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THE 
 
 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK; 
 
 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 
 
 EMBEACING ADVANCED ENGLISH STUDIES USUALLY 
 
 PUESUED IN PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOLS, 
 
 ACADEMIES, ETC. 
 
 INTERSPERSED WITH 
 
 APPROPRIATE EXPLANATORY NOTES 
 
 ELUCIDATING AND ENLARGING THE CONTEXT, 
 
 DESIGNED TO AID THE STUDENT IN HIS EFFORTS FOR SELF- 
 EDUCATION ; ALSO, TO PREPARE THE COMMON 
 SCHOOL TEACHER FOR A STEP 
 HIGHER IN HIS CHOSEN 
 PROFESSION. 
 
 WITH AN APPENDIX. 
 
 EDITED BY 
 
 W. H. F. HENRY, 
 
 AUTHOR OF THE "NORMAL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES," "THE 
 
 VOICE OF THE PEOPLE," "MANUAL OF PARLIAMENTARY 
 
 LAW," "GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD," ETC. 
 
 INDIANAPOLIS : 
 
 J. E. SHEEEILL, PUBLISHEE. 
 
 1886. 
 
)pli 
 
 
 \\ 
 
 Entered According to Act of Congress in the year 1885, 
 
 BY J. E. SHERRILL, 
 
 In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 
 
 CAELON & HOLLENBECK, 
 
 PlflNTERS AND BINDERS, 
 
 INDIANAPOLIS. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 To do justice to a work of this character, and at the same time 
 not to make it voluminous, has been no light task. 
 
 In its preparation it has been our endeavor to make the Ques- 
 tions concise>and unambiguous, and the corresponding Answers 
 satisfying and comprehensive. Great care has been exercised to 
 render these Answers consistent and applicable, and to compile 
 them from the best authorities. 
 
 Throughout the work are interspersed (in smaller type) appro- 
 priate explanatory notes and comments elucidating the context. 
 They supply also much additional information, which could not 
 be included in the direct Answer without undue elaboration. 
 
 The plan and scope of the work is Normal, and only the most 
 useful and practical points are touched in the direct answers,. 
 while in the notes these answers are somewhat elaborated. The- 
 work has required much patient research and labor of condensa- 
 tion and elimination from various authentic sources. 
 
 Feb., 1886. W. H. F. Henry. 
 
 (3) 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 General History . 7 
 
 SECTION II. 
 English Literature . 78 
 
 SECTION III. 
 Natural Philosophy 96 
 
 SECTION IV. • 
 Chemistry 120 
 
 SECTION V. 
 Geology 12^ 
 
 SECTION VI. 
 
 ASTltONOMY 131 
 
 SECTION VII. 
 
 Zoology IBS- 
 SECTION VIII. 
 
 Physiology and Hygiene 148 
 
 SECTION IX. 
 Science of Arithmetic 176- 
 
 SECTION X. 
 Geometry . , 230 
 
 (5) 
 
6 CONTENTS. 
 
 SECTION XI. 
 Civil Government 239 
 
 SECTION XII. 
 Khetoeic 251 
 
 SECTION XIII. 
 Algebra 257 
 
 SECTION XIV. 
 Political Economy 267 
 
 SECTION XV. 
 Descriptive Botany 277 
 
 SECTION XVI. 
 Mental and Moral Philosophy 285 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Science in our Public Schools 293 
 
 How to Teach Physiology 299 
 
 Arithmetic . 304 
 
 Thoughts and Suggestions on Education 309 
 
 Course of Study for the District School 312 
 
 Teaching Natural Philosophy 317 
 
 Cheap Apparatus 322 
 
 The Importance of Science in our Public Schools . . . 326 
 Algebra and Geometry 330 
 
 Normal Methods of Teaching the Higher Branches . . 336 
 
THE 
 
 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK, 
 
 SECTION I. 
 GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 1. What is History ? 
 
 History is any record of events. It describes the past conditions 
 and actions of men, investigates the causes which have operated 
 to produce them, and traces the effects or results of events. 
 
 The facts of history comprise the sum of events that man has brought 
 about in all the teeming centuries since first he inhabited the earth. The 
 number is beyond the power of imagination to conceive, and historians do 
 not attempt to enumerate them. They describe some of the grandest and 
 most interesting features of a nation's life, and leave the rest to be inferred 
 or forgotten, 
 
 2. How should history he -properly taught f 
 From a series of progressive standpoints. 
 
 In the history of every nation there are certain prominent events from 
 which, as centers, other minor events have seemed to emanate, and to which 
 they bear reference. It is only of these great events that we need know the 
 dates or the minute particulars. , 
 
 3. How much history should be expected of pupils in our common 
 schools f 
 
 A knowledge of the history of their own country ; but in the 
 higher schools it should be extended to universal history. 
 
 f7) 
 
8 THE HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 No one can do without a familiarity with the history of his own country. 
 To every American citizen this knowledge is useful ; he should know of the 
 founding, progress, and growth of liberty in his own country. Towards the 
 preservation of good government and the permanency of our institutions, 
 it is necessary that the principles of government and the leading events of 
 history be taught in our American schools. "The idea of national unity 
 and patriotism should rise above the strifes of party and the turmoil of war, 
 and plant itself as the one thing vital to American institutions." 
 
 The study of history furnishes a valuable intellectual discipline ; and the 
 many examples of good and great men and women who honored by their 
 noble deeds the age and country in which they lived, exert a healthful 
 moral influence. Moral examples have more influence upon the young than 
 moral precepts. 
 
 4. What forms may the records of history take f 
 
 Of History proper, which is the record of the life of a nation, or 
 people ; of Biography, which is a record of the life of an individ- 
 ual ; of Annak, in which events are arranged in chronological or- 
 der under consecutive years; of Chronicles, in which events are 
 narrated simply in the order of their occurrence; or of Memoirs^ 
 which are composed from personal experience. 
 
 5. What is Political History? 
 
 Political history is a mere record of wars, conquests, massacres, 
 plots, and the doings of kings and rulers. 
 
 6. What is Philosophy of History ? 
 
 Philosophy of history is an examination into causes and effects 
 of events. 
 
 It should receive careful attention from the student of history, as only a 
 clear understanding of the causes which lead to wars and revolutions can. 
 make intelligible the events themselves. The origin, character, and sur- 
 roundings of a people must be well understood before we can correctly 
 estimate the part which that people play in the history of the world. 
 
 7. What are the chief elements in ike character of a people ? 
 
 Race, geographical location, religion, system of government, 
 educational facilities, and natural resources of the country. 
 
 8. What are the sources of history f 
 
 The chief sources of history ere : 
 
 (1) Authentic records, of which the Bihle is the most ancient. 
 
 (2) Oral tradition, which existed before the invention of the 
 art of writing. 
 
 From this source Herodotus, one of the earliest profane historians, de- 
 rived the greater part of the facts which he relates. 
 
GENERAIi HISTORY. i> 
 
 (3) Historical poems, such as the Iliad and Odyssey of Homer, 
 which comprised the only history of the heroic age of Greece. 
 
 (4) Monuments and ruins, as the Pyramids of Egypt, and 
 the remains of such ancient cities as Balbec, Babylon, Troy, Nine- 
 veh, Palmyra, and Persepolis, which serve to give an idea of the 
 taste, power, and opulence of those by whom they were built. 
 
 (5) Coins and medals have always been of great utility in 
 illustrating history, and of giving some insight into the manners 
 and customs of those nations to which they belonged. 
 
 (6) Inscriptions on marbles, the most celebrated collections 
 of which are those at the University of Oxford, England, called 
 the Arundelian Marbles, from the Earl of Arundel, by whom they 
 were brought from Greece. 
 
 Of these inscriptions, the most important is the Chronicle of Paros, which 
 contains the chronology of Athens from the time of Cecrops, B. C. 1582 to 
 B. C.264. 
 
 9. What sciences are necessary to a proper understanding of history f 
 
 ETHNOiiOGY, or the science of the several races, or types of 
 mankind. 
 
 Archeology, or the science of the ancient works of man. 
 
 Geology, or the science which treats of the formation and de- 
 velopment of the earth. 
 
 Philology, or the science of language. . 
 
 Physical Geography, which treats of the earth with reference 
 to the conformation and structure of its surface, its climate, and 
 its natural resources. 
 
 10. What can he said of the antiquity of man? 
 
 The antiquity of man is much greater than is indicated by any 
 kind of Avritten records whatever. 
 
 This is distinctly proven by Archteology, Geology, and Philology. Human 
 bones, implements of war, domestic utensils, etc., have been found in such 
 situations as to show clearly that they were placed there/ long before the 
 dawn of authentic history, which scarcely dates back to 3,000 years before 
 Christ. >» 
 
 11. What are the recognized races o?' types of mankind? 
 
 Mankind is divided into five well recognized races, differing in 
 intellect, features, color, stature, etc. These strongly marked di- 
 
10 THE HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 visions are the Caucasian, Mongolian, Malay, Negeo, and 
 American. 
 
 The Caucasian is the great historical and progressive race. Its history is 
 the history of civilization. 
 
 12. How is this historical stock— the Caucasian race — idividedf 
 
 Modern scliolars divide it into three main branches : The Ary- 
 an, or Indo-European branch ; the Semitic branch ; the Ham- 
 ITIC branch. 
 
 This classification is a linguistic one— that is to say, it is a division based 
 on the nature of the languages spoken by the three families of nations — but 
 .at the same time it represents three distinct civilizations. 
 
 13. What is the Aiyan branch P 
 
 It is that division to which we ourselves belong: it includes 
 nearly all the present and past nations of Europe, — the Greeks, 
 Latins, Germans (Teutons), Celts, and Slavonians, — with two an- 
 cient Asiatic peoples, namely, the Hindoos and the Persians. 
 
 The word Aryan means noble, excellent, and in their influence on civiliza- 
 tion, the Aryans predominate. The primitive Aryans lived in the regions 
 ■east of the Caspian Sea. 
 
 14. What does the Semitic branch include ? 
 
 The ancient inhabitants of Syria, Arabia, and the Tigris and 
 Euphrates countries. The leading historical representatives of 
 the Semitic branch are the Hebrews, Phoenicians, Assyrians, and 
 Arabs. 
 
 15. What people represent the Hhmitic branch f 
 
 It has but one prominent representative, — the Egyptians. It is 
 probable, however, that the ancient Chaldceans also belonged to 
 this race. 
 
 16. Hoiv is history divided f 
 
 With respect to time, history is divided into Ancient, Medieval, 
 and Modern. 
 
 17. What i'i Ancient History? 
 
 Ancient history embraces the history of the world from the ear- 
 liest period to the fall of the Western Koman Empire, 476 A. D. 
 
GENERAL HISTORY. 11 
 
 18. What is Medieva I History ? 
 
 Medieval history, or the " Middle Ages ", comprises the history 
 of the world from the fall of the Western Koman Empire (A. D. 
 476) to the close of the 15th century, or to the fall of Constanti- 
 nople, A. D. 1453. 
 
 Some historians, however, place the interval of the Middle Ages from the 
 fall of the Western' Roman Empire to the discovery of America, 1492. 
 
 19. What is Modern History f 
 
 Modern history comprises the history of the world from the 
 close of the 15th century to the present time. 
 
 There is, however, a diflference of opinion with regard to the line which 
 separates ancient from modern history. Some historians adopt the Chris- 
 tian era for the commencement of modern history ; others take the down- 
 fall of Rome ; while others again carry it down as far as the establishment 
 of the New Empire of the West, under Charlemagne, A. D. 800. 
 
 20. What events distinguish ancient history f 
 
 The creation of man ; the Deluge ; the dispersion of mankind ; 
 and the formation of the four great Empires of Assyria, Persia, 
 Greece, and Rome, which in time arose, flourished, and decayed. 
 
 21. What events distinguish medieval history f 
 
 The spread of Christianity ; the fall of the Roman Empire ; 
 the rise of the principal modern nations of Europe; the rise, 
 progress, and decline of Mohammedanism ; the establishment of 
 the Feudal System ; the Crusades ; Chivalry ; the invention of 
 gunpowder and the art of printing. 
 
 22. What events distinguish modern history f 
 
 The discovery of America ; the revival of letters ; the Reforma- 
 tion ; the rise of the United States of America ; the invention of the 
 steam-engine, the magnetic telegraph, the sewing-machine; and 
 many advances and improvements in the arts, sciences, and social 
 ■condition of man. 
 
 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 23. What comprised the ancient Oriental monarchies f 
 
 Egypt, Assyria and Babylonia, Judea, Phoenicia, India, and 
 Persia. 
 
 With the single exception of Egypt, the seat of all the ancient Oriental 
 nations was in Asia. Historical Asia is in reality Southwestern Asia. 
 
12 THE HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 24. Where arose the earliest nations recorded in history f 
 
 In the three alluvial plains of the Nile, of the Tigris and Eu- 
 phrates, and of the Indus. 
 
 This fact was wholly due to physical causes. In a primitive state of 
 society population can gather into nations only in regions where a fertile 
 soil produces abundant food. Here nature spontaneously produces certain 
 important articles of food, such as dates, rice, etc., which, being easily cul- 
 tivated and yielding immense returns, made a large population possible. 
 
 25. What was the " cradle of nations " 9 
 
 The alluvial plains of Southwest Asia (taking in Egypt). 
 
 26. When does history , proper, commence ? 
 
 History commences when historical records commence. 
 
 We must leave to revelation and to science the consideration of iirimitive 
 humanity, and take up our studies with those ancient Oriental nations that 
 appear on the stage of human afifairs when historic records begin. 
 
 27. What may be said of the antiquity of Egypt ? 
 
 Egypt itself may not have been the oldest nation, but Egyptian 
 history is certainly the oldest history. 
 
 Egypt is the country in which we first find a government and political 
 institutions established. Its monuments, records, and literature surpass in 
 antiquity those of Chaldea and India, the two next oldest nations. 
 
 28. Name the three divisions of ancient Egypt. 
 
 Lower Egypt, or the Delta ; Middle Egypt, or the Heptauomis ; 
 Upper Egypt, or the Thebais. 
 
 29. Why has Egypt been called " the Gift of the Nile " f 
 
 In its annual overflow (due to the immense rainfalls in the 
 Abyssinian mountains), the Nile, by its mud deposits, renews 
 every year the soil of Egypt, so that all the people had to do was 
 to plant, and nature produced. 
 
 30. What were the old sources of information regarding Egypt 9 
 
 These were derived chiefly from thg narratives of the Greek his- 
 torians, and especially from that of Herodotus, called the father 
 of history, and from some fragments of a history written in Greek 
 by Manetho, an Egyptian priest, in the 3d century B. C. 
 
GENERAL. HISTORY. 13 
 
 31. What are the new sources of information f y 
 
 The art of reading the hieroglyphics, a term meaning sacred carv- 
 ings, or priestly writing. 
 
 The knowledge of the reading of these died out with the decline of 
 Egypt, and " hieroglyphics ' became a synonym for everything that is mys- 
 terious. 
 
 32. What was the " Bosetta stme " ? 
 
 During the expedition of the French to Egypt, under Napoleon, 
 at the close of the last century, an engineer, in digging the foun- 
 dation of a fort near the Rosetta mouth of the Nile, found a stone 
 tablet, about three feet long, on which was an inscription in three 
 different characters. This was the famous " Rosetta stone." One 
 of the three texts (the lower one) was Greek, and of course was 
 readily translated ; the text at the head was in the mystic hiero- 
 glyphic character ; the intermediate text was in a character since 
 called demotic [demos, the people), that is, the writing of the com- 
 mon people. This inscription was copied and circulated among 
 scholars, and after long and ingenious efforts the alphabet of the 
 hieroglyphics was made out ; so that now these carvings are read 
 with ease and certainty, and a new flood of light has been thrown 
 on the history of ancient Egypt. The great work of deciphering 
 these characters was mainly effected by the French savant, Cham- 
 pollion. 
 
 33. What ivas the grand age of Egyptian history f 
 
 The most splendid period of Egyptian history was from the 
 
 eighteenth to the twentieth dynasties, — about three centuries 
 
 (1525-1200 B. C). 
 
 At the head of the eighteenth dynasty is supposed to have been that 
 Pharaoh "who know not Joseph."' The exodus of the Israelites from 
 Egypt is believed to have taken place 1320 B. C, during the reign of Menep- 
 tha, the fourth king of the nineteenth dynasty — the Pharaoh whose heart 
 was hardened, and who was drowned in the Eed Sea. 
 
 34. When was the age of Egyptian decay ? 
 
 From the twentieth dynasty onward Egypt declined for six 
 centuries, till finally it was conquered by the Persians under Cam- 
 byses, 525 B. C. In 332 Egypt fell under the dominion of Alex- 
 ander the Great, who founded on its shore the new capital and 
 literary and commercial center called Alexandria. One of his 
 generals, named Ptolemy, received Egypt as his fragment of the 
 
14 THE HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION EOOK. 
 
 divided empire of Alexander, 323 B. C. Thenceforward for three 
 centuries the Greek dynasty of the Ptolemies ruled on the banks 
 of the Nile till Queen Cleopatra, the last of the line, being over- 
 come by the Eomans, died by her own hand ; and the venerable 
 land became a Eoman province. 
 
 35. What was the government of ancient Egypt f 
 
 A hereditary monarchy, the kings being called Pharaohs. 
 
 The public duties and daily habits of the king were prescribed by religi- 
 ous rule ; so that the priestly class formed the " power behind the throne." 
 In another respect an Egyptian king differed from an Eastern despot : his 
 power over the lives and property of his subjects was strictly limited by 
 law, and nothing left to caprice and passion. 
 
 36. What ivas the system of Caste ? 
 
 By the system of caste, each individual, instead of being able 
 to make his own place and fortune in the world, had his lot marked 
 out by his birth : he had to be what his father was. Of these 
 castes, or ranks, there were three broad divisions, — the priests, the 
 soldiers, and the lower orders. 
 
 The priests were the richest, most powerful, and most influential order. 
 Their ascendency over the minds of the people was immense. The military 
 caste was the next in importance. The lower castes embraced the husband- 
 men, the artificers, and the herdsmen. 
 
 37. What was the effect of the caste system f 
 
 It was one of the main causes of the decline of the nation. It 
 discouraged progress and improvement ; it crushed out personal 
 ambition ; it produced dull uniformity. 
 
 38. What were the two most famous cities of ancient Egypt? 
 
 Memphis and Thebes. Memphis was about twelve miles above 
 the apex of the Delta. Thebes was the metropolis of Upper Egypt, 
 and the most splendid city of the Nile. 
 
 Scarcely a vestige of Memphis now remains ; but its great burial place at 
 Gizeh is still seen. Here are the great Pyramids, the colossal Sphinx, and 
 miles on miles of rock-hewn tombs. The traveler who now views the ruins 
 of Thebes at Karnak and Luxor beholds pillared temples and statues of a 
 size so colossal as to seem like the works of giant hands. 
 
 39. What distinguishes Egyptian architecture ? 
 
 The distinguishing feature of Egyptian architecture is its vast- 
 ness and sublimity. Avenues of colossal sphinxes and lines of 
 obelisks led to stupendous palaces and temples, elaborately sculp- 
 
GENERAL HISTORY. 15 
 
 tured, and containing halls of solemn and gloomy grandeur, ini 
 which our largest cathedrals might stand. 
 
 40. What loere the -pyramids ? 
 
 They were huge structures of stone designed as the sepulchers 
 of kings. 
 
 As many as seventy stand on the left bank of the Nile, just heyond the 
 cultivated ground, in the vicinity of Memphis. 
 
 41. Which are the most celebrated of the pyramids 9 
 
 The three great pyramids of Gizeh. The largest is 450 feet 
 high ; it has a square base of 764 feet, and it covers an area of 
 more than thirteen acres, — twice the extent of any other building^ 
 in the Avorld. The second pyramid is but little less ; the third 
 is about half the size. 
 
 In the construction of these works no degree of lahor for any length of 
 time seems to have intimidated the Egyptians. The huge blocks of stone,, 
 sometimes weighing 1600 tons each, were dragged for hundreds of miles on 
 sledges. 
 
 42. What of writing mxiterial among the Egyptians f 
 
 It was their custom to mark every object and article of use or 
 ornament. For manuscript an excellent writing material was 
 made from the leaves of ih^pa-py^-rus, — whence our word " paper."" 
 
 43. What was a striking peculiarity of the Egyptian religion f 
 
 The honor paid to brutes. The dog, the cat, the ibis, and the 
 hawk were held in reverence throughout the whole land, — other 
 animals were worshiped only in special nomes, or districts. 
 
 The highest honors were paid to the bull Apis at Memphis, and to the 
 calf Mhe'-vis at Heliop'-olis. The sacred animals were kept in the temples, 
 ministered to with the greatest care, and when they died they were em- 
 balmed. If a person killed an ibis or a hawk, whether intentionally or not, 
 he was immediately put to death. 
 
 44. Why did the Egyptians embalm dead bodies ? 
 
 The original reason was the belief that at the day of judgment 
 the soul would reunite with the body ; hence the care taken to 
 preserve the corpse from .corruption, and hence also the great 
 pains taken to ornament the interior of their stone-hewn sepul- 
 chers, since, even while lying in the tomb, the body was believed 
 to be not wholly unconscious. 
 
 « 
 
16 THE HIGH SCHOOIi QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 45. What may he said of Egyptian arts and manufactures f 
 
 In the polishing and engraving of precious stones, in glass 
 manufacture, porcelain-making, and in embalming and dyeing, 
 they had attained great skill. They raised flax, out of which 
 they made fine linen ; they worked in metals from the earliest re- 
 corded period ; their walls and ceilings they painted in beautiful 
 patterns, which we still imitate. 
 
 46. What was the great characteristic of Egyptian institutions f 
 
 Their unchangeableness. This stationary character is seen in 
 their government, society, religion, art, and learning. Egypt 
 herself was a mummy. 
 
 47. What may he said of the antiquity of the Assyrians and JBdby- 
 lonians f 
 
 In Mesopotamia ("the land of Shinar") the Scriptures place 
 the building of Babel, the first great city founded after the Deluge, 
 and there occurred the confusion of tongues and the dispersion of 
 races. 
 
 48. What were the three nations of the Tigro-Euphrates basin f 
 
 The early Babylonian, or CJhaldsean, Kingdom ; the Assyrian 
 Empire; the later Babylonian Kingdom. 
 
 49. Who was the founder of these kingdoms f 
 
 The Hebrew records name Nimrod ; and the book of Genesis 
 also reveals to us the existence of four cities, that ruled over the 
 Empire established by Nimrod, — all of which have been identified 
 in modern times. 
 
 50. What was the early history of Assyria ? 
 
 The Assyrians originally lived in Chaldaea, but at an early 
 period removed to the upper course of the Tigris. For six cen- 
 turies it was the great imperial power of Western Asia. 
 
 Among the famous monarchs of the first period were Tiglath-pilser I., a 
 conquering prince, and Asshuridanni (the original of Sardanapalus, but 
 wholly unlike that mythic king), to whose time belong the winged hulls 
 and lions and the sculptured palace- walls which have been dug from the 
 ruins of Calah. The ' ' era of Nabonassar ' ' was 747 B. C. The second period 
 was that of Sennacherib, who made extensive conquests, and was the 
 builder of magnificent structures at Nineveh. This was the golden age of 
 Assyrian art. 
 
GENERAL HISTORY. 17 
 
 51. What was the extent of the Assyrian Empire f 
 
 The countries included within the limits of Assyria, at the 
 height of its glory, were Babylonia (covering all the territory of the 
 early Chaldsean kingdom), Mesopotamia, Media, Syria, Phoenicia, 
 a large part of Palestine, Arabia, and Egypt. The Assyrian 
 monarch as the '" king of kings," compelled the kings of subject 
 states to do homage and to pay tribute. 
 
 62. What caused the decay of the Assyrian Empire f 
 
 Owing to a constant succession of revolts, wars, subjugations, 
 and deportations of whole populations, Assyria had no inherent 
 strength. After the 7th century B. C. it began rapidly to fall in 
 pieces. 
 
 In the 7th century Babylon made a successful rebellion ; and when the 
 Median conqueror Cyaxares led a force against Assyria, he was joined by the 
 Babylonians under Nabopolassar, the Assyrians were overthrown, Nineveh 
 was captured, its splendid palaces and temples were given to the flames, and 
 Assyria fell, never to rise again (625 B. C). 
 
 53. What may he said of Assyrian civilization f 
 
 Their genius took mainly the form of art and manufactures. 
 In letters and in science they were behind both the Chaldseans 
 and the Egyptians. Architecture was their chief glory. Their 
 sculpture, too, though never attaining Grecian purity and per- 
 fection, was far in advance of Egyptian stiffness and convention-r 
 alism. 
 
 In the useful and mechanical arts they had reached great skill." They 
 had transparent glass; constructed tunnels, aqueducts, and drains; they 
 used the pulley, the lever, and the roller ; they understood the arts of in- 
 laying, enameling, and overlasing with metals ; and in the ordinary arts of 
 life they were, twenty-five centuries ago, nearly on a par with the boasted 
 achievements of the moderns. 
 
 54. What was the political situation of the later Babylonian kingdom? 
 
 When Assyria was overthrown by the Modes (625 B. C), Nabo- 
 polassar, who had aided the Medes, received as his share of the 
 spoil the undisputed possession of Babylonia. 
 
 This later Babylonian' Kingdom lasted for eighty-seven years (625-538 
 B. C.) till overthrown by the new conquering power of Persia. 
 
 55. Who was Nebuchadnezzar ? 
 
 He was the son of Nabopolassar, the first monarch of the new 
 2 
 
18 THE HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 Babylonian kingdom. Under him the empire reached its height 
 of glory. 
 
 During his long reign of forty-three years Nebuchadnezzar undertook 
 many wars, in wliicli the siege of Tyre and the siege of Jerusalem stand out 
 as conspicuous achievements. Besides his conquests, he almost entirely 
 rebuilt the city of Babylon. 
 
 56. Give a brief description of ancient Babylon. 
 
 Babylon was a square city at least five times as large as Lon- 
 don, and traversed diagonally by the Euphrates. Its walls — 338 
 feet high and 85 feet thick — were studded with towers and pierced 
 with brazen gates. Its palaces and its hanging gardens — a system 
 of terraces in imitation of mountain scenery, formed to please 
 Nebuchadnezzar's Median queen — were among the wonders of the 
 world. 
 
 57. Describe, in brief, the Persian conquest of Babylon. 
 
 Under the command of the great Cyrus the Persians had gained 
 ascendency over the Medes and begun a career of conquest. Ap- 
 pearing in Mesopotamia, they laid siege to Babylon, which was 
 entered by diverting the course of the Euphrates, 538 B. C. 
 
 Herodotus states that Babylon was taken "amid revelries," — thus con- 
 firming the account given in the Scriptures of the circumstances of the 
 capture. The fearful handwriting on the palace wall, and the terrible 
 denunciation of the prophet, form a scene too deeply impressed on our 
 memories to need repetition here. 
 
 58. What was the later history of Assyria and Babylonia f 
 
 Conquered by the Persians in the 6th century, Assyria and 
 Babylonia became a part of the vast possessions of Alexander the 
 Great. It is now a vast heap of ruins, tenanted only by th6 
 beasts and birds that love to haunt solitary places. 
 
 59. Who were the Hebrews f 
 
 They were a pure Semitic race, and hence were kinsmen of the 
 Phosnicians, Arabs, and Assyrians. 
 
 60. What was the beginning of Jewish history f 
 
 Jewish natural history begins at the time of the departure of 
 the children of Israel from Egypt, about 1320 B. C. 
 
 The history of Abraham, and of his sons and grandsons, is simply the 
 story of a nomad family. 
 
GENEEAIi HISTORY. 19 
 
 -"'^-A 61. What was the first period of Jewish history? 
 
 During the first period the Hebrew government was a theocracy 
 (or a government of God), the divine will being manifested through 
 the high-priest. There was a succession of rulers and "Judges," 
 guided by revelation. The last of these rulers was the prophet 
 Samuel. 
 
 62. What does the second period of Jewish history include f 
 
 It includes the era of the united monarchy, and it continues 
 through three reigns. 
 
 The first of the kings was Saul, who was succeeded by his son-in-law 
 David. David was the greatest that ever ruled the nation. His son Solo- 
 mon succeeded him. During Solomon's reign the Jewish state was a real 
 imperial power. 
 
 63. What was the period of Jewish decline ? 
 
 The third period, which set in immediately after the reign of 
 Solomon. 
 
 The subject states threw off the Jewish yoke ; disunion took place among 
 the Jews themselves, and the imperial power crumbled into two petty 
 kingdoms, — that of Israel (capital at Samaria) composed of ten out of the' 
 twelve tribes, and that of Judah (capital at Jerusalem) made up of the other- 
 two. 
 
 64. What was the duration and the fate of the kingdom of Israel f 
 
 It lasted for about 250 years. The ten tribes were overwhelmed 
 by the king of Assyria, and carried into captivity, 721 B. C. The 
 triumph of Cyrus over Babylonia was followed by an edict by 
 which the Jews were restored to their homes (536 B. C). 
 
 65. Give a summary of Jewish history as a whole. 
 
 (1) The Jewish state was but a limited domain — being only 150* 
 miles long by about fifty miles wide; (2) Compared with the 
 great Oriental empires, with Assyria and Babylonia, Egypt, and 
 Persia, its political importance was slight ; (3) The Jewish peo- 
 ple contributed little to ancient civilization, so far as regards art,, 
 science, or politics. 
 
 Q6. What may be said of the Phosnieian^ f 
 
 They were the earliest commercial and colonizing people on the 
 shores of the Mediterranean. They founded the famous city of 
 Carthage, and had made settlements as far west as the Strait of 
 
20 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 Gibraltar ( "Pillars of Hercules"). They were navigators, mer- 
 chants, and planters of colonies several centuries before the 
 Greeks rose to any note in the world. 
 
 They were the inventors of the first perfect alphabet. The period of this 
 invention is not definitely known. The art of alphabetic writing is proba- 
 bly the most important invention ever made by man. The Greeks got the 
 • alphabet from the Phoenicians, and the Romans got it from the Greeks, with 
 .some changes. The Roman alphabet is the basis of our modern alphabet. 
 
 67. How did the Greeks obtain the alphabet from the Phoenicians? 
 i 
 
 The account is that " Cadmus brought sixteen letters from Phoe- 
 nicia into Greece, to which Palamedes, in the time of the Trojan 
 war, added four more, and Simonides afterward added four." 
 
 Modern scholars, however, have proved that Cadmus is a mere fabled 
 name signifying " the East." 
 
 68. Of vjhat did Phoenicia consist f 
 
 Of several independent states, each'city being a separate state, 
 under its own king. 
 
 69. What were its chief cities ? 
 
 Sidon and Tyre. Sidon was the most ancient; and Tyre be- 
 came the most flourishing of all the Phoenician community. 
 
 70. Where were the primitive Hindoos located? 
 
 They first settled in the northwestern part of India, which was 
 then occupied by native dark races, who were soon subdued by 
 the Hindoos. 
 
 By intermixing with the native tribes, the Hindoos lost much of their 
 purity of blood. This explains much that is peculiar in the civilization of 
 the Hindoos. 
 
 71. What was the caste system among the Hindoos? 
 
 The Hindoos made four divisions of society : 1. The Brahmins, 
 whose proper business was religion and philosophy; 2. The 
 KoHATRiYAS, who attended to war and government; 3. The 
 Vaisyas, who were the merchants and farmers ; 4. The Sudeas, 
 or artisans and laborers. Below even the lowest of these classes 
 were the Pariahs, or outcasts, who performed the meanest of all 
 labors. 
 
GESTEEAIi HISTORY. 21 
 
 1 72. What ivas the language of the ancient Hindoos f 
 
 The Sanscrit ; it is pot now spoken, and is understood only bv 
 tlie Brahmins and by scholars who have studied it. 
 
 73. What' was' the religion of the Hindoos f 
 
 The sacred writings of the Hindoos are in the Vedas, which sets 
 forth the doctrine that there is " one unknown true Being, all- 
 present, all-powerful, the creator, preserver, and destroyer of the 
 universe." The prevailing theology is pantheism, or that system 
 which speaks of God as the soul of the universe, or as the uni- 
 verse itself. 
 
 The Invisible Supreme Being, according to the Hindoos, manifests him- 
 self in three^forms,— as Brahma the creator, Vishnu the preserver, and Siva 
 the destroyer. 
 
 The central point of the Hindoo theology was the doctrine of the trans- 
 migration of souls. According to this doctrine the human soul is joined to 
 earthly bodies only for the purpose of punishment, and its aim and effort 
 are to reunite itself with the Divine Spirit of the universe. 
 
 74. What remains of ancient art in India f 
 
 Among the most remarkable of the monuments are the rock- 
 hewn temples and grottoes, especially those found in the middle of 
 Lower India, and on the Island of Elephanta, in the Bay of 
 Bombay. 
 
 These are elaborately sculptured and inscribed, and must have required 
 the labor of thousands of hands for ages. 
 
 75. What new system of religion arose in India in the 6th century B. CJ 
 
 Buddhism, founded by an Indian prince named Gautama. It 
 grew out of a social and religious reaction from the abuses of the 
 old Brahminism. It spread rapidly, and is still the religion of 
 one-third of the human race. 
 
 76. What was the origin of the Medes and Persians ? 
 
 They were both pure Aryans. By various successive move- 
 ments, they established themselves in the highlands of Media and 
 Persia. 
 
 77. What is the " Legend of Cyrus" f 
 
 Astyages, having dreamed that his daughter's son should con- 
 quer all Asia, intrusted to a courtier the task of killing the little 
 Cyrus. The courtier gave the child to a herdsman, who promised 
 
22 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 to expose it on tlie mountains. But tlie herdsman substituted his 
 own dead baby for the living prince, who grew up in a humble 
 station. The secret was disclosed when Cyrus began to lord it 
 over his playfellows and beat them. Whether this legend be true 
 or false, under Cyrus the Persians became the ruling power. 
 
 78. What were the conquests of Cyrus ? 
 
 He first subdued all the northern and western provinces of the 
 old Median kingdom. The most formidable enemy he encoun- 
 tered was Croesus, King of Lydia, in Asia Minor, but Croesus was 
 overthrown. Next, most of the Greek cities and colonies on the 
 ooast of Asia Minor and the adjoining islands were subdued. He 
 subdued various tribes in the region between Persia and the In- 
 dus. He reduced also the mighty power of Babylon (538 Bo C). 
 
 79. What was the character of Gyrus f 
 
 Of the whole line of Persian monarchs Cyrus was the greatest, 
 and his character is far more worthy of respect than that of any 
 of his successors. He was a great conqueror without being a 
 cruel ruler, and to remarkable ability as a soldier he added many 
 noble traits as a man. 
 
 80. Who was Camhyses ? 
 
 He was. the son and successor of Cyrus. 
 
 81. What was the chief event of Cambyses's reign f 
 
 His conquest of Egypt in 525 B. C. He was wanton and cruel. 
 He forced the Egyptian king to drink poison ; he shocked the 
 Egyptians by stabbing a calf which they regarded as sacred ; and 
 on one occasion, when a courtier told him at his own request that 
 popular rumor blamed him for drinking to excess, he pierced the 
 heart of the courtier's son with an arrow. 
 
 82. What may be said of Darius f 
 
 He was, next to Cyrus, the greatest of the Persian monarchs. 
 Cyrus by his conquests founded the empire ; Darius organized it. 
 
 Darius divided the whole empire into twenty " satrapires," or provinces. 
 A fixed rate of tribute took the place of arbitrary exactions. " Koyal roads ' ' 
 were established, and a system of posts arranged, whereby the court received 
 rapid intelligence of all that occurred in the provinces. 
 
GENERAIi HISTOEY. 23 
 
 -A 83. What was the Persian character f 
 
 Though not highly intellectual, the Persians were keen-witted, 
 vivacious and fond of poetry and art. They afterwards lost their 
 noblest traits of character and became a servile Asiatic race. 
 
 84. What was the religion of the ancient Persians f 
 
 The doctrine of the perpetual conflict of two great First Prin- 
 ciples, that of Light and that of Darkness, personified under the 
 names of Auramazda (or Ormazd), and Ahriman. 
 
 The Persian religion was further corrupted by the intermixture 
 of a system of fire worship. The priests of this rite were the Magi. 
 On lofty mountain-spots fire altars were erected, on which burned 
 a perpetual flame. Here the Magi practiced those arts called, 
 after them, magic. 
 
 85. What was the nature of ancient Persian governmeni f 
 
 The government was upon the whole singularly mild, and by far 
 the noblest and the best of all the universal empires of antiquity. 
 
 86. Mention some of the literature of the ancient Persians. 
 
 The Zend Avesta, containing the sacred books of the Persians, 
 compiled by Zoroaster, the great religious legislator of the Per- 
 sians ; and the Shah Nameh, an epic poem based on ancient tradi- 
 tions. 
 
 87. What were the most commercial nations of antiquity anterior to 
 the Greek? 
 
 The Babylonians, Phoenicians, and Carthaginians. 
 
 88. Who ivere the leading commercial people of ancient Asia f 
 
 The Phoenicians. Caravans brought through the deserf myrrh, 
 frankincense, cassia, gold and precious stones. 
 
 The Mediterranean Sea was, however, the great highway of Phoenician 
 commerce. They pushed their trade into Spain, the richest country of the 
 ancient world. JFrom Spain fhej proceeded to the south of the British Isles, 
 where they procured the tin of Cornwall. They had also trading establish- 
 ments on the Arabian and Persian Gulfs, whence they traded with the coasts 
 of India and Africa and the Island of Ceylon. 
 
 89. What was the commerce of Carthage ? 
 
 The principal land trade of the Carthaginians was by caravans 
 with the barbarous tribes of Central Africa, the chief imports 
 
24 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 being negro slaves and gold dust. In the Mediterranean their 
 chief trade was with the Greek colonies, and with Spain, the EI 
 Dorado of antiquity. 
 
 90. What is a marked contrast between Oriental and European history f 
 
 The history of the Orient is the history of dynasties, or despot- 
 isms ; the history of Greece and Kome is the history of the -people; 
 the latter, therefore, is far more interesting, more instructive, and 
 more valuable. 
 
 91. Ofiohat stock were the Greeks a branch f 
 
 Of the mighty Aryan, or Indo-European, stock, — the stock that 
 includes all the historic races of Europe, together with the Per- 
 sians and Hindoos of Asia. 
 
 As Aryans, they were closely related to the Romans ; and, in fact, the 
 forefathers of the Greeks and of the Italians formed originally one swarm, 
 which at a very early period in prehistoric times left the native hive of the 
 Aryans, in Asia, and moved into Europe. 
 
 92. What did Northern Greece contain f 
 
 Two principal countries, Thessaly and Epirus. To the north 
 of these was Macedonia, which, though ruled by kings of Hellenic 
 blood, was never counted to be part of Greece till quite late times. 
 
 93. WKat did Central Greece contain ? 
 
 Eleven states ; the most important of which was Attica. In 
 Attica was Athens, the foremost city of all Greece. 
 
 94. What did Southern Greece contain ? 
 
 Southern Greece, or the Peloponnesus, contained seven princi- 
 pal states ; the most important of which was Laconia,-sometimes 
 called Lacedaemon, of which the capital and most important city 
 was Sparta. 
 
 The isles of Greece formed a very considerable and noted part of ancient 
 Greece. The most important islands were Eubsea, Corcyra, and Crete. 
 
 95. What of the " legendary age " of the Greeks f 
 
 The Greeks of this age have no history. The place of this they 
 supplied by a mass of beautiful legends, called by themselves 
 myths. This period is called the Heroic Age. 
 
GENERAL HISTORY. 25 
 
 ^ 96. What was the last and greatest enterprise of the Heroic age f *^ 
 
 The siege of Troy. This was immortalized by the genius of 
 Homer in his Iliad (from I limn, or Troy). 
 
 The outline of the story Is as follows : Paris, son of Priam, King of Troy, 
 abused the hospitality of Menelaus, King of Sparta, by carrying off his wife 
 Helen, the most beautiful woman of the age. At the call of Menelaus all the 
 Grecian princes assembled in arms, elected his brother Agamemnon leader 
 of the expedition, and sailed across the ^gssan to recover the faithless fair 
 one. Nearly all Asia Minor Avas leagued with Troy, and the most valiant 
 Trojan leader was Hector, son of Priam. It Avas not till the tenth year that 
 Troy yielded, and it is with the events of this year that the Iliad deals. 
 
 Achilles, the bravest and most redoubtable of the Greeks, offended by 
 Agamemnon, abstains from the war ; and in his absence, the Greeks are no 
 match for Hector. The Trojans drive them back into their camp, and are 
 already setting fire to their ships when Achilles gives his armor to his friend 
 Patroclus, and allows him to charge at the head of the Myrmidons. Patro- 
 clus repulses the Trojans from the ships, but the god Apollo is against him, 
 and he falls under the spear of Hector. This causes Achilles to return into 
 the Grecian camp, and he slays Hector in single combat; but is himself 
 killed by an arrow directed by Apollo. Finally, the noblest combatants on 
 both sides have fallen, the city is taken by the Greeks, through the strata- 
 gem of a wooden horse, devised by the crafty Ulysses. Troy is delivered 
 over to the sword, and its glory sinks in ashes. 
 
 97. What were the three periods of Greek History f 
 
 (1) From the Dorian migration to the beginning of the Persian 
 Wars (1100-500 B. C). (2) From the beginning of the Persian 
 Wars to the subjugation of Greece by Philip of Macedon (500-338 
 B. C). (3) From the subjugation of Greece by Philip to the 
 Eoman conquest (338-146 B. C). 
 
 98. What was the chief cause of the rapid progress of Greece ? 
 
 The establishment of many colonies in countries pre-eminently 
 favored by nature in productions and climate, and so situated as 
 to prompt the inhabitants to navigation and commerce. 
 
 99. What loere the two leading races of Greece f 
 \ The lonians and the Dorians. 
 
 The lonians were remarkable for their democratic spirit. The Dorians 
 
 were noted for their aristocratic tendencies, and maintenance of slavery. 
 
 This striking difference was the principal cause of the deep-rooted antago- 
 
 ^ nism between Athens, the representative of the Ionian race, and Sparta, the 
 
 leading Doric state. 
 
 100. When does the authentic history of Greece commence '? 
 
 With the epoch known as the First Olympiad, B. C. 776 ; the 
 Second Olympiad began in midsummer of 772 B, C, etc., — the 
 Olympiads recurring every four years. 
 
26 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 In Greece the Olympic games, celebrated every fourth 'year, were fixed 
 upon as a basis for an era, the victory of Coroebus, the earliest recorded, 
 about 776 B. C, being made the starting point, and the intervals between 
 the games being called Olympiad. 
 
 101. Who ^oas Lycurgus ? 
 
 Of this personage nothing is known whatever, and some have 
 €ven denied his existence. He was the reputed law-giver of the 
 Spartans. Having obtained for his institutions the approbation 
 of the Delphic oracle, he exacted from his countrymen a promise 
 not to alter them till his return, left Sparta, and was never again 
 heard from. 
 
 102. What was the object of Lycurgus' s laws ? 
 
 The chief object of the legislation that goes by the name of Ly- 
 €urgan was to create and maintain a vigorous and uncorrupted 
 face of men ; it concerned itself with the regulation of private 
 life and physical education. 
 
 103. What was the system of Spartan education? 
 
 Weakly children were exposed to perish. Great attention was 
 devoted to gymnastic exercises and military drill. The education 
 of a Spartan, beginning with his seventh year, was not relaxed 
 till his sixtieth. He was inured to hunger and thirst, and to the 
 extremes of heat and cold, and was taught to endure the keenest 
 bodily torture without complaint. 
 
 To teach him strategy and secrecy there were licensed expeditions for 
 thieving, and severe punishment was inflicted on him who allowed himself 
 to be detected in it. 
 
 104. What were the laivs of Draco f 
 
 Draco, a statesman of Athens, was called upon to draw up a 
 written code of laws for the Athenian government. They were 
 marked by extreme severity ; for he affixed the penalty of death 
 to all crimes alike, — to petty thefts no less than to sacrilege and 
 murder. 
 
 Hence Draco's laws were said to have been written, not in ink, but in 
 blood ; and we are told that he justified this extreme hardship by saying 
 " that small offenses deserved death, and that he knew no severer punish- 
 ment for great ones." 
 
 105. Who ivas Solon ? 
 
 An Athenian law -giver, commissioned to remodel the Constitu- 
 
GENERAL HISTOEY. 27 
 
 tion of Athens, 594 B. C. The successful manner in which he 
 performed this work laid the foundation of the happiness of his 
 native country. 
 
 ■^ 106. What was the institution of ostracism f 
 
 It was a method which the Athenians had devised for the pur- 
 pose of getting rid of obnoxious public men, and was in some 
 respects a very good plan, as it stopped interminable quarrels be- 
 tween rival politicians. 
 
 It derived its name from the fact that the citizens, in voting for its inflic- 
 tion, wrote the name of the objectionable person on a shell {ostreon), and if 
 there was a majority of voters for his banishment, he was exiled for ten 
 years. 
 
 107. Give a general summary of Grecian history from the beginning 
 of the Persian Wars to the victory of Philip of Macedon, B. C. 500-338. 
 
 The Ionian Greeks in Asia Minor revolted from Persia, and 
 Athens lent them aid. Accordingly Darius sent Mardonius against 
 Greece ; but he advanced no farther than Macedonia, his fleet be- 
 ing destroyed by a storm. Then Darius sent a vast force under 
 Datis, but it was defeated in the battle of Marathon (490 B. C). 
 Darius having died, his son Xerxes moved on Greece with an im- 
 mense army and fleet : he was successful at Thermopylae, and took 
 Athens (480 B. C.) ; but was defeated at Salamis, and the remain- 
 ing force at Platsea and Mycale, — which caused the Persian scheme 
 wholly to fail. 
 
 The half-century following the battle of Salamis was the most 
 brilliant period of Athenian history (age of Pericles) ; but the 
 greatness of Athens led to the Peloponnesian war (431 B. C). 
 This was interrupted by the peace of Nicias (421 B. C) ; but be- 
 ing renewed, the Athenians were beaten in various engagements, 
 and finally defeated at ^Egos Potamos (405 B. C.) : so the result 
 of this war was the ascendancy of Sparta. Sparta continued 
 prominent till her defeat at Leuctra (371). Thebes now became 
 for a while the leading state ; but Greece, rent by dissensions, was 
 soon subjugated by Philip of Macedon, in the battle of Chaeronea, 
 338 B. C. 
 
 • 
 
 108. Give a brief statement of the battle of Thermopylce {480 B. C). 
 
 The Pass of Thermopylae was a narrow mountain-gorge lying 
 between the precipitous mountains of CEta and a marsh forming 
 
28 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 the edge of the Gulf of Malis. The defense of this position was 
 intrusted to the Spartan king, Leonidas, the flower of whose army 
 consisted of 300 Spartans. When the Persian host reached Ther- 
 mopylse and sought to force the pass, the Grecian guard made a 
 stout defense and for two days kept the enemy at bay; but on the 
 third day a traitor pointed out to the Persian king how, by taking 
 a mountain-path, the position of the Greeks might be " turned." 
 When this movement became known, Leonidas and his three hun- 
 dred Spartans, with seven hundred Thespians, determined to sell 
 their lives as dearly as possible : so they advanced into the open 
 space in front of the pass and charged the Persians with desper- 
 ate valor. But this heroism was in vain ; for the enemy, pouring 
 in from front and rear, surrounded the Greeks on all sides. Leon- 
 idas fell, and the heroic band were killed to a man. 
 
 109. Give a, general summary of Grecian history from the victory of 
 Philip to the absorption of Greece by the Romans, B. C. 338-146. 
 
 Philip of Macedon by war and intrigues made himself master 
 of Greece, and was then appointed general-in-chief against Per- 
 sia ; but he died, and his son Alexander took up the task (336). He 
 marched against the Persians in Asia Minor, defeating them in 
 the decisive battle of Arbela (331). He afterwards marched east- 
 ward to beyond the Indus, and thence returned to Babylon, where 
 he died (323), After Alexander's death his generals disputed, and 
 the empire was divided. Greece, meanwhile, fell into a state of 
 intestine war, and at last became a Koman province (146 B. C). 
 
 110. What contribution did Greece give to the world's civilization f 
 
 The practical example of free, self-governing states. The Greek 
 states gave an illustration of democracy, — " the government of 
 the people, for the people, by the people." 
 
 In the Oriental nations the only government was despotism : there was 
 an absolute lord, and there was a mass of subjects, or slaves, hut no people in 
 a political sense. 
 
 111. What was the religion of the Greeks? 
 
 They were polytheists. Their religion received its peculiar 
 form fr(?m the fictions of the poets, especially of Homer and 
 Hesiod. 
 
 In the Grecian theogony, or history of the gods, the earliest events that 
 are described are the proceedings of certain gigantic agents,— the collision 
 
GENERAL HISTORY. 29 
 
 of certain terrific forces, which were ultimately reduced under the more 
 orderly government of Zeus, or Jupiter, with whom begins a new dynasty, 
 and a different order of beings. 
 
 -S 112. What were the names and the chief attributes of the Olympian 
 gods? 
 
 (1) Zeus, or Jupiter, the chief and father of the gods. He is always repre- 
 sented as seated on a throne with the thunderbolts in his right hand, and an 
 eagle by his side. 
 
 (2) Po-sei'-don, or Neptune, the earth shaker and ruler of the sea : his 
 symbol is a trident. 
 
 (3) A-pol'-lon, or Apollo (called also Phoebus Apollo), the divinity of poeti- 
 cal inspiration, of song and music. He was figured as the beau ideal of 
 manly beauty. 
 
 (4) Ar'-te-mis, or Diana, the huntress among the immortals, the divinity 
 of flocks and of the chase. As twin sister of Apollo, she was the divinity of 
 the moon. 
 
 (5) He-phais'-tas, or Vulcan, the god of terrestrial fire : he is represented 
 as a blacksmith. 
 
 (6) Hermes, or Mercury, the messenger of the gods ; the god of eloquence 
 and the protector of trade ; he is marked by his winged sandals, and by his 
 wand. 
 
 (7) A'-res, or Mars, the god of war, delighted in the din of battle, the 
 slaughter of men, and the destruction of towns. 
 
 (8) He'-ra, or Juno, the wife of Jupiter, a beautiful but unamiable god- 
 dess. 
 
 (9) A-the'-na, or Minerva {also Pallas), the goddess of wisdom and war. 
 
 (10) Hes'-tia, or Vesta, the goddess of the hearth. 
 
 (11) De-me'-ter, or Ceres, the goddess of agriculture. 
 
 (12) Aph-ro-di'-te, or Venus, the goddess of love and beauty, is generally 
 represented with her son E'-ras, or Cupid. The legend runs that she rose 
 from the sea-foam and landed on the island of Cyprus. 
 
 113. What tvere the four Grecian national festivals ? 
 
 The Olympicj Pythian, Isthmian, and Nemean Games. 
 
 The Olympic Festival was celebrated in honor of Jupiter in the plain of 
 Olympia, every four years ; the Pythian was held in the third year of each 
 Olympiad, near Delphi, in honor of Apollo ; the Isthmian, in honor of Nep- 
 tune, was so called from its being celebrated on the Isthmus of Corinth ; the 
 ]S[emean, in honor of Nemean Jupiter, at the town of Nemea in Peloponnesus. 
 
 114. Who ivere the great Grecian poets? 
 
 Homer, author of the oldest Greek poems — two immortal epics, — 
 namely, the Iliad and the Odyssey. These are considered the fin- 
 est narrative poems ever written. 
 
 Hesiod, who lived about a century after Homer. His two most 
 famous books are the Theogony and the Works and Days, both epics." 
 
 Tyrtaeus, one of the most famous writers of the elegy, wrote 
 stirring campaign songs. 
 
 The most famous names in Greek lyric poetry are SappllO, Al- 
 cseus, Anacreon, and Pindar, 
 
30 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 115. Who was the most famous writer of Greek comedy f 
 
 Aristophanes, author of The Clouds, The WaspSy The Birds, and 
 
 The Frogs. 
 
 116. Who ivere the most noted dramatic Grecian poets f 
 JEscIiylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. 
 
 117. Who were the most celebrated Greek historians f 
 
 Herodotus, called the " Father of History," stands pre-emi- 
 nent. His subject was the History of the Persian Wars. 
 
 Thueydides was the most philosophic historian. 
 
 Xenophon, a contemporary of Thueydides, was an easy and 
 graceful writer. 
 
 118. Who was the most eminent writer of biography? 
 
 Plutarch, whose Lives has been called the " Bible of heroism,"" 
 lived in the 2d century, A. D. 
 
 119. Who were the most celebrated Grecian m^ators f 
 
 Pericles, whose sublime oratory gained for him the epithet of 
 "the Olympian." 
 
 Political oratory was exhibited in its fullest development in the 
 contest between ^schines (393-317 B. C), the advocate of Mace- 
 donian interests, and his greater adversary Demosthenes (385- 
 332 B. C), who, in exposing and opposing the plans of Philip^ 
 " shook the arsenal and f ulmined over Greece." 
 
 120. Who were the early Greek philosophers? 
 
 Thales, founder of the Ionic school ; and Pythagoras, the head 
 of the Pythagorean school. 
 
 121. Who was Socrates f 
 
 He was one of the wisest and greatest of the human race. His 
 special work was to break down prejudices, to show people their 
 . ignorance, to expose fallacies, and to assert the existence of great 
 necessary truths, — of the good, the true, and the beautiful, — and 
 this he did by a method of searching inquiry called after him, the 
 Socratic. 
 
 Notwithstanding his pure and noble life, and his efiforts to promote the 
 welfare of mankind, his doctrines made him many enemies : he was charged 
 
GENERAIi HISTORY. 31 
 
 before the Athenian magistrates with not believing in the gods, and with 
 being a corruptor of youth. Being condemned on these charges, he met his 
 death ealmlJ^ surrounded by his beloved and weeping disciples, to whom, 
 in his last hours, he discoursed on the Immortality of the Soul. 
 
 ^- 122. Who was Plato f 
 
 He was one of the disciples of Socrates, and founder of the 
 Academic school, so called from the groves of Academus, near 
 Athens, where the philosopher gave his lectures. The works of 
 Plato remain in the form of his Dialogues. 
 
 123. Who was Aristotle ? 
 
 He was the founder of the Peripatetic school, and the most log- 
 ical and systematic of the philosophers and scientists of Greece- 
 He was the teacher of Alexander the Great. 
 
 124. What ivere the three classic forms of Grecian architecture? 
 
 The Dome, the Ionic, and the Corinthian. 
 
 The most famous of the Doric temples of Greece is the Parthenon ; the 
 most celebrated example of the Ionic order was the temple of Diana at 
 Ephesus, burnt on the birth-night of Alexander the Great. The Corinthian 
 was the highest and most richly ornamented of the Grecian orders. 
 
 125. W hat can he said of Grecian sculpture 9 
 
 It is acknowledged that in sculpture the Greeks attained abso- 
 lute perfection. The specimens that remain to us embody the very 
 perfection of loveliness, majesty, and power. 
 
 126. When ivas Rome founded f 
 
 In the year 753 B. C. Tradition hands down the names of seven 
 kings who ruled Kome during the regal period (753-509 B. C); 
 but great obscurity hangs around the greater part of this epoch. 
 
 127. What were the two classes of Roman society ? 
 
 Patricians and Plebeians, a distinction of great importance in 
 Koman history. 
 
 During the early ages the Patricians alone constituted the Populus, or 
 people, in a political sense. 
 
 128. What was the historical extent of the Roman republic ? 
 
 The history of Eome as a republic covers a period of 482 years, — 
 from the termination of kingly rule, 509 R C, to the termination. 
 
32 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 of republican rule by the establishment of the empire under Au- 
 gustus, 27 B. C. 
 
 ^ 129. What were the four Epochs of the Roman republic? 
 
 I. Epoch of the Struggle for Existence, beginning with the es- 
 tablishment of the republic and ending with the Gaulish invasion 
 of Italy, 509-390 B. C. 
 
 II. Epoch of the Eoman Conquest of Italy, from the Gaulish 
 invasion to the complete subjugation of the peninsula, after the 
 repulse of Pyrrhus, 390-266 B. C. 
 
 III. Epoch of Foreign Conquest, including the Punic and 
 Macedonian wars down to the beginning of civil strife under the 
 Gracchi, 266-133 B. C. 
 
 IV. Epoch of Civil Strife, from the Gracchi to the establish- 
 ment of the Empire under Augustus, 133-27 B. C. 
 
 130. Mention some of the great names of early Bome^ 
 
 Lucius Junius Brutus, known as the "Elder Brutus," noted for 
 his inflexible justice; Codes Horatius, celebrated for his heroic 
 " defense of the bridge " ; Caius Marcius, surnamed Coriolanus, 
 noted for his valor at the capture of the Latin town of Corioli ; 
 Lucius Quintius Cincinnatus, the noble dictator. 
 
 131. What were the Tribunes of the Plebs f 
 
 They were magistrates, chosen from the Plebeians. They held 
 office for a year, during which their persons were sacred, and they 
 could nullify any decree of the Senate that they thought injuri- 
 ous to the Commons by the word Veto, / forbid it. 
 
 132. What ivere the Decemvirs f 
 
 A Council of Ten, appointed to make laws. 
 
 133. Who were the Censors f 
 
 They were magistrates who held the power of determining the 
 rank of every citizen, of fixing his status in society, and valuing 
 his taxable property. 
 
 134. What were the conquests of the Roman republic f 
 
 The " Samnite " and the " Latin " wars ended in the subjuga- 
 tion of these nations and the mastery of Rome over all Central 
 
GENEEAL HISTORY. 33 
 
 Italy. The Eomans finally obtained mastery over the whole 
 Italian peninsula. 
 
 V/ 135. What ivere the three great wars of foreign conquest f V/ 
 
 The First, Second, and Third, Punic Wars. These were waged 
 between Eome and Carthage, resulting in the utter annihilation 
 of the Carthaginian power. 
 
 136. Who was the greatest militaiy commander of the Carthaginians? 
 
 Hannibal, who was one of the greatest military geniuses that 
 ever lived. His climbing over the Alps with an army of 30,000 
 men' to defeat the Komans was one of the most famous exploits 
 on record. 
 
 137. Who commanded the JRomans against Hannibal ? 
 
 Scipio Africanus, who compelled the Carthaginians to agree to a 
 peace on very severe terms. 
 
 138. Who were the Gracchi f 
 
 The cause of the poor against the rich was taken up by a noble 
 young tribune of the people named Tiberius Gracchus. Tiberius 
 and his younger brother Caius (the two being known in history 
 as the Gracchi) were sons of a noble Eoman matron, Cornelia, 
 daughter of the great Scipio Africanus. 
 
 139. What was the Agrarian law proposed by the Gracchi f 
 
 It limited the amount of public land that could be held by any 
 one individual. 
 
 140. Who was Pompeyf 
 
 He was a noted Eoman warrior and consul. He had been the 
 leader of the aristocracy, but went over to the people's party, and 
 with Julius Caesar and Crassus, formed the First Triumvirate. 
 
 141. What were the jour factions in Rome? 
 
 The "oligarchical faction," which directed the Senate; the 
 " aristocratic faction," comprising the mass of the senators ; the 
 " Marian party," including those whose families had been perse- 
 
34 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION EOOK. 
 
 cuted ; the " military faction," embracing old military officers 
 who had squandered the fortunes gained in time of war. 
 
 142. Who were the respective leaders of these several factions? 
 
 Of the oligarchy, Marcus Tullius Cicero, who had established 
 his reputation as the first orator in Kome ; of the aristocratic 
 faction, Crassus, whose immense wealth made him influential; 
 the leader of the third, or Marian party, was Caius Julius Caesar, 
 a man of pre-eminent ability, one of the greatest that ever lived ; 
 the leader of the military faction was Catiline, who had a large 
 following of debauched young patricians and ruined military 
 men. 
 
 143. What was the conspiracy of Catiline f 
 
 'The ruined military men thought they would better their for- 
 tunes by making Catiline consul. Cicero was his rival, and, re- 
 ceiving the support of the senators, was elected. Enraged at his 
 defeat Catiline formed a conspiracy of which the murder of Cicero 
 and the burning of Borne were parts. A woman betrayed the 
 plot to Cicero, who denounced Catiline with such fiery eloquence 
 that he had to flee from Eome. With a band of confederates he 
 attempted to reach Gaul ; but he was overtaken and slain. 
 
 144. What were the Commentaries of Ccesar f 
 
 During the years 58-50 B. C, Caesar made eight campaigns in 
 Oaul, forming the remarkable series of operations which he after- 
 wards described with such pointed style in his Commentaries, or 
 history. 
 
 145. What brought about the rivalry between Ccesar and Pompey f 
 
 After the death of Crassus (who with Pompey and Caesar formed 
 the triumvirate), the triumvirate became a duumvirate, or league 
 of two men, — Caesar and Pompey. Owing to contrasted disposi- 
 tions, a feeling of rivalry caused them to become bitter enemies. 
 Pompey went over to the aristocratic party, and having been 
 made sole consul he exerted his great influence against Caesar. 
 
 146. What is implied in the expression " crossing the Rubicon " f 
 
 The crossing of this river was in reality a declaration of war 
 against the Eoman republic. In the war between Pompey and 
 
GENERAL HISTCRY. 35 
 
 Csesar, it is related that, upon arriving at the Eubicon, Caesar long 
 hesitated whether he should take this irrevocable step. After 
 pondering many hours he at length exclaimed, " The die is cast ! " 
 and plunged into the river. 
 
 147. What was the result of the war between Ccesar and Pompey f 
 
 Pompey was defeated and Csesar became master of all Italy ; 
 had himself appointed dictator and consul for the year 48 B. C. 
 
 The decisive battle between the two mighty rivals was fought at Pharsalia. 
 It resulted in the utter defeat of Pompey ; and as it left Csesar the foremost 
 man in the Roman world, it must be regarded as one of the great decisive 
 battles of history. 
 
 148. What was the fate of Pompey f 
 
 After his defeat, he sought refuge in Egypt ; but he was assas- 
 sinated by the orders of Ptolemy, when seeking to land on the 
 coast of that country. 
 
 149. What of CcBsar and Cleopatra f 
 
 At Alexandria Csesar became bewitched by Cleopatra, the young, 
 beautiful, and fascinating queen of Egypt. He mixed himself up 
 with a quarrel going on between her and her younger brother 
 Ptolemy, to whom, according to the custom of the country, she 
 was married, and with whom she shared the throne. Caesar was 
 thus brought into conflict with the king's troops, and was finally 
 successful : Ptolemy was killed, and Cleopatra was made queen 
 of Egypt. 
 
 150. What was the con^racy against Ccesar f 
 
 The chiefs of the conspiracy were Cains Cassius and Marcus 
 Junius Brutus. Both had received great favors from Caesar ; but 
 they thought they had not been honored enough, and they were 
 intensely jealous of the dictator's greatness. These were joined 
 by other malcontents, and the conspiracy finally included about 
 sixty senators. 
 
 151. Give an account of the assassination of Caesar. 
 
 The conspirators fixed on the Ides {i. e. 15th) of March as the time of 
 putting the design into execution. Csesar disregarded the warnings of his 
 friends, and attended the Senate. As soon as he had taken his place he was 
 surrounded by the senatorial conspirators, one of whom, pretending to urge 
 some request, seized his toga with both hands and pulled it violently over 
 his arms. Then Casca, who was behind, drew a weapon and grazed his 
 shoulder with an ill-directed stroke. Csesar disengaged one hand and 
 
36 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 snatched at the hilt, exclaiming, " Cursed Casca, what means thisV^ "Help ! " 
 cried Casca, and at the same moment the conspirators aimed each his dagger 
 at the victim. Caesar for an instant defended himself ; bnt when he per- 
 ceived the steel flashing in the hand of Brutus, he exclaimed : " What ! thou 
 too, Brutus!'^ and drawing his robe over his face he made no further resist- 
 ance. The assassins stabbed him through and through ; and, pierced with 
 twenty-three wounds, Csesar fell dead at the foot of the statue of his great 
 rival Pompey. 
 
 152. What was the effect of Ccesar^s death f 
 
 It brought on new civil wars, and many claimants for supreme 
 power. The condition of affairs, however, left Mark Antony in 
 some respect the representative of Csesarean principles. 
 
 (/" 153. Who was Julius Ccesar^s successor f 
 
 His great-nephew, Octavius Caesar. Octavius had all the old 
 soldiers on his side, and raised the standard of Caesar's vengeance. 
 
 154. Trace Roman history from the assassination of Julius Ccesar to 
 the reign of Augustus Ccesar. 
 
 After the death of Csesar his nephew Octavius formed, with 
 Antony and Lepidus, the Second Triumvirate. Octavius led his 
 forces against Brutus and Cassius, defeating them at Philippi. 
 Antony and Octavius now quarreled, but the dispute was settled 
 in favor of the latter by the battle of Actium, and soon after 
 Octavius assumed the title of Augustus Caesar. 
 
 155. What was the end of Antony and Cleopatra ! 
 
 "While making his headquarters at Alexandria, Antony came under the 
 fascinations of Cleopatra, and he lost all regard to his character or his inter- 
 ests in her company. In the conflicts with Octavius Csesar, Antony was 
 abandoned by his troops, Cleopatra caused a report to be spread of her death. 
 Antony then attempted to commit suicide ; hearing, however, in the midst of 
 his agonies,that Cleopatra still lived, he caused himself to be carried to her, 
 and expired in her presence. The Egyptian queen failing to bewitch the 
 cold, calculating Octavius, she, sooner than be led in chains to adorn the tri- 
 umph of the victor, gave herself voluntary death by the bite of an asp, or 
 the scratch of a poisoned needle. 
 
 156. With whose reign did Rome become an Empire ? 
 
 Augustus Caesar. The senate still sat, but it did little more 
 than vote what Augustus wished. 
 
 157. What was the extent of the Roman Empire f 
 
 The boundaries as established by Augustus were as follows : 
 On the north, the British Channel, the North Sea, the Rhine, the 
 Danube, and the Black Sea ; on the east, the Euphrates and the 
 
GENERAL HISTORY. 37 
 
 Desert of Syria ; on the south, the Sahara of Africa ; and on the 
 west, the Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 The Roman Empire took in the modem countries of Portugal, Spain, 
 France, Belgium, Western Holland, Rhenish Prussia, and parts of Baden and 
 Wurtemberg, most of Bavaria, Switzerland, Italy, the Tyrol, Austria Proper, 
 Western Hungary, Crovatia, Slavonia, Servia, Turkey-in-Europe. Greece, 
 Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine, Idumsea, Egypt, the Cyrenaiea, Tripoli, Tunis, 
 Algeria, and most of Morocco. 
 
 y 158. What were the three civilizations of the Boman Empire? 
 
 The Latin, the Greek, and the Oriental. Latin civilization took 
 in the countries from the Atlantic Ocean to the Adriatic ; Greek 
 civilization, from the Adriatic to Mount Taurus ; Oriental civ- 
 ilization, the lands beyond to the Euphrates. 
 
 159. What VMS the population of the Boman Empire ? 
 
 Under Augustus, there may have been within the limits of the 
 Empire one hundred millions of human beings. 
 
 160. What was the extent of the dty of Borne ? 
 
 In the days of its greatest prosperity the circumference — enclosed 
 by walls — was about twenty miles ; but there were also very ex- 
 tensive suburbs. The walls were pierced by thirty gates. 
 
 161. What were the most remarJcable objects of the city f 
 
 The Coliseum, the Capitol with its temples, the Senate-House, 
 and the Forum. 
 
 The great circus, or Circus Maximus, a place reserved for public games, 
 races and shows, was one of the most magnificent structures of Rome. It 
 was capable of containing 200,000 spectators. 
 
 162. Mention some of the distinguished ivriiers of the "Augustian age." 
 
 Virgil, the author of the epic poem, the .Mriefid, a graceful, if 
 not an original, writer. 
 
 Horace, author of many poems, odes, satires, and epistles ; a 
 witty, good-humored, and most vivacious song-writer. 
 
 Sallust, the historian of the Jugurthine War and the Conspi- 
 racy of Catiline ; a very spirited writer. 
 
 Lucretius, a writer of didactic poetry, containing passages of 
 noble eloquence and philosophy, a,long with much that is charac- 
 teristic of the low tone of thought prevalent in the pagan world. 
 
 Catullus, author of lyrics that are among the sweetest and most 
 truly poetic things in the Latin language. 
 
38 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 163. Mention some of the subsequent writers in Roman literature. 
 
 Livy, the great historian ; Ovid, the poet ; Martial, the writer 
 of epigrams ; Pliny, the writer on natural history (killed 79 A. 
 D. by the great eruption from Vesuvius, which buried the cities 
 of Pompeii and Herculaneum) ; JuYCnal, the bitter satirist ; and 
 Tacitus, the philosophic historian of the declining glories of Eome. 
 
 ^ 164. What remarkable event renders the reign of Augustus Ccesar \ 
 memorable ? 
 
 The birth of Christ at the little village of Bethlehem, in Ju- 
 daea, — the most momentous event in the spiritual history of the 
 world. 
 
 165. When did the birth of Christ take place f 
 
 Beckoned in our common era, this event took place in the year 
 4B. C. 
 
 Our method of counting time was not introduced till the year 532 A. D. 
 The calculation was erroneous, and it was found ten centuries afterward to 
 be deficient four years of the true period ; but as the alteration of a system 
 that had then been adopted by nearly all Europe would have made great 
 confusion in civil and ecclesiastical affairs, the error was, by general consent, 
 allowed to remain, and we continue to reckon from this era (A. D., anno 
 domini, that is, " in the year of our Lord "), which, however, lacks four years 
 and six days of the real Christian epoch. 
 
 166. What change made by Constantine had a great effect upon Rome f 
 
 He removed the capital of the empire to the old Greek city of 
 Byzantium, on the Bosphorus, which he greatly enlarged and 
 called New Rome. This was Constantinople. 
 
 167. What were the divisions of the Roman Empire after Constanti- 
 Tiople became the capital ? 
 
 The Western, or Latin Empire, and the Eastern, or Byzantine 
 Empire. 
 
 With the fall of the Western Roman Empire ancient history ends. This 
 downfall took place in the year 476 A. D. (See Answer to Question 17.) 
 
 168. What was the state of the world at the birth of Christ f 
 
 All the different peoples and nations under the Roman sway 
 had a great variety of religions, but all, with the exception of the 
 Jews, were pagans and polytheists. 
 
GENERAL HISTORY. 39 
 
 169. Who first persecuted the Christians f 
 
 Nero. Summing up the several facts, we may say that the per- 
 secutions of the Christians were owing to political reasons rather 
 than to religious intolerance. 
 
 170. What were some of the persecutions cj Christians during Diock' 
 tian's reign ? 
 
 He issued an edict (A. D. 303) commanding all Christian 
 churches to be pulled down, all Bibles to be flung into the fire, 
 and all Christians to be degraded from rank and honor. 
 
 A Christian of noble rank tore down this proclamation from where it was. 
 posted. For this he was roasted to death. Those who refused to hurn in- 
 cense to idols were tortured or slain. 
 
 171. What Roman emperoi^ vjos converted to Christianity f 
 Constantine the Great. 
 
 While on the march to attack one of his rivals, near Rome, Constantine 
 is reportea to have seen with his own eyes the luminous trophy of the cross 
 in the sky, placed above the meridian sun, and inscribed with the following 
 words : By this Conquee. In the battle that followed his rival was com- 
 pletely overthrown. It is said that this decided Constantine to be a Chris- 
 tian. 
 
 172. What ivas the Laharum f 
 
 The standard of the cross, displayed by the Christian emperors 
 in their military expeditions. The top of the Laharum was 
 adorned with a mystic Xj representing at once the cross and the 
 initial of the Greek word for Christ. 
 
 It is stated by the early historians that Christ appeared to Constantine in 
 a dream and commanded him to frame the Labancm, and under it to march 
 with an assurance of victory against all his enemies. 
 
 173. As a Christian what did Constantine do f 
 
 He repaired the old churches and built new ones ; the Christian, 
 clergy were freed from taxes ; Sunday was proclaimed a day of 
 rest ; and Constantinople — a Christian city — was made the seat of 
 government. 
 
 174. Which were the most famous of the Christian Fathers f 
 
 Tertullian, Origen, Cyprian, Ambrose, Athanasius, Gregory^ 
 Nazianzen, Chrysostom, Jerome, Augustine. 
 
40 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 175. What tvere some of the causes of the dofivnfall of Rome f 
 
 Chief of these was the fact that the Eomans had really ceased 
 to exist as a nation. The empire had absorbed the nation. The 
 E-oman race, which had conquered the world, was finally swallowed 
 up by the world which it conquered. Other causes were alien 
 admixture and demoralizing luxury. 
 
 V 176. When did the Western Roman Empire fall? 
 
 A. D. 476. About the middle of the 4th century the barbarians 
 began to press Eome very hard. These barbarians were Goths, 
 Vandals, Huns, and other tribes which emigrated in hordes from 
 the East and North. Eome was taken and sacked by the Goths 
 410 A. D., and again by the Vandals 455 A. D. In 476 A. D., the 
 last emperor, Augustulus, was dethroned and his dominion as- 
 sumed by the Gothic General Odoa^-cer, with the title of king. 
 
 MEDIEVAli HISTORY. 
 
 177. The time elapsed since the fall of Rome mny he how divided f 
 
 Into two parts : The first part constitutes what is usually called 
 the Middle Ages, — embracing one thousand years ; that is, it ex- 
 tends from about the close of the 5th to the close of the 15th cen- 
 tury of our era. From the close of the 15th century down to the 
 present time is modern history in its narrowest sense. 
 
 178. What comprise the historical races of Europe f 
 
 They comprise four grand divisions of the great Aryan stock, — 
 the Grseco-Latins, the Celts, the Teutons, and the Slavonians. 
 
 179. What was the order of their migration f 
 
 The ancestors of these races came originally from Asia. The 
 first wave of migration brought the Celts, who established them- 
 selves in Central Europe. The incoming Teutons drove them into 
 "Western Europe, and possessed themselves of Central and Eastern 
 Europe. At a subsequent date the Slavonic race made their ap- 
 pearance in Europe ; and the effect of this was that the Teutons 
 were wedged into Central and Northwestern Europe, while the 
 Slavonians overspread the whole of the great Eastern plain. 
 
GENERAIi HISTORY. 
 
 41 
 
 180. What ivas the influence of Home on the Celts f 
 
 Of the three races the Celts first came in contact with the Ro- 
 mans. The result of this contact was that the Celtic population 
 had become thoroughly Latinized and Christianized before the 
 breaking up of the Western Empire. 
 
 181. Of what is modern society the resalt ? 
 
 Of the blending of Teutonic, or Germanic, barbarians with the 
 Latin and Celtic elements. 
 
 It derives ingredients from both, — from the barbarians the love of per- 
 sonal liberty and the sense of independence, from the Eomans the forms of 
 a long established civilization. 
 
 182. What terms designate the central family of Europe f 
 
 The terms Teutonic, Gothic, Germanic are all used as synony- 
 mous, and are employed indifierently to designate this mighty 
 central family. 
 
 183. What were the chief Germanic tribes? 
 
 The Goths, the Franks, the Vandals, the Burgundians, the Lom- 
 bards, the Saxons, the Angles, and the Scandinavians. 
 
 184. What were the languages of the new nations that arose on the 
 ruins of the Roman Empire f 
 
 Eomance 
 Languages 
 
 Italian, 
 - French, 
 Spanish. 
 
 Germanic 
 
 and 
 Romance 
 
 English. 
 
 (xermanic -| 
 
 High German, or the tongues of Southern Ger- 
 many, — the " German " of our day. 
 
 Low German, the tongues spoken by the dwellers 
 in Northern or sea-coast Germany, represented 
 by the Dutch of our day. 
 
 Scandinavian, including the Swedish, Danish, 
 Norwegian, and Icelandic. 
 
 « ,, . / Gaelic Scotch, 
 Celtic \^ iT 1 -i 
 *• Erse of Ireland. 
 
 . / EUSSIAN, 
 
 SlaYOuian i ^ 
 
 *• Polish. 
 
42 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 185. What was the Byzantine Etnpire ? 
 
 The Eastern Empire of Eome, which, though in a state of pre- 
 mature and perpetual decay, continued to subsist for a thousand 
 years after the downfall of the Western, or Latin, Empire. 
 
 186. When was ike Byzantine Empire in the meridian of its glory f 
 
 In the 6th century during the long reign of Justinian, A. D. 
 527-565. 
 
 187. When was the beginning of France ? 
 
 When Clovis, King of the Franks, fixed his capital at Paris, in 
 A. Do 507. 
 
 188. Who was Charles Martel f 
 
 He was a prime minister styled the Mayor of the Palace, — an 
 officer chosen by the nobles to be the guide and controller of the 
 sovereign. He upheld the Frankish power most vigorously, and 
 by his defeat of the Saracens in A, D. 732, saved all Europe from 
 being subjugated by Mohammedan rule. 
 
 189. What were the beginnings of England f 
 
 The Eoman troops had been withdrawn from the province of 
 Britain about half a century before the downfall of Eome, and 
 the Britons, who belonged to the Celtic race, were left to shift for 
 themselves. About the middle of the 5th century various Teu- 
 tonic tribes from the Low-German lands, invaded Britain, and 
 the native Celtic Britons were killed, enslaved, or driven to the 
 mountain regions of Wales aud North Britain. 
 
 Among the Low-German, invaders were three m.ain tribes, — the Angles, 
 Saxons, and Jutes. The name Jute has left no memorial in England ; but 
 the English people are still often spoken of as belonging to the Saxon race, 
 while the speech which arose in the island from the intermixture of the 
 various German dialects took the name of Anglo-Saxon, and Britain changed 
 its name to England, or the land of the Angles. 
 
 190. Give a brief sketch of Mahomet. 
 
 Mahomet, or Mohammed, was born at the sacred city of Mecca, 
 in Arabia, in the year 570 or 571. Till the age of forty he lived 
 without exciting much remark, and was known only as an able, 
 rich, and enterprising merchant, honorable in his dealings, and 
 strictly truthful in all that he said. He could neither read nor 
 
/ 
 
 GENERAL HISTORY. 4S 
 
 write; but his mercantile journeys to various parts of the penin- 
 sula, as well as to Syria and Palestine, had enlarged his store of 
 information. 
 
