Class _Jl5^L^ 
 Boole ■ b 
 
 CDEXRIGHT DEPOSIT 
 
SYLLABUS OF 
 
 THE BACKGROUND 
 
 AND ISSUES 
 
 OF THE WORLD WAR 
 
 By 
 NORMAN MACLAREN TRENHOLME 
 
 Professor of History and of the Teaching of History, 
 
 University of Missouri; 
 
 Director of War Aims Course, S. A. T. C. 
 
 THE MISSOURI BOOK CO. 
 
 Columbia, Missouri 
 
 if 
 
SYLLABUS OF 
 
 THE BACKGROUND AND ISSUES OP THE 
 
 WORLD WAR 
 
SYLLABUS OF 
 
 THE BACKGROUND AND ISSUES 
 
 OF THE 
 
 WORLD WAR 
 
 BY 
 NORMAN MACLAREN TRENHOLME 
 
 Professor of History and of the Teaching of History, 
 
 Director of War Aims course, 8. A. T. C. 
 
 University of Missouri. 
 
 THE MISSOURI BOOK COMPANY 
 
 COLUMBIA, MISSOURI. 
 1918. 
 
3»Y 
 
 Copyright 1918 
 The Missouri Book Co. 
 
 OCT 2! I9!8 
 
 Press of 
 E. W. Stephens Publishing Co., 
 
 Columbia, Mo., © Qj. A 5 3 9 J 
 
 / 
 
 OS" 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 This Syllabus was prepared for the use of the 
 Instructors and students in the War Aims or Issues of 
 the War course in connection with the Student Army 
 Training Corps work at the University of Missouri. 
 
 Being prepared very hastily, the syllabus has, of 
 course, some defects. The author assumes responsibility 
 for all these. He wishes also to acknowledge his constant 
 indebtedness to the text-books and outlines of recent 
 European History and especially to the works by C. H. 
 Hayes, C. D. Hazen, L. H. Holt and A. W. Chilton, and 
 J. S. Schapiro. From all these he has borrowed freely 
 for topic outlines and details. 
 
 Much help has also been rendered by the author's 
 colleagues who have done a great deal to make the 
 Syllabus of more value to teachers and students. 
 Mr. H. G. Brown of the Economics Department prepared 
 sections II and III; Mr. Jonas Viles and Mr. F. F. 
 Stephens of the History Department sections XXIII, 
 XXIV; and Mr. J. E. Wrench of the History Depart- 
 ment sections XIII, XXI, and XXII. Valuable assistance 
 was rendered also by the members of the History Depart- 
 ment in the preparation of the Reading References and 
 of the Study Problems. 
 
 Norman M. Teenholme 
 September 30, 1918. 
 
 (5) 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 Useful References— Text Books and Special Works of 
 
 Importance. 
 Introductory: Purpose and Character of the Course. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 Geographical, Racial, and Economic Setting of the World 
 
 War. 
 
 I. Geography, Races, and Agricultural and Mineral Re- 
 sources of Europe. 
 
 II. Transportation Systems and Policies of the Chief Bel- 
 ligerents. 
 
 III. Trade Relations and Policies of the Chief Belliger- 
 
 ents. 
 
 PART II. 
 Historical Background to the World War. 
 
 IV. Modern European Development to the French Revolu- 
 
 tion. Old Europe. 
 V. The French Revolution and Democracy, 1789-1799. 
 VI. Napoleonic Popular Imperialism and its Influence, 1799- 
 
 1815. 
 VII. The Conflict of Reaction and Liberalism, 1815-1850. 
 VIII. Nationalism and Democracy in Europe During the 
 Later Nineteenth Century. 
 IX. Origin of the Prussian State and of the German Em- 
 pire. 
 X. The Development of Popular Government in Great 
 Britain and the Evolution of the British Empire. 
 XL Colonial Expansion and National Imperialism. 
 XII. The New France after 1870 and its Republican and 
 Democratic Development. 
 
 XIII. The Development of Nationalities in the Near East. 
 
 The Balkan States. 
 
 XIV. International Relations and Diplomacy. The Great 
 
 Alliances and the Armed Peace, 1871-1905. 
 XV. The Conflict of Alliances and the Great Diplomatic 
 Crises, 1905-1914. 
 
 (7) 
 
PART III. 
 
 The World War and its Issues. War Aims. 
 
 XVI. The Causes, Character and Progress of the World War. 
 XVII. German War Aims and the Issues of the War in Re- 
 gard to Germany. 
 XVIII. War Aims and Issues in Regard to Belgium and France. 
 XIX. The Kingdom of Italy and The Issues of the War. 
 XX. Issues of the War in Regard to Austria-Hungary and 
 
 the Czecho-Slovaks and Jugo-Slavs. 
 XXL Russia and the Slavic Issues of the War. 
 XXII. Issues of the War in Regard to Turkey and her Em- 
 pire. 
 
 XXIII. How America Came into the War. 
 
 XXIV. The Meaning of the War to America. 
 
 XXV. War Aims, Peace Proposals and the General Issues 
 
 of the World War. 
 Appendix A. War Aims and Peace Terms of President 
 
 Wilson. 
 Appendix B. War Aims and Peace Terms of Prime 
 
 Minister Lloyd George. 
 
 (8) 
 
SYLLABUS OF 
 
 THE BACKGROUND AND ISSUES 
 
 OF THE 
 
 WORLD WAR 
 
 Useful References. 
 
 A. Text Books on Recent European History and Government. 
 C. H. Hayes, The Political and Social History of "Europe, 2 vols. 
 
 This work emphasizes the developmental aspects of Europ- 
 ean nationalism and democracy, and lays special stress 
 on economic and social problems. Vol. II, 1815-1915, is 
 especially valuable for this course. 
 
 C. E. M. Hawkesworth, Last Century in Europe. Chiefly in- 
 ternational relations. 
 
 C. D. Hazen, Europe Since 1815. An interesting survey of 
 political and diplomatic history with emphasis on great 
 movements and great leaders up to 1910. 
 
 , Modern European History, 1789-1917. An abridge- 
 ment of the above work with additional subject matter 
 at the beginning and end. A useful popular manual. 
 
 L. H. Holt and A. W. Chilton, History of Europe, 1862-191 ' h 
 Political, military and diplomatic survey of the last 
 half century centering around German national imper- 
 ialism and militarism. A valuable reference book. 
 
 F. A. Ogg, The Governments of Europe. The best one-volume 
 account of the character of the leading European gov- 
 ernments. 
 
 , Economic Development of Modern Europe. 
 
 Valuable. 
 
 J. S. Schapiro, Modern and Contemporary European History. 
 Carries the history of recent Europe to 1918 in a topi- 
 cal way, emphasizing political, economic and cultural 
 forces and movements in thirty chapters. Valuable for 
 its comprehensive and up-to-date information. 
 
 Ch. Seignobos, Europe Since 1814, trans, by S. M. Macvane. 
 The standard French text on recent European history- 
 A little out of date now but still valuable for the period 
 up to 1890. 
 
 B. Special Works of Importance. 
 
 (9) 
 
Committee on Public Information, Washington, D. C. Pub- 
 lications in the Red-White-and-Blue Series and War In* 
 formation Series. Over thirty books and pamphlets. 
 Students should have ready access to all of these pub- 
 lications and particularly to No. 7 (Red-White-and-Blue), 
 The War Cyclopedia; No. 5, Conquest and Kultur; and 
 No. 116, The Study of the Great War. The President's 
 announcement of American war aims will be found in 
 No. 9, War Labor and Peace, of which a large number 
 of copies should be secured. Most of these publica- 
 tions are furnished without cost while for others a 
 small charge is made. Every library should have a 
 complete file. 
 
 J. M. Beck, The Evidence in the Case. 
 
 A. Bullard, The Diplomacy of the Great War. 
 
 W. S. Davis, Roots of the War. 
 
 W. M. Fullerton, Problems of Power. 
 
 O. P. Chitwood, Immediate Causes of the Great War. 
 
 J. W. Gerard, My Four Years in Germany. 
 
 Yves Guyot, Causes and Consequences of the War, trans, by 
 F. A. Holt. 
 
 A. B. Hart, Editor, America at War, (Outlines and refer- 
 ences). 
 
 S. S. McClure, Obstacles to Peace. 
 
 H. H. Powers, The Things Men Fight For. 
 
 , America Among the Nations. 
 
 J. H. Rose, Development of the European Nations, 2 vols. 
 
 , The Origins of the War, J871-1914. 
 
 J. G. Seymour, Diplomatic Background to the War. 
 
 E. C. Stowell, The Diplomacy of the War of 191Jf. 
 
 Andre Tardieu, France and the Alliances. 
 
 Roland Usher, Pan Germanism. 
 
 C. Maps and Charts. 
 
 U. S. Government, Strategic Map of Central Europe. To be 
 obtained from Supt. of Documents, Govt. Printing Of- 
 fice, Washington, D. C. (30c) 
 
 Denoyer-Geppert, European History Maps. A large and up- 
 to-date collection of historical maps and charts, Denoyer- 
 Geppert Co., Chicago. 
 
 W. & A. K. Johnston, Maps for European History. A service- 
 able set of history maps and charts for modern times 
 at reasonable cost. A. J. Nystrom Co., Chicago. 
 
 Wall maps of Europe of today of any kind or a large out- 
 line map of Europe, which can be filled in, can be used 
 to advantage. Some sort of map is essential to the 
 course. The maps in the text-books and reference books 
 should be studied and referred to constantly. 
 
 (10) 
 
INTRODUCTORY— PURPOSE AND CHARACTER OF 
 THE COURSE. 
 
 (1) Purpose: to give students "an understanding 
 of what the war is about and of the supreme importance 
 to civilization of the cause for which we are fighting." 
 
 (2) Character: to deal with "the remote and 
 immediate causes of the war" and with "the underlying 
 conflict of points of view as expressed in the govern- 
 ments, philosophies, and literatures of the various states 
 on both sides of the struggle." 
 
 (3) This course will be given by means of 
 lectures and quiz sections. Opportunities for questions 
 and discussions will be arranged. Students must have 
 a text book and a Syllabus. An effort will be made to 
 provide reference and reading material in connection 
 with the lectures and study problems. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 GEOGRAPHICAL, RACIAL AND ECONOMIC 
 . SETTING OF THE WORLD WAR. 
 
 I. Geography, Races and Agricultural and Mineral 
 Resources of Europe. 
 
 (Use as large a map as possible). 
 
 (1) Geographical characteristics of Europe. Smallest 
 of the continents. Peninsular in type. An extension 
 of Asia, making Eurasia. Southern peninsulas of 
 Greece, Italy, and Spain. Great central plain of 
 France, Germany, Austria, and Russia. Northern 
 peninsular-insular region of British Isles. Peninsulas 
 of Denmark and Scandinavia. 
 
 (2) Great mountain ranges dividing Europe — Pyrenees, 
 Vosges, Alps, Carpathian, and Balkan. Important 
 rivers of War Europe — Seine, Rhone, Marne, Aisne, 
 Meuse, Moselle, Rhine, Danube, Vistula, Po, and 
 Piave. 
 
 (ID 
 
(3) Climate of Europe varies greatly. In general in 
 western and central Europe it is moderate with 
 considerable rainfall. Influenced greatly by warm 
 winds and currents from the western and southern 
 Atlantic. Southern Europe much milder in climate 
 on account of the Mediterranean basin and warm 
 breezes from Africa. 
 
 (4) The surface conditions of Europe of the west show 
 centuries of civilization. Densely populated and well 
 cultivated in pre-war times. Little wild country 
 except in mountainous regions or those parts now 
 devastated by war. 
 
 (5) The significance of the physical geography of 
 Europe. Many natural divisions making for sepa- 
 ration of peoples into linguistic and cultural units. 
 Consequent growth and development of nationalities. 
 Sixty different languages at least and about as many 
 large and small nations or peoples in Europe to-day. 
 Political imperialism in Europe a defiance of 
 geographical and historical influences. 
 
 (6) The racial question in regard to Europe a difficult 
 and complicated one. Europeans chiefly of the 
 Caucasian race with its three divisions of Mediter- 
 ranean, Teutonic, and Alpine. This classification 
 scientific and biological. The long headed or 
 dolichocephalic type, includes both the Mediter- 
 ranean and Teutonic races, and the round headed 
 or brachycephalic type, which is the Alpine race. 
 Other possible types less important. Frequent 
 mingling of races in ancient times has practically 
 destroyed scientific race classification in Europe of 
 to-day. 
 
 (7) Other race classifications of less scientific sort. 
 Linguistic and political races known frequently as 
 nations or peoples. The Aryan classification, based 
 on language, of Greeks, Italians, Celts, Germans and 
 Slavs. Nationalism in modern times independent of 
 race purity. A matter of common traditions, 
 customs and institutions which people are used to, 
 believe in and respect. 
 
 (12) 
 
(8) The national idea in relation to geography. Im- 
 portance of national-geographical unity. War, 
 conquest and annexation harmful to national 
 geographical unity and freedom. Examples of the 
 failure of national boundaries to correspond with 
 national feelings and sentiments numerous in Europe 
 and ought, as far as possible, to be corrected. 
 
 1. The German empire in political control of 
 
 a French population living in Alsace 
 Lorraine. These districts taken from France 
 in 1871 although the inhabitants declared 
 themselves French in sympathy and de- 
 sired to remain a part of France. They wish 
 to belong to the French national state, 
 speak French and live as Frenchmen not 
 Germans. 
 
 2. The Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary 
 holds in more or less unwilling subjection 
 many races and nationalities such as the 
 Czecho-Slovaks of Bohemia and Moravia, 
 the Rumanians of Transylvania, the 
 Ruthenians and Poles of Galicia, the 
 Serbo-Croats, Bosnians and Herzegovinians 
 of Croatia-Slavonia, and the Italians of the 
 Adriatic. Slavic and Latin nationalism 
 under Teutonic and Magyar dominance 
 of military dynastic type. 
 
 3. The Poles, a submerged nation, have no 
 national boundaries or territory of their 
 own but have been held in unwilling 
 subjection by Germany, Russia and Austria 
 for over one hundred years. 
 
 4. Nationalism and geography are not well 
 adjusted as yet in the Balkan regions owing 
 to conflicting claims and viewpoints among 
 the Balkan nations. Turkey still dominates 
 considerable European territory not in- 
 habited by people of Turkish nationality. 
 
 (9) The political and military geography of Europe 
 and the agricultural and mineral resources, popu- 
 
 (13) 
 
lation and military strength of the more important 
 countries engaged in the World War. 
 
 1. Great Britain and Ireland, population of 
 45 millions in small area. Mixture of races 
 and languages has resulted in English 
 language and British nation. Agriculture, 
 grazing, and fishing extensively pursued 
 but food production inadequate to large 
 population. Valuable mineral resources of 
 coal, iron and tin an important economic 
 asset. Necessity of importing large amounts 
 of food stuffs and raw material for the 
 industrial life of the islands. Military 
 strength, with British dominions, 5 millions. 
 
 2. Belgium a little country but densely popu- 
 
 lated before the war, with 8 millions of 
 people. Extensive agricultural interests 
 also great mineral wealth of coal and iron 
 and much manufacturing and commerce. 
 Germany has occupied 96 per cent of 
 Belgium since 1914. Military strength 
 300,000. 
 
 3. France is the fourth largest European state, 
 
 about the size of Missouri, Kansas and 
 Iowa combined. Population of 40 millions. 
 Valuable agricultural resources and con- 
 siderable live stock before the war also 
 important coal fields but lacking in iron 
 supply on account of the loss of Alsace 
 Lorraine, a great iron district containing 
 more iron ore than all the rest of Prance put 
 together. Extensive, manufacturing interests 
 of all sorts and large export trade in 
 times of peace. Military strength 6 mil- 
 lions. 
 
 4. Germany the third largest European state 
 with a population of 68 millions. A 
 federation of 26 states under Prussian 
 dominance. Little sea coast. Important 
 agricultural and mineral resources. Rye 
 
 (14) 
 
the chief grain but also wheat, barley and 
 oats, and other products. Large mineral 
 wealth of coal, iron, lead, copper, silver 
 and zinc. Extensive salt mines. Large 
 manufacturing interests and tremendous 
 pre-war shipping and commerce. One of 
 the most self-sufficing of European coun- 
 tries in resources and ingenious in invent- 
 ing substitutes of all sorts. Military 
 strength at least 8 millions. 
 
 5. Austria-Hungary, the second largest 
 European country, with a population of 50 
 millions. Very valuable and extensive 
 agricultural interests especially in the 
 Danube valley where wheat and other 
 grains are grown on a large . scale. Vast 
 amount of largely undeveloped mineral 
 wealth in the mountainous region and in 
 Bohemia. Much less manufacturing and 
 foreign commerce than in the case of 
 Germany, Great Britain or France. Few 
 outlets for commerce, and wealth comes 
 principally from land. Military strength 
 3 millions. 
 
 6. Italy, the smallest of the major powers in 
 area and population, with 34 millions of 
 people. Agriculture the principal industry 
 of the peninsula and is especially success- 
 ful in the north on account of the fertile 
 plain of the Po valley. Rice, wheat and 
 corn raised in abundance in peace times. 
 A great fruit country and large production 
 of wine. Malarial fever very common and 
 a serious hindrance to Italian prosperity. 
 Little coal or iron in the peninsula but 
 iron mines on the island of Elba. Consider- 
 able manufacturing being developed. 
 Military strength 3 millions. 
 
 7. Eussia is the largest of European states be- 
 ing as large as all the rest of Europe. Russian 
 
 (15) 
 
empire in Europe and Asia makes up one- 
 sixth of the land surface of the world. 
 Population of millions in Russia in Europe. 
 The numerous nations and tribes and some 
 40 languages and dialects. Extensive and 
 valuable agricultural wealth as soil is 
 fertile in many regions particularly north 
 of the Black Sea so that Russia is a great 
 farming country. Raises enormous wheat 
 crops under normal conditions; also rye, 
 barley and oats. Extensive lumbering 
 interests, valuable forests. Much grazing 
 and various kinds of live stock. Great 
 undeveloped mineral wealth in coal, iron, 
 copper, platinum, gold, silver and pre- 
 cious stones in remote parts of Russia. 
 The country a vast region of potential 
 wealth. Has been held back by lack of 
 enlightenment and civilization. Great 
 need of scientific exploitation and of 
 better outlets for its products. Military 
 strength formerly more than 8 millions. 
 (10) Summary and conclusions: Europe a continent 
 marked by its diversity of geographical divisions 
 and nationalities. Nationalism not well adjusted 
 territorially in all cases. Its economic development 
 uneven and hampered by artificial restrictions of 
 all sorts. Great Britain, France and Germany the 
 most developed of the larger countries economic- 
 ally. 
 
 Study and Reading References. 
 
 Enclycopedia Brittanica, articles on "Europe" and on various 
 countries discussed in the lecture and outline. 
 
 Neiv International Encyclopedia, same articles as referred 
 to above, late national statistics in the New Interna- 
 tional Year Books. 
 
 Ogg, Economic Development of Modern Europe, ch. 1. 
 
 Ripley, The Races of Europe, chapters on the races men- 
 tioned. 
 
 Tarr and McMurray, Advanced Geography, section on "Eu- 
 rope." 
 
 (16) 
 
Study Problems. 
 
 (1) Explain how the physical geographical conditions 
 of Europe affected her political development and 
 the character of her populations. 
 
 (2) Give reasons for the temperate climate of western 
 Europe and describe some other climatic character- 
 istics and variations from north to south. 
 
 (3) Comment on the surface conditions of Europe com- 
 paring or contrasting them with those in America. 
 What parts of Europe would seem to you most 
 likely to resemble America as regards surface 
 characteristics. 
 
 (4) What important political problem is suggested to 
 you by the failure of national boundaries to corres- 
 pond with national feeling? How would you 
 illustrate this? 
 
 (5) Write a descriptive and explanatory essay con- 
 cerning anyone of the important European coun- 
 tries discussed in a lecture or outline, noting 
 its size, population, natural resources, economic 
 interests and military strength and telling how it 
 has been affected by the war. 
 
 II. Transportation Systems and Policy of the Chief 
 Belligerents. 
 
 (1) Importance of the transportation systems of the 
 chief countries — (a) as avenues of modern com- 
 merce; (b) as means of moving troops and troop 
 supplies. 
 
 (2) The transportation system of Great Britain. 
 
 1. Rail transportation. Railroads first built 
 in England. High degree of development. 
 Operated and owned by private companies 
 up to time of war. Government regulation 
 of rates. Rates high compared to United 
 States but service regularly includes de- 
 livery of goods as by Express compaines 
 in this country. 
 (17) 
 
2. Inland water transportation. Thames 
 Eiver, Manchester ship canal, many 
 smaller streams and canals. Most canals 
 built by toll companies many years ago. 
 Canals had history of great prosperity. 
 Made obsolete by railroads and now little 
 used. 
 
 3. Ocean transportation. Foreign or oceanic 
 trade of United Kingdom has long ex- 
 ceeded that of any other country. British 
 merchant marine the chief ocean carrier 
 of the world. Merchant ships encouraged 
 by mail and other subsidies granted for 
 service, speed and right to use in case of 
 war. 
 
 (3) The transportation system of Germany. 
 
 1. Rail transportation. Lines first constructed 
 by private companies but gradually taken 
 over by states under Bismarck's policy of 
 state operation. Certain evils of private 
 operation — discrimination between shippers 
 — thus ended. Other evils introduced — not 
 allowed to compete with waterways when 
 able to serve more cheaply. 
 
 2. Railroad rates higher than in the United 
 States. Roadbeds lighter and cars smaller. 
 Government of Prussia uses railroads as 
 source of revenue. This dependence of 
 government on railroad finance said by one 
 writer (H. R. Meyer) to have pervented 
 expenditures bringing lines up to date. 
 State operation probably due in part to 
 desire for immediate and rapid military 
 control. Location of lines favorable for 
 military control. 
 
 3. Inland water transportation. Use of water 
 ways has declined relatively since the 
 beginning of railway era. Efforts of state 
 to revive waterway transportation be- 
 ginning in the seventies. Large sums spent 
 (18) 
 
for building canals, improving rivers and 
 for maintenance. Cost of water transport- 
 ation often lower for shipper than by rail. 
 This does not mean cheaper for the nation 
 as a whole. Taxpayers meet much of cost 
 for waterways by taxation. 
 4. Use of waterways encouraged by govern- 
 ment by purposely maintaining 'high rail 
 rates and by the state's paying four-fifths 
 of cost of transhipping from rail to water 
 and back. "German efficiency" here means 
 doing thoroughly the wrong thing. 
 5. Ocean transportation. Germany had come 
 to have the second largest ocean carrying 
 trade. Yet she had paid only small sub- 
 sidies while France and Austria had paid 
 large ones. 
 
 (4) Transportation system of France. 
 
 1. Rail transportation. Lines laid out by 
 government engineers with a view to per- 
 manence and avoidance of waste. Costs 
 met by state and companies jointly. Di- 
 vided into six systems of which, before 
 the war, private companies operated all 
 but one under a state guarantee of 
 earnings. The government operated the 
 other. 
 
 2. Inland water transportation. Systems of 
 canals and river traffic developed and 
 maintained by government. Cost main- 
 tenance apparently exceeds gain. 
 
 3. Ocean transportation. Subsidized ships. 
 Trade and shipping much less than Ger- 
 many. 
 
 (5) Italy, Austria, and Russia. Rail transportation. 
 Lines operated by state in each case. Inland water 
 transportation in these countries less developed than 
 in Germany or France. Ocean transportation 
 relatively unimportant although all had some access 
 to sea and Italy an extensive coast line. 
 
 (19) 
 
(6) Transportation system of the United States. 
 
 1. Rail transportation. Very great mileage. 
 Low freight rates but high passenger 
 rates. , Operation by private companies 
 up to time of war. 
 
 2. Inland water transportation. Large use of 
 natural water ways. Small development 
 of canals. Wasteful public expenditure on 
 little used rivers. 
 
 3. Ocean transportation. Relative decline of 
 American merchant marine simultaneous 
 with large growth of American foreign 
 trade. 
 
 (7) Summary and conclusions: German states' control 
 of rail lines due largely to military reasons. British 
 have developed large merchant marine and kept 
 sea control. Germany and France have followed 
 uneconomic policy with inland waterways. The 
 United States has followed no consistent policy. 
 
 Study and Reading Refeeences. 
 
 Hayes, Political and Social History, II, index under Railways 
 etc. 
 
 Ogg, Economic Development of Modern Europe, chs. xi. 
 
 Schapiro, Modern and Contemporary History, see index un- 
 der Railways and Steam navigation, 
 
 Study Problems. 
 
 (1) How are the railroads owned and operated in Eng- 
 land? What is their relation to the government? 
 Comment on the development of the British mer- 
 chant marine and explain its importance in the 
 War. 
 
 (2) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of state 
 operation of railroads in Germany. How far did 
 military considerations determine their location? 
 What advantage have they proved in this war? 
 
 (3) What has been the German policy as to water- 
 ways? Has it been to the advantage of German 
 taxpayers? Discuss the influence of the develop- 
 
 (20) 
 
ment of the German merchant marine on the causes 
 of the war. 
 
 (4) What curious inconsistences occur in the German 
 system of government supported waterways? 
 
 (5) Explain how the railroads of France were built 
 and operated? Discuss the importance and value 
 of inland water transportation and ocean traffic to 
 France. 
 
 (6) What were the chief defects of the railroads and 
 inland water transportation in the United States 
 as revealed by the war? Why did the American 
 merchant marine decline while American foreign 
 trade increased? 
 
 III. Trade Relations and Policies of the Chief 
 Belligerents. 
 
 (1) Relative volume of exports and imports before the 
 war. 
 
 1. Germany was third in trade, being exceeded 
 
 by the United Kingdom and the United 
 States, while France was a poor fourth. 
 In export of manufactured goods Germany 
 stood secon^d preceeded by the United 
 Kingdom and followed by the United 
 States and France. 
 
 2. Germany exported so many goods to Eng- 
 
 land that the expression "Made in Ger- 
 many" became a considerable source of 
 disturbance to Englishmen who wanted 
 to preserve their home market for them- 
 selves. German banks developed foreign 
 trade and financial relations second only 
 to the British. German ships plowed all 
 the seas. 
 
 (2) Rival trade policies of Great Britain and the Ger- 
 man Empire. 
 
 1. British policy and results. Free trade. 
 Bought goods where cheapest and sold 
 (21) 
 
them everywhere. Prices lower than on 
 continent yet wages higher. Foreign coun- 
 tries whose goods were bought purchased 
 British goods in return thus employing 
 British labor. 
 
 2. The United Kingdom, the greatest exporting 
 
 country in the world because a great im- 
 porting country. Reliance on foreign food 
 stuffs made possible large population, great 
 wealth and support of the most powerful 
 navy to protect trade. 
 
 3. German policy. Protectionist — high tariff 
 intended to restrict imports. Protection 
 first adopted to foster and protect manu- 
 facturing. More recently the emphasis has 
 been placed on protection of agriculture. 
 Protection made greater by high railroad 
 rates on imported goods going to interior. 
 
 4. German effort to encourage exports by 
 making a specially low rate on goods for 
 export. Cartels, or syndicate combinations 
 of firms in the same trade, sold at high 
 prices in Germany protected by tariff, and 
 sold at low prices abroad thus increasing 
 export. 
 
 (3) Discussion of these trade policies. 
 
 1. Economic aspects of German policy. Tar- 
 iff policy cannot raise wages for it could 
 only do this for any workman by enabling 
 their employer to charge higher prices. 
 But these higher prices would come out of 
 other workmen who bought the goods. 
 
 2. Tariff policy of Germany makes no better 
 employment, for men can only be employed 
 making goods to sell abroad if foreign 
 goods are accepted as payment. Although 
 Germany both imported and exported in 
 spite of tariff restrictions, these restric- 
 
 (22) 
 
tions may largely explain 1 lie smaller Ger- 
 man trade than British. 
 
 3. Protection to agriculture raised prices of 
 food to 70,000,000 Germans to enable 300,- 
 000 landlords, largely Prussian Junkers, to 
 get more rent for their land. This policy 
 made production less efficient by encourag- 
 ing lines of industry for which the country 
 was not best fitted. 
 
