. Abbott, J. S. C, 325, 328. Accuracy, 104, 261, 316. Acquisition, 124. Addison, 67. Advancement, 122. Affection, 132, 172, 280. Agnew, Professor, 279. Aid, mutual, 221. Air, 207, 314. Albany Normal School, 15, 17, 312. Algebra, 59. Alphabet, 53. Alternations, 184. Ambition, 110. Analysis, 53. Anger, 127, 167. Animation, 100. Answers, 87, 97. Approbation, 121, 132. Aptness, 74, 94. Acquisition, 124. Arbor Day, 314. Aristocracy, 131, 178, 247. Aristotle, 281. Arithmetic, 57, 58, 181, 184, 314, 317. Arnold, Matthew, 281. Arnold, Thomas, 218. Arrangement of schools, 175-197. Art of teaching, 4, 264, 278. Ascham, Roger, 281. Assigning lessons, 190. Assistant, 183. Assumption, 128, 129. Astronomy, 64, 220, 256. Attainments, 52, 53, 214. Attendance, regularity of, 239. Attention, 83, 94, 100. Auburn prison, 41, 42, 313. Authority, 147, 159, 163. Baby-talk, 255. Bacon, Francis, 214. Bain, Alexander, 219. Bartlett pear, 26. Bathing, 46. Bible, 40, 41, 123, 141, 152, 166, 254, 270. Blackguardism, 150. Black marks, 142. Blind, 125. Body, 280. Bodily punishment, 146, 148, 158. Book-keeping, 61, 318. Books, 35, 101, 218, 219, 238. Boone, 218. Botany, 220, 256. Branch of study, 257. Brougham, Lord, 69, 219, 284. Business in school hours, 250, 251. Calling of the teacher, 212-228, 279, 280. Care of health, 203-211, 316, 332. Care of school-room, 258. Carlyle, Thomas, 93, 263. Catholicity, 39. Chadbourne, Dr., 324. (335) 336 INDEX. Chagrin, 27, 155, 253, 263. Character, 50, 71, 122, 247, 261. Chastisement, 158, 167. Cheerfulness, 210, 262, 263. Chemistry, 59, 220, 256. Child, the, 69, 72, 75, 110, 124, 131, 160, 175, 248. Choice of studies, 248, 249. Christianity, 111, 112, 280. Civil government, 62. Classes, 184. Classification, 181, 184. Cleanliness, 45, 46, 207. Clinton, DeWitt, 15. Clock, 183. Clothing, 238. Coarseness, 47, 100, 151. Colburn's Mental Arithmetic, 57. Comenius, S. S. Laurie's, 218. Commonplace-book, 98, 220. Comparisons, invidious, 252, 253. Compayre, 218. Competitors, 117. Complaints against candidates, 305. Composition, 32, 185, 220, 224. Concert recitations, 104, 255. Conducting recitations, 94-106, 318. Confession, 262. Confidence, 136, 154. Confinement, 157, 190. Confucius, 281. Confusion illustrated, 186, 188. Conscience, 36, 37, 70, 122, 123, 138. Consciousness of success, 277, 279. Contracts, 297. Convicts, appearance of, 41. Corn, an object lesson, 83-87. Corporal punishment, 158, 168, 311, 328. Countenance, 262. Course of study, 220. Courtesy, 47, 135, 316. Cousin, Victor, 69, 219, 321. Cramming, 35, 191, 195. Credits, 142. Crime, 42. Cruelty, 152. Culture, 64, 155, 215. Curiosity, 124, 125. Cuvier, 256. Cyclopedia of Education, Kiddle and Schem's, 219. Day-dreams of a Schoolmaster, Thompson's, 219. Deaf, 125. Decimal notation, 103. Decision, 132. Declamation, 185. Defining, 31. DeGarmo, 219. Delay in punishment, 168. Deliberation, 169. Description, 32. Desires, 121, 122-126. Desks, 259. Development, 69, 70, 280. Dewey, 219. Dickens, Charles, 323, 324. Diet, 204, 207. Direction of pupil's study, 248. Disciplinary punishment, 169. Discipline, 70, 143, 279. Discovery, 81, 90, 126. Discretion, 138. Dismissal of teacher, 303. Dismissing, 49, 272. Disposition to dictate, 233. District, factions in, 162, 177. Divinity, 23. Doing, 66, 83. Do right, 122, 137, 155, 214. Drawing, 62, 183, 318. Drawing-out process, 77. Dress, 46, 204, 209, 247. Drink, 209. INDEX. 