 In his frequent retirements to a mountain cave for secret thought and 
 study, he developed a religious system of his own. He one day, at a meet- 
 ing of his kinsmen, made the startling announcement that he had received 
 a Divine commission to reform the faith and practice of the whole Arabian 
 nation. 
 
 191. What were the Koran, and the Hegira, respectively f 
 
 The Koran contained the doctrines of Mohammed, written down 
 from time to time ; the Hegira was the date of Mohammed's flight 
 from Mecca,— July 15, 622 A. D. 
 
 192. Who were the Caliphs ? 
 
 Successors of Mohammed, the first of whom was his father-in- 
 law, Abu-beker. 
 
 193. By what means ivas Mohammedanism spread ? 
 
 By a long series of invasions, wars, and conquests. They every- 
 where gave men the choice of three things, — Koran, tribute, or 
 sword. 
 
 By this means the religion of Mohammed was spread over a large part of 
 Asia and Africa, and made its way even into Europe. 
 
 194. Who was Charlemagne f 
 
 He was the son of Pepin, the first of the Carlovingian mon- 
 archs. He was born about A. D. 742. His real name was Karl, 
 that is, Charles (Charles the Great). 
 
 195. What was the Kingdom of Charlemagne f 
 
 It comprised portions of the two countries we now call France 
 and Germany. 
 
 196. What was Charlemagne's design? 
 
 His ruling idea was the re-establishment of the Eoman Empire. 
 
 It was in the effort to realize his grand idea that Charlemagne undertook 
 the numerous wars and expeditions that filled the forty-six years of his 
 reign. 
 
 197. When and by whom was Charlemagne crowned emperor f 
 
 A. D. 800. He had gone in splendid state to visit Italy. On 
 
44 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 Ohristmas day lie and his court were attending divine service in 
 the church of St. Peter's, at Rome. Suddenly, while the monarch 
 was kneeling on the steps of the altar in prayer, the Pope, Leo 
 III., placed a crown upon his head and solemnly saluted him as 
 "Emperor of the West," with the title of Charles I., Cjssar Au- 
 gustus. 
 
 198. What was the character of Charlemagne f 
 
 In activity, in a craving desire to be ever doing something, he 
 resembled Napoleon. He was a great patron of learning and 
 learned men, and fond of literary pursuits himself. In his habits 
 he was plain and unostentatious. 
 
 199. What was the Feudal System f 
 
 It sprang out of the peculiar relations of man to man among 
 the various Teutonic tribes who obtained possession of the coun- 
 tries that had formed the Western Empire. 
 
 Every free German who had helped his chief in conquering the 
 country received as his share of the spoil a particular estate, 
 which was called his allodium, ov freehold, — this estate being abso- 
 lutely his own property. The chief or king received a very large 
 domain as his share. After a time it became usual for him to 
 grant portions of this, his own domain, to his followers and favor- 
 ites, on condition of their being faithful to him aud doing him 
 service in war. The land so granted was called a feudom, or fief, 
 and land held in this way was said to be held by 2i feudal tenure. 
 
 Land held by the feudal tenure was not the soldier's property by right, 
 but was retained only during the pleasure of the real owner, and so long as 
 the conditions agreed on were lived up to. The real owner was the lord, or 
 liege, while the person to whom he granted the land was called his vassal, 
 liegeman, or retainer. 
 
 200. What were serfs? 
 
 Though they were not actual slaves, yet they were bound to the 
 land, and passed with it when it changed hands. 
 
 201. What were the effects of feudalism 9 
 
 The mass of the people had no guaranteed rights. The feudal 
 barons grievously oppressed them, and as the nobles were the 
 magistrates of the fiefs, the people had no redress. The system was 
 a reign, not of law, but of lawlessness. 
 
GENEEAIi HISTORY. . 45 
 
 It was a system that was not wholly "bad : it must have been in some de- 
 gree adapted to the times, otherwise it could not have existed at all ; but it 
 belonged to a state of society essentially barbarous, and it was overthrown 
 by that very civilization which it could not keep from growing up in its very 
 midst. 
 
 202. What was the Roman bishop, or pontiff, called f 
 
 The name " pontiff" means the chief officer of the old pagan 
 religion of Rome. He was called Pater, or Papa, father (whence 
 English Pope). The modern style is "His Holiness the Pope." 
 
 203. Into what two divisions was the Church of Pome split f 
 
 Into the Eastern, or Greek Catholics, and the Western, or Roman 
 Catholics. The head of the Greek church is the patriarch of Con- 
 stantinople. 
 
 204. What of the power of Papacy? 
 
 The origin of the temporal power of Papacy was based on a grant 
 to the Pope by Charlemagne, A. D. 800. For several centuries 
 the Pope was almost the arbiter of Europe. Kings trembled at 
 incurring his displeasure, and dreaded the terrible consequences 
 of a "bull" of excommunication. The temporal power of the 
 Pope ended in 1870, when Victor Emmanuel, King of Italy, took 
 possession of the " States of the Church." The Pope remains a vol- 
 untary prisoner in the Vatican Palace. 
 
 After the Keformation the influence of the Papacy gradually declined. 
 Even Catholic powers assisted the enemies of the Pope when it was to their 
 advantage. 
 
 205. What was the object of the Crusades ? 
 
 The Crusades {war of the cross) were undertaken by the Western 
 nations of Europe for the recovery of the Holy Land from the 
 Saracens and Turks. 
 
 206. Who aroused this feeling f 
 
 An enthusiastic monk called Petee the Hermit, a native of 
 Amiens, France. He followed the wars in his youth, then became 
 a monk, afterwards retired to absolute solitude, and finally made 
 a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. There witnessing the cruelties of the 
 Turks, he became possessed with the idea that he was inspired b^ 
 Heaven to deliver the Holy Sepulcher from their hands. 
 
46 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 Two councils of the church were called and a crusade was determined on, 
 1095. It was agreed that a red cross worn on the breast or shoulder should 
 "be the badge of the crusaders. 
 
 207. How many Crusades were made to the Holy Land f 
 
 Eight ; the first three being called the Greater Crusades. The 
 First Crusade (A. D. 1096-1099) ; the Second Crusade (A. D. 1147- 
 1149) ; the Third Crusade (A. D. 1189-1192). 
 
 208. Who were the most distinguished leaders of the Crusades f 
 
 Peter the Hermit ; Walter the Pennyless ; Godfrey of Bouillon 
 (Duke of Lower Lorraine) ; Eobert (Duke of Normandy) ; St. Ber- 
 nard ; Conrad IIL (Emperor of Germany) ; Louis VII. of France; 
 Bichard I. of England, known as Eichard Coeur de Lion (Lion- 
 hearted) ; Philip Augustus of France ; and Frederick Barbarossa 
 (Eed Beard), Emperor of Germany. 
 
 209. Who were the most distinguished leaders of the Saracens f 
 Solyman (Sultan of Turkey) ; and Saladin. 
 
 210. What was the result of the Crusades f 
 
 They utterly failed in their immediate object, — the recovery of 
 the Holy Land from the Mohammedans. 
 
 211. What were some of the important effects of the Crusades? 
 
 (1) A prosperous and permanent commerce arose. 
 
 (2) The intermingling of so many difierent nations tended to 
 break up local prejudices. 
 
 (3) They diminished the strength of the feudal aristqcracy, by 
 occasioning the breaking up and sale of many feudal properties. 
 
 (4) Chivalry, though older than the Crusades, derived its chief 
 influence and strength from these wars. 
 
 (5) They promoted the diffusion of knowledge by bringing the 
 civilization of the Saracens and Greeks 'in contact. From the 
 time of the Crusades a great intellectual revival began through- 
 out all Europe. 
 
 212. What was the origin of Chivalry! 
 
 Chivalry had its origin in two peculiarities in the customs and 
 instincts of the Gothic races, — the great honor paid to the profes- 
 sion of arms, and the high regard and delicate gallantry of the 
 
 X"' 
 
GENERAL HISTORY. 47 
 
 Teutons towards the female sex. Feudalism became a regular 
 system in the 11th century. 
 
 213. What, respectively, was the training of a page, a squire, and a 
 knight f 
 
 The sons of a lord's vassals were sent to the castle to receive 
 training in military exercises and the etiquette of the times. From 
 the ages of seven to fourteen these boys were called pages. The 
 page associated with the ladies, who, with their knights, taught 
 him courtly manners by precept and example. At the age of four- 
 teen the page became a squire and attached himself to some knight 
 as his assistant. At twenty-one the squire, if worthy, became a 
 knight. He vowed that he would be a champion of the church, a 
 protector of woman, and a redresser of wrong. 
 
 214. What was the characteristic amusement of chivalry f 
 
 The tournament. The contesting knights fought on horseback 
 in the lists, in the presence of the royal household and the gentry 
 of the vicinity. 
 
 Each knight usually selected some lady to whom he vowed perpetual 
 constancy, and in whose name he went forth to win renown. 
 
 From, the descriptions of tournament scenes that we read in the pages of 
 Sir Walter Scott, or of the old chronicler Froissaft, it is evident that the 
 tourney must have surpassed every scenic performance of modem times. 
 
 215. What were some of the influences of chivalry f 
 
 It inculcated gentle manners, respect for the female sex, and 
 charity toward the helpless. 
 
 Some of its practices degenerated into absurdities. (See Cervantes' s Don 
 Quixote.) 
 
 216. Why is the period of the Middle Ages called the " Dark Ages ? " 
 Because of the reign of ignorance and superstition. 
 
 Learning was almost exclusively confined to the clergy and the monks. 
 Even kings could not write their own names. To the monks we owe much 
 that is preserved of ancient knowledge. 
 
 217. What was the chief cause of the general ignorance of the " Dark 
 Ages?" 
 
 The scarcity of books. The art of making paper from cotton 
 rags was not introduced till about the close of the 11th century. 
 Previous to this the two kinds of writing material were papyrus 
 
48' HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 and parchment. In the 7th century papyrus almost ceased to be 
 imported into Europe; while parchment was too costly to be 
 readily spared for book purposes. 
 
 218. Who ivere the eminent men of the Dark Ages f 
 
 During the five centuries of this age, we find but few names of 
 really eminent men. Bede, the Englishman ; Alcuin, also an 
 Englishman ; John, surnamed Scotus or Erigena, a native of Ire- 
 land ; and Pope Sylvester. 
 
 219. What distinctions and customs prevailed during the Middle^ or 
 Dark Ages ? 
 
 The upper class owned everything, and the people were little 
 better than slaves. Horrible atrocities were usually committed in 
 war. 
 
 220. What conveniences of life came into use during the Middle 
 Ages? 
 
 They were few and simple. Chimneys came into use about the 
 15th century. Glass windows were introduced into England in the 
 12th century. Time was measured by means of sun-dials. 
 
 221. What were the only really great works of the Middle Ages f 
 
 The cathedrals. Some of the most noted of these great churches 
 are the cathedrals of Strasburg, Milan, Cologne, St. Peter's at 
 Rome, and St. Paul's at London. 
 
 222. What was the age of revival from the state of degradation and 
 poverty of the Middle Ages f 
 
 The commencement of this restoration may be dated from about 
 the close of the 11th century. 
 
 We can not apply the term " Dark Ages" to the period between the 11th 
 and the 15th centuries,— for at this time we see the shadows grow fainter as 
 we advance, till finally the twilight reddens into our modern dawn. 
 
 223. Whol were signs of revival f 
 
 (1) The springing up of walled cities ; (2) The popularity of 
 the great universities : University of Oxford, University of Bo- 
 logna, and the University of Paris ; (3) The dawn of a new lit- 
 erature in French, Spanish, Italian, and German about the time 
 
GENERAL HISTORY. 49 
 
 of the Crusades, — Chaucer, the father of English literature, was 
 born 1328 ; (4) The mariner's compass, gunpowder, and cannon 
 came into use early in the 14th century. 
 
 Tlie invention of printing from movable types is claimed both by the 
 Dutch and Germans. 
 
 224. What was the '■^scholastic 'philosophy" of the 11th and ISth 
 
 centuries ? 
 
 The chief feature of this was the application of the art of dia- 
 lectics to subtle questions of metaphysics and theology. 
 
 225. Who were the great masters of this art ? 
 
 They are known collectively as the Schoolmen. The most 
 famous were Thomas Aquinas, Dun Scotus, Roscelin, Anselm, and 
 Peter Lombard. 
 
 Many of the questions which the Schoolmen discussed with great interest 
 now seem very frivolous,— as, for instance, the question as to " how many 
 angels can stand on the point of a needle?" and whether " an angel in 
 passing from one point to another passes through intermediate space ? ' ' 
 
 226. What two eminent scientists lived in the loth century ? 
 Eoger Bacon, an English monk, and Albertus Magnus. 
 
 For the times in which they lived these men made wonderful advances 
 in true knowledge ; and each had to pay the penalty of being in advance of 
 Ms age, for both were punished as magicians. 
 
 227. For what are we indebted to the Saracens of the Middle Ages ? 
 
 We received from them our mode of notation, called the Arabic 
 "figures ; and the terms " algebra," " alcohol," " alchemy," " zenith,' 
 ''nadir," etc., all of which are Arabic. To the researches of the 
 Saracenic alchemists we owe the beginnings of chemistry. The 
 first work on chemistry was written by Geber, an Arab of the 8th 
 century. 
 
 228. What are the most famous collections of the heroic poetiy of the 
 Middle Ages 9 
 
 The German collection known as the Nihelungen Lied ; the Span- 
 ish romatice of the Cid; and the cycle of poetry relating to the 
 British Arthur and his Knights of the Eound Table. 
 
50 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 229. When were the real beginnings of our modern literature f 
 
 In the 13th century we have in Italy Dante (born A. D. 1265), 
 whose Divine Commedia is one of the great world-books ; and in 
 the 14th century our own English Chaucer (born A. D. 1328), 
 who is still accounted one of England's five greatest poets. 
 
 230. What three states greiv out of Charlemagne's Empire ? 
 Germany, France, and Italy. 
 
 For almost a century after Charlemagne's death the chief power was in 
 the hands of certain dukes. 
 
 231. Who tvas the first line of German emperors ? 
 
 Henry I., or the Fowler. He was the first of a series of five 
 Saxon emperors who ruled Germany for more than a century, and 
 raised it to be the greatest power in Europe. 
 
 232. When was the revival of the Western German Empire f 
 
 Under Otho the Great (A. D. 936). Its title was the " Holy 
 Eoman Empire of the German Nation." 
 
 233. When was the real beginning of France f 
 
 In the 10th century. When Gaul was conquered by the Franks 
 it became a part of the kingdom of the Franks ; while under 
 Charlemagne it was a part of his extensive Empire. 
 
 The Carlovingian line came to an end with Louis the Sluggard ; and then 
 in the confusion one of the great dukes, Hugh Capet, Duke of Francia, made 
 himself king by right of manhood. Thus the Duke of Francia became King 
 0/ France, and this was the real beginning of the kingdom of France, 
 A. D. 987. 
 
 234. Under Louis IX. {Saint Louis) what ivas the condition of France f 
 
 His wise rule gave France increased importance ; at this time 
 (1226 A. D.), she began to be a great nation, and she was hence- 
 forth reckoned amongst the foremost powers of Europe. 
 
 235. What was the Hundred Years' War ? 
 
 Edward III. of England thought he should have the crown of 
 France, and accordingly he fitted out a great 'armament by sea 
 and land to wrest that crown from Philip of Valois (Philip VI.). 
 
GENERAL HISTORY. 51 
 
 There thus began a great war, called in French history, the Hun-- 
 dred Years' War. 
 
 The most famous events in this series of wars were : 
 
 (1) Battle of Crecy (A. D. 1346) : English victory, 
 
 (2) Battle of Poitiers (A. D. 1350) : English victory. 
 
 (3) Conquest of Aquitaine by the French. 
 
 (4) Battle of Agincourt (A. D. 1415) : English victory. 
 
 (5) Refusal of the French to acknowledge the treaty after the death of 
 "both Charles and Henry in A. D. 1422. 
 
 (6) Uprising of France, under the inspiration of the famous Maid of Or- 
 leans, Joan of Arc. 
 
 Finally, by the year 1453, the English were entirely driven from France. 
 This ended the Hundred Years' War. 
 
 236. What was the effect of the Norman Conquest of England f 
 
 The Norman conquest of England, under William the Con- 
 queror (A. D. 1066), thoroughly subjugated the English. The 
 Church and the law courts were directed by the conquerors; thet; 
 official language was Norman-French. 
 
 237. Who were the Norman kings ? 
 
 William I. (A. D. 1066-1087). 
 
 William II. (Kufus) (A. D. 1087-1100). 
 
 Henry I. (A. D., 1100-1135). \ 
 
 Stephen (A. D. 1135-1154). 
 
 238. Who were the Plantagenets f 
 
 Henry II. (A. D. 1154-1189). 
 Eichard I. (A. D. 1189-1199). 
 John (A. D. 1199-1216). 
 Hefry III. (A. D. 1216-1272). 
 Edward I. (A. D. 1272-1370). 
 Edward II. (A. D. 1307-1327). 
 Edward III. (A. D. 1327-1377). 
 Eichard II. (A. D. 1377-1399). 
 
 239. In whose reign loas the Magna Charta granted f 
 
 The English people in A. D. 1215 forced King John to grant 
 the Great Charter {Magna Charta), by which all the old rights and 
 good laws which he had broken were confirmed. It has been the 
 groundwork of English freedom ever since. 
 
 240. When and how was the English Parliament established? 
 
 It came about in this way : The King, Henry III., John's son> 
 
52 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 had behaved badly. The great nobles, with Sir Simon Montfort, 
 banded against the King, defeated him in the field, and made him 
 ■captive. Then Sir Simon issued writs which added to the old as- 
 sembly of lords, clergy, and knights tivoburgesses from each borough 
 {A. D. 1264). This was the commencement of the English House 
 of Commons, and of true representative government. 
 
 241. Who were the Lancastrian Kings of England ? 
 
 With the deposition by Parliament of Eichard II., A. D., 1399, 
 the Plantagenet line went out. Three kings of the House of Lan- 
 caster now followed: Henry IV. (A. D. 1399-1413).; Henry V. (A. 
 D. 1413-1422) ; Henry VI. (A. D. 1422-1461). 
 
 242. What were the Wars of the Roses f 
 
 In A. D. 1455 there broke out the great civil strife known as the 
 Wars of the Hoses (the red rose, symbol of Lancaster, and the 
 ■white rose, symbol of York), the contending parties being the re- 
 spective representatives of the families of Lancaster and of York, 
 both of which were claimants to the throne. Six years of war 
 resulted in the accession of Edward IV., of the family of York. 
 
 243. Who were the Kings of the House of Lords f 
 
 Edward IV. (A. D. 1461-1483) ; Edward V. (A. D. 1483-1483) ; 
 Hichard III. (A. D. 1483-1485). 
 
 The twenty-four years' reign of these three kings was filled with troubles 
 and intrigues, and these continued till A. D. 1485, when a Lancastrian earl, 
 son of Edward Tudor, came to the throne as Henry VII. With him the 
 Tudor line of English sovereigns begins, and English medieval history ends. 
 
 244. What can he said of Venice during the Middle Ages ? 
 
 Ship-building was on a large scale, and the hire of vessels to 
 carry the Crusaders to Palestine filled her cofiers with gold. Her 
 ships brought back from Syria the silks and spices and jewels of 
 the East. 
 
 245. Who were the Medicis ? 
 
 They were merchants who rose to great influence in Florentine 
 politics. One of them, Lorenzo de Medici, raised himself to be 
 the head of the State. 
 
 His splendid patronage of art and literature gained for Lorenzo the name 
 of the Magnificent. He turned his gardens at Florence into an academy, 
 lie enriched the public library with many hundreds of manuscripts col- 
 
GENERAL HISTORY. 5S 
 
 lected in Italy and the East, and by his patronage of artists made Florence 
 the scene of some of the most brilliant triumphs ever won by brush or 
 chisel. 
 
 246. W hat Spanish kingdoms arose in the Middle Ages? 
 
 The Kingdom of Navarre was founded in A. D. 873, the King- 
 dom of Aragon in A. D. 1035, the Kingdom of Castile in A. D^ 
 1026. Leon and Asturias were added in A. D. 1037, and Ferdi- 
 nand of Leon and Castile added Cordova, Toledo, and Seville be- 
 tween A. D. 1234 and A. D. 1248. 
 
 247. How was the Kingdom of Spain formed? 
 
 By the onion 6f Castile and Aragon, by the marriage of Ferdi- 
 nand and Isabella, and in 1491, Grenada was wrested from the 
 Moors. 
 
 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 248. What was the power of the Ottoman Turks f 
 
 Not only did nearly all Asia Minor fall under Turkish sway^ 
 but in the 14th century the Turks crossed the Hellespont, made 
 Adrianople their capital, and reaching out from there gradually 
 stripped the Byzantine empire of Thrace, Macedon, Servia, and 
 Southern Greece. 
 
 249. When and by whom was Constantinople besieged and taken f 
 
 On the 29th of May, 1453, by the Ottoman Turks under Mo- 
 hammed II. The Turks stormed the walls, having previously 
 battered them with cannon (then used for perhaps the first time) j 
 Constantine met the storm valiantly, and for fifty -three days made 
 a stout defense of the city. But Constantine fell, sword in hand,, 
 boldly disputing every inch of ground ; multitudes of his subjects» 
 were massacred ; the Crescent waved over the church of St. So- 
 phia, and the Byzantine Empire fell forever. 
 
 250. What ivas the historic area of ancient and medieval history ? 
 
 It was limited to Europe, a small part of Western Asia, and a 
 narrow strip of Northern Africa. 
 
 251. When was the compass practically applied in navigation f 
 About the beginning of the 15th century. 
 
 The exact time of the invention of the compass is unknown, ; it is com- 
 
34 THE HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 monly attributed to an Italian named Gioja, who flourislied about the be- 
 ginning of the 14th century ; but the instrument was known long before by 
 the Chinese. It was then, however, merely a needle rubbed on loadstone 
 and floating on a cork, or other light substance, in a vessel filled with 
 water. 
 
 252. Who were the greatest navigators about the dose of the 15th cen- 
 tury f 
 
 The Portuguese. They had penetrated the tropics ; explored 
 the greater part of the African coast ; made settlements on the 
 €oast of Guinea ; and in 1498, Vasco da Gama doubled the Cape 
 of Good Hope, thus opening up a sea-route to India. 
 
 The circumnavigation of Africa made a complete revolution in the com- 
 mercial condition of Europe. The trade which had been confined to the 
 Mediterranean now traversed the Atlantic, and the Western nations hastened 
 to share in its gains. 
 
 253. What led to the discovery of America ? 
 
 The desire of reaching India by sea was the inspiring motive 
 that led to the brilliant discovery by Columbus. 
 
 Columbus knew that the Portuguese were bending their efibrts to reach 
 India by the circumnavigation of Africa ; and his grand inspiration was that 
 India might more readily be attained by sailing westward across the At- 
 lantic. 
 
 254. What part in discoveries did England take ? 
 
 In 1497 England sent out John and Sebastian Cabot, who 
 '.sailed around the northern coast of Labrador, touched at a point 
 supposed to have been either Newfoundland or Cape Breton, and 
 sailed to the south along the coast of what is now the United 
 States as far as latitude 38°. 
 
 255. When and by whom was the globe first circumnavigated f 
 
 By the ships of Magellan (1519-1521). He sailed through the 
 strait which bears his name. At the Philippine Islands (south- 
 east of Asia), in a contest with the natives, he was killed ; but one 
 of his vessels reached Spain by way of the Cape of Good Hope, 
 ithus making the first voyage around the world. 
 
 256. When was the revival of learning ? 
 
 The fall of Constantinople compelled a great number of learned 
 Greeks to seek shelter in Italy, and other parts of Western Europe, 
 carrying with them their treasures of classic lore. 
 
 Though long before the fall of Constantinople the love of classical litera- 
 
GENERAL HISTORY. 65 
 
 ture had been gradually reviving, yet there novr began among scholars a 
 most ardent search for buried and neglected manuscripts, and their diligence 
 was awarded by the discovery of many precious monuments of the Greek 
 and Roman literature. 
 
 ^„^><^ 257. What invention was the chief agent in the destimction offeudaliwi f 
 
 The invention of gunpowder and the consequent change in the 
 art of war ; for, neither the armor of the knights nor the thick walls 
 of their castles were proof against bullets and cannon-balls. 
 
 Although it is universally conceded that gunpower was invented by 
 Roger Bacon, the English monk, in the 13th century, yet it was long before 
 the invention was applied to the art of war. This application has been 
 claimed for Berthold Schwartz, a German apothecary, about 1330 ; but gun- 
 powder appears to have been used in war by the Moors before that period. 
 
 258. What is meant by the "States-System of Europe " f 
 
 When the strength of nations becomes centralized in the hands 
 of a few monarchs, it is likely that one of these might through 
 his own power, aided by family connections, gain a great and 
 dangerous preponderance over the others. The aim of the policy 
 named the balance of power, — of which we read a great deal in 
 modern European history, — was to attain such a just distribution 
 of force, either by alliance or internal resources between the dif- 
 ferent states, that none should overshadow the others. This led 
 to exceedingly complicated international relations, and the com- 
 bination of nations thus formed is often spoken of as the " States- 
 System of Europe." 
 
 259. Who was the Emperor Charles VJ 
 
 He was the son of Philip, Archduke of Austria (son of Maxi- 
 milian, Emperor of Germany), and of Joanna (daughter of Ferd- 
 inand and Isabella of Spain). He was crowned with the diadem 
 of Charlemagne at Aix-la-Chapelle, in the year 1520. 
 
 260. What were the two chief events of his reign f 
 
 (1) The rise of Protestantism ; (2) The wars carried on under 
 the lead of Francis I. of France against Charles V., to maintain 
 the balance of power. 
 
 261. What was the position of the Catholic Church at the beginning of 
 the 16th century f 
 
 All the nations of Western Europe were in communion with 
 the Roman Catholic Church. 
 
56 THE HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 Soon after the beginning of the 16th century great controversies on mat- 
 ters of religion arose. There was complaint of many practical abuses in the 
 Church, and of the claims of the popes to interfere in the affairs of nations. 
 
 262. Who ivas Martin Luther f 
 
 He was Professor of Theology in the University of Wittenberg, 
 took the lead in opposing the Dominican friars, who carried on 
 an extensive sale of indulgences, and brought about the Eeforma- 
 tion (15] 7). 
 
 263. What were indulgerices f 
 
 Eemissions of the penances imposed upon persons whose sins 
 had brought scandal on the community. But in process of time 
 they were represented as actual pardons of guilt, and the pur- 
 chaser of indulgence was said to be delivered from all his sins. 
 
 264. How were the doctrines of the Reformation generally received f 
 
 They took deep root in Germany, France, Switzerland, England, 
 Scotland, and Scandinavia. 
 
 Allowing for considerable exceptions, the nations of Teutonic stock em- 
 braced the new doctrines, while most of the Latin race adhered to the faith 
 of Rome. 
 
 265. What ivas the origin of the name Protestant f 
 
 It was originally applied to those who adhered to Luther at the 
 Reformation in 1529, and protested against, or made a solemn dec- 
 laration of dissent from, a decree of the Emperor Charles V. and 
 the Diet of Spires, and appealed to a general council. 
 
 266. What were the 'political events of Charles V. ? 
 
 The complications with Francis I. of France. This bitter rivalry 
 led to four wars, in each of which the avowed object of Francis 
 was to preserve the balance of power, as against the menacing 
 greatness of the House of Austria, represented by Charles V. 
 
 Charles V. was also engaged in a contest with the Protestant 
 princes of Germany, who had formed a league for their mutual 
 protection, in 1531. 
 
 A great council, called the Council of Trent, was convened against Prot- 
 estanism in 1545. At the very commencement of the war, Maurice of Sax- 
 ony, one of the leading Protestant princes, deserted the league and went 
 over to the cause of the Emperor. The result was that the Protestant 
 League was soon broken up. 
 
GENERAL HISTORY. 57 
 
 267. When and what was the triumph of Protestantism f 
 
 The Emperor Charles Y. becoming thoroughly tyrannical, his 
 course excited the animosity as well of the Catholic as of the 
 Protestant princes of Germany. He was compelled to sign a 
 treaty at Passau (1552) by which the free exercise of their reli- 
 gion was secured to the Protestants. Three years later (1555), the 
 principles of mutual toleration were formally sanctioned by the 
 Diet of Augsburg. 
 
 268. What were the most important features of the Protestant church f 
 
 (1) Abolition of monastic orders and the celibacy of the clergy* 
 
 (2) Divine service in the language of the country. 
 
 (3) Distribution of the Bible to all. 
 
 269. Who was the first of the Tudor lin^ of English sovereigns? 
 
 Henry VII., who, dying in 1509, left as heir to the throne a son^ 
 who is known to history as Henry VIII. 
 
 270. Who was Cardinal Wolseyf 
 
 He was the most notable figure in political affairs during the 
 first twenty years of the reign of Henry VIII. 
 
 He was the son of a butcher ; but displaying while young great quickness 
 and intelligence, he received a learned education with a view to his enter- 
 ing the Church. His first employment at court was in the humble office of 
 chaplain ; but becoming acquainted with the young monarch, he soon grew 
 to be a great favorite. He was made Archbishop of York, then High Chan- 
 cellor of England, and finally became Henry's sole minister. He was 
 finally stripped of all his places of power and wealth, and sinking under 
 grief and mortification, he died in 1530. 
 
 271. Why was Henry VIII. called Defender of the Faith f 
 
 He wrote a book against the Lutheran doctrines. The Pope 
 was so well pleased with the production that he gave the English 
 king this title. 
 
 272. Who ivere the six successive ivives of Henry VIII. ? 
 
 Katharine of Aragon, Anne Boleyn, Jane Seymour, Ann of 
 Cleves, Catharine Howard, and Catharine Parr. 
 
 273. What was the fate of his respective luives ? 
 
 Katharine of Aragon and Ann of Cleves were divorced ; Anne 
 Boleyn and Catharine Howard were beheaded ; Jane Seymour 
 
68 THE HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 died a year after marriage ; and Catharine Parr, his last wife, 
 ^survived the King. 
 
 274. What is the verdict of historians on Henry VIII. f 
 
 The common verdict is that he was a remorseless tyrant. In 
 recent times a tendency to modify the vigor of this judgment has 
 shown itself. 
 
 It is urged that an examination of contemporary history shows that for 
 some of liis arbitrary and seemingly cruel acts he had proper justification, 
 and that many other measures which we must regard as reprehensible were 
 forced upon liim by the necessities of the difficult and perilous times in 
 which he and England found themselves. In spite of his faults, his follies, 
 and his crimes, his reign tended to the prosperity and glory of England. 
 
 275. What may he said of the Netherlanders in the 16th century ? 
 
 At this period the Netherlanders had by industry and intelligence 
 attained a high degree of prosperity. They were the boldest 
 navigators and the most skillful manufacturers in Europe. 
 
 276. Who was the Prince of Orange f 
 
 William of Nassau, Prince of Orange, known in history as 
 William the Silent, was a Protestant, and took up the cause of the 
 people against the bigoted Philip IL of Spain, who had institu- 
 1;ed the terrible Inquisition. 
 
 277. When was the rise of the Dutch Republic ? 
 
 After a severe struggle of thirty-seven years, the independence of 
 the Dutch Eepublic was secured, though it was not till the Peace 
 of Westphalia (1648) that this independence was acknowledged. 
 
 278. Who were the Huguenots f 
 
 The French Protestants were followers of John Calvin, whose 
 teaching was a greater departure from the doctrines of the Eoman 
 Church than was that of Luther. They were known by the name 
 of Huguenots. 
 
 The Huguenots were cruelly persecuted by Francis I,, in whose reign 
 they first came into notice, as they were also by his successor, Henry II., and 
 by his successor, Francis II. 
 
 279. In the religious wars of France ivho were the principal leaders of 
 the Huguenots ? 
 
 The Prince of Conde, Admiral Coligny, and Henry (King of 
 Navarre). 
 
GEXEKAL HISTORY. 59 
 
 280. What was the Massaa-e of St. Bartholomew f 
 
 It was an attempt on the part of the Catholics to exterminate 
 the French Protestants, on the night of August 23-24, 1572. The 
 conspirators wore badges by which they might be recognized. The 
 dreadful work began on the ringing of the bells, when all Paris 
 was wrapped in slumber. The victims of the horrible slaughter 
 •on that fearful night were estimated at 10,000. Eoyal ordera 
 -were then forwarded through the XDrovinces for the renewal of the 
 massacre, and 45,000 more victims met death in its most appalling 
 forms. Coligny was one of the first victims, and Henry IV. only 
 escaped by attending mass. 
 
 The Huguenots flew to arms, and war raged for two years. The Protest- 
 ants were finally overcome. 
 
 281. How were the religious disputes settled f 
 
 They were terminated in 1598 by the celebrated Edict of Nantes, 
 which re-established all the favors that had ever been granted to 
 the Protestants by other princes. 
 
 282. Who was Queen Elizabeth? 
 
 Elizabeth of England, called the " Virgin Queen," was the 
 daughter of Henry VIII. and Anne Boleyn. 
 
 283. Who was Mary Queen of Scots ? 
 
 She was the great-granddaughter of Henry VII., in the female 
 line as rightful heir to the crown of England. Her claims to the 
 crown caused her to be imprisoned for eighteen years. The Cath- 
 olics plotted in her favor, but she was beheaded in 1587. 
 
 284. What was the Spanish invasion of England ? 
 
 The Catholic powers of Europe, especially Philip II. of Spain, 
 ■determined to crush England. The Invincible Armada, the most 
 formidable fleet ever seen up to that time, sailed up the English 
 Channel to attack England. The English vessels were much 
 smaller, but active and well-manned. The English, assisted by 
 the Dutch, all commanded by Lord Howard, drove the Spanish 
 Armada into the harbor of Calais for refuge (July, 1588). Here 
 they were attacked by fire-ships. The Spanish commander, in 
 attempting to return home by way of the north of Scotland, was 
 overtaken by a dreadful storm, and only one-third of the proud 
 
60 THE HIGH SCHOOL, QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 Invincible Armada returned to Spain. The triumph of Protest- 
 antism was complete. 
 
 285. What may be said of the reign of Queen Elizabeth ? 
 
 The reign of Elizabeth lasted forty-five years. It was a bril- 
 liant period for England at home and abroad. Wealth increased 
 rapidly. The upper classes began to wear fine clothes and jewels. 
 Coaches came into use in London. Manufactures throve and com- 
 merce was greatly extended with other countries. Literature 
 reached its golden age in the immortal works of Shakespeare. 
 Hardy explorers carried the English flag to every part of the earth. 
 
 286. Who were the Puritans. 
 
 They were dissenters from the Church of England, and professed 
 to establish a purer form of worship. They were bitterly perse- 
 cuted in England, and many found refuge in America. 
 
 287. Who were the great artists of the 16th century ? 
 
 Michael Angelo, an Italian sculptor, painter, and architect, 
 Kapliael) an Italian painter of great distinction. 
 Titian, a Venetian portrait and landscape painter. 
 Albert Dttrer, a German painter, engraver, and sculptor. 
 Holbeio, next to Diirer the most distinguished of German artists. 
 
 288. Who were the great writers of the 16th century f 
 
 Edmund Spenser, one of England's greatest poets. Chief work. 
 Faerie Queene. 
 
 William Shakespeare, the greatest creative genius that ever 
 lived. His works are as " household words." 
 
 Sir Philip Sidney, a courtier of Queen Elizabeth. Chief works, 
 The Arcadia, and the Defense of Poesie. 
 
 Sir Walter Raleigh, also a courtier, a soldier, and an adven- 
 turer. As a writer he is known for one celebrated work, — his 
 History of the World. 
 
 Cervantes, a renowned Spanish writer. Chief work, Don 
 Quixote. 
 
 Rabelais, a famous French satirist. Chief work, Life of Gar- 
 gantua and Pantagruel. 
 
 Montaigne, the most lovable of French skeptics. Chief work, 
 his Essays. 
 
GENERAL HISTORY. 61 
 
 Ariosto, an Italian poet, whose great work was Orlando Furioso. 
 Tasso, an Italian poet. Chief work, Jerusalem Delivered. 
 Canioens, the only Portuguese poet of European reputation. 
 ■Chief work, the Ludad. 
 
 289. Who were the great Philosophers and Scientists of the 16ih cen- 
 tury f 
 
 Copernicus, a celebrated German astronomer. He disproved 
 the Ptolemaic theory of the universe. 
 
 Gralileo, a celebrated Italian astronomer. He invented the 
 telescope. 
 
 Tycho-Bralie, an astronomer of Copenhagen. 
 
 290. What was the action of the Long Parliament ? 
 
 This was so called because it sat thirteen years. In 1640 the 
 Long Parliament resolved to put a permanent check on royal 
 authority. A bill was passed enacting that Parliament should be 
 convened at least once every three years. Another bill declared 
 that Parliament could not be dissolved without its own consent. 
 
 291. Give data of the civil war in England in time of Charles I, 
 
 Charles I. attempted to overawe Parliament by demanding five 
 of its most obnoxious members. They were not given up. The 
 clergy and the nobility sided with the king; the tradesmen and 
 country people with a few of the nobility sided with Parliament. 
 Oliver Cromwell was the leader of the Parliamentary party. For 
 five years hostilities lasted, the greatest battles being at Marston 
 Moor and Naseby, in both of which the royalists were defeated. 
 The king, forced to surrender, was declared guilty of treason by 
 a high court organized for the purpose, and beheaded, Jan. 30th, 
 1649. 
 
 292. Who ruled England after the execution of Charles I. ? 
 
 Oliver Cromwell. He turned Parliament out of doors with a 
 troop of soldiers. He became Lord Protectw of the commonwealth, 
 with absolute power. He subdued Ireland and awed the ambi- 
 tious Catholic powers. 
 
 293. What was the Restoration f 
 
 The return of Charles II., and his restoration to kingly powers 
 (1660). 
 
 / 
 
62 THE HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 294. What was the character of Charles II. f 
 
 He proved one of the most dissolute kings of any age, and the 
 people were not slow to copy his manners. The country pros- 
 pered, however, and he avoided any conflict with the people. 
 
 295. What was the character of James II. f 
 
 He was a thorough tyrant and a devoted Catholic, and soon 
 became odious to the people. He abdicated the throne of Eng- 
 land (1688). 
 
 296. What was the " Glorious Revolution of 1688 " f 
 
 The passage of the Bill of Rights (1688), by which was secured 
 the liberties of the English nation against any future arbitrary 
 acts. By the Bill of Rights the British Constitution became, in 
 many important points, fixed and determined. This act secured 
 by guaranties all the old English liberties which the Stuarts had 
 violated. It laid the sure basis of the stability and the prosperity 
 of England. William Prince of Orange, and Mary his wife, were 
 crowned as joint sovereigns. 
 
 297. What was the Thirty Years' War ? 
 
 The Thirty Years' War began about 1618, and was terminated 
 by the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648. This war had Germany 
 for its center, and it was, properly speaking, a contest between 
 the Catholic and Protestant princes of that country ; but event- 
 ually most of the nations of Europe were drawn into it. 
 
 298. What was the cause of the war f 
 
 The direct cause of the war was the persecution of Protestants 
 by Ferdinand, King of Bohemia. Ferdinand became emperor in 
 1619f The Bohemians revolted and chose Frederick, elector of 
 Palatine, a Protestant, as their king. 
 
 299. What was the result of the war f 
 
 Frederick was beaten, and lost not only Bohemia but his own 
 dominions. Ferdinand now determined to crush all the Protes- 
 tant states. But Gustavus Adolphus, aided by Cardinal Riche- 
 lieu of France, led the Protestant cause, and was everywhere 
 successful. Peace was finally concluded, 1648, by which the Pro- 
 testants gained most they contended for. 
 
GENERAL HISTORY. 63c 
 
 300. What was the nature of the treaty of Westphalia ? 
 
 It was one of tlie most important treaties in the history of Eu- 
 rope. It established the religious independence of the Protestant- 
 states, and formally acknowledged the independence of Switzer- 
 land and Holland. 
 
 301. What of the reign of Louis XIV. f 
 
 Louis XIV. of France reigned seventy-two years (1643-1715). 
 France became the greatest power in Europe. But the wars and 
 court expenses of the " grand monarch " sapped the nation, and 
 Louis lived long enough to see the affairs of France enveloped in^ 
 gloom and ruined by disastrous defeat. 
 
 302. Who was Cardinal Richelieu ? 
 
 He was prime minister of France from 1622 to 1642, and wa& 
 the greatest statesman of his time. He greatly increased the pov^er 
 and territory of France. He crushed the Huguenots at home^ 
 but assisted the Protestants in Germany, in order to humble Aus- 
 tria. His policy proved bad in the end for France. 
 
 303. What were some of the acts of Louis XIV. ? 
 
 He attempted to conquer the Netherlands, and formed an alli- 
 ance with England for the purpose. The Dutch bravely resisted. 
 England made peace with them, and they were assisted by Ger- 
 many, Brandenburg, and Spain. This gigantic contest lasted four 
 years. Louis revoked the Edict of Nantes, which granted free- 
 dom of worship to the Huguenots. Thousands of Protestants 
 went into exile. 
 
 304. What was The War of the Spanish Succession f 
 
 It resulted from Louis XIV. supporting the claims of his grand- 
 son to the crown of Spain. As this would disturb the balance of 
 power by making the Bourbons of France too powerful, England, 
 Holland, and Germany united against France. 
 
 305. What was the result of this ivar f 
 
 At the great battle of Blenheim, 1704, Marlborough, the Eng- 
 lish commander, and Prince Eugene, of Austria, utterly defeated 
 the French and Bavarians. The French lost ground everywhere,^ 
 and peace ensued by the treaty of Utrecht, 1713. 
 
64 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 306. What was the progress of civilization during the 17th century? 
 
 Civilization made great progress, but the comforts and conve- 
 niences of life were few compared with those of the present day. 
 The masses were still ignorant and superstitious. The "Divine 
 right of Kings " had reduced the people to a condition little bet- 
 ter than slavery. They bore the burdens and fought the battles, 
 while the ruling classes took the spoils and wore the honors. In 
 France, especially, the peasantry were in such a wretched condi- 
 tion that in some cases they begged to be sold into slavery, so that 
 their responsibilities might cease. The lands and personal effects of 
 the French nobility and clergy were actually exempt from taxation. 
 In England things were somewhat better. The English laborer 
 lived on coarse fare, but had much personal freedom. He was ig- 
 norant and often brutal. Public schools were unknown. People 
 traveled by stage-coaches, and highwaymen frequently robbed the 
 passengers. 
 
 307. Who were the gveat philosophers and scientists of the 17th century f 
 
 Francis Bacon, the greatest of English philosophers ; founder 
 of the Inductive system of philosophy ; great works : Novum Or- 
 ganum, Advancement of Learning, and Essays. 
 
 Descartes, a great French philosopher ; had a great influence 
 on the method of philosophizing. 
 
 Hobbes, a famous English philosopher ; chief works, the Levi- 
 athan and the Behemoth. 
 
 Kepler, an illustrious German mathematician and astronomer ; 
 le'discovered what are known as Kepler's " Three Laws," which 
 laid the foundation of mathematical astronomy. 
 
 Harvey, lecturer at the College of Physicians, England ; dis- 
 covered the circulation of the blood (1620). 
 
 Spinoza, of Jewish birth — one of the great modern philoso- 
 phers ; his greatest work is Ethica More Oeometrica Domonstrata. 
 
 Isaac Newton, professor of mathematics at Cambridge — dis- 
 coverer of the law of universal gravitation ; chief work, Principia, 
 a Latin treatise on natural philosophy. 
 
 Liebnitz, a jurist, historian, mathematician, and metaphysi- 
 ^cian ; founder of the eclectic system of German philosophy. 
 
 308. Who were the great artists of the 17th century f 
 
 Hubens, born in Westphalia, but son of a Dutch refugee from 
 
GENERAL HISTORY. 65 
 
 Antwerp ; most famous pieces, the Descent from the Cross, the Last 
 Judgment, Peace and War. 
 
 Vandyck, pupil of Eubens ; best historical picture, The Cruci- 
 fixion. 
 
 Rembrandt, a native of Lejden, and one of the most original 
 and able painters that ever lived. 
 
 Poussin, a great painter, born in N^ormandy ; greatest works, 
 Death of Germanicus, the Taking of Jerusalem, and the Last Supper. 
 
 Murillo, one of the most celebrated Spanish painters ; his pic- 
 tures are taken from humble life, — also religious pieces. 
 
 309. Who were the great writers of the 17th century ? 
 
 Ben Jonson, soldier, actor, and poet-laureate, under James I., 
 his earliest comedy, Evei^ man in his Humor. 
 
 Calderon (De la Barca), a distinguished Spanish dramatist. 
 
 Corneille, a great French dramatist ; chief works, the Cid, 
 Horace, and Cinna. 
 
 John Milton, the greatest epic poet of modern times, author of 
 Paradise Lost and Paradise Regained. 
 
 Samuel Butler, author of a mock-heroic poem called Hudibras. 
 
 Jeremy Taylor, an English bishop; chief works. Liberty of 
 Prophesying, Holy Living, Holy Dying. 
 
 La Fontaine, a French poet and fabulist ; chief works, his 
 Fables. 
 
 Moliere, a distinguished French dramatist and writer of com- 
 edies ; chief works, Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme, Le Misanthrope, and 
 Ta7^tufe. 
 
 Pascal, an eminent French philosopher and scientist; chief 
 works, Provincial Letters and Pensees. 
 
 Bossuet, one of the greatest pulpit orators of France. 
 
 John Bunyan, a tinker of Bedford ; he wrote in prison the cel- 
 ebrated Pilgrhn's Progress. 
 
 John Bryden, a great English poet — made poet-laureate by 
 Charles II.; chief works, Absalom and Achitaphel, the Hind and 
 Panther, Alexander's Feast. 
 
 Boileau, a noted French poet ; chief works. Satires and Epistles, 
 and the Lutrin. 
 
 Fenelon, Archbishop of Cambray ; best-known work, the ro- 
 mance of Telemaque. 
 
66 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 310. Who was Peter the Great f 
 
 He first gave Russia a name in history. Seeing the ignorance 
 and barbarity of his subjects, he set about civilizing them. He 
 went to Holland and studied ship-building, working as a day- 
 laborer. He traveled over Europe, carefully studying the laws 
 and customs of the people. He returned to Eussia and at once 
 began the reorganization of the internal affairs of his empire. 
 
 311. Who was Charles XII. of Sweden ? 
 
 Charles XII. of Sweden (" the madman of the North") invaded 
 Kussia after having defeated the Poles and Danes. He attacked 
 a force of Russians ten times his own army at Narva, in 1700 and 
 totally defeated them. Charles haughtily refused to negotiate 
 for peace. He penetrated into Russia and laid siege to Pultowa 
 where he was totally defeated. He lost his entire army and fled 
 to Turkey with 300 followers. He was finally killed by a cannon- 
 ball while besieging a castle in Norway, 1718. 
 
 312. Who was Frederick the Great ? 
 
 He was King of Prussia from 1740 to 1786, and placed her 
 among the Great Powers of Europe. Taking advantage of the 
 difficulties in which Maria Theresa of Austria was involved by 
 rival powers who claimed portions of her dominions, he laid claim 
 to Silesia, and annexed that province to Prussia (1742). 
 
 313. What was the Seven Years^ War ? 
 
 It began in 1756. Austria formed a secret treaty with France, 
 Russia, Poland, Saxony and Sweden, for the partition of Prussia. 
 England alone sided with Prussia. The war was a fierce one, but 
 Frederick beat them all and retained all his territory. About 
 1,000,000 men fell in this war. 
 
 314. When was the Partition of Poland f 
 
 Under King John Sobieski the Poles compelled the Turks to 
 raise the siege of Vienna (1683), and thus saved Central Europe 
 from passing under the rule of the Moslem. But Poland rapidly 
 declined and became a prey to internal dissensions and the ra- 
 pacity of her neighbors. An infamous agreement was entered 
 into between Austria, Prussia, and Russia by which the greater 
 part of Poland was " partitioned " between these powers, 1772. A 
 
GENERAL, HISTORY. 67 
 
 second partition took place in 1792, and a third in 1795, wiped 
 Poland from the list of nations. The unfortunate Poles made a 
 gallant defense of their liberties, but in vain. 
 
 ■^ 315. Who was the Pretender ? 
 
 He was the son of James IL, and called himself James III. 
 He had pretensions to the throne of England and Scotland, for 
 he did not acknowledge the union of the two kingdoms. 
 
 His supporters were called " Jacobites," from Jacobus, the Latin name for 
 James. Louis XIV. had promised the Pretender aid in winning the British 
 throne; but just then the French king died,— so that when in 1715 risings 
 were made both in Scotland and England in the cause of the Pretender, and 
 he himself came over from France to join in, he was easily defeated, and 
 the attempt utterly failed. 
 
 316. What ivere the four ivars of the reign of George IL ? 
 
 The war with Spain ; the war of the Austrian Succession ; the 
 war for the Young Pretender; the American war with France 
 (French and Indian war). 
 
 317. Who ivas Sir Robert Walpolef 
 
 He was Prime Minister during nearly half the reign of George IL 
 
 He was a man of little learning, rough and boisterous in manners and in 
 his life ; but he retained his great power with a passionate grasp. Bribery 
 was the secret of his long reign as Premier. 
 
 318. Who was Sir William Pitt f 
 
 "William Pitt, known as the Great Commoner, was educated at. 
 Oxford, served in the army, then in Parliament, and finally giv- 
 ing himself up entirely to politics, he won for himself a leading 
 place in the government of his country. 
 
 He directed all his genius to raising the glory of England both in America 
 and in India ; and it was to his clear head and admirable administrative fac- 
 ulties that Great Britain owed her formidable position in the politics of 
 Europe in the middle of the 18th century. 
 
 319. Whxit were the chief events of the reign of George III. f 
 
 The French and Indian War ; the American Revolution ; the 
 British Conquest of India ; and the long wars with Napoleon. 
 
 320. What ivere the forerunners of the French Revolution f 
 
 The court was usually influenced by intriguing women. The 
 nobility and clergy were extravagant, haughty, and given to 
 pleasure. The finances were in a terrible condition. Continuous 
 
 / 
 
68 THE HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 'Costly wars had sapped the life of the nation. The writings of 
 Voltaire, Eousseau, and other freethinkers had caused thousands 
 'to awaken to a realization that something was radically wrong in 
 ithe social fabric. 
 
 The nobility and clergy together owned nearly two-thirds of the entire 
 landed property of France and were exempt from all taxes. Finally the 
 'Complete independence of the United States, achieved with the assistance 
 •.of French arms, contrasted painfully with the condition of the French peo- 
 iple themselves. The people began to think for themselves. 
 
 321. What was the action of the French National Assembly ? 
 
 In 1789 Louis XVI., advised by his prime minister Necker, a 
 prudent and able man, called a meeting of the States General, or 
 National Assembly. This body consisted of three divisions, the 
 Nobility, the Clergy, and the Third Estate, or Commons. The latter 
 outnumbered both the others and knew its power. On the refusal 
 of the nobility and clergy to organize as one body, the Third Es- 
 tate, or Commons, declared itself the National Assembly. The 
 Duke of Orleans and others of the nobility and clergy joined the 
 popular party. They resolved never to adjourn till they gave 
 -France a constitution. 
 
 All Paris was in a ferment. The National Assembly abolished all the 
 ©dious feudal privileges and levied taxes equally on all classes. 
 
 322. Hmo did the people act f 
 
 They grew enthusiastic; broke open gun shops and armed 
 themselves. On a report that soldiers were about to turn the 
 National Assembly out of doors, the mob stormed the Bastile, one 
 ■of the most hateful of the French prisons, where men were con- 
 demned to rot without trial. The governor, De Launy, and his 
 handful of Swiss guards, surrendered. He and some other officers 
 were massacred and the Bastile razed to the ground (July 14, 
 1789). The people were supreme and the nobility began to emigrate 
 hastily. 
 
 323. What was the "Joyous Entry"? 
 
 The king indiscreetly ordered fresh troops to Versailles, and at 
 ■a banquet in the palace, some of the officers trampled under foot 
 the tri-colored cockades of the Kevolution and substituted white 
 ones of the House of Bourbon. The mob of Paris attacked and 
 forced the palace, and the royal family were only saved by Lafay- 
 
GENERAL HISTORY. 69 
 
 ette at the head of the National Guard. The king and his family- 
 were taken in triumph to Paris as prisoners. 
 
 324. What action was taken by foreign powers toward France f 
 
 The powers of Europe became alarmed at the progress of the 
 Revolution, Prussia and Austria declared war against France in 
 1792. Large armies crossed the Rhine and marched toward 
 Paris. The allies were defeated and driven from France. The 
 interference of foreign powers greatly incensed the extreme Re- 
 publicans. 
 
 325. Who were the leaders of the French Bevolutionf 
 
 In the National Convention (assembly), the most radical leaders 
 were Danton, Maeat, and Robespierre. Robespierre, the most 
 notorious figure of the Revolution, was the counsellor and secret 
 leader of the Jacobin Clubs, which embraced the worst elements 
 of Paris. 
 
 326. What of the attack on the Tuileries f 
 
 On the 10th of August, 1792, the Tuileries were attacked and 
 the Swiss guard massacred. The king and family were removed 
 to prison. 
 
 327. What was the Massacre of September ? 
 
 The Jacobins insisted on the formation of a " Revolutionary 
 Tribunal " which was appointed amid the protests of the Conven- 
 tion. Hundreds of persons were in prison and an awful massacre 
 was begun September 2, 1792. Many were hacked to pieces with- 
 out even the form of a trial. None of the accused received mercy 
 at the hands of the court. 
 
 328. What was the fate of the king f 
 
 Louis was deposed and the Republic proclaimed September 20 
 (1792). The king was charged with conspiring with the allies 
 and of having knowledge of their movements. He was pronounced 
 guilty and condemned to death. The execution took place Jan- 
 uary 21, 1793. 
 
 329. What party opposed the Jacobins f 
 
 The only really powerful opposition to the Jacobin party were 
 
70 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 the Girondists. They favored milder measures, but were over- 
 whelmed and most of them guillotined. 
 
 ^ 330. What was the "Beign of Terror " f 
 
 It was inaugurated May 31, 1793. Marat was assassinated by 
 a young woman named Charlotte Corday. Danton had a short 
 time before been denounced by the Jacobins and executed. Rob- 
 espierre remained undisputed leader of the Jacobins. He kept 
 the guillotine busy till the executions for months averaged from 
 50 to 80 per day, and 1,285 from June 10th to July 17th, 1794. 
 
 Among the victims was the beautiful Marie Antoinette, queen of Louis 
 XVI- The madman of the Revolution now made a new calendar and 
 changed the names of the months and weeks. The Sabbath was abolished 
 and the worship of Reason substituted for the Christian religion. 
 
 331. What was the fate of Robespierre f 
 
 The horrors of the Eeign of Terror caused a reaction. Robes- 
 pierre himself was arrested and lodged in prison, suffering from 
 a horrible wound. He and his fellows were guillotined July 28, 
 1794, and the Reign of Terror ended. 
 
 332. Sow and when was the French Revolution ended f 
 
 At the death of Robespierre a new constitution went into effect, 
 and the government was intrusted to a Directory of five men. The 
 mob of Paris resisted, but Napoleon Bonapaete, who commanded 
 the artillery, swept the streets with grape shot and quelled the in- 
 surrection. The Revolution was ended ; Napoleon began his won- 
 derful career of almost continuous warfare for twenty years against 
 most of the powers of Europe. The Directory continued from 
 1795 to the end of 1799. 
 
 333. What were the chief events in the Wars of Napoleon f 
 
 1796. Napoleon defeats the Austrians at the bridge of Lodi, May 10, and 
 sat Areola, November 14. 
 
 1797. Beats the Austrians at Rivoli and captures Venice. By treaty of 
 €ampo Pormio, Austria cedes much territory to France. 
 
 1798. Invades Egypt. Destroys the Turkish power at the battle of the 
 Pyramids, July 21. The French fleet destroyed by the English fleet under 
 Admiral Nelson, at the battle of the Nile, August 1. 
 
 1799. The allies defeated in Switzerland. Siege of Acre. Napoleon de- 
 feats the Turks at Mount Tabor and Aboukir. Chosen First Consul, Decem- 
 ber 24. 
 
 1800. Defeats the Austrians at Marengo, Italy, two to three times his own 
 number, June 14. The French Gen. Moreau defeats the Austrians at Hohen- 
 linden, December 3. The Austrians lose 100 pieces of artillery and 14,000 
 onen. 
 
GENERAL HISTORY. 71 
 
 . 1801. Forms a mercantile league with Prussia, Sweden, Russia, and Den- 
 mark against England. English destroy the Danish fleet in the harbor of 
 Copenhagen, April 2. Dissolution of the confederacy. 
 
 1802. Peace with England. Napoleon causes a thorough revision and 
 codification of the French laws. Projects great internal improvements and 
 improves the finances. Declared First Consul for life. 
 
 1804. Napoleon crowned Emperor by the Pope. The Third Coalition, 
 consisting of England, Austria, Russia, Prussia, and Sweden. 
 
 1805. Napoleon defeats the Austriansand Russians at Austerlitz, Decem- 
 ber 2, inflicting a loss of 30,000 men. Austria compelled to give up Tyrol 
 and her Italian possessions. Nelson destroyed the combined French and 
 Spanish fleets off Trafalgar, October 21. 
 
 1806. Prussia crushed at Jena and Auerstadt, October 14. Prussian loss, 
 40,000 men, killed, wounded, and prisoners. Joseph Bonaparte made King 
 of Naples, Louis Bonaparte King of Holland. 
 
 1807. Drawn battle at Eylau, February 8. Russian loss, 25,000 killed and 
 "wounded ; French loss, 30,000 killed and wounded. Russians defeated at 
 the bloody battle of Friedland, June 14. Peace of Tilsit, favorable to 
 Napoleon. New Kingdom of "Westphalia, on the Rhine, with Jerome Bona- 
 parte as king. Milan Decree against English commerce. 
 
 1808. The French lose and gain ground in Spain. Joseph Bonaparte de- 
 clared King of Spain, June 6. 
 
 1809. Battle of Aspern and Esseling ; French defeat. Battle of Wagram, 
 July 5 and 6 ; Austrians defeated. Capture of Vienna. Austria deprived of 
 more territory. 
 
 1810-1811. Continuous war between French and English in Spain. Zenith 
 of Napoleon's power. 
 
 1812. Invasion of Russia by the " Grand Army," numbering 500,000 men. 
 Battle of Borodino ; Russians defeated with loss of 47,000 men, killed, 
 wounded, and prisoners; French loss, 50,000. Burning of Moscow. Hor- 
 rors of the winter retreat. Total loss of the Grand Army, 450,000. 
 
 1813. Napoleon defeats the Prussians and Russians at Lutzen and Baut- 
 zen, May. Is defeated by the allied Austrians, Prussians, and Russians at 
 Leipsic, October 16-19. French loss, 60,000 ; loss of allies, 40,000. 
 
 1814. Occupation of Paris by the allies. Abdication of Napoleon and 
 his retirement to the island of Elba, with the rank of Emperor. 
 
 1815. Napoleon again assumes the government of France — "The 100 
 daj^s." Defeated at Waterloo, June 18. Exiled to St. Helena. Died 1821. 
 
 334. Who were the great philosophers and scientists of the 18th century f 
 
 Swedenborg, Benjamin Franklin, Linnaeus, D'Alembert, William 
 and John Hunter, Adam Smith, Kant, Priestley, Galvani, William 
 Herschel, Lavoisier, Bentham, and Laplace. 
 
 335. Who were the great writers of the 18th century ? 
 
 Jonathan Swift, Addison, Alexander Pope, Richardson, Mon- 
 tesquieu, Voltaire, Buffon, Fielding, Samuel Johnson, David 
 Hume, Rousseau, Sterne, Oliver Goldsmith, Lessing, Edmund 
 Burke, Edward Gibbon, Robert Burns, and Schiller. 
 
 336. Who ivere the great artists of the 18th century ? 
 
 Handel, Sir Joshua Reynolds, Thomas Gainsborough, Haydn, 
 Benjamin West, Mozart, and Canova. 
 
72 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 337. Who were the great inventors, and what the inventions of the 18th 
 century ? 
 
 James Brinley, native of England; founder of canal naviga- 
 tion. 
 
 Hargreaves, born in England, invented the carding machine, 
 and the spinning-jenny (1795). 
 
 Josiah Wedgwood, an Englishman ; inventor of " Queen's 
 ware." 
 
 Sir Richard Arkwright, English, invented the spinning-frame. 
 
 James Watt, English, invented the double-acting condensing 
 steam-engine, and applied it to machinery. 
 
 Jacquard, French, invented the loom for figured weaving. 
 
 Crompton, invented the mule, a machine that greatly facilitated 
 the spinning of yarn. 
 
 Robert Fulton, American, constructed the first large steam- 
 vessel, which made its trial trip on the Hudson in the year 1807. 
 
 338. What were some of the minoi" inventions and industries of the 
 18th century f 
 
 Piano-forte : invented by an organist of Dresden in 1717. 
 
 Chaoutchoiic, or India-rubber: was taken to Europe from 
 South America in 1730. 
 
 Stereotyping: by William Ged of Edinburgh 
 
 Chronometer: by John Harrison (1736-1742). 
 
 Umbrellas : in 1778 Joseph Hanway introduced one into Eng- 
 land, probably from Spain. 
 
 Vaccination : by Jenner, 1796. 
 
 Hydraulic Press: invented by Bramah, an Englishman, in 
 1786. 
 
 Gas-lights: used in some factories in England (1792-1798). 
 Gas was not used for street-lighting until the beginning of the 19th 
 century. 
 
 Cotton-gin : by Eli Whitney, an American, in 1793. 
 
 Lithography: invented in Germany (1796). 
 
 339. Mahe brief mention of French histoid from the exile of Napoleon 
 to the Franco- Pru^ian war. 
 
 After the exile of Napoleon the Bourbons were restored to the 
 throne of France. The Bourbons continued to rule until a revo- 
 lution drove them from the throne, 1830. The cause was a re- 
 
GENERAL HISTORY. 73 
 
 newal of the old Bourbon absolutism. Louis Phillippe was elected 
 king. He reigned until another revolution took place, in 1848^ 
 when a republic was established for a time. Louis Napoleon, a 
 nephew of the great Napoleon, illegally seized the government, 
 and was declared Emperor, with the title Napoleon III., Decem- 
 ber 2, 1852. He reigned until 1870, until a republic was pro- 
 claimed at the close of the Franco-Prussian war. 
 
 340. Mention the important events of the first quarter of the 19th cen- 
 tury. 
 
 A war began between England and the United States in 1812 
 and lasted till 1815. The results were favorable to the United 
 States.* The South American Republics, the Empire of Brazil, 
 the Central American States, and Mexico became independent, 
 between the years 1810 and 1821. Greece, with the aid of 
 European powers, established her independence, 1821. 
 
 341. What reforms were brought about in Great Britain f 
 
 The old manner of electing members of Parliament had grown 
 obsolete and afforded many opportunities for corruption. Bor- 
 oughs existed which had scarcely a dozen voters. These sittings. 
 were of course held by wealthy men and were often corruptly 
 bought. The Reform Bill of 1832 abolished all these "rotten bor- 
 oughs," and greatly increased the number of voters by allowing 
 all who owned a certain amount of property or who paid a cer- 
 tain rent to vote. The corn laws, levying a duty on grain and 
 cattle, were repealed in 1846. Another reform bill in 1867 still 
 further extended the franchise. In 1869 the Irish Church was 
 disestablished, i. e., declared to be no longer the State Church of Ire- 
 land as it still is in England. 
 
 342. Wha^ rebellion in India in 1857 ? 
 
 A Sepoy rebellion broke out in India in 1857, led by Nana 
 Sahib. The Sepoys were native soldiers in the British service. 
 They rebelled because they supposed their cartridges were greased 
 with lard, an abomination to them. The rebellion spread among 
 the natives and was only suppressed after awful atrocities l»ad 
 
 * Since United States History is usually studied in grades below the High- 
 School, it is not taken up in this work. 
 
74 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 been committed. The chief events were the massacre of Cawnpore 
 and the siege of Lucknow. 
 
 343. W hat troubles existed in Hungary in I84S f 
 
 Internal troubles in Hungary in 1848 finally led to civil war. 
 Austria and Russia interfered and the Hungarians were over- 
 whelmed. The patriot leaders, Kossuth and others, went to the 
 United States in exile. 
 
 344. What ivas the Crimean War f 
 
 The Crimean War took place in 1854-55, because the Czar 
 Nicholas seized some Turkish territory. France, England, and Sar- 
 dinia aided Turkey, lest Russia should destroy the balance of 
 power in Europe by the acquisition of too much territory. The 
 principal events were the battles of Alma and Inkerman and the 
 siege of Sebastopol. Russia was forced to abandon her designs. 
 
 345. W hat was the Unification of Italy ? 
 
 France, aided by Sardinia, took a large portion of the Austrian 
 territory in Italy, after a short, sharp war, the principal battles 
 of which were Magenta, June 4, 1859, and Solferino, June 24. 
 Part of Lombardy was ceded to the King of Sardinia, who in turn 
 ceded Nice to France. Garibaldi in 1860 inaugurated a revolu- 
 tion which finally drove out the King of Naples and Sicily, which 
 territories were annexed to Sardinia. This last State now became 
 the Kingdom of Italy. The unification was completed in 1870, 
 when the Papal territories were added to Italy. 
 
 346. What was the Unification of Germany ? 
 
 A quarrel took place in 1866 between Prussia and Austria over 
 the disposition of Schleswig-Holstein which they had just taken 
 from Denmark. In the great battle of Sadowa the Austrians 
 were totally defeated, with terrible loss. The North German Con- 
 federation was then formed, with Prussia as the leading State, in- 
 stead of Austria. 
 
 347. What was the Franco-Prussian War? 
 
 France and Prussia had long been jealous of each other. Leo- 
 pold, of Hohenzollern, a relative of the King of Prussia (1870), 
 became a candidate for the Spanish throne. France objected and 
 
GENERAL HISTORY. 75 
 
 both sides began operations at once, — July, 1870. This terrific 
 contest was soon over. The French were beaten everywhere, and 
 finally Napoleon surrendered to King William, at Sedan, Septem- 
 ber 2. Paris endured the horrors of a prolonged siege, but was 
 forced to surrender, January 28, 1871. A French Bepublic was 
 established ; France had to cede Alsace and part of Lorraine, 
 which had been taken from Germany by Louis XIV., and pay an 
 indemnity of 5,000,000,000 francs. 
 
 348. What was the war between Biissia and Turkey {1878) f 
 
 It ended in the defeat of the Turks, after a bloody struggle. At 
 Plevna the Turks won a decided victory. Roumania and Servia 
 became independent and Bulgaria semi-independent. 
 
 349. What of the late agitation in Ireland f 
 
 The Irish Land League kept up a continued agitation in Ireland 
 for the reduction of rents and a redress of Irish grievances. These 
 grievances were so real and pressing that Parliament finally 
 passed the Irish Land Bill late in the year 1881. 
 
 350. What have been the late ivarlike troubles of Great Britain? 
 
 A war with the Dutch Boers in South Africa was ended in 1881 
 by England's granting most of the concessions asked by the Boers. 
 In 1879 a war had been waged against the Zulus of South Africa; 
 it ended in their submission. 
 
 351. Mention the great philosophers and scientists of the 19th century. 
 
 Alexander von Humboldt, a German naturalist ; chief work, his Kosmos. 
 CuTier, a Swiss ; principal works, The Aniraal Kingdom and Discourses on 
 the Revolutions of the Surface of the Globe. 
 Hegel, a German philosopher. 
 
 Sir Humphrey Dayy, a celebrated chemist and natural philosopher ; in- 
 vented the safety-lamp for miners. 
 
 Arago, a distinguished French savant. 
 
 Sir William Hamilton, a Scotch metaphysician and logician. 
 
 Faraday, an eminent physical philosopher. 
 
 Comte, a famous French philosopher, and author of the Positive Phi- 
 losophy. 
 
 Liebig, a great German chemist. 
 
 John Stuart Mill, an eminent English philosopher, author of Political 
 
 Economy, Logic, etc. 
 
 Sir David Brewster, a distinguished Scottish scientist ; edited the Edin- 
 burgh Encyclopedia ; wrote Letters on Natural Magic and a Life of Neivton. 
 
 Leverrier, a great French astronomer ; discovered the planet Neptune. 
 
76 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 John Tyndall, 'a natural philosopher ; author of Heat Considered as a 
 Mode of Motion, Glaciers of the Alps, etc. 
 
 Lonis J. K. Agassiz, an eminent naturalist ; leading works, Poissons Fos- 
 siles, Contributions to the Natural History of the United States, and Methods of 
 Study in Natural History. 
 
 352. Mention the great writers of the 19th centw^. 
 
 Goethe, one of the most glorious names of Germany ; chief works, Wertlier, 
 
 Wilhelm Meister, and Faust. 
 
 Ricliter, a German author and humorist ; principal works, Titan, Hes- 
 perus, and Levana on Education. 
 
 William Wordsworth, an English poet; chief works, The Excursion and 
 The Wiite Doe of Rylstone. 
 
 Sir Walter Scott, poet and novelist ; chief poems, Lady of the Lake and 
 
 Lay of the Last Minstrel. 
 
 Samuel Taylor Coleridge, an English poet ; chief works, The Ancient Mari- 
 ner and Christabel. 
 
 Thomas Campbell, a Scottish poet ; chief works, Pleasures of Hope, The 
 Battle of the Baltic, and Ye Mariners of England. 
 
 Beranger, a noted lyric poet of France ; he is called the Burns of France. 
 
 Jacob and William Grimm, brothers; greatest works, Teutonic Grammar 
 and German Dictionary, also Household Tales. 
 
 Francois Pierre Gnillanme Guizot, a French statesman and historian, 
 author of a " History of Civilization in Europe," etc. 
 
 Byron, an English poet ; chief work, Childe Harold's Pilgrimage. 
 
 Thomas Carlyle, one of the greatest of modern English writers ; greatest 
 works, the French Revolution, Life of Frederick the Great, Life of Cromwell, 
 Sartor Resartus, etc. 
 
 Prescott, an eminent American historian; chief works, Ferdinand and 
 Isabella, Conquest of Mexico, etc. 
 
 Thiers, a French historian and statesman, author of The French Revolu- 
 tion and The Consulate and the Empire. 
 
 Pushkin, the greatest of Russian poets. 
 
 Macanlay, the finest historian of the day ; chief work. History of England, 
 
 Tictor Hugo, a French poet, dramatist, novelist, and politician; hest 
 known novels, Notre Dame, Les Miserables, and Ninety-three. 
 
 Ralph Waldo Emerson, the "Sage of Concord,"— the most subtle and 
 original thinker of America ; leading works, Essays, Representative Men, etc. 
 
 Hawthorne, an American novelist, author of The Scarlet Letter, Twice- Told 
 Tales, etc. 
 
 Alfred Tennyson, Poet Laureate of England; leading works. The Princess ^ 
 In Memoriam, Idyls of the King, etc. 
 
 Thackeray, the profoundest of English novelists ; leading works, Vanity 
 Fair, Pendennis, The Neweomes, etc. 
 
 Charles Dickens, the most popular of English novelists,— the Shakespeare 
 of the 19th century. 
 
 353. Mention some of the great artists of the 19th century. 
 
 Thorwaldsen, a Danish sculptor. 
 
 Beethoven, a great German musician ; chief works. The Mount of Olives 
 and Fidelio. 
 
 Weber, a distinguished musician of the German school; greatest work, 
 Der Freisehiitz. 
 
 Turner, one of the best landscape painters of the English school. 
 
 Horace Vernet, one of the greatest of modern French painters. 
 
GENERAI. HISTORY. 77 
 
 Bossini, a great Italian musical composer ; most celebrated operas, Wil- 
 liam Tell and The Barber of Seville. 
 
 Meyerbeer, a renowned German musical composer; greatest operas, 
 Robert le Biable, The Huguenots, The Prophet, and L' Afrieaine. 
 
 Donizetti, a composer of Italian operas; best known works, Lucrezia 
 Borgia and Lucia di Lammermoor. 
 
 Sir Edwin Landseer, famous for his paintings of animals. 
 Wilhelm Eaulbacli, the most illustrious modern German painter, his mas- 
 terpieces being the Battle of the Huns and the Destruction of Jerusalem. 
 
 Mendelssohn, born at Hamburg ; chief works, his music for the Midsum- 
 mer Night's Dream, and his sublime oratorios St. Paul and Elijah. 
 
 Verdi, an Italian composer ; best known operas, II Trovatore and La Tra- 
 viata. 
 
 Gustave Dore, a French artist ; well known for his illustrations of the 
 works of Dante, and of Don Quixote, and the Wandering Jew. 
 
 354. Mention some of the great inventors of the 19th century. 
 
 Sir Isambard Brunei, a distinguished engineer; greatest work, the 
 Thames Tunnel. 
 
 George Stephenson, the great railway engineer ; inventor of the Locomo- 
 tive Engine. His son Eobert is distinguished as the engineer of the Tubular 
 Bridge over the Menai Strait. 
 
 Daguerre, inventor of the Daguerreotype. 
 
 Prof. S. F. B. Morse ; his world-wide fame is based on his invention of 
 the Electric Telegraph. 
 
 Elias Howe, inventor of the Sewing Machine. 
 
 Ross Winans, inventor of the Railroad Passenger Car. 
 
 Charles Goodyear, inventor of Vulcanized Rubber, 
 
 Cyrus H. McCormick, inventor of the Harvesting Machine. 
 
 Prof. Graham Bell, inventor of the Telephone. 
 
 Thomas A. Edison, inventor of the Electric Light. 
 
SECTION II. 
 
 ENGLISH LITERATURE. 
 
 1. What is English Literature f 
 
 Literature is thought expressed in writing. English literature 
 is the literature of the English language wherever produced ; but 
 it is sometimes divided, for convenience, into English literature 
 proper — the literature produced in England, and American litera- 
 ture — the literature produced in America. 
 
 2. What are the two forms of literature f 
 Literature exists in two forms, — poetry and prose. 
 
 3. What is Poetry f 
 
 Poetry is imaginative composition in metrical form. It is of 
 eight kinds, — Epic, Dramatic, Narrative and Descriptive, Lyric, 
 Didactic, Pastoral, Elegiac, and Humorous. 
 
 4. Define the eight kinds. 
 
 An Epic poem is a long poetic recital of some great event; as 
 Homer's Iliad, Milton's Paradise Lost. 
 
 Dramatic poetry is poetry in the form of dialogue. It is of 
 two kinds, — tragedies and comedies ; as, Hamlet (tragedy), Mer- 
 chant of Venice (comedy). 
 
 A Narrative poem is a tale in verse. A Descriptive poem is 
 one that describes something. Narration and description are 
 generally combined ; as, Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, Scott's Lady 
 of the Lake. 
 
 Lyric poetry is poetry suitable for music. It includes Psalms, 
 Hymns, Songs, Odes, and Sonnets; or, Shelley's Skylark, Words- 
 worth's Ode to Duty, Moore's Last Kose of Summer. 
 
 (78) 
 
ENGLISH LITERATURE. 79 
 
 Didactic poetry is poetry designed cliiefly to instruct ; as Pope's 
 Essay on Man, Wordsworth's Excursion, Bryant's Thanatopsis. 
 
 Pastoral poetry is poetry descriptive of country life ; as, Whit- 
 tier's Snow-Bound, Tennyson's Enoch Arden, Taylor's Lars. 
 
 Elegiac poetry is poetry commemorative of the dead ; as, Gray's 
 Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard, Tennyson's In Memoriam. 
 
 Humorous poetry is poetry of an amusing character; as, Cow- 
 per's John Gilpin, Saxe's Proud Miss McBride. 
 
 5. Define Prose. 
 
 Prose is composition without metre or rhyme. It is of nine 
 kinds, — History, Biography, Novels, Travels, Letters, Reviews, 
 Essays, Treatises, and Discourses. 
 
 6. Define the nine kinds. 
 
 History is a record of past events ; as, Hume's History of Eng- 
 land, Bancroft's History of the United States. 
 
 A Biography is an account of the life of an individual ; as, 
 Irving's Life of Washington. 
 
 A Novel is a fictitious story. Among the best examples are the 
 novels of Scott, Thackeray, and Dickens. 
 
 A Book of Travels is a record of the experiences and observa- 
 tions of a traveler; as, Bayard Taylor's Views Afoot. 
 
 A Letter is a composition addressed to a particular person. 
 Letters are generally included in biography ; as. Life and Letters 
 of Lord Byron. 
 
 A Eeview is a long article founded on some literary work. 
 Among the best reviews are those of Macaulay, Lowell, and 
 Whipple. 
 
 An Essay is a brief and somewhat informal composition on any 
 subject. Among the best essays are those of Lord Bacon, Addi- 
 son, and Lamb. 
 
 A Treatise is a composition setting forth in a systematic man- 
 ner the principles of some science or art; as, Haven's Mental 
 Science, Brook's Geometry. 
 
 A Discourse is a composition intended to be read aloud or 
 spoken by the writer. Discourses are of five kinds, — Orations, 
 Addresses, Sermons, Lectures, and Speeches. 
 
80 HIGH SCHOOL, QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 7. When ivas the origin of English literature f 
 
 English literature may be said to have begun with Chaucer, 
 about the middle of the fourteenth century. 
 
 There were works tliat were written earlier than that, but they are in a 
 language so diflferent from modern English that they can not he read without 
 a glossary. 
 
 8. What are the nine periods of English Literature ? , 
 
 Period I. The Age of Chaucer, 1350-1400. 
 
 Period II. The Age of Caxton, 1400-1550. - 
 
 Period III. The Elizabethan Age, 1550-1625. 
 
 Period IV. The Age of Milton, 1625-1660. 
 
 Period V. The Age of the Kestoration, 1660-1700. 
 
 Period VI. The Age of Queen Anne, 1700-1750. 
 
 Period VII. The Age of Johnson, 1750-1800. 
 
 Period VIII. The Age of Scott, 1800-1830. 
 
 Period IX. The Victorian Age, 1830-1886. . 
 
 9. What may he said of the Age of Chaucer {1350-1400) f 
 
 This age is memorable in history on account of the military 
 glories of Edward III. and his heroic son, the Black Prince ; by 
 which the Saxon and Norman elements of the people were united, 
 a national sentiment established, and the supremacy of England 
 secured. 
 