 4. Discrimination in favor of exports, if con- 
 tinuous, amounted to gifts by Germans 
 who paid the high prices at home, to for- 
 eign buyers who could then buy the Ger- 
 man goods cheaply. 
 
 (4) Protectionism as a policy of a militaristic state. 
 
 1. So as not to be dependent on foreign 
 countries — claimed to be advantageous in 
 wartime. On other hand England's de- 
 pendence makes her rich and strong enough 
 to have large navy to defend her trade. 
 Independence is of no advantage to the 
 weak. But it may make a people more 
 willing to break with other countries. 
 
 2. Independence of Germany makes people 
 contribute to the support, by higher rents, 
 of aristocratic military leaders. Policy of 
 independence entirely inconsistent with a 
 large export trade, and, in fact, Germany's 
 large export of manufactured goods made 
 her dependent on others for part of food 
 supply. Hence the blockade, though not 
 wholly effective, has caused scarcity. 
 
 (5) War not a necessary means of securing to Germany 
 commercial opportunity, for 
 
 1. Though Russia, Italy, France . and many 
 other countries restricted imports by high 
 tariffs, this was no greater disadvantage 
 
 (23) 
 
to Germany than to Great Britain of the 
 United States. 
 
 2. Though Canada and Australia discrimin- 
 ated somewhat in favor of British goods, 
 they did not, as might have been expected 
 of integral parts of the empire, carry this, 
 discrimination to the point of admitting 
 British goods free. The British policy for 
 India has been one of free trade with equal 
 opportunity for all countries. 
 
 3. Despite alarmists, the United Kingdom 
 persisted in free trade and gave Germany 
 much of the British home market while 
 producing itself goods for export. 
 
 4. The Open Door policy for China and the 
 policies of South American countries meant 
 as large opportunities for Germany as for 
 any other country. 
 
 5. A liberal tariff reduction by the United 
 States, in 1913, gave promise of additional 
 opportunities for Germany. 
 
 6. Germany's trade was great and growing. 
 Her own policy of restricting imports 
 
 probably the chief reason her export trade 
 did not grow faster. Control of large slices 
 of France, Russia and other countries could 
 not be expected to increase German trade 
 unless barriers were removed. 
 
 7. Belgium had practically free trade thus 
 giving German goods every reasonable 
 chance. 
 
 8. German barriers are as great a hindrance 
 as any to German trade but it is doubtful 
 whether German protected interests would 
 
 consent to the removal of these barriers 
 on the German side. 
 
 (6) Summary and conclusion. Germany possessed large 
 and growing trade. She had protectionist policy. 
 Great Britain's even larger trade with free trade 
 (24) 
 
policy despite smaller population. Economic loss 
 to Germany from protection. Tendency of mili- 
 tary state to be protectionist. Efforts, of Germany 
 to restrict imports while simultaneously increasing 
 exports not possible of success. Resort to war 
 not necessary to give Germany reasonable trade 
 opportunities. 
 
 Study and Reading References. 
 
 Hayes, Political and Social History, II, see index under Tar- 
 iff, Commerce, etc. 
 
 Ogg, Economic Development of Modern Europe, chs. ix-xv. 
 
 Schapiro, Modern and Contemporary History, see index un- 
 der Protection, etc. 
 
 Study Problems. 
 
 (1) What was Germany's position as to exports and 
 imports before the war? How was her commercial 
 expansion regarded by Great Britain? 
 
 (2) Comment on the character of British trade policy 
 and contrast it with that of Germany. How do you 
 explain the growth of British prosperity under 
 Free Trade conditions? 
 
 (3) What were the objects of Germany's protectionist 
 trade policy? Whom did it benefit most? 
 
 (4) Discuss the economic aspects of German tariff pol- 
 icy in regard to wages, trade, agriculture. 
 
 (5) Why is extreme protectionism likely to be the 
 policy of a militaristic state? Does militarism 
 cause protectionism or might protectionism cause 
 militarism? Debate this question. 
 
 (6) Why was war not necessary to secure for Ger- 
 many better commercial opportunities? Explain 
 your answer fully and give proofs. 
 
 (25) 
 
PART II. 
 
 • » 
 
 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND TO THE' WORLD 
 WAR. 
 
 IV. Modern European Development to the French 
 Revolution. Old Europe. 
 
 (1) Historical and political terminology and its im- 
 portance in understanding the relations of the 
 past and present. Changing manifestations and 
 illustrations of the same institutional idea through 
 the centuries. Meaning of important political and 
 institutional terms such as absolutism, aristocracy, 
 autocracy, centralization, decentralization, democ- 
 racy, feudalism, hegemony, imperialism, interna- 
 tionalism, nationalism, national-imperialism, reac- 
 tion, tribalism, and other terms. 
 
 (2) Importance of understanding the foundations of 
 modern Europe at the present time. The present 
 war in no small part the result of forces and in- 
 fluences of the past. The politics and civilization of 
 Europe and America today largely an evolution 
 from the past, with the exception of new inventions 
 and scientific ideas of recent origin. Need of 
 selecting and studying only the most vital and 
 important aspects of the past which have operated 
 on the present. 
 
 (3) Europe has had three stages of development, 
 namely, ancient, mediaeval, and modern. The earlier 
 stages marked by the prevalence of two forces 
 in politics and government, namely, imperialism 
 and tribalism. The Roman Empire stood for im- 
 perialism, the Celtic and Germanic world for tri- 
 balism. Later on a third force appeared in the 
 form of a universal religion, namely, Christianity. 
 Mediaeval and modern civilization and politics 
 largely a result of the working out and blending of 
 imperial, tribal and Christian forces. 
 
 (26) 
 
(4) The Roman Empire in Europe marked by the 
 spirit of institutional unity which found expres- 
 sion in a number of great bonds of union making 
 for uniformity of government and civilization. 
 Absence of any definite nationalism within the 
 empire but the presence of tribal nationalism among 
 the Celts and Germans. Roman contribution to 
 later European development along several lines. 
 
 1. Social and economic contribution : aris- 
 tocracy, serfdom and slavery with no 
 middle class of importance. Landlord and 
 villa system, making for existence of landed 
 aristocracy and peasant class. Prevalence 
 of slavery. Heavy taxation and decline of 
 population. Importance of this contribu- 
 tion for later times. 
 
 2. Governmental contribution: combination 
 of the two ideas of the city state and the 
 world empire. The Roman Empire made up 
 of municipalities grouped into provinces. 
 The idea of military imperialism handed 
 on" to later times together with the idea 
 of provincial and municipal organization. 
 Weakness of the Roman Empire not so 
 much in its institutions as in its rulers 
 and economic life. Perpetuation of Roman 
 imperial tradition in the Catholic Church 
 and the Holy Roman Empire. 
 
 3. Cultural and intellectual contribution : the 
 Graeco-Roman culture and philosophy of 
 the Roman Empire handed on in part to 
 later times. The Latin language in those 
 parts of western Europe controlled by 
 Rome. Pagan culture overshadowed by 
 Christianity until the later middle ages 
 when it revived during the so-called 
 Renaissance. Influence of Roman legal 
 culture and ideas on mediaeval and modern 
 times. Importance of Graeco-Roman archi- 
 
 (27) 
 
tecture and sculpture in keeping up the 
 artistic tradition in Europe. 
 
 (5) The Middle Ages a period of reaction, against 
 paganism and exaltation of religion, religious war, 
 and asceticism in connection with religious and 
 social ideals. Manifestations of mediaeval influence 
 on later times. 
 
 1. Social and economic influence of the media- 
 eval period seen in the development of 
 agriculture along manorial or dependent 
 lines. The decline of serfdom. Hired labor- 
 ers and free tenants. Decline and revival 
 of commerce and industry. Towns and 
 gilds. Strict regulation of economic activi- 
 ties of mercantilist type. 
 
 3. Governmental contribution of the middle 
 ages along lines of tribal national king- 
 doms, Frankish and Holy Koman Ger- 
 manic imperialism, and dynastic national- 
 ism. Feudalism and its political and gov- 
 ernmental significance as an influence on 
 modern times. Growth of centralized 
 political institutions and of cities as a 
 part of the dynastic and middle class 
 national movement. 
 
 4. Religious contribution of the middle ages 
 in the form of the universal or Catholic 
 idea with its elaborate organization, rigid 
 faith, and extensive missionary enterprises. 
 Conflict of ecclesiastical imperialism with 
 the imperial and national states. Survival 
 in considerable part of mediaeval religious 
 ideas and organization deprived of their 
 political influence and importance. 
 
 5. Cultural and intellectual influence of the 
 middle ages found in the heritage from 
 Christian and Mohammedan mediaeval cul- 
 ture. Christian theology, law, medicine 
 and philosophy through the universities. 
 
 (28) 
 
Mediaeval art and literature. Mohammedan 
 influence along lines of Greek philosophy, 
 medicine, sciences and art, operating 
 through Mediterranean contact at various 
 points. 
 
 (4) The early modern age a period of beginnings 
 along lines of stronger nationalism, individualism, 
 humanism, rationalism, and constitutionalism. Its 
 characteristics and contributions to the later mod- 
 ern period. 
 
 1. Social and economic contributions of the 
 early modern period seen in (a) the ex- 
 pansion of Europe through discovery, col- 
 onization and trade extension; (b) com- 
 mercial revolution through growth of world 
 commerce and greater manufacturing 
 which calls for new economic development. 
 Important heritage of European colonial 
 empires in America, Africa, and Asia with 
 consequent rivalries and wars in the 17th 
 and 18th centuries. 
 
 2. Political and governmental influence of the 
 early modern period seen in (a) rapid 
 decline of feudalism in society and gov- 
 ernment; (b) growth of national conscious- 
 ness with spirit of patriotism based on 
 common language and literature. Manifes- 
 tations of these changes in the national 
 history of England, France, and Spain in 
 particular. Spirit of rivalry in connection 
 with dynastic nationalism and national im- 
 perialism. Spain and France. 
 
 3. Religious influence of the early modern 
 period seen in connection with the nation- 
 alizing of religion by the Protestant Revolt 
 which establishes state churches. The 
 Catholic Reformation important as an effort 
 to bring the old religion into harmony with 
 changed political and governmental con- 
 
 (29) 
 
ditions. The Jesuits and the Council of 
 Trent. Aristocracy of religion in most 
 countries. 
 4. The intellectual and cultural contributions 
 of the early modern period group under 
 the so-called Renaissance between 1350 and 
 the 18th century. Humanism in Italy and 
 north of the Alps. Development of the 
 fine arts and of national literatures. , Scien- 
 tific advances of theoretical and practical 
 character. Important heritage along all 
 lines of national culture. 
 (5) Various important movements of the mediaeval and 
 modern ages which have a bearing on later and 
 present conditions and issues. Survey of these in 
 order to provide general historical background. 
 
 1. The development of a constitutional gov- 
 ernment in England. The Magna Charta 
 (1215) and the evolution of a representa- 
 tive parliament with definite powers in 
 taxation, legislation and control of ad- 
 ministration. The reaction from aristo- 
 cratic parliamentary government to popular 
 absolutism in the 15th and 16th centuries. 
 Setback to Stuart divine right absolutism 
 by the Puritan Revolution and assertion 
 of parliamentary power in the 17th cen- 
 tury. The revolution of 1688 and the Bill 
 of Rights established the supremacy of 
 parliament and led to the origin of the 
 cabinet and prime minister. Parliament 
 corrupt and unreformed and easily con- 
 trolled by ministers. 
 
 2. Changes in Germany in the later middle 
 ages and early modern period along 
 lines of extreme decentralization and divi- 
 sion. Emergence of various powerful dynas- 
 tic states such as those of the Hapsburgs 
 of Austria, the Hohenzollerns of Branden- 
 burg and Prussia, the "Wittelsbachs of 
 
 (30) 
 
Bavaria and others of less importance. 
 Triumph of particularism and difficulty of 
 bringing about unity by peaceful agreement 
 between the Germanies. 
 
 3. Dynastic and international rivalries of 
 later mediaeval and early modern ages. 
 The Hundred Years' War based on Plan- 
 tagenet and Valois dynastic competition 
 for power. The Hapsburg and Valois 
 struggles of the later 15th and early 16th 
 centuries. The Thirty Years' War as a 
 dynastic and international conflict involv- 
 ing Hapsburgs, Hohenzollerns, Bourbons 
 and the Bohemian, Danish, Swedish, and 
 French nations. Peace of Westphalia 
 (1648) marks an anti-Hapsburg sentiment 
 in Germany, gains for France and Sweden, 
 secularization of politics and growth of 
 international law and diplomacy. 
 
 4. The national imperialism of the French 
 monarchy under Louis XIV and his suc- 
 cessors and their conflict with continental 
 Europe and England. French desires for 
 aggrandizement under Louis XIV threaten 
 to upset the balance of power. Consequent 
 wars culminate in the great European 
 struggle of the Spanish Succession (1702- 
 1713). The Peace of Utrecht (1713) and 
 the reconstruction of Europe along dynastic 
 national lines. Colonial gains by England 
 soon followed by a world conflict for colo- 
 nial ascendancy in America and India be- 
 tween Great Britain and France. The 
 significance of the 18th century wars and 
 of the Treaty of Paris (1763). 
 
 5. The rise of Russia and the decline of 
 Swedish, Polish and Turkish national and 
 imperial power. Foundations of the Rus- 
 sian Empire in the middle ages. The 
 Tartar domination and the gradual eman- 
 (31) 
 
cipation of the princes of Moscow. Orien- 
 talism of early modern Russia. Russia 
 under Peter the Great (1689-1725) and his 
 victory over Sweden. Catherine the Great 
 (1762-1796) and the partitions of Poland 
 between Russia, Prussia, and Austria. Gains 
 of Russia at the expense of Turkey in the 
 region of the Black Sea and Danube. 
 
 6. Disruption of the earlier British colonial 
 empire in the 18th century. Restrictions 
 on colonial trade and manufacture and 
 difficulties of financing colonial wars. Ef- 
 forts to raise revenue from the American 
 colonies and colonial resistance to imperial 
 control. The American revolution and the 
 establishment of the federal republic of tho 
 United States with a liberal but rigid sys- 
 tem of government. 
 
 7. European society on the eve of the French 
 Revolution. General lack of indication of 
 further progress along social, economic, 
 cultural, or political lines. Need of a stimu- 
 lus through political and social revolution 
 by which more popular and enlightened 
 ideas could find application. The effort 
 of enlightened despots to bring about ad- 
 vances only partially successful. General 
 existence of privileged classes in all coun- 
 tries and of political and religious aristoc- 
 racy and conservatism. 
 
 (6) Summary and conclusions: The history of Europe 
 to the French Revolution shows developments in- 
 fluenced by Roman imperialism, Christianity, and 
 Teutonic tribal nationalism. Rebuilding of civiliza- 
 tion during middle ages and early modern period 
 along old and new lines but in general dominated 
 by survivals of aristocratic and dynastic social and 
 political ascendancy and control. Europe ready 
 for new ideas of democratic and liberal national 
 type. 
 
 (32) 
 
Study and Reading References. 
 
 Adams, European History. A brief general survey. 
 Hayes, Political and Social History of Modern Europe, I. 
 Hoskins, Preliminaries of the World Conflict, A, I-II. 
 Lavisse, General View of the Political History of Europe, 
 
 trans, by Ch. Gross. Good brief survey. 
 Robinson, Introduction to the History of Western Europe. 
 West, Modern History. 
 Bryce, The Holy Roman Empire. 
 Cheyney, Short History of England. 
 Green, Short Histo?~y of the English People. 
 Henderson, Short History of Germany. 
 Schevill, Political History of Modern Europe. 
 
 Study Problems. 
 
 (1) Define the terms mentioned in the outline with his- 
 torical illustrations from the earlier or later history 
 of Europe. 
 
 (2) "What important elements entered into mediaeval 
 civilization and determined much of its develop- 
 ment? Did these influence the modern age and if 
 so how? 
 
 (3) Describe briefly the contributions of (a) The 
 Eoman Empire; (b) The Middle Ages; (c) The 
 Early Modern Age. 
 
 (4) Giye an account of the more important movements 
 of political and governmental character that took 
 place in Europe prior to the French revolution. 
 
 (5) What general and special ideas of the character 
 and importance of earlier European development 
 have you obtained from the study of this topic? 
 
 V. The French Revolution and Democracy, 1789-1799. 
 
 (1) What the French Revolution was and why it is 
 important. The Divine Right of Kings and aris- 
 tocratic feudal society. The Rights of Man and 
 
 • Liberty, Equality and Fraternity. 
 
 (2) How the French Revolution developed. 
 
 1. The Estates General (1789) becomes the 
 National Assembly. Destruction of the 
 Bastille (July 14, 1789), French National 
 (33) 
 
Holiday like our Fourth of July. Over- 
 throw of divine right monarchy and old 
 aristocratic regime by democratic reformers 
 (1791). Other reform work of the Nation- 
 al Assembly. 
 
 2. Dissatisfaction of both reactionaries and 
 radicals with limited or constitutional mon- 
 archy. The moderate and extreme reform 
 parties cannot agree. Weakness of the 
 new Legislative Assembly due to previous 
 inexperience. 
 
 3. Foreign intervention by German and Aus- 
 trian states in behalf of the restoration 
 of absolute monarchy causes republican rev- 
 olution. The flight, capture and later 
 execution of Louis XVI. The effect of 
 this on republican and democratic senti- 
 ment. 
 
 4. The first French Republic, (1792-1804). 
 The National Convention and its work be- 
 tween 1792 and 1795: (a) victory over 
 foreign invaders; (b) construction of re- 
 publican form of government based on 
 principles of democracy. Strong central 
 organization and policy of terrorism ad-' 
 ministered by twelve men forming the 
 Committee of Public Safety. 
 
 5. The Reign of Terror and the reasons for 
 it: (a) to get rid of conservative and 
 moderate leaders; (b) to intimidate the 
 ignorant masses and make them obedient to 
 the radical leaders. The guillotine and its 
 victims. Quarrels between factions and 
 individuals such as Girondists, Jacobins, 
 Marat, Danton, Robespierre (1794). Paris 
 mob violence curbed by military organiza- 
 tion, first appearance of Napoleon Bona- 
 parte at Paris (October 1795). 
 
 6. The Directory (1795-1799) and the trans- 
 formation of the First Republic into a mili- 
 
 (34) 
 
tary dictatorship. End of the revolution- 
 ary and beginning of the Napoleonic period. 
 The French Revolution becomes merged in 
 the personality of Napoleon Bonaparte. 
 
 (3) Significance of the French Revolution. Its watch- 
 words of Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity. 
 
 1. Liberty implied political ideals. Popular 
 government, personal liberty of conscience, 
 worship, speech, press, and property. 
 
 2. Equality implied social and economic ideals. 
 Abolition of privileges, serfdom, ranks and 
 titles, "all men born free and equal." 
 Equal chance and opportunity. 
 
 3. Fraternity implied spiritual, emotional 
 ideals of brotherhood and friendship. In 
 France applied to national spirit of all 
 citizens who were to be brothers in liberty 
 and in arms. Stimulated patriotism of 
 free democratic type. 
 
 (4) Summary: "Political liberty, social equality, patri- 
 otism in the nation — these three' have been the 
 enduring watchwords of all those who down to 
 our own day have looked for inspiration to the 
 French Revolution." 
 
 Study and Reading References. 
 
 Hayes, Political and Social History, I, ch. xv. 
 Hazen, Modern European History, chs. i-vii 
 Schapiro, Modern and Contemporary History, 1-13. 
 Belloc, French Revolution (Home University Library). 
 Johnston, The French Revolution. 
 Mathews, The French Revolution. 
 
 Study Problems. 
 
 (1) What was wrong with 18th century government 
 and society in Europe? Describe and illustrate. 
 
 (2) How did the French Revolution try to remedy 
 conditions in France and how far did it succeed 
 in doing so? 
 
 (35) 
 
(3) "Why did the French Revolution become so violent 
 and what were the special objects and aims of 
 this violence? 
 
 (4) How is the French Revolution connected with 
 ideas of democracy and nationalism through its 
 great watchwords? 
 
 (5) Was the French Revolution as a whole a good or 
 bad event? Give reasons for your answer. 
 
 (6) Compare the character and course of the French 
 Revolution with what you know or can learn of 
 the Russian Revolution of today, noticing points 
 of similarity. 
 
 VI. Napoleonic Popular Imperialism and its Influences, 
 
 1799-1815. 
 
 (1) Importance of Napoleon Bonaparte. A recent 
 writer says: "From 1799 to 1814' the history of 
 Europe was the history of France and the history 
 of France was the biography of Napoleon Bona- 
 parte/ ' 
 
 (2) The career and policies of Napoleon Bonaparte 
 (1769-1821). 
 
 1. His birth, education and character. Cor- 
 sican nationalism of his youth. His mili- 
 tary and political career to 1799. 
 
 2. The Consulate (1799-1804). Its foreign 
 and domestic policies and problems. Bona- 
 parte becomes military and political chief. 
 Temporary peace and administrative and 
 legal reforms. 
 
 3. The First Empire (1804-1815). Its in- 
 auguration and character. Popular sover- 
 eignty in one man. Political and social 
 reaction. Decline of French democracy 
 and liberalism. 
 
 4. Military and territorial ambitions of Na- 
 poleon as Emperor. His campaigns in 
 Europe against Austria, Prussia, Russia, 
 Spain. Political, economic and social issues 
 
 (36) 
 
of the Napoleonic wars. The constant op- 
 position of Great Britain to Napoleonic 
 imperialism. 
 
 5. Reasons for Napoleon's collapse in 1814; 
 (a) weakened resources owing to almost 
 continuous war and the disastrous Rus- 
 sian campaign of 1812; (b) stronger and 
 more determined national opposition under 
 able leaders and generals; (c) Napoleon's 
 own decline in determination and personal 
 effort, due to the strain of one man power. 
 
 6. Napoleon's abdication in 1814 and his 
 residence on Elba. The return to France 
 and the reaction of the Hundred Days. 
 The battle of Waterloo and its importance. 
 Napoleon as an exile on St. Helena be- 
 tween 1815 and 1821. The Napoleonic 
 Legend. 
 
 (3) Significance of the era of Napoleon for Europe. 
 The spread of French ideas of political and social 
 revolution. Historical and popular estimates of 
 Napoleon. 
 
 1. Napoleonic era a continuation of the revolu- 
 tionary period. Marked by new popular 
 and aggressive spirit of advance. 
 
 2. Liberty, political and governmental, suf- 
 fered some restrictions under Napoleon 
 who ruled somewhat despotically. Rights 
 
 of Man not well upheld and personal 
 liberty often violated. Extensive system 
 of espionage and secret police. 
 
 3. Equality in a social sense generally upheld. 
 Progressive social viewpoints in the Na- 
 poleonic Empire. Many valuable and per- 
 manent social and economic gains. 
 
 4. Fraternity in the sense of brotherhood of 
 men of same race and traditions strongly 
 developed. Napoleon helped to create a na- 
 tional sentiment in Germany, Italy and 
 
 (37) 
 
Spain by his policies of constructive and 
 destructive character. 
 
 5. Nationalistic resentment against French 
 national-imperialism. European people 
 ready to accept social values of the French 
 Revolution but resent and reject French 
 political domination as they desire national 
 freedom and self-determination. 
 
 6. The real or historic Napoleon very different 
 from the Napoleon of legend, stories and 
 popular imagination. French national ad- 
 miration and love for Napoleon a part of 
 their culture. 
 
 (4) Summary: Napoleon by seeking to make Europe 
 a French national imperial state did two things: (a) 
 Spread the French Revolutionary doctrine of Lib- 
 erty, Equality and Fraternity by his armies; and 
 (b) Aroused the European sense of nationalism in 
 liberalized form against dynastic monarchy and 
 foreign imperial domination. 
 
 Study and Reading References. 
 
 Hayes, Political and Social History, I, ch. xvi. 
 Hazen, Modern European History, chs. viii-xi. 
 Schapiro, Modern and Contemporary History, 13-16. 
 Fisher, Napoleon, (Home University Library). 
 Fournier, Napoleon, 2 vols. Trans, by A. E. Adams. 
 Johnston, Napoleon, A Short Biography. 
 Rose, Life of Napoleon, 2 vols, in one. 
 
 Study Problems. 
 
 (1) How did Napoleon Bonaparte's origin and educa- 
 tion fit him for his later career? Was he a real 
 Frenchman? 
 
 (2) In what ways did Napoleon show exceptional 
 ability apd qualities of leadership? 
 
 (3) In what ways did Napoleon show lack of wisdom 
 and seemingly act wrongly? 
 
 (4) "Would you say that on the whole Napoleon V 
 influence on France and on Europe had been good 
 
 (38) 
 
or bad? Give illustrations and contrast the real 
 and legendary Napoleon. 
 
 VII. The Conflict of Reaction and Liberalism, 1815- 
 
 1850. 
 
 (1) The Congress of Vienna (1814-1815) and the re- 
 construction of Europe along dynastic lines. Doc- 
 trines of legitimacy, compensation, and intervention 
 adopted and put in practice by Austria, Prussia, 
 and Russia. 
 
 (2) The settlements made in 1815 disregarded both 
 nationalism and democracy or liberalism. They 
 were arbitrary and dynastic in character and did 
 not settle the issues of the war in a satisfactory 
 manner. Principal matters settled by the Congress. 
 
 1. Bourbon Restoration in France which lasted 
 for fifteen years (1815-1830). Expulsion 
 through popular revolution of the reac- 
 tionary king, Charles X, in 1830. 
 
 2. Bourbon Restorations in Spain and in 
 Naples under reactionary auspices. These 
 unenlightened despots maintained dynastic 
 power by foreign intervention regardless 
 of liberal nationalism. 
 
 3. Belgium given over to Holland as com- 
 pensation for Dutch colonies kept by Great 
 Britain. Non-national and arbitrary char- 
 acter of Belgian-Dutch union. Its abroga- 
 tion in 1830 through national liberal rev- 
 olution. The great powers forced to guar- 
 antee the neutrality of Belgium through 
 British insistence. 
 
 4. Austria given northern Italy and control 
 over central Italy as compensation for the 
 loss of Belgium. This crime against Italian 
 nationalism not yet fully remedied. 
 
 5. Germany, a collection of small states, pre- 
 vented from becoming a national liberal 
 state by Austrian jealousy. It is organized 
 
 (39) 
 
as a loose confederation of principalities 
 under Austria and Prussia. 
 
 6. Norway taken from Denmark and given to 
 Sweden as compensation for turning against 
 Napoleon. Disregard of Danish-Norwegian 
 nationalism. This unpopular union not 
 remedied until nearly a century (1905). 
 
 7. Little beneficial or constructive work ac- 
 complished at Vienna on account of re- 
 actionary character of the peace delegates 
 who were all princes or aristocratic poli- 
 ticians. The dominant figure was Prince 
 Metternich, Chancellor of the Emperor of 
 Austria. 
 
 8. Effort to maintain reactionary settlement 
 and policies by the formation of alliances 
 such as the Quadruple Alliance and the 
 Holy Alliance. Also by arranging to hold 
 frequent congresses of rulers and their 
 representatives to maintain the status quo. 
 
 (3) Continuance of reactionary dynastic ideas in poli- 
 tics, government and society in central and eastern 
 Europe. Opposition to and persecution of liberal 
 national movements and ideas by means of inter- 
 vention, espionage and arbitrary police methods. 
 Examples of intervention and repression in the 
 cases of Spain, Naples, Piedmont, Poland, and the 
 German states. Paternalism and close supervision 
 in government. 
 
 (4) Forces and movements making for liberalism and 
 more democratic nationalism, 1815-1850. 
 
 1. Great Britain, though as yet aristocratic 
 in politics and society, was out of sympathy 
 with reactionary opposition to nationalism 
 and representative government. This at- 
 titude due to her desire for freedom in 
 trade and her tradition of constitutional 
 liberty. She does not support the Quad- 
 ruple or Holy Alliances. Protests inter- 
 vention. Approves the Monroe Doctrine. 
 (40) 
 
2. France as a liberal nation resents the Bour- 
 bon royalist reaction. Constitutional lib- 
 eral monarchists, republicans and radicals 
 unite to secure a more liberal and demo- 
 cratic government. Establishment in 1830 
 of the middle class or bourgeois monarchy 
 of Louis Philippe. 
 
