GLENN W, HERRICK Class Ji_ii_a^a^ Book . H 4- CDEfl«GiiT DEPOSm INSECTS OF ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE THE MACMILLAN COMPANY NEW YORK • BOSTON • CHICAGO • DALLAS ATLANTA • SAN FRANCISCO MACMILLAN & CO., Limited LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA MELBOURNE THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Lti>. TORONTO INSECTS OF ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE Outlines of Lectures in Economic Entomologv BY, ;j(;^ GLENN W^HERRICK w Professor of Economic Entomology, Cornell University New and Revised Edition NEW YORK, N. Y. THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1920 e^^ Copyright 1915 and 1920 By The Macmillan Company New and Revised Edition. Published, May, 1920 JUL 17 1920 ©CI.A570754 ^M/^ I PREFACE Not all insects of economic importance are in- cluded in these outlines. To discuss them all, a book many times the size of this would be needed. However, the principal pests of our important fruits, vegetables, cereals, farm animals, shade- trees, and of the household are discussed. A brief summary of the life habits of each, so far as they are known, is made, and the latest methods of con- trol are outlined. In addition, a concise discussion of insecticides is given together with formulae and directions for making and applying them. Since the first edition of these outlines was pub- lished important advances have been made in our knowledge of the habits and control of many in- sect pests. Therefore, in this new edition some changes in the text and many additions to it have been made in an attempt to bring it down to date. As in the previous edition, references are again given to the more important sources of information regarding the insects and their control. As far as possible, references are made to bulletins available to the general student and to those publications giv- ing faithful illustrations of the insects, together with the most approved methods of control. CONTENTS PAGE Losses Causkd p.y Insects 2 Useful Insects 4 Entomological Literature 6 Natural Methods of Insect Control 8 Artificial Methods of Insect Control .... 10 Poison Insecticides 11 Poison Baits 17 Contact Insecticides 18 Fumigating Substances 27 Miscellaneous Means of Insect Control ... 29 Dusting 30 Quarantine and In.secticide Laws 33 Insects Injurious to Orchard Trees and Fruits . 36 Insects Injurious to Small Fruits 71 Insects Injurious to Vegetables 88 Insects Injurious to Hops 109 Insects Injurious to Tobacco 112 Insects Injurious to Cereal Crops 114 Clover and Alfalfa Pests 123 Cotton Pests 127 Insects Injurious to Stored Grain 130 Insects Injurious to Greenhouse Plants . . . 131 Insects Injurious to Shade Trees 137 Insects Injurious to Farm Animals .... 144 External Parasites of Poultry 153 Insects Injurious to the Household 158 INSECTS OF ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE The science of economic entomology has made rapid progress during the last twenty years. It has advanced astonishingly in the number of persons engaged in the study of insects for the purpose of preventing their ravages, in developing and per- fecting mixtures for repelling and killing insects, in devising effective apparatus for applying insecti- cides, and in determining more exact methods of preventing the losses caused by these persistent pests. The following outlines of lectures are in- tended to cover, as far as is possible in a brief, gen- eral course, the different phases of the subject of economic entomology as it exists to-day. OBJECTS OF THE COURSE (a) To become acquainted with the common in- sect pests and with their habits and life histories in order that they may be fought intelligently. (b) To become acquainted with the modern and most practical methods of fighting insect pests. TWO PHASES OF ENTOINIOLOGY (a) The pure science of entomology. (b) The economic or science applied of ento- mology. The pure science of entomology is a study of the kinds of insects together with their relationships to I 2 INSECTS OF ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE each other, their structure, habits, and transforina- tions. It is a work of research and pleasure and forms the basis of economic entomology. Economic entomology is research on the life his- tories and habits of injurious insects and the deter- mination of some method whereby their ravages may be avoided or controlled. LOSSES CAUSED BY INSECTS The losses caused by insects in the United States alone are estimated to aggregate more than a bil- lion dollars annually.^ The value of the different crops and products produced in 1909 in the United States is given in round numbers in the following table, the figures being taken mainly from the census of 1910. The losses by insect pests are estimated to be at least 10% of the value of these products and in two cases at least 20%. Percentage of Total loss Product J'alue in igog loss by insects by insects Cereals 2,600,000,000 10 $260,000,000 Other grains and seeds 97,000,000 10 9,700,000 Hay and forage 824,000,000 10 82,400,000 Tobacco 104,000,000 10 10,400,000 Cotton and seed 825,000,000 10 82,500,000 Sugar crops 62,000,000 10 6,200,000 Minor crops 18,000,000 10 1,800,000 Vegetables 418,000,000 20 83,600,000 Fruits and nuts 222,000,000 20 44,400,000 Flowers and plants. .. . 35,000,000 10 3,500,000 Nursery products .... 21,000.000 10 2,100,000 Farm forests 195,000,000 10 19,500,000 Animal products 3,000,000,000 10 300,000,000 Forests 10 - 100,000.000 Stored products •. . • 10 ^ 200,000,000 $1,206,100,000 Ouaintance estimates the annual loss to the de- 1 Marlatt— Jr. Ec. Ent., Vol. 4, p. 109. 2 Hopkins— U. S. Bu. Ent., Bull. 58, Pt. 5. 3 Estimated. LOSSES BY INSECTS 3 ciduous fruit interests of the United States as over $66,000,000. The annual loss to the people of the United States from malarial diseases carried by mosquitoes is not less than $100,000,000.^ The loss to agri- culture and other industries as a result of malaria is enormous.^ The loss that has been caused by yellow fever, carried only by mosquitoes, cannot now be esti- mated but was certainly very great. Typhoid fever, due in large measure, at least, to its dissemination by the house-fly, causes a very great annual monetary loss. The Mexican cotton-boll weevil costs Texas at least $25,000,000 annually, and it is estimated that when it spreads over the whole cotton area it will cause a yearly loss of $250,000,000. The Hessian wheat-fly in 1900 cost the wheat growers $100,000,000. The chinch bug during the period from 1S50 to 1909 caused a loss estimated as probably in excess of $350,000,000.'' The codling moth causes the fruit growers of the U. S. a loss of over $12,000,000 and of New York, alone, more than $3,000,000 annually. COST OF FIGHTING INSECTS To the destruction occasioned by insects must be added the cost of fighting them. It is estimated that it costs $4,000,000 to spray the apple trees in the United States for the codling moth. It is said that it costs $10,000,000 annually to spray for the San Jose scale. 4 Howard -U. S. Bu. Ent., Bull. 78. ^ Herrick — Popular Science Monthly, April, 1903. c Webster— U. S. Bu. Ent., Circ. 113. 4 INSECTS OF ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE It costs $10,000,000 to screen against the house- %. The New England States and the Federal Gov- ernment have already spent over $10,000,000 in fighting the gypsy and brown-tail moths and at the present time are spending fully $1,000,000 per an- num. OUR INSECT FOES ARE INCREASING Insect pests are coming from foreign countries — San Jose scale, gypsy moth, Mexican cotton-boll w^eevil, and many others — unaccompanied by nat- ural checks."^ Out of y2> of o^^i" worst pests, at least 37 or over half have been imported from foreign countries. Insects once harmless become serious pests ow- ing to changed conditions — Colorado potato beetle, blister-mite, redbugs, et al.^ Happily, not all insects are injurious; many of them are beneficial. USEFUL INSECTS Silk-worms furnish material for clothing. Scale insects produce a waxy material from which shellac is made. Shellac is used in paints and var- nishes and in making inks, gramophone records, jewelry settings, etc..^ The pulverized bodies of certain species furnish cochineal. The census of iQio reports 3,445,006 colonies of bees in the United States valued at $10,373,615. The value of the honey and wax produced was nearly $6,000,000. Bees also aid in the cross-pol- ■^ Howard — U. S. Dept. Agri., Yearbook 189.7, P- 529. 8 Herrick — Cornell Countryman, 1910. Vol. 8, No. 2, p. 28. 9 Comstock— U. S. Ent., Report for 1880. USEFUL INSECTS 5 Hnation of flowers. Bumblebees perform a nota1)lc service in cross-polHnatino- clover/*^ The Blastophaga, a minute wasp-like insect, cross-pollinates the cultivated and wild fig, thus making- possible the production of the Smyrna fig in California/^ PREDACEOUS INSECTS Many species of insects catch and devour other species for food. These are known as predaceous insects and they are of immense value in aiding man in the fight against his insect foes.^" The ladybird beetles are probably the most impor- tant. There are several species, the two-spotted ladybird (Adalia hipunctata), the twice stabbed ladybird (Chilocorus hivulncrus), the convergent ladybird {Hippodamia convergciis), and other spe- cies. Many larv?e of a family of flies, the Syrphidce, perform great benefit in destroying plant lice. The ground-beetles (Carabidcc) are exceedingly beneficial in destroying insects that are found upon or in the soil. Other beetles, flies, wasps, and certain bugs, con- tribute to the good work. PARASITIC INSECTS There are many insects that live upon or within the eggs or bodies of other insects and derive the nourishment necessary for their growth from their living hosts. These are called parasitic insects and are among the best natural checks of insect pests. ^^ 10 Waldron— Report of North Dakota Sub-Expt. Sta., at Dickin- son, 1908. 11 Howard — U. S. Dept. Agri.. Yearbook 1900, p. 79. 12 Smith — Insect Friends and Foes. .13 Webster — U. S. Dept. Agri., Yearbook for 1907, p. 237. 6 INSECTS OF ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE One of the interesting and effective groups of parasitic insects is the tachinid flies (Family — Tachinidcu). Probably the greatest number of parasites is found in the order Hymcnoptcra. For example, the ichneumon-flies, braconid-flies, chalcis-flies and the proctotrypid-flies. ENTOMOLOGICAL LITERATURE No one volume could contain descriptions of a).- insects. Fifty thousand or more described species from N. A. Descriptions and life histories would fill 150 volumes. OUR MAIN SOURCES OF INFORMATION 1. Bulletins of the dift'erent state experiment stations throughout the United States. 2. Bulletins of the U. S. Bureau of Entomology, Washington, D. C. 3. Farmers' Bulletins of the U. S. Dept. Agri- culture, Washington, D. C. 4. Yearbooks of the U. S. Department of Agri- culture, Washington, D. C. 5. In New York State the bulletins of the State Entomologist, Education Building, Albany, N. Y. ; the bulletins of the State Experiment Station, Ge- neva, N. Y. ; and the bulletins of the Cornell Uni- versity Experiment Station are available sources of information. SOME BOOKS Manual of Fruit Insects, by M. V. Slingerland and C. R. Crosby, Macmillan Co. ENTO^IOLOGTCAL LITERATURE 7 Insect Pests of Farm, Garden and Orchard, by E. D. Sanderson, John Wiley & Sons. Insects injurious to Vegetables, by F, II. Chitten- den, Orange Judd Co. Manual of Vegetable Insects, by C. R. Crosby and M. D. Leonard, Macmillan Co. Insects and Insecticides, bv C. M. Weed, Orange Judd Co. Economic Entomology, by J. B. Smith, J. B. Lip- pincott Co. Insects Injurious to the Household and Annoy- ing to Man, by Glenn W. Herrick, Macmillan Co. Manual for the Study of Insects, by J. H. Com- stock, Comstock Pub. Co. NUMBER OF INSECTS Over 350,000 now known and described. Esti- mated to be from two to ten millions. Over 50,000 from North America. Several thousand are being- described each year. GROUPS CONTAINING THE PRINCIPAL IN- JURIOUS INSECTS 1. Ortlioptcra — Crickets, grasshoppers, cock- roaches, et al. 2. Hani pf era — aphids, scale insects, chinch bugs, et al. 3. Lcpidoptcra^ — butterflies and moths. 4. Dipfcra — flies. 5. Colcoptcra — beetles. 6. Hymcnoptcra — sawflies, bees, ants, wasps, et al. Ao-ain, all of the injurious insects may be gath- ered into two great groups, dependent upon the structure of their mouthparts. These are the suck- ing and hifincj insects. g INSECTS OF ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE a. Sucking" insects These are represented by the aphids, bugs, and flies. The mouthparts are formed for piercing the plant and sucking out the juices. b. Biting insects These may be represented by the grasshoppers and beetles. The mouthparts are formed for biting ofl^ bits of the plants and chewing them. METHODS OF CONTROL OF INSECT PESTS Ideas and practices of ancient times and peoples. Modern ideas and practices are based on two main methods : natural and artificial. Natural methods Hand-picking — tomato worms, tobacco worms, squash bugs. Cutting out by hand — peach-tree borer, apple-tree borers. Covering plants to protect them — cucumber beetles. Hopper-dozers — for grasshoppers and leafhop- pers. Burlap and cotton bands — for canker-w^orms and codling moth. Sticky bands — for canker-worms and gypsy moth. Sticky shields — for leafhoppers. Barrier method — for chinch bug and army worms. Collecting eggs — gypsy moth and tent caterpil- lars. Collecting larvse — brown-tail moth. Burning branches and trees — for shot-hole borer, bronze birch borer, twig girdler, raspberry cane- girdler, et al. NATURAL METHODS OF CONTROL 9 Cleaning np ru1)1)ish and weeds — for cabbage in- sects, cotton-boll weevil, plum curculio, et al. Burning straw, leaves, and grass — for Hessian fly and chinch bugs. Planting early — for cotton-boll weevil. Planting late — for corn root-worm and Hessian fly and pea weevil. Plowing in fall — for wire worms and for white grubs. Rotating crops — for white grubs, for corn bill- bugs, and for many pests. Resistant varieties of plants — Kieffer pear, American grape stocks. Northern Spy root-stocks. Use of commercial fertilizers — very little if of any use directly. Of use in accelerating growth to hasten maturity and to make strong resistant plants. Phosphoric acid and cotton. Refraining from planting badly infested crops for two or three years — chinch bugs and wheat, boll-weevil and cotton. Isolating fields — For cotton-boll weevil, et al. Mowing crops early — clover seed insects. Protecting birds — Birds should be protected and encouraged to make their homes on the farm and about the orchards. They help to hold the balance of nature and certainly aid greatly in hold- ing insects in check. One hawk after a chicken condemns the whole bird tribe ; the great horned owl is a friend of man wherever mice and rabbits abound, but where these are scarce, as in thickly populated districts the owl is driven to other food; the sharp-shinned and cooper's hawk are enemies to wild birds and chick- ens and should be killed; other hawks and owls feed mostly on mice and insects; many species of birds are known to live almost wholly upon insects. Insects constitute 65 % of the annual food supply 10 INSECTS OF ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE of the downy woodpecker, a very large percent of the food of warblers, 95% of the food of the house wren, and 96% of the food of the flycatchers. Three hundred to five hundred insects have been found in the stomach of one bird. The mobility of birds makes them very efficient. Forbes showed that in orchards where canker- w^orms were abundant birds became abnormally plentiful. Flycatchers and swallows live upon flying insects, while robins and meadowlarks catch gTOund insects. Cuckoos, orioles, warblers, and vireos devour leaf- eating insects while nuthatches, titmice, and creep- ers explore trunks of trees for small insects. References on the zvork of birds: Henshaw^ — U. S. Dept. Agri., yearbook 1907, p. 165. Beal — U. S. Dept. Agri., yearbook 1908, p. 343. Sanderson — New Hamp. Expt. Sta., 19th and 20th Rpts., 1908, p. 398. Forbush — Useful Birds and their Protection. Introduction of predaceous insects — Preda- ceous insects, especially ladybird beetles and cer- tain ground beetles are sometimes introduced into a locality to prey upon injurious insects. For ex- ample, the Australian ladybird {Novius cardinaUs), the ground beetle (Calosoma sycophant a), and the convergent ladybird (Hippodaniia convergens). Introduction of parasitic insects — Parasitic insects are introduced into one country from an- other to help in the fight against insect pests. For example, the many parasites introduced from Eu- rope to prey upon the gypsy and brown-tail moths. Artificial methods Artificial methods consist mainly in the use of insecticides. POISON INSECTICIDES n The kind of insecticide used will depend npon the kind of mouthparts the pest has, whether biting or sucking. It will also depend somewhat upon the life his- tory and habits of the pest. There are tzvo main kinds of insecticides. — (a) Poisons for biting insects; (b) contact substances for sucking insects. Gases are also used for both biting and sucking insects. POISONS FOR BITING INSECTS Several forms of arsenical poisons are used for killing insects that eat the foliage of plants. Ar- senate of lead, however, is more universally used in orchard work than any of the others. The fol- lowing are some of the poisons employed : 1. White arsenic. 