337 Driving, 206. Dullness, 253. Duty, 214, 235, 236. Ear, 125, 149. Education, Spencer's, 219. Educational library, 219. Educational millennium, 213. Education as a Science, Bain's, 219. Effort, 117, 118, 119. Eggleston, Dr., 327, 329. Elementary science, 53. Elements of education, 249. Elm, 88. Emerson, George B., 67, 69. Emile, Kosseau's, 219. Employment, 136, 212, 296. Emulation, 108, 110. Encouragements, 214, 226. Ends, 74, 204. English grammar, 32, 33, 58, 317. Enthusiasm, 94, 96, 98. Envy, 110, 112, 114, 252. Epping, 11. Errors, 71, 177, 178, 179, 228. Evasion, 103. Examinations, 194, 196. Example, 36, 38, 48, 120, 215. Excitement, 29, 100, 107, 125, 126. Exciting interest in study, 107-126. Exclusiveness, 222. Excuses from parents, 251. Exemplary punishment, 169. Exercise, bodily, 204. Exhibitions, 195, 196, 227. Expedients, 230. Expenses, 276. Experience, 98, 170, 228! Experiments, 108, 113, 276. Explanations, 102, 200. Expulsion, 165. Extraordinary, 227. Eye, 125. T P.— 22 Facts, 227. Failure, 191, 223. Faith, 270. False standard, 232. Family, 210. Fat, 209. Favorite branch, 257. Fear, 147, 268. Feet, 210. Few, the, 114, 115. Firmness, 132. First day, 175, 176, 178. First impressions, 134, 135, 175, 179, 247. Fitch, J. G., 219. Fitness, grades of, 74, 94, 95. Flowerless plants, 323. Food, 208. Force, 146, 163, 164. Forgiving spirit, 244. Fox, Mr., 70. Francke, A. H., 281. Franklin, Dr., 136, 251. Frankness, 201, 261. Friends, personal, 178, 179, 210, 226, 258. Friendship, 222, 223. Froebel, 218, 219, 321. Frowns, 253. Fruit, 209. Gardening, 205. Genius, 118. Geography, 31, 55, 57, 181, 314. Geology, 64, 220. Geometry, 59. Gill, 218. Gifts, 95, 119. God, 21, 24, 36, 38, 39, 43, 123, 269, 273; approval of, 24, 38, 122, 123, 228, 269, 281, 282; kingdom of, 110, 128, 280; our protector, 269, 270, 271 ; punishment from, 148, 338 INDEX. God — Continued. 149; rewards, 119, 123, 269, 271; the teacher's need of, 41, 44 ; wisdom of, 125, 126, 147, 256, 269. Goldsmith, Oliver, 151. Gould, Hannah F., 12. Government, 127-174, 179, 224. Grammar, 32, 33, 58, 181, 314. Great teacher, the, 283. Greek, 55, 317. Greenwood, 219. Growth, 124, 215-217, 277, 278. Habits, mechanical, 35, 45-51, 100. Hailman, W. N., 218, 219. Hall, S. K., 102. Hampton Academy, 11. Harris, Dr., 331. Head, 149, 169. Health, bodily, 29, 60, 203-211. Heaven, 280, 283, 285. Helping pupils, 80. Hewett, Dr., 319, 328. Higher branches, 257. Hissing, 154. History, 32, 56, 77, 78, 314. Hitchcock, President, 205. " Hobbies " in teaching, 254-257. " Holding a nail," 153. Home, 210, 282. Honesty, 41, 200, 201, 227. Honor, 260. Hope, 28. Household education, 219. Howard, K. S., 14, 142. Humiliation, 157, 260. Hypocrisy, 158, 195-196, 201, 227, 252, 260. Ideal, 66-69, 72. Ideas, 30, 124. Ignorance, 