 3. United States as a colonial national demo- 
 cratic state defies dynastic Europe to in- 
 terfere with colonial national independence 
 in North or South America or to seek to 
 acquire new territory in any way. Great 
 Britain, under George Canning, supports 
 this Monroe Doctrine which becomes a 
 national policy of the United States. 
 
 4. Greece emerges successfully as a nation 
 from under the yoke of Turkey in spite 
 of Metternich and the reactionaries (1820- 
 1829). Belgium, already spoken of, is 
 another example of successful liberal na- 
 tionalism. 
 
 5. The great industrial revolution based on 
 new inventions of machinery and on factory 
 conditions of industry develops a more 
 intelligent middle class and proletariat who 
 become important factors in democracy and 
 liberal nationalism. 
 
 6. The revolutions and attempted revolutions 
 between 1815 and 1848 show that many 
 of the peoples of Europe are ambitious to 
 secure democracy in government. Austrian 
 and German suppression of revolution 
 marks these states as dynastic and reac- 
 tionary. 
 
 (5) Summary and conclusions: the revolutionary 
 tendencies in early nineteenth century Europe due 
 to a number of different desires. 
 
 1. Desire for liberty along political and gov- 
 ernmental' lines. Shown in repeated de- 
 (41) 
 
mand for constitutions on the part of op- 
 pressed peoples. The Spanish constitution 
 of 1812 and its importance. 
 
 2. Desire for more equality along social and 
 economic lines. Agitation against aristoc- 
 racy in society and capitalism in industry. 
 
 3. Desire for fraternity along liberal national 
 lines. Agitation for national union and 
 freedom from dynastic tyranny. 
 
 Study and Reading References. 
 
 Hayes, Political and Social History, II, chs. xvii-xix. 
 Hazen, Modern European History, chs. xii-xvi. 
 
 , Europe Since 1815, chs. i-vii. 
 
 Schapiro, Modern and Contemporary History, chs. ii-vii. 
 Seignobos, Europe Since 18U, 1-8, 103-132, 326-386. 
 Andrews, Historical Development of Modern Europe, I, 86-179, 
 
 and chs. v-vi. 
 Cunningham, Western Civilization, Modern Times, bk. VI, 
 
 chs. i-ii. 
 Hawkesworth, Last Century in Europe, chs. i-xiii. 
 
 Study Problems. 
 
 (1) How do you explain the attitude towards a peace 
 settlement taken at Vienna. Was there an oppor- 
 tunity to settle matters differently? 
 
 (2) How does the map of Europe as fixed in 1815 differ 
 in various ways from the map today. How might 
 the map of today be improved upon? 
 
 (3) Explain England's attitude towards reaction and 
 intervention. "Why was it important, especially 
 from the point of view of the United States? 
 
 (4) What conditions and ideas of today had their 
 origin in the period between 1815 and 1850 and 
 why do they persist so long? 
 
 VIII. Nationalism and Democracy in Europe During 
 The Later Nineteenth Century. 
 
 (1) Nationalism and Democracy the dominant political 
 ideas of the nineteenth century. How they may 
 mean various things. 
 
 (42) 
 
1. Definition of nationalism. Emotional, un- 
 enlightened nationalism, militant patriot- 
 ism, race hatred, jealousy and cruelty to- 
 wards other peoples. Intensive character 
 of European nationalism. Desire for na- 
 tional revenge and for spoils of war. 
 
 2. Democratic liberal nationalism. National 
 representative government on popular basis. 
 Fair, friendly and tolerant attitude towards 
 other nations. Desire for international 
 peace and friendship. Slow to make war 
 but resolute in carrying through to a vic- 
 tory over selfish, brutal nationalism or 
 national imperialism. 
 
 3. Discrimination to be exercised in regard 
 to so-called rights of nationalism. Danger 
 of doctrine of absolute national independ- 
 ence. Reactionary selfish, quarrelsome na- 
 tionalism needs chastisement and correct- 
 ion. 
 
 4. Democracy and how it may be variously 
 defined. Political Democracy the most 
 common form. Social Democracy largely 
 an ideal. Economic Democracy thus far 
 an agitation. Civilization in relation to 
 democracy. 
 
 (2) How Europe was influenced by nationalism and de- 
 mocracy during the later 19th century. 
 
 1. The national political unification of Ger- 
 many between 1850 and 1870. Bismarck the 
 Prussian and his brutal "blood and iron" 
 doctrine. The three Hohenzollern dynastic 
 wars and their results. Emergence in 1871 
 of the present German Empire or "Father- 
 land" which has become a type of selfish, 
 debased, illiberal, and brutal nationalism. 
 Elimination or subjection of all anti-Prus- 
 sian elements. 
 
 (43) 
 
2. The effect of Bismarckian and Hohen- 
 zollern military and dynastic ideas on Ger- 
 man national character. Strong belief in 
 and loyalty to the dynastic state, imperial 
 and princely rulers, officials and generals, 
 as sacred and supreme. Surrender of in- 
 dividual conscience and liberty to ideas 
 of national greatness, superiority and pros- 
 perity through war ("war pays"). 
 
 3. Dynastic tyranny and selfish nationalism 
 combined in the dual monarchy of Austria- 
 Hungary. Subjection of Czecho-Slovak, 
 Roumanian and Jugo-Slav nationalism to 
 Hapsburg power. Italian speaking popula- 
 tion in northern Adriatic also under Aus- 
 trian domination. "Weakness of Austria- 
 Hungary compared with Germany due to 
 lack of cohesion and inferior ability of 
 leaders. 
 
 4. Russia an example of undeveloped national- 
 ism under dynastic autocracy during the 
 19th century. The uneducated proletariat 
 aud subservient bourgeoisie lorded over 
 by Czar, church and nobility. Fanatical 
 and radical revolution almost inevitable. 
 Time needed for readjustment and re- 
 construction. 
 
 5. The Turkish Empire in the later 19th 
 century. Its failure to achieve liberal 
 democratic nationalism due to corruption 
 of the official class and German militarist 
 control. Racial and religious brutalities 
 of the Turks. The Armenian massacres. 
 Position of Turkey before the war. 
 
 6. The Balkan nations of Bulgaria, Roumania, 
 Serbia, Montenegro and Greece. The long 
 struggle towards nationalism and partial 
 democracy. Obstacles to the achievement 
 of political democracy. Selfish and brutal 
 character of Bulgarian nationalism and the 
 (44) 
 
pro-German policies of Czar Ferdinand 
 and his supporters. 
 
 7. Great Britain and the British Empire il- 
 lustrate democratic nationalism. The 
 growth of responsible government through 
 political reform (reform of Parliament, lib- 
 eral franchise, restriction on House of 
 Lords). Political power in the hands of 
 the people. The dynastic king a figure- 
 head. Liberal democratic system of colonial 
 nationalism. 
 
 8. France in later 19th century becomes a 
 liberal democratic nation. The passing of 
 popular militant nationalism after the 
 reign of Napoleon III with its numerous 
 wars and final catastrophe. The emergence 
 of the Third French Republic in the seven- 
 ties and the gaining of political power by 
 republican leaders. 
 
 9. Italy and her national political unification. 
 The great Italian liberals — Mazzini, Cavour, 
 and Garibaldi. Victor Emmanuel I as a 
 constitutional king. National unity of Italy 
 on a basis of centralization and representa- 
 tion is compared with the Prussian domin- 
 ance in German unification. 
 
 10. Belgium, the Netherlands, Denmark, Nor- 
 way, Sweden, Switzerland and Spain as- 
 examples of partial or complete attain- 
 ment of liberal nationalism and democratic 
 government. The importance of upholding 
 the rights of small nations to determine 
 their government and control their desti- 
 nies. Germany's defiance of this idea. 
 
 (3) Summary and Conclusion: The later 19th century 
 witnessed the development of good and bad types 
 of ideals of nationalism. It also witnessed the 
 growth of real democracy in government in some 
 countries, in fact in most, but in others only pre- 
 (45) 
 
tended or partial democracy was achieved. On 
 the whole, central and eastern Europe remained 
 dynastic, while western Europe became national 
 liberal or democratic in policies and government. 
 
 Study and Reading References. 
 
 Hayes, Political and Social History, II pt. iv, esp. ch. xx. 
 Hazen, Modern European History, chs. ix-xiv. 
 
 , Europe since 1815, chs. xvii-xxiv. 
 
 Holt and Chilton, Europe, 1862-1914, pt. i. 
 
 Schapiro, Modern and Contemporary History, chs. viii-xiii. 
 
 Seignobos, Europe since 1814, chs. xvii-xxiv. 
 
 Study Problems. 
 
 (1) What is nationality? What are the possible evils 
 inherent in nationalism? Illustrate answers briefly 
 from nineteenth century European history. 
 
 (2) What is the American interpretation of the ideal 
 of nationalism? Distinguish between good and bad 
 nationalism. What European nations accept the 
 American ideal in the main? 
 
 (3) What are the various aspects of the democratic 
 ideal? Which aspect do Americans emphasize? Is 
 the ordinary American interpretation of democracy 
 an adequate one? 
 
 (4) Why and how did Germany develop its obnoxious 
 type of nationalism? What are its more objection- 
 able features? 
 
 (5) What European states have the most developed na- 
 tionalism? What are the most important obstacles 
 to nationalism in the various countries? 
 
 (6) Discuss the progress since 1850 towards democracy 
 and liberal nationalism in Great Britain and in 
 Prance and compare their political democracy with 
 that of the United States. 
 
 (7) Should the weaker nationalities have the same 
 rights as the stronger? If so, why? What are 
 Germany's arguments for the negative? 
 
 (46) 
 
IX. Origin of the Prussian State and of the German 
 
 Empire. 
 
 (1) Importance of studying Prussia as the dominant 
 state of the German Empire. The two great factors 
 in her development (a) dynastic centralized con- 
 trol by the Hohenzollern family and (b) expansion 
 by conquest. Outline of Prussian state develop- 
 ment. 
 
 1. The Hohenzollern family. Its origin and 
 early history. Castle counts of Zollern; 
 burgraves of Nuremberg; electoral mar- 
 graves of Brandenburg. Protestant in 
 16th century for political ends and gain. 
 
 Activities during the Reformation era. 
 
 2. The Hohenzollerns inherit east Prussia 
 (1618). Further gains in the Thirty Years' 
 War and after. Frederick "William, the 
 Great Elector (1640-1688) as a promoter 
 of dynastic centralization and Brandenburg 
 
 prosperity. 
 
 3. Brandenburg-Prussia becomes a kingdom in 
 1701. Militarist and conquering kings of 
 the 18th century — Frederick William I 
 
 (1713-1740) and his army, Frederick the 
 Great (1740-1786) and his wars and con- 
 quests. Great influence of the latter on 
 Prussian ideals and policies. The mili- 
 taristic traditions of the Hohenzollerns. 
 
 4. Decadence of Hohenzollerns and of dynastic 
 Prussia during the periods of the French 
 Eevolution, Napoleon, and Metternich. 
 Growth of Prussian liberal nationalism and 
 desire for German unity on liberal con- 
 stitutional basis. This movement opposed 
 by Hapsburg and Hohenzollern reaction- 
 aries. The industrial revolution in Ger- 
 many and the Prussian Zollverein as a 
 step towards national unity. 
 
 (47) 
 
5. Prussian and German liberalism finds ex- 
 pression in the revolutions of 1848-1849. 
 The Frankfort Assembly and its failure to 
 secure support from the Prussian King. 
 Persecution of German liberals by the re- 
 actionary governments and emigration of 
 large liberal element from the German 
 states to America and elsewhere. Effect 
 of this seen in the decline of liberal 
 democratic sentiment in Germany after 
 1850. Difficulty of resurrecting liberal 
 democratic nationalism. 
 
 (2) The political unification of Germany under Prus- 
 sian domination and how it was brought about by 
 the conservative Prussian statesman Otto von Bis- 
 marck during the later 19th century. Steps in this 
 development. 
 
 1. The difficulty of German political national 
 unity. Certain prerequisites for its suc- 
 cess: (a) dissolution of the Germanic 
 Confederation; (b) elimination of Austrian 
 influence; (c) compromises between dy- 
 nastic and national liberal ideas and be- 
 tween reactionaries and revolutionaries. 
 
 2. The growth of Prussian dynastic and mili- 
 tary power under William I (1861-1888). 
 His chief friends and advisers von Moltke 
 (1800-1891) and von Roon (1803-1897). 
 The struggle of Prussian militarism with 
 the Prussian Landtag or Parliament. The 
 importance of the issue involved. Appear- 
 ance of Bismarck as chief royal adviser. 
 
 3. Otto von Bismarck-Schoenhausen (1815- 
 1898) and his social and political position. 
 A thorough Junker or aristocrat with 
 strong convictions of dynastic nationalism. 
 Development of his character and ideas 
 as a politician. His abhorrence of democ- 
 racy shown in his statement "I look for 
 Prussian honor in Prussian abstinence be- 
 (48) 
 
fore all things from every shameful union 
 with democracy." 
 
 4. Bismarck's career as a Prussian-German 
 leader (a) the reactionary phase, opponent 
 of liberal revolution (1848-1850) ; (b) 
 Prussian conservatist phase, acceptance of 
 Prussian constitution (1850-1851) ; (c) dip- 
 lomatic phase, Prussian representative at 
 Frankfort, Petrograd and Paris (1851- 
 1862) ; (d) ministerial anti-parliamentary 
 phase, supporter of enlarged army plans 
 (1862-1866) : (e) Prussian-German nation- 
 alistic phase, maker of a united Germany 
 (1866-1890). 
 
 5. Bismarck's belief in war as a political 
 measure. His famous statement that "not 
 by speeches and majority votes are the 
 great questions of the day decided — that 
 was the big blunder of 1848 and 1849— 
 but by blood and iron." The carrying out 
 of this idea in German unification by means 
 of three wars (a) the Sehleswig-Holstein or 
 Danish war (1864); (b) the Seven Weeks' 
 War with Austria and her German allies 
 (1866), followed by the North German 
 Confederation (1867) ; and (c) the six 
 months' war with France (1870-1871). 
 Completion of Prussian-German unification 
 by 1871. 
 
 (3) The German Empire (Jan. 18, 1871—) established 
 by Prussian military success against France and 
 proclaimed in the French royal palace of Versailles, 
 outside of Paris. The military strength and dom- 
 ineering attitude of the new Empire from its be- 
 ginning. Important policies and activities of Ger- 
 many under the Bismarck regime. 
 
 1. Surrender of Paris after a four month 
 
 siege (Jan. 28, 1871). The severe and 
 
 merciless terms of the Treaty of Frankfort : 
 
 (a) Cession of Alsace-Lorraine with Metz 
 
 (49) 
 
and Strasbourg; (b) Indemnity of one bil- 
 lion dollars: (c) German occupation of 
 France until indemnity was paid. Effect 
 of the German victory jind peace terms on 
 the combatants and on the other European 
 powers. 
 
 2. General character of Prussian-German gov- 
 ernment — "the least democratic country 
 of western Europe.' ' No real democracy 
 or popular control, Reichstag a "debating 
 society' ' and Prussia "a state of soldiers 
 and officials." Prussia politically and 
 militarily dominant. Whole system of ad- 
 ministration and government highly or- 
 ganized and bureaucratic. 
 
 3. Bismarck's plans and policies of national 
 consolidation under Prussian control. Uni- 
 fication of legal system, public utilities, 
 and military organization. The various 
 political parties. The Kulturkampf and its 
 failure. Bismarck's war on Socialism and 
 his policies of state socialism and economic 
 legislation. The protective tariff and colo- 
 nial expansion. Treatment of Alsace-Lor- 
 raine during the period of Bismarck. 
 
 4. The death of William I and the double 
 change in rulers in 1888. Decline of Bis- 
 marck's power and influence owing to the 
 ambition of Kaiser William II (1888) to 
 rule personally. Bismarck's forced resigna- 
 tion in 1890. His last years as a critic of 
 the new regime and his death in 1898. 
 Estimate of his position as a German na- 
 tionalist opposed to German world empire. 
 
 (4) The German empire under William II from 1890 
 to the present. Maintenance of the Bismarckian 
 tradition except in regard to anti-socialist legisla- 
 tion. The new emperor described as "a natural 
 ally of fire-eating militarists, of land-owning aris- 
 tocrats, of conservative university professors, and 
 (50) 
 
of the newer industrial magnates." Principal mat- 
 ters of interest in Germany since 1890. 
 
 1. Economic growth and development before 
 the^ war. Increase in population. The 
 various political parties and their impor- 
 tance — no really liberal party owing to 
 radical character of the Social Democrats. 
 Increasing demand for more popular gov- 
 ernment through electoral and parliamen- 
 tary reforms in both Prussia and Germany. 
 Little response to this demand on the part 
 of the Hohenzollerns. 
 
 2. William II and his many chancellors 
 (1890-1918). Bismarck's' observation that 
 "William II became his own chancellor." 
 Treatment of Alsace-Lorraine since 1890. 
 Local self-government and the Zabern af- 
 fair. Eesponsibility of the Kaiser and his 
 military projects for the World War and 
 for German policy in making war. 
 
 (5) Summary and conclusion: The rise of the Prus- 
 sian state and the German Empire show the develop- 
 ment of a powerful dynastic, militaristic, undemo- 
 cratic type of selfish, egotistic nationalism which 
 is a menace to democracy and must be reformed. 
 
 Study and Reading References. 
 
 Hayes, Political and Social History, I, 347-352, II, 180-194, 
 
 397-426. 
 Hazen, Europe since 1815, chs. xi, xiv. 
 
 , Modern European History, chs. xix, xxi. 
 
 , Government of Germany, War Information Series, 
 
 No. 103. 
 Hawkesworth, Last Century in Europe, chs. xvii, xxii, xxiii. 
 Schapiro, Modern and Contemporary History, chs. vii, ix, xii. 
 Seignobos, Europe since 1814, chs. xii, xiv, xv, xvi. 
 Wilson, The State, 242-300. 
 
 Study Problems. 
 
 (1) Why must we study the origins of Prussia to 
 understand the Germanv we are fighting against? 
 (51) 
 
(2) "What were the important steps in the rise of the 
 Hohenzollerns and the development of Prussia to 
 the death of Frederick the Great? Discuss Prus- 
 sian and Hohenzollern traditions and ideals as 
 exemplified by Frederick the Great. 
 
 (3) How did the French Revolution and the Napoleonic 
 Wars bring about a growth of liberalism in Prus- 
 sia? Why were the liberal movements of 1848 so 
 unsuccessful in Prussia and Germany? Did the 
 desire for German unity aid or hinder German 
 liberalism? Why did the liberals in Prussia in the 
 end surrender to Bismarck? 
 
 (4) What were the chief obstacles to the unification of 
 Germany? How did William I prepare the way? 
 What were the social and political antecedents of 
 Bismarck to 1862? 
 
 (5) What was Bismarck's method of achieving German 
 unity? Discuss his contest with the Prussian Diet. 
 Did his three wars lead directly to the foundation 
 of the German Empire? What disastrous effects 
 has this method of unification had on German char- 
 acter and ideals? 
 
 (6) Discuss the strengthening of these ideals in Ger- 
 many under Bismarck through the merciless peace 
 of Frankfort, the extension of Prussian ideals of 
 government to the Empire and military, legal and 
 economic consolidation. 
 
 (7) Discuss the continuation of Bismarckian policies 
 under William II. Comment on his attitude to- 
 ward demands of Social Democrats, on the issue 
 of ministerial responsibility and on militarism. 
 Point out how the war proves that Germany has 
 been Prussianized. 
 
 X. The Development of Popular Government in Great 
 Britain and the Evolution of the British Empire. 
 
 (1) The British Empire of ioday a great collection of 
 self governing states with some dependent colonies. 
 The center of the whole system is the mother coun- 
 try known as Great Britain but frequently referred 
 (52) 
 
to as England. Importance of the development of 
 popular government in Great Britain as a back- 
 ground to the war for democracy. 
 
 1. Lack of democracy in Great Britain one 
 hundred years ago. Existence of religious 
 disabilities, which are removed in part in 
 1828 and 1829. Parliamentary corruption 
 and poor representation, and other political 
 evils. Various reforms urged by the Whig 
 or liberal party and by the middle classes. 
 
 2. The passage of the reform bill of 1832 
 by which (a) there is a general redistribu- 
 tion of representation in the interest of the 
 middle classes and a greater democracy; 
 (b) a reform of the franchise by which the 
 right to vote is given to several hundred 
 thousand more electors though still greatly 
 restricted. Further reform brought about 
 by restricting the period of election to two 
 days. The reform parliament and the new 
 and more progressive political parties 
 known as Liberals and Conservatives. 
 
 3. Agitation for more radical reforms on the 
 part of a number of philosophical radicals in 
 and out of parliament. The Chartist move- 
 ment and their "Six Points." Chartist 
 riots and the failure of Chartism to ac- 
 complish anything definite. Its influence 
 felt in opinions and discussions. Move- 
 ment of Christian socialism. 
 
 4. Various special reforms of social and eco- 
 nomic character in the early nineteenth 
 century. Revision of criminal law, legaliza- 
 tion of trade unions, poor law reform, 
 prison reform, abolition of slavery, indus- 
 trial legislation in regard to work in fac- 
 tories and mines, and promotion to a limited 
 extent of education. These reforms due 
 very largely to the influence of the bour- 
 geoisie in politics with their notions of 
 
 (53) 
 
thrift and efficiency and their ideals of 
 bettering conditions. 
 5. Delay in putting through further measures 
 of reform in Great Britain between 1840 
 and 1867 due to the idea that reform had 
 gone far enough. Some gains during this 
 period along lines of free trade — such as 
 the repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846. 
 Growth of democracy among the working- 
 men in their trade unions and other as- 
 sociations. Need of further parliamentary 
 reform and the attitude of political parties 
 and leaders. 
 (5, The two great political leaders of the mid- 
 dle and later 19th century, Gladstone and 
 Disraeli, both favorable to parliamentary re- 
 form. The former a type of liberal bour- 
 geois statesmanship and the latter stand- 
 ing for constructive conservatism on the 
 part of the aristocratic political classes. 
 The passage of the second reform act in 
 1867 followed by liberal political ascend- 
 ancy under Gladstone with many further 
 reforms of varied character. Almost com- 
 plete realization of the "Six Points " of 
 the Chartists. 
 
 7. British popular government somewhat 
 hampered by the power possessed by the 
 highly aristocratic and partisan House of 
 Lords. Measures taken to curb the House 
 of Lords by the great Parliament Act of 
 1911. Recent advances in popular govern- 
 ment in Great Britain have brought about 
 practically universal suffrage for both men 
 and women. In some respects Great Britain 
 is now the most democratic state in exist- 
 ence in a political way. 
 
 8. General character of present day British 
 government: (a) Evolutionary historical 
 character of the British constitution; (b)/ 
 
 . (54) 
 
the popular parliamentary system of 
 government by majority and the respon- 
 sible cabinet; and (e) the centralization of 
 government together with the existence 
 of a well organized system of local 
 administration. The British parties in 
 recent times and the growth of the im- 
 portant Labor Party with progressive 
 policy. The alliance of Liberals and 
 Laborites supported by Irish Home Rulers, 
 against the Conservatives and Liberal 
 Unionists. 
 9. Growth of popular government in Great 
 Britain as shown by recent social legisla- 
 tion of importance under the leadership 
 of British Socialists. The Factory and 
 Mines Acts and other important social and 
 economic measures relating to Sweated 
 Labor, Minimum Wage. Workingmen's 
 Compensation, Child Welfare, Old Age Pen- 
 sions, Unemploj r ed Labor Exchange, Na- 
 tional Insurance, Education, Trade Union- 
 ism, Taxation of the Rich, Land Reform 
 and many other subjects. Prominence of 
 David Lloyd George as a liberal reformer 
 as shown in his speeches and proposals. 
 
 10. The agitation for Irish Home Rule a mani- 
 festation of liberalism vigorously opposed 
 by conservatives of all sorts. Irish national- 
 ism due to race tradition, insularity, relig- 
 ious and economic oppression and other 
 historic wrongs. Deep-seated feeling of 
 Irish Nationalists against England and in- 
 cessant demand for Home Rule. 
 
 11. Gladstone's Home Rule bills of 1886 and 
 1893 and their failure. Passage of the 
 Home Rule bill of 1912. Ulster and Union- 
 ist opposition and danger of civil war in 
 Ireland. The Home Rule Act of 1914 and 
 its temporary suspension during the war. 
 
 (55) 
 
The Irish rebellion of 1916 and the atti- 
 tude of Ireland towards the war and to- 
 wards conscription. The future of Ire- 
 land. 
 
 (2) The evolution of the British Empire since the early 
 17th century. Beginnings of British colonization 
 in America and India. Rapid growth of -British 
 colonial population and extension of British colo- 
 nial territory by successful war in the later 17th 
 and during the 18th and early 19th centuries. 
 Character and composition of the British Empire 
 of to-day. • «» 
 
 1. The greatest world empire that has ever 
 existed. It size, population and varied 
 character. Classification of its divisions un- 
 der three heads (a) Self-Governing Colo- 
 nies; (b) Crown Colonies, possessing few 
 rights of self government; and (c) pro- 
 tected colonies, such as India and Egypt, 
 which it is the intention to develop along 
 lines of national democracy. 
 
 2. The great Self-Governing colonies or 
 British colonial nations making up half of 
 the British Empire. The evolution of popu- 
 lar government in Canada, Australia, New 
 Zealand and South Africa. The Boer "War 
 (1899-1902) in connection with the union of 
 South Africa in 1909. Slight British control 
 over the dominions and the movement for 
 Imperial Federation by means of (a) im- 
 perial preference (b) imperial conference 
 and (c) imperial defense. The splendid 
 support given to the war by the British 
 colonial nations. 
 
 3. The Crown Colonies and how they differ 
 from Self-Governing Colonies. British 
 West Indies, numerous Crown Colonies in 
 Africa, important Naval Stations, Pro- 
 tectorates and territory controlled by 
 
 (56) 
 
Chartered Companies all come under the 
 head of Crown Colonies. British control 
 over Egypt before the beginning of the 
 World War when Egypt became a Pro- 
 tectorate. 
 4. The Empire of India. Importance of India 
 to Great Britain. Its extent, geographical 
 divisions, races, religions and political dis- 
 censions. Earlier history of British India 
 especially since the middle 18th century. 
 The work of the empire builders of India 
 such as Clive, Hastings, and others. The 
 Indian Mutiny (1857) and its results. 
 Political unrest in India and the Indian 
 Councils Act of 1909. Recent reforms 
 in India pointing towards democratic na- 
 tionalism. Economic advantage of India 
 to Great Britain. 
 
 (3) Summary and conclusion: Great Britain and her 
 principal colonies have developed a system of popu- 
 lar government of flexible democratic character 
 while the British people have had remarkable suc- 
 cess as empire builders in all parts of the world. 
 Advantages to British manufacturers and capital- 
 ists of the "far flung empire." Importance of sea 
 power to Great Britain and her empire and the 
 maintenance of a very powerful navy in spite of 
 enormous cost. The probable future of British 
 imperialism along democratic and national lines. 
 
 Study and Reading References. 
 
 Hayes, Political and Social History, II, 28-36, 102-116, 277- 
 
 330, 640-678. 
 Hazen, Europe since 1815, chs. xviii-xxii. 
 
 , Modern European History, chs, xxv-xxvii. 
 
 Schapiro, Modern and Contemporary History, chs. v, xiv, xv. 
 Seignobos, Europe since 1814, chs. ii-iv. 
 
 Study Problems. 
 
 (1) In what respect was Great Britain lacking in demo- 
 cracy in the early 19th century? What changes 
 (57) 
 
and reforms soon took place and what was their 
 effect? 
 
 (2) How was popular government promoted and devel- 
 oped during the middle and later 19th century. 
 Discuss the character, career and reforms of Wil- 
 liam Ewart Gladstone as a representative of bour- 
 geois liberalism. 
 