2. Paris green. 3. Arsenate of lead. 4. Arsenate of calcium. 5. Arsenite of zinc. 6. Arsenite of lime. 7. Arsenite of copper. 8. London purple. 9. Paragrene. 10. Hellebore. Arsenic White arsenic (AS2O;;) is a white heavy powder and the cheapest form of a poison insecticide. Un- fortunately, it is soluble in water and therefore will burn foliage. It can be used in combination with lime or Bordeaux mixture, however, if the proper precautions are taken. In the following formulas the arsenic is com- bined with lime and the material is known as arsen- ite of lime. INSECTS OF ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE Taft formula ^* Kedzie formula ^' Common formula ^'^ 1 lb. white arsenic 2 lbs. quick lime 2 gals, water Boil together for 40 min. and dilute to 300 gallons with water. I lb. white arsenic 4 lbs. crystals sal soda I gal. water Boil together until dissolved — about 15 or 20 min. Use i pint to 50 gals, water with 2 or 3 lbs. quick lime added. I lb. white arsenic I lb. sal soda I gal. water ^ 2 lb. quick lime Dissolve the white arsenic and sal soda in the water by boiling all together in an iron vessel for about 15 or 20 minutes. Use this sohition while hot to slake the lime. Add enough water to make 2 gallons. Use 2 quarts of this to 50 gallons of water. Another method of making arsenite of lime is to boil I pound of white arsenic and 4 pounds of quick lime in 4 gallons of water for half an hour and then dilute to 200 gallons of w^ater. The arsenic may not all combine with the lime thus causing burning. These combinations of arsenic and lime have not given satisfaction when used with lime- sulphur.^"^ Paris green First used against Colorado potato beetle about 1868; 2000 to 3000 toiis used every year; it is com- w Woodworth and Colby— Calif. Expt. Stat., Bull. 126, p. 23. i^j Quaintance — U. S. Dept. Agri., Yearbook igo8, p. 275. I'' Slingerland, Herrick, Crosby — Cornell Univ. Expt. Stat., Bull. 283, p. 476. 17 Scott— U. S. Bu. Pit. Ind., Circ. 54, p. 14. POISON INSECTICIDES 13 posed of white arsenic/^ copper oxide, and acetic acid. When pure it consists of 58.65% arsenious oxide, 31.29% copper oxide, 10.06% acetic acid. Not over 3}4% should be soluble. Paris green ^^ is a coarse powder and not easily held in suspension; it cannot be used on conifers; cannot be used with fungicides containing am- monia ; cannot be combined with lime-sulphur with safety ; does not adhere well to foliage. At least i pound of freshly slaked lime should be mixed with every pound of paris green to take up the soluble arsenic and prevent burning of the foliage or it should be combined with Bordeaux mixture. STANDARD FORMULAS Paris green 4 oz. Paris green i lb. Quick lime i lb. Quick lime. . 2 lbs. Water 50 gals. Water 200 gals. Stewart recommends i pound of paris green per acre of potatoes whether 50 gallons or 100 gallons of Bordeaux are applied. If the poison is used in water alone then i or 2 pounds of quick lime should be slaked and added. Impurities and tests for ~^ — Paris green can be tested in three simple ways for impurities: i. Ammonia test. Paris green dissolves wholly in ammonia leaving no residue; 2. Glass slide test. Pure paris green jarred on a slide leaves a bright green streak. If impure the streak is whitish or pale green; 3. Microscopic test. Under the micro- scope the grains of paris green appear like clean round balls. The crystals of the impurities will appear angular, irregular and whitish. 18 Lodeman — Spraying of Plants, pp. 59-/4- 19 Smith— New Jersey Expt. Stat., Bull. 213. 20Woodworth & Colby— Calif. Expt. Stat., Bull. 126. 14 INSECTS OF ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE Arsenate of lead ^^ The paste form — Was first used in fighting in- sects in New England in 1S93. A compound -- of arsenic oxide and lead oxide ; remains in suspension better than paris green; is white in color and leaves a mark on foliage; will not ordinarily burn foliage; sticks to plant tena- ciously; several applications may injure peach foli- age. The commercial brands vary from 12% to over 20% of arsenic oxide "^ — the average being about 15%. They usually contain less than 1% soluble or free arsenic. Chemically, arsenate of lead may be (i) of the lead hydrogen, or acid, or plumbic form PbHAsO^ or (2) of the basic, neutral, or triplum- bic form, Pb3(As04)2. Usually the commercial brands are a mixture of these two forms although the acid lead often predominates. The acid lead, when mixed with lime-sulphur for a summer spray, tends to pass through a chemical reaction and form soluble arsenic which is likely to cause burning of the foliage. At the same time the sulphur con- tent of the solution is decreased and its fungicidal value lessened. On the other hand the basic, or neutral lead when combined with lime-sulphur does not have a tendency to form soluble arsenic and it is therefore safer on foliage although not quite so rapid in its effect as a poison. The addition of lime will largely prevent the acid lead from reacting. ^^ Injury to foliage by arsenate of lead — The water in which the arsenate of lead is suspended seems to have some determining effect upon the in- 21 Burgess and Rogers — U. S. Bu. Ent.. Bull. 87, p. 17. - 22 Smith— New Jersey Expt. Stat., Bull. 2x3, p. 11. 23 Haywood and McDonnell— U. S. Bu. Chem., Bull. 13T. 24 Robinson— Jr. Ec. Ent., Vol. 12, p. 429. POISON INSECTICIDES 15 jury caused."'' Distilled water with salt added causes decided injury to foliage; distilled watp^" with sodium carbonate added causes decided in- jury; distilled water alone almost no injury; dis- tilled water with lime added almost no injury. Clear sunny weather following application seems favorable to injury; dew followed by sunshine seems favorable to injury. Soap is sometimes used as a sticker for arsenate of lead and as an agent to hold it in suspension."'' Drying and freezing of the paste and efifect on its powers of suspension and adherence to foliage. The powdered form -^ — It is a fine, white, amorphous powder, the commercial brands of which seem to be largely composed of the biplumbic form. It was first used in fighting the Mexican cotton-boll weevil. The commercial brands are high in arsenic oxid containing generally about 30%. Experiments have shown that it is equal in eifectiveness to the paste form wdien combined with a suitable carrier. Experiments have also shown that when tested on glass slips some brands do not adhere quite as well as the paste form. It can be used in combination with liquid lime-sulphur or with Bordeaux mixture or alone in water or it can be used as a dust alone or combined with dry sulphur. Arsenate of calcium Arsenate of calcium "^ is cheaper than the lead form of arsenates and is apparently effective in poisoning power, although perhaps not quite equal to the hydrogen lead arsenate. In general the two forms ( I ) calcium hydrogen arsenate CaH AsOj 25 Haywood and McDonnell— U. S. Bu. Chem., Bull. 131. 2G Cooley— Montana Expt. Stat., Bull. 86. 2" Hinds— Jr. Ec. Ent., Vol. 6, p. 477- 28 Lovett and Robinson— U. S. Dept. Agr., Jr. Agr. Res., Vol. X, p. 199. i6 INSECTS OF ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE and (2) tricalcium arsenate Can(As04)2 are the forms that have been used. The latter appears to be more stable and less liable to form soluble arsenic and is therefore safer to use as a spraying material. The calcium hydrogen arsenate when combined with lime-sulphur for summer spraying is likely to give severe l^urning depending somewhat on weather conditions. The commercial mixtures ap- pear to be a combination of the calcium hydrogen arsenate and the tricalcium arsenate. When com- posed of pure tricalcium arsenate less injury may be expected. Calcium arsenates are high in arsenic content and when manufactured properly may prove to be of much use in spraying operations. At present they are in the experimental stage. Arsenite of zinc ■ Arsenite of zinc "^ is a white powder and high in arsenic content containing about 40% of arsenious oxide. It has been used w^ith success apparently in the Pajaro Valley, Calif., on the foliage of apple, potato and bean. In the East it has proven danger- ous on apple foliage when used alone or with lime- sulphur. In combination with Bordeaux mixture it appears to cause no injury to apple foliage. It is of use in spraying potatoes because of its high toxic quality. *'Slug-siiot" This appears to be mostly composed of gypsum and not of much value as an insecticide. ^° Bug death Is another trade insecticide of little value for it is largely composed of zinc and iron oxids."''^ 29 Schoene— N. Y. State Expt. Stat., Tech. Bull. 28. 30 Van Slyke— N. Y. State Expt. Stat.. Bull. 165. 31 Smith— New Jersey Expt. Stat., Bull. 214, p. 14. poison insecticides 17 Black death It is composed mostly of gypsum. ^^ London purple ^^ It is a waste product in the manufacture of ani- line dyes ; contains a large percent of soluble arsenic and must have lime added in liberal amounts to pre- vent burning. It is not used to any extent. Hellebore ^^ The term "hellel)ore" is said to be correctly ap- plied only to HcUcbonis nigcr which grows in Eu- rope and is not now imported commercially. It is a whitish poisonous powder obtained from pulverizing the roots of the hellebore plants Vera- fntm album and Vcratrum viride. The powder of the former is largely imported while that of the latter is an American product. Both seem equally valuable as insecticides. It is apt to lose its strength quickly and often difficult to obtain fresh. Can be applied to ripening fruit without fear of poisoning, because its strength is so rapidly lost in open air. It is valuable for the currant worm and is usually applied dry either pure or mixed with flour or lime at the rate of i to 3; may be applied wet by steeping i ounce in a quart of water and adding another quart of cold water. Poison baits A mixture of fruit juice, bran, and paris green or white arsenic for cutworms, grasshoppers, and army worms has proven very efficient. A recom- 32 Van Slyke— N. Y. State Expt. Stat, Bull. 165. 33 ^Nlarlatt— U. S. Dept. Agr., Ear's' Bull. 127, p. 8. 3* Cook, Hutchison and Scales — U. S. Bu, Eni, Bull. 245, p. 17. i8 INSECTS OF ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE mended formula ^^ for cutworms is as follows : 2 pounds of paris green, 50 pounds of wheat bran and six finely chopped oranges or lemons. Bring this mixture to a stifif dough by adding cheap mo- lasses and distribute over the field in small lumps and near each plant. The formula ^^ used so successfully in Kansas for poisoning grasshoppers is as follows : i pound of paris green, 20 pounds of wheat bran, 2 quarts of syrup, the juice and pulp of 3 oranges or lemons, and 3J/5 gals, water. The bran and paris green are thoroughly mixed while dry. The juice of the oranges is squeezed into the water after wdiich the pulp and skin are chopped fine and added to the water. The syrup is then poured into the water and this liquid mixture of fruit juice, syrup and water is used to thoroughly dampen the bran and paris green. The bait is sown broadcast in the in- fested fields in the early morning. In Canada a mixture of shorts, 50 pounds; mo- lasses, I gallon; paris green, i pound; and water, 1^-2 gallons has been effective.'"'^ The shorts do not dry out as rapidly as bran. For cutworms that feed below the surface the bait should be harrowed into the soil. Freshly cut clover dipped in a strong arsenical solution is effective for cutworms. Renew as often as it dries. Slices of potatoes dusted with an arsenical dis- tributed about beds in a greenhouse are efifective against sowbugs. CONTACT SUBSTANCES FOR SUCKING INSECTS I. Pyrethrum. 35 Walton and Davis— U. S. Dept. Agr., Ear's' Bull. 739. 36 Dean— Jr. Ec. Ent., Vol. 7. P- 67. 37 Strickland— Canad. Dept. Agr., Ent. Br., Circ. 6, igv6. CONTACT INSECTICIDES 19 2. 3- 4- 5. 6. Tobacco. Soaps. Oils. Lime-sulphur. Carbolic-acid emulsion. Pyretiirum Commonly called Persian Insect Powder,^'' Dal- matian powder, and Buhach; formerly imported under -two first names; now manufactured in California under name Buhach. It is a powder made from the pulverized flower heads of Chrysan- themum cineraria: folium; contains a volatile oil and kills by contact; harmless to human beings and to plants. It is expensive and soon loses its efifec- tiveness when exposed to the air. Buhach is most apt to be fresh. It is used chiefly in green- houses and in the household where it is usually sifted dry on the plants or in the rooms. It may be applied wet by steeping i ounce in a quart of boiling- water for 5 or 10 minutes to which 3 quarts of cold water should be added. Tobacco The insecticidal power of tobacco is due to the nicotine it contains. Is often used as a dust ^^ against plant and animal lice and against ticks. It is said to be useful in controlling the woolly aphis on the roots of apple trees and also acts as a good fertilizer. It is a waste product of tobacco fac- tories and costs about i cent per pound. Tobacco stems or leaves may be cooked or steeped in water to remove the nicotine and form a 38 Marlatt— U. S. Dept. Agr., Ear's' Bull. 127, p. 16. Coquillet — U. S. Bu. Ent., Bull. 12, o. s. 39 Smith— N. J. Expt. Stat., Bull. 213, p. 28. 20 INSECTS OF ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE decoction. Unfortunately, the nicotine content of tobacco varies with the variety, soil, method of cur- ing and other factors '^^ and it is therefore impos- sil)le, without chemical analysis, to make a standard decoction. In general, i pound of stems in a gallon of water brought to the boiling point and when drained off enough water added to make a full gal- lon will give a decoction of sufficient strength to kill plant lice. It is best to rely on commercial ex- tracts whose nicotine contents are known. Commercial tobacco extracts— Extracts of tobacco are now manufactured commercially and are known as nicotine sulphate. Nicotine sulphate appears to kill insects b}' its vapor. ^^ The most fa- miliar brand is known as black-leaf-40. In this brand the nicotine is combined with an acid and hence is not easily volatile. It contains 40% nico- tine and is readily miscible with water. It is usually used at the rate of i gallon to 800 or 1000 gallons of water. It can be combined with lime-sulphur, and arsenate of lead or with Bordeaux mixture.'*^ When the nicotine sulphate is used alone, soap is usually added at the rate of 4 or 5 pounds to 100 gallons of water to increase its spreading power and to liberate the nicotine."*^ A precipitate is some- times formed when nicotine sulphate is added to other mixtures especially when in a concentrated form. Soaps ''^ Ordinary laundry soap, i pound to 5 or 6 gallons of water is a good insecticide for the garden, lawn, 40 Ellet and Grissom— Vir. Expt. Stat., Bull. 208. 41 Mclndoo— U. S. Dept. Agr., Jr. Agr. Res., Vol. VII, p. 89. 42 Headlee — New Jersey Expt. Stat., Rept. Ent. for igi4, p. 356. 43 Moore and Graham— U. S. Dept. Agr., Jr. Agr. Res., Vol. X, p. 47. 44 Marlatt— U. S. Dept. Agr., Far s' Bull. 127, p. 15. CONTACT INSECTICIDES 21 and household plants. Soft soap should be used twice as strong-. Whale-oil soap is more commonly used. One should always procure a potash soap. It costs 3 to 6 cents per pound. Use i pound to 5 or 6 gal- lons of water for summer application. In winter, for scale, use 2 pounds to i gallon. Whale-oil soaps vary greatly in their water content and are liable to contain free potash thus causing burning. Fish- oil soap can be made easily and cheaply at home. The composition may be known and the free potash avoided. Formula for home-made fish-oil soap : ^^ Caustic soda 6 lbs. or i^^ lbs. Water i^ gals. or i^ qts. Fish-oil 22 lbs. 5^/2 lbs. Dissolve the caustic soda in the water. After the soda is dissolved, add the fish-oil gradually, in the meantime stirring the mixture thoroughly and vigorously. Complete and thorough stirring while the oil is being slowly poured into the water and soda is absolutely necessary. Use i poimd to 6 or 7 gallons of water. Fish-oil may be purchased of N. B. Cook Oil Co., New York. Oils Mineral oils are much used for contact insecti- cides, usually in some form of an emulsion that is miscible with water. They are particularly val- uable against aphids, and scale insects. Kerosene emulsion ^^ — Kerosene may be emul- sified with milk or soap, the latter being now most universally used. Formula for kerosene emulsion : *5 Van Slyke & Urner— N. Y. State Expt. Stat., Bull. 257. 