23. Illustrations, 25, 41, 55, 66, 77, 82, 102, 128, 133, 138, 144, 145, 150, 154, 179, 222, 251, 265. Imitation, 227, 228. Imortality, 280. Impartiality, 131. Impatience, 140, 150, 214. Impression, 134, 179, 273. Improvement, 98, 176, 180, 215-221, 278, 285. Incentives, 108, 121, 126, 325. Indifference, 82, 97, 114, 190. Inductions, 170. Industry, 41, 143, 222. Information, 215. Injustice, 129, 149, 247. In loco parentis, 147, 309, 328. Inquiry, 85, 177, 200. Institutes, teachers', 224, 225. Instruction, 142, 172. Instrument, 169. Intellectual growth, 276. Intellectual philosophy, 61. Interest, 107, 126. Intermission, 189. Interruptions, 185. Intuition, 74, 95. Jokes, 150. Journal of Education, Barnard's, 18, 22. Judges, 116, 117, 247. Judgment, 247. Jug, mind not a, 76. Justice, 36, 117, 118, 127, 131, 136, 138. Kiddle, 219. Knowing, 66, 67, 68. Knowledge, 41, 70, 124, 126, 214, 215, 279. Krusi, 218. Lack of appreciation, 232. INDEX. 339 Lalor, 219. Lancaster, 187. Landon, 219. Language, 47, 48, 99, 102, 124. Latin, 55, 317. Laughing, 151, 154. Laurie, Simon S., 219. Lawrence, Margaret, 332. Laws, 137, 138, 296. Laws of health, 60, 61. Lawyer, 23. Leading questions,77, 93. Lectures, 219, 256. Legal rights, 296-311. Leland, Charles G., 331. Lessons, 183, 190. Letters, silent, 53. Levity, 128. Library, teacher's, 218, 219. License to teach, 296. Life of David P. Page, 11-19. Life, practical, 122. Light, 207. Limitation of topics taught, 250. Limitations and suggestions on cor- poral punishment, 167. Literary qualifications of the teacher, 52-65. Literature, 56, 219. Living by their wits, 276. Locke, John, 69, 219, 320. Logic, 61. . Love, 128, 132, 135, 154, 172, 258, 277. Luther, Martin, 140. Lyon, Mary, 218. McRae, Emma M., 333. Man, an instrument, 115. Mann, Horace, 14, 15, 52, 69, 100, 124, 160, 218, 219, 317, 319, 321. Manners, 45, 48, 100, 128, 260. Many, the, 114, 117, 248. Map-drawing, 55. Maps, 31. Martineau, Miss, 219. Mathematics, 59, 193, 220. Mather, Cotton, 13. Meanness, 177, 247, 251, 252. Means, 69, 70, 74, 117, 118, 134-146, 224, 225, 274, 279. Meeting of teachers, 223, 224. Memory, 34, 35, 70, 71, 97, 115, 119, 220. Mental arithmetic, 31, 57, 181. Methods, 74-93, 223, 257, 265. Milton, John, 69, 281, 319, 320. Mind, 21, 37, 38, 68, 69, 72, 76, 95, 124, 125, 148, 279. Minimum of punishment, 172. Miscellaneous suggestions, 247-274. Misjudgment, 71, 74, 117, 176. Models, use of, 185, 227. Modes of teaching, 74-93. Modesty, 202, 247. Morality, 27, 36, 37, 68-70, 120, 124, 260, 267, 277. Moral philosophy, 61. Moral suasion, 159. Moroseness, 128. Mothers first, 200, 281, 282. Motives, 21, 22, 68, 107, 115, 119, 123, 124, 132, 147, 154, 172, 196, 278, 279. Music, 63, 140, 318. Mutual aid, 221. Mutual duties, 229-246, 334. Nails, 46. Napoleon, 110. Natural philosophy, 59, 194, 264. Neatness, 45, 210, 258, 316. Neglected pear tree, 25-28. Newbury, 12, 13. Newburyport, 12, 13, 14, 15, 18, 312, 313. 