 (3) Explain "Home Rule for Ireland" agitation and 
 the reasons back of it. What is your opinion on 
 the question and on the proper attitude of Ireland 
 towards the World War? 
 
 (4) What significance do you attach to the following: 
 (a) Reform of the House of Lords; (b) British 
 social legislation during recent years ; (c) Grow- 
 ing strength of organized labor in Great Britain. 
 Is the war likely to make Great Britain more demo- 
 cratic and if so why? 
 
 (5) How and why did Great Britain's colonial empire 
 begin? What change of policy took place early in 
 the 19th century? Of what types of colonies is it 
 composed? What value has the empire been in the 
 war? 
 
 XI. Colonial Expansion and National Imperialism. 
 
 (1) Importance of colonial expansion to the European 
 states. Underlying motives of economic, patriotic 
 and religious character. Colonial rivalry as cause 
 of national jealousy and of war. Examples. 
 
 (2) The background to modern colonial expansion. De- 
 cline of the old colonial movement based on mer- 
 cantilism. Achievements and defects of early colo- 
 nization to 1815 on the part of Spain, Portugal, the 
 Dutch, France and Great Britain. The partial dis- 
 covery and Europeanization of the New World. 
 
 (3) The new colonial expansion and imperialism due to 
 the industrial revolution and the French revolu- 
 tion. Rapid spread of the idea of colonial im- 
 
 (58) 
 
perialism during the later 19th century. Analysis 
 , of the motives back of the movement. 
 
 1. The economic motive. Protection and colo- 
 nial markets. " Trade follows the flag." 
 Question as to the validity of this motive. 
 Illustrations from recent colonial economic 
 experience. Private investments and priv- 
 ate profits an important element in con- 
 nection with colonial imperialism on an 
 economic basis. 
 
 2. The patriotic motive. Colonies for national 
 power and prestige. Also for surplus popu- 
 lation. Criticism of this idea when applied 
 to tropical colonies and* even to others. 
 German and British statistics of emigra- 
 tion. 
 
 (4) Colonial expansion and liberal nationalism in pos- 
 sible conflict. The relation of imperialism to demo- 
 cracy. Self-determination of peoples and their ex- 
 ploitation and improvement. Taking up "the white 
 man's burden" and following "manifest destiny." 
 
 (5) Special manifestations of colonial expansion in re- 
 lation to the war and its issues. 
 
 1. Teutonic colonial expansion and colonial 
 ambitions in all parts of the w^orld. Ef- 
 forts to realize these lead to building of 
 powerful navy and attempting to acquire 
 new territory at the expense of European 
 and non-European peoples. The German 
 maxim "a place in the sun." 
 
 2. Possession by Great Britain of a vast colo- 
 nial empire of varied character. "The sun 
 never sets on the British flag." Deter- 
 mination of Great Britain to maintain her 
 colonial supremacy on a basis of colonial 
 liberty and self-government — "what we 
 have we hold." The Boer War and its 
 results on the Boers. British colonialism 
 constantly growing more liberal and demo- 
 cratic. 
 
 (59) 
 
3. Russian-Slav colonial expansion toward the 
 east and south. Occupation of Siberia and 
 desire to expand further. Persia and her 
 subjection to Russian and British influence. 
 The Anglo-Russian frontier and its influ- 
 ence on the relation of Russia and Great 
 Britain. 
 
 4. Colonial expansion and imperialism in 
 China and the Far East. The dismember- 
 ment and reassembling of China. Japanese, 
 Russian, British, French, German, Dutch 
 and American interests in the Far East and 
 the issues raised there by the adherence 
 of China, Japan and Siam to the allied 
 cause. 
 
 5. The American continent protected from 
 further colonial imperialism by the Monroe 
 Doctrine. German hopes of colonial imper- 
 ial support from North and South America 
 not realized. Colonies of Germans in South 
 America, particularly Brazil, and their re- 
 lation to the German colonial office. 
 
 6. The loss by Germany of all her colonies in 
 the World War and the question of their 
 return as an issue of the war. Arguments 
 for and against their return of political, 
 economic and social character. German 
 colonial methods notoriously cruel and bar- 
 barous. Examples from Africa. 
 
 (6) Colonial expansion and imperialism shown to be due 
 to various motives of which the economic and patri- 
 otic are most important. Great Britain the leading 
 and most successful example of colonial imperial- 
 ism. The German Empire jealous and ambitious for 
 world and colonial domination in the interests of 
 German political imperialism, economic prosperity 
 and German "Kultnr." 
 
 (60) 
 
Study and Reading References. 
 
 Hayes, Political and Social History, II, chs. xxvii, xxviii. 
 Hazen, Europe since 1815, chs. xxiii, xxx. 
 
 , Modern European History, chs. xxviii, xxxv. 
 
 Schapiro, Modem and Contemporary History, ch. xxviii. 
 
 Study Problems. » 
 
 (1) What were the motives for the colonial expansion 
 of the European nations before 1815? Why were 
 colonies considered of value? Discuss the rivalries 
 of European nations for colonial empire and how far 
 was the world Europeanized by 1815? 
 
 (2) In what three ways has the Industrial Revolution 
 developed newer colonial imperialism? What are 
 the patriotic arguments for colonial expansion and 
 how sound are they? How far are economic argu- 
 ments justified by experience and statistics? 
 
 (3) What are some of the possible conflicts of the ideals 
 of democracy with the new imperialism as to (a) 
 subject peoples; (b) European countries them- 
 selves ? 
 
 (4) How was the German Empire handicapped in colo- 
 nial expansion? How did she attempt to overcome 
 these handicaps? What did Germany mean by "a 
 place in the sun" and what did this imply? 
 
 (5) How do you explain Great Britain's remarkable 
 success as a colonial power and empire builder? 
 
 (6) Comment on the problems in the Far and Near 
 East occasioned by ambition for colonial expansion 
 and national imperialism. 
 
 XII. The New France After 1870 and its Republican 
 and Democratic Development. 
 
 (1) The making of the French Republic of today. The 
 revolutionary proclamation of the Third Republic 
 (Sept. 4, 1870). The election of the National As- 
 sembly. Adolphe Thiers as "Chief of the Execu- 
 tive Power" and later as President. The Bordeaux 
 
 (61) 
 
Compact. Constitutional monarchist character of 
 the Assembly. Its problems and achievements. ' 
 
 1. Conclusion of peace with Germany. Pay- 
 ment of the indemnity within a very short 
 period. Evacuation of France by the Ger- 
 mans. Beginning of the new France on a 
 bourgeois liberal basis. 
 
 2. Difficulties of the new government with 
 the revolutionary commune at Paris. Dis- 
 like on the part of the workingmen for 
 bourgeois control. Suppression of the Paris 
 rebellion with great severity. Significance 
 of the commune. Moderate liberal char- 
 acter of the French republic. Middle class 
 popular support. 
 
 3. Powers of the National Assembly. The 
 Rivet Law (1871). Conversion of Thiers 
 to republicanism as "that form of Govern- 
 ment which divides us least." His insis- 
 tence on conservatism as against the ag- 
 gressive republicanism of Leon Gambetta 
 and the monarchism of Marshal MacMahon. 
 
 4. Financial achievements and military re- 
 forms of the National Assembly. Its poli- 
 cies in regard to local governments and 
 centralization. Monarchists and Republi- 
 cans in conflict over form of permanent 
 central government. Monarchical restora- 
 tion prevented by the reactionary attitude 
 of the Comte de Chambord in regard to 
 
 the tricolor flag. National Assembly ac- 
 cepts republic. Constitutional laws of 
 1873. 
 
 5. General character of the government of the 
 Third Republic. Supremacy of the Cham- 
 ber of Deputies or Parliament and of its 
 agents the ministry or cabinet. Power of 
 the Premier or Prime Minister as com- 
 pared with that of the President. "The 
 President of France neither reigns nor 
 
 (62) 
 
rules. ' Frequent changes of ministry in 
 France and existence of numerous party 
 groups under personal leaders. 
 6. End of the National Assembly in 1875. 
 Marshal McMahon as President and leader 
 of the monarchists. Gambetta as repub- 
 lican leader and his policy of anti-clerical- 
 ism in opposition to the monarchists. The 
 Chamber of Deputies strongly republican 
 and this forces McMahon 's resignation in 
 1879. Definite triumph of republicanism 
 in France since that date. 
 
 (2) The liberal bourgeois republic and its repression of 
 clericalism and military nationalism. Progress of 
 democracy under moderate republican auspices. The 
 character of the governing class in France since 
 1879. Notable absence of aristocrats and clericals 
 and prevalence of men of average middle class type 
 of intelligence. Important aspects of recent French 
 development. 
 
 1. Growth of material prosperity. Promotion 
 of agriculture by the republican govern- 
 ment. Remarkable growth of French in- 
 dustry and manufacture. Adoption of a 
 high customs tariff. Aggressive colonial pol- 
 icy based on clerical, patriotic and capital- 
 ist support. Increase of wealth and expan- 
 sion of foreign investments. 
 
 2. Important social legislation in regard to 
 employment of women and children, limita- 
 tion of working hours, observance of Sun- 
 day or other day as "a day of rest," fac- 
 tory legislation, regulation of mines, recogni- 
 tion and protection of trade unions and 
 combinations, settlement of trade disputes 
 by arbitration, workmen's compensation, 
 and old age pensions. 
 
 3. Guarantee by the republic of individual 
 liberties, as freedom of meeting and 
 
 (63) 
 
speech, freedom of the press, freedom of 
 associations, except in the case of monastic 
 establishments of the Roman Catholic 
 Church. Humanitarian legislation in regard 
 to the criminal law and treatment of de- 
 pendent children. Liberal attitude toward 
 divorce. Different social standards in 
 France. 
 
 4. Steady growth of anti-clericalism in repub- 
 lican France. Basis of the conflict is op- 
 position to monarchism and ideal of 
 democratic state education for French youth 
 in public schools instead of in church 
 schools. The Ferry Laws of the early 
 eighties and their importance. The mon- 
 archist-clerical element and the Boulanger 
 
 . episode (1887-1889). Results of Boulanger's 
 failure — greater stability of Third Republic. 
 
 5. The sensational Dreyfus affair and its 
 significance as a monarchist-clerical agita- 
 tion against the Jews and their influence. 
 Intense political and social feeling as be- 
 tween "Dreyfusards" and "i\nti-Drey- 
 fusards." Final victory of the Dreyfusards 
 and the outcome of the whole affair. France 
 becomes more anti-clerical, anti-monarch- 
 ical, and anti-militaristic as a result. 
 
 6. The revival of anti-clerical agitation as 
 seen in the Associations Act of 1901. Fur- 
 ther legislation along this line by which 
 church and state in France become com- 
 pletely separated and diplomatic relations 
 with the Vatican are broken off. Reasons 
 for the continued clerical opposition to 
 French republicanism. Efforts at compro- 
 mise made by Briand, partially successful 
 in 1907. Present condition of the question. 
 Revival of religious feeling in France. 
 
 7. The political groups and parties in France. 
 The group system of France distinguished 
 
 (64) 
 
from the two-party system of Gfeal Britain 
 
 and the United States. Composition and 
 character of the various political groups 
 in France such as the Right and Left, the 
 monarchists, Unified Socialists, Action Lib- 
 erale, the Bloc, and various subdivisions 
 and minor parties. 
 
 (3) The new Prance on the eve of the World War. 
 Problems of taxation and social reform, proportional 
 representation, militarism in regard to the new army 
 bill (1913), clericalism, and increase of political 
 Socialism. Passage of the new army bill in 1913 in 
 spite of Socialist opposition. Assassination of Jaures 
 (1914). The elections of 1914 and the Unified 
 Radicals opposed by the Federation of the Left. 
 General spirit of French patriotism and liberal 
 nationalism in spite of party differences and ad- 
 vanced Socialist ideas. 
 
 Study and Reading References. 
 
 Hayes, Political and Social History, II, 331-3-67. 
 Hazen, Europe since 1815, ch. xv. 
 
 , Modern European History, ch. xxii. 
 
 Schapiro, Modern and Contemporary History, ch. xi. 
 
 Study Problems. 
 
 (1) Explain the genesis of the new France and the 
 immediate problems of the nation after 1870. 
 
 (2) Discuss the national assembly as the government of 
 France, 1871-1875. Comment on the reorganization 
 of the army, of finances, and of local government. 
 
 (3) What were the parties in France during the first 
 decade of the Third Republic, their leaders and 
 their purposes? Comment on the contest between 
 them and explain the final triumph of the Repub- 
 licans in 1879. 
 
 (4) What has been the general character of the govern- 
 ing class in France since 1879? Show how the 
 Third Republic has fostered material development, 
 
 (65) 
 
colonial expansion and social reforms, and has safe 
 guarded personal liberty. 
 
 (5) What is meant by the "group system" in Prance? 
 Compare it with the party systems of Great Britain 
 and the United States. Describe and discuss the 
 various groups in contemporary France. 
 
 (6) Analyse the political and economic problems and 
 issues in France on the eve of the World War. 
 Compare the strength of republicanism and de- 
 mocracy in France in 1879 and 1914. 
 
 XIII. The Development of Nationalities in the Near 
 East. The Balkan States. 
 
 (1) The basis of nationality in the Near East rests 
 primarily on historic past represented in language 
 and literature, religion, and previous political or- 
 ganization. Complicated by Turkish conquests and 
 control, intermixture of peoples, and foreign in- 
 terests. Intensive character of Balkan nationalism. 
 
 (2) Greece. With a population of about 5,000,000, self 
 styled descendants of classic Greeks, who inhabit 
 the end of the Balkan peninsula, and the islands 
 about it.. Greeks also live along the remaining shores 
 of the Aegean and on the sea of Marmora with scat- 
 tered settlements on the Euxine. Factors in the 
 development of modern Greece. 
 
 1. The modern national movement began with 
 the revival of language study by Koraes. 
 Foundation of Eetairia Phillike in 1815 led 
 in part to Greek revolt (1821-1829). Otto 
 of Bavaria becomes king. Russia, France 
 and England force the adoption of a 
 constitutional regime. Revolution of 1862 
 resulted in the accession of George I (1863- 
 1913), a Danish prince. 
 
 2. Development of Pan Hellenic movement to 
 regain all territory formerly held by the 
 Greeks. Economic advantages of control of 
 the Aegean trade. Constantinople regarded 
 
 (66) 
 
as a center. Ionian isles given by England 
 (1864) ; Crete, after long delay, in 1912. 
 Most of continental Greeks added in same 
 year by war. Constantine I on accession 
 in 1913 looked upon himself as Constantine 
 XIII, continuing the line of Byzantine em- 
 perors which had ended in 1453. 
 
 3. Venizelos, the great Cretan Pan Hellenist, 
 becomes prime minister. Originator of 
 Balkan confederation. Stood by allies from 
 first in present war and was ousted from 
 office by the pro-German ruler Constan- 
 tine. Now in control again as chief min- 
 ister of Alexander I (1917-). 
 
 4. Settlement in regard to Greece complicated 
 by the continued control of Rhodes and 
 the Dodecanese by Italy since Tripolitan 
 War. Concessions due Grecian nationalism. 
 
 (3) Serbia. Largest and one of the most historic 
 nationalities in the Balkan region. With closely 
 connected Croats of Austria-Hungary form solid 
 block of 8,500,000 Jugo-Slavs. Serbians in Serbia 
 numbered 3,000,000 before the war. Existence of 
 great Serbian national empire in 13th and 14th 
 centuries covering all the west part of the Balkan 
 peninsula. The Serbian power broken and destroyed 
 by the Turks at Kossovo (1389). 
 
 1. Revolt of Serbs under Kara George coun- 
 tenanced by Russia in 1804 but failed when 
 Russian support was withdrawn. Milosh 
 Obrenovitch, a local pork dealer, became 
 ruler of the province under the Sultan in 
 1830. In 1839 he abdicated rather than 
 accept a constitution. Changes in rulers in 
 middle 19th century. Prince Michael 
 (1860-1878) and the Greater Serbia policy. 
 
 2. Serbia becomes independent in 1878 and a 
 kingdom in 1882. War with Bulgaria 
 
 (67) 
 
(1885). Constitution of 1889 and abdica- 
 tion of King Milan (1878-1889). 
 
 3. Alexander I (1889-1903). Reactionary poli- 
 cies. Autocratic personal rule. Unpopular 
 acts. Alexander's assassination in 1903 
 brought the present ruler, Peter Kara- 
 georgevitch, to throne. Gave opportunity 
 for the development of the Greater Serbia. 
 
 4. Development of nationalistic societies. An- 
 nexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina great 
 blow to irridentist dreams. Economic de- 
 velopment of country controlled by Aus- 
 tria on account of lack of seaports. Fric- 
 tion with Austria culminated in the assassi- 
 nation at Serajevo. 
 
 5. Outlook for future of Serbia depends 
 largely on relations with Montenegro and 
 with Serbs and Croats of Austria-Hungary. 
 
 (5) Montenegro. Populated by a few thousands of 
 Orthodox Serbs who have always maintained a 
 semi-independence of Turks. Also under Russian 
 influence and favor but princely house has inter- 
 married with Italian royal family. Present dynasty 
 founded in 1851. Prince Nicholas granted demo- 
 cratic constitution in 1905 with universal man- 
 hood suffrage. Nicholas assumed title of King in 
 1908 and increased territory in the Balkan wars. 
 Future bound up with Serbia with which arrange- 
 ments for union already under way before the war. 
 The Albanian problem and its probable solution. 
 
 (6) Bulgaria. Second largest nationality in peninsula 
 with population of 4,700,000 lying south of lower 
 Danube. Existence of great Bulgarian empire in 
 middle ages composed of mixture of Mongol Bul- 
 gars and Slavs. Orthodox Greek in religion. 
 
 1. First autonomous Bulgaria in 1878 with 
 autocephalous Greek church under an Ex- 
 arch. Prince Alexander of Battenberg (1878- 
 
 (68) 
 
1886) chosen as ruler. Country under in- 
 fluence of Russia. National aspirations. 
 
 2. Nationalist party led by Stambolov devel- 
 oped to resist Russian control. Eastern 
 Rumelia annexed (1885). Alexander forced 
 to abdicate in 1886 and recent ruler, Fer- 
 dinand of Saxe-Coburg, elected. 
 
 3. Bulgaria becomes independent kingdom in 
 1908. Ferdinand takes the ancient title of 
 Tsar of the Bulgars. Unfortunate out- 
 come of the Balkan wars for Bulgaria. 
 
 4. Bulgaria an essential link in the Berlin 
 to Bagdad enterprise and, therefore, an 
 object of German diplomacy. Failure of 
 allies to enlist support of Bulgaria in the 
 war followed by declaration of war upon 
 Serbia (Oct. 14, 1914). Bulgaria thus be- 
 came an ally of the Central powers. 
 
 (7) Rumania. 11,000,000 Rumanians, including Transyl- 
 vanians, north of the lower course of the Danube, 
 linguistically descended from Roman colonists of 
 Dacia. Formed from provinces of Wallachia and 
 Moldavia connected in the middle ages with Tran- 
 sylvania as a part of Wallachian-Bulgar empire. 
 
 1. In 18th century Russian influence obtained 
 a semi-independent administration for Mol- 
 davia and "Wallachia from Turkey. Both 
 principalities put under collective guarantee 
 of powers in 1856. United in 1859 and in 
 1862 sultan recognized their ruler Alex- 
 ander Couza of Moldavia, as prince of 
 Rumania. Alexander forced to abdicate in 
 1866 and a Hohenzollern, Charles I (1866- 
 1914), elected as ruler. Present king is 
 Ferdinand I (1914-) His wife, queen Marie, 
 a British princess and strongly pro-ally. 
 
 2. Roumania has constitutional government 
 with responsible ministry but constant 
 struggles between conservatives and liber- 
 
 (69) 
 
als occur. Became a kingdom in 1881 and 
 completely independent in 1898. Internal 
 problems: land system and anti-Semitism. 
 
 3. Foreign policy of Rumania dictated by 
 irridentist hopes and by trying to hold bal- 
 ance between Russian and Austro-Hungar- 
 ian influences. Stirred by plans to unite Ru- 
 manians of Bessarabia and Transylvania to 
 Rumania proper. Took opportunity of sec- 
 ond Balkan war to force Bulgaria to cede 
 part of Dobruja. 
 
 4. Led to take part in present war by promises 
 of autocratic Russia and ruined by unwise 
 strategy and German intrigue. Servile 
 peace forced upon her in 1917 through col- 
 lapse of Russia. Outlook for expansion of 
 Rumanian nationalism. 
 
 (8) Summary and conclusion. The history of the Balkan 
 states complicated by various factors such as their 
 past national greatness and intense racial and poli- 
 tical rivalries. Problem of reconstruction simplified 
 by their sufferings during the world war which 
 may make them more tolerant of each other. 
 
 Study and Reading References. 
 
 Hayes, Political and Social History, II, ch. xxvi. 
 Hazen, Europe since 1815, ch. xxviii. 
 
 , Modern European History, ch. xxxiii. 
 
 Holt and Chilton, History of Europe, 1862-1914, 504-510 
 Schapiro, Modern and Contemporary History, ch. xxvii. 
 Seignobos, Europe since 1814, ch, xxi. 
 War Cyclopedia, Articles under names of Balkan states. 
 
 Study Problems. 
 
 (1) Discuss the serious difficulties confronting the es- 
 tablishment of the various nationalities in the Bal- 
 kans. 
 
 (2) What interests have led foreign countries to assist 
 Balkan nationalities to achieve their independence? 
 Wherein do these interests clash? 
 
 (70) 
 
(3) Consider the problem of Serbian nationality in its 
 relations to Austria-Hungary and Montenegro. What 
 Slav problem in its relation to Serbia? 
 
 (3) Trace the reasons for particular hatreds between 
 the Serbs and Bulgars. How far have they had 
 a chance to operate during the World War? What 
 influence may they have in the settlement? 
 
 (5) What common bonds of sympathy and interests have 
 tended to bind the Balkan states together in the 
 past? What divergence in interests, if any, might 
 render the establishment of Balkan federation im- 
 possible? Would the elimination of Turkey in Eu- 
 rope help in the solution of the problem? 
 
 (6) What are the difficulties connected with the estab- 
 lishment of a greater Rumania? On what ideals 
 is it based? 
 
 XIV. International Relations and Diplotnacy. The 
 Great Alliances and the Armed Peace. 
 
 (1) The dominant idea in international relations of 
 Europe during most of the 19th century that of 
 maintaining peace by "The Concert of Europe" 
 or co-operation of sovereign states. This system 
 inaugurated in 1815 under conservative and re- 
 actionary auspices. Domination of the five major 
 powers, not always in harmony, Austria, Russia, 
 Prussia, France and Great Britain. Growth of 
 British isolation from continental entanglements and 
 her reliance on her sea power. 
 
 (2) Permanence of the idea, if not the organization, of 
 a European Concert. The few short wars such as 
 the Crimean War, 1854-1856; the Franco-Italian- 
 Austrian War, 1858-1859 ; Prussian-Austrian-Danish 
 War, 1864; Austrian-Prussian War, 1866; and the 
 Franco-Prussian War. 1870-1871. Important serv- 
 ices rendered by the Concert of Europe in settling 
 difficulties of cultural character complicate the Jugo- 
 wars and establishing international law. 
 
 1. The Congress of Paris (1856) and the so- 
 called "Declaration of Paris" for the 
 (71) 
 
protection of neutral trade in times of war 
 against (a) privateering; (b) violation of 
 neutral flag? (c) protection of neutral 
 goods under enemy's flag; (d) limitation of 
 blockade. Influence of these restrictions. 
 The Geneva Convention of 1864 in regard 
 to wounded soldiers and the neutralizing 
 of medical war service. Organization of an 
 international Red Cross Society with spec- 
 ial emblems. Extension of the Geneva 
 Convention and the Red Cross organization 
 to the United States (1883), Turkey and 
 Japan. Its great significance and value. 
 Further invocation of the principle of the 
 Concert of Europe in the settlement, at the 
 Congress of Berlin (1878), of the Near- 
 Eastern question. Various minor manifes- 
 tations of the existence of the principle of 
 the Concert between 1878 and 1914 both 
 in regard to European and colonial issues 
 and disputes. Examples of this in connec- 
 tion with the Balkan states and Turkey, 
 Congo Free State, and in regard to China. 
 Influence of the idea of international set- 
 tlement by sovereign states on popular In- 
 ternationalism, as a means of bringing about 
 world peace. The strong anti-militarist and 
 pacifist movements of pre-war times. Desire 
 for international arbitration and disarma- 
 ment. The Hague Peace Conferences of 
 1899 and 1907. Dangerous idealism of the 
 pre-war pacifists in view of the armed 
 peace which existed in Europe. 
 Various practical obstacles to international 
 peace such as (a) intensive nationalism 
 and uncritical patriotism; (b) existence of 
 territorial problems such as Alsace-Lor- 
 raine, Poland, Turkey, Bohemia, and the 
 Balkan nations; (c) militaristic viewpoints 
 
 (72) 
 
and desires of various nations and parties; 
 (d) rapid expansion of national armaments 
 on the plea of national defence; (e) scien- 
 tific justifications of the permanence of 
 militarism and militant nationalism as fac- 
 tors in civilization. 
 
 (3) The Concert of Europe seriously affected by the 
 emergence after 1870 of the German Empire as a 
 dominant European power and the later formation 
 of great alliances of groups of rival powers. The 
 importance of the diplomatic history of Europe 
 between 1871 and 1914. Its leading characteristics 
 must be studied. 
 
 (4) The Hegemony of Germany, 1871-1890, and the 
 formation of the Triple Alliance based on the 
 common interests of Germany and Austria. Features 
 of the period of German hegemony. 
 
 1. German military political dominance on 
 the continent of Europe. Great Britain 
 dominant on the sea but aloof from con- 
 tinental European issues. Bismarck's for- 
 eign policy one of isolating France by keep- 
 ing on good terms with the other powers. 
 His dread of coalitions against Germany. 
 His policy towards Austria-Hungary and 
 Italy. How he kept on good terms with 
 Russia and Great Britain. 
 
 2. The Three Emperors' League (1872) and 
 its maintenance for many years. Danger 
 of a second war against France owing to 
 her rapid recovery. Bismarck's reputed 
 desire for such a war and the hostile at- 
 titude of Russia and Great Britain towards 
 any attack on France. Bismarck and the 
 Russian chancellor Gortchakoff. 
 
 3. Bismarck and the Russo-Turkish War of 
 1877-1878. The Treaty of San Stefano 
 and the calling of the Congress of Berlin 
 under- Bismarck's auspices. How he played 
 
 (73) 
 
the part of "the honest broker" in inter- 
 national affairs at the Congress. Signi- 
 ficance of the settlements made at Berlin 
 from the viewpoint of Teutonic imperialism 
 in middle Europe. 
 
 4. Formation of a defensive alliance between 
 Germany and Austria-Hungary in 1879 and 
 utilization of Italian resentment against 
 France to draw Italy into a Triple Alliance 
 (1882) with the Teutonic powers. Un- 
 natural and unstable position of Italy as a 
 member of this alliance fully realized by 
 Bismarck. Objects of the Triple Alliance. 
 
 5. Improved relations between Germany and 
 Russia, 1881-1890. The secret three-year 
 convention of neutrality (1884). Its re- 
 newal in 1887. Pro German attitude of the 
 Tsar Alexander III. Practical isolation 
 of France among the nations between 1871 
 and 1890. Impossibility of maintaining this 
 isolation much longer seen by Bismarck. 
 
 (5) Formation of the Dual Alliance, the Anglo- Japanese 
 
 Alliance, the Entente Cordiale and the Triple 
 
 Entente, as anti-German manifestations of European 
 
 diplomacy. Establishment of a new balance of 
 
 power which threatens German hegemony. The 
 
 probable conflict of the alliances. Important aspects 
 
 of European diplomatic history between 1890 and 
 
 1914 from the point of view of the allied nations. 
 