 It was also a period of religious agitation, of awakening thought, and of 
 vigorous protest against the vices and tyranny of the higher orders of the 
 clergy. At this time were sown by Wipkliff and others the seeds that pro- 
 duced, more than a century later, the' English Reformation under Henry 
 VIII. 
 
 The chief literary representative of this age is our first great poet Geof- 
 frey Chaucer (1328-1400). The contemporary authors are JohnWicklifp 
 (1324-1384), a learned preacher known as " The" Morning Star of the Reforma- 
 tion," author of the first English translation of the Bible. William Lang- 
 LAKD (1332-1400), author of a powerful allegorical poem entitled Piers Plow- 
 man. John Gower (1320-1408), author of a poem entitled Confessio Amantis. 
 Sir John Mandeville (1300-1372), author of a book of travels. 
 
 10. What was the character of the Age of Caxton {1400-1550). 
 This was the age of turmoil, and it gave rise to no great authors. 
 
 It is celebrated in history on account of four great events : 
 (1) The invention of printing, and its introduction into England by 
 Caxton ; 
 
 i2) The discovery of America ; 
 8) The Wars of the Roses ; 
 4) The Protestant Reformation in England under Henry VIII. 
 
ENGLISH LITERATURE. 81 
 
 11. Name the authors of this age. 
 
 William Caxton (1412-1492), the first English printer. The 
 first book printed in England was The Game and Play of Chess. 
 
 John Skelton (1460-1529). A satirical poet, first " Poet Lau- 
 reate," tutor to the Duke of York, afterwards Henry VIII. 
 
 Sir Thomas Wyatt (1503-1542). A statesman and lyric poet 
 of the reign of Henry YIII. 
 
 Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey (1516-1547). A writer of son- 
 nets and songs, and first writer of blank verse. 
 
 Sir Thomas Moore (1480-1535). Chancellor to Henry YIII., 
 and author of Utopia, a prose romance. 
 
 Tyndale (1480-1536) an^ Coverdale (1487-1568), transla- 
 tors of the Bible. 
 
 12. Describe the Third Period, or Elizabethan Age [1550-1625). 
 
 This is the most glorious era of English literature. No other 
 age presents such a splendid array of great names, such original- 
 ity, such creative energy ; and no other has added so many grand 
 ideas to the mental treasures of the race. 
 
 Within a period of eleven years (1553-1564) she produced three writers- 
 Spenser, Shakespeare, and Bacon — either of whom would have made any 
 age illustrious ; besides many others, who, had they lived in any other 
 period, would have stood in the first rank of authors. 
 
 13. What were some of the glories of this age f 
 
 Among the chief glories of the age were the rise and marvel- 
 ous development of the English drama, and the translation of 
 the Bible (our present version) under King James, in 1611. 
 
 14. Name the chief works of Spenser. 
 
 The Faerie Queen, a long allegory, setting forth the excellence 
 of holiness, temperance, chastity, justice, courtesy, and friend- 
 ship, under the guise of knights. Among the best of his other 
 poems are his Epithalamion, or marriage song; Hymns of Love, 
 Beauty, Heavenly Love, and Heavenly Beauty, and his exquisite 
 Sonnets. 
 
 15. Name the greatest works of Shakespeare. 
 
 His greatest works are his dramas, thirty-seven in number. 
 6 
 
82 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 Among the best of his tragedies are Hamlet, Macbeth, Othello, 
 and King Lear; among the best comedies, The Merchant of Venice, 
 As You Like It, and Midsummer Night's Dream ; among the best 
 historical plays, Julius Csesar, King Henry IV., King Henry V., 
 and King Richard HI. 
 
 16. Name some works of Bacon. 
 
 His most profound work is Novum Organum (The New Organ), 
 but his most popular one is his Essays. 
 
 17c Mention other non-dramatic poets of the Elizabethan Age. 
 
 Thomas Sackville (1536-1608), Earl of Dorset, author of 
 Mirror for Magistrates. 
 
 Samuel Daniel (1562-1619), known as " well-languaged Dan- 
 iel," author of Mrs. Cophilus, and History of the Wars of the 
 Boses. 
 
 Michael Drayton (1563-1631), author of Polyolbion and many 
 other poems. 
 
 George Herbert (1593-1632), known as " Holy George Her- 
 bert," author of The Temple, and' The Country Parson. 
 
 18. Mention other dramatic poets of the Elizabethan Age. 
 
 Christopher Marlowe (1564-1593), the greatest dramatist 
 before Shakespeare, author of Tamburiane and Faustus. 
 
 Ben Johnson (1574-1637), second to Shakespeare only, author 
 of Every Man in his Humor, Volpone, or the Fox, Sejanius, etc. 
 
 Beaumont and Fletcher, very popular in their day, wrote 
 Two Noble Kinsmen, Eule a Wife and Have a Wife, Faithful 
 Shepherdess, and many other works. 
 
 Philip Massinger (1584-1640), author of Duke of Milan, Fatal 
 Dowry, New Way to Pay Old Debts, etc. 
 
 Webster, Ford, Chapman, Shirley, and several others, were 
 also distinguished dramatists of the second class. 
 
 19. Mention other prose writers of the Elizabethan Age. 
 
 Sir Philip Sidney (1554-1586), one of the most chivalrous 
 gentlemen and accomplished writers of this age, author or Arca- 
 dia, a prose romance; Defense of Poesy, and some beautiful 
 Sonnets. 
 
 Sir Walter Ealeigh (1552-1618), courtier, soldier, adven- 
 
ENGLISH LITERATURE. * 83 
 
 tnrer, and writer, author of History of the "World (written in 
 prison), and several poems of much merit. 
 
 Roger Ascham (1515-1569), tutor of Princess (afterward Queen) 
 Elizabeth, and author of Toxophilus (archery), and The School- 
 master. 
 
 Richard Hooker (1583-1600), a learned and eloquent divine^ 
 author of Ecclesiastical Polity. 
 
 20. Describe the Fourth Period, the Age of MiUan {1625-1660). 
 
 This was an age of fierce political and religious controversy. It 
 was not favorable to authorship, hence but few works were pro- 
 duced, and these were mostly of a religious and controversiaL 
 character. 
 
 21. Who were the most celebrated authoi'S of this agef 
 
 John Milton (1608-1674), principal works: Paradise Lost, 
 Paradise Regained, Samson Agonists, Comus, L' Allegro, II Pen- 
 seroso. Hymn to the Nativity. His best prose work is Areopag- 
 itica, a Plea for Unlicensed Printing. 
 
 John Bunyan (1628-1688), author of the greatest allegory in. 
 the world. Pilgrim's Progress. 
 
 22. Mention other poets of the Age of Milton. 
 
 Edmund Waller (1605-1687), author of Panegyric to My Lord 
 Protector, and many short poems. 
 
 Abraham Cowley (1618-1667), author of The Mistress, Pin- 
 daric Odes, Davideis, etc ; also of some excel^viat -Essays. 
 
 George Wither (1588-1667), author of Shepherd's Hunting,, 
 Hymns and Songs of the Church, Abuses Stript and Whipt (a 
 satire), etc. 
 
 Robert Herrick (1591-1662), author of Cherry Ripe, Gather 
 Rosebuds While Ye May, etc. 
 
 Sir John Suckling (1608-1642), author of many charming 
 short poems. 
 
 23. Mention some other prose writers of this age. 
 
 Edward Hyde (1608-1673), author of History of the Rebellion. 
 Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679), author of The Leviathan. 
 Sir Thomas Browne (1605-1682), author of Religio Medici. 
 
84 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 IzAAK Walton (1593-1683), author of The Complete Angler, 
 and Walton's Lives. 
 
 Thomas Fuller (1608-1661), author of Church History, The 
 Holy and the Profane State, etc. 
 
 Jeremy Taylor (1613-1667), the great pulpit orator of the 
 English Church, author of Holy Living, Holy Dying, etc. 
 
 Dr. Kichard Baxter (1615-1691), author of Call to the Un- 
 converted, etc. 
 
 24. Describe the Fifth Period, or the Age of the Restoration {1660- 
 1700). 
 
 Corruption and licentiousness reigned in court and camp, and 
 literature was debased and made to pander to the false tastes and 
 lusts of the ruling class. 
 
 25. Who was the only great genius that flourished in this age f 
 
 John Dryden (1631-1700). He wrote dramas, poems, and 
 
 essays. 
 
 The "best of his dramas is The Indian Emperor. His principal poems are 
 Alexander's Feast, Absalom and Achitophel, The Hind and Panther, and 
 a Translation of Virgil's ^neid. 
 
 26. Mention other authors of this age? 
 
 Samuel Butler (1632-1704), author of Hudibras. 
 
 John Locke (1630-1704), author of Essays Concerning the Hu- 
 man Understanding. 
 
 Sir L (1642-1727), author of the Principia. 
 
 Hon. . ^ ''^^.xLE (1627-1691), one of the founders of the 
 Koyal Society. 
 
 John Evelyn, F. E. S. (1620-1705), author of Sylva, etc. 
 
 27. Describe the Age of Queen Anne {1700-1750). 
 
 It was characterized by a sort of superficial refinement — a re- 
 finement not of morals and character, but of manners and lan- 
 guage, 
 
 28. Name the two chief authors of this Age. 
 
 Alexander Pope (1688-1744), whose principal works are the 
 Essay on Criticism, Essay on Man, Eape of the Lock, The Dun- 
 ciad, and a Translation of Homer. 
 
ENGLISH LITERATURE. 85 
 
 Joseph Addison (1672-1719), whose principal works are the 
 Tragedy of Cato, contributions to the Tatler, the Spectator, and the 
 Guardian. 
 
 29. Name some other authoi^s of this age. 
 
 Dr. Edward Young (1684-1765), author of Night Thoughts. 
 
 James Thomson (1700-1748), author of The Seasons, and The 
 Castle of Indolence. 
 
 Matthew Prior (1694-1721), author of Solomon, Alma, and 
 many fine lyrics. 
 
 Jonathan Swift (1667-1745), author of Gulliver's Travels, 
 The Tale of a Tub, etc. 
 
 Daniel Defoe (1661-1731), author of Eobinson Crusoe. 
 
 Jonathan Edwards, the great American metaphysician. 
 
 30. Describe the Age of Johnsm (1750-1800). 
 
 During this age there was a higher 'moral tone, with a greater 
 sincerity of manner. The authors may be divided into two 
 classes: (1) The poets, represented by Goldsmith, Gray, Burns, 
 and Cowper ; (2) The prose writers, represented by Johnson and 
 Burke. 
 
 31. Mention the works of Goldsmith {1728-1774). 
 
 His works may be divided into (1) Poetical, (2) Historical, and 
 (3) Miscellaneous. His principal poems are The Traveller and 
 The Deserted Village. Among the historical works a^ .History 
 of England, History of Eome, History of Gree ^ ^^istory of 
 Animated Nature, etc. His miscellaneous works embrace The 
 Vicar of Wakefield, She Stoops to Conquer, Letters from a Citi- 
 zen of the World, etc. 
 
 32. Name the works of Thomas Gray {1761-1771). 
 
 His most celebrated poem is his Elegy Written in a Country 
 Churchyard. The best of his other poems are Ode to Eton College, 
 Ode to Adversity, The Bard, and Progress of Poesy. 
 
 33. What are some of the poems of Robert Burns {1759-1796) ? 
 
 The words of Burns find a ready response in the universal heart, 
 and his Highland Mary, Bonny Doon, Auld Lang Syne, have be- 
 come household words wherever the English language is spoken. 
 
86 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 Among the best of his poems, in addition to his songs, are The 
 Cotter's Saturday Night, Tarn O'Shanter, Twa Dogs, To a Mouse, 
 To a Mountain Daisy, and Man was Made to Mourn. 
 
 34. What may be said of Cawper {1731-1800) and his writings? 
 
 Cowper is distinguished for his poems and his letters. Among 
 the best of the former are, Lines on My Mother's Picture, The 
 Task, his Hymns, and the humorous ballad of John Gilpin. His 
 letters are among the finest specimens of epistolary style in the 
 language. 
 
 35. Mention other poets of this age. 
 
 James Beattie (1736-1803), author of The Minstrel. 
 
 Thomas Chatterton (1752-1770), the boy poet, who deceived 
 nearly all the scholars of his age by his imitations of Old Eng- 
 lish Poetry. 
 
 36. Mention the writings of Johnson {1709-1784). 
 
 His principal poems are London, The Valley of Human Wishes, 
 and Irene. His chief prose works are his contributions to the 
 Bambler, Easselas, Lives of the Poets, and an English Dictionary. 
 
 37. Name the works of Burke {1730-1797). 
 
 His most celebrated works are — An Essay on the Sublime and 
 Beautiful, Reflections on the French Eevolution, Letters to a No- 
 ble Lord, and his great Speech on the Impeachment of "Warren 
 Hastings. 
 
 38. Mention some other prose writers of this age. 
 
 David Hume (1711-1776), author of History of England. 
 Edward Gibbon (1737-1794), author of Decline and Fall of 
 the Roman Empire. 
 
 Tobias George Smollett (1721-1771), author of Roderick Random, Pere- 
 :grine Pickle, and Humphrey Clinker. 
 
 Lawrence Sterne (1713-1768), author of Tristram Shandy and Senti- 
 mental Journey. 
 
 Hannah More (1745-1833), author of The Inflexible Captive, The Shep- 
 Iherd of Salisbury Plain, Coelebs in Search of a Wife. 
 
 Junius, supposed to be Sir Philip Francis (1740-1818), author of the 
 celebrated Letters of Junius. 
 
 Richard Brinsley Sheridan (1751-1816), author of School for Scandal. 
 
 Horace Walpole (1717-1797), author of Castle of Otranto. 
 
 William Paley, D. D. (1743-1805), author of Natural Theology, etc. 
 
ENGLISH LITERATURE. 87 
 
 John and Chaeles'Wesley, founders of Methodism, eminent as scholars, 
 preachers, and hymnists. 
 
 George Whitefield (1714-1770), one of the most eloquent pulpit orators 
 that ever lived. 
 
 Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, Alexander Hamilton, and other 
 American writers of the Period of the Kevolution. 
 
 39. Describe the Age of Scott {1800-1830). 
 
 The Age of Scott is sometimes called the Age of Eomantic 
 Poetry. The reaction from the correct and artificial school of 
 poetry, which had begun nearly a century earlier by Thomson, 
 and carried on by Burns and Cowper, was now complete, and 
 reached its culmination in the metrical romances of Scott and the 
 impassioned outbursts of Byron and Shelley. 
 
 40. Mention the Poets of the Age of Scott. 
 
 Lord Byron (1788-1824), the most splendid genius of the age. 
 His finest poem is Childe Harold ; his longest and most brilliant 
 poem is Don Juan. Among the best of his other works are — The 
 Dream, The Prisoner of Chillon, Mazeppa, The Bride of Abydos, 
 Parisina, The Giaour, and the Siege of Corinth. 
 
 Percy B. Shelley (1792-1822) as a lyric poet is unexcelled ; 
 author of The Skylark, The Sensitive Plant, and The Cloud. 
 
 Thomas More (1779-1852), whose principal poetical works are 
 Lalla Rookh, The Last Eose of Summer, Those Evening Bells, 
 Come Ye Disconsolate, etc. 
 
 John Keats (1796-1820) ; principal poems, Endymion, Hy- 
 perion, The Eve of St. Agnes, Ode on a Grecian Urn, and Ode to 
 a Nightingale. 
 
 Thomas Campbell (1777-1844) ; principal poems, Pleasures 
 of Hope, Gertrude of "Wyoming, Lochiel's Warning, O'Connor's 
 Child, and Hohenlinden. 
 
 William Wordsworth (1770-1850) ; principal work is The 
 Excursion ; but most readers prefer his shorter pooms, such as 
 Ode on Immortality, Ode to Duty, We are Seven, etc. 
 
 Some other poets of this age are : 
 
 Mrs. Felicia Hemans (1794-1835), author of Vespers of Palermo, Graves 
 of the Household, Casahianca, Landing of the Pilgrims, etc. 
 
 Kobert Pollok (1799-1827), author of The Course of Time. 
 
 Thomas Hood (1798-1845), wit and humorist, also author of The Death 
 Bed, The Bridge of Sighs, Song of the Shirt. 
 
 James Sheridan Knowles (1784-1862), author of Virginius, The Wife, The 
 Hunchback, William Tell, etc. 
 
 American contemporaries : Robert Treat Paine, Joseph Rodman Drake, 
 and Fitz-Greene Halleck. 
 
88 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 41. Mention the prominent prose vjviters of the Age of Scott. 
 
 Sir Walter Scott (1771-1832), whose works are of three classes: 
 Poems, Novels, and Miscellaneous. His principal poems are The 
 Lady of the Lake, The Lay of the Last Minstrel, and Marmion. 
 His novels, known as the Waverley Novels, twenty-nine in number, 
 are among the greatest creations of human genius. Among the best 
 of them are — Waverley, Guy Mannering, Old Mortality, Heart of 
 Mid-Lothian, Legend of Montrose, Ivanhoe, and Kenilworth. 
 The most celebrated of his miscellaneous works are Tales of a 
 Grandfather, and Letters on Demonology and Witchcraft. 
 
 Robert Southey (1774-1843), whose best works are his Life of Nelson, 
 Life of Cowper, and Life of Wesley. His best poems are Thalaba and Curse 
 of Kehama. 
 
 Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772-1834), whose prose works are Aids to 
 Reflection, The Friend, Lectures on Shakespeare, Table Talk, etc. His 
 chief poems are Rime of the Ancient Mariner, and Christabel. 
 
 Thomas De Quincy (1785-1859), whose chief works are his Confessions of 
 an English Opium Eater, and his Essays. 
 
 Charles Lamb (1775-1834), who wrote under the name of " Elia." 
 
 42. Describe the Victorian Age {1830-1885). 
 
 More great works have been produced in history, in philosophy, 
 in science, and above all in fiction, than in any other era of the 
 world's history. 
 
 The authors may be divided into two classes : 
 
 (1) The Poets, represented by Tennyson, Mrs. Browning, Robert Brown- 
 ing, Jean Ingelow, Swinburne, and Morris. 
 
 (2) The Prose Writers, represented by Macaulay, Dickens, Thackeray, 
 Lord Lytton, George Eliot, Sir William Hamilton, Darwin, Carlyle, and 
 Ruskin. 
 
 43. Mention the great Poets of the Victorian Age. 
 
 Alfred Tennyson (1810 ), whose finest poems are: The 
 
 May Queen, Locksley Hall, The Princess, In Memoriam, The 
 Talking Oak, Maud, Enoch Arden, and Idyls of the King. 
 
 Mrs. Elizabeth Barrett Browning (1807-1861), author of 
 Lady Geraldine's Courtship, Casa Guidi Windows, Bertha in the 
 Lane, Cowper's Grave, The Cry of the Children, A Child Asleep, etc. 
 
 KoBERT Browning (1812-), whose finest poems are Pippa 
 Passes, A Blot on the Scutcheon, Colombo's Birthday, The King 
 and the Book, How They Brought the Good News from Ghent to 
 Aix, etc. 
 
 Jean Ingelow (1830-), author of Songs of Seven, The Letter 
 
ENGLISH LITERATURE. 89 
 
 L, Songs of the Night Watches, Songs with Preludes, Songs on the 
 Voices of Birds, and High Tide on the Coast of Lincolnshire. 
 
 Algernon Charles Swinburne (1843-); principal poems, 
 Atalanta in Calydon, Chastelard, A Song of Italy, and Both well. 
 
 William Morris (1830-), principal works, The Life and Death 
 of Jason, and The Earthly Paradise. 
 
 Other poets of this age are : Bryan Waller Proctor, Adelaide A. Proctor, 
 Coventry Patmore, Gerald Massey, Charles Mackay, " Owen Meredith" (now 
 Lord Lytton), Robert Buchanan, Sydney Dobell. 
 
 44. Mention the prose writers of the Victorian Age. 
 
 Thomas Babington Macaulay (1800-1859) ; principal works 
 are his Lays of Ancient Eome, Essays, and History of England. 
 His ballads are Horatius at the Bridge, The Battle of Ivry, etc. 
 
 Charles Dickens (1812-1870), one of the greatest novelists of 
 all time. Among his best novels are Pickwick Papers, Nicholas 
 Nickleby, David Copperfield, Dombey and Son, Our Mutual 
 Friend, The Old Curiosity Shop, Great Expectations, and Christ- 
 mas Stories. 
 
 William Makepeace Thackeray (1811-1863), author of 
 Vanity Fair, Pendennis, Henry Esmond, The Virginians, and The 
 Newcomes ; also author of two admirable courses of lectures on 
 The Four Georges, and The English Humorists. 
 
 Sir Edward George Bulwer-Lytton (formerly Bulwer) 
 (1805-1873), whose principal works are Pelham, Eugene Aram, 
 The Last Days of Pompeii, Bienzi, The Caxtons, and Kenelm 
 Chillingly^ He is also author of two excellent dramas, Kichelieu 
 and The Lady of Lyons. 
 
 Mrs. Marian C. Lewes (George Eliot) (1820-1884) ; principal 
 works are Adam Bede, The Mill on the Floss, Komola, Felix Holt 
 the Eadical, Silas Marner, Middleraarch, and Daniel Deronda. 
 She is also author of The Spanish Gypsy, and Jubal and other 
 Poems. 
 
 Sir William Hamilton (1788-1856), whose principal works 
 are Essays from the Edinburgh Eeview, his edition of Eeid'& 
 Works, and his Lectures. 
 
 Charles Darwin, F. E. S. (1809-1882); principal works, The 
 Variation of Animals and Plants, The Origin of Species, The De- 
 scent of Man, and Expression in Man and Animals. 
 
■90 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 Thomas Carlyle (1795-1884), one of the most vigorous and 
 original writers of the age. His greatest works are Sartor Eesar- 
 tus, Hero Worship, The French Eevolution, Life of Frederick the 
 Oreat, etc. 
 
 John Ruskin (1819-), the greatest art critic of his time. His 
 most celebrated works are Modern Painters, Seven Lamps of 
 Architecture, and Stones of Venice. 
 
 Some other prose writers of this age are : George Grote, Sir Archibald 
 Alison, James Anthony Froude, Arthur Helps, Miss Agnes Strickland, Rt. 
 Hon. Benjamin Disraeli, Anthony Trollope, Charles Reade, G. P. R. James, 
 Charlotte Bronte, Wilkie Collins, Thomas Hughes, Capt. Mayne Reid, John 
 Stuart Mill, Herbert Spencer, Sir David Brewster, Hugh Miller, Mrs. Mary 
 Somerville, John Tyndall, Thomas H. Huxley, Max Miiller, Rt. Hon. Wil- 
 liam E. Gladstone, Dean Stanley, Rev. C. H. Spurgeon, etc. 
 
 45. When did American Literature begin? 
 
 In 1640, the year in which the first book was printed in this 
 country. 
 
 This was the Bay Psalm Book. Most of the books produced in America 
 before this time may be regarded as English books, as they were not only 
 printed jn England, but were also intended mainly for English circulation. 
 
 46. How is American Literature divided f 
 
 It may be divided into three Periods : 
 I. The Colonial Age, 1640-1760. 
 II. The Eevolutionary Age, 1760-1830. 
 III. The American Age, 1830-1886. 
 
 47. Describe the Colmial Age {1640-1760). 
 
 This age was unfavorable to literary production. It was an 
 age of fighting rather than writing. Most of the literature of this 
 age is theological. This is ow^ing to two causes: (1) That learn- 
 ing was mostly confined to the clergy ; and (2) That the mingling 
 of various sects, in a time of strong religious feeling, naturally 
 provoked much theological discussion. 
 
 Its chief literary representatives are Cotton Mather (1663- 
 1728) and Jonathan Edwards (1703-1758). 
 
 The most celebrated works of Mather are Magnalia Christi 
 Americana, Memorable Providences, Relating to Witchcraft, and 
 The Wonders of the Invisible World. 
 
 The greatest work of Edwards is An Inquiry into the Freedom 
 of the Will. 
 
ENGLISH LITERATURE. 91 
 
 48. Mention some other authors of this age f 
 
 John Eliot, " the apostle to the Indians," who translated the 
 Bible into an Indian dialect. 
 
 Mrs. Ann Bradstreet, the first American poetess, author of 
 The Four Elements. 
 
 Eev. Increase Mather, father of Cotton Mather, and author 
 of Kemarkable Providences. 
 
 49. Describe the Bevolutimary Age {1760-1830). 
 
 In this age was fought, with tongue and pen and sword, the 
 great battle of political independence. During all this period, 
 the chief subjects of thought and discussion were the rights of 
 man and the principles of government. As a consequence, the 
 literature of the age, both in prose and poetry, is almost exclu- 
 sively of a political and patriotic character. 
 
 The authors of this'age may "be divided into two classes : 
 I. The Poets, represented by Drake and Halleck. 
 
 II The Prose Writers, represented by Franklin, Jefferson, Hamilton, 
 Dwight, and , Audubon, 
 
 50. Mention the Poets of the Revolutionary Age. 
 
 Joseph Eodman Drake (1795-1820), author of two celebrated 
 poems. The American Flag, and The Culprit Fay. 
 
 Fitz-Greene Halleck (1795-1867), whose poems are few but 
 of great excellence. His principal poem, Marco Bozzaris, is one 
 of the very finest heroic odes in the English language. 
 
 Other poets of this age are : Philip Freneau, Judge Francis Hopkinson, 
 author of a once celebrated humorous poem, The Battle of the Kggs ; Judge 
 Joseph Hopkinson, author of Hail Columbia ; Robert Treat Paine, author of 
 the poem Adams and Liberty ; Francis Scott Key, author of The Star- 
 Spangled Banner. 
 
 51. Mention some of the pvse writers of the JRemlutionry Age. 
 
 Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790), whose works consist of his 
 Autobiography, his Essays, and his Correspondence. Some of his 
 short pieces, such as The Whistle, The Grindstone, and the Dia- 
 logue with the Gout, have found their way into a large number of 
 school readers ; and his wise sayings known as Poor Kichard's 
 Maxims are as familiar as the Proverbs of Solomon. 
 
 Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826), author of Notes on Virginia, 
 etc.; but his greatest work is the Declaration of Independence. 
 
 Alexander Hamilton (1757-1804), whose fame as a writer 
 
92 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 rests chiefly upon his contributions to the Federalist, in which are 
 expounded the principles of the Constitution. 
 
 Dr. Timothy Dwight (1752-1817), whose principal prose 
 work is Theology Explained and Defended ; best poetic works are 
 Columbia, Greenfield Hill. 
 
 John James Audubon (1780-1851), whose greatest work is The 
 Birds of America. He and his sons subsequently published a 
 work entitled Quadrupeds of America. 
 
 Some other prose writers of this age are : John Adaros, James Madison, 
 Judge H. H. Brackenridge, Dr. David Ramsay, Washington Allston, Willianx 
 Wirt, Alexander Wilson, Judge Kent, Judge Story, Cliief Justice Marshall. 
 
 52. Describe the American Age {1830-1886). 
 
 In this age our literature began to assume a national import- 
 ance and to show signs of a distinct national life. 
 
 53. Mention some of the poets of this age. 
 
 William Cullen Bryant (1794-1878), whose finest poems are: 
 Thanatopsis, Death of the Flowers, Forest Hymn, The Evening 
 Wind, Song of the Stars, The Planting of the Appletree, Waiting 
 at the Gate, The Flood of Years. 
 
 Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (1807 ), whose most pop- 
 ular poems are : Evangeline, Tales of a Wayside Inn, Courtship 
 of Miles Standish, The Building of the Ship, The Old Clock on 
 the Stairs, The Bridge, The Builders, The Day is Done, The 
 Hanging of the Crane, and Morituri Salutamus, etc. 
 
 John Greenleaf Whittier (1808-1882), whose most popular 
 poems are : Maud Muller, Barbara Fritche, My Psalm, My Play- 
 mate, Snow- Bound, Among the Hills, A Tent on the Beach, Mabel 
 Martin, and Centennial Hymn. His principal prose works are 
 Old Portraits and Modern Sketches, and Literary Recreations. 
 
 .Iames Russell Lowell (1819-1867), whose best poems are: 
 The Biglow Papers, The Present Crisis, Sir Launfal, A Glance 
 Behind the Curtain, Under the Willow, Commemorative Ode,^ 
 The First Snowfall, Longing, and The Changeling. His principal 
 prose works are — Among My Books, and My Study Window. 
 
 Oliver Wendell Holmes (1809 ), one of the most witty^ 
 
 original, and brilliant writers of the present day. His lyrics are: 
 Union and Liberty, Old Ironsides, Welcome to all Nations, etc.; 
 
ENGLISH LITERATURE. 93 
 
 his humorous poems, The One-Horse Shay, My Aunt, etc. The 
 best of his prose works is the series of papers contributed to the 
 Atlantic Monthly, under the title of The Autocrat of the Breakfast 
 Table. These were followed by The Professor at the Breakfast 
 Table, Elsie Venner (a novel), The Guardian Angel (a novel), 
 and The Poet at the Breakfast Table. 
 
 Edgae, Allen Poe (1811-1849), author of several weird and 
 powerful romances — among them The Fall of the House of Usher, 
 The Gold Bug, and The Murders of the Rue Morgue — and a num- 
 ber of poems, the most remarkable of which are The Raven, and 
 The Bells. 
 
 John Godfrey Saxe (1816 ), author of The Briefless Bar- 
 rister, The Proud Miss MacBride, and his travesties on Orpheus 
 and Eurydice, Pyramus and Thisbe, etc. 
 
 Thomas Buchanan Read (1822-1872), whose most important 
 poems are — The New Pastoral, The House by the Sea, The Wag- 
 oner of the Alleghenies, Drifting, and Sheridan's Ride. 
 
 Bayard Taylor (1825 ), whose principal poems are: Poems 
 
 of Home and Travel, Poems of the Orient, Picture of St. John, The 
 Poet's Journal, etc. ; also the following novels : Hannah Thur- 
 ston, The Story of Kennett, John Godfrey's Fortunes, etc. 
 
 Miss Alice Gary (1820-1871), whose poems, together with her 
 sister Phoebe's, fill several volumes. Among the best of her sep- 
 arate poems are — Thanksgiving, Pictures of Memory, The Bridal 
 Veil, The Poet to the Painter, etc. Among her prose works are 
 Clovernook, Married not Mated, Hollywood, and Pictures of 
 Country Life. 
 
 Thomas Bailey Aldrich (1836 ), whose poems are Babie 
 
 Bell, The Face Against the Pane, Friar Jerome's Beautiful Book, 
 etc. His principal novels are The Story of a Bad Boy, Margery 
 Daw and Other Stories, etc. 
 
 Edmund Clarence Stedman (1833 ), author of the Door- 
 step, Pan in Wall Street, At Twilight, John Brown of Ossawa- 
 tomie, etc. 
 
 Dr. J. G. Holland (1819-1881) ; principal poems, Bitter-Sweet, 
 Kathrina, and Mistress of the Manse. Some of his best prose 
 works are Gold Foil, Lessons in Life, Plain Talks, Timothy 
 Titcomb's Letters, etc. 
 
94 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 Francis Bret Harte (1837 ), whose best dialect poems 
 
 are The Heathen Chinee, The Society. upon the Stanislaus, In the 
 Tunnel, etc. Of those in pure English are Dickens in Camp, The 
 Mountain Heart's-ease, Concha, etc. Among the best of his prose 
 sketches are The Luck of Roaring Camp, The Idyl of Red Gulch, 
 The Outcasts of Poker Flat, etc. 
 
 CiNCiNNATUS Heine Miller (1841 ), known as Joaquin 
 
 Miller, author of Songs of the Sierras, Songs of Sun-Lands, and 
 The Ship of the Desert, etc. 
 
 54. Mention some of the prose writers of the American Age. 
 
 Washington Irving (1783-1859), whose most interesting works 
 are Knickerbocker, Bracebridge Hall, The Sketch Book, The Al- 
 hambra. The Conquest of Grenada, Life of Washington, etc. 
 
 William H. Prescott (1796-1859) ; principal works, Ferdi- 
 nand and Isabella, Conquest of Mexico, Conquest of Peru, etc. 
 
 George Bancroft (1800- ), whose great work is a history of 
 the United States. 
 
 John Lothrop Motley (1814-1877) ; great works, Rise of the 
 Dutch Republic, History of the United Netherlands, and John of 
 Barnaveldt. 
 
 James Fenimore Cooper (1789-1851), whose most popular 
 novels are The Spy, The Prairie, The Last of the Mohicans, The 
 Pilot. Besides these works he published Naval History of the 
 United States, Lives of American Naval Officers, etc. 
 
 Nathaniel Hawthorne (1804-1864). Of his many worka 
 may be mentioned the following ; Twice-Told Tales, Mosses from 
 an Old Manse, The Scarlet Letter, The House of the Seven Ga- 
 bles, The Blithedale Romance, and The Marble Faun. 
 
 Mrs. Harriet Beecher Stowe (1812- ), whose principal work 
 is Uncle Tom's Cabin. The best of her other works are The Min- 
 ister's Wooing, Oldtown Folks, Oldtown Fireside Stories, and My 
 Wife and I. 
 
 Edward Everett (1794-1865), whose chief works are his ora- 
 tions, which are among the noblest ever written. Among his best 
 efforts are his Address at the Dedication of the Dudley Observa- 
 tory, and the Eulogy of Washington. 
 
 Daniel Webster (1782-1852), whose fame rests upon his era- 
 
ENGLISH LITERATURE. 9& 
 
 tions and speeches. His masterpieces are his Plymouth Eock and 
 Bunker Hill Orations, his Eulogy on Adams and Jefferson, and 
 his great speech in reply to Hayne. 
 
 Louis J, E. Agassiz (1807-1873), most eminent naturalist of 
 modern times ; principal works, Methods of Study in Natural His- 
 tory, Geological Sketches, and A Journey in Brazil (by himself 
 and wife). 
 
 Ealph Waldo Emerson (1803-1884), "the Sage of Concord," 
 whose principal works are Eepresentative Men, English Traits, 
 and several volumes of Essays. 
 
 EiCHARD Grant White (1822- ) ; chief works, Edition of 
 Shakespeare, Life of Shakespeare, and Words and their Uses. 
 
 Henry Ward Beecher (1813- ), author of Star Papers, Eyes 
 and Ears, Norwood, Yale Lectures on Preaching, etc. 
 
SECTION III. 
 NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 1. Define Natural Philosophy. 
 
 Natural Philosophy, or Physics, has for its objects the inves- 
 tigation of the properties of all natural bodies, and of their 
 mutual action on each other. It is the science of causes and 
 principles. 
 
 2. Define matter, body, molecule. 
 
 Matter is whatever occupies space. A body is any single mass, 
 or portion of matter, whether great or small. A molecule is the 
 
 smallest portion of a body which we can conceive of as retaining 
 its identity. An atom is a division of a molecule. 
 
 Natural Philosophy deals only with masses and molecules; Chemistry 
 deals with atoms. 
 
 3. What are the general, or universal, properties of matter f 
 
 The universal properties of matter, or those which are common 
 to all bodies, are weight, impenetrability, mobility, inertia, 
 divisibility, porosity, compressibility, expansibility, and 
 in destructibility. 
 
 4. What are the specific properties of matter f 
 
 The specific properties of matter, or those which serve to dis- 
 tinguish one kind of matter from another, are tenacity, hardness, 
 brittleness, ductility, malleability, flexibilty, and elasticity. 
 
 5. What is meant by magnitude? 
 
 By magnitude is meant the size of the body, or that it occupies 
 a certain amount of space. Matter has three dimensions : length, 
 oreadth, thickness. 
 
 (96) 
 
NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 97 
 
 6. Define weight. 
 
 Weight is the measure of the force which tends to draw all 
 bodies on or near the earth to its center. 
 
 The mere measure of the attraction may be called absolute weight, and 
 when the weight of one body is compared with another it is specific weight. 
 
 7. Meaning of impenetrability ? 
 
 By impenetrability we mean that no two bodies can occupy the 
 same space at the same time. 
 
 8. Meaning of mobility ? 
 
 By mobility we mean the property of being moved, or having 
 the position changed. 
 
 All bodies are in absolute motion, being carried around the axis of the 
 earth and also around the sun, but we may be at rest in relation to other 
 bodies on the earth's surface. 
 
 9. What is inertia f 
 
 Inertia is that property of matter by virtue of which it tends to 
 remain at rest when in a state of rest, or move on when in motion. 
 
 10. What is meant by divisibility f 
 
 By divisibility we mean that matter is capable of being separ- 
 ated into distinct parts. 
 
 Theoretically there is no limit to the division of matter until we reach 
 
 atom, but practically there is a limit long before we reach the molecule. 
 The molecules of a body do not touch each other, but spaces exist between 
 them. These spaces are called pores. 
 
 11. W hat is compressibility f 
 
 Compressibility is that property of matter by virtue of which 
 it may be made to occupy less space. It is a result of porosity. 
 
 12. Meaning of expansibility f 
 
 Expansibility is the opposite of compressibility. The mole- 
 cules are forced farther apart, and the body occupies more space. 
 
 13. Meaning of indestructibility ? 
 
 No particle of matter can be destroyed. The form may be 
 changed, but the same number of atoms exists. 
 
 7 
 
98 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 A substance is consumed, we say, in the fire, but the gases and smoke 
 and ashes will weigh as much as the substance did before. 
 
 14. Meaning of tenacity. 
 
 Tenacity is that property of some bodies by virtue of which 
 they resist a force tending to pull the particles apart. 
 
 15. Meaning of hardness, briitleness ? 
 
 Hardness is the resistance some bodies offer to an attempt to 
 force a passage between their particles, and is measured by the 
 readiness with which one body scratches another. 
 
 Bodies that are easily broken are said to possess the property of 
 brittleness. 
 
 16. Meaning of ductility, malleability ? 
 
 Ductility is that property by virtue of which a body may be 
 drawn out into a wire. 
 
 Malleability is that property by virtue of which a body miiy be 
 hammered or rolled into thin sheets. 
 
 Platinum is one of the most ductile of substances ; gold is the most mal- 
 leable. 
 
 17. Meaning of flexibility, elasticity f 
 
 Flexibility is that property of a body by virtue of which it 
 may be bent or folded upon itself. 
 
 Elasticity is that property by virtue of which a body being 
 compressed returns to its original form and bulk. 
 
 A body which, when bent, returns to its original state, is both flexible 
 and elastic. If it remains bent it is flexible, but not elastic. 
 
 18. What are the states of matter ? 
 
 Matter may be a SOM, a liquid, or a gas. 
 
 The term fluid includes both liquids and gases. There is also claim laid 
 to a fourth state of matter. 
 
 19. W hat is a solid f 
 
 A body is in a solid state when its molecules cohere so that 
 their relative positions can not be changed without the application 
 of considerable force. 
 
NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 99- 
 
 20. What is a liquid f 
 
 A body is in a liquid state ^v^hen its molecules cohere so slightly 
 that their relative positions may be changed on the application 
 of a slight force. 
 
 21. Define the gaseous state. 
 
 A body is in the gaseous state when its molecules tend to sep- 
 arate almost indefinitely from each other. 
 
 The term gas is generally applied to those bodies which are ordinarily in 
 a gaseous state, and the term vapor to that which is formed by heating 
 a liquid or solid. 
 
 22. Define force. 
 
 Force is whatever produces, destroys, or modifies motion. Heat. 
 seems to be the great repeliant force in nature. 
 
 The terms motion and force are sometimes used interchangeably. 
 
 23. Why can we not annihilate force f 
 
 We can change but can not anuiliilate force. When a stone 
 falls to the ground the force of gravity is expended and its motioa 
 apparently stops ; but if we examine closely we will find that it 
 is warmer than before. The molecules which compose it have 
 been set in motion and we have heat, another kind of force. 
 Again, the sun's light and heat are forces which cause plants to 
 grow. Wood and mineral coal are, therefore, transmuted sun- 
 shine. In combustion the solar energy again appears as heat, or 
 may be applied as a moving force for engines. Food is trans- 
 muted by animals into animal heat and muscular energy. 
 
 24. Define terrestrial gravitation. 
 
 Terrestrial gravitation, or grayity, is the tendency of every 
 body to fall toward the center of the earth, due to the mutual 
 attraction of the earth and body. 
 
 25. Meaning of energy of position and energy of motion, respectively f 
 
 A stone elevated above the level of the earth has energy of 
 position, for although it remains passive it possesses the power of 
 performing work, or overcoming resistance if allowed to fall. A 
 stone falling has energy of motion. 
 
J.00 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 The water of a mill pond or lake which is elevated above the surrounding 
 "country has energy of position. If the water flows over a dam its weight 
 and velocity give it power to move machines, and we call it energy of 
 ■.^motion. 
 
 -26. Name the forces lohich act on the molecules of matter. 
 
 They are cohesion, adhesion, heat, light, electricity, mag- 
 netism. 
 
 27. Define cohesion and adhesion. 
 
 The molecules of a solid body are held together by a force we 
 call cohesion. One kind of solid is held to another kind by a 
 force we call adhesion. 
 
 28. What causes motion in a circle f 
 
 A body moving in a circle must be acted upon by two forces, 
 one drawing it to the center, called the centripetal force ; and 
 the other, that by which it tends to move in a straight line from 
 the center, called the centrifugal force. The result of the com- 
 bined forces is to make the ball move in a circle. 
 
 29. What is universal gravitation f 
 
 The attraction between distant bodies, as the earth, sun, moon, 
 and planets, we call universal gravitation. 
 
 30. What is the great law of gravitation f 
 
 Gravitation varies directly as the mass and inyersely as the 
 square of the distance. 
 
 (1) If one body has twice the amount of matter that another body has it 
 will attract a third body with twice the force. If the amount of matter be 
 doubled the force of attraction is doubled, and so on. (2) If one body be 
 twice as far from another at one time as it is at another time, its attraction 
 in the first case will be only one-fourth as great as in the second case. If 
 the distance be three times as great, the attraction will be only one-ninth, 
 and so on. 
 
 31. What is weight? 
 
 Weight is the measure of the force of gravitation. 
 
 A body weighs most at the surface of the earth because it is then attracted 
 fey the entire mass of the earth acting at a short distance. Below the sur- 
 face it weighs less because the entire mass does not act upon it in the same 
 direction. Away from the surface it weighs less because the force decreases 
 according to the law in the preceding answer. 
 
NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 101 
 
 32. Define specific gravity. 
 
 Specific grayity is the ratio between the weight of a body and 
 the weight of an equal volume of another body taken as a stan- 
 dard. 
 
 The standard for solids and liquids is distilled water at a temperature of 
 39.2° F., or 4° C. For gases the standard is air or hydrogen. 
 
 33. How find the specific gravity of solids f 
 
 Weigh the body in air. Then weigh it suspended in water. It 
 will lose in weight as much as the weight of the water it dis- 
 places. It will displace its own bulk of water. Its loss of weight 
 in water then will equal the weight of an equal bulk of water. If 
 the weight in air be divided by the loss of weight in water the 
 quotient will be its specific gravity. 
 
 If the body is lighter than water attach it to a body heavy enough to sink 
 it. Find the loss of weight of the two combined, also for the heavier body. 
 The diflference between the two combined and the loss of the heavy body 
 divided into the given body will equal the specific gravity. 
 
 34. Describe a way to find the specific gravity of liquids. 
 
 The most convenient way is by means of the hydrometer, an 
 instrument which can be constructed so as to represent the princi- 
 ple as follows : Take a long, narit)w test tube and fill with sand 
 until it will just sink to a depth of 100 degrees. If this tube 
 sinks to exactly 100 degrees in distilled water at a temperature of 
 39.2° F., it will, if immersed in other liquids, sink to a greater or 
 less depth, according as they are lighter or heavier than water^ 
 Thus, in alcohol it will sink 125 degrees. 100-i-125=.80, the 
 specific gravity of alcohol. 
 
 35. How find the specific gravity of gases f 
 
 Fill a vessel with the gas and weigh it. Then weigh the same 
 vessel filled with air or hydrogen, whichever is to be taken as the 
 standard. The weights of equal volumes are then known, and the 
 comparison can be made. 
 
 36. What are general laws of falling bodies f 
 
 (1) All bodies fall with equal rapidity, or traverse the same 
 distance in the same time, irrespective of weight or size, provided 
 there be no resistance of air. 
 
102 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 ( 
 
 (2) A body falls 16 feet in the first second, and attains a velocity 
 of 32 feet at the end of the second. The velocity attained at the 
 end of each succeeding second is found by multiplying 16 by the 
 respective even numbers 4, 6, 8, 10, etc., and the distance trav- 
 ersed in each second by the respective odd numberr 3, 5, 7, 9, etc. 
 
 (3) The whole distance traversed in a given number of seconds 
 is found by multiplying 16 feet by the square of the number of 
 seconds. 
 
 The same principles apply, in a reverse order, to bodies thrown upward, 
 
 37. Meaning of the center of gravity ? 
 
 The center of graTity is that point in a body about which all 
 the matter is evenly balanced. 
 
 38. How find the center of gravity f 
 
 Suspend a body from any point. Drop a plumb-line from the 
 point of suspension and mark its direction. Suspend the body 
 from any other point not in line with the first, and mark the 
 plumb-line as before. The center of gravity will lie directly 
 under the point of intersection of these lines. 
 
 39. When is a body in stable equilibrium? Also in unstable equilib- 
 rium f 
 
 When the center of gravity of a body falls within the base of 
 ■support, the body will return to its position when slightly dis- 
 placed, and is said to be in stable equilibrium. 
 
 When a body is supported so that when slightly displaced it 
 ialls further from its position, it is said to be in unstable equilib- 
 rium. In this case the center of gravity is without, or above, 
 the point of support. 
 
 40. When is a body in neutral equilibrium f 
 
 When a body is supported so that when slightly displaced it 
 tends neither to return nor fall further from its position, it is said 
 to be in neutral, or indifferent equilibrium. The center of 
 gravity in this case is neither raised nor lowered. 
 
 41. What is the line of direction f 
 
 A plumb-line let fall from the center of gravity is called the 
 line of direction. 
 
NATUKAL, PHILOSOPHY. 103 
 
 When this line falls within the base, the body stands ; when without the 
 base, the body falls. 
 
 42. W hat is a pendulum f 
 
 A simple pendulum is conceived to be a heavy material parti- 
 cle, suspended by a line without weight, and oscillating about a 
 fixed point. A simple pendulum exists in theory only. 
 
 The compound pendulum consists of a weight suspended so as 
 to swing freely to and fro. 
 
 43. Describe the oscillation of the pendulum. 
 
 When the weight is drawn up so that the bar or string is no 
 
 longer in a vertical position, the force of gravity brings the weight 
 
 to the lowest point and inertia carries it onward until stopped by 
 
 gravity, when it returns and passes beyond the lowest point again 
 
 on the other side, each OScUlation becoming shorter until it is 
 
 finally brought to rest by friction and resistance of the air. 
 
 The path which the weight traverses is called the arc, and the extent to 
 which it travels on either side is called its amplitude. 
 
 44. What are the laws of the pendulum f 
 
 (1) The oscillations, or vibrations, of the same pendulum in the 
 same place on the earth, will be performed in the same time, irre- 
 spective of the length of the arch. 
 
 (2) The weight or material of which the pendulum is com- 
 posed does not affect its vibration. 
 
 (3) The times of vibrations of different pendulums are propor- 
 tional to the square roots of their respective lengths. 
 
 (4) The same pendulum will vibrate in different times at dif- 
 ferent places on the surface of the earth ; slowest at the equator, 
 most rapidly at the poles. 
 
 45. W hat is the center of oscillation f 
 
 The upper part of a pendulum tends to move faster than the 
 lower part. There is a point in its length which tends to move 
 at an average rate, the particle of matter at this point oscillating 
 as if it were suspended by a string without weight, thus fulfilling 
 the conditions of the simple pendulum. This point lies a little 
 below the center of gravity, and is called the center of oscilla- 
 tion. 
 
 The real length of the pendulum, then, is the distance from the point of 
 suspension to the center of oscillation. 
 
104 HIGH SCHOOL, QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 46. Name the uses of the pendulum. 
 
 (1) It regulates our clocks. (2) It is used in ascertaining the 
 dimensions of the earth. (3) To measure the velocity of falling 
 bodies. (4) To prove the revolution of the earth. 
 
 47. Meaning of momentum. 
 
 The product of the mass and velocity of a body is called its 
 nioiuentuiu. It is sometimes called its quantity of motion. For 
 example, a body moving at the rate of 2 feet per second and 
 weighing 4 lbs. will have a momentum of 8, which will be the 
 same as if the body weighed 2 lbs. and was moving at the rate of 
 4 feet per second. 
 
 48. What is the distinction between the striking force of a body and its 
 momentum ? 
 
 The striking force denotes the amount of force necessary to 
 bring the body to a state of rest, if applied for one unit of time. 
 The latter denotes the force required to keep a body in motion 
 with a constant velocity or to overcome resistance through a unit 
 of space. 
 
 49. Illustrate momentum. 
 
 Though a 4 lb. ball with a velocity of 2 ft. per second will have 
 the same momentum as a 2 lb. ball with a velocity of 4 ft. per 
 second, yet the latter will penetrate farther into any body which 
 it may strike. In the case of a rifle, the velocity of the ball mul- 
 tiplied by its weight represents its momentum. 
 
 The force of the powder acts as powerfully against the gun as against the 
 ball, but the gim is not sent backward with the same velocity that the ball 
 is sent forward. Its velocity, however, multiplied by its weight, will equal 
 the velocity of the ball multiplied by its weight. The momentum of the gun 
 is the same as that of the ball, but the striking force of the ball is the 
 greatest. 
 
 50. How find the striking force of a moving body? 
 
 The vis viva, or striking force, equals ^ the square of the 
 velocity, multiplied by the mass. 
 
 51. C hief resistance to motion f 
 Resistance of the air ; Friction; Gravity. 
 
NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 105 
 
 52. Define friction. 
 
 Friction is that resistance which one body meets when made to 
 move on the surface of another. It is of two kinds, sliding and 
 rolling. 
 
 The projections of one body fall into the indentations of another, and 
 thus lock them so that force is necessary to move them. Grease, oils, and 
 other substances by filling up these indentations diminish friction. 
 
 53. What is meant by the parallelogram of forces f 
 
 A 
 
 If a ball at A be met by a 
 force sufficient to carry it to 
 C, the ball will move in the 
 direction of A D, or in the di- 
 agonal of the figure, which is called the parallelogram of forces. 
 
 The line J. D is called the resultant of the two forces represented by the 
 lines A B and C D. 
 
 54. Define circular motion. 
 
 Circular motion is the resultant of centrifugal and centripetal 
 forces. {See question 28.) 
 
 When one body is throiun against another, if one or both bodies are elastic, 
 the projected body will rebound according to the law: tlie angle of inci- 
 dence is eqnal to the angle of reflection. 
 
 55. What is a machine f 
 
 A machine is an instrument by means of which a force, applied 
 to a certain point, is made to exert force at another point, more 
 or less distant. 
 
 The force employed In a machine is called the power. The resistance 
 overcome by a machine, at the point where the power acts, is called the 
 weight or load. 
 
 56. Define a horse-power. 
 
 A liorse-power is the mechanical value of a force capable of 
 raising thirty-three thousand pounds one foot in one minute. Its 
 work is, therefore, equal to thirty-three thousand foot-pounds in 
 a minute. 
 
 Thus, one-horse power can raise one thousand pounds thirty-three feet 
 high in one minute, or five hundred and fifty pounds one foot high in a. 
 second, or one million nine hundred and eighty thousand foot-pound in an 
 hour. 
 
106 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 57. What is the fundamental law in all machinery? 
 
 What is gained in power is lost in time or velocity. Hence, 
 if any machine will enable us to lift a weight of ten pounds by a 
 power of one pound, the power must move ten times the space 
 traversed by the load ; as the spaces are traversed in the same 
 time, the power must move ten times as fast as the load. 
 
 58. What laws are applicable to machine of all kinds f 
 
 (1) The power multiplied by the vertical distance through 
 which it passes equals the load multiplied by the vertical distance 
 through which it passes. 
 
 (2) The power multiplied by its velocity equals the load mul- 
 tiplied by its velocity. 
 
 69. What are the advantages derived from the use of machinery ? 
 
 (1) It enables us to employ our whole force at the same time. 
 
 (2) It enables us to change the direction of our force. 
 
 (3) It enables us to perform work we could not do with our un- 
 assisted strength. 
 
 (4) It enables us to employ other forces than our own, as the 
 strength of animals, the forces of wind, water, and steam. 
 
 (5) It enables us to utilize the products of nature. 
 
 60. Name the six elementary forms of all machines f 
 
 The simple machines are (1) the lever, (2) the wheel and axle, 
 (3) the pulley, (4) the inclined plane, (5) the wedge, (6) the screw. 
 A combination of two or more of these constitutes a compound 
 machine. 
 
 There are really only two elementary forms, the lever and the inclined 
 plane, the others being but modifications of these two. 
 
 61. W hat is the lever ? 
 
 A lever is an inflexible bar capable of turning on a fixed point. 
 The force used is called the power, the object to be moved, the 
 weight, and the fixed point or pivot, the fulcrum. 
 
 62. Name the kinds of levers, 
 
 (1) Lever of the first class: power at one end, weight at the 
 other, fulcrum between them. 
 
NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 107 
 
 (2) Lever of the second class : power at one end, fulcrum at 
 the other, weight between them. 
 
 (3) Lever of the third class : fulcrum at one end, weight at 
 the other, power between them. 
 
 A compound lever consists of several levers connected together in such a 
 way that the short arm of one acts upon the long arm of the next and soon. 
 
 63. Describe the wheel and axle. 
 
 The wheel and axle is a modification of the lever in which the 
 center of the axis is the fulcrum, the distance from the rim of the 
 wheel to the axis or the length of the crank, the long arm, and 
 the distance from the circumference of the axis to its center its 
 short arm. 
 
 64. Describe the pulley. 
 
 The pulley is a modification of the lever, where the distances 
 from the axis to the circumference represent equal arms of the 
 lever. No advantage is gained in a fixed pulley except change 
 of direction. By means of a number of movable pulleys the 
 power distance is increased, the cord having to pass through a 
 greater distance to gain greater power. 
 
 65. What is an inclined 'plane'i 
 
 An inclined plane is a smooth, hard surface inclined so as to 
 make an angle with direction of the force to be overcome. 
 
 "When a weight is placed upon such a plane, a part of the pressure is re- 
 sisted by the plane, while the remainder tends to cause the weight to slide 
 or roll down the plane. 
 
 66. What is the wedge ? 
 
 The wedge is simply a movable inclined plane, its power de- 
 pending upon friction as well as upon its form. 
 
 67. Describe the screw. 
 
 The screw is an inclined plane wound around a cylinder. 
 
 68. Uponivhat does the solid condition of matter depend f 
 
 Upon the cohesion of its molecules. {See answer to Question S7.) 
 Cohesive force acts at insensible distances. The process of welding 
 metals illustrates the principle of cohesion. Oil, water, quick- 
 
108 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 silv^er, etc., collect in drops by virtue of the cohesion of the mole- 
 cules. 
 
 69. Meaning of adhesion f 
 
 Adhesion is the force which binds molecules of one kind to the 
 molecules of another kind. On this principle glue fastens wood 
 together, mucilage fastens paper, mortar cements bricks, solder 
 fastens tinware, dust clings to the wall, paints to objects, liquids 
 to solids, etc. 
 
 70. Name the principal varieties of adhesion. 
 
 Capillarity, diflfusion of liquids, diffusion of gases, osmose. 
 
 71. Define capillarity. 
 
 Capillarity, or capillary attraction, is that form of adhesion by 
 virtue of which liquids tend to rise upon the surface of solids. 
 When the vertical sides of two solids are brought very near together, 
 as in the case of fine tubes, or when two plates of glass are placed 
 together, or as in the fibers of cloth or paper, liquids will rise to 
 a considerable height upon the principle of capillary attraction. 
 
 Blotting paper absorbs ink, the wick of the lamp draws Tip the oil, the 
 earth absorbs water, and many other phenomena are explained on this 
 principle. 
 
 72. Meaning of diffusion of liquids and of gases f 
 
 Liquids of different densities will gradually mix by virtue of 
 the adhesion of their molecules. This is called diffusion of 
 liquids. The same is true of gases. 
 
 73. Meaning of osmose ? 
 
 When liquids or gases of different densities are separated from 
 each other by a thin porous membrane, or by a porous substance 
 like plaster of paris, they will mingle, not uniformly, but vary- 
 ing with the nature of the substances. Thus, if a bladder be filled 
 with alcohol and immersed in a vessel of water, the alcohol will 
 mingle with the water, passing into the bladder. This operation 
 is called osmose. 
 
 74. Of what does Hydrostatics treat f 
 
 Hydrostatics treats of liquids in a state of rest. Liquids trans- 
 mit pressure equally in all directions. 
 
NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 109 
 
 Pressure exerted anywhere upon a mass of liquid is transmitted undi- 
 minished in all directions and acts with the same force upon equal surfaces 
 and in a direction at right angles to those surfaces. A necessary deduction 
 from this law is that surfaces of vessels sustain a pressure proportional to 
 their area. 
 
 75. Upon what principle does an Artesian Well act f 
 
 Upon the principle that liquids press equally in all directions, 
 that water " always seeks its level." 
 
 The water will be thrown nearly as high as the fountain head, being re- 
 tarded somewhat by friction and resistance of the air. 
 
 76. What is the spirit level ? 
 
 If a glass tube be filled with any liquid so that it holds only a 
 bubble of air, and placed in a horizontal position, the bubble will 
 stand at the center of the tube, explained on the principle named 
 in preceding answer. 
 
 As alcohol, which will not freeze, is the fluid generally used, it is called 
 the spirit leyel. 
 
 77. Of what does Hydraulics treat f 
 Hydraulics treats of liquids in motion. 
 
 The velocity of a jet of water is equal to the velocity of a body falling 
 from the same height. 
 
 78. How find the quantity of water discharged in a given timet 
 
 Multiply the velocity by the area of the orifice and that product 
 by the time. 
 
 A stream runs more swiftly in the center and at the surface than near the 
 banks or at the bottom, because the friction of the shores and bottom re- 
 tard it. 
 
 79. Of ivhat does Pneumatics treat ? 
 
 Pneumatics treats of the physical properties of gaseous bodies. 
 
 The principles of transmission of pressure, specific gravity, and buoyancy 
 of liquids, apply also to gases. 
 
 80. Describe the air-pump. 
 
 The air-pump is a machine for removing the air from within 
 a vessel. It consists of a cylinder supplied with a valve opening 
 inward and one outward, and a piston fitting accurately. When 
 the piston is raised the air rushes into the cylinder through the 
 first valve to fill the vacuum ; as the cylinder descends the air 
 
110 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 closes the first valve and opens the second, and is driven out. 
 Every stroke of the piston thus removes a portion of the air. The 
 second or escape valve, may be in the side of the cylinder or in 
 the piston itself. 
 
 81. What are the properties of gases f 
 
 Gases have weight, compressibility, expansibility, and elas- 
 ticity. 
 
 82. What is the pressure of the atmosphere^ 
 
 The pressure of the air is equal to about fifteen pounds to the 
 square inch at the level of the sea, being the weight of a column 
 of mercury one inch in area, and about thirty inches in height^ 
 which will be sustained by a column of air one inch in area. 
 
 The pressure of the atmosphere at sea level will sustain a column of 
 water about thirty-four feet in height. 
 
 83. Describe the action of the common pump. 
 
 The piston, or sucker, being raised the water is forced up the 
 tube by the pressure of the air on the surface of the water in the 
 well, there being no resistance in the tube, for the piston produces 
 a vacuum by lifting the air out. As the piston descends, the valve 
 in it opens upwards and allows the water to pass through above 
 the valve, which, closing as it rises again, the water is lifted out 
 and more is forced into the tube below. 
 
 Owing to the necessary imperfection of the parts, water can not be raised 
 by atmospheric pressure more than about twenty-seven feet. 
 
 84. Describe the barometer. 
 
 The barometer is an instrument for the measurement of at- 
 mospheric pressure. It is useful in ascertaining heights above 
 sea level and for estimating the condition of the weather. It con- 
 sists essentially of a glass tube, with a graduated scale affixed. 
 As the instrument is carried up a height, the mercury falls, being 
 subject to less pressure, and vice versa. 
 
 85. Describe the siphon and its action. 
 
 The siphon consists of a tube bent in the shape of the letter 
 with unequal arms. 
 
 Fill the siphon with water, closing both ends with the fingers. Insert 
 the short arm in a vessel of water with the long arm on the outside with 
 
NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. HI 
 
 its end lower than the end of the short arm. The column of water in the 
 long arm will run out by its own weight aiid the tendency would he to pro- 
 duce a vacuum in the bend of the tube, but the water is forced up by the 
 pressure of air through the short arm, and thus the stream is kept up so 
 long as the outside arm is lower at the orifice than the orifice of the inside 
 arm. The flow may be started by exhausting the air from the long arm by 
 suction, then it will not be necessary to fill the siphon with water. 
 
 86. Define Acoustics. 
 
 Acoustics is the science which treats of the cause, nature, and 
 phenomena of sound. 
 
 87. What is sound. 
 
 Sound is the sensation produced in the brain through the audi- 
 tory nerve from vibrations of matter. 
 
 There can be no sound without an organ of hearing ; but there may be 
 vibrations of matter which would produce sound were there an organ to 
 transmit it and a brain to receive it. 
 
 88. What of the velocity of sound ? 
 
 The Telocity of sound depends upon the nature of the medium 
 through which the vibrations are transmitted. 
 
 Sound travels through air (at the freezing point) at the rate of 1,090 feet 
 per second ; through water at the rate of 4,700 feet per second. 
 
 89. How does sound travel f 
 
 As sound is transmitted to the ear through a medium like air 
 or water, it travels in waves, the molecule swinging back and forth. 
 
 The amplitude, or distance the molecules move back and forth, deter- 
 mines the intensity of the sound. The intensity of sound varies inversely 
 as the square of the distance of the sounding body. 
 
 90. Meaning of reflected and refracted sound, respectively. 
 
 When sound waves strike the surface of an opposing medium a 
 part of them are thrown back, or reflected. The angle of inci- 
 dence is equal to the angle of reflection as in reflected motion. 
 
 If sound waves strike a medium of different density those waves 
 which are transmitted are refracted, or bent out of their course. 
 
 91. What is a musical note? 
 
 Kegular vibrations when produced with sufficient rapidity blend 
 into one sound. This is a musical note. A succession of musical 
 notes so modulated as to please the air constitutes music. 
 
112 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 92. What is the Telephoned 
 
 The Telephone is an instrument which reproduces articulate 
 speech or other sounds at a distance. 
 
 In the string telephone it is only necessary to have a membrane -which 
 can be set in vibration by the impulses of the air made by the voice on an 
 instrument, and a string or wire attached to it to carry the vibrations to a 
 similar membrane at the other end. This second membrane gives back to 
 the air the same kind of vibration received at the other end. 
 
 In the electric telephone the vibrations of the membrane cause changes 
 in the electric current produced by a battery, those changes being capable 
 of reproducing the same kind of vibrations in the membrane at the oppo- 
 site end. 
 
 93. What is the Phonograph f 
 
 The Phonograph is a machine which writes sounds on a strip 
 of tin foil and reproduces them with great distinctness. It con- 
 sists of a mouth-piece and vibrating membrane the same as the tel- 
 ephone, with a needle attached to the center of the membrane the 
 vibrations of which cause the needle to make impressions in the 
 tin foil, which is rolled on a grooved cylinder made to revolve. 
 By so adjusting the machine that the needle may retrace its path 
 on the tin foil, the membrane is set in vibration again and the 
 sounds are given back exactly as they were received. 
 
 94. What is light f 
 
 Light is that mode of wave motion which affects the optic nerve, 
 producing the sensation of vision. 
 
 When light passes through a body so as to enable objects to be seen dis- 
 tinctly beyond it, the body is transparent; when light passes through but 
 not sufficient to allow the perception of objects, it is translucent ; when no 
 light passes through, it is opaque. 
 
 95. Meaning of visual angle f 
 
 Light always moves in straight lines. The angle formed at the 
 eye by the rays coming from the extremities of an object is called 
 Tisual angle. 
 
 96. Define the wave theory of light. 
 
 It assumes, (1) that matter of extreme rarity and elasticity, 
 called luminiferous aether, pervades all space. (2) That the mole- 
 cules of luminous bodies are in a state of very rapid vibration. 
 (3) That these vibrations are communicated to the setlier and are 
 then transmitted in all directions by spherical waves. And (4) 
 that these waves or vibrations constitute light. 
 
NATUEAI. PHILOSOPHY. 113 
 
 97. Meaning of luminous and of non-luminous bodies. 
 
 Lnminons bodies are those in whicli light originates ; as the 
 sun and burning bodies. Non-luminous bodies do not originate 
 light, but may be rendered temporarily luminous by the presence 
 of a self-luminous body ; thus, a lighted candle renders adjacent 
 objects luminous. 
 
 98. Name the sources of light. 
 
 The sources of light are (1) mechanical action, (2) chemical 
 action, (3) electricity, (4) phosphorescence, and (5) the heavenly 
 bodies. 
 
 99. Moiv, and at what rate, does light move f 
 
 Light passes from a luminous body equally in every direction 
 and travels through a medium of uniform density in straight 
 lines. It moves at the rate of about 185,000 miles per second. 
 The intensity decreases inversely as the square of the distance. 
 
 100. Meaning of reflected and refracted light f 
 
 When a beam of light from a luminous body falls upon the sur- 
 face of an opaque body a portion is reflected, or thrown back, 
 and a portion absorbed, — the angle of incidence is equal to the 
 angle of reflection. AVhen light passes from one medium to an- 
 other of different density, it is refracted, or bent out of its reg- 
 ular course. 
 
 101. What is a lens, and what are the two 'principal hinds f 
 
 A lens is a transparent body, generally of glass, having one or 
 two curved surfaces. Lenses are of two principal kinds, convex 
 and concave, A convex lens converges the rays of light, or 
 brings them to a focus at a point varying in distance according to 
 the degree of convexity. A concave lens causes the rays of light 
 to diverge. 
 
 102. Name the seven original colors, or the colors of the solar spectrum f 
 Tiolet, indigOa blue, green, yellow, orange, red. 
 
 8 
 
114 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 103. Name the three classes of rays in the solar spectrum f 
 
 Calorific, or heat rays ; colorific, or color rays ; and actinic^ 
 or cheraical rays. 
 
 The heat is the greatest in the red rays ; the actinic power in the violet. 
 
 104. What are the sources of heat ? 
 
 The sources of heat are the sun, moon, and stars ; mechanical ac- 
 tion; chemical action. 
 
 The greater part of the heat of our globe comes from the sun, a very 
 minute quantity from the other heavenly bodies. 
 
 Great heat may be developed by mechanical action, as friction and con- 
 cussion. 
 
 Chemical action is seen in the combustion of fuel, the union of oxygen 
 with carbon and hydrogen ; also in the heat of the blood, caused by the 
 union of oxygen and carbon. 
 
 105. Define specific heat ? 
 
 The amount of heat necessary to raise a given body one degree 
 in temperature compared to that required to raise the same quan- 
 tity of water one degree, is called specific heat. It expresses the 
 relation between latent and sensible heat. 
 
 All bodies expand under the influence of heat ; all bodies contract by 
 cold. 
 
 106. What is the Thermometer f 
 
 The thermometer is an instrument to measure the temperature 
 by means of the expansion of mercury. Mercury freezes at 40°F. 
 below zero ; alcohol is used for very low temperatures. 
 
 The principal scales used are Fahrenheit's, in which the space between 
 the two fixed points, boiling and freezing, is divided into 180 degrees ; the 
 (Jentigrade, in which this space is divided into 100 degrees ; Beaumer's, in 
 which it is divided into 80 degrees. 
 
 107. What of the distribution of heat f - 
 
 Any heated body returns, sooner or later, to the temperature of 
 surrounding bodies. This tendency of heat to maintain an equi- 
 librium of temperature is due to a continued exchange of molecu- 
 lar motions by virtue of which every molecule tends to produce 
 in contiguous molecules its own rate of vibration. 
 
 108. What are the three ways in which heat may be transferred from 
 one body to another f 
 
 (1) By conduction, or from molecule to molecule ; (2) ^j 
 
NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 115 
 
 convection, or by motion among molecules ; (3) By radiation, 
 or by thermal undulations through space. 
 
 109. W hat is electricity ? 
 
 Electricity is a polar force which becomes manifest by its pecu- 
 liar phenomena of attraction and repulsion. It is now regarded 
 as a mode of molecular motion, which is always manifested in. 
 two opposite or polarized states. 
 
 110. What are the two general vjays in which electricity manifests 
 itself? 
 
 (1) On the surface of bodies and capable of sudden and intense 
 effects, called statical electricity 5 (2) as a continuous current,, 
 or moving energy, called current electricity. 
 
 111. How is statical electricity produced f 
 
 It is generally developed by friction. It is also produced by 
 pressure, evaporation, and other agencies. 
 
 112. Define frictional electricity ? 
 
 If a rubber comb, a lamp chimney, or a stick of sealing wax^ 
 be rubbed vigorously with a piece of cloth and held over small 
 bits of paper they will be attracted, and then repelled. In cold,, 
 dry weather, peculiar phenomena are noticed, such as a crackling 
 sound when the hair is combed with a rubber comb, sparks pro- 
 duced when a cat's back is rubbed in the dark, etc. These phe- 
 nomena are due to frictional electricity. 
 
 113. Meaning of conductors and non-conductors f 
 
 Substances which allow the electricity to pass through them are 
 called conductors. Those which do not allow the electricity to 
 pass through are called non-conductors, or insulators. 
 
 Metals, charcoal, liquids, moist leather and animal and vegetable tissue 
 are good conductors. Glass, silk, India rubber, dry wood, feathers, diy air, 
 and gases are non-conductors. 
 
 114. What is the law of electrical action f 
 
 The positive attracts the negative and the negative attracts the 
 positive ; the positive repels the positive, and the negative repels 
 the negative ; or, in other words, bodies charged with like electrici- 
 ties repel, and bodies charged with unlike electricities attract. 
 
"116 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 115. What is an electrical machine ? 
 
 It is an apparatus by means of which large supplies of statical 
 electricity may be developed in a convenient manner. 
 
 There are several kinds in use. The essential parts of one kind, the 
 friction machine, may be briefly described as follows : A glass plate or cylin- 
 der is arranged so that it can be turned with a crank and caused to rub 
 against cushions of leather on which is spread an amalgam of tin, zinc, and 
 mercury. As the glass is revolved the rubbing of the cushion develops 
 positive electricity on the glass and negative on the rubber. To collect and 
 concentrate these electricities conductors are necessary. They consist sim- 
 ply of hollow cylinders of metal, as brass or common tinware. These con- 
 ductors are insulated by glass posts and the one for the positive electricity, 
 called the prime conductor, is provided with a rod containing several sharp 
 points which come very near the glass plate and cylinder. The negative 
 conductor is also insulated and connected by pieces of metal with the 
 rubbing cushion. A piece of silk in the form of a bag is suspended under 
 the plate or cylinder to prevent the escape of electricity to the ground. 
 
 To get an effect from the machine connect the negative conductor by a 
 chain or wire with the floor or earth, and turning the crank bring the hand 
 near the end of the prime conductor farthest from the glass. A spark will 
 be seen and a sliock felt. 
 
 116. Describe the Ley den jar. 
 
 The Leyden jar, or condenser, consists of a glass jar or bottle 
 ooated both on the inner and the outer surface with tin foil to 
 within three inches of the neck. The mouth is usually closed 
 with a plug of varnished wood, through which passes a brass wire 
 surmounted by a knob, and connected to the inner coating by 
 means of a chain. 
 
 If the jar be held near a machine in action the sparks will ipass from the 
 machine to the interior of the jar ; but after a little while this will cease, 
 and the jar is then said to be charged. To discharge the jar the inner and 
 outer coatings must be brought in connection by some conducting sub- 
 stance. If you hold the jar so that one hand touches the outside and bring 
 the other hand to the rod communicating with the inside, your body is the 
 conducting medium and you receive a shock, dangerous if the jar is heavily 
 charged. The jar may be so heavily charged as to shock a hundred persons 
 who form a circle by joining hands. 
 
 117. What is lighining? 
 
 Lightning is the effect of atmospheric electricity. It is the 
 
 passage of the electricity from one cloud to another, and is simi- 
 lar to the discharge of a Leyden jar. 
 
 The famous kite experiment of Franklin established the identity of at- 
 mospheric electricity with that produced by the electrical machine. 
 
 118. Cause of the Aurora Borealis ? 
 
 The Aurora Borealis, or northern light, is caused by the pas- 
 sage of currents of electricity through the rarified air of the up- 
 per regions. 
 
NATURAL, PHILOSOPHY. 117 
 
 Lightning rods protect from the effects of lightning by enabling the op- 
 posite electricities of the earth and cloud, gradually to neutralize each 
 other ; also by affording a passage for electrical discharges. 
 
 119. What is magnetism ? 
 
 Magnetism is that form of electric energy exhibited by the 
 magnet, a body which has the property of attracting iron, and 
 if suspended so as to turn freely, assumes a north-and-south di- 
 rection. 
 
 The natural magnet, or loadstone, is an ore of iron. An artificial magnet 
 is a magnetized piece of steel, either straight or bent in the form of a horse- 
 shoe. The needle of the mariner's compass is a straight magnet, balanced 
 so as to turn freely. 
 
 120. What is Voltaic, or galvanic electricity f 
 
 If a piece of copper and a piece of zinc be placed in water con- 
 taining a little sulphuric acid, and the ends of the copper and 
 zinc be brought together or connected by wires, a current of elec- 
 tricity will be established between them. A spark may be seen in 
 the dark, if the two wires are brought near together, but not in 
 actual contact. This electricity is produced by the chemical ac- 
 tion of the acid on the metal and is called Yoltaic, or galvanic 
 electricity. 
 
 A glass vessel containing the metals and acid is called a cell, and several 
 cells connected together constitute a galvanic battery. The metal plate in 
 which the chemical action is greatest is called the positive plate and the 
 other the negative plate. The free ends of the wires are called electrodes ; 
 the one attached to the positive plate is the negative eleclarode, and vice 
 versa. 
 
 121. What are thermo-electric currents f 
 
 If two pieces of different metals be soldered together and heated 
 at their junction, an electric current will be started. If they be 
 cooled, the current will pass in the opposite direction. These are 
 called thermo-electric currents. 
 
 122. What is the magneto-electric machine? 
 
 The magneto-electric machine consists of two coils of insulated 
 copper wire wrapped on cores of soft iron and made to revolve 
 near the poles of a horseshoe magnet. Each time they come 
 near the poles they receive an impulse, and these impulses suc- 
 ceeding each other rapidly, a current is produced in the cells. 
 
118 ^IGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 123. Mention some of the important applications of electricity. 
 
 The telegraph, the telephone, electrolysis, the processes of 
 electroplating and electrotyping, and the electric light. 
 
 124. What are the four parts of which the telegraph consists ? 
 
 The electric telegraph is by far the most important application 
 of electricity to the practical aflfairs of life. Every electric tele- 
 graph consists essentially of four parts : (1) a Voltaic battery 
 for generating a current ; (2) a circuit consisting of an insulated 
 metallic connection between two places ; (3) a key, which is an 
 instrument for sending signals from the one station, and (4) an 
 instrument for receiving signals at the other station. \_For de- 
 scription of the telephone, see answer to question 92.1 
 
 125. What is electrolysis f 
 
 It is the operation of effecting the decomposition of chemical 
 compounds by means of a current of electricity. 
 
 126. What is electroplating ? 
 
 It is the process of depositing one metal on the surface of an- 
 other by means of a Voltaic battery. The articles to be plated 
 are hung on a rod connected with the negative electrode and sus- 
 pended in a solution of a compound of the metal to be deposited. 
 Plates of the metal to be deposited are hung in the solution on a 
 rod connected with positive electrode. The thickness of the de- 
 posit depends on the time the operation lasts. 
 
 127. Describe eleetrotypinq. 
 
 Electrotyping is the process of making perfect copies of sur- 
 faces by means of a removable metallic deposit. Nearly all books 
 are printed from electrotype plates. This book is so printed. 
 
 When a medal has been electro-coppered, the coating, if suffi- 
 ciently thick to be stripped off whole, will give a surface the exact 
 reverse of the medal even to the finest lines. If this reversed copy, 
 or mold, be attached to the negative electrode, a second copy may 
 be formed which will exactly resemble the original. 
 
 Any object may be copied in this manner, but in the ordinary processes 
 of electrotyping it is usual (1) to form a mold of the object in wax, gutta 
 percha, or plaster, and (2) then to deposit within this a sufficiently thick coat- 
 ing of some metal, which is usually copper. 
 
 Thus, suppose we desire to electrotype a page of type. It is first rubbed 
 
NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 121 
 
 over with graphite to make it a conductor, and the excess of graphite blown 
 oflf; then (2) an impression is taken in wax, and the wax coated with graph- 
 ite as before ; (3) a copper wire is now thrust through the wax and made to 
 connect with the layer of graphite ; finally (4) it is made the negative elec- 
 trode in a bath of sulphate of copper. A tough coat of copper will gradually 
 be deposited on the surface of the graphite, and after a day or two wUl be 
 sufficiently thick to be removed. 
 
 128. Describe the electric light. 
 
 On breaking and closing a Voltaic circuit a spark usually ap- 
 pears, which varies in size with the strength of the battery. When 
 the current of a powerful battery passes through a circuit inter- 
 rupted by carbon rods placed a short distance apart, a brilliant 
 light of very high temperature is produced. 
 
 It is partly due to combustion, but mainly to incandescent particles of 
 carbon moving between the points of the rods, chiefly toward the negative 
 electrode. 
 
\ ! 
 
 118 HIGF 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 CHEMISTEY. 
 
 1. Define Chemvitry. 
 
 Chemistry is that branch of science which treats of the com- 
 position of bodies, or of the changes which take place in matter 
 whereby it loses its identity. 
 
 2. What is an element; also a compound f 
 
 Any substance or mass of matter which can not be separated 
 into two or more distinctly different sub^ances is an element, or 
 simple substance, or an ultimate element. 
 
 Any substance which can be separated into two or more dis- 
 tinctly different substances is a compound, or a compound sub- 
 stance, or a proximate element. 
 
 3. What is meant by chemical affinity. 
 
 Chemical affinity is the force which holds together the elements 
 of compounds. 
 