22 INSECTS OF ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE Soap I lb. Soap , ^, lb. Soft water 2 gals, or Water i gal. Oil . ./ 4 gals. Oil , 2 gals. The soap is shaved fine and heated in the water until dissolved. The oil is poured in and while the mixture is hot it is briskly agitated until a white creamy mixture is formed. The following dilu- tions apply to first formula : To make a 10% solution for summer spraying add 34 gals, water. To make a 20% solution for dormant spraying add 14 gals, water. To make a 25% solution for dormant spraying add 10 gals, water. Crude Petroleum emulsion — It is made ex- actly as the kerosene emulsion. The grade of oil used is called "insecticide oil." It should have an amber color and its specific gravity should run from 43 to 45 degrees Baume. A 20 to 25 percent solu- tion is valuable as a winter spray. Oil IN MECHANICAL EMULSION WITH WATER ^^ It has always been tedious to make oil emulsions and to obviate the labor, pumps were designed to mix the oil mechanically with water. These pumps were supposed to throw any per cent of oil in water desired, by the regulation of a valve. The pumps proved unreliable and severe injuries often resulted from using them. They are not now in use. MisciBLE OILS ^^ — These are proprietary mix- tures containing mineral oils in combination with a small quantity of vegetable oil and some alkali to make them miscible with water. They are designed especially for the control of scale insects. They mix readily with water. There are several prom- 46, 4" Marlatt— U. S. Dept. Agr., Par's' Bull. 127, p. 20. 48 Marlatt— U. S. Dept. Agr., Par's' Bull. 127, p. 23. CONTACT INSECTICIDES 23 incnt brands: "Scalecide," "Kil-O-Scale," "Tar- get-Brand," and "Orchard Brand." Home-made miscibleoils ^" — Prof. C. L. Penny has developed methods of preparing miscible oil at home. There are two steps in making a miscible oil : ( I ) preparing the emulsifier or soap solu- tion, (2) mixing the mineral and vegetable oils with the emulsifier to produce the final product, miscible oil. The process is rather long and la- borious. Carbolic acid emulsion This emulsion is formed by dissolving i pound of hard soap in i gallon of hot water. After the soap is dissolved, add i pint of crude carbolic acid. Then agitate the mixture until an emulsion is formed. For use, dilute with 30 parts of water. Lime-sulphur ^^ It is probably the best and most universally used insecticide for scale insects. It is also practically a specific for blister-mite and of great use in con- trolling the pear psylla, certain fungous diseases, etc. It was used originally as a sheep dip but was first tried as an insecticide in California in 1886. It was not tried in the East until 1894 when its use did not seem to prove successful. Nothing more was done with the lime-sulphur wash in the East until 1900 when it was tried again and gave prom- ising results. The first formulae included salt. Later formulae dififered somewhat in proportions, but the following is a representative one: Quick- lime, 20 pounds; sulphur, 15 pounds; w^ater, 50 gal- lons. 4» Penny— Ann. Rpt. Penn. State Coll., 1907-08, p. 228. Phillips— Va. Expt. Stat., Bull. 179. ■'0 Quaintance — U. S. Dept. Agr., Yearbook 1906, p. 429. 24 INSECTS OF ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE Place lime in iron kettle and slake it with hot water. Add sulphur and more water and boil for one hour. Dilute to 50 gallons, strain, and use while hot if possible. Concentrated commercial solutions ^^ — Within the past few years commercial concentrated lime-sulphur solutions have been introduced into this state and have been used by many fruit grow- ers in combating certain insect pests and fungous diseases. In order to use one of these mixtures intelligently and effectively it becomes necessary to know its strength or, in other words, its degree of concentration. This is best found by using an instrument known as a Baume hydrometer. In testing a lime-sulphur solution, simply pour some of the clear reddish liquid into any deep receptacle, deeper than the hydrometer is long, and when nearly full, gently drop the instrument into the solution and wait until it conies to rest. Then read on the hydrometer the degree of concentration, which will Reading of hydrometer or Amount of water to one gallon of the degree of lime-sulphur solution concentration Degrees Baume For San J ose Scale For Blister-mite Gals. Gals. Gals. Gals. Lime-Sulphur Water Lime-Sulphur Water 25 5 7 26 S% 7/2 27 sYa 8 28 6 8/. 29 6V2 9 30 6.}4 9^/2 31 JYa 10 2,2 7I4 10^ 2?, 8 II 34 8J4 iiK' 35 834 12 SI Parrott & Schoene— N. Y. State Expt. Stat., Bull. 320. CONTACT INSECTICIDES 25 be the one just at the surface of the Hquid. When the degree of concentration of the liquid is known, the proper dihition may be obtained by referring to the table ''" on page 24. Home-made concentrated solution ^^ — The concentrated solution can be made at home with a fair degree of success. The lime used should con- tain not less than 90% calcium oxid and not over 5% magnesium. The formula is as follows: f pure lime 36 lbs. Quick lime \ 95% CaO 38 lbs. • ~ [ 90% CaO 40 lbs. Sulphur flour or flowers of sulphur 80 lbs. Water 50 gals. Place lime in kettle and slake with 10 gallons of water. While lime is slaking add the sulphur which has been previously mixed with water into a paste. Stir thoroughly and when lime is entirely slaked add enough water to make about 60 gallons if the boiling is over an open fire. If the boiling is with live steam add enough water to make 50 gal- lons. Boil the mixture vigorously for one hour. When through, strain; store in tight containers. Usually lime-sulphur will not freeze down to 5° above ezro. For San Jose scale the diluted solution should test 4.5 degrees B. ; for the blister-mite about 3.5 B. ; and for summer use on foliage about i degree B. The concentrated solutions of lime-sulphur have shown themselves to be useful against San Jose scale in the summer even when diluted for use on foliage. ^^ The self boiled lime-sulphur — This has been ^2 Van Slyke, Bosworth, and Hedges — N. Y. State Expt. Stat., Bull. 329. fi3 Parrott and Sclioene— N. Y. State Expt. Stat., Bull. 330, =* Stewart — Ann. Rpt. Penn. State Coll. 1910-11, p. 268. 26 INSECTS OF ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE found to be of use in checking San Jose scale ^^ in the summer. Place 8 pounds of quick lime in a barrel and start it slaking with a small amount of cold water. Work 8 pounds of sulphur through a sieve and add slowly to the slaking lime. Add enough cold water to slake the lime and stir con- stantly. As soon as slaking is completed (5 to 15 min.) fill barrel with cold water (50 gallons). Peaches and plums can be sprayed in foliage with this and the scale checked if hit when young are hatching. Dry substitutes for liquid lime-sulphur — Several commercial dry preparations are on the market as substitutes for the liquid lime-sulphur. Such preparations as "spra sulphur," soluble sul- phur," "dry lime-sulphur" and "B. T. S." are among those offered. Some of these are sodium-sulphur compounds, some barium-sulphur compounds, and some lime-sulphur compounds. They vary widely in the amount of sulphur contained and are val- uable, other things being equal, according to the amount of sulphur each actually contains. The standard liquid lime-sulphur solution (33° Baume) at a dilution of i to 8 for scale contains 4.75 ounces of sulphur or 3.45% efficient sulphur per gallon. The summer dilution for scab at i to 40 contains 1.04 ounces of sulphur or .775% efficient sulphur per gallon. When the dry compounds are used they should also contain an equivalent amount of efficient sulphur in order to control the scale or scab effectively. Manufacturers are apt to recom- mend their dry materials at too low dilutions to make them efficient. Moreover, arsenicals cannot be combined with safety with those dry compounds containing so- dium or potassium sulphides. 55 Quaintance— U. S. Dept. Agr., Yearbook 1908, p. 277. FUMIGATING SUBSTANCES 27 FUMIGATING SUBSTANCES Several substances are used to fumi^^ate mills, greenhouses and dwellings in order to destroy the insects that may be infesting such buildings. Carbon bisulphide ^^ — This liquid is used as a fumigant against stored grain insects especially and sometimes against root-feeding insects, aphids, white grubs, ants, etc. It is heavier than water; readily volatile; and when pure it has not an unpleasant odor. The gas from the liquid is heavier than air and is suffocat- ing. The gas is also inflammable and explosive. Use 2 pounds of the liquid ^^ to 1000 cubic feet of space when temperature is between 65 and 75 degrees F. Granary must be tight. Peas, beans, seed corn, etc., can be stored in barrels and treated. .Under ordinary granary conditions, 15 to 20 pounds to 1000 cu. ft. should be used. A cheap form of carbon bisulphide under the trade name "Fuma," is sold by Edward R. Taylor, Penn Yan, N. Y. Hydrocyanic acid gas — It is a very poisonous gas used against household insects, citrus pests, stored grain insects, and for the fumigation of nursery stock. Formula for household fumigation for 100 cubic feet space: Water 3 fluid ozs. Sulphuric acid i fluid oz. 98% potassium cyanide. .■ i oz. vSodium cyanide has almost supplanted potassium cyanide for fumigation purposes and should be used according to the following formula for each 100 cubic feet of space: 56 Hinds— U. S. Dept. Agr., Par's' Bull. 145. " Chittenden and others— U. S. Bu. Ent, Bull. 96, Part III. 28 INSECTS OF ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE Water , 2 fluid ozs. Sulphuric acid i >4, fluid ozs. Sodium cyanide i oz. For house fumigation ^^ all holes in rooms should be stopped and all cracks covered with strips of newspaper soaked in water. In fumigating trees tents are used.^'* In fumi- gating nursery stock for scale insects a special room is needed.^*^ Formaldehyde gas — This is primarily a germi- cide. It has been shown to be practically useless as an insecticide. , Tobacco papers — Paper soaked in tobacco ex- tract is sold for fumigation purposes in green- houses. These papers will burn when lighted and are much more convenient to use in houses than tobacco stems. HEAT 61 Within the last few years heat has been used to some extent in mills in the western part of the United States, at least, to kill mill insects. Ac- cording to Dean and Goodwin heat is a very effi- cient and satisfactory agent for destroying grain insects. The temperature necessary to kill stored grain insects ranges from 118° to 125° F. Felt has shown that cockroaches succumb to a tempera- ture of 120° F. It is necessary to maintain the heat for several hours to allow it to penetrate all 58 Howard and Popenoe — U. S. Bu. Ent., Circ. 163. Herrick — Can. Ent., Vol. 39, p. 341. 59 Morrill— U. S. Bu. Ent., Bull. 76. Woglum— U. S. Bu. Ent., Bull. 79. Woglum— U. S. Bu. Ent., Bull. 90, Parts I and II. •50 Britton — Conn. Expt. Stat., Bull, of Immediate Information No. 3- 61 Goodwin — Ohio E.xpt. Stat., Bull. 234. Dean— Kan. Expt. Stat.. Bull. 189. Felt— 27th Kept. State Ent., N. Y. FUMIGATING SUBSTANCES 29 of the infested parts of the building". There is no reason why heat could not be utilized to kill house- hold insects if a practicable way can be found of developing a temperature of 125° F. in a house. MISCELLANEOUS MEANS OF FIGHTING IN- SECTS Trap lanterns — Lights and lanterns have been recommended and used for many years to catch insects active at night. One called the Hazeltine lantern has been widely advertised. Several ex- periments have been made to demonstrate the use- fulness or uselessness of lanterns for catching in- sects. Perhaps the most extensive one was made at Cornell during 1892. From May 20th to Oct. 1st 13,000 insects were caught; yy% were neutral, 10 2-5% beneficial, 12 3-5% often pests; of the pests, 84 to 93% were males; of the beneficial, 80 to 88% were females; nymphs and larvae were not caught; as many friends as foes were caught; not one codling moth taken.*'" In an all-summer experiment Dr. Riley never caught a codling moth : Prof. Stedman caught only 2 with 4 lanterns running 100 nights. Gasoline torches — An ordinary plumber's ^^ torch or some modification of it has been proposed for killing insects, especially scale insects, on their food plants. Several trials by different experimen- ters on different insects indicate that these torches are hardly practicable. In most cases, the heat suf- ficient to kill the insects injured the plants. Tree tanglefoot — A sticky material manufac- tured by the O. W. Thum Co., Grand Rapids, Mich., at about 30c per pound is the same or similar mate- °- Slingerland— Cornell Univ. Expt. Stat., Bull. 202. «^ Forbes— Illinois Expt. Stat., Bull. 8g. 30 INSECTS OF ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE rial used in their tanglefoot fly paper. It is useful in putting- about the trunks of trees to catch canker- worm moths, caterpillars of the tussock moth, etc. Treeleim — A substance manufactured by the Vreeland Chemical Co., which is used for the same purpose as tanglefoot and is said not to "glass" over but to remain fresh and sticky a long time. SPRAYING History of spraying — The current worm be- came injurious about i860 and the Col. Pot. beetle about 1865. Hellebore and paris green were used for these two pests, and this suggested the use of the latter for other insects. Riley suggested its use on cotton in 1872; Le Baron suggested its use for the canker-worm in 1872. Cook advised spray- ing trees in 1876; E. P. Haynes, in 1878, sprayed trees for canker-worms and killed the codling moth. These were the beginnings. Our insect foes are increasing and we must spray. Some principles of spraying — Spray at the right time, before rains for most fungous diseases and after rains for insects alone. Watch the de- velopment of buds, blossoms, fruit and weather and spray accordingly and not by dates. Spray thor- oughly. Every leaf and fruit should be coated. Use a nozzle, in general, that gives a fine spray and use at least 75 pounds pressure, but better 150 pounds. DUSTING Dust for control of insects and fungi may con- sist of lime, dry Bordeaux and some arsenical or it may consist of a mixture of sulphur and an arsen- ical. These dusts were introduced to lower the cost and labor of spraying. They do both "but the ultimate value of them rests on their efficiency. DUSTS 31 Early experiments in diistinf^ trees were made with dry Bordeaux and an arsenical. In this mix- ture the copper was the essential fungicide. The following is a formula "^ (Scott's), for this dust: 4 lbs. copper sulphate in 4 gals, water 4 lbs. lime in 4 gals, water 60 lbs. slaked lime dust Dissolve the sulphate in the 4 gallons water and slake the lime in the 4 gallons. When cool pour together and allow it to settle. Decant or pour off the liquid, put the wet mass in a strong bag and squeeze out the remaining water. Then spread out and allow to dry in the sun. Pulverize this dry ma- terial and pass it through a sieve with 80 meshes to the inch and then mix with the 60 pounds of slaked lime. For Bird's formula see Mo. Bull. 60 or Cor- nell Bull. 216. Comparative early experiments indicated that six applications of the dry material could be made as cheaply as four with liquid. The dust is more easily transported about an orchard, especially if the orchard is rough. It does not appear to have any other advantage, according to early experiments. The dust did not control fungous diseases as well as liquid Bordeaux. The dust proved irritating to workmen, getting into their lungs. Crandall ^^ says the "dust spray is absolutely in- effective as a preventive of injury from prevailing orchard fungi, and that it is considerably less effi- cient as an insect remedy than is the liquid method of applying arsenites." It must be remembered that these experiments were made with a Bordeaux dust. «* Scott— U. S. Dept. Agr., Par's' Bull. 243, p. ir. Craig — Cornell Univ. Expt. Stat., Bulls. 216, 245. Close — Delaware Expt. Stat., Bulls. 72 and 76. 65 Crandall— Illinois Expt. Stat., Bull. 106. 32 INSECTS OF ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE The first dusting experiments in which dry sul- phur was used to replace liquid lime-sulphur were made by Blodgett in 1911.'''*^ These experiments were continued during 191 2 and 1913. The results were encouraging and the work was continued dur- ing 1914 by Reddick and Crosby."'^ The materials recommended were finely ground sulphur 90 pounds, and powdered arsenate of lead 10 pounds, applying from i^ to 3 pounds of the mixture per tree at each dusting. Later recommendations advise 85 parts of sulphur to 15 parts of pow^dered arsenate of lead.*''^ The results for the control of chewing insects and apple scab were encouraging and fur- ther experiments are now in progress. PUMPS Atomizers, hand sprinklers, buckets, knapsacks, barrel, power sprayers. The essentials of a good pump are brass or bronze working parts, ball valves, and readily accessible parts. NOZZLES 1. The first nozzles threw a nearly round solid stream, like a garden hose. 2. The second group of nozzles consisted of those in which the stream having passed the orifice proper is modified by some obstruction that breaks it or scatters it. The "climax," "Ball," and "Lewis" are examples. 3. The third and most perfect type is known as the rotary or eddy-chamber nozzle. This is repre- sented, typically, by the Vermorel. Later modifica- tions are the "Friend" and "Mistry." The Vermo- rel is of American origin although bearing a French 60 Blodgett— Cornell Univ. Expt. Stat., Bull. 340. 