 1. The growth of Pan-Slavism in Russia, the 
 
 industrial revolution which called for 
 
 French loans, the desire of France for an 
 
 ally, the change in German foreign policy 
 
 under Bismarck's successor, Caprivi, all lead 
 
 to less friendly relations between Russia 
 
 and Germany and an increase of cordiality 
 
 on the part of Russia and France. The 
 
 preliminaries to the Dual Alliance of 1891- 
 
 1894. 
 
 (74) 
 
2. Recent publication of the terms of the Dual 
 Alliance show it to have been a purely 
 defensive compact against possible Ger- 
 man aggression and a forecast of the crisis 
 of 1914. Formation of the Dual Alliance 
 created a balance of power in Europe. 
 
 3. Aloofness of Great Britain from both al- 
 liances but growing distrust on her part of 
 Germany on account of German ambitions, 
 economic expansion, and naval progress. 
 
 4. General reasons for the growing op- 
 position between the governments and peo- 
 ple of the British Empire and the German 
 Empire. They stand for different ideals 
 and methods of government and interna- 
 tional relations. Evidences of increasing 
 rivalry and friction late in the 19th century. 
 
 5. The attitude of Germany in regard to naval 
 expansion, colonial expansion, the Boer 
 War and other matters antagonized Brit- 
 tish public opinion. Great Britain isolated 
 on account of rivalry with Russia and 
 France and finds it difficult to make Eu- 
 ropean alliances. 
 
 6. The formation of the alliance between 
 Great Britain and Japan in 1902 an evi- 
 dence of British desire to emerge from her 
 "splendid isolation.' ' Value of the Japan- 
 ese alliance limited on account of its 
 Asiatic character. Probable exaggeration 
 of British alarm in regard to the possibility 
 of a great continental alliance against her. 
 Her desire to make friends with France. 
 
 7. The policies and diplomatic work of 
 Theophile Delcasse "the Nemesis of Bis- 
 marck. " His valuable service to France 
 in settling differences with Great Britain 
 which resulted in the Entente Cordiale of 
 1904. This Entente not a definite alliance 
 but rather a settling of a long standing 
 
 (75) 
 
quarrel and an agreement to work in har- 
 mony. King Edward VII and the Entente. 
 
 8. Difficulty of maintaining the Entente Cor- 
 diale during the Russo-Japanese War of 
 1904-05. Results of the Russian defeat 
 favorable to the enlargement of the Entente 
 to include Russia, the result being the 
 Triple Entente of 1907. Basis of this agree- 
 ment in an understanding on Anglo-Rus- 
 sian eastern problems. Bringing of Japan 
 into agreement with the Triple Entente 
 by 1910. Coalition for defense against Ger- 
 many. 
 
 9. Delcasse's policy of conciliating the Latin 
 
 states of Europe especially Spain and 
 Italy. Delimination of Franco-Spanish 
 spheres of influence in Morocco and settle- 
 ment of north African problems of Tunis 
 and Tripoli with Italy. 
 
 (6) Summary and conclusions: The breakdown of the 
 old Concert of Europe followed by a period of 
 German Hegemony (1871-1890) which is threatened 
 by the formation of alliances and ententes by rival 
 powers in the later years of the 19th century. Im- 
 portance of considering the conflicts and diplomatic 
 crises arising in the vears immediately preceding the 
 World War. 
 
 Study and Reading References. 
 
 Hayes, Political and Social History, II, 679-703. 
 Hazen, Europe since 1815, topics in chs. xiv-xvii, xxiii. 
 . Modern European History, topics in chs. xxi-xxiv, 
 
 xxxiii. 
 Hawkesworth, Last Century in Europe, pts, iv-v. 
 Holt and Chilton, History of Europe, 1862-1914, 154-316. 
 Schapiro, Modern and Contemporary History, 684-699. 
 Seignobos, Europe since 1814, part III. 
 War Cyclopedia, Articles on Concert of Europe, Congress of 
 
 Berlin, Dual Alliance, Triple Alliance, Entente, etc. 
 
 Study Problems. 
 
 (1) Explain the origin and original purposes of the 
 Concert of Europe. Point out its most important 
 (76) 
 
services in settling wars, extending international 
 
 law and along other lines. What were the more 
 important international conferences and what did 
 they accomplish? 
 
 (2) Comment on the development of the ideas of 
 international arbitration and world peace. What 
 positive results, if any, were attained before 1914? 
 What were the most dangerous obstacles to the 
 peace movement that rendered it somewhat futile 
 and visionary? 
 
 (3) How did the formation of the German Empire seri- 
 ously affect the Concert of Europe? Explain Bis- 
 marck's success in securing the hegemony of Grr- 
 many through militarism, the Triple alliance, the 
 isolation of France and neutral or friendly relations 
 with Great Britain and Russia. 
 
 (4) Show how the economic needs of Russia and the 
 international isolation of France gradually developed 
 into a Dual Alliance of strictly defensive character. 
 
 (5) Explain the reasons for Great Britain's growing 
 distrust of Germany and of her own policy of 
 "splendid isolation." 
 
 (6) Describe the diplomatic revolution of the early 
 twentieth century and the formation of the Entente 
 Cordiale and of the Triple Entente. What were 
 the objects of these understandings? 
 
 XV. The Conflict of Alliances and the Great Diplomatic 
 Crises Between 1905 and 1914. 
 
 (1) German resentment against the formation of rival 
 alliances. Her policy to break up or weaken the 
 Triple Entente and to strengthen the Triple Al- 
 liance by expanding Teutonic power and influence 
 
 • in southeastern Europe, insisting on her right to 
 take part in all aspects of world politics, cultivating 
 the good will of Turkey and threatening the peace 
 of Europe. 
 
 (2) Effect of the German attitude on European diplo- 
 macy before the war. Delcasse's work stands the 
 
 (77) 
 
test but serious crises occur especially in regard to 
 Morocco and the Near East. 
 (3) The Moroccan question arising out of German jeal- 
 ousy at being ignored by Delcasse in arranging 
 with Spain and Great Britain for the control of 
 Morocco. A few German capitalists interested in 
 Morocco seek intervention against that country 
 becoming a French protectorate. The result of the 
 German attitude seen in the three Moroccan crises. 
 
 1. The first Moroccan crisis. Kaiser William 
 II makes a speech at Tangier in Morocco 
 (1905) asserting Moroccan sovereignty and 
 independence of foreign control. France 
 resentful but not prepared for war. Resig- 
 nation of Delcasse. Submission of the 
 Moroccan question to an international con- 
 gress at Algeciras (1906). Guarantee of 
 the "open door" in Morocco. France and 
 Spain given police powers. The part played 
 by the United States in the Algeciras con- 
 gress. Germany forced to "play fair." 
 
 2. The second Moroccan Crisis (1908). Land- 
 ing of French soldiers at Casablanca (1907). 
 German protests against French military 
 occupation. German consul at Casablanca 
 protects French deserters from arrest and 
 causes crisis. Dispute referred to the Hague 
 Tribunal. Conclusion of the Franco-German 
 convention of 1909. Germany admits "only 
 economic interests" in Morocco, which 
 France agrees to safeguard. 
 
 3. The Third Moroccan Crisis (1911). German 
 militarists resent the pacific attitude of 
 Chancellor von Bulow in 1909 and force 
 his resignation. Desire to reopen Moroccan 
 question leads to the Agadir incident of 
 1911. Danger of war and British declara- 
 tion by Sir Edward Gray in support of 
 France. Backdown of Germany in the 
 Franco-German convention of 1911. Ger- 
 
 (78) 
 
many not to oppose French protectorate in 
 Morocco, France to maintain open door 
 and cede Germany part of the French 
 Congo. France resents this blackmail. 
 4. Successful results for France of the Moroc- 
 can incident but increased apprehension in 
 regard to outbreak of a war in Europe. 
 Consolidation of the Franco-British friend- 
 ship. German resentment against the other 
 powers for checking her ambitions. 
 (4)* The Near Eastern question, 1898-1914. German 
 and Austrian ambitions in middle and southeast 
 Europe opposed by Russia and Serbia and 
 the seriousness of this conflict. Concessions by 
 Rumania in 1898 to Germany and Austria and the 
 visit of the Kaiser to the Sultan in 1899. Valuable 
 concession of the Bagdad railway and Austrian 
 influence over Serbia, to 1903, and over Bulgaria. 
 Hohenzollern dynastic influences in Rumania and 
 Greece. Pan-Germanism versus Pan-Slavism. 
 
 (5) Teutonic power and influence back of the main- 
 tenance of Turkey in Europe as against Russian 
 policy to gain Constantinople. Decline of ^ British 
 influence in the Near East and growing political and 
 military control of the Teutonic empires. Only 
 check to Teutonism was the revolution in Serbia 
 which put the Pan-Slavic party in power (1903). 
 
 (6) The development of a series of great diplomatic 
 s crises in southeast Europe between 1908 and 1914 
 lj* one of the chief causes of the war of 1914. These 
 
 crisis due to the conflict between Pan-Germanism 
 and Pan-Slavism in the region of the Balkan states 
 Three principal crises before the war. 
 
 1. The First Near Eastern Crisis (1908) caused 
 by Austria annexing the Serb populated 
 districts of Bosnia-Herzegovina in 1908. 
 This done in defiance of the agreements 
 made in 1878 at the Congress of Berlin, 
 which had given these provinces to be ad- 
 ministered, but not owned, by Austria. 
 (79) 
 
The " Young Turk" revolution of 1908 and 
 consequent unsettlement taken advantage 
 of by Austria. The Kaiser takes his 
 stand "in shining armor" by the side of his 
 ally. Acquiescence of Russia, Serbia, and 
 other powers in this violation of treaty 
 obligations. Effect of this Pan-German 
 triumph on Pan-Slavism and the peace of 
 Europe. Serbian hatred of Austria-Hun- 
 gary. 
 
 2. The Second Near Eastern Crisis (1911-1912) 
 caused by the Tripolitan "War between 
 Turkey and Italy. Various reasons for 
 Germany and Austria objecting to this 
 conflict. Weakening of Turkey, strength- 
 ening of Italian nationalism and national- 
 imperialism, detachment of Italy from the 
 policies of the Triple Alliance. Connection 
 of this war with the next crisis in southeast 
 Europe. Italian national-imperialism. 
 
 3. The Third Near Eastern Crisis (1912-1913) 
 takes the form of a series of Balkan Wars 
 against Turkey and among the Balkan 
 states. The first Balkan War declared Oc- 
 tober 16, 1912, by a league of Greece, Ser- 
 bia, Bulgaria and Montenegro against Tur- 
 key. Failure of the great powers to agree 
 on any program of intervention. Success 
 of the Balkan allies reduces Turkish terri- 
 tory and power. Treaty of London (1913). 
 Second Balkan War (1913) between Bul- 
 garia and the other Balkan states resulting 
 in the defeat of Bulgaria. Recovery by 
 Turkey of Adrianople. Disappointment of 
 Serbia as to sea coast. The Treaty of 
 Bucharest (Aug. 10, 1913). 
 
 4. Significance of these repeated crises in 
 southeastern Europe and particularly of 
 the Balkan wars of 1912-1913. European 
 War prevented with difficulty, largely 
 
 (80) 
 
through the diplomacy of Sir Edward Gray, 
 the English Secretary for Foreign Affairs. 
 5. Austrian and German influence seriously 
 impaired by their support of Turkey and 
 Bulgaria. Increase of Russian and Serbian 
 influence in the Balkans seemed to call 
 for aggressive diplomacy and war on the 
 part of the great Teutonic Powers. 
 
 (7) Summary and conclusions: The various conflicting 
 interests of the alliances and the aggressiveness of 
 German military diplomacy bring about a number 
 of serious crises between 1905 and 1914. The 
 danger of war becomes greater and greater and 
 the continental states prepare for its possible out- 
 break by increased armaments. The year 1913- 
 1914 one of active preparation in Germany, Aus- 
 tria-Hungary, Russia, France and minor states of 
 Europe. Europe becomes a great powder magazine 
 ready to explode when the next spark is struck. 
 Study and Reading References. 
 
 Hays, Political and Social History, II, 528-546, 703-710. 
 
 Hazen, Europe since 1815, topics in chs. xiv-xvii. 
 
 , Modern European History, topics in chs. xxi-xxiv. 
 
 Holt and Chilton, Europe, 1862-1914, 365-387, 438-538. 
 
 Schapiro, Modern and Contemporary History, 700-708. 
 
 War Cyclopedia, Articles on Balkans, Bagdad Railway, 
 Delcasse, Morocco, Tripoli, etc. 
 
 Study Problems. 
 
 (1) Show how Germany strove to retain her hegemony 
 through expansion in the Near East and insistence 
 on a share in all aspects and discussions of world 
 politics. 
 
 (2) Explain the occasions for the three Moroccan 
 crises. "What did Germany demand in each case? 
 What were her real purposes? What did she secure? 
 
 (3) Comment on the interests of Germany and Austria- 
 Hungary in the Near East. Discuss the progress 
 of German influence there previous to 1908. 
 
 (4) Explain briefly the chief political, racial and econ- 
 omic problems in the Near East. 
 
 (81) 
 
(5) Comment on the conflicting aims of Pan Germanism 
 and Pan Slavism in the Balkan region. Show how 
 they were involved in the politics and crises pre- 
 ceding the World War and how Germany and 
 Austria-Hungary " backed the wrong horses.' ' 
 
 (6) How was the failure of German diplomacy in the 
 Balkans somewhat retrieved after the second Balkan 
 War? How did this increase the danger of an 
 international conference? What indications were 
 there during 1913-1914 of the fear of such a war? 
 
 PART III. 
 
 THE WORLD WAR AND ITS ISSUES. WAR AIMS. 
 
 XVI. The Causes, Character, and Progress of the World 
 
 War. 
 
 (1) General conditions making for war in Europe. 
 Racial nationaJ jealousy — Teuton and Slav, Ger- 
 man and Frenchman, German and British. Ger- 
 many's positive belief in and desire for war in 
 order to fulfill German destiny and promote Kultur. 
 The will to war with and gain victory over the 
 Entente powers as a step to European and world 
 imperialism. German attitude responsible for war. 
 
 (2) Special or particular causes back of the war. 
 Many of these outlined in the two previous sections. 
 The feeling of militaristic Germany that her hegem- 
 ony could only be maintained or restored by 
 force of arms. Blunder of Germany in increasing 
 her sea power to such an extent as to alarm and 
 antagonize Great Britain. The readiness of Ger- 
 many and Austria to pursue at all costs an anti- 
 Slav policy in southeast Europe. Pan-Germanism. 
 
 (3) Immediate causes of the war to be found in the 
 German-Austrian threat against Serbia. Immediate 
 causes not so important as the special and remote 
 ones. Deserve to be studied as an example of 
 
 (82) 
 
secret military diplomacy and as showing Ger- 
 many's responsibility for the war. 
 
 1. The assassination of the Austrian heir-ap- 
 parent, Archduke Francis Ferdinand, at 
 Serajevo in Bosnia on June 28, 1914. The 
 crime committed by a Bosnian conspirator 
 under Serbian influence. Indirect responsi- 
 bility of Serbia, which she was ready to 
 acknowledge. Political object of the as- 
 sassination in desire for an independent 
 Jugo-Slav kingdom which should include 
 Serbia. The rival Austrian project. 
 
 2. Curious lack of immediate consequences of 
 the assassination. Probable secret and 
 rapid preparation for mobilization and war 
 by Germany and Austria. Evidence of this 
 from various sources. The rumored Potsdam 
 Conference of July 5, 1914. Importance 
 of a month of preparation to German ship- 
 ping, finance, and military organization. 
 
 3. The Austrian Ultimatum to Serbia, July 23, 
 1914. Its harsh and peremptory character. 
 Unconditional acceptance demanded within 
 48 hours of humiliating demands which 
 infringed on Serbian sovereignty and na- 
 tional honor and independence. Comment 
 of the Berlin newspaper Vorwarts to the 
 effect that "the demands are more brutal 
 than any ever made upon any civilized 
 state in the history of the world and they 
 can be regarded only as intended to provoke 
 war." Similar comments from other 
 sources. 
 
 4. Seeming desire of Germany and Austria to 
 win a complete victory by brutal diplomacy 
 or to drive Serbia and her supporter, Rus- 
 sia, to war. Russia, France and England 
 all seek to prevent war by advising Serbia 
 to submit to the Austrian demands. Ser- 
 bia's conciliatory, and apparently satis- 
 
 (83) 
 
factory, reply rejected with scorn by Aus- 
 tria. Declaration and almost immediate 
 beginning of war on Serbia by Austria, 
 July 28-29,1914. Belgrade attacked. 
 
 5. Impossibility of limiting the war to Austria 
 and Serbia. Russia's interest in the affair. 
 Germany in close touch with and backing 
 Austria. France the ally of Russia and 
 ready though not eager for war. Great 
 Britain a friend and possible ally of both 
 France and Russia. The stage set for a 
 great conflict at the close of July, 1914. 
 
 6. The diplomatic correspondence preceding 
 the war and what* it showed. Rejection by 
 Germany of all plans of mediation between 
 Austria and Serbia. The German ultima- 
 tum to Russia, ordering her to demobilize, 
 and the demand on France for an explicit 
 statement of her intentions. The well es- 
 tablished responsibility of Germany for 
 the war. The "Willy-Nicky" correspond- 
 ence. 
 
 7. Damaging testimony against Germany of 
 her former ambassador to London, Prince 
 Lichnowski, that "it would have been easy 
 to find an acceptable solution" for the 
 points in dispute and that "given good 
 will everything could have been settled in 
 one or two sittings" and that "a hint 
 from Berlin" would have caused the ac- 
 ceptance of the Serbian reply by Austria. 
 Instead of this, he says, "we pressed for 
 war." Evidence from other sources. 
 
 8. Necessary conclusion that the Teutonic 
 empires were willing and even anxious to 
 bring about war as they considered the 
 time favorable for Pan-Germanism. No 
 real desire on their part for peace and 
 compromise. Futility of all diplomatic 
 negotiations. Hope and expectation of 
 
 (84) 
 
Germany to strike quickly and win over- 
 whelming military victory before the other 
 powers were prepared. 
 
 (4) Declarations of war by and against Germany and 
 Austria between July 28 and August 27, 1914. The 
 various nations of Europe who engaged in the 
 conflict. Expansion of the war to include Turkey 
 as an ally of Germany (October-November, 1914) 
 and Italy, at first neutral, as an ally of Great Brit- 
 ain, France and Russia against Austria-Hungary 
 (May 23, 1915). General alignment of the powers 
 at war in Europe at the end of the first year. 
 
 1. Violation of Belgian neutrality by Germany 
 resisted bravely by the Belgians at Liege. 
 Conquest and occupation of Belgium and 
 retreat of the French and British towards 
 Paris before enormous German armies. 
 
 2. The remarkable victory of the French and 
 British at the Marne (First battle of the 
 Marne, Sept. 6-10, 1914). Retreat of the 
 Germans to the Aisne and beginning of 
 trench warfare and stationary Operations. 
 The saving of the channel ports by General 
 Foch and the British. 
 
 3. Russian successes on the east front checked 
 and turned into defeat by Hindenburg who 
 becomes the military idol of Germany. Suc- 
 cessful Russian campaign against Austria 
 and expulsion of Austrians from Serbia. 
 German expectation of a short war dis- 
 appointed. Allied strength and resources 
 make for a long struggle against German 
 military organization and central position. 
 
 4. Serious German losses of shipping and col- 
 onies. German sea power lapses after vari- 
 ous raiders are captured or sunk and her 
 grand fleet stays in harbor at Kiel. Be- 
 ginning of submarine activity and of in- 
 direct means of transportation of materials 
 into Germany. British error in delaying 
 to blockade all of Germany from the sea. 
 
 (85) 
 
5. Unrest in the Balkan states of Rumania, 
 Greece, and Bulgaria. Alarm in small neu- 
 tral countries such as Switzerland and Hol- 
 land. Agreements by the greater allied 
 powers not to make any separate peace but 
 to act together. Little prospect of any 
 speedy conclusion of the conflict with both 
 sides resolved on and confident of victory. 
 Temporary advantage gained by Germany 
 early in 1915 counterbalanced by allied 
 numbers, resources, and control of the sea. 
 
 (5) The second year of the World War (1915-1916) 
 marked by (a) failure and abandonment of the 
 Gallipoli expedition against ' Turkey ; (b) the great 
 German failure at Verdun; (c) entrance of Bul- 
 garia on the side of Germany and the invasion and 
 occupation of Serbia and Montenegro by Austro- 
 Germans and Bulgarians; (d) partially successful 
 allied offensive on the Somme (July 1916) ; (e) naval 
 battle of Jutland (May 31, 1916)— German fleet 
 declines to continue battle; (f) successful Russian 
 offensives against Austrians and Turks. 
 
 (6) The third year of the World War (1916-1917) 
 marked by (a) entrance of Rumania (Aug. 27, 1916) 
 on the side of the Allies and her speedy defeat and 
 conquest by the Austro-Germans and Bulgarians; 
 (b) unrestricted submarine warfare by Germany 
 after some hesitation and after diplomatic ne- 
 gotiations with the United States ; (c) entrance of the 
 United States into the war (April 6, 1917) followed 
 by similar action by many small nations ; (d) German 
 retreats and reverses before allied pressure on 
 west front — the Hindenburg line; (e) British 
 successes in the east, Bagdad and Jerusalem; (f) 
 Russian revolution. 
 
 (7) The fourth year of the World War (1917-1918) 
 marked by (a) the collapse and break-up of rev- 
 olutionary Russia under fanatical Bolsheviki leader- 
 ship and the peace with Germany at Brest-Litovsk 
 (March 3, 1918) ; (b) Italian defeat and disaster 
 
 (86) 
 
at Caporetto followed by stand at the Piave with 
 French and British assistance; (c) successful series 
 of German drives in Prance soon followed by almost 
 equally successful allied counter-offensives. 
 (8) The fifth year of the World War (1918-1919) 
 marked so far by (a) continued allied successes on 
 almost all fronts — western, Balkan and Syrian; 
 (b) appearance in Europe of large American forces 
 capable of conducting successful offensives; (c) 
 German-Austrian, Bulgarian and Turkish alarm 
 and increasing desire to make a compromise peace, 
 (d) Collapse of Bulgaria and near collapse of Tur- 
 key, (e) Peace offensives on the part of Austria 
 and Germany. 
 
 Study and Reading References. 
 
 Belloc, General Sketch of the European War, 2 vols, issued. 
 Conquest and Kultur, Committee on Public Information, No. 
 
 5. 
 German War Practices, Committee on Public Information, No. 
 
 6. 
 German Treatment of Conquered Territory, Committe on 
 
 Public Information, No. 8. 
 Harding, Study of the Great War, chs. i, iii-vii, ix. 
 Lichno wski, Revelations of a Diplomat. 
 New York Times, Current History of the War. 
 Simonds, History of the Great War. 
 Wells, Italy, France and Great Britain at War. 
 War Cyclopedia, articles on belligerents and under "War." 
 Year Book, New International Encyclopedia, "War of the 
 
 Nations.'" An excellent survey. 
 
 Study Problems. 
 
 (1) What were the underlying racial and national 
 jealousies back of the immediate causes of the 
 war? What German beliefs made the war almost in- 
 evitable? What do you think of such beliefs? 
 
 (2) Discuss the more important special causes leading 
 to the war referred to in the second section. 
 
 (3) Comment on the relatively less importance of the 
 ultimatum to Serbia. Why is it worth studying in 
 any detail? How was Serbia involved in the as- 
 sassination of the Archduke Francis? What is the 
 
 (87) 
 
only reasonable explanation of the brutality of 
 Germany and Austria-Hungary toward Serbia? 
 (4) Explain clearly how Russia, France and England 
 were successively involved in the struggle. What 
 is the evidence that Germany was more than will- 
 ing for a great European conflict? 
 
 XVII. German War Aims and the Issues of the War in 
 Regard to Germany. 
 
 (1) The importance of understanding the war aims and 
 ideas of the Hohenzollern government. Need to 
 know what we are fighting against as well as what 
 we are fighting for. When we understand this we 
 can discuss the issues of the war in regard to Ger- 
 many. Value of knowing enemy's hand. 
 
 (2) General idea in German war aims is that of national 
 imperial gain at the expense of others. Some few 
 Germans, and the number is probably increasing, 
 willing to support a status quo issue of the war. 
 Very few as yet ready to submit to idea of defeat 
 and territorial and financial losses. Positive war 
 aims of Germany may be stated as follows. 
 
 1. Greater sea power and maritime outlets 
 in the west. Belgian and French coasts 
 to become German. Combined with this 
 is the demand for the iron region of 
 Briey and Longwy which would greatly 
 diminish France's already meager iron 
 supply. Economic importance of this issue. 
 
 2. The Mittel Europa or Middle Europe 
 issue. The constitution of a central Eu- 
 ropean group of German controlled states 
 such as Poland, Austria-Hungaria, Bulgaria, 
 and others. This now practically estab- 
 
 . lished and Germany hopes to hold her 
 gains in Central Europe. 
 
 3. The completion under German control of 
 the Berlin to Bagdad railway which would 
 assure Germany a strong and dangerous 
 
 (88) 
 
political and economic predominance in the 
 Near East and bring her wealth. 
 
 4. German colonies now lost to be recovered 
 and even added to, especially in Africa 
 where it is hoped to create a great Ger- 
 man middle African colonial empire. This 
 is an anti-British aim and would cut ath- 
 wart the Cape to Cairo route. 
 
 5. The gain of new land in North east Europe 
 taken from Russia, but inhabited in part 
 by Germans, as part of the movement of 
 Pan Germanic reclamation. Livlancl and 
 Courland involved. Russia weakened. 
 
 6. The gain of territory for German coloni- 
 zation between Germany and Russia at 
 the expense of the latter, for the purpose of 
 removing the present inhabitants and sub- 
 stituting German agriculturalists. 
 
 7. The securing of heavy indemnities through 
 victory -over the allies to reimburse Ger- 
 many for her vast expenses and losses 
 during war. The German belief in war as 
 a business proposition as well as a good 
 thing in itself is embodied in this as in all 
 her war aims. 
 
 (3) The war aims and issues in regard to Germany 
 on the part of the allies and the United States 
 include the whole or partial defeat of the above 
 mentioned German war aims. In addition they in- 
 clude the following definite proposals. 
 
 1. The absolute defeat of German militarism 
 and the overthrow of the Hohenzollern 
 militaristic regime and policy. 
 
 2. The restoration by the Teutonic allies of all 
 conquered territory and restitution of, or 
 reparation for, Alsace-Lorraine seized by 
 Germany in 1871. A difficult question. 
 
 3. Payment by Germany for injuries and 
 wrongs done to the Belgian nation since 
 
 (89) 
 
the beginning of the war. Similar payment 
 to other allied states that have been injured. 
 
 4. The righting of the wrongs committed 
 against the Poles and against Russia, both 
 those of the past and of recent occurrence. 
 
 5 Guarantees of future good conduct on the 
 part of the German government and nation. 
 Unwillingness of allies and United States 
 to accept promise from the present rulers 
 of Germany. Distrust of Prussian promises. 
 
 (4) No evidence that present government of Germany 
 is willing to meet the idea of the allies and the 
 United States as to the issues of the war. Main- 
 tenance by the Kaiser of the viewpoint of divine right 
 monarchy and glorious German victory. Examples 
 of this attitude in his recent utterances. 
 
 1. At the close of 1917 the Kaiser declared 
 "the year 1917 with its great battles 
 has proved that the German people has in 
 the Lord of Creation above an unconditional 
 and avowed ally — if the enemy does not 
 want peace (a German peace) then we 
 must bring peace to the world by battering 
 in, with iron fist and shining sword, the 
 doors of those who will not have peace." 
 
 2. Early in 1918 the Kaiser declared "we 
 desire to live in friendship with neighbor- 
 ing peoples but the victory of German arms 
 must first be recognized." And again 
 recently he said "the prize of victory 
 must not and will not fail us. No soft 
 peace, but one corresponding with Ger- 
 many's interests." 
 