340 INDEX. Nibbling, mental, 184. Northrup, Dr., 332. Number, 31. Nurslings, 75. Obedience, 124, 137, 258. Objections to prizes, 114-120. Object lessons, 83. Obligation, 90, 245. Observation, 35, 90, 91. Olmstead, Professor, 261. Oral mania, 255. Oral teaching, 75, 90, 255, 256. Orcutt, Hiram, 223, 326. Order, 47, 127, 134, 144, 145, 258, 272. Order of study, 30, 34, 95. Organization, 177. Orthography, 53, 316. Outline of reading, 212-234. Page, David Perkins, 11-19, 312, 313. Painter, 218. Parents, 28, 36, 91, 141, 147, 160, 162, 178, 198, 229, 232, 253, 281. Partiality, 131, 257. Passion, 127, 167, 263. Patience, 185, 253, 262. Paul, the apostle, 284. Pay, 52, 212, 275, 284. Payne, Joseph, 219, 319, 321. Pear tree, 25, 314. Peevishness, 128. Perfect manhood, 280. Personal acquaintance, 234. Personal friends, 178, 179, 210, 226, 258. Personal habits of the teacher, 45-51. Pestalozzi, 18, 218, 219, 281, 320, 322. Phelps, W. J., 16. Philosophy, 59, 74. Physician, 22, 23, 108, 249. Physics, 59, 194, 264. Physiology, 33, 60. Plagiarism, 260. Plan, 137, 175, 179, 199, 220, 329. Plants, 87, 323. Plato, 281. Pleasure, 124, 125. Plum Island, 12, 19. Politeness, 47, 48. Potter, Dr., 69, 140. Pouring-in process, 75, 93, 256. Practice, 37, 47, 220, 225. Precept, 36, 47, 315. Precocity, 29. Predecessor, 177, 252. Preface, author's, 3. Preface, editor's, 5, 6. Prejudice, 247. Preparation, 22, 23, 31, 95, 96. Press, the, 224. Principle, application of, 58, 95, 170. Principle, moral, 36, 38, 110, 111, 134, 167. Privileges, loss of, 156. Prizes, 112-120, 325. Profanity, 47. Profession, the teacher's, 22, 52, 67, 212, 230, 244, 280. Professional feeling, 226. Professional reading, 207, 217, 218, 219. Proficiency, 194. Programme of recitation and study, 182. Promptness, 104. Propagation, 87, 90. Proper temperature, 315. Proportion, 100. Pruning, 26. Psychology, 95, 96. Public examinations, 194-197. Public opinion, 168-172, 214. Punctuality, 49, 178, 216, 316. Punctuation, 317. INDEX. 341 Punishment, 146, 327. Pupils, 129, 195, 281. Quacks, 60, 213. Qualifications, 52-65, 69, 176. Questioning, 84-90, 97. Questions, 35, 77, 99. Quick, R. H., 218. Eatio, 100. Reading, 30, 54, 181, 217, 221. Reading circles, 65, 312. Reasons, 57, 95. Recess, 188. Recipient, passive, 75, 88, 89, 90. Reciprocal duties, 236. Recitations, 34, 35, 94-106, 115, 181, 183. Recreation, 216, 217. Reformation, 260. Register of credits, 142. Regulations respecting attendance, 307; studies, 306. Religion, 122, 315. Religious training, 38, 269. Remembrance of pupils, 281. Reproof, 156, 168, 260. Resolutions, 171, 225. Respect, 135, 261. Responsibility, 21, 28, 29, 36, 37, 38, 61, 116, 175, 276, 310. Restraint, 157. Revenge, 147. Reviews, 185, 193, 331. Rewards, 113, 118, 119, 120, 212, 275-285. Rhetoric, 61. Ridicule, 153. Riding, horseback, 205. Righteousness, 122. Right modes of teaching, 74-93, 322. Right to punish, 148. Right views of education, 66-73, 316. Rights of property, 259. Rivalry, 114. Rod, the, 158, 164, 170. Roguery, 179. Rosenkranz, 219, 329. Rousseau, 219, 320. Routine, 101. Rowing, 206. Rules, 58, 137. Rules and regulations, 305. Sawing wood, 206. Schem, A. J., 219. Scholars, 36, 37, 49, 71, 115, 181. Scholarship, 71, 191. School hygiene, 314. School Law