 Compounds are formed by the chemical union of two or more simple ele- 
 ments. Substances whose elements are not held together by chemical 
 affinity are called mixtures. A mixture partakes of the nature of each in- 
 gredient. A compound differs from any of its ingredients. 
 
 4. What is the number of simple elements? 
 The number at present recognized is 64. 
 
 Oxygen, the most abundant of the elements, exists free in the atmos- 
 phere, simply mixed with nitrogen, which also is free, but on account of 
 the great affinity oxygen has for other substances, almost everything else has 
 oxygen combined with it. The term native is used especially in the ease of 
 metals to indicate that a substance is found free. Gold is usually found 
 native, because it will not unite with oxygen under ordinary conditions. 
 
 5. Define chemical combination and chemical decomposition. 
 
 Chemical combination is the union of two or more simple or 
 
 (120) 
 
CHEMISTRY. 121 
 
 compound substances to form another substance differing from 
 any of the ingredients. 
 
 Chemical decomposition is the separation of the elements of 
 a compound, or the breaking up of a single substance into two or 
 more simpler substances. 
 
 If hydrogen and oxygen gases be mixed and heat applied they will combine 
 with great violence, the result being water. When wood burns, the carbon 
 is separated from the other elements (decomposition) and unites with the 
 oxygen of the atmosphere (combination) to form carbonic oxide. 
 
 6. What is chemical action f 
 
 This changing of the elements of matter, destroying unions and 
 making new ones, is called cliemical action.. 
 
 Heat, light, and electricity favor chemical action, either to cause com- 
 bination or decomposition of substances. Solution, by destroying the cohe- 
 sive force in a body, also favors chemical action, 
 
 7. Give examples of chemical action favored by different forces. 
 
 (1) If some baking powder be mixed with cream of tartar no 
 action will ensue until water is added to the mixture, when vigor- 
 ous action immediately follows. 
 
 (2) If a piece of sulphur be placed on a hot stove it takes fire 
 and produces white fumes which have a strong odor, and which 
 in analysis will be found to be a third substance formed of sulphur 
 and oxygen and called sulphuric oxide, the combustion being 
 simply the union of the oxygen of the air with the sulphur. 
 
 (3) If a current of electricity be passed through water it will 
 be separated into its constituent elements, oxygen and hydrogen. 
 
 (4) If a piece of paper be moistened by a solution of silver 
 nitrate, and exposed to the sunlight, it will turn black, a change 
 due to the decomposition of the silver nitrate. 
 
 (5) If hydrogen and chlorine gases be mixed in the dark, and 
 the bottle containing them taken into the sunlight, an explosion 
 follows, being the combination of the two gases ; a new substance, 
 hydrochloric acid gas, is formed. 
 
 8. Explain the Symbols used by chemists. 
 
 The symbolism consists of the initial letter or letters of the 
 name of the element. Where more than one element begins with 
 the same letter or letters, the second or third letter is also used. 
 Compounds are represented by writing the symbols of their ele- 
 ments in close connection. Thus, C is the symbol for carbon, but 
 
122 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 ^s chlorine begins with, the same letter, CI is used for that ele- 
 ment. Cu for copper from the Latin name cuprum, and H2O is 
 the symbol for the compound element, water. When a symbol 
 •stands without any figures attached, as H, it means an atom of 
 that element. When a small figure is written below, it means 
 that a corresponding number of atoms is taken. Thus, Hg means 
 two atoms of hydrogon. H2O means two atoms of hydrogen and 
 one of oxygen. 
 
 9. How are the elements classified f 
 
 The elements are divided into two classes as to their action in 
 the process of decomposition. 
 
 (1) Positives those which are attracted to the negative pole; 
 
 (2) Negatiye, those which are attracted to the positive pole. 
 
 10. How are the elements named f 
 
 Many of the long known substances retain their old names, as 
 iron, gold, silver, lead, sulphur, etc., but in symbolizing, the ini- 
 tials of the Latin names are used, as Fe, ferrum ; Au, aurum ; Ag, 
 argentum, etc. The more recently discovered metals have gen- 
 erally received names ending in imi and so called from some pe- 
 culiar property or from the name of the compound substance 
 from which they were separated. 
 
 Example.— Sodium, potassium, selenium, etc. Names of compound sub- 
 •stances are found by combining, according to certain rules, the names of the 
 simple elements composing them : Example,— Sodium chloride, hydrogen 
 sulphide, potassium chlorate. Certain non-metallic elements having some 
 resemblance have received names with similar terminations, as bromine, 
 iodine, chlorine, etc. 
 
 11. What is a binary compound? 
 
 Binary compounds are those formed by the union of two ele- 
 ments, one of which is positive to the other, which is negative. All 
 such compounds are named by placing the positive element first 
 followed by the name of the negative element changing its termi- 
 nation to ide, as sodium and chlorine unite to form sodium chlo- 
 ride, silver and sulphur to form silver sulphide, etc. When the 
 positive element combines in two different proportions, the termi- 
 nation ic is given to the positive element when it has the greater 
 proportion, and OUS when it has the lesser proportion ; as mercu- 
 ric oxide and mercurous oxide. When the proportion is still less 
 
CHEMISTRY. 123 • 
 
 than OUS it takes the prefix hypo, as hyponitric oxide ; when 
 greater than ic it takes the prefix per, as perchloric oxide. 
 
 12. What is a ternary compound? 
 
 Ternary compounds are those which have dissimilar atoms 
 united by means of a third atom. They are formed directly by 
 the union of two binary compounds, or by the changing of atoms 
 from one to another. 
 
 13. Define acids, bases, and salts. 
 
 An acid molecule is one which consists of one or more negative 
 atoms united by oxygen to hydrogen. A basic molecule consists 
 of one or more positive atoms united by oxygen to hydrogen. A 
 saline molecule is one which contains a positive atom or group of 
 atoms, united by oxygen to a negative atom or group of atoms. 
 
 14. What do the terminations ic and OUS, ate and ite indicate f 
 
 Acids are named with the terminations ic and ous the same as 
 binary compounds. The hydracids are characterized by the prefix 
 hydro, as hydrochloric, hydrobromic, etc. Salts are named from 
 the acid from which produced, by changing the termination, thus, 
 from an ic acid is produced an ate salt, from an ous acid an ite 
 salt. 
 
 15. What is the atomic theory ? 
 
 It is believed by chemists : (1) that the atoms of the same ele- 
 ment are exactly alike in size, form, and weight; (2) that the 
 ■atoms of different elements are unlike, differing at least in weight, 
 if not in form ; (3) that equal volumes of bodies in a gaseous 
 state at the same temperature and pressure contain an equal num- 
 ber of molecules. 
 
 In fixing the relative weights of atoms, hydrogen, being the lightest of 
 Tinown hodies, is taken as the standard, and the atom of hydrogen is con- 
 sidered as one,— the other elements compared with it. 
 
 16. Illustrate atomic weight. 
 
 The atomic weight represents the smallest quantity of any 
 simple element which can enter into the formation of a chemical 
 compound. It is the same as the specific gravity of the body in 
 the gaseous state compared with hydrogen. 
 
124 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 17. Define atomicity. 
 
 This is a term used to denote the proportion in which the atoms 
 of elements unite with atoms of hydrogen. 
 
 The elements are arranged in seven groups and receive the names of 
 monads, dyads, triads, tetrads, pentads, hexads, and heptads, according as 
 they mix with 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, or 7 atoms of hydrogen. The elements which 
 have an even atomicity are called artiads, those having an odd atomicity 
 are called perissads. Equivalence and quantivalence are terms synonymous 
 with atomicity. 
 
 18. What is molecular weight ? 
 
 The molecular weight of a compound substance is the sum of 
 the atomic weights of its constituents. The molecular weight of 
 water is 18, the atomic weight of oxygen being 16 and that of hy- 
 drogen 1, and water containing two atoms of hydrogen in each 
 molecule. 
 
 19. Define catalysis and allotropism. 
 
 When one substance produces an effect on another by its mere 
 presence, the action is called catalysis. The capability of exist- 
 ing in more than one form with the chemical identity undestroyed 
 is called allotropism. 
 
 20. What are crystalline and amorphous substances, respectively f 
 
 When the molecules of a body arrange themselves in regular 
 geometrical forms they are said to be crystalline. Substances 
 which are not crystalline are amorphous. 
 
 Substances which have two crystalline forms or crystallize under two 
 systems, are said to be dimorphous. Different substances which crystallize 
 in the same form are said to be isomorphous. 
 
 21. What is an anhydride? 
 
 An oxide of a non-metallic (or electro-negative) element, which» 
 with the elements of water, forms an acid, is called an auhydride. 
 
 Thus, when carbon, a non-metal, burns in the air it unites with oxygen 
 to form an oxide whose formula is CO 2 and which will unite with H2O to 
 form H2CO3, or carbonic acid. 
 
 22. CO 2 is known under ivhat names ? 
 
 (1) Carbonic auhydride, because it is an anhydride; (2) car- 
 bonic oxide, because it is an oxide of carbon, and being highest, 
 it takes the termination ic ; (3) carbon dioxide, because an oxide 
 
CHEMISTRY. 125 
 
 of carbon and containing two atoms of oxygen ; (4) carbonic 
 acid gas, because it is a gas and was formerly considered an acid. 
 
 The term carbonic acid when applied to CO 2 is, however, improper, as it 
 is not an acid. 
 
SECTION V. 
 
 GEOLOGY. 
 
 1. Define Geology. 
 
 Geology is the science which treats of the 'past conditions of the 
 earth and of its inhabitants. 
 
 It includes a discussion of pirogress in the development of the solid 
 structure which raakes up the earth's crust, the changes in all physical con- 
 ditions, as light, heat and moisture, and the development of life as shown 
 by the fossil remains. 
 
 2. Meaning of rock in Geology f 
 
 Any substance constituting a portion of the earth's crust, whether 
 it be hard or soft, is called a rock. No distinction based on hard- 
 ness alone is of any value. 
 
 It signifies any lifeless constituent of the earth's crust, whether of or- 
 ganic or inorganic origin. 
 
 3. How are rocks classified ? 
 
 Kocks are divided, according to their structure and origin, into 
 two principal kinds, viz., stratified and unstratified. 
 
 Stratified rocks are more or less consolidated sediments, and are therefore 
 aqueous in origin and earthy in structure. Unstratified rocks have been 
 more or less/ttsed, and therefore are igneous in origin and either crystalline 
 or glassy in structure. 
 
 4. What is a fossil f 
 
 Stratified rocks contain the exact /orms of organisms, especially 
 shells, though these seem to have turned to stone. These are called 
 
 fossils. 
 
 A fossil may be defined as any evidence of the former existence of a 
 living thing. By petrifaction is meant that stony or earthy material has 
 taken the place of the organic matter wholly or in part, and preserved the 
 form and structure more or less perfect. 
 
 (126) 
 
GEOLOGY. 12? 
 
 5. What structures are common to all kinds of rocks f 
 
 (1) Joints ; (2) great fissures ; (3) mineral veins. 
 
 Joints are probably shrinkage— cracks. Fissures are fractures by crust- 
 movements. Rocks, especially metamorphic rocks, are marked with seams 
 and scars running in all directions, as if they had been crushed and broken 
 and again mended ; as indeed they were. 
 
 6. Of what is the solid portion of the earth mostly composed f 
 
 Of quartz and silicates. Quartz, besides being another name 
 for silica, is also applied to denote some of the varieties of silica 
 produced by the various impurities and by differences in structure. 
 Silica is a combination of silicon and oxygen. 
 
 7. Under what four series may the composition of rocks be considered f- 
 (1) Silica; (2) Alumina; (3) Calcia; (4) Silicates. 
 
 8. Name the most important of the varieties of silica. 
 
 Eock Crystal, Eose Quartz^ Chalcedony, smoky or limpid,. 
 Amethyst, Jasper, Flint, Hornstone, Chert, Opal, Buhrstone, and 
 Sand. 
 
 9. Explain rock disintegration. 
 
 In all rock some parts are soluble in atmospheric water, ana 
 some are not. Under the long-continued action of this agent, 
 therefore, the soluble parts are dissolved, and the mass breaks 
 down into a powder, or dust of the insoluble parts, wet with a 
 solution of the soluble parts. 
 
 10. How are the varieties of rocks distinguished f 
 
 (1) Eelative hardness ; (2) Specific gravity ; (3) Cleavage; (4) 
 Fusibility; (5) Action of acids ; (6) Crystalline form; (7) Color 
 and luster ; (8) Chemical composition. 
 
 11. How may rocks be classified as to manner of formation, or origin f^ 
 
 (1) Sedimentary, or those which have been formed by the de- 
 posit of solid material in water, and usually in layers. (2) Ig- 
 neous, those which have been thrown to the surface in a melted 
 state, not usually in layers. (3) Metamorpliic, which have been 
 originally sedimentary but have been altered by heat and great 
 pressure. 
 
128 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 12. What are the divisions of sedimentary rockf 
 
 (1) Sandstone, simply consolidated sand; (2) Conglomerate, 
 gravel consolidated ; (3) Shale, consolidated clay with other in- 
 gredients mixed, separated into thin layers, very fragile ; (4) 
 Limestone, frequently containing many fossils. 
 
 13.^ How may igneous rocks be classified f 
 
 Igneous rocks can not be classified, like sedimentaries, by rela- 
 tive age. They are best classified partly by texture and partly by 
 mode of occurrence. They thus fall into two strongly contrasted 
 groups, viz., plutonics and volcanics, or granitics and ^rwe eruptives. 
 
 It is sometimes convenient to speak of an intermediate gron-p—trappean. 
 The granitic occur beneath; the trappean, injected among; the volcanic, out- 
 poured upon, the stratified rocks. 
 
 14. What are the most important metamorphic rochsf 
 
 The principal kinds are Gneiss, Mica-schist, Chloride-schist, 
 Talcose-schist, Hornblende-schist, Clay-slate, Quartzite, Marble, 
 and Serpentine. 
 
 15. Define the following terms : Stratum, formation, fault, concretion, 
 geode, dip, dike, lode, vein. 
 
 A stratum is a collection of layers of one kind of rock, varying 
 in thickness from a few inches to hundreds of feet. A number of 
 strata which were formed at the same time and having a general 
 similarity as to fossil remains, is called a formaticm. The angle 
 which an inclined strata makes with the horizon is called the dip. 
 A fault is a want of correspondence in vertical cracks or fissures 
 in rocks. Concretions are rounded masses of rock sometimes with 
 layers like the coats of an onion. Geodes are peculiar concretions 
 containing crystals generally of quartz. Vein^ and dikes are fissures 
 in rocks which have been filled with material in a melted state. 
 Yeins filled with metallic ores are called lodes. 
 
 16. How may rocks he classified as to time of formation f 
 
 The first grand division of Geologic history are called Times. 
 Times are divided again into Ages, ages into Periods, and periods 
 into Epochs, epochs sometimes into Groups. 
 
 These are all marked by differences in animal and vegetable remains, 
 and by difference in kinds of rocks. 
 
GEOLOGY. 129 
 
 17. What are the four grand divisions of Geologic history based upon 
 the development of life f 
 
 The first land, Azoic, was without life. The next grand division 
 is called the Paleozoic Time. Next in the scale is the Mesozoic Time. 
 The fourth is the Cenozoic Time. 
 
 The rocks of the Archsean time are supposed to be the foundation of the 
 earth's crust, underlying all others, hut covered so deeply by later forma- 
 tions that they can not be seen except at a few points where they " crop 
 out ' ' and form the surface rocks. 
 
 18. What is the oldest known form of life f 
 
 The first life must have been vegetable, since the animal sub- 
 sists upon the vegetable. 
 
 The Eozoon Canadense is the oldest or first form of life that has been 
 identified by its remains. It is supposed to be an animal of the class Rhiz- 
 opods of a very low order. 
 
 19. What are the divisions of the Paleozoic Time f 
 
 The Paleozoic Time is divided into three ages marked by char- 
 acteristic forms of life. They are the Silurian, the Devonian, and 
 the Carboniferous. 
 
 20. Descnhe the Silurian Age, location, kinds of rocks and fossils. 
 
 The Silurian Age, or age of mollusks, has for convenience been 
 divided into the Upper Silurian and Lower Silurian, which may 
 be considered as sub-ages. Each of these has been divided into 
 periods. The kinds of rock are various, consisting of immense 
 beds of limestone, sandstone, shales, marl, millstone grit, etc. 
 Many of them are abundant in fossils, representing the sub-king- 
 doms. Protozoa, Kadiata, Mollusca, and Articulata. 
 
 The vegetable kingdom is represented by seaweeds and some lower forms 
 of land plants. The most interesting fossil, perhaps, is the TriloMte, an 
 articulata, several species of which are found in a very perfect state of pres- 
 ervation.. 
 
 21. Describe the Devonian Age. 
 
 The Devonian Age is the Age of Fishes. Limestones, sand- 
 stones, and shales principally compose the formations. Fossils of 
 all the sub-kingdoms are found, but the age is especially noted 
 for the number of fossil fishes. Insects first make their appear- 
 ance in this age. 
 9 
 
130 HIGH SCHOOL, 'QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 22. Describe the Carboniferous Age. 
 
 This is the Age of Coal Plants. The rocks are mostly limestone 
 and sandstone, with seams or beds of coal varying in thickness 
 from that of a sheet of paper to 40 feet. 
 
 The presence of coal, with the evidence of its being of vegetable origin, 
 and the immense number of fossil plants found, warrant us in concluding 
 that at this stage of the earth's history vegetation flourished in much greater 
 luxuriance than now. 
 
 23. What is the Mesozoic Age ? 
 
 The Mesozoic Age comprises the Age of Keptiles, which is di- 
 vided into three periods, Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous. 
 
 The fossils of this time are characteristic and wonderful. Immense 
 forms, half reptile and half bird, sported in the waters or flapped through 
 the air. Birds and mamnials make their appearance for the first time. 
 
 24. What is the Cenozoic Age f 
 
 It is divided into two ages, the Tertiary, or Age of Mammals, 
 and^the Quarternary, or Age of Man.. 
 
 The strange and huge reptilian forms now give place to immense mam- 
 malian species which reach their greatest size in the Quarternary. The mas- 
 todon, mammoth, and others of that type, existed just previous to the ad- 
 vent of man. 
 
SECTION VI. 
 ASTEONOMY. 
 
 1. Define Astronomy. 
 
 Astronomy is the science which treats of the sun, moon, earth, 
 planets, comets, etc., showing their magnitudes, order and dis- 
 tances from one another, measuring and noting their risings, set^ 
 tings, motions, appearances, the dates and number of their 
 eclipses, etc. 
 
 2. What may be said of the progress of astronomical science ? 
 
 The study of the heavenly bodies occupied the attention of the 
 ancients many centuries before the advent of Christ, but definite 
 knowledge concerning them was very limited, and such may be 
 said to be the case yet. With' the introduction of the telescope, 
 however, much information has been gained in the past three 
 centuries. 
 
 3. What were the conjectures of the ancients concerning the shape of 
 the earth, etc.? 
 
 Various were the conjectures of the ancients concerning the 
 shape of the earth and the relations which the sun, moon, and 
 stars held to our planet, the impression being that the earth was 
 flat, and was the center of the universe, the various heavenly 
 luminaries revolving around it. 
 
 4. What was the system of Pythagoras f 
 
 Pythagoras, Thales, and Plato conceived the idea that the 
 world was round and that it had two movements, one being diurnal 
 upon its axis and the other around the sun. They taught that 
 the sun, which they thought the center of the universe, was a 
 
 (131) 
 
.'132 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 globe of fire, wliich liglited the moon and gave lieat and light to 
 the earth. 
 
 5. Who prepared the first systematic work rni astronomy f 
 
 Ptolemy, who, rejecting the system of Pythagoras, announced 
 that the earth was the center of the universe, and the heavenly 
 bodies revolved around it. For thirteen centuries after Christ 
 this idea possessed the inhabitants of the earth. 
 
 6. What is the Copernican system of the universe f 
 
 A particular system of the heavenly bodies first proposed by 
 Copernicus, a Polish astronomer. This theory is the one now 
 universally adopted, placing the sun in the center of the solar 
 system, with all the other planets revolving round it in a particu- 
 lar and regular order. 
 
 7. What was demonstrated by Kepler f 
 
 Kepler, a German astronomer, about the sixteenth century, 
 demonstrated that the planets, instead of revolving around the 
 sun in perfect circles, made their revolutions in elliptic orbits. 
 He also determined the dimensions of the orbits of the several 
 planets and their velocity of movement. 
 
 8. What ivere the researches of Galileo f 
 
 His researches with his telescope resulted in a close inspection 
 oi the moon, which very clearly determined its character. The 
 satellites revolving about Jupiter were discovered, and many 
 facts relating to the celestial bodies were made known. 
 
 9. What was Newton's great discovery f 
 
 He discovered the law of gravitation, by which all the heavenly 
 orbs are held in place. 
 
 Later, many discoveries were made by Herschel of heavenly orbs, among 
 them being Uranus and various satellites. 
 
 10. What is the nebular theory advanced by Laplace 9 
 
 This advances the idea that the heavens are studded with in- 
 numerable groups of planets, in the center of each of which is a 
 sun around which a certain number of planets revolve in a man- 
 ner similar to the movements of our planetary system. 
 
ASTRONOMY. 133 
 
 The idea was further advanced that the sun once filled all the space now 
 occupied hy the orbits of the several planets. That from the sun has been 
 thrown off from time to time an emanation of gaseous substance which 
 formed in a ring about the sun, and in due time broke, collected together 
 and made a planet. That the sun has gone forward gradually contracting 
 and throAving off rings thus until all the planets in the solar systen have 
 been in this manner developed, 
 
 11. What may be said of the system of the universe f 
 
 That this solar system of ours, with its sun and planets revolv- 
 ing in space, is but one of millions of similar systems, thousands 
 of whose planets are inhabited, while some once inhabited are 
 dead, and others are yet too young and gaseous to admit of habi- 
 tation. That while the planets revolve around the sun, this sun 
 with its family of planets revolves around a greater sun, and this 
 greater sun with its multitude of systems revolves around a great 
 central sun. 
 
 12. What definite intelligence have astronomers? 
 
 Their intelligence of the heavenly bodies is confined to the size, 
 revolutions, orbits, density, and conjunctions of the planets which 
 revolve about our sun. The principal of these planets are named 
 in their order as they go out from the sun as follows : Mercury, 
 Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. 
 
 13. What is the relative size of each of the primary or principal 
 planets in our solar system f 
 
 This may be judged by the following comparison presented by 
 an astronomer, the sun being represented as a globe two feet in-, 
 diameter standing in an open field : A pinhead 164 feet away 
 will represent Mercury ; a pea 284 feet from the sun, Venus ; an- 
 other pea 430 feet, Earth ; a large pinhead 654, Mars ; a medium- 
 sized orange nearly half a mile from the globe represents Jupi- 
 ter; a small orange four-fifths of a mile shows Saturn; a smalt 
 plum a mile and a half represents Uranus ; and an ordinary plum 
 two miles and a half from the globe shows Neptune. 
 
 All the planets of our system together would not equal in bulk a sixr 
 hundredth part of the body of the sun. 
 
 14. State some facts relating to the sun. 
 
 The sun is the center of our great solar system, the source of 
 light and heat to all other planets within this system, and an im- 
 mense power in the production and maintenance of animal and 
 
134 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 vegetable life. Of the sources of the sun's heat nothing is posi- 
 tively known, although it is believed that it is derived from elec- 
 trical influences. The distance of the sun from the earth is 
 92,000,000 of miles. It has no orbit, for it is stationary, but it 
 revolves upon its axis. 
 
 The sun is supposed to be a dark and solid globe, surrounded by two cov- 
 erings of gaseous material. 
 
 . 15. What may be said of the sun'' s spots? 
 
 Dark spots of irregular form, rarely to be seen with the naked 
 •eye, sometimes pass over the sun's surface from east to west, 
 -within a period of nearly fourteen days. 
 
 They are supposed to be ruptures or openings in the outer fiery envelope 
 of the sun. They usually present a dark nucleus, surrounded by a strip of 
 shaded light, and that by a margin of light more brilliant than the sun 
 Itself. 
 
 16. Bescnbe Mercury. 
 
 Mercury is the smallest of the principal planets in our solar 
 system. It is the nearest to the sun, being 37,000,000 miles from 
 that luminary. It performs one revolution upon its axis in 24 
 hr. 5 min, and 28 sec. It revolves round the sun in 88 of our 
 days, which is the length of its year. 
 
 17. Which is the second planet from the sun f 
 
 Venus, the brightest star in the heavens. It is about 68000,000 
 miles distant from the sun, around which it revolves from west to 
 east in 224f days. As its distance from the earth constantly 
 varies, its apparent size and brilliancy continually change. It 
 turns upon its axis once in 23 hr. 21 min. and 7 sec. 
 
 Venus is best known to us by her constant position either as the earth's 
 evening star or morning star, continuing in each of these offices alternately 
 292 days, appearing as the former in the western horizon and as the latter 
 in the eastern. 
 
 18. What is the " Transit of Venus ? " 
 
 Twice in a century Venus passes between us and the sun, trav- 
 ersing the disk of the latter. This is called the " transit of Ve- 
 nus," and is considered among astronomers one of the most inter- 
 esting of celestial events. 
 
 19. Describe the earth. 
 
 The earth is not a perfect sphere, being considerably flattened 
 
ASTRONOMY. 135 
 
 at the poles. The revolution of the earth upon its axis is called 
 its " diurnal motion," because it forms one entire night and day. 
 The earth has a circumscribed pathway through space, called its 
 orbit, over which it passes around the sun once in 365j days. 
 
 The earth has one satellite, or moon. On the first day of January the 
 earth is about 3.000,000 miles nearer the sun than on the third day of July, 
 hut its surface being slantingly placed towar(i the sun at the former period, 
 the heat is lessened instead of increased. 
 
 20. Which is the fourth planet from the sun? 
 
 Mars is the fourth planet from the snn, and the first of the " ex- 
 terior planets," or those whose -pathways around the sun are out- 
 side that of the earth. 
 
 Its average distance from the sun is 145,000,000 miles. It makes one com- 
 plete revolution upon its axis in 24 hr. 39 min. and 2% sec. Mars has two 
 moons. 
 
 21. Describe the largest of the planets. 
 
 Jupiter, the largest of 'all the planets in our solar system, and 
 one of the brightest, has an average distance from the sun of about 
 480,000,000 miles. Its diameter is about twelve times greater than 
 that of the earth. 
 
 It requires almost twelve of our years to complete its circuit round the 
 sun. It revolves upon its axis in 9 hr. and 56 min. of our time. 
 
 22. What are the Asteroids f 
 
 The numerous small planets whose orbits are situated between 
 those of Mars and Jupiter; these include Astrsea, Ceres, Iris, 
 Hebe, Juno, Pallas, Vesta, and more than one hundred others. 
 
 They are supposed to be fragments cast oflf from other remote planets, 
 and are held in their places by solar influences. 
 
 23. Describe Saturn. 
 
 The distance of Saturn from the sun is 872,132,000 miles. It 
 requires twenty-nine and a half of our years to accomplish one of 
 its annual circuits. It makes one revolution upon its axis in 10 J 
 of our hours. 
 
 Saturn has eight moons and two magnificent rings, above and around its 
 equator, encircling it with perpetual light, brighter to the observer than the 
 planet itself. 
 
 24. Describe Uranus. 
 
 The distance of Uranus from the sun is 1,822,360,000 miles. It 
 
136 HIGH SCHOOL, QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 is said to revolve upon its axis once in 7 hr. and 5 min. Its 
 revolution around the sun occupies about eighty-f our of our years. 
 
 Uranus has six moons, which, instead of revolving around it from west 
 to east, as all other moons do around their respective planets, except in the 
 case of Neptune, apparently move from east to west. 
 
 25. Which is the most distant planet from the sun? 
 
 Neptune, whose distance from the sun is 2,745,998,000. It moves 
 once around the sun in nearly 164J of our years. 
 
 One moon has heen discovered, but astronomers insist that it is entitled 
 to five more. 
 
 26. Meaning of Aphelion and Perihelion, respectively ? 
 
 Aphelion is that point at which any planet is farthest from the 
 sun. Perihelion is that point of a planet's orbit in which it is 
 nearest to the sun. 
 
 27. What is the Axis of the heavens? 
 
 The axis of the earth, from north to south, or from east to west, 
 presenting both ways to the concave surface of the heavens. 
 
 28. What is centripetal force? Centrifugal repulsion? 
 
 That force which draws a body toward the sun ; " centrifugal 
 repulsion " is that power which the sun has to repel other bodies ; 
 both forces keep the planets in their places. 
 
 29. What is a comet ? 
 
 A round, transparent body, resembling a planet, which performs 
 irregular or eccentric revolutions about the sun in long and nar- 
 row orbits, which have the sun in one of their focuses. 
 
 It consists of a spherical, transparent light, enclosing a transparent 
 nucleus, or hall, and a long train, or tail, of fiery particles, by which comets 
 are distinguished from other heavenly bodies. 
 
 30. What is the Constellation? 
 
 An assemblage of fixed stars, imagined to represent the form of 
 some creature or other object, such as a bear, a ship, or noted 
 heathen god or goddess, from which they derived those names that 
 are now used in designating and describing the stars. 
 
ASTRONOMY. 137 
 
 31. When does an eclipse of the sun take place ? 
 
 When the dark body of the moon, passing directly between the 
 earth and sun, intercepts his light. 
 
 This can happen only at the instant of new moon, or when the moon is 
 in conjunction, for it is only then that she passes between us and the sun. 
 
 32. When does an eclipse of the moon take place f 
 
 When the dark body of the earth, coming between her and the 
 sun, intercepts his light and throws a shadow on the moon. 
 
 This can happen only at the time of full moon, or when the moon is in 
 opposition, for it is only then that the earth is between her and the sun. 
 
 33. Whatis the Ecliptic f 
 
 A great circle of the sphere in which the sun performs his ap- 
 parent annual motion; it is supposed to be drawn through the 
 middle of the Zodiac, and makes an angle with the equinoctial of 
 nearly 23° and 30^, which angle is called " the obliquity of the 
 ecliptic." 
 
 34. What is the Zodiac f 
 
 A zone, or girdle, about 16° in breadth, extending quite around 
 the heavens, and including all the heavenly bodies within 8° on 
 each side of the ecliptic. It includes, also, the orbits of all the 
 planets, except some of the asteroids. 
 
SECTION VII. 
 ZOOLOGY.* 
 
 1. Define Zoology. 
 
 Zoolog'y is the science which treats of animal life in general, 
 including the classification, general characteristics and modes of 
 life of all the species and varieties of the animal kingdom. 
 
 The sciences subordinate to Zoology are Ornithology, Icthyology, Herpe- 
 
 tology, Entomology, etc. 
 
 2. Upon what is a classification based? . 
 
 The entire animal kingdom is divided into SUb-Mngdoms, 
 based upon a general common plan of structure. Each sub- 
 kingdom is again divided into classes, based upon general physi- 
 ological characters. Each class is divided into orders, orders 
 into families, families into genera. Each genus is divided into 
 species, embracing all animals which have descended from a 
 common ancestor. 
 
 Species are sometimes divided into Tarieties based upon certain points of 
 resemblance. 
 
 3. How are varieties produced f 
 
 Animals which have been domesticated are inclined to vary, 
 and these variations have been strengthened by selecting the 
 more marked varieties and breeding from them exclusively, and 
 also by crossing varieties until well marked and permanent 
 Tarieties are produced. 
 
 Among the lower domestic animals the term hreed is in common use 
 as synonymous with variety. The varieties of men are called races. A 
 cross between two varieties is called a mongrel, between two species a hybrid. 
 
 *The matter of this Section was compiled from " Lind's Teachebs' and 
 Students' Libraky." 
 
 (138) 
 
ZOOLOGY. 139 
 
 4. Name the points distinguishing animals from plants. 
 
 Animals are generally characterized by : (1) Powers of loco- 
 motion. (2) Sensation. (3) The animal has generally a fore- 
 and-aft structure as a distinction from the plant, which has gen- 
 erally an up-and-down structure. (4) The food of animals is 
 generally organic, that is, plants or other animals. (5) The food 
 is prepared for assimilation in a digestive cavity, or stomach. 
 
 (6) They inhale oxygen and exhale carbonic oxide. 
 
 5. What is a vertebrate animal ? 
 
 Yertebrata includes the most highly organized animals and 
 those which have general characters, as follows : (1) A bony 
 frame-work, or skeleton, which forms the axis of the body, and 
 upon which the softer parts are arranged, this axis being made up 
 of joints or vertebrae, whence the name. (2) The nervous system 
 consists of a brain, spinal cord, ganglia, and nerves. (3) The 
 blood is red. (4) A transverse section of the body exhibits two 
 cavities, one in the spinal column containing the spinal cord, the 
 other formed by the ribs and softer parts, and containing the or- 
 gans gf digestion and respiration. (5) They never have more 
 than two pairs of limbs. (6) They breathe through the mouth. 
 
 (7) The mouth opens transversely to the axis of the body. 
 
 6. Define Mammalia. 
 
 The Mammalia are the highest division of the vertebrata, and 
 are characterized as follows : (1) Nourish their young by milk 
 secreted by the mammary glands of the mother, whence the name. 
 (2) Viviparous, bring forth their young alive. (3) Generally, but 
 not always, covered with hair; never covered with feathers. (4) 
 Warm blooded, the temperature being about 98° F. (5) Heart 
 has four chambers, two auricles and two ventricles, there being a 
 complete double circulation, i. e. from the body to the heart, from 
 the heart to the lungs for purification, and back again to the 
 heart to be again sent to the body. (6) They have a complete 
 diaphragm. (7) Two occipital condyles, and (8) the lower jaw 
 is articulated directly with the skull. 
 
 7. To what order does man belong ? 
 
 The characteristics which distinguish man (Binana) from the 
 other mammalia are : (1) An erect position. (2) Progression 
 
140 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 » 
 
 on two legs. (3) Can oppose the thumb to the fingers in the 
 hands, but not in the feet. (4) He is plantigrade, or the bones of 
 the tarsus, metatarsus, and phalanges form the foot and come on 
 a level. (5) Has 32 teeth — 2 incisors, 1 canine, 2 bicuspeds, and 
 3 molars in each side of each jaw. (6) The brain is much larger 
 in proportion to the body than any other animal, and his mental 
 powers are capable of great development. (7) The only terres- 
 trial mammal not generally covered with hair. 
 
 8. What order next to man in development f 
 
 The order Quadrumana, characterized as follows : (1) By 
 having the great toe of the foot opposable to the other toes. (2) 
 They are covered more or less with hair. (3) In mode of life 
 they are arboreal and terrestrial, and generally frugiverous. (4) 
 Do not assume the erect posture as a habit. (5) Their imitative 
 qualities are largely developed. (6) The spinal opening in the 
 skull is in the posterior third of the base, the thumb is very short, 
 the pelvis long and narrow, the vertebral column has but a single 
 curve, the arms are relatively very long and the canine teeth 
 prominent. They embrace the three families of monkeys. 
 
 9. Describe the Order Carnivora (to which the dog belongs). 
 
 (1) Chiefly flesh eating. (2) Canine teeth largely developed^ 
 molars adapted for cutting. (3) Feet with well developed claws, 
 retractile or non-retractile. (4) Skull comparatively small with 
 high occipital crest. (5) Clavicles rudimentary or wanting, hu- 
 merus and femur mainly enclosed in the body. (6) All covered 
 with hair, many furnish valuable furs. 
 
 They are divided into eleven families : Felidx, cat ; Viverida, civet ; 
 Hyenidx, hyena ; Canidx, dog ; Mustelidx, weasel ; Ursidx, bear ; Procyonidx, 
 raccoon ; Bassaridx, civet cat ; Otaridx, eared seal ; Phocidx, seal ; Eosma- 
 ridx, walrus. 
 
 10. Describe the Order Ungulaia (to which the horse belongs). 
 
 (1) By having hoofs, digitigrade, that is phalanges only touch- 
 ing ground in walking. (2) Molar teeth with grinding surfaces, 
 no tusks, and chiefly herbivorous. (3) Clavicles wanting, radius 
 and ulna united, brain convoluted as in all animals higher in the 
 scale. (4) Many are ruminants. 
 
 They are divided into eleven families, as follows : Camelidx, camel ; 
 Giraffidx, giraffe ; Bovidx, ox ; Antilocapridx, prong-horn antelope ; Cervidx, 
 
ZOOLOGY. 141 
 
 deer ; Hippopotamidx, hippopotamus ; Suidx, hog ; Dicotylidse, peccary ; 
 Equidx, horse ; Rkinocerolidse, rhinoceros ; Tapiridx, tapir. 
 
 11. Des&'ibe the (hxler Pivhoscidoe {to which the elephant belongs). 
 
 Two species of elephant, the Elephas Indicus and Eliphas Afri- 
 canus, are the only living representatives of this order. The hu- 
 merus and femur are elongated and the heel brought nearer the 
 ground than in the horse and ox. The clavicles are wanting, and 
 the neck is too short to enable it to take its food from the ground 
 with its mouth. The trunk which is a prolongation of the nose 
 contains several thousand muscles, and is useful in procuring 
 food and conveying it to the animal's mouth. 
 
 12. Describe the order to which the whale belongs. 
 
 The order Cetacea includes whales, the porpoise, and the dol- 
 phin. They are characterized by naked bodies, no clavicles, no 
 hind limbs, tail, a horizontal fin, nostrils on top of the head. 
 
 WTialebone comes from the Greenland whale, and is not bone but slabs of 
 horn-like material sometimes ten feet in length, hanging from the upper 
 jaw, and serves to strain out the minute animals on which it feeds. The 
 sperm whale has an immense cavity in the head containing an oil which 
 Hardens and forms the spermaceti of commerce. Ambergris is a peculiar 
 product used in making perfumery and is found in the Intestines of the 
 sperm whale. 
 
 13. Of what order is the bat a representative? 
 
 Of the order Cheiroptera. They are true flying mammals. 
 They are characterized : (1) By having the exterior limbs adapt- 
 ed for flight ; the ulna and radius united ; the bones of the hand 
 and fingers greatly elongated, supporting a leathery skin which 
 extends to the posterior limbs. (2) The clavicles are long, the 
 skeleton light. (3) The touch is acute, and they are nocturnal 
 and chiefly insectivorous. 
 
 14. What is the smallest mammal ? 
 
 The order Insectiyora, characterized as follows: (1) The 
 limbs adapted for walking, plantigrade. (2) Teeth with sharp 
 points adapted for crushing insects. (3) The cerebrum not con- 
 voluted. (4) Mostly small in size, the shrew being the smallest 
 of mammals, and many are subterranean ih their habits. It in- 
 cludes the mole, hedgehog, and shrew. 
 
142 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 15. What is the order Rodeniia ? 
 
 They are characterized : (1) By lack of canine teeth, and in- 
 cisors chisel-shaped, adapted for gnawing, whence the name. (2) 
 Clavicles in nearly all ; cerebrum nearly smooth. 
 
 The mouse and rat, squirrel, beaver, gopher, porcupine, Guinea pig, and 
 rabbit are members of this order. 
 
 16. Describe the Edentata. 
 
 They are destitute of incisors, which is about the only general 
 characteristic. This order includes the sloth, the armadillo, and 
 the ant-eater. 
 
 17. What is the character of the lowest oi^ders of mammalia f 
 
 The two lowest orders are the Marsupialia and the Monotre- 
 mata. They approach the structure of birds. The Marsupialia, 
 which includes the kangaroo and the opossum, are characterized 
 by having the young brought forth in a,n immature state and car- 
 ried sometimes in a pouch in the abdomen of the mother. The 
 Monotremata are characterized by having but one external open- 
 ing for the intestinal canal and bladder, the same as birds. 
 
 The porcupine, ant-eater, and the duck-bill, or water-mole are 
 representatives. 
 
 18. Give the characteristics of birds. 
 
 They are of the class A.ves, and are the only animals clothed 
 with feathers. They are further characterized as follows: (1) 
 The inferior maxillary bone articulates with the skull through a 
 separate bone. (2) One occipital condyle enabling the bird to 
 turn its face completely backward. (3) Four, anterior for flying, 
 posterior for walking. (4) Femur short, knee never seen outside 
 of plumage — first joint visible being the heel. (5) Toes ending in 
 claws, generally four in number. (6) No diaphragm, epiglottis or 
 teeth. (7) Cerebrum smooth, cerebellum single lobed. (8) Eyes 
 with three lids. (9) One opening for excretiori of kidneys and 
 alimentary canal. (10) The bones are light, containing a large 
 proportion of phosphate of lime and the marrow in many cases 
 replaced by air, which communicates with the lungs. (11) The 
 clavicles are usually united, forming the " wish-bone." (12) The 
 
ZOOLOGY. 143 
 
 temperature is much higher than in mammals. (13) The young 
 are produced from eggs which are hatched outside the body. 
 
 19. Give a representative of each order of birds. 
 
 (1) Passeras, the sparrow, bluebird, mocking-bird, robin, swal- 
 low, lark, crow, jay, bird of Paradise, lyre, weaver, and many of 
 the common birds of this country. (2) Picaras includes the 
 woodpecker, kingfisher, whip-poor-will, cuckoo, humming-bird, 
 etc. (3) Psittaci, the parrots, cockatoos, etc. (4) Raptores, or 
 birds of prey, including hawks, eagles, owls, falcons, condors, and 
 vultures. (5) Columbae includes pigeons and doves. (6) Gal- 
 linse, which includes domestic fowls, pheasants, quails, etc. (7) 
 BreYipennes, the ostrich and apteryx. (8) Llnicolee, birds with 
 long beaks, as snipes. (9) Herodiones, herons, storks. (10) 
 Alectorides, the whooping crane, rails, etc. (11) Lamelliros- 
 tres, geese, ducks, etc. (12) Steganopodes, the pelican, cormo- 
 rant, etc. (13) Longipeuues^ sea gulls, albatross, etc. (14) 
 Pygopodes, the loon, etc. (15) Splienisci, the penguin. 
 
 20. Describe reptiles. 
 
 The class Keptilia are characterized as follows: (1) Air- 
 breathing, but cold blooded. (2) With horny scales or bony- 
 plates. (3) Skeleton is never cartilaginous, and the skull has but 
 one occipital condyle ; the vertebrae usually concave in front. (4) 
 Teeth in all except turtles, and not fastened in sockets except in 
 crocodiles. (5) The heart has three chambers, except in croco- 
 diles, which have the ventricle partitioned ; the venous and the 
 arterial blood are mixed. (6) Nearly all carnivorous. (7) Re- 
 produced from eggs, which are generally hatched without the 
 body. 
 
 21. Give a representative of each order of reptiles. 
 
 (1) Testudinata, or turtles. (2) Loricata, the alligator and 
 crocodile. (3) Lacertilia, or lizards, including also the chame- 
 leon, the horned frog, the glass snake, etc. (4) Ophides, or 
 snakes. 
 
 22. Describe the class Pisces, or fishes. 
 
 They are the lowest of the vertebrates. The eyes are almost 
 immovable, and are unprotected by lids. Though having ears, 
 
144 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 yet sound is passed through the cranium. This class includes 
 nearly one-half of all the vertebrated species. 
 
 23. Describe the class Amphibia. 
 
 They are distinguished by (1) Having a double life, that is in 
 the immature or tadpole state, breathing by means of gills as 
 fish, and in the mature state by lungs. (2) The heart has three 
 chambers, two auricles and one ventricle ; cold blooded. (3) 
 They are covered with a naked skin. This class includes frogs, 
 toads, salamanders, etc. 
 
 24. W hat are invertebrates f 
 
 All animals not belonging to the sub-kingdom vertebrata are 
 sometimes called invertebrates. 
 
 25. Descvibe the Articulates. 
 
 The Articulata — largest of all the sub-kingdoms — comprises 
 four-fifths of the animal world. They are characterized as fol- 
 lows : (1) Body composed of rings, or ring-like plates more or 
 less indurated and enclosing the vital parts. (2) The nervous 
 system mainly a double chain of ganglia on the ventral side of 
 the body. (3) Alimentary canal, a nearly straight tube lying 
 lengthwise in the center of the body. (4) The circulatory organs, 
 nearly straight tubes running along the back. (5) The respira- 
 tory organs, a system of tubes throughout the body communicat- 
 ing externally with the air in various places. (6) Blood white, 
 except in some of the worms. (7) A transverse section of the 
 body shows but one cavity. (8) The mouth opens vertically with 
 the axis of the body, and the number of limbs varies from none 
 at all to fifty or more pairs. 
 
 26. Why does a fly or bee not die instantly when the head is cut off or 
 the body cut in two ? 
 
 Because the nervous system is so constructed that each segment 
 represents a nearly complete animal. 
 
 27. Describe insects. 
 
 The class Iiisecta is characterized as follows: (1) Body di- 
 vided into three distinct sections, head, thorax, and abdomen. (2) 
 Three pairs of jointed legs, one pair of antennae, or feelers, and 
 
ZOOLOGY. 145 
 
 usually two pairs of wings, the legs and wings borne on the thorax. 
 (3) The eyes are usually compound, being made up of hexagonal 
 cones, sometimes many thousand in number, but each a distinct 
 eye. (4) Many undergo a metamorphosis. When first hatched 
 from the egg the insect is called a lar%a which, if it be without 
 legs, is called a grub or maggot ; if with legs, a caterpillar ; and 
 when its full size is reached it sheds its coat and remains for a 
 time dormant, then called the pifpa, which is sometimes surround- 
 ed by a cocoon spun and woven of silk by the larva. After re- 
 maining a certain time in the pupa state it bursts its covering 
 and emerges an imago or perfect insect. 
 
 28. What does the class Myreapoda include f 
 
 Centipedes, earwigs, etc., and are characterized by having the 
 thorax and abdomen merged in one, but the head distinct. They 
 have usually many legs, as the name indicates, and their bodies 
 are worm-like in appearance. 
 
 29. Describe the class Arachnida. 
 
 They have the head and thorax merged into one, and the abdo- 
 men distinct, and four pairs of legs, with from two to eight simple 
 eyes. The spiders, scorpions, and the itch mite belong to this 
 class. 
 
 30. Describe the class Crustacea. 
 
 This includes the largest and strongest of the sub-kingdom. 
 All are aquatic and breathe by gills. Their bodies are covered 
 with a hard crust, whence the name. The shell is frequently cast, 
 as the animal grows too large for it. When a limb is lost by ac- 
 cident another grows in its place. The crawfish, crabs, and the 
 lobster belong to this class. 
 
 31. Describe the class Annelida. 
 
 It includes all animals known as worms, such as the common 
 earth- worms, leeches, the tape- worm, etc. 
 
 32. What are Mollusca ? 
 
 (1) Soft bodies without joints or internal skeleton, covered with 
 a contractile skin, or mantle. (2) Sometimes the skin is naked, 
 
 10 
 
146 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK, 
 
 but usually covered with a shell of calcareous material. (3) The 
 nervous system consists of three pairs of ganglia around the neck, 
 or entrance to the alimentary canal, with other ganglia scattered 
 throughout the body. (4) The majority are water breathers and 
 exist in the ocean. Snails, oysters, and mussels are common types 
 of this sub-kingdom. 
 
 33. Give a representative of each class of mollusks. 
 
 (1) Cephalopoda; to this class belong the cuttle-fish, which 
 has the power of ejecting a black fluid, which darkens the water 
 and screens it from pursuit. It has a spongy, calcareous mass 
 within its body, known as cuttle-fish bone, and used for canary 
 birds. The devil-fish and the nautilus also belong to this class. 
 (2) Crasteropoda, which move by a fleshy disc called the foot, 
 and usually covered with a spiral univalve shell. The common 
 snail is typical. (3) Lanielli-BrancMata, which have bivalve 
 shells, the oyster and mussel being typical. (4) Braclitipoda^ 
 which have arms coiled up within the shell, a bivalve, being sym- 
 metrical, i. e. equal on each side of the hinge. (5) Tunicata, 
 which appear as a gelatinous mass covered with two tunics or 
 coats, forming a tube through which the water passes. (6) Polyza^ 
 — compound animals, — the individuals inhabiting separate cellsy 
 but attached to each other and resembling a plant. 
 
 84. Describe the Echinodermata. 
 
 They have all the parts arranged around a central axis in fives 
 or multiples of five. It includes classes named and represented 
 as follows: (1) Holothuridee, sea slugs; (2) Echinoidea, sea 
 urchins; (3) Asteroidea, star-fish; (4) Crinoidea, crinoids, or 
 sea lilies. 
 
 35. Describe the Ccelenterata. 
 
 They are animals radiated in structure, but having a distinct 
 cavity in the body with walls of two layers of cellular tissue. 
 They are represented by the corals and jelly fishes. 
 
 36. Describe the Protozoa. 
 
 This includes all the lowest forms of animals that have not 
 been classed with the other sub-kingdoms. They are all small,, 
 living mostly in the water, and many are microscopic. They have- 
 
ZOOLOGY. 147 
 
 no distinct organs of circulation, digestion, etc., that have yet 
 been discovered, although they take food, grow and multiply, and 
 many are exceedingly active- 
 
 37. What are Radiates f 
 
 The sub-kingdoms Echinodermata and Coelenterata were for- 
 merly included in the sub-kingdoms Radiata* 
 
SECTION VIII. 
 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 
 
 1. Define Anatomy, Physiology, Hygiene. 
 
 Anatomy treats of the structure of the animal body. When ap- 
 plied to man it is called Human Anatomy ; when applied to the 
 lower animals, Comparative Anatomy. 
 
 Physiology treats of the functions of the various organs. 
 
 Hygieue treats of the 'preservation of the body in a state of health. 
 
 2. How are the hones classified f 
 
 There are about 200 distinct bones in the human skeleton, di- 
 •vided into bones of the head, trunk, and extremities. As to 
 form, they may be classed as long, short, flat, and irregular. 
 
 The long bones are fouiM in the limbs. They are chiefly concerned in 
 locomotion and act as levers. They consist of a shaft of a nearly cylindrical 
 iorm, and two extremities, or heads. The short bones are those which are 
 grouped together and united by ligaments for compactness and strength, 
 and at the same time allowing a slight degree of motion, such as the bones 
 •of the waist and ankle. The flat bones are those which are for protection 
 to internal organs or for the extensive attachment of muscles. The irregu- 
 lar bones are such as can not be classed with any of the others. 
 
 3. What terms are used in describing hones? 
 
 Diapliysis, the main part of a long bone ; apophysis, a portion 
 -of a bone which projects prominently but which has never been 
 separate from or movable upon the main bone; epiphysis, a 
 portion which has been developed as a separate piece and after- 
 ward joined to the main bone. 
 
 Tuberosities are broad, uneven elevations ; tubercles are small, rough pro- 
 jections; spines are sharp, slender projections; ridges, lines, are narrow, 
 rough, extended elevations. Fossse, groves, fissures, etc., denote depressions. 
 The use of the depressions and elevations is to increase the extent of sur- 
 face for the attachment of muscles and ligaments. 
 
 (148) 
 
PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 149 
 
 4. Hmo may the bones of the head be divided f 
 
 The bones of the head are divided into those of [the cranium^ 
 face, and ear. 
 
 5. Name and locate the bones of the cranium. 
 
 The cranium consists of 8 bones which are joined together in 
 such a manner as to form a kind of box enclosing the brain. Thej 
 are as follows ; (1) The occipital, forming the back and lower part 
 of the head, resting on the spinal column and perforated with a 
 lai'ge opening called the foramen magnum for the entrance of the 
 spinal marrow; (2) i\\e parietals, two in number, forming the sides 
 of the head; (3) the /ronto/, forming the forehead and brows; (4) 
 the temporals, one on each side, forming the lower part of the side 
 of the head ; (5) the sphenoid, forming the lower part of the base 
 of the skull, articulating with all the other bones of the cranium 
 and holding them together; (6) the ethmoid, a light, spongy bone 
 at the anterior part of the base of the skull between the orbits of 
 the eyes. 
 
 6. Name and locate the bones of the face. 
 
 The face contains 14 bones which form attachments for the; 
 softer parts. They are: (1) the two nasal, forming the bridge oi 
 the nose; (2) two superior maxillary, ov upper jaw bones; (3) one 
 inferior maxillary, or lower jaw bone ; (4) two molar, or cheek bones ; 
 (5) two lachrymal, very small bones at the inner corner of the 
 orbits ; (6) two 'palate, forming part of the roof of the mouth ; (7) 
 two inferior turbinated, scroll-like projections from the superior 
 maxillary in the nasal fossae; (8) one vomer, separating the divi- 
 sions of the nasal fossae. 
 
 The bones of the ear are very minute, three in number,— the malltis, in- 
 cus, and stapes,— situated in a cavity of the petrous portion of the temporal-' 
 bone 
 
 7. Hoio is the trunk divided f 
 
 The trunk may be divided into the thorax, the spinal column, and 
 the pelvis. The thorax includes: (1) the ribs, 24 in number ar- 
 ranged in pairs, joined to the sternum in front and to the spinal 
 column at the other extremity, the first seven pairs being united 
 to the sternum directly by means of separate cartilages, and called 
 true ribs, the next three pairs being indirectly united to the ster- 
 
150 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 num, called false ribs, the last two pairs not united to the sternum 
 and called floating ribs; (2) the sternum, or breast bone, in the 
 adult divided into three portions, the manubrium, the gladiolus, and 
 the ensiform appendage; (3) the clavicle, or collar bone acting as a 
 kind of brace and extending from the sternum to the scapula, be- 
 ing more frequently broken than any other bone in the body. 
 
 8. Describe the spinal column. 
 
 The spinal column consists of 24 irregular bones called vertebrce. 
 In general, each vertebra consists of a body and a posterior arch 
 "which is composed of two laminae and two pedicles with seven 
 processes, four articular, two transverse, and one spinous. Between 
 the arch and the body is a foramen, or opening, which, when all 
 the vertebrae are put together, form the spinal canal containing 
 the spinal cord. 
 
 They are divided into the cervical, dorsal, and lumbar regions. There are 
 seven cervical vertebrae, the first articulating with the occipital bone is 
 called the atlas ; the second, which forms the pivot on which the head turns, 
 is called the axis ; the seventh is called the vertebra prominens. 
 
 9. Name and locate the bones of the pelvis. 
 
 The pelvis consists of the sacrum, the coccyx, and the two innom- 
 inata. The sacrum consists of five solidly united vertebrce, and is 
 in reality a continuation of the spinal column. The innominata, 
 or hip bones, are very irregular, expanded bones, which afford at- 
 tachment to the femur. The cavity which receives the head of 
 the femur is called the acetabulum. 
 
 The sacrum is so called because it was anciently offered in sacrifice. 
 
 10. Name and locate the bones of the upper extremities. 
 
 The upper extremities consist of 60 bones as follows : (1) The 
 humerus, or long bone of the arm ; (2) the ulna and radius, the bones 
 of the forearm; (3) the carpus, or wrist, has 8 bones arranged in 
 two rows ; (4) the metacarpus, or hand, consists of 5 bones articu- 
 lating with the carpus above and the bones of the fingers and 
 thumb below ; the bones of the fingers and thumb, called phalanges, 
 are 14 in number, three to each finger and two to the thumb. 
 
 11. Describe the bones of the lower extremities. 
 
 The lower extremities consist of 60 bones as follows : (1) The 
 femur, or thigh bone, the longest bone in the body ; (2) the tihia 
 
PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 151 
 
 (shiti bone), the largest bone of the leg; (3) the fibula, the small- 
 est bone of the leg, acting as a kind of brace to the tibia ; (4) the 
 patella, or knee-cap, is in the shape of a chestnut, and lies over the 
 heads of the femur and tibia, held in place by strong ligaments ; 
 (5) the tarsus, or ankle, consists of 7 bones ; (6) the metatarsus, or 
 foot, 5 bones; (7) the phalanges, or toes, 14 bones. 
 
 12. What bone is in the shape of the letter U, and what is its use? 
 
 The OS hyoides, or hyoid bone, has no articulations with any 
 other bones. It is located just above the larynx, supports the 
 tongue and gives attachment to many muscles. It is in the shape 
 of the letter U. 
 
 13. What are sesamoid bones f 
 
 Sesamoid bones are small rounded masses of a cartilaginous 
 nature until adult life, and are found in tendons which exert 
 great pressure upon parts over which they glide. 
 
 The patella is really a sesamoid bone. Others are very small and are 
 found mostly in male individuals of active muscular habit, in the region of 
 the thumb, great toe, and sometimes in other parts of the hand and foot, 
 
 14. What are the ligctments ? 
 
 Ligaments are bundles of white fibrous or yellow elastic tissue, 
 pliable and elastic, which are connected with nearly all movable 
 joints and hold the bones in place, yet allow freedom of move- 
 ment. 
 
 15. What are synovial membranes, and ivhat do they enclose? 
 
 Synovial membranes are delicate membranous tissues in the 
 form of short, wide tubes attached by the open ends to the edges 
 of the extremities of bones in the joints. They enclose a fluid, 
 synovia, for the lubrication of the joints. 
 
 Bursse are little sacs containing a viscid fluid and are found in the neigh- 
 borhood of joints. Their use is to lessen friction of the moving parts. 
 
 16. Describe the mechanical structure of bone. 
 
 All bones are covered except at their cartilaginous extremities 
 with a periosteum, which is a thin membrane intimately connected 
 with the bone and containing nutrient vessels for the nourishment 
 of the bone beneath. The marrow, or medulla, found especially in 
 the cavities of long bones, consists mostly of fat. Bone is made 
 
152 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 up of two kinds of tissue visible to the eye, cancellous, or spongy, 
 and compact tissues, the compact being found on the exterior and 
 cancellous on the interior. 
 
 17. Describe the microscopic structure of bone. 
 
 The bone substance (matrix) seems to be arranged in layers 
 {lamellae) around certain channels which in a cross section appear 
 as round and oval openings. In the midst of these lamellae are 
 numerous little openings, or cells, arranged in rows around the 
 larger openings, which are called Haversian canals. From the 
 lacunae, branching in every direction, are little channels called 
 canaliculi. 
 
 18. Describe the chemical structure of bone. 
 
 The composition of the bones at maturity is about one part 
 animal to two parts mineral matter. The proportion varies with 
 the age. In youth it is nearly half and half, while in old age the 
 mineral is greatly in escess. 
 
 By soaking a bone in weak muriate acid, and thus dissolving the mineral 
 matter, its shape will not change, but its stiffness will disappear, leaving a 
 tough, gristly substance (cartilage), which can be bent like rubber. Mix a 
 wineglass of muriatic acid with a pint of water and place in it a sheep's rib. 
 In a day or two it will be so soft that it can be tied in a knot. If the bone 
 be burned in the fire, thus consuming the animal matter, ihe shape will 
 still be the same, but it will have lost its tenacity, and the beautiful, pure- 
 white residue maybe crumbled into powder with the fingers. 
 By chemical analysis the composition of bone is as follows : 
 
 Organic substance 33.00 
 
 Phosphate of lime 57.00 
 
 Carbonate of lime 8.00 
 
 Fluorid of calcium . 1.00 
 
 Phosphate of magnesia 1.00 
 
 lOO.-OO 
 
 19. How is bone produced? 
 
 Bone is produced by a kind of petrifaction of cartilage, i. e., all 
 bone is first in a soft condition, but develops into solid bone by 
 deposit of earthy matter. This process is called ossification. 
 
 20. What cause the motions of the body ? 
 
 The motions of the body are caused by the contraction of 
 bundles of fibers called muscles. 
 
 There are over 500 muscles in the body. They are connected with the 
 bones, cartilages, ligaments, and skin, directly or by means of tendons 
 (fibrous cords), and covered with thin membranes called fascia. 
 
PHYSIOLOGY AND HY^GIENE. 153 
 
 21. What are the forms of muscles? 
 
 As to form muscles may be: (1) Badiated, fibers diverging 
 from a point like a fan; (2) penniform, converging to one side of a 
 tendon like a feather; (3) bipenniform, converging to both sides of 
 a tendon; (4) fusiform, when the fibers converge to both ends ; (5) 
 sphincter, when the fibers run round in a circle. 
 
 22. What are the kinds of muscles f 
 
 As to the mode of action, they are : (1) Extensors, those which 
 straighten a part from a bent position ; (2) flexors, the opposite of 
 extensors ; (3) abductors, those which move a limb away from the 
 body; (4) adductors, the opposite of abductors ; (5) pronaim^s, those 
 which turn or roll a part over so that it lies on its face, as the 
 hand turned so as to lie with the palm downward ; (6) supinators, 
 the opposite of pronators; (7) sphincters, those which act like a 
 draw-string to close an opening. 
 
 As to position, they may be superficial (near the surface) or deep 
 seated. As to volition, they are voluntary, involuntary, or mixed. 
 As to structure, the voluntary muscles are striped, or striated, and 
 the involuntary ones generally unstriped. 
 
 In describing a muscle it is customary to give : (1) Its origin, the more 
 fixed or central attachment toward which the force of the muscles is ex- 
 erted ; (2) its insertion, the more movable point upon which the force is 
 exerted ; (3) relations, stating what other organs or parts lie in the immedi- 
 ate neighborhood ; (4) actions, or use. 
 
 23. How are muscles named f 
 
 Muscles are named : (1) From their form, as Deltoid, Rhomboi- 
 dens; (2) from their location, as Tibialis, Ulnaris; (3) from their 
 attachments, as Sterno-cleido-mastoid ; (4) from their use, as Flex- 
 ors, Extensors; (5) from number of divisions, as Biceps, Triceps. 
 
 24. What is the mechanical construction of muscles? 
 
 In mechanical structure striped muscles, which comprise all 
 the ordinary muscles of the trunk and limbs, are made up of a 
 vast number of small cylindrical fibers arranged parallel to each 
 other and bound together in little bundles by connective tissue. 
 These bundles are united into still larger bundles and these again 
 into one whole by connective tissue which usually thickens at one 
 or both ends to form the tendon. 
 
154 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 25. What are the general divisions of the Digestive System f 
 
 The Digestive System consists of the Alimentary Canal and Ac- 
 •cessory Organs. The former consists of the mouth, pharynx, eso- 
 phagus, stomach, and intestines. The latter embrace the teeth, 
 salivary glands, liver, pancreas, and spleen. 
 
 By means of the teeth, tongue, cheeks, and tlie action of the saliva food is 
 masticated and prepared in the mouth for the further action in the stomach. 
 The pharynx is a short, irregular tubular cavity into which the moiith 
 opens behind, serving as a portion of the canal from the mouth to the stom- 
 ach. It also communicates with both ears, with the nostrils and lungs, by 
 passages which open directly into it. The esophagns, or throat, is a long and 
 narrow tube, made up of two' muscular coats, which terminates in the 
 stomach by the cardiac orifice. It contains a great number of minute 
 glands, which secrete an oily fluid when the food is passing through it. 
 
 26. Describe the stomach. 
 
 The stomach, the most important organ in the body, is a pear- 
 shaped sac, or enlargement of the alimentary canal, where the 
 food is dissolved and reduced to chyme. It varies in size, averag- 
 ing when moderately full, twelve inches in length (transversely), 
 and four inches in breadth (vertically). 
 
 The left extremity is the larger, and is called the greater, or splenic end, 
 The entrance of the esophagus is called the cardiac orifice. The opposite 
 extremity, or where the digested food passes into the intestine, is called the 
 pyloric orifice. 
 
 27. Name the coats of the stomach. 
 
 The walls of the stomach are composed of three COats— the 
 -serous, or outer ; the muscular, or middle ; the mucous, or inner. 
 
 In the middle, or muscular, coat the fibers run at right angles to each 
 other, in order that they may contract in the most efficient manner upon 
 the contents of the stomach 'for the purpose of digestion, and forcing the 
 <3ontents onward into the duodenum. They also assist in forcing the con- 
 tents of the stomach backward in vomiting. In the inner, or mucous, 
 lining are situated an immense number of tubular glands which open 
 ■directly into the stomach. 
 
 28. What are the intestines f 
 
 The intestines are the continuation of the stomach. They 
 form a long, narrow tube, which, like the stomach, is composed of 
 membranous, muscular, and mucous coats. They are divided 
 into two parts, viz., the small intestine and the large intestine. 
 
 29. Describe the smaller intestine. 
 
 The duodenum is the first division of the small intestine which 
 
PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 155 
 
 receives the contents of the stomach and eiffects further changes 
 upon the food. It is 8 or 10 inches in length. 
 
 The jejunum, the second division of the small intestine, is about seven 
 feet in length, and together with the ileum, the third division, lies coiled 
 chiefly in the central part of the cavity of the abdomen. The ileum is 
 about twelve feet in length and somewhat smaller in diameter than the 
 jejunum. 
 
 30. Describe the larger intestine. 
 
 The larger intestine is about 5 feet in length and is divided 
 into the ccecum, the colon, and the rectum. The coecum is the com- 
 mencement of the large intestine. The ileum opens into the 
 large intestine at the junction of the coecum with the colon. The 
 colon is divided into three parts, the ascending, transverse, and de- 
 scending portions. The terminal part of the large intestine and 
 the alimentary canal is the rectum. 
 
 31. Classify and describe the teeth. 
 
 The teeth are thirty -two in all — there being eight in each half 
 jaw, similarly shaped and arranged. In each set of eight, the 
 two nearest the middle of the jaw have wide, sharp, chisel-like 
 edges, fit for cutting, and hence are called incisors. The next cor- 
 responds to the great tearing or holding tooth of the dog, and is 
 styled the canine, or eye-tooth. The next two have broader crowns, 
 with two points in cusps, and are hence termed the hicuspeds. The 
 Temaining three are much broader, and as they are used to crush 
 the food, are called the grinders or molars. 
 
 32. What are temporary, or milk-teeth f 
 
 We are provided with two sets of teeth. The first, or milk- 
 teeth, are only twenty in number, 4 incisors, 2 canine, and 4 mo- 
 lars in each jaw. The roots of the temporary teeth become ab- 
 sorbed and the crowns drop out as the permanent set push up. 
 
 The middle incisors are usually cut about the age of seven months, the 
 others at nine months, the first "molars at twelve months, the canines at 
 ■eighteen months, and the remaining molars at two or three years of age. 
 
 33. What are permanent teeth? 
 
 At six years, when the first set are usually still perfect, the 
 jaws contain the crowns of all the second, except the wisdom- 
 teeth. About this age, to meet the wants of the growing body, 
 the crowns of the permanent set begin to press against the roots 
 
156 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 of the milk-teeth, which, becoming absorbed, leave the loosened 
 teeth to drop out, while the new ones rise and occupy their places. 
 
 The central incisors appear at about seven years of age, the others at 
 eight; the first bicuspeds at nine, the second at ten, the canines at eleven 
 or twelve ; the second molars at twelve or thirteen, and the last, or wisdom- 
 teeth, are sometimes delayed until the twenty-second year, or even later. 
 
 34. What is the structure of the teeth f 
 
 The interior of the tooth consists principally of dentine, a dense 
 substance resembling bone. The croiun of the tooth, which is ex- 
 posed to wear, is protected by a sheath of enamel. This is a hard, 
 glistening, white substance, containing only two and a half per 
 cent, of animal matter. The fang is covered by a thin layer of 
 true bone (cement). At the center of the tooth is a cavity filled 
 with a soft, reddish-white, pulpy substance full of blood-vessels 
 and nerves. 
 
 35. How are the teeth set into the jaw ? 
 
 The socket is lined with a membrane which forms a soft cush- 
 ion. While this is in a healthy state, it deadens the force of any 
 shock, but when inflamed, becomes the seat of excruciating pain. 
 
 36. What causes the decay of the teeth f 
 
 It is commonly caused (1) by portions of the food which become 
 entangled between them, and on account of the heat and moisture, 
 quickly decompose. Also (2), as the saliva evaporates, it leaves- 
 on the teeth a sediment, which we call tartar. This collects the 
 organic matter, which rapidly changes, and also affords a soil in 
 which a sort of fungus speedily springs up. 
 
 37. How may the teeth he preserved f 
 
 Four rules may be laid down, the observance of which will tend 
 to the preservation of the teeth: (1) Avoid extremely hot food 
 or drink. (2) Avoid extremely cold food or drink. (3) Avoid 
 sweet food. (4) Avoid sour food. The teeth should be brushed 
 every morning with tepid water, and twice a week with soap and 
 powdered orris-root. 
 
 The enamel once injured is never restored, and the whole interior of the 
 tooth is exposed to decay. We should not, therefore, crack hard nuts, bite 
 thread, use metal tooth picks, gritty tooth powders, or any acid that " sets 
 the teeth on edge." 
 
PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 157 
 
 08. Describe the Salivary Glands. 
 
 The saliva, with which the food is moistened in mastication, is 
 
 furnished by a set of bodies called salivary g'laiids, whose office 
 
 it is to separate this fluid from the blood. The salivary glands 
 
 are three in number on each side. The largest of these, called the 
 
 parotid gland, is situated behind the angle of the lower jaw, and 
 
 forward of the external ear. It sends its saliva into the mouth 
 
 through a tube or duct which opens opposite the second molar 
 
 tooth, in the upper jaw. The second pair, the submaxillary glands 
 
 are located on the inner side of the lower jaw, a little forward of 
 
 the angle, on each side. The sublingual glands are placed beneath 
 
 the mucous membrane, forming the floor of the mouth, on each 
 
 side, near the base of the tongue. 
 
 The saliva secreted by these glands is a clear, somewhat viscid fluid, of an 
 alkaline reaction, and consisting mostly of water. 
 
 39. Give the location and structure of the liver. 
 
 The liver, the largest glandular organ in the body, is located 
 
 mostly in the right side of the abdomen, just below the diaphragm. 
 
 In structure the liver consists of a mass of lobules held together by 
 
 areolar tissue, among which ramify the portal vein, the hepatic duct, 
 
 hepatic veins, hepatic artery, lymphatics and nerves. 
 
 The bile is a clear, yellowish, somewhat tenacious fluid, neutral in re- 
 action and composed of about 97 per cent, water, with certain characteris- 
 tic ingredients, biliary salts and several mineral salts. 
 
 40. What is the pancreas ? 
 
 The pancreas is a long, flattened gland, located behind the 
 stomach. It is similar in structure to the salivary glands. It 
 secretes the pancreatic fluid, which is almost identical with saliva, 
 and is emptied into the duodenum through the pancreatic duct. 
 
 41. What is the spleen f 
 
 The spleen, located to the left of the stomach, is classified as a 
 
 "ductless, or blood gland. It has arteries, veins, and lymphatics, 
 
 but no excretory duct. 
 
 The function of the spleen is not well determined but it is thought that 
 it acts as a kind of reservoir for surplus blood during digestion, and that 
 it effects some changes in the nature of the blood. 
 
 42. What are the processes in digestion f 
 
 Mastication and insalivation. The food is between the jaws 
 
158 HIGH SCHOOIi QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 by the action of the tongue and cheeks, and being moistened by 
 the saliva is by the grinding action of the teeth reduced to a pulp 
 which is now ready for deglutition, or swallowing. It then passes 
 into the pharynx^ and is prevented from going into the larynx by 
 the epiglottis over which it glides into the esophagus, which by the 
 alternate relaxation and contraction of its circular muscular fibers 
 forces it on to the stomach, where it comes in contact with the 
 gastric juice, which dissolves the albuminous portions of the food. 
 The muscles of the stomach keep up a kind of churning action 
 which thoroughly mixes the food and permits the gastric juice to 
 come in contact with every part of it. This process is continued 
 until the food is converted into chyme, which then passes inta 
 the small intestines, where it receives the bile and pancreatic 
 fluid, also the intestinal juices from the intestinal glands, and it 
 is converted into a milky white fluid called chyle. This is taken 
 up by the ladeals and passed into the blood, and thus reaches 
 every part of the system where nourishment is needed. 
 
 The waste portions pass along the intestines and are excreted from the 
 body. 
 
 43. What is the effect of the saliva ? 
 
 The effect of the saliva is mainly to change the starch of the 
 food into sugar. This change takes place partly in the mouth 
 but is continued in the stomach. Besides moistening the food 
 and thus aiding in mastication and deglutition, it is an aid to 
 taste, for substances to have a flavor must be in a state of solu- 
 tion. It also keeps the interior of the mouth moist and prevents, 
 the disagreeable sensation of dryness. 
 
 44. What is the function of the bile in digestion ? 
 
 The bile, though primarily an excretion, or waste material, 
 seems to efiect some changes in the food, especially on the fatty 
 material, preparing it for absorption by the lacteals. The pan- 
 creatic fluid has an action similar to the saliva converting starch 
 into sugar. 
 
 The bile is of a dark, golden color and bitter taste. About three pounds 
 are secreted per day. When not needed for digestion it is stored in the gall- 
 bladder. 
 
 45. Why is a variety of food essential? 
 
 Tariety is essential, as an exclusive use of easily digestible food 
 
PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 159^ 
 
 will weaken the organs from want of proper exercise, and an ex- 
 clusive use of food difficult of digestion will overwork the organs. 
 
 46. How should the amount of food vary ? 
 
 (1) With age, persons while growing need more food than at 
 other times ; (2) temperature^ more being required in winter and 
 in a cold climate than in summer or in hot climates ; (3) exercise, 
 those persons whose occupations demand more muscular exercise 
 need more food to supply the waste ; (4) temperament, persons of 
 active temperament needing more than those of a sluggish tem- 
 perament ; (5) habits, much depends on what persons accustom 
 themselves to ; (6) mental condition, under a depressed sta,te of 
 mind the degestive organs do not work so well and a less amount 
 of food should be taken. 
 
 47. What are necessary conditions for good digestion? 
 
 Pure air for the lungs, and the skin kept clean are necessary 
 to have pure blood, and without pure blood there can be no good 
 digestion. A daily attention to the evacuation of the alimentary 
 canal is also necessary to pure blood, as the waste matter in the 
 intestines if not evacuated will be absorbed and taken into the 
 blood, where it becomes an irritant poison. 
 
 48. What are the organs of the Circulatory System f 
 
 The circulatory system embraces the heart, the arteries, the veins^ 
 and the capillai^ies. 
 
 49. Describe the heart. 
 
 The heart is the engine which propels the biood. It is a hol- 
 low, pear-shaped muscle, about the size of the fist. It hangs, point 
 downward, just to the left of the center of the chest. It is en- 
 closed in a loose sac of serous membrane, called the pericardium. 
 This secretes a lubricating fluid, and is smooth as satin. 
 
 50. Of what do the movements of the heart consist f 
 
 Of an alternate contraction and expansion. The former is 
 called a sy^-to-le and the latter the di-a^^-to-le. During the diastole 
 the blood flows into the heart, to be expelled by the systole. The 
 alternation of these movements constitutes the beating of the 
 heart which we hear so distinctly between the fifth and sixth ribs. 
 
160 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 51. What are the chambers of the heart f 
 
 The heart is divided into four chambers. In an adult, each 
 holds about a wine-glassful. The upper ones are called auricles, 
 the lower ones are termed ventricles. The auricle and ventricle 
 on each side communicate with each other, but the right and left 
 valves of the heart are entirely distinct, and perform different 
 oflBces. The left side propels the red blood, and the right the dark. 
 
 52. What is the function of the auricles and the ventricles, respectively f 
 
 The auricles are merely reservoirs to receive the blood — the 
 left auricle, as it filters in bright and pure from the lungs ; the 
 right, as it returns dark and foul from the tour of the body — and 
 to furnish it to the ventricles as they need. On the other hand, 
 the ventricles force the blood— the left, to all parts of the body ; 
 the right, to the lungs — and are, therefore, made very strong. As 
 the left ventricle drives the blood so much further than the right, 
 it is correspondingly thicker and stronger. 
 
 53. Name and describe the valves of the heart. 
 
 At the opening into the right ventricle is a valve consisting of 
 three folds or flaps of membrane, whence it is called the tricuspid 
 valve, and in the left ventricle, one containing two flaps, and 
 named the bicuspid valve. 
 
 These flaps are strengthened like sails by slender cords, which prevent 
 their being pressed back through the opening. 
 
 54. What are semi-lunar valves f 
 
 In the passage out from the ventricles are valves, called from 
 their peculiar half-moon shape semi-lunar valves. Each consists 
 of three little pocket-shaped folds of membrane, with their open- 
 ings in the direction which the blood is to take. When it sets 
 back, they fill, and swelling out, close the passage. 
 
 55. Describe the arteries. 
 
 The arteries are the tube-like canals which convey the blood 
 from the heart to nourish the system. They carry only the red 
 blood. They are composed of an elastic tissue, which yields at 
 every throb of the heart, and then slowly contracting again, keeps 
 up the motion of the blood until the next systole. 
 
PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 161 
 
 The elasticity of the arteries acts like the air-chamber of a fire engine, 
 "Which converts the intermittent jerks of the brakes, or pump, into the 
 steady stream of the hose nozzle. The arteries communicate with one an- 
 other by branches or by meshes of loops, so that if the blood be blocked in 
 one, it can pass round through another and so get by the obstacle. 
 
 56. Trace the course of the Arterial System. 
 
 The Arterial System starts from the left ventricle by a single 
 trunk — the aorta — which, after giving off branches to the head, 
 sweeps back of the chest with a bold curve — the arch of the aorta — 
 and thence runs downward, dividing and subdividing, like a tree, 
 into numberless branches, which, at last, penetrate every nook 
 and corner of the body. 
 
 The arteries are generally located as far as possible beneath the surface, 
 out of harm's way, and hence are found closely hugging the bones or creep- 
 ing through safe passages provided for them. They are generally nearly 
 straight, and take the shortest routes to the parts which they are to supply 
 with blood. 
 
 57. What is the pulse f 
 
 At the wrist and on the temple we can feel the expansion of 
 the artery by each little wave of blood set in motion by the con- 
 traction of the heart. In health, there are about seventy-two 
 pulsations per minute. They increase with excitement or in- 
 flammation, weaken with loss of vigor, and are modified by nearly 
 every disease. The physician, therefore, finds the pulse a good 
 index of the state of the system and character of the disorder. 
 
 58. What are the veins ? 
 
 The veins are the channels by which the blood returns to the 
 heart. They, therefore, carry the dark or venous blood. One set 
 of the veins creep along under the skin, where they can be seen, 
 as in the back of the hand ; another set accompany the arteries, 
 some of which have two or more of these satellites. 
 
 Valves similar in construction to those already described {see Answer to 
 Question 54) are placed at convenient intervals, especially in the lower ex- 
 tremities, to guide the blood in its course, and prevent its setting backward. 
 