 (5) Summary and conclusion. Germany must be forced 
 to abandon her imperialistic and militaristic war 
 aims and ambitions; to change her system and 
 ideals of government; to restore conquered terri- 
 tory and make reparation for wrongs committed; 
 and to give guarantees for good behavior in the 
 
 (90) 
 
future. These aims can only be accomplished by 
 victory of the allied arms as Germans cannot 
 understand any other sort of argument, The 
 allies must defeat Germany not for the welfare, 
 of England, or of France, or of the United States 
 alone but for that of the world and humanity and 
 for the preservation of all nations from future wars. 
 
 Study and Reading References. 
 
 Bevan, German War Aims (Harper Bros.). 
 
 Conquest and Kultur, Committee on Public Information, No. 5. 
 
 Harding, Study of the Great War, 33-34, 91. 
 
 War Cyclopedia, Articles on German colonies; German gov- 
 ernment, bad faith of; Germany Military Autocracy 
 Plan of, Propaganda of for War and other topics under 
 Germany and her aims. 
 
 Study Problems. 
 
 (1) Why is it important to understand German war aims 
 and the German view as to the issues of the war? 
 What is the general idea of Germany as to war 
 aims? Why are such aims out of date? 
 
 (2) Name the principal special war aims of Germany 
 and show how each is a violation of the rights of 
 other countries or peoples. 
 
 (3) What attitude must the allies and the United States 
 take in regard to German war aims? Why is this 
 attitude right and necessary? 
 
 (4) What special war aims have the allies and the 
 United States in regard to Germany and her rulers? 
 
 (5) What is the attitude of Germany up to now in 
 regard to allied and American peace and how is this 
 shown? What lesson is driven home by the Kaiser's 
 words? How must the war end? 
 
 XVIII. War Aims and Issues in Regard to Belgium 
 and France. 
 
 (1) The important questions of restoration of territory 
 and reparation for injuries suffered by the two 
 neighboring countries of Belgium and France. Era- 
 
 (91) 
 
phasis on these points by President Wilson in his 
 speeches- (see Appendix A.) and by Prime Minister 
 Lloyd George on behalf of the Allies (see Appendix 
 B.). Consideration of each of these questions in con- 
 nection with the countries involved. 
 (2) The issue in regard to the kingdom of Belgium one 
 of first and greatest importance. The necessity 
 of making Germany restore and as far as possible 
 indemnify the Belgian state and people for their 
 losses in the war. The situation in regard to 
 Belgium as a state. Its history and characteristics. 
 
 1. Belgium a small independent liberal na- 
 tional monarchy since 1831. The guarantee 
 of her neutrality by the great powers in 
 1839. Nature of her government consti- 
 tutional and representative. A bi-cameral 
 legislature chosen by voters on a basis of 
 universal manhood suffrage, since 1894. 
 
 2. The Belgian rulers since 1831. Leopold I 
 
 (1831-1865), an enlightened, tactful and 
 able constitutional head who promoted 
 Belgian prosperity by every means possible. 
 Leopold II (1865-1909), a shrewd and 
 enterprising king of business instincts, 
 with some faults, who also promoted the 
 prosperity of the country. Albert I (1909- 
 
 ), a liberal and patriotic leader of his 
 
 people. His services in the present war. 
 
 3. Rapid economic growth of Belgium result- 
 ing in great increase of population and 
 wealth. More immigration than emigration. 
 The Belgians a contented industrial people 
 who had benefited greatly by the Industrial 
 Revolution. Important manufacturing and 
 mining and extensive railway mileage. 
 Enormous exports and imports — much 
 larger than either Spain or Italy. 
 
 4. Belgium largely a Roman Catholic country 
 but very liberal and tolerant in matters of 
 religion. Catholic, Protestant, and Jewish 
 
 (92) 
 
churehes aided by the state. Some dif- 
 ference of opinion as to public education 
 . between the Catholic party and the Liberal 
 party since 1847. Ascendancy of the Lib- 
 erals (1847-1884). Organization of a work- 
 ingmen's Socialist party (1885). Suprem- 
 acy of the Catholic party since 1884. 
 Liberal character of the Catholic political 
 regime. Religious instruction and further- 
 ance of education. Removal of property 
 qualifications for voters and practical uni- 
 versal suffrage, but introduction of plural 
 voting. Proportional representation (1899). 
 Socialist opposition in 1913 unsuccessful. 
 Important social legislation by the Catholic 
 party such as — protection of trade unions 
 (1898) ; system of old age pensions (1900) ; 
 and minor legislation in regard to housing 
 and public welfare. The generally enlight- 
 ened and progressive character of Belgian 
 government under Liberal Catholics. 
 Acquisition by the Belgian government in 
 1908 of the Belgian Congo and the entrance 
 of the little kingdom into colonial and 
 world politics. Distrust of inviolability 
 under guarantee of neutrality leads to the 
 military law of 1909 and the erection of 
 numerous fortifications towards Germany. 
 Importance of the port of Antwerp. 
 Desire of Germany to acquire control of 
 Belgium in an economic as well as a 
 political way one reason for the violation 
 of Belgian neutrality in August, 1914. 
 Strategic importance of Belgium in the 
 war probably, in part at least, an excuse. 
 The valiant but unavailing resistance of 
 the Belgians to German invasion and oc- 
 cupation. Delay, a setback to Germany. 
 
 Belgium under German control (1914 ). 
 
 German military and civil government in 
 (93*) 
 
Belgium. Effort to create race division 
 and friction between the Flemings and Wal- 
 loons on linguistic and religious grounds. 
 Failure of this attempt owing to intense 
 spirit of Belgian nationalism on the part of 
 both racial elements. German tyranny of fi- 
 nancial, military and economic character. 
 Difficulties in the way of expelling the Ger- 
 mans from Belgium except by indirect pres- 
 sure. Probable retreat from Belgium. 
 10. Important problems in connection with the 
 ultimate restoration and repatriation of the 
 Belgians. German proposals in regard to 
 Belgium must be disregarded as they are 
 based on the theory of a German victory 
 or at least an indecisive result in the war. 
 The allies must decide on the proper re- 
 paration for Belgium and must satisfy 
 the Belgians as far as possible. 
 
 (3) War aims and issues in regard to the French Re- 
 public involve two questions of importance — (a) 
 restoration of territory and (b) payment for in- 
 juries and losses due to German occupation. The 
 first of these involves not only territory now oc- 
 cupied by German armies but the former French 
 provinces of Alsace and lower Lorraine which were 
 taken from France after the war of 1870, against the 
 wishes of the loyal French speaking populations 
 who vigorously protested against being handed over 
 to Germany. 
 
 1. The Alsace-Lorraine question a very his- 
 toric one. Origin of this district far back 
 in the middle ages as a buffer state be- 
 tween France and Germany. Doubtful 
 validity of the German claim to possession 
 of this territory on the basis of historic 
 right. The will and attitude of the people 
 of the districts more valid according to 
 twentieth century ideas. 
 
 (94) 
 
2. Importance of Alsace-Lorraine from an 
 economic standpoint on account of its large 
 and valuable deposits of iron and coal 
 which Germany desires to keep for her 
 industries. Increased value of these dis- 
 tricts since 1871 make their cession very 
 difficult for Germany to consider or agree 
 to. Slight difference in the allied demands 
 in regard to Alsace Lorraine as between 
 restitution and reparation (See Appendix 
 A and B). 
 
 3. Various proposals which have been made 
 for the settlement of the Alsace Lorraine 
 issue. Danger of resorting to a plebiscite 
 unless under most rigid neutral supervision. 
 Difficulty of attempting to neutralize this 
 region on a basis of local self government. 
 
 4. Strong French national feeling in regard 
 to the "lost provinces" based on patriotic 
 sentiment quite as much as economic de- 
 sire. No evidence of Alsace Lorraine hav- 
 ing become Teutonized in sentiment but 
 much to the contrary. 
 
 (1) Summary and conclusions: Belgium a prosperous 
 and peaceful little kingdom with its neutrality 
 guaranteed. Germany wantonly and brutally in- 
 vaded and occupied Belgium and must be made to 
 restore it and pay damages to the Belgians. The 
 same is true of northern France. The Alsace-Lor- 
 raine question a difficult one to adjust but Ger- 
 many must clearly restore these provinces or 
 compensate France for their loss. 
 
 Study and Reading References. 
 
 Hayes, Political and Social History, II, 389-296. 
 Hazen, Europe since 1815, 579-583. 
 
 , Modern European History, ch. xxx. 
 
 J. S. Schapiro, Modern and Contemporary History, 484-494. 
 War Cyclopedia, articles on Belgium, Neutrality. Alsace 
 Lorraine, etc. 
 
 (95) 
 
Study Peoblems. 
 
 (1) What fundamental questions are involved in the 
 issues of the war as regards both Belgium and 
 France? How do these differ in regard to each 
 country ? 
 
 (2) Give an account of the origin and pre-war history 
 of Belgium along governmental, economic and po- 
 litical lines. How and why did Belgium come to 
 increase her military strength? 
 
 (3) Discuss Germany's motives in invading Belgium 
 and the significance of the determined Belgian 
 resistance? How has the German occupation and 
 treatment of Belgium affected outside opinion? 
 
 (4) Explain Germany's policy of administration in 
 Belgium noting especially her emphasis on the 
 race division, her collection of indemnities and her 
 deportation of Belgians. 
 
 (5) What was the origin of the Alsace-Lorraine ques- 
 tion? How has Germany benefited materially by 
 the crime of 1871? What attitude do Frenchmen 
 take towards the lost provinces? Do you think 
 Germany ought to be made to return them, if so, 
 why? Are other solutions desirable? If so, why? 
 
 XIX. The Kingdom of Italy and the Issues of the War. 
 
 (1) Issues of the war in regard to the kingdom of 
 Italy have to do with much the same matters as 
 in the case of France. The really important question 
 that of Italia Irredenta or "unredeemed Italy", 
 meaning the regions around the northern Adriatic 
 inhabited by Italian speaking people but under the 
 political control of the Austrian empire. The rea- 
 sons for the Italian demand found in the character 
 of the Italian kingdom and its history. 
 
 1. Italy an example of liberal centralized na- 
 tionalism. Its problem, from the beginning 
 of unification in the nineteenth century, 
 one of bringing about social and economic 
 unity out of diverse states inhabited by 
 
 (96) 
 
Italian speaking populations. Contrast be- 
 tween the prosperous and progressive north- 
 ern districts and the backward and un- 
 developed southern region inhabited by 
 ignorant peasants and infested with 
 brigands. Rapid improvement in the south. 
 
 2. Progress in the construction of highways, 
 railways, bridges and harbors between 
 1870 and 1914. The compulsory education 
 law of 1877, though not rigidly applied, 
 had its beneficial results. Heavy expense 
 of economic unification but maintenance 
 of national unity in spite of political 
 quarrels between northern and southern 
 leaders. Good tradition of Italian nation- 
 alism and liberalism. 
 
 3. General character of Italian government, 
 liberal parliamentary. Popular organ of 
 government, the Chamber of Deputies. 
 Aristocratic, but somewhat honorary Senate, 
 of large size. Political parties on the 
 ''group system," as in France. Executive 
 power in the hands of cabinet and prime 
 minister. Frequent changes of ministries. 
 
 4. Perplexing problem in Italy of the relation 
 of Church and State owing to the attitude 
 of the pope and the Roman Catholic 
 Church towards the Italian kingdom. Ca- 
 vour's ideal of "a free church in a free 
 state" impossible to realize up to the 
 present. Liberal policy of the Italian gov- 
 ernment in matters of religion save as re- 
 gards monasticism which was suppressed 
 in large part. 
 
 5. The position of the pope under the law of 
 papal guarantees (1871) and the attitude 
 of the popes up to the present, De- 
 sire of the papacy to keep Catholics from 
 voting or holding office and the claim that 
 the pope is a prisoner in the Vatican. 
 
 (97) 
 
6. Italian political issues and foreign re- 
 lations between 1870 and 1896 largely 
 dominated by motives of colonial imperial- 
 ism and marked by the ascendancy of 
 Depretis (1876-1887) and Crispi (1887- 
 1896) both southern Italians who counten- 
 anced political corruption and military 
 imperialism. The failure of Italian colon- 
 ial ambitions in Abyssinia by the defeat 
 at Adowa (1896). Fall of Crispi. 
 
 7. The three Italian rulers of the house of 
 Savoy— Victor Emmanuel II (1861-1878) ; 
 Humbert (1878-1900), who was assassinated 
 by a fanatical anarchist; and Victor Em- 
 Manuel III (1900 ) — all brave and pat- 
 riotic. Inauguration of much more liberal 
 policies in Italy since 1896 under the au- 
 spices of the present king. 
 
 8. Maintenance of Italian military and naval 
 strength considered necessary on account 
 of Mediterranean problems. Its seeming 
 justification in the successful war with 
 Turkey and the occupation of Tripoli and 
 
 1 Cyrenaica (1911-1912). Italy ambitious to 
 maintain national imperialism in the central 
 Mediterranean region. 
 
 9. Economic and social policies and conditions 
 in Italy. Protective tariff and governmen- 
 tal bounties increase manufacturing and 
 exports and imports. Great industrial and 
 commercial development since 1897. Pro- 
 motion of agriculture and important social 
 legislation similar to that in other countries. 
 Problem of larger Italian emigration to the 
 United States and South America. Return 
 to Italy of many of these emigrants. 
 
 10. Difficulties in solving social and economic 
 problems on account of rivalries and con- 
 
 (98) 
 
flicts between Clericals, Republicans, So- 
 cialists and Syndicalists. Rapid growth 
 of Socialism in Italy, though not so rapid 
 as in France. Existence of a considerable 
 degree of revolutionary economic Syndical- 
 ism among the workmen in Italy previous 
 to the war. 
 
 11. Intense national patriotism a basic factor 
 in Italian political and social life. The 
 Italian ideal one of resurrecting the ancient 
 glory and power of Roman Italy. Strong 
 desire to regain the Italian regions of the 
 Trentino, Trieste and eastern Adriatic 
 coast which were regarded as properly 
 belonging to Italy rather than to Austria. 
 "Irredentisni" complicated by Slav ele- 
 ments in the population along the eastern 
 Adriatic. Italian interests in the Aegean 
 Sea. 
 
 12. Italy's attitude towards the Triple 
 Alliance influenced greatly by Irredentism. 
 Her period of neutrality ended in May, 
 1915, by her entry into the war on the basis 
 of the recovery of Italia Irredenta, The war 
 treaties with the allies and their subsequent 
 modification. Probable character of the 
 settlement of Italy's claims one of com- 
 promise in regard to Adriatic and Aegean. 
 
 13. Italy's part in the war a difficult one, but 
 bravely and creditably maintained in spite 
 of serious difficulties and reverses. Her 
 claim on American friendship and good 
 will should not to be disregarded. Her 
 sacrifices entitle her to a fair settlement 
 at the close of the war. 
 
 (5) Summary and conclusions: The war aims and is- 
 sues in regard to Italy involve restoration of terri- 
 tory and reparation for losses and injuries suffered 
 at Teutonic hands. Necessary to impress on the 
 Teutonic mind the seriousness of making a war of 
 (99) 
 
conquest and invasion with destruction of property 
 in a wanton way. Italian national history shows 
 mixture of centralized nationalism and national- 
 imperialism. 
 
 Study and Reading References. 
 
 Hayes, Political and Social History, II, 367-378. 
 Hazen, Europe since 1815, 376-387. 
 
 , Modern European History, ch. xxx. 
 
 J. S. Schapiro, Modern and Contemporary History, ch. xvii. 
 War Cyclopedia, articles on Italia Irredenta, Italy, etc. 
 
 Study Problems. 
 
 (1) In what way does the problem or war issue in re- 
 gard to Italy resemble that in regard to France? 
 How does it illustrate the failure of national 
 boundaries in Europe to coincide with national 
 sentiment ? 
 
 (2) Comment briefly on the character of the Italian 
 kingdom as regards government, regional differ- 
 ences, economic life, and foreign and colonial poli- 
 cies. What advances have been made. 
 
 (3) What is the basic sentiment of the Italians and 
 how does it explain Irredentism and Italy's en- 
 trance into the war? How far is Italy's attitude 
 in international and colonial affairs consistent with 
 the principles of democracy and free nationalism? 
 
 (4) Discuss Italy's part in the World War and the dif- 
 ficulties she has had to face. How will the winning 
 of the war by the allies and the United States af- 
 fect Italy? What should she give up? 
 
 XX. Issues of the War in Regard to Austria-Hungary 
 and the Czecho-Slovaks and Jugo-Slavs. 
 
 (1) The Dual Monarchy and its character. Austria's 
 historical position as a dynastic power in central 
 Europe. Early acquisition of Hungary and Bohemia, 
 with Moravia, as dynastic national kingdoms. 
 Other nationalities in the Empire — Poles, Ruthenians, 
 Rumanians of Transylvania, Serbo-Croats, Slovenes, 
 (100) 
 
Bosnians and Herzegovinians, Dalmatians and 
 Italians. More Slavs than Germans or Magyars. 
 
 (2) The general and special character of present Austro- 
 Hungarian government. The Ausgleich or agree- 
 ment of 1867 between the Empire of Austria and 
 the kingdom of Hungary. Joint ruler with separate 
 governments. Provision for joint parliament or 
 council, the Delegations, and joint ministry of war, 
 finance and foreign affairs. Comparison and con- 
 trast between Austrian and Hungarian governments 
 Former more liberal than latter. The reactionary 
 Hungarian attitude toward Transylvania and the 
 Serbo-Croats. Hungarian nationalism undemocratic. 
 
 (3) Serious problems of national and democratic char- 
 acter in both parts of Austria-Hungary owing to 
 jealousies and conflicts of the numerous races and 
 nationalities making up the Dual Monarchy. 
 
 1. Strained relations at times between Austria 
 and Hungary over questions of contribution 
 for joint government, tariffs, army, banking 
 and foreign affairs. United foreign policy 
 of both states in southeast Europe. The 
 affairs of Bosina-Herzegovina (1878-1905); 
 the Balkan wars (1912-1913); and the 
 World War, (1914---). 
 
 2". Discontent and conflicts of races and nations 
 under Austrian control: (a) the Czecho- 
 slovak desire for a separate Bohemian- 
 Moravian national state of 8% million 
 Czechs and Slovaks, with its capital at 
 Prague. The historic justification and pro- 
 bable realization of this demand, (b) The 
 Polish national aspirations of 5 million 
 Austrian Poles for a reunion with Prussian 
 and Russian Poland also likely to be realized 
 (c) The Ruthenians of Galicia, 4 million 
 strong, desire to join a Russian -Ukrainian 
 state of independent character. Their fate 
 doubtful, (d) The Slovenes of Styria and 
 Carniola, number 1% million, with Slav 
 (101) 
 
learnings, would probably be willing to join 
 a Jugo-Slav state, --(e) The Italians in the 
 Adriatic region wish to join the national 
 kingdom of Italy and will probably succeed 
 in part at least, (f) Austria proper con- 
 tains 10 million Germans out of 29 million 
 population. These may join a new German 
 liberal national state. 
 3. Conflict and discontented races under 
 Hungarian domination. Out of population 
 of 21. million, only 10 million Magyars and 
 2 million Germans. Remainder are Slovaks, 
 Transylvanian-Rumanians, Serb o-Cr oats and 
 scattered races. Desires of most of these 
 people for nationalism or at least national 
 self-determination and autonomy, (a) The 
 Slovaks wish to join a Czecho-Slovak 
 national republic or liberal monarchy and 
 the Rumanians to become part of Rumania, 
 (b) Serbo-Croats somewhat divided by 
 differences of tradition and religion into 
 Austrian and Serbian Jugo-Slavic parties. 
 They number 5% million in southwest 
 Slavonia, Croatia, Bosnia, Dalmatia and 
 Herzegovina. Probable realization of par- 
 tial nationalism after the war. 
 
 (4) The rulers of Austria-Hungary since 1848. The 
 Emperor Francis Joseph (1848-1916) and his long 
 and troubled reign. His unifying influence and 
 personal popularity. Little observable change in the 
 internal situation in Austria-Hungary caused by his 
 death. Present ruler Francis Joseph I (1916 ). 
 
 (5) The effect of the World War on Austria-Hungary 
 likely to be revolutionary on account of the demand 
 of the United States and of the Allies for radical 
 changes in favor of national freedom and self- 
 determination. Important movements already under 
 way towards this end. 
 
 (102) 
 
The Czecho-Slovak movement and its 
 progress inside and outside of Austria- 
 Hungary. Negative attitude of Bohemians 
 and Moravians toward the World War and 
 their wholesale desertion to Russia and 
 Italy. The formation of Czecho-Slovak 
 national committees and organization of 
 Czecho-Slovak armies in allied countries. 
 The operation of the Czecho-Slovaks in 
 Russia and their successes against the 
 the Bolsheviki and their German allies. Rec- 
 ognition of the Czecho-Slovaks by the 
 Allies and by the United States. Assured 
 future of Czecho-Slovak nationalism. 
 The Jugo-Slavic movement not so well 
 organized as the Czecho-Slovak on account 
 of differences among Croats and Serbs. Its 
 dependence on Serbian restoration ior 
 definite expression and future development. 
 Austrian pre-war plans for the organization 
 of a Serbo-Croat division of Austria- 
 Hungary not acceptable to the Serbain 
 national element. The Serbo-Croat desire 
 for seacoast in conflict to some extent with 
 the policy of Italian Irredentism. 
 The Transylvanian-Rumanian movement 
 little known outside of Transylvania and 
 Rumania but nevertheless strongly existent. 
 Effort of Rumania to conquer and annex 
 Transylvania foredoomed to failure and a 
 strategical blunder taken advantage of by 
 the able German general, von Mackensen. 
 Probable realization by Rumania and 
 Transylvania of union after the war. 
 The Poles and Ruthenians of Galicia, in- 
 fluenced by danger of conquest and annex- 
 ation to autocratic Russia, at first supported 
 the Austrain -Hungarian war party. Now, 
 however, they desire national affiliation 
 with a greater Poland and a new Ukrainian- 
 
 (103) 
 
Russian. The difficulty or reorganizing 
 Russia is in the way of Ruthenian hopes. 
 
 (6) Summary and conclusions: The character of the 
 Dual Monarchy is so complex that it will be a dif- 
 ficult problem for the Peace Congress to settle 
 what will be done in regard to the various races 
 and nations composing it. The questions involved 
 are being carefully studied and prepared for by the 
 governments of the various countries but there are 
 wide differences of opinion as to what should be 
 done. 
 
 Study and Reading References. 
 
 Hayes, Political and Social History, II, 426-434. 
 Hazen, Europe since 1815, ch. xvii. 
 
 , Modern European History, ch. xxiv. 
 
 Holt and Chilton, History of Europe, 1862-1914, 261-263, 425- 
 
 434. 
 Schapiro, Modern and Contemporary History, ch. xvi. 
 War Cyclopedia, articles on Austria-Hungary, Czecho-Slovaks, 
 
 Jugo-Slavs, etc. 
 
 Study Problems. 
 
 (1) Show why Austria-Hungary is a dynastic state 
 rather than a national state and how she became 
 so? 
 
 (2) Explain the character and organization of the gov- 
 ernment of the Dual Monarchy. Which part is 
 more 'liberal and how is the difference illustrated? 
 
 (3) What problems of democratic and national char- 
 acter exist in (a) the Austrian Empire and (b) 
 the Hungarian monarchy? 
 
 (4) Comment on Czecho-Slovak nationalism and its 
 historic justification and recent progress. 
 
 (5) How is the Jugo-Slav movement complicated by 
 internal and external factors? 
 
 (6) What seems to be the political destiny of (a) the 
 Ruthenians; (b) the Transylvanians ; (c) the Poles; 
 (d) the Austrian Italians. 
 
 (104) 
 
XXI. Russia and the Slavic Issues of the War. 
 
 (1) Eussia was an autocratic state composed of a hete- 
 rogenous mass of undeveloped peoples dominated 
 by the bureaucracy, the church and landed aristo- 
 cracy. 
 
 (2) Influence of the national movement expressed in 
 the adoption by the reactionaries of the policy of 
 Kussification and the Pan-Slavic movement. 
 
 (3) Eeactionary types of rulers in the tsars Nicholas I 
 (1825-1855) and Alexander III (1881-1894), Pobe- 
 donostsev, tutor of Nicholas II and Procurator of 
 the Holy Synod, and Plehve the head of the Secret 
 Police under Nicholas II (1894-1917). 
 
 (4) Reactionary measures in the exclusion of other 
 languages from the schools, hampering the labors 
 of all non-orthodox churches, elimination of non- 
 Russians from government offices, suppression of 
 separate governments, like Finland, removal of 
 Jews to the Pale and their systematic massacre. 
 
 (5) Beyond the borders of Russia the Pan Slavists 
 would extend Russian influence into Asia, interfere 
 in the interests of the Slavs of Germany and Aus- 
 tria-Hungary and further the plans of the Slavic 
 Balkan states in the extension of their territories 
 to the prejudice of Teutonic and Turkish influences. 
 
 (6) The Industrial Revolution and the beginnings of 
 Democratic revolt. 
 
 1. Witte, the father of Russian industrial de- 
 velopment through attraction of foreign cap- 
 ital and the establishment of protective 
 tariff. Rapid expansion of means of trans- 
 portation and fostering of infant indus- 
 tries developed rapidly increasing industrial 
 classes and furthered the movement for 
 colonial expansion in Asia. His program 
 of social legislation led finally to his dis- 
 missal. 
 
 2. New conditions developed strong influ- 
 ences hostile to autocracy. Landed classes 
 
 (105) 
 
opposed to the favors shown industrial 
 workers. Wage earners influenced by 
 Marxian ideas. Enlarged middle classes 
 stirred by liberalism. Minor nationalities 
 opposed to Russification. 
 
 (7) The revolutionary movement of 1905. 
 
 1. The distress arising from the Russo-Japan- 
 ese war crystallized the opposition to the 
 old regime into active revolt. Rioting and 
 armed outbreaks throughout the empire 
 culminated in a general strike. This led 
 to the establishment of the Duma (Oct. 
 1905) together with the dismissal of the re- 
 actionary ministers. 
 
 2. Difficulties of the new movement. Actual 
 ignorance of the great mass of the popula- 
 tion. Varying programs of the different 
 revolutionary elements. Development of a 
 combined reactionary movement in the 
 "Union of the Russian People." Loyalty 
 of the army to the dynasty. 
 
 (8) The Dumas and their struggles for control. 
 
 1. According to proclamation of Oct. 30, 1905, 
 no law was to be valid without consent of 
 Duma. In December universal suffrage 
 granted. In October decree of individual 
 liberties had been guaranteed. 
 
 2. The reaction. Foreign loan gave oppor- 
 tunity for moderate reaction. Bicameral 
 system adopted in 1906 with Council of 
 Empire, an appointive body, as the upper 
 house. Army, navy and foreign affairs un- 
 der sole control of the Tsar. Finances 
 under control of imperial minister. Budg- 
 ets of preceding year to hold in case of 
 failure. The Duma not to discuss funda- 
 mental laws of the empire. Stolypin, a 
 moderate reactionary becomes prime minis- 
 ter. 
 
 (106) 
 
3. The first Duma raised the question of a 
 responsible ministry and refused to admit 
 the government's position. The Cadets 
 (C. D.— Constitutional Democrat) withdrew 
 and signed the Viborg Manifesto. First 
 Duma dissolved. 
 
 4. The second Duma largely like first in spite 
 of attempt by government to influence elec- 
 tions. Cadets having been practically 
 eliminated, Social Democrats maintained 
 a resolute opposition to Stolypin's moder- 
 ate reforms and second Duma was dis- 
 solved in June, 1907. 
 
 5. Tsar then completely changed the electoral 
 law and the third Duma represented the 
 wishes of the government. Conservative 
 and Pan-Slavic groups, composed largely 
 of landed class, in control. A consultative 
 chamber. 
 
 6. Stolypin was then able to complete the 
 process of elimination of the revolutionary 
 p.arty which he had begun in 1905. Ca- 
 dets, Social Democrats and Social Revolu- 
 tionaries all imprisoned or exiled to Si- 
 beria. 
 
 7. In spite of reaction the third Duma ac- 
 complished some small reforms in the land 
 system, education, administration of jus- 
 tice and workingmen's compensation. But 
 it supported the policy of Russification 
 and the development of the navy. 
 