Decisions, Smith's, 296- 311. Schoolmaster, the, 286. School officers, 213. School-room, 29, 36, 185, 216, 258. Science, 58, 59, 96, 108, 137, 250. Scientific baby-talk, 255. Scolding, 150, 170. Seeds, 87-89. Self-control, 261-264, 268, 277. Self-culture, 205, 316. Self-government, 127, 128, 145, 167, 253, 262, 326. Self-improvement, 64, 92, 99, 215- 221, 278. Selfishness, 111, 130, 221, 222. Self-reliance, 81, 98, 104, 105, 130. Self-righteousness, 155, 228, 261. Seneca, 281. Sewell, Samuel, 19. Shame, 147, 154, 155. Silence, 145, 146. Simultaneous recitation, 104. Sincerity, 37. Singing, 273. "Sitting on nothing,"- 153. "Sitting on worse than nothing," 153. 342 INDEX. Skating, 206. Sketch, biographical, 11-19. Skimming, 190, 191. Sleep, 204, 207, 217, 264. Smiles, 120, 151, 263, 282. Smith, Lyndon A., 296. Snappishness, 128. Society, 210, 247. Socrates, 281, 322. Solicitude, 27. Soimds, 53. Special preparation, 191. Spelling, 31, 181. Spencer, Herbert, 219, 321. Spirit of the teacher, 21-24, 41, 50, 313. Stagnation, 216, 220. Stimulants, 125, 126. Studies, 248. Study, 30, 34, 35, 50, 64, 92, 97, 101, 107-126, 216, 220. Subject, order of, 35, 95, 96, 101. Substitutes, 298. Success, 118. Suggestions, miscellaneous, 247-274. Sully, 219. Sums, 99. Supposed faults, 241. Surveying, 59. Suspension of pupils, 309. Suspicion, 135, 233. Symmetry, 280. System, 47, 175, 185, 188, 216, 220, 312. Talent, 20, 95, 195, 212. Talk, 225. Tardiness, 308. Teacher, accomplished, 22, 53, 67, 122, 134, 263. Teacher, The, 178. Teachers' associations, 224. Teachers' meeting, 223. Teaching, art of, 21, 67, 74, 94, 130, 215, 247. Teeth, 46. Tests, 30, 96, 97, 98, 194-197. Text-book, 35. Theory, 48. Theory and practice of teaching, 52. Thinking, 115, 193, 266. Thompson, I^Arcy W., 219. Thoroughness, 249-250. Thought, 91, 95, 156, 194, 221. Threatening, 139, 150, 164. Thring, E., 219. Thunderstorm, its lessons, 268. Time, 216. Tobacco, 47. Topics, 102. Training, 29, 30, 38, 123. Trigonometry, 59. True politeness, 48. Truth, 35, 37, 171. Tyranny, 130. Uniformity, 131. Unusual occurrences, 276. Usefulness, 122, 123, 279. Vandalism, 259, 260. Ventilation, 315. Vices, inexcusable, 37, 38, 212, 213. Victims of kindness, 76. Victory, 264. Views of education, 66-73. Views of government, 130-132. Views of the whole, 193. Visitation, mutual, 222, 223, 227. Visits of patrons, 238. Visit to patrons, 141. Vocal music, 63, 140, 141, 273. Vocation of teacher, 277, 279, 280. Vulgarity, 47, 151. Wages, recovery of, 300, 301. INDEX. 343 Waking-up process, 82, 91, 92, 140, 284. Walking, 204. Want of cooperation, 230. Warren, Dr. J. C, 206. Way, 34, 35, 80-82. Wayland, Dr., 37, 69. Webster, Dr., 18, 109, 147. Whipping, 158, 170. Whitefield, Dr., 12, 19. Whittier, James Greenleaf, 12. Wisdom, 215, 228. Woodward, Dr., 60. Word analysis, 55. Words, 29, 30, 34. Worship in prison, 42, 43. Worth, 117-119. Wright, Silas, 17. Writer, 224. Writing, 31, 55, 181. Written arithmetic, 32, 58. Wyse, 219. Young children, 74, 190. Young, Col., 60. Young, Dr., 222. Youth, the dignity of, 24. Zoology, 256. Zoppan, Christopher, 13.