 59. What, are the capillaries? 
 
 The capillaries form a fine net-work of tubes, connecting the 
 ends of the arteries with the veins. They blend, however, with 
 the extremities of these two systems, so that it is impossible to 
 
 11 
 
162 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 tell just where an artery ends and a vein begins. So closely are 
 they placed, that we can not prick the flesh with a needle without 
 injuring, perhaps, hundreds of them. 
 
 60. What is the lesser circulation f 
 
 The dark blood from the veins collects in the right auricle, and 
 going through the tricuspid valve, empties into the right ventri- 
 cle. Thence it is driven past the semi-lunar valves, through the 
 pulmonary artery, to the lungs. After circulating through the 
 fine capillaries of the air-cells, it is returned bright and red, 
 through the pulmonary veins, to the left auricle. 
 
 61. What is the greater circulation '^ 
 
 From the left auricle, the blood is forced past the bicuspid valve 
 to the left ventricle ; thence it is driven through the semi-lunar 
 valves into the great aorta, the main trunk of the arterial system. 
 Passing through the arteries, capillaries, and veins, it returns 
 through the vence cavce, ascending and descending, gathers again in 
 the right auricle, and so completes the " grand round " of the body. 
 Both of these circulations are going on constantly, as the auricles 
 contract and the ventricles expand simultaneously, and vice versa. 
 
 It lias been estimated that a portion of the blood will make the tour of 
 the body in about twenty-three seconds, and that the entire mass passes 
 through the heart in from one to two minutes. 
 
 62. How is the heat of the body distributed ^ 
 
 The natural temperature— about 98° — is maintained by the 
 action of the oxygen within us. The heat thus produced is dis- 
 tributed by the circulation of the blood. 
 
 Thus the arteries, veins, and capillaries form a series of hot-water pipes, 
 through which the heated liquid is forced by a pump— the heart— while the 
 heat is kept up, not by a central furnace and boiler, but by a multitude of 
 little fires placed here and there along its course. 
 
 63. How is the temperature of the body regulated f 
 
 By means of the pores of the skin and the lUUCOUS membrane 
 
 in the air-passages. When the system becomes too warm, the 
 blood-vessels on the surface expand, the blood fills them, the fluid 
 exudes into the perspiratory glands, pours out upon the exterior, 
 and by evaporation cools the body. When the temperature of 
 the body is too low, the vessels contract, less blood goes to the 
 
PHYSIOLOGY AXD HYGIENE. 163 
 
 surface, the perspiration decreases, and the loss of heat by evap- 
 oration diminishes. 
 
 64. What of the changes going on in the body f 
 
 The scales of the epidermis are constantly falling off and being 
 replaced by fresh cells from beneath. On the continuance of this 
 interchange depends our health and vigor. The more rapidly this 
 change goes on, and fresh, vigorous tissue takes the place of the 
 old, the more elasticity and strength we possess. 
 
 There is a belief that our bodies change once in every seven years. 
 From the very nature of the case, the rate must vary with the labor we per- 
 form, the organs most used altering oftenest. To use a homely simile, our 
 bodies are like the Irishman's knife, which, after having had several new- 
 blades and at least one new handle, was yet the same old knife as ever. 
 
 65. What organs are termed the ^^ Tripod of Life^^ f 
 
 Death is produced by the stoppage of the action of any one of 
 the three organs — the heart, the lungs, or the brain. They have^ 
 therefore, been termed the " Tripod of Life." 
 
 " Our brains are seventy-year clocks. The Angel of Life winds them up 
 once for all, then closes the case, and gives the key into the hand of the 
 Angel of the Resurrection. Tic-tac ! tic-tac ! go the wheels of thought ; 
 our will can not stop them, they can not stop themselves ; sleep can not 
 stop them ; madness only makes them go faster ; death alone can break into- 
 the case, and seizing the ever-swinging pendulum, which we call the heart, 
 silence at last the clicking of the terrible escapement we have carried sa 
 long beneath our wrinkled forehead. "—Oliver Wendell Holmes. 
 
 66. Describe the Lymphatic Vessels. 
 
 They resemble small veins in their general structure, but carry 
 a transparent fluid instead of blood. They are closely interlaced 
 with the blood capillaries [see Aiisvjer to Question 61). Their valves 
 are more numerous than those of the veins, and the small tubes 
 show but little disposition to unite, often running parallel with 
 each other, in clusters, for some distance. 
 
 67. What is the function of the lymphatics f 
 
 They are chiefly employed in taking up and conveying to the 
 blood vessels the waste matter resulting from the constant wear 
 of the tissues. 
 
 They all communicate with the venous side of the circulation, so that 
 the blood with which the lymphatic circulation is mingled is not sent out 
 into the general circulation till it has been purified in the lungs. In brain, 
 tendon, cartilage, or bone the office of the lymphatics is probably per- 
 formed by veins. The lacteals, in their general character and work, very 
 much resemble lymphatics. 
 
164 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 68. What is lymph 9 
 
 Lymph is a thin, colorless liquid, gathered up by the lymphat- 
 ics. While passing through the glands, it undergoes some pro- 
 cess of preparation not well understood, and is then returned to 
 the circulation. 
 
 69. How may an animal live upon its mon flesh ? 
 
 Animals which hibernate are supported during the winter by 
 the fat which their absorbents carry into the circulation from the 
 extra supply they have laid up during the summer. In famine 
 or in sickness a man unconsciously consumes his own flesh. 
 
 70. What is the structure of the skin f 
 
 The skin is a tough, thin, close-fitting garment for the protec- 
 tion of the tender flesh. Its perfect elasticity beautifully adapts 
 it to every motion of the body. 
 
 What we commonly call the skin is only the cuticle or covering of the 
 cutis, or true skin. The true skin, or dermis, is full of nerves and blood 
 vessels, while the cuticle, or epidermis, neither bleeds nor gives rise to pain, 
 neither suffers with heat nor feels the cgld. 
 
 71. What are hair and the nails? 
 
 They are modified forms of the cuticle, or epidermis 
 
 72. What is the structure of the hair f 
 
 The outside of a hair is hard and compact, and consists of a 
 layer of colorless scales, which overlie one another like the shin- 
 gles of a house ; the interior is porous, and probably conveys the 
 liquids by which it is nourished. 
 
 Each hair grows from the surface of a tiny bulb by the constant forma- 
 tion of new cells at the bottom. The hairs themselves are destitute of feel- 
 ing. Nerves, however, are formed in the hollows in which the hair is 
 rooted, and so one feels pain when it is pulled 
 
 73. What is the function of the hair? 
 
 It is a protection from heat and cold, and shields the head from 
 blows. 
 
 74. What is the function of the nails? 
 
 They protect the ends of the tender finger and toe, and give us 
 power to more firmly grasp and easily pick up any object we may 
 
PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 165 
 
 desire. They enable us to perform a hundred little, mechanical 
 acts which else were impossible. 
 
 The nail is firmly set in a groove (matrix) in the cuticle, from which it 
 grows at the root in length and from beneath in thickness. 
 
 75. What is mucous membrane f 
 
 At the edges of the openings into the body, the skin seems to 
 stop and give place to a tissue which is redder, more sensitive? 
 more liable to bleed, and is moistened by a fluid, or mucous as it is 
 called. 
 
 Every part of the body is contained in a kind of double bag, made of the 
 tough skin on the outside, and the tender mucous membrane on the inside. 
 
 76. Define secretion. 
 
 Secretion is the separation from the blood by means of glands, 
 certain materials which are in a more or less liquid condition. In 
 some cases glands separate a material which is a mere waste and 
 must be thrown out of the system. This act is called excretioUe. 
 
 The terms secretion and excretion are used to denote the products separated 
 as well as the act of separation. Some liquids, as the bile, seem to partake 
 of the nature of both a secretion and an excretion. 
 
 77. What are oil glands ? 
 
 They are clusters of tiny sacs which secrete an oil that flows 
 along the duct to the root of the hair, and thence oozes out on the 
 cuticle. These keep the skin soft and flexible. 
 
 78. What are perspiratoi^ glands f 
 
 They are fine tubes about 3-^0 of an inch in diameter, and a 
 quarter of an inch in length, which run through the cutis, and 
 then coil up in little balls. 
 
 They are found in all parts of the body, and in almost incredible num- 
 bers. The mouths of these glands—" pores," as we commonly call th em- 
 may be seen with, a pocket lens along the fine ridges which cover the palm 
 of the hand. 
 
 79. What is the consistency of perspiration ? 
 
 From the perspiratory glands there constantly passes a vapor, 
 forming what we call the insensible perspiration. Exercise or 
 heat causes it to flow more freely, when it condenses on the sur- 
 face in drops. The perspiration consists of about ninety-nine 
 parts water and one part solid matter. 
 
166 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 80. What are the organs of the respiratory system ? 
 
 They are primarily the Inugs, assisted by the larynx, trachea, 
 diaphragm, and the ribs and muscles of the thorax. 
 
 81. Describe the position and shape of the lungs. 
 
 The lungs are two in number, one in each side of the cavity of 
 the thorax, and separated from each other by the mediastinum. 
 Each lung is of conical form, the apex extending a little above 
 the level of the first rib and the base resting on the convex sur- 
 face of the diaphragm. 
 
 The external surface is smooth, convex and corresponds in form to the 
 interior of the cavity of the thorax. The internal surface, or that next the 
 mediastinum, is concave. 
 
 82. What are the respective peculiarities of the lungs f 
 
 The right lung is the larger ; broader on account of the heart 
 being nearer the left side, about an inch shorter because of the 
 diaphragm rising higher on that side to make room for the liver, 
 and is divided by fissures into three lobes ; the left lung has only 
 two lobes. 
 
 83. What is the structure of the lungs f 
 
 The structure of the substance of the lungs is that of a light, 
 porous, spongy, and elastic body, invested with a double cover- 
 ing — the pleura — one layer being attached to the lungs and the 
 other to the walls of the chest. It secretes a fluid which lubri- 
 cates it, so that the layers glide upon each other with perfect ease. 
 
 The lungs are lined with mucous membranes, exceedingly delicate and 
 sensitive to the presence of anything except air. 
 
 84. Describe the larynx. 
 
 The larynx is a small muscular box, placed just behind the 
 tongue, and at the top of the windpipe. The opening into it from 
 the throat is called the glottis, and the cover, the epiglottis. 
 
 On each side of the glottis are so-called vocal cords. They are not really 
 ■cords, but merely elastic membranes projecting from the sides of the box 
 across the opening. Different tones of voice are produced when the cords 
 are short, tight, and closely in contact ; the lower by the opposite condi- 
 tions. Loudness is regulated by the quantity of air and force of expulsion. 
 
 85. Describe the trachea. 
 
 The trachea, or windpipe, is a cylindrical tube made up of car- 
 
PHYSIOLOGY AND HY'GIENE. 167 
 
 tilaginous rings connected by membrane. At the lo\rer end the 
 trachea divides into two branches, called the right and left bron- 
 chi. These subdivide into the small bronchial tubes, which ram- 
 ify through the lungs like the branches of a tree, the tiny twigs 
 of which at last end in clusters of cells so small that there are 
 600,000,000 in all. 
 
 86. Describe the diaphragm. 
 
 The diaphragm is a strong muscle separating the chest from 
 the abdomen, thus forming the floor of the chest. By its contrac- 
 tion and relaxation, assisted by the muscles of the chest and ab- 
 domen, the thoracic cavity is alternately enlarged and diminished 
 in size. 
 
 87. What is inspiration f 
 
 When we draw in a full breath, we straighten the spine and 
 throw the head and shoulders back, so as to give the greatest ad- 
 vantage to the muscles. At the same time the diaphragm de- 
 scends and presses the walls of the abdomen outward. There- 
 upon, the elastic lungs expand to occupy the extra space, while 
 the air, rushing in through the windpipe, pours along the bron- 
 chial tubes and crowds into every cell. 
 
 88. What is expiration f 
 
 When we expel the air from the lungs, the operation is reversed. 
 We bend forward, draw in the walls of the abdomen, and press 
 the diaphragm upward, while the ribs are pulled downward, thus 
 forcing the air outward. 
 
 89. Mention some modifications of the breath. 
 
 Sighing, a prolonged inspiration, followed by an audible ex- 
 pression; coughing, a violent expiration in which the air is 
 driven through the mouth; sneezing difi'ers from coughing, the 
 air being forced through the nose ; snoring, a sleeping accompa- 
 niment, in which the air passes through both nose and mouth. 
 Laughing and crying are very much alike, the expression of the 
 face being necessary to distinguish between them. Hiccough is 
 caused by a contraction of the diaphragm and a constriction of 
 the glottis. Yawning, or gaping, is like sighing. 
 
168 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 90. What is the capacity of the lungs f 
 
 For a man of medium height the contents of the lungs are about 
 330 cubic inches, or eleven pints of air. 
 
 91. What is the action of the air in the lungs f 
 
 In the delicate cells of the lungs the air gives up its oxygen to 
 the blood, and receives in return carbonic acid gas and water, 
 foul with waste matter which the blood has picked up in its cir- 
 culation through the body. The blood, thus purified and laden 
 with the inspiring oxygen, goes bounding through the system, 
 while the air we exhale carries off the impurities. 
 
 92. What is the evil effect of re-breathing the air f 
 
 Our breath is air robbed of its vitality, and containing in its 
 place a gas, — carbonic acid, — which is fatal to life, and effete 
 matter which is disagreeable to the smell, injurious to the health, 
 and may contain the germs of disease. 
 
 When we re-breathe air, we take back into our bodies that which has 
 just been rejected. The muscles become inactive ; the heart acts slowly i 
 the blood stagnates ; the food is undigested ; the brain is clogged. 
 
 93. Describe the nervous system. 
 
 The nervous system, comprising the primary organs of sensa- 
 tion, is divided into the cerebro-spinal center, the ganglia, and 
 
 nerves. It is frequently considered also as composed of two sys- 
 tems, the cerebro-spinal system and the sympathetic or ganglionic system. 
 
 94. Of what is the cerebro-spinal center composed f 
 
 It is composed of the enceplialon and the spinal COrd. The 
 enceplialon, or brain, is composed of the cerebrum, the cerebellum^ 
 the pons varolii, and the medulla oblongata. 
 
 95. What is the weight of the brain ? 
 
 The brain occupies the entire cavity of the cranium and weighs 
 on an average, in the adult male, 49^ oz.; in the female, 44 oz. 
 
 The brain of an idiot rarely weighs over 23 oz. Cuvier's brain weighed 
 over 64 oz., Dr. Abercrombie's 63 oz. The human brain is relatively larger 
 than that of any other animal, and absolutely larger than any other except 
 that of the elephant and whale. 
 
PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 169 
 
 96. What is the cerebrum f 
 
 It is the largest division of the brain, resting in the anterior 
 and middle portions of the base of the cranium. It is ovoid in 
 form, and is divided into two lateral hemispheres, right and left. 
 
 The outer surface is thrown into folds, or convolutions, separated frora 
 each other hy depressions called sulci. They are more numerous and deeper 
 in individuals of intellectual power, and as we descend in the scale of ani- 
 mal life they become less complex, until the lowest orders of mammalia are 
 reached, where they disappear entirely. 
 
 97. What is the cerebellum f 
 
 The cerebellum, or little brain, lies in the back and lower part 
 of the cranium beneath the posterior part of the cerebrum. It is 
 about one-eighth the size of the cerebrum ; is oblong in form, and 
 is divided into two hemispheres bj deep notches in front and be- 
 hind. 
 
 98. What is the pons Varolii ? 
 
 The pons Varolii, or middle brain, lies between the hemispheres^ 
 of the cerebrum, and forms a connection between the cerebrum,, 
 cerebellum, and medulla oblongata. 
 
 99. What is the medulla oblongata 9 
 
 It is really the upper enlarged part of the spinal cord. It ex- 
 tends from the pons Varolii to the spinal cord, which begins at 
 the upper part of the atlas. 
 
 100. What is the structure or appearance of the brain f 
 
 There are, in the cerebrum, two masses of white matter, one in\ 
 each hemisphere; the white matter is surrounded by a border of 
 gray matter. In the central part of each hemisphere of the cere- 
 bellum is a mass of white matter which sends out plates which: 
 are covered with gray matter, the whole presenting the appear- 
 ance of the leaves and branches of a tree, hence called arbor vita. 
 The pons Varolii consists of alternate layers of transverse and 
 longitudinal white fibers intermingled with gray matter. The 
 structure of the medulla oblongata is similar to that of the spinal 
 cord. 
 
 101. What is the spinal cord f 
 
 The spinal cord is a long cylinder of nervous matter containedi 
 
170 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 in the spinal canal and extending from the occipital bone to the 
 lower body of the first lumbar vertebra. It consists of white and 
 gray matter like that of the brain, but differently arranged. 
 
 The white matter is on the outside, the gray in the center. It is covered 
 with a continuation of the same membranes which invest the brain. 
 
 102. What are the nerves f 
 
 The nerves may be considered as extensions of the brain and 
 spinal cord, like the branches of a tree. They are given from 
 the cranial nerves of the brain, and from the spinal nerves of the 
 spinal cord ; there is also the sympathetic nerve which seems to 
 be a kind of system itself. A ganglion is a small knot, or mass 
 of nervous matter. 
 
 103. What are the names and vses of the cranial nerves f 
 
 The names and uses of the cranial nerves are as follows : 
 
 Olfactory, the nerve of smell. 
 
 Optic, the nerve of sight. 
 
 Motor oeuli, the nerve of motion to the eye. 
 
 Trochlear, or Pathetic, a nerve of motion. 
 
 Trifacial, or Trigeminus, or nerves of common sensation in 
 
 the face, eyes, nose, teeth, and jaw. 
 
 Ahdiicens, a nerve of motion distributed to the muscle of the 
 €ye. 
 
 Portio-dura, or Facial, and Portio-mollis, or Auditory 5 
 
 nerves of the face and of the ear, respectively. 
 
 (xlosso-pharyngeal, or nerve of motion and taste. 
 
 Pneumogastric, or nerve of voice, respiration, and vital organs. 
 
 Spinal accessory arises from the spinal cord, enters the skull, 
 and is connected with the pneumogastric. 
 
 Hypoglossal, or motor nerve of the tongue. 
 
 104. What are the spinal nerves ? 
 
 The spinal nerves issue from the spinal cord through apertures 
 provided for them in the backbone. Each nerve arises by two 
 roots ; the anterior is the motory, and the posterior the sensory 
 one. 
 
 J 05. What is the sympathetic nerve ? 
 
 It consists of a series of ganglia, connected together by inter- 
 Tening cords, extending on each side of the vertebral column. 
 
[ PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 171 
 
 It is SO called from the opinion entertained that through it is produced a 
 sympathy between the affections of different organs. 
 
 106. What is the structure of the nerves f 
 
 The nerves are composed of bundles of fibers, which are called 
 ifunieuli, and are inclosed in a fibrous sheath, the perineurium ; the 
 funiculi being separated from each other by an investing fibrous 
 membrane, formed by reflections inward of the perineurium. 
 
 107. What is the function of the nervous system f 
 
 Its function is to exercise guidance and control over the other 
 parts of the body. 
 
 108. What is reflex action f 
 
 A ganglion is capable of receiving an impression, and of send- 
 ing back or reflecting it so as to excite the muscles to action. This 
 is done without the consciousness of the mind. Thus we wink 
 involuntarily. We start at a sudden sound. We jump back 
 from a precipice before the mind has time to reason upon the 
 danger. 
 
 109. What are the uses of reflex action f 
 
 We breathe, stand erect, walk, eat, digest, etc., without a con- 
 sciousness of effort. If we were obliged to attend to every breath, 
 every pulsation of the heart, every wink of the eye, our time 
 would be wasted in keeping alive. An act which at first demands 
 all our thought soon requires less, and at last becomes mechani- 
 cal, that is, reflex. 
 
 110. What are the organs of special sense ? 
 
 They are the eye, the ear, the sensitive papillse of the skin, the 
 tongue, and the nose. 
 
 111. What is the form and structure of the eyef 
 
 The eyeball is in the form of a sphere which has a segment of 
 another sphere engrafted upon it, making its antero-posterior di- 
 ameter longer than its transverse diameter, the latter being about 
 one inch, the former a line longer. 
 
 The eyeball is composed of several coats, or tunics, which in- 
 close certain refracting media, or humors. The first, or outer 
 tunic, is composed of the sclerotic and cornea. The second, or 
 
172 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 middle tunic, is composed of the choroid, iris, and ciliary pro- 
 cesses. The third tunic is the retina. The humors are the aqueous^ 
 the crystalline lens and its capsule, and the vitreous. 
 
 112. Describe the sclerotiG coat. 
 
 The sclerotic coat of the eye is firm and unyielding and serves 
 to maintain the form of the eyeball. It is of a white color and 
 very smooth outside except where the muscles are inserted. 
 
 113. Describe the cornea. 
 
 The cornea is the transparent part of the external tunic which 
 projects from the main part of the eyeball and forms about one- 
 sixth of the surface of the ball. It appears to fit into the sclerotic 
 coat as a watch crystal does in its case. 
 
 114. Describe the choroid coat. 
 
 The choroid coat is a thin, vascular, dark-colored membrane,, 
 which lines the inside of the sclerotic coat. It is pierced behind 
 by the optic nerve and extends forward as far as the cornea. 
 
 115. What are the ciliary processes f 
 
 The ciliary processes are foldings of the choroid at its anterior 
 margin. » 
 
 116. What is the iris f 
 
 The iris is a fibro-muscular curtain with a circular perforation 
 in its center, called the pupil, which is susceptible of great varia- 
 tion in size. The iris is of various colors in different individuals. 
 It is what gives color to the eye. 
 
 The muscular fibres of the iris are of two kinds, circular and radiating^ 
 and by their alternate contractions and relaxation the pupil is diminished 
 and enlarged. 
 
 117. W hat is the retina/ 
 
 The retiii-fl is really an expansion of the optic nerve. It is 
 composed of three layers: (1) the external or columnar, com- 
 posed of columnar rods, arranged perpendicular to the surface, 
 among which are interspersed cone-like bodies ; (2) the middle or 
 granular layer; (3) the internal, or nervous layer. 
 
 In the center of the retina is the yellow spot, or macula lutea. The point 
 
PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 173 
 
 where the optic nerve enters the coats project a little beyond the surface of 
 the retina and is destitute of nerve elements and is called the blind spot. 
 
 118. What is the aqueous humor f 
 
 The aqueous linmor is a clear, colorless fluid contained in the 
 space between the crystalline lens and cornea. 
 
 119. What is the crystalline lens? 
 
 The crystalline lens is a transparent body, convex on both 
 sides but flatter on the the anterior side. It is made up of layers 
 arranged like the coats of an onion. 
 
 120. W hat is the vitreous humor f 
 
 The Titreous humor is a clear, colorless fluid, albuminous, and 
 of the consistence of thin jelly. 
 
 121. What are the appendages of the eye ? 
 
 The eyelids, the eyebrows, the conjunctiva, and the lachrymal 
 apparatus. 
 
 The conjunctiva is the mucous membrane of the eye, lining the eyelids 
 and reflected over the front part of the eyeball. 
 
 The lachrymal apparatus consists of (1) the lachrymal gland, which se- 
 cretes the tears and is located in the upper and outer corner of the orbit ; 
 (2) the excretory ducts which carry the tears from the gland to the surface 
 of the eyeball ; (3) the lachrymal canals which collect the tears at the inner 
 corner of the eye and empty them into (4) the lachrymal sac, from which 
 they are conducted into the nose through the (5) nasal duct. 
 
 122. What, respectively, causes near-sightedness and far-sightedness? 
 
 If the eyeball is too much rounded the rays of light are brought 
 to a focus too soon and the person is said to be short-sighted, or 
 near-sighted. If too much flattened the rays are not brought to a 
 focus soon enough, and the person is far-sighted. 
 
 Near-sightedness (myopia) prevails among young persons, and far-sight- 
 edness (presbyopia) among old persons. Spectacles correct the defects by 
 changing the focus of the rays of light. 
 
 123. What, respectively, causes " cross-eye " and " imll-eye " ? 
 
 The eyeball is moved by certain muscles. If those which turn 
 the eye inward are too short, the person is '' cross-eyed," or has 
 convergent strabismus ; if the muscles which turn the eye outward 
 are too short he is " wall-eyed," or has divergent strabismus. 
 
174 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 124. 0/ what does the external ear consist f 
 
 The external ear consists of : (1) a projecting portion composed 
 of cartilage and skin called the prima, or auricle ; (2) the meaivs 
 auditorius, or tube which leads to the middle ear. 
 
 125. What is the tympanum, or middle ear ? 
 
 The tympanum is a small, irregular cavity in the petrous por- 
 tion of the temporal bone, is lined with mucous membrane, com- 
 municates with the pharynx by means of the Eustachian tube, 
 and is separated from the external ear by the memhrana tympani, 
 or drum of the ear. 
 
 126. What is the labyrinth, or internal ear f 
 
 The labyrinth consists of: (1) the vestibule, a cavity which com- 
 municates with the other parts of the internal ear and with the 
 tympanum ; (2) the semi-circular canals, three bony channels which 
 communicate with the vestibule ; (3) the cochlea, a cavity in the 
 form of a snail shell and filled with a fluid. 
 
 127. How do lue hear f 
 
 The waves of air strike upon the tympanum, this vibrates, and 
 sends the motion along the chain of bones in the middle ear to 
 the fluids of the labyrinth, where the auditory nerve receives the 
 impression and translates it to the brain as sound. 
 
 128. What purpose does the Eustachian tube serve 9 
 
 It serves to maintain an equilibrium of pressure between the 
 external air and that within the tympanum, and to serve as an 
 exit for the secretions of that cavity. 
 
 129. What is the tongue? 
 
 The tongue is the organ of taste. It is a muscular organ cov- 
 ered with a mucous membrane analagous to the skin. It contains 
 numerous papillss, covered with epithelium. 
 
 130. Describe the nose. 
 
 The nose is the organ of smell and is also concerned in respi- 
 ration. The bridge of the nose is formed of the two nasal bones, 
 but the larger part of the frame work is made up of cartilage. 
 
PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 175 
 
 The cartilage which separates the nostrils in front is called the 
 sepitim. 
 
 The whole of the interior of the nasal cavities, or passages, is covered 
 with a mucous membrane called Schneiderian membrane. The olfactory- 
 nerve ramifies in that part of the Schneiderian membrane lining the nasal 
 passages. 
 
 131. What is the nature of touch f 
 
 The nerves of tonch are spread over the whole body. It is 
 most delicate, however, in the point of the tongue and tips of the 
 fingers. The surface of the skin is covered with minute conical 
 projections called papillce. Each of these contains its tiny nerve- 
 twigs, which receive the impression and transmit it to the brain, 
 where the perception is produced. 
 
 This sense may be educated to a great degree and is more particularly- 
 acute in those who have lost their sight. 
 
SECTION IX. 
 SCIENCE OF ARITHMETIC. 
 
 1. Define quantity. 
 
 Quantity is the amount or extent of that which may be meas- 
 ured ; it comprehends number and magnitude. 
 
 The term quantity is also conventionally applied to symbols used to rep- 
 resent quantity. 
 
 2. Meaning of number ? 
 
 Number is quantity conceived (thought of ) as made up of parts, 
 and answers the question, " How many ? " 
 
 Thus, a distance is a quantity ; but, if we call that distance 5, we con- 
 vert the notion into number by indicating that the distance under consid- 
 eration is made up of parts. 
 
 3. What is discontinuous number ? 
 
 Discontinuous number is number conceived as made up of finite 
 parts ; or it is number which passes from one state of value to 
 another by the successive additions or subtractions of units of 
 appreciable magnitude. 
 
 4. What is continuous number ? 
 
 Continuous number is number which is conceived as composed 
 of infinitesimal parts ; or it is number which passes from one state 
 of value to another by passing through all intermediate values, 
 or states. 
 
 Number, as considered in Arithmetic, is Discontinuous Number. Thus 5 
 grows till it becomes 9, by taking on additions of units of some conceivable 
 value. Thus time affords one. It grows by imperceptible increments (ad- 
 ditions). These inconceivably small parts, by which time is actually made 
 up, we call infinitesimals ; and number, when conceived as made up of 
 such infinitesimals, we call Continuous Number. 
 
 (176) 
 
SCIENCE OF AEITHMETIC. 177 
 
 5. Name the three branches of the Science of Number. 
 Arithmetic, Algebra, and the Calculus. 
 
 6. Define Arithmetic. 
 
 Arithmetic is the elementary branch of the Science of Num- 
 bers. 
 
 A more complete definition of Arithmetic is : Arithmetic treats of Dis- 
 continuous Number— ot its nature and properties, of the various methods of 
 combining and resolving it, and of its application to practical affairs. 
 
 7 What are the leading topics of Arithmetic f 
 
 (1) Notation , i. e., methods of representing number, as by the 
 Arabic characters, 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., or by letters, as a, b, m, n, x, y, 
 etc. 
 
 (2) Properties of Numbers, or deductions from the methods 
 of Notation. 
 
 (3) Keduction, as from one scale to another, from one denom- 
 ination to another, from one fractional form to another, or, in 
 short, from any one form of expression to another equivalent 
 form. 
 
 (4) The various methods of combining number, as by addition, 
 multiplication, and involution. 
 
 (5) Resolving number, as by subtraction, division, and evolu- 
 tion. 
 
 Also all the above processes as effected by the use of any notation, and 
 upon integral or fractional discontinuous numbers of any kind. 
 
 8. What is a Proposition? 
 
 A Proposition is a statement of something to be considered cr 
 done. 
 
 " The product of the divisor and quotient, plus the remainder, equals the 
 dividend " is an example of Arithmetical proposition. 
 
 9. What is a Theorem ? 
 
 A Theorem is a proposition which states a real or supposed 
 fact, whose truth or falsity we are to determine by reasoning. 
 
 " If the same quantity be added to both numerator and denominator of a 
 proper fraction, the value of the fraction will be increased," is a theorem. 
 
 12 
 
178 ■ HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 10. What is a Demonstration f 
 
 A Demonstration is the course of reasoning by means of which 
 the truth or falsity of a theorem is made to appear. 
 
 A demonstration is often called proof. 
 
 11. What is an Axiom? 
 
 An Axiom is a proposition which states a principle that is so 
 simple, elementary, and evident, as to require no proof. 
 
 Thus, "A part of a thing is less than the whole of it," is an example of an 
 axiom. 
 
 12. What is a Problem f 
 
 A Problem is a proposition to do some specified thing, and is 
 stated with reference to developing the method of doing it. 
 
 13. What is a Rule? 
 
 A Rule is a formal statement of the method of solving a gen- 
 eral problem, and is designated for practical application in solv- 
 ing special examples of the same class. A rule requires a demon- 
 stration. 
 
 14. What is a Solution ? 
 
 A Solution is the process of performing a problem or an exam- 
 ple. It should usually be accompanied by a demonstration of 
 the process. 
 
 15. Define a System of Notation. 
 
 A System of Notation is a system of symbols by means of 
 which quantities, the relations between them, and the operations 
 to be performed upon them, can be more concisely expressed than 
 by the use of words. 
 
 In mathematics, as now studied, two sets of symbols are used to present 
 number, quantity, viz., the Arabic Syvibols, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, called fig- 
 ures, and the Caramon Letters, a, b. c, d, x, y, z. 
 
 The Roman method, by means of the seven capital letters, T, V, X, L, C, 
 D, M, is not now used for computing, but only for marking the number of 
 a chapter, section, or page of a book, or for some similar purpose. 
 
 16. What is a Unit? 
 A Unit is one. 
 
 The character is called Zero, or Cipher, and the other nine are called 
 
SCIENCE OF AKITHMETIC. 179 
 
 Digits. Their respective names and significations are one, two, three, four^ 
 five, six, seven, eight, nine. 
 
 17. What is a Decimal System of Notation f 
 
 It is a system of grouping numbers into tens, and representing 
 the number of groups by a digit, and the character of the group 
 by the place of the digit. 
 
 " Thus 10 units are grouped into 1 ten, 10 tens into 1 hundred, 10 hundreds 
 into 1 thousand, etc. These groups are called Orders, and a group of three 
 orders is called a Period. 
 
 18. What are the 'primary orders and the periods f 
 
 Units, Tens, Hundreds ; the periods are named Units, Thou- 
 sands, Millions, Trillions, Quadrillions, Quintillions, Sex- 
 tillions, Septillfons, Octillions, NoMlIions, Decillions, Unde- 
 cillions, Duodecillions, etc. 
 
 This method of making the periods consist of three figures each is pecu- 
 liar to the French and Americans. The English and other European 
 nations make six-figure periods. In pointing off for convenience of read- 
 ing, these nations place the commas just as we do, but read two of 
 the groups thus formed as a period. Thus the six-figure method of reading 
 
 7,685, 432,702, 643,752 to be read 7,685 billion, 432.702 million, 643,752 ; whereas, 
 we read it, 7 quadrillion, 685 trillion, 432 billion, 702 million, 643 thousand.. 
 752. 
 
 19. Meaning of Radix f 
 
 The Radix is the number which it takes of one order to make 
 one of the next higher ; thus the radix of the common system of 
 notation is 10. 
 
 20. Meaning of Scale f 
 
 The Scale is the law of relation between the successive orders. 
 
 The scale in Simple numbers has uniform steps, each one being 10 ; in 
 Compound numbers the scale is usually irregular. 
 
 21. Name the Laws oj the Arabic System of Notation. 
 They are as follows: 
 
 (1) That each digit, in itself, always represents the same num- 
 ber of units. 
 
 (2) That the order of these units (or of the digit) depends upon 
 the place the digit occupies, reckoning to the left or right from 
 units order. 
 
180 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 (3) That the sum of the values thus represented is indicated 
 by any succession of figures. 
 
 (4) That the has no value, in itself, but is used to mark va- 
 cant orders. 
 
 In any system the number of characters needed including 0, is the same 
 as the radix. 
 
 We can readily construct a system with any radix, as a Binary (radix 2), 
 a Ternary (radix 3), Quaternary (radix 4), Quinary (radix 5), Senary (radix 6), 
 Septenary (radix 7), Octenary (radix 8), Nonary (radix 9), Undenary (radlix 
 11), Duodenary (radix 12), etc. {See also Question 33.) 
 
 22. What are the primary laws of the Literal Notation ? 
 
 (1) Any letter may be used to represent any number, provided 
 it always means the same number in the same exercise or problem. 
 
 (2) When letters representing numbers are written side by side, 
 as in a word, their product is indicated. 
 
 (3) A number represented by Arabic characters written in con- 
 nection with letters is subject to the same law as the letters ; i. e., 
 it is to be taken as one of the factors making up the entire num- 
 ber. 
 
 Thus a may represent any number, and 6 any other number, and if we 
 "Write them thus, ab, the meaning is that the number represented by a is 
 multiplied by the number represented bv b. If a is used for 6, and b for 15, 
 «6 is 6X15, or 90. 
 
 23. Define a monomial, a binomial, a trinomial, a polynomial. 
 
 An expression like 7ax, without any other joined with it by the 
 signs -|- or — , is called a Term, or a MonomiaL If there are 
 two such terms joined together by either of the signs -f- or — , the 
 two taken together are called a Binomial, as 66a; + 2ay, or lOx — 
 2xy. If three terms are joined in this way it is called a Trino- 
 mial, as Say — 2ab + 21x-. Any expression consisting of more 
 than one term is, in general, called a Polynomial. 
 
 24. What is the Primary Unit of Simple Numbers f 
 
 The Primary Unit of Simple Numbers is 1 of the units order ; 
 rand the higher orders are tens, hundreds, thousands, ten-thousands, 
 hundred-thousands, etc. The lower orders are tenths, hundredths," 
 thousandths, ten-thousandths, hundred-thousandths, millionths, 
 ten-millionths, etc. 
 
 25. Show the use of the Decimal Point. 
 
 When higher and lower orders of Simple Numbers are written 
 
SCIENCE OF ARITHMETIC. 181 
 
 together, a period ( . ) is written at the right of units order to- 
 indicate its place. This period is called the Decimal Point. 
 
 HIGHER ORDERS. LOWER ORDERS. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 —^/—— 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 03 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 <4J 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 
 T3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -73 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 C 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 02 
 
 C 
 
 
 
 -♦J' 
 
 
 d 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c3 
 
 
 
 C 
 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 « 
 
 O 
 
 
 o 
 
 n3 
 
 eS 
 
 CO 
 
 03 
 
 
 
 •■S 
 
 
 CO 
 
 -C3 
 
 CO 
 -1^ 
 
 CO 
 
 3 
 O 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 O 
 
 1— t 
 
 CO 
 
 n3 
 
 o 
 
 'T3 
 
 m 
 
 Ti 
 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 
 
 n3 
 
 C 
 
 S 
 O 
 
 H 
 
 o 
 
 -i 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 n3 
 
 a 
 .2 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 O 
 
 2 
 
 
 CO 
 
 s 
 Eh 
 
 C 
 
 3 
 
 -3 
 H 
 
 H 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 a 
 o 
 
 •i-i 
 
 s 
 
 1 
 3 
 
 2J 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 9456237.81456837 
 
 26. iVawie ^Ae Standard Units in Compound Numbers. 
 
 (1) In Measures of Extension, the Yard. 
 
 (2) In Liquid Measure, the Wine Gallon. ' 
 
 (3) In Dry Measure, the Winchester Bushel. 
 
 (4) In Weight, the Troy Pound. 
 
 (5) The Unit of Time is the Mean Solar Day. 
 
 (6) In United States Money, the Dollar. 
 
 (7) In French Money, the Franc. 
 
 (8) In German Money, the Mark. 
 
 A Liquid Gallon is 231 cubic inches. 
 
 The Winchester Bushel is 2150.4 cubic inches, very nearly. 
 
 A Troy Pound is 5760 grains, a liquid gallon containing 58372.1754 grains 
 of distilled ^vater at its maximum density (39.83° F.) weighed in the air, the 
 barometer being at 30 in. 
 
 The Avoirdupois Found is 7000 grains. 
 
 The Gold Dollar (.9 pure gold, and .1 alloy of silver and copper) weighs 
 25.8 grains. 
 
 27. What are the units in the Metric System of weights and meas- 
 ures f 
 
 The Unit of Extension is the Meter (39.37 in.) ; of Measures 
 of Capacity, the Liter (1.0567 liquid quarts, or .908 dry quarts) % 
 and of Weight, the Gram (15.432 grains). 
 
182 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 28. Define Integer, Fraction, Common Fraction, Decimal, Denomi- 
 mator. Numerator. 
 
 An Integer is an entire unit, or collection of entire units ; i. e., 
 it is a whole number in distinction from a fraction. 
 
 A Fraction is a number representing one or more of the equal 
 parts into which a unit, or some number taken as a whole, is con- 
 ceived to be divided. 
 
 A Common Fraction is a fraction which arises from conceiv- 
 ing the unit, or number, divided into any number of equal parts 
 {other than a number the same as the radix), as convenience may 
 'dictate. 
 
 A Decimal Fraction is a fraction in the decimal system which 
 arises from dividing the unit by 10, and these lOths again by 10, 
 etc., i. e., from a decimal division of the unit. 
 
 A Denominator of a fraction is the number which indicates 
 into how many equal parts the unit, or number, is conceived to 
 be divided. 
 
 The Numerator is the number which indicates how many of 
 these equal parts are represented by the fraction. 
 
 29. How read a decima,l ? 
 
 Numerate the fraction ; that is, begin at the decimal point and 
 name the orders to the right, and bear in mind the name of the 
 lowest, or right-hand order. 
 
 Eead the expression just as a whole number, and then pro- 
 nounce the name of the lowest or right-hand order, 
 
 30. How write a decimal f 
 
 Write the numerator as a whole number. Then beginning at 
 ihe right, apply the decimal numeration, calling the right-hand 
 figure tenths, the next at the left hundredths, etc., filling all va- 
 cant orders with O's, till the name of the order designated by the 
 •denominator is reached; at the left of this write the decimal 
 point. 
 
 31. Describe the Symbols of Operation used in Arithmetic. 
 The sign -f-, called plus, indicates addition. 
 
SCIENCE OF ARITHMETIC. 183 
 
 The sign — , called minus, indicates subtraction, the number 
 preceding it being the minuend, and the number following, the 
 subtrahend. 
 
 The sign X indicates multiplication. 
 
 Multiplication is also indicated by the period placed in the middle of the 
 line, thus 4-5 , and in the literal notation by writing letters in succession 
 without any sign between them, as abc, which means the same as a X 6 X c. 
 
 The sign -j-, or : , indicates division, the number before the sign 
 being the dividend, and the number after the sign the divisor. 
 
 Division is also indicated by ■writing the dividend above the divisor with a 
 line between them \-7^, J,)'^^ writing the divisor on the right of the divi- 
 dend -with a curved line between [4)16, a)b ], or by writing the divisor in a 
 timilar manner at the left. 
 
 The sign =, called the Sign of Equality, signifies that the ex- 
 pressions between which it is placed are equal. 
 
 The signs (),[], ^ }■ , and a horizontal line over a number are 
 Symbols of Aggregation, and signify that the expression en- 
 closed is to be taken as a whole. 
 
 Thus (3 + 6) (2 + 5) means that 3 + 6, or 9, is to be multi- 
 plied by 2 + 5, or 7, so that (3 + 6) (2 + 5) = 63, while 3 + 6 
 X2 + 5 = 3 + 12 + 5 = 20. The sign X ccm not extend its poiver, 
 forward or backward, beyond a + or — , without the aid of a -parenthe- 
 sis. To illustrate : 2 + 3X4 — 1 = 13;2 + 3X(4 — 1)=11 
 (2 + 3) X 4 - 1 = 19; (2 + 3) + (4-1 ) ^15, 5 (6 - 3) = 
 
 5X3 = 15, while 5X6— 3= 27. 44 — 2^10 — 3 = 6, while 
 44 -2-- 10 — 3 = 41 — ^ = 40f . 
 
 The colon, : , written between numbers, indicates the ratio of 
 the former to the latter, which is the same thing as the former 
 divided by the latter ; thus 8 : 4 may be read " the ratio of 8 to 
 4," or " 8 divided by 4," as they are equivalent expressions. The 
 equality of two ratios is indicated by the double colon, : : , as in 
 proportion. This sign is exactly equivalent to ^. 
 
 The sign -j/, called the Radical Sign, indicates the square root 
 of the number over which it is placed, that is, one of the two equal 
 factors. 
 
 f^ indicates the cube root, that is, one of the three equal fac- 
 tors, etc. \_There are other symbols which will be explained in due order. 1 
 
184 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 32. Define Reduction. 
 
 Bednction is changing the form of an expression without alter- 
 ing its value. 
 
 Philosophically, to reduce an expression from one form to another is hut 
 to change the notation by means of which the number is represented, 
 
 33. According to the laws of the Arabic notation, what does S2Jf in the 
 Quinary System signify in the Decimal System ? [See also Answer to 
 Question 21.] 
 
 The 4 represents 4 simple units, the 2 represents 2 fims, or 10, 
 
 and the 3 represents 2> fives of fives, or 3 twenty-fives, i. e., 75. Hence 
 
 3245=75 + 10 + 4 = 89io. 
 
 There is no established method of reading numbers written by other 
 scales than the decimal, nor is there need of any, since such notation is 
 merely speculation. A number represented thus, 234, in the Quinary sys- 
 tem may be read " 2 25's, 3 5's, and 4. 
 
 34. Reduce 758 lo io the quinary scale. 
 
 OPERATION. 
 
 Solution.— In 758 there are 151 fives, and 3 5)758 — 3 
 
 units over. In 151 j^t-es there are SO fives of fives, 5)151 — 1 
 
 or 25's, and 1 five over. In* 30 25's there are 6 5)30 — 
 
 125's and 25's over, and in 6 125's there is 1 5)6 — 1 
 
 625 and 1 75 over. Hence 758io = 11013 5. 1 
 
 35. What Is generalization ? 
 
 There is but a single principle running through all arithmetical 
 reductions ; viz., To pass from a higher denomination, or order, 
 to a lower, multiply by the number which it takes of the lower to 
 make one of the higher. To pass from a lower to a higher, divide 
 by this number. 
 
 36. Shoio in accordance with the above principle that 3458 1 q = 24002 g . 
 
 Solution.— Since 3458 may be understood as operation. 
 
 3458 units, we state the problem, "To reduce 6)3458 — 2 
 
 3458 units to sixes, thirty-sixes, two hundred- 6)576 — 
 
 sixteens, etc." Now as 6 units make 1 six we 6)96 — 
 
 divide by 6 ; or, there will be ^ as many sixes as 6)16 — 4 
 
 units, i as many 36's as 6's, etc. This is, there- 2 
 fore, the ordinary case of Reduction Ascending. 
 
SCIENCE OF ABITHMETIC. 185 
 
 37. Reduce 240026 to the decimal scale, explaining as reduction de- 
 scending. 
 
 
 
 
 OPERATION. 
 
 
 
 
 
 03 
 
 ZO 
 
 T— I 
 
 CO 
 CO 
 
 03 
 
 CO 
 
 t3 
 
 2 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 216's 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 96 
 
 SB's 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 576 
 
 6's 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3458 
 
 Units. 
 
 
 
 
 Solution. — This is simply a case in Reduction Descending. Thus 
 2 1296's make 6 times as many 216's, and adding in the 4 216's, 
 we have 16 216's, 16 216's make 6 times as many 36's, or 96 36's, etc. 
 
 38. What is a Eepetend? 
 
 It is a decimal fraction which, after a certain order is reached, 
 consists of a figure, or a set of figures in a given order, continually 
 repeated. The set of figures thus repeated constitutes a Period.. 
 When this period commences with tenths the decimal is a Pure 
 Bepeiend ; when with any lower order, a Mixed Bepetend. 
 
 39. Hoio can a common fraction always be expressed f 
 As a decimal or by means of a repetend. 
 
 40. Reduce .7 to a common fraction. 
 
 Observing that .111, etc., to infinity, or .1, arises when we at- 
 tempt to reduce ^ to a decimal, and that .1111, etc, to infinity, 
 
 or .1, multiplied by 7 makes .7, we find that .7 = |. Or, more 
 
 briefly, since .1 = |, .7 which is 7 times .1 equals 7 times |, or |. 
 
 41. What are Abstract Numbers f 
 
 Abstract Numbers are numbers to which no other signification 
 is attached than that of mere number, as 5, 40. 275. 
 
186 ' HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 42. What are Concrete Numbers f 
 
 Concrete Numbers are numbers applied to some objects, or to 
 which some other significations than that of mere number is at- 
 tached, as 5 men, $40, etc. 
 
 43. What are the fundamental 'principles of the processes we call Ad- 
 dition ? 
 
 1. Only abstract numbers, or concrete numbers representing 
 things of the same kind, can be added together. 
 
 2. Only like orders or denominations can be directly added 
 together. 
 
 3. In adding related orders or denominations it is practically 
 most convenient to add the lowest orders or denominations first ; 
 since by so doing, we are enabled to determine whether the sum 
 of any lower order or denomination makes any integers of the 
 higher ; and, if it does, we are enabled to carry this sum forward 
 and unite it with those higher orders as we proceed. 
 
 44. What is a Product? 
 
 A Product is a number which tells how many a certain num- 
 ber of times a given number makes. 
 
 45. Define Multiplication. 
 
 Multiplication is the process of finding the product of two 
 numbers from a knowledge of the product of the digits, two and 
 two or by means of the Multiplication Table. 
 
 The idea and the process of Multiplication grow immediately 
 out of Addition ; 4 times 23 means 23 -h 23 + 23 + 23 ; 3* times 
 76 means 76 + 76 + 76 + 25J ; and | times 35 means 4| -|- 41 + 
 4f + 4| -f- 4|. 
 
 46. What is a General Problem ? 
 
 The General Problem in simple multiplication is, to find the 
 product of two numbers, each represented by several digits. 
 
 47. What are the succession of steps by ivhich the solution of the Gen- 
 eral Problem is reached f 
 
 1. From our knowledge of addition we ascertain what the pro- 
 
SCIENCE OF AEITHMETIC. 187 
 
 ducts of the digits taken two and two are, i. e., make the Multi- 
 plication Table. 
 
 2. Commit these products to memory, i. e., learn the Multipli- 
 cation Table. 
 
 3. By means of these products learn to find the product of any 
 two numbers, each represented by several digits. 
 
 48. What are the six Propositions of Multiplication ? 
 
 The fundamental principles on which the General Problem, 
 which we call Multiplication, is based are the six following 
 
 PROPOSITIONS : 
 
 1. One number may be multiplied by another by m.ultiplying the multi- 
 plicand by the parts of the multiplier and adding tiie products. 
 
 2. One number may be multiplied by another by multiplying the parts 
 of the multiplicand by the multiplier, and adding the products. 
 
 3. One number maybe multiplied by another by multiplying succes- 
 si'vely by all the factors of the multiplier ; that is, by multiplying the mul- 
 tiplicand by one of the factors, and this product by another, and so on. 
 
 4. To multiply by 10, 100, 1000, or 1 with any number of O's annexed, an- 
 nex as many O's to the multiplicand as there are in the multiplier ; or in 
 decimals remove the point a corresponding number of places to the right. 
 
 5. A multiplier is primarily an abstract number, and the product is of 
 the same Order as the multiplier. 
 
 6. A multiplicand may be either abstract or concrete, and the product is 
 of the same Kind as the multiplicand. 
 
 49. Illustrate the Fifth Proposition above. 
 
 As to the fifth Proposition, it is manifestly absurd to attempt 
 to use a concrete number as a multiplier; thus, what could be 
 meant by multiplying by 5 pounds, 4 men, or 7 dollars f A multi- 
 plier simply indicates a number of times which another number 
 (abstract or concrete) is to be taken, and hence is mere number, 
 i. e., abstract. 
 
 That the product is of the same order as the multiplier becomes evident 
 when we consider that if we multiply by units the result will be units, if by 
 tens the result is tens, if by thirds the result is thirds, as far as the multi- 
 plier is concerned. Thus, to multiply any number by 1 ten (10) is to make 
 it so many tens. So to multiply 5 by 1 third is to take % of each of the 5, 
 making 5-thirds. Then to multiply 5 by 2-thirds is to make it 2 times 5, or 
 10-thirds, etc. (Thirds are orders, the same as tens or tenths.) 
 
 50. Illustrate the Sixth Proposition above. 
 
 With reference to the sixth Proposition, it is evident that tak- 
 ing several times as much of a given quantity, or taking any part 
 of it, does not change its nature; whence the product is of the 
 same kind as the thing multiplied. Thus 4 times 5 dollars are 20 
 dollars, and J of 5 dollars is 2^ dollars. 
 
188 HIGH SCHOOIi QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 51. Multiply 578 by 694, showing the application of Pt^opositions 1 to 
 4 {answer to question 48) . 
 
 Solution. — By Prop. 1 we obtain 694 times 
 578 by adding together 4 times 578, 90 times 578, 578 
 
 and 600 times 578. By Prop. 2 we obtain 4 694 
 
 times 578 by taking 4 times 8, 4 times 7 tens, and 2312 
 
 4 times 5 hundreds, adding to the products as we 5202 
 
 go. By Prop. 3 we obtain 90 times 578 by first 3468 
 
 taking 9 times 578 and then 10 times this pro- 401132 
 
 duct, obtaining the latter by Prop. 4. In like 
 manner we obtain 600 times 578. Finally, in accordance with 
 Prop. 2, we add these partial products and have 600 + 90 + 4, 
 or 694 times 578. 
 
 52. Multiply £5 7s. 8d. by 694. 
 
 £5 7s. 8d 
 
 694 
 
 4 times £5 7s. 8c? 21 10 8 
 
 90 times (10 times 9 times) £5 7s. 8d 484 10 
 
 600 times (100 times 6 times) £5 7s. 8d 3230 
 
 694, or 600 + 90+4 times £5 7s. 8d £3736 Os. 8d. 
 
 53. Multiply 2300 by 5000, explaining the common method of neglect- 
 ing the O's in the process and annexing them to the product of the signifi- 
 cant figures by Props. 5 and 6 {answer 4^). . 
 
 Call 23 the multiplicand, the kind being hundreds. Call 5 the 
 multiplier, the order being thousands. The product, 115, is there- 
 fore thousands of hundreds. 
 
 54. Define Factors. 
 
 The factors of a number are the numbers which multiplied to- 
 gether produce it. 
 
 Thus 3 and 5 are the factors of 15 ; 2, 5 and 7 are the factors of 70, etc. 
 
 55. What is a Power ? 
 
 A power is a product arising from multiplying a number by 
 itself. 
 
 Thus 3X3 makes 9, whence 9 is a power of 3. So 27 is a power of 3. The 
 degree of the power is indicated by the number of factors taken. Thus 4, 8, 
 16, 32 are, respectively, the 2d, 3d, 4th, and 5th powers of 2. 
 
SCIENCE OF ARITHMETIC. 189 
 
 56. What is an Exponent, and what does it indicate f 
 
 An exponent is a number written a little to the right and above 
 another number, and indicates — 
 
 1st. If a Positive Integer, a Power of the number ; 
 
 2d. If a Positive Fraction, the numerator indicates a Power, 
 and the denominator a Root of the number ; 
 
 3d. If a Neg-ative Integer, or Fraction, it indicates the Re- 
 ciprocal of what it would signify if positive. 
 
 57. What are Similar terms f 
 
 Terms which have the same letters, affected with the same ex- 
 ponents, are called Similar. 
 
 Thus, QaH and — ba^x are similar ; 6ax^ and — aH, or Abx -\- IWx, 
 or X -\- y, and a -\- h are dissimilar. 
 
 58. Define Involution. 
 
 Involution is the process of raising numbers to required pow- 
 ers. The number to be involved is called the First Power, or The 
 Root. 
 
 Involution is but a special case of multiplication, viz., that in which the 
 factors are equal ; hence its presentation here. 
 
 59. Involve the nine digits to squares, and cubes, respectively. 
 
 Digits, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. 
 
 Squares, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81. 
 
 Cubes, 1, 8, 27, 64, 125, 216, 343, 512, 729. 
 
 The square of 2 X 5 is 2 X 5 multiplied by 2 X 5, or 2 X 5 X 
 X 2 X 5, or 22 X 52, or 4 X 25, or 100. 
 
 The square of 2 X 7 is 2 X 7 multiplied by 2 X 7, i. e., 2 X 7 
 X 2 X 7, or 2 X 2 X 7 X 7, or 22 X 72, or 4 X 49, or 196. 
 
 60. Raise 2 to the 12th power. 
 
 The 12th power of 2 is composed of 12 factors, each 2. Now, 
 the square of 2 has two factors, each 2, the square of the square 
 has 4 such factors, the square of the 4th power has 8 such factors, 
 and the 8th power multiplied by the 4th has 12. Hence, 2^ = 4, 
 42 = 16 (the 4th power of 2), 16^ = 256 (the 8th power of 2), 
 256 X 16 = 4096 (the 8th power of 2 X by the 4th power) is the 
 12th power of 2. 
 
190 HIGH SCHOOl. QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 61. State the first Proposition of Involution. 
 
 The square of any number contains twice as many figures as 
 the number itself, or 1 less than twice as many. 
 
 62. Write out a demonstration of this Proposition. 
 
 Considering the squares of any two consecutive numbers in the series 
 1, 10, 100, 1000, 10000, etc. (as 100 and 1000), we observe that as the square of 
 each is 1 with double its number of O's annexed, the square of the second 
 contains two more figures than the square of the first. Now, as these num- 
 bers are the least numbers which can be represented by their respective 
 number of figures, the square of any intermediate number (which contains 
 the same number of figures as the less) contains as many figures as the 
 square of the less, and one more. But the square of any one of these num- 
 bers contains 1 less than twice as many figures as the number itself. 
 
 63. State the second Proposition of Involution. 
 
 The cube of any number contains three times as many figures 
 as the number itself, or 1, or 2, less. 
 
 A demonstration analogous to the preceding may be made of this proposi- 
 tion. 
 
 64. State the third Proposition of Involution. 
 
 The square of any number made up of tens and units is the 
 square of the tens, + twice the product of the tens by the units,^ 
 -f- the square of the units. 
 
 Dem. — Let a represent the tens and b the units ; whence a -\- b 
 is the number. Now (a -f 6)^ = a^ -f- 2ab -\- b^, which agrees 
 with the statement. 
 
 65. Square 79 by Proposition 3. 
 
 The square of 7 tens is 4900 
 
 Twice the product of 9 units and 7 tens is... 1260 
 
 The square of 9 units is 81 
 
 Therefore (79)2 ^ (7 tens + 9 units) 2 = 6241 
 
 QQ. State the fourth Proposition of Involution. 
 
 The cube of any number made up of tens and units is the cube 
 of the tens, + 3 times the square of the tens multiplied by the 
 units, -|- 3 times the tens multiplied by the square of the units, 
 -\- the cube of the units. 
 
 Dem. — Let a represent the tens and b the units ; whence a -{- b 
 is the number. Now (a -|- b)^ = a^ -\- Sa^b -f Sab^ + b^, which 
 agrees with the statement. 
 
SCIENCE OF ARITHMETIC. 191 
 
 67. Cube 65 by the above principle. 
 
 a^ = (6 tens)5 = 216000 
 
 Sa'b = 3 (6 tens)2 X 5 = 54000 
 3a62 = 3 (6 tens) X^^ = 4500 
 
 63 = 53 = 125 
 
 Therefore 65' = (6 tens + 5 units)' = 274625 
 
 68. State the fifth Proposition of Involution. 
 
 If we separate the square of any number into periods by plac- 
 ing a point over the unit's figure, and one over each alternate 
 figure to the left, the square of the highest order in the square 
 root of this number is the greatest square in the left-hand period 
 thus formed. 
 
 That is. 583696 "being the square of a certain number, 49 the greatest 
 square in 58. is the square of the highest order in the root, i. e., the number 
 of which 583696 is the square. 
 
 69. State the sixth Proposition of Involution. 
 
 If we separate the cube of any number into periods by placing 
 a point over the unit's figure, and one over each third figure to 
 the left, the cube of the highest order in the cube root of this 
 number is the greatest cube in the left-hand period thus formed. 
 
 70. Define Subtraction. 
 
 Subtraction is, . primarily, the process of taking one number 
 from another by means of a knowledge of the sums of the digits 
 taken two and two. 
 
 That the process we call substraction is based on a knowledge of the sum 
 of the digits taken two and two, is clear, since we say, " 8 from 11 leaves 3, 
 because 8 and 3 makes 11." 
 
 [ The Subtrahend, Minuend, and Remainder are too familiar to need de- 
 fining here.] 
 
 71. What is the order of development of the subject of Subtraction f 
 
 (1) By a knowledge of the sum of the digits two and two, we 
 learn to recognize the remainder when any digit is taken from 
 any number not less than itself, but less than itself + 10. 
 
 (2) By means of' this knowledge we learn to find the remainder 
 when any number is taken from another. 
 
 The fundamental principles of Subtraction are similar to those of Ad- 
 dition (Question 43), the 8d being somewhat modified. 
 
192 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 72. Meaning of Difference f 
 
 The dilference between two numbers is the number of units 
 which lie between them. 
 
 The difference between 7 days and 10 days is the number of days between 
 the end of a period of 7 days and the end of a period of 10 days, i. c, 3 days. 
 The difference between 25° F. and 46° F, above 0, Is the number of degrees 
 on the thermometer scale between 25° and 46° above 0, i. e., 21°. The differ- 
 ence between 15° above and 10° below is, in like manner, the number of 
 degrees between these points, viz., 25°. 
 
 73. How find, for example, difference in degrees between two places both 
 east or both west from a prime meridian f 
 
 When two numbers are reckoned in the same direction from a 
 common zero, their difference is found by subtracting one from 
 the other. 
 
 74. How, when in opposite directions from a common point f 
 
 When two numbers are reckoned in opposite directions from a 
 common zero, their difference is found by adding the numbers. 
 
 75. Meaning of Positive and Negative f 
 
 Positive and Negatiye are terms primarily applied to concrete 
 quantities which are, by the conditions of a problem, opposed in 
 character. 
 
 A man's property may be called positive and his debts negative. Distance 
 up may be called positive, and distance down negative. Time before a given 
 period may be called positive, and after negative. Degrees above on the 
 thermometer scale are called positive, and below negative. 
 
 76. What of the -\- and — signs ? 
 
 Terms having the -|- sign, are called Positive, and those hav- 
 ing the — sign, Negative. If no sign is written before a term 
 the sign -\- is understood. 
 
 77. What is true in the addition of literal number f 
 
 (1) In adding similar terms, if the terms are all positive, the 
 sum is positive ; if all negative, the sum is negative ; if some are 
 positive and some negative, the sum takes the sign of that kind 
 (positive or negative) which is in excess. 
 
 (2) Dissimilar terms are not united into one by addition, but 
 the operation of adding is expressed by writing them in succes- 
 sion, with the positive terms preceded by the -}- sign and the neg- 
 ative by the — sign. 
 
SCIENCE OF ARITHMETIC. 193 
 
 78. Hoiv subtract one literal quantity from another T^ 
 
 Change the signs of each term in the subtrahend from + to — , 
 or from — to +, or conceive them to be changed, and add the re- 
 sult to the minuend. 
 
 79. Why do we change the signs of the subtrahend? 
 
 To get a quantity which added to the minuend will destroy out 
 of it an amount equal to the given subtrahend. 
 
 80. Why do we add the subtrahend tvith its signs changed to the min- 
 uend ? 
 
 Because, as the minuend is the sum of the subtrahend and re- 
 mainder, if we destroy the subtrahend from out the minuend, we 
 have left the remainder. 
 
 81. What is the law of the signs in multiplication f 
 
 If the multiplier and multiplicand have like signs the product 
 is + ; but if they have unlike signs the product is — . 
 
 82. How is a quantity or expression in a parenthesis to be considered? 
 It is to be taken together as affected by the sign before it. 
 
 When several terms are enclosed in a parenthesis, or other equivalent 
 symbol, preceded by a — sign, if the parenthesis is dropped, the signs of all 
 the terms within must he changed. The reason for this is that the — sign 
 shows that the polynomial within the parenthesis is to be substracted. 
 Hence, we are to change the signs of its terms and add the result. 
 
 83. Define Division.t 
 
 DiTision is the process of finding how many times one number 
 is contained in another. 
 
 Division also enables us to separate a number into any number of equal 
 parts, and find how many there are in one of these parts. 
 
 The problem of Division may be solved by Subtraction ; but the process 
 which we call Division is not based, primarily, upon Subtraction, but upon 
 
 Multiplication. 
 
 " This may appear like Algebra; but the principle is Arithmetical as well. 
 
 t The terms Dividend, Divisor, Quotient, and Remainder are too familiar 
 to need defining here. 
 
 13 
 
194 HIGH SCHOOIi QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 84. Divide S176 by 68, and show the relation of the process to Multi- 
 plication and Subtraction. 
 
 In the first place we find how many times 68 is contained 68)2176(32 
 in 217 (tens) by finding how many times 6 is contained in 21. 204 
 
 To ascertain this latter fact we appeal alone to our knowledge 135 
 
 of products, i. e., to multiplication. Thus, inasmuch as we ^35 
 
 know that 3 X 6 = 18, and 4X6 = 24, we know that 6 is con- 
 
 tained in 21 3 times. Hence, it is made probable that 68 is 
 contained in 217 (tens) 3 (tens) times. To test this point we multiply 68 by 3 
 (tens), and find that it is contained 3 (tens) times. All this part of the work 
 is seen to be based entirely upon Multiplication. f 
 
 Again, in order to find how much of the 2176 remains undivided, we sub- 
 tract 3 (tens) times 68 from it, finding that 68 is contained in 2176 3 (tens) 
 times, with a remainder of 136. This part of the process is based upon the 
 principle that one number is contained in another as many times as it can be 
 subtracted from it in succession. This principle expresses the relation which 
 Division sustains to Subtraction. 
 
 85. Name the order of development of the subject of Division. 
 
 (1) To observe from our knowledge of the products of the 
 digits two and two, what the other digit is when the product and 
 one of the digits is given, i. e., to see the Division Table in the 
 Multiplication Table. 
 
 (2) To make the first three (at least) of the principles {next 
 Answer) practically familiar. 
 
 (3) To apply the knowledge gained in the two preceding steps 
 to the solution of the general ProMem, i. e., to divide a number 
 represented by several digits by another number represented by 
 several. 
 
 86. What are the principles upon which the process called Division is 
 founded f 
 
 (1) Whatever number of times a given divisor is contained in a given 
 dividend, this divisor is contained in twice this dividend twice as many 
 times ; in 3 times this dividend, 3 times as many times ; in 10 times this 
 dividend, 10 times as many times, etc. 
 
 (2) We may find how many times a given divisor is contained in a given 
 dividend, by finding how many times it is contained in all the parts of the 
 dividend and adding the results together. 
 
 (3) If a given divisor is contained in any dividend a certain number of 
 times with a certain remainder, it is contained in 2 times that dividend 2 
 times as many times with 2 times as great a remainder ; in 3 times that 
 dividend 3 times as many times with 3 times as great a remainder ; in 10 
 times as great a dividend 10 times as many times with 10 times as great a re- 
 mainder, etc. 
 
 (4) If the dividend and divisor are considered as representing numbers 
 of any particular kind (as concrete numbers), they must represent numbers 
 of the same kind. 
 
 (5) If the dividend is considered as representing some particular kind, 
 and the divisor is abstract, the quotient is of the same kind as the dividend. 
 
SCIENCE OF ARITHMETIC. 195 
 
 87. Shaw that f is contained in 1 f times. 
 
 ANALYSIS. EXPLANATION. 
 
 1)1 = 1 1 unit is contained in 1 unit 1 time; | unit be- 
 
 \)\ = 5 ing 5 times smaller than 1 unit, is contained in 1 
 
 1)1 = f unit 5 times ; f unit being 3 times larger than ^ 
 
 unit, is contained in 1 unit ^ of 5 times = f times, 
 [This analysis gives the reason for inverting the divisor in 
 division of fractions.] 
 
 88. Divide 12.5 by .5. By .05. By 5. Deduce a practical rule 
 from this analysis. 
 
 In order to divide 12.5 by .5, both must be reduced to the same 
 kind. Now 12.5 is 125 tenths, and .5 is 5 tenths. Hence, our 
 quotient is 125 -;- 5 = 25. Again, 12.5 is 1250 hundredths, and .05 
 is 5 hundredths. Hence, 12.5 -f- .05 = 1250 -j- 5 = 250. So, also,. 
 12.5 -=- 5 = 125 ^ 50 = 2.5. 
 
 The practical rule deduced from this analysis is as follows :^ 
 Make the number of decimal places equal in each, and dropping 
 the decimal point from both (or disregarding it), divide as in 
 whole numbers. 
 
 89. What Propositions are direct consequences of the definition of 
 Division f 
 
 Pnop. 1. — Dividend and divisor may both be multiplied or both 
 be divided by the same number without affecting the quotient. 
 
 Prop. 2. — If the dividend be multiplied or divided by any num- 
 ber, while the divisor remains the same, the quotient is multiplied 
 or divided by the same. 
 
 Prop. 3. — If the divisor be multiplied by any number while the 
 dividend remains the same, the quotient is divided by that num- 
 ber ; but if the divisor be divided, the quotient is multiplied. 
 
 Prop. 4. — The sum of the quotients of two or more quantities 
 divided by a common divisor, is the same as the quotient of the 
 sum of the quantities divided by the same divisor. 
 
 Prop. 5. — The difference of the quotients of two quantities 
 divided by a common divisor, is the same as the quotient of the 
 difference divided by the same divisor. 
 
 90. Define Cancellation. 
 
 Cancellation is the striking out of a factor common to both 
 
196 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 dividend and divisor, and does not affect the quotient, as appears 
 from Prop. 1. 
 
 In a fraction the numerator is dividend and the denominator its divisor ; 
 hence, a fraction is regarded as an unexecuted problem in division. 
 
 91. What is the laiv of the signs in Division f 
 
 It is that like signs in divisor and dividend give + in the 
 quotient, and unlike signs — . 
 
 This is a direct consequence of the law of signs in multiplication. 
 
 92. Define a Boot. 
 
 A Root is one of the equal factors into which a number is con- 
 ceived to be resolved. 
 
 The Square Root of a number is one of two equal factors into which the 
 number is conceived to be resolved. The Cube Root is one of three equal 
 factors. 
 
 93. How is a root indicated f 
 
 By the Radical, or Root Sign, V- When written thus |/'25, it 
 indicates that the square root of 25 is to be taken ; that is, that 25 
 is to be resolved into 2 equal factors, and one of them taken. To 
 indicate the cube root, 3 is written in the sign. Thus if 125 means 
 the cube root of 125. It is 5. 
 
 In like manner the 4th root is one of the 4 equal factors which 
 
 (Compose a number, and is indicated thus y ; the 5th root thus, 
 
 5 
 
 y , etc. 
 
 94. What is Evolution f 
 
 Evolution is the process of extracting roots of numbers. 
 
 As evolution is the process of finding one of a certain number of equal 
 factors which compose a number, it is but a process of factoring— resolving 
 a number into equal factors. 
 
 95. Extract the square root of 7056. 
 
 SOLUTION. 
 
 {x + yY zzz: x2 + 2x2/ + 2/2 = 7056(84 
 
 x^ = 64_ 
 
 2xy + 2/^ = {2x + y)y. Now 2x == 160)656 
 
 2/ = _4 656 
 
 Whence 2a: X 2/ = True Divisor, 164 
 
 Explanation. — Pointing off the number 7056, we find that 
 there will be two figures in the root, if 7056 is a perfect power; 
 
SCIENCE OF AEITHMETIC. 197 
 
 i. e., the root will consist of a certain number of tens + a cer- 
 tain number of units. Let x represent the tens and y the units,, 
 whence x -]- y will represent the root, and (x + y)^ = x"^ + 2xy + 
 3/2 will represent 7056. Now the square of the tens is the greatest, 
 square in the left-hand period, L 6., in 70 ; hence the tens digit is 
 8, whose square is 64. This 8 being tens its square is 6400, which 
 subtracted from 7056 leaves 656. Hence 2xy + 2/^ which equals 
 {2x + y)y, represents this remainder, 656. But 2x is 2 X 80, or 
 160 ; and as (160 + y)y = 656, we can find y, approximately, at 
 least, by dividing 656 by 160 as though IQOy = 656. In this way 
 we find' that it is probably 4. If y is 4, 2x -^ y = 160 -|- 4, or 164^ 
 and 164?/ = 656. Multiplying 164 by 4 we find the product ex- 
 actly 656. Hence, 84 is the square root of 7056. 
 
 [The rule for extraction of square root is given in the more- 
 elementary course, hence it is not repeated here.] 
 
 96. What are the points to be made in a demonstration of the rule far 
 extracting square root ? 
 
 1. Why the pointing is thus done. 
 
 2. Why seek the highest order in the root first. 
 
 3. Why the greatest square in the left-hand period is the square 
 of the highest order in the root. 
 
 4. Why we bring down but one period at a time. 
 
 5. Why we form the trial divisor as we do. 
 
 6. Why we add to the trial divisor the last root figure found. 
 
 7. How we proceed when the first two figures have been de- 
 termined, and why this is like the preceding part of the process. 
 
 97. Extract the cube root of 300763. 
 
 The ultimate practical end here is to see the rule for extracting 
 the cube root in the formula (x -j- y)^ = x^ + Zx^y + Zxy^ -(- ^/^ = 
 x^ + (Sx2 + 3x1/ + 2/2)2/. 
 
 Pointing off" we see that the cube of the first 300763(67 
 
 figure in the root is 216, and hence that 6 is 216 
 
 this first figure. Now, letting the x in the inSOO^ 
 
 formula represent the six tens (60), after we iS60 
 
 have taken out the x^ (216 thousand) we have ^q 
 
 (3x2 +.8x2/ + 2/^)2/ = 84763. ^^ 
 
 84763 
 
 84763 
 
 For trial putting (Sx^) v = 84763, as x = 6 12109 
 tens we have 3(6 ien^Yy = 84763, or IO8OO2/ 
 = 84763, approximately. Hence 10800 is the Trial Divisor and 7 
 is the probable next figure in the root. But the True Divisor is- 
 3x2 _|. ^y.y _|_ y2^ qj. ^y,y2 j^qj-q tj^^u 10800. Now 3xy = S X ^^ X 
 7, and y'^ = 7^, whence the true divisor is 10800 -f- 1260 + 49, or 
 12109. Multiplying this by 7 we find no remainder. Hence 67 
 is the exact cube root of 300763. 
 
198 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 98. Hoio may higher roots than the square and the cube be extracted ? 
 
 The 4th root may be extracted by taking the square root of the 
 square root, and the 6th root by taking the cube root of the square 
 root. 
 
 Any root may be extracted by the method suggested by the correspond- 
 ing power of a binomial, in a manner altogether similar to that for extract- 
 ing the cube root. 
 
 99. What Proposition proves the fundamental operations by casting 
 
 out the nines ? 
 
 The remainder arising from dividing any integral number by 9 is 
 the same as that which arises from dividing the sum of its digits by 9. 
 
 Dem. — Let a, b, c, and d represent the digits of a number whence 
 the number is represented by 1000a + 1006 + 10c + d. Now 
 since 1000 is 999 + 1 ; 100, 99 + 1 ; and 10,9 -|- 1, we have 1000a 
 + 1006 + 10c + (Z 3= (999 + l)a + (99 + 1)6 + (9 + l)c + d 
 
 1st Paet. 2d Part. 
 
 = 999a + a 4- 996 + d = 999a + 996 +9c -f- a + 6 + c + d. 
 Now the first part of the number when put in this form is evi- 
 dently divisible by 9, hence whatever remainder there may be 
 when the whole number is divided by 9 will arise from dividing 
 the second part by 9. But the second part is the sum of the digits. 
 It is evident that the same argument is applicable to any number. 
 
 100. Illustrate the above by showing that the remainder arising from 
 dividing 5487 by 9 is the same as arises from dividing the sum of its 
 digits by 9. 
 
 5487 = 1090 X 5 + 100 + 4 + 10 X 8 + 7 = (999 -f 1)5 + 
 
 (99 + 1)4 + (9 + 1)8 + 7 = 999 X 5 + 5 + 99 X 4 + 4 + 9 
 
 1st Pakt. 2d Part. 
 
 X8-[-8 + 7 = 5X999 + 4X99 + 8X9 -f 5 + 4 + 8 + 7. 
 
 Now 9 exactly divides the first part, hence whatever remainder 
 
 there may be when the whole number is divided by 9 will arise 
 
 from dividing the second part by 9. But this second part is the 
 
 snni of the digits, and gives a remainder 6 when divided by 9. So 
 
 also does the number 5487. 
 
 The most convenient practical method of procedure is to add the digits 
 in succession, dropping 9 as often as the sum amounts to this number. 
 Thus, to reject the 9's from 785402356, we say . " 11 ; -2, 5, 7, 11 ; 2, 7, 15 ; 6, 
 13 , 4," This shows that the sum of the digits makes four 9's and 4 remain- 
 der. But as the remainder is all that we desire the number of 9's need not be 
 attended to. A little practice enables us to see at a glance the excess of 9's. 
 Thus no attention need be paid to the 9's which occur in the number or to 
 
 * In this, 9 is dropped from the sum at each semicolon. 
 
SCIENCE OF ARITHMETIC. 199 
 
 any pair of digits which makes 9. In the above the 6 and 3, 5 and 4, 7 and 2 
 could be disregarded, leaving only 8 and 5 to be added. 
 
 101. Add 78543, 7652, 9867, 53216, 85764, and prove the woj^k by 
 casting out the 5's. 
 
 
 OPERATION. 
 
 
 78543 = 
 
 
 a;9's + Rem. 
 
 7652 = 
 
 
 2/9's + 2 Rem. 
 
 9867== 
 
 
 s9's + 3 Rem. 
 
 53216 = 
 
 
 t'9's + 8 Rem. 
 
 85764 = 
 
 
 i(;9's + 3 Rem. 
 
 235042 = {x-i-y-\-z-\-v-{- t^OO's + 16 Rem. 
 = {x-^y-\-z-\-v-{-iv+l)9's-{- 7 Rem. 
 
 Explanation. — The 78543 contains, or is equal to, a certain 
 number of 9's + remainder. Now, as we do not care particu- 
 larly how many 9's this is, we call it a;9's. Moreover, as the re- 
 mainder is all we need, we find it. So 7652 is equal to y9^s -j- 2 
 remainder, etc. Consequently the sum of all these numbers is 
 equal to as many 9's as there are in all the numbers + all the 
 remainders, i. e., to {x-\-y-\-z-\-v-j- w)9's + 16 remainder. 
 But 16 makes one 9 and 7 remainder. Hence we have the entire 
 sum equal to (x -(- y -\- z -\- v -{- iv -\- l)9's -j- 7 remainder. 
 
 Remark. — In casting out the 9's from any onimber ivhen the result is 
 exactly 9 drop it ; but lohen the sum becomes tivo digits add these digits 
 
 Thus, in' casting the 9's out of 7643764286, we have 8 -f 6 = 14, 
 4 + 1 = 5, 5 + 2 + 4 = 11, 1+1 =2, 2 + 6 + 7 = 15, 1 + 5 
 =: 6, etc., since the remainder, after 9 is rejected from 14, is the 
 sum of its digits, etc. 
 
 102. What Proposition proves Multiplication by casting out the 9's ? 
 
 The excess of 9's in the product of the two numbers is equal to 
 the excess in the product of the excesses in the two factors. 
 
 Demonstration. — Any number used as a multiplicand maybe 
 
 considered as a certain number, say x, of 9's + a certain excess, 
 
 which we will call r. Hence any multiplicand may be represented 
 
 by a;9's + r, or 9a; + r. In like manner letting y represent the 
 
 number of 9's in the multiplier and r^ (read j;rM?ie) the excess, the 
 
 multiplier may be represented by 9y 
 
 + r^. Multiplying 9x + r by 9y -\- i^ 9a: + r 
 
 we have for the product 81a;?/ + 9y -\- r^ 
 
 9{xy -\- yr) + rr^. But the sum of g^-r^ + rr^ 
 
 the first two terms, %lxy + 9{xi^ + yr) q-. . _,_ 5—; 
 
 is evidently divisible bv 9. Hence 01^^ I o/- / 1 n\ 1 y 
 ' f (\i u- 1, :i T 81a'V + 9(aT + vr) -\- rr 
 
 any excess 01 9 s which there may be ^ 1 v 1 ^ y 1 
 
 in the product arises from the excess 
 
 in rr^, that is, from the product of the excesses in the factors. 
 
200 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 103. How prove Subtraction by casting out the 9^s ? 
 