67 Reddick and Crosby— Cornell Univ. Expt. Stat., Bull. 354. 68 Reddick and Crosby — Cornell Univ. Extension, Bull. i. REGULATORY LAWS 33 name. Within recent years so-called spray guns have come into use. ACCESSORIES Tower — A tower ten or twelve feet high is a ne- cessity for good work. It enables one to get above the tree and spray down, which is especially neces- sary in case of codling moth. The new Cornell tower has many advantages. Hose — There should be plenty of hose to enable one to get all around a tree. The hose should be of a quality to withstand 150 to 200 pounds pressure. BORDEAUX MIXTURE 69 This is a funo-icide with which arsenicals are '& often combined : Bordeaux mixture is made by mixing a dilute solution of copper sulfate (blue vitriol) with a dilute milk of lime. The mixture may be made of different strengths by using different amounts of the copper sulfate and lime to a given amount of water. A mixture made of 3 pounds of copper sulfate and 3 pounds of lime to 50 gallons of water is indi- cated by the formula 3-3-50 ; one made of 4 pounds of copper sulfate and 4 pounds of lime to 50 gallons of water, by 4-4-50; one made of 5 pounds of copper sulfate and 5 pounds of lime to 50 gallons of water, by 5-5-50. QUARANTINE AND INSECTICIDE LAWS Nearly all of the States in the United States have passed laws '^'^ governing the shipments of plants and plant products into their territories. These are designed, of course, to prevent the introduction of injurious insects and plant diseases. California has in some instances instituted legal restrictions governing shipments of plants between counties 69 Cornell Univ. Expt. Stat., Bull. 283, Rev. Ed., p. 466, 1915. "0 Burgess— U. S. Bu. Ent., Girc. 75. 34 INSECTS OF ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE within the State. Similar restrictions have also been imposed in some of the Southern States to pre- vent the spread of the Mexican cotton-boll weevil from one district to another within the State. These laws of the different States are intended to meet local conditions and are not uniform which results in much confusion. The National Quarantine Law — For many years there was in this country an agitation for a uniform, national quarantine law to govern the im- portation of nursery stock into the United States and to regulate the shipment of such stock among the States themselves. As a result of this demand, Congress passed such a law,''^ which went into ef- fect the first day of October, 191 2. The law has two purposes : ( i ) to regulate the importation of nursery stock, other plants, and plant products from foreign countries into the United States to prevent the introduction of injurious insects and plant dis- eases; (2) to establish quarantines against any State, territory, or district of the United States or any portion thereof to prevent the distribution throughout the United States of any dangerous plant diseases or injurious insects. To carry out the provisions of the law, a Federal Horticultural Board consisting of five members was appointed by the Secretary of Agriculture from certain Bureaus and offices in the Department of Agriculture. The National Insecticide Law — Various States have undertaken at different times to regu- late by law the composition of certain insecticides sold within their boundaries. Such laws have not been uniform and have been, on the whole, more or less unsatisfactory. Li 191 o Congress passed a 71 An Act to regulate the importation of nursery stock, etc. Pub- lic Document — No. 275. REGULATORY LAWS 35 national insecticide law that went into effect the first day of January, 191 1. Its object was to pre- vent the manufacture, sale, or transportation of adulterated or niisbranded paris greens, lead ar- senates, and other insecticides and fungicides. In this law it was decreed that paris g-reen shall not contain less than 50 per cent arsenious oxide nor more than 3^ per cent water-soluble arsenic and that lead arsenate shall not contain more than 50 per cent water, nor less than 12^ per cent arsenic oxide (AS2O5) nor more than 75 per cent, water- soluble arsenic. It was also decreed that other in- secticides and fungicides should not fall below the proposed standard or quality under which they were sold. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO ORCHARD TREES AND FRUITS APPLE PESTS The codling moth ^ (Carpocapsa pomonella) Order — Lepidoptera. Manual p. 241 One of the oldest and most important pests on apples; estimated that it causes a yearly loss of $12,000,000 in the United States with an added $4,000,000 for cost of spraying trees to control it. Eggs laid on leaves and fruit about two weeks after petals fall; caterpillars emerge in about one week and 60 to 80% enter the young fruit through the calyx end; they live in the apple from 25 to 30 days, or longer in many instances, and when full- grown leave the fruit through a hole made in the side of the apple ; they then crawl to a crevice in the bark of the large limbs or trunks or find a nook elsewhere and spin a cocoon ; here, some of the lar- vae change to pup?s and issue as moths the latter part of July to form a partial second brood in New York State ; a large part of the larvae, however, re- main under the bark until the following spring and then change to pupae from which, in about twenty days, the adult moths issue. All of the larvae of the second generation remain in cocoons under the bark until spring. Control — Spray at once after three-fourths of the petals have fallen, with 150 pounds pressure, using 2^ pounds of paste arsenate of lead to 50 1 Slingerland — Cornell Univ. Expt. Stat., Bull. 142. Quaintance — U. S. Dept. Agr., Yearbook 1907, p. 435. 36 APPLE INSECTS 37 o-allons of water ; this is the most important spray- ing- and should be done thoroughly; spray from a tower into the calyx ends of the young- apples ; spray again in 3 or 4 weeks and cover fruit and foliage with a fine misty spray ; again the last week in July for second brood. The round-headed borer ^ (Sapcrda Candida) Order — Coleoptera. Manual p. 573 Next after the codling moth the worst pest on apples in the United States; eggs laid in June and later, in incisions made in the bark ; the eggs hatch in 2 or 3 weeks and tunnel in the sapwood ; they live mostly near the surface of the ground, but often be- low the earth, especially in young trees; at end of the second year the larvae are quite large and are now deeper in the heartwood; the third spring the larvse gnaw to the bark and there pupate; the adult beetles emerge in May and June, the insect having taken three years for its life history; in West Vir- ginia and in Arkansas the life cycle may be passed in two years ; the beetle is a handsome long-horned one, about an inch in length and has two conspicu- ous white lines the whole length of its body. Control — Give orchards clean culture; cut out borers with a sharp instrument like a chisel and then apply some wash, for instance, concentrated lime-sulphur, or an alkaline wash made by adding caustic potash to soap and water until a thick creamy mixture is formed; washes should be ap- plied up to the lower limbs. Flat-headed borer ^ (CJirysobotJiris fcniorafa) Order — Coleoptera. Manual p. 549 The second thoracic segment of the larva is wide, - Becker— Ark. Expt. Stat., Bull. 146. 3 Chittenden— U. S. Bu. Ent., Circ. 32. 38 INSECTS OF ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE flat, and close to the head, hence the name ; the larva attacks many kinds of fruit-trees, forest and shade- trees, infesting- by preference those diseased or dy- ing; it inhabits all parts of the trunk from ground to branches; eggs are laid in cracks of bark; the larva lives just beneath the bark and burrows out broad, flat, irregular channels in the wood; as it grows it may go deeper into the wood ; it matures in one year and the beetles emerge in May and June; the adult beetle has short antennae, is of a dark metallic brown color, and about one-half inch long. Control — Same as for the round-headed borer. The bud-moth'* (Tincfoccra occllana) Order — Lepidoptera. Manual, p. 241 A most important pest on the apple in New York. The tiny dark brown caterpillars appear early in the spring and begin to attack the bursting buds; they bore into the buds and when the leaves begin to unfold attack those also ; they continue to eat the leaves and tie them together, finally pupating with- in the tangled mass ; the moths appear in June and lay their small inconspicuous eggs on the leaves; these hatch in about 10 days and the tiny caterpil- lars feed on the surfaces of the leaves eating the epidermis and tissues away, leaving a network of veins; the caterpillar lives mostly in a tiny silken tube built along the midrib of the leaf ; in Septem- ber the caterpillars migrate from the leaves to the small branches where they build snug silken cases, called Jiibcniacula, in which to pass the winter; these hibernacula are built very often near the buds where the larvae will find food close at hand in the spring. There is only one brood a year. Control — Add arsenate of lead, 2]/ pounds to 50 gallons, to the delayed dormant spray just as the 4 Slingerland— Cornell Univ. Expt. Stat., Bull. 50. APPLE INSECTS 3g tips of the buds begin to show green; repeat just before blossoms open ; repeat again after petals fall which will also do for the first codling moth spray. Combination sprays containing- nicotine sulphate and lime-sulphur may be used. Cigar case-bearer^ (Coleophora flctchcrcUa) Order — Lepidoptera The half-grown caterpillars migrate in August and September from the leaves to the branches, where they securely fasten their small curved cases preparatory to passing the winter; in the early spring the caterpillars in their cases become active, move to the buds and begin to attack them; later they attack the very young fruit but mostly mine in the leaves remaining all of the time in their cases ; about the middle of June they pupate and the moths appear in July; the very small moths lay their eggs on the leaves; these hatch in about 2 weeks and the tiny caterpillars spend the remainder of the summer mining in the leaves. Control — Spray with arsenate of lead, 2^ pounds to 50 gallons of water just as the tips of the buds begin to show green ; again before the blossoms open ; and again after petals fall. This is the same as for the bud-moth. Pistol case-bearer*' {Coleophora malivorella) Order — Lepidoptera Its case is shaped like a pistol and its life history is very similar to that of the cigar case-bearer ; the larva, however, does not mine in the leaves but eats the surfaces of them. Control — Same as for cigar case-bearer. s Slingerland — Cornell Univ. Expt. Stat., Bull. 93. 6 Slingerland — Cornell Univ. Expt. Stat., Bull. 124. , 40 INSECTS OF ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE The apple-grain apitid ^ (RliopalosipJiinii pnuiifoUac) Order — Hemiptera This aphid is a European insect and has been observed on more than twenty-two plants — apple, pear, quince, plum, rye, oats, wheat, et al. ; it is one of the early aphids appearing in the spring" on apple buds but usually leaves the apple without doing much harm; it is light green in color with a dark line down the middle of its back. Passes winter as dark eggs on branches; these hatch in spring; may be several generations on apple leaves ; the winged generation flies to grasses where many generations are produced during the summer; many live on wheat in fall; the winged females finally fly back to the apple tree in the fall and produce a generation of wingless egg-laying females which lay the winter eggs on the bark. Control — See green apple aphid. The rosy apple aphid ^ (Aphis sorhi-A. mali- foUac) Order — Hemiptera The rosy aphid is larger than the grain aphid and is usually of a rosy color although individuals may be tan, grey or blackish, while the body is covered with a whitish powder ; the body is noticeably glob- ular; this aphid is often very injurious. It winters as eggs upon the trunk and branches of the apple tree ; the eggs hatch in spring and prob- ably three and perhaps more (depending on lati- tude) generations are produced on the apple tree; in late June winged individuals begin to leave the 7 Baker and Turner— U. S. Dept. Agr., Jr. Agr. Res., Vol. i8, p. 311. Davis— U. S. Bu. Ent., Bull. 112. 8 Quaintance— U. S. Bu. Ent., Circ. 81. Matheson — Cornell Univ. Expt. Stat., Memoir 34. APPLE INSECTS 41 apple tree and go to the broad-leaved and narrow- leaved plantains where the summer is spent ; in the fall the return mig-rants come back to the a])ple where egg-laying females are produced and the eggs are laid, thus completing the cycle. Control — See the green apple aphid. The green apple aphid '^ (ApJiis pomi-Aphis mali) Order — Hemiptera The green apple aphid resembles the grain aphid but is darker green and lacks the dark line down the back ; it has not been recognized as seriously in- jurious in this country until of comparatively re- cent years; it is now considered the most injurious species; it winters as eggs on the trees and spends the whole year on the apple, not having alternate food-plants like the two preceding species; the aphids curl the leaves, stunt the new growth and often stunt and deform the apples. Control — The eggs of these aphids, although there is some individual variation, those of the grain aphid hatching earliest, hatch early in the spring, about the time the flower buds begin to swell and break and the leaves show green at the tips. The young aphids cluster on the outside of the buds where they are all exposed to contact with spray material. Then is the time to kill them. Later they get in between the leaves of the buds and in rolled leaves and cannot be hit easily or not at all. The safest and most efficient material with which to kill the aphids at this time is nicotine sulphate alone, % of a pint to 100 gallons of water with 5 pounds of soap added, or combined with lime-sul- 9 Parrott, Hodgkiss, and Lathrop — N. Y. State Expt. Stat., Bulls. 415 and 431. Hodgkiss— N. Y. State Expt. Stat., Eujl. 461. 42 INSECTS OF ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE phur solution at the same rate but without the soap. Arsenate of lead may be added if desired. In case of the green apple aphid especially it may be necessary to make later applications of the nicotine sulphate owing to repeated infestations in June and July. It has proven advantageous at this time to add rather large quantities of quick lime or hydrated lime ^^ to the nicotine sulphate and water, leaving out the soap. The mixture of nicotine sul- phate and lime seems to have a deterrent effect on the aphids in addition to its killing properties. The fall canker-worm (Alsophila pometaria) Order — Lepidoptera. Manual, p. 276 Moths emerge in late fall and the wingless fe- males lay their eggs in clusters on bark; eggs rest over winter and hatch in early May; larvse which are loopers and have only 3 pairs of abdominal legs feed for a month and in June and July go into the ground to change to pup?e in dense cocoons, and re- main here until fall when the moths appear again ; one brood a year. The spring canker-worai ^^ (Paleacrita vernata) Order — Lepidoptera. Manual, p. 275 Moths emerge in March and April and lay their eggs in small clusters in crevices of the bark ; cater- pillars which are loopers and have only 2 pairs of abdominal legs hatch in May and in June and July go into the ground where they remain as pupae until the next spring; ofte brood a year; the female is gray and wingless and bears two transverse rows of short spines on the dorsal side of each of the first seven segments of her abdomen; the spring 10 Hodgkiss— N. Y. State Expt. S.tat., Bull. 461. 11 Quaintance— U. S. Bu. Ent., Bull. 68, Pt. II. APPLE INSECTS 43 canker-worm is usuallv the conmion one in New York. Control — Caterpillars quite resistant to poisons, yet arsenate of lead, 6 to 10 pounds to 100 gallons of water will control them ; also bands of sticky material, like tar, tanglefoot or printers' ink to pre- vent the females from climbing trees to lay eggs; bands of fluffy cotton batting will serve; ap])ly in October for fall canker-worm and in early spring for spring canker-worm ; also plow and cultivate in August or September to destroy the pupre in the sc^il. The apple tent-caterpillar ^" (Malacosoma amcricana) Order — Lepidoptera. Manual, p. 360 Passes winter as eggs laid in rings around branches; eggs hatch as buds begin to burst and larvae build tents in crotches of branches; in 4 to 6 weeks the caterpillars become grown and make dense cocoons in secluded places; in about 2 weeks the moths appear and deposit eggs during last of June or first of July. Control — Collect and burn ^gg masses; school children are often enlisted in the work of collecting and destroying the ^gg masses; spray infested trees with arsenate of lead 2>^ pounds to 50 gallons of water just as the buds begin to open; repeat in a week if necessary; destroy wild cherry and seedling apple trees along the fence rows. Burn out with gasoline torch. Cut out tents and burn. The forest tent-caterpillar ^^ {Malacosoma dis stria) Order — Lepidoptera. Manual, p. 362 Life history is similar to former species; larvae do not build tent, 12 Quaintance— U. S. Bu. Ent., Circ. 98. >3 Slingerland— Cornell Univ. Expt. Stat., Bull. 170. 