 8. The fourth Duma in 1912 very similar to 
 the third and equilibrium seemed to have 
 been reached in the form of "a consti- 
 tutional monarchy under an autocratic 
 tsar." Pan-Slavism the great cohesive 
 force. 
 
 (9) The outbreak of the War. Tsar Nicholas pro- 
 claimed his desire to aid the Serbs and foresaw the 
 (107) 
 
union of all the Slavs with Russia. Thoroughly 
 Pan-Slavic concept. How Russia reacted to the 
 war. 
 
 1. All parties rallied to the support of the 
 government except the extreme Marxian 
 Socialists — Bolsheviki. In a long procla- 
 mation to the Social Democrats the leader 
 of the moderate Marxians in Russia, Plekh- 
 anov, exhorted them to stand by the 
 fatherland against the German danger. 
 
 2. Growing German influence in the govern- 
 ment noticed by the Russian people. Dis- 
 asters of 1916 brought the general dis- 
 content to a head. Inefficiency and mis- 
 management could not account for all the 
 troubles which beset the Russian armies 
 and made failures to their campaigns. 
 
 3. Increasing influence of the Cadets with 
 their strong nationalistic program. Out- 
 break of revolution and abdication of Tsar 
 Nicholas II (Mar. 19, 1917). Cadets come 
 into power. Plan for republic. 
 
 4. The provisional government under Kerensky 
 stands for prosecution of the war; gov- 
 ernment control of commerce and industry 
 for the war period; and full parliamentary 
 government. It failed to satisfy the peas- 
 ants on the one hand or the city artisans on 
 the other as its plans were not revolution- 
 ary enough. Adherence to the Pan-Slavic 
 ideal detested especially. 
 
 5. Result of popular discontent was the over- 
 throw of the Kerensky government by the 
 Workingmen's and Soldiers Committees 
 which had failed in their attempt to get 
 an international conference on the ques- 
 tions of peace. 
 
 6. Second revolutionary movement led by 
 agents like Lenine and Trotsky who were 
 
 (108) 
 
possibly supported by German money. Prep- 
 aration for this movement had been go- 
 ing on since the opening of hostilities 
 both in and out of Russia. This move- 
 ment (the Bolsheviki movement) found its 
 culmination in the Brest-Litovsk Treaty 
 (Mar. 3, 1918). German aggression. 
 7. Recent conditions in Russia. German oc- 
 cupation and control opposed by Cadets, 
 Czecho-Slovak army and, as yet, small al- 
 lied forces. Alliance of Germany and Bol- 
 sheviki due to failure of latter to accom- 
 plish their ideal of extreme Marxism. 
 Reign of terror now in progress. Future 
 outlook along lines of moderate revolution- 
 ary reconstruction as suggested by Plekh- 
 anov. 
 
 (10) The dismemberment of Russia. Development of 
 minor nationalities. 
 
 1. Poland. Formerly a powerful kingdom 
 with large territory now mostly controlled 
 by Russia. The grant and withdrawal of 
 the constitution of Alexander I. Incorpora- 
 tion of Poland . into Russian empire by 
 tsar Alexander II after Polish national in- 
 surrection of 1863. 
 
 2. Russian Poland with a population of 
 7,500,000 a fairly compact and homoge- 
 neous submerged nation. Proud of sepa- 
 rate language and literature. Roman Cath- 
 olic in religion, and ambitious to reestab- 
 lish political independence. Hatred of Rus- 
 sians and of Jews. Latter complicate the 
 Polish national problem as they number 
 over a million. 
 
 3. Alexander Ill's effort to Russify Poland by 
 requiring Russian language in schools, ex- 
 cluding Poles from government offices, and 
 forbidding Polish land to be sold to non- 
 
 (109) 
 
Russians. This policy continued by Nich- 
 olas II. Riots in Poland in 1905. Polish 
 representation in the Duma cut from 37 to 
 14 by law of 1907. Zemstvo law of 1911 
 aimed against Poles. 
 
 4. Agitation in 1912 to cut off part of Polish 
 territory inhabited largely by Little Rus- 
 sians. Change of policy after beginning 
 of war. Grand Duke Nicholas issues mani- 
 festo promising restoration of Poland as a 
 self governing nation "under the scepter 
 of the Russian emperor, free in faith and 
 in language." 
 
 5. Germany also bids for Polish support by 
 joint proclamation of the two Teutonic 
 emperors (Nov. 5, 1916) solemnly guaran- 
 teeing the reestablishment of the King- 
 dom of Poland. No evidence of this be- 
 ing put into effect until Sept. 1917. Ru- 
 mors of a German king for Poland, also 
 of partition of Russian Poland to the ad- 
 vantage of Germany and Austria. Part 
 of historic Poland given to the Ukraine by 
 the Brest-Litovsk treaty. Little hope for 
 Polish nationalism under Teutonic auspices. 
 
 6. Provisional government of the Russian re- 
 public has promised independence of Po- 
 land as it is opposed to Russiflcation. The 
 Allies and the United States intend to 
 create a free Poland. (See Appendix A 
 and B.). Future of the Polish nation in- 
 volved in the outcome of the war. 
 
 7. Finland. Grand Duchy belonging to the 
 Russian empire. Population 3,250,000. 
 Taken from Sweden in 1809 and given 
 separate constitution. Protestant Lutheran 
 in religion. After 1899 the Russian autoc- 
 racy sought to break down Finnish na- 
 tionalism and autonomy. Strong national 
 resistance among Finns. Restoration of 
 
 ' (HO) 
 
constitution in 1905. Recognition of 
 Finnish nationalism and guarantee op 
 Finnish national independence by the 
 present revolutionary government of Rus- 
 sia. Finnish-German alliance. Outlook 
 for Finnish nationalism still good. 
 8. Ukraine populated by 25,000,000 Little 
 . Russians also desires national existence. 
 Alexander III endeavors to suppress Lit- 
 tle Russian dialect. This causes national 
 resentment and starts a movement for 
 separation. Collapse in Russia in 1916 gave 
 opportunity for this to be carried out and 
 a separate treaty arranged with the 
 Ukraine. Germany now attempting to 
 control the great agricultural and mineral 
 resources of the country. Outlook for fu- 
 ture involves a more or less close unioii 
 with Russia. 
 
 Study and Reading References. 
 
 Hayes, Political and Social History, II, ch. xxv. 
 Hazen, Europe since 1815, see under "Russia." 
 
 , Modern European History, see under "Russia." 
 
 Holt and Chilton, History of Europe, 1862-1914, under 
 
 "Russia." 
 Schapiro, Modern and Contemporary History, chs. xxi, xxii, 
 
 xxiii. 
 Seignobos, Europe since 1814, ch. xix. 
 War Cyclopedia, articles on Finland, Poland, Russia, Ukraine, 
 
 etc. 
 
 Study Problems. 
 
 (1) What sort of a state was Russia at the opening of 
 the war? How was it dominated? How did Rus- 
 sian nationalism tend to express itself as to external 
 and internal policies? 
 
 (2) Comment on the characters of the Russian Tsars 
 during the last century? Why are their characters 
 more important that those of the English or Italian 
 kings? 
 
 (ill) ' 
 
(3) Discuss the origin and progress of the Industrial 
 Eevolntion in Russia. How did it help bring on 
 political revolution? 
 
 (4) Describe briefly (a) the revolutionary movement 
 of 1905; (b)' the history of the four Dumas. 
 
 (5) Discuss the attitude taken by the Russian people 
 toward the war. What ruined tsarism and autoc- 
 racy and what changes took place in 1917? 
 
 (6) How has the last great revolution progressed in 
 Russia and what seems to be the prospect for the 
 future? Discuss party conditions in Russia. 
 
 (7) Discuss the question of separate nationalism in 
 connection with (a) Finland; (b) Russian Poland; 
 and (c) the Ukraine. 
 
 XXII. Issues of the War in Regard to Turkey and Her 
 
 Empire. 
 
 (1) The Ottoman Empire in Europe and Western Asia. 
 Turning point of expansion in 1683, failure to cap- 
 ture Vienna. Subsequent Austrian and Russian acr- 
 grandizement at Turkish expense in the later 17th 
 and during the 18th centuries. Turkey during the 
 era of Napoleon threatened by the European pow- 
 ers but saved by western European wars. 
 
 (2) The Ottoman Empire after 1815 and the revolt of 
 the Christian states of the Balkan region — Serbs, 
 Bulgars, Rumanians, Greeks and Albanians. Par- 
 tial failure of these national movements due to lack 
 of European aid save in the case of Greece. Russia 
 extends most sympathy and protection on account 
 of Slav affiliations. The anti-Slav attitude of West- 
 ern Europe and the Crimean War (1854-1856), a 
 temporary check to Russian advance. 
 
 (3) The Near East under the influence of Great Brit- 
 ain and France as allies and friends of Turkey 
 (1855-1878). Renewal of Russian interference in 
 the Balkans. Serious disorders in the Ottoman 
 Empire with massacres of Christians of the small 
 nations, especially Bulgaria ("the Bulgarian atroc- 
 
 (112) 
 
ities"). Bad condition of the Ottoman Government 
 at the accession of the Sultan Abdul Hamid IT 
 (1876-1909). 
 
 (4) The reactionary regime of Adbul Hamid IT begins 
 with the Russo-Turkish War (1877-1878). Turkish 
 defeat and the treaty of San Stefano. Opposition 
 of Great Britain and of Austria-Hungary to this 
 treaty and its modification, in favor of Turkey, at 
 Berlin (1878). Partial dismemberment of the Turk- 
 ish Empire by new arrangements in regard to 
 Bosnia-Herzegovina, Cyprus, Bulgaria, Rumania, 
 Serbia, Montenegro, and Greece. Plans on paper 
 for the reform of Turkey not carried out. 
 
 (5) Character of Turkish government under the re- 
 actionary and tyrannical Abdul Hamid II. The 
 Sultan a hard worker who attempted to cover the 
 smallest details of government himself, thus causing 
 delay. Suspicious of all foreign innovations 
 through _ ignorance (confusion of "dynamos" with 
 "dynamite"). His governmental policies in de- 
 tail. 
 
 1. Gradual elimination of the control of the 
 Sublime Porte or group of ministers in 
 favor of the personal rule of the Sultan. 
 Existence, however, of a strong palace 
 clique who influence the appointment of 
 officials. Pay of officials always in arrears 
 and graft and corruption necessary and 
 carefully arranged for from highest to 
 lowest. A personal and palace despotism. 
 
 2. Progressive or liberal elements exiled or 
 sent to the provinces to prevent criticism 
 or revolution. Large powers given to 
 local governors so that extensive dis- 
 tricts become almost independent of cen- 
 tary control, as in the case of Macedonia, 
 Kurdistan, Arabia. 
 
 3. Moslems freely conscripted into the Turk- 
 ish army in arbitrary way. Christian pop- 
 ulation, particularly Armenian and Greek, 
 
 (113) 
 
suffers from, lack of justice and frequent 
 violence. Foreigners allowed their own 
 laws administered by diplomatic and con- 
 sular representatives according to the 
 capitulations, or agreements made by 
 Turkey with outside nations. France ex- 
 ercises special rights of protection over 
 Latin Christians and Russia over Greek 
 Christians of the native population. 
 4. Turkish industry largely domestic. The 
 trade and business mainly in the hands of 
 Armenians, Greeks, and foreigners. In- 
 ternal resources of Turkey little developed 
 on account of lack of transportation and 
 good order. The Bagdad Railway an en- 
 tering wedge of more advanced economic 
 development under German control. 
 
 5. Position of Sultan as Caliph, or successor 
 of Mohammed and head of Islam, assumed 
 in 16th century. Resentment at the loss 
 of Turkish Empire in Europe leads to 
 plan of Pan-Islam or general union of the 
 Mohammedan world. The aid of mendi- 
 cant brotherhoods and of the powerful 
 Sanusiyah, secret society enlisted. Rail- 
 way built to Medina to control the annual 
 pilgrimage to Mecca. Pan-Islamic fervor 
 finds expression in attack on Christian 
 Armenians. This considered safe owing to 
 the remoteness of Armenia and the apathy 
 of the western powers. 
 
 6. The Young Turk Revolutionary Party 
 plans to overthrow Abdul Hamid at the 
 first opportunity. Origin of this party in 
 liberal ideas of 19th century brought into 
 Turkey by the French and promoted by 
 American missions and schools. The con- 
 stitution of 1876 was granted by Abdul 
 Hamid II to conciliate outside liberal opin- 
 ion. It was never effective. 
 
 (114) 
 
(6) The Young Turk Revolution and the overthrow of 
 Abdul Hamid II (1908-1909). Rapid growth after 
 1900 of the Young Turk liberal party outside of 
 Turkey. Organization of a committee of Union and 
 Progress. The movement assisted by Armenian 
 revolutionary societies and definite plans made for 
 a revolution. Steps in the revolution. 
 
 1. Discovery of revolutionary plot by Turk- 
 ish government forces the issue. Revolu- 
 tionary opinions and sympathies in the 
 army influence Abdul Hamid to resurrect 
 the old constitution of .1876. Effort to 
 stem the Young Turk movement and re- 
 tain power. 
 
 2. Young Turk Revolution hampered by lack 
 of funds and lack of support from all 
 powers except Germany. No trained offi- 
 cials with liberal ideas. Absence of sym- 
 pathy by the Young Turks with other races 
 and creeds, especially Greeks, Armenians, 
 and Arabs. Their willingness, . however, 
 to admit Christians to military and civil 
 office. 
 
 3. Liberal ideas among the Turks spread by 
 the American missions and schools such 
 
 , as Roberts College, at Constantinople, and 
 the Syrian Protestant College, at Beirut. 
 Plans made for a general system of sec- 
 ondary and higher education amongst the 
 Turks useless for lack of funds to carry 
 them out. 
 4. Abdul Hamid 's efforts to seize and retain 
 control by means of the reactionary ele- 
 ments, strait-laced Moslems, and the Palace 
 group, end with exile to Salonika. Op- 
 portunity given for the Young Turks to 
 carry out an attack on the Armenians of 
 Cilicia. The failure of the government 
 to punish the culprits, gives the Christians 
 
 (115) 
 
their first hint of the Young Turk's pol- 
 icy of Ottomanisation. 
 5. Failure of the Young Turks to keep order 
 in Europe leads to coalition of Balkan 
 powers against them (Balkan Wars, 1912- 
 1913). Later a falling out of the allies 
 over the spoils enabled the Turks to re- 
 cover Adrianople. The loss of several of the 
 Turkish possessions (Tripoli, Rhodes and 
 Dodecanese) throws the control of affairs 
 into the hands of radical and pro- 
 German leaders. Another result is the per- 
 mitting of maltreatment of Armenians by 
 Kurds, until Eussia forced the granting of 
 reforms promised by the Congress of Berlin. 
 
 (7) The German alliance and the outbreak of the war. 
 Friendly relations with Germany begun under Ab- 
 dul Hamid. Desire of William II to pose as the 
 protector of Moslems throughout the world. The 
 concrete results in the Bagdad Railway concession. 
 Germany and the Young Turks. 
 
 1. Germany the first to recognize the Young 
 Turk Revolution and Germans called in to 
 reorganize and train the new army. Young 
 Turks, like Enver Bey, petted and flattered 
 by Potsdam. A number of old German 
 warships sold to the Turks for their navy 
 At the outbreak of war Turkey pledged 
 to Germany and only waited a favorable 
 opportunity to declare war against the 
 Entente. 
 
 2. Arrival of the German warships, Goeben 
 and Breslau, at Constantinople made pos- 
 sible the forcing of the hand of the more 
 reluctant elements in Turkey. The Ger- 
 man, connection reinforced the Ottomanisa- 
 tion policy. Outbreak of war brought a 
 climax to the Armenian problem by giv- 
 ing opportunity to carry out the policy of 
 
 (116) 
 
extermination by massacre and deporta- 
 tion. Nearly one million Armenians wiped 
 out and remainder kept alive largely 
 through efforts of American missionaries 
 and other Americans. 
 
 (8) The breakup of Turkey's Asiatic Empire conse- 
 quent on her alliance with Germany and Austria. 
 British. French and Russian influences in the east 
 directed against Turkey. Steps in the process. 
 
 1. Proclamation of independence and the erec- 
 tion of the kingdom of Hedjaz, headed by 
 the sheriff of Mecca, in 1917, a blow at the 
 pretensions of the Sultan as Caliph and an 
 attempt at a national Arabian movement. 
 It is assisted by the British seizure of 
 Bagdad and the recognition by the Entente 
 powers of the new Arabia. 
 
 2. Palestine and Zionism. Zionism the result 
 of national movement on the part of the 
 Jews. How it affected the Jews through- 
 out the world. Colonization begun in the 
 80 's but the movement did not become 
 vital until the work of Herzl in 1896. The 
 complete rejuvenation of Palestine and the 
 return of as many Jews as possible are 
 the plans made. Occupation of parts of 
 Palestine in 1917 gave force to the idea 
 that England led the Entente in recogniz- 
 ing claims of Jews. Arrangements al- 
 ready in existence for establishing a 
 Jewish state under allied suzerainty. 
 
 (9) Problems of settlement. The establishment of the 
 Zionistic state a difficult problem. Arrangements 
 necessary for the separation of the Arabic portion 
 of the Empire from Turkish control either 
 through extension of the kingdom of Hedjaz or 
 otherwise. Establishment of an effective control 
 over the Kurds and the rescue of the Armenians 
 from their clutches. The solution of the control of 
 
 (117) 
 
the Straits. The rights of the Greeks to the Aegean 
 littoral. Recognition and adjustment of Italian 
 claims to southeast Asia Minor, of France to Syria 
 and of England to Mesopotamia. The determina- 
 tion of the limits of the future Turkish state. The 
 proposal of President Wilson to restrict Turkish 
 rule to Turkish nationality. 
 
 Study and Reading References. 
 
 Hayes, Political and Social History, II, ch. xxvi. 
 Hazen, Europe since 1815, ch. xxviii. 
 
 , Modern European History, ch. xxiii. 
 
 Schapiro, Modern and Contemporary History, ch. xxvii. 
 Seignobos, Europe Since 181J h ch: xx. 
 
 Study Problems. 
 
 (1) Account for the decay of Turkish power during the 
 nineteenth century? What kept it from complete 
 disappearance? 
 
 (2) Discuss the treatment of non-Moslem peoples in 
 Turkey before the Revolution of 1908. What 
 changes were brought about by the Revolution? 
 
 (3) Discuss the development of liberal ideas in the 
 Turkish Empire. What were the forces aiding and 
 hindering their development? 
 
 (4) On what basis could the Pan Islamic movement be 
 headed by Turkey? How far was it successful? 
 Account for the limitations in its success. 
 
 (5) What national problems are involved in the Asi- 
 atic portion of the Empire? How far are they in- 
 fluenced by outside forces? What is their present 
 status ? 
 
 (6) Discuss the political and economic importance of 
 Constantinople. What difficulties does it present in 
 the settlement of the present war? 
 
 XXIII. How America Came Into the War. 
 
 (1) The international position of the United States at 
 the beginning of the twentieth century. Her for- 
 eign policy the result of a century of evolution. In- 
 (118) 
 
fiuence of her geographical position upon the forma- 
 tion and early development of her conception of 
 international affairs. 
 
 (2) The tradition of isolation : its origin — the neutral- 
 ity policy adopted in Washington's administration. 
 Justification of neutrality at that time. "Neutral- 
 ity" and "isolation" not identical. Isolation the 
 expression of a half truth only. 
 
 (3) The hegemony of the United States on the Ameri- 
 can continent. Its origin after the conclusion of 
 the Napoleonic wars. Its announcement to the 
 world in 1823. Its development and recognition 
 since. Its interpretation and influence on world 
 policy in the early years of the twentieth century. 
 
 (4) The traditional American attitude as to the in- 
 violability of private property in time of war. The 
 declaration of London, (1901), as to the rights of 
 neutrals. The British justification for refusing its 
 ratification. 
 
 (5) America and the belligerents in 1914 and before. 
 
 1. Summary statement of her previous rela- 
 tions with each of the principal belliger- 
 ents. Large number of nineteenth century 
 disputes with Great Britain compared with 
 the brevity of her diplomatic intercourse 
 with Germany. 
 
 2. Growing friendship of the United States 
 with Great Britain contrasted with a 
 growing distrust of Germany in the early 
 years of the twentieth century. Reasons 
 for this change. 
 
 (6) Opening of the war. American neutrality. The 
 "Belgian atrocities" and American public opinion. 
 German propaganda in America and its almost 
 complete failure. 
 
 (7) The question of contraband and the doctrine of 
 continuous voyages. 
 
 1. The American application of the doctrine 
 during the Civil War and the British appli- 
 (119) 
 
cation in 1914. Statement of the British 
 case. 
 2. The German imperial decree of Jan. 25, 
 1915, in regard to food stuffs. English 
 seizure of the Wilhelmina as a test case. 
 Comparative unimportance of the dispute 
 in so far as it affected the friendly re- 
 lations between the British and American 
 people. 
 
 (8) Beginning of the submarine controversy. 
 
 1. German imperial decree of Feb. 4, 1915, 
 making the British position as to naval war- 
 fare the excuse for the adoption by her of 
 under sea campaign. 
 
 2. The American note of Feb. 10, 1915, and 
 the German reply of Feb. 16. Submarine 
 activities during the spring of 1915 cul- 
 minating in the sinking of the Lusitania and 
 loss of many American lives. 
 
 (9) The dispute over the munitions trade. 
 
 1. Protest of the German imperial government 
 of Dec. 15, 1914, and her complaint in the 
 note of Feb. 16, 1915. Statement of the case 
 by Secretary Bryan. 
 
 2. Growth of bitterness in Germany against 
 United States. The German note of April 
 4, 1915, and the American reply of April 21. 
 The Austrian protest of June 29, 1915, and 
 the American reply of Aug. 12. The law and 
 the question of right in the case. 
 
 (10) Diplomatic contest over submarine warfare after 
 the sinking of the Lusitania. 
 
 1. American protest of May 13, 1915, and the 
 German answer of May 28. Later dis- 
 patches between the two governments failed 
 to produce an agreement. 
 
 (120) 
 
2. American declaration of principles regard- 
 ing submarine warfare Jan. 18, 1916. State- 
 ment of German position Mar. 8. Con- 
 tinuation of unrestricted submarine war- 
 fare. American ultimatum of April 18, 1916. 
 German promise of May 4 to meet the de- 
 mands of the United States. This promise 
 only partially kept during the next few 
 months. 
 
 (11) The German spy system and practice of sabotage 
 in America. 
 
 1. Austrian ambassador Dumba's secret pro- 
 posal for the destruction of American in- 
 dustrial plants, Aug. 1915. The illegal 
 activities of Captains Boy-Ed and von 
 Papen, leading to the demand for their 
 recall. 
 
 2. German imperial government issues secret 
 orders to Ambassador Bernstorff to promote 
 sabotage, Jan. 1916. The von Egel papers. 
 German spies and bribery in American 
 official circles and German control of 
 American newspapers. 
 
 (12) German intrigues against American peace. Cali- 
 fornia as a base to incite India to rebellion. In- 
 trigues in South America against the United States. 
 The plot in Mexico as revealed in the Zimmermann 
 note. 
 
 (13) Renewal of unrestricted submarine warfare, Jan. 31, 
 1917. Severance of diplomatic relations by the 
 United States, Feb. 3. Arming of American mer- 
 chant vessels, Mar. 1917. The United States de- 
 clares war on Germany, April 6, 1917. 
 
 (14) Summary and conclusion. Declaration of war ended 
 over two years of disputes between the United 
 States and Germany. Fundamental positions of the 
 two countries diametrically opposed. German con- 
 cept of international rights and her contempt for 
 
 (121) 
 
the law of nations. Germany becomes a criminal 
 among the nations of the world and America is 
 forced into the war to defend her honor and the lives 
 of her citizens. 
 
 Study and Reading References. 
 
 Harding, Study of the, Great War, ch. viii. 
 
 Hart, ed., America at War, ch. v. 
 
 How the War Came to America, Committee on Public Infor- 
 mation, no. 1. 
 
 Fish, American Diplomacy. 
 
 Rogers, America's Case Against Germany. 
 
 Robinson and West, The Foreign Policy of Woodrow Wilson, 
 1913-1917. 
 
 Study Problems. 
 
 (1) Discuss the Monroe Doctrine as generally under- 
 stood in the United States during recent years. 
 
 (2) Comment on the English and German attitudes to- 
 wards the United States in 1898. 
 
 (3) Discuss the effect of British sea power upon 
 American commerce in 1914 and 1915. 
 
 (4) Comment on the case of the "William P. Frye" and 
 the resulting negotiations with Germany. 
 
 (5) Write on pro-Germanism in America during the 
 early part of the world war. 
 
 (6) Show what results followed on German submarine 
 warfare in connection with the relations of German} 7 
 and the United States. 
 
 XXIV. The Meaning of the War to America. 
 
 (1) The United States not forced into the war simply 
 by Germany's wanton attack on lives and property 
 of American citizens. Fundamental American in- 
 terests and ideals are involved. United States 
 fighting for more than the vindication of national 
 honor against German spies, propaganda, submarine 
 attacks, Zimmerman note and other things. 
 
 (2) Evidences that the traditional foreign policy of 
 isolation on the part of the United States was no 
 
 (122) 
 
longer profitable given in the earliest stages of the 
 war. Supported by the following considerations. 
 
 1. In general neutrality in this war has proven 
 almost impossible. "Neutrality" a recent 
 concept dating from the wars of the French 
 Revolution and of Napoleon. The In- 
 dustrial Revolution with its world markets, 
 improved transportation and communication 
 involves interests of every country in every 
 important war. Neutrality a narrowly sel- 
 fish nationalistic policy, inconsistent with 
 modern internationalistic thinking. 
 
 2. In particular United States a different 
 nation since Washington and Monroe 
 formulated a policy of isolation. United 
 States transformed from small nation, weak 
 in men and wealth to strongest on earth. 
 Since 1865 has changed from agricultural, 
 raw material producing nation to industrial 
 
 one. Growth of cities and wealthy popu- 
 lation. World supply of raw materials vital 
 to our manufactures. Also world outlet, 
 vital to our farmers and manufacturers for 
 surplus products. United States thus swept 
 into current of world problems. 
 
 3. Already before 1914 United States was 
 taking her place as a world power and 
 abandoning traditional isolation. Acquisi- 
 tion of the Philippines involved us in Far 
 Eastern problems. John Hay and the Open 
 Door in China. Possible clash of interests 
 with Japan. United States delegates at 
 Algeciras conference. Prominent part taken 
 by United States at the Hague conferences. 
 Panama Canal a world highway. 
 
 (3) The increasing importance of the Monroe Doctrine 
 to the United States and the necessity of securing 
 its general acceptance by the world has been brought 
 home to us. Growing importance of South American 
 
 (123) 
 
markets, Panama canal and Porto Rico all demand 
 American domination of the Caribbean. 
 
 1. " National imperialism," meaning colonial 
 expansion and exploitation of undeveloped 
 parts of earth, is directly contrary to prin- 
 ciples of the Monroe Doctrine. Mexico, 
 Central and much of South America richer 
 fields for European exploitation than 
 Africa or most of Asia on account of cli- 
 mate, fertility, accessibility, and mineral 
 resources and labor. 
 
 2. Germany's national imperialism especially 
 dangerous. Mesopotamia and South Amer- 
 ica most tempting fields open to her. 
 Germany's early attitude toward Monroe 
 Doctrine contemptuous. Bismarck's char- 
 acterisation of it as ''an international 
 impertinence." Attempted German inter- 
 ference in yenezuela in 1902. Probable 
 interference with our purchase of Danish 
 West Indies. The Zimmerman note in 
 regard to Mexico. Germany's economic 
 penetration in Central and South America. 
 German colonists in Brazil. 
 
 3. England and France satisfied with their 
 existing fields of expansion. England has 
 consistently supported Monroe Doctrine and, 
 until recently, her navy was the chief 
 guarantee of policy. Defeat of Great 
 Britain in this war would have compelled 
 the United States to become a militaristic 
 nation or abandon the Monroe Doctrine. 
 