 Take the sum of the excesses in the subtrahend and remainder^ 
 and, if this equals the excess in the minuend, the work is proba- 
 bly correct. 
 
 104. How prove Division by casting out the 5's f 
 
 To prove division by casting out the 9's, to the excess of 9's in 
 the product of the excesses in the divisor and quotient, add the 
 excess in the remainder; and if the excess in this sum equals the 
 excess in the dividend, the work is probably correct. 
 
 105. What is the test of divisibility of numbers by 2 ? 
 
 (1) Any number is divisible by 2, if the right-hand figure is 0, 
 or a digit which is divisible by 2, and not otherwise. 
 
 Demonstration.— Any number may be considered to be as many lO's as 
 are represented by the figures exclusive of the right hand one, -f the riglit 
 hand figure. Now the first part is divisible by 2, since 10 is so divisible. 
 Hence, if the second part is 0, or is divisible by 2, the whole number is, but 
 not otherwise. 
 
 106. Define even and odd numbers, respectively. 
 
 An even number is a number which is divisible by 2. An odd 
 number is one which is not divisible by 2. 
 
 Any number is even which ends with an even digit or 0, and odd if it 
 ends with an odd digit. 
 
 107. When is a number divisible by 3 f 
 
 Any number is divisible by 3, if the sum of its digits is so di- 
 visible, and not otherwise. 
 
 Dem. — (1) There is no digit that may not be produced in the 
 right-hand place by multiplication ; thus, 3X7^=21, 3X4 = 
 12, 3 X 1 = 3, 3 X 8 = 24, 3 X 5 = 15, 3 X 2 = 6, 3 X 9 = 27, 
 3 X 6 = 18, 3 X 3 =: 9. (2) a, 6, c, and d, being the digits of a 
 number, we have (3 + If a -f (3 + Ifb + (3 + 1)c + d, repre- 
 senting the number. Now, performing the operations indicated 
 in any term, as (3 + 7)%, each term of the result contains a cer- 
 tain number of 3's, + some power of 7 X by one of the digits. 
 But all those terms consisting of a certain number of 3's are, of 
 course, divisible by 3 ; hence we have to examine those consist- 
 ing of powers of 7 X by the respective digits. These are of the 
 form 73a + Vb + 7c + d, or (6 + If a + (6 -\-fb + (6 + l)c + 
 d. Performing the operations indicated in the latter forms, there 
 arise terms containing 6 as a factor, and terms consisting of sin- 
 
SCIENCE OF ARITHMETIC. 201 
 
 gle digits ; the former are divisible by three ; hence, if the latter 
 (the sum of the digits) is divisible by 3, the entire number is. 
 
 108. When is a number divisible by 4 ^ 
 
 1 
 Any number is divisible by 4 if the number represented by its 
 
 last two digits is divisible by 4, or if the last two figures are O's, 
 
 and not otherwise. 
 
 Demonsteation.— Any number is composed of as many hundreds as are 
 represented by the figures, exclusive of the two right hand ones, + the 
 number represented by these figures. By any number of lOO's is divisible 
 4. Hence, if the number represented by the two right hand figures is divisi- 
 ble by 4, or if the last two figures are 0, the entire number is divisible by 4, 
 and not otherwise. 
 
 109. When is a number divisible by 5 ? 
 
 Any number is divisible by 5 if the right-hand figure is or 5, 
 and not otherwise. 
 
 110. W hen divisible by 6 f 
 
 Any even number the sum of whose digits is divisible by 3 is 
 divisible by 6, and no other number is so divisible. 
 
 No odd number is divisible by 6. 
 
 111. When divisible by 7? 
 
 It is possible that a number ending with any figure is divisible 
 by 7. (For method of proving this, see 107.) 
 
 112. When divisible by 8? 
 
 Any number is divisible by 8 if the last three figures are 0, or 
 if the number represented by them is divisible by 8, and not 
 otherwise. (Demonstration similar to 108.) 
 
 113. When divisible by 9 ? 
 
 Any number is divisible by 9 if the sum of its digits is so di- 
 visible, and not otherwise. (For Demonstration, see Answer to 
 Question 99, page 198.) 
 
 114. When divisible by 10 f 
 
 Any number is divisible by 10 when the right-hand figure is 0, 
 and not otherwise. 
 
202 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 115. Define a divisoi\ 
 
 A Divisor of a number is an integer which divides it without 
 a remainder. A divisor of a number is therefore a factor. A 
 •divisor is also called a Measure. 
 
 116. Define a Common Divisor, also the Greatest Common Divisor. 
 
 A Common Divisor of two or more numbers is a common in- 
 tegral factor ; that is, a whole number which exactly divides each 
 of the numbers. The Greatest Common Divisor of two or more 
 numbers is the greatest whole number which will exactly divide 
 each of them. 
 
 117. Define Composite and Prime Numbers, respectively. 
 
 A Composite Numfeer is a number which is composed of in- 
 tegral factors other than itself and unity. A Prime Number is a 
 number which has no integral factor other than itself and unity. 
 Numbers are said to be prime to each other when they have no 
 common factor. 
 
 118. What three Propositions relate to Common Divisors? 
 
 (1) A number which contains a factor not in a given number 
 will not divide that given number. 
 
 (2) A number is divisible by the product of any number of its 
 prime factors, no factor being used more times than it occurs in 
 the number. 
 
 (3) The Greatest Common Divisor of two or more numbers is 
 the product of all their common prime factors. 
 
 - To find the G. C. D. of 1512, 882, and 630 :— 
 
 1512 = 2X2X2X3X3X3X7. 
 882 = 2 X 3 X 3 X 7 X 7. 
 630 = 2 X 3 X 3 X 5 X 7. 
 The prime factors common to all are 2, 3, 3, 7. Hence, 2X3 
 X 3 X 7 = 126 is the G. C. D. of 1512, 882, and 630. 
 
 119. What tivo Propositions relate to the Greatest Common Divisor f 
 
 (1) A divisor of a number is a divisor of any number of times 
 that number. 
 
 (2) A divisor of any two numbers is a divisor of their sum 
 and also of their difference. 
 
SCIENCE OF ARITHMETIC. 203 
 
 120. Give a rule for a general method of finding the G. C. D. 
 
 To find the G. C. D. of two numbers, divide the greater by the 
 less, and this divisor by the remainder, continuing to divide the 
 last divisor by the last remainder until there is no remainder. 
 The last divisor is the G. C. D. sought. 
 
 Demonstration.— In order to demonstrate this rule, let 42)138(3 
 us find the G. C. D. of 42 and 138. Performing the opera- 126 
 tion according to the rule, as in the margin, we are to "lo'u^cq 
 prove that 6 is the G. C. D. of 42 and 138. ■^^''SS*' 
 
 As 42 is its own G. D., if it divides 138 it is the G. C. D. -^mom 
 
 sought. Trying it, we find a remainder 12. Now any ^o^ 
 
 divisor of 42 is a divisor of 3 times 42, or 126 (Prop. 1), and i£. 
 
 any divisor of 126 and 138 is a divisor of their difference 12 
 (Prop. 2). Hence, the G. C. D. sought can not he greater than 12. More- 
 over, any number which divides 12 and 42 divides 138 which is the sum of 12 
 and 3 times 42 (Props. 1 and 2). Thus, the question is reduced to finding 
 the G. C. D. of 12 and 42. 
 
 In like manner we can reduce it to the question of finding the G. C. D, of 
 6 and 12. But this is 6. Hence, 6 is the G. C. D. of 42 and 138. 
 
 121. How find the G. C. D. of more than two numbers f 
 
 The common method is to find the G. C. D. of the two least 
 numbers, and then of this G. C. D. and the next larger of the 
 number, etc. 
 
 122. Define a Multiple, a Common Multiple, the Least Common Mul- 
 tiple. 
 
 A Multiple of a number is a number which contains that num- 
 ber as a factor. 
 
 A Common Multiple of two or more numbers is a multiple of 
 
 each of them. 
 
 The Least Common Multiple of two or more numbers is the 
 least number which is a multiple of each of them. 
 
 The Product of two or more numbers is a Common Multiple of them all, 
 since it contains each of them as a factor. A Multiple of a number must 
 contain all its factors. 
 
 123. Give a rule for finding the L. C. M. of several numbers. 
 
 (1) Write the numbers in a horizontal line, and divide by any 
 prime number that will divide two or more of them without a 
 remainder, placing the quotients and numbers undivided in a 
 line below. 
 
 (2) Divide this line as before, and thus proceed till no two 
 numbers are divisible by any number greater than 1. The con- 
 
204 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 tinued product of the divisors and numbers in the last line will 
 be the L. C. M. of the numbers. 
 
 Applying this rule to the solution of a problem we 
 have the work in the margin. . 
 
 5)45 
 
 81 
 
 96 
 
 35 
 
 3) 9 
 
 81 
 
 96 
 
 7 
 
 3) 3 
 
 27 
 
 32 
 
 7 
 
 1 9 32 7 
 
 5x3x3x9x32x7 = L. C. M. 
 
 124. What are the three methods of comparing numbers? 
 
 1st. On the basis of Equality, as in the Equation; 2d. By in- 
 dicating the difference between them, as when we say one number 
 is 5 greater than another; 3d. By telling, or indicating, the 
 quotient of one number divided by the other. 
 
 125. Meaning of JRatio ? 
 
 Katio is the quotient of one number divided by another of the 
 same kind, the former being called the Antecedent, and the lat- 
 ter the Consequent. 
 
 The term Ratio is also applied to such forms as 6 : 2, |, etc., 
 that is, to the indicated operation of division, the : being an 
 equivalent for ^-. 
 
 126. Meaning of Reciprocal f 
 
 The term Keciprocal is applied to a ratio as to a common frac- 
 tion, signifying the quotient of 1 divided by the ratio, or the 
 ratio inverted. So also the term Compound Eatio has exactly 
 the same meaning as Compound Fraction, i. e., the product of the 
 ratios. 
 
 Thus, the reciprocal of the ratio a to 6 is -, as the ratio itself 
 
 a 
 a 
 
 called the Direct Ratio, is t. The compound ratio a to 6, c to d, e 
 
 to /, means simply _ X - X -j or — just as the compound frac- 
 d f hdf 
 
 tion I of f of \l means - ^ ^ ^ ^ ^^ . The ratio of 8 to 4 being 2, 
 the reciprocal is |, etc. 
 
 127. Define Proportion. 
 
 Proportion is an equality of ratios, the terms of the ratios be- 
 ing expressed. 
 
SCIENCE OF ARITHMETIC. 205 
 
 Two ratios, at least, are required for a proportion ; hence, we have two 
 antecedents and two consequents. Of four terms which constitute a pro- 
 portion, the 1st and 4th are called Extremes, and the 2d and 3d means. 
 
 128. How indicate the equality of two ratios ? 
 
 The equality of two ratios constituting a proportion may be 
 indicated by the ordinary sign of equality (=), or by the double 
 colon ( : : ) ; but the symbol : : means exactly the same as =. 
 
 When four numbers are in proportion, as 12, 4, 48, and 16, we say " 12 is 
 to 4 as 48 is to 16," meaning thereby that '^^ = f f . 
 
 129. What is the 4th term in the 'proportion 2 : 8 : : 6 : what? 
 
 PROCESS 
 
 Since the product of the means divided by (by Cancellation.) 
 one extreme, gives the other extreme, write 8 and ^ 
 
 6 for a dividend and two for a divisor. 5_iS-P = 24 
 
 130. If I of a farm is worth ^240, how much is I of it worth f 
 
 The ratio of the parts being the same as that of the values, we 
 have 
 
 2 
 
 240 2 9 240 
 
 -F::^,or§Xi = ^,andx = 
 4 80 
 
 In solution, it is usually best to indicate the operations first, 
 
 and then cancel as much as possible. 
 
 *> 
 
 131. If 12 meters of cloth cost 24 francs, how many dollars ivill 3\ 
 yards cost ? 
 
 12 X 39.37 24 x .193 
 The proportion is 12 : ; -^— , whence x ■= 
 
 3 X 3>^ X 24 X .193 
 
 89.37 
 
 This method compels a full understanding of the nature of the process in 
 proportion, which the ordinary method does not. 
 
 132. Why is the product of the means of a proportion equal to the prod- 
 uct of the extremes f 
 
 The 1st mean is the 1st extreme divided by the ratio, and the 2d 
 
206 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 mean is the 2d extreme multiplied by the ratio. Hence, the product 
 of the means is ^ Ratio"^^ ^ ^^ Extreme X Ratio. In this the 
 Katie cancels and leaves the product of the Extremes. 
 
 133. If a man travels 24 mi. in 2 days, by walking 4 hr. a dny, at the 
 same rate how far will he travel in 10 da., walking 8 hr. a day? 
 
 STATEMENT. , 
 
 2da.:10da. -» . . 24 mi. : ( ? ) mi. 
 4 da. : 8 da. J 
 
 CANCELLATION. 24 X 10 X P 
 
 ^x^ 
 
 240 mi. 
 
 Explanation. — Since miles are required, 24 mi. = third term. 
 
 Since in 10 da. he will walk farther than in 2 da., we make 10 
 da. the 2d term in the first proportion. 
 
 Since in 8 hr. he will walk farther than in 4 hr., we make 8 hr. 
 the second term in the second proportion. 
 
 Place 3d and 2d terms above the line (for a dividend), and the 
 1st terms below (for a divisor). 
 
 134. If ISO men, in 6 da. of 10 hr. each, dig a trench 200 yd. long, 
 3 yd. wide, 2 yd. deep, in how many days can 100 men, working 8 hr. a 
 da., dig a trench 180 yd. long, 4 yd. wide, and 3 yd. deep? 
 
 STATEMENT. 
 
 
 
 100 men : 180 men 
 
 
 
 8hr. : 10 hr. 
 
 
 
 200 yd. : 180 yd. 
 
 - : : 6 da. 
 
 :(?)da. 
 
 3 yd. : 4 yd. 
 
 
 
 2 yd. : 3 yd. . 
 
 
 
 CANCELLATION PROCESS. 
 
 9^9 3 
 
 ;^0 X X0 X W X ^ X .? X _ 243 da 
 
 ;pp X ^ X ^0!^ X 3 X ^ 
 
 f^ ^ 10 
 
 In making a statement, the philosophical idea is the only sure guide ; 
 hence, in stating a question in Proportion, the mind should rest oia. denom- 
 inations only ; but after it is stated, we should look on the terms as abstract 
 numbers. 
 
SCIENCE OF ARITHMETIC. 207 
 
 When a correct statement is made, there will be the same number of ele- 
 ments, or factors, in similar terms ; as in the above statement. 
 
 135. What is a Progression? 
 
 A Progression is a series of terms whicli increase or decrease 
 by a common difference, or by a common multiplier. 
 
 136. Define Arithmetical Progression. 
 
 An Arithmetical Progression is a progression in wbich the 
 terms increase or decrease by a Commoil Difference. 
 
 Thus 3 •• 7 •• 11 •• 15 •■ 19, etc., is an arithmetical progression with a com- 
 mon difference, 4. 
 
 12 - - 10 - - 8 - - 6 - - 4 - - 2 - - is an arithmetical progression with a com- 
 mon difference, — 2. 
 
 137. What are to be considered in any progression f 
 
 There are Five Things to be considered in any progression, viz., 
 the first term, the last term, the common difference, the number 
 of terms, and the sum of the series. Any three of these five 
 things being given, the other two may be found. 
 
 138. Express the tivo fundamental formulcs of Arithmetical Progression. 
 
 (1) The formula for the Last Term, I — a-\- {n — l)d. 
 
 (2) The formula for the Sum of the Series, s = (^±±-L^n, in 
 
 Li 
 
 which a represents the first term, I the last term, d the common 
 difference, n the number of the terms, and s the sum of the series. 
 
 To produce the formula for the last term of the series: Since a repre- 
 sents the first term and d the common difference, the second term 
 isa-{-d; the third, a -\- d -\- d, or a-\-2d; the fourth, a -j- 3(i/ 
 the fifth, a-\-4id; the sixth, a-{-5d; that is, the series is 
 
 a •• a + c^ •• a -|- 2cZ •• a -j- 3cZ •• a -{- 4d •• a -j- 5d, etc. 
 
 From this we see that any term consists of the first term -|- the 
 common difference taken as many times as there are terms — 1. 
 Hence, for the 9th term we have a -\- {n — l)d; or, letting / stand 
 for the nth, or last term, 1 = a-\- {n — l)d. 
 
 To produce the formula for the sum of the series : Since a- a -\- d" 
 a ~\- 2d - a -{- od •• a -{- 4:d •■ a -\- 5d, etc., to I represents the series. 
 wehaves=a+(a+cZ) + (a-\-2d) + (a + 3d) + (a + 4cZ) -f 
 etc., to I. 
 
 Now the term before the last is evidently I — d ; the term before 
 this, / — 2d the term before this, I — 3c?, etc. Hence we may 
 write,; 
 
208 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK, 
 
 s = a+(a + c?) + (a + 2cZ) + (a+3d)+ etc., to ( Z — 3cZ ) 
 ^(l — 2d)-i-il — d)-{-l. 
 
 Or, s=l-i-{l— d) -^ {I — 2d) X{ I— ^d)+ etc., to (a + 3d) 
 + (a+2d) +{a-\-d) 4- a. 
 
 Adding 2s = {a -\- 1) -\- (a -\- I) -\- {a -{- I) -\- to n term, or n (a + Z) ; 
 Whence, dividing by 2, we have s= — ^ n. 
 
 It is of the utmost importance, in thus seeing in a formula the 
 process the statement of which we call a rule. [We would sug- 
 gest that the student write the rule from the formula.] 
 
 139. Given the extremes and the number of terms, to find the common 
 difference. 
 
 Solution. — From l = a-{- {n — l)d, find the value of d. Thus, 
 transposing {n — l)d = l — a; dividing each number by n — /, 
 
 I — a 
 
 d 
 
 ~ n — 1 
 
 [Write the rule from the formula.] 
 
 140. Given the extremes and the common difference, to find the number 
 of terms. 
 
 Solution. — Solving l = a-\- (n — l)d for n, we have l=a-\- nd 
 
 I — a 
 — d, nd = 1 — a-{- d, n= i + 1. 
 
 [Write the rule from the formula.] 
 
 141. Given the last term, number of terms, and common difference, to 
 find the first term. 
 
 As before from l=:a-\- {n — l)d,we have a = l — {n — l)d. 
 
 142. Given the sum, last and first terms, to find the number of terms. 
 
 Solution. — Since s = — „— n, n =. . , 
 
 143. Given sum, last term, and number of terms, to find first term. 
 
 o c,' r^ + h ^ , , 2s — In 
 bOLUTiON. — bmce s = j —k— n,2s = an-{- In, and a = , 
 
 2s 
 
 or a = — — I. 
 
 n 
 
SCIENCE OF ARITHMETIC. 209 
 
 144. Given sum, first term, and number of terms, to find last term. 
 
 2s 
 Result, 1 = — — a. 
 n 
 
 145; Given first term, number of terms, and common difference, to find 
 sum of terms. 
 
 Solution. — As neither of the fundamental formulae Z = a -}- 
 
 ra-^l-] . 
 
 {n — l)d, s = — 2~ '^j contains all these four quantities, a, n, d, 
 
 and s, we must combine the two. This we can do by substituting 
 
 i a, n, and d, that 
 
 a-\-a-{- {n — l)d~| 
 
 I'Ct + 1'] 
 in s = \ — 2 — n, in the value of I in terms of a, n, and d, that is, 
 
 n. 
 
 . ra-\-a-\-{^n — ija^ 
 its value in the first formula. This gives s •= o 
 
 or s = an -\- ^ j ^^ the formula required. 
 
 146. Given last term, number of terms, and common difference, to find 
 sum. 
 
 This is obtained from the two fundamental formulae in the same 
 
 n{n — l)d 
 manner as the last, and is s ^ In — ^ , or directly from the 
 
 preceding formula. 
 
 There are twenty such problems, hut they can not all he solved hy the 
 simple equation. The student should fix the two fundamental formulae in 
 mind, and know how to produce and use them. It is not desirable for him 
 to commit to memory the formulae in these problems, nor the rules growing 
 out of them ; but he should know how to use the fundamental formulas in 
 the solution of examples. 
 
 147. Define Geometrical Progression. 
 
 A Geometrical Progression is a progression in which the 
 terms increase or decrease by a constant multiplier. If the mul- 
 tiplier is greater than 1 the series is called an Increasing Progres- 
 sion; if less than 1, a Decreasing Progression. The sign : is used 
 to indicate a geometrical progression. 
 
 Thus 3 : 6 : 12 : 48, etc., is an increasing Geometrical Progression in which 
 the Rate is 2. 243 : 81 : 27 : 9, etc., is a decreasing Geometrical Progression in 
 which the Rate is %. 
 
 148. Meaning of Bate in Progression f 
 
 The constant multiplier by which any term of a geometrical 
 14 
 
210 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 progression is multiplied to produce the next term is called the 
 Eate, or Ratio. 
 
 149. What are the two fundamental formulce oj Geometrical Progres- 
 sion f 
 
 (1) The formula for the last term, I = ar^~^ ^^ 
 
 (2) The formula for the sum of the series, s 
 
 r — 1 
 
 To produce the formula for the last term, observe that as the second 
 term is the first term multiplied by the rate, the third term the 
 first multiplied by the second power of the rate, the fourth the 
 first multiplied by the third power of the rate, so any term is the 
 first multiplied by the rate raised to a power denoted by the num- 
 ber of terms less 1. ' Hence if n is the number of terms, we have 
 I = ar^~^, as the formula sought. 
 
 To produce the formula for the sum, we have 
 
 s = a -\- ar -{- ar^ -\- ar^ -f- etc., to ar^~^ + ar^~^ + ar^~^. 
 
 Multiplying by r, 
 
 i^s = ar + ar"^ + c(''^ + etc., to ar^-^ + ar^~^ -\- a?'°~^ + ar^. 
 
 Subtracting, (r — 1) s ^^ ar^ — a. ■ 
 ar^ — a Ir — a 
 
 Whence s = r-, or s = — r-, since ar"^ = Ir. 
 
 r — 1 r — i ' 
 
 [That the student may see the arithmetical process in the for- 
 mula, he should write the rules deducible from them.] 
 
 150. What is the formula for the sum of an Infinite Decreasing Geo- 
 metrical Progression f 
 
 •'— 1— r 
 Demonstration. — Since the terms are growing less and less, 
 when the series is extended to infinity I becomes ; whence the 
 a — Ir 
 
 formula s = ^ becomes s = -. _ 
 
 151. Define Per Cent, Rate, Base, and Amount. 
 
 Per cent means by the hundred. 
 
 The character ^ is used as a substitute for the words per cent. 
 
 Rate is the number by which we multiply to obtain any re- 
 quired per cent of a given number. Rate per cent, therefore, means 
 rate by the hundred. 
 
 The result obtained by taking a certain per cent of a number is called 
 the Percentage. 
 
SCIENCE OF ARITHMETIC. 211 
 
 The Base is the number upon which the percentage is estimatedo 
 The Amount is the sum of the base and percentage. 
 
 152. What are the four things considered in Percentage? 
 
 The Base, the Rate, the Percentage, and the Amonnt. 
 
 The fundamental formulse of percentage are: (1) p = br, and 
 (2) J. = & + ^?'> or 6(1 + r), in which 6 represents the base, r the 
 rate, p the percentage, and A the amount. 
 
 To produce p = br, we have but to remember the definitions of 
 base, rate, and percentage. To illustrate : Take 8 ^ of 345. Now 
 8 (-fc of anything means .08 of it ; hence 8 ^ of 345 is 345 X -08, 
 and the percentage = 345 X -08. 
 
 To produce the second formulae we have but to remember the 
 definition of amount. From this, A = b -\- br, since 6 is the base 
 and br the percentage, and the sum of these two is the amount. 
 
 153. Given amount 270, and rate per cent 8, to find the percentage and 
 the base. 
 
 (1) To solve by the formulaB.— We observe that we want a 
 
 formula which gives the percentage in terms of the amount and 
 
 rate. Kow neither (1) p = br, nor (2) A = b -i- br does this. 
 
 We must therefore combine them and eliminate the quantity 6, 
 
 p 
 which we do not want. From p = br, we have 6 = -; and sub- 
 
 p 
 stituting thjs in A = b -\- br, it becomes A =- -\- p, from which 
 
 Ar ^ ^ Ar 
 
 we have p = -, i as the formula needed. Hence p = -. _■ — = 
 
 270X08 _ 
 1.08 — '^"• 
 
 (2) To analyze elementarily.— Every 1 of base is 1.08 of 
 
 270 
 amount. Hence amount 270 corresponds to -ttTo of base, and a& 
 
 1.08 270 
 
 the percentage is .08 of the base, we have the percentageyTTo -j- 
 
 270 -^^ 
 .08 = 20. In this analysis we have found the base -, ap which is 
 250. 1-^^ 
 
 154. What business calculations based on percentage do not involve the 
 element of Time f 
 
 Problems of Proiit and Loss, Commission, Brokerage, Stocks, 
 Insurance, Taxes, and Duties. 
 
-^12 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 1 55. W hat calculations based on percentage involve the element of Time f 
 
 Interest, Discount, Annuities, including many problems in 
 Insurance, Exchange, and Equations of Payments and Ac- 
 counts. 
 
 156. Define Profit and Loss. 
 
 Profit, or Gain, is the excess of what is received for an article 
 over its total cost. Loss is the excess of the total cost of an arti- 
 cle over what is received for it. 
 
 Bought a horse for §185 and sold it for §222. What 'per cent did I 
 make on the investment? 
 
 In this example $222 is the amount, and $185 is the base; 
 , , , , A—b 222 — 185 
 nence, A = b -\- or becomes r = — r — =: t^f = .20. 
 
 Hence, the gain was 20 ^. 
 
 [One or the other of the formulae { p = br, or A = b -{- br ), or 
 both combined, will solve all questions in simple percentage.] 
 
 A man sold a house at a profit of 33^ i%, and thereby gained §7600 ; 
 required^ the cost and the selling price. 
 
 Here we have p = $7500, and r ^= 33^, and are required to find 
 I), the cost, and A, the selling price, p = br gives the former, as 
 
 p 7500 7500 
 fe=^=-g^=r-y-=r 3X7500 = 22500. ISrow^ = 6-fp = 
 
 22500 + 7500 = 30000. 
 
 Sold 5000 acres of land at §3\ per acre, and thereby gained 22 (fc > 
 ■what was the cost ? 
 
 Here A = 5000 X 3^. Having given A and r, we wish to find 
 
 . , . , ^ 5000 X3i 
 
 h, hence we use A -\- b 4- br, or b ^ -: — ; — = :ri^ 
 
 117 1 -j- r 1'22 
 
 A peculator lost §1950 on a lot of flour, which was 20 ^ of the cost ; 
 
 required the cost. 
 
 ^ , , , p 1950 1950 
 
 h ormula, p = br, whence b = — = —^ = — y— = 5 X 1950. 
 
 ^ Or, as .20 = i $1950 is i the cost. 
 
 Having lost 12 fc of my property, which ivas §4^0, how much had I re- 
 maining ? 
 
 The remainder was the difference, and what I lost was the perceni- 
 
 ■age; hence, we have p and r given, to find difference. Neither 
 
 formula has these three quantities in it. But from (1) we have 
 
 P 
 5 = -^j and substituting in (2) we obtain 
 
 ... \{l-r) 420(1 - .12) 420 X -88 „, ^ ^„ 
 dif.= = -^ = j2 = ^^ X 88. 
 
SCIENCE OF ARITHMETIC. 213 
 
 157. Define Agent, Broker, or Commission Merchant. 
 He is a person who does business for another. 
 
 Commission or Brokeraare is the percentage paid an agent, broker, or 
 commission merchant, and is estimated at a certain rate per cent on the 
 amount of business done. 
 
 The Amount of money received or expended in behalf of another is usually 
 the base on which commission is reckoned ; except in case of dealings in 
 stocks and exchange, in which cases it is customary to estimate brokerage 
 on the par value of the paper. 
 
 158. Define Tax. 
 
 A Tax is money required by the government to be paid by the 
 people of the country for the support of government, or for pub- 
 lic enterprises. 
 
 159. Define Real and Personal Property. 
 
 Real Property, or Real Estate, is land and houses. Per- 
 sonal Property is such as furniture, goods, vessels, notes, mort- 
 gages, stocks, etc. 
 
 An Assessor is an officer whose duty it is to ascertain and make out a list 
 of the taxable property in a given district. This list is called an Assessment 
 Boll. A Collector is an officer who collects the taxes. 
 
 160. What are Duties or Customs f 
 
 Duties or Customs are taxes levied on imported articles, and 
 are either Specific or Ad Valorem. 
 
 Specific Duties are duties levied on particular articles irrespective of their 
 value. Ad Valorem Duties are duties levied on articles bought in foreign 
 markets, and are estimated at a certain per cent on the net cost. 
 
 In order to collect Duties or Customs Congress determines on what articles, 
 and what rates, and the schedule embracing these facts is called a TariflF, — 
 from Tarifa, a fortress established by the Moors at the Straits of Gibraltar, 
 where they exacted duties from all vessels entering or leaving the Mediter- 
 ranean sea. 
 
 161. Define Interest, Principal. 
 
 Interest is money paid for the use of money. Principal is the 
 
 sum for the use of which interest is paid. 
 
 Principal corresponds to base, Interest to percentage, and Amount to sum. 
 of principal and interest. 
 
 162. What are the fundamental formulcB in simple interest f 
 
 (1) i = Prt, and (2) A = P+ i=P-\-Prt = P(l + rt), in which 
 is the Principal, or base ; r, the Rate ; t the Time in years ; i the 
 Interest, or percentage ; and A the Amouni. 
 
214 HIGH SCHOOIi QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 163. What is the interest on p4ofor 31 years atScff^f What is the 
 iimount ? Find the amount directly from the things given. 
 
 Solution.— By the Formulae.— 
 
 69 ^ 
 
 (1) I =Prt=Z^b X iooX3^ = ^^^^^ =96.60 
 
 (2) ^=P(l+^0=345(l + xf<TX3i) = 345[l + j|^] = 
 
 69 X 32 
 545(1 + i^) = 345 X If = 5 + 441.60. 
 
 By Elementary Analysis,— Since 8 per cent means .08 of the 6345 
 
 principal, we have $345 x .08 = 27.60, as the interest for 1 yr. .08 
 
 Again, as the understanding in simple interest is that the inter- 27 60 
 
 est is in the direct ratio of the time, if the interest fori yr. is 31/ 
 
 ^27.60, the interest for S% yr. is 3>^ times $27.60, or $96.60. -^ 
 
 For practical purposes the amount is found by adding the inter- i^^J| 
 
 est to the principal. °^°" 
 
 To find the amount directly from the data (things given), we $96.60 
 consider that $1 yields $.08 in 1 year, in 3% years it yields $.28 ; 
 whence the amount of $1 for 3>^ yr, at 8 per cent is $1.28. Hence, the amount 
 of $345 is 345 times $1.28. 345 x 1.28 = 441.60. 
 
 164. At what rate per cent does $50 principal yield $5.25 in 1 year 
 9 months ? 
 
 By the Formula. — We here have P, i, and p, to find r. Hence, 
 
 i bl 21 3 
 
 using ^ = Prf, we have r = ;^ - 50 x If " 50>a ~ 50 ~ 
 ,06. Therefore the rate per cent is 6. 
 
 By Elementaey Analysis. — $50 in 1 yr. 9 mo. at 1%, yields 
 $.875 interest. Hence to yield $5.25^ will require a rate as many 
 times 1 % as $.875 is contained times in $5.25, or 5.25 -r- .875, 
 which is 6. 
 
 165. In what time will ^1260 at8 %, amount to §1617? 
 
 The quantities under consideration are P, r. A, and t; of which 
 P, r, and A are given, to find t. Hence taking J. = P -f- Prty and 
 
 solving for t, we have 
 
 A-P _ 1617-1260 _ 357 _ o .4.0 
 ^— Pr " 1260 X .08 100. 8 ^ ^ 
 
 Now 3.541f yr. = 3 yr. 6 mo. 15 da. 
 
 Elementary Analysis.— The thing inquired about is Time, the 
 given efiect of interest. Hence find the interest of $1260 at 8 ^ 
 
SCIENCE OF ARITHMETIC. 215 
 
 for 1 yr., and divide the given interest by it. Thus $1260 at 8 ^ 
 gives $100.80 in 1 yr. Hence to yield $357 will require as many 
 times 1 yr. as $100.80 is contained times in $357, etc. 
 
 166. What principal amounts to ^23S.50, in 2 yr. 11 mo., at 10 (fc f 
 
 We have under consideration P, A, t, and r. As P is the thing 
 sought, we solve A = P{1 -\- rt) for P and have 
 
 A _ 232.50 _ 232.50 _ 232.5 X 24 _ 
 
 l+^'<~ l + i^X2H~ 1 + 2^" 31 -^^^• 
 
 Elementary Analysis. — The given effect is amount, and the 
 thing inquired about is principal. Hence, as $1 principal amounts 
 to $1.29^ in 2 yr. 11 mo., at 10 4), it will require as many times 
 1 dollar principal to amount to $232.50, as $1.29^ is contained 
 times in $232.50, or $180. 
 
 167. In what time mil §419.84 yield $41.28 interest, at 5 cfof 
 
 i z= Prt, contains the things under consideration, of which t is 
 the thing sought — the unknown quantity ; hence 
 
 i 41.28 8256 , ^„„,^ , 
 
 ^^ Pr = 419.84 X .05 = -4198:4 = ^'^^^^^ + 7^- = 1 
 yr. 11 mo. 18 da. 
 
 168. What is the rate per cent if §450 amounts to §687 in 6 yr. 7 mo.f 
 
 , - ^ — P _ 687 — 450 _ 237 _ 
 '' ~ Pt "~ 450 X 6/2 "" 2962.5 ~" ^ ^' 
 
 169. Give a good method of computing interest. 
 
 The best practical method of computing interest is to multiply 
 the principal by the rate, and this product by the time expressed 
 in years. 
 
 What is the interest on §750 fo^^ S yr. 8 mo. 26 da., at 8 fo ? 
 
 OPERATION. 
 
 The form of operation in the margin will 
 be found the most expedient for common 
 use. Interest for 1 year, $60. Hence, for 
 3.73f yr. it is 3.73f X 60. 
 
 170. How find exact interest. $224.33^ Interest. 
 
 The method of reckoning time by subtracting the dates and 
 calling 30 days a month and 12 months a year, of course does not 
 get the exact time. The exact time is found by reckoning the. 
 
 30 
 
 26 
 
 12 
 
 8.86 + 
 
 
 3.73f 
 60 
 
216 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 entire years, and the exact number of days in any fraction of a 
 year which may be involved, and calling 1 day 3^^ of a year. 
 
 171. What are Bays of Grace? 
 
 In practical affairs interest should usually be computed for 3 
 days more than the nominal time. These 3 days are called Days 
 of Grl'ace, and it is optional with the creditor whether he pays 
 his note on the day on which it nominally falls due, or any time 
 within the 3 succeeding days. An action at law can not be 
 brought against him till the expiration of the 3 days. 
 
 What is the exact interest on a note of §345, dated June 12, 187 4 f 
 •payable November 16, 1876, at 10 <^o? 
 
 There are 2 entire years, and 18 + 31 + 31 + 30 + 31 + 16 + 
 3 = 160 da. Hence the time is 2||f yr., or V^. Hence we have 
 
 $34.5 X t¥ =^ $84,123+. 
 
 172. Give a method of finding interest by cancellation. 
 Problem : Find the interest of $320 for 21 da. at 5 fc 
 
 40 
 
 ^0 7 .01 
 
 X^ X ?0 
 3 ^ 
 
 Explanation : Place Prin., Rate, and Time above the line (for 
 a dividend) ; if for years and months, reduce to months, and 
 place only 12 below the line (for a divisor) ; if for years, months 
 and days, or for months and days, reduce to days, and place 12 
 and 30 below the line (for a divisor). 
 
 173. What is Compound Interest f 
 
 Compound Interest (interest on interest) is interest considered 
 as falling due at regular intervals of time, and to be reckoned as 
 increasing the interest bearing debt from such time. 
 
 174. Give the fundamental formula for Compound Interest. 
 
 It is ^ = P(l -|- rY, in which P represents the principal, r the 
 rate, n the number of equal intervals of time at the end of which 
 the interest is compounded, and A the amount. 
 
 3 = $.93^ 
 
SCIENCE OF ARITHMETIC. 217 
 
 To find the amontit for one year, we simply multiply the prin- 
 cipal for that year by 1 -j- r, hence at the end of the 2d year the 
 amount is P(l -f r) X (1 + t^)-, or P(l + r)^. This being the prin- 
 cipal for the od year, the amount at the end of the year is 
 P[l -\- rY X (1 + ^')- 01* -P(l + 0^- Hence for n years the amount 
 is^ = P(l+r)°. 
 
 175. What is the compound interest on ^S40for 5 yr., at 10 cJq f 
 
 First find the amount, A — 240(1 + .10)^ = 240(1.1)^ = 240 X 
 1.61051 = 386.5224. Hence, as the interest is the amount minus 
 the principal, we have i = $386.5224 — 240 = $146.5224. 
 
 176. Find the compound interest on ^4-50 a^ 7 ^ for 5| years. 
 
 Find amount of $1 for the whole years, and add to it the re- 
 quired fractional part of the interest for the next year, as found 
 by taking the difierence between the amount for the entire years 
 and the next amount. Thus : 
 
 Amount of $1 at 7 <fo for 3 yr. $1.225043 
 
 Amount for 3 yr. $1.225043 
 
 Amount for 4 yr. 1.310796 
 
 Interest for 4th yr. .085753. | of .085753 = .064315 
 
 Amount of $1 for 3| yr. at 7 fo = $1.289358 
 
 Find a -principal that yields, as amount, at compound imterest at 5 <fo 
 ^601.966, in 3 yr. 
 
 Formula ^ = P(l + r^. becomes 601.965 = P(1.05)^ whence 
 „ 601.965 
 
 = • /-I Qc>3 • The value of (1.05)^ can be found by actual in- 
 volution. 
 
 Find a principal which at compound interest for 2 yr. at 6 (fo per an- 
 num, compounded semi-annually, ivill yield §4-2.67 interest. 
 
 Since i = ^ — P, we have z = P(l -f r)° — P = P[(l + rY 
 
 i 42 67 
 
 - 1], whence P= (^ ^ ,,^n _ i = (i.03)*_i 
 
 177. What are partial payments f 
 
 It frequently happens that a debtor does not pay his note all at 
 one time. In such a case, whatever is paid at any time is en- 
 dorsed (credited) on the back of the note, and is called a Partial 
 Payment. 
 
218 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 178. What is the United States Court Rule for computing interest on 
 such notes f 
 
 (1) Compute the interest on the principal from the date of the 
 note to the time of the first payment. If this payment equals or 
 exceeds this interest, find the amount and subtract the payment. 
 Treat this remainder as a new principal, and proceed to the next 
 payment. Continue the process till the time of settlement is 
 reached. 
 
 (2) If any payment is less than the accrued interest, add such 
 payment to the next, and treat the sum as one payment made at 
 the latter date. 
 
 This rule is based upon these two principles : 
 
 (1) The principal can not be diminished until the accrued interest is 
 paid. 
 (2) Interest shall not draw interest. 
 
 179. What is the "Merchant's Rule " in Partial Payments ? 
 
 Find the amount of the principal from the date of the note to 
 the time of settlement; find the amount of each payment from 
 the time it was made to the time of settlement, and subtract their 
 sum from the first result. 
 
 180. What is the Connecticut Rule in Partial Payments f 
 
 (1) When more than a year's unpaid interest has accrued at 
 the time when any payment is made, the case is treated by the U. 
 S. Court Rule. 
 
 (2) But when one or more payments are made before a year's 
 unpaid interest has accrued, the sum of the amounts of these pay- 
 ments at the end of the year is subtracted from the amount due 
 on the note at that time, provided the payments are sufficient to 
 liquidate the interest accrued at the time they were made. If 
 any payment does not liquidate the interest accrued at the time 
 it is made, it is simply carried forward without interest and added 
 to the next payment, as in the U. S. Court rule. 
 
 (3) When the final settlement is made before a year's unpaid 
 interest has accrued, the several amounts are reckoned to the 
 time of settlement. 
 
 181. Define Legal Interest and Usury. 
 
 Le^al Interest is the rate per cent established by law as that 
 
SCIENCE OF ARITHMETIC. 219 
 
 whicli is to be implied in an interest-bearing obligation, in which 
 the rate is not specified. 
 
 Usury is unlawful interest. Interest greater than the legal 
 rate, if agreed upon between the parties and specified in the con- 
 tract, is not Usury. 
 
 182. What is the method for Partial Payments on Notes "with An- 
 nual Interest " ? 
 
 Find the interest on the note for 1 year; and find also the 
 amount of the payments made during the year, from the times 
 they were severally made to the end of the year. 
 
 . If the payments amount to more than the interest due, take 
 their amount from the amount of the note, and make the remain- 
 der a new principal. 
 
 But if the amount of the payments does not equal the interest 
 due, the principal remains unchanged, and the amount of the 
 payments is taken from the interest, the remainder being treated 
 as deferred interest. 
 
 Proceed in this manner with each year till the time of settle- 
 ment, the last period being that from the time the last annual in- 
 terest fell due to the time of settlement. 
 
 183. What is the method in Partial Payments on Notes hearing Com- 
 pound Interest f 
 
 When partial payments are made on notes bearing compound 
 interest, compute the interest on the several payments from the 
 time they were made to the close of the respective years in which 
 they were made, and deduct the amount in each case from the 
 amount of the note at the close of that year. 
 
 184. Define Discount, Commercial Discount, Bank Discount. 
 
 Discount is a general term used by business men to signify any 
 deduction made from a nominal price, or value. 
 
 Commercial Discount is a deduction from the nominal price, or 
 value, of an article. 
 
 Bank Discount is interest paid in advance, and for 3 days more 
 than the nominal time. These 3 days are called Days of Grace. 
 
220 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 185. Define Proceeds, True Discount, Present Worth. 
 
 The Proceeds or Avails of a note given at bank is the amount 
 which the bank pays for the note. 
 
 True Discount is a deduction made for the present payment of 
 a sum of money due at some future time. 
 
 The Present Wortli of a sum of money due at some time, is a 
 sum which, put at interest at a rate agreed upon, will in the 
 given time amount to the sum due. 
 
 When the Present Worth of a note exceeds the Face of the note, this ex- 
 cess is called Premium. 
 
 The difference between the nominal present value (as the /ace of a note) 
 and the Present Worth, is the True Discount, or Premium, as the case may be, 
 
 186. What is the principle on which paper is discounted at bank f 
 
 Find what the obligation will yield at maturity, compute the 
 interest on this amount from the time the paper is discounted to 
 its maturity, and deduct this from the amount which the note 
 will yield at maturity. 
 
 This difference is the Proceeds, and the interest is the Bank Discount. 
 
 Bank Discount is always reckoned for the exact time in days, including 
 the 3 days grace. Thus, a note dated December 4, and due in 2 mo. 15 da.^ 
 matures 27 + 31 + 19 + 3 = 80 da. after date. 
 
 187. What is the principle on which Common Discount is computed f 
 
 Find what the paper will yield at its maturity, and then find 
 what sum put at interest at the rate of discount agreed upon, will 
 yield the same amount at the time when the paper matures. 
 
 If the obligation is due at different times, the amount yielded at each of 
 these times is treated as a separate obligation, and the sum of the present 
 worths of all these amounts is the present worth of the entire obligation. 
 
 188. Give a rule for discounting a sum due at a future time, allowing 
 the purchaser deferred annual interest. 
 
 To 1 add the product of the rate and time, and the product of 
 the square of the rate into the sum of the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., 
 to 1 less than the number of years, and by this entire sum divide 
 the amount of the debt. 
 
 189. Define a Company. 
 
 A Company is an association of persons for transacting busi- 
 ness. 
 
SCIENCE OF ARITHMETIC. 221 
 
 Business Companies are of two general classes, incorporated and unincor- 
 porated. The former are spoken of as Corporations, and the latter as 
 Firms, Houses, or Partnerships. A Business Corporation is an association 
 authorized by special or general law to transact certain business, under a 
 specified name. 
 
 A Firm, or House, is an association bound to each other by mutual arti- 
 cles of agreement for the transaction of certain business. 
 
 190. What is Capital Stock, or Joint Stock f 
 
 Capital Stock, or Joint Stock, is the amount of money paid, 
 together with that subscribed but not yet paid in, for the purpose 
 of carrying on the business of the company, or corporation. 
 
 When a company is formed for any particular purpose, as for example, 
 to build and run a railroad, an estimate is made of the amount of money 
 which will probably be needed to do the work and carry on the business, 
 and this amount is divided up into what are called Shares, a share usually 
 being $100. The subscription books are opened, and all who will are in- 
 vited to " take stock," i. e., to subscribe. When one subscribes for a certain 
 number of shares, he agrees to pay in for the uses of the company the 
 amount for which he subscribes, or such part of it as may be needed, when 
 called for, and he receives from the company a Certificate of Stock, which 
 certifies that he owns so much stock in the company. 
 
 191. What are Stocks? 
 
 Stocks are the certificates of a corporation, signed by the proper 
 officers, and showing that the holder owns so many shares in the 
 capital stock of the company. 
 
 Any one who owns stocks is a Stockholder in the company. 
 
 192. What are Directors of a Company f 
 
 They are members elected by the stockholders for the general 
 oversight and direction of the business, to which the President, 
 Secretary, and other special officers give more immediate attention. 
 
 193. What are Gross Earnings, and Net Earnings, respectively ? 
 
 The Gross Earnings of a company is the total amount of 
 money, or its equivalent, received in the transaction of its business. 
 
 The Net Earnings of a company is the amount that is left after 
 deducting from the gross earnings the expenses of conducting its 
 business, losses, and accrued interest upon its bonds or other ob- 
 ligations. 
 
 The net earnings of a company are its profits, and are to be divided 
 among the stockholders in proportion to the amount of stock which each 
 one owns, unless otherwise determined by the directors. The net earnings 
 may be devoted to extending the business, if the directors so determine. 
 An Assessment is a sum required of stockholders to meet the losses, or ex- 
 penses of the company. 
 
222 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 194. Define a Corporation Bond 
 
 The Bond of a corporation is its certificate of indebtedness 
 signed hj the proper officers, and given under the corporate seal. 
 
 Such bonds are the notes of the corporation, and are secured by mort- 
 gage upon its property. These bonds, like other notes, are made payable at 
 a certain time, and bear a specified rate of interest. 
 
 195. What are Government Bonds f 
 
 GrOTernment Bonds are certificates of indebtedness issued by 
 the Government ; as by the United States, or State government, 
 hj a county, city, school district, or other government corporation. 
 
 196. What are Consols and Rentes, respectively f 
 
 Consols are English government stocks. Rentes (" rahnts ") 
 are French government stocks. 
 
 197. What is a Coupon f 
 
 A Coupon is a certificate of interest attached to a bond which, on 
 the payment of the interest, is cut off and delivered to the payor. 
 
 Stocks and Bonds are bought and sold in the market just as wheat or co 
 ton, and the prices fluctuate according to prosperity of business, the plenty 
 or scarcity of money, and many other circumstances. 
 
 198. What is Stock-jobbing f 
 
 Stock-jobbing is the business of buying and selling stocks and 
 bonds, with a view to speculation. 
 
 199. Meaning of Par Value f 
 
 The Par Value of stock is the face of the certificate or bond. 
 
 Premium, Discount, and Brokerage are always reckoned on the Par 
 
 Value. 
 
 When stocks sell for more than their par value they are said to be at a 
 Premium ; when for less they are at a Discount. 
 
 The Market Value of stock is the price per share at which it can be 
 ttought. 
 
 200. Illustrate a transaction in Exchange. 
 
 A merchant in Detroit wishes to pay a debt of $2,500 in New 
 York. He may send the money by a friend, by mail, or by ex- 
 press ; but the most common and most convenient way is to step 
 into a bank in Detroit, and paying in his $2,500 with a small per- 
 centage for their trouble, get the Detroit bank's order on a New 
 York bank for the |2,500. This order, called a Draft, the Detroit 
 
SCIENCE OF ARITHMETIC. 223 
 
 merchant can send to his creditor in New York, who by stepping 
 into the New York bank to which the order is addressed, will get 
 his $2,500. 
 
 201. What is Exchange f 
 
 Exchange is a method of making payments in distant places 
 by the use of Drafts or Bills of Exchange, without the direct trans- 
 mission of money. 
 
 When the exchange is between places in the same country, it is called 
 Inland or Domestic Exchange, and when between places in foreign conn- 
 tries it is called Foreign Excliange. Hence a Draft is a Domestic Bill of 
 Exchange. 
 
 202. What is a Draft f 
 
 A Draft, or Bill of Exchange, is a written order for money, 
 drawn in one place and payable in another. 
 
 203. What is a Bank? 
 
 A Bank is a company authorized by law to issue paper money, 
 receive deposits, deal in exchange, loan money, or buy and sell 
 coin. ^ 
 
 Some banks make it their chief business to loan money, others to deal in 
 exchange, others to receive deposits, while comparatively few are banks of 
 issue, that is, issue paper currency. 
 
 204. Give a form of draft drawn by one bank upon another. 
 
 FiEST National Bank of Detroit. 
 $2,500 Detroit, Mich., July 26, 1884. 
 
 At sight, pay to the order of Newcomb, Endicott & Co., Twenty- 
 five Hundred Dollars. Schuyler Grant, Cashier. 
 
 To the Ninth National Bank, \ 
 New York, N. Y. / 
 
 The above is a Sight Draft, i. e., it is to be paid as soon as presented to 
 the bank in New York. 
 
 205. Give a form of draft drawn by a merchant upon a bank. 
 
 $3,500. Detroit, Mich., July 26, 1884. 
 
 At ten days sight, pay to the order of Sheldon & Co., Thirty- 
 five Hundred Dollars, value received, and charge the same to 
 the account of E. B. Smith & Co. 
 
 To the Twelfth National Bank, 
 
 New York. 
 
 } 
 
224 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 The above is a Time Draft, and is not payable till ten days after presenta- 
 tion. It should be presented as soon as received, when the cashier writes 
 on it "accepted," giving the date of acceptance and signing his name as 
 cashier. This makes the bank liable for it, and is an agreement to pay it 
 after ten days. If no time is specified when a draft is to be paid, it is paya- 
 ble on sight. Drafts are also made payable a certain time after date. 
 
 206. If a New York house wishes to pay a debt in a small Western 
 place, for instance, what would be the course f 
 
 They would send to their creditor their check (order) upon a 
 bank in New York, or a Certificate of Deposit. This will be at 
 par in the Western place, and perhaps a little above. 
 
 Find the cost to a New York merchant to pay a New Orleans debt of 
 §2500, New York exchange being at -^q % premium in New Orleans ? 
 
 The New York merchant must send a draft which will amount 
 to $2500 including the -^^ %, which the New Orleans man will 
 receive as premium. Hence, the problem is the ordinary one in 
 percentage, in which the amount ($2500), and the rate (.001) are 
 given to find the base. Hence we have 
 A $2500 _ $2500 _ 
 
 ^ = r+7 = ITTooi - LOOT - ^^^^^-^^ +• 
 
 207. What is a §1200 St. Louis draft at f f da., on New York worth, 
 N. Y. exchange being 101, and the time discount being at 3 %f 
 
 The nature of this transaction is that a man in St. Louis buys 
 at a bank there a draft on N. Y. for $1200. Since N. Y. exchange 
 is at 101, ^. e., at 1 ^ premium, if his draft were a sight draft it 
 would cost him $1200 X 1-01 = $1212. But inasmuch as the 
 bank in N. Y. will not have to pay the draft till |f da. after its 
 date, they will not charge the St. Louis bank with it till they pay 
 it. Hence, the St. Louis bank will have the use of the money f f 
 da. before it will be charged to them in N. Y., i. e., before they 
 have to pay it. Therefore they allow 3 ^ discount on the face of 
 the draft for the use of the money. 3 (fc of $1200 for ff da. is $3.25. 
 Hence the purchaser of the draft pays $1212 — $3.25, or $1208.75, 
 or $1208.77 including a stamp. 
 
 208. Give an illustration of Foreign Exchange. 
 
 James Howell, a young man from Chicago, is traveling in Eng- 
 land, and his father, Thomas Howell, wishes to send him in Lon- 
 don $1000. How will he efiect it ? and what amount in English 
 currency will the son receive, sterling exchange being quoted at 
 4.89^, and gold at 114? 
 
SCIENCE OF ARITHMETIC. 225 
 
 Answer.— The father may go to a Chicago bank which deals in foreign 
 exchange, and get a bill of exchange on London. As gold is at 114, $1000 in 
 
 81000 
 currency is equivalent to - ,^, = 8877.19 in gold. Hence, the face of the 
 
 114 
 
 bill will be ^^ = 179.2 + , or £179 4s. 
 4.89o 
 
 Mr. Howell will receive from the bank three bills of exchange (orders on 
 the London bank) of the following form : 
 £179 4s. Chicago, III., March 7, 1876. 
 
 At sight of this First of Exchange (Second and Third of same date and 
 tenor unpaid), pay to the order of James Howell One Hundred and Seventy- 
 nine Pounds and Four Shillings sterling, value received, and charge the 
 same to Brown, Gale & Co. 
 
 To Sunderland & Hatch, London. 
 
 The other two bills will be exactly like this, except that in the second 
 the word Second v^ill be used where First is in this, and the parenthesis will 
 read " First and Third of same date," etc. The third will read " Tliird of 
 Exchange (First and Second of same date, etc.)." 
 
 The object of this arrangement is that the three bills may be sent by dif- 
 ferent mails, and thus if one is lost the remittance will not fail. Of course 
 when one has been received and paid the others are void. 
 
 209. What are Quotations 
 
 Quotations are the statements made from day to day in the 
 newspapers, giving the rates at which exchange, stocks, bonds, etc., 
 are being bought and sold in the money market. These quota- 
 tions are gold values. 
 
 Quotations of London exchange give the value of £1 in dollars, the par 
 value of £1 being $4.8665 ; when London exchange is quoted more than tnis 
 it is at premium ; when less, at discount. 
 
 Quotations of Paris, Antwerp, and Geneva exchange give the value of 81 
 in francs. The par value of a franc being .193, $1 = 5.18 francs +. Hence, 
 when quotations are less than 5.18 this exchange is at a premium ; when 
 greater, at discount. 
 
 210. Meaning of Course of Exchange f 
 
 The price at which exchange is quoted is often called The 
 Course of Exchange. 
 
 211. What is Equation of Payments f 
 
 Equation of Payments is the process of finding the mean or 
 average maturity or date of several obligations. 
 
 The Term of Credit is the period from the date to the maturity of an 
 obligation. 
 
 Tne Equated Time is the equitable date for the payment of several obli- 
 gations maturing at different dates. 
 
 212. State a rule which covers all cases of Equation of Payments and 
 Averaging Accounts, 
 
 Find the interest which would accrue on each obligation (at 
 15 
 
226 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 any rate per cent, when none is named), from its maturity to the 
 most remote maturity. Then ascertain how long it would take 
 the sum of the obligations, or the unpaid balance, to produce the 
 sum of these interests, or the balance of interest, at the same rate 
 per cent. Subtract this time from the date of the most remote 
 maturity, or add it, as the case may require, and the result will 
 give the Equated Time. 
 
 213. Define Insurance. 
 
 Insurance is a branch of business in which companies called 
 Insurance Companies make contracts to pay specified sums of 
 money to other parties, in the event of certain losses to which the 
 latter may be liable, the company receiving a percentage on the 
 sum guaranteed. 
 
 The contract is called a Policy. The sum which the party insured pays 
 to the company is called the Premium. 
 
 214. What are the two principal departments of the Insurance busi- 
 ness f 
 
 Property Insul*ance and Life Insurance. 
 
 The chief department of Property Insurance is Fire Insurance, in which 
 the guarantee is against loss by fire. Marine Insurance is insurance against 
 the contingencies of loss to vessels or property on them. 
 
 Insurance companies are of two principal kinds, Stock and Mutual. In 
 the former the profits are shared and the losses borne by the stockholders 
 in the ratio of their stock, after paying the expenses of the company ; in 
 the latter these are shared by the Insured, or Policyholders , who are in fact 
 the stockholders. 
 
 Property is not usually insured for more than three-fourths its market 
 value, and specially endangered property will not be insured at all by 
 judicious companies, 
 
 215. What is an Annuity ? 
 
 An Annnity is a sum of money payable annually, or at other 
 regular intervals. 
 
 A Certain Annuity is one which continues for a limited time, A Perpetual 
 Annuity, or a Perpetuity, continues forever. A Contingent Annuity is one 
 whose commencement, or duration, or both, is limited, as by a person's 
 death, or by his arrival at a certain age. An Annuity in Reversion, or De- 
 ferred, is one which begins at some future time. An Annuity in Arrears, 
 or Foreborne, is one the payment of which has not been made when due. 
 
 The Amount of an annuity is the sum of all the payments, plus the in- 
 terest of each payment, from the time it became due. 
 
 The Present Worth of an annuity is such a sum of money as will in the 
 given time and rate per cent amount to the final value. 
 
 216. Define a Single Life Annuity, and a Temporary Life Annuity. 
 A Single Life Annuity is an annuity payable during the life 
 
SCIENCE OP ARITHMETIC. 227 
 
 of a specified individual ; it is a contingent annuity, dependent oil 
 the life of the individual. 
 
 A Temporary Life Annuity is an annuity payable for a speci- 
 fied number of years, provided the person named lives through 
 that period, but which ceases at the annuant's death, if this oc- 
 curs before the expiration of the time. 
 
 Of course, if it were possible to tell how long a Life Annuant would 
 live, the case would be one of annuity certain. But inasmuch as this can 
 not be, we are obliged to resort to the theory of probabilities, based upon 
 the average duration of life, and the chances that a person at any given age 
 will live till any other given age. Such tables are called Mortality Tables, 
 Of these there are several in more or less general use, as for example, the 
 Northampton, the Carlisle, the Corribined Experience, and the American Expe- 
 rience. 
 
 217. Meaning of the Mathematical Probability of an event f 
 
 The Mathematical Probability of an event is the number of 
 favorable opportunities divided by the whole number of oppor- 
 tunities. The Mathematical Improbability is the number of 
 unfavorable opportunities divided by the whole number of oppor- 
 tunities. 
 
 Illustration.— A man draws a ball from a bag containing 5 white and 2 
 black balls ; the opportunities favorable to drawing a white ball are five, 
 and the whole number of opportunities is seven ; hence the mathematical 
 probability of drawing a white ball is |, The mathematical probability of 
 drawing a black ball is f- 
 
 218. What is a Joint Life Annuity f 
 
 A Joint Life Annuity is an annuity contingent on the survival 
 of all of several persons. 
 
 219. What is a Survivorship f 
 
 A SurTiYorsMp is an annuity contingent upon the survival of 
 either of two or more lives. 
 
 The Improbability of an event is the diflference between certainty and 
 the probability, i, e., it is 1 — the probability, or it is the unfavorable oppox- 
 tunities divided by the whole number of opportunities. 
 
 220. Define lAfe Insurance. 
 
 Life Insurance is the guaranteeing of money contingently on 
 human life. 
 
 As to the Constitution of the Company, Life Insurance Companies may be 
 proprietary, mutual, or mixed, — Proprietary, when the stock is subscribed 
 and the company constituted in the ordinary way of organizing business 
 
228 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 organization ; Mutual, when each person insured becomes a member of the 
 company, and hence is both insured and insurer ; Mixed, when both fea- 
 tures are combined. 
 
 Policies are Life Policies when the amount guaranteed is due on the 
 death of the insured ; Term Policies when this sum is payable upon the 
 death of the insured, provided it occurs within a specified time ; Endow- 
 ment Policies when the guanantee is payable when the insured reaches a 
 certain age, or at his death if it occurs before he reaches that age. 
 
 221. Define the kinds of Premiums. 
 
 Premiums are Single when the insurer pays in advance the en- 
 tire sum necessary to secure the payment of the special sum at 
 death; Limited when the entire premium is to be paid in a 
 specified number of payments ; and Annual when the insurer pays 
 a stipulated sum annually during the lifetime of the insured. 
 
 Net Premium is the premium which two considerations— probability of 
 life and interest on premiums— would demand. 
 
 Loading is the amount added to the net premium to cover the estimated 
 expenses of the company, and to provide for unusual m.ortality or other ex- 
 igencies which can not be foreseen. 
 
 222. What is Simple Partnership ? 
 
 Simple Partnership is a partnership in which the capital of 
 each partner is employed for the same time. 
 
 223. What is Compound Partnership f 
 
 Compound Partnership is a partnership in which the capital 
 of the partners is employed for different periods of time. 
 
 224. What are the several units of meamres and weights in the Metric 
 System ? 
 
 (1) The Unit of Length, called the Metre (mee^-ter), from 
 which the system derives its name. It is nearly one ten-millionth 
 of a quadrant of the earth's circumference. 
 
 (2) The Unit of Area, called the Are (air), is a square whose 
 side is 10 metres. It contains 100 square metres. 
 
 (3) The Unit of Solidity, called the Stare (stair), is a cube 
 whose edge is one metre. 
 
 (4) The Unit of Capacity, called the Litre (lee^-ter), contains 
 a volume equal to that of a cube whose edge is one-tenth of a 
 metre. 
 
 (5) The Unit of Weight, called the Gramme {gram), is the 
 weight of a cube of distilled water whose edge is one-hundredth 
 of a metre. 
 
SCIENCE OF ARITHMETIC. 
 
 229 
 
 225. What are the multiples and sub-multiples of the Metric System ? 
 
 For multiples, Greek numerals are used : 
 Deka, 10 ; Hecto, 100 ; Kilo, 1000 ; Myria, 10,000. 
 For sub-multiples the Latin ordinals are used : 
 .Deci, 10th ; Centi, 100th ; Milli, 1000th. 
 
 Dekametre means 10 Metres. 
 
 Dekagramme . 
 Hectometre . . 
 Kilometre. . . 
 Myriagramme 
 Centigramme . 
 Milligramme • 
 
 10 Grammes. 
 100 Metres. 
 1000 Litres. 
 10000 Grammes, 
 Ysij- Gramme. 
 yuVij Gramme, 
 
SECTION X. 
 
 GEOMETRY. 
 
 1. What is Geometry f 
 
 Geometry is the science of magnitude. 
 
 2. Define a Solid, a Surface, a Line, a Point, a Magnitude. 
 
 A Solid is a magnitude having length, breadth, and thickness. 
 
 A Surface is a magnitude having length and breadth, without 
 thickness. 
 
 A Line is a magnitude having length, without breadth or 
 thickness. 
 
 A Point has only position, without extent- 
 
 A Magnitude is that which has only extent and form. 
 
 Similar Magnitudes are those that have the same form. Homologous 
 points are similarly situated points in similar magnitudes. The term homol- 
 ogous is also applied to similarly situated lines, or surfaces, of similar mag- 
 nitudes. Equivalent Magnitudes are those that have the same extent. 
 
 3. What is a Geometrical Figure f 
 
 ItAs any line, surface, solid, or combination of these magnitudes 
 that can be described in exact terms. 
 
 Figures are represented by diagrams, and by models. Points are repre- 
 sented by capital letters. Figures are usually designated by naming some 
 of their points. Sometimes, when a figure is designated by a single letter, 
 the small letters are used. 
 
 4 Define a Straight line, a Curve line. 
 
 A Straight line is one that has the same direction through its 
 whole extent. 
 
 A Curve is a line that has a continuous change in direction. 
 
 (230) 
 
GEOMETRY. 231 
 
 5. Repeat the hvo axioms of straight lines. 
 
 (1) Axiom of Direction. — In one direction from a point 
 there can be only one straight line. 
 
 (2) Axiom of Distance. — The straight line is the shortest 
 that can join two points. 
 
 6. Name the Corollaries we have from the Axiom of Direction. 
 
 (1) From one point to another there can be only one straight 
 line. 
 
 (2) If two straight lines have two points common, or if they 
 have the same direction from a common point, they must coin- 
 cide ; they are one line. 
 
 (3) The position of a straight line is determined by two points, 
 or by one point and one direction. 
 
 (4) If any figure revolves about a straight line, the line itself 
 remains fixed in position. 
 
 7. What is a Plane? A Curved Surface f 
 
 A Plane is a surface that never varies in direction. 
 A Curved Surface is one in which there is a change of direction 
 at every point. 
 
 A Plane Figure is one whose points all lie in one plane. 
 
 A Polygon is a portion of a plane bounded by straight lines. The straight 
 lines are the sides of the polygon. The Perimeter of a polygon is its bound- 
 ary, or the sum of all the sides. A Triangle is a polygon of three sides ; a 
 Quadrilateral has four sides ; a Pentagon, five ; a Hexagon, six ; an Octagon, 
 eight ; a Decagon, ten ; a Dodecagon, twelve ; and a Pe7itedecagon,fifteen. 
 
 8. Define a Circle. 
 
 A Circle is a portion of a plane bounded by a curve that is 
 everywhere equally distant from a point within. The curve is 
 the circumference, and the point is the center. 
 
 9. What is Plane Geometry? Solid Geometry? 
 
 Plane Geometry is that branch of the science which treats of 
 plane figures. Geometry of Space treats of figures whose points 
 are not all in one plane. 
 
 10. What are the Figures of Space treated of in Elementary Geome- 
 try ? 
 
 (1) Unenclosed figures that consist of straight lines and planes » 
 (2) Enclosed figures that are bounded by planes, and are called 
 
232 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 polyedrons ; and (3) Three enclosed figures bounded by curved 
 surfaces, the cone, the cylinder, and the sphere. 
 
 11. W hat fundamental truths are the basis of the science of Geometry ? 
 Two postulates and two axioms. Every geometrical conception, 
 
 however simple or complex, is composed of two kinds of elements 
 — directions and lengths or distances. The directions determine 
 its form, and the distances its extent. 
 
 12. Define the various kinds of angles. 
 
 A Straight angle is one whose arms have exactly opposite di- 
 rections, so that they form one straight line. 
 
 Adjacent angles are two angles that have the same vertex and 
 one common arm between them. 
 
 Vertical angles are the opposite angles formed by two inter- 
 secting lines. 
 
 A Right angle is formed when one line meets another making 
 the adjacent angles equal. 
 
 A Perpendicular to a line is another line making a right angle 
 with it. 
 
 An Oblique angle is one neither a right angle nor a multiple 
 of a right angle. 
 
 An Acute angle is one that is less than a right angle. 
 
 An Obtuse angle is one that is greater than a right angle, and 
 less than a straight angle. 
 
 Complementary angles are two whose sum is equal to a right 
 angle. Each is the complement of the other. 
 
 Supplementary angles are two whose sum is equal to a straight 
 angle. Each is the supplement of the other. 
 
 Corresponding angles are any two having their vertices at dif- 
 ferent points, both being on the same side of the secant, and on 
 the same side of the two lines cut. 
 
 Alternate angles are any two having their vertices at different 
 points and being on opposite sides of the secant and on opposite 
 sides of the two lines cut. 
 
 Interior angles are those between the two lines ; the others are 
 exterior. 
 
 13. Define some terms pertaining to Circumferences. 
 
 (1) A Radius is a straight line from the center to the circum- 
 ference. 
 
GEOMETRY. 233 
 
 (2) A Diameter is a straight line through the center with both 
 ends in the circumference. 
 
 An Arc is a portion of a curve. 
 
 A Chord is a straight line joining the ends of an arc. 
 
 A Major Arc is one gjeater than a semi-circumference ; a Minor Arc is 
 one less than a semi-circumference. 
 
 14. What are Direct and Indirect Demonstrations f 
 
 A Direct Demonstration proceeds from established premises by 
 a regular deduction. 
 An Indirect Demonstration begins with the conclusion. 
 
 It proceeds by these steps : 
 
 1st. Suppose "that the conclusion to be demonstrated is not true. This 
 supposition is called the false hypothesis. 
 
 2d. Show, by reasoning upon the false hypothesis, that it involves a con- 
 tradiction, or leads to an impossible conclusion. This contradiction or im- 
 possibility is called the absurd conclusion, and, hence, this method Is called 
 reductio ad absurdum. 
 
 3d. Since the supposition that the conclusion is false leads to an absurd 
 ity, the conclusion must be false. 
 
 15. What is the Method of Exhaustions f Of Indivisibles f 
 
 It was used by Euclid in the demonstration of a theorem that 
 involved a ratio between magnitudes that have no common 
 measure. 
 
 The Method of Indivisibles consists in regarding magnitudes as 
 composed of infinitely small elements, called Infinitesimals or In- 
 divisibles. 
 
 16. What is a Determinate Problem f An Indeterminate Problem f 
 
 A Determinate Problem is one that admits of a definite number 
 of solutions ; as the problem, to draw a circumference through two 
 given points, with a given radius. A problem is Indeterminate 
 when it admits of an indefinite number of solutions. 
 
 17. Define the various hinds of Triangles. 
 
 An Acute-angled triangle has all its angles acute. 
 A Right-angled triangle has one of the angles right. 
 An Obtuse-angled triangle has one of the angles obtuse. 
 An Equilateral triangle has three sides equal. 
 An Isosceles triangle has only two sides equal. 
 A Scalene triangle has no two sides equal. 
 
 The Hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle is the side that subtends the 
 right angle. 
 
234 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 The Altitude of a triangle is the perpendicular distance between one 
 side and the vertex of the opposite angle. This side is called the base, and 
 the opposite vertex is called the vertex of the triangle. A medial of a tri- 
 angle is a line from the vertex to the midpoint of the base. 
 
 18. When is a circle said to be circumscribed and when inscribed f 
 
 When a circumference passes through the vertices of all the 
 angles of a polygon, the circle is said to be circumscribed about the 
 polygon, and the polygon to be inscribed in the circle. When 
 every side of a polygon is tangent to a circumference, the circle is 
 inscribed and the polygon circumscribed^ 
 
 A circle that touches one of the three sides of a triangle and the other 
 two sides produced is called an escribed circle. 
 
 19. What is a Trapezoid f 
 
 A Trapezoid is a quadrilateral that has two sides parallel. The 
 parallel sides are called bases. 
 
 20. What is a Parallelogram f A Rectangle f 
 
 A Parallelogram is a quadrilateral that has its opposite sides 
 parallel. 
 
 A Kectangle is a right-angled parallelogram. 
 
 21. What is a Rhombus. 
 
 A Ehombus, or Lozenge, is a parallelogram that has all its 
 sides equal. 
 
 22. Define, a Square; a Diagonal. 
 
 A Square is a quadrilateral having its sides equal and its angles 
 
 right. A Diagonal of a polygon is a straight line joining two 
 vertices, except, of course, two consecutive vertices, which are 
 joined by a side. 
 
 The Altitude of any quadrilateral having parallel sides is the distance 
 between parallels. Then either of these is called the base, and sometimes 
 the two are called the bases. The altitude of a parallelogram may be either 
 of the two distances. 
 
 23. What is the standard measure of surfaces f 
 
 The square. That is, the unit of area is a square having for 
 its side the unit of length. 
 
 It is used because of its simplicity. It has the same length throughout 
 its breadth, and the same breadth throughout its length ; and the length 
 and breadth are equal. 
 
GEOMETRY. 235 
 
 24. What is the Pythagorean Theorem f ' 
 
 The square on the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle is 
 equivalent to the sum of the squares on the sides that contain the 
 right angle. 
 
 This theorem, discovered by Pythagoras, is known as the 47th Proposi- 
 tion, that being its number in the First Book of Euclid's Elements, The 
 Pythagorean Theorem and the theory of similar triangles are the basis of 
 Trigonometry. 
 
 25. Define a Segment of a circle ; a Sector. 
 
 A Segment of a circle is the part cut off by a secant or chord. 
 A Sector of a circle is the part between two radii and the arc in- 
 tercepted by them. 
 
 26. Meaning of "Rectification of the Circumference"; of "Squaring 
 of a Circle " f 
 
 The Rectification of a curve consists in finding a straight line 
 of the same extent. The Quadrature or Squaring of a Circle con- 
 sists in finding an equivalent rectilinear figure. 
 
 27. What is a Diedral f 
 
 A Diedral is the figure formed by two planes which meet. It is 
 also called a diedral angle. The planes are its faxies and the inter- 
 section is its edge. 
 
 28. What is meant by Parallelism f 
 
 Parallelism consists in the identity of the directions of lines, or 
 of a line and a plane, or of planes. A Parallel Line and Plane 
 are such that the line is parallel to a line in the plane ; that is, 
 the plane has directions which are the same that the line has. 
 
 29. What is a Triedralf 
 
 A Triedral is the figure formed by three planes meeting at one 
 point. The point where the planes and intersections all meet is 
 called the vertex of the triedral. The intersections are its edges, 
 and the angles formed by the edges are its /aces. 
 
 A triedral that has one rectangular diedral is called a rectangular triedral. 
 If it has two, it is birectangular ; if it has three, it is trirectangular. A 
 triedral that has two of its faces equal is called isosceles; if all three are 
 equal it is equilateral. Supplementary triedrals are two triedrals in which the 
 faces and diedrals of the one are respectively the supplements of the die- 
 drals and faces of the other. Symmetrical triedrals are two triedrals whose 
 elements are respectively equal, but arranged in reverse order. 
 
236 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 30. What is a PolyedralP 
 
 A Polyedral is a figure formed by several planes that meet at 
 one point. The vertex, edges, and faces are defined, as those of a 
 triedral. A triedral is a polyedral formed by three planes. 
 
 A polyedral is called convex, when every diagonal plane lines within the 
 figure ; otherwise it is called concave. 
 
 31. What is a Polyedron f 
 
 A Polyedron is a solid, or portion of space, bounded by plane 
 surfaces. Each of the surfaces is a face, their intersections are 
 edges, and the points of meeting of the edges are vertices of the 
 polyedon. 
 
 A Diagonal of a polyedron is a straight line joining two vertices that are 
 not in the same face. 
 
 A Diagonal Plane is a plane passing through three vertices that are not in 
 the same face. 
 
 32. Define a Tetra^dron. 
 
 A Tetraedron is a polyedron having four faces. 
 
 The Altitude of a tetraedron is the perpendicular distance from one face 
 to the opposite vertex. This face is called the base, and the vertex is called 
 the vertex of the tetraedron. 
 
 33. What is a Pyramid f 
 
 A Pyramid is a polyedron having for one face a polygon, and 
 for the other faces triangles whose vertices are at one point. 
 
 The polygon is the base of the pyramid, the triangles are its sides, and 
 their intersections are the lateral edges of the pyramid. The vertex of the 
 polyedral is the vertex of the pyramid, and the perpendicular distance from 
 that point to the plane of the base is its altitude. 
 
 34. What is a Prism f 
 
 A Prism is a polyedron which has two of its faces equal poly- 
 gons lying in parallel planes, and the other faces parallelograms. 
 
 The Altitude of a Prism is the perpendicular distance between the planes 
 of its bases. 
 
 A Right Prism is one whose lateral edges are perpendicular to the bases. 
 A Regular Prism is a right prism whose base is a regular polygon. 
 A Parallelopiped is a prism whose bases are parallelograms. 
 
 35. What is a Cube f 
 
 A Cube is a rectangular parallelopiped whose length, breadth 
 and altitude are equal. Then a cube is bounded by six equal 
 
GEOMETKY. 237 
 
 squares ; its vertices are trirectangular triedrals ; and its edges 
 are of right diedral angles. 
 
 36. TV hat is a Cone f 
 
 A Cone is a solid described by tbe revolution of a right-angled 
 triangle about one of its sides as an axis. The other side describes 
 a plane surface, a circle, having for its radius the line by which 
 it is described. 
 
 The plane surface of a cone is called its base. The opposite extremity of 
 the axis is the vertex. The altitude is the distance from the vertex to the 
 base, and the slant height is the distance from the vertex to the circumfer- 
 ence of the base. 
 
 37. What is a Cylinder? 
 
 A Cylinder is a solid described by the revolution of a rectangle 
 about one of its sides as an axis. The sides perpendicular to the 
 axis describe circles ; the opposite side describes a curved surface. 
 
 The plane surfaces of a cylinder are called its hoses, and the perpendicular 
 distance between them its altitude. 
 
 38. What is a Sphere f 
 
 A Sphere is a solid described by the revolution of a semi-circle 
 about its diameter as an axis. 
 
 The center, radius, and diameter of the sphere are the same as those of 
 the generating circle. The spherical surface is described by the circumfer- 
 ence. The halves of sphere are called hemispheres. 
 
 39. Mention terms applied to Cones. 
 
 A cone is said to be inscribed in a pyramid when their bases 
 lie in one plane, and the sides of the pyramid are tangent to the 
 curved surface of the cone. The pyramid is said to be circum- 
 scribed about the cone. 
 
 A cone is said to be circumscribed about a pyramid when their 
 bases lie in one plane, and the lateral edges of the pyramid lie in 
 the curved surface of the cone. Then the pyramid is inscribed in 
 the cone. 
 
 40. Mention terms applied to Spheres. 
 
 A sphere is said to be inscribed in a polyedron when the faces 
 are tangent to the curved surface ; and the polyedron is circum^ 
 scribed about the sphere. A sphere is circumscribed about a polye- 
 
238 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 dron when the vertices all lie in the curved surface ; and the 
 polyedron is inscribed in the sphere. 
 
 A frustrum of a cone is said to be inscribed in a sphere when 
 the circumferences of its bases lie in the surfaces of the sphere. 
 
 A Great Circle of a sphere is a section made by a plane through, 
 the center. 
 
 . A Small Circle of a sphere is a section made by a plane not 
 through the center. 
 
 The Poles of a circle are the points where its axis pierces the 
 spherical surface. 
 
 41. Define terms pertaining to Spherical Surfaces. 
 
 A Imuc is the part of the surface of a sphere between two halves 
 of great circles. That part of the sphere between the two planes 
 is called a Spherical Wedge. 
 
 A Zone is a part of the surface of a sphere between the two 
 parallel planes. That part of the sphere itself is called a Segment. 
 The circular sections are the bases of the segment, and the dis- 
 tance between the parallel planes is the altitude of the zone or 
 segment. A spherical Sector is the part of a sphere described by 
 the revolution of a circular sector about a diameter of the circle* 
 A Spherical Polygon is part of the surface of a sphere included be* 
 tween three or more arcs of great circles. 
 
SECTION XI. 
 
 CIVIL GOYERIS^MENT. 
 