44 INSECTS OF ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE Control — In addition to above, use the jarring method. White-marked tussock motii ^"^ (Hemerocampa leucostigma ) Order — Lepidoptera. Manual, p. 310 La3^s eggs in July on cocoons and covers them with a white frothy substance; remain here all winter and hatch latter part of May; the cater- pillar has two long pencils of hairs just back of the head, a single similar tuft on the posterior end of the body, and four tufts of short white hairs on the back ; they feed on leaves and fruit for four weeks and then pupate in cocoons for 10 to 14 days; the adult wingless female deposits eggs on cocoons; male is winged. Apple, pear, quince, plum, elm, maple and other deciduous trees are attacked. Control — Collect Qgg clusters; spray with ar- senate of lead 3 pounds to 50 gallons; jar trees for caterpillars ; band trees for larvae. The apple maggot ^^ (RJiagoIctis pomoncUa) Order — Diptera The flies begin to emerge in the latter part of June and continue through July and August. Within 10 days to 2 weeks the females thrust their eggs just beneath the skin of the apple, causing a dimple at each insertion. The eggs hatch in 2 to 6 days and the white maggots tunnel through the apple causing it to drop and decay. In about 30 days in soft apples the maggots become grown and then go into the soil from i to 3 inches and pupate, where they usually remain until the next spring. There may, however, be a partial second brood in 14 Schoene— N. Y. State Expt. Stat, Bull. 312. 15 Illingworth— Cornell Univ. Expt. Stat., Bull. 324. Herrick— Cornell Univ. Expt. Stat., Bull. 402. APPLE INSECTS 45 some seasons, while on the other hand the pnparia may remain in the soil over another winter, thus making- a two-year life cycle. Control — Spray last days of June or first week of July with arsenate of lead, 5 pounds to 100 gal- lons of water, and repeat in two weeks. Clean cul- ture of orchards appears to aid in the fight. The ribbed cocoon maker ^^ {Bucculatrix pomifolicUa) Order — Lepidoptera. Manual, p. 253 In the middle of September larvae creep to branches and make white, ribbed, winter cases and change to pup?e ; in May the moths appear and soon lay their eggs on under sides of leaves ; they hatch in a week or 10 days and mine into leaves ; they feed for 8 or 10 days and then emerge from the leaf and make a molting cocoon, molt again in 5 or 6 days, then feed again for a week and then spin true cocoons; moths appear in from i to 2 weeks and lay eggs for a second brood about the first week of August. Control — Spray in Alarch with lime-sulphur at scale strengths ; spray in June with arsenate of lead, 25^ pounds to 50 gallons. Oyster-shell bark louse^' (LcpidosapJics iibiii) Order — Hemiptera This insect passes winter as whitish eggs under- neath the brown, elongated, oyster-shell like scales on the bark of the tree; eggs hatch in May and June and the young- soon settle and secrete their own scale; probably one generation a year in New York. Control — Spraying- with lime-sulphur at scale ic Slingerland— Cornell Univ. Expt. Stat, Bull. 214. 1" Quaintance— U. S. Hu. Ent., Circ. 121. 46 INSECTS OF ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE strengths (i to 8) for 3 or 4 successive seasons usually holds this pest in check. Spray for young as they hatch in May or June with nicotine sulphate, Ya, pint to 100 g-allons water with 4 pounds of soap added or with 10% kerosene emulsion. The woolly aphid ^^ (Eriosoiua lanigera) Order — Hemiptera. Manual, p. 162 It is probably of American origin and became noticeable here about .1850; most serious on the apple; individuals occur on two different parts of the tree; (i) the branches, (2) the roots. The air- living individuals cause scars on limbs but are not considered to be seriously injurious; the root aphids are very injurious to young apple trees when pres- ent on the roots; they cause swellings on roots and the roots finally decay and trees die; both kinds of individuals secrete a white cottony secretion, hence the name, woolly aphid. This pest of the apple is more serious farther south than in New York. The woolly aphid has a complicated life history. Some of the winged forms on apple in autumn fly to elm trees w^iere the egg-laying females are pro- duced, each of which lays an eg^r in a crevice of the bark where it passes the winter and hatches in the spring. The aphids multiply on the elm and cause the leaves to cud. Finally some of the winged forms may fly back to the apple. In the meantime the aphid has maintained its foothold on the apple tree. Control — The trunk aphids may be controlled with kerosene emulsion 15%. The root aphids may be controlled with 15% kerosene emulsion. The earth should be removed about each tree to the depth of 3 or 4 inches over a circle with a diameter of 4 feet ; then soak the soil with the emulsion and IS Marlatt— U. S. Bu. Ent., Circ. 20. APPLE INSECTS 47 hoe dirt back; do this in late spring when tree is in leaf. Dark Redbug ^^ (Hcterocordylus rnaliniis) Light Redbug (Lygidca nicndax) Order — Hemiptera There are two species of redbui^s, the dark red- bug- and the lig-ht redbug-, that injure the fruit by puncturing it, wdiich causes it to fall off or become knotty; the life histories of both are quite similar; the eggs of both are laid during late June or early Julv in the bark of smaller branches. They hatch the next spring, those of the dark redbug soon after the leaves of the fruit buds open and those of the light redbug from 7 to lo days later. The nymphs pass through five stages and become mature in about one month. There is one generation a year. Control — Spray for the nymphs with nicotine sulphate, i pint to 100 gallons of water; the effi- ciency will be increased by adding 4 pounds of soap to every 100 gallons; spray just before blossoms open and after they fall, especially in case of the light redbug. The tobacco may be added to lime- sulphur and arsenate of lead. The calyx spray of arsenate of lead, lime-sulphur and nicotine has ap- parently, in some instances, controlled the light red- bug. Apple-seed ciialcls "° {Syntomaspis dniparum) Order — Hymenoptera The adult wasp-like fly punctures the fruit to deposit her eggs in the seed and this causes the fruit to become knotty ; the egg is deposited inside of an apple seed in June; it hatches and the grub feeds on the soft kernel until September; it then hiber- 19 Crosby— Cornell Univ. Expt. Stat., Bull. 291. ?o Crosby— Cornell Unjv, Expt. Stat., Bull. 265. 48 INSECTS OF ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE nates in the hollow seed shell until spring, when the adults appear ; particularly injurious to early apples. Control — Since the grub lives over winter in the seeds, the apples under the tree should all be col- lected and destroyed. The green fruit worms "^ (Xyliiia antcnnata) (Xyliiia laticincrea) Order — Lepidoptera In some seasons the larv?s of several species of noctuid moths attack apples and eat large holes in the sides of the fruit; these larvae have become known as the green fruit worms ; the larvae appear in great numbers in May and June and do their damage, then go into the soil to the depth of i to 3 inches where they make an earthen cell and spin a thin cocoon and change to pupae ; there they remain until September, when the moths appear and pass the winter in sheltered nooks; some of the pupae remain all winter in the soil. The moths come from their hibernating quarters or from the soil in March and April and lay their nearly globular, ridged eggs singly on the apple and pear branches. The larvae are not noticed until they become half grown and are then hard to kill. Control — If the trees are known to be infested they should be sprayed just as the tips of the buds show green and again just before the blossoms open with arsenate of lead, 3 pounds to 50 gallons of water or lime-sulphur. The pear-leaf blister-mite -^ {EriopJiycs pyri) Order — Acarina This mite has become a serious pest of apple trees in New York State within the last few years ; it is fully discussed under pear pests. 21 Slingerland — -Cornell Univ. Expt. Stat., Bull. 123. 22 — Parrott— N. Y. State Expt. Stat., Bull. 283. APPLE INSECTS 49 Fruit-tree leaf-roller -^ (ArcJiips arijyrospiki) Order — Lepidoptera Eggs laid in small patches on branches of trees in June; larvae hatch next spring and attack buds and roll leaves together and eat into sides of fruit ; pupate in rolled leaves with a flimsy cocoon ; moths appear in June and July and lay eggs in great num- bers on the branches where they remain until the following spring. This insect is exceedingly in- jurious when once established in an orchard. It attacks apples, pears, cherries, and other fruits. Control — Spray the trees infested with eggs just before the buds start with a miscible oil, i gal- lon to 15 gallons of water. Follow this with ar- senate of lead, 3 pounds to 50 gallons just as soon as the tips of the buds show green, and again before the blossoms open. The spraying should be done thoroughly. Apple curculio -^ {Anthonomus quadrir/ibbiis) Order — Coleoptera Mainly injurious in Central States; eggs laid in fruit while small; larvae feed on tissues of apple for three weeks; pup?e formed in apple and after about one week adult beetles emerge. Control — Spray with arsenate of lead, 3 pounds to 50 gallons just after petals fall and repeat in ten days ; clean up old fences and hedgerows near orchard. Trumpet leaf-miner-'^ (Tischcria malifolieUa) Order — Lepidoptera. Manual, p. 249 Eggs laid on leaves ; larv?e gnaw through ^gg di- 23 Herrick and Leiby — Cornell Univ. Expt. Stat., Bull. 367. 24 Crandall— Illinois Expt. Stat.. Bull. 98. 25Quaintance— U. S. Bu. Ent, Bull. 68, Pt. III. jarvis— Conn. (Storrs) Bull. 45. so INSECTS OF ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE rectly into the leaf and begin making their trumpet- shaped mines in the leaves ; four generations in lat- itude of Washington, probably two here ; larvae of last generation pass winter in mines in fallen leaves and pupate in spring. Control — Plow the leaves under or rake them and burn; spray infested leaves during June with nicotine sulphate, i pint to lOO gallons of w^ater with 4 pounds of soap added. Fall web-worm -^ {Hy pliant via text or) Order — Lepidoptera. Manual, p. 321 Eggs laid during Jtuie or July in clusters on leaves; larvae build web nests all over trees; they pupate in September in flimsy cocoons hid away in cracks and crevices ; in these the pupae pass the win- ter, the moths appearing in May or June; farther south there are two broods. Control — Spray with arsenate of lead, 3 pounds to 50 gallons of water as soon as the young cater- pillars are seen; collect cocoons during winter. The red-humped apple-worm "^ {ScJuzura concinna) Order — Lepidoptera. Manual, p. 267 Eggs laid in large white clusters on leaves in June and July ; larvae feed in colonies on a branch ; they go to the base of the tree and build parchment- like cocoons in which they pass the winter; they change to pupae in the spring ; the moths emerge in June, July and August. Control — Burn caterpillars with rag torch or spray with arsenate of lead, 3 pounds to 50 gallons. Make the first application early in July and second about two weeks thereafter. 2G Sanderson— New Hampshire Expt. Stat., Bull. 130. ?^ gandersop — Np\y Hampshire Expt. Stat., Bull. 139, APPLE INSECTS 51 Yellow-necked caterpillars -^ (Datana ininistra) Order — Lepidoptera. Manual, p. 265 Eg-gs laid in large white clusters in June and July ; larvae are gregarious, and often occur in large clusters on single branches; pupate in the earth in August and September, where they remain until the following spring; moths appear in June and July. Control — Same as for the red-humped cater- pillars. . The PALMER-woRM -^ {Y psolophns ligulelhis) Order — Lepidoptera This is an insect that appears occasionally in in- jurious numbers ; the larvae destroy foliage and eat into fruit during June; moths appear first part of July and live over winter until following spring; eggs laid mostly on undersides of leaves. Control — Spray with arsenate of lead, 2^ pounds to 50 gallons when petals have three-fourths dropped and again in three weeks. Buffalo tree-hopper^" {Ceresa hiihalus) Order — Hemiptera Eggs laid most commonly in early September in slits made in the bark of branches; characteristic oval scars are left; eggs hatch in April or early May; the nymphs feed on succulent weeds in orchard; branches of affected trees become weak- ened and break off. Control — Clean culture in and about the or- chard to starve nymphs ; careful and judicious prun- ing of infested branches. The plttm curculio — An important enemy to the apple. It causes knotty, scarred fruit and is 2s Sanderson — New Hampshire Expt. Stat., Bull. 139. 29 SHngerland— Cornell Univ. Expt. Stat., Bull. 187. 30 Hodgkiss— N. Y. State Expt. Stat., Tech. Bull. 17. 52 INSECTS OF ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE apparently increasing as a pest to the apple. See plum pests for full discussion. OTHER INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE The apple weevil (Pseudanthonomus cratcugi). The fringed- wing apple bud-moth (Holcoccra maligemmcUa) . The apple bud-worm {Exartema malanum). The oblique banded leaf -roller (Archips rosace^ ana). The leaf-crumpler (Mineola indigenella). The lime-tree span-worm {Erannis filiaria). Bruce's measuring-worm (RacJicla bntccafa). The gypsy moth (Porthcfria dispar). The brown-tail moth (Eiiprocfis chrysorvhcca). The apple leaf hopper (Empoasca mali). The bronze apple-tree weevil {Magdalis ccncs- ccns). PLUM PESTS At least 50 species of insects may feed upon the plum tree and its fruit. The plum curculio ^^ {Conotrachcliis nenuphar) Order — Coleoptera. Manual, p. 593 The adults hibernate in protected places along hedgerows, fences, etc., and appear in spring; they feed upon fruit, making shallow circular feeding punctures; they soon begin depositing eggs in the fruit, making a cresc.ent-shaped cut beneath each ^gg; eggs hatch in 4 to 10 days and live in the fruit for about 14 days; the fruit usually falls to the ground and the grubs enter the soil from i to 3 inches and pupate; in July and August the adults 31 Crandall— Illinois Expt. Stat., Bull. 98. Quaintance and Jenne — U. S. Bu. Ent., Bull. 103. PLUM INSECTS S3 appear and eat holes in the sides of apples, at least ; these holes are usually surrounded by a dark ring of skin ; beetles finally hibernate. This pest attacks apples, cherries, plums, pears. Control — Remove all fences, hedgerows, stone walls, etc., along sides of orchard; sunlight is fatal to larv?e, hence judicious pruning of trees and clean cultivation useful ; cultivate orchards in July and August to kill pupre; spray with arsenate of lead, 5 pounds to lOO gallons of water just after petals fall and again ten days later. Plum scale ^^ {Lccanhun corni) Order — Hemiptera Eggs are laid in May and June and hatch mainly in July ; the young insects live on the leaves during the summer but migrate to the branches in the fall before the leaves drop; the young hibernate here, but in the spring usually move to the smaller branches where they complete their growth by the latter part of May. Control — Spray young scales about July ist with io% kerosene emulsion or nicotine sulphate, I pint to lOO gallons of water with 4 pounds of soap added; spray young scales on branches just before buds burst with a miscible oil, i gallon to 15 gallons water. The plum gouger "'''^ (AnfJwjwmus sciitcUaris) Order — Coleoptera Occurs particularly in the Northern Mississippi Valley. Adults hibernate over winter and appear in early spring, when they feed on buds and leaves ; later make feeding punctures in fruit and finally deposit eggs in cavities dug in fruit ; larvae bore into 32 Slingerland — Cornell Univ. Expt. Stat., Bull. 83. 33 Cooley-^Mon. Expt. Stat., Bull. 62. 54 INSECTS OF ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE pit and feed on kernel ; change to pup^e in pits and beetles emerge in August and September ; principal injury caused by punctures made by beetles in feed- ing and egg-laying. Control — Probably thorough spraying with ar- senate of lead will be effective. The first appli- cation should be made just before the blossoms open. OTHER INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE PLUM Plum leaf-miner {Nepticula slingerlandella) . American plum-borer (Ett.copJicra semifuner- ralis). Plum web-spinning sawfly {Nctirotoma incon- spiciia). Plum plant-louse (Mycus maJialeb). Rusty brown plum aphid {Aphis scfan'cc). Mealy plum louse (Hyalopfcnts arundinis). European fruit-tree scale (Aspidiofus ostrecc- f or mis). PEAR PESTS The pear-leaf blister-mite ^^ (Eriophyes pvri) Order — Acarina This is an European pest originally confined to the pear but now an important pest on apple in New York; it is a small, light-colored, four-legged ani- mal about 1-125 of an inch in length; it hibernates in the buds beneath the bud-scales ; in the spring the mites become active and go to the unfolding leaves into which they burrow and make small, brown, almost black, galls or blisters on them ; the mites live inside the galls in the tissues of the leaves and lay their eggs there ; the young are produced in the ?