 (4) The true nature of German "Kultur" revealed to us 
 by the progress of the war. Particularly by 
 
 1. The attack on Serbia, the violation of the 
 neutrality of Luxemburg and Belgium, 
 showing Germany's utter disregard for the 
 ideal of nationality, for the rights of weaker 
 nations and for treaty obligations. 
 (124) 
 
2. German methods of warfare, which showed 
 a contempt for humanity and decency, as 
 manifested in the atrocities perpetrated in 
 Belgium and northern France, massacres in 
 Armenia, sinking of the Lusitania, use of 
 poison gas and other barbarities. 
 
 (5) United States convinced that this is a war of democ- 
 racy against autocracy, of right against might, of 
 civilisation against barbarism. The Russian revolu- 
 tion destroyed Russian autocracy and Amercians 
 realize now the essential democracy of England 
 and France. Prime Minister Lloyd George voices 
 allied aims which we can heartily accept. The Ger- 
 man rape of Russia and Rumania exposes complete- 
 ly the autocratic aim of her government. The issues 
 of the war clearly revealed in the speeches of Presi- 
 dent Wilson as 
 
 1. " Shall the military power of any nation or 
 group of nations be suffered to determine 
 the fortunes of people over whom they have 
 no right to rule except the right of force." 
 
 2. "Shall strong nations be free to wrong 
 weak nations and make them subject to 
 their purpose and interest." 
 
 3. "Shall peoples be ruled and dominated, 
 even in their own internal affairs, by 
 arbitrary and irresponsible force or at their 
 own will and force." 
 
 4. "Shall there be a common standard of right 
 and privilege for all nations or shall the 
 strong do as they will and the weak suffer 
 without redress." 
 
 (6) Summary and conclusion. The meaning of the war 
 to the United states is that a German world would 
 be an intolerable one for Americans to live in. It is 
 no longer possible for the United States to hold 
 aloof from the rest of the world. German domi- 
 nation would endanger our material interests and 
 
 (125) 
 
compel us to arm ourselves for their defense, Ger- 
 many repudiates the most cherished American 
 ideals of nationality and democracy. The United 
 States must do her full share in destroying the 
 German menace and insure against another war. 
 "The United States is prepared to assume its full 
 share of responsibility for the maintenance of com- 
 mon covenants and understandings upon which 
 peace must henceforth rest." (President Wilson). 
 
 Study and Reading References. 
 
 Harding, Study of the Great War, ch. viii, x. 
 
 How the War Came to America, Committee on Public Infor- 
 mation, no. 1. 
 
 War Labor and Peace: Some Recent addresses and Writings 
 of the President, Committee on Public Information, no. 9. 
 
 War Information Series, nos. 101, 102, 105, 108, 112, 114, 115. 
 
 Loyalty Leaflets, nos. 203, 205. 
 
 Study Problems. 
 
 (1) Why is neutrality a dubious policy to-day? Is 
 neutrality an obligation or a right? 
 
 (2) Why did Washington insist on a policy of neutrality 
 and isolation for the United States? Do the same 
 reasons apply today? Would Washington regard the 
 entrance of the United States into a League of 
 Nations as "an entangling alliance?" 
 
 (3) Has the United States been nationally imperialistic 
 in the past ? Must it be so in the future ? How can 
 she avoid it ? 
 
 (4) In what way is the Monroe Doctrine involved in the 
 causes of the present war? How would the triumph 
 of Germany affect it? 
 
 (5) Why did not the United States see the real issues of 
 the war in 1914? 
 
 (6) Explain clearly how German ideals and practices 
 attack American ideals directly. 
 
 (126) 
 
XXV. War Aims, Peace Proposals and the General 
 Issues of the World War. 
 
 (1) Importance of understanding and appreciating the 
 war aims and issues involved in the "World AYar. 
 The positive and negative aspects of war aims. 
 Offensive war by Germany and her allies against 
 British, Latin and Slav Europe. Injuries and in- 
 sults to the * United States and other neutrals caus- 
 ing them to become opponents of Germany. 
 
 (2) Three aspects to any discussion of war aims, peace 
 proposals, and general issues — (a) what Germany 
 and her friends have expected from the war; (b) 
 proposals of peace favorable to Germany by herself 
 and others; (c) allied and United States war aims 
 and ideas as to the settlement of the war. 
 
 (3) German war aims and proposals of peace all based 
 on German victory or gain. Effort to escape 
 punishment or penalties for aggression, crimes and 
 injuries which have been committed. Danger of 
 a negotiated peace without previous definite accept- 
 ance of terms. Necessity of forcing Germany to 
 submit to the just terms announced by the Allies. 
 
 (4) Original war aims of Germany and Austria were 
 to recover lost hegemony in Europe and to increase 
 it by conquest; to strengthen Austria in the Balkan 
 region and promote Pan-Germanism in middle Eu- 
 rope; to weaken Great Britain and secure colonial 
 and commercial advantages; and to humiliate both 
 Russia and France. Justified resistance of British, 
 Latin and Slav Europe to this Teutonic program. 
 
 (5) The military successes and temporary conquest of 
 Germany and her allies in the war a serious danger 
 to the world if allowed to yield them peace with 
 profit. Danger of the idea, once much talked of, 
 of "peace without victory." The grasp of the Teu- 
 tonic powers on Belgium, France, Italy, Serbia, 
 Montenegro, Rumania, and Russia must be unloosed. 
 They must be taught that "war does not pay." 
 
 (127) 
 
(6) Proposals of peace by conference by Germany and 
 her allies at close of 1916 impossible to accept, being 
 based on German victory gains which would con- 
 firm German militarism as a successful policy. 
 Only peace proposals from the Teutonic al- 
 lies which would be acceptable would be such as 
 acknowledge guilt for the war and promise repa- 
 ration, according to the terms laid down by Presi- 
 dent Wilson and Prime Minister Lloyd George 
 during recent years. (See Appendix A, B.) 
 
 (7) Peace proposals made by Pope Benedict XV in 
 August 1915 indefinite and properly ignored. Those 
 of August 1917 more definite but impossible of ac- 
 ceptance by the Allies on account of compromise 
 character. President Wilson's strong criticism of 
 the papal proposals and Germany's hypocritical and 
 noncommittal reply. Little hope of successful neu- 
 tral or non-combatant intervention at this stage of 
 the war. The suggestion for peace made by Lord 
 Lansdowne in England not acted on. 
 
 (8') Recent peace proposals by Austria-Hungary, of in- 
 definite type, to stop the war and start discussion 
 of peace terms, emphatically declined by the United 
 States and the Allies, who stand firmly for the 
 settlement of the war by the submission of Germany 
 and her allies to the announced terms of the demo- 
 cratic people of Europe and America. 
 (9) General and special war aims of the Allies and the 
 United States as stated in various speeches, mes- 
 sages and other announcements by President Wil- 
 son, Prime Minister Lloyd George, the premiers of 
 British Dominions and high government officials 
 ' of France, Italy and other allied countries. 
 
 1. The vindication of the rights of nations to 
 liberty and independence against German 
 militarism. The vindication of the right 
 of humanity against German brutality 
 shown in the present war. Making the 
 world safe for liberty and democracy against 
 
 (128) 
 
all forms of violence on the part of undemo- 
 cratic states. Agreement on democracy. 
 
 2. The crushing of the German system of 
 " combined intrigue and force ... a 
 thing withous conscience or honor or capac- 
 ity for covenanted peace" and reparation 
 of wrongs committed by Germany through 
 its rulers and generals. Demand that the 
 ''German people say to us, through prop- 
 erly accredited representatives, that they 
 are ready to agree to a covenant based upon 
 justice and the reparation of the wrongs 
 their rulers have done" (President Wil- 
 son). No treaty with militaristic rulers. 
 
 3. Creation of an improved international sys- 
 tem which shall include some kind of a 
 league or conference of powers on a demo- 
 cratic basis to preserve international peace. 
 To bring about an absence of selfish and 
 
 narrow nationalism and national designs and 
 to do away with secret and crafty diplo- 
 macy. Emphasis on League of Nations. 
 
 4. To bring about open covenants of peace to 
 the end that there shall be no more secret 
 treaties or international understandings but 
 that everything shall be told to the public 
 and be done in the public view. 
 
 5. To secure general freedom of navigation 
 on the sea, both in times of peace and war, 
 unless the closing of the sea to commerce 
 may be decreed by international action for 
 international purposes. The removal, as 
 fas as possible, of economic barriers and 
 discrimination so that nations are on an 
 equality in matters of trade and act to- 
 gether for its maintenance. 
 
 6. Reduction of national armament by mutual 
 agreement and guarantees to the lowest 
 point consistent with domestic safety. The 
 
 (129) 
 
free open-minded and impartial adjustment 
 of colonial claims and difficulties on the 
 principle of the interests of the colonial 
 population as well as the equitable claims 
 of the governments concerned. 
 
 7. Evacuation of all Russian territory and a 
 settlement of questions affecting Russia in 
 the interests of the Russian people and not 
 in the interests of outside powers. Giving of 
 Russia "an unhampered and unembarrassed 
 opportunity for the independent determi- 
 nation of her own political development 
 and national policy" (President Wilson). 
 
 8. The evacuation of Belgium, France, Italy, 
 Serbia, Montenegro, Rumania, and the rep- 
 aration for injuries committed. The recog- 
 nition of rights of national self gov- 
 ernment on the part of subject peoples in 
 Auustria-Hungary under strict guarantees. 
 The emancipation from Turkish control of 
 nationalities of non-Turk character and 
 the opening of the Dardanelles "as a free 
 passage to the ships and commerce of all 
 nations under international guarantees. " 
 
 9. The erection of an independent Polish state 
 to include all territory inhabited by strictly 
 Polish population. This state to be as- 
 sured a free and secure access to the sea 
 and its political and economic independence 
 and territorial integrity to be guaranteed by 
 international covenant. 
 
 10. Any settlement of the war to be based on 
 essential justice and permanent peace. No 
 peoples or provinces to be bartered as 
 chattels and pawns between sovereignties. 
 Territorial settlements to be made in the 
 interest and for the benefit of the popula- 
 tions concerned and not through expediency. 
 National aspirations of well-defined char- 
 
 (130) 
 
acter to be given all possible satisfaction 
 when the war is settled. 
 
 (10) Summary and conclusion: The evolution of thor- 
 oughly liberal and democratic war aims on the 
 part of the Allies totally discredits the German 
 claim of a defensive war. Proposals for peace 
 must be based on the principles and definite terms 
 enunciated by the Allied leaders and by President 
 Wilson. 
 
 Study and Reading References. 
 
 See Topics xvii-xxii for review. 
 
 Conquest and Eultur, Committee on Public Information, no. 5. 
 
 Harding, Study of the Great War, ch. x. 
 
 Hart, Ed., America at War, ch. vii. 
 
 New York Times, Current History of the War, Feb. 1918. 
 
 Stoddard and Prank, The Stakes of the War. 
 
 Toynbee, The New Europe. 
 
 War Cyclopedia, articles under Aims of the United States, 
 Peace Overtures, Peace Terms, War Aims, etc. 
 
 War, Laoor and Peace, addresses by President Wilson, Com- 
 mittee on Public Information, no. 9. 
 
 Study Problems. 
 
 (1) How should war aims and peace proposals be or- 
 ganized and examined so as to discriminate prop- 
 erly? Why should German peace proposals be 
 looked upon with suspicion? 
 
 (2) What kind of peace proposals have so far been made 
 by Germany and Austria-Hungary? Why have 
 these proposals been uniformly declined? Who 
 else has proposed peace and what was the result? 
 
 (3) Discuss the general and special war aims of the 
 United States and the allies. What do you con- 
 sider especially important in these terms? What 
 guarantee for future peace does President Wilson 
 emphasize ? 
 
 (4) What is meant by (a) freedom of the seas; (b) 
 fair adjustment of colonial claims; (e) removal of 
 
 (131) 
 
all economic barriers; (d) well denned national 
 aspirations; (e) open covenants of peace. 
 
 APPENDIX A 
 
 War Aims and Peace Terms of the United States as 
 Expressed by President Woodrow Wilson. 
 
 I. Program of the world's peace (addressed to Con- 
 gress January 8, 1918). "The program of the 
 world's peace, therefore, is our program and that 
 program the only possible program, as we see it is 
 this : 
 
 1. Open covenants of peace,' openly arrived 
 at; after which there shall be no private 
 international understandings of any kind, 
 but diplomacy shall proceed always frankly 
 and in the public view. 
 
 2. Absolute freedom of navigation upon the 
 seas, outside territorial waters, alike in 
 peace and in war, except as the seas may 
 be closed in whole or in part by interna- 
 tional action for the enforcement of in- 
 ternational covenants. 
 
 3. The removal, so far as possible, of all eco- 
 nomic barriers and the establishment of 
 an equality of trade conditions among all 
 the nations consenting to the peace and 
 associating themselves for its maintenance. 
 
 4. Adequate guarantees given and taken that 
 national armaments will be reduced to the 
 lowest point consistent with domestic safety. 
 
 5. A free, open-minded, and absolutely 
 impartial adjustment of all colonial claims, 
 based upon a strict observance of the prin- 
 ciple that in determining all such ques- 
 tions of sovereignty the interests of the 
 populations concerned must have equal 
 weight with the equitable claims of the 
 Government whose title is to be determined. 
 
 (132) 
 
The evacuation of all Russian territory, and 
 such a settlement of all questions affecting 
 Russia as will secure the best and freest 
 co-operation of the other nations of the 
 world in obtaining for her an unhampered 
 and unembarrassed opportunity for the 
 independent determination of her own politi- 
 cal development and national policy, and 
 assure her of a sincere welcome into the 
 society of free nations under institutions 
 of her own choosing; and, more than a 
 welcome, assistance also of every kind that 
 she may need and may herself desire. The 
 treatment accorded Russia by her sister 
 nations in the months to come will be the 
 acid test of their good will, of their com- 
 prehension of her needs as distinguished 
 from their own interests, and of their in- 
 telligent and unselfish sympathy. 
 Belgium, the whole world will agree, must 
 be evacuated and restored without any 
 attempt to limit the sovereignty which she 
 enjoys in common with all other free nations. 
 No other single act will serve as this will 
 serve to restore confidence among the na- 
 tions in the laws which they have them- 
 selves set and determined for the govern- 
 ment of their relations with one another. 
 Without this healing act the whole structure 
 and validity of international law is forever 
 impaired. 
 
 All French territory should be freed and the 
 invaded portions restored; and the wrong 
 done to France by Prussia in 1871 in the 
 matter of Alsace-Lorraine, which has un- 
 settled the peace of the world for nearly 
 fifty years, should be righted, in order that 
 peace may once more be made secure in 
 the interest of all. 
 
 (133) 
 
9. A readjustment of the frontiers of Italy 
 should be effected along clearly recognizable 
 lines of nationality. 
 
 10. The peoples of Austria-Hungary, whose 
 place among the nations we wish to see 
 
 safeguarded and assured, should be accorded 
 the freest opportunity of autonomous de- 
 velopment. 
 
 11. Rumania, Serbia, and Montenegro should 
 be evacuated ; occupied territories restored ; 
 Serbia accorded free and secure access to 
 the sea; and the relations of the several 
 Balkan States to one another determined 
 by friendly counsel along historically es- 
 tablished lines of allegiance and nationality; 
 and international guaranties of the political 
 and economic independence and territorial 
 integrity of the several Balkan States 
 should be entered into. 
 
 12. The Turkish portions of the present Otto- 
 man Empire should be assured a secure sov- 
 ereignty, but the other nationalities which 
 are now under Turkish rule should be 
 assured an undoubted security of life and 
 an absolutely unmolested opportunity of 
 autonomous development, and the Dar- 
 danelles should be permanently opened as 
 a free passage to the ships and, commerce 
 of all nations under international guar- 
 anties. 
 
 13. An independent Polish State should be 
 erected which should include the territories 
 inhabited by indisputably Polish popula- 
 tions, which should be assured a free and 
 secure access to the sea, and whose political 
 and economic independence and territorial 
 integrity should be guaranteed by inter- 
 national covenant. 
 
 14. A general association of nations must be 
 
 (134) 
 
formed, under specific covenants, for the 
 purpose of affording mutual guaranties of 
 political independence and territorial in- 
 tegrity to great and small States alike. 
 
 In regard to these essential rectifications of wrong 
 and assertions of right we feel ourselves to be intimate 
 partners of all the Governments and peoples associated 
 together against the imperialists. We cannot be separ- 
 ated in interest or divided in purpose. We stand to- 
 gether until the end." 
 
 II. Additional points from address to Congress Fer- 
 ruary 11, 1918. 
 
 " First, that each part of the final settlement 
 must be based upon the essential justice 
 of that particular case and upon such ad- 
 justments as are most likely to bring a 
 peace that will be permanent; 
 
 Second, that peoples and provinces are not to 
 be bartered about from sovereignty to sov- 
 ereignty as if they were mere chattels and 
 pawns in a game, even the great game, now 
 forever discredited, of the balance of 
 power; but that — 
 
 Third, every territorial settlement involved in 
 this war must be made in the interest and 
 for the benefit of the populations concerned, 
 and not as a part of any mere adjustment 
 or compromise of claims amongst rival 
 States ; and — 
 
 Fourth, that all well-defined national as- 
 pirations shall be accorded the utmost 
 satisfaction that can be accorded them 
 them without introducing new or perpetuat- 
 ing old elements of discord and antagonism 
 that would be likely in time to break the 
 peace of Europe and consequently of the 
 world. 
 
 (135) 
 
A general peace erected upon such foundations 
 can be discussed. Until such a peace can be secured 
 we have no choice but to go on. So far as we can 
 judge, these principles that we regard as fundamental 
 are already everywhere accepted as imperative, except 
 among the spokesmen of the military and annexationist 
 party in Germany. If they have anywhere else been 
 rejected, the objectors have not been sufficiently nu- 
 merous or influential to make their voices audible. The 
 tragical circumstance is that this one party in Germany 
 is apparently willing and able to send millions of men 
 to their death to prevent what all the world now sees 
 to be just." 
 
 Ill, Additional points from the Address at Mount 
 Vernon, July 4, 1918. "These are the ends for 
 which the associated peoples of the world are 
 fighting and which must be conceded them before 
 there can be peace : 
 
 1. The destruction of every arbitrary power 
 anywhere that can separately, secretly, 
 and of its single choice disturb the peace 
 of the world ; or, if it can not be presently 
 destroyed, at the least its reduction to 
 virtual impotence. 
 
 2. The settlement of every question, whether 
 of territory, of sovereignty, of economic 
 arrangement, or of political relationship, 
 upon the basis of the free acceptance of 
 that settlement by the people immediately 
 concerned, and not upon the basis of the 
 material interests or advantage of any 
 other nation or people which may desire a 
 different settlement for the sake of its own 
 exterior influence or mastery. 
 
 3. The consent of all nations to be governed 
 in their conduct toward each other by 
 the same principles of honor and of respect 
 for the common law of civilized society 
 that govern the individual citizens of all 
 modern States in their relations with one 
 
 (136) 
 
another; to the end that all promises and 
 covenants may be sacredly observed, no 
 private plots or conspiracies hatched, no 
 selfish injuries wrought with impunity, 
 and a mutual trust established upon the 
 handsome foundation of a mutual respect 
 for right. 
 
 4. The establishment of an organization of 
 peace which shall make it certain that the 
 combined power of free nations will check 
 every invasion of right and serve to make 
 peace and justice the more secure by afford- 
 ing a definite tribunal of opinion to which 
 all must submit and by which every interna- 
 tional readjustment that can not be ami- 
 cably agreed upon by the peoples directly 
 concerned shall be sanctioned." 
 
 IV. Recent statement, September 27, 1918, of war aims: 
 
 1. " Shall the military power of any nation 
 or group of nations be suffered to deter- 
 mine the fortunes of peoples over whom 
 they have no right to rule except the right 
 of force?" 
 
 2. "Shall strong nations be free to wrong 
 weak nations and make them subject to 
 their purpose and interest?" 
 
 3. "Shall peoples be ruled and dominated, 
 even in their own internal affairs, by ar- 
 bitrary and irresponsible force, or by their 
 own will and choice?" 
 
 4. "Shall there be a common standard of 
 right and privilege for all nations, or 
 shall the strong do as they will and the 
 weak suffer without redress?" 
 
 5. "Shall the assertion of right be haphazard 
 and by casual alliance, or shall there be 
 a common concert to oblige the observance 
 of common rights?" 
 
 "No man, no group of men, chose these to be 
 the issues of the struggle. They are the 
 (137) 
 
issues of it;, and they must be settled — by 
 no arrangement or compromise or ad- 
 justment of interests, but definitely and 
 once for all and with a full and unequivocal 
 acceptance of the principle that the in- 
 terest of the weakest is as sacred as the 
 interest of the strongest." 
 
 ''This is what we mean when we speak of a 
 permanent peace, if we speak sincerely, in- 
 telligently, and with a real knowledge and 
 comprehension of the matter we deal with. ' ' 
 
 "We are all agreed that there can be no peace 
 obtained by any kind of bargain or com- 
 promise with the governments of the Cen- 
 tral Empires, because we have dealt with 
 them already and have seen them deal 
 with other governments that were parties 
 to this struggle at Brest-Litovsk and 
 Bucharest. They have convinced us that 
 they are without honor and do not intend 
 justice. They observe no covenant, accept 
 no principle but force and their interest. 
 We can not "come to terms" with them. 
 They have made it impossible. The Ger- 
 man people must by this time be fully 
 aware that we cannot accept the word of 
 those who forced this war upon us. We 
 do not think the same thoughts or speak 
 the same language of agreement." 
 
 (b) General statement of terms of peace. (Sept. 27, 1918) . 
 "These, then, are some of the particulars and 
 I state them with greater confidence because 
 I can state them authoritatively as repre- 
 senting this government's interpretation of 
 its own duty with regard to peace:" 
 1. "The impartial justice meted out must 
 involve no discrimination between those 
 to whom we wish to be just and those 
 to whom we do not wish to be just. It 
 must be a justice that plays no favorites 
 (138) 
 
and knows no standards but equal rights 
 of the several people concerned." 
 
 2. "No special or separate interests of any 
 single nation or any group of nations can 
 be made the basis of any part of the set- 
 tlement which is not consistent with the 
 interests of all." 
 
 3. "There can be no leagues or alliances or 
 special covenants and understandings with- 
 in the family of nations." 
 
 4. "And, more specifically, there can be no 
 special, selfish economic combinations with- 
 in the league and no employment of any 
 form of economic boycott or exclusion 
 except as the power of economic penalty 
 by exclusion from the markets of the 
 world may be vested in the league of 
 nations itself as a means of discipline and 
 control. ' ' 
 
 5. "All international agreements and treaties 
 of every kind must be made known in their 
 entirety to the rest of the world. Special 
 alliances and economic rivalries and hos- 
 tilities have been a prolific source in the 
 modern world of the plans and passions 
 that produce war. It would be an insin- 
 cere, as well as an insecure, peace that did 
 not exclude them in definite and binding 
 
 terms. 
 ' Peace drives' can be effectively neutralized 
 and silenced only by showing that every 
 victory of the nations associated against 
 Germany brings the nations nearer the 
 sort of peace which will bring security and 
 reassurance to all people and make the 
 return of another such struggle of pitiless 
 force and bloodshed forever impossible, and 
 that nothing else can. Germany is con- 
 stantly intimating the 'terms' she will ac- 
 cept and always finds that the world does 
 (139) 
 
not want terms. It wishes the final triumph 
 of justice and fair dealing." 
 
 APPENDIX B. 
 
 Wat Aims and Peace Terms as Stated by Allied States- 
 men and Prime Minister Lloyd George. 
 
 I. As found in "Reply of the Allies to the President 
 of the United States" (January 10, 1917). 
 
 ' ' The Allies ' war aims are well known ; 
 
 they have been repeatedly defined by the heads of 
 their various Governments. These war aims will 
 only be set forth in detail, with all the compensa- 
 tions and equitable indemnities for harm suffered, 
 at the moment of negotiation. But the civilized 
 world knows that they imply, necessarily and first 
 of all, the restoration of Belgium, Serbia and 
 Montenegro, with the compensations due to them; 
 the evacuation of the invaded territory in France, 
 in Russia, in Rumania, and just reparation; the 
 reorganization of Europe, guaranteed by a stable 
 regime and based at once on respect for nationali- 
 ties and on the right to full security and liberty 
 of economic development possessed by all peoples, 
 small and great, and at the same time upon ter- 
 ritorial conventions and international settlements 
 such as to guarantee land and sea frontiers against 
 unjustified attacks; the restitution of provinces 
 formerly torn from the Allies by force or against 
 the wish of their inhabitants; the liberation of the 
 Italians, as also of the Slavs, Rumanes, and Czecho- 
 slovaks from foreign domination; the setting free 
 of the population subject to the bloody tyranny 
 of the Turks ; and the turning out of Europe of the 
 Ottoman Empire as decidedly foreign to Western 
 civilization. ' ' 
 
 II. Prime minister Lloyd George's declaration of "War 
 Aims. (January 5, 1918). 
 
 (140) 
 
1. "Complete restoration, political, territorial, 
 and economic, of the independence of 
 Belgium and such reparation as can be 
 made for the devastation of its towns and 
 provinces." 
 
 2. "The restoration of Serbia, Montenegro, 
 and the occupied parts of France, Italy and 
 Rumania. The complete withdrawal of the 
 alien army and the reparation for injustice 
 done is a fundamental condition of perma- 
 nent peace." 
 
 3. "We mean to stand by the French democ- 
 racy to the death in the demand they make 
 for a reconsideration of the great wrong of 
 1871, when, without any regard for the 
 wishes of the population, two French prov- 
 inces were torn from the side of France 
 and incorporated in the German Empire." 
 
 4. "An independent Poland, comprising those 
 genuinely Polish elements who desire to 
 form part of it, is an urgent necessity for 
 the stability of Western Europe." 
 
 5. "Unless genuine self-government on two 
 democratic principles is granted to those 
 Austro-Hungarian nationalities who have 
 long desired it, it is impossible to hope for 
 the removal of those causes of unrest in 
 that part of Europe which have so long 
 threatened its general peace." 
 
 6. "The satisfaction of the legitimate claims 
 of the Italians for union with those of their 
 own race and tongue. ' ' 
 
 7. "That justice be done to men of Rumanian 
 blood and speech in their legitimate aspi- 
 rations." 
 
 8. "We do not challenge the maintenance of 
 the Turkish Empire in the home lands of 
 of the Turkish race with its capital at 
 Constantinople — the passage between the 
 Mediterranean and the Black Sea beins 
 
 (141) b 
 
internationalized and neutralized — Arabia, 
 Armenia, Mesopotamia, Syria, and Palestine 
 are in our judgment entitled to a rec- 
 ognition of their separate national con- 
 ditions. " 
 
 9. "With regard to the German colonies, I 
 have repeatedly declared that they are held 
 at the disposal of a Conference whose 
 decision must have primary regard to the 
 wishes and interests of the native inhabi- 
 tants of such colonies." 
 
 10. "Finally, there must be reparation for in- 
 juries done in violation of international 
 law." 
 
 III. Basis of Lasting Peace. Prime Minister Lloyd 
 George (Jan. 5, 1918). 
 
 "We are confident that a great attempt must 
 be made to establish by some international 
 organization an alternative to war as a 
 means of settling international disputes." 
 
 "If, then, we are asked what we are fighting 
 for, we reply, as we have often replied, — 
 We are fighting for a just and a lasting 
 peace — and we believe that before perma- 
 nent peace can be hoped for three con- 
 ditions must be fulfilled." 
 
 '•'First, the sanctity of treaties must be re- 
 established; secondly, a territorial settle- 
 ment must be secured based on the right* of 
 self-determination or the consent of the 
 government; and, lastly, we must seek by 
 the creation of some international crgani- , 
 zation to limit the burden of armaments 
 and diminish the probability of war 
 
 "On these conditions the British Empire would 
 welcome peace, to secure those conditions 
 its peoples are prepared to make even 
 greater sacrifices than those they have yet 
 endured." 
 
 (142) 
 
 i r: i Mn 
 
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