 1. Define a State. 
 
 A State is a community of persons living within certain limits 
 of territory, under a permanent organization, which aims to se- 
 cure the prevalence of justice by self-imposed laws. 
 
 2. W hat is Government f 
 Government is icontrol. 
 
 Civil government pertains to the citizens of a state or nation. It is con- 
 trol by law, exercised by a state over its members. 
 
 3. When is a state Sovereign f 
 
 If all the laws of a state are self-imposed, that is, if there is no 
 power outside its body of people which dictates to it in any way, 
 the state is said to be sovereign. 
 
 The sovereignty of a state consists in the absolute right to control its own 
 members, and in the absolute right to resist any interference in its affairs 
 by any state. 
 
 4. What are Laws f ■' 
 
 Laws are expressions of the controlling will, which become rules 
 of action for the governed. 
 
 A law, to secure control, must be accompanied by a penalty, and a cer- 
 tainty that the penalty will be inflicted. 
 
 5. Why is government a necessity ? 
 
 Society must organize itself permanently : first, to control the 
 evil inclined and protect the weak, and then to devise and carry 
 out plans for the common necessity and convenience. Govern- 
 ment is a necessity of society, and society is a necessity of man's 
 nature. 
 
 (239) 
 
240 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 6. What constitutes the Government of a State f 
 
 Those persons, more or less numerous, who directly exercise 
 control over the members of the state. Tlius. in the United 
 States, the President and all officers under his control, Congress, 
 and the courts of justice, together form the government. 
 
 There is a distinction between the state and the government. 
 The former is the whole body of people organized for the pur- 
 pose of control ; the latter is that part of the whole body through 
 which the control is exercised. 
 
 The state is supreme : the government is subordinate. The right to con- 
 trol rests primarily with the state ; secondarily, with the government. 
 
 7. Hoiv is authority to govern obtained f 
 
 It is probable that in the early history of the world all govern- 
 ments held their power by the tacit consent of the state. A single 
 man, having, in a superior degree, the elements of control, physi- 
 cal strength, and skill, courage, and sagacity, came to be recognized 
 by a simple pastoral people as having authority over them. His 
 children in their turn would become rulers; and thus hereditary 
 kingship would come to exist. In many cases power has been 
 seized by force, and the people, finding resistance useless, have 
 yielded to the usurpation. 
 
 8. What are the functions of government f 
 
 To make laws, to interpret and apply them ; and these functions 
 call for three departments — legislative, judicial, and executive. 
 
 9. Define Statute Law. 
 
 Statute law includes all enactments made by legislative bodies, 
 and promulgated by them as laws. 
 
 These are formed from time to time, as circumstances make them neces- 
 sary. In process of time some become useless, and are repealed, or changed, 
 or they remain on the statute book without force. 
 
 10. What is the Unwritten Law f 
 
 It consists of all those Judicial decisions which have become 
 authoritative through all the periods of the nation's history. 
 
 11. What is '■^Common Law^'f 
 
 The term " common law," as used in England and the United 
 
CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 241 
 
 States, includes all that portion of the unwritten law of England 
 that has not been set aside by statutes or by more recent decisions. 
 
 12. Define the several fm^ms of government. 
 
 Absolute, in which the laws are made by one person, and inter- 
 preted and executed by officers responsible only to him. Limited, 
 in which there is an hereditary executive, and a legislative de- 
 partment whose members are chosen periodically by the people, 
 the judiciary being responisble directly to the sovereign. Eepre- 
 sentative Democracy, or Kepublic, in which both the chief execu- 
 tive and the members of the legislative departments are chosen 
 periodically by the people. 
 
 There have been states in which all the functions of government were 
 in the hands of a few people, self-appointed. Such a government is an 
 Oligarchy. If a class of nobles rules the state, the government is called 
 an Aristocracy. 
 
 13. What is a Constitution f 
 
 The law by which the state controls the government. It is the 
 fundamental law, and all others must accord with it. 
 
 Constitutions are of two kinds : some are written instruments,— others 
 are without definite form. 
 
 14. How is the authority of government limited? 
 
 By limiting the term of service of its members. When the 
 people have this power of changing the government at their will, 
 it becomes impossible for any usurpation of authority to continue. 
 
 15. Hmo is every state divided f 
 
 Into two classes, — those who have a voice in public affairs, and 
 those who have not ; the voting and the non-voting. Those who 
 have a voice in the conduct of public affairs are said to have 
 political liberty. 
 
 The voice of a majority of those who vote is considered to express the 
 will of the state. 
 
 16. What are the three obligations of a good government ? 
 
 First, to secure justice to the members of the state ; second, to 
 promote the general welfare ; third, to defend the state. 
 
 16 ^ 
 
242 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 17. Sow is justice secured ? 
 
 By protecting every individual in his right to personal security, 
 personal liberty, private property, and his own religious belief 
 and worship. 
 
 It is the duty of government to care for the life, health, and reputation 
 of its subjects. 
 
 Personal liberty is freedom to go and come, to assemble peaceably for 
 discussion, to petition the government, and freedom of speech and of the 
 press. 
 
 The right of property covers the acquiring, using, and disposing of 
 property, time, and labor. 
 
 1 8. How are these natural rights limited in society ? 
 
 First, by a regard to the right of others; second, by the right of 
 the government to take property for public purposes. This right 
 of the government exists as the right of taxation, and right of 
 eminent domain. 
 
 19. What is civil liberty f 
 
 It is the enjoyment of one's natural rights in society. It is 
 liberty under the law. These rights may be forfeited by the com- 
 mission of crime. 
 
 20. Hoiv does the government promote the general welfare f 
 
 By securing justice, by executing measures of public utility, 
 and by fostering the industries of the state. 
 
 It is the duty of the government to provide for the education of the peo- 
 ple ; it may compel children to attend school ; it should care for the general 
 culture of the people. It is a duty of the government to defend the state. 
 
 21. Give a summary of the nature and duties of citizenship. 
 
 (1) A citizen is a member of the state. (2) He may be native 
 or naturalized. (3) He is bound to support the government by 
 obeying its laws. (4) He may disobey a law which violates his 
 conscience, but he must suffer the penalties of disobedience. 
 (5) He is bound to support the government with his money, and 
 by his service if necessary to its defense. (6) Voting is a duty, 
 and suffrage is a right. 
 
 22. What are the principal executive officers of each state ? 
 
 In each state the people elect a governor, a lieutenant-governor, 
 a secretary, a treasurer, an auditor, an attorney general, and a 
 superintendent of public instruction. 
 
CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 24S 
 
 23. What are the Qualifications of a Governor f 
 
 In Indiana the Governor must have been a citizen of the United 
 States and a resident of the state for five years, and must have 
 attained thirty years of age ; in Illinois he must have been a cit- 
 izen of the United States and of the state for five years, and must, 
 have attained thirty years of age ; in Michigan he must have 
 been a citizen of the United States for five years, and a resident 
 of the state for two years, and must have attained thirty years of 
 age ; in Wisconsin he must be a citizen of the United States and 
 a legal voter in the state ; in Iowa he must be a citizen of the 
 United States, a resident of the state for two years, and must have 
 attained thirty years of age ; in Minnesota he must be a citizen 
 of the United States, a resident of the state for one year, and 
 must have attained thirty-five years of age; in Ohio no qualifica- 
 tions are stated in the Constitution. 
 
 24. What are the powers and duties of the Governor ? 
 
 (1) He is required to give information and advice to the Legis- 
 lature upon matters pertaining to the interests of the state, and 
 he may call special sessions of the two houses when, in his judg- 
 ment, the public interests require it. 
 
 (2) He is commander-in-chief of the military forces of the' 
 state, having full power respecting their instruction and discipline- 
 He may call out the troops and lead them in case of insurrection 
 and invasion, and may order out such portions as may be neces- 
 sary to suppress riots, and to aid in enforcing the laws. 
 
 (3) He has power to pardon ofienses against the state after per- 
 sons have been convicted of the same. This power does not 
 usually extend to cases of impeachment, or of treason. 
 
 (4) He appoints notaries public, and members of various boards; 
 and commissions when authorized to do so by the Legislature. 
 
 (5) In general, it is his duty to superintend the administration 
 of state business, and to see that the laws are executed. 
 
 25. What are the duties of the Lieutenant-Governor f 
 
 He is the presiding officer of the Senate. In case the»chair of 
 the Governor is vacant by reason of death, or absence from the 
 state, or otherwise, the Lieutenant-Governor performs the duties 
 of the Governor, and has all the powers which the Constitution 
 confers upon that officer. 
 
214 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 26. What are the chief duties of the Secretary of State ? 
 
 To keep a record of the official acts of the executive and legis- 
 lative departments ; to attest the signature of the governor on 
 -commissions and proclamations ; to keep the laws of the state and 
 publish them ; to receive and keep the returns of state and na- 
 ^tional elections ; to receive and keep reports of corporations or- 
 jganized under the general laws of the state. 
 
 27. Define the duties of the State Treasurer. * 
 
 -He receives all money accruing to the state from taxation or 
 otherwise ; keeps all notes, bonds, and other securities which are 
 the property of the state ; and pays out such sums as the auditor 
 draws his warrant for. 
 
 28. What are the duties of the State Auditor ? 
 
 He is to examine all accounts and demands against the state, 
 and to draw his warrant upon the state treasurer for the payment 
 of such as are just. He also superintends the collection of dues 
 to the state ; examines the accounts of the treasurer ; and reports 
 to the Legislature, with suggestions, the financial condition of the 
 state. 
 
 29. Define the duties of the Attorney General. 
 
 He is to prosecute and defend in the Supreme Court all actions 
 in which the state is a party ; to prosecute and defend any action 
 when directed to do so by the Governor or Legislature ; to advise 
 and assist the subordinate prosecuting officers of the state ; to 
 give legal information and advice, when requested to do so, to the 
 Legislature, and to any of the executive officers of the state. 
 
 30. What are the duties of State Superintendent of Schools? 
 
 To examine into the condition of the public schools of the state, 
 and report thereon to the Legislature ; to attend institutes and 
 other meetings of teachers ; to prepare blanks for, and to preserve 
 statistics from, the local school officers ; to supervise the school 
 fund ; to distribute the school laws and other documents for the 
 use of school officers. 
 
 31. What is the business of the Supreme Court of a state ? 
 
 To decide questions of law that come before it in review or cor- 
 vrection of the proceedings of inferior courts. 
 
CIVIL GOVERNMEKT. 245 
 
 32. What is the jurisdiction of the Circuit or District Courts? 
 
 They have original jurisdiction in all civil actions where the 
 matter in dispute exceeds the jurisdiction of justices of the peace, 
 and appellate jurisdiction in all civil actions that have been tried 
 before the inferior courts. They also have original and appellate 
 jurisdiction in all criminal actions, except those minor ones over 
 which some of the inferior courts may have exclusive jurisdiction. 
 
 33. Mention some of the inferior courts. 
 
 Court of Common Pleas, Probate Court, Municipal Courts, 
 Justices of the Peace. 
 
 34. What are the objects of the Constitution of the United States f 
 
 This is stated in the brief preamble : " We, the people of the 
 United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish 
 justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the common de- 
 fense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of 
 liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish 
 this Constitution for the United States of America." 
 
 35. What are the requisite qualifications of a U. S. Representative f 
 
 (1) He must be at least twenty-five years of age. (2) He must 
 have been at least seven years a citizen of the United States. 
 (3) When elected, he must be an inhabitant of the state. 
 
 36. What are the special 'powers of the House f 
 
 (1) To present articles of impeachment. (2) To originate all 
 bills for raising revenue, though the senate may amend these. 
 
 37. How are United States Senators chosen f 
 
 They are chosen by the Legislature of the state. The members 
 of each House, on the same day, vote viva voce for a Senator. On 
 the next day the two Houses meet in convention, and if the same 
 person has received a majority of all the votes cast in each House 
 he is declared elected. If no person has received such majorities,, 
 then the two Houses, sitting as one body, proceed to Yoie viva voce ; 
 and, if a majority of each House is present, the person who re- 
 ceives a majority of the votes cast is declared elected. If there is 
 no choice on the first day they are required to meet and take at 
 least one vote each day, until choice is made or the session closes. 
 
246 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 38. What are the qualifications of a Senator ? 
 
 He must be at least thirty years of age ; must have been at 
 least nine years a citizen of the United States ; and, when elected, 
 must be an inhabitant of the state. 
 
 39. What are the sessions of a Congress P 
 
 Each Congress usually holds two sessions: one longer, beginning 
 in December of the odd year, and continuing until the next mid- 
 summer ; a second, or shorter, beginning in December of the even 
 year, and continuing until the 4th of March following, when the 
 term of service of all the representatives and of one-third of the 
 senators expires. 
 
 40. What are the requisite qualificatimis of the President f 
 
 (1) He must be a native citizen. (2) He must be at least 
 thirty-five years of age. (3) He must have been for at least 
 fourteen years a resident of the United States. 
 
 41. Whoi isjthe mode of electing the President f 
 
 (1) The people of each state choose a body of men called 
 Electors. The number of these is the same as the number of sena- 
 tors and representatives which the state sends to Congress. 
 
 (2) On the first Wednesday in December the Electors meet at 
 the capital of their respective states, and vote by ballot for a 
 President. The Electors make three lists, each containing the 
 names of the persons voted for, and the number of votes for each. 
 These lists are signed by all the Electors, and sealed ; and a person 
 is appointed by them to carry one list to the president of the 
 senate at Washington ; another is sent by mail, directed to the 
 same oflicer ; and the third is delivered to the judge of the U. S. 
 court for the district in which the Electors meet. 
 
 (3) On the first Wednesday in February the two Houses of Con" 
 gress meet as one body, and the president of the Senate opens the 
 certificates ; the votes are then counted by tellers appointed for 
 the purpose; and the person having a number of votes equal to 
 a majority oi the whole number of electors appointed, is declared 
 elected. 
 
 42. What results if no candidate has a majority of electoral votes f 
 Then the representatives proceed at once to choose a president. 
 
CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 247 
 
 For this purpose two-thirds of the states must be represented. 
 The voting is by ballot, and by states, each state having one vote ; 
 and a majority of the states is required for election. The choice 
 of the house must be from the three persons having the highest 
 number of electoral votes. 
 
 The balloting of the house may continue until the 4th of March ensuing ; 
 when, if there has been no choice, the vice-president assumes the duties of 
 president. 
 
 43. What is required when both offices become vacant f 
 
 The law requires that electors shall be chosen in the states, and 
 persons elected to fill the vacancies in the same way as in the 
 regular elections. 
 
 44. How is the Vice-President elected ? 
 
 When the electors vote for president, they also vote by distinct 
 ballots for the vice-president. They make similar lists of the 
 persons voted for, and send them with the others ; and the votes 
 are counted at the same time. 
 
 45. What is the nature of the electoral voting f 
 
 It is only a form. The people vote for the electors with the 
 understanding that by so doing they are expressing their choice 
 for president. All that the electors have to do is to record their 
 votes for the persons previously agreed upon. 
 
 46. What are thepoivers given to Congress for raising money? 
 
 " Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes, duties, im- 
 posts, and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the common 
 defense and general welfare ot the United States." 
 
 47. Define direct taxes. 
 
 Direct taxes include poll taxes, and taxes on land, houses, and 
 other real estate. 
 
 48. What are indirect taxes ? 
 
 Indirect taxes include duties, imposts, and excises. 
 
 Duties upon exports are prohibited. Duties upon imports are of two 
 kinds. Specific duties are proportioned to the quantity of the article im- 
 ported ; ad valorem duties are proportioned to the market value of the arti- 
 cle in the country from which it comes, as shown by an invoice accompany- 
 ing it. A duty of a dollar a yard on silk would be specific ; a duty of forty 
 per cent on silk would be ad valorem. 
 
248 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 49. Define a tariff. 
 
 A schedule of dutiable goods, with the rate upon each, is called 
 a tariff. 
 
 All duties are paid in gold by the importer. For convenience in collec- 
 tion, custom houses are established at different places on the sea coast, on 
 the navigable rivers, and on the boundary line betvt^een the states and the 
 Dominion of Canada. 
 
 50. Name the officers of the chief executive departments. 
 
 All the executive business is distributed among seven depart- 
 ments constituted by acts of Congress. The chief officers of these 
 are as follows : Secretary of State, Secretary of the Treasury, 
 Secretary of War, Secretary of the Navy, Secretary of the In- 
 terior, Postmaster General, and Attorney General. These officers 
 constitute the President's Cabinet. 
 
 61. Define the functions of the State Department. 
 
 They are of two kinds : those relating to domestic affairs, and 
 those relating to foreign relations of the government. It has the 
 custody of the seal of the United States and affixes it to all state 
 documents, with the signature of the secretary. It has the keep- 
 ing of the laws of the United States, and promulgates them. 
 Through this department the president corresponds with and in- 
 structs the consuls and diplomatic agents of the government, 
 negotiates with foreign nations, and receives communications 
 from their agents. Passports — that is, certificates of citizenship — 
 are issued by this department to persons needing them for the 
 purpose of foreign travel. 
 
 52. Define the functions of the Treasury Department. 
 
 It prepares plans for the management of the public revenue, 
 and the improvement of the public credit; makes estimates of 
 the revenue and expenditures, and suggests Avays to increase the 
 former and diminish the latter ; receives and disburses all moneys 
 coming to the government ; superintends the collection of the 
 revenue. It also has charge of the mints of the United States, 
 of the coast survey, and of the erection and maintenance of light- 
 houses and other safeguards for navigation. 
 
 53. W hat are the functions of the War Department? 
 
 It has charge of the army rolls and register, of military equip- 
 
CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 249 
 
 ments ana supplies, of the transportation, pay, and subsistence of 
 the troops ; of military hospitals, arsenals, and armories ; of the 
 military academy, of military surveys, and of the signal service 
 for the preparation and publication of weather reports. 
 
 54. What are the functions of the Navy Department f 
 
 It superintends the purchase, building, and repair of vessels ; 
 has the care of navy yards and docks ; provides for the equipment 
 of vessels and crews, and for the clothing, subsistence, health, and 
 pay of officers and men ; issues all orders, and receives reports ; 
 has charge of the naval academy, and of scientific expeditions to 
 foreign countries. 
 
 55. Define the functions of the Postoffice Department. 
 
 It establishes postoffices ; selects post routes ; makes contracts 
 for postal supplies, and for carrying the mails ; appoints most of 
 the postmasters, directs all, and receives reports from all ; pro- 
 vides and distributes stamps, envelopes, and postal cards; has 
 charge of the money order system. 
 
 56. What are the functions of the Interior Department f 
 
 It has the general charge and superintendence of public lands 
 and public buildings, of pensions, of patents, of Indian afiairs, of 
 the census, of mines, of the bureau of education. 
 
 57. What are the functions of the Department of Justice f 
 
 At the head of this department is the Attorney General, who 
 conducts suits in the Supreme Court in which the United States is 
 a party, and gives legal advice, when requested, to the President 
 and Congress, and heads of departments. 
 
 58. Define the functions of the Department of Agriculture. 
 
 The chief officer of this department is a commissioner ; he is 
 not a member of the cabinet. The department collects and pub- 
 lishes information respecting the various branches of agriculture. 
 It seeks to discover new and improved varieties of vegetable 
 products, and distributes seeds of these over the country. 
 
 59. What is the relation of the states to one another? 
 
 Every state must give full faith and credit to the public acts, 
 
250 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 records, and judicial proceedings of every other state. It can not 
 question the authority under which they are made, and it must 
 give them full weight as precedents for judgments. 
 
SECTION XII. 
 
 RHETOEIC. 
 
 1. What does Rhetoric comprehend f 
 
 In its widest acceptation Rhetoric compreliends all good com- 
 position. In its narrowest sense, it is limited to persuasive 
 speaking. As a science it investigates, analyzes, and defines the 
 principles of good writing ; as an art it enables us to apply these 
 principles, or in other words, teaches us the best method of com- 
 municating our thoughts. 
 
 2. To which of the useful arts does Rhetoric belong f 
 
 As an art Rhetoric has been classed by some among the useful 
 arts, the object of which is to aid or benefit mankind ; by others, 
 among the elegant arts, which aim simply to please. It seems, 
 however, to partake of the nature of both, and may therefore, 
 with propriety, be denominated a mixed art. 
 
 3. What advantages result from the study of Rhetoric? 
 
 First, it enables us to discern faults and beauties in the com- 
 position of others ; and, secondly, it teaches us how to express and 
 embellish our own thoughts, so as to produce the most forcible 
 impression. 
 
 4. As used in this country lohat does the term belles-lettres signify f 
 
 In this country the term is generally used to denote polite liter- 
 ature, including criticism, taste, the pleasures of the imagina- 
 tion, etc. 
 
 5. What is Taste f 
 
 Taste may be defined as that faculty of the mind which enables 
 
 (251) 
 
2e52 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION EOOK. 
 
 it to perceive, with the aid of reason to judge of, and with the 
 help of imagination to enjoy, whatever is beautiful or sublime in 
 the works of nature and art. 
 
 Close attention to models of style are necessary to a full appreciation of 
 the great works of literature. 
 
 6. Show the difference between Taste and Genius. 
 
 Taste consists in the power of judging; genius in that of 
 creating. Genius includes taste ; whereas the latter not only may, 
 but generally does, exist without the former. 
 
 The term genius, as commonly used, signifies a natural talent or aptitude 
 for excelling in any particular vocation. 
 
 7. What are the sources of the pleasures of the imagination f 
 The novel, the wonderful, and the picturesque. 
 
 8. What is the principal source of the sublime ? 
 
 Might, or power, in a state of active exertion. The emotion is 
 of a serious character, and when awakened in the highest degree, 
 may be designated even as severe, solemn, and awful. 
 
 9. What kind of style must be employed in the sublime ? 
 
 To give effect to the description of a sublime object, a clear, 
 strong, concise, and simple style must be employed. 
 
 10. What is Wit f 
 
 Wit is that quality of thoughts and expressions which excites 
 in the mind an agreeable surprise, not by means of anything 
 marvellous in the subject, but merely by employing a peculiar 
 imagery, or presenting in a novel and singular relation ideas re- 
 motely connected. 
 
 11. In what four ways is Wit excited f 
 
 (1) By degrading elevated things. (2) By aggrandizing in- 
 significant things. (3) By representing objects in an unusual 
 light by means of singular imagery. (4) By paionomasia, or 
 play upon words. 
 
 12. Define Humor. 
 
 Humor consists, for the most part, in a representation of im- 
 aginary, short-lived, or over-strained emotions, which display 
 
RHETORIC, 253 
 
 themselves preposterously, or so as to excite derision rather than 
 sympathy. 
 
 The aim of humor is simply to raise a laugh. When there is an ulterior 
 object,— that is, when it is sought by means of this laugh to influence the 
 opinions and purposes of the hearer or reader,— then humor becomes ridi- 
 cule. 
 
 13. What are the figures of orthography f 
 
 Mimesis consists in imitating the mispronunciation of a word, 
 by means of false spelling, as, " Well, 2wr, I'll argify the topic." 
 
 Archaism consists in spelling a word according to ancient usage, 
 as, " The gret Kyng hathe, every day, fifty fair Damyseles, alle May- 
 denes, that serven him everemore at his Mete" 
 
 14. What are the figures of etymology f 
 
 Aphceresis is the elision of a letter or letters from the beginning 
 of a word, as, 'bove, for above. 
 
 Prosthesis is the prefixing of a letter or letters to a word, as, 
 adown, for down. 
 
 Syncope is the elision of a letter or letters from the middle of a 
 word, as, e'en, for even. 
 
 Apocope is the elision of a letter or letters at the end of a word, 
 as, tho\ for though. 
 
 Paragoge is the annexing of a letter or letters to a word, as, 
 vasty, for va^t. 
 
 DicBreds is the separation into different syllables of two contig- 
 uous vowels that might unite in a diphthong. This figure is 
 usually indicated by placing two dots over the last of the separated 
 vowels, as, aeronaut, instead of aeronaut. 
 
 Synceresis is the condensing of two syllables into one, as, waWst, 
 for waikest. 
 
 Tmesis is the separating of the parts of a compound by intro- 
 ducing a word or words between them, as, what ivay soever he 
 turned. 
 
 15. What are the figures of syntax? 
 
 ElKpis is the omission of a word or words necessary to the con- 
 struction of a sentence, but not essential to its meaning, as, " [He] 
 who steals my purse steals trash." 
 
 Pleonasm is the use of superfluous words, as, *' The boy, oh ! 
 where was he f " " I know thee, who thou art." 
 
254 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 Syllepsis is the construing of words according to the meaning 
 they convey, and not by the strict requirements of grammatical 
 rules, as, " Philip went down to the city of Samaria, and preached 
 Christ unto them.'' 
 
 JEkallage is the use of one part of speech, or one modification of 
 a word for anotlier, as, " They fall successive, and successive rise." 
 
 Hyperbaton is the transposition of words, as " He wanders earth 
 around," for " He wanders around the earth." 
 
 16. Name the figures of Rhetoric. 
 
 Simile, Metaphor, Allegory, Metonymy, Synecdoche, Hyperbole, 
 Vision, Apostrophe, Personification, Interrogation, Exclamation, 
 Antithesis, Climax, Irony, Apophasis, and Onomatopoeia. 
 
 17. Illustrate the figures of Rhetoric. 
 
 Simile : " Sorrow, like a cloud on the sun, shades the soul of 
 
 Clessamour." 
 
 Metaphor: 
 
 " Life is a river gliding free 
 To that unfathomed, boundless sea, 
 The silent grave." 
 
 Allegory: " Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt: thou hast 
 cast out the heathen, and planted it. Thou preparedst room before 
 it, and didst cause it take deep root, and it filled the land. The 
 hills were covered with the shadows of it, and the boughs thereof 
 were like the goodly cedars." 
 
 Metonymy : " The sceptre shall not depart from Judah," i. e., 
 Kingly power. 
 
 Synecdoche: "The sea is covered with sails," i. e., ships. 
 
 Hyperbole : " They [Saul and Jonathan] were swifter than 
 eagles, they were stronger than lions." 
 
 Vision : " Csesar leaves Gaul, crosses the Rubicon, and enters 
 Italy." 
 
 Apostrophe : " Death is swallowed up in victory. O death, 
 where is thy sting ? O grave, where is thy victory ? " 
 
 Personification : " The sea saw it and fled." 
 
 Interrogation: "Doth God pervert judgment? or doth the Al- 
 mighty pervert justice ? " 
 
 Exclamation : " Oh ! the depth of the riches both of the wisdom 
 and the knowledge of God ! " 
 
 Antithesis: " Though grave, yet trifling ; zealous, yet untrue.'^ 
 
KHETORIC. 255 
 
 Climax: "Who shall separate us from the love of Christ? 
 Shall tribulation, or distress, or persecution, or famine, or naked- 
 ness, or peril, or sword ?" 
 
 Irony: "Cry aloud, for he is a god." 
 
 Apophasis : " I say nothing of the notorious profligacy of his 
 character ; nothing of the reckless extravagance with which he 
 has wasted an ample fortune; nothing of the disgusting intem- 
 perance which has sometimes caused him to reel in our streets ; 
 but I aver that he has exhibited neither probity nor ability in the 
 important office which he holds." 
 
 Onomatopoeia : As when we say rat tat tat, to denote a knocking 
 at the door. 
 
 18. Define Narration, Argument, Exposition, SpSeitlation. 
 
 Narration is the account of real or imaginary facts or events ; 
 argument is the statement of reasons for or against a proposition, 
 made with the view of inducing belief in others ; exposition con- 
 sists in explaining the meaning of an author, in defining terms, 
 setting forth an abstract subject in its various relations, or pre- 
 senting doctrines, precepts, principles, or rules, for the purpose of 
 instructing others; speculation is the expression of theoretical 
 views not as yet verified by fact or practice. 
 
 19. What are the six leading divisions of Prose Composition? 
 
 Letters, Narratives, Fiction, Essays, Theses or Argumentative 
 Discourses, and Orations. 
 
 A Letter is a written communication on any subject from one person to 
 another. Narratives are divided into Histories, Biographies, Obituaries, 
 Voyages, Travels, and Anecdotes. Fiction consists in the narration of im- 
 aginary incidents. An Essay is generally applied to productions in which a 
 writer briefly sets forth his views on the leading points connected with a 
 subject, without pausing to consider them carefully or minutely, A Thesis, 
 or Argumentative Discourse, is a composition in which the writer lays down 
 a proposition, and endeavors to persuade others that it is true. The state- 
 ments or reasons used for this purpose are called Arguments. An Oration 
 is a discourse intended for public delivery, and written in a style adapted 
 thereto. 
 
 20. Define, some terms of Poetical Composition. 
 
 Verse is a metrical line of a length and rhythm determined by 
 rules which usage has sanctioned ; a Hemistich is half a verse ; 
 Rhyme is a similarity of sound in syllables which begin difierently 
 but end alike ; a Distich, or Couplet, consists of two verses rhyming 
 together ; a Triplet consists of three verses rhyming together ; a 
 
256 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 Stanza (often incorrectly called a verse) is a regular division of a 
 poem, consisting of two or more lines, or verses ; a Foot is a divi- 
 sion of a verse consisting of two or three syllables. 
 
 21. Define the principal varieties of Poetry. 
 
 Epic Poetry is that which treats of the exploits of heroes. 
 
 Dramatic Poetry is closely allied to epic. Like the latter, it 
 generally relates to some important event, and for the most part 
 appears in the form of blank, or heroic verse. 
 
 Lyric Poetry is that variety which is adapted to singing and an 
 accompaniment of the lyre or other musical instrument. 
 
 Elegiac Poetry treats of mournful subjects. 
 
 Pastoral Poetry depicts shepherd-life by means of narratives, 
 songs, and dialogues. 
 
 Didactic Poetry aims to instruct rather than to please. 
 
 Satirical Poetry is that in which the weaknesses, follies, or 
 wickedness, of men are held up to ridicule, or rebuked with seri- 
 ous severity. 
 
SECTION XIII. 
 ALGEBEA. 
 
 1. What is an Algebraic Quantity f 
 
 An Algebraic Quantity is a quantity expressed in algebraic 
 language. 
 
 2. Name and define the two kinds of algebraic quantities. 
 
 (1) Known Quantities are those whose values are given ; when 
 these are not expressed by figures they are represented by the 
 leading letters of the alphabet, as a, b, c, d. 
 
 (2) Unknown Quantities are those whose values are to be de- 
 termined ; they are represented by the final letters of the alphabet, 
 as IV, X, y, z. 
 
 3. Define Terms as used in algebra. 
 
 The Terms of an algebraic quantity are the parts or divisions 
 made by the signs -|- and — . Positive Terms are those which 
 have the plus sign. Negative Terms are those which have the 
 minus sign. 
 
 The first term of an algebraic quantity, if written without any sign, is 
 positive, the plus sign being understood. The sign of a negative quantity 
 is never omitted. 
 
 4. Define Similar and Dissimilar Terms. 
 
 Similar Terms are terms containing the same letters, affected 
 with the same exponents ; the signs and coeflicients may differ, 
 and the terms still be similar. 
 
 Dissimilar Terms are those which have different letters or ex- 
 ponents. 
 
 3a; 2 and 7a; 2 are similar ; also 2md'2 and — 5md2 are similar. 
 axy and ayz are dissimilar ; also Sx^y and Sx3y2, 
 
 17 (257) 
 
258 . HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 5. Define a Coefficient, also an Exponent. 
 
 A Coefficient is a number or quantity prefixed to another quan- 
 tity, to denote how many times the latter is taken. Thus, in 3a; 
 the number 3 is the coefficient of x, and indicates that x, is taken 
 3 times. The figure which indicates how many times the root or 
 factor is taken is called the ' exponent of the power. Thus, in the 
 indicated product a^, a is the root, a* is the power, called the 5th 
 power of a, and 5 is the exponent of this power. 
 
 When no exponent is written over a quantity, the exponent 1 may always 
 
 be understood. 
 
 6. Name the classes of algebraic quantities. 
 
 (1) A Monomial is an algebraic quantity consisting of only 
 one term, as 3x, or — 7xy. 
 
 (2) A Polynomial consists of more than one term, as x -f y, or 
 4a' — 3x + m. 
 
 (3) A Binomial is a polynomial of two terms, as a -{- 6, or 
 3a: — z. 
 
 (4) A Residual is a binomial, the two terms of which are con- 
 nected by the minus sign, as a — 6, or 4a; — Sy. 
 
 (5) A Trinomial is a polynomial of three terms, as x -\- y -{- z,. 
 or 7a — Sb^ + d. 
 
 A Homogeneous Quantity is one whose terms are all of the same degree, 
 asa;3_5x2y + Zxyz. 
 
 7. Define Degree. 
 
 The degree of a term is the number of its literal factors. Thus^ 
 X and 5y are terms of the first degree ; a' and Adb are terms of the 
 second degree ; a;', Sa;''^, Zxy"^, and Axyz are terms of the third de- 
 gree. 
 
 8. Repeat the Axioms which underlie all algebraic operations. 
 
 (1) If the same quantity or equal quantities be added to equal 
 quantities, the sums will be equal. 
 
 (2) If the same quantity or equal quantities be subtracted 
 from equal quantities, the remainders will be equal. 
 
 (3) If equal quantities be multiplied by the same, or equal 
 quantities, the products will be equal. 
 
 (4) If equal quantities be divided by the same, or equal quan- 
 tities, the quotients will be equal. 
 
ALGEBRA. 259* 
 
 (5) If a quantity be both increased and diminished by another,, 
 its value will not be changed. 
 
 (6) If a quantity be both multiplied and divided by another, 
 its value will not be changed. 
 
 (7) Quantities which respectively equal the same quantity 
 are equal to each other. 
 
 (8) Like powers of equal quantities are equal. 
 
 (9) Like roots of equal quantities are equal. 
 
 (10) The whole of a quantity is greater than any of its parts, 
 (llj The whole of a quantity is equal to the sum of all its 
 parts. 
 
 9. How are similar terrns to be added f 
 
 (1) When the signs are alike, add the coefficients and prefix 
 the sum, with the given sign, to the common literal part. 
 
 (2) When the signs are unlike, find the sum of the positive and 
 of the negative coefficients separately and prefix the difference of 
 the two sums, with the sign of the greater, to the common literal 
 part. 
 
 10. How add 'polynomials ? 
 
 (1) Write the quantities to be added, placing the similar terms 
 together in separate columns. 
 
 (2) Add each column, and connect the several results by their 
 respective signs. 
 
 11. What is algebraic subtraction f 
 
 Subtracting any quantity consists in adding the same quantity 
 with its sign changed. 
 
 12. How operate in algebraic subtraction ? 
 
 Conceive the signs of the subtrahend to be changed, unite the 
 similar terms as in addition, and bring down all the remaining, 
 terms with their proper signs. 
 
 13. Name the uses of the parenthesis. 
 
 (1) A parenthesis preceded by the plus sign may be removed, 
 and the inclosed terms written with their proper signs. Thus : 
 
 a — b -{- [c — d -\- e) = a — b -\- c-\- e. 
 
 (2) Conversely : Any number of terms, with their proper signs. 
 
260 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 may be inclosed by a parenthesis, and the plus sign written before 
 Ihe whole. Thus : 
 
 a — h-\- c — d-\-e = a-{- { — 6 + c — d-\- e). 
 
 tS) A parenthesis preceded by the minus sign may be removed, 
 provided the signs of all the inclosed terms be changed. Thus : 
 a — (6 — c-\- d — e) =a — 6 + c — d-\- e. 
 
 (4) Conversely : Any number of terms may be inclosed by a 
 parenthesis, preceded by the minus sign, provided the signs of all 
 the given terms be changed. Thus : 
 
 a — h -\- c — d-]-e = a — 6 + c — {d — e). 
 
 14. What is the laio of Coefficients? Of Exponents? Of Signs? 
 
 (1) The coefficient of the product is equal to the product of 
 the coefficients of the multiplicand and multiplier, as a X ^ = a6. 
 5a X 36 = 15a6. 
 
 (2) The exponent of any letter in the product is equal to the 
 sum of the exponents of this letter in the multiplicand and mul- 
 tiplier ; since a*6^ = aaaabbb, and a^6^ = aaabb, we have a*6^ X 
 <i^6^ = aaaabbbaaabb = a^6^. 
 
 (3) The signs + and — , when prefixed to a multiplier, must be 
 interpreted as follows : The plus sign before a multiplier shows 
 that the multiplicand is to be successively added ; and the minus 
 sign before a multiplier shows that the multiplicand is to be suc- 
 cessively subtracted. 
 
 When tlie two factors have like signs, the product is positive ; and when 
 the two factors have unlike signs, the product is negative. The product of 
 an even number of negative factors is positive ; and the product of an odd 
 number of negative factors is negative. 
 
 15. How may the •product of two or more polynomials he indicated f 
 
 By inclosing each in a parenthesis, and writing them one after 
 another, with or without the sign X? between the parentheses. 
 Such an expression is said to be expanded, when the indicated 
 multiplication has been actually performed, as, (a -{-m) {a-{- d) =~- 
 <3? + am + ad + dm. 
 
 16. Repeat the three algebraic formulas for obtaining the products of 
 certain binomial factors. 
 
 (1) The square of the sum of two quantities is equal to the 
 square of the first, plus twice the product of the first by the second. 
 
ALGEBRA. 261 
 
 plus the square of the second. Thus, (a + ^)' = (a -f &)(« + &) = 
 a2 + 2ab + b\ 
 
 (2) The square of the difference of two quantities is equal to 
 the square of the first, minus twice the product of the first and 
 second, plus the square of the second. Thus, (a — by = {a — b) 
 (a — 6) = a2 — 2ab + b\ 
 
 (3) The product of the sum and difference of two quantities 
 is equal to the difference of their squares. Thus, {a-\-b){a. — b) 
 
 = 0? — b\ 
 
 17. How find the coefficient and the exponent^ respectively, in division f 
 
 (1) The coefficient of the quotient must be found by dividing 
 the coefiicient of the dividend by that of the divisor ; and (2) 
 The exponent of any letter in the quotient must be found by sub- 
 tracting the exponent of this letter in the divisor from its ex- 
 ponent in the dividend. Thus, 24a^ -i- Qa? = ^-^a^^ =^ 4a^. 
 
 18. What is the reciprocal of a quantity f 
 
 It is the quotient obtained by dividing unity by that quantity. 
 
 Thus, - is the reciprocal of x ; ■ is the reciprocal of a — c. 
 
 19. Define Equation. First Member. Second Member, 
 
 (1) An equation is an expression of equality between two 
 quantities. Thus, x-\-y = a. 
 
 (2) The first member of an equation is the quantity on the left 
 of the sign of equality; and the second member is that on the 
 right of the sign of equality. 
 
 20. Define the unknown quantity of an equation. 
 
 It is the letter to which some particular value or values must 
 be given, in order that the statement contained in the equation 
 may be true. And such value or values are said to satisfy the 
 equation. 
 
 21. Define the several kinds of equations. 
 
 (1) A Numerical Equation is one in which all the known 
 quantities are expressed by figures, as 3x^ — x^ -j- 2x = 17. 
 
 (2) A Literal Equation has some or all of the known quantities 
 expressed by letters, as ax^ — obx =- 5d. 
 
 (3) An Equation of Condition is one which must exist between 
 
262 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 certain known or arbitrary quantities, in order that certain other 
 aquations may be true. Thus, the two equations, 
 
 x-{-c=5a 
 
 X — c = a 
 'can not both be true at the same time, unless c = 2a. , 
 
 (4) An Identical Equation is one in which the two members 
 are the same algebraic expressions, or are reducible to the same. 
 Thus, a^ — 3x = a^—Sx 
 
 x^ — a^ = {x-\- a){x — a) 
 
 (5) A Simple Equation is an equation of the first degree. 
 
 (6) A Quadratic Equation is an equation of the second degree. 
 
 (7) A Cubic Equation is one of the third degree. 
 
 The Degree of an equation is denoted by the greatest number of un- 
 known factors occurring in any term. 
 
 .22. W hat is a Problem f 
 
 A Problem, in Algebra, is a question requiring the values of 
 
 one or more unknown quantities from given conditions. 
 
 There are two classes of problems which may be solved by the use of a 
 single equation: (1) Questions referring to a single unknown quantity, 
 (2) Questions referring to two or more unknown quantities, so related that 
 when one is known the other may be determined directly by the given con- 
 ditions. 
 
 23. Give a general rule for the solution of any problem requiring but 
 one equation. 
 
 (1) Kepresent one of the unknown quantities by some letter or 
 symbol, and then from the given relations find an algebraic ex- 
 pression for each of the other unknown quantities, if any, in- 
 volved in the question. 
 
 (2) Form an equation from some condition, expressed or im- 
 plied, by indicating the operations necessary to verify the value 
 of the unknown quantity represented by the symbol. 
 
 (3) Reduce the equation thus derived. 
 
 24. W hat is an Indeterminate Equation ? 
 
 One which is satisfied by an infinite number of values of the 
 unknown quantities. 
 
 Every single equation containing two unknown quantities, is indeter- 
 minate. 
 
 25. What is Elimination ? 
 
 Elimination is the process of combining equations in such a 
 
ALGEBRA. 263 
 
 manner as to cause one or more of the unknown quantities con- 
 tained in them to disappear. 
 
 There are four principal methods of elimination : (1) By addition and 
 subtraction; (2) Bj^ comparison ; (3) By substitution ; (4) By indeterminate 
 multipliers. 
 
 26. What is the General Solution of a problem f 
 
 It is the process of obtaining a formula which shall express, in 
 known terms, the values of the unknown quantities in the given 
 problem, or in any problem of its class. 
 
 27. What are plus and minus in algebra ? 
 
 They are not symbols of operation merely, but also symbols of 
 relation, serving to distinguish quantities in opposite conditions 
 or circumstances. 
 
 28. Shoiu that the value of a fraction depends simply upon the relative 
 values of the numerator and denominator. 
 
 a 
 
 (1) ~=oc (infinity). That is, a finite quantity divided by zero 
 
 is an expression for infinity. 
 
 a 
 
 (2) — = 0. That is, a finite quantity divided by infinity is an 
 
 expression for zero or nothing. 
 
 
 
 (3) ~r^= 0. That is, zero divied by a finite quantity is an ex- 
 pression for nothing or zero. 
 
 
 
 (4) X ^= an indeterminate quantity. That is, zero divided by 
 
 zero is a symbol for indetermination. 
 
 29. What is the law of paiver in involution f 
 
 (1) All powers of a positive quantity are positive. 
 
 (2) The odd powers oi a negative quantity are negative, but 
 the even powers are positive. 
 
 30. What is true as to exponents in all algebraic operations ? 
 
 If two powers of the same quantity be given, then the exponent 
 of their product will be equal to the algebraic sum of the given 
 exponents, and the exponent of their quotient will be equal to the 
 algebraic difference of the given exponents. 
 
264 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 31. What are the two methods of indicating evolution f 
 
 (1) By the radical sign ; thus, ^a denotes the cube root of a. 
 When no index is written, 2 is understood ; thus, -\/x denotes the 
 square root of a;, and signifies the same as ^x. 
 
 (2) By fractional exponents; thus, the cube root of a, or a^, is 
 written a^, and the cube root of a^ will be af . 
 
 A Surd is a root which can not be exactly obtained. An imaginary root 
 is one which is known to be impossible on account of the sign of the given 
 quantity. 
 
 32. What is a radical quantity f 
 
 It is a root merely indicated, either by the radical sign or by a 
 
 n 
 
 fractional exponent, as |f a, ^ ^ ^ c(a4-6)^, ra y'^.2_-^2^ 
 
 The degree of a radical quantity is denoted by the radical in- 
 dex, or by the denominator of the fractional exponent. Thus, 
 
 ■j/a, (tt — 6)1 are radicals of the 2d degree ] -^ x^ — y, a^h^ are rad- 
 
 n_ 1 
 
 icals of the 3d degree ; i/ac, (x + ?/) — are radicals of the nth de- 
 degree. Similar radicals are those in which the same quantity is 
 
 affected by radical signs having the same index. Thus, *4^a2 i ^ 
 
 ^^2 _j_6 and l{a^ + 6)^ are similar radicals. 
 
 33. Define rationalization in Algebra. 
 
 The process of clearing a quantity of radical signs by multipli- 
 cation, is called Rationalization. 
 
 34. Define a Radical Equation. A Quadratic Equation. 
 
 A Radical Equation is one in which the unknown quantity is 
 afiected by the radical sign. 
 
 A Quadratic Equation is an equation of the second degree, or 
 one which contains the second power of the unknown quantity,. 
 and no higher power, as Sx^ = 48, and ax^ — 26x = c. 
 
 A Pure Quadratic Equation is one which contains the second power only 
 of the unknown quantity, as 3.1:2 _ 7 = 20. 
 
 An Affected Quadratic Equation is one which contains both the first and 
 the second powers of the unknown quantity, as 2.x 2 — 3.r = 12. 
 
 35. What is true in the solution of particular problems involving 
 quadratics f 
 
 That in certain cases both roots of the equation will answer 
 
ALGEBRA. 265 
 
 the conditions of the problem, while in other cases only one of 
 the roots is admissible. 
 
 36. Define the several terms of proportion. 
 
 The Terms of a proportion are the four quantities which are 
 compared. 
 
 The Antecedents are the first terms of the two couplets ; or 
 the first and third terms of the proportion. 
 
 The Consequents are the second terms of the two couplets ; or 
 the second and fourth terms of the proportion. 
 
 The Extremes in a proportion are the first and third terms. 
 
 37. What is the Binomial Theorem f 
 
 The Binomial Theorem has for its object the development of a 
 binomial with any exponent, into a series. This theorem is ex- 
 pressed by an equation, called the Binomial Formula. 
 
 . 38. What is the Method of Indeterminate Coefficients f 
 
 It consists in assuming the required development in the form of 
 a series with unknown coefficients, and afterward determining the 
 values of the coefficients by means of the known properties of 
 identical equations. 
 
 39. What is the Reversion of a series f The Summation of a series f 
 
 The Reversion of a series is the process of finding the value of 
 the unknown quantity in the series, expressed in terms of another 
 unknown quantity. 
 
 The Summation of a series is the process of obtaining a finite 
 expression equivalent to the series. 
 
 40. Define a Recurring Series. 
 
 A Recurring series is one in which a certain number of con- 
 secutive terms, taken in any part of the series, sustain a fixed re- 
 lation to the term which immediately succeeds. Thus : 
 1 H- 43: -f 11x2 -^ 343:3 _|_ 1013.4 _^ _ _ 
 
 is a recurring series, in which if any two consecutive terms be 
 taken the product of the first by 3x2 ^\^^ ^\-^q product of the second 
 by 2x will be equal to the next succeeding term. 
 
266 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 41. What is the Differential Method? 
 
 It is the process of finding any term of a regular series, or the 
 sum of any number of terms, by means of the siiecessive differences 
 of the terms. 
 
 42. What is the Logarithm of a number f 
 
 It is the exponent of the power to which a certain other number 
 called the hose, must be raised, in order to produce the given num- 
 ber. Thus, in the expression a^ = 6, the exponent x is the loga- 
 rithm of h to the base a. 
 
 A System of Logarithms consists of the logarithms of all possible num- 
 "bers, according to a given base. 
 
 The Index or Characteristic of a Logarithm is the integral part; and the 
 Mantissa is the fractional part of a logarithm. 
 
SECTION XIV. 
 
 POLITICAL ECONOMY. 
 
 1. What is Political Economy f 
 
 Political Economy, strictly speaking, is state economy as op- 
 posed to family economy or individual economy. 
 
 2. What is wealth ? 
 
 Wealth is anything appropriated by labor or discovery which 
 contributes to our weal, or which gratifies a desire. 
 
 3. What is meant by 'production f 
 
 Any change eflfected in an object, by which it is rendered in any 
 way better adapted to gratify human desire, is called Production. 
 
 We do not produce the objects themselves nor their cjuali ties. We can 
 only modify or change these objects. All such modifications are called pro- 
 ductions, and the modified objects are called products. 
 
 4. What is consumption f 
 
 Consumption is the opposite of production. In its most general 
 sense, it is the destruction of any quality in an object which fits 
 it for human use in that form. 
 
 All consumption involves production; for nothing is absolutely de- 
 stroyed,— it only undergoes a change of form. But much may be wasted,— 
 called unproductive consumption. 
 
 5. What is exchange f 
 
 Exchange is trading off articles which any one has for those 
 which another has. When the exchange is direct between the 
 articles themselves, it is called exchange in kind, or barter ; but 
 when the article is exchanged for money it is called a sale. 
 
 (267) 
 
268 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 6. Of what does capital consist f 
 
 Capital may be said in general to consist of money, of land, of 
 instruments of labor, and means of support and comfort. 
 
 It is the object of political economy to point out the principle of an 
 equitable division of the results of production between capital and labor. 
 
 7. What 'principle does political economy assume as its basis f 
 
 That men in their business affairs are governed by selfishness; 
 that every man will aim so to dispose of his labor and its products 
 as to promote in the highest degree the objects of his desires, and 
 will endeavor to attain any end with the least possible amount of 
 irksome labor. From it follow the laws of value and price, and 
 on it rests our whole monetary and industrial fabric. 
 
 8. What may constitute articles of wealth ? 
 
 Not only natural objects of material growth may constitute 
 articles of wealth, but those of spiritual growth also, such as a 
 sermon, a plea, advice, instruction, etc., which are produced by the 
 natural organs under the inspiration of the spirit within. 
 
 9. Where are the materials of wealth found f 
 
 They are all furnished by nature. They are found in the earth, 
 the water, and the air. 
 
 10. In ivhat does the real value of an article consist f 
 
 The intrinsic value or utility of an article consists in what it 
 avails to gratify some desire or want of our nature. 
 
 The value of articles is proportionate to the labor bestowed upon them. 
 
 11. W hat determines supply and demand f 
 
 The views and opinions of men. The regular wants of each 
 community, and hence of the world at large, demand a given 
 supply of the various articles of necessity and comfort, and con- 
 sequently of the labor required in producing them. 
 
 12. What is the effect of greater profits in any kind of business ? 
 Greater profits in any kind of production make wages higher 
 
 .in that business, and hence attract labor to it ; while for the same 
 reason, labor is repelled from the production of articles which are 
 relatively lower than other articles, compared with the cost of 
 production. 
 
POLITICAL ECONOMY. 269 
 
 13. What is the effect of sagacity on profits ? 
 
 Sagacity anticipates the new wants which are sure to arise in 
 the progress of things, and devises modes of meeting them. It 
 discovers new and useful qualities in objects, and *cheap and con- 
 venient methods of rendering them available. 
 
 14. What must the price of an article vary with ? 
 
 The price of an article being its representative in money, that 
 price, of course, must vary with the value of money. 
 
 15. What does capital include f 
 
 Capital includes everything employed in production except the 
 labor. 
 
 16. Name the kinds of capital employed in production. 
 
 (1) The material upon which the laborer works ; (2) the in- 
 struments with which he works; (3) the food and shelter by 
 which the health and strength of the laborer are maintained; 
 (4) the mature products of each department of industry. 
 
 17. What are specimens of unproductive capital? 
 
 Money hoarded, land lying waste, goods locked up in store- 
 houses, machinery unemployed, and buildings unoccupied, are all 
 unproductive capital, or mere articles of wealth. 
 
 18. What is fixed capital? 
 
 It is that form of capital which has one definite and fixed use, 
 and which serves its purpose in production without any material 
 change, as houses, lands, stores, ships, factories, machinery, wag- 
 ons, and all instruments, tools, and implements employed in 
 any art. 
 
 19. What is circulating capital ? 
 
 Circulating capital is the material worked upon. 
 
 Thus, what is a raw hide in the hands of the butcher, becomes leather in 
 the hands of the currier, and shoes in the hands of the shoemaker. In all 
 these forms it is circulating capital ; but when it comes to be worn as an 
 article of dress, it becomes fixed capital, since in this form it merely assists 
 the individual in production. 
 
 20. To what form of capital does money belong f 
 
 Money, as the circulating medium, ever passing from hand to 
 hand, must belong to circulating rather than fixed capital. 
 
270 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 21. W hat is the necessity for a division of labor f 
 
 It is impossible for each man to perform every kind of labor, 
 and produce all the articles which he needs. Besides the want of 
 ability in man, there is an equal want of means and capabilities 
 for all kinds of production in every place. 
 
 22. What are the advantages of a division of labor? 
 
 (1) Saving of time; (2) gain in skill arising from the atten- 
 tion being exclusively confined to a single operation ; (3) the em- 
 ployment of cheap labor ; (4) employment being given to more 
 persons, the cost of products is reduced. 
 
 23. Hmv have machines come into use f 
 
 As labor is divided, the whole attention of the operative is 
 directed to a single operation, and his whole study is to see how 
 this can he performed the most easily and effectually. By the re- 
 peated performance of the operation and long attention to it im- 
 provements in the tools for performing it naturally suggest them- 
 selves to him. And improved tools being made by the operatives 
 in the different parts pf the process, these are at length combined 
 in one or several machines, by which the whole process is per- 
 formed almost without the aid of man. 
 
 24. What are the advantages of inanimate over animate agents? 
 
 (1) Inanimate agents can be made to work in a far smaller 
 space than animate agents; (2) inanimate agents work continu- 
 ously and with great regularity and precision, while animals 
 must have intervals of rest, often become restive under the hand 
 of their driver, and flag in the performance of their task ; (3) 
 although the original expense of engines and the expense of 
 maintaining them is great, yet it is much smaller than that of 
 purchasing and maintaining the number of animals adequate to 
 perform the same work. 
 
 25. What may we do by the aid of machinery f 
 
 By means of machinery we may give to the motion produced 
 by the agent a perpendicular, a horizontal, or a rotary direction, 
 as is seen in the trip-hammer, the railroad locomotive, and the 
 steamboat. Or we may exert all the power upon a single point, 
 as in forging anchors or rolling iron ; or else we may distribute it 
 
POLITICAL ECONOMY. 271 
 
 over a wide space and among a variety of operations. By ma- 
 chinery we may accumulate power for a sudden stroke, as in the 
 pile-driver, or for a gradual and regular evolution through a longer 
 or shorter period, as in the clock or watch. 
 
 26. What is the effect of these aids to production on human happiness ? 
 
 Labor-saving machinery greatly diminishes the cost of articles, 
 and hence increases the demand for them, and consequently for 
 the labor required in producing them ; since the number of pur- 
 chasers of any article of common use increases rapidly as it comes 
 within the reach of those of small means, who are always vastly 
 more numerous than those of large means. Besides when arti- 
 cles are cheap they are put to new uses. Hence, the use of labor- 
 saving machinery is a blessing to all classes. 
 
 27. What is the right of property ? 
 
 The right of property is to hold and use as one pleases — in an 
 innocent way — what is his own. Any violation of this right is 
 injustice, and must interfere materially with the development of 
 industry and the accumulation of property. One will not labor 
 for that of which he may at any moment be unjustly deprived. 
 
 28. What is the design of taxes. 
 
 They are designed for the support of the government under 
 which one lives, and, when used legitimately, are applied only to 
 that purpose. 
 
 29. What are the kinds of taxes? 
 
 The schedule of taxes on articles imported into any country is 
 commonly called a tariff, and the taxes themselves go by the 
 name of duties. These duties are either specific or ad-valorem, ac- 
 cording as they are so much on the pound, yard, gallon, etc., or 
 such a percentage on the estimated value of the article imported* 
 
 The most important division of taxes is into direct and indirect. Taxes 
 are said to be direct when levied directly on the individual who is to pay 
 them as a tax on one's poll, or on his income, property or estate. But indi- 
 rect taxes are levied in the form of an excise on articles produced within the 
 country, or of a duty on those imported from abroad, which is ultimalely 
 to be paid by the consumer. 
 
 30. On what principle should the revenues of a country be raised f 
 The necessary revenue of a country should always be raised by 
 
272 • HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK 
 
 the simplest and most natural principles, and on as few articles 
 as possible, that business in general may be free and unencum- 
 bered. 
 
 31. What is the effect of truefinigalityf 
 
 It enables the possessor of property to employ all that is not 
 really for his good in the legitimate business of producing more 
 property, thus giving employment to honest industry ; or to be- 
 stow it as a gift upon worthy objects and institutions designed to 
 promote the higher interests of society. 
 
 32. What are to be considered in determining one's business f 
 
 We should first take into the account our own qualifications and 
 aptitudes. It is all important that every man should hit upon 
 that kind of business which will promote his happiness and suc- 
 cess. The nature of the employment should also be considered. 
 Habits of honest industry promote frugality and sober views of 
 life, which are the surest guaranty of ultimate success. 
 
 33. What naturally lead to different kinds of employment f 
 
 The diflTerent dispositions, tastes, and abilities of men, and 
 varying wants, demanding different employment. 
 
 34. What causes fluctuations in business f 
 
 As production is the basis of business, business must vary as 
 this varies. Some seasons are more favorable to agriculture and 
 manufacturing pursuits than others, and hence more favorable to 
 business generally. 
 
 35. What would be the consequences if there were no accepted medium 
 of exchange? 
 
 If there were no accepted medium of exchange, — i. e., some arti- 
 cle which all are ready to receive and pay out at a fixed value for 
 other articles, — the only way in which one could obtain what he 
 wants for what he has to spare, would be to look up some one who 
 has what he wants, and at the same time wants what he has. 
 
 This mode'of exchange, since the articles themselves are directly ex- 
 changed one for the other, is called exchange in kind, or barter. Since this 
 mode of exchange is inconvenient, men have readily agreed to receive 
 some representative article for all others at certain rates. 
 
POLITICAL ECONOMY. 273 
 
 86. What brings about foreign exchanges? 
 
 Our wants, being numerous, can not all be supplied by articles 
 produced in any one country. 
 
 37. Illustrate a bill of exchange. 
 
 If A in Boston owes B in New York, $1,000, and C in New 
 York owes D in Boston the same sum, then A can purchase of his 
 fellow-citizen D his claim against C (called a bill of exchange), 
 and send it to his creditor B, who can collect it of his fellow-citi- 
 zen C, and the whole will be settled without the transportation of 
 any money, it having been reduced to a mere exchange in kind. 
 In the same way the exchanges between different countries are 
 settled. 
 
 38. Upon what does the amount of money required in any community 
 depend ? 
 
 Upon the extent of the business to be transacted and the extent 
 of territory over which it is spread. 
 
 39. What medium of exchange is necessary f 
 
 A certain amount of gold and silver is necessary to transact the 
 business of a community with convenience. If paper money be 
 substituted for it and accepted as the medium of exchange, the 
 same number of dollars will be required, and no more. If there 
 be any more put in circulation its value will depreciate in the 
 same proportion, so that the value of the whole will be no greater, 
 however much increased in volume. 
 
 40. What is the value of papei' money f 
 
 Its chief value is conventional, arising from its being agreed 
 upon or rejected as the circulating medium. The value of a 
 paper dollar depends partly upon its being needed as a medium 
 of exchange, and partly upon the prospect of its being ultimately 
 redeemed in real value. 
 
 41. Why are gold and silver always in demand f 
 
 Because they have great uniformity in value. Being compara- 
 tively rare products, beautiful in appearance, and easily wrought 
 
 18 
 
274 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION EOOK. 
 
 into beautiful forms, they are the universal money of all commer- 
 cial nations. 
 
 They are thus fitted to be the basis for the paper circulation of any 
 country, and they are the only articles which are precisely fitted for this, re- 
 quiring only that the different pieces be coined and stamped by the govern- 
 ment according to their real value, that this may be readily known. 
 
 42. Hoio does currency differ from pure credit f 
 
 Although, in one sense, currency is itself a form of credit, yet, 
 when a legal tender, or redeemable in specie, it pays debts, which 
 pure credit does not, but simply acknowledges a debt to be paid 
 at some future time. 
 
 43. What paper serves the same purpose as currency ? 
 
 Checks, drafts on banks, and other drafts payable at sight, are 
 received as cash because they represent cash, and can be turned 
 into it at any moment. 
 
 But the real forms of credit do not serve this purpose, only as far as they 
 pass from hand to hand in the actual payment of debts. 
 
 44. What is the object of banks P 
 
 The object of banks is to concentrate at convenient points, and 
 thus to utilize in the highest degree, that portion of the capital of 
 a community which is in the form of money. 
 
 The lender and the borrower are brought together by the establishment 
 of the bank. The lender intrusts the loaning of his money to the directors 
 of the bank, who make it their business to learn the pecuniary responsi- 
 bility of borrowers, and exact good security in the form of indorsers, etc. 
 
 45. What constitutes a bank of deposit f 
 
 If the coin of a town or a neighborhood is simply collected to- 
 gether and deposited in a bank for safe-keeping, this constitutes 
 what is called a bank oj deposit. 
 
 In such a case the depositor is credited with the coin in the books of the 
 institution, and if at any time he wishes to make any payment to another, 
 he simply draws an order, or " check," on the bank and hands it to him, 
 which perhaps he in turn deposits with the bank, and the cashier transfers 
 the amount in his books from the former owner to his credit. 
 
 46. What are banks of discount ? 
 
 The bank, finding the depositors disposed to let their deposits 
 remain in its vaults, takes the liberty of loaning the coin to others, 
 who also, perhaps, will let it lie there, and simply draw checks 
 against it to make payments with, the money on which, in many 
 
POLITICAL, ECONOMY. 275 
 
 cases, is not actually drawn out, but left on deposit again. The 
 bank is now called a bank of discount or loan. 
 
 47. What are banks of circulation ? 
 
 The directors of the bank prepare notes or " bills," which obli- 
 gate the bank to pay on demand, in coin, the sum they represent. 
 These bills, signed by the president and cashier of the bank, have 
 more of a public character, and hence will be much more generally 
 current than the private checks of individuals. Banks under 
 this form are called banks of circulation. 
 
 48. Haw are the bill holders secured under our present system of banJc- 
 ing f 
 
 By the bonds deposited with the United States Treasurer at 
 Washington. If the bank fails to redeem its bills these bonds 
 are pledged to redeem them. 
 
 49. What is the propriety of taking interest on money loaned f 
 
 Loaning money is a temporary exchange,'and, like all exchanges^, 
 is made for the sake of profit. It is perfectly proper and legiti- 
 mate to take such a return for the use of money. If the exchange 
 is made on the one side for profit, it is equally so on the other. If 
 the man who loans the money does so for the sake of interest, the 
 one who receives it willingly pays this interest for the sake of 
 its use. 
 
 50. Why is one entitled to something for the use of land ? 
 
 If land may be rightfully appropriated and become one's; 
 property, then something may be demanded for the use of it, the 
 same as for the use of money or any other property. It costs the 
 owner something, and gives him a certain advantage in production^ 
 which of course he will not relinquish without some considera- 
 tion. Eent, therefore, is the consideration given for the tempo- 
 rary use of the beneficial qualities of land, and must generally 
 be in proportion to the valuable qualities of the land rented. 
 
 51. What is the relation of profit and wages ? 
 
 All products are the result of the cooperation of labor and cap- 
 ital. The laborer practices self-denial in submitting to irksome 
 labor, and so does the capitalist by foregoing the use of his cap- 
 
'276 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 ital in self-indulgence and employing it in further production. 
 The remuneration of the laborer is called wages, while that of the 
 capitalist is called profit. 
 
 The profits of any business, then, should be equal to the interest on the 
 capital employed, taking into account the risk incurred, together with a 
 suitable compensation for superintendence. The wages, on the other hand, 
 must be sufficient, at least, to support the laborer for the time being, to- 
 gether with those dependent upon him, and should also include some 
 provision for sickness, old age, etc. 
 
 52. What determines the rate of wages ? 
 
 The price of labor, like the price of anything else offered in the 
 market, is determined by the principle of supply and demand. 
 
SECTION XV. 
 DESCEIPTIYE BOTANY. 
 
 1. Describe the parts of a leaf. 
 
 A leaf, in its most highly developed state, consists of three 
 parts: The flattened portion is called the lamina, or blade; a 
 narrower portion, connecting the blade with the plant, is termed 
 the petiole, or leaf-stalk ; and a third portion, at the base of the 
 petiole, which is either in the form of a sheath, or consists of two 
 little leaf-like appendages, called stipules. 
 
 2. What is meant by the venation of the leaf? 
 
 The lines, fine and coarse, that are seen running through the 
 blades of leaves are called veins; and the various ways in which 
 they are distributed are spoken of generally as the vendition of the 
 leaf. 
 
 3. Name and describe leaf-margins. 
 
 Entire — smooth and even edge ; serrate — uneven edge, like the 
 teeth of a saw ; retroserrate — when the teeth point toward the. base ;, 
 dentate — when the teeth are sharp, without pointing in any particu-^ 
 lar direction ; crenate — when the teeth are rounded ; bicrenate — if 
 the teeth are twice rounded. 
 
 Margins are also crisped or curled, wavy or undulated. When the incisions; 
 of a leaf-margin are deep, the divisions of the blade so formed are called- 
 lohes, and the spaces between the lobes are called sinuses, or fissures. 
 
 4. Describe the blades of some leaves. 
 
 If the blade be divided nearly to the base or midriff, the part- 
 ings are termed partitions, and the leaf is partite; if it is divided 
 quite to the base, the parts are called segments, and the leaf is said 
 
 to be dissected. 
 
 According to the number of lobes, partitions, or segments, leaves are 
 said to be fifid, trifid, bipartite, bisected, trisected, etc. 
 
 (277) 
 
278 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK, 
 
 5. What terms are applied to the apex of a leaf -blade f 
 
 When the apex is rounded, it is said to be obtuse, or blunt ; when 
 obtuse, with a broad, shallow notch in the middle, it is retuse. If 
 this notch is sharp, it is emarginate. 
 
 6. DesaHbe the figures, or shapes of leaves. 
 
 Oblique — unequally developed on the two sides of the base, or 
 midrif ; linear — when narrovr, and of nearly the same breadth at 
 the base and apex, with parallel margins ; acerose, or needle- 
 shaped — if ending in a sharp, rigid point; awl-shaped — when 
 very narrow, and tapering from the base to a fine point; lanceo- 
 late — when broadest at the center, and three or more times as long 
 as broad, tapering both ways ; oval, or elliptical — when longer 
 than broad, and slightly acute at the base and apex. 
 
 Cordate or heart-shaped leaves have an acute apex, with their hroad, 
 round base hollowed out into two lobes. When a cordate base is joined 
 with a rounded apex, the leaf is reniform, or kidney-shaped% 
 
 7. Wfmt is a compound leaf ? 
 
 A leaf with more than one blade is a compound leaf, and each of 
 its blades is called a leajkt. 
 
 8. Describe palmately compound leaves. 
 
 Palmately compound leaves are said to be binate, two-fingered, or 
 bifoliate, when two leaflets spring from a common point ; ternate or 
 ■trifoliate, if they have three leaflets similarly placed ; quadrinate, 
 four-fingered, or quadrifoliate ; quinate, or five-fingered; septenate, or 
 Q&ven-fingered ; and multifoliate, if there are more than seven leaflets. 
 
 9. Name the two classes of roots. 
 
 When the fibers (in mass) of the root grow downward from the 
 base of the stem, the root is called fibrous. When the root seems a 
 continuation of the stem it is a tap-root. 
 
 10. What are herbs f 
 
 Herbs are plants having stems that die down to the surface of 
 the ground every year. If the root dies as well as the stem, the 
 plant is called an annual; but if it lives and sends up a flowering 
 stem the second year, and then dies, it is a biennial', while if the 
 root lives on from year to year and only the stem dies, the plant 
 is perennial. 
 
DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY, 279 
 
 11. What is found in the angle made by the leaf with the stem? 
 
 A bud. Botanists call this angle a leaf-axil, and its bud an 
 axillary bud. 
 
 Buds at the free end of steins and branches are called terminal bicds. The 
 points on a stem at which leaves are given off are called nodes, and the 
 spaces between the nodes are internodes. 
 
 12. How are leaves arranged in the bud f 
 
 Either in a valvate or imbricate manner. The arrangement is val- 
 vate when the edges of adjacent leaves barely touch each other. 
 It is imbricate when the edges overlap each other. 
 
 13. What terms are applied to stems? 
 
 The stem of an herb is named a caulis ; that of a tree, a trunk ; 
 that of grasses, a culm ; and that of tree-ferns and palms, a caudex. 
 
 14. Meaning of inflorescence f 
 
 The way tlowers are placed upon plants is called their inflor- 
 escence. When only one flower grows upon a stem the inflorescence 
 is solitary ; but if several flowers grow from the same stem, it is 
 clustered. 
 
 15. Describe the jxirts of green flower-leaves. 
 
 The outer circle of green flower-leaves is named the calyx. The 
 inner circle, of delicately colored leaves is named the corolla. 
 When both circles have the same color, they take the name of 
 perianth. Next inside the corolla come the stamens, and within 
 these the pistil. If there is but one circle of flower-leaves it is 
 called a calyx, whatever its color. 
 
 Each leaf of a calyx is called a sepal. Each leaf of a corolla is called a 
 petal. 
 
 16. Describe the petals of a corolla. 
 
 When the petals of a corolla are distinct from each other, so 
 that one can be pulled off without disturbing the rest, it is a 
 polypetcdous corolla. When the petals are more or less grown to- 
 gether, so that if you pull one the whole corolla comes off, it is a 
 gamopetalous corolla. 
 
 17. What is a symmetrical flower ? 
 
 Any flower that has the same number of parts in each of its 
 
280 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 circles is symmetrical ; and even if some of the circles have just 
 twice, or three or four times, as many as others, it is still symmet- 
 rical. 
 
 These kinds of symmetry are described as binary, ternary, quaternary, 
 and quinary. 
 
 18. What are complete and incomplete flowers f 
 
 A complete flower consists of calyx, corolla, stamens, and pistiL 
 If any one or more of these flower-circles is absent the flower is 
 incomplete. 
 
 19. What are essential and what protecting organs of flowers f 
 
 The stamens and pistil of flowers have been called essential or- 
 gans, because seeds can not be formed without their presence. As 
 the calyx and corrolla cover and nourish these they have taken 
 the name of protecting organs. 
 
 20. What is a perfect flower f 
 
 A perfect flower has both the essential organs ; while, if one of 
 these be absent it is imperfect ; and if both are wanting, it is said 
 to be neutral. 
 
 A staminate flower has no pistil. A pistillate flower has no stamens. 
 Staminate flowers are said to be sterile, because they do not produce seed ; 
 they are also spoken of as male flowers. Pistillate flowers are said to be fer- 
 tile, because they may bear seed ; they are also called female flowers. 
 
 21. What is meant by cohesion in botany? By adhesion f 
 
 It is used for the growing together of parts with their fellows,, 
 as of petals with petals, carpels with carpels. 
 
 Adhesion means the growing together of different floral whorls. 
 
 22. Meaning of plant-characters f 
 
 All unchanging features of plants are plant-characters. A plant 
 is an assemblage of characters, and the description of a plant is 
 but a list of its characters. 
 
 These resemblances of character among plants are called their affinities. 
 
 23. Name and define the parts of stamens. 
 
 The Anther-Lobe is the cell which holds the pollen. Connec- 
 tive, a continuation of the filament which unites the two lobes of 
 
DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 281 
 
 the anther. Valves, the sides of an anther-lobe. Line or Point 
 of Dehiscence, the opening through which the pollen escapes. 
 
 . 24. Name the kinds of these openings through lohich the pollen escapes. 
 
 Vertical or Longitudinal Dehiscence, — when the anther opens 
 by a slit along its length to emit the pollen. 
 
 Transverse, — when the line of dehiscence is across the anther. 
 
 Porous, — when the anthers emit the pollen through little pores. 
 
 Valvular, — when a portion of the anther is lifted up to emit 
 the pollen. 
 
 25. Describe the attachment of filament to anther. 
 
 Anthers are innate, or basifixed, when the filament runs directly 
 into the base of the connective; actuate, or dorsifized, when the fila- 
 ment runs up the back of the anther, joining the connective in 
 such a way that the anther is hung in front of it ; versatile, if the 
 filament is attached by a slender apex to the middle of the anther, 
 the ends of which swing freely up and down. 
 
 26. Desanbe the forms of Filaments. 
 
 Filiform filaments are threadlike, as the name denotes, but strong 
 enough to support the anther. 
 
 Subulate filaments taper like an awl. 
 
 Capillary filaments are hair-like, and too slender to support the 
 anther. 
 
 Dilated filaments are flattened out. 
 
 Petaloid filaments resemble petals in form, and bear the anther 
 at the summit. 
 
 Bidentate, or Bicuspid, filaments are toothed at the summit or at 
 
 the base. 
 
 «» 
 
 27. Describe the structure of Pollen. 
 
 The pollen-grain is generally composed of two membranes, or 
 coats, filled with a thick liquid substance containing minute 
 grains, which is its essential portion. The outer coat is frequently 
 marked with bands, lines, and grooves, or covered with bristling 
 points. The inner coat is very thin, and swells when wet. 
 
 £a-<me is the outer coat of a pollen-grain, usuallylwith openings, or very- 
 thin in certain places. 
 
 Iniine is the inner coat of a pollen-grain, very thin, tough and elastic, 
 often seen protruding through holes in the extine. 
 
 Foinlla is the rich protoplasmic liquid contained within the intine. 
 
 Follinia are pollen-grains cohering in masses. 
 
232 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 28. What are the general features of stamens f 
 
 Stamens are said to be exserted when they extend beyond the 
 
 corolla. When they are not so long as the corolla, they are said 
 
 to be included. 
 
 The entire whorl of stamens is called the androscium. When the filament 
 is wanting, the anther is described as sessile. When the anther is wanting, 
 the stamen is said to be sterile. Converging stamens are said to be connivent. 
 
 29. What are the names applied to certain distinctions among pUtils ? 
 
 A compound pistil consists of several united carpels, and is 
 syncarpous. A simple pistil consists of only a single carpel, and 
 is apocarpous. A multiple pistil consists of several distinct carpels, 
 and is also apocar'pous. 
 
 30. Describe the structure of a pea or bean pod. 
 
 The soft, small bodies in the young pods are called ovules. The 
 ripe, full-grown contents of the mature pod are seeds. Pod and 
 contents form the fruit. The fruit of a plant is its ripened ovary. 
 
 31. What is fruit f 
 
 The ripened ovary, with its contents, is the fruit of plants. 
 Whatever adheres to the ovary also becomes part of the fruit. 
 
 32. What are the classes of fruit ? 
 
 Indehiscent Juicy Fruits, as the berry, orange, lemon, squash, 
 apple, pear, peach, cherry. 
 
 Indehiscent Dry Fruits, as wheat, barley, oats, etc., nuts, elm 
 fruit. 
 
 Dehiscent Fruit, as any dry fruit, whether simple or compound, 
 which may properly be called a pod. 
 
 Multiple, Collective, or Confluent Fruits, are formed by the 
 union of many separate flowers into one mass. 
 
 33. W hat is said of seeds as to form and surface? 
 
 Seeds may be globular, ovoid, reniform, oblong, cylindrical, top- 
 shaped, angular, etc. Some seeds are small and fine like sawdust ; 
 others are flattened and bordered. 
 
 The surfaces of seeds may be smooth, striated, ribbed, furrowed, 
 netted, and tubercular. Seeds are said to be definite when few and 
 constant in number; indefinite when numerous and variable; soli- 
 tary when single in the ovary, or in a cell of the ovary. 
 
DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY. 283 
 
 34. W hat are the parts of a seed f 
 
 Seed-Coat, or Integument, — the shell around the outside of a 
 seed. 
 
 Body, Kernel, or Nucleus, — the substance within the seed-coat. 
 
 35. What names are given to the two parts of a seed f 
 
 Embryo, — the young plant contained in a seed. 
 Albumen, Endosperm, — the material in which the embryo is 
 embedded. 
 
 36. What are the parts of the emhi-yo f 
 
 Cotyledon, — the bulky first leaf or leaves of the embryo, more 
 or less formed before the growth of the seed begins. 
 Eadicle, — the lower, or root end, of the embryo. 
 Plumule, — the terminal bud, the upper end of the embryo. 
 
 37. Name the parts of flower-heads. 
 
 Involucre, — the outer green circle of a flower-head, often mis- 
 taken for a calyx. 
 
 Scales, — the bracts forming the involucre of a flower-head. 
 Florets, — the flowers of a flower-head. 
 Hay Florets, — the outer petal-like florets of a flower-head. 
 Disk Florets, — the inner florets of a flower-head. 
 
 38. What are Compositce plants? 
 
 Dandelions, daisies, dahlias, thistles, etc., are composed of many 
 florets, inclosed in a calyx — like involucre. Plants of this kind 
 are named Compositse, from their compound, or composite nature. 
 
 39. What is the character of the Cruciferce f 
 
 The plants of this order bear flowers with a cruciferous corolla. 
 Mustard, horse-radish, turnip, cabbage, pepper-grass, etc., are 
 iamiliar examples. 
 
 40. What are Umbelliferce plants ? 
 
 The plants of this family blossom in umbels. They are found 
 in groves, thickets, plains, marshes, and waste places. The car- 
 tot, parsnip, parsley, celery, etc., also belong to this class. 
 
284 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK 
 
 41. What plants belong to the order Labiatoe? 
 
 Herbs, with square stems and opposite aromatic leaves ; flowers, 
 with a more or less two-lipped corolla, didynamous or diandrous 
 stamens, usually with diverging anthers; ovary, deeply four- 
 lobed, on a fleshy disk, four-celled, each cell with one erect ovule 
 forming in fruit four little seed-like nutlets around the base of 
 the single style, in the bottom of the persistent calyx. Seeds with 
 little albumen. Stamens inserted on the tube of the corolla. Stigma 
 forked. Flowers axillary, chiefly in cymose clusters. Leaves, 
 usually dotted with glands, containing a pungent, volatile oil. 
 
 42. Desci'ibe the Coniferce order of plants. 
 
 Trees or shrubs ; the wood abounds in a resinous juice. Leaves 
 scale-like, almost evergreen. Flowers monoecious, or dioecious^ 
 destitute of calyx and corolla. Stamens one, or more, forming a 
 sort of loose ament. Fertile flowers usually in aments, consisting 
 of open carpellary scales, sometimes solitary and destitute of any 
 form of carpel. Fruit a strobile, or cone. 
 
 43. What are the characters of the Orchidacece plants ? 
 
 Leaves simple, entire, parallel-veined. Flowers very irregular^ 
 Stamens consolidated with the style into a column. Pollen some- 
 times granular and powdery, but more commonly cohering io 
 wax-like masses. Fruit a three-ribbed, three-valved capsule. 
 