* Parrott— N. Y. State Expt. Stat, Bull. 306. PEAR INSECTS 5S galls but emerge later and form other blisters; af- fected leaves turn yellow and drop, thus injuring the tree. CoNTROL^ — Spray trees in fall or spring" with lime-sulphur, i gallon to lo or 12 of water. The pear psylla ^^ (Psylla pyricola) Order- — Hemiptera. Manual, p. 156 A very fluctuating pest introduced from Europe upon young pear trees about 1832; very injurious .in central and western New York and along the Hudson; the orange-yellow eggs are deposited in creases in the bark mostly before the buds burst; the eggs hatch usually during the first two weeks of May; the nymphs suck juices from leaves and stems of young fruit; they secrete great quantities of honey-dew in which a fungus thrives and forms a black coating all over the branches; the nymphs mature in about one month and the adults appear ; there may be four broods in a season ; the adults of the last brood winter over in the crevices of the bark. Control — Scrape rough bark from trees and spray in November or December or March or early April with nicotine sulphate, Y^ pint to 100 gallons and 5 pounds of soap ; miscible oil may also be used at the rate of i gallon to 15 of water; spray on warm days when the temperature is not freezing; spray last of April or early May as buds are burst- ing with lime-sulphur at winter strengths to kill eggs. Spray for nymphs with " black-leaf 40," ^ pint to 100 gallons with 5 pounds of soap; practice clean culture. 35 SHngerland— Cornell Univ. Expt. Stat., Bull. 44. Hodgkiss— N. Y. State Expt. Stat., Bull. 387. 56 INSECTS OE ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE The PEAR SLUG "^ {Caliroa ccrasi) Order — Hymenoptera Eggs laid in June in the leaf, hatch in 2 weeks and the slugs become full-grown in 4 or 5 weeks, when they shed their green skin for a yellow one and go into ground to pupate; the flies emerge in about 2 weeks ; two broods of the slugs, first in June and second in August ; hibernate as contracted slugs in their cocoons in soil. Control — Spray with arsenate of lead, 2^ pounds to 50 gallons of water, when slugs are first seen. The SAN JOSE scale ^' {Aspidiotus pcruiciosus) Order — Hemiptera One of our worst pests on fruit trees; first estab- lished in this country at San Jose, Calif. ; widely distributed over the United States, and infests apple, peach, pear, plum, currant, etc. ; first de- scribed by Professor Comstock in 1880; first discov- ered in the eastern United States in 1893; its orig- inal home is in China. (The insects pass the winter in an immature form — three-fourths grown — on the branches of infested trees under small, circu- lar, almost black scales; young are born in the spring, in June, for first generation; often but two generations a season in New York State. J Control — Spray with lime-sulphur, i gallon to 8 of water, fall and spring; spray old rough-barked trees with one application of 25% oil emulsion; summer strengths of lime-sulphur are effective when young are hatching. 3G Marlatt— U. S. Bu. Ent., Circ. 26. ^' Quaintance — U. S. Bu. Ent., Circ. 124. Britton— Conn. Expt. Stat., Bull. 165. PEAR INSECTS 5; The scurfy bark-louse"^ (Cliionaspis furfura) Order — Hemiptera The female scales are large, elong-ated and dirty white; the male scales are small, long and narrow and have three ridges running lengthwise; the fe- male matures toward fall and lays 60 to 80 pur- plish eggs beneath the scale which remain there until the following spring; the female gradually shrivels and dies as she lays her eggs ; there is one brood a year; this pest occurs on apple as well as pear, but it is not considered seriously injurious. Control — Spray when the eggs are hatching and the young are appearing- with nicotine sulphate, i pint to 100 gallons of water with 4 pounds of soap, or with whale-oil soap, i pound in 5 gallons of water. The pear midge '"^^ (Confarinia pyrivora) Order — Diptera The adult insects which resemble miniature mos- quitoes, and are related to the Hessian fly, appear in the spring when the buds are bursting and lay their eggs through the petals and calyx on the an- thers of the unopened flowers; eggs, hatch in 4 or 5 days ; the maggots work their way to the core of the developing pear and eat into the flesh in all di- rections ; they cause the fruit to become misshapen ; when the maggots are full-grown, about June ist, the pears crack open and allow them to escape to the ground, where they change to pupos and remain in the ground all winter; one brood a year; now occurs in Connecticut, New York and New Jersey, being confined to the Hudson River Valley in New York. 38 Quaintance and Sasscer — U. S. Bu. Ent., Circ. 121. 39 Smith— N. J. Expt. Stat., Bull. 99. 58 INSECTS OP ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE Control — Pick and destroy all misshapen in- fested fruits before May 15th; use kainit, one-half ton per acre. The pear thrips ^° (EutJirips pyri) Order — Thysanoptera The thrips was first discovered in California, where it has caused much injury; it was first discov- ered in New York in the Hudson River Valley in 191 1, although probably had been present there for some years before; the thrips pass the fall and win- ter in the soil and the adults appear in the spring; they injure the opening buds and lay their eggs in the tissues of the fruit stems and leaves; the nymphs feed mainly on the young leaves; after feeding about two weeks they go into the ground but do not change to pupae until about October. Control — Spray swelling, partly open and fully opened buds with nicotine sulphate, ^ pint to 100 gallons water and 5 pounds soap; spray on succes- sive days or every few days until probably 2 or 3 applications have been made. The SINUATE pear borer ^^ (Agrihis siiiiiafiis) Order — Coleoptera First discovered in New Jersey in 1894; now se- riously injurious in lower Hudson Valley; the fe- male deposits her eggs in crevices of the bark or under the bark scales ; these hatch in early July and the slender whitish grubs make winding burrows in the sapwood; the lar.va rests during the winter but the next year it makes larger and more winding burrows which frequently cut off the supply of sap and kill the tree ; the larva passes another winter in the tree changing to a pupa in the following spring ; 40 Parrott— N. Y. State Expt. Stat., Bull. 343. 41 Smith— 15th Ann. Kept. N. J. Agr. Expt. Station. PEAR INSECTS 59 the slender bronze-l^rown beetles emerge the last of May and during June. Control — Adults feed on leaves, which suggests spraying with arsenate of lead after the petals fall ; the spraying should be continued during successive years. The false tarnispied plant-bug ^^ (Lygus communis) ' Order — Hemiptera This insect has for years caused more or less in- jury to pears in New York State; the nymphs punc- ture the young fruit, thus causing it to become de- formed and knotty ; the tissue surrounding the punc- ture becomes hardened and gritty ; the eggs are de- posited in the young pear branches. The adult is about }i inch in length, very similar to the tarnished plant-bug and is light brownish in color ; the winter seems to be passed in the Qgg stage. Control — Spray about the time the petals are falling with nicotine sulphate, ^ pint to lOO gallons of water to which are added 3 or 4 pounds of soap. Repeat, if necessary, a few days later. OTHER INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE PEAR Pear-blight beetle (Xyleboms dispar). Codling moth {Carpocapsa pomoncUa) Green fruit-worm (Xylina antennata). San Jose scale (Aspidioi'us perniciosus). Cigar case-bearer {Coleophora fletchereUa). Howard scale (Aspidiottts Iwzuardi). Fruit-tree leaf-roller (Arcliips argyrospila). PEACH PESTS At least 25 different insects attack the peach tree. 42 Parrott and Hodgkiss— N, Y, State Expt. Stat, Bull. 368. 6o INSECTS OF ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE The peach-tree borer ^^ (Sanninoidca cxitiosa) Order — Lepidoptera. Manual, p. 260 This pest is found in every state where peaches are grown east of the Rocky Mountains ; it is a na- tive insect and may attack the cherry, pkini, prune, apricot, ahiiond, and nectarine. The eg-gs are deposited on the bark of the trunks of trees in July and later ; they hatch and the young larvae find a crevice through which they gnaw their way into the inner bark ; here they work in the inner bark and sapwood, usually just below the surface of the ground; they often girdle young trees; the borers become half or two-thirds grown by fall and hibernate, either in their burrows or in hibernacula until spring; they become active and complete their growth by first part of June in New York and trans- form to pup?e; some larvae seem to live over another year; the larvae make large cocoons at the surface of the ground and the moths emerge from latter part of June to August ; the moths are clear-winged, shy and not often seen; the female has one or two orange-yellow bands on a1)domen. Control — Dig out the borers before June 15th of each year; Smith says, after borers are dug, spray the trunks with lime-sulphur at winter strengths with an excess of lime added and with i pound arsenate of lead to 5 gallons of the mixture. Spray with force into crevices of bark and then hill up 6 inches around base of tree; gas tar is some- times used but some danger in it. Paradichloro- benzene is being used in an experimental way (U. S. Bu. Ent., Bull. 796). *3 Slingerland— Cornell Univ. Expt. Stat., Bull. 176. Smith — New Jersey Expt. Stat., Bull. 235. PEACH INSECTS 6i The black peach aphid"'"' (Aphis pcrsiccc-nigcr) Order — Hemiptera The full-i^rown aphids are black but the younj^er ones are reddish-yellow or amber in color; the lice appear early in the season and confine their attacks to the tender bark of the twigs; later they attack the blossoms and blight them; they also attack the young peaches causing them to wilt and drop; the leaves also curl ; the aphids leave the branches in the latter part of June; they are said to pass the winter on the roots of the tree reinf esting the tree again in spring; this species often gets into this state on trees from nurseries in New Jersey, Maryland, etc. Control — Require nursery stock to be fumigated or dip the roots after freeing them from dirt in 15% kerosene emulsion for 2 minutes only or in nicotine sulphate, i ounce to 5 gallons of water. The fruit-tree bark-beetle ^^ (Scolytus rugii- losiis) Order — Coleoptera Peach, cherry, plum and apple trees are often found with mau}^ small, round holes in the bark of the trunks and branches, due to the attacks of this small black beetle about one-tenth of an inch long; when trees are first attacked masses of gum exude ; diseased or weakened trees are most liable to at- tack but healthy trees are also subject to attack; the parent beetle bores through bark and excavates a burrow beneath, along the sides of which she digs tiny niches in each of which an egg is depos- ited ; the eggs hatch and each grub excavates a long burrow as it grows but finally changes to a pupa and the adult emerges cutting a round hole in the bark; at least two generations a year; passes the 4* SHngerland — Cornell Univ. Expt. Stat., Bull. 49, p. 325. *^ Chittenden— U. S. Bu. Ent, Circ. 29. 61 INSECTS OF ECONOIMIC IMPORTANCE winter as a larva; very injurious and hard to con- trol ; also called the shot-hole borer. Control — Maintain vigorous healthy trees by proper cultivation and fertilization; cut down and burn all trees beyond hope and cut off all badly in- fested branches from other trees; clean up hedge- rows on the borders of orchards; apply thick coat of whitewash three times a year to protect trees, last of March, first part of July, and first of Octo- ber, The peach-tree bark-beetle ^^' (Phlwotribus liminaris) Order — Coleoptera This is another species very similar in appearance to the former, works in much the same way on peach trees but not so prevalent in New York; hibernates as adults in cells just beneath outer layer of bark on both healthy and unhealthy trees; in early spring they come out and migrate to trees, wood piles, brush heaps, etc., wherever they can build their brood chambers; 2 broods a year. The peach twig-borer "^'^ (Anarsia lineatcUa) Order — Lepidoptera Apparently not a serious pest here ; more serious farther- south and in California; the half -grown larvie hibernate in cells just under the outer bark, mainly in crotches of the branches; in the spring the larvae emerge and attack the new leaf shoots into which they burrdws there are several broods a season some of which attack the stems of the fruit and some the fruit itself; the last brood of larva; go into hibernation in cells in the bark; the 46 Wilson— U. S. Bu. Ent., Bull. 68. Pt. o. 47 Marlatt— U. S. Dept. Agr., Ear's' Bull. 80. Clarke— Calif. Expt. Stat., Bull. 144- PEACH INSECTS 63 moth is only a little over half an inch in expanse of wings and of a dark grey color. Control — Lime-sulphur i to 10 and i to 1 1 ap- plied in the spring after the buds have begun to swell seems effective in California and Colorado; also arsenate of lead, 5 pounds to 50 gallons, applied when the majority of the blossom buds are showing their pink tips seems eft'ective in Colorado. Green peach aphid ^^ (A'Iy::;us persiccc) Order — Hemiptera Described under a multitude of names; feeds on 60 dift'erent plants; most abundant peach louse; spends winter in egg stage on tree; eggs hatch in early spring and young go on the buds; the third generation leaves for other pla.nts. Control — Spray with nicotine sulphate, }i pint to 100 gallons of water with 4 pounds of soap or with whale-oil soap, i pound to 5 gallons or with 10% kerosene emulsion. The peach lecanium ■*'* (Lccauiiiin nigrofascia- tUfll) Order — Hemiptera The ''Terrapin scale'' aft'ects peach, plum, apple, maple, sycamore, linden, and birch; it winters as an immature female on the branches ; these mature early in spring and bring forth the young; the young go to the leaves and continue their growth slowly until fall when they hibernate ; only one gen- eration a year; this insect is apparently not abun- dant in New York; aft'ected trees take on a sooty appearance due to a black fungus that flourishes in the honey-dew excreted by the insects. Control — Lime-sulphur is not effective; hero- es Gillette— Colo. Expt. Stat., Bull. 133. 49 Sanders— U, S. Bu. Ent., Circ. 88. 64 INSECTS OF ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE sene emulsion 20 to 25% applied just before buds burst will kill the hibernating females ; the miscible oils I to 16 or 20 just before the buds burst are effective; ^^ an emulsion of linseed oil and gasoline applied at the same period of tree development as recommended for the miscible oils has been very satisfactory; the emulsion is made by dissolving 2 pounds of soap in 4 gallons of hot water and then adding 5 gallons of raw linseed oil and 3 gallons of gasoline and thoroughly emulsifying the whole; then add 88 gallons of water. The tarnished plant-bug ^^ (Lygus prafcnsis) Order — Hemiptera This widespread bug evidently attacks the fruit of peaches in some years puncturing the epidermis and scarring the surface of the fruits ; as a result gum exudes and the peaches soon become unfit for the market; the bug evidently attacks mostly peaches on trees standing in uncultivated orchards or about the edges of orchards among grass and weeds; it is very injurious to young peach trees in the nursery row; it punctures the buds and tender growing tips thus producing a stunted straggling young tree; it also attacks apples causing dimples in them. The adult is a dull yellowish or greenish bug mot- tled wath reddish-brown and about one-fifth inch in length; the eggs are inserted in the tender tips or petioles and veins of leaves ; the life cycle is prob- ably about 45 days and there are probably several generations a year. Control — Clean cultivation is the only known method of control. 50 Simanton— U. S. Bii. Ent., Bull. 351. 