 44. Describe the Graminece order of plants. 
 
 Perennial herbs with fibrous roots. Leaves entire, usually nar- 
 row, alternate, with the sheath split from one node down to the 
 next. Flowers in spikes, racemes, or panicles, usually perfect. 
 Stamens commonly three. Fruit, a caryopsis. 
 
 45. What belong to the flovjerless plants ? 
 
 Ferns, — dense, green patches of plants, apparently all leaf and 
 and no stem ; Mosses ; Fungi, — as the common mushroom, or 
 toadstool. 
 
SECTION XVI. 
 MENTAL AND MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 1. What is Mind? 
 
 The Mind is that which thinks, feels, and wills. 
 
 2. Hmv many and what departments', of the Mind do its operations 
 indicate f 
 
 Three : The thinking or knowing part, called the Intellect ; the 
 feeling or emotional part, called the Sensibilities; and the part 
 which puts forth volition, known as the Will. 
 
 A Mental Faculty is the mind's power of doing something or of putting 
 forth some mental activity. The mind has as many faculties as there are 
 distinct forms of this mental activity. Metaphysicians do not agree upon 
 the exact number of mental faculties, some holding that attention and con- 
 sciousness are distinct mental powers, while others maintain that these are 
 only conditions which accompany all forms of mental activity.— Dr. Eaub. 
 
 3. What does the Intellect include f 
 
 The Intellect includes a number of faculties — Perception, Mem- 
 o^^, Imagination, Understanding, and Reason or Intuition, 
 
 The Understanding embraces several distinct forms of mental activity, 
 known as Abstraction, Classification, Generalization, Judgment, and Reasoning. 
 
 4. What do the Sensibilities include ? 
 
 The Sensibilities include the emotions, the appetites, and the 
 desires. 
 
 These are also subdivided by some authors into animal and rational. 
 
 5. Define the Will. 
 
 The Will is the executive power of the mind. 
 
 Each of these mental powers has its special work to perform, not only in 
 acquiring knowledge, but also in the matter of securing proper culture and 
 development. 
 
 (285) 
 
286 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 6. What is the object of Mental Culture f 
 
 The object of Mental Culture is the fullest development and 
 highest activity of the faculties of the mind. 
 
 In cultivating the mind, therefore, the aim^hould be to attain the three 
 ends — culture, knowledge, and efficiency. 
 
 7. What is the natural order of the development of the mind f 
 First in order is the education of the Intellect. 
 
 8. How is the Intellect developed ? 
 By the acquisition of knowledge. 
 
 9. How is knowledge acquired ? 
 
 Knowledge is first acquired, in youth, through the Senses. 
 
 The first efforts in education should be directed to systematize observa-- 
 tion and the first subjects of study are very naturally the facts in the physi- 
 cal sciences.— Syp/ier. 
 
 10. Define Memory ? 
 
 Memory is that faculty of the mind by which we retain and re- 
 call knowledge. 
 
 11. Define Recollection. 
 
 It is the power by which that which lies in the mind is awakened. 
 
 12. Define Imagination. 
 
 It is the power by which the mind holds up before itself the 
 images which are called up by recollection. 
 
 13. Define ZJnderstanding. 
 
 It is the faculty by which the relations of things to each other 
 are determined. 
 
 14. Define Reason. 
 
 It is the faculty through which the ultimate and universal prin- 
 ciples are ascertained. 
 
 Following this order, which is the order in which these faculties are de- 
 veloped, Memory must be exercised in conjunction with the Senses and. 
 Perception. It is the storehouse into which the Perceptive facilities carry 
 all the facts obtained through the Senses, Calling up for inspection the 
 things which are thus stored in the mind gives exercise to the Memory ; 
 holding them up to view affords exercise to the Imagination. The Under- 
 standing takes up the pictures of the Imagination, receives what Recollec- 
 
MENTAL AND MOEAL PHILOSOPHY. 287 
 
 tion has called up from the Memory, which has been stored by the opera- 
 tion of the Senses, and determines the relations of all the parts to each other 
 as causes and effects. It classifies in accordance with perceived relations. 
 It places facts together as links in a ch&in.—Sypher. 
 
 15. What are the two great sources of knowledge f 
 The Senses and the Eeason. 
 
 16. What is the knowledge derived through the Senses called f 
 Empirical Knowledge— the knowledge of experience. 
 
 17. What does this include f 
 
 It includes all that we know through the Senses — seeing, hear- 
 ing, touching, tasting, smelling — and through emotional experi- 
 ences. 
 
 18. What is the knowledge derived by Reason called ? 
 
 Rational knowledge; ideas of space, of time, of distance, the 
 truths evolved by mathematical calculations, ideas of the abso- 
 lute and the infinite, are attained through processes of reasoning, 
 and can not be reached by experience. 
 
 19. State the methods of acquiring knowledge. 
 
 There are two methods of dealing with the products of the 
 Senses and of the Reason. 
 
 (1) By Induction. 
 
 That is particular phenomena may be taken up and the process 
 may be conducted so as to find the general laws, which unite these 
 into a harmonious system. 
 
 (2) By Deduction. 
 
 That is a general truth may be presented and the process will 
 then be to find the original elements which enter into its compo- 
 sition. 
 
 The inductive process is synthetic and the deductive is analytic. By syn- 
 thesis the parts are constructed into a whole ; by analysis the whole is sepa- 
 rated into its parts. 
 
 20. State the law of the operation of the faculties. 
 
 The mind proceeds in its search after truth by means of obser- 
 vation. All the higher operations of investigation had their be- 
 ginning in small and simple processes in the mind of the child. 
 
 The mind rises through all the parts of a science or subject, observing at 
 
288 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 every step the logical order of combination. When knowledge comes in this 
 connected order, its acquisition gives strength to the memory, because the 
 truths so learned are stored away in the mind that the presentation of one 
 induces the recollection of another, and thus innumerable incidents in the 
 range of observation call up long trains of thought. This often brings be- 
 fore the mind in moments of leisure and in the hour of play the knowledge 
 that was acquired through much toil and effort. 
 
 21. State the importance of gaining knowledge through logical methods. 
 
 Knowledge gained through logical methods becomes food for 
 all the faculties of the mind, aflording them exercise and recrea- 
 tion, the free indulgence of which induces culture. 
 
 22. What is the consequence of a failure to follow this natural order ? 
 
 Without the development of the intellectual faculties in their 
 natural order and in harmonious proportion, the attainment of 
 that higher and more complete culture involving the full growth 
 of all the faculties of the mind which gives power and efficiency, 
 can not be attained. 
 
 23. Hoio can the intellect he developed methodically f 
 
 By the proper exercise of all the faculties in their natural order. 
 
 Antecedent to all methodical education must be a desire for knowledge. 
 There must be a mental appetite to be gratified before mental food can be 
 administered with profit. As the physical system is clogged and injured by 
 administering food when it is not wanted— when there is no appetite de- 
 manding it— so all efforts at cramming the mind with mental pabulum will 
 result in injury.— Syp/i^r. 
 
 24. What is the natural process of educating? 
 
 The first knowledge of the child is acquired by observation. 
 The first effort of the teacher should be to encourage and system- 
 atize observation. 
 
 25. How does this process affect the powers of the mind f 
 
 It brings order to the perceptive faculties ; utilizes the stores of 
 and strengthens the Memory ; brings order and strength to the 
 Eecollection ; utilizes Imagination, and exercises Judgment. 
 
 26. What can you say regarding the education of the Emotional Na- 
 ture and the Will f 
 
 To give bodily vigor and intellectual ability, without any moral 
 foundation to the character, is to give an education, not only want- 
 ing in completeness, but in balance; an education which may be 
 mischievous both to the individual and to society. 
 
MENTAL AND MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 289 
 
 The emotions need to be gradually brought more or less under control ; 
 the sense of duty awakened ; the moral judgment formed ; wrong tenden- 
 cies corrected ; and the recognition of the beauty of right and order, of na- 
 ture and art, established ; while the Will— developed by exercise, enlight- 
 ened by experience, and stimulated by proper motives— assumes the guid- 
 ance of" the whole nature, and steers it in accordance with fixed principles 
 of right and dntj. —Landon. 
 
 27. What must be taken into consideration in training to right action f 
 
 (1) The initiative poiver J that is, the motives, 
 
 (2) The legislative pmver, that is, the action of the moral intelli- 
 gence and judgment, which decides whether an action is right or 
 wrong. 
 
 (3) The administrative potver, that is, the power of Will, whereby 
 we adhere to and carry out the decisions arrived at by the intel- 
 lect and the conscience. 
 
 (4) The reflective power, whereby we recognize the result or conse- 
 quence of the action whether in accordance with our previous judg- 
 ment or not, and which exercises influence on succeeding actions. 
 
 28. What is a moral action ? 
 
 It is the voluntary action of an intelligent agent, who is capa- 
 ble of distinguishing between right and wrong, or of distinguish- 
 ing what he ought, from what he ought not, to do. 
 
 29. How does this principle apply in the school-room f 
 
 It relates to the rights and duties of persons connected with the 
 school. 
 
 30. What are the ends sought in school-government f 
 
 (1) To find means of preventing disorder in school. (2) To 
 find means of correcting disorder in school. (3) To find means 
 of inducing pupils to discharge their duties of their own accord. 
 
 31. Sow may disorder in school be prevented f 
 By judicious regulations. 
 
 The most judicious regulations will not prevent all disorder. What can 
 not be prevented must be corrected. It is not simply enough to secure good 
 order in a school either by preventing bad order or correcting the same. 
 Pupils must be trained to discharge all of their duties properly and of their 
 own accord. 
 
 32. Oeneralize the means of preventing disorder 
 
 Disorder in school is owing to certain causes which can gener- 
 19 
 
290 HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION BOOK. 
 
 ally be removed before any bad effects result. These causes may 
 be generalized as follows : 
 
 (1) Unsuitable accommodations. 
 
 (2) Unqualified teachers. 
 
 (3) Bad management. 
 
 33. Hoio shall disorder in school he corrected f 
 
 (1) By the punishment of those who offend. 
 
 (2) By the pardon of those who repent. 
 
 34. Hoio shall pupils be induced to discharge their duties of their own 
 accord ? 
 
 To discuss this subject fully would be to open the whole field of 
 Moral Culture. We can give only a few words on the subject here. 
 Before a pupil can discharge his duties of his own accord, he 
 must — 
 
 (1) Know what is right. 
 
 (2) Feel the claims of the right. 
 
 (3) Will to do the right. 
 
 The teacher must therefore direct the pupil to three kinds of 
 moral training, viz: Moral knowing, Moral feeling, and Moral 
 willing. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 (291) 
 
SCIENCE IN OUE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 
 
 C. E. McVEY. 
 
 Of the importance of science in our schools there 
 can be no question. None is urged by the normal 
 teacher. The only dissenting voice heard in the land 
 are the croakings of some old pedagogues, whose 
 means for knowing and being known are somewhat 
 circumscribed, and whose knowledge consists of a lit- 
 tle grammar, a little arithmetic, and but little of any 
 thing else. 
 
 The only question that can be urged is a want of 
 time; and yet I think too frequently we have too 
 much time ; at least we spend unnecessary time on 
 comparatively unimportant branches. The teacher 
 too frequently thinks that he must make his pupils 
 faultless reciters ; that he must cram into their minds 
 a certain amount of certain prescribed text-books, and 
 to do this he must not only consume the six hours of 
 the day, but must compel even the smaller pupils ta 
 use a certain portion of their time at home, which, 
 should be given to home influences, to physical cul- 
 ture and the sports of childhood. The younger pu- 
 pils, under no consideration, should be compelled to 
 do more than can be done during the regular school 
 hours, and on the older pupils, unless in extreme cases^ 
 
 (293) 
 
294 APPENDIX. 
 
 no extra amount of regular school work should be im- 
 posed. Employment for these is necessary; but let 
 it be in the form of recreation. Let it be in investi- 
 gating some of the truths of natural science. Let it be 
 in a direction which will widen their field of observa- 
 tion, and make them intelligent men and women. I 
 have known teachers who have thought their work 
 accomplished when they had taught simply that which 
 they were compelled to teach, and the result was, pu- 
 pils going out from these teachers felt that their edu- 
 cation was finished, and, like the young lady from 
 boarding-school, had nothing to do but exercise their 
 various accomplishments. Far from having such im- 
 pressions made on the minds of our pupils, we should 
 have them feel that their education has just begun, 
 and as they go out into the world, the very air they 
 breathe, the stones and pebbles over which they walk, 
 the weeds at their feet, and the earth itself, are all un- 
 folding to them the book of nature, bidding them read 
 and be wise. The true teacher can do this. He who 
 has the best interests of his school at heart ; he who 
 would make broad and intelligent thinkers of his pupils, 
 avails himself of every opportunity to present, not 
 only the text-book, but to draw out the minds of his 
 pupils in other directions, to have them hunger and 
 thirst, as it were, to understand the workings of na- 
 ture with which they are surrounded. 
 
 I know of no better incentive to prevent tardiness 
 than for the teacher to take up some of the more sim- 
 ple truths of the sciences, such as Philosophy, Botany, 
 and Geology, and by devoting a few moments of the 
 time allotted to general exercises to a discussion of 
 
SCIENCE JN OUR PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 295 
 
 these, in such a manner as to arouse an interest, to 
 aAvaken dormant faculties, to teach observation — in a 
 word, to open new channels of thought and investi- 
 gation in the direction of those things which before 
 have been entirely void of interest. 
 
 In Natural Philosophy, let the teacher begin with 
 the subject of pneumatics, because the principal form 
 of matter treated under this subject is that with which 
 the pupils have come in contact every moment of their 
 existence, and yet one of which they have a very 
 vague and indefinite idea, as the teacher will learn if 
 he but examines his pupils with regard to their con- 
 ception of the atmosphere. In presenting this, let 
 the teacher show by experiment (and this is the only 
 way they will be comprehended) that air is something ; 
 that it is transparent, compressible, elastic, etc. In 
 suggesting these experiments it is presumed that the 
 teacher is provided with no apparatus, except such as 
 can be improvised by any country teacher. If, how- 
 ever, the teacher feels disposed to purchase apparatus 
 he will be amply repaid for all expenditures he may 
 make in this direction. 
 
 First, let it be shown that air occupies space. This 
 may be done by inverting a tumbler and thrusting it 
 into a vessel of water. It will add interest to the ex- 
 periment if, at the same time, the principle of the div- 
 ing-bell is illustrated. This may be done by fastening 
 a doll in the bottom of the tumbler before inverting. 
 It will be noticed on removing the doll from the ves- 
 sel that the water has not come in contact with it. 
 Air being a form of matter, the water can not occupy 
 the same space with it at the same time. 
 
296 APPENDIX. 
 
 The compressibility and elasticity of air may be 
 shown in the boy's pop-gun. These may also be illus- 
 trated by partially filling a bottle with water, and by 
 perforating the cork, cause a pipe-stem to pass almost 
 to the bottom of the bottle. Now compress the air 
 in the bottle by blowing through the stem. On re- 
 moving the mouth, the elasticity of the air causes the 
 water to pass up through the stem, when a miniature 
 fountain will be produced. The pressure of air, its 
 tendency to restore an equilibrium of pressure when 
 disturbed, the pneumatic paradox, and almost all the 
 properties of air may be shown by simple apparatus, 
 such as the teacher can readily provide. The length 
 of this article only permits me to suggest a few of the 
 many ways in which this branch of the subject may 
 be presented ; whatever may be said of this can with 
 equal force, however, be said of all others with regard 
 to the apparatus to be used and their importance in 
 the education of our youth. 
 
 Botany may be made interesting by the teacher 
 bringing before the school in these exercises of which 
 I have spoken, the different parts of the plant, show- 
 ing the office that each part performed in the great 
 plan of vegetation. Let the pupils learn to distinguish 
 the different whorls of the flower, to tell which are 
 essential and which are not ; to classify the parts of 
 the whorls, and to name and point them out when 
 called upon by the teacher. They should be able to 
 name the parts of a leaf, the bark, the stem, the roots, 
 etc. They should understand the meaning of the 
 terms absorption, circulation, and elaboration. They 
 should be able to point out the difference between a 
 
SCIENCE IN OUR PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 297 
 
 plant and an animal, and to show how mutually de- 
 pendent the one is to the other. Let the teacher ex- 
 plain the use of the different plants found in the local- 
 ity where he is teaching, showing that even the des- 
 pised weed is not made in vain. The pupils, especially 
 the boys, may be induced to gather fine collections of 
 wood^ planing the specimens to regular forms, and 
 naming them with their common and technical names. 
 The girls may gather collections of seed and name 
 them in a similar manner. 
 
 In close connection with Philosophy and Botany, 
 the subject of Geology should be presented. This 
 may be done by the teacher bringing into the presence 
 of his school some common mineral or fossil, that the 
 pupils noticed, but in which heretofore they have had 
 no interest, because 
 
 " A fossil by a river's brim 
 A common fossil was to them ; 
 And it was nothing more." 
 
 But now, through the agency of the teacher, by his 
 showing that the history of these minerals and fossils 
 is very intimately associated with that of the earth it- 
 self, and that they have been so interesting to scientific 
 men as to command each a separate name, their curi- 
 osity is thoroughly excited, and the teacher will soon 
 find them gathering into their cabinet of curiosities 
 the minerals and fossils of that particular geological 
 formation. 
 
 I have thus far referred to but three of the sciences 
 that should be taught in their elementary forms in our 
 common schools. I might add to these Human Phys- 
 iology, Zomogjj and a little Chemistry, such as man- 
 
298 APPENDIX, 
 
 ufacturing and maDipulating a few of the more com- 
 mon gases. 
 
 Physical Geography should be taught in its broad- 
 est sense; and in the presentation of all of these 
 sciences the pupils should know, so far as possible, by 
 exercising their own intellects, and by a personal con- 
 tact, that the thing is so. Let teachers, as I have said 
 before, present these truths whenever the opportunity 
 is given. Let them teach their pupils to observe, to 
 investigate, to think for themselves, and the charge 
 will not be laid to the schools, of which they are 
 teachers, that they are simply " schooling machines,^' 
 but will be considered in their true sense " educational 
 forces." 
 
 In conclusion, I can not forbear quoting from Hux- 
 ley. Speaking of the importance of science in our 
 schools, he says: "No boy or girl should leave school 
 without possessing a grasp of the general character of 
 science, and without having been disciplined, more or 
 less, in the methods of all the sciences, so that when 
 turned into the world to make their own way, they 
 shall be prepared to face scientific problems, not by 
 knowing at once the condition of every problem, or 
 by being able at once to solve it, but by being familiar 
 with the general rules of scientific thought, and by 
 being able to apply the methods of science in the 
 proper way when they have acquainted themselves 
 with the conditions of the special problem." 
 
 m 
 
HOW TO TEACH PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 A. KATE HURON. 
 [This article is taken from an old number of The Normal Teacher.'] 
 
 The study of Physiology is frequently pronounced 
 dry and repulsive, simply because teachers neither 
 know how to teach nor pupils hov/ to learn. 
 
 I well remember to have commenced the study, by 
 endeavoring to commit to memory the first three 
 chapters of Cutter's work, embracing ^^ General Re- 
 marks/' " Structure of Man/' and " Chemistry of the 
 Human Body.'' The process was accompanied by 
 appropriate swayings of the body to and fro, and by 
 the sing-song chant that is always so interesting on 
 such occasions. I succeeded in '^ saying my lesson/' 
 for memory at that time was less treacherous than 
 now; but the distinction between osmazome and 
 hydrogen, potash and dermoid tissue, fibrin and appara- 
 tuses, and so on through the list, was somewhat vague ; 
 and my attachment for the subject was commensurate 
 with my fondness for " big words." 
 
 Where was the error ? Clearly in taxing the mem- 
 ory with that which was neither deducible from a 
 process of reasoning, nor associated either by laws of 
 similarity and contrast, or evident co-ordination and 
 
 (299) 
 
300 APPENDIX. 
 
 subordination. It has been truly said that " Theoret- 
 ieally, the brain is like a target on which every idea 
 that is evolved makes a permanent impression which 
 no subsequent impression can thoroughly destroy; 
 practically J it is rather like a series of sieves by which 
 thoughts are sifted through various stages below and 
 on the borders of consciousness and recollection, while 
 only the coarser and larger grains are retained where 
 they can be used when needed, ^^ Therefore that sys- 
 tem of teaching which appeals to the memory alone 
 will certainly fail to educate. 
 
 Since order and system universally prevail through- 
 out all departments of science, it is only by discover- 
 ing the proper relations that a knowledge of a branch 
 can be truly had. And a subject so important and 
 necessary to our success and happiness as a knowledge 
 of ourselves ought never to be neglected or made re- 
 pulsive. 
 
 The following method of teaching Physiology by 
 outline is submitted as suggestive of a systematic way 
 of presenting the subject. While the outline is not 
 exhaustive, and perhaps not the best, it can be so 
 modified and enlarged as to meet the requirements of 
 any grade of learners. To those who understand the 
 exponential system of outlining it needs no explana- 
 tion; to others it may be necessary to say that the 
 large figures indicate co-ordination, the exponents, 
 subordination; the degree of the exponent showing 
 the degree of subordination ; thus, the exponent 1 
 indicates the first set of subordinates, 2 is subordinate 
 to 1, 3 to 2, 4 to 3, etc. 
 
HOW TO TEACH PHYSIOLOGY. 301 
 
 Man. 
 
 1^ Natures. 
 1^. Spiritual. 
 2^. Physical. 
 1^ Systems. 
 1^. Osseous. 
 1^. Divisions. 
 1^ Head. 
 1^. Location. 
 2^ Divisions. 
 1^. Cranium. 
 1^ Single bones. 
 1^^. Occipital. 
 1^^ Location. 
 2". Form. 
 3^\ Articulations. 
 V^. Parietals. 
 2*^. Temporals. 
 S'\ Sphenoid. 
 4'\ Atlas. 
 2^°. Frontal. [above. 
 
 V^. Same subordinates as 
 3^°. Sphenoid. Same subordi- 
 
 [ nates. 
 4^^ Ethmoid. '' " 
 2®. In pairs. 
 
 1^0. Parietal. " " 
 
 2^0. Temporal. " '' 
 SK Use. 
 2^. Ear. [points as for cranium. 
 
 1^. Name the bones and give same 
 3«. Face. 
 
302 APPENDIX. 
 
 1^. Single bones. 
 
 1^^. Name them and give above points. 
 2^. In Pairs. [nates. 
 
 l^*^. Names of bones and proper subordi- 
 2«. Trunk. 
 
 1''. Single Bones. 
 1^. Names, etc. 
 2^. In Pairs. 
 1^. Names, etc, 
 3^. Upper Extremities. 
 
 1^. Humerus, etc. 
 4''. Lower Extremities. 
 2^. Structure. 
 
 1^. Microscopical. 
 2^. Chemical. 
 3^. Mechanical. 
 3^. Articulation. 
 1^ Elements, etc. 
 2^ Muscular. 
 1^. Structure. 
 
 1^. Microscopical. 
 2^. Chemical. 
 3^ Mechanical. 
 2^. Divisions. 
 
 1^ Head and Neck. 
 
 1^. Name most important Muscles. 
 3"*. Digestive. 
 1^. Organs. 
 
 1^. Alimentary Canal. 
 
 1^ Divisions, etc. 
 2^ Glands. 
 4'^. Circulatory. 
 
HOW TO TEACH PHYSIOLOGY. 303 
 
 1^. Organs. (Outline Organs.) 
 6^. Respiratory. (Outline Organs.) 
 6^, Secretory. (Outline Organs.) 
 7\ Nervous. (Outline.) 
 8^. Special Sense, (Outline.) 
 
ASITHMETIC. 
 
 All teaching should have for its object the develop- 
 ment of correct modes of reasoning aad expression. 
 It is not sufficient that pupils have some idea of the 
 branches studied or subjects discussed, but they should 
 have in their minds a clear idea which they are able 
 to express with ease and cogency to others. This 
 power is of inestimable value. The principles of cor- 
 rect reasoning are universal, and can be learned as 
 readily in Arithmetic as in any of the higher branches 
 of Mathematics. When once learned, they are learned 
 forever, and the progress of the pupil ever after be- 
 comes a matter of ease and pleasure. 
 
 The principles may be exhibited under the following : 
 
 1. POINTS. 
 
 I. 1. Penmanship; 2. Spelling; 3. Capitalization; 
 4. Punctuation; 5. Neatness of figure ; 6. Form; 7. 
 General business-like appearance. All these points 
 should be looked after with great care, at every reci- 
 tation. 
 
 II. Processes. 1. Leading Steps. (1) The state- 
 ment of the problem ; (2) The solution proper ; (3) 
 The conclusion. 2. Subordinate Steps. (1) Number- 
 ing equations; (2) Using proper signs; (3) Prelimi- 
 nary remarks ; (4) Logical arrangement of equations. 
 
 (304) 
 
ARITHMETIC. 305 
 
 2. MODEL SOLUTIONS. 
 
 As an illustration of the foregoing remarks we pre- 
 sent a few solutions designed to indicate correct prin- 
 ciples of reasoning as learned from Arithmetic. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS. 
 
 I. A man bought at one time, 200 acres of land; at another, 
 300 ; at another, 250 ; at another, 420 ; subsequently he 
 sold, at one time 400 acres, and at another, 150; how 
 much had he remaining? 
 
 r 1. 200 + 300 + 250 + 420 =1170 =the amount of land pur- 
 T-r J chased. 
 
 • I 2. 400 + 150 = 550 = the amount sold. 
 [ 3. 1170 — 550 ^= 620 = the number of acres remaining. 
 III. .*. The man had 620 acres remaining. 
 
 I. What will 7 cords of wood cost at $6 a cord? 
 -r^ ri. 1 cord =$6. 
 ^^' I 2. 7 cords = 7 X $6 = $42. 
 
 III. . • . 7 cords of wood will cost $42 at $6 a cord. 
 
 I. A merchant sold in one year 1800 yards of calico at 20 cts. 
 
 a yard; 125 yards of muslin at 12 cts. a yard, and 1200 
 
 yards of tape at 16| cts. a yard ; how much did it all 
 
 amount to ? 
 
 f 1. 1800 yds. of calico @ 20 cts. = $360.00 
 
 I 2. 125 yds. of muslin @ 12 cts. = 15.00 
 
 II. ■{ 3. 1200 yds. of tape @ 16| cts. = 200.00 
 
 $575.00 
 III. . • . Total receipts are $575.00. 
 
 I. If 1 yd. of cloth cost $2, what will 20 yds. cost ? 
 jj ri. The cost of 1yd. =$2. 
 ^^•12. The cost of 20 yds. == 20 X $2 = $40. 
 III. . • . If 1 yd of cloth cost $2, 20 yds. will cost $40. 
 
 In analysis, the sign X is always read " times," and never 
 " multiplied by." 
 
 Explanation.— The cost of 20 yds. of cloth = 20 times $2 = $40. 
 This makes the $2 the multiplicand; the 20, when repeated, an 
 abstract number — the multiplier; and the product is of the same 
 kind as the multiplicand. 
 20 
 
11.^ 
 
 306 APPENDIX. 
 
 In the above problem the reasoning is from one to many. In 
 the following the reasoning is from many to one : 
 
 I. The cost of 20 yds. of cloth is $1 00, what is the cost of 1 yd ? 
 TT f 1. The cost of 20 yds. of cloth = $100. 
 ^^* \ 2. The cost of 1 yd. of cloth = ^V of $100 = $5. 
 III. . • . If 20 yds. of cloth cost $100, 1 yd. will cost $5. 
 
 Problem P, 
 
 I. Reduce 2 yds., 2 ft., 7 in. to inches. 
 (a) Descending. 
 
 1. In 1 yd. there are 3 ft. 
 
 2. In 2 yds. there are 2 times 3 ft., which are 6 ft. 
 
 3. 6 ft. + 2 ft. = 8 ft. ^ 
 1 4. In 1 ft. there are 12 inches. 
 
 I 5. In 8 ft. there are 8 times 12 in., which are 96 in. 
 
 L 6. 96 in. + 7 in. = 103 in. 
 
 III. Therefore, in 2 yds., 2 ft., 7 in., there are 103 inches. 
 
 (6) Ascending. 
 Problem : 
 
 I. Eeduce 25591 gr. to Bb Troy. 
 
 1. 24 gr. ==: 1 pwt. 
 
 2. In 25591 gr. there are as many pwt. as 24 gr. are con- 
 tained times in 25591 gr., which are 1066 times with 
 7 gr. remaining. 
 
 3. 20 pwt. = 1 oz. 
 
 4. In 1066 pwt. there are as many oz. as 20 pwt. are con- 
 tained times in 1066 pwt., which are 53 times with 6 
 pwt. remaining. 
 
 5. 12 oz. = 1 ft*. 
 
 6. In 53 oz. there are as many fb as 12 oz. are contained 
 times in 53 oz. which are 4 times with 5 oz. re- 
 maining. 
 
 III. Therefore, in 25591 gr. there are 4 K) 5 oz. 6 pwt. 7 gr. Troy. 
 
 COMMON FRACTIONS. 
 
 II. 
 
 II. 
 
 III. 
 
 8i 
 
 + 6f = ? 
 
 
 fl- 
 
 6 = L. C 
 
 . M. of ( 
 
 2. 
 
 i = f. 
 
 
 3. 
 " 4. 
 
 I = |. 
 
 
 l + #- 
 
 l = H. 
 
 5. 
 
 8 + 6 = 
 
 14. 
 
 16. 
 
 14 + H : 
 
 -15|. 
 
 . * . 
 
 Si + 6| . 
 
 -15i. 
 
 of denominators. 
 
ARITHMETIC. 307 
 
 PROPORTION. 
 
 I. If 15 men mow 11 A. in 5 days, how many men will mow 
 33 A. in 9 days ? 
 
 f 1. 15 men 11 A,— — 5 days. 
 
 |2. — men? 33 A. 9 days. ■ 
 
 II. I 3. 15 men = 5 X 33. 
 
 I " (cancelling) = 25 men. 
 
 I 11 X 9. 
 
 III. . • . 25 men can mow 33 A. in 9 days. 
 
 PROBLEMS IN PERCENTAGE. 
 
 100 ^ is the unit. 
 I. Eequired, 10 ^o of $200. 
 f 1. 100 % = $200. 
 II. \ 2. 1 % = ^0 of $200 = $2. 
 
 ( 3. 10 ^0 = 10 X $2 = $20. 
 III. .-.10 foot $200 is $20. 
 
 I. $50 are how many % of $500 ? 
 
 f 1. $500 = 100 4>. 
 11.-^2. $l=-3ioof 100fo = i%- 
 
 [3. $50 = 50Xif. = ¥ foorlO/,. 
 
 III. . • . $50 are 10 </o of $500. 
 
 - I. $500 are 20 % of how many dollars ? 
 
 f 1. 100 % = required number of dollars. 
 
 11.^ 
 
 2. 20 % = $500. 
 
 j 3. 1% = Jq of $500 = 
 L4. 100 % = 100 X $25 = $2,500. 
 III. . • . $500 are 20 ^o of $2,500. 
 
 I. $400 are 20 % less than what ? 
 f 1. 100 4) — the number. 
 I 2. 100 % —20 (/o = 80 €' 
 II. ^ 3. 80 % = $400. 
 
 I 4. 1% = sV of $400 = $5. 
 L5. 100 (fo = 100 X $5 = $500. 
 III. . • . $400 are 20 fo less than $500. 
 
 I. $600 are 20 fo more than what ? 
 f 1. 100 fo = the number. 
 I 2. 100 % -f 20 9^0 = 120 %. 
 II. i 3. 120 % = $600. 
 
 I 4. 1 fo = rh of $600 = $5. 
 [5. 100 % = 100 X $5 = $500. 
 III. . • . $600 are 20 fo more than $500. 
 
308 APPENDIX. 
 
 ' The solutions of these problems explain all the cases 
 in Percentage. The problems taken are easy, yet the 
 same analysis will answer, no matter how complex the 
 statement. If the pupil thoroughly understands these 
 solutions he will be able to solve any problem in Per- 
 centage or any of its applications. 
 
THOUGHTS AND SUGGESTIONS ON 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 BY PROF. W. H. VENABLE. 
 
 1. It is not easy to learn to think ; nor is it easy to 
 think after learning how. The big-brained Carlyle 
 says ; " True effort, in fact, as of a captive struggling 
 to free himself: that is Thought ! " We are bound 
 down by many cords of usage and ropes of authority ; 
 and it takes force and courage to break the bonds — 
 to think in regard to Education. 
 
 2. Many regard the speculative philosophy of Ed- 
 ucation as mere fog and delusion. There is much fog 
 and delusion brooding over the subject; but the solid 
 land of True Science must be somewhere beyond the 
 mist. 
 
 3. Before we can safely run the train of Right 
 Method along the track of Practice, the headlight of 
 Theory must shine into the opening way. 
 
 4. Doctor Harris, the Great American Philosopher 
 of Education, has benefited the system more by his 
 lectures and writings than any twelve mere unthinking,, 
 practical superintendents. 
 
 5. The teacher can not teach anything ; the pupil 
 must learn. You can no more think for your pupil 
 than you can digest food for him. The mind is soli- 
 
 (309) 
 
310 APPENDIX. 
 
 tary in its real achievements. We must work out our 
 intellectual salvation, alone. Teachers can order the 
 " environment ^' but not do the vital work of another 
 spirit. 
 
 6. Not the studies, but the study, makes the scholar. 
 
 7. Education is the Science of Life, and conduct is 
 its cognate art. 
 
 8. I do not believe in fitting boys for college, if 
 that fitting unfits them for life. The one fitting should 
 be the other. 
 
 9. You are all your ancestors, including the Old 
 Adam. Judge your pupil in the light of his heredity. 
 
 10. The perfect work of Education can not be ac- 
 complished except in the individual who comes of a 
 stock cultivated for generations. Training your pu- 
 pil, you may be training his great grandson. Infinite 
 are the reaches of the schoolmaster. 
 
 11. Stupidity, stolidity, inaptitude for special stu- 
 dies, vicious tendencies, are to be regarded as chronic 
 disease — the pupil may slowly be cured. 
 
 12. Many teachers of morality destroy the good 
 effect of judicious counsel by too much talk, as a chem- 
 ical precipitate is redissolved in an excess of the pre- 
 cipitating agent. 
 
 13. The best teacher has in view not his own edu- 
 cation, but that of his pupils. They are his study; 
 not the subject he teaches. 
 
 14. Take care of the blockheads and the heads will 
 take care of themselves. 
 
 15. All schooling in school should be supplemented 
 and tested by schooling out of school. 
 
 16. The school must recognize its constant vital 
 
THOUGHTS AND SUGGESTIONS ON EDUCATION. 311 
 
 connection with the world around. Every teacher^s 
 desk should be in sight of the great facts of the time 
 in which we live. Boys are men, girls are women, 
 to-mory^ow. 
 
 17. Like the ancients, we must teach virtue as well 
 as smartness. No good education can be based on 
 mere intellectuality. 
 
 18. Bain is wrong in assuming that affection can 
 play but a small part in teaching. Human love and 
 sympathy play the greatest part in early training. 
 They play the greatest part even in a class in mental 
 arithmetic. 
 
 19. We should have a "Science of Education^' 
 written by a Platonist. The best v/orks we now have 
 are based on the Materialistic Philosophy. Let us 
 see both sides. 
 
 20. We neglect political education in our schools. 
 Every boy and girl should be taught the elements of 
 politics and economics ; and especially, in these times, 
 should the young be inspired with a pure patriotism 
 and a religious devotion to the duties of citizenship. 
 
 21. Educational theory and practice should proceed 
 from the faith that there is a God at the center of the 
 Universe, and a soul at the center of Man. 
 
COURSE OF STUDY FOR THE DISTRICT 
 
 SCHOOL. 
 
 PROF. J. M. LONG. 
 
 In making out a course of study for the district 
 school, as well as for all other grade of schools, there 
 are certain fundamental principles which should be 
 observed. The first is that in every grade of school, 
 the lowest as well as the highest, the course of study 
 should present a complete picture or image of the 
 world as the mind of Humanity has, through the ages, 
 reflected this in the forms of thought, Science, or 
 knowledge, viewed as an organic whole, is a reflection 
 or image in thought of the external world or universe. 
 Now, each grade of school in the matter of its mental 
 work and development, should be a complete image 
 of this reflected thought of Humanity. This is neces- 
 sary in order that the education of the individual shall 
 be a miniature repetition of the education of Human- 
 ity. In a harmonious and symmetrical education in 
 the spirit of Humanity by a kind of metempsychosis, 
 lives again in the individual. 
 
 A second fundamental principle is that the mind is 
 so constituted that in order to the thorough mastery 
 of any branch of knowledge, it must recur again and 
 again to the same subject. No one branch can be 
 
 (312) 
 
COURSE OF STUDY FOR THE DISTRICT SCHOOL,. 313 
 
 learned once for all in its completeness and finer de- 
 tails. It must be recurred to again and again, but 
 each time in a more thorough and systematic manner* 
 Hence, each essential element which goes to make up 
 a complete picture of knowledge, should in some phase 
 of itself find a place in every grade of school. The 
 district school should of course present all these ele- 
 ments, yet in their simplest and lowest form, thus ad- 
 mitting of a continuous advance from the more simple 
 to the more complex phase of each subject. 
 
 We would, in the next place, consider briefly the 
 form which knowledge has assumed through the grad- 
 ual evolutions of human thought. We find that hu- 
 man thought has unfolded into a three-fold order of 
 development. When we study the material Cosmos^ 
 with its phenomena, properties, laws and forces, we 
 have one comprehensive branch of knowledge, which 
 has been termed Cosmology. When we study Human- 
 ity as this appears as a manifestation of mind, super- 
 imposed upon the cosmical movement, with its intel- 
 lectual, social, spiritual, and moral forces, we have 
 what may be termed Andrology, or the Science of Man. 
 The work of progressive development in the finite 
 sphere of being is carried on by means of the lower 
 unconscious forces of Nature becoming linked on 
 to the higher conscious forces of Humanity. But 
 thought can not find repose in the knowledge of finite 
 phenomena — with the material, visible panorama of 
 things. It finds repose only in the all-embracing 
 Unity which is, at once, the explanation and harmony 
 of the Universe. Thought finds its goal in Absolute 
 Being, which constitutes the God of Nature and of 
 
314 APPENDIX. 
 
 Hevelation. This phase of thought leading the mind 
 up to the study of Being has been termed Ontology^ 
 the science of being in its essential and absolute nature 
 in contradistinction to being in its accidental and rela- 
 tive phases. Thus the mind in reflecting a complete 
 image of the universe rises to the conception of a 
 Cosmos — a beautiful and divinely arranged world of 
 law and order^ hung in space and journeying through 
 time, in the midst of which lives and moves a con- 
 scious Humanity, while over all rules one supreme 
 Intelligence as the central fountain of all law and 
 energy. 
 
 In those three grand divisions of knowledge — 
 Cosmology, Andrology, and Ontology — thought has 
 developed into an increasing clearness certain scientific 
 ideas called categories, meaning by these the most 
 simple and fundamental ideas or classes within which 
 the objects of knowledge can be embraced and ar- 
 ranged in a system. In Cosmology we have the 
 categories of quantity, force and motion, and organism; 
 in Andrology we have the category of Mind as mani- 
 fested in its reactions on mind, and also an external 
 material nature ; in Ontology we have the category of 
 Being which furnishes the common basis on which 
 rests the generalizations of all science. Absolute Be- 
 ing is the category of categories, and the last which 
 the mind reaches by analysis and abstraction. Each 
 of these categories has become the germ out of which 
 has sprung the specialized branches of Science. 
 
 Quantity has unfolded into Mathematics, motion 
 and force into Dynamics, organism into Biology or 
 Organics, mind in its reactions on mind into Sociology 
 
COURSE OF STUDY FOE, THE DISTRICT SCHOOL. 315 
 
 or Histories, and as manifested in its reactions on ex- 
 ternal material nature in the form of icill, it unfolds 
 into what may be termed Pragmatology , from the 
 Greek pragma, meaning a thing done. This depart- 
 ment is properly so termed because it covers all the 
 actions of mind as will which assumes a dynamic re- 
 lation to material nature, changing its plastic elements 
 into forms of use and beauty. This covers the domain 
 of Art. The category of Being unfolds into Philoso- 
 phy and Theology, according to the point of view 
 from which this is apprehended. 
 
 Guided by these categories of knowledge, we are 
 enabled to tabulate a philosophic course of study for 
 any grade of school. In the district school, as al- 
 ready indicated, these categories should unfold into 
 their respective sciences only in their simple and ele- 
 mentary form. In the higher grades, culminating in 
 the college or university, there will be a gradual un- 
 foldment into an increasing complexity, thoroughness, 
 and fullness. A course of study for the district school, 
 based on the foregoing principles, may be presented in 
 tabular form. 
 
 It will be seen in the following table that we have 
 assigned less mathematics in order to make room for 
 natural science studies in harmony with the demands 
 of the age. Geography is embraced within the cate- 
 gory of Organism for the reason that the earth, in 
 contrast to the moon, is a living planet, and hence has 
 its functions : 
 
316 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 1^ 
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 o 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 f 
 
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 ^ 1 
 
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 1^5 '^ ■< •!-! -i-i E -•-* 
 
 03 OJ 
 
 ^ ^ 
 
 ftScc 
 
 03^ o.;:; 
 
 1-^^ U 02 P> pi o bCO 
 
 -5 §?^-S« 
 
 
 5 S G 
 
 tics'::! S'"' 
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 ^ a> oQ o o a 
 
 
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 m 
 
 2 Z, ri 03 M 
 
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 P- 
 
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 cC '^ -^ -t-i C^ 
 
 bJD C -r-l J *J 
 
 O •'-I ^ -^ m 
 
 -, O 03 jj 02 Q, 
 
 ^ "^ O-^ !? O 
 
 fl OS 
 
 aj 02 
 
 Ot3 o 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ;::-i 
 
 rri P p U ri f? ^ 
 
 r; o cc p a fl 02 
 
 Oj O (W OJ 
 
 S S 2 2 a 
 
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 •Ih o b; n? m 
 
 O G o 
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 fci be tb ^ bh o 
 C C c c !- O 
 
 
 ^03 >>sC C| h^ 
 
 g a c ^ O'Si^ 
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 ^ o o 
 
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 M 
 
 ^oS 
 
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 lemen 
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 Physi 
 
 >> 
 
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 L Hfi 
 
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TEACHING NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 G. DALLAS LIND, M. D. 
 
 [This article was taken from an old number of The Normal Teacher.] 
 
 The following outline prepared by J. L. Myers was 
 selected from a number presented by my class at the 
 close of a six weeks course in Natural Philosophy. I 
 have made no changes except the omission of details. 
 This I was obliged to do in order to bring it within 
 the scope of an article for The Normal Teacher, 
 
 To those who maintain that nothing can be done in 
 so short a time as six weeks in Philosophy, I have 
 only to say that the members of this class, although 
 they may not have all the definitions in the books at 
 their tongues' end nor be able to explain or describe 
 all the minute points of the subject, I am confident 
 that they have a clear conception of the leading and 
 fundamental principles of the science and have learned 
 how to use a book in the investigation of the subject, 
 or to sum up, they have laid a good, solid foundation 
 and can now without the assistance of a teacher pursue 
 the subject to any desirable extent. 
 
 It is not claimed that the outline is above criticism. 
 I preferred to give it without change as better repre- 
 senting the work of the pupils. 
 
 (317) 
 
318 APPENDIX. 
 
 I will state further^ that this class prepared the ap- 
 paratus and performed above forty experiments illus- 
 trating the more important ]3oints : 
 
 Existence : 
 
 1^. Force, that which causes changes in the form or condition 
 of matter. 
 12. Kinds. 
 
 1^. Massic, taken as a mass. 
 1*. Gravitation, the tendency of all matter in the uni- 
 verse toward all other matter. 
 1^ Terrestrial, applied to the action of the earth's mass 
 upon terrestrial bodies. 
 1^ Laws. 
 
 • 1'. The space described by a falling body in any 
 given second, is equal to the product of the 
 number of seconds into twice the space des- 
 cribed the first second. 
 2''. The velocity acquired by a falling body at the 
 end of any given second is equal to the pro- 
 duct of the number of seconds into twice the 
 space described the first second. 
 3'^. The total space described by a falling body at 
 the end of any given second is equal to the 
 product of the square of the number of sec- 
 onds into the space described the first second. 
 2®. Kesults. 
 
 1''. Weight, the measure of the force by which any 
 given portion of matter gravitates to the 
 center. 
 1^. Specific. 
 
 1^. Obtained by multiplying the specific grav- 
 ity by the weight of the unit of water or air. 
 2^ Unit of comparison. 
 
 1^*^. Air, for gases and vapors. 
 2^*^. Water, for solids and liquids. 
 2^. Absolute, the force which the earth's attrac- 
 tion exerts upon it and is expended in pres- 
 sure against its support. 
 
TEACHING NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 319 
 
 2^ Equilibrium, a state in which two or more forces bal- 
 ance each other. 
 1^. Stable, when a body will return to its original posi- 
 tion after it has been displaced. 
 2^ Unstable, when a body tends to depart farther from. 
 
 its original position after it has been displaced. 
 3®. Neutral, when it remains at rest in any position 
 after it has been displaced. 
 3'. Centrifugal force tends to make bodies fly farther from 
 
 their center. 
 4^. Centripetal force tends to draw bodies toward the 
 center. 
 2^ Universal, the attraction between distant bodies. 
 1^. Laws. 
 
 I''. The times of vibration of any two pendulums are 
 
 proportional to the square roots of their length. 
 2^ The lengths of any two pendulums are proportional 
 
 to the squares of their times of vibration. 
 3'. The intensities of gravity at any two places are in- 
 versely proportional to the squares of the times of 
 vibration of the same pendulum. 
 4^ The length of any two pendulums vibrating in the 
 same time are directly proportional to their incre- 
 ments of gravity. 
 2*. Muscular, that which is produced by the strength of the 
 muscles acting directly through machinery. 
 1^ Elements of machinery. 
 1^ Lever. 
 
 2^. Wheel and axle. 
 36. Pulley. 
 4^ Inclined plane. 
 5^. Wedge. 
 6®. Screw. 
 2^. Molecular. 
 1*. Cohesion is the force which causes like molecules to unite 
 in one mass. 
 1^. Estimated by the resistance which its particles offer to a 
 
 strain tending to rend them. 
 2^ Applied. 
 
320 APPENDIX. 
 
 1*. By a direct thrust. 
 2^. By a pull. 
 3^ By a bending. 
 4^. By a twisting. 
 2*. Adhesion, the force which causes the molecules of the 
 different kinds of matter to cling together. 
 1^ Facts relating to the force of adhesion. 
 1®. That it exists only between unlike molecules. 
 2^ That it varies with the kind and state of matter. 
 2^. Varieties. 
 
 1^ Solids to solids. 
 2^. Solids to liquids. 
 3^. Liquids to solids. 
 4^ Solids to gases. 
 5^ Gases to solids. 
 6®. Liquids to liquids. 
 7^ Liquids to gases. 
 8^ Gases to liquids. 
 9®. Gases to gases. 
 3*. Light. 
 4*. Heat. 
 5^ Electricity. 
 6*. Magnetism. 
 2\ Matter, 
 l'^. Properties. 
 1^. Universal. 
 1*. Extension. 
 2*. Divisibility. 
 3*. Indestructibility. 
 4*. Inertia. 
 5*. Impenetrability. 
 6*. Porosity. 
 7*. Compressibility. 
 8*. Expansibility. 
 9*. Mobility. 
 10*. Weight. 
 11*. Elasticity. 
 1^. Specific. 
 1*. Elasticity, 
 
TEACHING NATUEAL PHILOSOPHY. 321 
 
 2*. Tenacity. 
 
 3*. Hardness. 
 
 4*. Brittleness. 
 
 5*. Ductility. 
 
 6*. Malleability. 
 2^. States. 
 2\ Solid. 
 3^ Liquid. 
 4^. Gaseous. 
 
 21 
 
CHEAP APPARATUS. 
 
 G. DALLAS LIND, M. D. 
 [Taken from an old number of The Normal Teacher.] 
 
 The time was when books were so scarce and con- 
 sequently so dear that only the richest men could af- 
 ford to own one. The Bible was kept chained in the 
 churches just as a drinking cup is now sometimes kept 
 chained to a pump or fountain in public places. Note 
 the progress from that day to this. NoW; the great 
 works of the great authors can be had for a few cents. 
 Books that formerly cost many dollars can now be had 
 for the price of a few hours labor, and yet authors and 
 publishers make money. The secret of it all is that 
 there is a great demand for books and reading matter 
 generally. The demand has stimulated men to devise 
 ways of supplying it. New inventions have of this 
 necessity arisen and the supply can keep pace with the 
 demand. The large sales compensate for small profits. 
 
 Many of us can remember when a wall map or 
 globe or, in fact, any kind of apparatus, except a birch 
 rod, was as rare in a district school-house as log 
 school-houses are to-day in the older parts of our coun- 
 try. We are sorry to say that many school-houses to« 
 day have yet little or no apparatus, but great advances 
 have been made in the last ten or fifteen years. 
 
 It is well known that great pains and labor were be- 
 
 (322) 
 
CHEAP APPAKATUS. 323. 
 
 stowed on the first books that were made. Days were 
 spent by those who copied books in ornamenting and 
 embellishing the initial letters of chapters. This work 
 added to their cost. Many of the books printed in an 
 early day were also elegantly bound and ornamented, 
 and, in fact, it is only within a quite recent period 
 that books have been made in a cheap style to any 
 great extent. Now the complete works of Shakes- 
 peare can be had for twenty-five cents, and nearly all 
 of the master-pieces of the writers of present and past 
 ages can be had for ten cents each. No one is excu- 
 sable for not possessing at least some standard works. 
 
 The work of cheapening apparatus has begun also. 
 The apparatus furnished for many of our high schools 
 and colleges costs a small fortune, it is true, but many 
 teachers are learning to make their own apparatus and 
 the demand for means of illustrating science has so 
 increased that manufacturing firms are now putting up 
 many pieces of apparatus at a comparatively low price^ 
 For example, globes can now be had for ten cents, not 
 very durable nor very large, but yet answering all the- 
 purposes of a globe which can be used to illustrate 
 the important principles in Geography. Globes which 
 will serve the purpose can be obtained even cheaper 
 than this, as one firm at least is now making paper 
 collar boxes in the form of globes so that you can get 
 a globe and ten collars for twenty -five cents. 
 
 Take away the paint and varnish and ornaments 
 and some of the simply convenient arrangements of 
 apparatus and there will be but little left which can 
 not be made by the teacher or student at a very small 
 expenditure of time and money. 
 
"324 APPENDIX. 
 
 The teacher's ability may be measured by his power 
 of illustrating principles by means of apparatus. So 
 far as possible he should make his pupils use the ap- 
 paratus, and if possible make them construct the appa- 
 ratus. In some of our progressive normal schools the 
 plan of encouraging pupils to construct their own ap- 
 paratus now prevails. 
 
 Some of these schools now have a special department 
 for this purpose, a manufacturing laboratory, where, 
 under a competent instructor, pupils can manufacture, 
 not only the more simple forms of apparatus, but such 
 apparatus as magnets, electrical machines, air pumps, 
 compound and solar microscopes, telescopes and spec- 
 troscopes. Of course it is necessary to buy lenses and 
 glass plates or mirrors which form parts of some of 
 these pieces of apparatus, but they are put together and 
 the greater part constructed entirely in the laboratory 
 and the work is done by the students themselves. Thus 
 for a few dollars, pieces of apparatus can be construct- 
 ed which if bought would cost many times as much. 
 The additional point is gained, that when a teacher 
 vs'^ho constructs such apparatus, knowing how it is 
 made, can repair it when it gets out of order. There 
 are many teachers who own air pumps but can not use 
 them simply because having become out of order they 
 did not know how to repair them. It should be a 
 part of their education to learn how such machines are 
 constructed as well as to know how to use them. 
 
 It has been said that a man who can not bore a hole 
 with a saw or saw off a board with an augur should 
 not study Chemistry. This is placing it in rather a 
 strong light, but there is much truth in it. The teacher 
 
CHEAP APPARATUS. 325 
 
 of any branch needs this ingenuity, or, in other words^ 
 the power of adapting himself to circumstances. If 
 a teacher can not prevail on school boards to provide 
 appropriate apparatus he should be ingenious enough, 
 to construct something that will answer the ends. 
 
 Why should so much money be expended for appa- 
 ratus elegantly finished and which only a few are able 
 to purchase, when the same money might be spent irk 
 multiplying the same apparatus and thus bringing it 
 within the reach of all. 
 
 Not only should teachers who expect to teach the 
 Natural Sciences regularly in their schools be provided 
 with means of illustration but all teachers need in con- 
 nection with a knowledge of these branches means of 
 illustrating them that they may be able to interest and 
 instruct children in some of the more important gen- 
 eral principles of these sciences. Such exercises are 
 of vast importance in securing punctual attendance at 
 school and in waking up minds otherwise dormant^ 
 We can not estimate the influence which such instruc- 
 tion will have on the future generation. The writer 
 has a natural love for the branches of Natural Science 
 and he can trace the origin of it to the fact that in his. 
 early youth certain books were thrown in his way,, 
 which attempted to simplify and illustrate the great 
 principles of science. He also can trace a certain part 
 to casual instruction given by some of his early teachers^ 
 We may without hesitation predict that the next genera- 
 tion will possess a much greater love for those sciences 
 which treat of the common things around us and which, 
 lie at the foundation of our earthly wants and conse- 
 quently the main causes of our earthly happiness. 
 
THE IMPOETANCE OF SCIENCE IN OUE 
 PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 
 
 J. E. BAKER, M. D. 
 
 \ 
 
 I wish to say a few words on the subject of elec- 
 tricity^ by means of which so many pracffcical and beau- 
 tiful experiments can be performed and so much in- 
 terest and wonder elicited from both older and younger 
 pilpils. 
 
 For twenty-five cents a person can be provided with 
 a horse-shoe magnet. Magnetize tvfo darning-needles 
 by drawing them from end to end along one of the 
 ends of the magnet. Then suspend one of the needles 
 with a silk thread; take the other in your hand and 
 bring the eye-end of it near the eye-end of the sus- 
 pended needle and it retreats. Bring the points near 
 -each other and one suspended retreats also. Now 
 bring the dissimilar ends near each other and they at- 
 tract each other. In the first instance we have repul.- 
 sion, and in the second attraction. The experiment 
 can be varied by balancing one of the needles on your 
 thumb nail, then proceeding as before. Much can be 
 said by the teacher or pupil with the magnet and this 
 impressive experiment, concerning magnetic poles, 
 magnetic attraction and repulsion, magnetization, in- 
 duction, kinds of magnets, etc., etc. 
 
 (326) 
 
IMPORTANCE OF SCIENCE IN OUR PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 327 
 
 You can illustrate Statical or Frictional electricity 
 with a great variety of experiments. A glass tube 
 rubbed with a silk handkerchief, or a stick or rod of 
 sealing wax rubbed with flannel, or a gutta-percha 
 comb passed through the hair briskly — each of these 
 when rubbed or excited as stated will attract bits of 
 paper, a suspended pith ball, or a yard stick suspended 
 by a silk thread. The suspended pith ball will be im- 
 mediately repelled after it is attracted, showing the 
 attractive and repellent nature of Frictional electricity. 
 A multitude of interesting facts and beautiful ideas 
 can be shown by these experiments. A notion seems 
 to prevail that in order to perform experiments in 
 electricity very expensive apparatus is needed, but the 
 ingenious teacher or the pupils under his guidance can 
 construct almost all of the necessary apparatus. A 
 teacher who is a success in the school-room certainly 
 has enough contrivance to make some apparatus to 
 illustrate a few common-sense principles of every day 
 life. 
 
 By referring to some work upon Natural Philoso- 
 phy any teacher can make, with a few cents, a simple 
 galvanic battery illustrating Dynamical or Chemical 
 Electricity. With this single cell battery a spark can 
 be obtained, a magnetized needle deflected, induction 
 shown, etc., etc. 
 
 It appears that there can be no question as to the 
 utility of the study of the Natural Sciences, at least 
 elementary Philosophy and Chemistry. The objec- 
 tions in a great measure are from those ignorant of the 
 sciences; especially their practical application. It is 
 certainly patent to every mind upon the slightest re- 
 
328 APPENDIX. 
 
 flection that a practical knowledge of the common 
 phenomena that stare us in the face every day is just 
 as necessary to make useful and practical business men 
 as to know the dry technicalities of Grammar as usu- 
 ally taught. Which is the most important to have, a 
 practical knowledge of the common pump, or to know 
 why we use 300 in extracting the cube root ? Which 
 is explained the most frequently ? Is there no advan- 
 tage in knowing something about latent heat, the steam 
 engine, lightning-rods, and the telegraph ? The gas 
 of coal mines, and the gas forming what is termed 
 damps in wells, which is so destructive to human life, 
 can, with a few cents, be made even by pupils, and 
 their properties noted. Don^t these facts come under 
 the domain and practical operations of human exist- 
 ence ? The study of these subjects affords excellent 
 opportunities for discipline and culture. I don^t un- 
 dervalue the study of mathematics in the least because 
 I have witnessed the beautiful effects of mental disci- 
 pline from rigid mathematical drill. But I do claim 
 that a knowledge of those practical facts over which 
 we stumble every day is just as necessary to the at- 
 tainment of business power. 
 
 Scientific experiments constitute one of the best 
 means of exciting an interest and arousing a curiosity 
 among pupils either by a regular class or an occasional 
 experiment. They also aiford advantages of securing 
 culture and refinement besides the illustrations of sci- 
 entific principles. Throw the responsibility of making 
 apparatus and the explanation of experiments upon 
 the pupils and they will be as busy as bees in hunting 
 up materials for apparatus and in investigating the 
 
IMPORTANCE OF SCIENCE IN OUR PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 329 
 
 text-books for facts. Their minds will be so wholly- 
 taken up, so absorbed with the beautiful and brilliant 
 experiments and their own explanations that they will 
 not have the least possible time to loiter around in 
 idleness and listen to the street-corner vulgarity and 
 profanity. It seems evident beyond all cavil that if 
 the minds of children could be diverted in a pure and 
 healthful channel from the rough and unrefined vaga- 
 bondism so prevalent everywhere, it ought to be done 
 by all means, and would certainly be a great blessing 
 to rising humanity. 
 
ALGEBRA AND GEOMETRY. 
 
 BY PROF. R. H. HOLBROOK, 
 
 Vice-President of the National Normal University, Lebanon, Ohio, and 
 editor of the National Normal Exponent. 
 
 So much ^formation is given by our teaching and 
 so little €ii;formation ! It is perpetual ingoing, while 
 outcoming is the exception. What a pupil knows is 
 unimportant. What he can tell, of his knowledge, is 
 esseiilial. In many Algebra, as well as Arithmetic 
 classes, the simple solution of the successive examples, 
 as a mere process of imitation, is the outside limit of 
 the instruction. 
 
 I look upon Algebra as pre-eminently a Rhetorical 
 study. It is here that thought is put in exact phrase- 
 ology. It is here that the argument upon a proposi- 
 tion is exactly stated, vigorously evolved, and undis- 
 putably conducted. It is here that language is precise, 
 logic is clearly defined, and the processes of thought 
 are practically " materialized. '^ And although so 
 many examples may not be solved, it is of the first 
 importance that the teacher give his pupils power to 
 think thinking, to discover in themselves a new con- 
 sciousness of mental processes. He should train them 
 to expose to their own view and to his inspection 
 written evidence of the workings of their own minds. 
 
 ( 330 ) 
 
ALGEBRA AND GEOMETRY. 331 
 
 It was a grand conclusion Des Cartes reached : ^^ I 
 think, therefore I am/' It was the foundation of 
 faith. Slightly modified it becomes the very founda- 
 tion of all certain knowledge : " I know how I think, 
 therefore I think right." 
 
 This will be partially secured by having the pupils 
 write out their examples in a strictly logical form. The 
 following outline will be found useful for this purpose : 
 
 Outline of Solution of Example. 
 1*. Statement == Conditions. 
 
 P. Granted. 2^. Required. 
 2^. Operation. 
 
 1^. Synthesis = Forming the equation. 
 
 2^, Analysis = Solving the equation. 
 
 3^. Proof = Verifying the equation. 
 3^ Conclusion. 
 
 12. Granted. 2^. Obtained. 
 
 I will present for illustration the following outline 
 
 of the solution of Ex. 7, p. 95, Schuyler's Algebra : 
 
 1^ Statement = Conditions. 
 1^. Granted. 
 
 1^. (1) A left town at the rate of 4 miles an hour. 
 
 2^. (2) B left 12 hours later at 10 miles an hour. 
 2^. Required. 
 
 1''^. (3) Number of hours till B overtook A. 
 2\ Operation. 
 
 1^. Synthesis = Forming the equation. 
 
 P. (4) x- = hours B traveled. by (2). 
 
 2^ (5) a; -|- 12 = hours A traveled. by (1) and (2). 
 
 3^ (6) lOx = miles B traveled. by (2). 
 
 43. (7) 4 (:K + 12) = miles A traveled, by (1). 
 
 o\ (8) lOx- = 4 (x + 12). by (2) and (3). 
 
 2^ Analysis = Solving the equation. 
 
 1^ Clearing (8) of parenthesis, (9) 10.t= 4a; -f 48, byPost. 3. 
 
 23. Transposing, (10) 10z — ix = 48, by Art. 129. 
 
 3^ Reducing, (11) 6x = 48, by Art. 132. 
 
 43. Div. by Co-eff., (12) a; = 8, by Art. 135. 
 
332 APPENDIX. 
 
 3^. Proof -= Verification of equation. 
 
 \\ Sub. in (9) = (13) 10.8 = 4.8 + 48. 
 
 23. Reducing. (14) 80 = 80, by Ax. 9. 
 3\ Conclusion. 
 12. Granted. 
 
 V". A left town at 4 miles an hour. 
 
 2^. B left 12 hours later at 10 miles an hour. 
 22. Obtained. 
 
 1^. The number of hours till B overtook A is 8. 
 
 Such forms are easily acquired, and, though at firs^ 
 they may apparently retard progress somewhat, it will 
 be invariably found that, at the last, the advance will 
 be much more speedy and the whole Avork more 
 thoroughly done. 
 
 One or two examples of each lesson prepared in this 
 way, should be brought in, sometimes on paper, usually 
 on the slates at each lesson. The whole work can be 
 quickly examined, graded, and records of the grade 
 taken. These exercises may be " study,'^ " recitation,^' 
 " review,'^ or ^^ examination.^^ 
 
 I submit it to the judgment of teachers, if prepar- 
 ing examples and exercises in such orderly form, 
 would not serve to improve the slovenly, scrawling 
 work that is more the rule than the exception in our 
 schools ? 
 
 What has been said of Algebra as a Rhetorical 
 study is just as true of Geometry. Pupils, in begin- 
 ning this subject, are frequently in great bewilder- 
 ment, owing to their failure to appreciate the new 
 technicalities and the logical limitations which the 
 exact demands of the study place upon their reason- 
 ing. Although definitions, postulates and axioms may 
 be faithfully recited, although the demonstrations of 
 the theorems may be conscientiously parroted off^ 
 
ALGEBRA AND GEOMETRY. 333 
 
 yet, the beautiful, clean, clear-cut connections and re- 
 lations are utterly incomprehensible, and the pupil is 
 as likely to consider the demonstrandum the hypothe- 
 sis, and to know as little about where he is to conclude 
 as about where he is to begin. 
 
 I have found it to be a certain cure or prevention 
 of this to present to the class and have them copy the 
 following 
 
 Outline of the Demonstration of a Theorem. 
 
 V. Statement. 
 1^. General = The theorem. 
 
 1^. Hypothesis = Things granted. 
 2^. Demonstrandum = Things to be proved. 
 2"^. Special = Diagram drawn and explained. 
 P. Hypothesis = Lines, etc., granted. 
 2^. Demonstrandum = Things to be proved. 
 2\ Proof. 
 
 1\ Construction ^= Explanation of lines added to aid in the 
 
 proof. 
 2"^. Argument. 
 
 1^. First Step = State and give authority. 
 2^. Seer nd Step =^ State and give authority. 
 3^. Third Step ::= State and give authority, so on to 
 4'. Last Step, which should always be preceded by " There- 
 fore," or its sign, and followed by the symbols 
 "Q. E. D." 
 3^ Conclusion. 
 1^. Special. 
 
 1^ Hypothesis. 2'. Demonstrandum. 
 1^. General. 
 
 1^. Hypothesis. 2'. Demonstrandum. 
 
 At the same recitation, and immediately following 
 this, I have them turn to a theorem, and by questions 
 enable them to direct me in placing upon the board a 
 complete outline of the theorem, just as I expect them 
 
334 APPENDIX. 
 
 to do in preparing the lesson, A sufficient model 
 
 of this will be found in the following : 
 
 Outline of Demonstration of Prop. IX, Loomis' Geometry, p. 24. 
 1^. Statement. 
 1^ General. 
 1^. Hypothesis: — If from a point within a triangle two 
 straight lines are drawn to the extremities of either 
 side; 
 2^ Demonstrandum : — Their sum will be less than the sum 
 of the other two sides of the triangle. 
 2^. Special. 
 
 1*. Hypothesis : — Let two straight lines BD, CD be drawn 
 
 from D, a point within the triangle ABC; (the 
 
 drawing should always appear here.) 
 
 2^. Demonstrandum: — Then will the sum of BD and DC 
 
 be less than the sum of BA and AC, the other two 
 
 sides of the triangle. 
 1\ Proof. 
 
 1^. Construction : — Produce BD until it meets the side AC 
 
 at E. 
 2^. Argument. 
 13. First Step, CD < CE + ED, by Prop. 8. 
 23. Second Step, CD + BD < CE + EB, by Ax. 4. 
 33. Third Step, BE < BA -f AE, by Prop. 8. 
 43. Fourth Step, BE + EC < BA + AC, by Ax. 4. 
 . • . 53. Last Step, CD + BD < BA + AC, by A. Q. E. D. 
 
 3^. Conclusion. 
 P. Special. 
 
 1^. Hypothesis : — Let two straight lines, BD, CD, be drawn 
 from D, a point within the triangle ABC, to the ex- 
 tremities of the side BC ; 
 2^. Demonstrandum : — Then will the sum of BD and DC be 
 less than the sum of BA, AC, the other two side of 
 the triangle. 
 2^ General. 
 
 1^. Hypothesis : — If, from a point within a triangle, two 
 straight lines are drawn to the extremities of either 
 side; 
 2'. Demonstrandum : — Their sum will be less than the sum 
 of the other two sides. 
 
ALGEBRA AND GEOMETRY. 335 
 
 The preparation of a few such exercises seems to 
 enable the particulars of a demonstration to adhere to 
 the mind, as merely reading it over or committing it 
 to memory does not. The rigid separation of the ar- 
 gument into steps with the faithful citation of author- 
 ity, not by reference, as above, but by full quotation, 
 clears away the fog thoroughly. 
 
 The teacher should usually reletter the diagram, but 
 require the whole class to use the same lettering, so as 
 to expedite the examinations of the papers. 
 
 The most thorough review of any given part will 
 be accomplished by outlining it. Pupils will thus get 
 the juice of Geometry in being led to discover that it 
 is a beautiful evolution which needs only to be under- 
 stood to be appreciated. 
 
 There are many other devices which the ingenious 
 teacher will originate to give his pupils opportunity 
 to subject their knowledge to the test of written ex- 
 pression. These exercises should make a splendid 
 history of the progress of the class and the methods 
 of the teacher. 
 
NOFvMAL METHODS OF TEACHING THE 
 HIGHER BRANCHES. 
 
 ANNIE M. SHERRILL. 
 
 Wc can not, in this connection, give detailed direc- 
 tions for teaching all the branches treated of in this 
 book, but will attempt some hints and suggestions on 
 several of the Sciences which we trust may lead to- 
 ward basing your methods on rational, natural, true 
 theories of tc^aching. 
 
 The field of Natural Science may be made moet en- 
 gaging to the young. What a new world and new 
 order of things it opens to the view! But in many 
 schools these subjects are presented in such a way that 
 they fail to make any appeal. The dissertations and 
 lectures on Science are very fine, probably, but fall 
 short of enticing or interesting more than a few. 
 W(^ have in mind now a visit paid at no very remote 
 day to one of the leading colleges of Indiana. A 
 learned savant was discoursing on Science in his class. 
 ]liniself and four or five members of the class seemed 
 greatly interested — so much so as to have forgotten 
 the thirty or forty around the room who were amusing 
 themselves in various ways, very foreign to the sub- 
 ject. A class must be wrought up to the point of en- 
 thusiasm if any thing is to be accomplished. Some 
 
 (33G) 
 
NORMAL METHODS OF TEACHING HIGHER BRANCHES. 337 
 
 of the expedients used by Normal teachers, for this 
 purpose, and for the purpose of giving a practical 
 understanding, and thorough grasp of subjects, are as 
 follows : 
 
 1. Outlines made by pupils. 
 
 2. Investigations and reports made by pupils on 
 special topics. 
 
 3. Experiments and lectures given by pupils before 
 the class and invited visitors. 
 
 4. Geological cabinets collected by pupils. 
 
 5. Botanical collections made by pupils. 
 
 There is no way in which pupils can get a connected, 
 comprehensive, and understanding view of a subject 
 so well as by making a logical outline of it, in which 
 everything is classified and arranged with reference to 
 its relations to the diiferent parts, and to the entire 
 subject. Let each recitation be such a discussion of 
 any given theme or subject as will evolve an outline. 
 Let the teacher, standing before the blackboard, chalk 
 in hand, place upon the board, step by step, the out- 
 line thus drawn from the class in response to his hints 
 and suggestions. Pupils in a very little time " get the 
 run " of outlining. And just here let me say, lessons 
 should be assigned by topics or subjects, and not by 
 pages, and pupils should be encouraged and induced 
 to look further in their investigation than the text- 
 book in use. Every teacher of higher branches should 
 have some sort of reference library of his own, and 
 before he will fail or come short of his ideal in teach- 
 ing, he will place this in reach of his pupils — he will 
 refer them to where they can find more information on 
 
 22 
 
338 APPENDIX. 
 
 the subject in hand. In this way they are encouraged 
 to find out every thing they can on any given subject, 
 and to arrange this information in the form of a logi- 
 cal outline. These outlines, being brought to the 
 class, form the basis of the recitation. For instance, 
 the branch being taught is Natural Philosophy, and 
 the topic or subject assigned is Gravitation. Every 
 one is expected to prepare an outline of this subject 
 to the best of his ability, arranging all his points of 
 information logically, numbering and writing all the 
 points in place, with reference to their relation to the 
 leading head. Gravitation, and to the still more general 
 head, Force, as well as to the various subdivisions of 
 the lesson. At the outset of the recitation one or two 
 pupils are called upon to place their outlines of Grav- 
 itation on the board, while at the same time the teacher 
 calls on some one to tell all he can about Gravitation, 
 using his paper as a guide. He will probably not pro- 
 ceed far without falling into some error of omission 
 or commission ; he fails to get at the bottom of a mat- 
 ter, or becomes somewhat mixed. Perhaps some hands 
 will come up, otherwise the teacher will state that the 
 speaker has, in a measure, failed, and call on some one 
 else to take up the discussion. If the second fails to 
 bring up what is lacking, he will call on a third, and in 
 this way bring out from the class a corrected and cor- 
 rect outline, which the teacher places upon the board 
 step by step as it is thus evolved, and the class at the 
 same time remodel theirs upon the one the teacher 
 places on the board. This class outline of Gravita- 
 tion is then to be copied into the general outline which, 
 at the close of the term, or two terms, which you may 
 
NORMAL METHODS OF TEACHING HIGHER BRANCHES. 339 
 
 devote to the subject, will form for each pupil an 
 epitome of all that has been learned. The subject has 
 been mastered, and not merely a heterogeneous mass 
 of facts been committed to memory. Use various de- 
 vices for giving each one something to do as often as 
 possible. The plan of calling on some to place out- 
 lines on the board is an incentive to have material 
 ready and in good shape for presentation, and these 
 should be examined and criticised during recitation by 
 the class, if there is time. Topics should also be as- 
 signed to members of the class for special investiga- 
 tion and report. The report may be either written or 
 oral, but should always be brought up in the class, and 
 «)mments or criticisms be called for from the class. 
 Every recitation and exercise should be the occasion 
 of drill in neatness, orderly arrangement, the use of 
 correct language and correct spelling. Nothing pre- 
 pared in a slovenly manner should be allowed to pass 
 without notice, and the class, under the teacher's man- 
 agement, should be the critic. Thus they all get the 
 benefit of the criticism. 
 
 And now let me dwell for a moment on the matter 
 of allowing your class to do the reciting ; thus they 
 will be led to think, and the knowledge that they are 
 expected to do something will lead to preparation. 
 And always be sure that what they are expected to 
 do is something they can do. This will never fail 
 of arousing interest. But if you are one of the 
 teachers who depend upon the questions in the book, 
 and answer the most of them yourself, or depend 
 on penalties to bring up answers, depend on it you 
 are a failure as a teacher of Science or- anything else. 
 
340 APPENDIX. ^ 
 
 The third point mentioned as one of the expedients 
 used by Normal teachers for creating an interest in 
 Science, is experiments and lectures given by pupils 
 before the class and invited visitors. "In the major- 
 ity of schools, perhaps, when experiments are per- 
 formed to illustrate the subject matter, the work is 
 done by the teacher, while the pupils look on and ad- 
 mire. Expensive apparatus is furnished and it is kept 
 sacredly out of the way of the student, only to be 
 touched by the professor. But the writer is happy to 
 state that he knows of a few schools where the reverse 
 is the case, and where the pupils perform the experi- 
 ments and manufacture much of the apparatus at a 
 trifling cost," — Frora Preface of Easy Experiments in 
 Chem. and Nat. Philosophy, 
 
 It is the custom of our Normal teachers to devote 
 one day of each week to these experiments in teach- 
 ing Chemistry or Natural Philosophy. A week before 
 the appointed day certain experiments are assigned to 
 certain members of the class, and references given to 
 book or books, giving description and directions for 
 performing. The same experiments should be given 
 to two or more at the same time, that they may assist 
 each other in making apparatus, collecting materials, 
 etc.; one, however, may act as chairman or spokesman 
 of the committee in making all necessary explanations. 
 
 These explanations will consist of explaining the 
 principle involved, and the manner in which the pres- 
 ent experiment proves the principle to be true. Af- 
 terward the class is questioned on the experiment and 
 explanations, to test their understanding of it, and to 
 fix the whole matter in mind. A little practice in the 
 
NORMAL METHODS OF TEACHING HIGHER BRANCHES. 341 
 
 management of these experiments will give ease 
 and readiness, and a fondness for, and insight into,, 
 the Sciences which no mere looker-on can acquire. 
 The teacher will find it necessary to give some per- 
 sonal oversight and directions, and as a very useful 
 hand-book in managing this department we recom- 
 mend our little book. Easy Experiments in Chemistry 
 and Natural Philosophy, price, 40 cents, containing a 
 great deal of useful information, hints and suggestions 
 on various scientific matters, besides complete directions 
 for performing 195 experiments in Chemistry and 104 
 in Natural Philosophy. 
 
 We now come to consider the forming of Geological 
 Cabinets and making Botanical Collections, upon which, 
 in connection with the outlining, the practical value 
 of these studies depends. Let us first consider the 
 Geological Cabinets. It seems a great reflection on 
 the teaching of Science that so very few of those who 
 have studied Geology in our schools, can tell the com- 
 position of a stone of their own neighborhood, or tell 
 what periods are indicated in the formations ex- 
 posed about them. To practically acquaint pupils 
 with the geologic formations immediately about them,, 
 in their own neighborhoods, is to give them a practi- 
 cal clue to much more. Says Prof. R. H. Holbrook,. 
 in his book, " The New Method," to which we refer 
 the teacher for more specific directions for teaching^ 
 these subjects, " The first and last consideration in tha 
 Geology class is the minerals and fossils actually col- 
 lected by the pupils. To manage this properly, time 
 must be taken; the book must be delayed; indeed, 
 portions of the book will have to be entirely omitted^ 
 
242 APPENDIX. 
 
 All this is a great bugbear to the quiet, orderly, easy- 
 going, dignified teacher, who scrupulously devotes the 
 stipulated six hours and no more, who, when he locks 
 the school-house door at night, locks school out of his 
 mind until he opens up the next morning. 
 
 " To teach Geology the teacher must go into the fields 
 ivith his pupils ; he must examine carefully quantities 
 of ^ truck ^ ; he must direct the labeling and mount- 
 ing of the specimens; he must examine and record 
 the work of each individual pupil, and give them suit- 
 ;able credit therefor; he must encourage the feeblest 
 attempts of lagging pupils.^^ 
 
 Botany, where it is desired to teach it upon the 
 Normal plan, that of research and handling of the 
 plant on the part of the pupils themselves, should be 
 taken up in the autumn term of school, so that the 
 simpler and more perfect specimens of flowers can be 
 found, and so that the fields and lanes can be traversed 
 with immunity from the mud and dampness of our 
 early spring. 
 
 All Normal methods are based on the belief that 
 the best way to acquaint pupils with the facts, things, 
 and laws of arrangement, etc., of nature, is to allow 
 them to handle and see for themselves. Do not teach 
 anything in the abstract, but teach every rule and 
 truth as applied to something in hand. 
 
 You can be a very good teacher of Botany if you 
 jhave a fondness for the study ; if you have mastered 
 it sufficiently to make a good outline of it ; if you have 
 enough experience to lead a class in the analysis of the 
 ;^impler flowers of your neighborhood; if you can 
 realize the importance of having each pupil record in 
 
NORMAL METHODS OF TEACHING HIGHER BRANCHES. 343. 
 
 a book prepared for that purpose, the correct analysis 
 of each flower analyzed by him, and of pressing, dry- 
 ing, and mounting on the herbarium sheets a good 
 specimen of the plant and flower, and of recording on 
 one leaf of the herbarium sheet, according to certain 
 forms printed thereon, everything knowable about the 
 plant. In a short time pupils can trace flowers through 
 to their common names, having been guided a few 
 times in the use of the key by the teacher, and by re- 
 cording their work for further reference. Botany be- 
 comes a real, an actual matter with them — a matter 
 of value. Herbarium sheets referred to above may 
 be bought of J. E. Sherrill, Danville, Ind., and the 
 plant record book may be obtained of Prof. E. H. Hol- 
 brook, Lebanon, Ohio. 
 

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