51 Crosby and Leonard— Cornell Univ. Expt. Stat., Bull. 346. PEACH INSECTS 65 The oriental peach moth ^" (Laspcyrcsia molest a) Order — Lepidoptera The oriental peach moth has lately been discov- ered in this country and promises to be a serious pest. It occurs in New York, New Jersey, Mary- land, Virginia, and Connecticut. It injures plum, cherry and peach at least. The insect passes the winter as a larva in cocoon beneath flakes of bark ; these pupate in early spring and moths emerge in mid- April in Maryland; the moths lay their eggs singly on undersides of leaves and the larvae attack tender shoots ; the larv?e feed 8 to 16 days and spin cocoons in axils of twigs; the pupal stage lasts 5 to 12 days; there are 5 gen- erations in the vicinity of Washington, D. C. ; the fourth brood larvae feed on the fruit of late ripen- ing varieties. Control — Winter applications of lime-sulphur are useful; applications of the neutral arsenate of lead, 2 pounds to 50 gallons will aid in control; begin spraying with dropping of the bloom and make three appHcations about one month apart; watch effect of applications as arsenate of lead is liable to burn foliage ; use extra lime or add to the self-boiled lime-sulphur. The plum curculio ^^ — An important pest on peaches because it not only punctures the fruit but carries the spores of brown-rot and makes wounds through which the brown-rot enters. The self- boiled lime-sulphur for control of brown-rot with arsenate of lead added at the rate of 2 pounds to 50 gallons of the mixture has given good results in the control of this pest. The arsenate of lead com- bined with the self-boiled lime-sulphur does not 52 Carman— Md. Expt. Stat., Bull. 209. ?3 Scott and Quaintance — U, S. Bu. Ent., Circ. 120, 66 INSECTS OF ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE seem to be as injurious to peaches as when used alone. The first appHcation should be made about the time the calyces or shucks are falling and the second two or three weeks later. It is doubtful if a third application of poison is advisable. The San Jose scale — Very injurious to peach trees ; discussed under pear pests. OTHER INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE PEACH Lesser peach-tree borer (Synanfhcdoii picfipcs). White peach scale (Aidacaspis pentagona) . Fruit-tree leaf-roller {Archips argyrospila). Apple-tree tent-caterpillar (Malacosoma amcri- cana). Peach saw-fly (PainpJiiliits pcrsicus). QUINCE PESTS The QUINCE curculio ■''' (CoiiofracJicIiis crafccgi) Order — Coleoptera This insect is a native one and its natural food is the hawthorn ; it also attacks pears and is widely distributed throughout the eastern, central, and ex- treme western portions of the United States. The winter is passed in the grub stage in small cells 2 or 3 inches below the surface of the earth; the grubs change to pup?e in the spring; the beetles appear from last week in May in some seasons to last week in July in others; the beetles feed on young fruits for some days and then deposit their eggs in the fruit; the larvae feed on the tissues of the quinces and when full-grown emerge through a hole and drop to the ground. Control — ■"*""' Spray first as soon as beetles be- 5* Slingerland — Cornell Univ. Expt. Stat., Bull. 148. 55 Strickland and Achilles— N. Y. State Dept. Agr., Bull. 116. QUINCE INSECTS ^y gin to feed which will be during the first two weeks of July, usually, with Bordeaux 3-3^50 or lime- sulphur 1-40 with 3 pounds of arsenate of lead added to each 50 gallons of liquid; make a second application in about a week or ten days ; collect all drops and culls, take them from the orchard, and destroy them. The bud moth — This is also quite a pest of quinces ; discussed under apple pests. The pear slug — This occurs on quince trees but may be controlled as recommended under pear pests. The codling moth — This common apple pest is often quite a serious pest in quinces; it can doubt- less be controlled as on apples. The round-headed apple-borer — This is seri- ously injurious to quince trees but is subject to the same methods of control as on the apple. CHERRY PESTS As many as 46 different pests may attack the cherry tree. The black cherry louse ^^ {Myzus ccrasi) Order — Hemiptera This is an old European pest and has been here for at least 50 years ; it is primarily a pest of sweet cherries and although in some localities it may at- tack som- cherries it does not seem to seriously injure them ; the eggs are laid on the small branches about the buds; the young lice appear about the time the buds open on sprouts and lower limbs of trees ; the lice increase all through June until some- times they become very abundant ; then they nearly all disappear, most of them going to the wild pep- per-grass {Lcpidium a petal i mi), only scattered ■'<'■ Gillette— Canad. Ent., Vol. 50, p. 241. 68 INSECTS OF ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE colonies remaining- here and there; in September winged forms return from the pepper-grass and the egg-laying females deposit their eggs; the cherry foliage may sometimes be blackened with these lice ; the winged and wingless forms are deep shining black and the body is rather broad and flat; they curl leaves badly. Control — Spray with nicotine sulphate, 34 pint to 100 gallons of water with 4 pounds of soap added before the buds break; spray thoroughly. The cherry fruit-flies ^'^ (Rhagoletis cingnlata) (Rhagolefis faiista) Order — Diptera These flies are very similar in appearance to the apple maggot fly ; the eggs are inserted beneath the skin of the cherries a short time before they begin to redden; infested cherries do not show any effects of the Qgg laying or of the maggot within for some days; when cherries are left on the tree or picked a portion of each fruit will rot and sink in on the side ; the maggot is yellowish-white and a little over a quarter of an inch long; it is straight while the larva of the curculio that lives in cherries is usually more or less curved; the maggots leave the fruit when full-grown and enter the ground where they change to pupae and remain until the following spring; there is only one brood a year; the insects are confined mainly to sour varieties of cherries. Control — Spray with arsenate of lead, 5 pounds, water 100 gallons, and 2 gallons of molasses; apply just as cherries begin to redden or when flies first appear; if it rains repeat in a week or ten days. There is evidence to show that arsenate of lead alone in water will control the insects. 57 Slingerland— Cornell Univ. Expt. Stat., Bull. 172. Illingworth— Cornell Univ. Expt. Stat., Bull. 325. CHERRY INSECTS 69 The cherry-tree leaf-roller ^^ (ArcJiips ccrasi- vorana) Order — Lepidoptera This pest is often seen on clioke cherries ; the eg'g's are laid in patches on trunks or branches near the ground; they remain here unhatched until the following spring; when they hatch the green larvae crawl up to the branches where they begin to draw the leaves toward each other and tie them together with silk; in this way they build large ugly nests, inside of which they live and eat the leaves; the larvse pupate in these nests and the moths appear in June and July ; one brood a year. Control — Cut out nests and burn before moths appear. Cherry leaf-miner ^^ (Profcnitsa coUaris) Order — Hymenoptera The larvae mine in the leaves of cherries ; interior of leaves all eaten out and leaf then turns brown and a large ''blister" is formed; principal damage occurs during last week of May and early part of June; the larv?e go into ground to hibernate. Control — Plow and cultivate ground in late fall to destroy larvae; pick off the infested leaves and destroy them. Shot-hole borer — Discussed under peach pests. It is often a serious pest on cherries. The pear slug — Often a serious pest on cher- ries; discussed under pear pests. The plum curculio — Often a serious pest on cherries; discussed under plum pests. Control — Spray sour cherries with arsenate of lead, 3 pounds to 50 gallons just after petals fall as the young cherries are bursting through the calyces; ^'8 Herrick— Cornell Univ. Expt. Stat., Bull. 311, p. 290. ssParrott and Fulton— N. Y. State Expt. Stat, Bull. 411. 70 INSECTS OF ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE sweet cherries may need to be sprayed twice, ten days apart. OTHER INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE CHERRY Cherry fruit-sawfly {Hoplocampa cookci). For1)es' scale {Aspidiotus forbcsi). Fruit-tree leaf-roller {Archips ar gyros pila). Oblique banded leaf-roller (ArcJiips rosaceana). INSECTS INJURIOUS TO SMALL FRUITS GRAPE PESTS Over lOO insects recorded in this country on the vine. The grape phylloxera ^ {PJiyUo.vcra I'asfafrix) Order — Hemiptera This insect has always existed in this country on wild vines but not very injurious here; very destructive in France; it exists in two forms, one on the leaves and one on the roots ; the root form is much the more injurious one. The true sexual eggs are laid in the fall on old wood and hatch the following spring; the young lice go to the leaves and form galls on the lower sides; in these galls a female may lay 500 or 600 eggs; there may be 6 or 7 generations a season on the leaves; young of later generations pass to roots and winter there ; the root-forms cause galls on the roots and great injury; winged females issue from cracks in the soil in fall and go to the stems of vines where they lay 2 to 8 eggs; these eggs are of two sizes, the smaller yielding males and the larger females; the true females are small with rudimen- tary mouthparts and each lays a single true egg. 1 Marlatt— U. S. Dept. Agr., Par's' Bull. 70. Quayle— Calif. Expt. Stat., Bull. 192. 71 72 INSECTS OF ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE Control — In France American root-stocks are used. The grape root-worm - (Fidia viticida) Order — Coleoptera The most serious pest of the grape in this state ; probably invaded Chautauqua grape region about 1899; it is an American insect and widely distrib- uted over the northern half of the eastern United States. The adult beetles appear last of June or first of July and begin feeding on leaves making charac- teristic chain-like holes; about middle of July they begin to deposit eggs in masses under the loose bark on the canes and trunks; the eggs hatch in about two weeks and the larvae drop to the ground where they make their way to the roots through cracks and crevices of the soil; they live upon the roots and become nearly and sometimes full-grown by fall; in November the larvae burrow to a depth of a foot, form cells in the soil and pass the winter; in early May they return to the roots, feed a short time and change to pupae along in the middle of June ; the partly grown larvae may feed longer ; the pupal stage lasts about two weeks when the adults appear, thus making one generation a year. Control — Cultivation about the roots of the vines with a horse-hoe during the first two weeks of June is of benefit in destroying the pupae. If beetles are only moderately abundant, spray vines within one week after beetles are first seen with 6 pounds of arsenate of lead in 100 gallons Bordeaux; if beetles abundant, use the sweetened mixture of six pounds arsenate of lead, 100 gallons water and - Slingerland — Cornell Univ. Expt. Stat., Bull. 184. Hammar— U. S. Bu. Ent., Bull. 89. Hartzell— N. Y. State Expt. Stat., Bull. 331. GRAPE INSECTS 73 2 gallons molasses; rains will wash this mixture off and it must be repeated to be effective. The grape-vine elea-beetle ^ {Haltica clialybca) Order — ^Coleoptera Another American pest of grapes that in many years is very serious; the first pest, usually, to ap- pear in the spring on grapes; widely distributed over the eastern United States. The adult steel-blue beetles appear early and at- tack the swelling buds which they may completely destroy; when leaves appear they feed on them; the beetles lay their eggs all through May under the bark on the canes, under the scales surrounding the buds and occasionally on the leaves; eggs hatch latter part of June or early July; the larv?e then feed on foliage and attain their growth in about three weeks; they then drop to the ground and burrow downward several inches where they form cells and change to pupae; the pupal stage lasts lo days to two weeks; the beetles emerge and feed upon the foliage but do little damage; they finally enter hibernation along hedgerows, borders of woods, etc., where they pass the winter. Control — Collect adults in pans with a shallow layer of kerosene in bottom; it is as economical as spraying vines ; if no rains, spray vines, when bee- tles begin to appear, with arsenate of lead, 6 pounds water, lOO gallons and molasses, 2 gallons; later spray vines with arsenate of lead 3 pounds in 50 gallons of water or Bordeaux mixture. The rose-chafer "* (Macrodacfylus subspinosiis) Order — Coleoptera This is an American insect and is injurious to 3 Slingerland — Cornell Univ. Expt. Stat., Bull. 157. Hartzell— N. Y. State Expt. Stat, Bulls. 331, 453- 4Hartzell— N. Y. State Expt. Stat., Bull. 331. 74 INSECTS OF ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE .^'rapes, cherries, apples, raspberries, roses and other plants ; a very serious pest on o-rapes .but is liable to occur locally; the adult beetles feed on the blos- soms and when these are g'one, on the leaves and berries. The adult beetles appear during the latter half of June, mate, and deposit their eggs the last of June and through July; the eggs are deposited in sandy soil where they hatch and the white grubs feed on the roots of grasses; the grubs become full-grown by November and burrow down about one foot where they pass the winter; early in the spring they crawl back nearer the surface, feed for a time and change to pupse during the latter part of May ; in about three weeks the beetles appear. So far as observed these insects prefer sandy soil for breed- ing and develop largely in grass lands especially long-standing meadows. Control — Harrow the soil in which larv?e are present making three harrowings from the last week in May to the middle of June ; spray vines with arsenate of lead, 8 pounds to lOO gallons with two gallons of molasses added; apply as soon as beetles first appear on the vines; it is said that a mixture of whale oil soap, 20 pounds, water, 100 gallons, and crude carbolic acid, i pint, will kill the beetles when hit and that this mixture will not injure apple and cherry foliage. The grape leafhopper ^ (TypJilocyba comes) Order — Hemiptera This leafhopper is often erroneously called ''thrips" ; it is an American insect and appears to be found wherever the grape grows ; it is becoming- of more importance but fluctuates in abundance ■"' Hartzell— N. Y. State Expt. Stat., Bull. 344. Johnson— U. S. Bu. Ent., Bull. 97, Ft. I. Slingerland— Cornell Univ. Expt. Stat., Bull. 215. GRAPE INSECTS 75 and injurioiisness ; vines injured 1)y the hoppers for several years have a stunted growth and bear few grapes. The aduUs appear l^efore the leaves have un- folded and feed until the middle of June when they begin to deposit their eggs within the tissues of the leaves; the eggs hatch during the first two weeks of July and the nymphs pass through five stages and many become adults by August ist; they remain on vines until the autumn when they leave to find hibernating places; grassy ditch-banks, fence cor- ners, hedgerows, and similar situations furnish hi- bernating opportunities; there is one full lirood, a partial, and sometimes a full second brood; the nymphs live mostly on the under sides of the leaves. Control — Nicotine sulphate, i to looo to 1600 is an efficient remedy. It must be sprayed on the under sides of the leaves to be effective. Use a large aperture in the nozzle and a pressure of 125 to 150 pounds. The grape-berry moth ^ (PolycJirosis vifcana) Order — Lepidoptera Nearly all wormy grapes in New York are caused by the caterpillars of this moth; the moth is pur- plish-brown with not quite half an inch spread of wings; infested berries show a purplish spot on their green surfaces and soon crack open at this place; spores of fungi enter and cause the berries to rot. The insect spends the winter as a pupa in cocoons attached to the fallen leaves ; moths begin to appear about June ist and lay their eggs preferably on the young berries; the young caterpillars feed on the small berries, often slightly webbing them together; this spring brood of larv?e is hardly noticed by ''Johnson and Hammar — U. S. Bu. Ent., Bull. ii6, Pt. IL T^ INSECTS OF ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE growers although they may destroy much setting fruit; the larvae make cocoons on the leaves and some transform to moths that appear latter part of July; these moths lay eggs on the grape berries and these larvae go into the berries and cause the wormy grapes ; the larvae mature in Sept. and make cocoons on the leaves ; these fall to the ground where the pupae pass the Winter. Control — Spray with the following mixture, first just after the blossoms fall, second, about two weeks later or when the grape berries are just touching: arsenate of lead 3 pounds, resin fish-oil soap I pound, added to Bordeaux 3-3-50-^ The grape-blossom midge ^ (Contariiiia johnsoni) Order — Diptera This insect has been injurious in certain vine- yards in Chautauqua County for several years; it is most injurious to early varieties; the larvae live inside of the blossom buds and injure them by feed- ing upon the pistil; infested buds become much swollen and blasted. Adults emerge from soil the latter part of May and deposit their eggs within the buds by means of a long telescopic ovipositor; the larvae attain their growth a few days preceding blossoming and then crawl out of the bud ; they drop to the ground and burrow beneath the surface where they form cocoons and remain until the following spring when they change to pupae. Control — No efficient method of control known. The grape leaf-folder ^ {Dcsmia fuucralis) Order — Lepidoptera In midsummer and later, many grape leaves may T Iseley— U. S. Bu. Ent., Bull. 550. 8 Hartzell— N. Y. State Expt. Stat., Bull. 331. 9 Strauss— U. S. Bu. Ent, Bull. 419- GRAPE INSECTS ^7 he found with the edges rolled or with the upper faces folded together; if opened a small active wriggling larva w'ill be found between the folds; the leaf will also be found to be skeletonized inside of the folds. The insect passes the winter as a pupa in the leaves; the moths appear early in the spring and there are at least two broods a season ; the moth expands about one inch and has shining black wings bordered wnth white and with two white spots on each front one and one long white spot on each hind one. Control — Crush larv?e by hand in folded leaves ; spray with arsenate of lead as for the berry moth and others. The striped tree-cricket^*' (OccanfJiiis nigri- cornis) Order — Orthoptera This species of Oecanthus often lays its eggs in canes of the grapes causing a characteristic scarring of the canes. Its injuries, however, are not serious since the nymphs do not feed on the vines. OTHER INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE GRAPE Grape-leaf skeletonizer (Harrisina amcricana). Eight-spotted forester {Alypia octomacidata). Grape plume-moth {Oxypi'ilus periscelidactylus). Grape-cane borer (AmpJiicerus bicaudafus). {Schist oceriis hamafits) . Grape-cane gall-maker (Ampcloglyptcr scsos- fris). Cottony maple scale (Puhinaria I'itis). Grape scale (Aspidiotus uvcc). Apricot scale {Eidccaniiim arincniaciim). Grape curculio (Craponitis inccqualis). loParrott and Fulton— N. Y. State Expt. Stat, Bull. 388. 78 INSECTS OF ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE CURRANT PESTS The imported currant worm ^^ (Pfcronus ribesii) Order — liymenoptera. Manual, p. 613 An imported insect first found in New York about Rochester in 1857; it is a saw-fly with a red- dish body about one-third of an inch long and four transparent wings. The adults appear soon after the leaves put out and lay their eggs along the veins of the undersides of the leaves ; they hatch in a week or ten days; the larvae have 10 pairs of legs and eat voraciously, often defoliating the bushes ; when full-grown they are three-quarters of an inch long and burrow into the ground or hide beneath rub- bish on the surface and spin cocoons within which they change to pup:€ ; in July the adults appear and deposit their eggs for a second generation which is often more abundant than the first ; the larvae of this second generation remain in the ground all winter; possibly a partial third generation. Control — Spray when larvcie are first seen with arsenate of lead, 3 pounds to 50 gallons of water; when berries begin to ripen use fresh white helle- bore. The CURRANT-STEM GiRDLER ^^ (Jauus integer) Order — Hymenoptera An American insect that is widely distributed in New York State; in May, it girdles the new growth of the branches and the tips wilt and fall over ; the adult insect is a saw-fly with a shining black body and transparent wings. The winter is passed as a larva in l^urrows in- side the currant stems; in April it changes to a 11 Riley— Ninth Mo. Rept., p. 7. ^2 Slingerland — Cornell Univ. Expt. Stat., P)Ull. 126. CURRANT INSECTS 79 pupa and in the last part of May the adults appear ; the female makes a hole in the tender branch with her ovipositor and then deposits her eg-g; she then girdles the branch about one inch above the egg; this she does in an interesting- way with her oviposi- tor; the end of the stem wilts and falls over; the larva burrows down the stem going 6 or 8 inches by fall ; it then spins a cocoon at the lower end and passes the winter. Control — As soon as the wilted tips of the canes are seen in the spring they should be cut off 4 or 5 inches below the girdled place and burned. This will destroy all of the eggs. The currant motii-rorer ^^ (Scsia tipiilifoniiis) Order — Lepidoptera This is a beautiful clear-winged moth like the peach-tree borer ; it is another imported pest and is said to be, in some localities, a serious one. The eggs are laid on the stems in the axils of the leaves; the young larva bores into the stem and gradually tunnels out a burrow down the center as it grows ; the larvcT become half grown by fall and pass the wanter in their burrow^s; in spring they complete their growth and pupate; the moths ap- pear in June. Affected stems produce small yel- lowish leaves and are soon broken off by the wind. Control — Infested stems should be cut off be- low the lowest part of the tunnel and burned. The currant APnin ^"^ (Myciis rihis) Order — Hemiptera The small black eggs of the aphid are found on the stalks in winter and hatch just as the foliage " Lugger— Minn. Expt. Stat., "Rull. 43, P- 184. 14 Lowe— N. Y. State Expt. Stat, Bull. 139. 8o INSECTS OF ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE appears; the aphids multiply and cause the foliage to curl and pucker ; in the third generation winged females migrate to motherwort {Leomirus) and hedgenettle (Stachys) but some of the aphids may remain on the currants ; in late October the winged migrants return to the currants and produce males and egg-laying females, the latter depositing the eggs. Control — Spray before leaves are badly curled with nicotine sulphate, i pint to lOO gallons of wa- ter with 4 pounds of soap added ; spray the under- sides of the leaves. The FOUR-LINED LEAF-BUG ^^ (PcccHocapsus Uuea- tus) Order — Hemiptera This is a common bug with many food plants but is often very injurious to the young foliage of cur- rant and gooseberry; attacked leaves turn brown, curl up and become brittle. The eggs are deposited in slits cut lengthwise in the stems of the plants; they pass the winter in these situations and hatch early in the spring; the nymphs have shining vermilion red bodies; they molt five times and become full-grown in ly to 20 days ; the nymphs feed on the tenderest young foli- age, causing brownish depressed spots to appear on the leaves; the adult bugs appear about the middle of June; lay their eggs, are active for about a month and then disappear. Control — Spray the nymphs with nicotine sul- phate, three-fourths pint to 100 gallons of water; cut off tips of stems containing eggs and burn them. 1"' SHngerland— Cornell Univ. Expt. Stat., Bull. 58. STRAWBERRY INSECTS 8i OTHER INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE CURRANT Green currant worm (GymiionycJins appendicula- tus). Pepper-and-salt currant moth {Lycia cogna- taria). Yellow currant fruit-fly {Epochra canadensis). Dark currant fruit-fly (Rhagoletis 7'ibicola). San Jose scale (Aspidiotus perniciosus) . Walnut scale (Aspidiotus juglans-rcgicc). STRAWBERRY PESTS White grubs ^"^ (PhyllopJiaga sp.) Order — Coleoptera White gTubs are the larvae of May beetles or "June bugs"; there are at least eight species of these that are injurious; these insects have a pro- longed life cycle, two to three years and may be longer in some cases; white grubs are liable to accumulate in old pastures and meadows and when these are broken and other crops put on the sod there is liable to be much injury; the grubs eat off roots of strawberry plants. The egg"s are laid in balls of earth in the ground where they hatch and the grubs live there until the summer of the second year when they change to pupae in the soil ; the pup?e change to beetles in late summer but the beetles remain in their earthen cells until the following spring. Control — Do not follow sod land with straw- berries; put some other crop between; in gardens and small plantings dig grubs out by hand. ic Forbes — Illinois Expt. Stat., Bull. ii6. Davis — U. S. Dept. Agr., Ear's' Bull. 940. 82 INSECTS OF ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE The strawberry weevil ^'^ {Anthonomiis signa- tns) Order — Coleoptera This is a small beetle about one-tenth of an inch lono- with a rather lono- proboscis; it is usually more injurious farther south and in the southeastern part of New York State. The weevils emerge from their winter quarters early and the females deposit their eggs within the buds of strawberries; the beetle then cuts off the flower-stem and the bud soon falls to the around; the grub lives inside of the bud on the pollen and changes to a pupa from which the beetle emerges later ; evidently but one brood a year. Control — If possible plant mostly pistillate va- rieties with just enough staminate varieties to cross- fertilize them; plant early-blooming staminate va- rieties as trap crops ; cover beds with muslin ; place beds in open fields away from fences, hedgerows, etc.; practice clean culture; dust plants with a mix- ture of sulphur 5 parts, and powdered arsenate of lead I part ; begin dusting as soon as weevils are seen and make two applications one week apart. The strawberry leaf-roller ^^ (Ancylis comp- fana) Order — Lepidoptera Moths appear in early May in New Jersey; lay pale green eggs mostly on the undersides of leaves ; these hatch in about one week; the young larva feeds a day or two ort upper side of the leaf but soon folds the halves of the leaf together, tying it securely with silk and lives within fully protected from insecticides; becomes full-grown in about one 1" Chittenden — U. S. Bu. Ent.. Circ. 2i. Headlec— N. J. Expt. Stat., Bull. 324. 18 Webster— Iowa Expt. Stat., Bull. 179. STRAWBERRY INSECTS 83 month and is then about ^ inch long, yellowish to greenish-broAvn and head shining brown; trans- forms to pupa in folded leaf; in New Jersey 3 broods a year but first brood causes most injury. Control — Make a thorough application of ar- senate of lead, 5 pounds to 100 gallons of water, within a week after the first moths appear and be- fore leaves are folded; burn over fields after crop is harvested; plow up old abandoned beds. OTHER INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE STRAWBERRY Strawberry root-worm (Typophorus canellus). Strawberry root-louse (Aphis forbcsi). Strawberry crown-moth (Sesia rufilans). Green strawberry slug (Empria fragaricc). Obsolete banded strawberry leaf-roller (ArcJiips ohsolctana). Strawberry root-weevil (Otiorhynchns ovatiis). Strawberry crown-borer (Tyloderma fragaricc). RASPBERRY AND BLACKBERRY PESTS The raspberry cane-borer ^° (Oberca himacit- lata) Order — Coleoptera The adult beetle is about one-half an inch in length with a slender cylindrical body and long an- tennae; the prothorax is yellow, generally with two or three black spots. The beetles appear in June and deposit their eggs in the tender growth of the canes; the female then cuts two rings around the cane, one above and one below the egg; this causes the tips of the canes to wilt and fall over ; the ^gg hatches and the young larva begins to bore downward in the center of the 1" Comstock and Slingerland^Corncll Univ. Expt. Stat., Bull. 23. 84 INSECTS OF ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE stem ; it passes the first winter in its burrow not far from the egg and by the second fall reaches the root where it passes the winter, changes to a pupa in the spring and the beetle emerges in June. Control — Cut off the wilted tips of the canes some distance below the egg as they appear in June. The raspberry saw-fly ^^ {Monophadnus rubi) Order — Hymenoptera A saw-fly, the larvae of which are at times quite injurious to raspberries; it may feed also upon the blackberry and dewberry ; the leaves are completely devoured, the new canes may be injured and the buds and young fruit sometimes suffer. The adults appear the first half of May and de- posit their eggs within the tissues of the leaves from the undersides; in a week to ten days they hatch; the full-grown larva is green in color with the body covered with spine-bearing tubercles; after feeding on leaves until nothing but veins are left the larvae go into the ground two or three inches below the surface and make cocoons in which they spend the winter, changing to pupae in the spring; there is only one brood annually. Control — The larvae may be brushed from the plants to the ground where they will die ; the plants may be sprayed with arsenate of lead, 2^/4 pounds to 50 gallons of water as soon as the larvae are seen. The striped tree-cricket "^ (Occanthus nigri- cornis) Order — Orthoptera This insect lays its eggs in the canes in the fall where they remain all winter; the eggs are laid in 20 Lowe— N. Y. State Expt. Stat., Bull. iso. 21 Parrott and Fulton— N. Y. State Expt. Stat., Bull. 388. RASPBERRY INSECTS 85 rows and cause long- jagged wounds in the canes; the nymphs and adults live largely on plant-lice and other insects and must be regarded as beneficial; the w^ounds made by depositing the eggs injure the canes. Control — If abundant, affected canes should be cut out in the fall and winter. The red-necked cane-borer -" (Agrilits mficollis) Order — Coleoptera The stems of raspberries sometimes bear irreg- ular swellings or galls two or more inches in length and gradually tapering toward either end; caused by a beetle about one-third inch in length with red- dish "neck'' or thorax and black head; deposits egg in June in bark near base of leaf on new growth ; young larva bores upward in sapwood pass- ing around stem in a spiral manner thus girdling cane ; it is a flat yellowish-white grub about ^/i inch in length ; completes growth in spring and changes to pupa in cell in pith. Control — Cut and burn infested canes during fall and winter ; destroy wild berry bushes in which the beetles may breed. The raspberry cane-maggot -^ (PJwrbia riihi- vora) Order — Diptera This is a small fly that attacks the new shoots of the raspberry in the spring ; the attacked shoots wilt and droop; the tip shrinks, turns dark blue and dies. As soon as the new shoots appear in the spring the fly deposits its eggs in the axils of the tip leaves ; the white maggot burrow^s to the pith of the stem 22 Smith— N. J. Expt. Stat., Special Bull. N. 23 Slingerland — Cornell Univ. Expt. Stat., Bull. 126, 86 INSECTS OF ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE and then begins to tunnel its way downward inside of the stem ; after working- downward a few inches it girdles the young shoot just beneath the bark which causes the tip to wait; the maggot then tun- nels farther downward until it reaches the surface of the ground; here it finally changes to a pupa in June and July; the pupa remains there until the following spring when the fly emerges; one brood a year. Control — As soon as the drooping canes are seen in the spring they should be cut off several inches below the girdle and burned. The raspberry root-borer-^ (Bcmbccia inargi- nafa) Order — Lepidoptera The adult moths are clear-winged and closely re- lated to the peach-tree borer; the borer or larva is yellowish-white and i to i^ inches long; they at- tack the stems and roots of raspberries and black- berries, causing the plants to die. The moths appear in August and September and lay their brownish-red eggs on the lower side of the leaves ; the larv?e crawl down the stems and burrow beneath the bark; they may hil)ernate at once or if early they will feed and grow some before winter; the next summer they bore into the stems and roots sometimes girdling the stem at the crown and at- tacking new shoots; during the next summer the larvae become full-grown and pupate, the moths appearing in August and September. Control — The only way of controlling this pest is to pull up infested plants and burn them. 24 Smith— N. J. Expt.^Stat., Bull. N, p. 9. Lawrence — Washington Expt. Stat., Bull. 6^. RASPBERRY INSECTS 87 OTHER INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE RASPBERRY Raspljcrry honitail {llarl'ujia abdomiiialis). Rose scale {Aiilacaspis roscc). American raspl)erry beetle (Byfurus nnicolov). Blackberry leaf-miner {Mcfallus nibi). Red spider {Tctraiiychus tclariiis). INSECTS INJURIOUS TO VEGETABLES WHITE POTATO The Colorado potato beetle ^ (Lcpfiiwfarsa lo- line at a) Order — Coleoptera. Manual, p. 576 Originally on a wild plant (Solanum) of the po- tato family in Colorado ; gradually spread eastward to Nebraska 1859, crossing the Mississippi River in 1864 and reaching New York 1872; moved at rate of 88 miles annually and reached the Atlantic in 1874; in 1877 it reached England but was ex- terminated. The beetles winter over, usually deep in the ground, occasionally under rubbish; female lays her orange-red eggs in patches on the undersides of the leaves; she is capable of laying 500 to 2000; these hatch in 5 to 7 days ; the grubs eat ravenously and mature in 2 or 3 weeks and then enter ground where they form cells and pupate; the pupal stage lasts 10 days to two weeks; there are two genera- tions here, the adults of the second generation hi- bernating. The work of this beetle seems to affect quality of tubers. Control — Spray with paris green, i pound in 50 gallons of Bordeaux mixture or arsenite of zinc, i^ pounds to 50 gallons or arsenate of lead paste 4 pounds. The potato flea-beetle " {Epitrix ciicumcris) Order — Coleoptera The potato flea-beetle is a small beetle with en- 1 Chittenden— U. S. Bu. Ent., Circ. 87. 2 Johannsen — Maine Expt. Stat., Bull. 211. POTATO INSECTS 8g larged muscular femora on the hind leg's with which it jumps lil